Full text of "Harper's encyclopedia of United States history from 458 A.D. to 1905. Volume 2"

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EDITION

HARPER S ENCYCLOPEDIA

UNITED STATES HISTORY

FROM 458 A.D. TO 1905

BASED UPON THE PLAN OF

BENSON JOHN LOSSINQ, LL.D.

SOMETIME EDITOR OF "THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL RECORD " AND AUTHOR OF

"THE PICTORIAL FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION " "THE PICTORIAL FIELD-

BOOK OF THE WAR OF l8l2 " ETC., ETC., ETC.

WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS COVERING EVERY PHASE OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND
DEVELOPMENT BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING

JOHN FISKE.

THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN

WM.R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D^

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D.

FROF. OF HISTORY AT HARVARD

JOHN B. MOORE.

PROF. OF INTERNATIONAL LAlf AT COLUMBIA

JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D.

PROF. OF LITERATURE AT UNIV. OF CALIFORNIA

WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D.

U. S. COAfMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY L NIV. OF TORONTO

MOSES COIT TYLER, LL.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT CORNELL

EDWARD G. BOURNE, Ph.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT YALE

R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.

PROF. OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA

ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.

CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (Retired)

ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC.
WITH A PREFACE ON THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY

WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

AUTHOR OP
"A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE" ETC., ETC.

WITH ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, PORTRAITS, MAPS, PLANS, &c.

COMPLETE IN TEN VOLUMES
VOL. II

HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK = 1905 = LONDON

All rights resirvtd.

LIST OF PLATES

PRESIDENT GROVER CLEVELAND Frontispiece

THE CAPITOL, WASHINGTON Facing page 54

THE FIGHT BETWEEN THE MERRIMAC AND MONITOR . " 176

THE STRUGGLE ON CONCORD BRIDGE 296

THE ENGAGEMENT BETWEEN THE CONSTITUTION AND

GUERRIERE 344

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR PRESIDENT McKiN-

LEY SIGNING THE ULTIMATUM 448

MAP

CUBA Facing page 438

CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAB NUNEZ

three others were all of a party who es
caped from shipwreck and the natives.
These four lived for several years among
the Indians, and, escaping, made their
way to the Spanish settlements in north
ern Mexico in the spring of 1536. In the
following year Cabeza de Vaca returned to
Spain; in 1540 was appointed governor of
Paraguay; in 1543 explored the upper
Paraguay River, and in 1544 was deposed
by the colonists and afterwards impris
oned and sent to Spain. After trial he
was sentenced to be banished to Africa,
but was subsequently recalled, granted
many favors by the King, and was made
judge of the Supreme Court of Seville.
He published two works, one relating to
his experiences in Florida, and the other
to his administration in Paraguay, both
of which are of considerable historical
value, and have been published in various
languages. He died in Seville about 1560.
The Journey Through New Mexico.
The following is his narrative of his jour
ney through New Mexico in 1535-36, from
his Relation:

WP told these people that we desired to
go where the sun sets; and they said in
habitants in that direction were remote.
We commanded them to send and make
known our coming; but they strove to ex
cuse themselves the best they could, the
people being their enemies, and they did
not wish to go to them. Not daring to
disobey, however, they sent two women,
one of their own, the other a captive from
that people; for the women can negotiate
even though there be war. We followed
them, and stopped at a place where we
agreed to wait. They tarried five days;
and the Indians said they could not have
found anybody.

We told them to conduct us towards the
north; and they answered, as before, that
except afar off there were no people in
that direction, and nothing to eat, nor
could water be found. Notwithstanding
all this, we persisted, and said we desired
to go in that course. They still tried to
excuse themselves in the best manner pos
sible. At this we became offended, and
one night I went out to sleep in the woods
apart from them; but directly they came
to where I was, and remained all night
without sleep, talking to me in great fear,

telling me how terrified they were, be
seeching us to be no longer angry, and
said that they would lead us in the direc
tion it was our wish to go, though they
knew they should die on the way.

Whilst we still feigned to be dis
pleased lest their fright should leave them,
a remarkable circumstance happem-d,
which was that on the same day many
of the Indians became ill, and the next
day eight men died. Abroad in the coun
try, wheresoever this became known, there
was such dread that it seemed as if the
inhabitants would die of fear at sight
of us. They besought us not to remain
angered, nor require that more of them
should die. They believed we caused their
death by only willing it, when in truth
it gave us so much pain that it could not
be greater; for, beyond their loss, we
feared they might all die, or abandon us
of fright, and that other people thence
forward would do the same, seeing what
had come to these. We prayed to God, our
Lord, to relieve them; and from that time
the sick began to get better.

We witnessed one thing with great ad
miration, that the parents, brothers, and
wives of those who died had great sympa
thy for them in their suffering; but, when
dead, they showed no feeling, neither did
they weep nor speak among themselves,
make any signs, nor dare approach the
bodies until we commanded these to be
taken to burial.

While we were among these people,
which was more than fifteen days, we
saw no one speak to another, nor did we
see an infant smile: the only one that
cried they took off to a distance, and with
the sharp teeth of a rat they scratched
it from the shoulders down nearly to
the end of the legs. Seeing this cruelty,
and offended at it, I asked why they did
so: they said for chastisement, because
the child had wept in my presence. These
terrors they imparted to all those who
had lately come to know us, that they
might give us whatever they had; for they
knew we kept nothing, and would relin
quish all to them. This people were the
most obedient we had found in all the
land, the best conditioned, and, in general,
comely.

The sick having recovered, and three
days having passed since we came to the

CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAB NUNEZ

place, the women whom we sent away re
turned, and said they had found very
few people; nearly all had gone for cat
tle, being then in the season. We ordered
the convalescent to remain and the well
to go with us, and that at the end of
two days journey those women should
go with two of our number to fetch up
the people, and bring them on the road to
receive us. Consequently, the next morn
ing the most robust started with us.

At the end of three days travel we
stopped, and the next day Alonzo del Cas
tillo set out with Estevanico, the negro,
taking the two women as guides. She
that was the captive led them to the river
which ran between some ridges, where was
a town at which her father lived; and
these habitations were the first seen, hav
ing the appearance and structure of
houses.

Here Castillo and Estevanico arrived,
and, after talking with the Indians, Cas
tillo returned at the end of three days to
the spot where he had left us, and brought
five or six of the people. He told us he
had found fixed dwellings of civilization,
that the inhabitants lived on beans and
pumpkins, and that he had seen maize.
This news the most of anything delighted
us, and for it we gave infinite thanks to
our Lord. Castillo told us the negro was
coming with all the population to wait
for us in the road not far off. Accordingly
\ve left, and, having travelled a league
and a half, we met the negro and the
people coming to receive us. They gave us
beans, many pumpkins, calabashes, blank
ets of cowhide, and other things. As this
people and those who came with us
ware enemies, and spoke not each other s
language, we discharged the latter, giv
ing them what we received, and we de
parted with the others. Six leagues from
there, as the night set in we arrived at
the houses, where great festivities were
made over us. We remained one day, and
the next set out with these Indians. They
took us to the settled habitations of
others, who lived upon the same food.

From that place onward was another
usage. Those who knew of our approach
did not come out to receive us on the
road as the others had done, but we found
them in their houses, and they had made
others for our reception. They were all

seated with their faces turned to the
wall, their heads down, the hair brought
before their eyes, and their property placed
in a heap in the middle of the house. From
this place they began to give us many
blankets of skin ; and they had nothing
they did not bestow. They have the finest
persons of any people we saw, of the
greatest activity and strength, who best
understood us and intelligently answered
our inquiries. We called them the Cow
nation, because most of the cattle killed
are slaughtered in their neighborhood, and
along up that river for over 50 leagues
they destroy great numbers.

They go entirely naked after the man
ner of the first we saw. The women are
dressed with deer skin, and some few men,
mostly the aged, who are incapable of
fighting. The country is very populous.
We asked how it was they did not plant
maize. They answered it was that they
might not lose what they should put in
the ground; that the rains had failed for
two years in succession, and the seasons
were so dry the seed had everywhere been
taken by the moles, and they could not
venture to plant again until after water
had fallen copiously. They begged us
to tell the sky to rain, and to pray for
it, and we said we would do so. We also
desired to know whence they got the maize,
and they told us from where the sun
goes down; there it grew throughout the
region, and the nearest was by that path.
Since they did not wish to go thither, we
asked by what direction we might best
proceed, and bade them inform us con
cerning the way; they said the path was
along up by that river towards the north,
for otherwise in a journey of seventeen
days we should find nothing to eat, except
a fruit they call chacan, that is ground
between stones, and even then it could 1
with difficulty be eaten for its dryness
and pungency which was true. They
showed it to us there, and we could
not eat it. They informed us also
that, whilst we travelled by the river
upward, we should all the way pass
through a people that were their ene
mies, who spoke their tongue, and&gt; though
they had nothing to give us to eat, they
would receive us with the best good-will,
and present us with mantles of cotton,
hides, and other artidea of their wealth.

CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAR NUNEZ

Still it appeared to them we ought by
no means to take that course.

Doubting what it would be best to do,
and which way we should choose for
suitableness and support, we remained two
days with these Indians, who gave us beans
and pumpkins for our subsistence. Their
method of cooking is so new that for
its strangeness I desire to speak of it;
thus it may be seen and remarked how
curious and diversified are the contriv
ances and ingenuity of the human family.
Not having discovered the use of pipkins,
to boil what they would eat, they fill
the half of a large calabash with water,
and throw on the fire many stones of such
as are most convenient and readily take
the heat. When hot, they are taken up
with tongs of sticks and dropped into
the calabash until the water in it boils
from the fervor of the stones. Then
whatever is to be cooked is put in, and
until it is done they continue taking out
cooled stones and throwing in hot ones.
Thus they boil their food.

Two days being spent while we tarried,
we resolved to go in search of the maize.
We did not wish to follow the path lead
ing to where the cattle are, because it
is towards the north, and for us very
circuitous, since we ever held it certain
that going towards the sunset we must
find what we desired.

Thus we took our way, and traversed
all the country until coming out at the
South sea. Nor was the dread we had
of the sharp hunger through which we
should have to pass (as in verity we did,
throughout the seventeen days journey of
which the natives spoke) sufficient to hin
der us. During all that time, in ascend
ing by the river, they gave us many cov
erings of cow-hide; but we did not eat of
the fruit. Our sustenance each day was
about a handful of deer-suet, which we
had a long time been used to saving for
such trials. Thus we passed the entire
journey of seventeen days, and at the close
we crossed the river and travelled other
seventeen days.

As the sun went down, upon some plains
that lie between chains of very great moun
tains, we found a people who for the
third part of the year eat nothing but the
powder of straw, and, that being the sea
son when we passed, we also had to eat

of it, until reaching permanent habita
tions, where was abundance of maize
brought together. They gave us a large
quantity in grain and flour, pumpkins,
beans, and shawls of cotton. With all
these we loaded our guides, who went back
the happiest creatures on earth. We gave
thanks to God, our Lord, for having
brought us where we had found so much
food.

Some houses are of earth, the rest all
of cane mats. From this point we march
ed through more than a hundred leagues
of country, and continually found settled
domiciles, with plenty of maize and beans.
The people gave us many deer and cotton
shawls better than those of New Spain,
many beads and certain corals found on
the South sea, and fine turquoises that
come from the North. Indeed, they gave
us everything they had. To me they gave
five emeralds made into arrow-heads,
which they use at their singing and dan
cing. They appeared to be very precious.
I asked whence they got these; and they
said the stones were brought from some
lofty mountains that stand towards the
north, where were populous towns and
very large houses, and that they were
purchased with plumes and the feathers
of parrots.

Among this people the women are treat
ed with more decorum than in any part
of the Indias we had visited. They wear
a shirt of cotton that falls as low as the
knee, and over it half sleeves with skirts
reaching to the ground, made of dressed
deer skin. It opens in front and is brought
close with straps of leather. They so:i|&gt;
this with a certain root that cleanses
well, by which they are enabled to keep
it becomingly. Shoes are worn. The
people all came to us that we should
touch and bless them, they being very
urgent, which we could accomplish only
with great labor, for sick and well all
wished to go with a benediction.

These Indians ever accompanied us un
til they delivered us to others; and all
held full faith in our coming from heaven.
While travelling, we went without food
all day until night, and we ate so little
as to astonish them. We never felt ex
haustion, neither were we in fact at all
weary, so inured were we to hardship.
We possessed great influence and author-

CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAB NUNEZ

ity: to preserve both, we seldom talked
with them. The negro was in constant
conversation; he informed himself about
the ways we wished to take, of the towns
there were, and the matters we desired
to know.

We passed through many and dissimi
lar tongues. Our Lord granted us favor
with the people who spoke them, for they
always understood us, and we them. We
questioned them, and received their an
swers by signs, just as if they spoke our
language and we theirs; for, although we
knew six languages, we could not every
where avail ourselves of them, there be
ing a thousand differences.

Throughout all these countries the peo
ple who were at war immediately made
friends, that they might come to meet us,
and bring what they possessed. In this
way we left all the land at peace, and we
taught all the inhabitants by signs, which
they understood, that in heaven was a
Man we called God, who had created the
sky and the earth; him we worshipped
and had for our master; that we did what
he commanded and from his hand came
all good ; and would they do as we did,
all would be well with them. So ready of
apprehension we found them that, could
we have had the use of language by which
to make ourselves perfectly understood,
we should have left them all Christians.
Thus much we gave them to understand
the best we could. And afterward,
when the sun rose, they opened their
hands together with loud shouting tow
ards the heavens, and then drew them
down all over their bodies. They did
the same again when the sun went
down. They are a people of good condi
tion and substance, capable in any pur
suit.

In the town where the emeralds were
presented to us the people gave Dorantes
over six hundred open hearts of deer.
They ever keep a good supply of them for
food, and we called the place Pueblo de
los Corazones. It is the entrance into
many provinces on the South sea. They
who go to look for them, and do not en
ter there, will be lost. On the coast is
no maize: the inhabitants eat the pow
der of rush and of straw, and fish that is
caught in the sea from rafts, not having
canoes. With grass and straw the women

cover their nudity. They are a timid and
dejected people.

We think that near the coast by way
of those towns through which we came are
more than a thousand leagues of inhabited
country, plentiful of subsistence. Three
times the year it is planted with maize
and beans. Deer are of three kinds; one
the size of the young steer of Spain.
There are innumerable houses, such as are
called bahios. They have poison from a
certain tree the size of the apple. For ef
fect no more is necessary than to pluck
the fruit and moisten the arrow with it,
or, if there be no fruit, to break a twig
and with the milk do the like. The tree
is abundant and so deadly that, if the
leaves be bruised and steeped in some
neighboring water, the deer and other an
imals drinking it soon burst.

We were in this town three days. A
day s journey farther was another town,
at which the rain fell heavily while we
were there, and the river became so swol
len we could not cross it, which detained
us fifteen days. In this time Castillo
saw the buckle of a sword-belt on the neck
of an Indian and stitched to it the nail
of a horseshoe. He took them, and we
asked the native what they were: he an
swered that they came from heaven. We
questioned him further, as to who had
brought them thence: they all responded
that certain men who wore beards like
us had come from heaven and arrived at
that river, bringing horses, lances, and
swords, and that they had lanced two Ind
ians. In a manner of the utmost indif
ference we could feign, we asked them
what had become of those men. They an
swered us that they had gone to sea, put
ting their lances beneath the water, and
going themselves also under the water ;
afterwards that they were seen on the
surface going towards the sunset. For
this we gave many thanks to God our
Lord. We had before despaired of ever
hearing more of Christians. Kven yet we
were left in great doubt and anxiety,
thinking those people Avere merely persons
who had come by sea on discoveries. How
ever, as we had now such exact informa
tion, we made greater speed, and, as we
advanced on our way, the news of the
Christians continually grew. We told the
natives that we were going in search of

CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAB NUNEZ

that people, to order them not to kill nor
make slaves of them, nor take them from
their lands, nor do other injustice. Of
this the Indians were very glad.

We passed through many territories
and found them all vacant: their inhab
itants wandered fleeing among the moun
tains, without daring to have houses or
till the earth for fear of Christians. The
sight was one of infinite pain to us, a
land very fertile and beautiful, abounding
in springs and streams, the hamlets de
serted and burned, the people thin and
weak, all fleeing or in concealment. As
they did not plant, they appeased their
keen hunger by eating roots and the bark
of trees. We bore a share in the famine
along the whole way; for poorly could
these unfortunates provide for us, them
selves being so reduced they looked as
though they would willingly die. They
brought shawls of those they had con
cealed because of the Christians, present
ing them to us; and they related how the
Christians at other times had come
through the land, destroying and burning
the towns, carrying away half the men, and
all the women and the boys, while those
who had been able to escape were wander
ing about fugitives. We found them so
alarmed they dared not remain anywhere.
They would not nor could they till the
earth, but preferred to die rather than
live in dread of such cruel usage as they
received. Although these showed them
selves greatly delighted with us, we feared
that on our arrival among those who held
the frontier, and fought against the Chris
tians, they would treat us badly, and re
venge upon us the conduct of their ene
mies ; but, when God our Lord was pleased
to bring us there, they began to dread and
respect us as the others had done, and
even somewhat more, at which we no lit
tle wondered. Thence it may at once be
seen that, to bring all these people to be
Christians and to the obedience of the
Imperial Majesty, they must be won by
kindness, which is a way certain, and no
other is.

They took us to a town on the edge of
a range of mountains, to which the ascent
is over difficult crags. We found many
people there collected out of fear of the
Christians. They received us well, and
presented us all they had. They gave us

more than two thousand back - loads of
maize, which we gave to the distressed
and hungered beings who guided us to
that place. The next day we despatched
four messengers through the country, as
we were accustomed to do, that they
should call together all the rest of the
Indians at a town distant three days
march. We set out the day after with all
the people. The tracks of the Christians
and marks where they slept were contin
ually seen. At mid-day we met our mes
sengers, who told us they had found no
Indians, that they were roving and hid
ing in the forests, fleeing that the Chris
tians might not kill nor make them
slaves; the night before they had observed
the Christians from behind trees, and dis
covered what they were about, carrying
away many people in chains.

Those who came with us were alarmed
at this intelligence; some returned to
spread the news over the land that the
Christians were coming; and many more
would have followed, had we not forbid
den it and told them to cast aside their
fear, when they reassured themselves
and were well content. At the time we
had Indians with us belonging 100
leagues behind, and we were in no condi
tion to discharge them, that they might
return to their homes. To encourage
them, we stayed there that night; the day
after we marched and slept on the road.
The following day those whom we had
sent forward as messengers guided us to
the place where they had seen Christians.
We arrived in the afternoon, and saw at
once that they told the truth. We per
ceived that the persons were mounted, by
the stakes to which the horses had been
tied.

From this spot, called the river Petu-
tan, to the river to which Diego de Guz
man came, we heard of Christians, may
be as many as 80 leagues; thence to
the town where the rains overtook us,
12 leagues, and that is 12 leagues from
the South sea. Throughout this region,
wheresoever the mountains extend, we
saw clear traces of gold and lead, iron,
copper, and other metals. Where the set
tled habitations are, the climate is hot;
even in January the weather is very
warm. Thence toward the meridian, the
country unoccupied to the North sea is

CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAB NUNEZ

unhappy and sterile. There we underwent
great and incredible hunger. Those who
inhabit and wander over it are a race of
evil inclination and most cruel customs.
The people of the fixed residences and
those beyond regard silver and gold with
indifference, nor can they conceive of any
use for them.

When we saw sure signs of Christians,
and heard how near we were to them, we
gave thanks to God our Lord for having
chosen to bring us out of a captivity so
melancholy and wretched. The delight we
felt let each one conjecture, when he shall
remember the length of time we were in
that country, the suffering and perils we
underwent. That night I entreated my
companions that one of them should go
back three days journey after the Chris
tians who were moving about over the
country, where we had given assurance
of protection. Neither of them received
this proposal well, excusing themselves
because of weariness and exhaustion; and
although either might have done better
than I, being more youthful and athletic,
yet seeing their unwillingness, the next
morning I took the negro with eleven Ind
ians, and, following the Christians by
their trail, I travelled 10 leagues, passing
three villages, at which they had slept.

The day after I overtook four of them
on horseback, who were astonished at the
sight of me, so strangely habited as I was,
and in company with Indians. They
stood staring at me a length of time, so
confounded that they neither hailed me
nor drew near to make an inquiry. I
bade them take me to their chief: accord
ingly we went together half a league to
the place where was Diego de Alcaraz,
their captain.

After we had conversed, he stated to me
that he was completely undone; he had
not been able in a long time to take any
Indians; he knew not which way to turn,
and his men had well begun to experience
hunger and fatigue. I told him of Cas
tillo and Dorantes, who were behind, 10
leagues off, with a multitude that con
ducted us. He thereupon sent three
cavalry to them, with fifty of the Indians
who accompanied him. The negro return
ed to guide them, while I remained. I
asked the Christians to give me a certifi
cate of the year, month, and day I arrived

there, and of the manner of my coming,
which they accordingly did. From this
river to the town of the Christians, named
San Miguel, within the government of the
province called New Galicia, are 30 leagues.

Five days having elapsed, Andre s Do
rantes and Alonzo del Castillo arrived
with those who had been sent after them
They brought more than six hundred pe
sons of that community, whom the Chris
tians had driven into the forests, and who
had wandered in concealment over the
land. Those who accompanied us so far
had drawn them out, and given them to
the Christians, who thereupon dismissed
all the others they had brought with
them. Upon their coming to where I was,
Alcaraz begged that we would summon
the people of the towns on the margin
of the river, who straggled about under
cover of the woods, and order them to
fetch us something to eat. This last
was unnecessary, the Indians being ever
diligent to bring us all they could. Di
rectly we sent our messengers to call
them, when there came six hundred souls,
bringing us all the maize in their pos
session. They fetched it in certain pots,
closed with clay, which they had concealed
in the earth. They brought us whatever
else they had; but we, wishing only to
have the provision, gave the rest to the
Christians, that they might divide among
themselves. After this we had many high
words with them; for they wished to
make slaves of the Indians we brought.

In consequence of the dispute, we left
at our departure many bows of Turkish
shape we had along with us and many
pouches. The five arrows with the points
of emerald were forgotten among others,
and we lost them. We gave the Chris
tians a store of robes of cowhide and oth
er things we brought. We found it diffi
cult to induce the Indians to return to
their dwellings, to feel no apprehension
and plant maize. They were willing to
do nothing until they had gone with iis
and delivered us into the hands of other
Indians, as had been the custom ; for, if
they returned without doing so, they were
afraid they should die, and, going with us,
they feared neither Christians nor lances.
Our countrymen became jealous at this,
and caused their interpreter to tell the
Indians that we were of them, and for a

CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAB NUNEZ

long time we had been lost; that they
were the lords of the land who must be
obeyed and served, while we were persons
of mean condition and small force. The
Indians cared little or nothing for what
was told them; and conversing among
themselves said the Christians lied: that
we had come whence the sun rises, and
they whence it goes down; we healed the
sick, they killed the sound; that we had
come naked and barefooted, while they had
arrived in clothing and on horses with
lances ; that we were not covetous of any
thing, but all that was given to us we
directly turned to give, remaining with
nothing; that the others had the only pur
pose to rob whomsoever they found, be
stowing nothing on any one.

In this way they spoke of all matters
respecting us, which they enhanced by
contrast with matters concerning the oth
ers, delivering their response through the
interpreter of the Spaniards. To other
Indians they made this known by means
of one among them through whom they
understood us. Those who speak that
tongue we discriminately call Primahaitu,
which is like saying Vasconyados. We
found it in use over more than 400
leagues of our travel, without another
over that whole extent. Even to the
last, I could not convince the Indians
that we were of the Christians; and only
with great effort and solicitation we got
them to go back to their residences. We
ordered them to put away apprehension,
establish their towns, plant and cultivate
the soil.

From abandonment the country had al
ready grown up thickly in trees. It is,
no doubt, the best in all these Indias, the
most prolific and plenteous in provisions.
Three times in the year it is planted. It
produces great variety of fruit, has beau
tiful rivers, with many other good waters.
There are ores with clear traces of gold
and silver. The people are well disposed:
they serve such Christians as are their
friends, with great good will. They are
comely, much more so than the Mexicans.
Indeed, the land needs no circumstance to
make it blessed.

The Indians, at taking their leave, told
us they would do what we commanded,
and would build their towns, if the Chris
tians would suffer them; and this I say

and affirm most positively, that, if they
have not done so, it is the fault of the
Christians.

After we had dismissed the Indians in
peace, and thanked them for the toil they
had supported with us, the Christians
with subtlety sent us on our way under
charge of Zeburos, an Alcalde, attended
by two men. They took us through for
ests and solitudes, to hinder us from inter
course with the natives, that we might
neither witness nor have knowledge of the
act they would commit. It is but an
instance of how frequently men are mis
taken in their aims; we set about to
preserve the liberty of the Indians and
thought we had secured it, but the con
trary appeared; for the Christians had
arranged to go and spring upon those we
had sent away in peace and confidence.
They executed their plan a they had
designed, taking us through the woods,
wherein for two days we were lost, with
out water and without way. Seven of our
men died of thirst, and we all thought to
have perished. Many friendly to the
Christians in their company were unable
to reach the place where we got water
the second night, until the noon of next
day. We travelled 25 leagues, little more
or less, and reached a town of friendly
Indians. The Alcalde left us there, and
went on 3 leagues farther to a town called
Culiagan where was Melchior Diaz, prin
cipal Alcalde and Captain of the Province.

The Alcalde Mayor knew of the expe
dition, and, hearing of our return, he im
mediately left that night and came to
where we were. He wept with us, giv
ing praises to God our Lord for having
extended over us so great care. He
comforted and entertained us hospitably.
In behalf of the governor, Nufio de Guz-
mfin and himself, he tendered all that he
had, and the service in his power. He
showed much regret for the seizure, and
the injustice we had received from Al-
caraz and others. We were sure, had he
been present, what was done to the Ind-
i.ins and to us would never have occurred.

The night being passed, we set out
the next day for Anhacan. The chief
Alcalde besought us to tarry there, since
by so doing we could be of eminent ser
vice to God and your Majesty; the de
serted land was without tillage and every-

CABEZA DE VACA, ALVAR NUNEZ

where badly wasted, the Indians were
fleeing and concealing themselves in the
thickets, unwilling to occupy their towns;
we were to send and call them, command
ing them in behalf of God and the King,
to return to live in the vales and culti
vate the soil.

To us this appeared difficult to effect.
We had brought no native of our own, nor
of those who accompanied us according
to custom, intelligent in these affairs. At
last we made the attempt with two cap
tives, brought from that country, who
were with the Christians we first overtook.
They had seen the people who conducted
us, and learned from them the great au
thority and command we carried and ex
ercised throughout those parts, the won
ders we had worked, the sick we had
cured, and the many things besides we had
done. We ordered that they, with others of
the town, should go together to summon the
hostile natives among the mountains and of
the river Petachan, where we had found the
Christians, and say to them they must
come to us, that we wished to speak with
them. For the protection of the messengers,
and as a token to the others of our will,
we gave them a gourd of those we were
accustomed to bear in our hands, which
had been our principal insignia and evidence
of rank, and with this they went away.

The Indians were gone seven days, and
returned with three chiefs of those re
volted among the ridges, who brought
with them fifteen men, and presented us
beads, turquoises, and feathers. The mes
sengers said they had not found the peo
ple of the river where we appeared, the
Christians having again made them run
away into the mountains. Melchior Diaz
told the interpreter to speak to the natives
for us; to say to them we came in the
name of God, who is in heaven; that we
had travelled about the world many years,
telling all the people we found that they
should believe in God and serve him; for
he was the master of all things on the
earth, benefiting and rewarding the vir
tuous, and to the bad giving perpetual
punishment of fire; that, when the good
die, he takes them to heaven, where none
ever die, nor feel cold, nor hunger, nor
thirst, nor any inconvenience whatsoever,
but the greatest enjoyment possible to con
ceive; that those who will not believe

in him, nor obey his commands, he casts
beneath the earth into the company of
demons, and into a great fire which is
never to go out, but always torment; that,
over this, if they desired to be Christians
and serve God in the way we required,
the Christians would cherish them as
brothers and behave towards them very
kindly; that we would command they give
no offence nor take them from their terri
tories, but be their great friends. If the
Indians did not do this, the Christians
would treat them very hardly, carrying
them away as slaves into other lands.

They answered through the interpreter
that they would be true Christians and
serve God. Being asked to whom they
sacrifice and offer worship, from whom
they ask rain for their corn-fields and
health for themselves, they answered of a
man that is in heaven. We inquired of
them his name, and they told us Aguar ;
and they believed he created the whole
world, and the things in it. We returned
to question them as to how they knew
this; they answered their fathers and
grandfathers had told them, that from
distant time had come their knowledge,
and they knew the rain and all good
things were sent to them by him. We told
them that the name of him of whom
they spoke we called Dios; and if they
would call him so, and would worship
him as we directed, they would find their
welfare. They responded that they well
understood, and would do as we said.
We ordered them to come down from the
mountains in confidence and peace, inhabit
the whole country and construct their
houses: among these they should build
one for God, at its entrance place a cross
like that which we had there present;
and, when Christians came among them,
they should go out to receive them with
crosses in their hands, without bows or
any arms, and take them to their dwell
ings, giving of what they have to eat, and
the Christians would do them no injury,
but be their friends : and the Indians told
us they would do as we had commanded.

The Captain having given them shawls
and entertained them, they returned, tak
ing the two captives who had been used as
emissaries. This occurrence took place
before the Notary, in the presence of many
witnesses.

CABINET

As soon as these Indians went back, all
those of that province who were friendly to
the Christians, and had heard of us, came
to visit us, bringing beads and feathers.
We commanded them to build churches
and put crosses in them : to that time none
had been raised ; and we made them bring
their principal men to be baptized.

Then the Captain made a covenant with
God, not to invade nor consent to invasion,
nor to enslave any of that country and
people, to whom we had guaranteed safe
ty; that this lie would enforce and defend
until your Majesty and the Governor
Nufio de Guzman, or the Viceroy in your
name, should direct what would be most
for the service of God and your Highness.

When the children had been baptized, we
departed for the town of San Miguel. So
soon as we arrived, April 1,1536, came Ind
ians, who told us many people had come

down from the mountains and were living
in the vales; that they had made churches
and crosses, doing all we had required.
Each day we heard how these things were
advancing to a full improvement.

Fifteen days of our residence having
passed, Alcaraz got back with the Chris
tians from the incursion, and they re
lated to the Captain the manner in which
the Indians had come down and peopled
the plain; that the towns were inhabited
which had been tenantless and deserted,
the residents, coming out to receive them
with crosses in their hands, had taken
them to their houses, giving of what they
had, and the Christians had slept among
them overnight. They were surprised at
a thing so novel; but, as the natives said
they had been assured of safety, it was or
dered that they should not be harmed, and
the Christians took friendly leave of them.

CABINET, PRESIDENT S

Cabinet, PRESIDENT S, a body of execu- tender their resignations when the su-

tive advisers authorized by Congress in preme legislative body acts adversely to

the absence of a constitutional provision, any measure on which the ministry has

and appointed by the President at the decided. In the cabinet no one member

beginning of his administration. Unless takes precedence of another, and when the

death, personal considerations, or other members are assembled in formal confer-

circumstances prevent, cabinet officers ence the President presides. In a min-

hold their places throughout the adminis- istry the spokesman is the president of

tration. Each cabinet officer is at the the council, and usually the minister for

head of a department comprising a num- foreign affairs is officially known either

ber of executive bureaus. The chief of as the prime minister or premier. The

the Department of Justice is the Attorney- various cabinet officers receive a salary

General of the United States ; the chiefs of $8,000 per annum.

of all other departments are officially call- The following is a summary of the or-

ed secretaries of the departments. The ganization and the functions of the eight

cabinet of a President of the United States executive departments as they existed in

is somewhat similar in its functions to 1901 :

the ministry of a monarchical govern- The Secretary of State has charge of
ment; but there are notable differences, what is known as the State Department.
As a general thing, members of a ministry This was created by act of Congress, July
have the right to urge or defend any 27, 1789, having been in existence, how-
public measure before the supreme legis- ever, at that time for some months, under
la hire of their country, a privilege with the name of the Department of Foreign
which the American cabinet officer has Affairs. The first to fill the office was
never been invested. While cabinet offi- Thomas Jefferson. The Secretary of State
cers hold their places through an admin- has in his charge all business between our
istration or at the pleasure of themselves own and other governments. The depart-
or the President, and are in no wise af- ment conducts the correspondence with
fected by any legislation in Congress to our ministers and other agents in foreign
which they may be officially opposed, the countries, and with the representatives of
members of a ministry almost invariably other countries here. All communications

CABINET, PRESIDENT S

SEAL OF THB STATK DEPARTMENT.

respecting boundary and other treaties are
also under the direction of this depart
ment. This department also files all acts
and proceedings of Congress, and attends
to the publication of the same and their
distribution throughout the country. No
regular annual report is made to Con
gress concerning the work of this depart
ment, but special information is given
whenever any unusual event or complica
tion in our foreign relations occurs.

The first Secretary of the Treasury was
Alexander Hamilton, who was appointed
upon the organization of the department,
Sept. 2, 1789. This department has
charge of all moneys paid into the Treas
ury of the United States, also of all dis
bursements, the auditing of accounts, and

the collection of revenue. It also super
vises the mint and coinage of money, and
has charge of the coast survey. The
marine hospitals of the government are
also under its direction, and it controls
the regulation and appointments of all
custom-houses. The Secretary is obliged
to make a full report to Congress, at the
opening of each regular session, of the
business done by the department during
the year, and the existing financial con
dition of the government. The depart
ment has an important bureau of sta
tistics dealing with the foreign and do
mestic trade of the country. It also
supervises the life-saving service, and has
control of the National Board of Health.

The War Department dates from Aug. 7,
1789. John Knox was its first Secretary. It

8KAL OF THK TRKASfRV UKPAKTMIi.NT.

SEAL OF THK WAR DEPARTMENT.

has in charge all business growing out
of the military affairs of the government,
attends to the paying of troops, and fur
nishing all army supplies; also super
vises the erection of forts, and all work
of military engineering. The department
is divided into a number of important
bureaus, the chief officers of which are
known as the commanding - general, the
adjutant-general, the quartermaster-gen
eral, the paymaster - general, the commis
sary-general, the surgeon-general, the chief
engineer, the chief of survey, and the chief
of ordnance. The signal service is un
der the control of this department. It
is made the duty of the Secretary of War
to report annually to Congress concerning
the state of the army, the expenditures of
the military appropriations in detail, and
all matter concerning the bureaus over
11

CABINET, PRESIDENT S

SEAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE,

district attorneys and marshals, with the
examination of all applications to the
President for pardons, and with the trans
fer of all land purchased by the United
States for government buildings, etc.
The name, " Department of Justice," by
which this division of the cabinet is now
largely known, was given to it about
1872.

The Navy Department (1789) was at
first included in the War Department, but
in 1798 the two branches of the service
were separated. Aug. 21, 1842, this de
partment was organized into five bureaus
the bureau of navy -yards and docks; of
construction, equipment, and repair; of
provisions and clothing; of ordnance and

hydrography; of medicine and surgery,
which the department has special super- To these have since been added a bureau

vision. This department has also in
charge the publication of the official rec
ords of the Civil War, an enormous work.
All the archives captured from or surren
dered by the Confederate government are
also in charge of this bureau of records.

The first Attorney-General of the Unit
ed States, Edmund Randolph, of Virginia,
was appointed under act of Congress of
Sept. 24, 1789. The Attorney - General
is required to act as attorney for the
United States in all suits in the Su
preme Court; he is also the legal ad
viser of the President and the heads of
departments, and also of the solicitor of
the treasury. He is further charged with SEAL OP THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT.

the superintendence of all United States

of navigation, one of steam engineering,
and one of recruiting, to which last h;is
been added the work of equipment former
ly provided for in connection with the con
struction bureau. It also keeps a library
of war records. The Secretory of the
Navy has charge of everything connect
ed with the naval service of the govern
ment, and the execution of the laws con
cerning it, and makes annual reports to
Congress of the conditions of the depart
ment. All instructions to subordinate of
ficers of the navy and to all chiefs of the
bureaus emanate from him, while the de
partment supervises the building and re
pairs of all vessels, docks, and wharves,
and enlistment and discipline of sailors,
together with all supplies needed by them.
The first Secretary of the Navy was Ben
jamin Stoddert, of Maryland.

SEAL OF TUB -NAVY DKPAKTMKNT.

CABINET, PRESIDENT S

The Department of the Interior was cre
ated by act of Congress, March 3, 1849.
The business of the department is conduct
ed by eight bureaus viz., bureau of the
public lands, pensions, Indian affairs, pat
ents, education, railroads, and the geo
logical survey. These different bureaus
have charge, under the Secretary, of all
matters relating to the sale and survey
of the public lands; the adjudication and
payment of pensions; the treaties with
the Indian tribes of the West; the issue
of letters patent to inventors; the collec
tion of statistics on the progress of edu
cation ; and the supervision of the ac
counts of railroads. The Secretary of the
Interior has also charge of the mining
interests of the government, and of the
receiving and arranging of printed jour
nals of Congress, and other books printed
and purchased for the use of the govern
ment. The first to fill this office was
Thomas Ewing, of Ohio.

The Post-office Department was estab
lished May 8, 1794. It has the supervision
of all the post-offices of the country, their
names, the establishment and discontin
uance of post-offices, the modes of carry
ing the mails, the issue of stamps, the
receipt of the revenue of the office, and
all other matters connected with the man
agement and transportation of the mails.
Samuel Osgood, of Massachusetts, was the
first to fill this office.

The Department of Agriculture was at
first a bureau of the Interior Department;
but in 1889, by act of Congress, it was
made independent, and its chief, the Sec
retary of Agriculture, became a member of

SEAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the President s cabinet. This department
embraces numerous divisions and sections,
such as the botanical division, the section
of vegetable pathology, the pomological
division, the forestry division, the chemi
cal division, the division of entomology,
the seed division, the silk section, the
ornithological division, the bureau of ani
mal industry, etc. On July 1, 1891, the
weather bureau, which had hitherto been
a branch of the

SEAL OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
COMMERCE AXD LABOR.

SEAL OF THK PO8T-OFF1CK DEPARTMENT.

signal service
of the War De
partment, was
transferred, by
act of Con-
gress, to this
department.

The Depart
ment of Com
merce and La
bor was created
by act of Con
gress in Feb
ruary, 1903. It comprises the bureau
of corporations, the bureau of labor,
the lighthouse board, the lighthouse es
tablishment, the steamboat - inspection
service, the bureau of standards, the coast
and geodetic survey, the commissioner-
general of immigration, the commission
ers of immigration, the bureau of immi
gration and the immigration service at
large, the bureau of statistics of the
Treasury Department, the bureau of nav
igation, the shipping commissioner, the
bureau of foreign commerce (formerly in
the Department of State), the census bu
reau, and the fish commission. George
B. Cortelyou was Secretary from Feb. 16,
1903, till June 24, 1904, when he was suc
ceeded by Victor H. Metcalf.
13

CABINET, PBESIDENT S

The following is a list of all members
of Presidential cabinets since the organi
zation of the federal government:

SECRETARIES OF STATE.

Name. Appointed.

Salmon P. Chase March 7, 1861

William Pitt Fessenden July 1, 1864

Hugh McCulloch March 7, 1865

George S. Boutwell March 11, 1869

William A. Richardson March 17, 1873

Benjamin H. Bristow June 4, 1874

Name. Appointed.

Thomas Jefferson Sept. 26, 1789 Lot M. Morrill July 7, 1876

Edmund Randolph Jan. 2, 1794 John Sherman March 8, 1877

Timothy Pickering Dec.

John Marshall May

10, 1795 William Windom March 5, issl

13, 1800 Charles J. Folger Oct. 27, 1881

James Madison March 5, 1801 Walter Q. Gresham Sept. 24, iss I

Robert Smith March 6, 1809 Hugh McCulloch Oct. 28, 1SS4

James Monroe April 2, 1811 Daniel Manning March 6, issr,

John Qulncy Adams March 5, 1817 Charles S. Fairchild April

Henry Clay March

Martin Van Buren March

Edward Livingston May

Louis McLane May

7, 1825 William Windom March

1, 1887
5, 1889

6, 1829 Charles Foster Feb. 21, 1891

24, 1831 John G. Carlisle March

29, 1833 Lyman J. Gage March

6, 1893
5, 1897
8, 1902

John Forsyth June 27, 1834 Leslie M. Shaw Jan.

Daniel Webster March 5, 1841

Hugh S. Legare May 9, 1843 SECRETARIES OF WAR.

Abel P. Upshur July 24,1843 Henry Knox Sept. 12,1789

John C. Calhoun March 6, 1844 Timothy Pickering Jan. 2, 1795

James Buchanan March 6, 1845 James McHenry Jan. 27, 1796

John M. Clayton March 7, 1849 Samuel Dexter May 13, 1800

Daniel Webster July 22, 1850 Roger Griswold Feb. 3, 1801

Edward Everett Nov. 6, 1852 Henry Dearborn March 5, 1801

William L. Marcy March 7, 1853 William Eustis March 7, 1809

Lewis Cass March 6, 1857 John Armstrong Jan. 13, 1813

Jeremiah S. Black Dec. 17, 1860 James Monroe Sept. 27, 1814

William H. Seward March 5, 1861 William H. Crawford Aug. 1, 1815

Elihu B. Washburne March 5, 1869 George Graham Ad interim

Hamilton Fish March 11, 1869 John C. Calhoun Oct. 8, 1817

William M. Evarts March 12, 1877 James Barbour March 7, 1825

James G. Elaine March 5, 1881 Peter B. Porter May 26, 1828

F. T. Frellnghuysen Dec. 12, 1881 John II. Eaton March 9, 1829

Thomas F. Bayard March 6, 1885 Lewis Cass Aug. 1, 1831

James G. Elaine March 5, 1889 Joel R. Poinsett March 7, 1837

John W. Foster June 29, 1892 John Bell March 5, 1841

Walter Q. Gresham March 6, 1893 John C. Spencer Oct. 12, 1841

Richard Olney June 7, 1895 James M. Porter March 8, 1843

John Sherman March 5,1897 W T illiam Wilkins Feb. 15,1844

William R. Day April 26, 1898 William L. Marcy March 6, 1845

John Hay Sept. 20, 1898 George W. Crawford March 8, 1849

March 5, 1901 Charles M. Conrad Aug. 15, 1850

cjprnpTARTFs OP THE TREASURY Jefferson Davis March 5, 1853

John B. Floyd March 6, 1857

Alexander Hamilton Sept. 11,1789 Joseph Holt Jan. 18,1861

2, 1795 Simon Cameron March 5, 1861

1, 1801 Edwin M. Stanton Jan. 15, 1862

14, 1801 Ulysses S. Grant, ad interim .Aug. 12, 1867

9, 1814 Lorenzo Thomas, ad interim . .Feb. 21, 1868

6,1814 John M. Schofleld May 28,1868

22, 1816 J hn A. Rawltns March 11, 1S!!

Richard Rush March 7, 1825 Avuiiam W. Belknap Oct. 25, ISC!)

Samuel D. Ingham March 6, 1829 Alphonso Taft March 8, 1S7&lt;&gt;

Louis McLane Aug. 2, 1831 j a mes D. Cameron May 22, 1876

William J. Duane May 29, 1833 George W T . McCrary March 12, 1877

Roger B. Taney Sept. 23, 1833 Alexander Ramsey Dec. 10, 1*711

Levl Woodbury June 27, 1834 Robert T. Lincoln March 5, 1

Thomas Ewlng March 5, 1841 William C. Endlcott March 6, 1885

Walter Forward Sept. 13, 1841 Redfield Proctor March 5, 1

John C. Spencer March 3, 1843 Stephen B. Elkins Dec. 17, 1891

George M. Bibb June 15, 1844 rmniel S. Lament March 6, 189:

Robert J. Walker March 6, 1845 R US8e l A. Alger March 5, 1897

William M. Meredith March 8, 1849 1&lt;; , ihu Roo t Aug. 1, 189$

Thomas Corwin July 23, 18.-.0 \villiam H. Taft Aug. 25, 1903

James Guthrie March 7, 1 SECRETARIES OF THE NAVY.

Howell Cobb March 6,1857

Philip F. Thomas Dec. 12,1860 Benjamin Rtoddert May

John A Dix Jan. 11, 1861 Robert Smith July lo, 1801

Oliver Wolcott Feb.

Samuel Dexter Jan.

Albert Gallatin May

George W. Campbell Feb.

Alexander J. Dallas Oct.

William H. Crawford Oct.

CABINET, PRESIDENT S

Name. Appointed. Name. Appointed.

3. Crowninshleld March 3, 1805 Francis Granger March 6, 1841

Paul Hamilton March 7, 1809 Charles A. Wickliffe Sept. 13, 1841

William Jones Jan. 12, 1813 Cave Johnson March 6, 1845

B. W. Crowninshield Dec. 19, 1814 Jacob Collamer March 8, 1849

Smith Thompson Nov. 9, 1818 Nathan K. Hall July 23, 1850

Samuel L. Southard Sept. 16, 1823 Samuel D. Hubbard Aug. 31, 1852

John Branch March 9, 1829 James Campbell March 5, 1853

Lev! Woodbury May 23, 1831 Aaron V. Brown March 6, 1857

Mahlon Dickerson June 30, 1834 Joseph Holt March 14, 1859

James K. Paulding June 25, 1838 Horatio King Feb. 12, 1801

George E. Badger March 5, 1841 Montgomery Blair March 5, 1861

Abel P. Upshur Sept. 13, 1841 William Dennison Sept. 24, 1864

David Henshaw July 24, 1843 Alexander W. Randall July 25, I860

Thomas W. Gilmer Feb. 15, 1844 John A. J. Creswell March 5, 1869

John Y. Mason March 14, 1844 Marshall Jewell Aug. 24, 1874

George Bancroft March 10, 1845 James N. Tyner July 12, 1876

John Y. Mason Sept. 9, 1846 D avid McK. Key March 12, 1877

William B. Preston March 8, 1849 Horace Maynard June 2, 1880

William A. Graham July 22, 1850 Thomas L. James March 5, 1881

John P. Kennedy July 22, 1852 Timothy O. Howe Dec. 20, 1881

James C. Dobbin March 7, 1853 Walter Q. Gresham April 3, 1883

Isaac Toucey March 6,1857 Frank Hatton Oct. 14,1884

Gideon Welles March 5, 1861 William F. Vilas March 6, 1885

Adolph E. Borie March 5, 1869 Don M - Dickinson Jan. 16, 1888

George M. Robeson June 25, 1869 &lt;7onn Wanamaker March 5, 1889

Richard W. Thompson March 12, 1877 Wilson S. Blssell March 6, 1893

Nathan Goff, Jr Jan. 6, 1881 William L. Wilson Feb. 28, 1895

William II. Hunt March 5, 1881 James A. Gary March 5, 1897

William E. Chandler April 1, 1882 Charles E. Smith April 21, 1898

William C. Whitney March 6, 1885 Henry C. Payne Jan. 8, 1902

Benjamin F. Tracy March 5, 1889 Robert J. Wynne Oct. 10, 1904

Hilary A. Herbert March 6, 1893

John D. Long March 5, 1897 ATTORNEYS-GENERAL.

William If. Moody March 10, 1902 , , , ,

Paul Morton June 24 1904 m . und K andol P? T Se Pt- 26 - 1789

William Bradford Jan. 27, 1794

Charles Lee Dec. 10, 1795

SECRETARIES OF THE INTERIOR. TheOphilllS Pai SODS Feb. 20,1801

Thomas Ewing March 8, 1849 Levl Lincoln March 5, 1801

Alexander H. H. Stewart Sept. 12, 1850 Rob ert Smith March 3, 1805

Robert McClelland March 7, 1853 John Breckinridge Aug. 7, 1805

Jacob Thompson March 6, 1857 Caesar A. Rodney Jan. 28, 1807

Caleb B. Smith March 5,1861 William Pinkney Dec. 11,1811

John P. Usher Jan. 8, 1863 Richard Rush Feb. 10, 1814

James Harlan May 15,1865 William Wirt Nov. 13,1817

Orville H. Browning July 27, 1866 John M - Berrien March 9, 1829

Jacob D. Cox March 5, 1869 Roger B. Taney July 20, 1831

Columbus Delano Nov. 1, 1870 Benjamin F. Butler Nov. 15, 1833

Zachariah Chandler Oct. 19 1875 Fellx Grundy July 5,1833

Carl Schurz March 12, 1877 IIenr y D - Gilpin Jan. 11, 1840

Samuel J. Kirkwood March 5 1881 John J - Crittenden March 5, 1841

Henry M. Teller April 6, 1882 Hu h s - Legare Sept. 13, 1841

L. Q. C. Lamar March 6, 1885 John Nelson July 1, 1843

William F. Vilas Jan. 16 1888 John Y. Mason March 6,1845

John W. Noble March 5,1889 Nathan Clifford Oct. 17,1846

Hoke Smith March 6, 1893 Isaac Toucey June 21, 1848

David R. Francis Aug. 24, 1896 Reverdy Johnson March 8, 1849

Cornelius N. Bliss March 5, 1897 John J. Crittenden July 22, 1850

Ethan A. Hitchcock Dec. 21, 1898 Caleb Gushing March 7, 1853

Jeremiah S. Black March 6, 1857

POSTMASTERS-GENERAL Edwin M. Stanton Dec. 20, 1860

Edward Bates March 5, 1861

Samuel Osgood Sept. 26, 1789 Titian J. Coffey, ad interim. .June 22, 1863

Timothy Pickering Aug. 12, 1791 James Speed Dec. 2 1864

Joseph Habersham Feb. 25, 1795 Henry Stanbery July 23, 1866

Gideon Granger Nov. 28,1801 William M. Evarts July 15,1868

Return J. Meigs, Jr March 17, 1814 E. Rockwood Hoar March 5, 1869

John McLean June 26, 1823 Amos T. Ackerman June 23, 1870

William T. Barry March 9, 1829 George II. Williams Dec. 14, 1871

Amos Kendall May 1, 1835 Edwards Pierrepont April 26 1875

John M. Niles May 25, 1840 Alphonso Taft May 22, 1876

CABINET COUNCIL CABLES

.Yd me. Appointed.

Charles Devens March 12, 1877

Wayne MacVeagh March 5, 1881

r.cMijamin II. I .nnvster Dec. 19, 1881

Augustus II. Garland March 6, 1885

\V. IF. II. Miller March 5, 1889

Richard Olney March 6,1893

Judson Harmon June 7, 1895

.losoph McKenna March 5, 1897

John W. Grlggs Jan. 25, 1898

Philander ( . Knox April 5, 1901

SEDfETAKIES OF AGRICULTURE.

Xorman J. Coleman Feb. 13, 1889

Jeremiah M. Rusk March 4, 1889

J. Sterling Morton March 6, 1893

James Wilson March 5, 1897

SECRETARIES OF COMMERCE AND LABOR.

George B. Cortelyou Feb. 16, 1903

Victor H. Metcalf June 24, 1904

Cabinet Council. See CABINET, PRESI
DENT S.

Cabinet, THE KITCHEN. See KITCHEN
CABINET.

Cable. GEORGE WASHINGTON, author;
born in New Orleans, Oct. 12, 1844.
In 1863-05 he served in the Confeder
ate army. In 1879 he pave himself
up wholly to literature, making a spe
cialty of describing Creole life in Lou
isiana. In 1887 he established the House-
Culture Clubs, a system of small clubs

Delphine; The Silent South; The Creoles
of Louisiana; The \c&lt;/ro Question;
Strange True Stories of Louisiana; John
March, Southerner, etc.

Cable, ATLANTIC. See ATLANTIC TELE
GRAPH.

Cables, OCEAN. The first permanent
Atlantic cable was laid in July, 1866, from
Valentia Bay, Ireland, to Trinity Bay,
Newfoundland. In September of the same
year a cable lost by an unsuccessful at
tempt in 1865 was recovered, and its lay
ing completed, thus making two lines be
tween the two points named (see ATLAN
TIC TELEGRAPH). These lines constituted
what was known as the Anglo-American
Cable, managed by a company of the same
name. In 1868 the French Atlantic Tele
graph Company was formed, and the fol
lowing year it laid a line from Brest,
France, to Duxbury, Mass. The fourth
Atlantic telegraph cable was laid from
Valentia, Ireland, to Heart s Content,
Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, in the sum
mer of 1873, and a few months later
the Brazilian telegraph cable was laid
from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to a bay on
the coast of Portugal. In 1874 the Direct
United States Cable Company was

THK FARADAY LAYING THK ATLANTIC CABI.K.

for the purpose of promoting more cor- formed and laid a line from Ballenskil-
dial relations among the different class- ligs Bay, Ireland, to Rye, N. H., via Nova
es of society. His writings include Old Scotia. The same year a sixth lino across
Creole Days; The Grandissimes ; Madame the Atlantic was laid from Ireland to New-

CABOT

foundland. Another French
line was laid from Brest to
St. Pierre, an island in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, in 1880.
The companies owning all these
lines having formed a combina
tion and pooled their receipts,
to keep up rates on the trans
mission of messages, a com
peting company was formed by
James Gordon Bennett and
John W. Mackay. This laid in
1884-85 two lines from Ireland
to Nova Scotia, having also a
connecting line from Ireland to
France. A Pacific cable, ex
tending from San Francisco
to Honolulu, thence to Wake
Island, Guam Island, and Ma
nila, all United States posses
sions, was formally opened
July 4, 1903.

Cabot, the name of a fam
ily of explorers intimately con
nected with the history of
America. JOHN is supposed to
have been born in Genoa, al
though some historians have
claimed Venice as his birth
place. There is evidence that
for fifteen years prior to 1476 he re
sided in Venice, and in that year for
mally became a citizen. Subsequently
he removed to Bristol, England, and en
gaged in mercantile business. With a
view of finding a shorter route to India,

SEBASTIAN CABOT.
(From an old print.)

he determined to attempt a northwest pas
sage. To further his undertaking he secured
from Henry VII. a patent for the dis
covery of any unknown lands lying in either
the eastern, western, or northern seas.
SEBASTIAN, the second son of John, was

Hl DSO.V BAY WHKKK CABOT SOUGHT A NORTHWKST PASSAGE.

a. u

CABOT

ftorn in Bristol, England, in 1477. As his
name appears in the petition of his father
to Henry VII. for the patent above men
tioned, it is believed that he accompanied
his father in the voyage described below.
Sebastian died in London in 1557.

The latest evidence shows that John
and probably his son Sebastian sailed from
Bristol, May, 1497, discovered in June
what was supposed to be the Chinese coast,
and returned in July. In April, 1498, they

most to lat. 60, when the ice again barred
his way. Then he sailed southward, and
discovered a large island, which he called
New Found Land (Newfoundland) ,and per-
reived the immense number of codfish in
the waters surrounding it. Leaving that
island, he coasted as far as the shores of
Maine, and, some writers think, as far
south as the Carolinas. On his return
Cabot revealed the secret of the codfish
at New Found Land, and within five or

MAP OF THE GOLF OF ST. LAWKKNCE, AFTER CUAKTS MADK BY SKBASTIAtf CABOT.

tailed again from Bristol; on this voyage
JOHN died and Sebastian succeeded to the
command. The place of the landfall is
uncertain ; probably Labrador and Prince
Edward Island were reached. A common
account is that he was stopped by the ice
pack in Davis Strait. Then he sailed
southwest, and discovered the shores of
Labrador, or, possibly, the northern shore
of Newfoundland. Turning northward, he
traversed the coast of the continent al-

six years thereafter fishermen from Eng
land, Brittany, and Normandy were gather
ing treasures there. As Cabot did not
bring back gold from America, King
Henry paid no more attention to him;
and in 1512 he went to Spain, by in
vitation of King Ferdinand, and en
joyed honors and emoluments until that
monarch s death in 1516, when, annoyed
by the jealousies of the Spanish nobility,
he returned to England. Henry VIII.

CABOT CADWALADEB

furnished Cabot with a vessel, in 1517, to
seek for a northwest passage to India;
but he unsuccessfully fought the ice-pack
at Hudson Bay and was foiled. The suc
cessor of Ferdinand invited Cabot to Spain
and made him chief pilot of the realm.
He was employed by Spanish merchants
to command an expedition to the Spice
Islands by way of the then aewly discov
ered Strait of Magellan ; but circumstances
prevented his going farther than the south
east coast of South America, where he
discovered the rivers De la Plata and
Paraguay. His employers were disappoint
ed, and, resigning his office into the hands
of the Spanish monarch, he returned to
England in his old age, and was pension
ed by the King. After the death of Henry
VIII. the " boy King," Edward VI., made
Cabot grand pilot of England; but Queen
Mary neglected him, and allowed that
eminent navigator and discoverer of the
North American continent to die in Lon
don in comparative poverty and obscurity
at the age of eighty years. His cheerful
temperament was manifested by his dan
cing at an assembly of young seamen
the year before his death.

Cabot, GEORGE, statesman; born in
Salem, Mass., Dec. 3, 1751; educated
at Harvard College ; member of the Massa
chusetts Provincial Congress; also of the
State convention which accepted the na
tional Constitution; was a United States
Senator in 1791-96; and became the first
Secretary of the Navy in 1798. He died
in Boston, Mass., April 18, 1823.

Cabral, PEDKO ALVAREZ, Portuguese
navigator; born about 1460. In 1499,
after VASCO DA GAMA (q. v.) returned
from India, Cabral was sent by King
Emanuel, with thirteen ships, on a voyage
from Lisbon to the East Indies, for the
purpose of following up Gama s discov
eries. He left Lisbon on March 9. 1500.
In order to avoid the calms on the Guinea
shore, he went so far westward as to dis
cover land on the coast of Brazil at lat.
10 S. He erected a cross, and named the
country " The Land of the Holy Cross."
It was afterwards called Brazil, from
brasil, a dyewood that abounded there.
Cabral took possession of the country in
the name of the King. After it was ascer
tained that it was a part of the American
continent, a controversy arose between the

crowns of Spain and Portugal concerning
the right of possession, but it was settled
amicably Portugal to possess the portion
of the continent discovered by Cabral, that
is, from the River Amazon to the Plate
( De la Plata ) . This discovery led Emanuel
to send out another expedition (three
ships) under AHERICUS VESPUCIUS (q. v.) ,
in May, 1501. They touched Brazil at lat.
5 S., and returned home after a voyage of
sixteen months. Cabral died about 1526.

Cabrilla, JUAN RODRIGUEZ, Portuguese
navigator; born late in the fifteenth cen
tury; explored the Pacific coast as far as
lat. 44 N., off the coast of Oregon, in
1542, under orders from the King of
Spain, and discovered many of the islands,
bays, and harbors with which we are now
familiar. This voyage, made in search of
the " Strait of America," which Alargon
had failed to find, was described by him
under the title of Viaje y descubrimien-
tos hasta el grado 43 de Latitud. He
died at San Bernardo, Cal., Jan. 3, 1543.

Cacique, a word derived from the Hay-
tien tongue and inaccurately applied by
the Spaniards to the native nobles of Mex
ico, and also to great Indian chiefs. Its
true meaning is " lord," " prince," or " su
preme ruler."

Cadillac, ANTOINE DE LA MOTHE, pio
neer; born in France about 1660; received
a grant of land in Maine from Louis XIV.
in 1688; appointed governor of Mackinac
in 1694 by Frontenac; founded the city
of Detroit in 1701; governor of Louisiana,
1712-17; returned to France, where he
died, Oct. 18, 1730.

Cadwalader, GEORGE, military officer;
born in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1804; prac
tised law there till 1846 ; served in the
Mexican War; was present at the battles
of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec; and
for bravery in the latter was brevetted
major-general. In 1861, he was appointed
major-general, and placed in command of
Baltimore, and in 1862 he was made a
member of a board to revise the United
States military laws and regulations. He
published Services in the Mexican Cam
paign. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Feb.
3, 1879.

Cadwalader, JOHN, military officer;
born in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 10, 1742.
He was colonel of one of the city bat
talions; later as brigadier-general he was

CAHENSLYISM CAIMANERA

placed in command of the Pennsylvania bishops and priests in the United States,
militia, co-operating with Washington in and especially of Archbishop Katzer, of
the attack on Trenton, and participating Milwaukee; but were opposed by many
iu the battle of Princeton. He was in the others, especially by Cardinal Gibbons, of
battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Baltimore, who, at the installation of
Monmouth. He challenged Gen. Thomas Archbishop Katzer, in 1891, denounced the
Conway to fight a duel because of offen- movement as unpatriotic and disloyal. A
she words the latter used towards Wash- provincial congress of German - Catholic

societies at Dubuque, la., in 1892, ap
proved the movement, as did also a na
tional congress in Newark, N. J. ; but .!,
jr^ seemed overshadowed later by the pre

dominance of more liberal views under
the decisions of Monsignor Satolli, in
1892 and 1893; and Archbishop Corrigan
publicly declared it a dead issue, and con
demned by the Pope.

Caimanera, a town on the Bay of
Guantanamo, in the district of the same
name, and the province of Santiago, Cuba;
about 35 miles east of the entrance of the
harbor of Santiago. At the beginning of
the war with Spain in 1898, the town and
vicinity were the scene of important mili
tary and naval operations. On June 10
the bay was seized for a base of supplies
by Captain McCalla, with the Marblehcad,
Yankee, and St. Louis, and the last ves-

ington. They fought, and Conway was badly sel, supported by the others, cut the cable
wounded. After the war Cadwalader lived at Caimanera, which was connected with
in Maryland, and was in its legislature. Santiago. The town was garrisoned by
He died in Shrewsbury, Pa., Feb. 11, 1786. 3,000 Spanish soldiers, and protected by
Cahenslyism, a movement among Ro- several gunboats and a fort. When the
man Catholic immigrants in the United American vessels opened fire at 800 yards,
States to secure separate ecclesiastical forcing the Spaniards to withdraw from
organization for each nationality or Ian- the block-house and the town, the Alfonso
guage, and in particular for Germans; Mnson appeared at the entrance of the
named after Peter Paul Cahensly, Aus- bay, and at a range of 4,000 yards fired
tro-Hungarian envoy to the Vatican, and on the American vessels. The latter soon
a leader of the St. Raphael Society in found the range; but the Spanish vessel
Germany and Austria for promoting Ro- refused to withdraw until the Marblehcad
man Catholic interests among emigrants, gave chase, when she retired behind the
About 1884, eighty-two German priests in fort, still keeping up her firing. On June
the United States petitioned the Pope for 11, a battalion of GOO marines, the first
help in perpetuating their native tongue United States troops to set foot upon
and usages in the diocese of St. Louis, Cuban soil, were landed under Lieutenant-
Mo., and in 1886 petitioned again that Colonel Huntington from the troop-ship
German Catholics be obliged to join Ger- Panther and the men-of-war. They estab-
man-speaking churches, and be forbidden lished themselves at the entrance of the
attending those speaking English. Re- bay, little expecting that the Spanish sol-
ceiving no open answer, they formed, in diers, who had been driven in panic to
1887, a. society which sent representatives the mountains, would return during the
that year to the St. Raphael Society at night. Consequently, when their pickets
Lucerne, Switzerland, and enlisted the co- were fired upon there was considerable
operation of Herr Cahensly. They also surprise. On the night of June 12, the
secured the co-operation of many German Spaniards appeared in greater numbers,

CAIBO CALEF

and charging up to the camp killed Sur
geon John B. Gibbs and two marines.
The attack lasted until morning, when the
assailants were forced to retire under the
fire of the American field-guns. During
the night of June 13, the Spaniards again
attacked the camp, and kept up such a
continuous fire that the Americans had
no rest. The next night, however, the
same plan did not work, as a force of
Cubans under Colonel La Borda, who had
hastened to the camp, were sent out on
skirmish duty. On the following day a
company of marines with the Cubans ad
vanced against the Spanish camp, and by a
well-directed attack drove them away. In
this action the American losses were six
killed and three wounded, while more than
forty of the Spanish were killed. See
GUAXTANAMO BAT.

Cairo, OCCUPATION OF. The city of
Cairo, 111. (population, 1900, 12,566), is
situated near the extremity of a boat-
shaped peninsula, at the confluence of the
Ohio and Mississippi rivers, 175 miles be
low St. Louis. It is a point of great im
portance as the key to a vast extent of
navigable waters, and to it National
troops were sent at an early period in the
Civil War. Both the national govern
ment and Governor Yates, of Illinois, had
been apprised of the intention of the Con
federates to secure that position, hoping
thereby to control the navigation of the
Mississippi to St. Louis, and of the Ohio
to Cincinnati and beyond. They also
hoped that the absolute control of the
Mississippi below would cause the North
western States to join hands with the
Confederates rather than lose these great
trade advantages. The scheme was foil
ed. Governor Yates, under the direc
tion of the Secretary of War, sent Illinois
troops at an early day to take possession
of and occupy Cairo. By the middle of
May there were not less than 5,000 Union
volunteers there, under the command of
Gen. B. M. Prentiss, who occupied the ex
treme point of the peninsula, where they
east up fortifications and gave the post
the name of Camp Defiance. Before the
close of May it was considered impreg
nable against any force the Confederates
might send. It soon became a post of
great importance to the Union cause as
the place where some of the land and

naval expeditions in the valley of the
Mississippi were fitted out.

Caldwell, JAMES, clergyman; born in
Charlotte county, Va., in April, 1734.
Graduating at Princeton in 1759, he be
came pastor of the Presbyterian Church
at Elizabethtown in 1762. Zealously es
pousing the revolutionary cause, he was
much disliked by the Tories. Appointed
chaplain of a New Jersey brigade, he was
for a time in the Mohawk Valley. In
1780 his church and residence were burned
by a party of British and Tories; and the
same year a British incursion from Staten
Island pillaged the village of Connecticut
Farms, where his family were temporarily
residing. A soldier shot his wife through
a window while she was sitting on a bed
with her babe. At that time Mr. Caldwell
was in Washington s camp at Morristown.
In the successful defence of Springfield,
N. J., June 23, 1780, when the wadding
for the soldiers guns gave out, he brought
the hymn-books from the neighboring
church and shouted, " Now put Watts
into them, boys." In an altercation at
Elizabethtown Point with an American
sentinel, he was killed by the latter, Nov.
24, 1781. The murderer was afterwards
hanged.

Calef, ROBERT, author; place and date
of birth uncertain; became a merchant
in Boston; and is noted for his contro
versy with Cotton Mather concerning the
witchcraft delusion in New England.
Mather had published a work entitled
Wonders of the Invisible World, and Calef
attacked the book, the author, and the
subject in a publication entitled More
Wonders of the Invisible World. Calef s
book was published in London in 1700,
and in Salem the same year. About this
time the people and magistrates had come
to their senses, persecutions had ceased,
and the folly of the belief in witchcraft
was broadly apparent. Mather, however,
continued to write in favor of it, and to
give instances of the doings of witches
in their midst. " Flashy people," wrote
Mather, " may burlesque these things, but
when hundreds of the most sober people,
in a country where they have as much
mother-wit certainly as the rest of man
kind, know them to be true, nothing but
the absurd and froward spirit of Saddu-
cism [disbelief in spirits] can question

CALENDAR CALHOUN

them." Calef first attacked Mather in a
series of letters, which were subsequently
published in book form, as above stated.
In these letters he exposed Mather s
credulity, and greatly irritated that really
good man. Mather retorted by calling
Calef a " weaver turned minister." Calef
tormented Mather more by other letters
in the same vein, when the former, be
coming wearied by the fight, called the
latter " a coal from hell," and prosecuted
him for slander. When these letters of
Calef were published in book form, In

crease Mather, President of Harvard Col
lege, caused copies of the work to be pub
licly burned on the college green. Calef
died about 1723.

Calendar. Our present calendar is the
creation of Julius Caesar, based on a
slight error which in the course of 1,600
years amounted to ten days. Pope Greg
ory XIII. rectified the calendar in 1582.
The Gregorian calendar was accepted ul
timately by all civilized nations, with
the exception of Russia, which still con
tinues the use of the Julian Calendar.

CALHOLTN, JOHN CALDWELL

Calhoun, JOHN CALDWELL, statesman; very great; and his political tenets, prac-
born in Abbeville District, S. C., March tically carried out by acts of nullification,
18, 1782. His father was a native of brought South Carolina to the verge of
Ireland; his mother, formerly Miss Cald- civil war in 1832; and it made that State
well, was of Scotch-Irish descent. The foremost and most conspicuous in inaugu-
son was graduated, with all the honors, rating the Civil War. He died in Wash-
at Yale College, in 1804, and studied law ington, D. C., March 31, 1850. His remains
in the famous law-school in Litchfield,
Conn. In 1807 he began the practice of
the profession in his native district.
Thoughtful, ardent, and persevering, he
soon took high rank in his profession, and
gained a very lucrative practice. Fond
of politics, he early entered its arena, and
in 1808-10 was a member of the State
legislature. He was sent to Congress in
1811, where he remained, by successive
elections, until 1817. Mr. Calhoun was
very influential in pressing Madison to
make a declaration of war with Great
Britain in 1812. President Monroe called
him to his cabinet as Secretary of War
(Dec. 16, 1817), and he served as such
during the President s double term of
office. In 1824 he was chosen Vice-Presi
dent of the United States, and was re-
elected with Andrew Jackson in 1828. In
1831 he was elected United States Senator
by the legislature of South Carolina. He
was Secretary of State in 1844-45, and
from 1845 till 1850 he was again a mem
ber of the United States Senate. The JOHN CALDWKLL CALUOI-X.
doctrine of State sovereignty and suprem
acy, and that the Union was a compact lie under a neat monument in St. Philip s
of States that might be dissolved by the church-yard at Charleston, S. C. His writ-
secession of any one of them, indepen- ings and a biography have been published
dent of all action on the part of others, in 6 volumes. See WEBSTER, DANIEL.
was held by Mr. Calhoun nearly all his Government of the United States. The
life. His influence in his own State was following is Senator Calhoun s conception

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL

of the national government, from his dis- absolutely; and can be rightfully exercised
course on "The Constitution": only in furtherance of the objects for
which they were delegated.

Ours is a system of government, com- It is federal as well as democratic,

pounded of the separate governments of Federal, on the one hand, in contradis-

the several States composing the Union, tinction to national, and, on the other,

and of one common government of all its to a confederacy. In showing this, I shall

members, called the government of the begin with the former.

United States. The former preceded the It is federal, because it is the govern-

latter, which was created by their agency, ment of States united in a political union,

Each was framed by written constitu- in contradistinction to a government of

tions; those of the several States by the individuals socially united that is, by

people of each, acting separately, and in what is usually called, a social compact,

their sovereign character; and that of the To express it more concisely, it is federal

United States, by the same, acting in the and not national, because it is the govern-

same character, but jointly instead of ment of a community of States, and not

separately. All were formed on the same the government of a single State or

model. They all divide the powers of nation.

government into legislative, executive, That it is federal and not national, we

and judicial; and are founded on the have the high authority of the convention

great principle of the responsibility of the which framed it. General Washington, as

rulers to the ruled. The entire powers its organ, in his letter submitting the

of government are divided between the plan to the consideration of the Congress

two; those of a more general character of the then confederacy, calls it in one

being specifically delegated to the United place " the general government of the

States; and all others not delegated, being Union," and in another "the federal gov-

reserved to the several States in their ernment of these States." Taken together,

separate character. Each, within its ap- the plain meaning is, that the government

propriate sphere, possesses all the attri- proposed would be, if adopted, the govern-

butes, and performs all the functions of ment of the States adopting it, in their

government. Neither is perfect without united character as members of a common

the other. The two combined, form one Union; and, as such, would be a federal

entire and perfect government. With government. These expressions were not

these preliminary remarks, I shall pro- used without due consideration, and an

ceed to the consideration of the immediate accurate and full knowledge of their true

subject of this discourse. import. The subject was not a novel one.

The government of the United States The convention was familiar with it. It

was formed by the Constitution of the was much agitated in their deliberations.

United States; and ours is a democratic, They divided, in reference to it, in the

federal republic. early stages of their proceedings. At

It is democratic, in contradistinction to first, one party was in favor of a national
aristocracy and monarchy. It excludes and the other of a federal government,
classes, orders, and all artificial distinc- The former, in the beginning, prevailed;
tions. To guard against their introduc- and in the plans which they proposed, the
tion, the Constitution prohibits the grant- constitution and government are styled
ing of any title of nobility by the United " national." But, finally, the latter gain-
States, or by any State. The whole sys- ed the ascendency, when the term " na-
tem is, indeed, democratic throughout, tional " was superseded, and United States
It has for its fundamental principle, the substituted in its place. The Constitu-
great cardinal maxim, that the people tion was accordingly styled, The Consti-
are the source of all power ; that the gov- tution of the United States of America;
ernments of the several States and of the and the government, The government of
United States were created by them, and the United States, leaving out " America "
for them; that the powers conferred on for the sake of brevity. It cannot admit
them are not surrendered, but delegated ; of a doubt, that the Convention, by the
and, as such, are held in trust, and not expression, " United States," meant the

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL,

States united in a federal Union; for in there might be no doubt how these States
no other sense could they, with propriety, would stand to each other in the new con-
call the government the federal govern- dition in which they were about to be
ment of these States, and the general placed, it concluded by declaring " that
government of the Union, as they did these United Colonies are, and of right
in the letter referred to. It is thus clear, ought to be, free and independent States ";
that the Convention regarded the differ- " and that, as free and independent States,
ent expressions, " the federal government they have full power to levy war, conclude
of the United States"; "the general gov- peace, contract alliances, and to do all
ernment of the Union," and " government other acts and things which independent
of the United States " as meaning the States may of right do." The " United
same thing a federal, in contradistinc- States " is, then, the baptismal name of
tion to a national government. these States received at their birth by

Assuming it, then, as established, that which they have ever since continued to
they are the same thing, it is only neces- call themselves; by which they have char-
sary, in order to ascertain with precision acterized their constitution, government,
what they meant by federal government, and laws, and by which they are known
to ascertain what they meant by the gov- to the rest of the world.
ernment of the United States. For this The retention of the same style, through-
purpose it will be necessary to trace the out every stage of their existence, affords
expression to its origin. strong, if not conclusive evidence that the

It was at that time, as our history political relation between these States, un-
shows, an old and familiar phrase, hav- der their present constitution and govern
ing a known and well-defined meaning, ment, is substantially the same as under
Its use commenced with the political birth the confederacy and revolutionary govern-
of these States ; and it has been applied ment ; and what that relation was, we are
to them, in all the forms of government not left to doubt; as they are declared ex-
through which they have passed, with- pressly to be free, independent, and sovcr-
out alteration. The style of the present eign States. They, then, are now united,
Constitution and government is precisely and have been, throughout, simply as con-
the style by which the confederacy that federated States. If it had been intended
existed when it was adopted, and which by the members of the convention which
it superseded, was designated. The in- framed the present Constitution and gov-
strument that formed the latter was call- ernment, to make any essential change,
ed, Articles of Confederation and Perpetu- either in the relation of the States to each
al Union. Its first article declares that other, or the basis of their union, they
the style of this confederacy shall be, " The would, by retaining the style which desig-
United States of America"; and the sec- nated them under the preceding govern-
ond, in order to leave no doubt as to the ments, have practised a deception, utterly
relation in which the States should stand unworthy of their character, as sincere
to each other in the confederacy about and honest men and patriots. It may,
to be formed, declared " Each State re- therefore, be fairly inferred, that, retain-
tains its sovereignty, freedom, and inde- ing the same style, they intended to attach
pondence ; and every power, jurisdiction, to the expression, " the United States,"
and right, which is not, by this confedera- the same meaning, substantially, which
tion, expressly delegated to the United it previously had ; and, of course, in call-
States in Congress assembled." If we ing the present government " the federal
go one step further back, the style of the government of these States " they meant
confederacy will be found to be the same by " federal " that they stood in the same
with that of the revolutionary govern- relation to each other that their union
ment, which existed when it was adopt- rested, without material change, on the
ed, and which it superseded. It dates its same basis as under the confederacy and
origin with the Declaration of Indopen- Ihc revolutionary government; and that
deuce. That act is styled " The unani- federal and confederated States meant
mous Declaration of the thirteen United substantially the same thing. It follows,
States of America." And here again, that a! so, that the changes made by the pres-

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL

ent Constitution were not in the founda
tion, but in the superstructure of the
system. We accordingly find, in confir
mation of this conclusion, that the conven
tion, in their letter to Congress, stating
the reasons for the changes that had been
made, refer only to the necessity which
required a different organization of the
government, without making any allusion
whatever to any change in the relations
of the States towards each other, or the
basis of the system. They state that " the
friends of our country have long seen
and desired that the power of making
war, peace, and treaties; that of levying
money and regulating commerce, and the
correspondent executive and judicial au
thorities, should be fully and effectually
vested in the government of the Union:
but the impropriety of delegating such ex
tensive trusts to one body of men is evi
dent; hence results the necessity of a
different organization." Comment is un
necessary.

We thus have the authority of the
convention itself for asserting that the
expression, " United States," has essen
tially the same meaning, when applied to
the present Constitution and government,
as it had previously; and, of course, that
the States have retained .their separate
existence, as independent and sovereign
communities, in all the forms of political
existence through which they have passed.
Such, indeed, is the literal import of the
expression, " the United States," and the
sense in which it is ever used, when it is
applied politically I say, politically
because it is often applied, geographically,
to designate the portion of this continent
occupied by the States composing the
Union, including Territories belonging to
them. This application arose from the
fact, that there was no appropriate term
for that portion of this continent; and
thus, not unnaturally, the name by which
these States are politically designated, was
employed to designate the region they oc
cupy and possess. The distinction is im
portant, and cannot be overlooked in dis
cussing questions involving the character
and nature of the government, without
causing great confusion and dangerous
misconceptions.

But as conclusive as these reasons are
to prove that the government of the United

States is federal, in contradistinction to
national, it would seem, that they have
not been sufficient to prevent the oppo
site opinion from being entertained. In
deed, this last seems to have become the
prevailing one ; if we may judge from
the general use of the term " national,"
and the almost entire disuse of that of
" federal." National is now commonly
applied to the " general government of
the Union " and " the federal govern
ment of these States " and all that ap
pertains to them or to the Union. It
seems to be forgotten that the term was
repudiated by the convention, after full
consideration ; and that it was carefully
excluded from the Constitution, and the
letter laying it before Congress. Even
those who know all this and, of course,
how falsely the term is applied have, for
the most part, slided into its use without
reflection. But there are not a few Avho
so apply it, because they believe it to be
a national government in fact; and among
these are men of distinguished talents and
standing, who have put forth all their
powers of reason and eloquence, in sup
port of the theory. The question involved
is one of the first magnitude, and deserves
to be investigated thoroughly in all its
aspects. With this impression, I deem
it proper clear and conclusive as I re
gard the reasons already assigned to prove
its federal character to confirm them by
historical references; and to repel the ar
guments adduced to prove it to be a na
tional government. I shall begin with the
formation and ratification of the Consti
tution.

That the States, when they formed and
ratified the Constitution, were distinct,
independent, and sovereign communities,
has already been established. That the
people of the several States, acting in their
separate, independent, and sovereign char
acter, adopted their separate State con
stitutions, is a fact uncontested and in
contestable; but it is not more certain
than that, acting in the same character,
they ratified and adopted the Constitu
tion of the United States; with this dif
ference only, that in making and adopt
ing the one, they acted without concert
or agreement; but, in the other, with con
cert in making, and mutual agreement in
adopting it. That the delegates who con-

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL

stituted the convention which framed the
Constitution, were appointed by the sev
eral States, each on its own authority;
that they voted in the convention by
States; and that their votes were counted
by States, are recorded and unquestion
able facts. So, also, the facts that the
Constitution, when framed, was submitted
to the people of the several States for
their respective ratification ; that it was
ratified by them, each for itself; and that
it was binding on each, only in conse-
quence of its being so ratified by it. Until
then, it was but the plan of a Constitution,
without any binding force. It was the
act of ratification which established it as
a Constitution between the States ratify
ing it; and only between them, on the
condition that not less than nine of the
then thirteen States should concur in the
ratification as is expressly provided by
its seventh and last article. It is in the
following words: "The ratification of the
conventions of nine States shall be suffi
cient for the establishment of this Con
stitution between the States so ratifying
the same." If additional proof be needed
to show that it was only binding between
the States that ratified it, it may be found
in the fact that two States North Caro
lina and Rhode Island refused, at first,
to ratify; and were, in consequence, re
garded in the interval as foreign States,
without obligation, on their parts, to re
spect it, or, on the part of their citi
zens, to obey it. Thus far, there can be
no difference of opinion. The facts are too
recent and too well established, and the
provision of the Constitution too explicit,
to admit of doubt.

That the States, then, retained, after
the ratification of the Constitution, the
distinct, independent, and sovereign char
acter in which they formed and ratified
it, is certain ; unless they divested them
selves of it by the act of ratification,
or by some provision of the Constitution.
If they have not, the Constitution must
be federal, and not national ; for it would
have, in that case, every attribute neces
sary to constitute it federal, and not one
to make it national. On the other hand,
if they have divested themselves, then it
would necessarily lose its federal charac
ter, and become national. Whether, then,
the government is federal or national, is

reduced to a single question; whether the
act of ratification, of itself, or the Con
stitution, by some one, or all of its provi
sions, did, or did not, divest the several
States of their character of separate, inde
pendent, and sovereign communities, and
merge them all in one great community
or nation, called the American people.

Before entering on the consideration of
this important question, it is proper to re
mark, that, on its decision, the character
of the government, as well as the Constitu
tion, depends. The former must, neces
sarily, partake of the character of the
latter, as it is but its agent, created by
it, to carry its powers into effect. Ac
cordingly, then, as the Constitution is fed
eral or national, so must the government
be; and I shall, therefore, use them in
discriminately in discussing the subject.

Of all the questions which can arise un
der our system of government, this is by
far the most important. It involves many
others of great magnitude; and among
them, that of the allegiance of the citi
zen; or, in other words, the question to
whom allegiance and obedience are ulti
mately due. What is the true relation
between the two governments that of the
United States, and those of the several
States? and what is the relation between
the individuals respectively composing
them? For it is clear, if the States still
retain their sovereignty as separate and
independent communities, the allegiance
and obedience of the citizens of each
would be due to their respective States;
and that the government of the United
States and those of the several States
would stand as equals and co-ordinates in
their respective spheres; and, instead of
being united socially, their citizens would
be politically connected through their re
spective States. On the contrary, if they
have, by ratifying the Constitution, di
vested themselves of their individuality
and sovereignty, and merged themselves
into one great community or nation, it
is equally clear that the sovereignty would
reside in the whole or what is called the
American people; and that allegiance and
obedience would be due to them. Nor is it
less so, that the government of the several
States would, in such case, stand to that
of the United States, in the relation of
inferior and subordinate, to superior and

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL

paramount; and that the individuals of the declaration was taken by delegations,
the several States, thus fused, as it were, each counting one. The declaration was
into one general mass, would be united announced to be urianimous, not because
socially, and not politically. So great every delegate voted for it, but because
a change of condition would have in- the majority of each delegation did;
volved a thorough and radical revolution, showing clearly that the body itself,
both socially and politically a revolution regarded it as the united act of the
much more radical, indeed, than that several colonies, and not the act of the
which followed the Declaration of Inde- whole as one community. To leave
pendence. no doubt on a point so important, and in

They who maintain that the ratification reference to which the several colonies
of the Constitution effected so mighty a were so tenacious, the declaration was
change, are bound to establish it by the made in the name and by the authority
most demonstrative proof. The presump- of the people of the colonies, represented
tion is strongly opposed to it. It has al- in Congress; and that was followed by de-
ready been shown that the authority of claring them to be " free and independent
the convention which formed the Consti- States." The act was, in fact, but a for-
tution is clearly against it ; and that the mal and solemn annunciation to the world
history of its ratification, instead of sup- that the colonies had ceased to be de-
plying evidence in its favor, furnishes pendent communities, and had become free
strong testimony in opposition to it. To and independent States, without involv-
these, others may be added ; and, among ing any other change in their relations
them, the presumption drawn from the with each other than those necessarily in-
history of these States, in all the stages cident to a separation from the parent
of their existence down to the time of the country. So far were they from suppos-
ratification of the Constitution. In all, ing, or intending that it should have the
they formed separate, and, as it respects effect of merging their existence, as sepa-
each other, independent communities, and rate communities, into one nation, that
were ever remarkable for the tenacity with they had appointed a committee which
which they adhered to their rights as such, was actually sitting, while the declara-
It constituted, during the whole period, one tion was under discussion to prepare a
of the most striking traits in their char- plan of a confederacy of the States, pre-
acter, as a very brief sketch will show. paratory to entering into their new con-

During their colonial condition, they dition. In fulfilment of their appoint-
formed distinct communities, each with ment, this committee prepared the draft
its separate charter and government, of the articles of confederation and per-
and in no way connected with each other, petual union, which afterwards was adopt-
except as dependent members of a com- ed by the governments of the several
mon empire. Their first union amongst States. That it instituted a mere con-
themselves was, in resistance to the en- federacy and union of the States had al-
croachments of the parent country on ready been shown. That, in forming and
their chartered rights, when they adopted assenting to it, the States were exceed-
the title of, " the United Colonies." Un- ingly jealous and watchful in delegating
der that name they acted, until they de- power, even to a confederacy; that they
clared their independence; always, in granted the powers delegated most re-
their joint councils, voting and acting as luctantly and sparingly; that several of
separate and distinct communities; and them long stood out, under all the press-
not in the aggregate, as composing one ure of the Revolutionary War, before they
community or nation. They acted in the acceded to it; and that, during the inter-
same character in declaring independence; val which elapsed between its adoption
by which act they passed from their de- and that of the present Constitution, they
pendent, colonial condition, into that of evinced, under the most urgent necessity,
free and sovereign States. The declara- the same reluctance and jealousy, in dele
tion was made by delegates appointed by gating power are facts which cannot be
the several colonies, each for itself, and disputed.

on its own authority. The vote making To this may be added another circum-

CALHOITN, JOHN CALDWELL

stance of no little weight, drawn from
the preliminary steps taken for the rati
fication of the Constitution. The plan was
laid, by the convention, before the Con
gress of the confederacy, for its consider
ation and action, as has been stated. It
was the sole organ and representative of
these States in their confederated charac
ter. By submitting it, the convention rec
ognized and acknowledged its authority
over it, as the organ of distinct, indepen
dent, and sovereign States. It had the
right to dispose of it as it pleased; and,
if it had thought proper, it might have
defeated the plan by simply omitting to
act on it. But it thought proper to act,
and to adopt the course recommended by
the convention, which was, to submit it
" to a convention of delegates, chosen in
each State, by the people thereof, for
their assent and adoption." All this was
in strict accord with the federal charac
ter of the Constitution, but wholly repug
nant to the idea of its being national. It
received the assent of the States in all
the possible modes in which it could be
obtained: first, in their confederated char
acter, through its only appropriate organ,
the Congress; next, in their individual
character, as separate States, through
their respective State governments, to
which the Congress referred it; and final
ly, in their high character of indepen
dent and sovereign communities, through
a convention of the people, called in each
State, by the authority of its government.
The States acting in these various capaci
ties might, at every stage, have defeated
it or not, at their option, by giving or
withholding their consent.

With this weight of presumptive evi
dence, to use no stronger expression, in
favor of its federal, in contradistinction
to its national character, I shall next pro
ceed to show that the ratification of the
Constitution, instead of furnishing proof
against, contains additional and conclu
sive evidence in its favor.

We are not left to conjecture as to what
was meant by the ratification of the Con
stitution, or its effects. The expressions
used by the conventions of the States,
in ratifying it, and those used by the Con
stitution in connection with it, afford
ample means of ascertaining with accu
racy, both its meaning and effect. The usu

al form of expression used for the former
is: "We, the delegates of the State"
(naming the State), "do, in behalf of
the people of the State, assent to, and rati
fy the said Constitution." All use " rati
fy," and all, except North Carolina, use
" assent to." The delegates of that State
use " adopt " instead of " assent to," a
variance merely in the form of expression,
without, in any degree, affecting the mean
ing. Ratification was, then, the act of
the several States in their separate ca
pacity. It was performed by delegates
appointed expressly for the purpose. Each
appointed its own delegates; and the dele
gates of each acted in the name of, and for
the State appointing them. Their act
consisted in " assenting to," or, what is
the same thing, " adopting and ratifying "
the Constitution.

By turning to the seventh article of the
Constitution, and to the preamble, it will
be found what was the effect of ratifying.
The article expressly provides that, " the
ratification of the conventions of nine
States shall be sufficient for the establish
ment of this Constitution, between the
States so ratifying the same." The pre
amble of the Constitution is in the follow
ing words : " We, the people of the United
States, in order to form a more perfect
union, establish justice, insure domestic
tranquillity, provide for the common de
fence, promote the general welfare, and
secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves
and our posterity, do ordain and estab
lish this Constitution for the United
States of America." The effect, then, of
its ratification was, to ordain and estab
lish the Constitution, and thereby to make,
what was before but a plan, " The Consti
tution of the United States of America."
All this is clear.

It remains now to show by whom it was
ordained and established; for whom it was
ordained and established; for ichat it was
ordained and established; and over whom
it was ordained and established. These
will be considered in the order in which
they stand.

Nothing more is necessary, in order
to show by whom it was ordained and es
tablished, than to ascertain who are meant
by " We, the people of the United States " ;
for, by their authority, it was done. To
this there can be but one answer: it meant

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL

the people who ratified the instrument; mon defence, promote the general welfare,

for it was the act of ratification which and secure the blessings of liberty to our-

ordained and established it. Who they selves and our posterity." To effect these

were, admits of no doubt. The process objects, they ordained and established, to

preparatory to ratification, and the acts use their own language, " the Constitu-

by which it was done, prove, beyond the tion for the United States of America,"

possibility of a doubt, that it was ratified clearly meaning by " for " that it was

by the several States, through conventions intended to be their Constitution; and

of delegates, chosen in each State by the that the objects of ordaining and estab-

people thereof; and acting, each in the lishing it were to perfect their union, to

name and by the authority of its State: establish justice among them; to insure

and, as all the States ratified it, " We, the their domestic tranquillity, to provide for

people of the United States," mean We, their common defence and general wel-

the people of the several States of the fare, and to secure the blessings of liberty

Union. The inference is irresistible. And to them and their posterity. Taken all

when it is considered that the States of together, it follows, from what has been

the Union were then members of the con- stated, that the Constitution was ordain-

federacy, and that, by the express pro- ed and established by the several States,

vision of one of its articles, "each State as distinct, sovereign communities; and

retains its sovereignty, freedom, and in- that it was ordained and established by

dependence," the proof is demonstrative, them for themselves for their common

that " We, the people of the United States welfare and safety, as distinct and sover-

of America," mean the people of the sev- eign communities.

eral States of the Union, acting as free, It remains to be shown over whom
independent, and sovereign States. This it was ordained and established. That
strikingly confirms what has been already it was not over the several States is set-
stated to wit, that the convention which tied by the seventh article beyond con
formed the Constitution meant the same troversy. It declares that the ratifica-
thing by the terms " United States " and tion by nine States shall be sufficient to
" federal," when applied to the Constitu- establish the Constitution between the
tion or government ; and that the former, States so ratifying. " Between " neces-
when used politically, always mean these sarily excludes over as that which is Re
states united as independent and sovereign tween States cannot be over them. Kea-
communities. son itself, if the Constitution had been

Having shown by ivhom it was ordain- silent, w r olild have led, with equal certain-
ed, there will be no difficulty in deter- ty, to the same conclusion. For it was
mining for whom it was ordained. The the several States, or, what is the same
preamble is explicit it was ordained and thing, their people, in their sovereign ca-
established for " The United States of pacity, who ordained and established the
America," adding " America," in comformi- Constitution. But the authority which
ty to the style of the then confederacy, and ordains and establishes is higher than
the Declaration of Independence. Assum- that which is- ordained and established;
ing, then, that the " United States " bears and, of course, the latter must be subor-
the same meaning in the conclusion of the dinate to the former, and cannot, there-
preamble as it does in its commencement fore, be over it. " Between " always means
(and no reason can be assigned why it more than over, and implies in this case
should not), it follows, necessarily, that that the authority which ordained and es-
the Constitution was ordained and estab- tablished the Constitution was the joint
lished for the people of the several States, and united authority of the States ratify
by whom it was ordained and established, ing it; and that, among the effects of their

Nor will there be any difficulty in show- ratification, it became a contract between

ing for what it was ordained and es- them; and, as a compact, binding on

tablished. The preamble enumerates the them; but only as such. In that sense

objects. They are " to form a more the term " between " is appropriately ap-

perfect union, to establish justice, insure plied. In no other can it be. It was,

domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- doubtless, used in that sense in this in-

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL

stance; but the question still remains, explanation perfectly satisfactory may be

over whom was it ordained and establish- given, why the expression, as it now

ed? After what has been stated, the an- stands, was used by the framers of the

swer may be readily given. It was over Constitution, and why it should not re-

the government which it created, and all ceive the meaning attempted to be placed

its functionaries in their official charac- upon it. It is conceded that, if the enu-

ter, and the individuals composing and meration of the States after the word,

inhabiting the several States, as far as " people," had been made, the expression

they might come within the sphere of would have been freed from all ambiguity,

the powers delegated to the United States, and the inference and argument founded

I have now shown, conclusively, by on the failure to do so left without pre-

arguments drawn from the act of ratifi- text or support. The omission is certainly

cation, and the Constitution itself, that striking, but it can be readily explained,

the several States of the Union, acting It was made intentionally, and solely from

in their confederated character, ordained the necessity of the case. The first draft

and established the Constitution; that of the Constitution contained an enumer-

they ordained and established it for them- ation of the States, by name, after the

selves, in the same character ; that they word " people " ; but it became impossible

ordained and established it for their wel- to retain it after the adoption of the

fare and safety, in the like character ; that seventh and last article, which provided,

they established it as a compact between that the ratification by nine States should

them, and not as a Constitution over be sufficient to establish the Constitution

them; and that, as a compact, they are as between them; and for the plain rea-

parties to it, in the same character. I son, that it was impossible to determine

have thus established, conclusively, that whether all the States would ratify; or,

these States, in ratifying the Constitu- if any failed, which, and how many of

tion, did not lose the confederated charac- the number; or, if nine should ratify, how

ter which they possessed when they rati- to designate them. No alternative was

fied it, as well as in all the preceding thus left but to omit the enumeration, and

stages of their existence ; but, on the to insert the " United States of America "

contrary, still retained it to the full. in its place. And yet, an omission, so

Those who oppose this conclusion, and readily and so satisfactorily explained, has
maintain the national character of the been seized on, as furnishing strong proof
government, rely, in support of their that the government was ordained and
views, mainly on the expressions, " We, the established by the American people, in
people of the United States," used in the the aggregate, and is therefore national,
first part of the preamble; and "do or- But the omission, of itself, would have
dain and establish this Constitution for caused no difficulty, had there not been
the United States of America," used in connected with it a twofold ambiguity in
its conclusion. Taken together, they in- the expression as it now stands. The term
sist, in the first place, that " we, the peo- " United States," which always means,
pie," mean the people in their individual in Constitutional language, the several
character, as forming a single community ; States in their confederated character,
and that " the United States of America " means also, as has been shown, when ap-
designates them in their aggregate charac- plied geographically, the country occupied
ter as the American people. In maintain- and possessed by them. While the term,
ing this construction, they rely on the people," has, in the English language, no
omission to enumerate the States by name, plural, and is necessarily used in the sin-
after the word "people" (so as to make gular number, even when applied to many
it read, " We, the people of New Hamp- communities or States confederated in a
shire, Massachusetts, &c.," as was done common union, as is the case with the Unit-
in the articles of the confederation, and, ed States. Availing themselves of this dou-
also, in signing the Declaration of Inde- ble ambiguity, and the omission to enumer-
pendence) ; and, instead of this, the simple ate the States by name, the advocates of
use of the general term " United States." the national theory of the government,

However plausible this may appear, an assuming that we, the people, meant in-

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL

dividuals generally, and not people as That the Constitution regards itself in
forming States; and that United States the light of a compact, still existing be-
was used in a geographical and not a tween the States, after it was ordained
political sense, made out an argument of and established; that it regards the union,
some plausibility, in favor of the con- then existing, as still existing; and the
elusion that " we, the people of the United several States, of course, still members
States of America," meant the aggregate of it, in their original character of con-
population of the States regarded en federated States, is clear. Its seventh
masse, and not in their distinctive charac- article, so often referred to, in con-
ter as forming separate political com- nection with the arguments drawn from
m unities. But in this gratuitous assump- the preamble, sufficiently establishes all
tion, and the conclusion drawn from it, these points, without adducing others;
they overlooked the stubborn fact, that except that which relates to the continu-
the very people who ordained and estab- ance of the union. To establish this, it
lished the constitution, are identically the will not be necessary to travel out of the
same who ratified it; for it was by the preamble and the letter of the convention,
act of ratification alone that it was or- laying the plan of the Constitution before
dained and established, as has been con- the Congress of the confederation. In
clusively shown. This fact, of itself, enumerating the objects for which the
sweeps away every vestige of the argu- Constitution was ordained and establish
ment drawn from the ambiguity of those ed, the preamble places at the head of the
terms, as used in the preamble. rest, as its leading object " to form a

They next rely, in support of their more perfect union." So far, then, are the
theory, on the expression, " ordained and terms " ordained and established " from
established this Constitution." They ad- being incompatible with the union, or hav-
mit that the Constitution, in its incipient ing the effect of destroying it, the Consti-
state, assumed the form of a compact; tution itself declares that it was intend-
but contend that " ordained and establish- ed " to form a more perfect union." This,
ed," as applied to the Constitution and of itself, is sufficient to refute the asser-
government, are incompatible with the tion of their incompatibility. But it is
idea of compact; that, consequently, the proper here to remark that it could not
instrument or plan lost its federative have been intended, by the expression in
character when it was ordained and estab- the preamble, " to form a more perfect
lished as a Constitution; and, thus, the union," to declare that the old was abol-
States ceased to be parties to a compact, ished, and a new and more perfect union
and members of a confederated union, and established in its place: for we have the
became fused into one common commu- authority of the convention which formed
nity, or nation, as subordinate and depend- the Constitution, to prove that their ob-
ent divisions or corporations. ject was to continue the then existing

I do not deem it necessary to discuss union. In their letter, laying it before

the question whether there is any compat- Congress, they say, " In all our deliber-

ibility between the terms "ordained and ations on this subject, we kept steadily

established " and that of " compact," on in our view that which appears to us the

which the whole argument rests; although greatest interest of every true American,

it would be no difficult task to show that the consolidation of our union." " Our

it is a gratuitous assumption, without any union " can refer to no other than the

foundation whatever for its support. It then existing union, the old union of

is sufficient for my purpose to show that the confederacy, and of the revolu-

the assumption is wholly inconsistent with tionary government which preceded it,

che Constitution itself as much so, as of which these States were confederated

the conclusion drawn from it has been members. This must, of course, have

shown to be inconsistent with the opinion been the union to which the framers re-

of the convention which formed it. Very ferred in the preamble. It was this, ac-

little will be required, after what has been cordingly, which the Constitution intended

already stated, to establish what I pro- to make more perfect; just as the con-

pose. federacy made more perfect that of the

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL

revolutionary government. Nor is there
anything in the term " consolidation," used
by the convention, calculated to weaken
the conclusion. It is a strong expression;
but as strong as it is, it certainly was
not intended to imply the destruction of
the union, as it is supposed to do by the
advocates of a national government; for
that would have been incompatible with
the context, as well as with the continu
ance of the union, which the sentence and
the entire letter imply. Interpreted, then,
in conjunction with the expression used
in the preamble, " to form a more perfect
union," although it may more strongly
intimate closeness of connection, it can
imply nothing incompatible with the pro
fessed object of perfecting the union, still
less a meaning and effect wholly incon
sistent with the nature of a confederated
community. For to adopt the interpreta
tion contended for, to its full extent, would
be to destroy the union, and not to con
solidate and perfect it.

If we turn from the preamble and the
ratifications, to the body of the Consti
tution, we shall find that it furnishes most
conclusive proof that the government is
federal, and not national. I can discover
nothing, in any portion of it, which gives
the least countenance to the opposite con
clusion. On the contrary, the instrument,
in all its parts, repels it. It is, through
out, federal. It everywhere recognizes the
existence of the States, and invokes their
aid to carry its powers into execution.
In one of the two Houses of Congress the
members are elected by the legislatures
of their respective States ; and in the other
by the people of the several States, not
as composing mere districts of one great
community, but as distinct and indepen
dent communities. General Washington
vetoed the first act apportioning the mem
bers of the House of Representatives
among the several States, under the first
census, expressly on the ground that the
act assumed, as its basis, the former and
not the latter construction. The Presi
dent and Vice-President are chosen by
electors, appointed by their respective
States; and. finally, the judges are ap
pointed by the President and the Senate;
and, of course, as these are elected by
the States, they are appointed through
their agency.

But however strong be the proofs ot
its federal character derived from this
source, that portion which provides for
the amendment of the Constitution, fur
nishes, if possible, still stronger. It shows,
conclusively, that the people of the sev
eral States still retain that supreme ulti
mate power called sovereignty the power
by which they ordained and established
the Constitution; and which can right
fully create, modify, amend, or abolish
it, at its pleasure. Wherever this power
resides, there the sovereignty is to be
found. That it still continues to exist in
the several States, in a modified form, is
clearly shown by the fifth article of the
Constitution, which provides for its
amendment. By its provisions, Congress
may propose amendments, on its own au
thority, by the vote of two-thirds of both
Houses; or it may be compelled to call
a convention to propose them, by two-
thirds of the legislatures of the several
States: but, in either case, they remain,
when thus made, mere proposals of no
validity, until adopted by three-fourths
of the States, through their respective
legislatures; or by conventions, called by
them for the purpose. Thus far, the
several States, in ordaining and estab
lishing the Constitution, agreed, for their
mutual convenience and advantage, to
modify, by compact, their high sovereign
power of creating and establishing con
stitutions, as far as it related to the
Constitution and government of the
United States. I say, for their mutual
convenience and advantage; for without
the modification, it would have required
the separate consent of all the States of
the Union to alter or amend their consti
tutional compact; in like manner as it
required the consent of all to establish it
between them; and to obviate the almost
insuperable difficulty of making such
amendments as time and experience might
prove to be necessary, by the unanimous
consent of all, they agreed to make the
modification. But that they did not in
tend, by this, to divest themselves of the
high sovereign right (a right which they
still retain, notwithstanding the modifica
tion) to change or abolish the present
Constitution and government at their
pleasure, cannot be doubted. It is an
acknowledged principle, that sovereigns

CALIFORNIA

may, by compact, modify or qualify the a remarkable development of other min-
exercise of their power, without impair- eral resources, especially petroleum. Re-
ing their sovereignty; of which the confed- ports on the foreign trade in the fiscal
eracy existing at the time furnishes a year ending June 30, 1900, showed at the
striking illustration. It must reside, un- ports of Humboldt, Los Angeles, San
impaired and in its plenitude, somewhere. Diego, and San Francisco, imports of
And if it do not reside in the people of merchandise, $49,441,831 ; exports, $43,-
the several States, in their confederated 361,078; imports of gold and silver coin
character, where so far as it relates to and bullion, $13,734,348; exports, $9,528,-
the Constitution and government of the 309. The production of the precious
United States can it be found? Not, metals in the calendar year of 1899 was:
certainly, in the government; for, accord- Gold, $15,197,800; silver, $494,580. In
ing to our theory, sovereignty resides in 1900 the total assessed valuation of taxa-
the people, and not in the government, ble property was $1,218,228,588, and the
That it cannot be found in the people,- total bonded debt was $2,281,500, nearly
taken 4n the aggregate, as forming one all of which was held in State educational
community or nation, is equally certain, funds. The population in 1890 was 1,208,-
But as certain as it cannot, just so certain 130; in 1900, 1,485,053.
is it that it must reside in the people of In 1534 HERNANDO CORTEZ (q. v.) sent
the several States; and if it reside in them Hernando de Grijalva on an errand of
at all, it must reside in them as separate discovery to the Pacific coast, who prob-
and distinct communities; for it has been ably saw the peninsula of California,
shown that it does not reside in them in Twenty-five years before the Spanish
the aggregate, as forming one community leader discovered the country, a romance
or nation. These are the only aspects under was published in Spain in which are de-
which it is possible to regard the people; scribed the doings of a pagan queen of
and, just as certain as it resides in them, Amazons, who brought from the " right
in that character, so certain is it that ours hand of the Indies" her allies to assist
is a federal, and not a national government, the infidels in their attack upon Constan-
California, the largest of the Pacific tinople. The romance was entitled Es-
coast States; noted for its admirable cli- plandian, the name of an imaginary
mate, its production of gold, its large Greek emperor, living in Stamboul, the
commerce, and its great yield of fruit, Turkish name of Constantinople. The

Amazonian queen was named Calafia,
whose kingdom, rich in gold, diamonds,
and pearls, was called California. The
author probably derived the name from
Calif, the title of a successor of Moham
med. The author says: "Know that on
the right hand of the Indies there is an
island, called California, very close to the
Terrestrial Paradise, and it was peopled
by black women without any man among
them, for they lived in the fashion of the
Amazonia. They were of strong and
hardy bodies, of ardent courage, and of
great force. Their island was the strong
est in all the world, with its steep cliffs
and rocky shore. Their arms were all of
gold, and so was the harness of the wild
beasts which they tamed and rode. For
in the whole island there was no metal but
gold. They lived in caves wrought out

which now finds a market even in. Eu- of the rocks with much labor. They had
rope. In recent years the production of many ships with which they sailed out to
gold has decreased, but there has been other countries to obtain booty." Both
IT. c 33

STATE SEAL OP CALIFORNIA.

CALIFORNIA

A CALIFORNIA VINEYARD.

Cortez and Grijalva believed, as everybody Spanish power in California was over-
then believed, that they were in the neigh- thrown by the Mexican revolution in 182-2,
borhood of the coast of Asia ; and, as the when the government was permanently sec-
aspect of the country corresponded with ularized. In 1843-46 many thousand emi-
the description in the romance, they grants from the United States settled in
named the peninsula California. In the California; and when the war with Mexico
Gulf of California were found pearls; so broke out in 1846, the struggle for the
the description of the country of the black mastery in that Pacific coast province
Amazons a country filled with gold and speedily ended in victory for the Ameri-
pearls suited the actual condition of the cans in 1847. By the treaty of peace at
region explored. GUADALUPE HIDALGO (&lt;/. v.) , California
Although parts of the present terri- and other territory were ceded to the Unit-
tory of the State are believed to have ed States. In the month of February,
been discovered about 1534, settlements 1848, gold was discovered in California, on
in Old or Lower California were first the Sacramento River, by John W. Mar-
made in 1683 by Jesuit missionaries. New shall, who was working for JOHN A. SUT-
or Upper California was discovered later, TER (q. v.), and as the news spread abroad,
and the first mission there (San Diego) thousands of enterprising and energetic
was planted in 1768. For many years men flocked thither, not only from the
the government of California, temporal United States, but from South America,
and spiritual, was under the control of Europe, and China, to secure the precious
monks of the Order of St. Francis. It metal. Very soon there was a mixed pop-
was not until about 1770 that the Bay ulation of all sorts of characters in Cali-
of San Francisco was discovered, and in fornia of at least 250,000 persons. The
1776 a mission was established there. At military governor called a convention to
the beginning of the nineteenth century meet at Monterey, Sept. 1, 1849, to frame
eighteen missions had been established in a State constitution. One was formed by
California, with over 15,000 converts. The which slavery was to be excluded from the

CALIFORNIA

new State; and this document revived in
Congress, in great intensity, debates on the
subject of slavery in 1849-50. See KEAR-
NY, STEPHEN WATTS; STOCKTON, EGBERT
FIELD.

Prior to the assembly of the constitu
tional convention the people of California,
in convention at San Francisco, had voted
against the admission of the slave-labor
system in that country. The constitu
tion adopted at Monterey also had a pro
vision to exclude slavery from the State.
Thus came into political form the crude
elements of a State, the birth and matu
rity of which seems like a strange dream.
All had been accomplished within twenty
months from the time when gold was dis
covered at Sutter s Mill. Under this con
stitution JOHN CHARLES FREMONT ( q. v.) ,
and WILLIAM M. GWIN (q. v.) were chosen
by the State legislature United States
Senators. Edward Gilbert and G. H.
Wright were elected to the House of Rep
resentatives. When Frfimont and Gwin
went to Washington, they took the State
constitution with them, and presented a
petition (February, 1850) asking for the
admission of California into the
Union as a free and independent
State. The article in its consti
tution which excluded slavery
became a cause of violent debate
in Congress and of bitter feel
ing in the South against the
people of the North. The Union,
so strong in the hearts of the
people, was shaken to its cen
tre. Mr. Clay again appeared as
a compromiser for the sake of
peace and union. It seemed
that some compromise was need
ed to avoid serious difficulty, for
ul ready the representatives of
the slave interest had taken ac
tion, and the Southern members
in Congress boldly declared their
intention to break up the Union
if California should be admitted
under such a constitution. A
joint resolution was adopted to
appoint a committee of thirteen
(six Northern and six South
ern members, who should choose
the thirteenth) to consider the
subject of a territorial gov
ernment for California, New

Mexico, and Utah, with instructions to
report a plan of compromise embracing
all the questions thus arising out of the
subject of slavery. Henry Clay was made
chairman of that committee. He had al
ready presented (Jan. 25, 1850) a plan
of compromise to the South, and spoke
eloquently in favor of it (Feb. 5) ; and
on May 8 he reported a plan of compro
mise in a series of bills, intended to be
a pacification. This was called the
OMNIBUS BILL (q. v.) . It made large con
cessions to the slave-holders, and yet it
was not satisfactory to them. For months
a violent discussion of the compromise act
was carried on throughout the country,
and it was denounced upon diametrical
ly opposite grounds. It finally became a
law, and on Sept. 9, 1850, California was
admitted into the Union as a State.

So lawless were a large class of the
population at this time, that nothing but
the swift operations of " Vigilance Commit
tees " could control them and preserve
social order. The first vigilance commit
tee of San Francisco was organized in
1851. Finally, these committees assumed

CATHEDRAL ROCKS, YOSEMITE VALLEY.

CALIFORNIA

BIG TKKKS OP CALIFORNIA.

From 1767 up to 1821, California be ins
under Spanish rule, ten governors were
appointed by that power. From lSi
until 1845, being under Mexican domina
tion, her governors (twelve) were appoint
ed from Mexico. See UNITED STATES
CALIFORNIA, in vol. ix.

CALIFORNIA REPUBLIC GOVERNOR

Name.

John C. Fremont

Term.

1846

PROVISIONAL OR MILITARY GOVEUNOKS UNDER
THE UNITED STATES.

Name.

Com. Robert F. Stockton.

John C. Fremont

Gen. Stephen W. Kearuy

Richard B. Mason

Gen. Persifer F. Smith...
Bennett Riley

Term.

1847
1847
1847

1847 to 1849
1849
1849

STATE GOVERNORS.

Name.

Term.

Peter H. Burnett

1849 to isr,l

John McDougall

1861 " 1852

John Bigler. . ;

1852 " 1N56

J. Neely Johnson

1856 " lHf&gt;8

John B. Weller

1858 " I860

Milton S. Latham

1800

John G. Downey

1860 to ]sO &gt;

Leland Stanford

1862 " 1803

Frederick F. Low

1863 " 1867

Henry H. Haight

1867 " 1S71

Newton Booth

1871 " 1875

Romnaldo Pacheco

1875

William Irwin

1875 to 1880

George C Perkins ....

]S80 " 1883

George Stoneman

18N3 " 1887

Washington Bartlett

1HS7

Robert W. Waterman

1887 to IS i]

Henry H. Markham

1891 " IK 1 15

J. H. Budd

1895 " 1M I

Henry T Gage

1899 " loo;t

George C. Pardee

1903 " 1907

Name.

the functions and powers of judges and

executives, but under proper regulations,

which guaranteed all accused persons a John c. Fremont

fair trial. Dangerous men of every kind William M G\\in.

were arrested, tried, hanged, transported, O a V d o. Broderick

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

or acquitted. The tribunal became a Henry P. Hnnu

i T ,, T te\-n xi

terror to evil-doers. Late in 18oo the

Milton S. Latham

James A. McDougall....

vigilance committee in San Francisco sur- John Conners

rendered its powers? to the regularly con- SS^BoSirtrlll

stituted civil authority. California fur- John S. Hager

nished 15.725 three - year volunteers for %**?"

the Union army in the Civil \Var. The James T Farley

Central Pacifi., Railroad was completed yjS SSSSii" .

May 12, 1809, thus connecting California Georgo Hearst

with the Mississippi Valley and the At- g^YSSfc

lantic seaboard. Since then the progress George C. Perkins.
of the State has been phenomenal.

Thomas R. Bard

No. of Congress

31st

31st to 36th
32d " :!4tli
35th " 30th

36th

30th to 37th
37th " 89th
38th " 4Wh
40th " 4M
41st " 43d

43d

43d to 45th
44th " 46th
4 - .th 48th
47th " 49th
49th " 53d
50th " 51st
52d " 53d
53d " With

53d
50th to

Term.

1849 to 1851

1849 " 18111

1851 " 1857

1857 " 1859
1859

1860 to 1863

1861 " 186*7
IM;:( " 1869
1807 " 1873
1869 " 1873

1874

1873 to 1879

1S75 1881

1*79 " 1885

1881 " 1887

1SH5 1893

1887 " 1891

1891 " IK , 3

IM li IS .i .t

CALLAHAN CALVERT

Callahan, JAMES MORTON, historian; in 1868. During his term of office he pre-

born in Bedford, Ind., Nov. 4, 1864; was sented the resolution on which the Ku-

graduated at the University of Indiana in KLUX KLAN (q. v.) bill was passed. He

1894; acting Professor of American His- died in Lancaster, Wis., Sept. 23, 1898.
tory and Constitutional Law at Hamilton Calumet, a kind of pipe for smoking

College in 1897-98; became lecturer on used by the North American Indians.

American Diplomatic History at the Johns The bowl is generally of stone, and the

Hopkins University in the latter year, stem is ornamented with feathers, etc.

His publications include Neutrality of the The calumet is the emblem of peace and

American Lakes; Cuba and International hospitality. To refuse the offer of it

Relations, etc. is to make a proclamation of enmity or

Callender, JAMES THOMPSON, editor war, and to accept it is a sign of peace

and author; born in Scotland. He pub- and friendship.

lished in Edinburgh, in 1792, a book call- Calvert, the family name of the Lords
ed Political Progress of Great Britain, Baltimore George, Cecilius, Charles 1st,
which so offended the authorities that he Benedict Leonard, Charles 2d, and Freder-
was banished from the kingdom, and went ick. See BALTIMORE, LORDS.
to Philadelphia, where he published the Calvert, LEONARD, son of the first Lord
Political Register in 1794-95, and the Baltimore, and first governor of Mary-
American Annual Register for 1796-97. land; born about 1606. Having been ap-
He was a violent and unscrupulous oppo- pointed governor of the new colony by his
nent of Washington s administration, and brother Cecil, he sailed from Cowes, Isle
delighted in abusing Hamilton and other of Wight, for Chesapeake Bay, Nov. 22,
Federalist leaders. For a season he en- 1633, with two vessels (Ark and Dove),
joyed the friendship of Jefferson. The and over 300 emigrants. The Ark was a
latter became disgusted with Callender, ship of 300 tons, and the Dove a pinnace
when the former, becoming Jefferson s of 50 tons. Among the company were
enemy, calumniated him fearfully. He two Jesuit priests, Andrew White and
published the Richmond Recorder, in which John Altham. At religious ceremonies
he made fierce attacks upon the character performed at the time of departure, the
of Washington and Adams. He died in expedition was committed " to the pro-
Richmond, Va., in July, 1813. tection of God especially, and of His most

Callender, JOHN, historian ; born in Holy Mother, and St. Ignatius, and all the

Boston, Mass., in 1706; graduated at guardian angels of Maryland." The two

Harvard College in 1723; pastor of the vessels were convoyed beyond danger from

First Baptist Church in Newport, R. I., Turkish corsairs. Separated by a furious

in 1731-48. On March 24, 1738, he de- tempest that swept the sea three days,

livered a public address entitled An His- ending with a hurricane which split the

torical Discourse on the Civil and Re- sails of the Ark, unshipped her rudder,

1if/ions Affairs of the Colony of Rhode Isl- and left her at the mercy of the waves,

and and Providence Plantations, from the the voyagers were in despair, and doubted

l- irxt Settlement to the end of the First not the little Dove had gone to the bot-

Ccntury. For more than 100 years this was torn of the ocean. Delightful weather en-

tlie only history of Rhode Island. He also sued, and at Barbadoes the Dove joined

collected a number of papers treating of the Ark after a separation of six weeks,

the history of the Baptists in America. He Sailing northward, they touched at Point

died in Newport, R. L, Jan. 26, 1748. Comfort, at the entrance to the Chesa-

Callis, JOHN B., military officer; born peake, and then went up to Jamestown,

in Fayetteville, N. C., Jan. 3, 1828; went with royal letters borne by Calvert, and

to Wisconsin in 1840; entered the army received there a kind reception from Gov-

as captain in the 7th Wisconsin Volun- ernor Harvey. They tarried nine days,

toers when the Civil War broke out; and then entered the Potomac River,

brevetted brigadier - general in March, which delighted them. The colonists

1S04; sent to Huntsville, Ala., as assist- sailed up the river to the Heron Islands,

ant commissioner of the Freedmen s Bu- and, at a little past the middle of March,

reau; resigned and elected to Congress landed on one of them, which they named

JULKS MARTIN CAMBOX.

CAMBON CAMBRIDGE

St. Clement s. On the 25th they offered French ambassador to the United States
the sacrifice of the mass, set up a huge in 1897-1902; then to Spain. After the
cross hewn from a tree, and knelt in sol- destruction of the fleets in Manila Bay and
emn devotion around it. Going farther off Santiago, the surrender of the army at
up, they entered a river which they called the city of Santiago, and the failure of the
St. George; and on the right bank found- Spanish government to secure the inter-
ed the capital of the new province with vention of the European powers, the Span-
military and religious ceremonies, and
called it St. Mary s. That scene occurred
March 27, 1634. It remained the capital
of Maryland until near the close of the
century, when it speedily became a ruined
town, and now scarcely a trace of it re
mains. They found the natives friendly,
and awed into reverence for the white
men by the flash and roar of cannon,
which they regarded as lightning and
thunder. The successful medical services
of Father White in curing a sick Indian
king gained the profound respect of these
children of the forest. He and his queen
and three daughters were baptized by
Father White, and became members of the
Christian Church. William Claiborne, an
earlier settler on Kent Island, in the Ches
apeake, gave Calvert much trouble, and
was abetted in his course by the Virginia
authorities, who regarded the Maryland
colonists as intruders. He was driven
away, and his property was confiscated, ish authorities undertook direct negotia-
But he was a " thorn in the side " of the tions for peace. As diplomatic relations
proprietor for a long time. Governor Cal- with the United States had been broken
vert tried to carry out the grand design off, M. Cambon was appointed the special
of the proprietor to establish a feudal representative of the Spanish government
nobility with hereditary titles and privi- to arrange for a cessation of hostilities as
leges, the domain for the purpose being well as the preliminaries of peace,
divided into manorial estates of 2,000 and executed this mission in a manner that
3 000 acres each, but the provisions of the won the appreciation of both governments
charter fortunately prevented such a con- concerned, and after the ratification of
summation of Lord Baltimore s order, peace he was selected by the two govern-
Governor Calvert went to England in ments to make the formal exchange of
1643 and during his absence for nearly certified copies of the act.
a year much trouble ensued in the col- Cambridge, city, and one of the coun-
onv for Claiborne, with Capt. Richard ty seats of Middlesex county, Mass., sepa-
Ingle harassed the settlement at St. rated from Boston by the Charles 1
Mary s. Civil war ensued (1645), and was founded in 1631 under the name of
Governor Calvert was expelled from Mary- Kewtown; and is noted as the place wli
land, and took refuge in Virginia. Final- Washington took command of
ly Calvert returned from Virginia with a nental army on July 2, 1775; as t
military force, took possession of Kent of HARVARD UNIVERSITY (q. v.) ; and as
Island, and re-established proprietary the place where the sons of Alvan &lt;
rights over all the province of Maryland, carry on the manufacture of astronomical
He died June 9 1647. See BALTIMORE, instruments which have a world-wide rep-
LoRDS utation. In 1000 the city had a total as-

Cambon, JULES MARTIN, diplomatist; sessed valuation of taxable property of
born in Paris, France, April 5, 1845; $94,407,930, and the net city and water

CAMBRIDGE PLATFORM CAMPBELL

debt was $6226182. The population in under Lord Cornwallis, losing 700 men,
1890 was 70,028; in 1900, 91,886. among them Baron de Kalb mortally

The second Synod of Massachusetts met wounded, and nearly all their luggage and
at Cambridge in 1646, and was not dis- artillery.

solved until 1648. The synod composed Cameron, HENRY CLAY, educator;
and adopted a system of church discipline in Shepherdstown, Va., Sept. 1,
called " The Cambridge Platform," and graduated at Princeton College in 1847 ; in
recommended it, together with the West- 1855 became Professor of Greek at Prince-
minster Confession of Faith, to the general ton. His publications include The History
court and to the churches. The latter, of the American Whig Society ; Old Prince-
in New England, generally complied with ton: Its Battles, Its Cannon, etc.
the recommendation, and " The Cambridge Cameron, JAMES DOXALD, statesman;
Platform," with the ecclesiastical laws, born in Middletown, Pa., May
formed the theological constitution of graduated at Princeton in 1852; Secretary
the New England colonies. of War, 1876-77; United States Senator,

The seeming apathy of Congress in re- 1877-97. He was chairman of the nation-
spect to the army besieging Boston great- al Republican committee in 1880.
ly perplexed Washington. The cool season Cameron, SIMON, statesman ; born in
was approaching, and not only powder Lancaster county, Pa., March 18, 1799;
and artillery were wanting, but fuel, shel- elected to the United States Senate in
ter, clothing, provisions, and the wages of 1845; resigned from the Senate to become
the soldiers. Washington, wearied by in- Secretary of War in 1861; resigned this
effectual remonstrances, at length wrote office, Jan. 11, 1862, to become minister
a letter to Congress, implying his sense to Russia; re-elected to the United States
that the neglect of that body had brought Senate in 1866, and again re-elected, but
matters in his army to a crisis. He sub- resigned in 1877 in favor of his son. He
mitted to their consideration the wants practically dictated the policy of the Re-
of the army, a mutinous spirit prevailing publican party in Pennsylvania for many
among them, and the danger that, when years. He died June 26, 1889.
the terms of enlistment of all the troops Camillus. Norn - de - plume of Alex-
excepting the regulars should expire in ander Hamilton, used in a series of papers
December, it would be difficult to re-enlist entitled Defence of the Treaty, published
them or get new recruits. Congress had in 1795.

really no power to provide an adequate o ampbell, ALEXANDER, clergyman; born
remedy for this state of things; therefore in County Antrim, Ireland, in June,
it appointed a committee (Sept. 30, 1775), 1786; educated at the University of Glas-
consisting of Dr. Franklin, Lynch, and gow; came to the United States in 1809;
Harrison, to repair to the camp, and, with and became pastor of a Presbyterian
the New England colonies and Washing- church in Washington county, Pa. In
ton, devise a plan for renovating the army. 1810 with his father he left the Presby-
They arrived at Cambridge, Oct. 15. With terian Church and founded in 1827 the
such a representative of Congress as sect which he named THE DISCIPLES OP
Franklin and such a military leader as CHRIST (q. v.) , and which is now known
Washington, the New England commis- as the Campbellites. Mr. Campbell estab-
sioners worked harmoniously; and they lished Bethany College in 1840-41, and
devised a scheme for forming, governing, was its first president. He died in Beth-
and supplying a new army of about 23,- any, W. Va., March 4, 1866. ^
000 men, whom the general was author- Campbell, ALEXANDER, legislator; born
ized to enlist without delay. See ARMY ; in Concord, Pa., Oct. 4, 1814; member of the
WASHINGTON, GEORGE. State legislature in 1858-59; and member

Cambridge Platform. See CAMBRIDGE, of Congress in 1875-77. He obtained wide
MASS. repute as the " Father of the Greenbacks."

Camden, a village in South Carolina, He died in La Salle, 111., Aug. 9, 1898.
where, on Aug. 16, 1780, about 3,600 Amer- Campbell, SIR ARCHIBALD, military of-
icans, commanded by General Gates, were ficer; born in Inverary, Scotland, in 1739;
defeated by from 2,000 to 2,500 British entered the British army in 1758 ; became

CAMPBELL CAMPBELL S STATION

a lieutenant-colonel in 1775; with a part same, Aug. 2!). 17.~&gt;!: \vns acting comman-

of his command was captured in Bos- dant of Fort Detroit when that place was

ton Harbor early in the Revolutionary besieged by Pont inc. lie was captured by

War, and was cruelly treated in re- Pontiac and tortured to death in 17(i. 5.

taliation for treatment of American offi- Campbell, GEOKGE WASIIIXCTO.V, states-

cers captured by the British. On Dec. man; born in Tennessee in 1 70S; grad-

29, 1778, he captured Savannah, Ga., and uated at Princeton in 17!&gt;4; member of

{rave orders to his officers to show leniency Congress, 1803-9; United States Senator,

to the people. On Jan. 29, 1779, he took 1811-14, 1815-18; Secretary of the Trea-

Augusta, but on Feb. 13, he was forced ury, 1814; minister to llnssia, 1S1S-20.

to evacuate that city. He died in London, He died in Nashville, Tenn., Feb. 17, 1S!S.

England. March 31, 1791. Campbell, JAMKS, jurist: born in

Campbell, CIIAKLES, historian; born in Philadelphia in 1813; admitted to the bar
Petersburg, Va., May 1, 1807; gradu- in 1834; Postmaster-General, 1853-57. He
ated at Princeton College in 1825, and died in Philadelphia, Jan. 27, 1893.
became a teacher. He was a member of Campbell, JOHN, author; born in Edin-
the Virginia Historical Society, and a burgh, Scotland, March 8, 1708. His pub-
contributor to the Historical Register, lications relating to the United States in-
He edited the Orderly Book of Gen. An- elude Concise History of Spanish Ameri-
drew Lewis in 1776, and published An ca; Voyages and Travels from Columbus
Introduction to the History of the Colony to Anson. He died Dec. 28, 1775.
and Ancient Dominion of Virginia; Gen- Campbell, JOHN, military officer; born
ealogy of the Spotswood Family. He died in Straehur, Scotland; joined the British
in Staunton, Va., July 11, 1876. army in 1745; participated in the attack

Campbell, CHARLES THOMAS, military on Fort Ticonderoga in 1758. When the

oflicer ; born in Franklin county, Pa., Aug. Revolutionary War broke out he com-

10, 1823; was educated at Marshall Col- manded the British forces in west Florida

lege; served in the war with Mexico; pro- until surrendered to the Spanish, May

moted captain in August, 1847. When the 10, 1781. He died in 1806.

Civil War broke out he entered the army, Campbell, JOHN ARCHIBALD, jurist;

and in December, 1861, was commission- born in Washington, Ga., June 24, 1811;

ed colonel of the 57th Pennsylvania In- justice of the United States Supreme

fantry. Later he and his regiment were Court, 1853-61, when he resigned to be-

captured, but they escaped and brought come assistant Secretary of War of the

into the Union lines more than 200 Con- Confederate States. He died in Balti-

federate captives. On March 13, 1863, more, Md., March 12, 1889.

he was promoted brigadier-general. Campbell, LEWIS DAVIS, diplomatist;

Campbell, CLEVELAND J., military offi- born in Franklin, O., Aug. 9, 1811; mem-

cer: born in New York City in July, ber of Congress in 1849-58; colonel of an

1836; graduated at the University of Got- Ohio regiment in 1861-02; appointed min-

tingen; enlisted in the 44th New York jster to Mexico in December, lS(i.~&gt;. lie

Regiment early in the Civil War; and returned to the United Slates in ISC.s.

was brevetted brigadier-general of volun- and held a seat in Congress in 1871-7- !.

teers March 13, 1865. During the engage- He died Nov. 26, 1882.

ment of Petersburg he was colonel of the Campbell, RICHARD, military officer;
23d Regiment of colored troops, and while born in Virginia; was made a captain in
leading his command into the thickest 1776; served with Gibson in Pittsburg,
of this fight the famous mine exploded, kill- and with Mclntosh against the Ohio
ing and wounding nearly 400 of his troops. Indians in 1778; promoted lieutenant-
He also received injuries which caused his colonel; and while leading the charge at
death in Castleton, N. Y., June 13, 1865. Eutaw Springs which forced the British

Campbell, DONALD, military officer; to retreat received a wound from which he

born in Scotland about 1735; entered the died Sept. 8, 1781. A few hours after the

British army, and on Jan. 4, 1756, be- battle, on hearing that the British were

came a lieutenant in the " Royal Ameri- defeated, he exclaimed, " I die contented."

can" Regiment; promoted captain of the Campbell s Station, a village in Knox

CAMPBELL CANADA

county, Tenn., 12 miles southwest of Early in September Colonel Moultrie, by
Knoxville, where on Nov. 16, 1863, the order of the Committee of Safety, pro-
National army under General Burnside ceeded to take possession of a small post
was attacked by a Confederate force under on Sullivan s Island, in Charleston Har-
General Longstreet. The engagement last- bor. The small garrison fled to the Brit-
ed from noon till dark, and resulted in ish sloops-of-war Tamar and Cherokee,
the defeat of the Confederates. The Na- lying near. Lord Campbell, seeing the
tional force comprised portions of the storm of popular indignation against him
Dth and 23d Corps, with cavalry. daily increasing, particularly after it was

Campbell, WILLIAM, military officer; discovered that he had attempted to in
born in Augusta county, Va., in 1745; was cite the Indians to make war for the King,
in the battle of Point Pleasant, in 1774, and had tampered with the Tories of the
and was captain of a Virginia regiment interior of the province, also fled to one
in 1775. Being colonel of Washington of these vessels for shelter, and never re-
county militia in 1780, he marched, with turned. He died Sept. 5, 1778.
his regiment, 200 miles to the attack of Campbellites. See CAMPBELL, ALEX-
Major Ferguson at KING S MOUNTAIN ANDER; DISCIPLES OF CHRIST.
(q. v.), where his services gained for him Campos, ARSENIO MARTINEZ. See MAR-
great distinction. So, also, were his prow- TINEZ-CAMPOS.

ese and skill conspicuous in the battle at Camp Wild-cat, The invasion of Ken-

GUILFORD (q. v.), and he was made a tucky by Zollicoffer from Tennessee, in the

brigadier-general. He assisted Lafayette early part of the Civil War, aroused the

in opposing Cornwallis in Virginia, and loyalists of eastern Kentucky, and they

received the command of the light in- flew to arms. Some of them were organ-

fantry and riflemen, but died a few weeks ized under Colonel Garrard, a loyal Ken-

bcfore the surrender of the British at tuckian, and among the Rock Castle hills

Yorktown, Aug. 22, 1781. they established Camp Wild-cat. There

Campbell, WILLIAM, LORD, royal gov- they were attacked (Oct. 21, 1861), by

ernor; younger brother of the fifth Duke Zollicoffer. When he appeared, Garrard

of Argyll ; became a captain in the Brit- had only about 600 men, but was joined

ish navy in August, 1762; was in Par- by some Indiana and Ohio troops, and

liament in 1764; governor of Nova Scotia some Kentucky cavalry under Colonel

1766-73: and was appointed governor of Woolford. With the latter came General

South Carolina, where he had acquired Schoepf, who took the chief command,

large possessions by his marriage to an Zollicoffer, with his Tennesseans and

American lady, in 1774. He arrived at some Mississippi "Tigers" fell upon them

Charleston in July, 1775; was received in the morning, and were twice repulsed,

with courtesy; and soon summoned a The last was in the afternoon. After a

meeting of the Assembly. They came, de- sharp battle, Zollicoffer withdrew. Gar-

clined to do business, and adjourned on rard had been reinforced in the afternoon

their own authority. The Committee of by a portion of Colonel Steadman s Ohio

Safety proceeded in their preparations regiment. General Schoepf, deceived by

for resistance without regard to the pres- false reports that a force was coming from

ence of the governor. Lord Campbell General Buckner s camp at Bowling Green,

professed great love for the people. His fell back hastily towards the Ohio River,

sincerity was suspected, and the hollow- by means of forced marches. See KEN-

ness of his professions was soon proved. TUCKY.

CANADA

Canada, the northern neighbor of the lection of cabins, such as Hochelaga. No
United States; discovered by JACQUES settlements were made there until the ex-
CARTIER (q. v.) in 1534. Its name is plorations of Champlain about three-
suposed to have been derived from the fourths of a century later. He established
Huron word Kan-na-ta, signifying a col- a semi-military and semi-religious colony

CANADA

at Quebec, and from it Jesuit and other The easy conquest of Louisburg revived
missions spread over the Lake regions, a hope that Canada might be conquered
len came the civil power of France to Governor Shirley proposed to the minis-
lay the foundations of an empire, fighting ters to have the task performed bv a
one nation of Indians and making allies of colonial army alone. They would not com-
another, and establishing a feudal system ply, for the colonists, thus perceiving their
government, the great land-holders own strength, might claim Canada by
being called seigneurs, who were compelled right of conquest, and become too inde-
to cede the lands granted to them, when pendent; so they authorized an expedi-
domanded by settlers, on fixed conditions, tion for the purpose after the old plan
liey were not absolute proprietors of the of attacking that province by land and
il , but had certain valuable privileges, sea. An English fleet was prepared to
coupled with prescribed duties, such as go against Quebec; a land force, com-
bmldmg mills, etc. David Kertk, or Kirk, posed of troops from Connecticut, New
Huguenot refugee, received a royal com- York, and colonies farther south gather-
mission from King Charles I. to seize the ed at Albany, to march against Montreal
Prench fortli in ACADIA (q. v.) , and on Governor Clinton assumed the chief
the river St. Lawrence. With a dozen command of the land expedition His
hips he overcame the small French force unpopularity thwarted his plans. The
Port Royal, and took possession of corporation of Albany refused to furnish
Acadia in 1629. Later in the summer quarters for his troops, and his drafts
St. Lawrence, burned the on the British treasury could not purchase
imlet of Tadousac, at the mouth of the provisions. Meanwhile, Massachusetts
icnay, and sent a summons for the and Rhode Island had raised nearly 4 000
surrender of Quebec. It was refused, and troops, and were waiting for an English
urk resolved to starve out the garrison, squadron. Instead of a British arma-
He cruised in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, ment, a French fleet of forty war vessels
captured the transports conveying with 3,000 veteran troops, was coming
inter provisions for Quebec. The suffer- over the sea. New England was greatly
ings there were intense, but they endured alarmed. It was D Anville s armament,
i August the next year, when, and it was dispersed by storms Ten
sh ships-of-war, under a brother of thousand troops gathered at Boston for its
Admiral Kirk, appearing before Quebec, defence; the fort on Castle Island was
instead of the expected supply-ships, the made very strong, and the land expedi-

ice was surrendered, and the inhabi- tion against Montreal was abandoned
tants, not more than 100 in all, were When Quebec fell, in the autumn of
saved from starvation. By a treaty, Can- 1759, the French held Montreal, and were
ada was restored to the French in 1632. not dismayed. In the spring of 1760,
In the early history of the colony, the Vaudreuil, the governor-general of Can-
&gt;vernors, in connection with the intend- ada, sent M. Levi, the successor of Mont-
ant, held the military and civil adminis- calm, to recover Quebec. He descended the
tration in their hands. Jesuit and other St. Lawrence with six frigates and a
priests became conspicuous in the public powerful land force. The English, under
Finally, when a bishop was ap- General Murray, marched out of Quebec,
pointed for Quebec, violent dissensions oc- and met him at Sillery, 3 miles above
curred between the civil and ecclesiastical the city; and there was fought (April 4)
authorities. Until the treaty of Utrecht one of the most sanguinary battles of the
r!3), Canada included all of present war. Murray was defeated. He lost
British America, and more. At that time about 1,000 men, and all his artillery,
Hudson Bay and vicinity was restored to but succeeded in retreating to the city
England by Louis XIV. Newfoundland with the remainder of his army. Levi
and Acadia (Nova Scotia) were ceded to laid siege to Quebec, and Murray s condi-
English, and all right to the Iroquois tion was becoming critical, when an Eng-
(New York) was renounced, re- lish squadron appeared (May 9) with
serving to France only the valleys of the reinforcements and provisions. Suppos-
5t. Lawrence and the Mississippi. i ng it to be the whole British fleet, Levi

CANADA

raised the siege (May 10), and fled to
Montreal, after losing most of his ship
ping. Now came the final struggle. Three
armies were soon in motion towards Mon
treal, where Vaudreuil had gathered all
his forces. Amherst, with 10,000 Eng
lish and provincial troops, and 1,000 Ind
ians of the Six Nations, led by Johnson,
embarked at Oswego, went down Lake On
tario and the St. Lawrence to Montreal,
where he met Murray (Sept. 6), who
had come up from Quebec with 4,000 men.
The next day, Colonel Haviland arrived
with 3,000 troops from Crown Point, hav
ing taken possession of Isle aux Noix on
the way. Resistance to such a crushing
force would have been in vain, and, on
Sept. 8, 1760, Vaudreuil signed a capitu
lation surrendering Montreal and all
French posts in Canada and on the border
of the Lakes to the English. General Gage
was made military governor of Montreal,
and General Murray, with 4,000 men, gar
risoned Quebec. The conquest of Canada
was now completed, and by the Treaty

the people of New York and New England.
This proclamation neutralized the effects
of the address of Congress to the Can
adians. The Quebec Act had soothed the
French nobility and Roman Catholic
clergy. The English residents were of
fended by it, and these, with the Canadian
peasantry, were disposed to take sides
with the Americans. They denied the
right of the French nobility, as magis
trates, or the seigneurs, to command their
military services. They welcomed inva
sion, but had not the courage to join the
invaders. At the same time, the French
peasantry did not obey the order of the
Roman Catholic bishop, which was sent to
the several parishes, and read by the local
clergy, to come out in defence of the Brit
ish government. It was known that the
bishop was a stipendiary of the crown.

There was a decided war spirit visible
in the second Continental Congress, yet
it was cautious and prudent. Immediate
ly after the seizure of Ticonderoga and
Crown Point (May 10-12, 1775), the Con-

ISLE AUX NOIX. IN THE SOREL.

gress was urged to authorize the invasion
and seizure of Canada. That body hoped
to gain a greater victory by making the
Canadians their friends and allies. To

of Paris in 1763, a greater portion of the this end they sent a loving address to
French dominions in America fell into them, and resolved, on June 1, " that
the possession of the British crown. no expedition or incursion ought to

When news of the surrender of TICON- be undertaken or made by any colony
DEROGA (q. v.) reached Governor Carle- or body of colonists against or into Can
ton, of Canada, he issued a proclamation ada." The Provincial Congress of New
(June 9, 1775) in which he declared the York had expressly disclaimed any inten-
captors to be a band of rebellious traitors ; tion to make war on Canada. But Gage s
established martial law; summoned the proclamation (June 10) that all Ameri-
French peasantry to serve under the old cans in arms were rebels and traitors, and
colonial nobility; and instigated the Ind- especially the battle of Bunker ( Breed s )
ian tribes to take up the hatchet against Hill, made a radical change in the feel-

CANADA

ings of the people and in Congress. It Chambly, 12 miles from St. Johns on
i also ascertained that Governor Carle- the Sorel (Nov. 3), and, on the same
ton had received a commission to muster day, the fort at the latter, which Mont-
and arm the people of the province, and gomery had besieged for some time, cut off
to march them into any province in from supplies, also surrendered. Montreal
America to arrest and put to death, or fell before the patriots on the 13th and
"rebels" and other offenders. Montgomery, leaving a garrison at both
Lere was a menace that could not go un- places, prepared to move on Quebec
heeded. Cols. Ethan Allen, Benedict Ar- Meanwhile Colonel Arnold had led an ex-
nold, and others renewed their efforts to pedition by way of the Kennebec and
the Congress to send an expedi- Chaudiere rivers, through a terrible
tion into Canada. The latter perceived wilderness, to the banks of the St Law-
the importance of securing Canada either rence (Nov. 9) opposite Quebec He
by alliance or by conquest. At length the crossed the river, ascended to the Plains
Congress prepared for an invasion of Can- of Abraham (Nov. 13), and at the head
ada. Maj.-Gen. Philip Schuyler had been of only 750 half-naked men with not
appointed to the command of the North- more than 400 muskets demanded the
crn Department, which included the whole surrender of the city. Intelligence of an
province of New York. Gen. Richard intended sortie caused Arnold to move
Montgomery was his chief lieutenant. 20 miles farther up the river, where he
The regiments raised by the province of was soon joined by Montgomery. The
New York were put in motion, and Gen- combined forces returned to Quebec, and
eral Wooster, with Connecticut troops, began a siege. At the close of the year
who were stationed at Harlem, was order- (1775), in an attempt to take the city by
ed to Albany. The New-Yorkers were storm, the invaders were repulsed and
"Green Mountain Boys." Montgomery was killed. Arnold took the
Schuyler sent into Canada an address to command, and was relieved by General
the inhabitants, in the French language, Wooster, in April (1776). A month later,
informing them that "the only views of General Thomas took command, and, hear-
Congress were to restore to them those ing of the approach of a large armament,
rights which every subject of the British land and naval, to Quebec, he retreated
empire, of whatever religious sentiments up the river. Driven from one post to
he may be, is entitled to"; and that, in another, the Americans were finally ex-
the execution of these trusts, he had re- pelled from Canada, the wretched remnant
ceived the most positive orders to " cher- of the army, reduced by disease, arriving
ish every Canadian, and every friend to at Crown Point in June, 1770.
the cause of liberty, and sacredly to guard The American Board of War, General
their property." It was now too late. Gates president, arranged a plan, late in
the Congress listened to Allen and 1777, for a winter campaign against Can-
Arnold at the middle of May, and moved ada, and appointed Lafayette to the com-
upon Canada, its conquest would have mand. The Marquis was cordially re-
boen easy, for there were very few troops ceived at Albany by General Schuyler,
there. When, near the close of August, then out of the military service. General
an expedition against Canada, under Conway, who had been appointed inspect -
Schuyler, was ready to move, preparations or-general of the army, was there before
had been made to thwart it. The clergy him. Lafayette was utterly disappointed
and seigneurs of Canada, satisfied with and disgusted by the lack of preparation
the Quebec Act, were disposed to stand and the delusive statements of Gates,
by the Urilish government. The invad- "I do not believe," he wrote to Washing-
ing army first occupied Isle aux Noix, in ton, "I can find 1,200 men fit for dufv
Lhe Sorel Kiver; but the expedition made and the quarter part of these arc
tie advance beyond until November, naked even for a summer campaign."
Colonel Allen had attempted to take Mon- The Marquis soon found tin- whole affair
treal, without orders, and was made a to be only a trick of Gates to detach him
prisoner and sent to Kngland. A detach- from Washington. General Schuyler had,
ment of Schuyler s army captured Fort in a long letter to Conr &lt;s ( "Nov. 4

CANADA

1777), recommended a winter campaign Lower Canada, with a population of
against Canada, but it was passed un- 300,000, mostly of French origin, and
noticed by the Congress, and Gates appro- Upper Canada, with a population of 100,-
priated the thoughts as his own in form- 000, composed largely of American loyal-
ing the plan, on paper, which he never ists and their descendants. The regular
meant to carry out. military force in both provinces did not
Another campaign for liberating Can- exceed 2,000 men, scattered over a space
ada from British rule was conceived late of 1,200 miles from Quebec to the foot

BARRACKS AT SANDWICH.

in 1778. From Boston, D Estaing, in the of Lake Superior. Sir George Prevost was
name of Louis XVI., had summoned the then governor-general, with his residence
Canadians to throw off British rule, at Montreal. To enter the province from
Lafayette exhorted (December) the bar- the States, a water-barrier had to be
barians of Canada to look upon the Eng- crossed, while the American frontier was
lish as their enemies. The Congress be- destitute of roads, infected with summer
came inflamed with zeal for the projected fevers, and sparsely settled. William Hull,
measure, formed a plan, without consult- a soldier of the Revolution, then governor
ing a single military officer, for the of Michigan Territory, was consulted about
" emancipation of Canada," in co-opera- an invasion of Canada, while on a visit
tion with an army from France. One at Washington. He insisted that before
American detachment from Pittsburg was such an enterprise should be undertaken
to capture Detroit ; another from Wyoming a naval control of Lake Erie should be ac-
was to seize Niagara; a third from the quired, and not less than 3,000 troops
Mohawk Valley was to capture Oswego; a should be provided for the invasion. He
fourth from New England was to enter accepted the commission of brigadier-gen-
Montreal by way of the St. Francis ; a eral with the special object in view of pro-
fifth to guard the approaches from Que- tecting his territory from the Indian al-
bec; while to France was assigned the task lies of the British, yet, by orders of the
of reducing Halifax and Quebec. Lafay- government, he prepared to invade Cana-
ette offered to use his influence at the da. Governor Meigs, of Ohio, called for
French Court in furtherance of this grand troops to assemble at Dayton, and volun-
scheme; but the cooler judgment and teers flocked thither in considerable num-
M rong common- sense of Washington inter- bers. There General Hull took command
posed the objection that the part which of them (May 25, 1812), and they started
the United States had to perform in the off in good spirits for their march through
scheme was far beyond its resources. It the wilderness. It was a perilous and
was abandoned, as was another scheme most fatiguing journey. On the broad mo-
for a like result, early in the year. rasses of the summit lands of Ohio, Hull
The first important military movement received a despatch from the War Depart-
after the declaration of war in 1812 was ment urging him to press on speedily to
an attempt to conquer Canada by an in- Detroit, and there await further orders,
vasion of its western border on the Detroit When he reached the navigable waters of
River. It then consisted of two provinces the Maumee, his beasts of burden were

CANADA

so worn down by fatigue that he despatch- from the east, with a force gathered on
ed for Detroit, in a schooner, his own bag- his way. These events, and other causes,
gage and that of most of his officers; also impelled Hull to recross the river to De-
all of his hospital stores, intrenching troit with his army, and take shelter in
tools, and a trunk containing his most the fort there (Aug. 8, 1812). The Brit-
valuable military papers. The wives of ish congregated in force at Sandwich, and
three of his officers, with thirty soldiers from that point opened a cannonade upon
to protect the schooner, also embarked the fort at Detroit. On Sunday morning,
in her. In a smaller vessel the invalids the 16th, the British crossed the river to
of the army were conveyed. Both vessels a point below Detroit, and moved upon
arrived at the site of Toledo on the even- the fort. Very little effort was made to
ing of July 1. The next day, when near defend it, and, on that day, Hull sur-
Frenchtown (afterwards Monroe), Hull rendered the fort, army, and Territory of
received a note from the postmaster at Michigan into the hands of the British.
Cleveland announcing the declaration of See DETROIT; HULL, WILLIAM.
war. It was the first intimation he had On Oct. 17, 1813, General Harrison, of
received of that important event. In the United States army, and Commodore
fact, the British at Fort Maiden (now Perry, commander of the fleet on Lake
Amherstburg) heard of the declaration be- Erie, issued a proclamation, stating that,
fore Hull did, and captured his schooner, by the combined operations of the land
with all its precious freight. The com- and naval forces of the United States,
mander at Maiden had been informed of British power had been destroyed within
it, by express, as early as June 30 two the upper districts of Canada, which was
days before it reached Hull. The latter in quiet possession of United States
pressed forward, and encamped near De- troops. They therefore proclaimed that
troit on July 5. The British were then the rights and privileges of the inhabi
casting up intrenchments at Sandwich tants and the laws and customs of the
on the opposite side of the Detroit River, country, which were in force before the
There Hull awaited further orders from arrival of the conquerors, should continue
his government. His troops, impatient to to prevail, and that all magistrates and
invade Canada, had evinced a mutinous other civil officers might resume their
spirit, when he received orders to " com- functions, after taking an oath of fidelity
mence operations immediately," and, if to the United States government so long
possible, take possession of Fort Maiden, as the troops should remain in possession
At dawn on the morning of July 12, the of the country.

greater part .of his troops had crossed At the opening of the third year of the
the Detroit River, a.nd were on Canadian second war for independence, a favorite,
soil. Hull issued a proclamation to the project with the United States govern-
Canadians, assuring them of protection ment was the conquest of Canada. The
in case they remained quiet. Many of the principal military forces in Upper Canada
Canadian militia deserted the British were under Lieutenant-General Drum-
standard. Hull advanced towards Mai- mond. When the Army of the North,
den (July 13). After a successful en- commanded by Major-General Brown,
counter with British and Indians he fell reached the Niagara frontier, Drummond s
back to Sandwich, without attacking Mai- headquarters were at Burlington Heights,
den. His troops were disappointed and at the western end of Lake Ontario. Gen-
mutinous. Then information came of the eral Riall was on the Niagara River, at
capture of MACKINAW ( q. v.) by the Brit- Fort George and Queenston ; but when
ish. News also came that General Proc- he heard of the arrival of the Americans
tor, of the British army, had arrived at at Buffalo, under General Scott, he ad-
Maiden with reinforcements. This was vanced to Chippewa and established a for-
followed by an intercepted despatch from tified camp. At the close of June, General
the northwest announcing that 1,200 white Brown arrived at Buffalo, and assumed
men and several hundred Indians were chief command, and, believing his army
coming down to assist in the defence of to be strong enough, he proceeded to in-
Canada. General Brock was approaching vade Canada. His army consisted of two

CANADA

brigades, commanded respectively by legislature. Antecedent political strug-
Generals Scott and Ripley, to each of gles had taken place, which culminated in
which was attached a train of artillery, open insurrection in 1837-38. A move-
commanded by Capt. N. Towson and Maj. ment for a separation of the Canadas from
J. Hindman. He had also a small corps the crown of Great Britain, and their
of cavalry, under Capt. S. D. Harris, political independence, was begun simul-
These regulars were well disciplined and taneously in Upper and Lower Canada in
in high spirits. There were also volun- 1837. In the former province, the most
teers from Pennsylvania and New York, conspicuous leader was William Lyon Mc-
100 of them mounted, and nearly 600 Sen- Kenzie, a Scotchman, a journalist of rare
eca Indians almost the entire military ability and a great political agitator; in
force of the Six Nations remaining in the the lower province, the chief leader was
United States. These had been stirred to Joseph Papineau, a large land-owner, and
action by the venerable Red Jacket, the a very influential man among the French
great Seneca orator. The volunteers and inhabitants. Both leaders were republi-
Indians were under the chief command of can in sentiment. The movements of the
Gen. Peter B. Porter, then quartermaster- revolutionary party were well planned,
general of the New York militia. Major but local jealousies prevented unity of
McRee, of North Carolina, was chief-en- action, and the effort failed. It was es-
gineer, assisted by Maj. E. D. Wood. On teemed highly patriotic, and elicited the
the Canada shore, nearly opposite Buffalo, warmest sympathy of the American peo-
stood Fort Erie, then garrisoned by 170 pie, especially of those of the Northern
men, under the command of Major Buck. States. Banded companies and individuals
On July 1 Brown received orders to joined the " rebels," as they were called
cross the Niagara, capture Fort Erie, by the British government, and " patri-
march on Chippewa, menace Fort George, ots " by their friends; and so general be-
and, if he could have the co-operation of came the active sympathy on the northern
Chauncey s fleet, to seize and fortify Bur- frontier, that peaceful relations between
lington Heights. Accordingly, Brown ar- the United States and Great Britain were
ranged for General Scott and his brigade endangered. President Van Buren issued
to cross on boats and land a mile below a proclamation, calling upon all persons
the fort, while Ripley, with his brigade, engaged in the schemes of invasion of the
should be landed a mile above it. This Canadian territory to abandon the design,
accomplished, the boats were to return and warning them to beware of the penal-
and carry the remainder of the army, ties that must assuredly follow such in-
with its ordnance and stores, to the Cana- fringement of international laws.
da shore. The order for this movement In December, 1837, a party of sympa-
was given on July 2. It was prompt- thizing Americans took possession of
ly obeyed by Scott, and tardily by Navy Island, belonging to Canada, in the
Ripley, on the 3d. When Scott had pressed Niagara River, about 2 miles above the
forward to invest the fort, he found Ripley falls. They mustered about 700 men, well
had not crossed, and no time was lost in provisioned, and provided with twenty
crossing the ordnance and selecting posi- pieces of cannon. They had a small steam-
tions for batteries. These preparations boat named the Caroline to ply between
alarmed the garrison, and the fort, which the island and Schlosser, on the American
was in a weak condition, was surrendered, side. On a dark night a party of Cana-
Ncarly 200 men, including officers, became dian royalists crossed the river, cut
prisoners of war, and were sent across the Caroline loose from her moorings,
the river. and set her on fire. She went down
By an act of the Imperial Parlia- the current and over the great cataract
ment, in 1791, Canada was divided into in full blaze. It is supposed some
two provinces, Upper Canada and Lower persons were on board of her. Gen.
Canada, and each had a parliament or Winfield Scott was finally sent to the
legislature of its own. An imperial act northern frontier to preserve order, and
was passed in 1840 to unite the two prov- was assisted by a proclamation by the gov-
inces under one administration and one ernor of New York. Yet secret associa-

CAN AD A CAN AL S

tions, known as "Hunters Lodges," con- .$201,006,980; revenue, $06.037.069 : ex-

tinued quite active for some time. Against penditure, $51,691,903; mileage of rail-

the members of these lodges, President ways in operation, 18,988; capital of

Tyler issued an admonitory proclamation, chartered banks, $70,060.301; assets,

which prevented further aggressive move- $641,985.372; liabilities, $508.049,9&lt;;3 .

ments. For four years this ominous cloud and number of post-office savings-banks,

hung upon our horizon. It disappeared 934, with depositors, 167,023, and total

in 1842, when the leaders of the move- balances, $44,255,326. See ANGLO-AMER-

ment were either dead or in exile. ICAN COMMISSION.

In 1841 Upper and Lower Canada were Canals. Gen. Philip Schuyler may

united for purposes of government, the justly be regarded as the father of the

system professedly modified after that of United States canal system. As early

Great Britain. In 1857 Ottawa was se- as 1761, when he was in England settling

lected as the permanent seat of govern- the accounts of Gen. John Bradstreet with

ment for Canada, and costly public build- the government, he visited the famous

ings were erected there. By act of the canal which the Duke of Bridgewater had

Imperial Parliament, which received the just completed, and became profoundly

royal assent March 28, 1867, the provinces impressed with the importance of such

of Upper and Lower Canada, New Bruns- highways in the work of developing the

wick, and Nova Scotia were connected internal resources of his own country.

and made one nation, under the general On his return, he urged the matter upon

title of " The Dominion." Upper Canada the attention of his countrymen. Mean-

was named " Ontario," and Lower Can- while the active mind of ELKANAH WAT-

ada " Quebec." Provision was made for SON (q. v.) had been deeply interested

the future admission of Prince Edward in the subject. In 1785 he visited Mount

Island, the Hudson Bay Territory, British Vernon, where he found Washington en-

Columbia, and Newfoundland, with its gaged in a project for connecting the

dependency, Labrador. In the new gov- waters of the Potomac with those west of

ernment the executive authority is vested the Alleghany Mountains. He and Gen-

in the Queen, and her representative in eral Schuyler projected canals between

the Dominion is the acting governor-gen- the Hudson River and lakes Champlain

eral, who is advised and aided by a privy and Ontario, and in 1792 the legislat-

council of fourteen members, constituting ure of New York chartered two com-

the ministry, who must be sustained by panics, known, respectively, as the

a Parliamentary majority. There is a " Western Inland Lock Navigation Coin-

Parliament composed of two chambers, pany" and "Northern Inland Lock Naviga-

the Senate and the House of Commons. tion Company," of both of which Schuyler

According to the census of 1901 the was made president, and, at his death, in

population of the Dominion, by prov- 1804, he was actively engaged in the pro-

inces, was as follows: motion of both projects. The Western

canal was never completed, according to
its original conception, but was supple-

Novn s cot iaV.V. V. . . .". . . .!". . ." . . 469)574 mented by the great Erie Canal, suggested

NOW Brunswick ................. 331,120 by Qouverneur Morris about 1801. In a

Mnnitohn ....................... 254.947 , J . . , _,, .. , , , .

British Columbia ............... 177,272 letter to David Parish, of Philadelphia,

K.iw-.r.l Island ........... 106,968 that vear. he distinctly foreshadowed that

Northwest Territories ........... 211,054 * , TT ,.

great work. As early as 1//4 \\ashmg-

Total ....................... B,30 .&gt;/,r, ton favored the passage of a law by the

legislature of Virginia for the construc-

OHicial statistics for the fiscal year tion of works canals and good wagon-
ending June 30, 1903, contained the fol- roads by which the Potomac and Ohio
lowing general items: Imports of mer- rivers might be connected by a chain of
chaudise, $241.214.961; exports, $225,- commerce. After the Revolution, the
849.724. of which $214,401,674 represented States of Virginia and Maryland took
Canadian productions; gross debt, $361,- measures which resulted in the forma -
344,098; assets, $99,737,109; net debt, tion of the famous Potomac Company, to

CANALS

&lt;arry out Washington s project. In 1784
Washington revived a project for making
a canal through the Dismal Swamp, not
only for drainage, but for navigation be
tween the Elizabeth River and Albemarle
Sound. The oldest work of the kind in
the United States is a canal, begun in
1792, 5 miles in extent, for passing the
falls of the Connecticut Kiver at South
Hadley. The earliest completed and most
important of the great canals of our coun
try is the Erie, connecting the waters of
Lake Erie with those of the Hudson
River. A committee appointed by Con
gress during Jefferson s administration re
ported in favor of this canal, and a sur
vey was directed to be made. Commission
ers were appointed in 1810, who reported
to Congress in March, 1811. In conse
quence of the War of 1812, the project lan
guished until 1817. In that year ground
was broken for the Erie Canal on July 4,
under the authority of New York State, and
on Oct. 26, 1825, the canal was completed.
It was built by the State of New York
at an original cost of $9,000,000, from the

operation of which untold wealth has been
derived by the city and State of New
York. It was completed and formally
opened by Governor De Witt Clinton,
its great advocate, in 1825, and has been
enlarged at great expense since. The
canal changed the whole aspect of commer
cial affairs in the Lake region. The total
area of these five great inland seas is
about 90,000 squai e miles, and their inlets
drain a region of 330,000 square miles.

Of the various canals that have been
constructed in the United States, the fol
lowing were the only ones in commercial
operation at the close of the century.
Some on this list are falling into disuse,
and will probably soon be abandoned. An
interesting feature of recent canal con
struction and improvement is the adapta
tion of these waterways to vessels of large
tonnage, using steam or other swift motive
power. The old-fashioned canal, accom
modating small boats drawn by mules
or horses, has given way to the ship-
canal, through which a war - ship can
safely speed.

CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA.

NiMH.

Cost.

Com
pleted.

Length

in miles.

LOCATION.

$1,641,363

18M)

Norfolk, Va., to Currituck Sound, N. C.

1,500,000

1847

Savannah River, (3a., to Augusta, Ga.

3,581,954

184}

Rome, If. Y., to Lyons Falls, N. Y.

2,232,682

1839

Montezuma, N. Y., to Oavuga and Seneca Lakes, N. Y.

4,044,000

1822

Whitehall, N. Y., to Waterford, N. Y.

3,730,230

1829

Chesapeake City, Md., to Delaware City, Del.

11,290,357

1860

184

Cumberland, Md., to Washington, D. C.

Chicago Drainage. See next page.

90,000

1847

Mississippi River, La., to Bayou Black, La,

4,888,749

1838

New Brunswick, N. J., to Trenton, N. J.

2,433,350

1830

4,589,009

187T

1 l-

At Des Moines Rapids, Mississippi River.

2,800,000

1822

Erie

52,540,800

1825

381

Albany N Y. to Buffalo N Y.

Fairfield ..

4 l-

Alligator River to Lake Mattimuskeet, N. C.

340,000

1851

Mocking

975,481

1843

Carroll, O., to Nelsonville, O.

7,347,787

1848

102

Chicago, 111., to L Sail*, III.

568,643

1895

4 1-J

Around lower rapids oi Rock River, 111. Connects with Mississippi Rivr

Lehigh Coal and Navigation Co

4,455,000
6,578,631

18S1

1872

108
* I-J

Coalport, Pa., to Easton, PA.
At Falls of Ohio River, Louisville, Ky.

8,062,6*0

1835

214

Cincinnati, O., to Toledo, O.

6,000,000

1836

103

Easton, Pa., to Jersey City, N J.

Muscle Shoals and Elk River Shoals.

3,156,919

188*

16
3

Big Muscle Shoals, Tenn., to Elk River Shoils, Tenn.
Clubfoot Creek to Harlow Creek, N C.

407,818

1840

Ohio .. .

4 695 -204

1835

817

5,239,526

1828

Oswego, N. Y., to Syracuie, N. Y.

7,731,750

1839

193

(Vow abandoned

Portage Lake and Lake Superior

628,892

1873
1899

From Keweeuaw Bay to Lake Superior.
Port Arthur, Tex., to Gulf of Mexico.

Santa Fe

10,000

1880

Waldo, Fla., to Melrose, Fla.

Sault Ste. Marie

4,000,000

1895

Connects Lakes Superior and Huron at St. Mary s River.

Srhuylkill Navigation Co

12 461 600

1826

108

Mill Creek, Pa., to Philadelphia, Pa.

Sturgeon Bay and Lake Michigan....
St. Mary s Falls

99,661
7,909,667

1881
189t

1 1-4
1 1-3

Between Green Bay and Lake Michigan.
Connects Lakes Superi or and Huron at Savlt Ste Marie Mich.

4,931 345

1840

Now abandoned.

607,269

1843

Rochester, O., to Roscoe, O.

Wellnml {in Canada 1 )...

M 7QR SK.1

*fi 3-4

II. D

4!)

CANBY CANNON

Chicago Drainage Canal, a canal in- and E. Kirby Smith. On July 28, 18G6,
tended chiefly for carrying off the sewage he was commissioned a brigadier-general
of Chicago, but which may be used for in the regular army, and in 1869 took
commercial purposes; begun in Septem- command of the Department of the Col um
ber, 1892; completed in January, 1900. bia, on the Pacific coast. He devoted him-
The main channel is 29 miles long, ex- self to the settlement of difficulties with
tending from Chicago to Locksport on the the MODOC INDIANS (q. v.), and, while
Illinois River, into which stream it dis- so doing, was treacherously murdered by
charges. About 9 miles of the channel is Captain Jack, their leader, in northern
cut through solid rock, with a minimum California, April 11, 1873.
depth of 22 feet and a width of 160 feet Cancer, Luis, missionary; born in
on the bottom in rock, which makes it Saragossa, Spain; became a member of
the largest artificial channel in the world, the Dominican Order. With two com-
The length of the waterway from the panions and Magdalena, a converted Ind-
mouth of the Chicago River to its ter- ian woman, whom he had brought from
minus south of Joliet is about 42 miles. Havana as an interpreter, landed in Flor-
The cost of the canal was estimated at ida in 1549. By presents and an expla-
about $45,000,000. nation of his purpose through his inter-

Canby, EDWARD RICHARD SPRIGG, mili- preter he gained the friendship of the
tary officer; born in Kentucky in 1819; Indians. After a few days he visited an-
graduated at West Point in 1839; served other part of the coast, leaving his corn-
in the SEMINOLE WAR (q. v.) and the panions behind. When he returned, a
war with Mexico. He was twice bre- canoe containing a survivor of De Soto s
vetted for eminent services in the latter expedition approached and warned Father

Cancer that his companions had been
killed. He declined to believe this and
rowed alone to the shore. Magdalena,
his interpreter, told him that his two
companions were in the tent of the chief,
whereupon he followed her and was al
most immediately surrounded by the Ind
ians and put to death.

Cannon, in the United States, were
cast at Lynn, Mass., by Henry Leonard,
in 1647, and at Orr s foundry, Bridge-
water, 1648. In 1735 the Hope Furnace
was established in Rhode Island, where
six heavy cannon, ordered by the State,
were cast in 1775. The heaviest guns
used at this time were 18-pounders.

William Denning makes wrought-iron
cannon of staves bound together with
wrought-iron bands, and boxed and breech
ed, 1790.

Colonel Bomford, of the United States

war. He was promoted to major in 1855, ordnance, department, invents a cannon
and colonel in 1801. In 1861 he was in called the columbiad, a long - chambered
command in New Mexico until late in piece for projecting solid shot and shell
1862, and in March of that year was with a heavy charge of powder, 1812.
made brigadier-general of volunteers. He West Point foundry established under
was promoted to major-general of volun- special patronage of the government, 1817.
teers in May, 1864, and took command First contract of Gouverneur Kemble,
of the Department of West Mississippi, president, for the West Point Foundry
He captured Mobile, April 12, 1865, and Association, for thirty - two 42 - pounders,
afterwards received the surrender of the long guns, July 11, 1820.
Confederate armies of Generals Taylor First gun rifled in America at the

Kl&gt;\\ AKI) R. S. CAXBV.

CANNON

South Boston Iron Company s foundry, the establishment of a plant for gun-
1834. making at the Watervliet arsenal, West

Cyrus Alger patents and makes the first Troy, 1889.

malleable iron guns cast and converted Manufacture of heavy ordnance begun
in an oven, 1836. at the Washington navy-yard, 1890.

Earliest piece of heavy ordnance cast Hotchkiss gun, English make, five bar-
at the South Boston foundry, a 10-in. rels, revolving around a common axis,
columbiad, under the supervision of Colo- placed upon block weighing about 386
nel Bomford; weight, 14,500 Ibs.; shot, 130 tons, fires thirty rounds a minute; adopt-
Ibs.; shell, 90 Ibs.; charge of powder, 18 ed by the United States in 1891.
Ibs. Sept. 6, 1839. Automatic rapid - firing gun, invented

Character of "gun iron" definitely by John and Matthew Browning, of Og-
fixed by the " metallo-dynamoter," a test- den, Utah ; firing 400 shots in one minute
ing -machine invented by Major Wade, and forty-nine seconds; adopted by the
1840 United States in 1896.

First 12-in. columbiad; weight, 25,510 Zalinski s dynamite gun, calibre 15
Ibs.; extreme range, 5,761 yds.; weight of ins.; throws 500 Ibs. of explosive gela-
shell, 172 Ibs.; charge of powder, 20 Ibs.; tine 2,100 yds.; also discharges smaller
cast at the South Boston foundry, July 8, shells. Three of the guns of this class
1846 were used with tremendous effect by the

Dahlgren gun, of iron, cast solid and United States dynamite cruiser Vesu-
cooled from the exterior, very thick at vius at the bombardment of Santiago de
breech and diminishing to muzzle; first Cuba in 1898, and larger ones have been
cast, May, 1850. installed at Fort Warren, Boston; Fort

Rodman gun, a columbiad model, Schuyler, N. Y. ; Fort Hancock, N. J.,
smooth-bore, made by the Rodman proc- and at San Francisco.

ess of hollow casting, cooled from the Graydon dynamite gun, calibre 15 ins.;
interior; adopted by the United States using 3,000 Ibs. of compressed air to
for all sea-coast cannon, 1860. the square inch; throws 600 Ibs. of dyna-

First 10 - Ib. Parrot gun, of iron, cast mite 3 miles.

hollow, cooled from the inside and Armstrong gun, calibre 6 ins. ; weight
strengthened by an exterior tube made of shot, 69.7 Ibs. ; of powder, 34 Ibs. ; press-
of wrought-iron bars spirally coiled and ure per square inch, 31,000 Ibs.
shrunk on; made at the West Point foun- Hurst, double-charge gun, same prin-
dry, 1860. ciples apply as in the Armstrong and

15-in. Rodman gun, weighing 49,000 Haskell guns.

Ibs., cast by the South Boston Iron Com- Brown wire-wound gun, made in seg-
pany, 1860. ments; kind authorized by Congress, 37 Vs

Parrott gun first put to test of active ft. long; weight. 30.000 Ibs.
warfare in the battle of Bull Run, July Maxim - Nordenfeldt quick-firing gun;
21, 1861. lowest weight, 25 Ibs.; maximum firing

Gatling rapid-firing gun, from five to ability. 650 rounds a minute,
ten barrels around one common axis; ten- Cannon, GEORGE Q., Mormon leader ; born
barrel Gatling discharges 1,200 shots a in Liverpool, England, Jan. 11, 1827 ; came
minute; range, 3,000 yds.; invented in to the United States in 1844; brought
1861. np in the Mormon faith; was driven out of

S. B. Dean, of South Boston Iron Com- Nauvoo, 111., with the other Mormons in

puny, patents a process of rough boring 1846, and settled in Utah in 1847. In

bronze guns and forcibly expanding the 1857 he was chosen an apostle; in 1872-

bore to its finished size by means of 82 represented the Territory of Utah in

mandrels, 1869. Congress: and during this period his right

Pneumatic dynamite torpedo-gun built to a seat in that body was many times

and mounted at Fort Lafayette (founded hotly contested. He became the object of

on invention of D. M. Mefford, of Ohio), public scorn and suffered much personal

1885. calumniation both in Congress and in the

Congress makes an appropriation for press, but held his seat till absolutely

CANNON CAPE BKETON

forced to retire. When Utah was seek- anger, but sent them back to Plymouth

ing admission into the Union he was one as tokens of peace. The chief and his as-

of the chief promoters of the movement, sociates honorably sued for the friendship

He died in Monterey, Cal., April 12, 1901. of the white people. Canonicus became

Cannon, NEWTON, military officer; born the firm friend of the English, especially

in Guilford county, N. C., about 1781; of Roger Williams, who found a retreat

received a common school education; was in his dominions. Before Williams s ar-

colonel of the Tennessee Mounted Rifles rival, there had been war between the

in 1813, and with this company command- Narragansets and Pequods, concerning the

ed the left column in the engagement with ownership of lands, in which a son of

the Creek Indians at Tallusahatchee on Canonicus was slain. In his grief the

Nov. 3; was a representative in Congress king burned his own house and all his

in 1814-17 and in 1819-23; and governor goods in it. Roger Williams, who often

of Tennessee in 1835-39. He died in Har- experienced his kindness, spoke of Canoni-

peth, Tenn., Sept. 29, 1842. cus as " a wise and peaceable prince."

Cannon, WILLIAM, patriot; born in He was uncle of MIANTONOMOH (q. v.),

Bridgeville, Del., in 1809; was a member who succeeded him as sachem of the Nar-

of the Peace Congress in 1861, and it was ragansets in 1638. Canonicus died June

said that he was " the firm friend of the 4, 1647.

Crittenden Compromise and of an un- Cantilever. See BRIDGES.

broken union." In 1864 he became govern- Cap, LIBERTY. See LIBERTY CAP.

or of Delaware, and during his incum- Cape Ann, original name of the pres-

bency was opposed by the legislature. On ent city of Gloucester, Mass., noted for

one occasion when that body denounced a more than 250 years for its extensive

certain law of Congress he proclaimed fishery interests. It was chosen as a

that any United States officer found guilty place of settlement for a fishing colony by

by a State court for performing his duty Rev. John White (a long time rector of

to the government should receive his Trinity Church, Dorchester, England) and

pardon. He advised the legislature in his several other influential persons. Through

message of 1864 to adopt measures for the the exertions of Mr. White, a joint-stock

liberation of slaves in Delaware. He died association was formed, called the " Dor-

in Philadelphia, Pa., March 1, 1865. Chester Adventurers," with a capital of

Canonicus, Indian chief; king of the about $14,000. Cape Anne was purchased,
Narragansets: born about 1565. He was and fourteen persons, with live-stock, were
at first unwilling to be friendly with sent out in 1623, who built a house and
the Pilgrims at New Plymouth. To show made preparations for curing fish. Af-
his contempt and defiance of the English, fairs were not prosperous there. Roger
he sent a message to Governor Bradford Conant was chosen governor in 1625, but
with a bundle of arrows in a rattlesnake s the Adventurers became discouraged and
skin. That was at the dead of winter, concluded on dissolving the colony.
1622. It was a challenge to engage in Through the encouragement of Mr. White,
war in the spring. Like the venomous some of the colonists remained, but, not
serpent that wore the skin, the symbol liking their seat, they went to Naum-
of hostility gave warning before the blow keag, now Salem, where a permanent col-
should be struck a virtue seldom exer- ony was settled. Population in 1890, 24,-
cisod by the Indians. Bradford acted 651 ; in 1900, 26,121.

wisely. He accepted the challenge by send- Cape Breton, a large island at the en-
ing the significant quiver back filled with trance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and
gunpowder and shot. " What can these separated from Nova Scotia by the nar-
things be?" inquired the ignorant and row strait of Canso; discovered by Cabot,
curious savage mind, as the ammunition 1497. The French fortress LOUISBURG (q.
was carried from village to village, in v.) was situated on this island. This
superstitious awe, as objects of evil omen, was taken by the New England troops in
They had heard of the great guns at the 1745. Island ceded to England, Feb. 10,
sea-side, and they dared not keep the 1763; incorporated with Nova Scotia,
mysterious symbols of the governor s 1819. Population, 1901, 97,605.

CAPE FEAR CAPITAL

Cape Fear, ACTION AT. Gen. Braxton
Bragg was in command of the Confederates
in the Cape Fear region at the time of the
fall of Fort Fisher, and General Hoke was
his most efficient leader. He held Fort
Anderson, a large earthwork about half
way between Fort Fisher and Wilming
ton. Gen. Alfred Terry did not think it
prudent to advance on Wilmington un
til he should be reinforced. To effect this,
General Grant ordered Schofield from
Tennessee to the coast of North Caro
lina, where he arrived, with the 23d Corps,
on Feb. 9, 1865, and swelled Terry s force
of 8,000 to 20,000. Schofield, outrank
ing Terry, took the chief command. The
Department of North Carolina had just
been created, and he was made its com
mander. The chief object now was to oc
cupy Goldsboro, in aid of Sherman s march
to that place. Terry was pushed forward
towards Hoke s right, and, with gunboats,
attacked Fort Anderson (Feb. 18) and
drove the Confederates from it. The flee
ing garrison was pursued, struck, and
dispersed, with a loss of 375 men and two
guns. The National troops pressed up
both sides of the Cape Fear River, pushed
Hoke back, while gunboats secured tor
pedoes in the stream and erected batteries
on both banks. Hoke abandoned Wil
mington, Feb. 22, 1865, after destroying
all the steamers and naval stores there.
Among the former were the Confederate
privateers Chickamauga and Tallahassee.
Wilmington was occupied by National
troops, and the Confederates abandoned
the Cape Fear region.

Cape Nome, a cape extending from the
southern part of the western peninsula
of Alaska, which lies between Kotzebue
Sound on the north, and Bering Sea on
the south. It is about 2,500 miles north
west of Seattle, and 175 miles southeast
of Siberia. In September, 1898, gold was
first discovered here by a party of Swedes.
Since then it has become the centre of a
rich gold-mining region, which lies about
the lower course of the Snake River, a
winding stream emerging from a range
of mountains not exceeding from 700 to
1,200 feet in altitude. In October, 1899,
Nome City had a population of 5,000 in
habitants living in tents. It is believed
that the rapid growth of this town has
never been equalled. Early prospecting

indicated that the Nome district would
compare for richness with the celebrated
KLONDIKE (q. v.) region. In the short
season of 1899 the yield in gold from
this section alone was estimated at
$1,500,000.

Capital, NATIONAL. The seat of gov
ernment of the United States was per
manently settled in the city of Washing
ton, D. C., in the summer of 1800. It
seemed like transferring it to a wilder
ness. Only the north wing of the Capitol
was finished, and that was fitted up to ac
commodate both Houses of Congress. The
President s house was finished externally,
but much had to be done on the inside.
There was only one good tavern, and that
was insufficient to accommodate half the
Congressmen. There was only a path
through an alder swamp along the line
of Pennsylvania Avenue from the Presi
dent s house to the Capitol. Mrs. Adams
wrote concerning the President s house
that it was superb in design, but then
dreary beyond endurance. " I could con
tent myself almost anywhere for three
months," she said, " but, surrounded with
forests, can you believe that wood is not
to be had, because people cannot be found
to cut and cart it! ... We have, indeed,
come into a new country." The public
offices had hardly been established in the
city when the War-office, a wooden struct
ure, took fire and was burned with many
valuable papers.

From time to time there have been
movements in favor of removing the
seat of government from Washington,
D. C. The first of this kind was in
1808. The really miserable situation
and condition of the city at that time
rendered a removal desirable to most of
the members of Congress, and the city
of Philadelphia, anxious to win it back
to the banks of the Delaware, offered to
furnish every accommodation to Congress
and the public offices at its own expense.
The new Hall of Representatives, by its
ill adaptation whether for speakers or
hearers, occasioned great dissatisfaction.
A motion for removal occasioned much
discussion in Congress and great excite
ment in the District of Columbia, espe
cially among land-owners. The Southern
members objected to Philadelphia because
they would there be continually pestered

CAPITAL, NATIONAL

WASHINGTON IN 1800

by anti-slavery politicians and other an
noyances connected with the subject. A
resolution for removal came within a very
few votes of passing. It is believed that
it would have been carried but for the
opposition of the Southern men to Phila
delphia. In more recent years there have
been agitations favoring removal to St.
Louis or some other Western city, on the
ground of having it in a more central
location geographically.

In 1810 Congress, by joint resolu
tion, authorized the President of the
United States to procure, for the or
namenting of the new Capitol, then
building, four large paintings of Revo
lutionary scenes from the hand of
John Trumbull, a worthy pupil of Ben
jamin West. He possessed a large num
ber of portraits of the prominent actors
in the events of the Revolution, painted
by himself, and these he used in his com
positions. These pictures are now in the
rotunda of the Capitol, under the magnif
icent dome, and are of peculiar historic
value, as they perpetuate correct like
nesses of the men whom Americans de
light to honor. These paintings repre

sent the Signers of the Declaration of
Independence, the Surrender of Bur-
goyne at Saratoga, the Surrender of
Cornwallis at Yorktown, and the Res
ignation of Washington s Commission
at Annapolis. To these have since been
added others, of the same general size
namely, the Landing of Columbus, by
John Vanderlyn; the Burial of De Soto,
by George Powell; the Baptism of Poca-
hontas, by J. G. Chapman; the Em
barkation of the Pilgrims, by Robert W.
Weir; President Lincoln Signing the
Emancipation Proclamation, by Frank
B. Carpenter, etc. The old Hall of Rep
resentatives is now used for a national
Hall of Statuary, to which each State
has been asked to contribute statues of
two of its most distinguished citizens.
The Capitol has already become the
permanent depository of a large col
lection of grand paintings and statu
ary illustrative of the progress of the
nation.

The Capitol was made a vast citadel on
the arrival of troops there after the close
of April, 1861. Its halls and committee-
rooms were used as barracks for the sol-

S3
O

H
O

o
H

(X
&lt;
O

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT CAPRON

diers; its basement galleries were con
verted into store-rooms for barrels of pork,

CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON, 18H.

beef, and other provisions for the army;
and the vaults under the broad terrace
on the western front of the Capitol were
converted into bakeries, where 16,000
loaves of bread were baked every day.
The chimneys of the ovens pierced the
terrace at the junction of the freestone
pavement and the glossy slope of the
glacis; and there, for three months, dense
volumes of black smoke poured forth.

Capital Punishment. See LIVING
STONE, EDWARD.

Capote, DOMINGO MENDEZ, statesman ;
born in Cardenas, Cuba, in 1863; received
his education at the University of Havana,
where he later served as a professor of law
for many years. Prior to the last Cuban
insurrection he was known as one of the
most distinguished lawyers on the island.
In December, 1895, he
Abandoned his practice to
join the Cuban forces un
der Gen. Maximo Gomez.
Afterwards he reached
the rank of brigadier-
general, and also served
as civil governor of Ma-
tanzas and of Las Villas.
In November, 1897, he
was elected vice-president
of the republic of Cuba.
After the adoption in
convention of the new
Cuban constitution early
in 1901, he was appoint
ed chairman of a com
mission of five members
selected by the conven
tion to confer with Presi
dent McKinley and Sec

retary Root in Washington in regard to a
constitutional recognition of the future re
lations of the United
States with Cuba. This
conference was held in
April.

Capron, ALLYN Kis-
SAM, military officer; born
in Brooklyn, N. Y., June
24, 1871; son of Allyn Ca
pron ; was educated in his
native city; joined the
army Oct. 20, 1890. When
hostilities with Spain
broke out he entered the
1st United States Volun
teer Cavalry, popularly known as the
" Rough Riders," and was made a cap
tain. He was killed in the battle of Las
Guasimas, Cuba, June 24, 1898.

Capron, ALLYN, military officer; born
in Tampa, Fla., Aug. 27, 1846; grad
uated at the United States Military
Academy in 1867, and entered the
artillery branch. When the American-
Spanish War began he accompanied Gen
eral Shafter s army to Cuba. On July
1, 1898, he led General Lawton s advance,
and fired the first shot of the battle. The
Spanish flag on the fort at El Caney was
carried away by a shot from his battery.
His exposure in the Santiago campaign
resulted in typhoid fever, from which
he died near Fort Myer, Va., Sept. 18,
1898.

GOVERNMENT BAKERIES AT TUB CAPITOL IN

1862.

CARAVEL CAREY

Caravel, a small sea-going vessel of den fire was opened upon them. The

about 100 tons burden, built somewhat first shot crippled the steering-gear of

like a galley, formerly used by the Span- the Winslow, and another wrecked her

ish and Portuguese; two of the vessels boiler, wounding her commander, Lieut,

of Columbus on his first voyage to Amer- John B. Bernadon, and killing Ensign

ica were caravels. WORTH BAGLEY (q. v.) and four men.

Card-cloth. The manufacture of cards During this action the \Vilminyton sailed
for carding wool by hand was quite an im- within 1,800 yards of the shore, till she
portant industry in America before the almost touched bottom, and after send-
Revolution, and was carried on success- ing 376 shells into the batteries and the
fully during that war. In 1787 Oliver town silenced the Spanish fire. In the
Evans, the pioneer American inventor, mean time, amid a storm of shots, the
then only twenty-two years of age, and Hudson ran alongside of the Winslow, and
engaged in making card - teeth by hand, drew her out of danger,
invented a machine that produced 300 Cardinal, a prince in the Church of
a minute. Already Mr. Crittendon, of Rome, the council of the Pope, and the
New Haven, Conn., had invented a conclave or " sacred college," at first was
machine (1784) which produced 86,000 the principal priest or incumbent of the
card - teeth, cut and bent, in an hour, parishes in Rome, and said to have been
These inventions led to the contrivance of called cardinale in 853. The cardinals
machines for making card-cloth that is, claimed the exclusive power of electing
a species of comb used in the manufacture the Pope about 1179. In the United
of woollen or cotton cloths, for the pur- States the first cardinal was John Mc-
pose of carding and arranging the fibres Closkey, Archbishop of New York, created
preparatory to spinning. It consists of March 15, 1875; the second, James Gib-
stout leather filled with wire card-teeth, bons, Archbishop of Baltimore, created
and is the chief part of the carding-ma- June 7, 1886; the third, Sebastian Mar-
chine in factories. A machine for making tinelli, titular Archbishop of Ephesus and
the card-cloth complete was invented by Papal Ablegate to the United States, cre-
Eleazar Smith, of Walpole, Mass., at or ated April 15, 1901.

near the close of the eighteenth century, Carey, HENRY CHARLES, political econ-

for which invention Amos Whittemore re- omist; born in Philadelphia, Dec. 15, 1793;

ceived the credit and the profit (see retired from the book-trade in 1835 and

WHITTEMORE, AMOS). This invention was devoted himself to the study of political

imperfect. About 1836 William B. Earle economy, publishing many important books

made improvements, which were modified on the subject. Free-trade, in his opinion.

in 1843. while the ideal condition, could be readied

Cardenas, a seaport in the province of only through protection. He died in Phila-
Matanzas, Cuba, about 90 miles east of delphia, Oct. 13, 1879.
Havana. It was here, on May 11, 1898, Carey, MATTHEW, publicist; born in
that the Wilmington, a United States gun- Dublin, Ireland, Jan. 28, 1760; learned
boat, engaged the fortifications and Span- the business of printer and bookseller,
ish gunboats, and rescued the Hudson and He was compelled to fly to Paris, in conse-
Winslow, which had steamed within qucnce of a charge of sedition, but re-
range of a masked battery. Three Span- turned to Ireland in the course of a year,
ish gunboats which lay under the forti- where, in 1783, he edited the Freeman s
fications had been challenged by the tor- Journal, and established the Volunteer s
pedo-boat Winslow and other United -Journal. Because of a violent attack on
States vessels, but they refused to leave Parliament, he was confined in Newgate
the protection of the batteries. When the prison; and after his release he sailed for
Wilmington arrived and found the range the United States, arriving in Philadel-
at 2,500 yards, the Hudson and Winslo-w phia, Nov. 15, 1784. There he started the
steamed into the inner harbor to attack I i iinsi/Jrtinia Herald. He married in
the Spanish vessels. They did not, how- 17 .1, and began business as a book-
ever, suspect that there was a strong bat- seller. He was active in works of be-
tery near the water s edge until a sud- nevolence during the prevalence of yel-

CAREY S REBELLION CARLETON

low fever in Philadelphia, and wrote and
published a history of that epidemic. He
was an associate of Bishop White and
others in the formation of the first Amer
ican Sunday-school society. While the
War of 1812-15 was kindling he wrote
much on political subjects, and in 1814
his Olive Branch appeared, in which he
attempted to harmonize the contending
parties in the United States. It passed
through ten editions. In 1819 appeared
his vindication of his countrymen, entitled
Vindicce Hibernian. In 1820 he published
his Neio Olive Branch, which was follow
ed by a series of tracts extending to more
than 2,000 pages, the object being to dem
onstrate the necessity of a protective sys
tem. His writings on political economy
were widely circulated. His advocacy of
internal improvements led to the con
struction of the Pennsylvania canals. He
published Bibles, etc., which were sold by
book-agents. He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Sept. 16, 1839.

Carey s Rebellion. See NORTH CARO
LINA., 1706-11.

Carleton, SIR GUY, LORD DORCHESTER,
civil and military officer ; born in Stra-

GOY CARLKTON.

Lane, Ireland, Sept. 3, 1724; entered the
Guards at an early age, and became a lieu
tenant-colonel in 1748. He was aide to

the Duke of Cumberland in the German
campaign of 1757 ; was with Amherst in
Ihe siege of Louisburg in 1758; with Wolfe
at Quebec (1759) as quartermaster-gen
eral; and was a brigadier-general at the
siege of Belle Isle, where he was wounded.
He was also quartermaster-general in the
expedition against Havana in 1762, and
in 1767 he was made lieutenant-governor
of Quebec. The next year he was appoint
ed governor. In 1772 he was promoted to
major-general, and in 1774 was made gov
ernor-general of the Province of Quebec.
In an expedition against the forts on Lake
Champlain in 1775 he narrowly escaped
capture; and at the close of the year he
successfully resisted a siege of Quebec by
Montgomery. The next spring and sum
mer he drove the Americans out of Can
ada, and totally defeated the American
flotilla in an engagement on Lake Cham-
plain in October.

Sir John Burgoyne had been in England
during the earlier part of 1777, and man
aged, by the help of Sir Jeffrey Amherst,
to obtain a commission to take command
of all the British forces in Canada. To
do this he played the sycophant to Ger
main, and censured Carleton. When Sir
John arrived at Quebec (May 6, 1777),
Carleton was amazed at despatches
brought by him rebuking the governor
for his conduct of the last campaign, and
ordering him, " for the speedy quelling
of the rebellion," to make over to Bur
goyne, his inferior officer, the command
of the Canadian army as soon as it should
leave the boundary of the Province of
Quebec. The unjust reproaches and the
deprivation of his military command
greatly irritated Carleton, but, falling
back on his civil dignity as governor, he
implicitly obeyed all commands and an
swered the requisitions of Burgoyne. As
a soothing opiate to his wounded pride.
Burgoyne conveyed to the governor the
patent and the jewel of a baronet.

Governor Carleton was a strict dis
ciplinarian, and always obeyed instruc
tions to the letter. When Burgoyne, after
the capture of Ticonderoga (July, 1777),
pushing on towards the valley of the Hud
son, desired Carleton to hold that post
with the 3,000 troops which had been left
in Canada, the governor refused, pleading
his instructions, which confined him to his

CABLETON CABMICHAEL

own province. This unexpected refusal in 1858; and did efficient service in Mis-
was the first of the embarrassments Bur- souri for the Union in the early part
goyne endured after leaving Lake Cham- of the Civil War, where he commanded
plain. He was compelled, he said, to a district until March, 1862. He com-
" drain the life-blood of his army " to manded a brigade under Generals Steele
garrison Ticonderoga and hold Lake and Pope, which bore a prominent part in
George. No doubt this weakening of his the battle of STONE RIVER (q. v.). In the
army at that time was one of the princi- operations in northern Georgia late in
pal causes of his defeat near Saratoga. 1863, and in the Atlanta campaign the
If Carleton wished to gratify a spirit next year, he was very active. In the fa-
of retaliation because of Burgoyne s in- mous march to the sea he commanded
trigues against him, the surrender of the a division in the 14th Corps; and was
latter must have fully satisfied him. with Sherman in his progress through the
Carleton was made lieutenant-general in Carolinas, fighting at Bentonville. He
1778; was appointed commander-in-chief was brevetted major-general, U. S. A.
of the British forces in America in 1781; in 1893; and was retired Nov. 24 of that
and sailed for England Nov. 25, 1783. year.

In 1786 he was created Baron Dorchester, Carlisle, FREDERICK HOWARD, fifth
and from that year until 1796 he was EARL OF, royal commissioner; born in
governor of British North America. He May, 1748; was one of the three commis-
died Nov. 10, 1808. sioners sent on a conciliatory errand to

Carleton, JAMES HENRY, military offi- America in 1778; and was lord-lieutenant
cer; born in Maine in 1814. During the of Ireland in 1780-82. He died Sept. 4,
controversy over the northeastern boun- 1825.

dary of the United States he was lieuten- Carlisle, JOHN GRIFFIN, statesman;
ant of the Maine volunteers in what was born in Campbell (now Kenton) county,
called the Aroostook War. He served Ky., Sept. 5, 1835; was admitted to the
in the Mexican War, and when the Civil bar in 1858. He rapidly acquired a repu-
War broke out was ordered to southern tntion both as a lawyer and politician.
California as major of the 6th United Having gained experience in both houses of
States Cavalry. In April, 1862, he re- the Kentucky legislature, and served as
lieved General Canby in the command of lieutenant-governor from 1871 to 1875, he
the Department of New Mexico. For entered the national House of Representa-
meritorious service during the war he tives in 1877 as Democratic member from
was brevetted major-general, U. S. A. He his native State. In Congress he became
was the author of The Battle of Buena rapidly one of the most notable and in-
Vista, with the Operations of the Army fiuential figures, especially on financial
of Occupation for one Month. He died in and commercial matters. He was a mem-
San Antonio, Tex., Jan. 7, 1873. ber of the Ways and Means Committee,

Carleton, THOMAS, military officer; and was recognized as one of the ablest
born in England in 1736; joined the debaters and leaders in the movement for
British army and came to America in revenue reform. When his party obtain-
1755 as an ensign in Wolfe s command; ed control of the House in 1883, Carlisle,
was promoted lieutenant-general in 1798, as the candidate of the revenue-reform
and general in 1803. During the Revolu- wing of the Democrats, received the nomi-
tionary War he received a wound in the nation and election to the office of Speaker,
naval battle with Arnold on Lake Cham- He was twice re-elected, serving until
plain in 1776. He died in Ramsgate, 1889. From 1890 to 1893 he was United
England, Feb. 2, 1817. States Senator. On March 4, 1893, he left

Carlin, WILLIAM PASSMORE, military the Senate to enter President Cleveland s
officer; born in Greene county, 111., Nov. second cabinet as Secretary of the Treas-
24, 1829; was graduated at West Point in ury, and on retiring therefrom settled in
1850, and was in the Sioux expeditions New York City to practise law.
under General Harney in 1855, and under Carmichael, WILLIAM, diplomatist;
General Sumner against the Cheyennes in born in Maryland, date uncertain ; was a
1857. He was in the Utah expedition man of fortune. He was in Europe in

CARNEGIE CAfcOLItfE ISLANDS

1776, and assisted Silas Deane in his po- men. John B. Floyd, the late Secretary
litical and commercial operations in of War, was placed in command of the
France. He also assisted the American Confederates in the region of the Gauley
commissioners in Paris. In 1778-80 he River. From him much was expected, for
was in Congress, and was secretary of le- he promised much. He was to drive Gen-
gation to Jay s mission to Spain. When eral Cox out of the Kanawha Valley, while
the latter left Europe (1782) Carmichael Lee should disperse the army of 10,000
remained as charge d affaires, and retain- men under Rosecrans at Clarksburg, on
ed the office for several years. In 1792 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and so
he was associated with William Short open a way for an invading force of Con-
on a commission to negotiate with Spain federates into Maryland, Pennsylvania,
a treaty concerning the navigation of the and Ohio. Early in September Rosecrans
Mississippi. Sparks s Diplomatic Corre- marched southward in search of Floyd. He
spondence contains many of his letters, scaled the Gauley Mountains, and on the
He died in February, 1795. 10th found Floyd at Carnifex Ferry, on

Carnegie, ANDREW, philanthropist; the Gauley River, 8 miles from Sum-
born in Dunfermline, Scotland, Nov. 25, mersville, the capital of Nicholas county,
1837; was brought to the United States Va. Already a detachment of Floyd s
by his parents, who settled in Pittsburg in men had surprised and dispersed (Aug.
1848. In the early part of his business 26. 1861) some Nationals, under Col. E.
career he was associated with Mr. Wood- B. Taylor, not far from Summersville.
ruff, the inventor of the sleeping-car, in At the summit of Gauley Mountain Rose-
introducing it on railroads. Afterwards crans encountered Floyd s scouts and
he became superintendent of the Pittsburg drove them before him; and on Sept.
division of the Pennsylvania Railroad 10, Floyd s camp having been recon-
Company; invested largely in oil-wells, noitred by General Benham, Rosecrans
which yielded him a considerable fortune; fell upon him with his whole force (chiefly
and then engaged in the manufacture of Ohio troops), and for three hours a des-
steel, iron, and coke. He is widely known perate battle raged. It ceased only when
as a founder and contributor to public li- the darkness of night came on. Rose-
braries, and a promoter of other edu- crans intended to renew it in the morning,
cational institutions. Among his most and his troops lay on their arms that
notable gifts are the Carnegie Library and night. Under cover of darkness, Floyd
Institute, with art gallery, museum, and stole away, and did not halt in his flight
music hall, in Pittsburg, erected at a cost until he reached Big Sewell Mountain,
of over $1,000,000, and endowed with near New River, 30 miles distant. The
several millions and implied promise for battle at Carnifex Ferry was regarded as
still more; the public library in Washing- a substantial victory for the Nationals,
ton, D. C., $350,000; and Cooper Union, The latter lost fifteen killed and seventy
New York, $300,000. In 1899-1900 his wounded; the Confederates lost one killed
gifts aggregated about $7,000,000. In and ten wounded.

March, 1901, he offered $5,200,000 for Carolinas. See NORTH CAROLINA;

libraries in New York City, and $1,000,- SOUTH CAROLINA.

000 for the same purpose in St. Louis. Caroline (vessel). In the service of the
In May, 1901, he gave $10,000,000 to the Canadian rebels in 1837, which was seized
Scotch universities for educational pur- by the British, Dec. 26, while in American
poses. He has published Triumphant De- waters. The vessel was burned and several
mocracy; An American Four-in-Hand in men were killed. President Van Buren
Britain; Round the World; Wealth, etc. protested against this violation of neutral-
See IRON AND STEEL. ity. The New York militia was called out

Carnifex Ferry, BATTLE AT. The Con- and placed under Scott s command,

federate troops left by Garnett and Pe- Caroline Islands, a group in the

gram in western Virginia in the summer South Pacific, said to have been discover-

of 1861 were placed in charge of Gen. ed by the Portuguese, 1525; also by the

Robert E. Lee. At the beginning of Au- Spaniard Lopez de Villalobos, 1545; and

gust he was at the head of 16,000 fighting named after Charles II. of Spain, 1686.

CARPENTER C ABB

These islands were virtually given up to 1809-75 and 1879-81. He was counsel for
Spain in 1876. The Germans occupying Samuel J. Tilden before the electoral coin-
some of the islands, Spain protested in mission in 1877. His greatest speeches in
August, 1885. Spanish vessels arrived at the Senate include his defence of President
the island of Yop, Aug. 21 ; the Germans Grant against the attack of Charles Sum-
landed and set up their Hag, Aug. 24; ner, and on the Ku-klux act, Johnson s
dispute referred to the Pope; the sover- amnesty proclamation, and the iron-clad
rignty awarded to Spain, with commercial oath. He died in Washington, D. C.,
concessions to Germany and Great Brit- Feb. 24, 1881.

ain; agreement signed, Nov. 25; con- Carpenter s Hall, Philadelphia. The
firmed at Rome, Dec. 17, 1885; natives first and second Continental Congresses
subdued, Spaniards in full possession, held their sessions in this hall.
1891; sold by Spain to Germany in 1899. Carpet-bag Governments. During the

The chief American interest in the Caro- period between the ending of the Civil
line Islands lies in the facts that Amer- War and the restoration of all rights,
ican missionaries in 1852 were believed many of the Southern States were con-
to have been the first white people to trolled by unscrupulous white men (see
occupy that island; that the missionaries CARPET - BAGGERS ) and negro majorities.
were ultimately expelled by the Span- Enormous State debts were incurred and
iards from the islands. The United States frauds of all kinds perpetrated,
government secured the payment of an Carpet-baggers, a name of reproach
indemnity by Spain of $17,500 in 1894. given by the South to citizens of the

Carpenter, FRANK BICKNELL, painter North who went South after the Civil
and author; born in Homer, N. Y., in War. Many went there with the best in-
1830; was mostly self-educated in art; tentions; some in hope of political ad-
settled in New York in 1851, and became vancement by the aid of negro votes.
an associate of the National Academy of Carr, EUGENE ASA, military officer:
Design in 1852. He painted numerous born in Concord, N. Y., March 20, 1830;
portraits of Presidents, statesmen, and graduated at West Point in 1850. As
other noted persons. His best - known a member of mounted rifles he was en-
works are the historical painting of gaged in Indian warfare in New Mexico,
President Lincoln Signing the Emanci- Texas, and the West; and in 1801 served
pation Proclamation, now in the Capitol under Lyon, in Missouri, as colonel of
in Washington, and Arbitration, a view Illinois cavalry. He commanded a divi-
of the British and American commission- sion in the battle of PEA RIDGE ( q. v. ) ,
ers on the Alabama claims in session and was severely wounded. He was made
in Washington in 1871, presented to Queen a brigadier-general of volunteers in 1802.
Victoria in 1892. He wrote Six Months He commanded a division in the battle
in the White House with Abraham Lin- of PORT GIBSON (q. v.) and others pre-
coln. He died May 23, 1900. ceding the capture of Vicksburg ; also in

Carpenter, MATTHEW HALE, lawyer; the assaults on that place. He assisted in
born in Moretown, Vt., Dec. 22, 1824; the capture of Little Rock, Ark., and the
was admitted to the Vermont bar in defences of Mobile. He was retired as
1847; settled in Wisconsin in the follow- brigadier-general and brevet major-gen-
ing year, and later in Milwaukee, Mich, eral United States army in 1893.
During the Civil War he was a stanch Carr, SIR ROBERT, commissioner; born
Union man. In March, 1868, with Ly- in Northumberland, England. In 1004
man Trumbull, he represented the govern- he was appointed, with SIR RICIIAUD
jnent in the famous McCardle trial, which NICOLLS (q. v.) and others, on a corn-
involved the validity of the reconstruc- mission to regulate the affairs of New
tion act of Congress of March 7, 1867. England, and to take possession of NEW
Up to that time this was the most im- NETIIERLAND (q. v.). The commission
portant cause ever argued before the came on a fleet which had been fitted out
rnitcd States Supreme Court, and Car- to operate against the Dutch settlers on
penter and Trumbull won. He was a the Hudson. Carr and Nicolls gained
member of the United States Senate in possession of New Netherland Aug. 27,

CARBICKSFORD CABBOLL

1664, and named it New York in honor War he raised nine regiments of militia
of the Duke of York. On Sept. 24 of the in western Virginia for three - months
same year Fort Orange surrendered to volunteers ; was promoted brigadier-gen-
the English, and was renamed Albany, eral of volunteers in November, 1862 ; and
In February, 1665, Carr and his associ- served throughout the war with distinc-
ates went to Boston, but the colonists tion. In 1870-73 he held the chair of
there declined to recognize them, as did Military Science and Tactics at Wabash
also the towns in New Hampshire. In College, Ind. His publications include
Maine, however, the commissioners were American Classics, or Incidents of Rcvo-
well received, and a new government was lutionary Suffering; Crisis Thoughts; Aft-
established in that colony, which lasted sa-ra-ka, Land of Massacre, and Indian
from 1666 to 1668. He died in Bristol, Operations on the Plains; Battles of the
England, June 1, 1667. American Revolution; Battle-Maps and

Carricksford, BATTLE AT. In July, Charts of the American Revolution; Pa-
1861, after the battle on RICH MOUNTAIN triotic Reader, or Human Liberty De-
(q. v.) , the Confederates under Pegram, veloped; Columbian Selections; Beacon
threatened by McClellan, stole away to Lights of Patriotism; The Washington
Garnett s camp, when the united forces Obelisk and Its Voices; Washington, the
hastened to Carricksford, on a branch of Soldier; Lafayette and American Inde-
the Cheat River, pursued by the Nationals, pendence, etc.

After crossing that stream, Garnett made Carroll, CHARLES, OF CARROLLTON,
a stand. He was attacked by Ohio and signer of the Declaration of Independence;
Indiana troops. After a short engage- born in Annapolis, Md., Sept. 20, 1737.
ment, the Confederates fled. While Gar- His family were wealthy Roman Catholics,
nett was trying to rally them, he was
shot dead. The Confederates fled to the
mountains, and were pursued about 2
miles.

Carrington, EDWARD, military officer;
born in Charlotte county, Va., Feb. 11,
1749; became lieutenant-colonel of a Vir
ginia artillery regiment in 1776; was sent
to the South ; and was made a prisoner
at Charleston in 1780. He was Gates s
quartermaster-general in his brief South
ern campaign. Carrington prepared the
way for Greene to cross the Dan, and was
an active and efficient officer in that offi
cer s famous retreat. He commanded the
artillery at Hobkirk s Hill, and also at
Yorktown. Colonel Carrington was fore
man of the jury in the trial of AARON
BURR (q. v). He died in Richmond, Va.,
Oct. 28, 1810. His brother PAUL, born

Feb. 24, 1733, became an eminent lawyer; the first appearing in America at the close
was a member of the House of Burgesses, of the seventeenth century. He was edu-
and voted against Henry s Stamp Act reso- cated at St. Omer s and at a Jesuit college
lutions; but was patriotic, and helped at Rheims; and studied law in France
along the cause of independence in an and at the Temple, London. He returned
efficient manner. He died in Charlotte to America in 1764, when he found the
county, Va., June 22, 1818. colonies agitated by momentous political

Cavrington, HENRY BEEBEE, military questions, into which he soon entered
officer ; born in Wallingford, Conn., March a writer on the side of the liberties of the
2, 1824; graduated at Yale College in people. He inherited a vast estate, and
1845. When the first call for troops was considered one of the richest men in
was issued at the beginning of the Civil the colonies. Mr. Carroll was a member

CARROLL CARTER

of one of the first vigilance committees ordained a priest in 1769, and entered the
established at Annapolis, and a member order of Jesuits soon afterwards. He
of the Provincial Convention. Early in travelled through Europe with young Lord
1776 he was one of a committee appointed Staunton in 1770 as private tutor, and
by Congress to visit Canada to persuade in 1773 became a professor in the college
the Canadians to join the other colonies at Bruges. In 1775 he returned to Mary-
in resistance to the measures of Parlia- land, and the next year, by desire of Con-
ment. His colleagues were Dr. Franklin gress, he accompanied a committee of that
and Samuel Chase. The committee was body on a mission to Canada. That corn-
accompanied by Rev. John Carroll. The mittee was composed of Dr. Franklin,
mission was fruitless; and when, in June, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and Samuel
the committee returned to Philadelphia, Chase. He was appointed the papal vicar-
it found the subject of independence general for the United States in 1786,
under consideration in Congress. Carroll and made Baltimore his fixed residence,
and Chase induced Maryland to change In 1790 he was consecrated the first Ro-
its attitude. Carroll was the last sur- man Catholic bishop in the United States.
vivor of that band of fifty-six patriots who He founded St. Mary s College in 1791, and
signed the Declaration of Independence, in 1804 obtained a charter for Baltimore
Mr. Carroll served his State in its As- College. Liberal in his views, he main-
sembly, in the national Congress, and in tained the friendship of all Protestant
other responsible offices, with fidelity and sects. A few years before his death, in
ability. At the age of over ninety years Georgetown, D. C., Dec, 3, 1815, he was
(July 4, 1828) he laid the corner-stone of made archbishop.

the Baltimore and Ohio Railway, attend- Carson, CHRISTOPHER, popularly known
ed by an imposing civic procession. The as "Kit Carson," military officer; born
story that he appended "of Carrollton" in Madison county, Ky., Dec. 24, 1809;
to his name defiantly, to enable the Brit- began a life of adventure when seventeen
ish crown to identify him, is a fiction. He years old; was a trapper on the plains
was accustomed to sign it so to prevent for eight years; and then hunter for
confusion, as there was another Charles Bent s Fort garrison for eight years more.
Carroll. He died in Baltimore, Md., Nov. Soon afterwards he became acquainted
14, 1832. His great-grandson, John Lee with JOHN C. FREMONT (q. v.) , who em-
Carroll, of Baltimore, Md., is the general ployed him as guide on his later explora-
president of the Society of the Sons of tions. His extensive familiarity with the
the Revolution. habits and language of the various Ind-

Carroll, GEORGE W., philanthropist and ian tribes in the Western country, and his
business man ; born in Mansfield, La., in possession of their confidence, made him
1854; removed to Texas in 1873; was the exceptionally effective in promoting the
Prohibition party s candidate for Gov- settlement of that region. In 1847 he
ernor of Texas in 1902, receiving four was appointed a second lieutenant in the
times the largest Prohibition vote ever United States Mounted Rifles; in 1853
before cast in Texas. In 1904 he was drove 6,500 sheep across the mountains
nominated for Vice-President of the Unit- into California, and on his return was
ed States on the Prohibition ticket. made Indian agent in New Mexico, where

Carroll, HOWARD, journalist: born in he did much in securing treaties between
Albany, N. Y., in 1854; travelling and the government and the Indians. During
special correspondent of the New York the Civil War he rendered important ser-
Times for several years, when he resigned vice in Colorado, New Mexico, and the
to enter business. He subsequently de- Indian Territory, for which he was bre-
clined the post of United States minister vetted a brigadier-general of volunteers,
to Belgium. Among his works are At the close of the war he again became
Twelve Amcrii-ans: Their Li ITS and an Indian agent. He died in Fort Lynn,
Times; A Mississippi Incident ; etc. Col., May 23, 1868.

Carroll, JOHN, clergyman; born in Up- Carter, SAMUEL POWHATAN, naval and
per Marlboro, Md.. Jan. 8, 1735; wns (..hi- military officer; born in Elizabethtown,
cated at St. Omer s, Liege, and Bruges; Tenn., Aug. 6, 1819; was educated at

CARTERET CARTHAGE

Princeton College; entered the navy in clined it; and Andros warned him to for-
February, 1840, and became assistant bear exercising any jurisdiction in east
instructor of seamanship at the Naval Jersey, and announced that he should
Academy in 1857. At the beginning of erect a fort to aid him (Andros) in the
the Civil War he was transferred to the exercise of his authority. Carteret defied
War Department and temporarily served him; and when, a month later, Andros
in drilling recruits from eastern Tennessee, went to New Jersey, seeking a peaceful
He served through the war with much conference, Carteret met him with a mili-
gallantry, and on March 13, 1865, re- tary force. As Andros came without
ceived the brevet of major-general. He troops, he was permitted to land. The
then re-entered the navy; in 1869-72 was conference was fruitless. A few weeks
commandant of the Naval Academy; re- later Carteret was taken from his bed, in
tired Aug. 6, 1881; and was promoted his house at Elizabethtown, at night, by
rear - admiral May 16, 1882. He died in New York soldiers, and carried to that
Washington, May 26, 1891. city and placed in the hands of the sheriff.
Carteret, SIB GEORGE, English naval He was tried in May (1678), and though
officer; born in St. Ouen, Jersey, in 1599. Andros sent his jurors out three times,
Charles I. appointed him governor of the with instructions to bring in a verdict of
Island of Jersey; and when the civil war guilty, he was acquitted. But he was
broke out he was comptroller of the navy, compelled to give security that he would
and esteemed by all parties. Leaving the not again assume political authority in
sea, he went with his family to Jersey, New Jersey. The Assembly of New Jersey
but soon afterwards returned to help his were asked to accept the duke s laws, but
royal master. In 1645 he was created a they preferred their own. At the same
baronet, and returned to his government time they accepted the government of An-
of Jersey, where he received and sheltered dros, but with reluctance. Carteret went
the Prince of Wales (afterwards Charles to England with complaints, and the case
II.) when the royal cause was ruined in was laid before the duke by his widow
England. Other refugees of distinction after his death. The Friends, of west
were there, and he defended the island Jersey, had already presented their corn-
gallantly against the forces of Cromwell, plaints against Andros, and the case was
At the Restoration he rode with the King referred to the duke s commissioners,
in his triumphant entry into London. These, advised by Sir William Jones, de-
Carteret became one of the privy council, cided that James s grant reserved no juris-
vice-chamberlain, and treasurer of the diction, and that none could be rightly
navy. Being a personal friend of James, claimed. This decided the matter for east
Duke of York, to whom Charles II. grant- Jersey also, and in August and October,
ed New Netherland, Carteret and Berke- 1680, the duke signed documents relin-
ley (another favorite) easily obtained a quishing all rights over east and west
grant of territory between the Hudson and Jersey.

Delaware rivers, which, in gratitude for Carthage, BATTLE OF. In the summer
his services in the Island of Jersey, was of 1861 General Lyon sent Col. Franz Sigel
called New Jersey. Carteret retained his in pursuit of the Confederates under Gov-
share of the province until his death, in ernor Price in southeastern Missouri. His
1680, leaving his widow, Lady Elizabeth, force consisted of nearly 1,000 loyal Mis-
executrix of his estate. Sir George was sourians (of his own and Salomon s regi-
one of the grantees of the Carolinas, and ments) with two batteries of artillery of
a portion of that domain was called Car- four field-pieces each in all about 1,500
teret colony. Governor Andros, of New men. Though the Confederates were re-
York, claimed political jurisdiction, in ported to be more than 4,000 in number,
the name of the Duke of York, over all Sigel diligently sought them. On the
New Jersey. Philip Carteret, governor of morning of July 5, 1861, he encountered
east Jersey, denied it, and the two gov- large numbers of mounted riflemen, who
ernors were in open opposition. A friend- seemed to be scouting, and a few miles
ly meeting of the two magistrates, on from Carthage, the capital of Jasper
Staten Island, was proposed. Carteret de- county, he came upon the main body, un-

CARTIER

der General Jackson, who was assisted by
General Rains and three other brigadier-
generals. They were drawn up in battle
order on the crown of a gentle hill. A
battle commenced at a little past ten
o clock, by Sigel s field-pieces, and lasted
about three hours, when, seeing his bag-
gage in danger and his troops in peril of
being outflanked, Sigel fell back and re
treated, in perfect order, to the heights
near Carthage, having been engaged in a
running fight nearly all the way. The
Confederates pressed him sorely, and he
continued the retreat (being outnumbered
three to one) to Springfield, where he
was joined by General Lyon (July 13).
who took the chief command of the com
bined forces. This junction was timely,
for the combined forces of Generals Mc-
Culloch, Rains, and others had joined those
of Price, making the number of Confeder
ates in that region about 20,000.
Cartier, JACQUES, French navigator;

JACQUES CARTIER.

born at St. Malo, France, Dec. 31, 1494;
was commissioned by Francis I., King of
France, to command an expedition to ex
plore the Western Continent. On April
20, 1534, after appropriate ceremonies in
the cathedral at St. Malo, he sailed from
that port with two ships, having each a
crew of 120 men, and, after a prosperous
voyage of twenty days, they arrived at
Newfoundland. Sailing northward, he en
tered the Strait of Belle Isle, and, touch
ing the coast of Labrador, he formally
took possession of the country in the name
of his king, and erected a cross, upon
which he hung the arms of France. Turn
ing southward, he followed the west coast
of Newfoundland to Cape Race. Then he
explored the Bay of Chaleurs, landed in
Gaspfi Bay, held friendly intercourse with
the natives, and induced a chief to allow
two of his sons to go with him to France,
promising to return them the next year.
There, also, he planted a cross with the
French arms upon it, and,
sailing thence northeast
across the Gulf of St. Law
rence, entered the branch of
the St. Lawrence River north
of Anticosti Island. Uncon
scious of having discover
ed a magnificent river, he
turned and sailed for France
to avoid the autumn storms,
and arrived at St. Malo on
Sept. 5, 1534.

Encouraged by the success
of this voyage, the King placed
Cartier in command of three
ships, which left St. Malo at
the middle of May, 1535,
bearing some of the young no
bility of France. Separated
by storms, they met at the
appointed rendezvous, in the
Strait of Belle Isle, in July,
and sailed up the St. Law
rence to the mouth of a river
(now St. Charles) at the site
of Quebec, which they reached
on Sept. 14. His squadron
consisted of the Great 11 er
mine, 120 tons; Little II er
mine, 60 tons; and L Emeril-
Ion, a small craft. On the
day after their arrival. Ilicv
were visited by Donnaconna,

CARTIER, JACQUES

JACQUES CAKT1ER SETTING UF A CKOSS AT GASPE.

" King of Canada," who received them Little H ermine was found to be rotten

with the greatest kindness, and, through and unseaworthy, and, as the other two

the two young men whom Cartier had vessels could carry his reduced company,

brought back, they were enabled to she was abandoned. He formally took

converse. Mooring the larger vessels in possession of the country in the name of

the St. Croix (as Cartier named the his King, and, just before his depart-

St. Charles), he went up the river ure (May 9, 1536), he invited Donna-

in the smaller one, with two or three vol- conna and eight chiefs on board the flag-

unteers, and, with a small boat, they ship to a feast. They came, and Cartier

reached the Huron village called Hoche- treacherously sailed away with them to

laga, on the site of Montreal. He called France as captives, where they all died

the mountain back of it Mont Real of grief. Cartier reached St. Malo

(Royal Mountain), hence the name of July 16.

Montreal. There he enjoyed the kindest There was now a pause in this enter-
hospitality, and bore away with him a prise, but finally Francis de la Roque,
pretty little girl, eight years old, daugh- Lord of Roberval, Picardy, prevailed upon
ter of one of the chiefs, who lent her to the King to appoint him viceroy and lieu-
him to take to France. Returning to tenant-general of the new territory, and
Stadacona (now Quebec) early in October, Cartier captain-general and chief pilot of
the Frenchmen spent a severe winter there, the royal ships. Five vessels were fitted
during which twenty-five of them died out, and Cartier, with two of them, sail-
of scurvy. Nearly every one of them had ed from St. Malo in May, 1541. Late
the disease. When Cartier was prepared in August these reached Stadacona. The
to leave for France, in the spring, the people there eagerly pressed to the ships
ii. E 65

CABTWBIGHT CASE

GOVERNOR CARVER S CHAIR.

to welcome their monarch, whom Cartier was a deacon or elder in Robinson s church
had promised to bring back. They shook at Leyden, and was one of the committee
their heads incredulously when he told sent to London to effect a treaty with the
them Donnaconna was dead. To show his Virginia Company concerning colonization
good faith, he showed them the pretty in America. When the written instru-
little Huron maiden whom he was to re- ment for the government of the colony
turn to her friends at Hochelaga. But
they grew more sullen every hour, and
became positively hostile. After visiting
Hochelaga, Cartier returned to Stadacona,
and on an island (Orleans) just below,
he caused a fort to be built for protection
through the ensuing winter, where he
waited patiently for the viceroy, but he
came not. Towards the end of May the
ice moved out of the St. Lawrence, and
Cartier departed for France. He ran
into the harbor of St. Johns, Newfound
land, where he found De la Roque on his
way to the St. Lawrence. Cartier tried
to induce him to turn back by giving
him most discouraging accounts of the
country, but he ordered the navigator to
go back with him to the great river. Car- was subscribed on board the Mayflower,
tier disobeyed and sailed for France. The Mr. Carver was chosen to be governor,
viceroy went above the site of Quebec, His wife died during the succeeding
where he built a fort and spent the next winter. Governor Carver s chair (the
winter in great suffering, returning to first throne of a chief magistrate set
France in the autumn of 1543. Cartier up in New England) is preserved by the
had arrived the previous summer, and Massachusetts Historical Society. He
did not make another voyage. He died died in New Plymouth, Mass., April 5,
in 1555. 1621.

Cartwright, JOHN, author; born in Carver, JONATHAN, traveller; born in
Marnham, England, Sept. 28, 1740; be- Stillwater, Conn., in 1732; served in the
came widely known as an advocate of French and Indian War, and afterwards
the freedom of the American colonies; attempted to explore the vast region in
and issued a pamphlet entitled American America which the English had acquired
Independence the Glory and Interest of from the French. He penetrated the coun-
Qreat Britain, in 1775. In this he plead- try to Lake Superior and its shores and
ed for a union between England and the tributaries, and, after travelling about
colonies, but with separate legislative 7,000 miles, he returned to Boston, whence
bodies. This tract, supplemented by his he departed in 1766, and sailed for Eng-
refusal to accept a commission in the land, to communicate his discoveries to
British army on American soil, destroy- the government, and to petition the King
ed the friendship between Lord Howe and for a reimbursement of his expenses. His
himself. On April 2, 1777, he recommend- Travels were published in 1778. He was
ed the King to use his power to estab- badly used in England, and, by utter neg-
lish peace with the colonies on the basis lect, was reduced to a state of extreme
suggested in his pamphlet. He died in destitution. He died in London, Jan. 31,
London, Sept. 23, 1824. 1780.

Carver, JOHN, first governor of New Casa de Mata. See EL MOLING DEL
Plymouth; born in England, between 1575 REY.

and 1590; spent a considerable estate Case, AUGUSTUS LUDLOW, naval offi-
in forwarding the scheme of the " Pil- cer ; born in Newburg, N. Y., Feb. 3,
grims " for emigrating to America, and 1813; joined the navy in 1828; served in
accompanied them in the Mayflower. He the Gulf of Mexico during the Mexican

CASEY CASTINE

LEWIS CASS.

War, and took part in the engagements 1831 he resigned the governorship and be-
of Vera Cruz, Alvarado, and Tabasco. In came Secretary of War, under President
1861-63 he was fleet-captain of the North Jackson. From 1836 to 1842 he was
Atlantic blockading squadron, and was United States minister to France, and
present at the capture of Forts Clark from 1845 to 1848 United States Senator,
and Hatteras. Early in 1863 he was He received the Democratic nomination
assigned to the Iroquois, and in that year
directed the blockade of New Inlet, N. C.
He became rear-admiral May 24, 1872.
During the Virginius trouble with Spain
in 1874 he was commander of the com
bined North Atlantic, South Atlantic, and
European fleets at Key West. He died
Feb. 17, 1893.

Casey, SILAS, military officer; born in
East Greenwich, R. I., July 12, 1807; was
graduated at West Point in 1826; served
with Worth in Florida (1837-41) and
under Scott in the war with Mexico
(1847-48); was also in the operations
against the Indians on the Pacific coast
in 1856. Early in the Civil War he was
made brigadier-general of volunteers, and
organized and disciplined the volunteers
at and near Washington. He was made
major-general of volunteers in May, 1862,

and commanded a division in General for President in 1848, but was defeated,
Keyes s corps on the Peninsula, and re- and was again in the United States Sen-
ceived the first attack of the Confederates ate from 1851 to 1857, when President
in the battle of FAIR OAKS ( q. v.) . Gen- Buchanan called him to his cabinet as
eral Casey was brevetted major-general Secretary of State; but when the Presi-
U. S. A. in March, 1865, for " merito- dent refused to reinforce the garrison at
rious service during the rebellion," and the Fort Sumter, he resigned. General Cass
legislature of Rhode Island gave him a favored the compromise of 1850, and also
vote of thanks in 1867. He was author favored a compromise with the disunion-
of a System of Infantry Tactics (1861) ists until they became Confederates, when
and Infantry Tactics for Colored Troops he favored the supporters of the Union.
(1863). He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Jan. He was author of a work entitled France:
22, 1882. Its King, Court, and Government. He

Cass, LEWIS, statesman; born in Exe- died in Detroit, Mich., June 17, 1866.
ter, N. H., Oct. 9, 1782; entered upon the Ca.stine, CAPTURE OF. A British fleet,
practice of law about 1802, in Zanesville, consisting of four 74-gun ships, two frig-
O., and at the age of twenty-five was a ates, two sloops of war, and one schooner,
member of the legislature. He was colo- with ten transports, the latter bearing
nel of an Ohio regiment, under General almost 4,000 troops, sailed from Halifax
Hull, in 1812, and was with the troops Aug. 26, 1814, under the command of
surrendered at DETROIT (q. v.) . In March, Lieut.-Gen. Sir John Cope Sherbrooke,
1813, he was made a brigadier-general, governor of Nova Scotia, assisted by Maj.-
and was volunteer aide to General Harri- Gen. Gerard Gosselin. The fleet was in
son at the battle of the THAMES (q. v.), command of Rear-Admiral Edward Grif-
when he was appointed governor of Mich- nth. The destination of the armament
igan Territory. As superintendent of was the Penobscot River, with a design
Indian affairs in that region, he nego- to take possession of the country between
tiated nineteen treaties with the Indians, that river and Passamaquoddy Bay.
In 1829 he organized a scientific expedi- Sherbrooke intended to stop and take pos-
tion to explore the upper Mississippi. In session of Machias, but, learning that the

CASTINE CASTRIES

corvette John Adams, 24 guns, had enter
ed the Penobscot, he hastened to overtake
her. On the morning of Sept. 1 they ar
rived in the harbor of Castine. There was
a small American force there, under Lieu
tenant Lewis, occupying a little battery.
Lewis, finding resistance would be in vain,
spiked the guns, blew up the battery, and
fled. About 600 British troops landed and
took quiet possession of the place. The
John Adams had just returned from a
long cruise, much crippled by striking on
a rock on entering the bay. It was with
difficulty that she was kept afloat until
she reached Hampden, far up the river,
to which she fled. The British immedi
ately detached a land and naval force to
seize or destroy her. Sherbrooke and
Griffith issued a joint proclamation as
suring the inhabitants of their intention
to take possession of the country between
the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy Bay,
and offering them protection on condition
of their acquiescence. All persons taken
in arms were to be punished, and all who
should supply the British with provisions
were to be paid and protected. General
Gosselin was appointed military govern
or. See HAMPDEN, ACTION AT.

Castine, VINCENT, BARON DE, military
officer; born in Orleans, France; a scion
of a noble family. At the age of seven-

troduced among the natives of that region.
He gained great influence over them. Dur
ing his absence in 1688, his establishment
was pillaged by the English, and he be
came their bitter foe. He taught the Ind
ians around him the use of fire-arms, and
he frequently co-operated with them in
their attacks on the northeastern fron
tier. In 1696, with 200 Indians, he as
sisted Iberville in the capture of the fort
at Pemaquid. In 1706-7 he assisted in
the defence of Port Royal, and was wound
ed. He lived in America thirty years,
when he returned to France, leaving Fort
Castine and the domain around it to his
half-breed son and successor in title. The
young baron was really a friend to the
English, but, being at the head of the
Penobscot Indians, and suspected of being
an enemy, he was surprised and captured
in 1721, taken to Boston, and imprisoned
several months. His name is perpetuated
in the town of Castine, at which place
slight traces of his fort are yet visible.

Castle William, a defensive work on
the northwest point of Governor s Isl
and, New York Harbor; completed in
1811; and now used chiefly as a mili
tary prison. It is the most conspicuous
building on the island, and from it is
fired the regulation gun signal at sun
rise and sunset. As a defensive work

REMAINS OP FORT CASTIXE.

teen years, he was colonel of the King s Castle William is now of no importance

body-guard, and when the regiment to whatever.

which he belonged was sent to Canada Castle Thunder. See CONFEDERATE

(1665) he went with it and remained PRISONS.

after it was disbanded. In 1667 he estab- Castries, ARMAND CHARLES AUGUSTIN.

lished a trading-post and built a fort at Due DE, military officer; born in France,

or near the mouth of the Penobscot River, in April, 1756; came to America in the

and married the daughter of a Penobscot early part of the Revolutionary War;

chief. By him Christianity was first in- was an officer under Rochambeau ; and

CASWELL CATHCART

was promoted brigadier-general in 1782. bas and several chiefs. The hatred be-

He died in France in 1842. tween the two nations was so bitter that

Caswell, RICHARD, military officer; the English commissioners deemed it pru-
born in Maryland, Aug. 3, 1729; went to dent to keep the Catawbas alone in a
North Carolina in 1746, and practised law chamber until the opening of the conven-
there, serving in the Assembly from 1754 tion, to prevent violence. In the conven-
to 1771, and being speaker in 1770. In tion, after a speech by Mr. Bull, attend-
the battle of the Allaraance he commanded ed by the usual presents of wampum, the
Tryon s right wing, but soon afterwards Catawba " king " and his chiefs approach-
identified himself with the cause of the ed the grand council, singing a song of
patriots, and was a member of the Con- peace, and bearing their ensigns colored
tinental Congress (1774-75). For three feathers carried horizontally. A seat was
years he was president of the Provincial prepared for them at the right hand of
Congress of North Carolina, and was gov- the English company. The singers con-
ernor of the State from 1777 to 1779. tinued their song, half fronting the old
In February, 1776, he was in command of sachems to whom their words were ad-
the patriot troops in the battle of Moore s dressed, pointing their feathers, and
Creek Bridge, and received the thanks of shaking their musical calabashes, while
Congress and the commission of major- their " king " was preparing and lighting
general for the victory there achieved. He the calumet, or pipe of peace. The king
led the State troops in the battle near first smoked, and then presented the pipe
Camden (August, 1780) ; and was con- to King Hendrick, of the Mohawks, who
troller-general in 1782. He was again gracefully accepted and smoked it. Then
governor in 1784-86; and a member of the each sachem smoked it in turn, when the
convention that framed the national Con- Catawba monarch addressed the Six Na-
stitution. While presiding as speaker in tions the singers having fastened their
the North Carolina Assembly he was feathers, calabashes, and pipes to their
stricken with paralysis, and died in Fay- tent-pole. The Catawbas were again the
etteville, N. C., Nov. 20, 1789. active allies of the Carolinians in 1760,

Catawba Indians, one of the eight Ind- when the Cherokees made war upon them,

ian nations of North America discovered and were friends of the " pale faces " ever

by the Europeans in the seventeenth cen- afterwards. In the Revolution they join-

tury, when they had 1,500 warriors. They ed the Americans, though few in numbers,

occupied the region between the Yadkin They have occupied a reservation only a

and Catawba rivers, on each side of the few miles square upon the Catawba River,

boundary-line between North and South near the mouth of Fishing Creek, and are

Carolina. They were southward of the now nearly extinct.

Tuscaroras, and were generally on good Cathay, the old name of China, so call-
terms with them. They were brave, ed by the Venetian traveller Marco Polo,
but not warlike, and generally acted on who, in the employ of the Khan of Tar-
the defensive. In 1672 they expelled the tary, visited it early in the thirteenth cen-
fugitive Shawnees; but their country was tury. It was the land Columbus expect-
desolated by bands of the Five Nations ed to find by sailing westward from Spain,
in 1701. They assisted the Carolinians Cathcart, WILLIAM SCHAW, EARL, mil-
against the Tuscaroras and their confed- itary officer; born in Petersham, Eng-
erates in 1711; but four years afterwards land, Sept. 17, 1755; joined the British
they joined the powerful league of the army in June, 1777, and came to the
Southern Indians in endeavors to ex- United States ; later was aide to Gen.
lirpate the white people. A long and Spencer Wilson and General Clinton, and
virulent war was carried on between participated in the siege of Forts Mont-
them and the Iroquois. The English en- gomery and Clinton, and in the battles of
deavored to bring peace between them, Brandywine and Monmouth. In May,
and succeeded. When, in 1751, William 1778, during the reception given in honor
Bull, commissioner for South Carolina, at- of Lord Howe, in Philadelphia, he led
tended a convention at Albany, he was at- one section of the " knights " at the cele-
tended by the chief sachem of the Cataw- brated MISCHIANZA ( q. v.). Later he

CATHOLICISM IN THE UNITED STATES CAVITE

recruited and commanded the Caledonian She died in New London, Conn., Feb. 3,

Volunteers, which subsequently was call- 1869.

ed Tarleton s Legion. He returned to Eng- Cavaliers, adherents of the fortunes
land in 1780. He died in Cartside, Scot- of the Stuarts the nobility, and the bit-
land, June 16, 1843. ter opposers of the Puritans. On the

Catholicism in the United States, death of Charles I. (1649), they fled to

See ROMAN CATHOLICISM. Virginia by hundreds, where only, in

Catlin, GEORGE, artist; born in Wilkes- America, their Church and their King were

barre, Pa., in 1796. In 1832 he went to respected. They made an undesirable ad-

the Far West, where he lived for several dition to the population, excepting their

year-; among the Indians. His paintings, introduction of more refinement of manner

illustrative of Indian life and customs, than the ordinary colonist possessed. They

numbered in all more than 500. His pub- were idle, inclined to luxurious living,

lications include Manners, Customs, and and haughty in their deportment towards

Condition of the North American Indians; the " common people." It was they who

0-kee-pa: A Religious Ceremony, and oth- rallied around Berkeley in his struggles

cr Customs of the Mandans, etc. He died with Bacon (see BACOX, NATHANIEL), and

in Jersey City, N. J., Dec. 23, 1872. gave him all his strength in the Assem-

Catron, JOHN DEAN, jurist; born in bly. They were extremely social among

\Vythe county, Va., in 1788 ; justice of the their class, and gatherings and feastings

United States Supreme Court, 1837-65. and wine-drinking were much indulged in

He died in Nashville, Tenn., May 30, 1865. until poverty pinched them. They gave

Catskill Mountains, a group of the a stimulus to the slave-trade, for, un-

Appalachian range on the west bank of willing to work themselves, they desired

the Hudson River in New York State, servile tillers of their broad acres; and

Highest point, Round Top, 3,804 feet. so were planted the seeds of a landed oli-

Caucus, a word in the vocabulary of garchy in Virginia that ruled the colony
the politics of the United States, proba- until the Revolution in 1775, and in a
bly a corruption of the word calkers measure until the close of the Civil War
men who drive oakum or old ropes un- in 1865.
twisted into the seams of vessels. These Cavalry. See ARMY.
men naturally associated much with rope- Cavite , a former Spanish military post,
makers in seaports. In Boston the calk- on a narrow peninsula jutting out from
ers had formed an association of which the the mainland of Luzon Island, Philip-
father of Samuel Adams, and Samuel pines, into Manila Bay, about 8 miles
Adams himself afterwards, were members, southwest of the city of Manila. On the
After the Boston Massacre, this society at night of April 30, 1898, Commodore
their meetings, in speeches and resolu- Dewey, in command of the Pacific squad-
tions, took strong grounds against the ron, sailed boldly past the batteries on
British government, its acts, and its in- Corregidor Island, into Manila Bay, and
struments in America, and planned on the morning of May 1, attacked the
schemes for relieving their country of op- Spanish fleet which had hastily formed
pression. The Tories, in derision, called in battle-line under the protection of the
those as&gt;omblies " calkers meetings," guns of the Cavit fort. When the Amer-
which became corrupted to " caucus meet- ican vessels neared the fort they had to
ings " gatherings at which politicians of sustain both its fire and that of the
the same creed meet, consult, and lay Spanish ships. But Commodore Dewey
plans for political action. See NOMINAT- so manoeuvred his fleet as to keep in an
ING CONVENTIONS, NATIONAL. advantageous position in the strong cur-

Caughnawagas, Canadian Indians al- rents of the bay and to avoid the fire of

lied with the Mohawks. the Spaniards. Some of the American

Caulkins, FRANCES MAIN WARING, au- ehips engaged the fleet and others direct-

thor; born in New London, Conn., in ed their fire against the batteries. The

1796; was highly educated; and was the water battery at Cavite was shelled until

author of .1 History of Norwich, Conn.; a magazine exploded, killing forty men,

A history of New London, Conn., etc. when the commander raised a white flag as

CAYUGA INDIANS CEDAR CHEEK

a sign of a truce. Later the forts of Cavite facture of abaca are the chief industries,

and Corregidor surrendered, and the six Population, 320,000. The town of CEBU,

batteries at the entrance of the bay were on the eastern coast of the island, the

destroyed. After the destruction of Ad- oldest Spanish settlement in the Philip-

miral Montijo s fleet the Americans es- pines, is a place of considerable trade,

tablished a hospital at Cavite, where 250 and has a cathedral and several churches.

Spanish wounded and sick were cared for. It is about 360 miles from Manila, and

In 1900 the United States authorities has a population of 40,000. There are

converted Cavite into a stronger protec- valuable and extensive coal deposits near

tive post than it had ever been. See the town. The China Steam Navigation

DEWEY, GEORGE; MANILA; MANILA BAY, Company began in 1900 to run a regular

BATTLE OF. steamer from Hong-Kong to the port of

Cayuga Indians, one of the four nations Cebu. Hemp was exported from the isl-

of the IBOQUOIS CONFEDERACY (q. v.) , and in 1899 to the value of $3,151,910;

calling themselves Goiogwen, or "Men of sugar, ,$770,503; copra, $241,953. The to-

the Woods." Tradition says that at the tal shipments exceeded by $1,456,000

formation of the confederacy, Hi-a-wat-ha those of 1898. Imports in 1899 were val-

said to the Cayugas: "You, Cayugas, ued at $1,055,286.

a people whose habitation is the Dark Cedar Creek, BATTLE AT. In October,
Forest, and whose home is everywhere, 1864, the National army, commanded by
shall be the fourth nation, because of General Wright, in the temporary absence
your superior cunning in hunting." They of Sheridan at Washington, were so strong-
inhabited the country about Cayuga Lake ly posted behind Cedar Creek that they had
in central New York, and numbered about no expectation of an attack. They were
300 warriors when first discovered by the mistaken. Early felt keenly his misfort-
French at the middle of the seventeenth une, and, having been reinforced by Ker-
century. The nation was composed of the shaw s division and 600 cavalry sent by
families of the Turtle, Bear, and Wolf, Lee, he determined to make a bold move-
like the other cantons, and also those of ment, swiftly and stealthily, against the
the Beaver, Snipe, Heron, and Hawk. Nationals. He secretly gathered his forces
They were represented in the congress of at Fisher s Hill behind a mask of thick
the league by ten sachems. Through woods, and formed them in two columns
Jesuit missionaries the French made fruit- to make a simultaneous attack upon both
less attempts to Christianize the Cayugas flanks of the Nationals. He moved soon
and win them over to the French interest, after midnight (Oct. 19, 1864), with
but found them uniformly enemies. Dur- horse, foot, and artillery, along rugged
ing the Revolutionary War the Cayugas paths over the hills, for he shunned the
were against the colonists. They fought highways for fear of discovery. The divi-
the Virginians at Point Pleasant in sions of Gordon, Ramseur, and Pegram
1774. They hung upon the flank and rear formed his right column; his left was com-
of the army under Sullivan that invaded posed of the divisions of Kershaw and
the territory of the Senecas in 1779; but Wharton. At dawn these moving columns
they soon had their own villages destroy- fell upon the right, left, and rear of the
ed, which greatly annoyed them. After Nationals. It was a surprise. So furious
the war they ceded their lands to the State was the assault before the Nationals had
of New York, excepting a small reserva- time to take battle order, that in fifteen
tion. In 1800 some of them joined the minutes Crook s corps, that held a position
Senecas, some went to the Grand River in front, and had heard mysterious sounds
in Canada, and some to Sandusky, O., like the dull, heavy tramp of an army, was
whence they were removed to the INDIAN broken into fragments, and sent flying
TERRITORY (q. v.). In 1899 there were back in disorder upon the corps of Emory
only 161 left at the New York agency. and Wright. Crook left 700 men as pris-
Cebu, one of the Philippine Islands, oners, with many cannon, small-arms, and
lying between Luzon and Mindanao, 135 munitions of war in the hands of the Con-
mile long, with an extreme width of 30 federates. Emory tried in vain to stop
miles. Sugar cultivation and the manu- the fugitives, but very soon his own corps

CEDAR CHEEK, BATTLE AT

gave way, leaving several guns behind, it to be only a reconnoissance. After
These, with Crook s, eighteen in all, were breakfast he mounted his horse a power-

turned upon the

fugitives

with fearful fill black charger and moved leisurely

effect, while Early s right column, led by out of the city southward. He soon met
Gordon, continued their flanking advance the van of fugitives, who told a dreadful

VIEW AT CEDAR CREEK BATTLE-GROUND.

with vigor, turning the Nationals out of tale of disaster. He immediately ordered
every position where they attempted to the retreating artillery to be parked on

make a stand.

Seeing the peril of his army, Wright
ordered a general retreat, which was cov
ered by the Gth Corps, under the command
of Ricketts, which remained unbroken.
The whole armv retreated to Middletown,

each side of the turnpike; Then, ordering
his escort to follow, he put his horse on
a swinging gallop, and at that pace rode
nearly 12 miles to the front. The fugi
tives became thicker and thicker every mo
ment. He did not stop to chide or coax,

a little village 5 miles north of Strasburg, but, waving his hat as his horse thunder-

wliere Wright rallied his broken columns,
and, falling back a mile or more, left
Early in possession of Middletown. The
Nationals had lost since daybreak (it
was now ten o clock) 1,200 men made cap
tive, besides a large number killed and
wounded; also camp equipage, lines of
defence, and twenty-four cannon. There
being a. lull in the pursuit, Wright had
reformed his troops and changed his
front, intending to attack or retreat to
Winchester as circumstances might dic
tate.

At that critical moment Sheridan ap
peared on the field. He had returned from
Washington, and had slept at Winchester.

ed on over the magnificent stone road, he
shouted to the cheering crowds, " Face
the other way, boys! face the other way!
We are going back to our camp. We are
going to lick them out of their boots!"
Instantly the tide of retreating troops
turned and followed after the young gen
eral. As he dashed along the lines and
rode in front of forming regiments, he
gave a word of cheer to all. He declared
Iliey should have all those camps and can
non back again. They believed the
prophecy, and fought fiercely for its ful
filment. The reformed army advanced
in full force. Already (10 A.M.) General
Emory had quickly repulsed an attack,

Early in the morning he heard the boom- which inspirited the whole corps. A gen-
ing of cannon up the valley, and supposed eral and severe struggle ensued. The whole

CEDAR MOUNTAIN CELORON DE BIENVILLE

Confederate army were soon in full and
tumultuous retreat up the valley towards
Fisher s Hill, leaving guns, trains, and
other hinderances to flight behind. Early s
army was virtually destroyed; and, with

the division of General Williams, of which
Crawford s brigade was a part. The bat
tle now became general, and raged for an
hour and a half, during which deeds of
great valor were performed on both sides.

the exception of two or three skirmishes The Nationals, outnumbered, were pushed

between cavalry, there was no more fight- back after much loss by both parties. At

ing in the Shenandoah Valley. That dusk Ricketts s division of McDowell s
night the Nationals occupied their old

their

position at Cedar Creek. The promise of
Sheridan, " We will have all the camps
and cannon back again," was fulfilled.
Sheridan was rewarded by the commis
sion of a major-general in the regular
army, dated Nov. 4, 1864. " Sheridan s

corps came upon the field, and checked the
pursuit. Artillery firing was kept up un
til near midnight. Later in the evening
Sigel s corps arrived, and these reinforce
ments kept Jackson in check. On the
night of the llth, informed of the ap
proach of National troops from the Rap-

Ride " was made the theme of poetry and pahannock, and alarmed for the safety of

painting.

Cedar Mountain, BATTLE OF. Pope s
main army was near Culpeper Court
house, and " Stonewall " Jackson was at

his communications with Richmond, he
fled beyond the Rapidan, leaving a part
of his dead unburied.

Cedars, AFFAIR AT THE. In 1776 there

Gordonsville, with a heavy force, at the was a small American party posted at the

close of July, 1862. Pope had taken com
mand on June 28, and assumed the con
trol in the field on July 29. Both ar
mies advanced early in August. Jackson,
reinforced, had thrown his army across
the Rapidan River on the morning of the
8th, and driven the National cavalry back
on Culpeper Court-house. Gen. S. W.
Crawford was sent with his brigade to as
sist the latter in retarding Jackson s
march, and to ascertain his real inten
tions, if possible. The movements of the
Confederates were so mysterious that it
was difficult to guess where they intended
to strike. On the morning of Aug. 9, Pope
sent General Banks forward with about
8.000 men to join Crawford near Cedar
Mountain, 8 miles southward of Culpeper

Cedars Rapids of the St. Lawrence River,
under Colonel Bedel, of New Hampshire.
While the colonel was sick at Lachine,
Captain Foster, with some regulars, Cana
dians, and 500 Mohawks, under Brant,
came down the river and attacked and
captured this post without resistance.
Arnold went out from Montreal with a
force to attack the captors; but, to pre
vent the Indians murdering the prisoners,
he consented to a compromise for an ex
change.

Celoron de Bienville, French explor
er; born about 1715. The treaty of peace
at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 did not touch
the subject of boundaries between the
French and English colonies in America.
The Ohio Company was formed partly for

ments in the disputed territory. The
French determined to counteract the move-

Court-house, and Sigel was ordered to ad- the purpose of planting English settle-
vance from Sperryville at the same time
to the support of Banks. Jackson had
now gained the commanding heights of ment by pre-occupation ; and in 1749 the
Cedar Mountain, and he sent forward governor of Canada, the Marquis de la
General Ewell under the thick mask of the GalissoniSre, sent Celeron with subordinate
forest. Early s brigade of that division officers, cadets, twenty soldiers, 180 Cana-
was thrown upon the Culpeper road. The dians, thirty Iroquois, and twenty-five
Confederates planted batteries, and opened Abenakes, with instructions to go down
fire upon Crawford s batteries. Before
Crawford a-nd Banks were about 20,000
veteran soldiers in line of battle. Against
these Banks moved towards evening, and
almost simultaneously fell upon Jackson s Duquesne, and Coulon de Villiers accom-
right and left. The attacking force was panied him as chief lieutenants. Celoron
composed of the division of General Auger was provided with a number of leaden tab-
(the advance led by General Geary) and lets, properly inscribed, to bury at differ-

the Ohio River and take formal pos
session of the surrounding country in
the name of the King of France. Con-
trecoeur, afterwards in command at Fort

CEMETERIES CENSURING THE PRESIDENT

cut places as a record of pre-occupation
by the French. The expedition left La-
chine on June 15, ascended the St. Law
rence, crossed Lake Ontario, arrived at
Niagara July 6, coasted some distance
along the southern shores of Lake Erie,
and then made an overland journey to the
head-waters of the Alleghany River. Fol
lowing that stream to its junction Avith
the Monongahela, they went down the
Ohio to the mouth of the Great Miami, be
low Cincinnati, proclaiming French sov
ereignty, and burying six leaden tablets
at as many different places. From the
mouth of the Miami they made an over
land journey to Lake Erie, and reached
Fort Niagara Oct. 19, 1749. The place
and date of Celeron s death are uncertain.

Cemeteries, in the United States. By
an act of the legislature of New York
State, April 27, 1847, land devoted to
cemetery purposes in that State is exempt
from taxation.

Cemeteries, NATIONAL. National ceme
teries for soldiers and sailors may be said
to have originated in 1850, the army ap
propriation bill of that year providing
money for a cemetery near the city of
Mexico, for the interment of the remains
of soldiers who fell in the Mexican War.
The remains of Federal soldiers and sail
ors who fell in the Civil War have been
buried in seventy-eight cemeteries, exclu
sive of those interred elsewhere, a far
greater number. In the subjoined list are
given the names and locations of the na
tional cemeteries, with the number therein
buried, known and unknown:

Cypress Hills, N. Y

Woodlawn, Elmira, N. Y

Beverly, N. J

Finn s Point, N. J

Gettysburg, Pa

Philadelphia. Pa

Annapolis, Md

Antietam, Md

London Park, Baltimore, Md.

Laurel, Baltimore, Md

Soldiers Home, D. C

Battle, D. C

Graf ton, W. Va

Arlington, Va

Alexandria, Va

Ball s Blnff, Va

( old Harbor. Va

City Point, Va

c ulpeper, Va

Known.

3,710

3,074

145

1,967
1,881
2,285
2,853
1,637

232

5,314

634

11,915

3,402

673
3,778

456

Un
known.
76
16
7

2,644

1,608

204

1,818

166

288

620
4,349

124
24

1.281
1,374

911

[In-
Known, known.

Danville, Va 1,172 155

Fredericksburg, Va 2,487 12,770

Fort Harrison, Va 236 575

Glendale, Va 234 961

Hampton, Va 4,930 494

Poplar Grove, Va 2,197 3,993

Richmond, Va 842 5,700

Seven Pines, Va 150 1,208

Staunton, Va 233 520

Winchester, Va 2,094 2,365

Yorktown, Va 748 1,434

Newbern, N. C 2,177 1,077

Raleigh, N. C 619 562

Salisbury, N. C 94 12,032

Wilmington, N. C 710 1,398

Beaufort, S. C 4,748 4,493

Florence, S. C 199 2,799

Andersonville, Ga 12,793 921

Marietta, Ga 7,188 2,963

Barrancas, Fla 798 657

Mobile, Ala 756 113

Corinth, Miss 1,789 3,927

Natchez, Miss 308 2,780

Vicksburg, Miss 3,896 12,704

Alexandria, La 534 772

Baton Rouge, La 2,469 495

Chalmette, La 6,837 5,674

Port Hudson, La 596 3,223

Brownsville, Tex 1,417 1,379

San Antonio, Tex 324 167

Fayetteville, Ark 431 781

Fort Smith, Ark 711 1,152

Little Rock, Ark 3,265 2,337

Chattanooga, Tenn 7,999 4,963

Fort Donelson, Tenn 158 511

Knoxville, Tenn 2,090 1,046

Memphis, Tenn 5,160 8,817

Nashville, Tenn 11,825 4,701

Pittsburg Landing, Tenn 1,229 2,361

Stone River, Tenn 3,821 2,324

Camp Nelson, Ky 2,477 1,165

Cave Hill, Louisville, Ky... 3,344 583

Danville, Ky 335 8

Lebanon, Ky 591 277

Lexington, Ky 805 108

Logan s, Ky 345 366

Crown Hill, Indianapolis,

Ind 681 32

New Albany, Ind 2,139 676

Camp Butler, 111 1,007 355

Mound City, 111 2,505 2,721

Rock Island, 111 277 19

Jefferson Barracks, Mo 8,584 2,906

Jefferson City, Mo 349 412

Springfield, Mo 845 713

Fort Leavenworth, Kan 835 928

Fort Scott, Kan 390 161

Keokuk, Iowa 612 33

Fort Gibson, I. T 215 2,212

Fort McPherson, Neb 152 291

City of Mexico, Mexico 284 750

Total 171,302 147,568

Censuring the President. The Uniltd
States Congress has twice censured the
President: JACKSON in 1834, and TYLER in
1843 (qq. v.).

CENSUS

Census, UNITED STATES. The follow
ing-table gives the total and the urban pop
ulation of the United States at each dec
ade, together with the percentage of in
crease, the balance of sexes, and the popu
lation to each square mile:

Monday of August, and close within nine
months thereafter. The free persons were
to be distinguished from others, males and
females, and Indians not taxed were to be
omitted from the enumeration. Free males
of sixteen vears and over were to be dis-

GENERAL TABLE 1790-1900.

Date.

Total
Population.

Per Cent, of
Increase.

Population per
Square Mite.

Seies
per 1,000 Population.

Urban Population.

Per Cent, of
Urban Pop
ulation to
Total.

3.35
3.97
4.93
4.93
6.72
8.52
12.49
16.13
20.93
22.57
29.12
32.90

Male.

Female.

17 K)

3,929,214
5,308.483
7,239,881
9,033.822
12,866.020
17,0(59,453
23,191,876
31,443,321
38.558,371
50,155,783
63,069,756
76,303,387

4.75
6.41
3.62
4.82
6.25
8.29
7.78
10.39
10.70
13.92
20.78
25.110

509
512
510
508
508
509
511
511
507
510
511
512

491
488
490
492
492
491
489
489
493
490
489
488

131,472
210,873
356,920
475, 135
864,509
1,453,994
2,897,586
5,072,256
8,071,875
11,318,547
18,235,670
25,031,505

1800

35.11
36.40
33.06
33.55
32.67
35.86
35.58
22.63
30.08
24.85
21

INIO

1820

1 830

1840

1 8f)0

I860

1870

1880

1890

1900

Previous to 1790 there were no definite tinguished from those under that age. By

figures of population ; everything was esti
mate. During the life of the Continental
Congress the taxation apportionment, as
well as the calls for troops from the colo
nies, was made on meagre information,
and that often of a purely conjectural
character. Mr. DeBow, who edited the
census returns in 1850, gave the follow
ing estimates of colonial population:

1707 262,000

1749 1,046.000

1775 2,803,000

Mr. Bancroft gives the estimates of the
Board of Trade, which had its agents in
the colonies, as follows:

1714 434,600

1727 580,000

1754 1,485,634

The Constitution of the United States
provides for an enumeration of the popu
lation as often as once in every ten years,
as follows: "Representatives and direct
taxes shall be apportioned among the sev
eral States which may be included within
the Union according to their respective
numbers, which may be determined by
adding to the whole number of free per
sons, including those bound to service for
a term of years, and excluding Indians
not taxed, three-fifths of all other per
sons." The first act of Congress for the
census-taking was dated March 1, 1790;
the enumeration was to begin the first

that census there were 3,929,214 persons
in the United States, of whom 697,681
were slaves and 59,527 were free colored
persons. In 1810 the act provided for an
enumeration of the inhabitants, distin
guishing between races, sexes, and ages.
In 1820 another step forward was taken,
in that it was required of the enumerators
that their reports show the number of per
sons engaged in agriculture, manufactures,
and commerce.

In 1830 there was required an enumer
ation of the deaf, dumb, and blind, but
there were no statistics of agriculture,
manufactures, or commerce. In 1838 prep
arations were made for taking the sixth
census, and the act is very comprehen
sive, embracing the enumeration of the
population, with classification, according
to age, sex, and color, the deaf, dumb,
and blind, insane, idiots, free and slave
colored ; number of persons drawing pen
sions from the United States, with their
names and ages; also statistical tables
of mines, agriculture, commerce, manu
factures, and schools. The returns made
show the products of mines, manufactures,
number of bushels of grain of every kind,
of potatoes, tons of hay and hemp, pounds
of tobacco and cotton and sugar, the value
of dairy products, etc. The census of
1850 was placed under the charge of the
newly created Department of the Interior.
The first superintendent was Joseph
C. G. Kennedy, of Pennsylvania.

CENSUS, UNITED STATES

In the following table are given the establishment of a census office in the De-
comparative rank of all the States and partment of the Interior. Additions were
Territories, exclusive of Porto Rico and the made to the previous acts, such as the
Philippines: indebtedness of cities, counties, and in-

COHPARATIVE RANK OF STATES AND TERRITORIES.

State.

Population
at
First

Census.

Rank each Decade.

Population
1900.

O
OO

O
O
QO

127,901

18
51
49
25
21
31
29
46
42
32
11
48
47
3
8
39
10
22
12
91
30
96
7
9
19
20
5
44
27
62
36
16
45
1
15
41
37
4
38
35
2
34
24
14
6
43
40
17
33
28
13
50

1,828,697
63,592
122,931
1,311,564
1,485,053
539,700
908,420
184,735
278,718
628,542
2,216,331
154,001
161,772
4,821,550
2,516,462
392,060
2,231,853
1,470,495
2,147,174
1,381,625
694.466
1,188.044
2,805,346
2,420,982
1,751.394
1,551,270
3,106,665
243,329
1,066,300
42,335
411,588
1,883,669
195,310
7,268,012
1,893,810
31 .). 146
401,570
4,157,545
398,331
413,536
6,302,115
428,666
1,340,316
2,020,616
3,048,710
276,749
343,641
1,854,184
518.1011
958,800
2,069.( i42
92,531

Alaska

Arizona

9,658
14,273
92,597
34,277
237,946
59,0%
14,093
34,730
82,548

46
26
24
41
25
35
34
33
12

25
24
35
28
38
36
34
13

48
24
22
31
29
42
39
32
12

25
26
38
24
32
35
31
11

8
16

8
17
19

9
19

22
25

16
24
25
26
10

20
26
28
27
9

21
30
33
31
9

Delaware

District of Columbia
Florida

Hawai i

14,999
12,282
5,641

44
4
6

46
4
6

45
3

24
21

20
13

14
10

4
6

43,112
107,206
73,677
76,556
96,540
319,728
378,787
4,762
6,077
8,850
20,845
20.595
28,841
6,857
141,885
184,139
61,547
340,120
393,751

4,837
45,365

20
33
9
17
22
19
7
16
30
14
8

11
29
8
21
23
20
7
13
28
18
5
43
36
40
31
17
37
1
14

45
3

10
20
8
22
27
23
7
9
26
18
5
45
30
43
31
19
41
1
15

40
3

10
19
11
25
30
27
6
9
20
21
5
44
26
49
33
18
43
1
16
(41
J37

46
38
2
35
23
13
7
40
36
15
34
28
14
47

Kentucky

6
4

7
6

7
18
14
8
5
26

6
17
12
10

7
27

6
19
12
11
8
27

6
19
13
15
8
23

8
18
16
17
6
20
36
16
13

Maine

Maryland

M assach usetts

Mirhigan

Mississippi

20
23

21
23

22
21

17
16

Missouri

41
27
21
34
1
12

42
3

New Hampshire

10
9

11
10

16
12

15
13

18
14

22
19
32
1
10

New Jersey

New York

5
3

3
4

2
4

1
4

North Carolina

North Dakota)

South Dakota)
Ohio

13,294
434,373
68,825
249,073
35,691
212. 592
11.380
86,436
747,610
11,594
442,014
30,945
9,118

34
2
28
14
5
25
35
23
4

36
2
29
18
10
23
37
28
5
40

38
2
32
22
9
19
39
30
10
42
27
15
47

37
2
33
21
12
11
39
32
14
42
29
16
47

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island ....

2
16

7
17

2
16
6
15

3
17
6
10

3
20
8
9

2
23
9

2
24
11
5

Utah

12
1

13
1

15
1

17
3

21
4

Virginia

In the taking of the ninth census the act
of 1850 was substantially followed, and Gen.
Francis A. Walker was the superintend
ent. There were the volumes of statistics,
of population, agriculture, and manufact
ures, and, besides, a compendium was
issued Nov. 1, 1872, in which were well-
prepared summaries of the more important
reports. The tenth census act directed the

corporated villages; reports were pro
vided for from railways, to ascertain their
condition, business, etc. ; also, similar in
formation was asked for in regard to
express and telegraph companies; experts
were employed in place of the enumer
ators to collect social and manufacturing
statistics. General Walker was appoint
ed superintendent of the census April 1,

CENSUS, UNITED STATES

1879; resigned Nov. 3, 1881; and was sue- A table showing the centre of population

ceeded by Charles W. Seaton, who died from 1790 to 1900 will be found under

before the work was completed. The office " Centre of Population."
of superintendent of the census was abol- The following table shows the popula-

ished in 1885, and was re-established by tion, according to the census of 1900, by

the act of March 1, 1889. Robert P. For- States and Territories, with the totals of

ter was appointed superintendent of the the census of 1890, and the increase:

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1890 AND 1900.

States and Territories.

Population.

Increase Since
1890.

1900.

1890.

Alabama

1,828,697
63,441
122,931
1,311,564
1,485,053
539,700
908,355
184,735
278,718
528,542
2,216,331
154,001
161,772
4,821,550
2,516,462
391,960
2,231,853
1,470,495
2,147,174
1.381,625
694,466
1,190,050
2.805,346
2,420,982
1,751,394
1,551,270
3,106,665
243,329
1,068,539
42,335
411,588
1,883,669
195,310
7,268,012
1,893,810
319,146
4,157,545
398,245
413,536
6,302,115
428,556
1,340,316
401,570
2,020,616
3,048,710
276,749
343,641
1,854,184
518,103
958,800
2,069,042
92,531

1,513,017
32,052
59,620
1,128,179
1,208,130
412,198
746,258
168,493
230,392
391,422
1,837,353
89,990
84,385
3,826,351
2,192,404
180,182
1,911,896
1,427,096
1,858,635
1,118,587
661,086
1,042,390
2,238,943
2,093,889
1,301,826
1,289,600
2,679,184
132,159
1,058,910
45,761
376,530
1,444,933
153,593
5,997,853
1,617,947
182,719
3,672,316
61,834
313,767
5,258,014
345,506
1,151,149
328,808
1,767,518
2,235,523
207,905
332,422
1,655,980
349,390
762,794
1,686,880
60,705

315,680
31,389
63,311
183,385
276,923
127,502
162,097
16,242
48,326
137,120
378,978
64,011
77,387
995,199
324,058
211,778
319,957
43,399
288,539
263,038
33,380
147,660
566,403
327,093
449,568
261,670
427,481
111,170
9,629
*3,426
35,058
438,736
41,717
1,270,159
275,863
136,427
485,229
336,411
99,769
1,044,101
83,050
189,167
72,762
253,098
813,187
68,844
11,219
198,204
168,713
196,006
382,162
31,826

California .

Connecticut

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Hawaii

Illinois

Indiana

Indian Territory

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina

North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

South Carolina

South Dakota

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

Washington

West Virginia

Wyoming

Total ,

76.295.220

63.069,756

13,225,464

* Decrease.

tenth census; served till 1893; and was The following table shows the popula-
succeeded by Carroll D. Wright. The tion of all cities having 25,000 and up-
eleventh census (1900) was taken under ward inhabitants in the census years
the directorship of William R. Merriam. 1890 and 1900, together with their change.

CENSUS, UNITED STATES

CITIES WITH POPULATION EXCEEDING 25,000.

CITY.

New York, N. Y 3,437,202

Chicago, 111 1,698,575

Philadelphia. Pa 1,293,697

St. Louis. Mo 575,238

Boston, Mass 560,892

Baltimore, Md 508,957

Cleveland, 381,768

Buffalo, N. Y 352,387

San Francisco, Cal 342,782

Cincinnati, 325,902

Pittsburg, Pa 321,616

New Orleans. La 287,104

Detroit, Mich 285,704

Milwaukee, Wis 285,315

Washington, D. C 278,718

Newark, N. J 246,070

Jersey City. N. J 206,433

Louisville, Ky 204,731

Minneapolis, Minn 202,718

Providence, R. I 175,597

Indianapolis, Ind 169,164

Kansas City, Mo 163,752

St. Paul, Minn 163,065

Rochester, N. Y 162,608

Denver, Col 133,859

Toledo, O .. 131,822

Allegheny, Pa 129,896

Columbus, 125,560

Worcester. Mass 118,421

Syracuse, N. Y 108,374

New Haven, Conn 108,027

Paterson, N. J 105,171

Fall River, Mass 104,863

St. Joseph, Mo 102,979

Omaha, Neb 102,555

Los Angeles, Cal 102,479

Memphis, Tenn 102,320

Scranton, Pa 102,026

Lowell, Mass 94,969

Albany, N. Y 94,151

Cambridge, Mass 91,886

Portland, Ore 90,426

Atlanta. Ga 89,872

Grand Rapids, Mich 87,565

Dayton, 85,333

Richmond, Va 85,050

Nashville, Tenn 80,865

Seattle, W T ash 80,671

Hartford, Conn 79,850

Reading, Pa 78,961

Wilmington, Del 76,508

Camden, N. J 75.935

Trenton, N. J 73,307

Bridgeport, Conn 70,996

Lynn, Mass 68,513

Oakland, Cal 66,960

Lawrence, Mass 62,559

New Bedford. Mass 62,442

Des Moines, la 62,139

Springfield, Mass 62,059

Somerville, Mass 61,643

Troy, N. Y 60,651

Hoboken, N. J 59,364

Evansville, Ind 59,007

Manchester, N. H 56,987

Utica, N. Y 56,383

Peoria, 111 56,100

Charleston, S. C 55,807

Savannah, Ga 54,244

Salt Lake City, Utah 53,531

San Antonio, Tex 53,321

Duluth, Minn 52,969

Erie. Pa 52,733

Elizabeth. N. J 52.130

Wilkesbarre, Pa 51,721

Kansas City, Kan 51,418

Harrisburg, Pa 50,167

Portland, Me 50,145

Yonkers, N. Y. . . . . 47.931

POPULATIOX.

1900.

1890.

2,492,591
1,099,850
1,046,904
451.770
448,477
434,439
261.353
255,664
298,997
296,908
238,617
242,039
205,876
204,468
230,392
181.830
163,003
161,129
164,738
132,146
105,436
132,716
133,156
133.896
106,713
81,434
105,287
88,150
84,655
88,143
81,298
78,347
74,398
52,324
140,452
50,395
64,495
75,215
77,696
94,923
70,028
46,385
65,533
60,278
61,220
81,388
76,168
42,837
53,230
58,661
61,431
58,313
57,458
48,866
55,727
48,682
44,654
40,733
50,093
44,179
40,152
60,956
43,648
50.756
44,126
44,007
41,024
54,955
43,189
44,843
37.673
33,115
40.634
37,764
37,718
38.316
89,886
36,425
32,033

INCREASE SINCE
1890.

!&gt;44,011
598,725
246,733
123,468
112,415
74,518
120,415
96,723
43,785
28,994
82,999
45,065
78,828
80,847
48,326
64,240
43,430
43,002
37,980
43,451
63,728
31.036
29,909
28,712
27,146
50,388
24,609
37,410
33,766
20,231
26,729
26,824
30,465
50,655
*37,897
52,084
37,825
20.811
17,273
*772
21,858
44,041
24,339
27,287
24,113
3,662
4,697
37,834
26,620
20,300
15,077
17,622
15,849
22,130
12,786
18,278
17,905
21,709
12,046
17,880
21,491
*305
15,716
8.2.-&gt;l
12,861
12,376
15,076
852
11,055
8,688
15,648
19,854
12,099
14,366
14,008
13,102
10.782
13,720
15,898

* Decrease.

CENSUS, UNITED STATES

CITIES WITH POPULATION EXCEEDING 25,000. Continued.

CITY.

POPULATION.

1900.

1890.

INCREASE SIXCE
1890.

Norfolk, Va

Waterbury, Conn . . ,

Holyoke, Mass

Fort Wayne, Ind . . .

Youngstown, O

Houston, Tex

Covington, Ky

Akron, O ,

Dallas, Tex ,

Saginaw, Mich.

Lancaster, Pa

Lincoln, Neb

Brockton, Mass....
Binghamton, N. Y. ,

Augusta, Ga

Pawtucket, R. I

Altoona, Pa

Wheeling, W. Va. .

Mobile, Ala

Birmingham, Ala. . ,
Little Rock, Ark. . . ,

Springfield, O

Galveston, Tex.

Tacoma, Wash

Haverhlll, Mass...,
Spokane. Wash.
Terre Haute, Ind. .

Dubuque, la

Quincy, 111

South Bend, Ind. . . ,

Salem, Mass

Johnstown, Pa

Elmira, N. Y

Allentown, Pa

Davenport, la

McKeesport, Pa. . . .

Springfield, 111

Chelsea, Mass

Chester, Pa

York, Pa

Maiden, Mass

Topeka, Kan

Newton, Mass

Sioux City, la

Bayonne, N. J

Knoxville, Tenn
Chattanooga, Tenn .
Schenectady. N. Y. ,
Fitchburg, Mass. . .

Superior, Wis

Rockford, 111

Taunton, Mass

Canton, O

Butte, Mont

Montgomery, Ala. . .

Auburn, N. Y

East St. Louis, 111. .

Joliet, 111

Sacramento. Cal...

Racine, Wis

La Orosse, Wis

Williamsport, Pa...
Jacksonville. Pa. . . .

Newcastle, Pa

Newport, Ky

Oshkosh. Wis

Noonsocket. R. I...

Puoblo. Col

Atlantic City, N. J.

Passaic, N. J

Bay City, Mich. . /. .
Fort Worth, Tex. . .

Lexington, Ky

Gloucester. Mass. . .
South Omaha, Neb.
New Britain, Conn.
Council BHiffs, la. .
Cedar Rapids, la. . ,

Faston, Pa

Jackson, Mich

46,624

45,859

45,712

45,115

44,885

44,633

42,938

42,728

42,638

42,345

41,459

40,169

40,063

39,647

39,411

39,231

38,973

38,878

38,469

38,415

38,307

38,253

37,789

37,714

37,175

36,848

36,673

36,297

36,252

35,999

35,956

35,936

35,672

35,416

35,254

34,227

34,159

34,072

33,988

33,708

33,664

33,608

33,587

33,111

32,722

32,637

32,490

31,531

31,682

31,091

31,051

31,036

30,667

30,470

30,346

30,345

29,655

29,353

29,282

29,102

28,895

28,757

28,429

28,339

28,301

28,284

28,204

28,157

27,838

27,777

27,628

26,688

26,369

26.121

26,001

25,998

25,802

25,656

25,238

25,180

34,871
28,646
35,637
35,393
33,220
27,557
37,371
27,601
38,067
46.322
32,011
55,154
27,294
35.005
33,300
27,633
30,337
34,522
31,076
26,178
25,874
31,895
29,084
36,006
27,412
19,922
30,217
30,311
31,494
21,819
30,801
21,805
30,893
25,228
26,872
20,741
24,963
27,909
20,226
20,793
23,031
31,007
24,379
37,806
19,033
22,535
29,100
19,902
22,037
11,983
23,584
25,448
26,189
10,723
21,883
25,858
15,169
23,264
26,386
21,014
25,090
27,132
17,201
11,600
24,918
22,836
20,830
24,558
13,055
13,028
27,839
23,076
21,567
24,651
8,062
16,519
21,474
18,020
14,481
20.798

11,753

17,213

10,075
9,722

11,665

17,076
5,567

15.127
4,571

*3,977

9,448

14,985

12,769
4,642
6,141

11,598
8,636
4,356
7,393

12,237

12,433
6,358
8,705
1,708
9,763

16,926
6,456
5,986
4,758

14,180
5,155

14,131
4,779

10,188
8,382

13,486
9,196
6,163

13,762

12,915

10,633
2,601
9,208

*4,695

13,689

10,102
3,390

11,780
9,494

19,108
7,467
5,588
4,478

19,747
8,463
4,487

14,486
6,089
2,896
8,088
3,805
1,625

11,228

16,739
3,383
5,448
7,374
3,599

14,783

14,749

*211

3,612

4,802

1,470

17,939
9,479
4.328
7,636

10.757
4.382

* Decrease.

CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION

Centennial Exhibition, the " World s
Fair," held in Philadelphia in 1876, com
memorating the centennial of the politi
cal existence of the North American Re
public. On June 1, 1872, Congress passed
an act providing for a Centennial Board
of Finance. The members of this board
were authorized to procure subscriptions
to a capital stock not exceeding $10,000,-
000, in shares of $10 each. John Welsh, of

invitations to all foreign nations having
diplomatic relations with the United
States to participate in the exhibition
by sending the products of their indus
tries. There was a generous response, and
thirty - three nations, besides the United
States, were represented namely, Ar
gentine Republic, Austria, Belgium, Bra
zil, Canada, Chili, China, Denmark, Egypt,
France, Germany, Great Britain and Ire-

CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION BUILDINGS.

Philadelphia, was chosen president of this
board. William Sellers and John S. Bar-
bour were appointed vice-presidents, and
Frederick Fraley treasurer. An official seal
was adopted, simple in design. The words
UNITED STATES CENTENNIAL COMMISSION
were placed in concentric circles around
the edge of the seal. In the centre was
a view of the old State-house in Phila
delphia; and beneath the building were
the words (cast on the State-house bell
ten years before the Revolution ) , " PRO
CLAIM LIBERTY THROUGHOUT THE LAND,
UNTO ALL THE INHABITANTS THEREOF."
It was soon decided to make the affair
international, instead of national an ex
hibition of the products of all nations.

Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, an ideal
site for the purpose, was chosen as the
place to hold the great fair. Suitable
buildings were erected, five in number

-namely, Main Exhibition Building,
Memorial Hall (or Art Gallery), Ma
chinery Hall, Horticultural Hall, and
Agricultural Hall. The aggregate cost
of these buildings was about $4,444,000.
The space occupied by them was about 49
acres of ground, and their annexes covered

20 acres more, making a total of 75 acres.

The main building alone covered over 21

acres. The national government issued

land, India and British colonies, Hawaiian
Islands, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Liberia,
Luxemburg Grand Duchy, Mexico, Nether
lands, Norway, Orange Free State, Peru,
Portugal, Russia, Santo Domingo, Spain
and Spanish colonies, Siam, Sweden,
Switzerland, Tunis, Turkey, and Venez
uela. A "Woman s Executive Commit
tee " was formed, composed of Philadel-
phians, who raised money sufficient among
the women of the Union for the erection
of a building for the exhibition exclu
sively of women s work sculpture, paint
ing, engraving, lithography, literature,
telegraphy, needlework of all kinds, etc.
at a cost of $30,000. The building was
called the " Women s Pavilion." In it
were exhibited beautiful needlework from
England and etchings from the hand of
Queen Victoria.

The women of the republic also contrib
uted to the general fund of the Centennial
Commission more than $100,000. The
great exhibition was opened May 10. The
opening ceremonies were grand and im
posing. Representatives of many nations
were present. The late Dom Pedro II.,
then Emperor of Brazil (with his em
press), was the only crowned head pres
ent. The American Congress and the
foreign diplomats were largely represent-

CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION CENTBAL AMERICA

ed. The President of the United States
(General Grant), in the presence of fully
100,000 people, appeared upon the great
pJatform erected for the occasion, accom
panied by his wife, when the " Grand
Centennial March," composed by Richard
Wagner, the great German musical com
poser, was performed by the orchestra of
Theodore Thomas. Then Bishop Simp
son, of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
uttered a prayer, and was followed by a
thousand voices chanting an impressive
" Centennial Hymn," composed by John
Greenleaf Whittier, accompanied by a
grand organ and the whole orchestra.
When the chanting was ended the chair
man of the Centennial Board of Fi
nance formally presented the building to
the United States Centennial Commis
sion. After a cantata, composed by Sid
ney Lanier, of Georgia, was sung, General
Hawley, president of the Commission,
presented the exhibition to the President
of the United States, after which the lat
ter made a brief response. The American
(lag was then unfurled over the Main
Building, which gave notice to the multi
tude that the Centennial Exhibition was
opened. The government of the United

structures 190. The exhibition was open
for pay admissions 159 days, the pay-gates
being closed on Sundays. The total num
ber of cash admissions at fifty cents each
was 7,250,620; and at twenty-five cents,
753,654. The number of free admissions
was 1,906,692, making the grand total of
admissions 9,910,966. The largest number
of admissions in a full month was in Oc
tober, when it reached 2,663,911. The
largest number admitted in a single day
"Pennsylvania Day" was 274,919. The
total amount of cash receipts was $3,813,-
725.50. The exhibition closed, with im
posing ceremonies, on Nov. 10. In
all respects it was the grandest and most
comprehensive international exposition
that had then been held. See COLUMBIAN
EXPOSITION, WORLD S.

Centennial Oration. See WINTHROP,
ROBERT CHARLES.

Central America, a large expanse of
territory connecting North and South
America, and comprising in 1901 the re
publics of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. The region
was discovered by Columbus, in his fourth
voyage, in 1502. He found the bay of
Honduras, where he landed; then proceed-

SANDSTOXK ROCK, RIO ABAJO, TEGUCIGALPA, CENTRAL AMERICA.

States, separate States, foreign govern- ed along the main shore to Cape Gracias
ments, different industries, corporations, a Dios; and thence to the Isthmus of
and individuals erected buildings on the Darien, hoping, but in vain, to obtain
grounds, making the whole number of a passage to the Pacific Ocean. At the
H. F 81

CENTRE OF POPULATION CERRO GOBDO

isthmus he found a harbor, and, on ac
count of its beauty and security, he called
it Porto Bello. At another place in that
country, on the Dureka River, he began a
settlement with sixty-eight men; but they
were driven off by a warlike tribe of Ind
ians the first repulse the Spaniards had
ever met with. But for this occurrence,
caused by the rapacity and cruelty of the
Spaniards, Columbus might have had the
honor of planting the first European col
ony on the continent of America. In 1509
Alonzo de Ojeda, with 300 soldiers, began
a settlement on the east side of the Gulf
of Darien. At the same time Diego Ni-
cuessa, with six vessels and 780 men, be
gan another settlement on the west side.
Both were broken up by the fierce na
tives; and thus the Spaniards, for the
first time, were taught to dread the dusky
people of the New World. This was the
first attempt of Europeans to make a per
manent lodgment on the continent of
America. Many attempts have been made
in recent years to bring about a federa
tion of the five republics, the latest
in 1895, when the Greater Republic
of Central America was formed, and in
1898, when, by treaty, Honduras. Salva
dor, and Nicaragua formed the United
States of Central America, Guatemala
and Costa Rica declining to enter the
compact. Local revolutions and mutual
jealousies have so far prevented a per
manent union.

Centre of Population, the centre of
gravity of the population of a country,
each individual being assumed to have
the same weight. The centre of popula
tion in the United States has clung to
the parallel of 39 lat. and has moved in
a westward direction during the last 110
years. The following table shows the
movement of the centre of population since
1790:

Cerro Gordo, BATTLE OF. Cerro Gordo
is a ditlicult mountain pass, at the foot
of the eastern slope of the Cordilleras, on
the great national road from Vera Cruz
to the city of Mexico. Santa Ana, by ex
traordinary efforts after the battle of
BUENA VISTA (q. v.) , had gathered a
force of about 12,000 men from among
the sierras of Orizaba, concentrated them
upon the heights of Cerro Gordo, and
strongly fortified the position. When the
capture of VERA CKUZ (q. v.) was com
pleted, General Scott prepared to march
upon the Mexican capital, along the na
tional road. He left General Worth as
temporary governor of Vera Cruz, with
a sufficient garrison for the Castle of
San Juan de Ulloa, and moved forward
(April 8, 1847) with about 8,000 men,
the division of Gen. D. A. Twiggs in ad
vance. Twiggs approached Cerro Gordo
on the 13th, and found Santa Ana in
his path. Scott arrived the next morn
ing and prepared to attack the strong
hold. On the 17th he issued a remarkable
general order, directing, in detail, the
movements of the army in the coming
battle. These directions followed, secured
a victory. That order appeared almost
prophetic. On the 18th the attack com
menced, and very severe was the struggle.
It was fought in a wild place in the moun
tains. On one side was a deep, dark river ;
on the other was a frowning declivity
of rock 1,000 feet in height, brist
ling with batteries; while above all arose
the strong fortress of Cerro Gordo. The
place had to be taken by storm ; and the
party chosen to do the work was composed
of the regulars of Twiggs s division, led by
Colonel Harney. Victory followed the ef
forts of skill and bravery, and strong
Cerro Gordo fell. Velasquez, the com
mander of the fortress, was killed; and
the Mexican standard was hauled down

Census Year.

North Latitude.

West Longitude.

Approximate Location by Important Town.

1790

39 15 5"

76 11 2"

Twenty three miles east of Baltimore. Md.

1800

39 16 1"

7B 5fi 5"

Eighteen miles west, of Baltimore, Md.

1810

39 11 5"

77 37 2"

Forty miles northwest by west of Washington, R C.

1820

39 5 7"

78 33

Sixteen miles north of Woodstofk, Va.

1830

38 57 9"

79 16 9

Nineteen miles west-southwest of Moorefield. W. Va.

1840

39 2 0"

80 18

Sixteen miles south of Clarksburg. W. Va.

1850

38 59 0"

81 19

Twenty three miles southeast of Parkersburg. W.Va.

1860

39 4"

82 48 8

Twenty miles south of Chillifothe. O.

1870

39 12 0"

83 35 7

Forty-eight miles east by north of Cincinnati. O.

1880

39 4 1"

84 39 7

Eight miles west by south of Cincinnati, O.

1890

39 11 9"

85 32 9

Twenty miles oast of Columbus, Ind.

1900

39 9 30"

85 4H 54

Six miles southeast of Columbus, Ind.

CERVEBA Y TOPETO CHAFFEE

by Serg. Thomas Henry. Santa Ana, in 1898 he was given command of the fleet
with Almonte and other generals, and sent to operate in Cuban waters. After
8,000 troops, escaped; the remainder were Hobson and his companions, who sunk the
made prisoners. Santa Ana attempted to collier at the entrance of Santiago Har-
fly with his carriage, which contained a bor, were captured by the Spaniards, they
large amount of specie; but it was over- were handsomely treated by Admiral Cer-
turned, when, mounting a. mule taken vera till regularly exchanged. When the
from the carriage harness, he fled to the admiral received orders to attempt an es-
mountains, leaving behind him his wooden cape from the harbor of Santiago he saw
leg a substitute for the real one which and reported the hopelessness of such an
was amputated after a wound received in undertaking, yet when peremptory orders
the defence of Vera Cruz in 1837. In the were received he did not hesitate to act
vehicle were found his papers, clothing, upon them. The result was one of the
and a pair of woman s satin slippers, most thrilling naval encounters in his-
The victory of the Americans was com- tory, ending in the destruction of all his
plete and decisive. The trophies were ships, on July 3. After his surrender
3,000 prisoners (who were paroled), forty- his dignified bearing and high qualities
three pieces of bronze artillery (cast in as a naval officer, together with the re-
Seville, Spain), 5,000 stand of arms inembrance of his kind treatment of Hob-
( which were destroyed), and a large quan- son and his companions, prompted marks
tity of munitions of war. The fugitives of exceptional consideration from the
were pursued towards Jalapa with vigor. United States authorities between the time
In that battle the Americans lost 431 men. of his surrender and his departure for
The loss of the Mexicans was about 1,200 Spain. See CUBA; SAMPSON, WILLIAM
killed and wounded. THOMAS ; SANTIAGO DE CUBA ; SCHLEY,

Cervera y Topeto, PASCUAL DE, CONDE WINFIELD SCOTT.

DE JEREZ, MARQUIS DE SANTA ANA, naval Cesnola, LUIGI PALMA DI, archaeologist;
officer; born in the province of Jerez, born near Turin, Italy, June 29, 1832; at-
Spain, in 1833; was graduated at the San tended the Royal Military Academy; came
Fernando Naval Academy in 1851. He par- to the United States in 1860; and entered
ticipated in the expeditions to Morocco the army as colonel of the 4th New York

Cavalry; was wounded and captured in the
battle of Aldie, in June, 1862. While
United States consul at Cyprus he made
archaeological explorations, securing a col
lection of antiquities which were placed
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in
New York City in. 1873. He became di
rector of the museum in 1878, and died in
New York City, Nov. 20, 1904.

Chabert, JOSEPH BERNARD, MARQUIS DE,
naval officer; born in Toulon, France, Feb.
28, 1724; joined the navy in 1741; came
to America, and fought with the French
in the Revolutionary War, winning much
distinction. Later he planned and finished
maps of the shores of North America. He
was author of Voyages sur les cotes de
VAmerique septentrionale. He died in
Paris, Dec. 1, 1805.

Chadd s Ford, a town in Delaware

in 1859 and Cochin-China in 1862, and in county, Pa., on Brandywine Creek, 30
the blockade of Cuba against filibusters miles southwest of Philadelphia. The bat-
in 1870; and later became secretary of tie of Brandywine was fought here, Sept.
the navy. He was promoted admiral in 11, 1777.

1888. In the war with the United States Chaff ee, ADNA ROMANZA, military offi-

ADMIRAL CERVERA.

CHAFFEE CHAMBERLAIN

ADSA ROMASZA C1IAFFEE.

cer; born in Orwell, O., April 14, 1842; command of the troops which captured
entered the regular army as a private in El Caney, and practically closed the San-
the 6th Cavalry, July 22, 1861; soon af- tiago campaign. On May 8, 1899, he was
terwards was made first sergeant of his promoted to colonel of the 8th Cavalry,
troop: March 13, 1863, was promoted and July 19, 1900, was assigned to coin-
to second lieutenant; Feb. 22, 1865, to mand the American troops with the al-
first lieutenant, and Oct. 12, 1867, to cap- lied armies in China, with the rank of ma
jor-general of volunteers. He took an
active part in the advance on Peking and
in the establishment of order after the
capture of the city. After the looting of
the ancient Imperial Observatory, in Pe
king, General Chaffee addressed a strong
protest against this and similar depre
dations to Count von Waldersee, the com-
mander-in-chief of the allied troops. On
the reorganization of the regular army, in
1901, he was appointed major-general and
commander of the military division of tho
Philippines, and Jan. 8, 1904, was pro
moted lieutenant - general and chief of
staff.

Chain, THE GREAT, across the Hud
son. See CLINTON, FOBT.

Chalmers, GEORGE, historian; born in
Fochabers, Scotland, in 1742; educated
at King s College, Aberdeen; studied
law; came to America in 1763, and prac
tised in Baltimore. Being opposed to the

tain. For several years his regiment was Revolutionary War he returned to Eng-
employed in almost continuous service land. His publications relating to the
against the Indians in the Southwest, United States include Political Annals of
where he proved himself a brave and the Present United Colonies; Opinions
stubborn fighter. For his gallantry in on Interesting Subjects of Public Laws
various actions he was, in March, 1868, and Commercial Policy, arising from
brevetted major, and Feb. 27, 1890,lieuten- American Independence; and Life of
ant-colonel. Meanwhile, on July 7, 1888, Thomas Paine. He died in London, May
he had been promoted to major, and as- 21, 1825.

signed to the 9th Cavalry, one of the two Chalmette Plantation, La., a few miles
regiments of regular cavalry composed of below New Orleans on the Mississippi
colored men. Major Chaffee was in- River, where General Jackson repulsed
structor in cavalry tactics at the Fort an advance of the British, Dec. 28, 1814.
Leavenworth school for officers in 1894- See JACKSON, ANDREW; XEW ORLEANS.
96. On June 1, 1897, he was promoted to Chamberlain, DANIEL HENRY, lawyer;
lieutenant-colonel of the 3d Cavalry, and born in West Brookfield, Mass., June 23,
made commandant of the Cavalry School 1835; graduated at Yale College in 1862,
of Instruction at Fort Riley, which post and at Harvard Law School in 1864;
he held at the opening of the war with entered the Union army as an officer in
Spain, in 1898. He was appointed a brig- the 5th Massachusetts Colored Cavalry;
adier-general of volunteers, May 4, 1898; after the war settled in South Carolina,
promoted to major-general, July 8, fol- of which he was (Republican) governor
lowing; honorably discharged from the in 1874-76.

volunteer service and reappointed a brig- Chamberlain, JOSEPH, statesman ; born
adier-general, April 13, 1899. From De- in London, England, in 1836; educated
cember, 1898, he served as chief-of-stafT at the University College School, in
to the governor-general of Cuba. He had London; and was mayor of Birmingham

CHAMBERLAIN CHAMPE

in 1870-75. He was elected to Parliament
from Birmingham as a Liberal Union
ist in 1875, and hag since held his seat;
was president of the Board of Trade in

JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN.

1880-85; president of the Local Govern
ment Board in 1886; one of the British
commissioners to settle the North Ameri
can fisheries dispute in 1887, and lord
rector of Glasgow University. In 1895
he became Secretary of State for the Colo
nies, and has since held the post. During
1898, and especially when the internation
al troubles concerning China were thick
ening, he made several notable speeches,
voicing a widespread sentiment in Great
Britain that there should be a closer un
derstanding between the United States and
Great Britain touching their various com
mercial interests. In 1888 he married
Mary, daughter of William C. Endicott,
Secretary of War in President Cleveland s
first administration.

Chamberlain, JOSHUA LAWRENCE, mili
tary officer and educator; born in Bangor,
Me., Sept. 8, 1828; graduated at Bow-
doin College in 1852. He attended a mili
tary academy in his boyhood. He was a
professor in his alma mater from 1855 to
1802, when he was appointed lieutenant-
colonel of a Maine regiment, and rose to
brigadier-general of volunteers in the sum
mer of 1804. He was severely wounded
in the siege of Petersburg, and again at
Quaker Road in March, 1865. In the final
operations ending in Lee s surrender he
commanded a division of the 5th Corps.
General Chamberlain was a most active

and efficient officer, and was in twenty-
four pitched battles. He was six times
wounded three times severely. He was
designated to receive the formal surren
der of the weapons and colors of Lee s
army, and was brevetted major-general
in 1865. He resumed his professional du
ties in the college in 1865; was governor
of Maine in 1866-71; president of Bow-
doin College in 1871-83; and afterwards
engaged in writing and lecturing.

Chambers, WILLIAM, author; born in
Peebles, Scotland, in 1800; was author
of Things as they are in America; and
Slavery and Color in America; and com
piler of a Hand-book of American Liter
ature. He died in Edinburgh, May 20,
1883.

Chambersburg. See PENNSYLVANIA.

Chambly, FORT, CAPTURE OF. In 1775
it was supposed by General Carleton that
the fort at Chambly, 12 miles below St.
John, at the rapids of the Sorel, the out
let of Lake Champlain, could not be reach
ed by the republicans so long as the Brit
ish held the post above and kept only a
feeble garrison there. Informed of this
by Canadian scouts, Montgomery, besieg
ing St. John, sent Colonel Bedel, of New
Hampshire, with troops to capture the
post. He was assisted by Majors Brown
and Livingston. The attack was planned
by Canadians familiar with the place. Ar
tillery was placed in bateaux, and, dur
ing a dark night, was conveyed past the
fort at St. John to the head of Cham
bly Rapids, where the guns were mounted
and taken to the place of attack. The
garrison surrendered after making slight
resistance. The spoils were a large quan
tity of provisions and military stores; also
the colors of the 7th Regiment of British
regulars, which were sent to the Conti
nental Congress, and were the first tro
phies of war received by that body. This
disaster hastened the downfall of St. John.
See ST. JOHN, SIEGE OF.

Champe, Joiix, patriot; born in Lou-
don county, Va., in 1752; sent to New
York as a spy after the treason of Ar
nold, at the request of Washington. As
it was also rumored that another Ameri
can officer (supposed to be General Gates)
was a traitor, Champ was instructed to
discover the second traitor, and, if possi
ble, to take Arnold. He left the Anieri-

CHAMPION HILLS

can camp at Tappan at night, in the
character of a deserter, was pursued, but
reached Paulus Hook, where the British
vessels were anchored. After he had been
examined by Sir Henry Clinton, he was
sent to Arnold, who appointed him a ser
geant-major in a force which he was re
cruiting. He found evidence which
proved that the suspected general was in
nocent, and forwarded the same to Wash
ington. He learned also that Arnold was

concentration of his forces at Edwards s
Station, 2 miles from the railway bridge
over the Big Black River. While Sherman
tarried in Jackson long enough to destroy
the railways, military factories, arsenal,
bridges, cotton factories, stores, and other
public property, the remainder of the army
turned their faces towards Vicksburg.
Pemberton was at or near Edwards s Sta
tion, with about 25,000 troops and ten
batteries of artillery. Blair moved tow-

FOliT CHAMHLV.

accustomed to walk in his garden every ards the station, followed by McClernand
night, and conceived a plan for his capt- and Osterhaus; while McPherson, on an-
ure. With a comrade he was to seize other road, kept up communication with
and gag him, and convey him as a drunk- McClernand. Pemberton had advanced
en soldier to a boat in waiting, which to Champion Hills, when a note from
would immediately cross to the New Jer- Johnston caused him to send his trains
sey shore, where a number of horsemen back to the Big Black River; and he was
were to be in waiting. Unfortunately, about to follow with his troops, when
on the night set, Arnold changed his quar- Grant, close upon him. compelled him to
ters, and the command of which Champe remain and fight (May 16. 1803). Gen-
was a member was ordered to Virginia, oral Hovey s division now held the advance
Later he escaped and joined the army of directly in front of Pemberton. At eleven
Greene in North Carolina. He died in o clock a battle began, Hovey s division
Kentucky, about 1798. bearing the bnmt&gt; and, after a severe
Ihampion Hills, BATTLE OF. Grant, con test of an hour and a half, his in-
WON (q.v. J, hearing of the arrival fantry were rompe ] ]ed to fal , back ha]f
of Johnston and his order for Pemberton a mile to the position of his artillery. Re-
ike his rear, perceived the reason inforced. he renewed the battle with great
for the sudden evacuation of their post energy. Finally Pemberton s left began
the troops at the capital. No doubt to bend under Logan s severe pressure,
they had been sent to join Pemberton that and, at five o clock, gave way. The rest
the latter might crush Grant by the weight of his army became so confused and dis-
of superior numbers. The latter com- heartened that they began to fly. Seeing
prehended his peril, and instantly took this. Pemberton ordered his whole army
to meet Pemberton before such to retreat towards the Bi" Black River-
junction could take place. He ordered a when Grant ordered the fresh brigades

CHAMPLAIN

of Osterhaus and Carr to follow with all when that officer conducted back to that
speed, and cross the river, if possible, country the troops who had served in
In the retreat Pemberton lost many of France. In 1599 he commanded a vessel
his troops, made prisoners. This battle of the Spanish fleet that sailed to Mexico,
was fought mainly by Hovey s division of and he drew up a faithful account of the
McClernand s corps and Logan s and Quin- voyage. On his return he received a pen-
by s divisions (the latter commanded by sion from Henry IV. of France; and he
Crocker) of McPherson s corps. The Na- was induced by M. de Chastes, governor
tional loss was 2,457, of whom 426 were of Dieppe, to explore and prepare the way
killed. The loss of the Confederates was for a&gt; French colony in America. Chastes
estimated to have been quite equal to had received a charter from the King to
that of the Nationals in killed and wound- found settlements in New France, and the
ed, besides almost 2,000 prisoners, eigh- monarch commissioned Champlain lieuten-
teen guns, and a large quantity of small- ant-general of Canada. With this author-
arms. Among the killed was General ity, he sailed from Honfleur on March 5,
Tilghman, who was captured at Fort 1603, with a single vessel, commanded by
Henry the year before. Pont-Greve, a skilful navigator. In May

Champlain, SAMUEL DE, French navi- they ascended the St. Lawrence and land-
gator; born in Brouage, France, in 1567. ed near the site of Quebec, from which
His family had many fishermen and mar- place Pont-Greve" and five men ascended

the river in a canoe to
Lachine Rapids, above
Montreal. The Indians
at Stadacona yet re
membered Cartier s
perfidy ( see CARTIER,
JACQUES ) , but were
placable.

Champlain, on his re
turn to France in the
autumn, found Chastes
dead and his conces
sions transferred by
the King to Pierre de
Gast, the Sieur de
Monts, a wealthy Hu
guenot, who had re
ceived the commission
of viceroy of New
France. The latter
made a new arrange
ment with Champlain,
and in March, 1604, he
sailed with the naviga
tor from France with
four vessels. They land
ed in Nova Scotia, and
remained there some
time planting a settle
ment and exploring the
neighboring regions;
and when de Monts re-
iners. and he was carefully educated for turned to France, he left Champlain to
a navigator. In early life IIP was in the explore tlio New Kngland coast. He went
cavalry of Brittany, and was with his as far south as Cape Cod, and in 1607 re-
lincle, pilot-general of the fleets of Spain, turned to France. Having suggested to De

SAMUEL I)K PlIAMPLAIN.

CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE

Monts that a point on the St. Lawrence
would be a more eligible site for the seat
of the projected new empire, Champlain
was sent to the river in 1008 with Pont-
Greve, and, at Stadacona, founded Quebec,
the Indian name for " the narrows," and
pronounced Kebec. There the colonists built
cabins and prepared to plant. In 1G09
Champlain, who had made the Monta-
gnais Indians on the St. Lawrence his
friends, marched with them against their
enemies, the Iroquois. They were joined
by a party of Hurons and Algonquins, and
ascended the Sorel to the Chambly Rap
ids, whence Champlain proceeded in a ca
noe and discovered a great lake, and gave
it his own name. On its borders he fought
and defeated the Iroquois, who fled in
terror before the fire of his arquebuses.
He returned to France, but went back in
1C 10, and the same year was wounded by
an arrow in a fight with the Iroquois.
Again returning to France, he, at the age

sons, the successor to De Monts, as vice
roy.

In 1815 lie started on his famous expe
dition to the Onondaga Indians. He fol
lowed Father Le Caron and his party to
Lake Huron, to which he gave the name
of Mer Douce. Returning across the great
forests, he sailed with several hundred ca
noes down a stream into the Bay of
Quinte, and entered the broad Lake On
tario, which he named Lac St. Louis.
With a considerable war party, chiefly
Hurons, he crossed the lake into the
country of the Iroquois, in (present) New
York. Hiding their canoes in the forest,
they pressed onward to the Indian post on
the shore of Onondaga Lake. It was at
the time of the maize harvest, and the
Iroquois were attacked in the fields. They
retired to their town, which was fortified
with four rows of palisades. On th in
side of these were galleries furnished with
stones and other missiles, and a supply of

CHAMI LAIN- S FORTIFIED RESIDENCE AT QUEBEC.

of forty- four years, married a girl of water to extinguish a fire if kindled be-
twelve; and in 1G12 he went back to neath these wooden walls. The Hurons
Canada, with the title and powers of were rather insubordinate, and the attack
lieutenant - governor, under the Prince was ineffectual. Champlain had construct-
of Conde, who had succeeded De Sois- ed a wooden tower, which was dragged

CHAMPLAIN

near the palisades, and from the top of add. He died in Quebec, Dec. 25, 1635.

which his marksmen swept the galleries In 1870 a complete collection of his works,

filled with naked Iroquois. But he could including his voyage to Mexico, with fac-

not control the great body of the Hurons, similes of his maps, was published in

and, in their furious and tumultuous as- Quebec, edited by Abbes Laverdiere and

sault upon the palisades, they were Casgrain.

thrown back in confusion, and could not Champlain, LAKE, OPERATIONS ON.
be induced to repeat the onset, but re- After the Americans left Canada in sad
solved to retreat. Champlain, wounded plight in June, 1776, Carleton, the govern-
in the leg, was compelled to acquiesce, and or of Canada and general of the forces
he made his way back to Quebec (1616), there, appeared at the foot of Lake Cham-
after a year s absence. The same year he plain with a well-appointed force of 13,000
went to France and organized a fur-trad- men. Only on the bosom of the lake could

ing company.

they advance, for there was no road on

On his return to Canada he took with either shore. To prevent this invasion,
him some Recollet priests to minister to it was important that the Americans
the colonists and the pagans. The colony
languished until 1620, when a more ener-

should hold command of its waters. A
flotilla of small armed vessels was con-
gctic viceroy gave it a start. Champlain structed at Crown Point, and Benedict
got permission to fortify it, and he return- Arnold was placed in command of them as
ed with the title and power of governor, commodore. A schooner called the Royal
taking with him his child-wife. Jesuit Savage was his flag-ship. Carleton, mean-
priests were sent to Canada as mission- while, had used great diligence in fitting
aries, and Champlain worked energeti- out an armed flotilla at St. John for the
cally for the cause of religion and the ex- recovery of Crown Point and Ticonderoga.
pansion of French dominion. In 1628 Sir Towards the close of August, Arnold went
David Kertk appeared with an English down the lake with his fleet and watched
fleet before Quebec and demanded its sur- the foe until early in October, when he
render. Champlain s bold refusal made fell back to Valcour Island and formed
Kertk retire, but on his way down the his flotilla for action without skill. Carle-
St. Lawrence he captured the French ton advanced, with Edward Pringle as
supply-ships. This produced great dis- commodore, and, on the morning of Oct.
tress in Quebec; and in July of next year 11, gained an advantageous position near
Champlain was compelled to surrender Arnold s vessels. A very severe battle en-
to Kertk s brothers, and was carried to sued, in which the Royal Savage was first
England. By a treaty in 1632, Canada crippled and afterwards destroyed. Ar-
was restored to the French. Champlain nold behaved with the greatest bravery
was reinstated as governor, and sailed for during a fight of four or five hours, until
the St. Lawrence in 1633. He did not long it was closed by the falling of night. In
survive, but worked energetically and the darkness Arnold escaped with his ves-
faithfully until the last. His wife sur- sels from surrounding dangers and pushed
vived him. She was a Protestant when up the lake, but was overtaken on the
she was married, but died an Ursuline 13th. One of the vessels, the Washington,
nun. Champlain s zeal for the propaga- was run on shore and burned, while Ar-
tion of Christianity was intense. A col- nold, in the schooner Congress, with four
Icge was established at Quebec, in which gondolas, kept up a running fight for five
the children of the savages were taught hours, suffering great loss. When the
and trained in the habits of civilization. Congress was almost a wreck, Arnold ran
In 1603 Champlain published an account the vessels into a creek about 10 miles
of his first voyage, and, in 1613 and 1619, from Crown Point, on the eastern shore,
a continuation of his narrative. In 1632 and burned them. Then he and his little
they were included in a work of his then force made their way through the woods
published, which comprised a history of to a place opposite Crown Point, just
New France from the time of Verrazani s avoiding an Indian ambush, and escaped
discoveries to 1631, entitled Lcs Voyages to the port whence he started in safety.
a la Nouvelle France Occidental et Can- At Crown Point he found two schooners,

CHAMPLAIN, LAKE, OPERATIONS ON

two galleys, one sloop, and one gondola 100. The captured sloops were refitted,
that remained of his proud little fleet, and named, respectively, Finch and Chubb.
In the two actions the Americans lost They were engaged in the battle off Platts-
about ninety men; the British not half burg the next year, when McDonough
that number. General Carleton took pos- recaptured them. For a while the British
session of Crown Point on Oct. 14, but were masters of Lake Champlain. This
abandoned it in twenty days and returned loss stimulated McDonough to greater ex-
to Canada. ertions. By Aug. 6 he had fitted out

When the War of 1812-15 was declared, and armed three sloops and six gunboats,
the whole American naval force on Lake At the close of July a British armament,
Champlain consisted of only two boats under Col. J. Murray, attacked defenceless
that lay in a harbor on the Vermont shore. Plattsburg. It was composed of soldiers,
The British had two or three gunboats, sailors, and marines, conveyed in two
or armed galleys, on the
Richelieu, or Sorel, River,
the outlet of Lake Cham-
plain. Some small
vessels were hastily fitted
up and armed, and Lieut.
Thomas McDonough was
sent to the lake to super
intend the construction of
some naval vessels there.
In the spring of 1813 he
put two vessels afloat
the sloops-of-war Growler
and Eagle. Early in
June, 1813, some small
American vessels were
attacked near Rouse s
Point by British gun
boats. McDonough sent
the Growler and Eagle,
manned by 112 men, un
der Lieut. Joseph Smith,
to look after the matter.
They went down the
Sorel, chased three Brit
ish gunboats some dis
tance down the river,
and were in turn pur

THE ROYAI. SAVAGE.*

sued by three armed row - galleys, which sloops-of-war, three gunboats, and forty-
opened upon the flying sloops with long seven long-boats. They landed on Satur-
24 - pounders. At the same time a day afternoon, and continued a work of
land force, sent out on each side of destruction until ten o clock the next day.
the river, poured volleys of musketry General Hampton, who was then at Bur-
upon the American vessels, which were

answered by grape and canister. For ^~J-J^w ^^ .JJJ

our hours a running fight was kept found by the late Benson J. Lossing among

up, when a heavy shot tore off a plank the papers of Genera] Srlmyler, and gave the

from the Eagle below water, and she flrst P sitlve Information as to the design ami

sank immediately. The Growler was ff.^^ V^^Si" af^SieVa

disabled and run ashore, and the people Jan. l, 1776. Tne drawing exhibited, In proper

of both vessels were made prisoners. The colors . the thirteen stripes, alternate red ami

loss of the Americans in killed and wound- , hit ^ with th * Brittahnnloii (the en&gt;MM of

St. (ioorge and St. Andrew) on a b ue field

ed was twenty; that of the British almost ] n the dexter corner

CHAMPLIN CHANCELLORSVILLE

SCENE OF ARNOLD S NAVAL BATTLE.*

lington, only 20 miles distant, with 4,000 in April, 1863, Hooker, in command of the
troops, made no attempt to oppose the in- Army of the Potomac, became impatient,
vaders. The block-house, arsenal, armory, and resolved to put it in motion towards
and hospital at Plattsburg were destroy- Richmond, notwithstanding his ranks

were not full. Caval
ry under Stoneman
were sent to destroy
railways in Lee s rear,
but were foiled by the
high water in the
streams. After a
pause, Hooker de
termined to attempt
to turn Lee s flank,
and, for that purpose,
sent 10,000 mounted
men to raid in his
ed; also private store-houses. The value rear. Then he moved 30,000 of the
of public property wasted was $25,000, troops of his right wing across the
and of private merchandise, furniture, etc., Rappahannock, with orders to halt and
several thousand dollars. Many then went intrench at Chancellorsville, between the
on a plundering raid, destroying transport Confederate army near Fredericksburg
vessels and property on shore. Such was and Richmond. This movement was so
the condition of naval affairs on Lake masked by a demonstration on Lee s
Champlain at the close of the summer of front by Hooker s left wing, under
1813. General Sedgwick, that the right was

Champlin, STEPHEN, naval officer ; born well advanced before Lee was aware
in South Kingston, R. I., Nov. 17, 1780; of his peril. These troops reached Chan-
went to sea when sixteen years old, and cellorsville, in a region known as " The
commanded a ship at twenty-two. In Wilderness," on the evening of April 30,
May, 1812, he was appointed sailing-mas- 1863, when Hooker expected to see Lee,
ter in the navy, and was first in com- conscious of danger, fly towards Rich-
mand of a gunboat under Perry, at New- mond. He did no such thing, but proceed-
port, R. I., and was in service on Lake ed to strike the National army a heavy
Ontario in the attacks on Little York (To- blow, for the twofold purpose of seizing
ronto) and Fort George, in 1813. He join- the communications between the two parts
cd Perry on Lake Erie, and commanded of that army and compelling its command-
the sloop-of-war Scorpion in the battle on er to fight at a disadvantage, with only a
Sept. 10, 1813, firing the first and last gun part of his troops in hand. Hooker had
in that action. He was the last surviving made his headquarters in the spacious
officer of that engagement. In the follow- brick house of Mr. Chancellor, and sent
in? spring, while blockading Mackinaw out Pleasonton s cavalry to reconnoitre,
with the Tigress, he was attacked in the A part of these encountered the Confeder-
night by an overwhelming force, severely ate cavalry, under Stuart, and were de-
wounded, and made prisoner. His wound feated.

troubled him until his death, and he was Lee had called " Stonewall " Jackson s
disabled for any active service forever af- large force to come up when he perceived
terwards. He died in Buffalo, N. Y., Feb. Sedgwick s movements. Lee left General

20, 1870.

Chancellorsville,

Early with 9,000 men and thirty cannon

BATTLE OF. Early to hold his fortified position at Freder-

icksburg against Sedgwick, and, at a little
This scene is between Port Kent and past midnight (May 1, 1863), he put
Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain. western Jackson s column in motion towards Chan-
shore. On the left is seen a point of the ce ]] orsv ii] e . It joined another force under

_i j . ^i, l1-,4- n ,-irttt-f- s\r \ a\rtr\ tiY t t

General Anderson at eight o clock in the
morning, and he, in person, led the Con-

on the
Between
little fleet for action.

A^B?

CHANCELLORSVILLE, BATTLE OF

federates to attack the Nationals. Hook- the line to the left of McLnws. Such was
er had also disposed the latter in battle the general disposition of the opposing
order. Aware of the peril of fighting with armies on the morning of May 2.
the Wilderness at his back, he had so Lee w r as unwilling to risk a direct at-
disposed his army as to fight in the open tack on Hooker, and Jackson advised a
country, with a communication open with secret flank movement with his entire
the Rappahannock towards Fredericksburg. corps, so as to fall on Hooker s rear. Lee
At eleven o clock the divisions of GrifHn hesitated, but so much did he lean on
and Humphreys, of Meade s corps, pushed Jackson as adviser and executor that he
out to the left, in the direction of Banks s consented. With 25,000 men Jackson
Ford, while Sykes s division of the same made the perilous movement, marching
corps, supported by Hancock s division, swiftly and steadily through the thick
and forming the centre column, moved woods, with Stuart s cavalry between his
along a turnpike. Slocum s entire corps, forces and those of the Nationals. But
with Howard s, and its batteries, massed the movement was early discovered; the
in its rear, comprising the right column, Nationals, however, believing it to be a
marched along a plank road. The battle retreat of the Confederates towards Rich-
was begun about a mile in advance of the mond. Sickles pushed forward Birney s
National works at Chancellorsville, by the division to reconnoitre, followed by two
van of the centre column and Confederate brigades of Howard s corps. Birney
cavalry. Sykes brought up his entire charged upon the passing column, and
column, with artillery, and, after a severe captured a Georgia regiment, 500 strong,
struggle with McLaws, he gained an ad- but was checked by Confederate artillery,
vantageous position, at noon, on one of the The Nationals now held the road over
ridges back of Fredericksburg. Banks s which Jackson was moving. Disposition
Ford, which Lee had strenuously sought was made to pursue the supposed fugitives,
to cover, was now virtually in possession when Jackson made a quick and startling
of the Nationals, and the distance between movement towards Chancellorsville, con-
Sedgwick, opposite Fredericksburg, and cealed by the thick woods, at six o clock
the army at Chancellorsville was short- in the evening, suddenly burst forth from
cned at least 12 miles. the thickets with his whole force, like an
Meanwhile, Slocum and Jackson had unexpected and terrible tornado, and fell
met and struggled fiercely on the plank with full force upon Howard s corps (the
road. Perceiving Jackson endeavoring to llth), with tremendous yells, just as they
flank Slocum, and his strong column over- were preparing for supper and repose,
lapping Sykes s flank, Hooker, fearing his Devens s division, on the extreme right, re-
army might be beaten in detail before he ceived the first blow, and almost instant-
could successfully resist the furious on- ly the surprised troops, panic-stricken,
s laugh t of Jackson, ordered its withdraw- fled to the rear, communicating their
al behind his works at Chancellorsville, alarm to the other divisions of the corps,
the Confederates following close in the The Confederates captured men and guns
rear of the retreating troops. So ended and a commanding position, while the
the movements of the day. Hooker s po- fugitives, in evident confusion, rushed tow-
sition was a strong one. The National ards Chancellorsville, upon the position
line extended from the Rappahannock to of General Schurz, whose division had al-
the Wilderness church, 2 miles west of ready retreated. The tide of affrighted
Chancellorsville. Meade s corps, with men rolled back upon General Steinwehr.
Couch s, formed his left; Slocum s, and a While the divisions of Devens and
division of Sickles s, his centre, and How- Schurz were reforming, Steinwehr quick-
ard s his right, with Plcasonton s cavalry ly changed front, threw his men behind
near. Lee s forces had the Virginia some works, rallied some of Schurz s men,
cavalry of Owen and Wickham on the and checked the purs\iit for a brief spaoo.
right, and Stuart s and a part of Fitz- But the overwhelming number of the Con-
hngh Lee s on the left. McLaws s forces federates speedily captured the works,
occupied the bridge on the east of tho Big These disasters on the right were partial-
Meadow Swamp, and Anderson s continued ly relieved by Hooker, who sent forward

CHANCELLORSVILLE, BATTLE OF

troops at the double-quick, under Generals
Berry and French, and also a courier to
apprise Sickles, who had pushed some dis
tance beyond the National lines, of the
disaster to the llth Corps and his own
peril. He was directed to fall back and
attack Jackson s left flank. He was in a
critical situation, but Pleasonton saved
him by a quick and skilful movement,
greatly assisting in checking the pursuit.
Tliis was done long enough for Pleasonton
to bring his own horse-artillery and more
than twenty of Sickles s guns to bear upon
the Confederates, and to pour into their
ranks a destructive storm of grape and
canister shot. Generals Warren and
Sickles soon came to Pleasonton s assist
ance, when there was a severe struggle
for the possession of cannon. Mean
while Lee was making a strong artillery

some lost ground, and brought back some
abandoned guns and caissons. During the
night a new line of intrenchments was
thrown up by the Nationals; but Hooker s
forces were in a very perilous position on
Sunday morning, May 3. When he heard
of the movement of Jackson on Saturday
morning, he had called from Sedgwick Rey-
nolds s corps, 20,000 strong, and it arrived
the same evening. Hooker s force was
now 00,000 strong, and Lee s 40,000. The
former ordered Sedgwick to cross the river
and seize and hold Fredericksburg and the
heights behind it, and then, pushing along
the roads leading to Chancellorsville, crush
every impediment and join the main army.
Each army made disposition for a battle
on Sunday morning. Stuart advanced to the
attack with Lee s left wing, and when he
came in sight of the Nationals he shouted,

RUINS OF CHANCELLORSVILLE.

attack upon Hooker s left and centre.
Soon a great misfortune befell the Con
federate commander, in the loss of " Stone
wall " Jackson, the strong right arm of
his power. Jackson had sent for Hill,
and was anxious to follow up the advan
tage he had gained by extending his lines
to the left and cutting off Hooker s com
munication with the United States Ford.
While waiting for Hill, he pushed forward
with his staff, on a personal reconnois-
sance, and, when returning, in the gloom
of evening, his men, mistaking them for
National cavalry, fired upon them and
mortally wounded the great leader.

No more fighting occurred in that part
of the field. Birney s division drove back
the Confederates at midnight, recovered

"Charge, and remember Jackson!" With
thirty pieces of artillery presently in po
sition on an elevation, his men made a
desperate charge under cover of their fire,
and were soon struggling with Sickles s
corps and four other divisions. These
were pushed back, and a fierce battle en
sued, the tide of success ebbing and flow
ing for more than an hour. During this
struggle Hooker had been prostrated, and
Couch took command of the army. Al
most the whole National army became en
gaged in the battle, at different points,
excepting the troops under Meade and
Reynolds. Couch fell back towards the
Rappahannock, and, at noon. Hooker, hav
ing recovered, resumed chief command.
Lee s army was now united, but Hook-

CHANCELLORSVILLE CHANDLER

er s was divided. Sedgwick had seriously
menaced Lee s flank; but had not joined
Hooker. After a hard conflict and the
loss of 1,000 men, Sedgwick had captured
the Confederate works on the heights back
of Fredericksburg, and sent Early, their
defender, flying southward with his shat
tered columns. Intelligence of these events
made Lee extremely cautious. Sedgwick,
leaving Gibbon in command at Fredericks-
burg, marched for Chancellorsville, when
Lee was compelled to divide his army to
meet this new peril. He sent McLaws
with four brigades to meet Sedgwick. At
Salem church they had a sanguinary con
flict. The Confederates won, and the losses
of Sedgwick, added to those sustained in
the morning, amounted to about 5,000 men.
Hooker, at the same time, seemed para
lyzed in his new position, for his army ap
peared being beaten in detail. On the
following morning, perceiving that Hook
er s army had been much strengthened,
Lee thought it necessary to drive Sedg
wick across the Rappahannock before
again attacking the main body. Early
was sent to retake the Heights of Freder
icksburg, and he cut Sedgwick off from
the city. Early was reinforced by Ander
son, by which Sedgwick was enclosed on
three sides. At six o clock in the evening
the Confederates attacked him. His forces
gave way and retreated to Banks s Ford,
and before morning the remains of Sedg-
wick s corps had crossed the Rappahan
nock over pontoon bridges. Gibbon also
withdrew from Fredericksburg to Fal-
mouth that night, and, on Tuesday, Lee
had only Hooker to contend with. He con
centrated his forces to strike Hooker a
crushing blow before night, but a heavy
rain-storm prevented. Hooker prepared
to retreat, and did so on the night of
May 5 and morning of the 6th, cross
ing the Rappahannock and returning to
the old quarters of the army opposite
Frodericksburg. The losses of each army
had been very heavy. That of the Confed
erates was reported at 12.277, including
2.000 prisoners, and that of the Nationals
was 17,197, including about 5,000 prison
ers. The latter also lost thirteen heavy
guns, about 20,000 small-arms, seventeen
colors, and a large amount of ammunition.
The Union Generals Berry and Whipple
were killed.

Chancery Jurisdiction. In all the
crown colonies, excepting New Hampshire,
the chancery court had been introduced,
in spite of the colonists, who dreaded its
prolix proceedings and heavy fees. Wher
ever it had been introduced, it was retain
ed in the State governments after the
Revolution. In New Jersey and South
Carolina the governor was made chancel
lor, as in colonial times. In New York
and Maryland a separate officer was ap
pointed with that title. In Virginia there
were several distinct chancellors. In North
Carolina and Georgia the administration
both of law and equity was intrusted to
the same tribunals. In Pennsylvania a
limited chancery power was conferred
upon the Supreme Court. In Connecti
cut the Assembly vested the judicial courts
with chancery powers in smaller cases,
reserving to itself the decision in matters
of more importance. In New England
there was such a strong prejudice against
chancery practice that for many years
there was a restriction to the system of
common-law remedies.

Chandler, JOHN, legislator; born in
Epping, N. H., in 1760. His business
was that of blacksmith, and he became
wealthy. With much native talent, he rose
to the places of councillor and Senator
(1803-5) ; member of Congress (1805-8) ;
and, in July, 1812, was commissioned
a brigadier-general. Wounded and made
prisoner in the battle at Stony Creek, in
Canada, he was soon afterwards ex
changed. From 1820 to 1829 he was
United States Senator fom Maine, one
of the first appointed from that new State.
From 1829 to 1837 he was collector of the
port of Portland. He became a major-
general of militia, and held several civil
local offices. He died in Augusta, Me.,
Sept. 25, 1841.

Chandler, WILLIAM EATON; born in
Concord, N. H., Dec. 28, 1835; gradu
ated at the Harvard Law School, and
admitted to the bar in 1855; appointed
reporter of the New Hampshire Supremo
Court in 1859; was a member of the New
Hampshire House of Representatives in
1S(&gt;2-1864, being twice elected speaker.
In 1865 President Lincoln appointed him
judge-advocate-general of the navy, and
soon afterwards he was made Assistant
Secretary of the Treasury. He resigned
94

CHANDLER CHANTILLY

in 1867, and began practising law in New
Hampshire. During the Presidential
campaigns of 1868, 1872, and 1876 he ren
dered effective work for the Republican
party as secretary of the National Repub
lican Committee. After the campaign of
1876 he was active in the investigation of
the electoral counting in Florida and
South Carolina; and in 1878-79 was an
important witness in the cipher despatch
investigation. He was appointed solicit
or-general of the United States, March 23,
1881, but his nomination was rejected by
the Senate; and in 1882-85 was Secretary
of the Navy. In 1887, 1889, and 1895 he
was elected United States Senator; in
1900 was defeated; in 1901 president of
the Spanish Treaty Claims Commission.

Chandler, ZACHABIAH, legislator; born
in Bedford, N. H., Dec. 10, 1813; settled
in Detroit, Mich., in 1833. In 1857 he
was elected United States Senator, and
held the seat until 1874, when he was ap
pointed Secretary of the Interior; and in
1879 was again elected to the Senate. He
was active in the organization of the Re
publican party; and sent a famous letter to
Governor Blair, of Michigan, on Feb. 11,
1861, in which he used the words, " With
out a little blood-letting this Union will
not, in my estimation, be worth a rush."
He died in Chicago, 111., Nov. 1, 1879.

Channing, EDWARD, historian; born in
Dorchester, Mass., June 15, 1856; was
graduated at Harvard College in 1878;
and became Professor of History there.
His publications include The United
Slates, 1765-1865; A Student s History of
the United States; Town and County
Government in the English Colonies of
North America; Narraganset Planters;
Companions of Columbus, in Justin Win-
sor s Narrative and Critical History of
A merica: Guide to Study of American
History (with Albert B. Hart) ; and Eng
lish History for Americans (with Thomas
W. Higginson).

Channing, WILLIAM ELLERY, clergy
man; born in Newport, R. I., April 7,
1780; graduated at Harvard in 1798
with highest honors; was a teacher in a
private family in Richmond, Va., for a
year afterwards; and, returning in feeble
health in 1802, studied theology, and be
came pastor of the Federal Street Church
in Boston, June 1, 1803. All through

his laborious life he suffered from
ill - health. In 1822 he sought physi
cal improvement by a voyage to Eu
rope, and in 1830 he went to St. Croix,

WILLIAM ELLERY CHANXI.VG.

W. I., for the same purpose. With a col
league he occasionally officiated in the
pulpit until 1840, when he resigned. In
August, 1842, he delivered his last public
address at Lenox, Mass., in commemora
tion of the abolition of slavery in the
West Indies. Mr. Channing contributed
much towards stimulating anti - slavery
feeling. He died in Bennington, Vt., Oct.
2, 1842.

Chantilly, BATTLE OF. On the morn
ing after the second battle at Bull Rim
Pope was joined at Centreville by the
corps of Franklin and Sumner. The next
day (Sept. 1, 1862), Lee, not disposed
to make a direct attack upon the Nation
als, sent Jackson on another flanking
movement, the latter taking with him
his own and Swell s division. With in
structions to assail and turn Pope s right,
he crossed Bull Run at Sudley Ford, and,
after a while, turning to the right, turn
ed down the Little River pike, and march
ed towards Fairfax Court - house. Pope
had prepared to meet this movement.
Heintzelman and Hooker were ordered to
different points, and jiist before sunset
Reno met Jackson s advance (Ewell and
Hill) near Chantilly. A cold and drench
ing rain was falling, but it did not pre
vent an immediate engagement. Very
soon McDowell, Hooker, and Kearny came
to Reno s assistance. A very severe battle

CHAPELLE CHAPULTEPEC

raged for some time, when Gen. Isaac J.
Stevens, leading Reno s second division
in person, was shot dead. His command
fell back in disorder. Seeing this, Gen.
Philip Kearny advanced with his division
and renewed the action, sending Birncy s
brigade to the front. A furious thunder
storm was then raging, which made the
use of ammunition very difficult. Unheed
ing this, Kearny brought forward a bat
tery and planted it in position him
self. Then, perceiving a gap caused by
the retirement of Stevens s men, he push
ed forward to reconnoitre, and was shot
dead a little within the Confederate lines,
just at sunset, and the command of his
division devolved on Birney, who instant
ly made a bayonet charge with his own
brigade of New York troops, led by Colo
nel Eagan. The Confederates were pushed
back some distance. Birney held the field
that night, and the broken and demoral
ized army was withdrawn within the lines
at Washington the next day. See KEARNY,
PHILIP.

After the battle at Chantilly, the Army
of Virginia was merged into the Army of
the Potomac, and General Pope returned
to service in the West. The loss of Pope s
army, from Cedar Mountain to Chantilly,
in killed, wounded, prisoners, and missing,
was estimated at 30,000. Lee s losses
during the same time amounted to about
15,000. He claimed to have taken 7,000
prisoners, with 2,000 sick and wounded,
thirty pieces of artillery, and 20,000
small-arms. Of the 91,000 veteran troops
from the Peninsula, lying near, Pope re
ported that only 20,500 men had joined
him in confronting Lee.

Chapelle, PLACIDE Louis, clergyman;
born in Mende, France, Aug. 28, 1842.
He came to the United States in 1859 ; and
was graduated at St. Mary s College, and
ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 18G5.
For five years he was a missionary, and
from 1870 to 1891 held pastorates in
Baltimore and Washington. He was made
coadjutor archbishop of Santa F6 in 1891 ;
archbishop in 1894; and archbishop of
New Orleans in 1897. In 1898 he was
appointed Apostolic Delegate to Cuba,
1 orto Rico, and the Philippines. After a
brief service in Cuba he went to the Philip
pines in 1901 and aided in establishing
civil government.

Chaplain, originally a clergyman who
performed divine service in a chapel, for a
prince or nobleman. In the I nitcd Slates
one who holds divine service in the army
or navy or for any public body.

Chaplin s Hills, BATTLE OF. See
PERUYVILLE.

Chapultepec, BATTLE OF. The city ot
Mexico stands on a slight swell of ground.
near the centre of an irregular basin, and
encircled by a broad and deep navigable
canal. The approaches to the city are
over elevated causeways, flanked by ditch
es. From these the capital is entered by
arched gateways; and these, when the
victorious Americans approached the city
(August, 1847), were strongly fortified.
When El Molino del Rev and Casa de
Mata had been captured (Sept. 8, 1847),
the castle of Chapultepec alone remained
as a defence for the city this and its
outworks. The hill, steep and rocky,
rises 150 feet above the surrounding coun
try. The castle was built of heavy stone
masonry. The whole fortress was 900 feet
in length, and the icrrcjjein and main
buildings 000 feet. The castle was about
100 feet in height, and presented a splen
did specimen of military architecture. A
dome, rising about 20 feet above the walls,
gave it a grand appearance. Two strong
ly built walls surrounded the whole struct
ure, 10 feet apart and 12 or 15 feet high.
The works were thoroughly armed, and
the garrison, among whom were some ex
pert French gunners, was commanded by
General Bravo. The whole hill was spotted
with forts and outworks.

To carry this strong post with the
least loss of men, Scott determined to
batter it with heavy cannon. Accord
ingly, on the night of Sept. 11, four
batteries of heavy cannon were erected on
a hill between Tucabaya and Chapulte
pec, commanded respectively by Captains
Drew, Haynes, and Brooks, and Lieuten
ant Stone. They were placed in position
by the engineer officers linger and Lcc
(the latter afterwards Commander-in-chief
of the Confederate army). On the morn
ing of the 12th these batteries opened
fire, every ball crashing through the cas
tle, and every shell tearing up the ram
parts. The fire of the Mexicans was not
less severe, and this duel of great guns
was kept up all day. The next morning

CHAPULTEPEC CHABLES I

they
strong

(13th) troops moved to assail the works, was soon taken and the American flag un-
at their weakest point, in two columns, furled over the ramparts amid prolonged
one led by General Pillow and the other cheers.

by General Quitman. Pillow marched to Meanwhile Quitman s column had moved

along a causeway,
captured two bat
teries, and joined
Pillow s column
in time to share in
the work of accom
plishing a final
victory. Together
took the
castle of
Chapultepec, and
scattered its de
fenders in every
direction. It was
literally torn in
pieces ; and with
in, a crowd of
prisoners of all
grades were seized,
among them fifty
general officers.
There were also
100 cadets of the
Military College,
the latter " pretty
little boys," wrote
an American offi
cer, " from ten to
sixteen years of
age." Several of
their little com
panions had been

assail the works on the west side, while killed, " fighting like demons." The fugi-
Quitman made a demonstration on the tives fled to the city, along an aqueduct,
easterly part. Both columns were pre- pursued by General Quitman to the very
ceded by a strong party that of Pillow gates engaged all the way in a running
by 250 of Worth s division, commanded fight, which was sometimes severe. See
by Captain McKenzie; and that of Quit- LEE, ROBERT EDWARD ; MEXICO, WAR WITH;
man by the same number, commanded by PILLOW, GIDEON JOHNSON; QUITMAN,
Captain Carey. Each storming party was JOHN ANTHONY; WORTH, WILLIAM JEN-
furnished with scaling-ladders. While KINS.

the troops were advancing the American Charles I., King of England; second
batteries kept up a continuous fire over son of James I.; was born at Dunferm-
their heads upon the works to prevent re- line, Scotland, Nov. 19, 1600. The death
inforcements reaching the Mexicans. Pil- of his elder brother, Henry, in 1612, made
low s column bore the brunt of the battle, him heir-apparent to the throne, which he
It first carried a redoubt, and drove the ascended as King in 1625. He sought the
Mexicans from shelter to shelter. At hand of the infanta of Spain, but finally
length the ditch and the wall of the main married (1625) Henrietta Maria, daugh-
work were reached; the scaling-ladders ter of Henry IV. of France. She was a
and fascines were brought up and planted Roman Catholic, and had been procured
by the storming parties; and the work for Charles by the infamous Duke of
II. a 07

CASTLE OF CHAPCLTKPEC.

CHARLES II

Buckingham, whose influence over the where the son joined her; and, at the
young King was disastrous to England Hague, he heard of the death of his parent
and to the monarch himself. by the axe, when he assumed the title of

Charles was naturally a good man, but King, and was proclaimed such at Edin-
his education, especially concerning the burgh, Feb. 3, 1649. He was crowned at
doctrine of the divine right of kings and Scone, Scotland, Jan. 1, 1651. After an
the sanctity of the royal prerogative, led unsuccessful warfare with Cromwell for
to an outbreak in England which cost the throne, he fled to Paris ; and finally he
him his life. Civil war began in 1641, became a resident of Breda, in Belgium,
and ended with his execution at the be- whence he was called to England by a
ginning of 1649. His reign was at first vote of Parliament, and restored to the
succeeded by the rule of the " Long Parlia
ment," and then by Cromwell a half-
monarch, called the " Protector." After
various vicissitudes during the civil war,
Charles was captured, and imprisoned in
Carisbrooke Castle, in the Isle of Wight,
from whence he was taken to London at
the close of 1648. He was brought to trial
before a special high court in Westmin
ster Hall on Jan. 20, 1649, on the 27th throne, May 8, 1660. He was a very prof-
was condemned to death, and on the 30th ligate monarch indolent, amiable, and un-
was beheaded on a scaffold in front of the scrupulous. He misgoverned England
banqueting-house at Whitehall. twenty-five years in an arbitrary manner,

Charles had eight children by his queen, and disgraced the nation. He became a
Henrietta, six of whom survived him. Roman Catholic, although professing to be
His family was driven into exile; but a a Protestant; and, when dying from a
little more than eleven years after his stroke of apoplexy, Feb. 6, 1685, he con-
death his eldest son, Charles, ascended fessed to a Roman Catholic priest, and
the throne as King of Great Britain. The received extreme unction. The throne de-
son held much more intimate relations, scended to his brother James, an avowed
as monarch, with the English-American Roman Catholic. See JAMES II.
colonies than the father. In March, 1663, Charles II. granted to

Charles II., King of England; son and several of his courtiers the vast domain of
successor of Charles L; born in London, the Carolinas in America. They were
May 29, 1630. His mother was Henrietta men, most of them past middle life in

years, and possessed of the " easy virtues "
which distinguished the reign of that
profligate monarch. They begged the do
main under pretence of a " pious zeal for
the propagation of the Gospel among the
heathen," while their real object was to
rob the " heathen " of these valuable
lands, and to accumulate riches and honors
for themselves. It is said that when these
petitioners appeared before Charles in the
gardens at Hampton Court, and presented
their memorial so full of pious pretensions,
the monarch, after looking each man in
the face for a moment, with a merry
twinkle in his eyes, burst into loud laugh
ter, in which his audience joined involun-

Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France, tarily. Then taking up a little shaggy
and sister of the then reigning King of spaniel, with large meek eyes, and holding
that realm. As the fortunes of his father it at arm s-length before them, he said,
waned, his mother returned to France, Good friends, here is a model of piety

CHARLES II.

CHARLESTON

and sincerity which it might be wholesome
for you to copy." Then, tossing the little
pet to Clarendon, he said, " There, Hyde,
is a worthy prelate; make him archbishop
of the domain I shall give you." With
grim satire, Charles introduced into the
preamble of their charter that the peti
tioners, " excited with a laudable and pi
ous zeal for the propagation of the Gospel,
have begged a certain country in the parts
of America not yet cultivated and planted,
and only inhabited by some barbarous peo
ple who have no knowledge of God." See
NORTH CAROLINA; SOUTH CAROLINA.

Charleston, city, port of entry, and
commercial metropolis of South Carolina;
on a peninsula between the Cooper and
Ashley rivers, which unite in forming an
admirable harbor; 82 miles northeast of
Savannah, Ga. The city was founded in
1680 by an English colony; was occupied
by the British in 1780-82; and was the
State capital till 1790. It has been the
scene of many stirring and historical
events. The celebrated Democratic Na
tional Convention of 1860 was opened
here, and after the split among the dele
gates an adjourned session was held in
Baltimore. It was the birthplace, the
same year, of the Secession movement; the
first act of hostility to the national gov
ernment occurred here ( see SUMTER, FORT ;
BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT) ;
was besieged and bombarded during the
last two years of the war; and was evacu
ated by the Confederates on Feb. 17, 1865.
On Aug. 31, 1886, a large part of the city
was destroyed by an earthquake, in which
many lives were lost.

In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900,
the foreign trade of the port was: Im
ports, $1,124,671; exports, $7,151,720. In
1899 the assessed valuation of all taxable
property was $17,293,458. The population
in 1890 was 54,955; in 1900, 55,807.

History. Provoked by the attack on St.
Augustine by the South Carolinians in 1706,
the Spaniards fitted out an expedition to
retaliate. It consisted of five vessels of
war, under the command of the French Ad
miral Le Feboure, bearing a large body of
troops from Havana. It was proposed to
conquer the province of South Carolina
and attach it to Spanish territory in Flor
ida. The squadron crossed Charleston Bar
(May, 1706), and about 800 troops were

landed at different points. Then the com
mander made a peremptory demand for
the surrender of the city, threatening to
take it by storm in case of refusal. Gov
ernor Moore, apprised of the expedition,
was prepared for it. When the flag ar
rived with the demand for a surrender,
he had so disposed the provincial militia
and a host of Indian warriors that it gave
an exaggerated idea of the strength of the
Carolinians. Before the messenger had
made any extended observations he was
dismissed with the defiant reply that the
people were ready to meet the promised
attack. That night was passed in quiet;
but at dawn a strong party of Carolinians
on the shore, led by the governor and
Colonel Ehett, made a furious assault
upon the invaders; killed many, captured
more, and drove the remnant back to their
ships. Meanwhile the little provincial
navy, lying in the harbor, prepared to at
tack the invading squadron, when the
French admiral, amazed by this display of
valor, hoisted his anchors and fled to sea.
A French war-ship, uninformed of these
events, soon afterwards sailed into the
harbor with troops, and was captured.
The victory was complete, and the Span
iards became circumspect.

In the Revolutionary War. In the
spring of 1776 a considerable fleet, un
der Admiral Sir Peter Parker, sailed
from England with troops, under Earl
Cornwallis, to operate against the coasts
of the Southern provinces. This arma
ment joined that of Sir Henry Clinton
at Cape Fear. After some marauding
operations in that region, the united
forces proceeded to Charleston Harbor, to
make a combined attack by land and water
upon Fort Sullivan, on Sullivan s Island,
and then to seize the city and province.
The Southern patriots had cheerfully re
sponded to the call of Governor Rutledge
to come to the defence of Charleston, and
about 6,000 armed men were in the vicin
ity when the enemy appeared. The city
and eligible points near had been forti
fied. Fort Sullivan was composed of pal
metto logs and earth, armed with twenty-
six cannon, and garrisoned by about 500
men, chiefly militia, under Col. William
Moultrie. It commanded the channel lead
ing to the town. Gen. Charles Lee, who
had been ordered by Washington to watch

CHARLESTON

the movements of Clinton, had made his
way southward, and arrived at Charleston
on June 4, but was of no service whatever.
Late in the month Clinton had landed
troops on Long Island, which was sepa
rated from Sullivan s Island by a shallow
creek. There he erected batteries to con
front those on Sullivan s Island, and
awaited the signal for attack by Parker.
It was given on the morning of June 28,
and a terrible storm of shot and shell was
poured upon the fort, with very little
effect, for the spongy palmetto logs would
not fracture, and the balls were embed
ded in them. The conflict raged for al
most ten hours between the fort and the
fleet, and the latter was terribly shat
tered.

Meanwhile Clinton had endeavored to
pass over to Sullivan s Island with 2,000
men, but was kept back by the determined
troops under Colonel Thompson with two
cannon and deadly rifles. The fire from
the fleet slackened at sunset, and ceased
at nine o clock. The admiral s flag-ship,
Bristol, and another were nearly a wreck.
The flag-ship was pierced by not less than
seventy balls. All but two of the vessels
(which were destroyed) withdrew. The
British lost in the engagement 225 men
killed and wounded, while the Americans
lost but two killed and twenty-one wound
ed. Three days afterwards the British all
departed for New York; and the fort, so
gallantly defended, was called Fort Moul-
trie in honor of its commander.

Sir Henry Clinton sailed from New
York on Christmas Day, 1779, for the pur
pose of invading South Carolina. He took
with him the main body of his army, leav
ing General Knyphausen in command in
New York. The troops were borne by a
British fleet, commanded by Admiral Ar-
buthnot, who had 2,000 marines. They en
countered heavy storms off Cape Hatteras,
which scattered the fleet. One vessel, laden
with heavy battery-cannon, went to the
bottom. Another, bearing Hessian troops,
was driven across the Atlantic, and dashed
on the shore of England. The troops land
ed on islands below Charleston, and it was
late in February before the scattered Brit
ish forces appeared on St. John s Island,
in sight of the wealthy city, containing a
population of 15,000 inhabitants, white
and black. The city was then defended by

less than 2,000 effective troops, under
General Lincoln, who cast up intrcnch-
ments across Charleston Neck. Commo
dore Whipple had sunk some of his armed
vessels in the channels of the harbor, after
transferring the cannon and seamen to
the land fortifications. Fort Moultrie was
well garrisoned. The invading troops
appeared before the defences of Charles
ton March 29, and the fleet entered the
harbor, unmolested, April 9.

On the following day Clinton and Ar-
buthnot demanded the surrender of the
city, which was promptly refused, and a
siege began. On the 13th Lincoln and a
council of officers considered the propriety
of evacuating the city to save it from de
struction, for the American troops were
too few to hope for a successful defence.
It was then too late, for cavalry, sent out
to keep open communications with the
country, had been dispersed by the Brit
ish troopers. The arrival of Cornwallis
(April 19) with 3,000 fresh troops render
ed an evacuation impossible. The siege
continued about a month. Fort Moultrie
surrendered on May 6, when a third de
mand for the surrender of the city was
made and refused. Late on the succeed
ing evening a severe cannonade was open
ed upon it from land and water. All night
long the thunder of 200 heavy guns shook
the city, and fiery bombshells were rained
upon it, setting the town on fire in dif
ferent places.

At two o clock on the morning of the
12th Lincoln proposed to yield, and on
that day the city and garrison were sur
rendered, and the latter, as well as the
adult citizens, became prisoners of war.
The latter were paroled ; and by this ex
traordinary proceeding Clinton could boast
of over 5,000 captives. The city was
given up to pillage by the British and
Hossian troops. When the whole amount
of plunder was appraised for distribution,
it aggregated in value $1,500,000. Clin
ton and his major-generals each received
about $20,000. Houses were rifled of
plate, and slaves were seized, driven on
board the ships, and sent to the West
Indies 1&lt;i lie sold, so as to swell the money-
gains of the conquerors. Over 2,000 men
and women, without regard to the separa
tion of families, were sent at one embarka
tion ; and only upon the promise of un-

100

CHABLESTON

conditional loyalty to the crown was thousands of voices exclaimed, " God bless

British protection offered to citizens. In you, gentlemen! Welcome! welcome!"

utter violation of the terms of surrender, Before night the British squadron (about

a large number of the leading men of 300 vessels) crossed the bar, and the last

Charleston were taken from their beds sail was seen like a white speck just as

(August) by armed men, and thrust on the sun went down,

board filthy prison-ships, under the false The Democratic Convention. On April

OF Tns/Gt or
CHABXES TCKN

^~ %.4 i-**--^~ 3t.-^--&lt; &lt;C--

accusation of being concerned in a con- 23, 18GO, about 600 representatives of
spiracy to burn the town and murder the the Democratic party assembled in con-
loyal inhabitants. vention in the hall of the South Caro-
The evacuation of the city took place Una Institute in Charleston, and chose
on Dec. 14, 1782. GEN. ALEXANDER LES- CALEB CUSHIXG (q. v.), of Massachu-
LIE (q. v.) had levelled the fortifications setts, their chairman. From the first
around the city, and demolished Fort hour of the session knowing ones dis-
Johnson, on St. John s Island, near covered omens of an impending tem-
by, on the morning of the 13th. The pest, which might topple from its foun-
American army slowly approached the dations their political organization. Mr.
city that day, and at dawn the next Cushing s opening address to the conven-
morning the British marched to Gads- tion pleased them. In it he declared it
den s wharf and embarked. An Amer- to be the mission of the Democratic party
ican detachment took formal possession " to reconcile popular freedom with con-
of the town. At 3 P.M. General Greene stituted order," and to maintain " the
escorted Governor Mathews and other sacred reserved rights of the sovereign
civil officers to the town-hall, the troops States." He charged the Republicans with
greeted on their way by cheers from " laboring to overthrow the Constitution."
windows and balconies, and even from He declared that the Republicans were
house-tops. Handkerchiefs waved, and aiming to produce " a perpetual sectional

101

CHARLESTON

conspiracy," which would " hurry the interfere with slavery anywhere, or to
country on to civil war," and that it was impair or destroy the right of property
" the high and noble part of the Demo- in slaves by any legislation. This was
cratic party of the Union to withstand a demand for the Democratic party to
to strike down and conquer these recognize slavery as a sacred, permanent,
banded enemies of the Constitution." and national institution.

This speech was applauded by all but The minority, composed wholly of dele-
the extreme pro-slavery wing of the con- gates from the free-labor States, resolved
vention, who, it is said, desired rather to that the limit of concession to the de-
" strike down " the Democratic party, to mands of the Southern politicians was
obtain more important advantages for reached, and they would yield no further,
themselves. They had come instructed to They represented a majority of the Presi-
demand from the convention
a candidate and an avowal of
principles which should prom
ise a guarantee for the speedy
recognition by the national
government and the people,
in a political way, of the sys
tem of slavery as a national
institution.

The most prominent candi
date for the Presidency in the
convention was Stephen A.
Douglas, who was commit
ted to an opposite policy con
cerning slavery, and whose
friends would never vote for
the demands of the extreme
pro-slavery men. This the lat
ter well knew. They also knew THK SOUTH CAROLINA INSTITUTE.
that the rejection of Mr.

Douglas by the representatives of the slave- dential electors 172 against 127. They
holders would split the Democratic party, offered to adopt a resolution expressive
and they resolved to act, it is said, in of their willingness to abide by any de-
accordance with their convictions. They cision of the Supreme Court of the United
held the dissevering wedge in their own States. To this concession Butler ob-
hands, and they determined to use it with jected, and three reports from the corn-
effect. A committee of one delegate from niittee went into the convention a ma-
each State was appointed to prepare a jority and a minority report, and one
platform of principles for the action of from Mr. Butler. A warm debate en-
the convention. BENJAMIN F. BUTLER sued, and Avery, from North Carolina,
(q. v.) of Massachusetts, proposed in that declared that the doctrine of popular sov-
committee to adopt the doctrine of the ereignty the authority of the people con-
right of the people in any State or Terri- cerning slavery was as dangerous as
tory to decide whether slavery should or that of congressional interference with
should not exist within its borders, the institution. The debate continued
This was rejected by seventeen States until the 29th, and the next morning
(only two of them free-labor States) a vote was taken.

against fifteen. This was the entering The minority report, in favor of popu-
of the dissevering wedge. The majority lar sovereignty, was adopted by a decided
now offered to accept that doctrine, Avith majority, when Walker, of Alabama,
an additional resolution declaring that, in afterwards the Confederate Sen-clary of
the spirit of Judge Taney s opinion (see War, announced that the delegates from
DRED SCOTT CASE), neither Congress nor his State would secede from the conven-
any other legislative body had a right to tion. The movement was preconcerted.

102

CHARLESTON

This delegation was followed by those of of war at the beginning of 1863, its

other slave-labor States, and the seceders possession was coveted by the national

assembled in St. Andrew s Hall, to pre- government because of the salutary moral

pare for an independent political organ- effect which such a conquest would

CHARLESTOX DURIXG THE CIVIL WAR.

ization. The disruption of the Demo- produce. A strong effort to accomplish
cratic party, as represented in the con- that end was made in the spring of
vention, was now complete. When D. C. 1863. On April 6 Admiral Dupont cross-
Glenn, of Mississippi, announced the se- ed Charleston Bar with nine " mon-
cession of the delegation from his State, itors," or turreted iron vessels, leaving
he said: "I tell Southern members, and five gunboats outside as a reserve, and
for them I tell the North, that in less proceeded to attack FORT SUMTER (q. v.)
than sixty days you will find a united the most formidable object in the way
South standing side by side with us." to the city. At the same time, a land

There was great rejoicing in Charles- force near at hand, 4,000 strong, un-
ton that night because of this secession, der Gen. Truman Seymour, took a masked
for the politicians were aware that the position on Folly Island, ready to co-
scheme for disunion was ripe for execu- operate, if necessary. The military works
tion. The seceders organized a " Con- that defended Charleston were numerous
stitutional Convention," with James A. and formidable. Between Forts Sumter
Bayard, of Delaware, as chairman. They and Moultrie the sea was strewn with
called the body they had left the " Rump torpedoes, and there were other formi-
Convention." On May 3 they adjourned, dable obstructions. On Morris Island,
to meet in Richmond, Va., in June. The abreast of Fort Sumter, was a strong
regular convention also adjourned, to work, called Fort Wagner. Dupont s
meet in Baltimore June 18. See BALTI- squadron lay quietly within the bar until
MORE. noon of April 7, when it advanced direct-

In the Civil War. Although Charles- ly upon Sumter, intending not to reply to

ton had become a comparatively un- any attack from Fort Wagner. The

important point in the grand theatre Weehawken led. Dupont was ignorant

103

CHARLESTON

of the torpedoes, but the discovery of of the navy, and lay Charleston in ashes
these soon explained the ominous silence by firing shells, if it should not be
of Sumter and Fort Wagner as he ad- surrendered.

vanced. Suddenly, when the Weehaw- As Dupont did not approve this plan,
ken had become entangled in a net-work Admiral Dahlgren took his place in July!
of cables, the barbette guns of Sumter Gillmore had batteries constructed, un
opened upon her with plunging shot, der the direction of General Vogdes, on
Then the other "monsters of the deep" the northern end of Folly Island. This
commanded by Dupont came forward and work was completely masked by a pine
delivered tremendous discharges of heavy forest. When all was in readiness, Gen. Al-
metal on Sumter, and at the same time fred H. Terry was sent, with nearly 4,000
fortress, Fort Wagner, and other troops, up the Stono River, to make a de-
batteries, with an aggregate of nearly monstration against James Island to mask

&gt; guns, poured heavy shot and shell Gillmore s real intentions, and Col. T. W.
upon the squadron then within the focus Higginson,with some negro troops, went up
of their concentric fire at the rate of the Edisto to cut the railway communica-
160 a minute. A greater portion of these tion between Charleston and Savannah,
missiles glanced off harmlessly from the Thirty hours after Terry s departure
mailed "monitors." The weaker Keokuk Gen. George C. Strong silently embarked
was nearly destroyed ; all of the other 2,000 men in small boats and crossed over
vessels were more or less injured. The to Morris Island before dawn (July 13),
flag-ship was in peril, and Fort Sumter unsuspected by the Confederates. At that
was but slightly hurt, when Dupont, after hour Vogdes s masked batteries opened a
a terrible fight of forty minutes, signalled tremendous cannonade, and Dahlgren s
the squadron to withdraw. In that time four " monitors," at the same time, opened

was estimated that the Confederates a cross-fire upon the Confederates, who
fired 3,500 shells and shots. The attack saw the amazing apparition of a strong
was a failure, but not a disaster. Du- National force ready to attack them. Af-
pont lost but a few men, and only one ter a sharp battle, Strong gained posses
sion of the powerful Confederate works

Second Attack on Fort Sumter. It on the southern end of Morris Island, with
was now seen that a land force on Mor- eleven guns. The occupants were driven
ris Island to keep Fort Wagner em- away, and took shelter in Fort Wagner,
ployed was necessary to secure a success- the garrison of which had been kept quiet
ful attack on Sumter. After this attack by Dahlgren s guns.
Dupont watched the Confed
erates on Morris Island, and
did not allow them to erect
any more works on it. Gen.
Quincy A. Gillmore was as
signed to the command of
the Department of the South
June 2, 1863. The govern
ment determined to renew
the attack on Fort Sumter
by a land and naval force.
Gillmore was at the head of
18,000 men, with a generous
supply of great guns, small-
arms, and ordnance stores.
He determined to seize Mor
ris Island preliminary to

an attack on Sumter and Charleston. Meanwhile, Terry had fought and re-
That island and the military works in pulsed Confederate assailants at Seces-
his possession, he might batter down Fort sionville, on James Island, in which he
Sumter from Fort Wagner, with the aid lost about 100 men, and his adversary 200.

104

BOMB AXD sm.VTER PROOF, FOIiT WACXKR.

CHARLESTON

He then hastened to Morris Island to join James islands, which might hurl shell

in the attack on Fort Wagner. Five bat- upon the city, or, at least, upon the ship-

teries were speedily erected across the ping and wharves of Charleston. This

island to confront Wagner, and at noon gun was named " The Swamp Angel." It
(July 13)

Gillmore opened a bombard
ment of that fort. Dahlgren, at the same
time, moved his " monitors " nearer to it,
and poured a continuous stream of shells
upon it. From noon until sunset 100 guns

was about 5 miles from Charleston. On
the morning of Aug. 17 Gillmore, having
completed his arrangements for attack,
opened the guns from twelve batteries and
from Dahlgren s naval force on Forts Sum-

were continually assailing the fort, which ter and Wagner and Battery Gregg,
replied with only two guns at long inter
vals.

When night fell, a tremendous thunder
storm swept over the harbor and the isl
ands, when General Strong, with a heavy
assaulting party, moved upon the fort. It
was composed of a Massachusetts regi
ment of colored troops, under Col. R. G.

Fort

Sumter, 2 miles distant, was the chief
object of attack to make it powerless as
an assistant of Fort Wagner. This was
continued until the 24th, when Gillmore
telegraphed to Washington, " Fort Sumter
is to-day a shapeless and harmless mass
of ruins." "The Swamp Angel" sent
some 150-ffi. shells that fell in Charles-

Shaw, and one regiment each from Con- ton one penetrating St. Michael s Church
necticut, New Hampshire, New York, and and greatly alarmed the people.

On the fall of Sumter, the attack cen
tred on Fort Wagner; and at two o clock

Pennsylvania. The storming party ad
vanced against a shower of shot and shell

from Wagner, Sumter, and Battery Gregg, on the morning of Sept. 7 General Terry,

When at the fort they were met by a
furious tempest of musketry, while howit
zers swept the ditch where the assailants
were crossing. Hand-grenades were also
thrown upon the Unionists. Colonel Shaw
was shot dead, and fell among the slain
of his dusky followers. General Strong,
and also Colonel Chatfield, of the Con
necticut regiment, were mortally wounded.
The Nationals were repulsed, when anoth
er brigade pushed forward to the assault,
led by Col. H. L. Putnam. It was com-

with 3,000 troops, in three columns, was
about to advance to assail that strong
fortification, when it was found that the
Confederates had evacuated it and Bat
tery Gregg before midnight. During forty
hours no less than 120,000 pounds of
iron had been rained upon the fort. Dahl
gren, believing the channel to be strewn
with torpedoes, did not venture to pass
the silent forts with his vessels and ap
pear before Charleston.

Indeed, Sumter was not dead, but slum-

of Putnam s men actually got into the
fort, but were expelled. Finally their

posed of Ohio and New York troops. Some bering. On the night of Sept. 8 a portion

of the men of the squadron went in thirty
row-boats to take possession of Sumter.

leader was killed, and the second storm- They scaled the ruins, where, as they sup-
ing party was repulsed. The loss on the posed, the decimated garrison were sleep-
part of the Nationals was fearful. The
Confederates said they buried 600 of them
in front of the fort. Among the bodies
of the slain so buried was that of Colonel
Shaw, who was cast into a trench, and
upon it were piled those of his slain col
ored troops. He was hated by the Con
federates because he commanded negro
troops.

ing, but were met by determined men, and
repulsed. They were assailed not only
by the garrison, but by neighboring bat
teries, a gunboat, and a " ram," and lost
200 men, four boats, and three colors.

Finally, on Oct. 26, perceiving the gar
rison mounting cannon on the southeast
face of Sumter, to command Fort Wag
ner, Gillmore opened heavy rifled can-

Sicge of Fort Sumter. Gillmore now non on the former, which soon reduced it

abandoned the idea of assaults, and began to an utterly untenable ruin. From that

a regular siege. He planted batteries time until near the close of the year Gill-

of heavy siege and breaching guns at dif- more kept up an irregular fire on Charles-

ferent points, and mounted a 200-pounder ton, when, seeing no prospect of the fleet

Parrott gun upon a battery constructed entering the harbor, he kept silent.
of timber in a marsh between Morris and When Hardee, in command of the Con-

105

CHARLESTOWN CHARTER OAK

federate troops at Charleston, heard of that stood upon the northern slope of the
the fall of COLUMBIA (q. v.), he perceived Wyllys Hill, in Hartford, a beautiful ele-
the necessity for his immediate flight, by ration on the south side of Charter Oak
the only railway then left open for his Street, a few rods east from Main Street.
use, and of endeavoring to join Beaure- The trunk was 25 feet in circumference
gard, with the remnant of Hood s army, near the roots. A large cavity, about 2
then making their way into North Caro- feet from the ground, was the place of con-
lina, where Johnston was gathering all of cealment of the original charter of Con-
his available forces in Sherman s path, necticut from the summer of 1687 until
Hardee at once fired every building, ware- the spring of 1689, when it was brought
house, or shed in Charleston stored with forth, and under it Connecticut resumed
cotton, and destroyed as much other prop- its charter government,
erty that might be useful to the Nationals In 1800 a daughter of Secretary
as possible. The few remaining inhabi- Wyllys, writing to Ur. Holmes, the an-
tants in the city were filled with conster- nalist, said of this tree: "The first inhab-
nation, for the flames spread through the itant of that name [Wyllys] found it
town. An explosion of gunpowder shook standing in the height of its glory. Age
the city to its foundations and killed fully seems to have curtailed its branches, yet
200 persons. Four whole squares of build- it is not exceeded in the height of its col-
ings were consumed. oring or the richness of its foliage. The

That night (Feb. 17, 1865), the last of cavity which was the asylum of our char-
Ilardee s troops left Charleston. On the ter was near the roots, and large enough
following morning Major Hennessy, sent to admit a child. Within the space of
from Morris Island, raised the National eight years that cavity has closed, as if it
flag over ruined Fort Sumter. The mayor had fulfilled the divine purpose for which
surrendered the city, and some National it had been reared."

troops, with negroes in Charleston, soon This tree was blown down by a heavy
extinguished the flames that threatened gale on Aug. 21, 185C. The Wyllys Hill
to devour the whole town. On that day
(Feb. 18, 1865), the city of Charles
ton was " repossessed " by the national
government, with over 450 pieces of ar
tillery, a large amount of gunpowder, and
eight locomotives and other rolling-stock
of a railway. General Gillmore took posses
sion of the city, and appointed Lieut.-Col.
Stewart L. Woodford military governor.

Charlestown, a town in W T est Virginia,
where on Dec. 2, 1859, John Brown was
hung, and on the 16th, Green, Copeland,
Cook, and Coppoc, and on March 16, 1860,
Stephens and Hazlett. See BROWN, JOHN.

Charlevoix, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIEB
DE, traveller; born in Saint-Quentin,
France, Oct. 29, 1682. He was sent as a
Jesuit missionary to Quebec in 1705; later
returned to France; and in 1720 again
went to Canada. On his second visit he
ascended the St. Lawrence River ; travelled has been graded to a terrace, called
through Illinois; and sailed down the Mis- Charter Oak Place, fronting on old
sissippi to New Orleans; and returned to Charter Oak Street, running cast from
France in 1722. His publications include Main Street, and now called Charter Oak
Histoire de la nouvelle France. He died Avenue. On the terrace, a few feet from
in La Fleche, France, Feb. 1, 1761. See the entrance to Charter Oak Place, a
JEST-IT MISSIONS. white-marble slab marks the exact spot

Charter Oak, THE, a famous oak-tree where the famous tree stood.

106

THE CHARTER OAK.

CHARTERS CHASE

Charters, granted to corporate towns to
protect their manufactures by Henry I.
in 1132; modified by Charles II. in 1683;
the ancient charters restored in 1698. Al
terations were made by the Municipal Re
form act in 1835. Ancient Anglo-Saxon
charters are printed in Kemble s Codex
Diplomatics, 1829. For colonial char
ters in the United States, see different
State articles.

Chase, ANN, patriot; born in Ireland,
in 1809; came to the United States in
1818; settled in New Orleans in 1832, and
in Tampico, Mexico, in 1833, where she
married Franklin Chase, United States
consul, in 1836. During the war with
Mexico she held possession of the con
sulate, in the absence of her husband, to
protect the American records. A mob at
tempted to remove the American flag
which floated over the consulate, but she
protected it with drawn revolver, ex
claiming that her flag would not be touch
ed except over her dead body. Later,
through her efforts, the city of Tampico
was captured without the loss of life or
treasure. She died in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
Dec. 24, 1874.

Chase, SALMON PORTLAND, statesman;
born in Cornish, N. H., Jan. 13, 1808.
When twelve years of age he was placed
in charge of his uncle, Bishop Chase,
in Ohio, who superintended his tuition.
He entered Cincinnati College; and after
a year there returned to New Hamp
shire and entered Dartmouth College,
where he graduated in 1826. He taught
school and studied law in Washing
ton, D. C., and was admitted to the
bar there in 1829. The next year he went
to Cincinnati to practise, where he be
came eminent. He prepared an edition of
the Statutes of Ohio, with copious notes,
which soon superseded all others. In 1834
he became solicitor of the Bank of the
United States in Cincinnati. Acting as
counsel for a colored woman who was
claimed as a slave (1837), he controvert
ed the authority of Congress to impose
any duties or confer any powers, in fugi
tive-slave cases, on State magistrates.
The same year, in his defence of J. G.
BIRNEY (q. v.) , prosecuted under a State
law for harboring a fugitive slave, Mr.
Chase asserted the doctrine that slavery
was local, and dependent upon State law

for existence, and that the alleged slave,
being in Ohio, where slavery did not exist,
was free. From that time he was regard
ed as the great legal champion of the
principles of the anti-slavery party.

He entered the political field in 1841, on
organizing the LIBERTY PARTY (q. v.) in

SALMON PORTLAND CHASE.

Ohio, and was ever afterwards active in
its conventions, as well as in the ranks
of the opposers of slavery. The Democrats
of the Ohio legislature elected him (1849)
to a seat in the United States Senate,
where he opposed the Fugitive Slave Bill
and other compromise measures, and, on
the nomination of Mr. Pierce for the
Presidency, he separated from the Demo
cratic party. He opposed the KANSAS-
NEBRASKA BILL (q. v.) , and in 1855 was
elected governor of Ohio.

He was one of the founders of the Re
publican party in 1856, and was governor
until 1859. In 1861 he became Secretary
of the Treasury of the United States, un
der President Lincoln, and managed the
finances of the nation with great ability
until October, 1864, when he was appoint
ed Chief-Justice of the United States in
place of Judge Taney, deceased. In that
capacity he presided at the trial of Presi
dent Johnson in the spring of 1868. Be
ing dissatisfied with the action of the Re
publican majority in Congress, Mr. Chase
was proposed, in 1868, as the Democratic
nominee for President. He was willing
to accept the nomination, but received only
four out of 663 votes in the convention.

107

CHASE CHATTAHOOCHEE

He then withdrew from the political field,
but in 1872 he opposed the re-election of
General Grant to the Presidency. He died
in Xew York City, May 7, 1873.

Chase, SAMUEL, jurist; born in Som
erset county, Md., April 17, 1741; ad
mitted to the bar in 1761; entered on
practice at Annapolis, and soon rose to
distinction. He was twenty years a mem
ber of the colonial legislature; was a
strong opposer of the Stamp Act; a mem
ber of the Committee of Correspond
ence; and a delegate to the Continental
Congress (1774-79). In 1776 he was a
fellow-commissioner of Franklin and Car
roll to seek an alliance with the Cana
dians, and was efficient in changing the
sentiments of Maryland in favor of inde
pendence, so as to authorize him and his
colleagues to vote for the Declaration,
which he signed. In 1783 Mr. Chase was
sent to England, as agent for Maryland,
to redeem a large sum of money intrusted
to the Bank of England, $650,000 of which
was finally recovered. From 1791 to 1796
he was chief-justice of his State, and
was a warm supporter of the administra
tions of Washington and Adams.

In the session of Congress in the early
part of 1804, it was determined by the
leaders of the dominant, or Democratic,
party to impeach Judge Chase, then as
sociate-justice of the Supreme Court of the
United States. He was an ardent Fed
eralist, and warmly attached to the prin
ciples of Washington s administration. At
the instance of John Randolph, of Vir
ginia, Democratic leader of the House of
Representatives, he was impeached for his
conduct during the trial of Callender and
Fries, solely on political grounds. Eight
articles of impeachment were agreed to,
most of them by a strict party vote. One
was founded on his conduct at the trial
of Fries (see FRIES), five on the trial of
Callender (see CALLENDER, J. T. ), and two
on a late charge to a Maryland grand jury.
Having been summoned by the Senate to
appear for trial, he did so (Jan. 2, 1805),
and asked for a delay until the next ses
sion. The boon was refused, and he was
given a month to prepare for trial. His
case excited much sympathy and indigna
tion, even among the better members of
the administration party. His age, his
Revolutionary services, and his pure judi

cial character all pleaded in his favor,
and not in vain, for he was acquitted. He
died June 19, 1811.

Chastellux, FRANCOIS JEAN, CHEVAMKU
DE, historian; born in Paris, Franco, in
1734; served in the American Revolution
under Rochambeau as a major-general.
His amiability gained him the friendship
of Washington. He was the author of
Voyage dans I Amerique septentriontilc
dans les annecs 1780-82, etc. He also
translated into French Humphrey s Ad
dress to the Army of the United States.
He died in Paris, Oct. 28, 1788.

Chateaugay, N. Y., BATTLE OF, Oct.
26, 1813. Gen. Wade Hampton, with
3,500 men, while guarding the ford on the
Chateaugay River, was attacked by the
British under De Salaberry with a thou
sand men. By a clever stratagem, Sala
berry led Hampton to believe himself
surrounded. He immediately ordered a
retreat, and was followed by the Cana
dian militia. The whole affair was a
disgrace to the American arms. The
Americans lost fifteen killed and twenty-
three wounded, while the British had five
killed, sixteen wounded, and four missing.

Chatham, EARL OF. See PITT, WILLIAM.

Chatham Island, one of the Galapagos
Archipelago, in the Pacific Ocean, 600 miles
west of Ecuador, to which it belongs. It
is of volcanic origin, the fifth in size of
the Galapagos, and abounds in turtles and
a small species of cat. Chatham Island
lias been the subject of negotiation between
the United States and Ecuador, the former
desiring it as a coaling station. It would
possess strategic importance in the event
of the opening of an isthmian canal.

Chattahoochee, PASSAGE OF THE. On
the morning of July 3, 1864, General John
ston s Confederate army passed in haste
through Marietta, Ga., and on towards the
Chattahoochee River, a deep and rapid
stream, closely followed by Sherman with
the National army, who hoped to strike
his antagonist a heavy blow while he was
crossing that stream. By quick and skil
ful movements, Johnston passed the Chat
tahoochee without much molestation and
made a stand behind intrenchments on its
left bank. Again Sherman made a suc
cessful flanking movement. Howard laid
a pontoon bridge 2 miles above the ferry
where the Confederates crossed. Demon-

108

CHATTANOOGA CHAUNCEY

JSAAU CHAL XCEY.

strations by the rest of the Nationals made ary Ridge, within 3 miles of the town.
Johnston abandon his position and retreat See CHICKAMAUGA, BATTLE OF; CHICKA-
to another that covered Atlanta. The left MATJGA NATIONAL PARK.
of the Confederates rested on the Chat- Chauncey, ISAAC, naval officer; born
tahoochee, and their right on Peach-tree
Creek. There the two armies rested some
time. On July 10, or sixty-five days after
Sherman put his army in motion south
ward, he was master of the country north
and west of the river on the banks of
which he was reposing nearly one-half
of Georgia and had accomplished the
chief object of his campaign, namely, the
advancement of the National lines from
the Tennessee to the Chattahoochee.

Chattanooga, ABANDON AIEXT OF. In
1SG3 the Army of the Cumberland, under
Rosecrans, after crossing the Cumberland
Mountains in pursuit of the Confederates
under Bragg, was stretched along the
Tennessee River from a point above Chat
tanooga 100 miles westward. Rosecrans
determined to cross that stream at differ
ent points, and, closing around Chatta
nooga, attempts to crush or starve the Con- i Black Rock, Conn., Feb. 20, 1772 ; in
federate army there. General Hazen was early life was in the merchant service,
near Harrison s, above Chattanooga (Aug.
20) . He had made slow marches, displaying
camp-fires at different points, and causing
the fifteen regiments of his command to ap
pear like the advance of an immense army.

On the morning of Aug. 21 National
artillery under Wilder, planted on the
mountain-side across the river, opposite
Chattanooga, sent screaming shells over
that town and among Bragg s troops. The
latter was startled by a sense of immedi
ate danger; and when, soon afterwards,
Generals Thomas and McCook crossed the
Tennessee with their corps and took pos
session of the passes of Lookout Mountain
on Bragg s flank, and Crittenden took post
at Wauhatchie, in Lookout Valley, nearer
the river, the Confederates abandoned
Chattanooga, passed through the gaps of
Missionary Ridge, and encamped on Chick -
amauga Creek, near Lafayette in north
ern Georgia, there to meet expected Na
tional forces when pressing through the
gaps of Lookout Mountain and threat
ening their communications with Dalton
and Resaea. From the lofty summit of
Lookout Mountain Crittenden had seen the
retreat of Bragg. He immediately led
his forces into the Chattanooga Valley
and encamped at Ross s Gap, in Mission-

109

CHADXCEY S MONUMENT.

CHAUTAUQUA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION CHEROKEE INDIANS

and commanded a ship at the age of itary officer; born in Nashville, Tenn.,

nineteen years. He made several voyages Oct. 20, 1820. He entered the Mexican

to the East Indies in the ships of John War as captain in the 1st Tennessee Regi-

Jacob Astor. In 1798 he was made a lieu- ment; distinguished himself in the battles

tenant of the navy, and was acting cap- of Monterey, Medelin, and Cerro Gordo,

tain of the Chesapeake in 1802. He be- and became colonel of the 3d Tennessee

came master in May, 1804, and captain in Regiment. At the conclusion of the war

1806. During the War of 1812-15 he was he was appointed major-general of the

in command of the American naval force Tennessee militia. When the Civil War

on Lake Ontario, where he performed broke out he organized the w r hole supply

efficient service. After that war he com- department for the Western Army of the

manded the Mediterranean squadron, and, Confederacy a work in which he was em-

with Consul Shaler, negotiated a treaty ployed when he was appointed brigadier-

with Algiers. In 1820 he was naval com- general (September, 1861). He partici

missioner in Washington, D. C., and pated in the battles of Belmont and Shiloh

again from 1833 until his death, in that and accompanied Bragg on his expedition

city, Jan. 27, 1840. Commodore Chaun- into Kentucky in September, 1862. Later

cey s remains were interred in the Con- he was promoted to major-general, and

gressional Cemetery in Washington, and was engaged at Chickamauga, Chatta-

at the head of his grave stands a fine nooga., Nashville, and other places. After

white-marble monument, suitably in- the war he applied himself chiefly to ag-

scribed. riculture. In October, 1885, he was made

Chautauqua System of Education, an postmaster of Nashville. He died in
enterprise established in 1878 at Chau- Nashville, Sept. 4, 1886.
tauqua, N. Y., in connection with the Cheat River, BATTLE OF. See CAR-
Chautauqua Assembly, which had been or- RICKSFORD, BATTLE OF.
ganized in 1874, by the joint efforts of Cheeshahteaumuck, CALEB, Indian;
Lewis Miller and the Rev. John H. Vin- born in Massachusetts in 1646; grad-
cent, for the purpose of holding annual uated at Harvard College in 1665, being
courses of instruction in languages, sci- the only Indian who received a degree
ence, literature, etc., at Chautauqua, in from that institution. He died in Charles-
July and August annually. The aim of town, Mass., in 1666.

the Chautauqua System is to continue the Cheney, THESEUS APOLEON, historian;
work of the assembly throughout the year born in Leon, N. Y., March 16, 1830;
in all parts of the country. Since 1878 educated at Oberlin. When the Repub-
more than 250,000 students have enrolled Hcan party was forming he suggested its
their names for the various courses. The name in an address at Conewango, N. Y.,
purpose of the Chautauqua Circles is to Aug. 20, 1854. His publications include
promote habits of reading and study in Report on the Ancient Monuments of
literature, history, art, and science, with- Western New York; Historical Sketch of
out interfering with the regular routine Chemung Valley; Historical Sketch of
of life. The complete course covers four Eighteen Counties of Central and South-
years, and aims to give " the college out- crn New York; Relations of Government
look" on life and the world? The books to Science; and Antiquarian Researches.
for study include specified works approved He died in Starkey, N. Y., Aug. 2, 1878.
by the counsellors; a membership book, Cherokee Indians, a nation formerly
with review outlines; a monthly maga- inhabiting the hilly regions of Georgia,
zine, with additional readings and notes; western Carolina, and northern Ala-
and other aids. Local circles can be form- bama, and called the Mountaineers of the
ed with three or four members. One hour South. They were among high hills and
each day for nine months is the time an- fertile valleys, and have ever been more
nually required. All who complete the susceptible of civilization than any of the
course receive certificates, and in case Indian tribes within the domain of the
any have pursued collateral and advanced United States. They were the determined
reading seals are affixed to the certificate, foes of the Shawnees, and, after many

Cheatham, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, mil- conflicts, drove those fugitives back to the

110

CHEROKEE INDIANS

Ohio. They united with the Carolinians could then put 6,000 warriors in the field,

and Catawbas against the Tuscaroras in In April, 1730, Sir Alexander met the

1711, but joined the great Indian league chief warriors of all the Cherokee towns

against the Carolinians in 1715. in council; informed them by whose au-

When, early in 1721, Gov. Francis Nich- thority he was sent; demanded from them

olson arrived in South Carolina, he tried an acknowledgment of King George as

CHEROKEE INDIAN S.

to cultivate the good-will of the Spaniards their sovereign, and a promise of their

and Indians in Florida. He also held a obedience to his authority. The chiefs,

conference with the chiefs of thirty-seven falling on their knees, promised fidelity

different cantons of Cherokees. He gave and obedience. By their consent, Sir Alex-

them presents, smoked with them the pipe ander nominated Moytoy, one of their

of peace, marked the boundaries of the best leaders, commander-in-chief of the

lands between them and the English set- Cherokee nation. They brought a rude

tiers, regulated weights and measures, crown, five eagles tails, and four scalps

and appointed an agent to superintend of their enemies to Sir Alexander, and de-

their affairs. He then concluded a treaty sired him to lay them at the feet of the

of commerce and peace with the Creeks. King when he should return to England.

Abovit 1730 the projects of the French Six of the chiefs went to England with

for uniting Canada and Louisiana by a Sir Alexander, and, standing before his

cordon of posts through the Ohio and Mis- Majesty, they promised, in the name of

sissippi valleys began to be developed. To their nation, eternal fidelity to the Eng-

counteract this scheme, the British wish- lish. A treaty was drawn up and signed

ed to convert the Indians on the fron- by the Secretary to the Lords Commis-

tiers into allies or subjects, and, to this sioners of Trade and Plantations on one

end, to make with them treaties of union side, to which the marks and tokens

and alliance. The British government of the chiefs were affixed. The chiefs were

accordingly sent out Sir Alexander Cum- amazed at the magnificence of the British

ming to conclude such a treaty with the Court and nation. They said : " We came

Cherokees. It was estimated that they hither naked and poor as the worms of

111

CHEBOKEE INDIANS

the earth; but you have everything; and men and offered 25 for every Indian

we that have nothing must love you, and scalp. North Carolina voted a similar

will never break the chain of friendship provision, and authorized the holding of

which is between us." They returned to Indian captives as slaves. General Am-

Carolina with Robert Johnson, who came herst, petitioned for assistance, detached

with a commission as governor. 1,200 men, chiefly Scotch Highlanders, for

For a long time the Cherokees and the the purpose, under Colonel Montgomery,

Five Nations had bloody contests; but with orders to chastise the Cherokees, but

the English effected a reconciliation be- to return in time for the next campaign

tween them about 1750, when the Chero- against Canada. Montgomery left Charles-

kees became the allies of the British ton early in April, with regular and pro-

against the French, and allowed the vincial troops, and laid waste a portion

former to build forts on their domain, of the Cherokee country. They were not

About that time they were at the height subdued. The next year Colonel Grant led

of their power, and inhabited sixty-four a stronger force against them, burned their

villages along the streams; but soon after- towns, desolated their fields, and killed

wards nearly one-half the population many of their warriors. Then the 1ml-

were swept off by the small-pox. The ians humbly sued for peace ( June, 17(&gt;1 ) .

Cherokees assisted in the capture of Fort In 1776 the Cherokees seriously threat-

Duquesne in 1758. ened the frontier of South Carolina. As

While the Cherokees who accompanied these Indians had become the dread of

the expedition against Fort Duquesne in the frontier settlers of Georgia, North

1758 were returning home along the Carolina, and Virginia, these three States

mountains on the western borders of Vir- joined in the defence of South Carolina,

ginia and the Carolinas, they quarrelled Col. Andrew Williamson led an expedi-

with the settlers, and several white men tion into the Cherokee country, destroy-

and Indians were killed. Some Cherokee ed all their settlements eastward of the

chiefs were sent to Charleston to arrange Appalachian Mountains, and effectually

the dispute, when they were treated al- brought the natives to submission. This

most with contempt by the governor of conquest was effected between July 15 and

South Carolina. This was soon followed Oct. 11, 1776. A military work named

by an invasion of the Cherokee country Fort Rutledge was erected in the Cherokee

by Governor Littleton (October, 1759) country and garrisoned by two indepen-

with 1,500 men, contributed by Virginia dent companies.

and the Carolinas, who demanded the sur- In 1781 the Cherokees having made a

render of the murderers of the English, hostile incursion into the Ninety-six Dis-

He found the Cherokees ready for war, trict, in South Carolina, murdered some

and was glad to make the insubordination families, and burned several houses, Gen.

of his soldiers and the prevalence of small- Andrew Pickens, at the head of about 400

pox among them an excuse for leaving mounted militia, penetrated into their

the country. He accepted twenty-two Ind- country, and, in fourteen days, burned

ian hostages as security for peace and thirteen towns and villages, killed more

the future delivery of the murderers, and than forty Indians, and took a number

retired in haste and confusion (June, of prisoners, without losing a man.

17CO). These hostages, which included By a treaty concluded at Ilopewell, on

several chiefs and warriors, were placed the Keowee, between the United States

in Fort St. George, at the head of the Sa- commissioners and the head men and war-

vannah River. The Cherokees attempted riors of all the Cherokees, the latter, for

their rescue as soon as Littleton and his themselves and their respective tribes and

army had gone. A soldier was wounded, towns, acknowledged all the Cherokees to

when his companions, in fiery anger, put be under the protection of the United

all the hostages to death. Slates. The boundaries of their hunting-

The Cherokee nation was aroused by the grounds were settled; several mutual and

outrage. They beleaguered the fort, and pacific conditions were agreed upon; and

war-parties scourged the frontiers. The a solemn pledge was made that " the

Assembly of South Carolina voted 1,000 hatchet should be buried," and that the

112

CHEROKEE INDIANS CHERRY VALLEY

peace re - established should " be univcr- they yet remain, with Choctaws, Creeks,

sal." and others for their neighbors.

These Indians were friends of the Unit- In 1801, John Ross, the renowned prin-
ed States in the War of 1812, and helped cipal chief of the Cherokees, who had led
to subjugate the Creeks. Civilization took them wisely for almost forty years, took
root among them and produced contention, a decided stand against the Confederates,
a portion of them wishing to adhere to He issued a proclamation (May 17), in
their former mode of living, while others which he reminded his people of their
wished to engage in the industries of civ- treaty obligations with the United States,
ilized life. They were so absolutely divided and urged them to be faithful to them,
in sentiment that in 1818 a portion of the and to take no part in the stirring events
nation emigrated to wild land assigned of the day. But he and his loyal associates
to them west of the Mississippi. The among the Cherokees and Creeks were
Cherokees, in turn, had ceded large por- overborne by the tide of secession and in-
tions of their lands, and their domain was surrection, and were swept on, powerless,
mostly confined to northern Georgia. They by the current. The betrayal of the Unit-
were then making rapid progress in civ- ed States troops by General Twiggs into
ilization; but the Georgians coveted their the hands of the Texas authorities left
lands. The Cherokees were yet powerful their territory on the side of that State
in numbers, and were then considerably open to invasion. False rumors continu-
advanced in the arts and customs of civil- ally disturbed them. Their neighbors, and
ization. They had churches and schools the wild tribes on their borders, w r ere
and a printing-press, issuing a newspaper; rallying to the standard of the Confeder-
and they were disposed to defend their ates. The National troops in Missouri
rights against the encroachments of their could not check the rising insurrection
white neighbors. there. The chief men of the Cherokees

President Jackson favored the Georgi- held a mass-meeting at Tahlequah in Au-
ans,and the white people then proceeded to gust, when, with great unanimity, they
take possession of the lands of the Chero- declared their allegiance to the " Conf ed-
kees. Trouble ensued, and the southern erate States." Ross still held out, but was
portion of the republic was menaced with finally compelled to yield. At a council
civil war for a while. The United States held on Aug. 20, he recommended the sev-
troops had been withdrawn from Georgia, erance of the connection with the national
and the national government offered no government. Ross s wife, a young and
obstacle to the forcible seizure of the Ind- well-educated woman, still held out; and
ian territory .by the Georgians. Some when an attempt was made to raise a Con-
missionaries laboring among the Cherokees federate flag over the council-house, she
were arrested and imprisoned for residing opposed the act with so much spirit that
in their country contrary to the laws of the Confederates desisted,
the State, and for refusing to take an oath During the Civil War the Cherokees
of allegiance to Georgia. The Cherokees suffered much. The Confederates would
then numbered between 14,000 and 15,000 not trust Ross, for his Union feelings were
oast of the Mississippi. The matter in very apparent. When, in 1862, they were
dispute was adjudicated by the Supreme about to arrest him, he and his family
Court of the United States, and on March escaped to the North, and resided in
30, 1832, that tribunal decided against the Philadelphia for a while,
claims of the Georgians. The Georgians, In 1899 there were 32,101 Cherokees at
still favored by the President, resented this the Union agency, Indian Territory, and
decision. An amicable settlement was 1,351 at the Eastern Cherokee agency,
finally reached; and, in 1838, under the North Carolina.

mild coercion of Maj.-Gen. W. Scott and Cherry Valley, MASSACRE AT. During
several thousand troops, the Cherokees a heavy storm of sleet on Nov. 11, 1778,
left their brnnlifnl country, in Georgia a band of Indians and Tories the former
with sorrow, and went to wild lands as- led by Brant, and the latter by Walter
signed them, well towards the eastern N. Butler, son of Col. John Butler-
slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where fell upon Cherry Valley, Otsego co., N. Y.,
n. H 113

CHESAPEAKE

and murdered thirty - two of the inhabi- the vice-admiral s commands must be
tants, mostly women and children, with obeyed." This insolent announcement was
sixteen soldiers of a little garrison there, repeated. The Chesapeake moved on, and
Nearly forty men, women, and children the Leopard sent two shots athwart her
were carried away captive. Butler was bow. These were followed by the reruain-
the arch-fiend on this occasion, and would der of the broadside, poured into the hull
listen to no appeals from Brant for mercy of the Chesapeake. Though Barren, sus-
on the innocent and helpless. The cap- pecting mischief, had hastily tried to pre-
tives were led away in the darkness and pare his ship for action, he was unable
a cold storm; and when they rested they to return the shots, for his guns had no
were huddled together, half naked, with priming-powder. After being severely in-
no shelter but the leafless trees, and no jured by repeated broadsides, the Chesa-
resting-place but the wet ground. pcake struck her colors. The vice-ad-
Chesapeake, the name of a famous miral s command was obeyed. The crew
United States frigate that will always of the Chesapeake were mustered by Brit-
bo memorable because of her interest-ab- ish officers, and the deserters were carried
sorbing career. In the spring of 1807 a away; one of them, who was a British
small British squadron lay (as they had subject, was hanged at Halifax, and the
lately) in American waters, near the lives of the Americans were spared only
mouth of Chesapeake Bay, watching some on condition that they should re-enter the
French frigates blockaded at Annapolis. British service.

Three of the crew of one of the British This outrage caused fiery indignation

vessels, Melampus, and one of another, throughout the United States. The Presi-

Halifax, had deserted, and enlisted on dent issued a proclamation, at the begin-

board the Chesapeake, lying at the Wash- ning of July, ordering all British armed

ington navy-yard. The British minister vessels to leave the waters of the United

made a formal demand for their surren- States, and forbidding any to enter until

der. The United States government re- ample satisfaction should be given. A

fused compliance, because it was ascer- British envoy extraordinary was sent to

tained that two of them (colored) were Washington to settle the difficulty. In-

natives of the United States, and there structed to do nothing until the Presi-

was strong presumptive evidence that dent s proclamation should be withdrawn,

the third one was, likewise. The com- the matter was left open more than four

modore of the British squadron took the years. In 1811 the British government

matter into his own hands. The Chesa- disavowed the act. Barron, found guilty

peake, going to sea on the morning of of neglect of duty in not being prepared

June 22, 1807, bearing the pennant of for the attack, was suspended from the

Commodore Barron, was intercepted by service for five years, without pay or

the British frigate Leopard, whose com- emolument.

mander, hailing, informed the commodore While the Hornet, Captain Lawrence,
that he had a despatch for him. A Brit- was on her homeward-bound voyage with
ish boat bearing a lieutenant came along- her large number of prisoners, the Chesa-
side the Chesapeake. The officer was po- peake was out on a long cruise to the
litely received by Barron, in his cabin, Cape de Verde Islands, and the coast of
when the former presented a demand from South America. She accomplished noth-
the captain of the Leopard to allow the ing except the capture of four British
bearer to muster the crew of the Chesa- merchant vessels; and as she entered Bos-
peake, that he might select and carry ton Harbor, in the spring of 1813, in a
away the alleged deserters. The demand gale, her topmast was carried away, and
was authorized by instructions received with it several men who were aloft, three
from Vice-Admiral Berkeley, at Halifax. of whom were drowned. Among the su-
Barron refused compliance, the lieuten- perstitious sailors she acquired the char-
ant withdrew, and the Chesapeake moved acter of an " unlucky " ship, and they
on. The Leopard followed, and her com- were loath to embark in her. Evans was
mander called out through his trumpet, compelled to leave her on account of the
"Commodore Barron must be aware that loss of the sight of one of his eyes; and

114

CHESAPEAKE

Lawrence, who had been promoted to cap- of the Chesapeake that she became unman-

tain for his bravery, was put in com- ageable. This misfortune occurred at the

mand of her, with the Hornet, Captain moment when the latter was about to

Biddle, as her consort. take the wind out of the sails of her an-

At the close of May the British frigate tagonist, shoot ahead, lay across her bow,

Shannon, thirty-eight guns, Capt. Philip rake her, and probably secure a victory.

THE SHANNON AND CHESAPEAKE ENTERING THE HARBOR OF HALIFAX.

Bowes Vere Broke, appeared off Boston Her mizzen rigging was entangled in the
Harbor, in the attitude of a challenger, fore-chains of the Shannon, in which posi-
She then carried fifty - two guns. He tion the decks of the Chesapeake were
wrote to Lawrence, requesting the Chesa- swept with terrible effect by the balls of
pcake to meet the Shannon, " ship to her antagonist. Lawrence ordered his
ship, to try the fortunes of their respective boarders to be called up. There was some
flags." He assured Lawrence that the delay, when a musket-ball mortally wound-
Chesapeake could not leave Boston with- ed the gallant young commander, and he
out the risk of being " crushed by the su- was carried below. As he left the deck
perior force of the British squadron," then he said, " Tell the men to fire faster, and
abroad, and proposed that they should not to give up the ship; fight her till she
meet in single combat, without the in- sinks." These words of the dying hero
terference of other vessels. slightly paraphrased to " Don t give up
Lawrence accepted the challenge, and, the ship," became the battle-cry of the
with Lieut. Augustus Ludlow as second in Americans, and the formula of an en-
command, he sailed out of Boston Harbor couraging maxim in morals for those who
to meet the Shannon, at mid-day, June 1, are struggling in life s contests.
1813. The same evening, between five and Broke s boarders now swarmed upon the
six o clock, they engaged in a close con- deck of the Chesapeake, and Lieutenant
flict. After fighting twelve minutes, the Ludlow, the second in command, was
Shannon so injured the spars and rigging mortally wounded by a sabre cut. After

115

CHESAPEAKE CHESTNUT

a severe struggle, in which the Americans and sold her timbers for building purposes,

lost, in killed and wounded, 146 men, vie- much of it for making houses in Ports-

tory remained with the Shannon. The mouth, and a considerable portion for the

British lost eighty-four men. Broke sailed erection of a mill at \Vickham, 9 miles

immediately for Halifax with his prize, from Portsmouth.

and the day before his arrival there Chesapeake Bay. At the mouth of

(June 7) Lawrence expired, wrapped in this bay a contest took place between the

the flag of the Chesapeake. British Admiral Graves and the French

England rang with shouts of exulta- Admiral de Grasse, aiding the American
tion because of this victory. An American colonies against Great Britain; the for-
writer remarked: "Never did any victory mer was obliged to retire, Sept. 5, 1781.
not even of Wellington in Spain, nor The Chesapeake and Delaware were block-
those of Nelson call forth such expres- aded by the British fleet in the War of
sions of joy on the part of the British"; 1812, and the bay was, at that period,
a proof that our naval character had risen the scene of hostilities, with various re
in their estimation. Lawrence fought suits. See MARYLAND; VIRGINIA.
under great disadvantages. He had been Chesney, CHARLES CORNWALLIS, mili-
in command of the ship only about ten tary writer; born in England, Sept. 29,
days, and was unacquainted with the abili- 1826; entered the British army, and was
ties of her officers and men; some of the professor at Sandhurst Military College,
former were sick or absent. His crew were His publications relating to the United
almost mutinous because of disputes con- States include Military View of Recent
cerning prize-money, and many of them Campaigns in Virginia (1863-65), and
had only recently enlisted; besides, the Military Biographies (1873), in which is
feeling among the sailors that she was an included several American military offi-
" unlucky" ship was disheartening. cers. He died in England, March 19, 1876.

The remains of Lawrence and Ludlow Chester, the first town settled in Penn-
were conveyed to Salem, Mass., where sylvania. The Delaware River Iron Ship-
funeral honors were paid to them on building and Engine Works established
Aug. 23. Early in September they were here in 1872 by John Roach. Here the
conveyed to New York, and were deposited City of Pekin and City of Tokio were
(Sept. 16) in Trinity church -yard. The built for the Pacific mail service,
corporation of the city of New York Chester, JOSEPH LEMUEL (pen name
erected a marble monument to Lawrence, JULIAN CRAMOR), antiquarian; born in
which becoming dilapidated, the vestry Norwich, Conn., April 30, 1821; removed
of Trinity Church erected a handsome to London, England, in 1858, and devoted
mausoleum of brown freestone (1847), himself to the history and genealogy of
near the southeast corner of Trinity the early settlers in New England. His
Church, close by Broadway, in commemo- publications include Educational Laws of
ration of both Lawrence and Ludlow, and Virginia; The Personal Narrative of Mrs.
eight trophy cannon were placed around Margaret Douglas; John Rogers (with a
it. Captain Lawrence s coat, chapeau, genealogy of the family), etc. He died
and sword are now in possession of the in London, England, May 28, 1882.
New Jersey Historical Society. Chestnut, JAMES, JR., Senator; born

The freedom of the city of London and near Camden, S. C., in 1815; gradu-
a sword were given to Captain Broke by ated at Princeton College in 1835; elected
the corporation ; the Prince Regent knight- United States Senator from South Caro-
cd him; and the inhabitants of his native Una, Jan. 5, 1850. When it became evi-
county (Suffolk) presented him with a dent that his State would secede he re-
gorgeous piece of silver as a testimonial signed his seat, but his resignation was
of their sense of his eminent services, not accepted, and on July 11, 1861, he was
The Chcsa}&gt;rake was taken to England and expelled. He was a member of the Con-
sold to the government for about $00.000, federate Provisional Congress; became
and in 1814 was put in commission. In aide to Jefferson Davis; and was pro-
1820 she was sold to a private gentleman moted brigadier-general in 1864. He died
for a very small sum, who broke her up in Camden, S. C., Feb. 1, 1885.

116

CHEVALIER CHEYENNE INDIANS

Chevalier, MICHEL, political econo
mist; born in Limoges, France, Jan. 13,
180G; educated in a polytechnic school;
came to the United States to examine
its canals and railroads. His publications
include Lettres sur I Amcriquc du Xord;
Introduction aux rapports du jury inter
national; Histoire et description des votes
de communication aux Etats-Unis et
des travaux qui en dependent; Cours
d economie; L Isthme de Panama; La
liberte aux Etats-Unis; L expedition du
Mcxique; Le Mexique ancien et moderne,
etc. He died Nov. 28, 1879.

Cheves, LANGDON, statesman; born
in Abbeville District, S. C., Sept. 17, 177(5.
Admitted to the bar in 1800, he soon
became eminent as a lawyer and as a
leader in the State legislature, which he
entered in 1808. He was attorney - gen
eral of the State, and was a member
of Congress from 1811 to 1816, zealous
ly supporting all war measures intro
duced. When, in 1814, Henry Clay was
sent to negotiate a treaty of peace with
Great Britain, he succeeded the Kentuck-
ian as speaker of the House, which place
he held for a year, his casting vote defeat
ing a bill for the rechartering of the
United States Bank. The bank was re-
chartered in 1810; and when in trouble
in 1819 Cheves was appointed president
of its directors, and by his great energy
and keen judgment it was saved from dis
solution. He became chief commissioner
under the treaty of Ghent for settling
some of its provisions. He was a public
advocate of disunion as early as the year
1830, but opposed NULLIFICATION (q. v.).
He died in Columbia, S. C., June 25,
185".

Chew, BENJAMIN, jurist; born in West
River, Md., Nov. 29, 1722; settled in Phila
delphia in 1745; was recorder in 1755-72;
and became chief-justice of Pennsylvania
in 1774. During the Revolutionary War
he sided with the royalist party, and in
1777 he was imprisoned in Fredericksburg,
Va., because he had refused to give a
parole. On Oct. 4, 1777, during the battle
of Germantown, a British outpost took ref
uge in his large stone mansion, and the
Americans, in order to drive them out,
fired on the building with muskets and
cannon. The building, however, was too
strongly built to be demolished by the

3 and 6 pounder field - pieces of that
time. A brigade commanded by Maxwell
was left to surround the house, while the
main American force pushed on. This
incident gave the British time to pre
pare for the American attack. From
1700 to 180G, when the High Court
of Errors and Appeals was abandoned,
he was president of that court. He
died Jan. 20, 1810. See GERMANTOWN,
BATTLE OF.

Cheyenne Indians, one of the most
westerly tribes of the Algonquian nation.
They were seated on the Cheyenne, a
branch of the Red River of the North.
Driven by the Sioux, they retreated be
yond the Missouri. Near the close of
the eighteenth century they were driven
to or near the Black Hills (now in the
Dakotas and Wyoming), where Lewis
and Clarke, found them in 1804, when
they possessed horses and made plun
dering raids as far as New Mexico. See
CLARKE, GEORGE ROGERS; LEWIS, MERI-
WETHER.

About 1825, when they were at peace
with the Sioux, and making war upon
the Pawnees, Kansas, and other tribes, a
feud occurred in the family. A part of
them remained with the Sioux, and the
others went south to the Arkansas River
and joined the Arapahoes. Many treaties
were made with them by agents of the
United States, but broken; and, finally,
losing all confidence in the honor of the
white race, they began hostilities in 1861.
This was the first time that the Chey-
ennes were at war with the white people.
While negotiations for peace and friend
ship were on foot, Colonel Chivington, of
Colorado, fell upon a Cheyenne village
(Nov. 29, 1864) and massacred about
100 men, women, and children. The whole
tribe was fired with a desire for revenge,
and a fierce war ensued, in which the
United States lost many gallant soldiers
and spent between $30,000,000 and $40,-
000,000.

The ill-feeling of the Indians towards
the white people remained unabated.
Some treaties were made and imperfectly
carried out; and, after General Han
cock burned one of their villages in 1867,
they again made war, and slew 300 United
States soldiers and settlers. General Cus-
ter defeated them on the Washita, killing
17

CHICAGO

their chief, thirty-seven warriors, and
two-thirds of their women and children.
The northern band of the Cheyennes re
mained peaceable, refusing to join the
Sioux against the white people, in 1865,
notwithstanding they were grossly in
sulted. The Cheyennes now are scat
tered.

In 18!)9 there were 2,069 Cheyennes at
the Cheyenne and Arapahoe agency, Okla
homa; 56 at the Pine Ridge agency, South
Dakota; and 1,349 at the Tongue River
agency, Montana.

Chicago, city, port of entry, commer
cial metropolis of Illinois, and second city
in the United States in point of popula
tion according to the census of 1900. It
is not only the largest city on the Great
Lakes, but is also the largest interior

that region. Of the skin of the polecat tho
Indians made tobacco-pouches. The spot
was first visited by Marquette, a French
Je.-uit missionary, in 1673, who encamped
there in the winter of 1674-75. Tho,
French built a fort there, which is mark
ed on a map, in 1683, " Fort Checagou.
When Canada was ceded to Great Britain
this fort was abandoned. The United
States government built a fort . there in
1804, and named it Dearborn, in honor of
the Secretary of War. It was on the
south side of the Chicago River, near its
mouth.

In the War of 1 812-15. This fort was
evacuated by its garrison in 1812, when the
troops and other white inhabitants there
were fallen upon by hostile Indians and
many people murdered Aug. 15. The gar-

CHICAGO ART INSTITUTE.

city in the country. In 1904 it had an
estimated area of 191 square miles.
The equalized valuation of all taxable
property in 1903 was $411,424,280, and
the net debt was $15,123,000. The city
owned real estate and buildings valued
at $81.832,062, including a waterworks
plant that cost $29,238,499. In the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1904, the foreign
trade of the city was: Imports, $21.088,-
397; exports, $2,321,566. The population
in 1890 was 1,099,850; in 1900 it had
reached 1,698,575.

Early History. The site of Chicago was
a favorite rendezvous for several tribes
of Indians in summer. Its name signifies,
in the Pottawatomie tongue, wild onion,
or a polecat, both of which abounded in

118

rison of the fort was commanded by ( apt.
N. Heald, assisted by Lieutenant I Mm.
The young wives of both officers were in
the fort. The garrison and the family of Mr.
Kinzie, living near by. were on friendly
terms with the surrounding Indians, until
the spring of 1812, when the hostile feel
ings created by British emissaries first be
came slightly manifest. A scalping party
of Winnebagoes made a raid on a settle
ment near Chicago in April, and during
the early part of the ensuing summer the
inhabitants saw, with alarm, the continual
gathering of Indians. On Aug. 7, a
friendly Pottawatomie chief arrived with
a letter from General Hull, notifying
Heald of the declaration of war and fall
of Mackinaw, and advising him, if expe-

CHICAGO

KI.NZIE MANSION AND FORT DEARBORN.

dient, to evacuate the fort and distribute
all the United States property there
among the neighboring Indians. Heald
was advised by this chief and by Kinzie to
leave the fort and let the Indians dis
tribute the property themselves. " While
they are doing this," they said, " you and
the white people may reach Fort Wayne
in safety." Heald, soldier-like, resolved to
obey his orders. He called them to a
council the next day (Aug. 12), told them
to come and receive the property, and ac
cepted their offer to escort the white peo
ple through the wilderness to Fort Wayne.
It was a fatal mistake, soon perceived.

Black Partridge, a friendly chief, unable
to control his warriors, came quietly to
the commander, and said, " Father, I come
to deliver to you the medal I wear. It
was given me by the Americans, and I
have long worn it in token of our mutual
friendship. But our young men are re
solved to imbrue their hands in the blood
of the white people. I cannot restrain them,
and I will not wear a token of peace while
I am compelled to act as an enemy." This
warning was strangely unheeded.

Massacre at Fort Dearborn. The less
honorable Indians promised good con
duct, but there were unmistakable signs

MEDAL GIVEN TO BLACK PARTRIDGE BY TBE AMERICAN S.
119

CHICAGO

of treachery, and when the morning ar
rived for the departure of the white
people (Aug. 15), it was clearly seen that
the hostiles intended to murder them.
With that conviction, the garrison and
white settlers went out of the gate of the
fort in procession, like a funeral march.
The band struck up the " Dead March in
Saul." The wives of Heald and Helm rode
on horseback by the side of their hus
bands; the former, a good shot, was
armed with a rifle. They had not
gone far when their savage escort, 500
strong, fell upon them, and a sharp and
bloody conflict ensued. Rebecca. Heald
behaved bravely. She received several
wounds, but, though bleeding and faint,
she kept her saddle; and when a fierce

nist by another Indian, who bore her to
the shore of the lake and plunged her in,
at the same time saving her from drown
ing. It was a friendly hand that held her
the Pottawatomie chief Black Partridge,
who would have saved the white people if
he could. He gave Captain Heald such
warning as he dared. On the night bo-
fore the evacuation of the fort he had
said to him, " Linden birds have been
singing in my ears to-day; be careful on
the march you are going to take."

On that bloody field, now in the sub
urbs of the great city of Chicago, other
women performed acts of heroism. Mean
while, Captain Heald had made terms for
surrender, and the massacre was stayed.
The prisoners were distributed among the

THE LAST VKSTIGE OF FORT DKAKJJOKX.

savage raised his tomahawk to slay her,
she said, in a sweet voice, in his own lan
guage, and with half a smile, " Surely
you ll not kill a squaw!" The appeal
saved her life, and she lived until 1800.
A young savage attempted to tomahawk
Mrs. Helm. She sprang to one side, re
ceiving the blow on her shoulder, and at
the same instant seized the Indian around
his neck and endeavored to get hold of
his scalping-knife. While thus strug
gling, she was dragged from her antago-

120

captors, and were finally reunited or re
stored to their friends and families. In
this affair, twelve children, who were in
a wagon, all the masculine civilians ex
cepting Mr. Kinzie and his sons, three
officers, and twenty-six private soldiers
were murdered. On the following day the
fort was burned by the Indians. Among
the slain was Captain Wells, Mrs. Heald s
uncle, who came from Fort Wayne witli
some mounted Miamis who were friendly.
He knew the danger, and had hastened to

CHICKAHOMINY CHICKAMAUGA

attempt to divert it. He was too late,
for the fort was abandoned when he ar
rived. His cowardly Miamis fled at the
first onset of the Pottawatomies, and he
was crushed by overwhelming numbers.

The fort was re-established in 1816, and
was occupied until 1837. The last ves
tige of it a block-house was demolished
in 1856. A town was laid out near the
fort in 1830, which embraced three-
eighths of a square mile. In 1831 it com
prised twelve families, besides the little
garrison of Fort Dearborn. The town
was organized in 1833, with five trustees,
when it contained 550 inhabitants. It
was incorporated a city March 4, 1837,
when it contained a population of 4,170.

A great fire occurred Oct. 9-10, 1871,
by which the city was almost destroyed
and more than $200,000,000 worth of
property was consumed; and on Dec. 30,
1903, the Iroquois Theatre was burned
during a matinee performance, causing
the death of 573 persons, of whom 49
were children under 10 years of age. See
COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.

Chickahominy, BATTLES ON THE. See
PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN.

Chickamauga, BATTLE OF. Rosecrans,
erroneously supposing Bragg had begun
a retreat towards Rome when he aban
doned CHATTANOOGA (q. v.) and marched
southward through the gaps of Mission
ary Ridge, pushed his forces through the
mountain passes, and was surprised to
find his antagonist, instead of retreating,
concentrating his forces to attack the at
tenuated line of the Nationals, the extrem
ities of which were then 50 miles apart.
Rosecrans proceeded at once to concen
trate his own forces; and very soon the
two armies were confronting each other
in battle array on each side of Chicka
mauga Creek, in the vicinity of Crawfish
Spring, each line extending towards the
slope of Missionary Ridge. Rosecrans
did not know that Lee had sent troops
from Virginia, under Longstreet, to rein
force Bragg, who was then making his
way up from Atlanta to swell the Con
federate forces to the number of fully
70,000. Johnston, in Mississippi, also
sont thousands of prisoners, paroled at
Yicksburg and Port Hudson, to still fur
ther reinforce Bragg.

In battle order on Chickamaujm Creek

(Sept. 19, 1863), the Confederate right
was commanded by General Polk, and the
left by General Hood until Longstreet
should arrive. During the previous night
nearly two-thirds of the Confederates had
crossed to the west side of the creek, and
held the fords from Lee and Gordon s mills
far towards Missionary Ridge. Rose-
crans s concentrated army did not then
number more than 55,000 men.

Gen. George H. Thomas, who was on
the extreme left of the National line, on
the slopes of Missionary Ridge, by a move
ment to capture an isolated Confederate
brigade, brought on a battle (Sept. 19)
at ten o clock, which raged with great
fierceness until dark, when the Nationals
seemed to have the advantage. It had
been begun by Croxton s brigade of Bran-
nan s division, which struggled sharply
with Forrest s cavalry. Thomas sent
Baird s division to assist Croxton, when
other Confederates became engaged, mak
ing the odds against the Nationals, when
the latter, having driven the Confederates,
were in turn pushed back. The pur
suers dashed through the lines of United
States regulars and captured a Michigan
battery and about 500 men. In the charge
all of the horses and most of the men of
the batteries were killed.

At that moment a heavy force of Na
tionals came up and joined in the battle.
They now outnumbered and outflanked the
Confederates, and, attacking them furious
ly, drove them back in disorder for a mile
and a half on their reserves. The lost
battery was recovered, and Brannan and
Baird were enabled to reform their shat
tered columns. There was a lull, but at
five o clock the Confederates renewed the
battle, and were pressing the National
line heavily, when Hazen, who was in
charge of a park of artillery twenty
guns hastened to put them in position,
with such infantry supports as he could
gather, and brought them to bear upon
the Confederates, at short range, as they
dashed into the road in pursuit of the
Nationals. The pursuers recoiled in dis
order, and thereby the day was saved on
the left. Night closed the combat.

There had been some lively artillery
work on the National right during the
day; and at three o clock in the after
noon Hood threw two of his divisions

121

CHICKAMAUGA, BATTLE OF

upon General Davis s division of Me- struggle ensued, with varying fortunes

Cook s corps, pushing it back and capt- for the combatants. The carnage on both

uring a battery. Davis fought with sides was frightful. Attempts to turn the

great pertinacity until near sunset, when National flank were not successful, for

a brigade of Sheridan s division came to Thomas and his veterans stood like a wall

his aid. Then a. successful countercharge in the way. The conflict for a while was

BATTLE OF CHICKAMAtTGA.
(From a contemfwraneout sketch.)

was made ; the Confederates were driven
back, the battery was retaken, and a num
ber of Confederates were made prisoners.
That night General Hindman came to the
Confederates with his division, and Long-
street arrived with two brigades of Mc-
Laws s veterans from Virginia, and took
command of the left of Bragg s army.

Preparations were made for a renewal
of the struggle in the morning. It was be
gun (Sept. 20), after a dense fog had
risen from the earth, between eight and
nine o clock. The conflict was to have
been opened by Polk at daylight on the
National left, but he failed. Meanwhile,
under cover of the fog, Thomas received re
inforcements, until nearly one-half of the
Army of the Cumberland present were un
der his command, and had erected breast
works of logs, rails, and earth. The battle
was begun by an attack by Breckinridge.
The intention was to interpose an over-
wjielming force between Rosecrans and
Chattanooga, which Thomas had prevented
the previous day. An exceedingly fierce

equally severe at the centre; and the
blunder of an incompetent staff officer,
sent with orders to General Wood, pro
duced disaster on the National right. A
gap was left in the National line, when
Hood, with Stewart, charged furiously,
while Buckner advanced to their support.
The charge, in which Davis and Brannan
and Sheridan were struck simultaneously,
isolated five brigades, which lost forty per
cent, of their number. By this charge the
National right wing was so shattered that
it began crumbling, and was soon seen
flying in disorder towards Chattanooga.
leaving thousands behind, killed, wounded,
or prisoners.

The tide carried with it the troops led
by Rosecrans, Crittenden, and McCook;
and the commanding general, unable to
join Thomas, and believing the whole army
would speedily be hurrying pell-mell to
Chattanooga, hastened to that place to
provide for rallying them there. Thomas,
meanwhile, ignorant of the disaster on the
right, was maintaining his position firmly.
oo

mfi

CHICKAMAUGA CHICKASAW BAYOU

Sheridan and Davis, who had been driven
over to the Dry Valley road, rallying their
shattered columns, reformed them by the
way, and, with McCook, halted and
changed front at Rossville., with a de
termination to defend the pass at all haz
ards against the pursuers. Thomas finally
withdrew from his breastworks and con
centrated his troops, and formed his line
on a slope of Missionary Ridge. Wood
and Brannan had barely time to dispose
their troops properly, when they were
furiously attacked, the Confederates
throwing in fresh troops continually.
General Granger, commanding reserves at
Rossville, hastened to the assistance of
Thomas with Steedman s division. The
latter fought his way to the crest of a
hill, and then turning his artillery upon
his assailants, drove them down the south
ern slope of the ridge with great slaughter.
They returned to the attack with an over
whelming force, determined to drive the
Nationals from the ridge, and pressed
Thomas most severely.

Finally, when they were moving along
a ridge and in a gorge, to assail his right
flank and rear, Granger formed two bri
gades (Whittaker s and Mitchell s) into a
charging party, and hurled them against
the- Confederates led by Hindman. Steed-
man led the charging party, with a regi
mental flag in his hand, and soon won a
victory. In the space of twenty minutes
the Confederates disappeared, and the
Nationals held both the ridge and gorge.

Very soon a greater portion of the Con
federate army were swarming around the
foot of the ridge, on which stood Thomas
with the remnant of seven divisions of the
Army of the Cumberland. The Confeder
ates were led by Longstreet. There
seemed no hope for the Nationals. But
Thomas stood like a rock, and his men
repulsed assault after assault until the
sun went down, when he began the with
drawal of his troops to Rossville, for his
ammunition was almost exhausted. Gen
eral Garfield,Rosecrans s chief of staff, had
arrived with orders for Thomas to take
the command of all the forces, and, with
McCook and Crittenden, to take a strong
position at Rossville. It was then that
Thomas had the first reliable information
of disaster on the right. Confederates
seeking to obstruct the movement were

driven back, with a loss of 200 men made
prisoners. So ended the battle of Chicka-
mauga.

The National loss was reported at 16,-
326, of whom 1,687 were killed. The total
loss of officers was 974. It is probable the
entire Union loss, including the missing,
was 19,000. The Confederate loss was re
ported at 20,500, of whom 2,673 were
killed. Rosecrans took 2,003 prisoners,
thirty-six guns, twenty caissons, and 8,450
small-arms, and lost, as prisoners, 7,500.
Bragg claimed to have captured over 8,000
prisoners (including the wounded), fifty-
one guns, and 15,000 small-arms.

The Confederates were victors on the
field, but their triumph was not decisive.
On the evening of the 20th the whole Na
tional army withdrew in good order to a
position in front of Chattanooga, and on
the following day Bragg advanced and
took possession of Lookout Mountain and
the whole of Missionary Ridge.

Chlckamauga National Park, a pub
lic park established by Congress Aug. 19,
1890, in the southeastern part of Ten
nessee and northwestern part of Georgia ;
embraces the famous battle-fields of
Chickamauga and of the scenes which oc
curred around Chattanooga. Both Ten
nessee and Georgia ceded to the United
States jurisdiction over the historic fields
as well as the approaching roads. The
roads, buildings, and conditions existing
at the time of the battles are gradually
being restored. A road 20 miles in extent
has been constructed along the crest of
Missionary Ridge where occurred some of
the heaviest actions. The headquarters
of the general officers and the positions of
participating organizations, batteries,
regiments and detached forces of both
armies, are marked with inscribed tablets.
The erection of monuments to commemo
rate the smaller organizations has been
left to the States and veterans societies.
The park is designed to create a " com
prehensive and extended military object-
lesson."

Chickasaw Bayou, BATTLE OF. When
Gen. W. T. Sherman came down from
Memphis to engage in the siege of Vicks-
burg, late in 1862, with about 20,000 men
and some heavy siege guns, he was joined
by troops from Helena, Ark., and was met
by a gunboat fleet, under Admiral Porter,

123

CHICKASAW BAYOU CHICKASAW INDIANS

at the mouth of the Yazoo River, just Chickasaw Indians, a tribe of the
above the city (Dec. 25). The two com- Creek confederacy that formerly inhabited
manders arranged a plan for attacking the country along the Mississippi from the
Vicksburg in the rear. They went up the borders of the Choctavv domain to the
Yazoo to capture some batteries at Chicka- Ohio River, and eastward beyond the
saw Bayou and other points. The Yazoo Tennessee to the lands of the Cherokees
sweeps round in a great
bend within a few miles of
Vicksburg. The range of
hills on which Vicksburg
stands extends to the Ya
zoo, about 12 miles above
the city, where they termi
nate in Raines s Bluff.

There is a deep natural
ditch extending from the
Yazoo below Haines s Bluff
to the Mississippi, called
Chickasaw Bayou, passing
near the bluffs, which were
fortified, and along their
bases were rifle - pits for
sharp-shooters. This bayou
lay in the path of Sher
man s march up the bluffs,
which must be carried to
gain the rear of Vicksburg.
His troops moved in four
columns, commanded re
spectively by Generals
Morgan, A. J. Smith, Mor
gan L. Smith, and F.Steele.

They moved on Dec. 27, bivouacked with- and Shawnees. They were warlike, and
out fire that night, and proceeded to the were the early friends of the English and
attack the next morning. The Nationals the inveterate foes of the French, who
drove the Confederate pickets across the twice (1736 and 1740) invaded their coun-
bayou, and everywhere the ground was so try under Bienville and De Noailles. The
soft that causeways of logs had to be built Chickasaws said they came from west of
for the passage of troops and artil- the Mississippi, under the guardianship
lery. The Nationals were seriously en- of a great dog, with a pole for a guide,
fl laded by the Confederate batteries and At night they stuck the pole in the ground,
sharp-shooters. The right of the Union and went the way it leaned every morn-
troops was commanded by Gen. F. P. ing. Their dog was drowned in crossing
I .lair, who led the way across the the Mississippi, and after a while their
bayou over a bridge his men had built, pole, in the interior of Alabama, remained
captured two lines of rifle-pits, and fought upright, and there they settled. De Soto
desperately to gain the crest of the hill passed a winter among them (1540-41),
before him. Others followed, and a severe when they numbered 10,000 warriors,
battle ensued. Pemberton, the Confederate These were reduced to 450 when the
chief, had arrived, and so active wore the French seated themselves in Louisiana.
Confederates on the bluffs that the Na- Wars with the new-comers and sur-
tionals were repulsed with heavy loss, rounding tribes occurred until the middle
Blair lost one-third of his brigade. Dark- of the eighteenth century. They favored
ness closed the struggle, when Sherman the English in the Revolution, when they
had lost about 2,000 men, and his an- had about 1,000 warriors. They joined
ta^onists only 207. the white people against the Creeks in

124

BATTLE OF CHICKASAW BAYOU.

CHICKERING CHILE

1795, and always remained the friends of slavery, and in the following year, while

the pale faces; and, in 1818, they had in Paris, addressed a memoir to the So-

ceded all their lands north of the State of ciete pour I abolition d esclavagc. He also

Mississippi. Some of the tribe had al- forwarded a pamphlet on the same subject

ready emigrated to Arkansas. In 1834 to the Eclectic Review in London. In

they ceded all their lands to the United 1843-44 he edited (with his wife) the

States, amounting to over 6,400,000 acres, Anti-Slavery Standard in New York. He

for which they received $3,646,000. Then died in Wayland, Mass., Sept. 18, 1874.

they joined the Choctaws, who spoke the Child, LYDIA MARIA, author; born in

same language, and became a part of that Medford, Mass., Feb. 11, 1802; edu-

nation. During their emigration the cated in the common schools; began her

small-pox destroyed a large number of literary career in 1819; and was noted

their tribe. as a supporter of the abolition movement.

They did not advance in civilization as In 1859 she sent a letter of sympathy to
rapidly as the Choctaws, and had no John Brown, who was then imprisoned at
schools until 1851. They were politically Harper s Ferry, offering to become his
separated from the Choctaws in 1855, and nurse. This offer he declined, but request-
have since been recognized as a distinct ed her to aid his family, which she did.
tribe. Led by their agents, who were Governor Wise, of Virginia, politely re-
Southern men, they joined the Confeder- buked her in a letter, and another epistle
ates, and lost nearly one-fourth of their from Senator Mason s wife threatened her
population, much stock, and all their with eternal punishment. These letters
slaves. They gave up 7,000,000 acres of with her replies were subsequently pub-
land for 4y 3 cents an acre, and the money lished and reached a circulation of 300,-
was to go to the freedmen, unless within 000. In 1840-43 she was editor of the
two years they allowed the negroes to National Anti-Slavery Standard. Her
become a part of the tribe. The latter publications include The Rebels; The First
alternative was adopted, Jan. 10, 1873. Settlers of New England; Frecdman s
In 1899 there were 8,730 still bearing their Book; Appeal for that Class of Americans
old name at the Union agency, Indian Ter- called Africans, etc. She died in Way-
ritory. See CHOCTAW INDIANS. land &gt; Mass., Oct. 20, 1880.

Checkering, JESSE, political economist; Children, DEPENDENT. See DEPENDENT

born in Dover, N. H., Aug. 31, 1797; CHILDREN, CARE OF.

graduated at Harvard College in 1818; Children s Day, or FLORAL SUNDAY, a

later studied medicine and practised in Sunday set apart annually in June by most

Boston, Mass. His publications include of the Protestant evangelical churches in

Statistical View of the Population of the United States, when the Sunday-school

Massachusetts from 1165-1840; Emigra- children are given charge of one or both

tion into the United States; Reports on church services.

the Census of Boston; and a Letter Ad- Chllds, GEORGE WILLIAM, publisher;

dressed to the President of the United born in Baltimore, Md., May 12, 1829;

States on Slavery, considered in Relation book publisher, 1850-63; editor of the

to the Principles of Constitutional Gov- Philadelphia Public Ledger (purchased in

crnment in Great Britain and in the conjunction with A. J. Drexel), 1864-94.

United States. He died in West Roxbury, He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 3. 1894.

Mass., May 29, 1855. Chile. Towards the close of 1890 a

Child, DAVID LEE, abolitionist; born in revolution occurred in Chile, South Amer-
West Boylston, Mass., July 8, 1794; ica. It was the result of certain abuses
graduated at Harvard College in 1817: of power on the part of the President of
was later admitted to the bar. In 1830 that republic, and the conflict was carried
he was editor of the Massachusetts Jour- on with great bitterness between his ad-
r,al, and while holding a seat in the legis- herents and the revolutionary party, with
lature opposed the annexation of Texas ; the Chilean Congress at its head. Early
afterwards he issued a tract on the subject in the course of the war almost the en-
entitled Naboth s Vineyard. In 1836 he tire Chilean navy deserted the cause of the
published ten articles on the subject of President and espoused that of thr I-QVO-

125

CHINA

lutionists. Among the vessels employed About the same time another complica-

by the latter was the Itata, originally tion arose between Chile and the United

a merchant ship, but then armed and re- States. While the United States cruiser

fitted as a cruiser. In the spring of 1891 Baltimore was in the harbor of Valparai-

this vessel put in at the harbor of San so, a party of her sailors became involved

Diego, Cal., for the purpose of securing in a riot with the Chileans, Oct. 16, 1891.

a cargo of arms and ammunition for the In the course of the melee several sailors

revolutionists. The secret, however, was were wounded, of whom two died; thirty-

not well kept, and when it came to the six were arrested by the authorities. When

knowledge of the United States authori- the news of the affair reached the United

ties, steps were at once taken to prevent States it created considerable excitement,

her from accomplishing the object of her On Oct. 23 President Harrison despatched

mission. Officers acting under the neutral- a message to United States Minister Egan

ity laws seized the vessel and placed a at Santiago, demanding reparation, and

United States deputy marshal on board. two war-ships were sent to the country.

Soon afterwards, on the night of May On Dec. 11, the Chilean minister of
6, the Itata, disregarding this action of foreign affairs, Matta, sent a communica-
the United States, sailed away from San tion, which became known as the " Matta
Diego with the American officer on board. Note." The Chilean request for Mr Egan s
The latter, however, was landed a few recall, and the phraseology of the " Matta
miles south of San Diego. The Itata Note," gave offence at Washington, and in
then took on board, from the American January, 1892, the President despatched
schooner Robert and Minnie, a cargo of a protest to the Chilean government, and
arms and ammunition which had arrived on Jan. 25 sent a message to Congress,
from the Eastern States, and immediately Meantime at Valparaiso an inquiry was
sailed for Chile. On May 9 the United held on the riot, and three Chileans were
States warship Charleston was ordered in sentenced to penal servitude. President
pursuit, with instructions to take her at Montt, who had now been inducted into
all hazards. The chase lasted twenty-five office, directed the minister of foreign af-
days. The Charleston reached the bay of fairs to withdraw the " Matta Note " and
Iquique first, and there learned that the also the request for Minister Egan s re-
revolutionists, fearing to provoke the hos- call, and Chile paid an indemnity of
tility of the United States, had resolved $75,000.

to surrender the Itata to the authorities The affair was variously interpreted in
of that country. A few days later that the United States: by enemies of the ad-
vessel, upon arriving at Iquique, was ministration as the bullying of a weaker
promptly given over to the United States power; by the administration s friends as
officers. She was manned with an Amer- an instance of a vigorous national policy,
ican crew, and sent back to the harbor of During 1893 and 1894 Chile was shaken
San Diego, where it was intended she by several domestic revolutions, during
should remain until the settlement of the which much American property was de-
question at issue concerning her cargo and stroyed. In November, 1895, Senor Bar-
her responsibility to the United States. ros, a liberal, formed a cabinet and paid

The Chilean war, however, was brought to the United States $250,000 for damage

to a close in the autumn by the complete done during the revolutions. In 1896 Chile

success of the revolutionary forces, and the concluded peace treaties with all her

case against the Itata was allowed to drop, neighbors.

CHINA

China. From time to time, during the stationed in the northern provinces of
latter part of 1899 and the early part of China, of the rapid spread and threaten-
1900, came disturbing reports, from mis- ing attitude of the Boxers, a secret or-
sionaries and the representatives of the ganization having for its purpose the ex-
United States and the European powers termination of all foreigners and the

126

CHINA

abolition of all foreign influence from On June 2, Mr. H. V. Norman, an Eng-
Chinese territory. The native name of lish missionary, was murdered by the
this society is I-ho-ch uan, " Combination Boxers at Yung Ching, a few miles from
of Righteous Harmony Fists " ; it had for Peking, and during the following days
its leader Prince Tuan, the father of the the rioting and destruction of property
heir-presumptive to the Chinese throne ; seemed to break out on every side with
and had its origin in the intense anti- renewed violence. The imperial decrees
foreign sentiment excited by the occupa- against the rioters were only half-hearted,
tion by the European powers of Chinese and it was responsibly reported that, in
territory under various cessions in the spite of the representations of the Chinese
years immediately following the Chino- government of heavy engagements in their
Japanese War (1895), the superstitions efforts to put down the uprising, a large
of the ignorant classes, and the hatred, in number of the imperial forces were fight-
certain districts, of the missionaries, who, ing with the Boxers. Fifty miles of the
in their zeal for converts, had entered under Luban Eailway had been destroyed by the
treaty rights into every part of the empire, anti-foreign mob, with many stores and
Conditions grew more critical and the supplies for the new lines then under con-
threatening of the missionaries increased struction. Chapels and mission settle-
in extent and intensity until, on May 19, ments in Shantung and Pechili provinces
1900, the Christian village of Lai-Shun, were looted and burned and hundreds of
70 miles from Peking, was destroyed, and native Christians massacred. Finally the
seventy-three native converts massacred, railway from Tientsin to Peking was cut.
The representatives of the foreign powers, On June 10, the British Admiral Sey-
on May 21, addressed a joint note to the mour, with 2,000 men, drawn from the in-
Tsung-li-Yamen, the foreign office of the ternational forces in Tientsin, set out to
Chinese government, calling for the sup- repair the railway, and found it so badly
pression of the Boxers, and the restora- damaged that in two days he had advanced
tion of order. This and all further at- only 35 miles. Then came the news that
tempts on the part of the ministers met he had been surrounded by countless hordes
with little or no response, the Court itself of Chinese, imperial soldiers and Boxers,
openly encouraging the anti-fpreign senti- and that all communication with Tientsin
ment, and the young Emperor, Kwang- and Peking was closed. Not until June
Su, being entirely under the influence of 26 was he able, after receiving reinforce-
the Empress Dowager, notorious for her ments, to cut his way back into Tientsin,
hatred of and opposition to the reforma- He had lost 374 men, and had not been
tion policy. Upon the report of United able to get within 25 miles of Peking, his
States MINISTER EDWIN H. CONGER (q. v.) , whole command barely escaping annihila-
that the Boxers were operating within a tion. In this unfortunate advance and
few miles of Peking, and of the great retreat, Captain McCalla, who was the
danger to the property and lives of the leader of the American contingent, was
Americans in that part of the world, the highly commended for his bravery and
United States government ordered REAR- resourcefulness.

ADMIRAL Louis KEMPFF (q. v.) to pro- On June 17, the Chinese forts at Taku

ceed at once with the flag-ship Newark to opened fire upon the warships of the allied

Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho River, forces, and those of Germany, Russia,

the harbor for Tientsin and Peking. Here Great Britain, France, and Japan im-

gathered, within a few days, the available mediately returned the bombardment. The

war-ships of Great Britain, Russia, fortifications were finally captured at the

France, Germany, and Italy. Captain point of the bayonet by soldiers landed at

McCalla, with 100 men from the Newark, a point enabling them to assault in the

Innded and proceeded to Tientsin, and on rear. Over 100 Europeans were killed and

May 31, a small international force, in- wounded in this engagement; the Chinese

eluding seven officers and fifty-six men of loss was estimated at 700. The American

the American marine corps, were despatch- Admiral Kempff did not participate in the

ed to Peking, as a guard for the legations, attack, taking the ground that the United

and were admitted to the city. States was not at war with China, and

127

CHINA

that such hostile action would merely serve
to unite the Chinese against the foreign
ers.

On June 18, the United States govern
ment ordered the battle-ship Oregon and
the gunboats Yorkloicn, Nashville, and
Monocacy, and the 9th Regiment, 1,400
men, under Col. Emerson H. Liscum, from
Manila to Taku, and other United States
forces were held in readiness for service
in China. While on the way, June 28,
the Oregon ran aground in the Gulf of

infantry and cavalry, intended for the
Philippines, proceeded to China, and the
United States government announced that
it would, if necessary, increase the Amer
ican army of occupation to 16,000. On
July 4, .Secretary of State John Hay, in
a note to the European powers, declared
the attitude of the United States towards
the Chinese troubles.

On June 21-23 the allies had forced their
way, by the aid of fire from the fleet, into
the foreign quarter at Tientsin, and had

AMERICAN TROOPS ENTERING PEKING.

Pechili in a fo". One week later she was united with the Europeans there besieged
floated, without having suffered serious by the Chinese Boxers and imperial sol-
damage, and through the courtesy of the diers; for many days hard fighting wa
Japanese government sent to the national carried on against this enemy, shelters
docks at Kure for repairs. On June 24, in the native portion of the city and on
REAR-ADMIRAL GEORGE C. REMEY (q. v.) the walls. On July 2, the women and
proceeded with the flag-ship Brooklyn children, at great risk, were sent down
from Manila to succeed Admiral Kempff I eiho to Taku, and for the following ten
in the command of the American fleet, days the Chinese bombarded the fore,
On June 26, GEN. Am* A R. CHAFFEE (q. v.) city. On June 9, 11, and 13, attempts were
was appointed to the command of the made by the allies to capture the native
American army in China, and 6,300 troops, city. On the 13th Colonel Liscum was

128

CHINA

killed while leading his men. On July 14, Chinese troops were surrounded in the
the forts were captured, and the Chinese inner city. Fighting in the streets con-
driven out with great loss. The casualties tinued till Aug. 28, when the allied troops
of the allies were 875, of whom 215 were marched in force through the Forbidden
Americans. City.

The temporary success of the Chinese at The relief of the besieged foreigners
Tientsin, the siege of the legations in was most timely. For forty-five days,
Peking, and the murder, June 12, of the 3,000 souls, including 2,200 native con-
Japanese chancellor of legation, and, verts, had been shut up in the compound
June 20, of Baron von Ketteler, the Ger- of the British Legation, where all had
man minister, seemed to inspire them with gathered for mutual defence, after the
new fury, and the Boxer craze spread with other legations had been destroyed, sub-
fearful rapidity over all the northern dis- jected to the artillery and rifle fire of
tricts, while in the south much uneasi- 50,000 troops under Prince Tuan. In the
ness was shown. On July 15, a Chinese general attack, June 20-25, the Chinese
force invaded Russia, and the latter gov- were driven back with great loss; but
ernment immediately declared the Amur with the exception of a truce of twelve
district in a state of war. July 23, Presi- days after the fall of Tientsin, July 17,
dent McKinley, in answer to the request the bombardment scarcely ceased day or
of the Chinese Emperor for the good of- night. Provisions and ammunition were
fices of the United States in bringing about very short, and the exposure and constant
peace, demanded that the imperial gov- labor were telling severely on the be-
ernment should first make known to the sieged. Many efforts were made on the
world whether the representatives of the part of the Chinese to induce the besieged
foreign powers in Peking were alive; and to proceed to Tientsin under promise of
that it co-operate with the allied army safe escort, but were promptly refused,
gathering for their relief. The missionaries were in many cases less

The fate of the foreign ministers and fortunate. A few made their way into

their families and attaches, the legation Peking, one party escaped across the Gobi

guards, and the missionaries and their Desert and reached the friendly borders

native converts, who had flocked to them of Russia, and some succeeded in making

for protection, was unknown. On July their way to the more tolerant southern

20, a message, purporting to have been provinces; but in the inland cities many

sent by Minister Conger about July 18, perished at their posts, often subjected to

was received through Minister Wu at the most brutal assault and mutilation.

Washington, and was accepted as authen- At Pao-ting-fu, 80 miles southwest of Pe-

tic by the United States government, and king, fourteen persons, including women

subsequently by the European powers, and children, were butchered by order of

But for the most part the reports were of the authorities.

the most fearful character. The sto- Military operations ceased with the oc-

ries of massacres and outrages committed cupation of Peking, with the exception of

upon the besieged filled the world with punitive expeditions sent to Pao-ting-fu

horror. and the more disturbed districts. On

By the latter part of July the inter- Aug. 10, Count von Waldersee, field-mar-
national force numbered 30,000 men, and shal of the German army, was unani-
was deemed sufficiently large to begin the mously approved as commander of the
advance upon Peking. On Aug. 4, a relief allied forces. He arrived in Shanghai
column 16,000 strong left Tientsin and Sept. 21. On Oct. 3, the withdrawal of
met its first determined resistance at Pei- the United States troops was begun. Oct.
tsang, Aug. 5, which it captured after a 1, Li Hung Chang reached Peking, and
hard fight, with a loss of about 200 killed the Chinese Peace Commission, consisting
and wounded. With a considerable loss, of Li Hung Chang, Yung Lu, Hsu Tung,
\angtsun, Aug. 7, and Tung Chow, Aug. and Prince Ching, was announced. Nego-
12, were occupied, and on Aug. 14, the re- tiations were begun at once, and on Dec.
lief forces entered Peking. The Emperor 22 the allied powers having come to an
and the Empress Dowager had fled and the agreement as to the demands upon China,
II. I 129

CHINA

the following note was addressed to the
imperial government:

" During the months of May, June, July,
and August of the current year serious dis
turbances broke out in the Northern prov
inces of China, in which atrocious crimes
unparalleled in history and outrages against
the law of nations, against the laws of hu
manity, and against civilization were commit
ted under particularly odious circumstances.
The principal of these crimes were the fol
lowing :

" First On June 20 his Excellency Baron
von Ketteler, while on his way to the Tsung-
li-Yamen, in the performance of his official
functions, was murdered by soldiers of the
regular army, acting under orders of their
chiefs.

" Second On the same day the foreign lega
tions were attacked and besieged. The at
tacks continued without intermission until
Aug. 14, on which date the arrival of the
foreign forces put an end to them. These at
tacks were made by the regular troops, who
joined the Boxers, and who obeyed the orders
of the Court emanating from the imperial
palace. At the same time the Chinese gov
ernment officially declared, by its representa
tives abroad, that it guaranteed the security
of the legations.

" Third On June 11 Mr. Sujyama, chan
cellor of the legation of Japan, while in the
discharge of an official mission, was killed by
legulars at the gates of the city. In Peking
and in several provinces foreigners were mur
dered, tortured, or attacked by the Boxers and
the regular troops, and such as escaped death
owed their salvation solely to their own de
termined resistance. Their establishments
were looted and destroyed.

" Fourth Foreign cemeteries, at Peking
especially, were desecrated, the graves opened,
and the remains scattered abroad.

" These occurrences necessarily led the for
eign powers to despatch their troops to China
to the end of protecting the lives of their
representatives and nationals and restoring
order. During their march to Peking the
allied forces met with resistance from the
Chinese army and had to overcome it by
force.

" Inasmuch as China has recognized her re
sponsibility, expressed great regret, and
evinced a desire to see an end put to the situ
ation created by the aforesaid disturbances,
the powers have determined to accede to her
request upon the irrevocable conditions
enumerated below, which they deem indis
pensable to expiate the crimes committed and
to prevent their recurrence :

" A. The despatch to Berlin of an extraor
dinary mission headpd by an imperial prince,
in order to express the regrets of his Majesty
the Emperor of China and of the Chinese
government for the assassination of his Ex
cellency the late Baron von Ketteler, minister
of Germany.

" B. The erection on the spot of the assassi
nation of a commemorative monument befit

ting the rank of the deceased, bearing an in*
scription in the Latin, German, and Chinese
languages, expressing the regrets of the Em
peror of China for the murder.

II.

" A. The severest punishment of the per
sons designated in the imperial decree of
Sept. 25, 1900, and for those who the repre
sentatives of the powers shall subsequently
designate.

" B. The suspension for five years of all
official examinations in all the cities where
foreigners have been massacred or have been
subjected to cruel treatment.

III.

" Honorable reparation to be made by the
Chinese government to the Japanese govern
ment for the murder of Mr. Sujyama.

IV.

" An expiatory monument to be erected by
the Imperial Chinese government in every
foreign or international cemetery which has
been desecrated or in which the graves have
been destroyed.

" The maintenance under conditions to be
determined by the powers, of the interdiction
against the importation of arms as well as of
materials employed exclusively for the manu
facture of arms and ammunition.

VI.

" Equitable indemnities for the govern
ments, societies, companies, and individuals,
as well as for Chinese who during the late oc
currences have suffered in person or in prop
erty In consequence of their being in the
service of foreigners. China to adopt financial
measures acceptable to the powers for the
purpose of guaranteeing the payment of the
said indemnities and the interest and
amortization of the loans.

VII.

" The right for each power to maintain a
permanent guard for its legation, and to put
the diplomatic quarter in a defensible condi
tion, the Chinese having no right to reside In
that quarter.

VIII.

" The destruction of the forts which might
obstruct free communication between Peking
and the sea.

IX.

" The right to the military occupation of
certain points, to be determined by an under
standing among the powers, in order to main
tain open communication between the capital
and the sea.

" The Chinese government to cause to be
published during two years in all the sub-
prefectures an Imperial decree

" A. Embodying a perpetual prohibition un
der penalty of death of membership in any
anti-foreign society.

130

CHINA

" B. Enumerating the punishments that military operations, and the date when the

shall have been inflicted on the guilty, togeth- f ore jg ne rs propose to restore the public

er with the suspension of all official examh O ffi ces an d records in Peking to the

treatment ; and the demand of the powers for the punish-

" C. Furthermore, an imperial decree to be ment of th e principal offenders. To these

roys), governors, and all provincial or local saw no reason for making any modifi-

officia ls, shall be held responsible for the cations whatever in the demands set forr,h

maintenance of order within their respective j ^ p ro t oco i m

jurisdiction and that in the event of renewed ^ , , ,

anti-foreign disturbances or any other in- On leb. 5 negotiat

fraction of treaty occurring, and which shall the envoys of the powers and Li Hung

not forthwith be suppressed and the guilty Chang and Prince Ching, and continued

persons punished, they the said officials shall months, the different

be immediately removed and forever disquali-

fled from holding any office or honors. sections of the joint note being taken

Xi up in turn.

The Chinese government to undertake to On Feb. 6 a formal indictment against

negotiate amendments to the treaties of com- the twelve officials whose punishment had

merce and navigation considered useful by the b een demanded by the powers was read.

the object of facilitating them. their names were included on account of

XII the moral effect that it would have on

"The Chinese government to determine In the Chinese The officials whose punish-

what manner to reform the department of ment was demanded are the following:

foreign affairs and to modify the Court cere- Prince Chuang, commander-in-chief of

monials concerning the reception of foreign the Boxorg w h o had a large share in

by P rhe e po a we" e s S * *" ^^ * * ^ the responsibility for promises of rewards

" Until the Chinese government has com- of 50 taels for the capture of foreigners

plied with the above conditions to the satis- an d the death of persons protecting them.

faction of the powers, the undersigned can T th incipal i nst ig a tor

hold out no expectation that the occupation / . *

of Peking and the provinces of Chi-Li by the of the troubles into which he dragged the

general forces can be brought to a con- Chinese government; who was appointed

clusion -" president of the Tsung-li-Yamen, after

On Dec. 30, the Emperor, through his giving advice to the Chinese government;

commissioners, asserted his willingness to who was responsible for the edicts against

accede to these demands, and an armistice foreigners issued between June 20 and

was proclaimed pending the signing of Aug. 16, and was mainly responsible

the note. After much opposition by the for the massacres in the provinces, espe-

Empress Dowager and the Chinese Court cially Shan-Si; who ordered the troops

this joint note was signed and delivered to attack the legations in opposition to

to the ministers of the powers on Jan. the advice of high mandarins who were

16, 1901. The Chinese commissioners looking to a cessation of hostilities; who

handed to the foreign envoys with the ?f cured the execution of members of the

signed protocols a despatch from Em- Tsung-li-Yamen who were favorable to

pcror Kwang Su, asking a foreign oc- foreigners; who is the recognized author

cupation instead of the destruction of the of the ultimatum of June 19, directing

Taku forts. The Emperor s despatch ask- the diplomatic corps to leave Peking

ed also for the fixing of a definite period within twenty-four hours, and who order-

for the prohibition of the importation of ed, before the expiration of this delay,

arms, and requested that the punitive ex- firing upon all foreigners found upon the

peditions be stopped. streets of the capital, and who was^ prac-

In addition to this the Emperor in- tically the author of the assassination of

structed the Chinese commissioners to get Baron von Ketteler, the German minister.

particulars as to the amount of land to Duke Lan, vice-president of the police.

be retained for the legations, the number who was accessory to the giving of orders

of legation guards, the probable cost of thn for the capture of foreigners, and was

131

CHINA

the first to open the gates of the city smeared with blood the whole country over
to the Boxers. which he was governor.

Ying Nien, who was the criminal ac- Gen. Tung Fu Siang, who, with Prince

complice of Prince Chuang and Duke Lan Tuan, carried out in Peking the plans

in their machinations. against the foreigners, and who command-

Kang Yi, one of the instigators and ed the attacks on the legations, and the

counsellors of the Boxers, who always soldiers who assassinated the Japanese

chancellor.

Li Ping Heng, who used his influence
to have the Boxers recognized as loyal
and patriotic men, and who led the gov
ernment to use them with the object
of the extermination of foreigners.

Hsu Tung, who has always been one
of the officials most hostile to foreigners,
who praised the Boxers, of whom he was
an accomplice, who used all his influence
with high persons in the empire, being
tutor to the heir-apparent.

Hsu Cheng Yu, who has the same re
sponsibility.

Kih Sin, one of the officials most hos
tile to foreigners, and the minister at
the rites of service of the Boxers.

The ministers insisted that the sentences
must be inflicted on the living, except
in the cases of Prince Tuan and Duke
THE CHINESE EMPEROR. Lan, whose sentences might be commuted

to banishment to Turkestan.

protected them, and was most hostile to Feb. 12 the Chinese plenipotentiaries
any understanding looking to the re-estab- received telegraphic instructions from the
lishment of peaceful relations with the Court to notify the ministers of the pow-
foreigners; who w r as sent at the begin- ers that an edict had been issued regard-
ning of June to meet the Boxers, and en- ing the punishments of Chinese officials,
deavor to deter them from entering the in conformity with the demands made
city, but who, on the contrary, encouraged by the ministers, as follows:
them to follow the work of destruction, Gen. Tung Fu Siang, to be degraded and
and who signed with Prince Tuan and deprived of his rank.

Ying Nien their principal notices, and Prince Tuan and Duke Lan, to be dis-
prepared the plan for the expulsion and graced and exiled.

annihilation of foreigners in the provinces Prince Chuang, Ying Nien, and Chao
of the empire. Su Kiam, to commit suicide.

Chao Su Kiam, a member of the grand Hsu Cheng Yu, Yu Hsien, and Kih Sin,
council, and also minister of justice, who to be beheaded.

was one of the leaders against the for- This was not exactly what the minis-
eigners and mainly responsible for the ters demanded, but it was considered
execution of the officials killed during advisable to agree to it, as the lives of
the siege for having tried to stop the those demanded had been agreed to, ex-
attack against the legations, and who cept in the case of Gen. Tung Fu Siang,
tendered the Boxers every encourage- whom the Court was powerless to mo
ment, lest. There was a private understanding
Yu Hsien, who reorganized the Boxers, that his life would be confiscated when
was the author of the massacres in the it was possible.

Shan - Si province, and assassinated with On Feb. 26 Kih Sin and Hsu Cheng Yu
his own hand foreigners and missionaries, were publicly beheaded in the streets
and who was noted for cruelty, which of Peking.

132

CHINA AND THE POWERS

The Chinese court made their formal countries began to compete with her; but

entry into Peking on Jan. 7, 1002. An the American nation, which is probably

Anglo-Japanese agreement for maintain- about the latest of these competitors, has

ing the independence and territorial in- already out-distanced all rivals, and ob-

tegrity of China and Korea was signed tained 8 per cent, of the whole trade, as

Jan. 30, 1902, and a convention between against 28 per cent, of all other nations

China and Russia on April 8, in which combined (including Japan). Viewed in

Russia recognized Manchuria as an in- this light, it will be seen that the dis-

tegral part of China, and agreed to re- proportion between the trade of Great

duce the period of Russian occupation Britain and the United States is less real

from three years to eighteen months. A than apparent. There are one or two oth-

treaty with Great Britain was signed er factors which have to be taken into

Sept. 5, in which China agreed to abolish consideration in studying these statistics,

the likin and kindred taxes for adequate which, like all figures, are more or less

considerations, on Jan. 1, 1904, provided misleading.

the other powers entered into a similar The first point is that not only is a very
engagement. China also agreed to open large proportion of American trade car-
four new treaty ports ; and, in a treaty ried in British bottoms, but, in addition,
with the United States, guaranteed to a considerable amount is consigned to the
make Mukden and Antung open ports old-established British firms in China, and
also. In 1903 Japan and Russia engaged therefore is rightly treated as British
in negotiations concerning paramount in- commerce by the Chinese customs. This
terests in Korea and the status of Man- trade in American goods is very large, I
churia. On Feb. 6, 1904, Japan severed am told; and, while it is rightly classified
diplomatic relations with Russia, and on as British, being British owned, and carried
the 8th began war against her, Manchuria in British ships to Chinese ports, yet its
becoming the field of action. place of origin is none the less American.

China and the Powers. A clear ex- The second point is, that this 8 per cent,

position of the Chinese situation in 1900 is of actual American trade as against 64

given in the following article written by per cent. of nominal British trade has been

Lord Charles Beresford: obtained in a comparatively few years,

and the proportionate increase of trade

None of the powers has greater interests in the last two or three years would there
at stake in China, whether existent or fore be found to be in favor of America,
prospective, than Great Britain and the The third, and still more important,
United States. As will be seen by my Re- point is that, while the British volume
port on the China Mission, the latest figures of trade is still growing, there is no doubt
I was able to obtain during my visit to that in several directions, notably in
China in 1898 showed that these two pow- drills, jeans, and sheetings, the trade of
ers had over 72 per cent, of the whole of the United States has steadily gone ahead
the foreign trade with China in Iheir in China, while in British trade there has
hands; all the other powers combined hav- been a decline. The cotton piece-goods
ing only 28 per cent, between them, of trade as a whole declined during 1897,
which Japan possesses the larger share. but, in the items quoted above, there was

It is perfectly true that, upon examin- actually an increase of nearly 500,000
ing these figures, there seems to be a pieces, all of American manufacture,
great disproportion between 64 per cent. It is apparent, therefore, that the inter-
of trade possessed by Great Britain, and est of the United States in the foreign
the 8 per cent, possessed by the United trade of China is not only an increasing
States. It must be remembered, how- one, but is also a proportionately greater
ever, that it was Great Britain who open- interest than that of all European corn
ed up, made possible, and developed the petitors, with the exception of Great Brit-
foreign trade of the Chinese Empire. For ain, and this despite the fact that most
many years Great Britain held an almost of them had the start of the United States
undisputed commercial position in that in competing with Great Britain for the
country. Subsequently, other European China market.

133

CHINA AND THE POWERS

I was pleased to find that on the whole commerce. The situation we are now fac-

the American press, as the representative
of public opinion in the United States,
warmly endorsed the views which I ex
pressed relative to the open door, in my
speeches on my way back to Great Britain,
and all appeared to be very much inter
ested in the China problem. Despite this
interest, however, I was unable to obtain
any definite expression of opinion in favor
of an active policy in Chinese affairs.

The commercial community of any coun
try knows its own business better than
any outsider can teach it, and all I pro
pose to do is to lay plain facts before my
American readers, without presuming to
dictate to them as to what their line
of policy should be.

The position and importance of Ameri
can trade with China I have already
shown to be considerable. The prospects
of its development, and the many openings
for increasing trade, will be found on read
ing my Report. The only question which
remains, and which I propose to shortly
deal with here, is the actual position and
prospects of China herself, and how Ameri
can interests are thereby affected.

Some of the American journals which
disagreed with me seemed to doubt the
wisdom of the policy I suggested in my
speeches in America, because, they say,
" if inaugurated it would force the United
States into a situation which might lead
to war," and therefore the interests in
volved are not commensurate with the
risks and responsibilities likely to be in
curred.

I can quite understand this argument,
and how strongly it must appeal to the
people of the United States, who have al
ways endeavored to observe a policy of
non-intervention in foreign affairs, unless
important interests of the American peo
ple were at stake or their sense of jus
tice was appealed to. This is a perfectly
intelligible policy on the part of a com
mercial nation, to which peace is of the
highest importance, because of the dis
turbing effect of war on trade and com
merce. But there are occasions on which
it is necessary to protect commercial in
terests by going to war, and there are oc
casions on which an energetic policy is
necessary in order to prevent war and
to avoid irreparable damage to trade and

ing comes under the last-named head. In
my humble opinion, in the present state
of affairs with regard to China, it would
be better in the commercial interests of
both the United States and Great Britain
that they should support China, and so
prevent the total collapse of this immense
empire, together with the consequent dis
organization of trade and the expenditure
of blood and money which will be required
to restore law and order and to re-estab
lish that confidence without which trade
cannot flourish.

If it were merely a question of the pres
ent value of American-Chinese trade being
involved, I can quite see that it would pay
the United States to remain an unmoved
spectator of events in the Far East; but
this is not the case. China is an almost
untapped market. It is a vast country,
with an enormous population and rich
natural resources, all of which can be de
veloped. Can either the United States or
Great Britain afford to stand aside and
see their present trade disturbed, if not
lost, and, also, their share in the pro
spective development of China as a whole
interfered with? There is no doubt what
the answer of the commercial classes in
Great Britain will be, and I do not think
that there will be much difference between
their views and those of the business men
of the United States, when the latter have
carefully examined the data with which
my Report will supply them.

There are only two policies open. The
one, I contend, will inevitably lead to an
archy and rebellion in China, and possibly
to war between the foreign nations whose
interests clash in that country. In certain
phases of situations, no such thing as a
policy of non-intervention is possible. This
is one of them. To calmly await events
really means to precipitate the dangers we
all wish to avoid. Recent action on the
part of the various European powers has
tended to discredit the Chinese govern
ment in the eyes of the people. So-called
" spheres of influence " are being more or
less openly mapped out. In those spheres,
certain countries are endeavoring to set
up a claim to exclusive rights and privi
leges. China is powerless to resist the
demands which are made upon her, and,
when she yields to one power by " force

134

CHINA AND THE POWERS

majeure," she is immediately bullied by pl ac e it with something else in a satisfac-

other powers to give them compensation tory manner, within a period of ten, fif-

for things she had neither the moral right teen, twenty, or even a hundred years ?

to grant nor the physical power to refuse. What man of common-sense can doubt

This selfish and cowardly policy has that such a policy means endless trouble,
been pursued by all the European powers anarchy, and rebellion ; and an interfer-
in a minor or major degree. If it is con- ence w ith trade and commerce which may
tinued much longer, it must inevitably be felt for Tears to come? To foreign
lead to the break-up of the Chinese Empire, bondholders it means a loss of between
I will go further. It has been pursued too 50,000,000 and 60,000,000 sterling, be
long already: events are moving so rapid- cause t he debtor and his guarantee will
ly that we can no longer adhere to a policy both have d i sappea red.
of drift. The effete and corrupt Chinese HQW are ^ rfval interegts of conflict .
government has been so severely shaken . nationg to fae amicab]y adjusted , if
that, at the moment the people realize :.ts gueh ft gtate of affairg ig brought about ?
impotence, it must fall. There are only Capital has been invested and railways
two policies in my opinion to be adopted. are being built by one power in the
The one is to acquiesce in this state of sp h ere of influence" regarded by an-
affairs, and so be compelled to join the otber power ag peculiarly its own. For
dishonest " spheres of influence " policy, instance, in the Yangtse Valley, which if
which means that every one will take as sp heres of influence " are marked out,
much territory as he can. The second and Great Britain will take measures to se-
alternative line of policy is that which cure as her own, several nations have
I have described as " The Open Door, or lately obtained territorial concessions
Equal Opportunity for the Trade of All which have resulted in the disturbance of
Nations." I will deal with both. British firms who owned lands within

Spheres of Influence. It amazes me to such concessions. It cannot be doubted

hear people talk so calmly about the that, if the disintegration of China begins,

break-up of an empire of over 430,000,000 these and other questions will lead to in-

people. It will be easy to destroy the ternational complications. Where is the

present governmental system in China, United States sphere of influence to be?

but how is it to be reconstructed? What I think the answer is very short. The

will become of the guarantees and under- United States sphere of influence, like

takings of China, and what security have that of Great Britain, should be wherever

we that the expectant heirs of the Sick American trade preponderates over that

Man of the Far East will assume the re- of other powers. If one power is allowed

sponsibility for his obligations? The to close the door in the south, and others

phrase " spheres of influence " is easy to in the north, no sphere of influence can

use in theory, but how is the policy it in- compensate America and Great Britain

dicates to be carried out in practice? for the loss they must sustain.

Nominal spheres of influence, such as The policy of inaction will, therefore, by
Germany now possesses in Shantung, or allowing the Chinese government to fall
Russia in Manchuria, may exist as long to pieces, bring about a condition of af-
as there is a Chinese government with fairs which must lead to an expenditure
some authority over the people to main- of blood and money to protect the lives
tain law and order ; but when that govern- and property of foreigners resident in
ment is overturned and the authority of China. It most probably will lead to in-
the hated foreigner is substituted for it, ternational complications, and to a Euro-
the question becomes less easy to settle pean war; and, most certainly, it will
than it looks on the face of it. Are the mean great disturbance to, if not event-
powers going to land armies to conquer or ual loss of, trade.

repress 400,000.000 people, who even now The Open Door. The alternative policy

show an undisguised hatred and con- to that which I have just described is that

tempt for the foreigner and all his meth- of the " Open Door, or Equal Opportunity

ods? Are you going to destroy an empire for All." This policy was advocated in my

which has lasted for 4,000 years, and re- recent speeches in America on the China

135

CHINA AND THE POWERS

question. I suppose that, even in a protec- four powers represent the foreign trade

tionist country, such as the United States, interests of China, the proportion divided

no one will deny the advantages of such a up among other nations being so inconsid-

policy as applied to American exports to erable that it has no such strong claims.

China; and that, whether the American These four powers, therefore, have a

manufacturer prefers to have preferential moral right to protect their own inter-

rights at home or not, it must be to his ests and the ability to do so. If they

advantage that he has an equal oppor- agree to combine, not for purely selfish

tunity with the foreigner abroad, and motives, but to guarantee the indepen-

that no foreigner secures preferential dence of China and the maintenance of a

rights in China which would leave Amer- fair field and no favor for all comers,

ican trade in the cold.

who can suppose that any other power

This being so, only the question of the could reasonably (or even unreasonably)

cost remains to be calculated, and how object? The whole raison d etre of such

such a policy is to be carried out if adopt- an understanding would lie in the. fact

ed. It is upon this point that I think that it would be too powerful to attack,

some of the American journals misunder- and that it could maintain the peace

stood my arguments, which probably were while preserving the open door to all.

not sufficiently clearly stated. There would be no menace to other powers

I deny that this policy can lead to war, in such a combination, because the bond of

or that it will cost the United States a agreement between the contracting parties

single cent or a solitary soldier to carry would be the preservation of the open door

it out. with equal opportunity for all. To China

The first thing is to see how this policy herself the powers would prove friends

is to be undertaken, and then we can es- in need. By guaranteeing her integrity,

timate the cost of it. It means a policy they would give a new lease of life to the

to be inaugurated now, whereas the alter- Chinese Empire. They would be entitled

native policy is a policy of procrastina- to ask, and powerful enough to secure.

tion. This is a. most important point, that reforms for the benefit of China and

when it is remembered that there are the improvement of foreign trade should

only two powers ready to go to war in be carried out.

China to-day, or who can possibly do so The reorganization of China s finances

with any chance of success. As time goes and her army would enable her to stand

on, this will be altered. At the present alone in the near future. It is not neces-

moment Great Britain, with her enormous sary to go to Congress, or to the Imperial

fleet in Far Eastern waters, and the 100,- Parliament, to secure the men necessary

000 native troops she can bring up from to assist China to effect these reforms.

India within a shorter time than any oth- As long as the four governments induced

er power can land
with her possession

an army, combined China to undertake the reforms in return
of the chief coalin for their protection, men would easily be

stations, is pre-eminently in a position secured from all of these countries, and

to deal with the China question by war, if also from other nations, who would assist

she so desired. Next to her comes Japan, the Chinese in building up their empire on

with a. fine fleet in close proximity to the more stable foundations.
scene of operations, and a capacity to land The moral and political support of

200,000 troops in China at any moment. China by the four powers I have named

Apart from these two, the United States, is all that is needed. They need not ex-

by her position on the other side of the pond a single shilling, or move a single

Pacific, and the object-lesson she has just man, officially, in order to carry it out.

given the world of her ability to mobilize All that is required is that China shall be

men and ships rapidly and effectively, has assisted, and, in return for such assist-

also to be counted with; while, as any ance, shall employ foreigners of all coun-

trouble in China would probably mean tries who will reorganize her army and

European complications, Germany would her finances on as sound lines as the im-

have to be regarded as an important perial maritime customs of China is es-

factor in the position. Above all, these tablished.

136

CHINA AND THE POWERS CHINESE-AMEBICAN RECIPROCITY

Observation of recent events teaches us
that, if we continue to leave China to her
self without recuperative power from
within, or firm and determined assistance
from without, her ultimate disintegration
is only a question of time. The reforms
which are urgently required in China, both
for the benefit of that empire and its peo
ple, and for the development of the trade
of friendly nations, may be shortly sum
marized as follows:

1. The appointment of a foreign finan
cial adviser to direct the administration
and collection of internal revenue.

2. The reform of currency, so as to af
ford a more stable exchange.

3. The establishment and centralization
of mints.

4. The abolition of the present octroi
and likin charges on goods which have al
ready paid duty at the ports. In return
for this, China should be allowed to in
crease her present tariff. Trade would
not be damaged so much by slightly in
creased taxation, as it is injured and hin
dered by the delays and uncertainties of
the present fiscal system.

5. The rearrangement of the salt mo
nopoly, and general administrative reform.

6. The establishment and maintenance
of a proper military and police, capable
of affording that protection to which the
foreign merchant is entitled for himself or
his goods.

7. The opening up of the country and
its resources, by giving greater facilities
to native or foreign capital in the de
velopment of the minerals of the country,
and improvements in the lines of com
munication, including postal and tele
graphic reforms.

8. The right of residence in the interior
to be conceded to foreigners.

!). The promotion of all reforms and the
introduction of all changes which are
likely to promote the cause of civiliza
tion and the well-being of the Chinese
people.

Such, a coalition as that of the four
great trading powers I have mentioned
could obtain these reforms with advantage
to themselves and benefit to China, and,
indeed, the trading world.

In a very few years, with this assist
ance loyally rendered, China would have
an army capable of protecting herself, as

long as she retained the foreign officers.
The idea that the Chinese are not good
soldiers is a great mistake. I was per
mitted to inspect most of the armies, and
all of the forts and arsenals of China, as
will be seen by the detailed account in my
report, and I am convinced that, properly
armed, disciplined, and led, there could
be no better material than the Chinese
soldier. I leave it to the commercial
classes of the United States to say whether
it is not worth their while to incur such
slight risks for such great profit, and for
so good an object.

On sound business lines this policy ap
peals to the American nation; but, in ad
dition to that, are we going to let this
opportunity slip of drawing the two An
glo-Saxon nations together for the cause
of civilized progress, and the benefit of the
world at large? Great nations have great
responsibilities, to which they must be
true, and when those responsibilities and
self-interest so hand in hand, it would be
unwise to miss the opportunity.

Events are moving very rapidly in the
Far East. A decision must be arrived at,
and action of some sort taken very soon.
It is the duty of Great Britain to lead,
and I believe that the United States will
not refuse to follow, but that both nations
will combine to hoist aloft the banner of
civilization and industrial progress, fr-r
the benefit of their own people, as well as
for the benefit of China, and of the wor 1

Chinese-American Reciprocity. His
Excellency Wu Ting-Fang. Chinese minis
ter to the United States, writes as fol
lows :

Trade, which lies at the foundation of
international intercourse, has an eminently
selfish origin. It is a constant manoeuvre
on the part of men to sell dear and buy
cheap. Since each party in a commercial
transaction seeks only his own advantage,
it was for a long time thought that one
of them could gain only at the expense of
the other. Thus the " mercantile system."
which for centuries held Europe spell
bound, made gold-getting the end and aim
of all commercial activities. The promo
tion of friendly relations with the object
of securing an exchange of benefits waa
not considered of even secondary impor
tance. Then came the navigation laws,

137

CHINESE-AMERICAN RECIPROCITY

which had for their avowed purpose the the tropics. Within these limits are found

crippling of all rival shipping by laying all the products of soil, forest and mine

a heavy tax upon the carrying-trade of that are useful to man. With respect to

foreigners. Though such measures are no labor, the second agent of production, the

longer considered advisable in the com- United States at first naturally suffered

mercial world, their baleful effects are the disadvantage common to all new coun-

still felt in the political thought of the tries. But here the genius of the people

present time. came into play to relieve the situation.

Nations now enter into friendly rela- lhat necessity which is "the mother of
tions with each other because it is be- invention " substituted the sewing-machine
lieved that both sides are benefited by for women s fingers, the reaper for farm-
such relations. Their transactions cannot hands, the cotton-gin for slaves. The effi-
be one-sided affairs, for the simple reason ciency of labor was thereby multiplied, in
that it takes two to make a bargain. If many cases, a hundred-fold. The ingenious
one party is dissatisfied with the arrange- manner in which capital, the third agent
nient, the other party will not long have of production, is put to a profitable use
an opportunity to enjoy its benefits. is equally characteristic of America. It is

Confucius was once asked for a single well known that there is an enormous

word which might serve as a guiding amount of capital in the country seeking

principle through life. " Is not reciproc- investment. Every one who has a little to

ity such a word?" answered the great invest wishes to obtain as large a return

sage. " What you do not want done to as possible. Since competition reduces

yourself, do not do to others." This is the profits, the formation of industrial com-

" Golden Rule " which should govern the binations, commonly called trusts, is for

relations of man to man. It is the foun- the capitalist the logical solution of the

dation of society. It lies at the bottom of difficulty. These enable the vast amount

every system of morality, and every sys- of capital in the country to secure the

tern of law. If it holds good with respect best results with the greatest economy,

to individuals, it ought to hold good with Whether they secure " the greatest good to

respect to nations, which are but large the greatest number " is another matter,
aggregations of individuals. Therefore, if The development of the resources of the

permanent relations are to be established United States by the use of machinery

between two nations, reciprocity must be and by the combination of capital has

the key-note of every arrangement entered now reached a point which may be termed

into between them. critical. The productive power of the

Having recognized this great principle country increases so much faster than its
of international intercourse, how shall we capacity for consumption that the demand
apply it to the case of China and the of a population of 75,000,000 is no sooner
United States in such a manner as to re- felt than supplied. There is constant dan-
suit in mutual helpfulness? Assuredly, ger of over-production, with all its attend-
the first thing to do is to take a general ant consequences. Under these circum-
survey of the situation and see what are stances, it is imperative for the farmers
the needs of each country. Then we shall and manufacturers of the United States
perceive clearly how each may help the to seek an outlet for their products and
other to a higher plane of material de- goods in foreign markets. But whither
velopment and prosperity. shall they turn?

The United States now has its Indus- At first sight, Europe presents perhaps

trial machinery perfectly adjusted to the the most inviting field. Both blood and

production of wealth on a scale of un- association point in this direction. But

precedented magnitude. Of land, the first here the cottons of Lowell would have to

of the three agents of production enumer- compete with the fabrics of Manchester,

ated by economists, the United States is The silk manufacturers of Paterson would

fortunately blessed with an almost un- stand small chance of supplanting the

limited amount. Its territory stretches finished products of Lyons. The sugar of

from ocean to ocean, and from the snows Louisiana would encounter a formidable

of the Arctic Circle to the broiling sun of rival in the beet-sugar of Germany. Eng

138

CHINESE-AMERICAN RECIPROCITY

land could probably better afford to sell $1,000,000. But I noticed in the statistics

her coal and iron cheaper than Pennsyl- published by the United States government

vania, and Russia could supply European for the year 1899 that manufactures of

markets with wheat and petroleum as well iron and steel have also passed that mark,

as could Ohio and Indiana. Competition This is due to the fact that China has

would be keen and destructive. now begun in real earnest the work of

Central and South America have as yet building railroads. The demand for con-
too sparse a population for the immense struction materials is great. The value of
territory they cover to meet the conditions locomotives imported in 1899 from the
of a market for American goods. Some United States was $732,212.
decades must elapse before American Besides the articles mentioned, there
farmers and manufacturers can look to are many others of American origin
that quarter for relief. which do not figure in the customs re-

But on the other side of the Pacific lies turns as such. These find their way into
the vast empire of China, which in extent China through adjacent countries, es-
of territory and density of population pecially Hong-Kong. At least three-
exceeds the whole of Europe. To be more fourths of the imports of Hong-Kong, no-
particular, the province of Szechuen can tably wheat, flour, and canned goods, are
muster more able-bodied men than the destined for consumption in the Chinese
German Empire. The province of Shan- mainland.

tung can boast of as many native-born sons Such is the present condition of trade
as France. Scatter all the inhabitants of between the United States and China.
Costa Eica or Nicaragua in Canton, and That trade can be greatly extended. Let
they would be completely lost in that city s the products of American farms, mills,
surging throngs. Transport all the people and workshops once catch the Chinese
of Chile into China and they would fill fancy, and America need look no farther
only a city of the first class. Further for a market. The present popularity
comparisons are needless. Suffice it to of American kerosene illustrates the readi-
say that China has her teeming millions ness of the Chinese to accept any article
to feed and to clothe. Many of the sup- that fills a long-felt want. They have
plies come from outside. The share fur- recognized in kerosene a cheap and good
nished by the United States might be illuminant, much superior to their own
greatly increased. According to the statis- nut-oil, and it has consequently found
tics published by the United States gov- its way into distant and outlying parts
eminent, China in 1899 took American of the empire where the very name of
goods to the value of $14,437,422, of which America is unknown. Stores in the in-
amount $9,844,565 was paid for cotton terior now send their agents to the treaty-
goods. All the European countries com- ports for it. In the same way, foreign-
bined bought only $1,484,363 worth of made candles, because cheaper than those
American cotton manufactures during the of home make, are selling easily in China.
same period. The amount of similar pur- I would suggest that American farmers
chases made by the Central American and manufacturers might find it to their
states was $739,259; by all the South advantage to study the wants and habits
American countries $2,713,967. It thus of the Chinese and the conditions of trade
appears that China is the largest buyer in China.

of American cotton goods. British Amer- Thus we see that China can give the

ica comes next in the list with purchases United States a much - needed market,

amounting to $2,759,164. Cotton cloth What, on the other hand, can the United

has a wide range of uses in all parts of States do for China? Let us consider

the Chinese Empire, and it is almost im- China s stock of the three requisites for

possible for the supply to equal the de- the production of wealth land, labor, and

mand. capital.

Up to the year 1898 cotton goods and The Chinese Empire embraces a contin-

kerosene were the only articles import- nous territory which stretches over sixty

ed from the United States in large degrees of longitude and thirty-four degrees

enough quantities to have a value of over of latitude. Nature has endowed this

139

CHINESE-AMERICAN RECIPROCITY

immense region with every variety of Szechuen is called the Kiver of Golden

soil and climate, but has, however, Sand. Much more important than these,

scattered her bounties over it with an however, are the deposits of coal which

uneven hand. That portion which com- underlie the surface formation of every

(niscs the eighteen provinces of China province. All varieties of coal are found,

proper, extending from the Great Wall to from the softest lignite to the hardest

GATES OP PEKING, SHOWING THE CHINESE WALL.

the China Sea, and from the Tibetan pla- anthracite, and in such quantities that,
teau to the Pacific Ocean, is more highly according to the careful estimate of
favored than the rest. Whenever China Baron Richtofen, the famous German
is mentioned, it is generally this particu- traveller and geologist, the province of
lar portion of the empire that is meant. Shansi alone can supply the whole world,
On this land hundreds of generations of at the present rate of consumption, for
men have lived and died without exhaust- 3,000 years. In most cases beds of iron
ing its richness and fertility. There re- ore lie in close proximity to those of coal,
mains for generations to come untold and can hence be easily worked and smelt-
wealth of nature lying hidden within the ed. In short, the natural resources of
bowels of the earth. The mines of Yun- China, both in variety and quantity, are
nan, though they have for centuries sup- so great that she stands second to no oth-
plied the government mints with copper er nation in potential wealth. To reduce
for the coining of those pieces of money this potentiality to actuality is for her
commonly known as cash, only await the most important question of the hour,
the introduction of modern methods of ex- For this purpose she has an almost un-
traction to yield an annual output as limited supply of labor at her command,
large as that of the famous Calumet and Every village can count its thousands
Hecla mines. The sands of the Yangtsze, of laborers, every city its tens of thou-
washed down from the highlands of Tibet, sands. Experience proves that the Chi-
contain so much gold that that part of nese as all-round laborers can easily
its course as it enters the province of distance all competitors. They are in-

1-40

CHINESE-AMERICAN RECIPROCITY

dustrious, intelligent, and orderly. They population of 50,000,000, require 100,-
can work under conditions that would kill 000 miles of railroad to do their business.
a man of a less hardy race, in heat that China, with a population eight times as
would suit a salamander or in cold that large, would naturally be supposed to
would please a polar bear, sustaining their need at least about an equal mileage of
energies through long hours of unremit- roads for her purposes. It would not be
ting toil with only a. few bowls of rice. strange if the activity in railroad con-
But have the Chinese sufficient capital struction in the United States soon after
to carry on their industrial operations? the Civil War should find a parallel in
They are a nation of shopkeepers. What China in coming years.
capital they have is usually invested in The building of railroads in China does
small business ventures. It is their in- not partake of the speculative character
stinct to avoid large enterprises. Thus the which attended the building of some of the
capital in the country, though undoubtedly American roads. There are no wild re-
large, may be likened to a pile of sand gions to be opened up for settlement, no
on the beach. It has great extent, but is new towns to be built along the route,
so utterly lacking in cohesion that out of Here is a case of the railroad following
it no lofty structure can be built. Be- the population, and not that of the pop-
fore China can be really on the high road ulation following the railroad. A road
to prosperity, it must find means of fully built through populous cities and famous
utilizing every economic advantage that marts has not long to wait for traffic. It
it has. Modern methods are its greatest would pay from the beginning.

need. Here is America s opportunity.
The Yankee is never seen to better ad-

The first railroad in China was built
for the transportation of coal from the

vantage than when experimenting with a Kaiping mines to the port of Taku. The
new idea on a colossal scale. To direct line, though in an out-of-the-way corner
vast or novel enterprises is a perfectly new of the empire, proved so profitable from
experience to the Chinaman. Give him a the very start that it was soon extended
junk and he will with ease ride out the to Tientsin and Peking in one direction,
fiercest typhoon that ever lashed the seas, and to Shanhaikwan, the eastern terminus
But give him an ocean leviathan of the of the Great Wall, in the other. Not long
present day, with its complicated engines, ago it was thought advisable to build a
dynamos, compasses, and other modern branch beyond Shanhaikwan to the treaty-
appliances for navigating a ship, and he port of Newchwang. The era of railroad
will be truly " all at sea " in knowing how building in China may be said to have
to handle it, even in a dead calm. just dawned. China desires nothing bet-
Of all public works, China has most ter than to have Americans lend a hand
pressing need of railroads. Only a few in this great work.

years ago it would have been difficult to It gave me great pleasure two years
convince one man in ten of the immediate ago to obtain for an American company
necessity for the introduction of railroads a concession to build a railroad between
into all the provinces of the empire. To- Hankow, the great distributing centre of
day at least nine out of every ten believe central China, and Canton, the great dis-
that railroads ought to be built as fast tributing centre of south China. The line
as possible. This complete change of pub- is to connect with the Lu-Han line on the
lie opinion within so short a time shows north and with the Kowloon line on the
perhaps better than anything else how south, and throughout its whole length of
fast China is getting into the swing of the more than 900 miles will run through opu-
world s forward movement. There are at lent cities, fertile valleys, and cultivated
present only about 400 miles of railroad plains. The construction of such a line
open to traffic throughout the whole by Americans through the heart of China
country, and all the lines building and cannot fail to bring the people of the two
projected foot up to 5,000 or 6,000 miles countries into closer relations,
more. China proper covers about as Besides railroads, there are other pub-
many square miles as the States east of lie works which China must undertake
the Mississippi. Those States, with a sooner or later. Among them are river

141

CHINESE-AMEBICAN BECIPEOCITY

and harbor improvements, city water sup- through the American minister at Peking
plies, street lighting, and street railways, to the Foreign Office for payment. The
Owing to the traditional friendship be- Chinese tariff also favors foreigners resi-
tween the two countries, our people are dent in China much more than it does the
well disposed towards Americans. They Chinese themselves. Most articles import-
are willing to follow their lead in these ed for the use of foreigners are on the
new enterprises, where they might spurn free-list. Such is the treatment which
the assistance of other people with whom Americans, in common with the subject
they have been on less friendly terms in and citizens of other foreign powers ro
th e past. ceive in China.

Such being the economic interdepen- Justice would seem to demand equal
dence of China and the United States, consideration for the Chinese on the part
what policy should each country pursue of the United States. China does not ask
towards the other in order to gain the for special favors. All she wants is en-
greatest good from that relationship? In joyment of the same privileges accorded
my judgment, true reciprocity is impossi- other nationalities. Instead, she is sin-
ble unless each country has perfect confi- gled out for discrimination and made the
donee in the other, and displays on all oc- subject of hostile legislation. Her door
casions a desire for fair-play and honest is wide open to the people of the United
dealing. States, but their door is slammed in the

Now, reciprocity demands the " open face of her people. I am not so biased as

door." China long ago adopted that pol- to advocate any policy that might be

icy in her foreign intercourse. She has detrimental to the best interests of the

treaty relations with all the European people of the United States. If they

powers, together with the United States, think it desirable to keep out the objec-

Brazil, Peru, Mexico, Japan, and Korea, tionable class of Chinese, by all means let

All these are equally " favored nations " them do so. Let them make their innni-

in every sense of the term. The Swede gration laws as strict as possible, but let

and the Dane enjoy the same rights, privi- them be applicable to all foreigners,

leges, immunities, and exemptions, with Would it not be fairer to exclude the il-

respect to commerce, navigation, travel, literate and degenerate classes of all na-

and residence throughout the length and tions rather than to make an arbitrary

breadth of the empire as are accorded to ruling against the Chinese alone? Would

the Russian or the Englishman. Any fa- it not be wiser to set up some specific

vor that may be granted to Japan, for in- test of fitness, such as ability to read

stance, at once inures to the benefit of the intelligently the American Constitution?

United States. Indeed, China, in her treat- That would give the Chinese a chance

ment of strangers within her gates, has along with the rest of the world, and yet

in a great many respects gone even beyond effectually restrict their immigration,

what is required of international usage. Such a law would be practically prohibi-

According to the usual practice of na- tory as far as all except the best-educated

tions, no country is expected to accord to Chinese are concerned, for the reason that

foreigners rights which are not enjoyed the written language of the Chinese is so

by its own subjects or citizens. But entirely different from the spoken tongue

China has been so long accustomed to in- that few of the immigrants would be

demnify foreigners who have fallen vie- able to read with intelligence such a

tims to mob violence that she is looked work as the American Constitution,

upon in a sense as an insurer of the lives Nevertheless, a- law of that kind would

and property of all foreigners residing be just in spirit and could not rouse re-

within her borders. To such an extent sentment in the Chinese breast.

is this idea current among foreigners in Since the law and the treaty forbid the

China, that some years ago an American coming of Chinese laborers, I must do all

missionary in the province of Shantung, I can to restrict their immigration. I

who happened to have some articles stolen should, however, like to call attention

from his house in the night, estimated his to the fact that the Chinese Exclusion

loss at $60, and actually sent the bill Act, as enforced, scarcely accomplishes

142

CHINESE-AMERICAN RECIPROCITY

the purpose for which it was passed. It less adjoining provinces or foreign coun-
aimed to provide for the exclusion of tries. So pronounced is their prejudice
Chinese laborers only, while freely admit- against travel that, until they could be
ting all others. As a matter of fact, educated into a different view, Chinese
the respectable merchant, who would be railroads would for the first few years
an irreproachable addition to the popula- have to depend for their profits on
tion of any country, has been frequently freight rates rather than passenger fares,
turned back, whereas the Chinese high- To the American or Englishman, who pro-
binders, the riffraff and scum of the na- ceeds to go abroad as soon as he has ac
tion, fugitives from justice and advent- cumulated a little money, their state of
urers of all types have too often effected mind may seem incomprehensible, but it
an entrance without much difficulty. This is nevertheless a fact that must be taken
is because the American officials at the into account.

entrance ports are ignorant of Chinese How, then, is the presence of so many
character and dialects and cannot always Chinese in America explained? By the
discriminate between the worthy and the fact that some forty years ago, when the
unworthy. Rascals succeed in deceiving Pacific Railway was building, there was
them, while the respectable but guileless great scarcity of laborers. Agents went
Chinese are often unjustly suspected, in- to China and induced a considerable num-
conveniently detained, or even sent back ber of Chinese to come to this country
to China. A number of such cases have and assist in the construction of the rail-
been brought to my attention. It must road. After their work was done most of
not be supposed, however, that I blame them returned home, taking their earn-
any official. In view of their limited ings with them. They told their rela-
knowledge of Chinese affairs, it is not tires of the exceptional opportunities for
strange that the officials sometimes make making money in this country, and they
mistakes. The Americans judge us in turn decided to seek their fortunes
wrongly, just as we often misjudge them. here. Were it not for this circumstance,
This unpleasant state of things is to be there would be no more Chinese in this
deplored, and I would suggest that diffi- country than there are in Europe, where
culties might be avoided, if the regular wages are also much higher than in China,
officials, in passing on immigrant China- As it is, all who are in the United States
men, could have the assistance of Chinese are from the province of Canton, and they
consuls, or people fitted by training and come from two or three places only of
experience in China- for the discharge of that one province.

such duties. It has been said that the rules of in-
Great misunderstanding exists in the ternational intercourse as observed by
United States in regard to Chinese ques- Western nations among themselves are not
tions. There is a current fear that if all applicable to intercourse with Eastern na-
restrictions on Chinese immigration were tions. True it is that the people of the
removed, the United States would be flood- East speak different languages and have
ed with my countrymen. Inasmuch as different customs, manners, religions, and
China contains some 400,000,000 inhabi- ways of thinking from the people of the
tants, a wholesale emigration would cer- West. But the rule of contraries is by
tainly be a serious matter for the people no means a safe guide through the intri-
of the country to which they removed, cacies of social observances. By disre-
P.ut there is no danger of such a calamity garding the common civilities of life,
befalling the United States. Those who which are considered very important in
view it with alarm only show how pro- China, and by assuming a lofty air of
foundl y ignorant they are of Chinese superiority, foreigners frequently make
character. One of the most striking feat- themselves unpopular in China. Amer-
ures of the conservatism of the Chinese icans have the reputation there of being
is their absolute horror of travel, especi- abrupt, English dictatorial. In recent
ally by sea. They regard any necessity years competition in trade ^ith people
for it as an unmitigated evil. They do of other nationalities has reduced their
not often visit neighboring towns, much profits and forced them, for the sake of

143

CHINESE-AMERICAN RECIPROCITY CHINESE EXCLUSION ACTS

obtaining custom, to be more suave in
their manners. Foreigners are sometimes
guilty, also, of practising all sorts of
tricks upon the unsuspecting natives. It
should be remembered that the Chinese
standard of business honesty is very high.
The " yea, yea " of a Chinese merchant is
as good as gold. Not a scrap of paper is
necessary to bind him to his word.
Friendly feeling between the people of
China and those of the United States
would be greatly promoted if the Amer
icans would always remember, in whatever

sorry to say, a natural feeling of disap
pointment and irritation that the people
of the United States deal less liberally
with the Chinese than with the rest of
the world. If the best guarantee of
friendship is self-interest, surely the
friendship of a nation of 400,000,000 peo
ple ought to be worth cultivating. China
does not ask for much. She has no
thought of territorial aggrandizement, of
self-glorification in any form. All she
wants is gentle peace, sweet friendship,
helpful exchange of benefits, and the

dealings they may have with the Chinese, generous application of that Golden Rule

that " Honesty is the best policy."

I believe that the Western nations want should delight to follow,
to treat the people of the Orient fairly. FANG.

which people of all nations and all creeds

See Wu TING-

It is gratifying to see that Japan has
been able to revise her ex-territorial trea
ties, and it speaks well for the fair-
mindedness of England and other coun
tries that they have thrown no obstacles
in her way. I hope that the day will
soon come when China may follow in her
footsteps.

In the mean time, China observes with
interest that the planting of the Stars
and Stripes in the Philippine Islands will
make the United States her neighbor in
the future, as she has been her friend in
the past. It is her earnest hope that the
United States will make no attempt to bar
Asiatics from her new shores, but that
she will seize this opportunity to strength
en friendly relations of mutual helpful
ness between the two countries. No other
nation has a stronger claim to the confi
dence of China than has the United

Chinese Exclusion Acts. The immi
gration of Chinese laborers to the Pacific
coast of the United States began soon af
ter the discovery of gold in California in
1849. Within a few years their influx
became so great as to excite alarm. As
they were willing to work for very small
wages, and as most of them were employ
ed and controlled by contractors, it was
impossible for American laborers to com
pete with them. For these reasons, a
strong anti-Chinese feeling was aroused,
especially in California, and this feeling
increased in intensity as the years passed.
Many efforts were made to induce the
national government to pass laws regu
lating or restricting the immigration of
Chinese laborers, but it was not until 1879
that Congress began to take any decisive
action. In that year a bill was passed
forbidding any vessel to bring into Ameri-

States. The very first article of the first can ports more than fifteen Chinamen at

treaty concluded between the two na- a time. This bill was vetoed by President

tions provides that there shall be peace Hayes, on the ground that it conflicted

and friendship between them and be- with existing treaty relations between this
tween their people.

Through a half-cen- country and China,
tury of intercourse, no untoward cir-

In 1881 a treaty was effected and rati-

cumstance has interrupted those amicable fied between the United States and China,

relations. More than once the United
States government has used its good of
fices to promote Chinese interests and wel-

which provided that the government of
the former should have power to limit,
suspend, or regulate, but not prohibit, the

fare. Nations, like individuals, appreciate importation of Chinese laborers. Chinese

favors, and, like them also, resent indig
nities. The sentiment of good-will enter-

merchants, travellers, and their servants,
teachers, and students in this country

tained by the government and people of were to enjoy the same rights as those
China towards the government and people vouchsafed to the citizens of the most fa-

of the United States is strong and pro
found because of the long, unblemished
past, but underneath it all there is, I am

vored nations.

On May 6, 1882, however, Congress
passed an act suspending Chinese immi-

144

CHINESE EXCLUSION BILL CHIPPEWA

gration for a period of ten years. To en- a very few of them in the State of Wash-
force this law a heavy fine was ordered ington.

to be imposed upon any captain or ship- Chippewa, BATTLE OF. General Brown
owner who should bring Chinese laborers took prompt measures to secure the ad-
to any part of the United States, and each vantages derived from the capture of
laborer so coming was liable to imprison- Fort Erie ( see CANADA ) , for it was known
ment for a period not exceeding twelve that General Riall, who was then in chief
months. Other Chinese persons as stu- command on the Niagara frontier, was
dents, travellers, merchants, scientists, di- moving towards Fort Erie. Early in the
plomatists, etc. were to be provided with morning of July 3, 1814, he had sent for-
an official certificate or passport from ward some of the Royal Scots to reinforce
their home government. The effect of this the garrison. At Chippewa, at the mouth
law was at once felt in the decreased im- of Chippewa Creek, they heard of the sur-
migration of Chinese laborers, which was render of the fort, when Riall determined
now practically prohibited. to make an immediate attack upon the
Notwithstanding this exclusion act, Americans on Canadian soil. Hearing
many Chinamen still found entrance into that reinforcements were coming from
the United States by first landing in York, he deferred the attack until the
British Columbia, whence they were sys- next morning. To meet this force, Gen-
tematically smuggled across the border, eral Brown sent forward General Scott
It was estimated that the number of la- with his brigade, accompanied by Towson s
borers thus surreptitiously introduced artillery, on the morning of the 4th. Rip-
into the United States averaged not less ley was ordered in the same direction with
than 1,500 per year for several years af- his brigade, but was not ready to move
ter the passage of the law. until the afternoon. Scott went down the
The feeling against the Chinese was es- Canada side of the Niagara River, skir-
pecially strong on the Pacific slope. A mishing nearly all the way to Street s
bill promoted by Representative Geary, of Creek, driving back a British advanced de-
California, and known as the Geary Act, tachment.

became law May 5, 1892. By this measure The main portions of Brown s army
the previous exclusion acts of 1882, 1884, reached Scott s encampment on the south
and 1888 were re-enacted for ten years; side of Street s Creek that night, and on
all Chinamen were required to obtain cer- the morning of the 5th the opposing
tificates of residence, in default of which armies were only two miles apart. At
they were to be deported at the ex- about noon Scott was joined by General
pense of the United States. Only about Porter, with his volunteers and Indians.
12,000 out of 100,000 complied with the The British had also been reinforced,
law. The qviestion of its constitvition- The two armies were feeling each other
ality was settled by a decision of the for some time, when preliminary skirmish-
United States Supreme Court, May 15, ing was begun by Porter with marked suc-
1893. cess. The Indians behaved gallantly un-
Chinese Exclusion Bill, VETO OF. See der the leadership of Captain Pollard and
ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN. the famous Red Jacket. The British ad-
Chinook Indians, a former distinct vanced corps, severely smitten, fled back
and interesting nation in the Northwest, in affright towards Chippewa. Porter
They once inhabited the country on each pursued, and found himself within a few
side of the Columbia River from the Grand yards of the entire British force, advan-
Dalles to its mouth. The Chinooks proper cing in battle order. A desperate strug-
were on the north side of that stream, gle ensued. Finally the British made a
and the other division, called Clatsops, furious charge with bayonets. Hearing
were on the south side and along the Pa- nothing from Scott, Porter ordered a re-
cific coast. Broken into roving bands, treat. It became a tumultuous rout,
they began fading away, and the nation It was now towards evening. Brown
has become almost extinct; and their Ian- had been watching Porter s movements
guage, corrupted by French and English with great anxiety, and had ordered Scott
traders, is almost obliterated. There are to cross Street s Creek, when Porter s fly-
II. K 145

CHIPPEWA CHIPPEWA INDIANS

ing troops were observed. Riall had sent tie or to join in an instant pursuit. The

forward some Royal Scots, part of an- immediate results of the battle were im-

other regiment of regulars, a regiment of portant. The Indian allies of the British

Lincoln militia, and about 300 Indians, were disheartened, and nearly all of them

STREET S CKKEK BRIDGE IN 1861, LOOKING NOKTH.

These composed the force that fought left the army and returned to their homes.

Porter. Scott crossed Street s Creek in The Americans were greatly inspirited,

the face of a heavy cannonade, and very CMppewa Indians, also known as

soon the battle raged with fury along the OJIBWAYS, an Algonquian family, living in

entire line of both armies. Several times scattered bands on the shores and islands

the British line was broken and closed of the upper lakes, first discovered by the

up again.

French in 1640 at the Sault Ste. Marie,

Finally a flank movement and a fu- when they numbered about 2,000. They
rious charge were made by Major McNeill were then at war with the Iroquois, the
with Colonel Campbell s llth regiment, Foxes, and the Sioux; and they drove the
and a terrific fire from a corps under Major latter from the head-waters of the Mis-
Jesup in the centre made the British sissippi and from the Red River of the
line give way. It broke and fled in haste North. The French established mission-
to the intrenchments below Chippewa aries among them, and the Chippewas were
Creek. The fugitives tore up the bridge the firm friends of these Europeans until
over the creek behind them, leaving an the conquest of Canada ended French do-
impassable chasm between themselves and minion in America. In 1712 they aided
the Americans. The battle-field (opposite the French in repelling an attack of the
Navy Island) was strewn with the dead Foxes on Detroit.

and dying. The Americans lost, in killed, In Pontiac s conspiracy (see PONTIAC)

wounded, and missing, 355 men; the Brit- they were his confederates; and they sided

ish lost, by the same casualties, 604 men, with the British in the war of the Revo-

of whom 236 were killed.

lution and of 1812. Joining the Miamis,

On that hot July evening a gentle show- they fought Wayne and were defeated,

er of rain descended, which mitigated the and subscribed to the treaty at Greenville

horrors of the battle-field. Scott was in 1795. In 1816 they took part in the

eager to pursue, but was compelled to pacification of the Northwestern tribes,

wait for the tardy Ripley, who did not and in 1817 they gave up all their lands

arrive in time to participate in the bat- in Ohio. At that time they occupied a

146

CHISOLM CHOATE

vast and undefined territory from Macki
naw along the line of Lake Superior to
the Mississippi River. The limits of this
territory were defined by a treaty in 1825,
after which they gradually ceded their
lands to the United States for equivalent
annuities. All but a few bands had gone
west of the Mississippi in 1851; and in
1SG6 the scattered bands in Canada, Mich
igan, on the borders of Lake Superior,
and beyond the Mississippi numbered more
than 15,000.

Their religion is simply a belief in a
good and evil spirit, and the deification
of the powers of nature. Various denomi
nations have missionaries among the Chip-
pewas.

In 1899 there were 3,410 Chippewas
at Devil s Lake agency, North Dakota;
4,682 at La Pointe agency, Wisconsin;
7,833 at White Earth agency, Minnesota;
and 6,030 Chippewas and Ottawas com
bined at the Mackinae agency, Michi
gan.

Chisolm, WILLIAM WALLACE, jurist;
born in Morgan county, Ga., Dec. 6, 1830;
settled in Kemper county, Miss., in 1847.
In 1858 he was made chief-justice of the
peace; in 1860-67 was probate judge; and
subsequently was sheriff for several terms.
During the Civil War he was a strong
Unionist, and this fact made him an object
of suspicion to the Confederate authori
ties. Early in 1877, John W. Gully, a
Democrat, was murdered near Judge
Chisolm s house, and Judge Chisolm and
several of his Republican friends were ar
rested. Later the jail was broken into
by a mob, one of whom shot Judge
Chisolm s young son John. Thereupon
the judge immediately killed the assassin
with a gun that had been left by a faith
less guard. The cry was now raised,
" Burn them out." Believing that the jail
had been set on fire Judge Chisolm de
scended the stairs with his family, who
had accompanied him to the jail. As soon
as he appeared the crowd opened fire upon
him, and he fell mortally wounded. His
daughter also, a girl eighteen years old,
received several wounds. The father died,
May 13, 1877, and two days later his
daughter succumbed to her injuries.
Though the leaders of the crowd were in
dicted, not one of them was ever punished.
In December, 1877, the real murderer of

Gully, Walter Riley, a negro, confessed
that he was guilty of the crime, and also
declared that neither Judge Chisolm nor
any of his friends had tried to influence
him.

Chittenden, THOMAS, first governor of
Vermont; born in East Guilford, Conn.,
Jan. 6, 1730. He held local offices in his
native State before 1774, when he emi
grated to the New Hampshire Grants, and
settled at Williston. During the Revo
lution he was an active participant in the
councils of his State, and was a leader in
the convention which (Jan. 16, 1777) de
clared Vermont an independent State. He
was also a leader in the convention (July,
1777) which formed a constitution for
that State, and president of the council of
safety vested with governmental powers.
He was elected governor of Vermont in
1778, and, with the exception of one
year, filled that office until his death, dur
ing which time the controversy between
New York and Vermont was settled and
the latter admitted as a State of the
Union. He died in Williston, Vt., Aug.
24, 1797.

Choate, JOSEPH HODGES, diplomatist;
born in Salem, Mass., Jan. 24, 1832;

147

JOSEPH HODGES CHOATE.

graduated at Harvard University in 1852:
admitted to the bar in 1855, and settled
in New York to practise. He was em
ployed in many famous lawsuits; was one
of the committee of seventy which broke
up the Tweed ring, and was instrumental
in having Gen. Fitz-John Porter rein-

CHOATE CHOISETJL

stated in the army. In 1894 he was presi- In 1861 they had a population of 25,000,

dent of the New York Constitutional Con- with 5,000 negro slaves. They were se-

vention, and in 1899 was appointed duced into an alliance with the Confeder-

United States ambassador to England to ates in the Civil War, and disaster befell

succeed John Hay, appointed Secretary of them. They lost an immense amount of

State. In 1900 Cambridge University property, and their numbers, including

conferred upon him the degree of LL.D. the Chickasaws, were reduced to 17,000.

He is widely known as a public and after- Slavery was abolished, and part of their

dinner orator. lands was forfeited for the benefit of

Choate, RUFUS, lawyer; born in Essex, the freedmen.

Mass., Oct. 1, 1799; studied at the In 1899 there were 18,456 Choctaws at

Cambridge Law School, and, with Will- the Union agency, Indian Territory,

iam Wirt, became one of the most emi- Choiseul, ETTENNE FRANCOIS, Due DE,

nent lawyers and orators of his time. He French statesman; born June 28, 1719;

began the practice of law at Danvers, became a lieutenant-general in the army

Mass., in 1824. He was a distinguished in 1759; and was at the head of the

member of both branches of his State French ministry when, in 1761, cabinet

legislature, a member of the Lower House changes in England threatened to diminish

of Congress, and United States Senator, the power of that government. He was

succeeding Daniel Webster in 1841. In minister of foreign affairs, and in Janu-

1853 he was attorney-general of Massa- ary, 1761, became minister of war, and

chnsetts. After the death of Webster, Mr. annexed those departments to the marine.

Choate was the acknowledged leader of Like Pitt, he was a statesman of consum-

the Massachusetts bar. Impaired health mate ability. He was of high rank and

compelled him to retire from public life very wealthy, and was virtually sole min-

in 1858. He died in Halifax, N. S., July ister of France.

13, 1859. When the British had despoiled France
Choctaw Indians, a tribe mostly Mo- of her American possessions Choiseul ea-
bilians, and a peaceful agricultural peo- gerly watched for an opportunity to in-
ple. Their domain comprised southern flict a retaliatory blow; and he was de-
Mississippi and western Alabama. De lighted when he perceived that a rising
Soto fought them in 1540. They became quarrel between Great Britain and her
allies of the French in Louisiana, where American colonies foreshadowed a dis-
they numbered about 2,500 warriors, and memberment of the British Empire. Choi-
formed forty villages. In the Revolu- seul determined to foster the quarrel as
tion they were mostly with the English, far as possible. He sent the Baron de
but were granted peaceable possession of Kalb to America in the disguise of a
their lands by the United States govern- traveller, but really as a French emissary,
ment. to ascertain the temper of the people tow-
On Jan. 3, 1786, a treaty was made w y ith ards the mother-country. The report of
the leaders of the nation, of the same pur- the baron did not warrant the hope of an
port and upon the same terms as that immediate rupture.

made with the Cherokees the previous But Choiseul waited and watched, and

year. As early as 1800, numbers of them in the summer of 1768 he saw reasons for

went beyond the Mississippi, and in 1803 expecting an almost immediate outbreak

it was estimated that 500 families had of rebellion in America. He wrote to the

emigrated. They served with the United French minister in London that facts and

States troops in the second war with Eng- not theories must shape French action at

land and in that with the Creeks, and in that crisis. He proposed to make a com-

1820 they ceded a part of their lands for mercial treaty with the discontented

a domain in what is now the Indian Ter- colonies, both of importation and exporta-

ritory. tion. at the moment of rupture, the ad-

In 1830 they ceded the rest of their vantages of which might cause them at

lands and joined their brethren west of once to detach themselves from the Brit-

the Mississippi, where the Chickasaws ish government. He believed the separa-

joined them. tion must come sooner or later, and wished

148

CHOISI CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS

to hasten the hoped-for event. He per
ceived the difficulties that stood in the
way of the consummation of his scheme,
weighed their evils, but still persisted. He
said to the minister, " I firmly believe and
hope this government will so conduct itself
as to widen the breach " ; and he was san
guine that his plans would result in grat
ifying the wishes of every Frenchman.
But Choiseul had to wait seven years be
fore these wishes were gratified, and then
he was dismissed from office by the suc
cessor of the old King (Louis XV.) whom
he had ruled so long. He died in Paris,
May 7, 1785.

Choisi, CLAUDE GABRIEL DE, military
officer; born in France; entered the French
army June 16, 1741 ; came to America in
1780; was given command of a brigade
with which, in conjunction with Lauzun s
cavalry, he defeated Tarleton Oct. 3, 1781.
During the Reign of Terror in France,
through his friendship for the King, he
was imprisoned and, it is supposed, died
there.

Cholera, ASIATIC, described by Garcia
del Huerto, a physician of Goa, about
1560, appeared in India in 1774, and
became endemic in Lower Bengal, 1817;
gradually spread till it reached Russia,
1830; Germany, 1831; carrying off more
than 900,000 persons on the Continent in
1829-30; in England and Wales in 1848-
49, 53,293 persons; in 1854, 20,097. First
death by cholera in North America, June
8, 1832, in Quebec. In New York, June 22,
1832. Cincinnati to New Orleans, October,
1832 (very severe throughout the United
States). Again in the United States
in 1834, slightly in 1849, severely in 1855,
and again slightly in 1866-67. By the
prompt and energetic enforcement of
quarantine it was prevented from entering
the United States in 1892. The German
steamship Moravia reached New York
Harbor Aug. 31, having had twenty-two
deaths from cholera during the voyage.
The President ordered twenty days
quarantine for all immigrant vessels from
cholera-infected districts, Sept. 1. On
Sept. 3, the Normannia and Rugia, from
Hamburg, were put in quarantine. On
Sept. 10, the Scandia arrived with more
cholera cases. The Surf Hotel property
on Fire Island was bought by Governor
Flower for quarantine purposes.

Chouteau, PIERRE, trader; born in New
Orleans in 1749; ascended the Missis
sippi River, and founded the city of St.
Louis, Mo. He died in St. Louis, Mo.,
July 9, 1849.

Christ, DISCIPLES OF. See DISCIPLES
OF CHRIST.

Christian Associations, YOUNG MEN S,
societies organized for the purpose of pro
viding for the social, physical, intellectual,
and spiritual advancement of young men.
The first association of this character was
established in London, in 1844, by George
Williams. The first society in the United
States was established in New York City,
in 1852. Since then similar societies have
sprung up throughout the civilized world.
In 1903 there were 6,625 associations
in the world, of which 1,736 were in
North America, principally in the
United States. The total membership
of the North American societies was
350,455, with 460 buildings, valued at
$25,417,605. They had 736 libraries, con
taining 544,275 volumes; employed 1,729
general secretaries and other paid offi
cials; and expended for all purposes
$3,994,864.

Christian Associations, YOUNG WOM
EN S, societies established for work by
and among women. The members aim ( 1 )
to develop women physically, by system
atic training in the gymnasium and holi
day outings; (2) socially, by receptions,
helpful companionships, musical and lit
erary entertainments, boarding clubs, em
ployment bureaus, etc. ; (3) intellectually,
by reading-rooms and libraries, lecture
courses, educational classes, concerts, art
clubs, etc. ; (4) spiritually, by Gospel meet
ings, evangelistic meetings, Bible training-
classes and personal work. The World s
Young Women s Christian Association was
established in 1893 and holds biennial
conventions. State associations, holding
annual conventions, have been organized
in twenty-one States. The Evangel is the
official organ of the associations, and is
published monthly at Chicago, 111. In 1900
there were 1,340 associations in Great
Britain, 400 in Germany, 270 in France,
400 in Denmark, with a smaller number
in various other countries. In the United
States there were 377 (connected with the
International Committee), with a mem
bership of 35,000.

149

CHKISTiAN COMMISSION CHRISTIANS

Christian Commission, UNITED STATES,

an organization that had its origin in
the Young Men s Christian Association,
ill New York City, and was first sug
gested by VINCENT COLYER ( q. v. ) , who,
with Frank W. Ballard and Mrs. Dr. Har
ris, who represented the Ladies Aid Soci
ety, of Philadelphia, went to Washington
immediately after the battle of Bull Run
(July, 18G1), to do Christian work in
the camps and hospitals there. Mr. Colyer
distributed Bibles and tracts and hymn-
books among the soldiers, and held pray
er-meetings. In August he suggested the
combination of all the Young Men s Chris
tian Associations of the land in the for
mation of a society similar to that of
the United States Sanitary Commission.
The suggestion was acted upon, and at
a meeting of the Y"oung Men s Christian
Association, held in New York, Sept. 23,
1861, a committee was appointed to con
duct the correspondence, and make ar
rangements for holding a national conven
tion of such associations.

A convention was called, and assembled
in New York, Nov. 14, 1861, when the
United States Christian Commission was
organized, with George H. Stuart, of Phil
adelphia, as president. Its specific work
was to be chiefly for the moral and relig
ious welfare of the soldiers and sailors, con
ducted by oral instruction, and the circula
tion of the Bible and other proper books,
with pamphlets, newspapers, etc., among
the men in hospitals, camps, and ships.

The commission worked on the same
general plan pursued by the United States
Sanitary Commission. Its labors were
not confined wholly to spiritual and in
tellectual ministrations, but also to the
distribution of a vast amount of food,
hospital stores, delicacies, and clothing.
It, too, followed the great armies, and was
like a twin angel of mercy with the
Sanitary Commission. It co - operated
most efficiently with the army and navy
chaplains, and in various ways cast about
the soldier a salutary hedge of Christian
influence. The money collected for the use
of the commission was chiefly gathered
by the women of various religious denom
inations. The entire receipts of the
commission amounted to over $6,000,000.
See SANITARY COMMISSION, UNITED
STATES.

Christian Connection. See CHRIS
TIANS.

Christian Endeavor, YOUNG PEOPLE S
SOCIETY OF, a religious society organized
by the REV. FRANCIS CLARK (q. v.) in
the Williston Congregational Church, in
Portland, Me., on Feb. 2, 1881. He called
the young people of his church together
after a period of religious interest, and
read to them substantially the same con
stitution which governs all the societies
now organized throughout the world. The
society is strictly a religious body, hav
ing for its main purpose the forwarding
of the church s interests. In 1900 there
were 42,490 societies in the United States;
3,526 in the British provinces; and 16,-
264 in foreign countries, a total of 62,-
280 societies, with an aggregate member
ship of 3,376,800.

Christians, a religious body organ
ized from several independent movements.
In 1792 James O Kelly and twenty or
thirty ministers, and about 1,000 members,
left the Methodist Episcopal Church in
North Carolina and Virginia. On Aug.
4. 1794, they agreed to be known as
" Christians, and should acknowledge no
head over the church but Christ, and
should have no creed or discipline but
the Bible." Abner Jones, M.D., left the
Baptists in New England, and preached
similar principles. He established the
first churches to have no name but Chris
tian at Lyndon, Vt., in 1800; at Brad
ford, Vt./in 1802; at Piermont, N. H.,
and at Haverhill, Mass., in 1803. In
April, 1801, a religious excitement, called
the falling exercise," began in southern
Kentucky. It soon spread northward to
the Presbyterian churches at Cane Ridge
and Concord, over which Rev. Barton \V.
Stone was pastor. His usual " May meet
ing " was attended by 2,500 persons, many
of whom were from other States. This
revival lasted for several years, and
spread over several States.

The enthusiasm going beyond the de
nominational conservatism of those days,
there were many trials for hersy, and
finally a new presbytery was organized.
But on June 28, 1804, they disbanded and
published a document called The Last Will
and Testament of the Springfield Pres
bytery, in which they ignored all doctrinal
standards and denominational names. In

150

CHRISTIAN SCIENCE CHRYSLER S FIELD

1802 Elias Smith, a Baptist minister at of the best troops of the army, to cross

Portsmouth, N. H., met Abner Jones, and the river to oppose the British detach-

became converted to his views, and sub- ments on the Canadian side (Nov. 7,

sequently led his church over to the new 1813), and these were soon followed by

movement. On Sept. 1, 1808, at Ports- riflemen under Lieutenant-Colonel For-

mouth, N. H., Smith started the publica- sythe, who did excellent service in the

tion of the Herald of Gospel Liberty, which rear of Macomb.

is now issued at Dayton, O., and is the When news was received of the arrival

oldest religious periodical in the United of reinforcements at Prescott, Wilkinson

States. At first the Christians had no called a council of war (Nov. 8), and it

separate ecclesiastical organization, but was decided " to proceed with all possi-

ultimately circumstances became such ble rapidity to the attack of Montreal."

that they were compelled to organize. General Brown was at once ordered to

Half of their membership is found in New cross the river with his brigade and some

York, Ohio, and Indiana. In 1899 they dragoons. Morrison s troops, fully 1,000

reported 1,452 ministers, 1,505 churches, strong, had come down to Prescott in arm-

and 112,414 members. ed schooners, with several gunboats and

Christian Science, a religious faith bateaux under Captain Mulcaster, and
founded by the Rev. Mary Baker G. Eddy, were joined by provincial infantry and
of Boston, Mass., in 1806. It absolutely dragoons under Lieutenant-Colonel Pear-
denies the power of the human mind and son. They pushed forward, and on the
human will, and claims no will but God s, morning of the 9th were close upon Wil-
It holds that man is the reflection of God s kinson, and the land troops were debark-
mind, and therefore establishes the broth- ed to pursue the Americans 2,000 men,
erhood of man. It further claims that including cavalry.

Jesus Christ brought perfect salvation General Boyd and his brigade were now
from sin and disease. It is not mind- detached to reinforce Brown, with orders
cure, as that is generally understood, for to cover his march, to attack the pursu
it recognizes but one mind, which is God. ing enemy if necessary, and to co-operate
Neither is it faith-cure, for it does not with the other commanders. Wilkinson
accomplish its work through blind faith now found himself in a perilous posi-
in God, but through the understanding tion, for the British armed vessels were
of man s relation to God. The one great close upon his flotilla, and the British
text-book of Christian Science is Science land troops were hanging upon the rear
and Health, with key to the Bible, sup- of Brown and Boyd. The latter also en-
plemented by another book called Misccl- countered detachments coming up from
lancous Writings, both of which were pub- below.

lished by Mrs. Eddy. In 1899 there were The British gunboats attacked the flo-

in the United States 497 regularly organ- tilla, but Wilkinson made such disposi-

ized churches, 12,000 ministers, and 80,- tion of his cannon in battery on the shore

000 members. Churches have also been or- that they were repulsed, and fled up the

ganized in England, France, Germany, river. Brown had captured a British

Canada, and Brazil. post at the foot of the rapids, and Wil-

Chrysler s Field, BATTLE OF. When kinson had just issued orders for the
Wilkinson s expedition down the St. Law- flotilla to proceed down these rapids, and
rence River against Montreal, com- Boyd to resume his march, when a British
posed of land troops borne by a flotilla column attacked the rear of the latter,
of boats, arrived at a point 4 miles be- Boyd turned upon his antagonist, and a
low Ogdensburg, information reached the sharp battle ensued. General Swartwout
commander of the expedition that the op- was detached with his brigade to assail
posite shore of the river was lined with the British vanguard, and General Coving-
posts of musketry and artillery, and that ton took position at supporting distance
a large reinforcement of British troops un- from him. Their antagonists were driven
der Lieutenant-Colonel Morrison had ar- back out of the woods on the main line
rived at Prescott. Wilkinson had already in the open fields of John Chrysler, a
ordered Col. Alexander Macomb, with 1,200 British militia captain then in the service.

151

CHRYSLER S FIELD, BATTLE OF

That line was covered by Mulcaster s gun- erents like a pendulum. It would doubt-
boats, and protected in part by deep less have rested with the Americans had
ravines. their ammunition held out. Their retreat
Then General Covington led his brigade was promising to be a rout, when the
against the British left, near the river, fugitives were met by 600 troops under

CHRYSLER S is 1855.

and the battle became general. By charge Colonel Upham and Major Malcolm, whom

after charge the British were forced back Wilkinson had sent up to the support of

nearly a mile, and the American cannon, Boyd. These checked the flight, drove

under the direction of Col. J. G. Swift, back the British, and saved the American

did excellent execution. At length Cov- army.

ington fell, seriously wounded, and the Meanwhile Boyd had reformed a por-

ammunition of the Americans began to tion of the army, and then awaited an-

fail. It was soon exhausted, and Swart- other attack. It was not made. The Amer-

wout s brigade, hard pushed, slowly fell leans, under cover of darkness, retired to

back, followed by others. their boats unmolested. Neither party

The British perceived this retrograde had gained a victory, but the advantage

movement, followed up the advantage lay with the British, who held the field.

gained with great vigor, and were endeav- The British army on that occcasion was

oring by a flank movement to capture slightly superior in numbers, counting its

Boyd s cannon, when a gallant charge of Indian allies. The Americans lost in the

cavalry, led by Adjutant-General Wai- battle, in killed and wounded, 339; the

bach, whom Armstrong had permitted to British lost 187.

accompany the expedition, drove them On the morning after the battle, the flo-

back and saved the pieces. The effort was tilla, with the gunboats and troops, passed

renewed. Lieutenant Smith, who com- safely down the rapids, and 3 miles above

manded one of the cannon, was mortally Cornwall they formed a junction with the

wounded, and the piece was seized by the forces under General Brown. There Wil-

British. kinson was informed that Hampton,

For five hours the conflict had been car- whom he had invited in Armstrong s

ried on in the midst of sleet and snow, name to meet him at St. Regis, had re-

and victory had swayed between the bellig- fused to join him. A council of war (Nov.

152

CHUBCH CHURCH AND STATE

12, 1813) decided that it was best to early as 1774 he wrote parodies of his

abandon the expedition against Montreal, own popular songs in favor of liberty for

although it was said there were not more the Tory newspapers; and in September,

than 600 troops there, and put the army 1775, an intercepted letter, written by

into winter-quarters at French Mills, on him in cipher to Major Cain, in Bos-

the Salmon Elver, which was done. Thus ton, which had passed through the hands

ended in disaster and disgrace an ex- of the mistress of Church, was deciphered;

pedition which in its inception promised and the woman confessed that he was

salutary results. See CANADA; MACOMB, the author. The case was laid before the

ALEXANDER; MONTREAL; PRESCOTT; WIL- Continental Congress, and he was dismiss-

KINSON, JAMES. ed from his post of chief director of the

Church, BENJAMIN, military officer; general hospital. He was arrested and
born in Plymouth, Mass., in 1639; was tried by a court-martial at Cambridge on
a leader in King Philip s War; com- a charge "of holding a criminal corre-
manded the party by whom Philip was spondence with the enemy." He was con-
slain (August, 1676); and with his own victed (Oct. 3), and imprisoned at Cam-
sword cut off the head of the dusky mon- bridge.

arch. While Phipps was operating On Nov. 7 the Congress ordered him to

against Quebec in 1690, Colonel Church be " close confined, without the use of

was sent on an expedition against the pen, ink, or paper; and that no person

eastern Indians. He went up the An- be allowed to converse with him, except

droscoggin River to the site of Lewiston, in the presence and hearing of a magis-

Me., where he, " for example," put to death trate of the town or the sheriff of the

a number of men, women, and children county where he shall be confined, and in

whom he had captured. The Indians re- the English language, until further or-

taliated fearfully. ders from this or a future Congress."

In May, 1704, Governor Dudley sent. He was so confined in the jail at Nor-
from Boston, an expedition to the east- wich, Conn. In May, 1776, he was re-
ern bounds of New England. It con- leased on account of failing health, and
sisted of 550 soldiers, under Church. The sailed for the West Indies in a merchant
campaign then undertaken against the vessel. He and the vessel were never
French and Indians continued all sum- heard of afterwards. Benjamin Church
mer, and Church inflicted much damage was the first traitor to the republican
to the allies at Penobscot and Passania- cause in America. He was well educated,
quoddy. He is represented by his con- and a writer in prose and verse of con
temporaries as distinguished as much for sidn -D^le ability.

his integrity, justice, and purity as for Church. See AnvENTlSTS; BAPTIST
his military exploits. He is the author CHURCH ; CONGREGATIONAL CHURCH ;
of Entertaining Passages relating to Phi- METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH; METII-
lip s War. He died in Little Compton, ODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, SOUTH; Mo
ll. I., Jan. 17, 1718. RAVIAN CHURCH; SWEDENBORGIAN CHURCH;

Church, BENJAMIN, surgeon; born in PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH; RE-
Newport, R. I., Aug. 24, 1734; son of Col. FORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH; ROMAN
Benjamin Church; was graduated at Har- CATHOLIC CHURCH; JEWS AND JUDAISM:
vard College; studied medicine in Lon- LUTHERAN CHURCHES ; PRESBYTERIAN
don, and became eminent as a surgeon. CHURCHES; REFORMED CHURCHES.
He lived a bachelor, extravagantly and Church and State. There is no con-
licentiously, in a fine mansion which he nection between them in the United States,
built at Raynham, Mass., in 1768. For but in the colonies of Massachusetts and
several years preceding the Revolution he Connecticut the Congregational Church
was conspicuous among the leading was established; in Virginia, 1662; Mary-
Whigs. Of the Massachusetts Provincial land, 1602; South Carolina, 1703. By the
Congress he was an active member. At Constitution " no religious test shall ever
the same time, while he was trusted as an be required as a qualification to any office
ardent patriot, Church was evidentry the or public trust in the United States," and
secret enemy of the republicans. As " Congress shall make no law respecting

153

CHTJRCH-MEMBEBSHIP SUFFRAGE CHUBUBUSCO

an establishment of religion, or prohibit- towards Churubusco, attacked and divided
ing the free exercise thereof." In 1882 on the way.

Congress prohibited polygamy in the Ter- The retreat of the Mexicans from San
ritories, and was sustained by the Su- Antonio and the general march of all the
preme Court. Americans upon Churubusco began the

Church-membership Suffrage. From grand movements of the day. The divi-
1631 to 1691 the suffrage was denied by sions of Twiggs and Pillow were advanc-
the colony of Massachusetts to any in- ing on the west, and on a causeway south
dividual who was not a member of some the division of Worth was rapidly ad-
church, vancing to storm the redoubt at the bridge.

Churchill, SYLVESTER, military officer; General Scott, at a mile distant from
born in Woodstock, Vt., August, 1783; re- Churubusco, was directing all the move-
ceived a common-school education; served ments. The redoubt at the bridge was
through the War of 1812-15, and especial- carried at the point of the bayonet. At
]y distinguished himself on Burlington the same time Twiggs was assailing the
Heights in defending the fleet of Macdon- fortified church and hamlet, where a fierce
ough when it was attacked while being battle raged for some time. There the able
repaired. In 1835 he was promoted ma- Mexican General Ringon commanded, and
jor, and took part in the Creek Indian there three masses of Santa Ana s men
War; in 1836-41 was acting inspector- opposed General Shields. The veterans of
general of the Creeks in Florida; then Gen. Persifer F. Smith, who had capt-
became inspector-general; served in the ured Contreras, were conspicuous in this
Mexican War, and for his gallantry at fearful contest. The most desperate de-
Buena Vista was brevetted brigadier-gen- fence at the church was made by deserters
eral in February, 1847; retired in Septem- from the American army, led by Thomas
ber, 1861. He died in Washington, D. C., Riley. The alarmed Mexicans several
Dec. 7, 1862. times hoisted a white flag, in token of

Churubusco, BATTLE OF. After the surrender, when these Americans with
victory at Contreras, Mexico, the Ameri- halters about their necks as often tore
cans proceeded to attack the fortresses of it down. The battle raged three hours,
San Antonio and Churubusco. The latter when the church and the other defences
was a small village 6 miles south of the of Churubusco were captured,
city of Mexico, and connected with it by Meanwhile Generals Shields and Pierce
a spacious causeway. At the head of the (afterwards President of the United
causeway, near the village, was erect- States) were battling furiously with Santa
ed a strong redoubt, mounted with bat- Ana s men, partly in the rear of the de-
teries and heavily garrisoned. This was fences of Churubusco. The Mexicans were
in front of the bridge over the Churubusco there 7,000 strong 4,000 infantry and
River. 3,000 cavalry but victory again crowned

The Convent-church of San Pablo, with the Americans.

its massive stone walls, on an eminence, This was the fifth victory won on that
was converted into a fort, and around it memorable 20th of August, 1847 Contre-
was the hamlet, defended by a covering ras, San Antonio, the redoubt at the
of stone walls and a heavy stone building bridge, the Church of San Pablo, and with
fortified. The outside walls were pierced Santa Ana s troops. In fact, the com-
for cannon, high enough to fire plunging bined events of that day formed one great
shot upon an approaching enemy. All the contest over a considerable extent of tor-
stores and artillery saved from the wreck ritory, and might properly be known in
of Contreras were gathered at Churubusco, history as the " Battle of the Valley of
with much sent from the city, for Santa Mexico." The number engaged on that
Ana had resolved to make a stand at this day was 0.000 effective American soldiers
place. He was at the city with 12.000 and 32,000 Mexicans. The result was the
troops. When the Americans began to capture by the former of the exterior line
move forward, the garrison of Antonio, of Mexican defences, opening the cause-
perceiving themselves in great danger of way to the city and leaving it no other
being cut off, abandoned the fort and fled resources but its fortified gates and the

154

CIFUENTES CINCINNATI

Castle of Chapultepec. Fully 4,000 Mexi
cans had been killed or wounded that day;
3.000 were made prisoners. Thirty-seven
pieces of fine artillery had been captured,
with a vast amount of munitions of war.
The Americans lost, in killed and wounded,
about 1,100 men. See MEXICO, WAR
WITH; PIERCE, FRANKLIN; PILLOW,
GIDEON JOHNSON; SANTA ANA, ANTONIO;
SCOTT, WINFIELD; SMITH, PERSIFEE FRA-
ZER: WORTH, WILLIAM JENKINS.

Cifuentes, FRAY BERNARDINO, clergy
man ; born in Segovia, Spain, July 24,
1725; was educated at the University of
Salamanca ; entered the Franciscan order
about 1760; and later came to America.
In June, 1770, a number of Spanish mis
sionaries crossed Arizona and entered
California, where a white cloth bearing
the inscription " Mission de Fray Ber
nardino " was raised on a staff. By 1778
this mission had grown to be a settle
ment of 200 inhabitants, and when Cali
fornia became a part of the United States
it was a large town. The name of the
place was afterwards changed to San Ber
nardino . He died in California about
1780.

Cilley, JONATHAN, lawyer; born in
Nottingham, N. H., July 2, 1802; grad
uated at Bowdoin College in 1825; elect
ed to Congress as a Democrat in 1837,
and served until Feb. 24, 1838, when
he was fatally wounded in a duel
with William J. Graves, a Representative
from Kentucky. The trouble arose from
an address in the House of Representa
tives by Mr. Cilley, in which he denounced
a charge of immorality made against
some unmarried Representatives in an ar
ticle published in the New York Courier
and Enquirer under the signature of " A
Spy in Washington." The result of this
criticism was the challenge to a. duel by
Mr. Graves. The weapons used were
rifles; the place, Bladensburg, Md. ; and
on the third shot Mr. Cilley fell, with
a ball through his body. When the affair
became known in Congress, a committee of
seven was appointed, and after a thorough
investigation, reported that Mr. Graves
should be censured by the House for his
conduct. See BLADENSBURG DUELLING
FIELD.

Cilley, JONATHAN PRINCE, military
officer; born in Thomaston, Me., Dec. 29,

1835; son of the preceding; graduated
at Bowdoin College in 1858, and be
came a lawyer. When the Civil War
broke out he was commissioned a captain
in the 1st Maine Cavalry. On May 24,
1802, when General Banks retreated
from the Shenandoah Valley, Captain
Cilley was wounded and taken prisoner.
In recognition of his services at Five
Forks, Farmville, and Appomattox Court-
House he was brevetted brigadier-general
at the close of the war. He is the author
of a genealogy of the Cilley Family.

Cilley, JOSEPH, military officer; born
in Nottingham, N. H., in 1735; took part
in the dismantling of the fort at Ports
mouth in 1774; led a company of volun
teers into Boston after the battle of Lex
ington; made colonel of the 1st New
Hampshire Regiment in 1777; took part
in the attack on Ticonderoga and in the
actions at Bemis s Heights, Monmouth,
and Stony Point. He died in Nottingham,
N. H., Aug. 25, 1799.

Cincinnati, city, commercial metrop
olis of the valley of the Ohio, and county
seat of Hamilton county, Ohio; on the
Ohio River; connected by railroads and
steamboats with all important parts of
the country. Under the census of 1900
it was the tenth city in the United States
in point of population. The city is noted
for the extent and variety of its manu
factures and for its great pork-packing
interests. In the fiscal year ending June
30, 1904, the imports of merchandise
amounted in value to $2,184,218. On
Dec. 31, 1903, the assessed valuation of
all taxable property was $215,942,390, and
the net debt, $27,112,889. In 1895 the
villages of AA ondale, Clifton, Linwood,
Riverside, and Westwood were annexed to
Cincinnati, which assumed their indebted
ness. The population in 1890 was 296,-
908; in 1900, 325,902.

Ensign Luce, of the United States army,
was charged with the selection of a site
for a block-house on Symmes s Purchase.
Symmes wished him to build it at North
Bend, where he was in command of a de
tachment of troops; but Luce was led far
ther up the river, to the site of Cincinnati,
on account of his love for the pretty young
wife of a settler, who went there to reside
because of his attentions to her at the
Bend. Luce followed and erected a block-

155

CINCINNATI

house there; and in 1790 Major Doughty cinnati. The invader was confronted by

built Fort Washington on the same spot, an unexpected force near that city. Gen.

It was on the eastern boundary of the Lew. Wallace was at Cincinnati when the

town as originally laid out, between the news of the disaster at Richmond, Ky.,

present Third and Fourth streets, east of reached that place. He was ordered by

Broadway. A village grew around it. A General Wright to resume the command of

CINCINNATI IN 1812.

pedantic settler named it Losantiville,
from the words I os anti ville, which he
interpreted " the village opposite the
mouth "mouth of Licking Creek. It was
afterwards called Cincinnati. The name
was suggested by General St. Clair in
honor of the Society of the Cincinnati.
The fort was made of a number of strong
ly built log cabins, hewn from the timber
that grew on the spot. These were a
story and a half high, arranged for sol
diers barracks, and occupied a hollow
square enclosing about an acre of ground.
In the autumn of 1792 Governor St. Clair
arrived at the post and organized the
county of Hamilton, and the village of
Cincinnati, then begun around the fort,
was made the county geat of the territory.
In 1812 it contained about 2,000 inhabi
tants.

During the Civil War, when Gen. E.
Kirby Smith invaded Kentucky in advance
of Bragg, he pushed on towards the Ohio
River with the purpose of capturing Cin-

Nelson s shattered forces, but was called
back to provide for the defence of Cin
cinnati. Half an hour after his arrival he
issued a stirring proclamation (Sept. 1,
1862) as commander of that and the cities
of Covington and Newport, on the Ken
tucky side of the river. He informed the
inhabitants of the swift approach of the
invaders in strong force, and called upon
the citizens to act promptly and vigorous
ly in preparing defences for the city, lie
ordered all places of business to be closed.
and the citizens of Cincinnati, under the
direction of the mayor, to assemble, an
hour afterwards, in convenient public
places, to be organized for work on in-
trenchments on the south side of the river.
He ordered the ferry-boats to cease run
ning, and proclaimed martial law in the
three cities.

This was a bold, startling, but nec
essary proceeding. The principle of action
embodied in the proclamation was, " Cit
izens for labor; soldiers for battle." Wal-
50

CINCINNATI

members. In 1900 William Wayne, of
Pennsylvania, held the office. The order
worn by the president-general at the meet
ings of the society is a beautifully jewelled
one. It was presented to Washington by
the French officers. The society met with
much jealous opposition from the earnest
republicans of the day. Among the most

lace demanded the services of all able-
bodied people. The response was wonder
ful. In a few hours he had an army of
workers and fighters 40,000 strong. They
streamed across the river on a pontoon
bridge and swarmed upon the hills about
Covington. Within three days after the
issuing of the proclamation a line of in-
trenchments 10 miles in length, of semi
circular form, was constructed. These
were just completed when fully 15,000
of Smith s troops appeared. Astonished
and alarmed, they retreated in great
haste. Cincinnati was saved, and the cit
izens gave public honors to General Wal
lace as the deliverer of the city. See
BRAGG, BRAXTON; SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY;
WALLACE, LEW.

Cincinnati, SOCIETY OF THE. A few
weeks before the disbanding of the Conti
nental army (June, 1783) a tie of friend
ship had been formed among the officers,
at the suggestion of General Knox, by the
organization, at the headquarters of Baron
von Steuben, near Fishkill Landing, N. Y.,
of an association known as the " Soci
ety of the Cincinnati." Its chief objects
were to promote a cordial friendship and
indissoluble union among themselves, and
to extend benevolent aid to such of its
members as might need assistance. Wash
ington was chosen the first president of
the society, and remained president-gen
eral until his death. Gen. Henry Knox
was its first secretary-general. State so
cieties were formed, auxiliary to the gen
eral society. To perpetuate the associa
tion, it was provided in the constitution
of the society that the eldest masculine
descendant of an original member should
be entitled to wear the order and enjoy
the privileges of the society. The order,
or badge, of the society consists of a
golden eagle, with enamelling, suspended
upon a ribbon. On the breast of the eagle
is a medallion, with a device representing
Cincinnatus at his plough receiving the
Roman senators who came to offer him the
chief magistracy of Rome. The members

certificate is eighteen and a half inches powerful of these opponents was Judge
in breadth and twenty inches in length. Aedanus Burke, of Charleston, S. C., who,
The general Society of the Cincinnati is in an able dissertation, undertook to
still in existence, and also State societies, prove that the society created two dis-
The president-general from 1854 till his tinct orders among the Americans first,
death in 1893 was Hamilton Fish, son a race of hereditary nobles founded on the
of Col. Nicholas Fish, one of the original military, together with the most influen-

157

ORDER OF THK CINCINNATI.

CINQUE-CIRCULATION

I . f ? ft &lt;^T _ tjf y^i x_^^/ sf M T--, ff ^^ ^^ -uiwn aM^y xiirin, * iii^-

M ^^ff&mfja^JLu^y.t o,/Y?rt% Qsm,^~JuL&lt;LiJt&,iJij i ^e^-4!,3U,

t^zZztt*^ 3 *^

SOCIETY OF THE CINCINNATI MEMBER S CKRTI FICATK.

tial families and men in the State: and, habits of civilized life. He died in Can-

se-cond, the people, or plebeians. These
suspicions were natural, but were not
justified.

Cinque, African chief and slave. See
AMISTAD, CASE OF THE.

Cipher Despatches.
Presidential election of 1870 in
ed States depended upon the electoral votes
of Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida,
long in dispute. Mr. Hayes needed all
three States, while any one of them would
have elected Mr. Tilden. Pending the re
sult, many despatches in cipher passed be
tween Mr. Tilden s friends and persons in
the South, which, when translated and

ada.

Circular Letter. On Feb. 11, 1768, the
General Court of Massachusetts sent a
circular letter to all the American
colonies, in which it asked them to co-
The result of the operate with Massachusetts in obtaining
1876 in the Unit- redress of grievances.

This letter was laid before the English
cabinet, which resolved,

1. That the Massachusetts assembly
should rescind the letter, and

2. That the other colonial legislatures
before whom it had been laid should re
ject the letter.

The legislature of Massachusetts by a

published in the New York Tribune, 1877, vote of 92 to 17 refused to do the first, and

,1 , i i lj C 1J J 1 J_l__

suggested attempted bribery. A great
scandal arose, and Mr. Tilden public
ly disclaimed all knowledge of the de
spatches.

Ciquard, FRANCOIS, missionary; born
in Clermont, France, about 1760; entered
the Sulpitian order; came to the United
States in 1792, and settled in Old Town,
Me., where he labored among the Penob-
scot and Passamaquoddy Indians, for

the other legislatures refused to take the
required action.

Circulation, MONETARY. The estimated
population of the United States on April
1, 1901, was 77,427,000, and the amount of
money in circulation was equal to $28.25
for every man, woman, and child in the
country. The following table shows the
amount of gold and silver coin and certif
icates, United States notes, and national

whom he prepared a code of laws, but had bank notes in circulation and in the treas-
great difficulty in inducing them to adopt ury on that date:

158

CISNEKOS CITIZEN

AMOUNT OF CURRENCY IN CIRCULATION AND IN TREASURY, APRIL 1, 1901.

KIND OP MONEY.

GENERAL STOCK
OF MONEY IN THE
UNITED STATES.

HELD IN TREAS
URY AS ASSETS
OF GOVERNMENT.

MONEY IN
CIRCULATION.

April 1, 1901.

Dollars.
1 124,157 697

Dollars.

249,046,644

Dollar*.
626,824,954

248 286 099

512,536 160

13,029,880

72,299,960

427 206 320

89,869 906

9,016,799

80,853,107

53 881 000

152,768

53 728 232

346 681 016

9 791,535

336 889 481

350 101 406

8,945,979

341,155 427

Total

2,477,227.185

5389,983,605

2,187,243,580

TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF PAPER CURRENCY OF EACH DENOMINATION OUTSTANDING

ON MARCH 30, 1901.

DENOMINATION.

u. s.

NOTES.

TREASURY
NOTES OP 1890.

NATIONAL
BANK NOTES.

GOLD CER
TIFICATES.

SILVER CER
TIFICATES.

TOTAL.

One dollar.

Dalian.
2,058,642
1,716,544
57,431,662
121,576,581
74,296,812
12,970,775
23,869,250
12,606,750
41,134,000
10,000
10,000

Dollars.

2,713,304
2,514,816
19,041,730
20,892,670
6,737,330
94.450
989,700

Dollart.
347,550
167,052
65,583,580
135,529,620
97,688,800
16,6(i9,500
33,953,100
102,500
26,000

Dollart.

Dollar!.

57,420,164
34,791,068
160,184,312
116,348,5!)!
49,784,810
9,830,635
3,003,420
90.000
388,000

Dollan.

62,539,660
39,189,480
302,241,284
394,347,462
306,761,236
59,743,665
85,485,670
23,499,750
74,522,500
29,005,000
82,840,000
33,703

Five dollars

Twenty dollars

78,253,484
20,178,305
23,670,200
10,700,500
32,077,500
28 995 000

Fifty dollars

One hundred dollars

Five hundred dollars

One thousand dollars

897,000

82,830,000

Fractional parts

33,703

Total

347,681,016
1,000 000

53,881,000

350,101,405

276,704,989

431,841,000

1,460,209,410
1,000,000

Net

346,681,01&lt;&gt;| 53,881,000

350,101.405

276,704,989

431,841,000

1,459,209,410

See COINAGE, UNITED STATES; CUR
RENCY, NATIONAL; MONETARY REFORM.

Cisneros, SALVADOR, MARQUIS DE SANTA
LUCIA, statesman; born in Cuba in 1831.
In 1868, the year that the Ten Years War
broke out, he renounced all allegiance to
Spain and his right to a noble title, declar
ing himself henceforth a republican. He
was a man of large wealth, but when his
affiliation with the Cuban cause became
known in Spain his property was con
fiscated. Upon the organization of the first
Cuban government he was elected presi
dent of the House of Representatives, and
later, when President Cespedes died, he be
came chief executive of the Cuban Republic.

Cist, CHARLES, printer; born in St.
Petersburg, Russia, Aug. 15, 1783; gradu
ated at Halle; came to America in 1773;
and lived in Philadelphia, where he
founded a printing and publishing busi
ness with Melchior Steiner. Later he- be
came sole proprietor and publisher of The

American Herald and the Columbian Mag
azine. He introduced anthracite coal into
general use in the United States. During
the Revolutionary War he endorsed Conti
nental currency to a large amount, which
he was afterwards compelled to redeem.

Cist, HENRY MARTIN, military officer;
born in Cincinnati, O., Feb. 20, 1839; was
graduated at Belmont College in 1858;
in April, 1861, enlisted in the 6th Ohio
Regiment, and at the time of his resigna
tion had attained the rank of brigadier-
general. He was the author of The Army
of the Cumberland, and editor of the Re
ports of the Society of the Army of the
Cumberland. He died in Rome, Italy,
Dec. 17, 1902.

Citizen. By a change in the political
character of the English-American col
onies, the word " citizen " took the place
of "subject," and was as comprehensive
in its application to the inhabitants of the
territories included in the United States

159

CITY OF BROTHERLY LOVE CIVIL RIGHTS BILL

of America. In the United States every 1. All persons born in the United States
niiin. woman, and child is a citizen, with and not subject to any foreign power, ex-
regulations as to the exercise of the rights eluding Indians not taxed, were therein
and privileges of citizenship. All male declared to be citizens of the United States,
persons over twenty-one, except Indians having the same rights as white citizens
not taxed and foreigners not naturalized, in every State and Territory to sue and
are citizens, with the right to vote. Be- to be sued, make and enforce contracts,
fore the 14th and 15th amendments to the take and convey property, and enjoy all
Constitution, proclaimed July 20, 18C8, civil rights whatever. 2. Any person who.
and March 30, 1809, such citizenship was under color of any State law, deprived
restricted to white men. Every one born any such citizen of any civil rights se-
on American soil was and is a citizen, by cured by this act was made guilty of a
virtue of nativity; and, by the grace of misdemeanor. 3. Cognizance of offences
statute law, foreign-born persons become against the act was entirely taken away
citizens by naturalization laws. See fr m State courts and given to federal
ELECTIVE FRANCHISE ; NATURALIZATION. courts. 4. Officers of the United States

City of Brotherly Love. The popular Courts or of the Freedmen s Bureau, and

name of Philadelphia. special executive agents, were charged

City of Notions, a popular name given with the execution of the act. 5. If such

to the city of Boston, Mass. officers refused to execute the act, they

City of Spindles, a popular name given were made subject to fine. 6. Resistance

to the city of Lowell, Mass. to the officers subjected the offender to

City of the Strait, the popular name of fine and imprisonment. 7. This section
Detroit (the French word for "strait"), related to fees. 8. The President was em-
situated upon the strait between lakes powered to send officers to any district
St. Clair and Erie. where offences against the act were likely

City Point, on the James River at the to be committed. 9. The President was

mouth of the Appomattox, near Peters- authorized to use the services of special

burg, Va. In May, 1864, General Butler agents, of the army and navy, or of the

seized this place, which became the prin- militia, to enforce the act. 10. An

cipal base of supplies for the army oper- appeal was permitted to the Supreme

ating against Richmond under Grant. Court.

Civic Federation. See AMERICAN Charles Sumner, the distinguished Sena-

NATIONAL ARBITRATION BOARD. tor from Massachusetts, was exceedingly

Civil Death. The extinction of a man s anxious to secure the adoption of an
civil rights and capacities. In some States amendment to the original bill, which,
imprisonment for life is civil death. among other things, should prevent corn-
Civil Rights Bill, an important meas- mon carriers, inn-keepers, theatre-man
ure introduced in the United States Sen- agers, and officers or teachers of schools
ate on Jan. 29, 1866; adopted there Feb. from distinguishing blacks from whites;
2 by a vote of 33 to 12, and passed in the should prevent the exclusion of negroes
House on March 13 by a vote of 111 to from juries; and should give federal
38. The bill was vetoed March 27 by courts exclusive cognizance of offences
President Johnson, but was passed over against it. In 1872 he offered a bill cover-
the veto, in the Senate on April 6, and in ing these grounds as an amendment to the
the House on April 9. While the bill was amnesty act, but it failed of passage by
passing through these stages a number of a single vote. Later in the same year i
amendments were proposed for the pur- was introduced in the House. On April
pose of nullifying the decision in the Dred 30, 1874, the measure was adopted in the
Scot case; and on April 30 Thaddeus Senate, but rejected in the House, and in
Stevens, of Pennsylvania, in the House, February, 1875, it was adopted in both
reported from a joint committee the meas- Houses, becoming a law March 1. On Oct.
ure that became the 14th Amendment to 25, 1883, the Supreme Court of the United
the CO.XSTITUTION (q. v.}. States, through Justice Bradley, decided

The original civil rights bill comprised that the supplementary civil rights bill

in brief the following; provisions: (Simmer s) was unconstitutional.

100

CIVIL SERVICE REFORM

Civil Service Reform. The civil ser- to see remedied by this Congress. It is
vice is a name applied to the duties ren- a reform in the civil service of the coun-
dered to the government other than naval try. I would have it go beyond the mere
and military service. That is, all per- fixing of the tenure of office of clerks and
sons employed by the government outside employes who do not require the advice

and consent of the Senate to make their
appointments complete. I would have it
govern, not the tenure, but the manner
of making all appointments. There is no
duty which so much embarrasses the ex
ecutive and heads of departments as that

of the army and navy are in the civil
service. By civil service reform is meant
the doing away with many objectionable
customs and abuses that had found their
way, through the influence of politicians,
into the civil service. Away back in Pres

ident Jackson s time the custom was in- of appointments; nor is there any such
troduced of making appointments to this arduous and thankless labor for Senators

service a reward for party effort, and
not in consequence of any particular fit
ness for the positions. The change of the
political character of an administration
would, of course, under this plan, cause
an entire change in the civil service, no
faithful performance of tasks assigned or
acquired experience counting as of any
value in competition with party service.
It can readily be seen how a system like
this would demoralize most branches of
the public service, how patronage, or the
control of offices, would come to be a

and Representatives as that of finding
places for constituents. The present sys
tem does not secure the best men, and
often not even fit men, for public place.
The elevation and purification of the civil
service of the government will be hailed
with approval by the whole people of the
United States."

Following this was a bill called the
civil service bill, which carried out the
spirit of President Grant s recommenda
tion. The first civil service commission
consisted of G. W. Curtis, of New York;

mere matter of traffic, and how it would Joseph Medill, of Chicago; A. J. Cattell,

lead to a condition of wastefulness and
inefficiency in many instances. The mat
ter was made even worse by a system of
levying a tax or assessment, at each elec
tion, on all office-holders to bear party
expenses, the understanding being that the
payment of this tax was a condition of
the retention of the office.

The first attempt to call the attention
of Congress to the need of reform in the
civil service was made in 1867. On Feb.
2 of that year, Mr. Jenckes, of Rhode
Island, a Republican, brought forward a
bill for the investigation and reorganiza
tion of that service. The bill was referred
to a committee, but the report of the
committee when received was tabled, and
nothing further was done about it. In

of New Jersey; D. A. Walker, of Penn
sylvania; S. B. Elliott, and J. H. Black-
fair. A second commission was appoint
ed March 1, 1883, consisting of Dorman
B. Eaton, of New York; Leroy D. Tho-
man, of Ohio; and Dr. John B. Gregory,
of Illinois. In 1900 the commission con
sisted of John R. Procter, John B. Har-
low, and Mark S. Brewer. At the end of
1898 the number of persons in the classi
fied civil service of the national govern
ment was estimated at 83,817. See ad
dress on the " Spoils System," under
CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM.

Civil Service, United States Colonial.
Prof. Edward Gaylor Bourne, Professor
of History in Yale University, writes as
follows concerning the civil service for

1870 Mr. Jenckes tried to get a bill passed our new possessions:
for the introduction of a system of com
petitive examination in the civil service,
but this also failed. President Grant gave
it the weight of his influence, and really
made legislation in that regard possible.
In his message to Congress, Dec. 5, 1870,
the President thus referred to the meas-

Our previous annexations of territory,
with the possible exception of Alaska,
have never involved questions of ad
ministration essentially different from
those with which our public men have
been familiar; for, from the first settle-

ure: "Always favoring practical reform, ment of the colonies, the occupation of
I respectfully call your attention to one new land and the organization of new
abuse of long standing which I would like communities have been the special task

II. L Ifil

CIVIL SEBVICE, UNITED STATES COLONIAL

and most noteworthy achievement of the ranges from the Negrito head-hunters to
American people. Acquisitions, like the the civilized Tagals and Visayas, who had
Louisiana and Mexican cessions, merely a written language before the Spaniards
afforded room for the natural overflow came among them, to say nothing of the
of our people, and the new possessions Chinese, the Chinese-Malay, and Spanish-
soon became more distinctively American Malay mixtures who constitute the en-
than the mother States. The wonderful terprising element in the towns. Fur-
results of this spontaneous process are ac- thermore, although hitherto beyond our
cepted by too many of our people as a horizon, these islands are not in a remote
demonstration that we can cope equally corner of the earth like Alaska, where fail-
well with the extremely difficult and com- ure would be hidden or unnoticed, but they
plicated task of governing large masses of lie at the very meeting-place of nations,
alien and unwilling subjects. Yet a mo- and all that we do there will be under a
ment s reflection must show every one that white light of publicity. The most ener-
the simple form of growth which has ex- getic and ambitious powers of Europe will
panded the United States from the Alle- be our neighbors and critics,
ghanies to the Pacific cannot be extended To expect that the problem of the
to our recent acquisitions. Philippines or of Cuba and Porto Rico

Neither Cuba nor Porto Rico is likely can be dealt with by our ordinary methods
ever to be populated by English-speak- of administration and of appointment to
ing Americans. Our ideas, no doubt, will office is to live in a fool s paradise. Only
pervade these islands to some extent, but a blind national pride can believe for a
that their civilization will cease to be moment that the average American poli-
Spanish is highly improbable. Their in- tician or office-seeker can deal with the
habitants are a civilized people, heirs, situation any better than the Spanish po-
like ourselves, of a European culture, pos- litical heelers have done. In fact, the
sessing a noble language, a splendid lit- American, with his ignorance of the lan-
erature, and a highly developed jurispru- ia ge and customs and his contempt for
dence. This inheritance they will never " dagoes " and " niggers," will be even less
voluntarily give up, nor can they be forced qualified for the task. A repetition in the
to sacrifice it without tyrannical oppres- West Indies of the mistake of Jefferson,
sion. Those who think differently should who committed the French and Spanish
study the case of French Canada, or, even population of Louisiana to the government
better, the case of Louisiana. It would of Claiborne and Wilkinson, men grossly
have been natural to expect, in 1803, that ignorant of their language, customs, in-
the inflowing tide of American immigra- stitutions, and history, will make our rule
tion would soon absorb or overwhelm the l ss tolerable than that of Spain. A repe-
scattered little settlements of French ere- tition in the Philippines of the govern-
oles, numbering in all, masters and slaves, ment of Alaska or of South Carolina in
within the bounds of the present State of 1869, would be a world-wide scandal, and
Louisiana, not more than 30,000. On the bring more disgrace on the American
contrary, French life and manners still name than all the fraud, stealing, and
survive, the civil law has never been dis- murder of the entire Reconstruction
placed by the English common law, and period.

after nearly a century, over one-sixth of As a civilized, progressive, and con-
the native whites of the State cannot scientious people, we must either not at-
speak the English language. In view of tempt the work which has fallen upon
this experience how remote is the possibil- our hands, or we must intrust it to the
ity that the dense population of Porto best administrative ability that the coun-
Rico will ever lose its Spanish character! try possesses, to men not inferior in nat-
Turning to the Philippines we find a ural powers and special training to our
task still more widely different from any loading army and navy officers, who will,
that we have ever undertaken, and far like these officers, enjoy permanence of
more complicated. This archipelago is tenure, the social distinction of an honor-
nothing less than an ethnological museum, ed profession, and the privilege of retir-
Its population of 6,000,000 or 7,000,000 ing after their term of service on an al-

162

CIVIL SERVICE, UNITED STATES COLONIAL

lowance adequate to their comfortable the general head of folk psychology. By

support. this somewhat unfamiliar name we mean

The nucleus for such a body of officials the study of the outfit of ideas, moral,
will naturally be found in the regular religious, social, and philosophical, which
army, and for the transition work of any well-differentiated human group in-
establishing order and restoring conn- herits from its ancestors and passes over
dence they are fitted by their professional to its posterity. Into this mental world
experience and discipline. But a perma- in which they live he must enter who
nent military government is alien to our wishes to stand on common ground with
ideas and should be established only as a any alien race. In no other way can
final resort. The education of a soldier suspicion and hatred be made to give
does not prepare him for civil administra- place to sympathy and confidence. The
tion. The military mind is arbitrary and entrance to this strange world, vastly
uneonciliatory ; it is disposed to crush more remote and inaccessible to the aver-
rather than to win; it holds life cheap, age man than the Philippines, is to be
In brief, its ideals and standards are those found only through the study of language
engendered by war and its necessities. and with the help of a trained scientific

What, then, should be the nature of the imagination. Translations and interpret-

special training required of candidates for ers, at the best, leave one still outside

administrative positions in our dependen- and merely peering in through a dense

cies? In thoroughness and extent, it and highly refracting medium,
should not be less than that demanded Does all this seem impracticable and

of our own lawyers and physicians. This Utopian? In proportion as it does, the

means two or three years of distinctively reader may be sure that he falls short of

professional training resting on the solid realizing what we have really undertaken

foundation of a regular course of study to do. It is no more than England, Hol-

in a college or scientific school. Starting land, France, and Germany are doing for

from the same general level of prepara- their colonial and diplomatic service. If

tion as the student of law or medicine, we do less, we shall take heavy risks that

the colonial civil service candidate should European colonial authorities will have

devote himself to the following groups of the same contempt for our management

studies: Geography and ethnology, his- that we now have for Spain s. Mr. John

tory, economics and law, languages, re- Foreman, after an experience in Spain

ligions, and folk psychology. and the Philippines of nearly a quarter of

The work in geography should cover the a century, writes : " Of the hundreds of
physical features, climate, plants, and officials that I have known, not one had
economic resources of our dependencies, the most elementary notions of Tagalog
and the principles of tropical hygiene, or Visaya (the native languages of the
Under the head of ethnology, the elements Philippine Islands) at the time of their
of the comparative study of the races of appointment, and not one in fifty took
man would be followed by a more thor- the trouble to learn either language after-
ough examination of the peoples of east- wards." In not one of the Spanish uni-
ern Asia and Polynesia. The next group versities is there taught a modern Orien-
would deal with the history of the rela- tal language, except Arabic, nor was there
tions of Europeans with the East, and, in in 1898 a single chair devoted to colonial
particular, with the history of the colo- problems, nor in the university of Manila
nial systems of England, France, Holland, was there any opportunity to study the
and Spain; with the tariffs and financial languages and customs of the Philippines,
systems; and, finally, with the principles The civil service in the Spanish colonies,
of administration, including the study of like that of the mother-country, was
the civil law as developed in the Spanish purely a spoils system. No examinations
codes, Mohammedan law, and the legal of any kind were required. Offices were
customs of the native tribes. Between cus- the reward of fidelity to the political
toms and religions the dividing line is "caciques" (bosses), and the dangers and
really invisible, and this branch of the discomforts of colonial service were corn-
work may just as well be included under pcnsated for by the abundant opportuni

1G3

CIVIL SERVICE, UNITED STATES COLONIAL

ties for "chocolate" (boodle). Not least bridge, nine courses of a practical charac-
ainong the causes of the final collapse of ter are provided for the candidates for the
Spain s colonial power was the blight of Indian civil service. In London, Univer-
spoils. sity College has professors and lecturers
In marked contrast to Spain stands lit- on Arabic, Persian, Pali, Hindustani, Ben-
tie Holland, with substantially the same gali, Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Tamil, and
problems in the East. Whatever have Telugu, and Indian law. Still further pro-
been the dark sides of the Dutch colo- vision is made by King s College joining
nial system, incapacity and venality have with the University in establishing a sepa-
uot been among them. For the last fifty rate school of modern Oriental languages
years the Dutch government has required in which instruction is given in Burmese,
a definite standard of proficiency for the Arabic, Japanese, modern Greek, Chinese,
various grades of the colonial service, to Persian, Russian, Turkish, Armenian, and
be proved by passing the colonial service Swahili. Candidates for the Indian scr-
examinations or by the attainment of a vice in their final examination must be
degree in law. The candidate for the examined in the Indian penal code, the
colonial service finds in Holland exten- language of the province in which they
sive provision for his instruction. At the seek appointment, the Indian Evidence
University of Leyden there are professors Act and the Indian Contract Act, and in
of colonial and Mohammedan law, the any two of the following: Civil proced-
Japanese and Chinese languages, of eth- ure, Hindu and Mohammedan law, San-
nography, and lecturers on the Sunda Ian- scrit, Arabic, Persian, and the history of
guages, on Malayan, Persian, and Turk- India.

ish, on Mohammedan civilization, and re- France is not behind England in the
ligious history. Designed especially for effort to obtain highly qualified men to
training men for the colonial service is take up the responsibilities of administra-
the Indisches Institut at Delft, where tion in Africa and Asia. In Paris the
there are courses in the administrative Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques, found-
and constitutional law of the Netherlands, ed in 1874, is designed especially to pre-
Indies, the Malayan and Sunda languages, pare students for foreign diplomatic ser-
Japanese, ethnology, geography, religious vice. Its corps of teachers is recruited
legislation and customary law, the law from the most eminent scholars in France
and institutions of the Dutch Indies, and within and without the regular faculties,
the Bata, Bali, and Madura languages, and the courses embrace administrative
This systematic training has borne abun- law, political economy, finance, commer-
dant fruit in the indefatigable activity cial geography, commercial law, history,
of the Dutch officials, travellers, and scien- and modern languages. On " colonial
tific men in the collection of material and questions " alone there are six lecturers,
the diffusion of knowledge relating to Side by side with this school of politics
every aspect of their colonial domain, to is the school of modern Oriental lan-
an extent of which the average American guages, a list of whose graduates is annu-
can have no idea. In 1895 a clerk in the ally communicated to the ministers of
Dutch colonial office published a bibli- war, marine, commerce, and foreign af-
ography of the literature of the Nether- fairs. In this institution the course of
lands East Indies, covering only the study extends over three years, and in-
twenty- seven years 1866-1893. This struction is provided in Arabic, written
simple list of titles and references fills and colloquial, Persian, Russian, Turkish,
400 octavo pages. Armenian, modern Greek, Chinese, Japan-
Turning to England, France, or Ger- cse, Hindustani, Roumanian, Annamese,
many, we find, as we might expect, a high- Malayan, and Malagasy, in the geography,
ly trained colonial service, and university history and legislation of the Far East
courses of study designed to supply such and of the Mohammedan countries.
a training. At Oxford, there are teachers Germany, although a late competitor in
of Hindustani, Persian, Tamil, Telugu, the field of colonial and commercial ex-
Marathi, Bengalese, Turkish, and Chinese, pansion, has realized as fully as England
Indian law and Indian history. In Cam- and France the importance of trained

164

CIVIL SERVICE, UNITED STATES COLONIAL

men in the public service, and the seminary of preparation, the first resort should be

for the study of modern Oriental Ian- to men of successful diplomatic experience

guages at Berlin is one of the most sys- in Spanish-speaking countries and in the

tematically equipped in the world. The Orient. A knowledge of Spanish should

teaching force is made up both of Ger- be insisted upon at the earliest practica-

mans and of Orientals, who teach their ble moment for every official in the West

native tongues, and includes instructors Indies and the Philippines. The events

in Arabic (2), Chinese (2), Japanese (2), of 1898 have already given such an im-

Gujarati, Persian, Hindustani, Syrian pulse to the study of Spanish at our

Arabic, Maroccan Arabic, Egyptian Ara- colleges that before long this requirement

bic, Turkish (2), Swahili (2), Hausa (2), will be as practicable as it is reasonable.

Russian and modern Greek, in the tech- For service in the Philippines a certain

nique of the natural sciences, the hygiene number of men of the highest character

of the tropics, and tropical botany. The and thorough knowledge, and familiar

unequalled opportunities in both Berlin with Oriental life and thought, could be

and Paris for studying anthropology, eth- recruited from the ranks of our mission-

nology, comparative religions, and all aries In Asia. Suitable instruction for

branches of geographical science need not candidates for a colonial service in such

be set forth here. subjects as Oriental history, colonial

This brief review of what Holland, problems, administrative law, civil law,
England, France, and Germany are doing comparative religions, ethnology, anthro-
to obtain trained men for the diplomat- pology, and folk psychology could be sup-
ic and colonial service cannot fail to im- plied to-day in no small degree at several
press every thinking reader with the sim- of our universities. The facilities at these
pie fact that we have entered the race for institutions and at others would be en-
the control and development of the East larged and adjusted in prompt response
far behind our rivals and critics in prepa- to a specific demand. In fact, in a sur-
ration for the work. Vastly superior to prisingly short time it would be entirely
Spain in wealth and energy and progres- practicable for our government to have
siveness of spirit, and actuated in some as candidates for appointment for the co-
measure by philanthropic impulses, we lonial service men as thoroughly equipped
take up our task under a fearful handi- for intelligent and efficient administra-
cap. We lack not only trained men, but tion as those at the disposal of England,
the belief that training is necessary. The France, Holland, and Germany. As I
most ominous feature of the situation is have just said, the most serious difficulty
that the controlling element among the will not be to get the right kind of men,
advocates of expansion look upon a train- but to educate public opinion to demand
ed civil service with hostility and con- trained men for such work. This will re-
tempt. Yet, if our colonial service is quire resolute, persistent, and intelligent
sacrificed to party interests as spoils, agitation, and the energetic diffusion of
nothing can be more certain than that knowledge in regard to the nature of our
we shall take up Spain s work with her task and the ways of dealing with it. In
methods, and that with such discredited this direction a good beginning has al-
methods we shall fall far short in our co- ready been made in the despatch of the
lonial administration of the disciplined Philippine Commission, and in the ap-
and intelligent efficiency of the English pointment of committees by the American
and Dutch services. The consequence will Historical Association and the American
be humiliation for ourselves and irrita- Economic Association to collect informa
tion and discontent among our depend- tion. Much may be hoped from both
ents. these committees in the way of extending

Yet, supposing that the seriousness and our knowledge of every phase of the ex-
perplexity of the problems of government pansion of Europe in the nineteenth cen-
in our new dependencies should convince our tury. In the light of this knowledge, an
authorities of the need of highly trained intelligent and well-directed public opin-
men, where can they be found? Pend- ion may guide and control the expansion
ing the organization of a regular system of America in the twentieth century.

105

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

Civil War in the United States. This telligenccr, written by a "distinguished
great struggle was actually begun when, citizen of the South, who formerly repre-
after the attack on Fort Sumter, in Charles- sented his State in the popular branch of
ton Harbor, in April, 1861, President Lin- Congress," and was then temporarily re-
oln, recognizing the fact that a part of siding in Washington. He said a caucus
the people in the Union were in a state of of the senators of seven cotton-producin"
rebellion, called for 75,000 men (April 15, States (naming them) had been held on
I to suppress the insurrection. Then the preceding Saturday ni^ht in that city
an immediate arming and other prepara- at which it was resolved "in effect to as-
tions for the impending struggle began sume to themselves political power at the
in all parts of the republic, and very soon South, and to control all political and
hostile armies came in contact. The first military operations for the time- thit
overt act of war was committed by the they telegraphed directions to complete
Confederates in Charleston Harbor at the seizures of forts, arsenals, custom-
beginning of 1861 (see STAR OF THE houses, and all other public property and
The last struggle of the war oc- advised conventions then in session or
curred in Texas, near the battle-ground of soon to assemble, to pass ordinances for
Palo Alto, on May 13, 1865, between Con- immediate secession. They agreed that it
federates and the 63d United States regi- would be proper for the representatives of
ment of colored troops, who fired the last " seceded States " to remain in Congress
volley. The last man wounded in the in order to prevent the adoption of meas-
,ivil War was Sergeant Crockett, a col- ures by the national government for its
ored soldier. The whole number of men own security. They also advised ordered
called into the military service of the or directed the assembling of a conven-
government in the army and navy during tion at Montgomery, Ala on Feb 15
the war was 2,656,553. Of this number "This can," said the writer, "of course
about 1,490,000 men were in actual ser- only be done by the revolutionary con-
vice. Of the latter, nearly 60,000 were ventions usurping the power of the peo-
killed in the field and about 35,000 were pie, and sending delegates over whom they
mortally wounded. Diseases in camp and will lose all control in the establishment
hospitals slew 184,000. It is estimated of a provisional government, which is the
that at least 300,000 Union soldiers per- plan of the dictators." This was actually
ished during the war. Fully that number done within thirty days afterwards. They
of Confederate soldiers lost their lives, resolved, he said, to use every means in
while the aggregate number of men, in- their power to force the legislatures of
eluding both armies, who were crippled Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas
or permanently disabled by disease, was Texas, Virginia, and Maryland into the
stimated at 400,000. The actual loss to adoption of revolutionary measures. They
the country of able-bodied men caused by had already possessed themselves of the
the rebellion was fully 1.000,000. telegraph, the press, and wide control of

The total cost of the war has been mod- the postmasters in the South ; and they
erately estimated at $8,000,000,000. This relied upon a general defection of the
sum includes the debt which on Aug. 31, Southern-born members of the army and
1865, had reached $2,845,907,626.56; the navy.

estimated value of the slaves was $2,000,- Of the 11,000,000 inhabitants in the
&gt;00,000; in addition about $800.000.000 slave-labor States at the beginning of the
were spent during the war by the govern*- Civil War, the ruling class in the South
ment, mainly in war expenses, and large those in whom resided in a remarkable de-
outlays were made by States; one estimate gree the political power of those States
the total pension bill raises this item numbered about 1,000.000. Of these the
to $1,500.000.000. The property destroyed large land and slave holders, whose influ-
is beyond computation. The harmony of ence in the body of 1,000.000 was almost
action in the several States which first supreme, numbered less than 200.000 In
adopted ordinances of secession seemed all the Southern States, in 1850, less than
marvellous. It was explained in a com- 170,000 held 2.800,000 out- of 3.300000
munication published in the National In- slaves. The production of the great staple

166

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

cotton, which was regarded as king of master-General. 7. The United States

kings, in an earthly sense, was in the House of Representatives, by a vote,

hands of less than 100,000 men. The 11,- commended the course of Major Ander-

000,000 inhabitants in the slave - labor son in Charleston Harbor. 12. The five

States in 1860 consisted of 6,000,000 representatives of Mississippi withdrew

small slave-holders, and non-slave-holders, from Congress. 14. The Ohio legislature,

mechanics, and laboring-men; 4,000,000 by a vote of 58 to 31, refused to repeal

negro slaves, and 1,000,000 known in those the Personal Liberty Bill. 21. Jefferson

regions by the common name of " poor Davis, of Mississippi ; Benjamin Fitz-

white trash," a degraded population scat- patrick and C. C. Clay, of Alabama, and

tered* over the whole surface of those David L. Yulee and Stephen R. Mallory,

States. These figures are round numbers, of Florida, finally withdrew from the

approximately exact according to publish- United States Senate. Representatives

ed statistics. from Alabama withdrew from Congress.

Chronology of the War. The follow- 23. Representatives from Georgia, except
ing is a brief record of the most important ing Joshua Hill, withdrew from Congress.
of the minor events of the war, the greater Hill refused to go with them, but resign-
ones being treated more at length under ed. 24. The Anti-Slavery Society of Mas-
readily suggestive titles: sachusetts, at its annual session, broken

up by a mob. 25. Rhode Island repealed

1860. Xov. 18. The Georgia Legislat- its Personal Liberty Bill by act of its
ure voted $100,000 for the purpose of legislature. Feb. 5. John Slidell and J.
arming the State, and ordered an election P. Benjamin, of Louisiana, withdrew from
for a State convention. 29. The legislat- the United States Senate, the representa-
ure of Vermont refused, by a vote of 125 tives in the Lower House also withdrew,
to 58, to repeal the Personal Liberty Bill, excepting Bouligny, under instructions
The legislature of Mississippi voted to from the Louisiana State Convention,
send commissioners to confer with the au- Bouligny declared he would not obey the
thorities of the other slave-labor States. instructions of that illegal body. 11.
Dec. 6. In Maryland, a Democratic State The House of Representatives " Resolved,
Convention deplored the hasty action of that neither the Congress nor the people
South Carolina. 10. The legislature of or governments of the non-slave-holding
Louisiana voted $500,000 to arm the State. States have a constitutional right to legis-
22. The Crittenden Compromise voted late upon or interfere with slavery in any
down in the United States Senate. 24. slave-holding State of the Union." 28.
The South Carolina delegation in Congress Jefferson Davis, President of the Southern
offered their resignation, but it was not Confederacy, vetoed a bill for legalizing
recognized by the speaker, and their names the African slave-trade. March 16. A con-
were called regularly through the session, vention at Mesilla, Ariz., passed an ordi-
31. The Senate committee of thirteen nance of secession, and subsequently the
reported that they could not agree upon Confederate Congress erected a ter-
any plan of adjustment of existing diffi- ritorial government there. April
culties, and their journal was laid before 17. Governor Letcher, of Virginia,
the Senate. recognized the Confederate govern-

1861. Jan. 2. The authorities of Geor- ment. 20. Property valued at $25,000,-
gia seized the public property of the 000, belonging to the United States gov-
United States within its borders. 4. ernment, lost at the Gosport navy-yard,
Governor Pickens, having duly proclaimed Va. Eleven vessels, carrying 602 guns,
the " sovereign nation of South Carolina," were scuttled. 21. The Philadelphia, Wil-
assumed the office of chief magistrate of mington, and Baltimore Railway taken
the new empire, and appointed the*follow- possession of by the United States gov-
ing cabinet ministers: A. G. Magrath, Sec- ernment. 23. The first South Carolina
retary of State; D. F. Jamison, Secretary Confederate regiment started for the Po
of War; C. G. Memminger, Secretary of tomac. 28. Virginia proclaimed a mem-
the Treasury; A. C. Garlington, Secretary ber of the Confederacy by its governor.
of the Interior; and W. W. Harllee, Post- 30. The legislature of Virginia, by act,

167

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

established a State navy. May 3. The the Confederates. 24. Count de Paris and
legislature of Connecticut voted $2,000,- Due de Chartres entered the United States
000 for the public defence. 4. The gov- service as aides to General McClellan
ernors of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Oct. 11. Marshal Kane, of Baltimore, sent
Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and other to Fort Lafayette. 15. Three steamers
States met at Cleveland, O., to devise plans despatched from New York after the Con-
for the defence of the Western States. 7. federate steamer Nashville, which escaped
The governor of Tennessee announced a from Charleston on the llth. 23. The
military league between the State and the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus sus-
Confederacy. 10. The President of the pended in the District of Columbia. 30.
United States proclaimed martial law on All the state-prisoners (143) in Fort La
the islands of Key West, the Tortugas, fayette transferred to Fort Warren, Bos-
and Santa Rosa. 11. The blockade of ton Harbor. Nov. 3. Rising of Union men
Charleston, S. C., established. 13. The in eastern Tennessee, who destroy rail-
blockade of the Mississippi River at Cairo road bridges. Dec. 1. Loyal legislature
established. 15. The legislature of Mas- of Virginia meet at Wheeling. 3. Henry
sachusetts offered to loan the United C. Burnett, representative from Kentucky,
States government $7,000,000. 20. All and John W. Reid, representative from
mail-steamships on the coast, and run- Missouri, expelled from the House of Rep-
ning in connection with the Confederates, resentatives because of alleged treacherous
were stopped. 21. The Confederate Con- acts. Fortifications at Bolivar Point, Gal-
gress, at Montgomery, adjourn to meet at veston Harbor, Tex., destroyed by the
Richmond, July 20. 26. New Orleans United States frigate Santee. 9. The
blockaded by sloop-of-war Brooklyn. Confederate Congress passed a bill ad-
27. The ports of Mobile and Savannah mitting Kentucky into the Southern Con-
blockaded. June 1. The postal system in federacy. 20. Confederates destroyed
the Confederacy put into operation. 10. about 100 miles of the North Missouri
Forty-eight locomotives, valued at $400,- Railroad, with its stations, bridges, ties,
000, belonging to the Baltimore and Ohio fuel, water-tanks, and telegraph-poles.
Railroad, were destroyed by the Confed- 30. The banks of New York, Albany, Phil-
era tes at Martinsburg, Va. July 11. The adelphia, and Boston suspend specie pay-
United States Senate expelled from that ments.

body James M. Mason, R. M. T. Hunter, 1862. Jan. 10. Waldo P. Johnson and

T. L. Clingman, Thomas Bragg, Louis T. Trusten Polk, of Missouri, expelled from

Wigfall, J. A. Hemphill, Charles B. Mitch- the United States Senate. 11. Bridges of

ell, W. K. Sebastian, and A. O. P. Nichol- the Louisville and Nashville Railroad

son, charged with treasonable acts. 25. burned by the Confederates. 16. The Ohio

The governor of New York called for 25,- legislature authorized the banks of that

000 more troops. Aug. 16. Several news- State to suspend specie payments. 17.

papers in New York presented by the Cedar Keys, Fla., captured by Union

grand jury for hostility to the govern- troops. 30. The Monitor launched.

ment. 19. Secretary of State ordered that Feb. 3. Confederate steamer Nashville

all persons leaving or entering the United ordered to leave Southampton (England)

States shall possess a passport. Major Harbor; the United States gunboat Tus-

Berrett, of Washington, D. C., arrested on carora, starting in pursuit, stopped by

a charge of treason, and conveyed to Fort the British frigate Shannon. 5. Jesse D.

Lafayette, in the Narrows, at the en- Bright, of Indiana, expelled from the

trance of New York Harbor. 24. Trans- United States Senate. British schooner

mission of Confederate journals through Mars captured off Florida. 8. General

the mails prohibited. Sept. 12. Col. John Hunter declared martial law throughout

A. Washington, formerly of Mount Vernon, Kansas. 9-13. The House Treasury-note

aide of Gen. Robert E. Lee, killed while Bill, with legal-tender clause, passed the

reconnoitring in western Virginia. IS. United States Senate. Chesapeake and

Bank of New Orleans suspended specie Albemarle Canal destroyed by Union

payments. 21. John C. Breckinridge fled forces. 17. Confederates defeated at Sugar

from Frankfort, Ky., and openly joined Creek, Ark. First regular Congress of the

168

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

Confederates assembled at Richmond. 10. to Union troops. 4. Departments of the
Confederate government ordered all Union Shenandoah and Rappahannock created,
prisoners to be released. 20. Fully 4,000 Pass Christian, on the Gulf coast, taken
Confederates, sent to reinforce Fort Donel- by National troops. 8. National tax bill
son, captured on the Cumberland River. passed the House of Representatives. 11.
21. First execution of a slave-trader un- Bill for the abolition of slavery in the
der the laws of the United States took District of Columbia passed the House of
place at New York, in the case of N. P. Representatives. 12. General Hunter de-
Gordon. 22. Martial law proclaimed over clares all the slaves in Fort Pulaski and
western Tennessee. 24. Fayetteville, Ark., on Cockspur Island free. Engagement
captured by the Union troops, but burn- at Martinsburg, Va. 15. Confederates
ed by the Confederates on leaving it. cut the levee on the Arkansas side
25. Telegraph lines taken possession of by of the Mississippi, near Fort Wright,
government, and army news not to be causing an immense destruction of
published until authorized. 26. Legal property. 16. President Lincoln signed
tender bill approved by the President. the bill for the abolition of slavery
28. Confederate steamer Nashville ran the in the District of Columbia. Battle of
blockade at Beaufort, N. C. Fast Day in Lee s Mills, near Yorktown. 17. Skirmish
the Confederacy. March 1. John Minor on Edisto Island. 19. Battle of Camden,
Botts arrested at Richmond, Va., for trea- or South Mills, N. C. 21. Santa Fe evac-
son to the Confederate States. Schooner uated by the Texans. Confederate Con-
British Queen captured while trying to gress at Richmond broken up and dis-
run the blockade at Wilmington, N. C. persed. 24. Destruction of the Dismal
2. Brunswick, Ga., captured by Union Swamp Canal completed. May 1. Skir-
troops. G. President Lincoln asks Con- mish at Pulaski, Tenn., and 200 Union
gress to declare that the United States troops captured. 3. Skirmish near
ought to co-operate with any States which Monterey, Tenn., and Union victory,
may adopt a gradual abolition of slavery, Skirmish near Farmington, Miss., and
giving to such State pecuniary indem- Union victory. - - 4. British steamer
nity. 8. Fort Clinch, St. Mary, Ga., and Circassian captured near Havana, Cuba.
Fernandina, Fla., taken by Dupont s expe- Skirmish at Lebanon, Tenn.; the Confed-
dition. 10. Confederate troops from Tex- erates defeated, with the loss of 105
as occupy Santa Fe, N. M. 11. General men, their guns, and horses. The Confed-
McClellan relieved of the supreme com- erates burn their gunboats on the York
mand of the army, and made commander River. Battle of West Point, Va., and
of the Army of the Potomac. Resolu- Union victory. 8. Union cavalry stir-
tion recommending gradual emancipation prised and captured near Corinth, Miss,
adopted by the House of Representatives. 9. Attack on Sewell s Point by the Mon-
13. Point Pleasant, Mo., captured by itor. Confederates evacuate Pensacola.
Pope. 18. Name of Fort Calhoun, at the Skirmish at Slater s Mills, Va. Bombard-
Rip Raps, Hampton Roads, changed to ment of Fort Darling, on James River.
Fort Wool. 21. Washington, N. C., occu- 10. Craney Island abandoned by the Con-
pied by Union troops. Departments of federates. General Butler seized $800,000
the " Gulf " and " South " created. 26. in gold in the office of the Netherlands
Skirmish near Denver City, Col., and fifty Consulate, New Orleans, when all the for-
Confederate cavalry captured. 31. Bal- eign consuls uttered a protest. 11. Pensa-
timore and Ohio Railroad reopened, after cola occupied by Union troops; the navy-
being closed nearly a year. Confederate yard and public buildings, excepting the
camp at Union City, Tenn., captured, custom-house, had been burned by the Con-
with a large amount of spoils. April 1. federates. 12. President Lincoln pro-
General Banks drove the Confederates claimed that the ports of Beaufort, N. C.,
from Woodstock, Va. Battle at Putnam s Port Royal, S. C., and New Orleans should
Ferry, Ark., and Confederate stores capt- be open to commerce after June 1. 13.
ured. 2. The emancipation and compen- Natchez, Miss., surrendered to Union gun-
sation resolution passed the United States boats. 17. Naval expedition up the Pa-
Senate. Appalachicola, Fla., surrendered munkey River, and Confederate vessels

169

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

burned. 18. Suffolk, 17 miles below Nor
folk, occupied by National troops. 19.
May, recorder and chief of police of New
Orleans, arrested and sent to Fort Jack
son. 22. The United States Senate organ
ized as a High Court of Impeachment for
the trial of W. H. Humphreys, a United
States district judge, for treason. 23.
( mifederates defeated at Lewisburg, Va.
26. The government, by proclamation, took
possession of all railroads for the trans
portation of troops and munitions of
war. Confiscation bill passed the United
States House of Representatives. Hanover
Court-House, Va., captured by National
troops. 29. Skirmish at Pocotaligo, S. C.
June 2. General Wool transferred to the
Department of Maryland, and General Dix
ordered to Fortress Monroe. 3. National
troops landed on James Island, S. C. 4.
Battle near Trentor s Creek, N. C.
Skirmish on James Island, S. C. 5.
Artillery battle at New Bridge, near Rich
mond ; Confederates defeated. 6. Tax
bill passed United States Senate. Battle
of Union Church, near Harrisonburg, Va.
14. A severe battle on James Island, S.
C. 17. Battle between Union gunboats
and Confederate batteries at St. Charles,
on the White River, Ark., the batteries
being carried. 18. Confederate works at
Cumberland Gap, Tenn., occupied by Na
tional troops. 19. An act confiscating the
slaves of Confederates passed the United
States House of Representatives. 20.
Commodore Porter arrived before Vicks-
burg with ten mortar-boats. Free terri
tory act signed by President Lincoln. 26.
High Court of Impeachment ordered
Judge Humphreys to be removed from of
fice and disqualified. Confederates de
stroy their gunboats on the Yazoo River.
27. Vicksburg bombarded. 28. The
governors of eighteen loyal States pe
tition the President of the United
States to call out additional troops.
30. Battle of Charles City Cross-roads.
July 1. Defeat of Confederates at Boone-
ville, Mo. Brunswick, Ga., establish
ed as a port of entry. Skirmish
at Turkey Bend, on the James River.
President Lincoln calls for 600,000 addi
tional volunteers. 6. Engagement at Du-
val s Bluff. 7. Battle of Bayou de Cachi,
Ark. ; the Confederates defeated. Engage-

camp-equipage and provisions of the Con
federates captured. 8. Union expedition
up Roanoke River started from Plymouth,
N. C. 9. Confederate batteries at Hamil
ton, on the Roanoke River, with steamers,
schooners, and supplies, captured. 11.
Gen. H. W. Halleck appointed commander
of all the land forces of the republic.

13. National troops at Murfreesboro,
Tenn., captured by Confederate cavalry.

14. Battle of Fayetteville, Ark.; the Con
federates defeated. 15. Confederate
" ram " Arkansas ran past the Union flo
tilla, and reached the batteries at Vicks
burg. 17. Congress authorized the use of
postage and other stamps as currency, to
supply a deficiency of small change, and
made it a misdemeanor for any individual
to issue a fractional paper currency, or
" shin-plasters." National troops defeat
ed at Cynthiana, Ky. 20. National cav
alry struck a guerilla band between Mount
Sterling and Owensville, Ky., and scat
tered them, taking their cannon and
horses. 22. The President issued an order
for the seizure of supplies in all the
States wherein insurrection prevailed; di
rected that persons of African descent
should be employed as laborers, giving
them wages; also that foreigners should
not be required to take the oath of allegi
ance. 23. General Pope ordered to arrest
all disloyal citizens within the lines
under his command. National troops
victors in a sharp engagement near Car-
mel Church. 25. The Confederates noti
fied by the President of the provisions of
the confiscation act. 22. Skirmish at
Bellinger s Mills, Mo. 29. Confederates
driven from Mount Sterling, Ky., by
" Home Guards." Confederate guerillas
defeated at Moore s Mills, near Fulton,
Mo. 30. Skirmish at Paris, Ky., when a
part of a Pennsylvania regiment drove
Morgan s guerillas from the town. Aug.

1 . Retaliatory order issued by the Con
federate government, and General Pope
and his officers declared not to be entitled
to the consideration of prisoners of war.
Confederates attacked Newark, Mo., and
captured seventy Union troops; the next
day the Unionists recovered everything.

2. Orange Court-House, Va., taken by Pope s
troops. A draft of the militia to serve
nine months was ordered by the President.

ment 10 miles above Duval s Bluff; all the 5. Malvern Hills occupied by National

170

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

troops. 6. Battle near Kirksville, Mo. ;
the Union troops victorious. 8. Battle
near Fort Fillmore, N. M. ; Unionists vic
torious. The privilege of the writ of
habeas corpus, in respect to all persons
arrested under it, suspended; also for the
arrest and imprisonment of persons who
by act, speech, or writing discourage
volunteer enlistments. 11. Skirmishes
near Williamsport, Tenn., and also at
Kinderhook, Tenn. ; Confederates defeat
ed. Independence, Mo., surrendered to the
Confederates. 12. Gallatin, Tenn., sur
rendered to Morgan s guerillas. Battle at
Yellow Creek, Clinton co., Tenn.; Con
federates defeated. 18. Confederate Con
gress reassembled at Richmond. 19. De
partment of the Ohio formed of the States
of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Mis
souri, and Kentucky east of the Tennes
see River, and including Cumberland
Gap. Cavalry expedition to Charleston,
Mo. 20. Clarkesville, on the Cumber
land, Tenn., surrendered to the Confed
erates. 21. Gallatin, Tenn., surrendered
to the Confederates. 22. Catlett s Sta
tion, Va., captured by Stuart s cavalry.
24. Battle between Bloomfield and Cape
Girardeau, Mo. ; the Confederates were de
feated. 25. Skirmish at Waterloo Bridge,
Va. Combined military and naval expedi
tion under General Curtis and Commander
Davis returned to Helena, Ark., having
captured the Confederate steamer Fair
Play, containing a large quantity of small-
arms and ammunition, also four field-
guns, and another laden with tents and
baggage, and, proceeding up the Yazoo
River, captured a Confederate battery of
four guns, with a large quantity of pow
der, shot, shells, and grape. 27. Skirmish
near Rienzi, Miss. Confederates routed by
General Hooker at Kettle Run, near
Manassas, Va. 28. Battle near Centre-
ville, Va., by Nationals under McDowell
and Sigel, and Confederates under Jack
son, when the latter were defeated with
a loss of 1,000 made prisoners and many
arms. Skirmish near Woodbury, Tenn. ;
Confederates defeated. 29. City Point,
on the James River, shelled and destroyed
by Union gunboats. 30. Buckhannon, Va.,
entered and occupied by Confederates.
Battle of Bolivar, Tenn. ; Confederates
routed. 31. Skirmish at Weldon, Va. ;
Confederates defeated. Sept. 1. The legis-

171

lature of Kentucky, alarmed by Confeder
ate raids, adjourned from Frankfort to
Louisville. Battle at Britton s Lane, near
Estanaula, Tenn. ; Confederates defeated.
Skirmish near Jackson, Tenn. ; Confeder
ates defeated. 2. General McClellan
placed in command of the defences of, and
troops for the defence of, Washington, D.
C. Martial law declared in Cincinnati.
Fighting between Fairfax Court-House and
\Vashington. 3. Centreville, Va., evacu
ated by the Union forces. 4. Confederate
steamer Oreto ran the llockade into Mo
bile Harbor. 6. Confederate cavalry at
tacked the Union outposts at Martinsburg,
Va., and were repulsed. 8. General Pope
relieved of the command of the Army of
Virginia, and assigned to that of the
Northwest. General Lee issued a procla
mation to the people of Maryland. Skir
mish near Cochran s Cross Roads, Miss.
Restrictions on travel rescinded, and ar
rests for disloyalty forbidden except by
direction of the judge-advocate at Wash
ington. 9. Confederate cavalry attacked
a Union force at Williamsburg, Va., and
were repulsed. 10. Governor Curtin, of
Pennsylvania, issued an order calling on
all able-bodied men in the State to organize
immediately for its defence. Confederates
attacked Union troops near Gauley, Va.;
the latter burned all the government prop
erty and fled. Skirmish near Covington,
Ky. 11. Maysville, Ky., taken by the Con
federates. Bloomfield, Mo., captured by
the Confederates, and recaptured by the
Unionists the next day. 12. Eureka, Mo.,
captured by the Nationals. 13. Confeder
ates attacked Harper s Ferry, and the next
night the National cavalry escaped from
that post, and it was surrendered on the
15th. 17. Cumberland Gap, Tenn.. evacu
ated by the Union forces. Confederate
soldiers captured at Glasgow, Ky. 18. A
day of fasting and prayer held by
the Confederates. Prentiss, Miss., shelled
and burned. 19. Confederates evacu
ated Harper s Ferry. Confederates
attacked Owensboro, Ky., and were re
pulsed. 21. Sharp skirmish on the Vir
ginia side of the Potomac near Shepherds-
town, Va., and the Nationals forced back
across the river with considerable loss.
Cavalry fight near Lebanon Junction, Ky.
22. President Lincoln s preliminary Proc
lamation of Emancipation for the slaves

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

issued. 24. Convention of the governors tionals. There was heavy loss on both
of the loyal States at Altoona, Pa. Presi- sides. 18. The guerilla chief Morgan
dent Lincoln suspended the privilege of dashed into Lexington, Ky., and took 125
the writ of habeas corpus in respect to prisoners. 20. In the early hours of the
all persons arrested and imprisoned in morning a small Confederate force destroy-
any fort, camp, arsenal, military prison, ed a National train of wagons near Bards-
or other place by any military authority, town, Ky., and at daylight they capt
or by sentence of court-martial. Engage- ured another train there. 21. Confeder-
ment at Donaldsonville, La. 25. Commo- ates near Nashville attacked and dispersed,
dore Wilkes s squadron arrived at Ber- 22. The governor of Kentucky called on
muda, and he was ordered to leave in the people of Louisville to defend the men-
twenty-four hours. 27. Augusta, Ky., at- aced city. 24. General Rosecrans succeed-
tacked by Confederates, who captured the ed General Buell in command of the army
garrison and destroyed the town. 29. in Kentucky. Skirmish at Morgantown,
General Buell ordered to turn over the Ky. 27. Confederates attacked and de-
command of his troops to General Thomas, feated at Putnam s Ferry, Mo. 28. Bat-
VVarrenton, Va., taken by the Nationals. tie near Fayetteville, Ark., where the Con-
30. Retaliatory resolutions introduced into federates were defeated and chased to
the Confederate Congress on account of the Boston Mountains. Skirmish at
the Emancipation Proclamation. Oct. 1. Snicker s Gap, Va. Nov. 1. Artillery
General Halleck sent to McClellan, urg- fight at Philomont, Va., lasting five
ing him to cross the Potomac and attack hours. The Confederates pursued tow-
the Confederates. National soldiers cross- ards Bloomfield, where another skir-
ed at Shepherdstown and drove the Con- mish ensued, lasting four hours. 4. Maj.
federates to Martinsburg. The Western Reid Sanders, a Confederate agent, capt-
gunboat fleet transferred from the War urcd on the coast of Virginia while en-
to the Navy Department. National naval deavoring to escape with Confederate
and military expedition sailed from Hilton despatches. National troops destroy salt-
Head for St. John s River, Fla., open- works at Kingsbury, Ga. 5. The Confed-
ed fire on the Confederate fortifications at crates attacked Nashville and were re-
St. John s Bluff on the 2d, and reduced pulsed. General Burnside superseded
the works on the 3d. 3. The Confeder- General McClellan in command of the
ates drove in the Union pickets at Corinth, Army of the Potomac. 9. Town of St.
Miss., and on the 4th a severe battle was Mary, Ga., shelled and destroyed by Union
fought there. 5. Galveston, Tex., occu- gunboats. 10. Great Union demonstration
pied by National troops. 6. Battle of La in Memphis. 15. Army of the Potomac
Vergne, Tenn. ; the Confederates were de- began its march from Warrenton towards
feated. 7. Expedition to destroy the salt- Fredericksburg. 17. Artillery engagement
works on the coast of Florida. Confeder- near Fredericksburg. Jefferson Davis or
ates evacuate Lexington, Ky. 9. Stuart s dered retaliation for the execution of ten
cavalry start on their famous expedition Confederates in Missouri. 18. Confeder-
into Pennsylvania; reached Chambers- ate cruiser Alabama escaped the San Ja-
burg on the 10th, and on the llth destroy- cinto at Martinique. 19. First general
ed much property there. 11. General convention of "The Protestant Episcopal
Wool arrived at Harrisburg and assumed Church of the Confederate States of Amer-
command of the troops for the defence ica " met at Augusta, Ga. 25. Confederate
of the State of Pennsylvania. Battle be- raid into Poolesville, Md. A body of 4.000
twoen Harrodsburg and Danville, Ky., in Confederates attacked Newbern, but were
which the Confederates were defeated. forced to retreat in disorder. 27. Nearly

13. The Confederate Congress adjourned, all the political prisoners released from
to meet again early in January, 1863. forts and government prisons. Confed-

14. In the State elections held in Pennsyl- erates defeated near Frankfort, Va. 28.
vania, Ohio, and Indiana, the Republicans General Grant s army marched towards
were defeated. 15. Severe battle between Holly Springs, Miss. Confederates cross-
Lexington and Richmond, in which 45,000 ed the Potomac and captured nearly two
Confederates were repulsed by 18,000 Na- companies of Pennsylvania cavalry near

172

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

Hartwood. 29. General Stahl fights and nation meeting" of the opposition was
routs a Confederate force near Berryville. held at Springfield, 111., to protest against
Dec. 2. King George Court-House, Va., the President s Emancipation Proclama-
captured by National cavalry. Expedi- tion. 8. Confederates drive Union forces
tion went out from Suffolk, Va., and re- out of Springfield, Miss. 9. Exchange of
captured a Pittsburg battery. 4. General 20,000 prisoners effected. 10. Cavalry
Bunks and a part of his expedition sailed skirmish at Catlett s Station. Bombard-
from New York for New Orleans. 5. ment of Galveston. The National gun-
Skirmish near Coffeeville, Miss. 6. Con- boat Hatteras sunk by the Alabama on
federates repulsed at Cane Hill, Ark. the coast of Texas. 11. General Weit-
7. California steamer Ariel captured by zel destroyed the Confederate gunboat Cot-
the Alabama. 9. Concordia, on the Mis- ton on the Bayou Teche". 12. Jefferson
sissippi, burned by Union troops. 10. Davis recommends the Confederate Con-
National gunboats shell and destroy most gress to adopt retaliatory measures
of the town of Front Royal, Va. 11. against the operation of the Emancipation
Skirmish on the Blackwater, Va., and Proclamation. 13. Peace resolutions in-
National troops pushed back to Suffolk. troduced into the New Jersey legislature.
12. National gunboat Cairo blown up by Several boats carrying wounded Union
a torpedo on the Yazoo. 13. National soldiers destroyed by the Confederates at
troops surprise and capture Confederates Harpeth Shoals, on the Cumberland River,
at Tuscumbia, Ala. 14. Gen. N. P. Confederate steamer Oreto (afterwards the
Banks succeeded General Butler in com- Florida) runs the blockade at Mobile.
mand of the Department of the Gulf. 15. National gunboat Columbia, stranded
Plymouth, N. C., destroyed by Confeder- at Masonboro Inlet, N. C., burned by the
ates. 15. Confederate salt-works at Yell- Confederates. Mound City, Ark., burned
ville, Ark., destroyed. 21. A body of by National troops. 17. Confederate
Union cavalry destroyed important rail- cruiser Oreto destroyed the brig Estellc.
road bridges in eastern Tennessee, with lo- Congress resolved to issue $100,000,000 in
comotives, and captured 500 prisoners and United States notes. 20. General Hunter
700 stand of arms. 23. Jefferson Davis assumes command of the Department of
issued a proclamation directing retalia- the South. 22. Gen. Fitz-John Porter dis-
tory measures to be taken because of the missed from the National service. 24.
course of General Butler in New Orleans, General Burnside, at his own request, re-
and dooming him and his officers to death lieved from the command of the Army of
by hanging when aught. He ordered the Potomac. 25. First regiment of negro
that no commanding officer should be re- Union soldiers organised at Port Royal,
leased or paroled before exchanged until S. C. 26. Peace resolutions offered in the
General Butler should be punished. 24. Confederate Congress by Mr. Foote. En-
Heavy skirmish at Dumfries, Va., when gagement at Woodbury, Tenn. 27. Fort
the Confederates were repulsed. 27. A McAllister, on the Ogeechee River, Ga.,
company of Union cavalry were surprised bombarded by the Montauk. 30. Union
and captured at Occoquan, Va. 31. The gunboat Isaac Smith captured in Stono
Monitor sunk at sea south of Cape Hat- River, S. C. 31. Blockading squadron off
tcras. Charleston Harbor attacked byConfederate
1863. Jan. 1. General Sullivan fought iron-clad gunboats, and the harbor pro-
Forrest near Lexington, Tenn. Emancipa- claimed opened by Beauregard and the
tion jubilee of the negroes at Hilton Confederate Secretary of State. Skirmish
Head, S. C. 2. Gold at New York, 133*4 near Nashville, Tenn., and the Confed-
@ 133%. 3. Department of the East erates defeated. Feb. 1. National troops
created, and General Wool assigned to occupy Franklin, Tenn. 2. United
its command. 4. Confederates defeated States House of Representatives passed
at Moorefiold, W. Va. The Confederate a bill providing for the employment
General Magruder declares the port of of negro soldiers. 3. Fort Donelson
Galveston, Tex., opened to the commerce invested by Confederate troops, who
of the world. Clarkesville, Tenn., surren- were repulsed. 4. Skirmish near Lake
dcrs to the Union forces. 5. An " indig- Providence, La. 5. Second attack on

173

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

Fort Donelson by Confederates repulsed. Knights of the Golden Circle at Reading,
0. The Emancipation Proclamation pub- Pa. 4. Town of Palmyra, on the Cumber-
lished in Louisiana. 7. Mutiny of the land, destroyed by National gunboats. 5.
100th Illinois Regiment. Confederates de- Confederate vessels detained at Liverpool
clare the blockade at Galveston and Sabine by order of the British government. 6.
Pass opened. 8. Circulation of the Chi- President Lincoln and family visited the
cago Times suppressed. 10. Official denial Army of the Potomac. 7. Combined at-
that the blockade at Charleston had been lack of iron-clad vessels on Fort Sumter;
raised. 11. Confederates attempt to as- five out of seven National vessels disabled,
sassinate General Banks on his way to the Emperor of the French intimates his aban-
Opera-house in New Orleans. 12. Na- donment of the European intervention
tional currency bill passes the Senate, policy in our national affairs. 8. Raid
The Jacob Bell, from China, with a cargo of Nationals through Loudon county, Va.
of tea worth $1,000,000, captured and 14. Engagement at Kelly s Ford, on the
burned by the Confederate cruiser Florida. Rappahannock. 20. Great mass-meeting
14. National cavalry defeated at An- at Union Square, New York, in commemo-
nandale, Va. 15. Confederates defeated ration of the uprising of the loyal people
at Arkadelphia, Ark. 16. Conscription in 1861. 24. National forces defeated at
bill passed the United States Senate. 20. Beverly, Va. Confederates defeated on the
National currency bill passed the United Iron Mountain Railroad near St. Louis.
States House of Representatives. 23. National forces rout the Confederates at
United States Senate authorized the sus- Tuscumbia, Ala. 26 Destructive Union
pension of the privilege of habeas corpus, raid on Deer Creek, Miss. Confederates
25. English-Confederate steamer Peter- defeated at Rowlesburg, Va. 27. Con-
hoff captured by the Vanderbilt. Na- federate "Texan Legion" captured near
tional currency act approved by the Franklin, Ky. 28. Cavalry engagement
President. 26. Cherokee national council at Sand Mountain, Ga.; Confederates de-
repeal the ordinance of secession. 28. feated. 29. Fairmount, Va., captured by
Confederate steamer Nashville destroyed Confederates. 30. Fast Day in the United
by the Montauk in Ageechee River. States. Artillery engagement at Chancel-
March 4. Palmyra, Mo., burned by lorsville, Va. Confederates defeated at
Union gunboats. 6. General Hunter Williamsburg, Va. May 1. Battle at
ordered the drafting of negroes in the Monticello, Ky.; Confederates defeated.
Department of the South. Confeder- 3. Mosby s guerillas routed at Warren-
ates capture Franklin, Tenn. 8. Briga- ton Junction. 4. Admiral Porter takes
dier - General Stoughton captured by possession of Fort de Russy, on Red River.
Moseby s cavalry at Fairfax Court-House, 6. Confederates put to flight near Tu-
Va. Twenty-three Confederate steamers pelo, Miss. Battle near Clinton, Miss.
captured on the Yazoo River. 11. Gov- 15. Corbin and Grau hung at Sandusky
ernor Cannon, of Delaware, declared the for recruiting within the Union lines.
national authority supreme. 18. House 18. Democratic convention in New York
of Representatives of New Jersey pass City expresses sympathy with Vallandig-
peace resolutions. 19. Mount Sterling, ham. 22-23. Battle of Gum Swamp, N.C.,
Ky., taken by Confederates, and retaken 28. First negro regiment from the
by Nationals on the 23d. English-Con- North left Boston. June 1. Democratic
federate steamer Georgia, laden with convention in Philadelphia sympathized
arms, destroyed near Charleston. 25. Im- with Vallandigham. 3. Peace party meet-
pressment of private property in the Con- ing in New York, under the lead of Fer-
federacy authorized. 31. General Herron nando Wood. 8. Departments of Monon-
nppointed to the command of the Army gnhela and Susquehanna created. 12.
of the Frontier. Jacksonville, Fla., burn- Darien, Ga., destroyed by National forces,
cd by Union colored troops and evacuated. Governor Curtin, of Pennsylvania, calls
April 1. Cavalry fight near Drainesville, out the militia and asks for troops from
Va. 2. Farragut s fleet ravaged in Red New York to repel threatened Confederate
River. Serious bread-riot in Richmond; invasion. General Gillmore in command
the mob mostly women. 3. Arrest of of the Department of the South. 14.

174

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

The consuls of England and Austria dis- barded Chattanooga, Tenn., from Lookout

missed from the Confederacy. 15. Presi- Mountain. 7. The British government

tlent Lincoln calls for 100,000 men to re- seized the Confederate " rams " building

pel invasion. 19. Confederate invasion of in the Mersey, and forbid their de-

Indiana. 21. Confederate cavalry defeat- parture. 10. Confederates defeated at

cd at Aldie Gap, Va. 28. General Meade Blue Springs, Tenn. 17. The President

succeeded General Hooker in the command orders a levy of 300,000 men, announcing

of the Army of the Potomac. Bridge over that if not furnished by Jan. 1, 1864, a

the Susquehanna burned. The authori- draft for the deficiency would be made.

ties of the city of Philadelphia petition 30. Union meeting at Little Rock, Ark.

the President to relieve General McClellan 31. Battle of Shell Mound, Tenn.; Con-

of command. 30. Martial law proclaim- federates defeated. Nov. 1. Plot to liber-

ed in Baltimore. July 1. Battle at Car- ate Confederate prisoners in Ohio discov-

lisle, Pa. 10. Martial law proclaimed at ered. 2. Landing of General Banks s army

Louisville, Ky. Cavalry engagement on in Texas. 3. Confederate cavalry defeat-

the Antietam battle-field. 11. Conscrip- ed near Columbia, and at Colliersville,

tion under the draft begins in New York Tenn. Battle of Bayou Coteau, La. 4.

City. 12. Martial law proclaimed in Cin- Banks takes possession of Brownsville on

cinnati. 13. Yazoo City, Miss., captured the Rio Grande. 9. Gen. Robert Toombs

by the Nationals. 14. Draft riots in Bos- denounces the course of the Confederate

ton. 15. Riots in Boston, Brooklyn, Jer- government in a speech in Georgia. 11.

sey City, Staten Island, and other places. Lord Lyons, the British minister, official-

23. Engagement at Manassas Gap; 300 ly informed the United States government
Confederates killed or wounded, and of a contemplated Confederate raid from
ninety captured. 30. President Lincoln Canada, to destroy Buffalo, and liberate
proclaims a retaliating policy in favor Confederate prisoners on Johnson s Isl-
of negro soldiers. Defeat of Confeder- and, near Sandusky. A fleet of French
ates at Winchester, Ky. Aug. 1. Heavy steamers arrived off Brazos, Tex. 15. Cor-
cavalry fight at Kelly s Ford, Va., pus Christi Pass, Tex., captured by Na-
and Confederates defeated. 3. Governor tional troops. 18. Mustang Island, Tex.,
Seymour, of New York, remonstrated captured by the Nationals. 19. Gettys-
against the enforcement of the draft, be- burg battle-field consecrated as a national
cause of alleged unfair enrolment. On cemetery for Union soldiers who fell in
the 7th President Lincoln replied and the July battles. 26. National Thanks-
intimated that the draft should be car- giving Day observed. Dec. 8. President
ried out. 6. National Thanksgiving Day Lincoln issued a proclamation of amnesty.
observed. 12. Gen. Robert Toombs ex- Congress thanked General Grant and his
poses the bankruptcy of the Confederacy, army, and ordered a gold medal to be

15. The Common Council of New York struck in honor of the general. 12. No-
City voted $3,000,000 for conscripts. 21. tice given that the Confederate authorities
National batteries opened on Charleston, refused to receive more supplies for the
22. Beauregard protests against shelling starving Union prisoners in Richmond,
Charleston. 25. Many regiments in the Va.

squares of New York City to enforce the 1864. Jan. 11. General Banks issued a

draft; removed Sept. 5. 28. The Super- proclamation for an election in Louisiana,

visors of New York counjty appropriate Feb. 22. A provisional free-State govern-

$2,000,000 for the relief of conscripts. ment inaugurated at Little Rock, Ark.

Sept. 4. Bread-riot at Mobile, Ala. 11. 25. Congress thanked Cornelius Vander-

One-half of James Island, Charleston Har- bilt for the gift to the government of the

bor, captured by National troops. 13. steamer Vanderbilt, worth $800,000. 26.

Brilliant cavalry engagement at Culpep- The United States Circuit Court at Louis-

er Court-House, Va. 21. Sharp cavalry ville,Ky., decided that guerillas were "corn-

fight and National victory at Madison mon enemies," and that carriers could not

Court-House, Va. 24. Port of Alexandria, recover at law goods stolen by such. 27.

Va., officially declared to be open to trade. Ladies Loyal League, New York, sent a

Oct. 5. Confederates under Bragg bom- petition for general emancipation, bearing

175

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

100,000 signatures. Confederate cavalry de
feated at Sevierville, Tenn. Three hundred
Confederate salt-kettles destroyed at St.
.Andrew s Bay, Fla. 28. Battle at Fair
Garden, Tenn.; Confederates defeated.
Feb. 1. The President ordered a draft, on
March 10, for 500,000 men, for three
years or the war. 4. Colonel Mulligan
drove Early out of Moorefield, W. Va.
13. Governor Bramlette, of Kentucky,
proclaims protection to slaves from claims
by Confederate owners. 22. Michael Halm
elected governor of Louisiana by the loyal
vote. Moseby defeats Union cavalry at
Drainesville. 23. Admiral Farragut began
a six days bombardment of Fort Powell,
below Mobile. March 2. Ulysses S. Grant
made lieutenant-general. 6. Confederates
hung twenty-three Union prisoners of war

(one a drummer - boy aged fifteen) at
Kinston, N. C. 7. Vallandigham advises
forcible resistance to United States au
thority. 8. New York State voted by
over 30,000 majority for the soldiers
voting law. 9. Colored troops under Colo
nel Cole captured Suffolk, Va.. 15. Pres
ident Lincoln calls for 200,000 men in
addition to the 500,000 called for Feb. 1.

16. Governor of Kentucky remonstrates
against employing slaves in the army.
Arkansas votes to become a free-labor
State. 17. General Grant assumes com
mand of all the armies of the republic.
Fort de Russy blown up by the National
forces. 28. Louisiana State Constitution
al Convention met at New Orleans. 31.
Longstreet s army, after wintering in east
ern Tennessee, retired to Virginia. April
10. Confederates seized and blew up Cape
Lookout light-house, N. C. 13. New York
Senate passes the soldiers voting bill by
a unanimous vote. 16. Ohio Superior
Court decides the soldiers voting law
constitutional. Surprise and defeat of
Confederates at Half Mountain, Ky., by
Colonel Gallup. 17. Women s bread - riot
in Savannah, Ga. 21. Nationals destroy
the State salt-works near Wilmington, N.
C., worth $100,000. 25. The offer of
85,000 100-days men by the governors of
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois. Wisconsin, and
Iowa accepted by the President. May 2.
Ohio National Guard, 38,000 strong, re
port for duty. 4. Colonel Spear, llth
Pennsylvania Cavalry, departed on a raid
from Portsmouth, Va., captured a Confcd-

erate camp on the Weldon road, and de
stroyed $500,000 worth of property at
Jarratt s Station. 7. To this date, one
lieutenant-general, live major-generals,
twenty-five brigadiers, 180 colonels, 140
lieutenant-colonels, 214 majors, 2,497 cap
tains, 5,811 lieutenants, 10,563 non-com
missioned officers, 121,156 privates of the
Confederate army, and 5,800 Confederate
citizens had been made prisoners by Na
tional troops. General Crook defeated the
Confederates at Cloyd s Mountain, W. Va.,
and fought an artillery duel on the 10th.
16. Sortie from Fort Darling upon Gen
eral Butler s besieging force. 18. General
Howard defeats a Confederate force at
Adairsville, Ga. Nationals defeat Confed
erates at Yellow Bayou, La., the latter
led by Prince Polignac. A forged Presi
dential proclamation, calling for 400,000
more troops, was published for the pur
pose of gold speculation. The perpetra
tors (Howard and Mallison) were sent
to Fort Lafayette. 26. Major-General
Foster takes command of the Department
of the South. Louisiana State Constitu
tional Convention adopts a clause abol
ishing slavery. 27. Eight steamers and
other shipping burned at New Orleans by
incendiaries. 30. McPherson had a sharp
encounter at the railroad near Marietta,
Ga., taking 400 prisoners, with a railroad
train of sick and wounded Confederates.
June 1. To this date the Nationals had
taken from the Confederates as naval
prizes, 232 steamers, 627 schooners, 159
sloops, twenty-nine barks, thirty-two
brigs, fifteen ships, and 133 yachts and
small craft; in all, 1,227 vessels, worth
$17,000,000. 2. Heavy artillery firing and
skirmishing at Bermuda Hundred. United
States gunboat Water Witch surprised and
captured in Ossabaw Sound, Ga. 6. Gen
eral Hunter occupied Staunton, Va. 9.
Blockade-runner Pervensey run ashore by
the supply-steamer .Tr/r^r/?, and taken;
worth, with cargo, $1,000,000. 13. The
United States House of Representatives
repealed the Fugitive Slave law. 17.
Near Atlanta 600 Confederate conscripts
fled to the Union lines. 22. Battle of
Culp s Farm, Ga. 24. Maryland Constitu
tional Convention passed an emancipation
clause. 25. General Pillow, with 3,000
Confederates, repulsed at Lafayette, Tenn.
27. General C arr defeated the Confeder-
76

s
s

Bl
tf

a
S

a
I

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

a.tes near St. Charles, Mo. 30. Secretary $40,000. 29. General Canby enrolled all
Chase, of the Treasury, resigned his office, citizens in the Department of the Gulf,
July 1. General Sherman captured 3,000 and expelled the families of Confederate
prisoners near Marietta, Ga. 3. General soldiers. Aug. 1. Confederates defeated
Sherman occupied Kenesaw Mountain at by General Kelly at Cumberland, Md. 2.
daylight. 4. A national salute of double- General Banks enrolled into the service
shotted cannon fired into Petersburg, Va. all the negroes in the Department of the
5. The Confederates in Jackson flanked Gulf between eighteen and forty years of
and driven out by General Slocum. Gen. age. 9. An ordnance-boat, laden with am-
Bradley Johnson, with 3,000 Confederate munition, was blown up at City Point,
troops, crossed the Potomac into Mary- James River, killing fifty persons, wound-
land. 9. Governor Brown, of Georgia, ing 120, and destroying many buildings,
called out the reserve militia, from fifteen 15. Commodore Craven, on the Niagara,
to fifty-five years of age. A mass-meeting seized the Confederate cruiser Georgia,
in Geneva, Switzerland, adopted resolutions near Lisbon. 18. The Confederate cruiser
of sympathy with the United States and Tallahassee, after great depredations on
approved the emancipation measure, the sea, gets into Halifax, N. S. ; but, hav-
President Lincoln, in a proclamation, put ing secured some coal, was ordered out
forth his plan for reorganizing the disor- of the harbor and ran the blockade into
ganized States. 12. Confederates ap- Wilmington. 23. Nearly all the 5th Illi-
proached within 5 miles of the Patent nois Volunteers captured near Duval s
Office at Washington and were repulsed Bluff by Shelby. 29. General Hunter su-
with heavy loss. 13-14. Gen. A. J. Smith perseded in command of the Department
defeated the Confederates under Forrest, of western Virginia by General Crook.
Lee, and Walker, in five different engage- Sept. 7. Confederates defeated at Reedy-
ments, in Mississippi, killing and wound- ville, Tenn., by Colonel Jourdan, with
ing over 2,000. 15. Six steamers burned about 250 Pennsylvania cavalry. 8. The
at St. Louis by incendiaries. 16. Gold in Confederate General Price crossed the Ar-
New York rose to 284. General Rousseau kansas River at Dardanelles, on his way
burned four store-houses and their con- to Missouri. 14. Governor Brown, by proc-
tents of provisions at Youngsville, Ala. lamation, withdrew the Georgia militia,
17. General Slocum defeated the Confeder- 15,000 strong, from the Confederate army
ates at Grand Gulf, Miss. 18. Rousseau at Atlanta. 19. Confederate passengers
sent out raiders on the Atlantic and Mont- seized the steamers Island Queen and Par-
gomery Railway, who destroyed a large sons on Lake Erie, with the intention of
section of it, defeated 1,500 Confederates capturing the United States gunboat
in a battle, and captured 400 conscripts. Michigan; but the latter captured the
The President called for 300,000 volun- whole party; the Queen was sunk and the
teers within fifty days, the deficiency Parsons was abandoned. A Confederate
to be made up by drafts. 20. General As- force of 1,500 captured a train worth
both captured a Confederate camp for con- $1,000,000 at Cabin Creek, Kan. 26. The
scripts in Florida. 21. Henderson, Ky., Confederate governor (Allen) of Louisiana
attacked by 700 guerillas. 22. General wrote to the Confederate Secretary of
Rousseau reached Sherman s lines near War that the time had arrived for them
Atlanta, having in fifteen days traversed to " put into the army every able-bodied
450 miles, taken and paroled 2,000 prison- negro as a soldier." 29. The United
ers, killed and wounded 200, captured States steam-packet Roanoke, just after
800 horses and mules, and 800 negroes, passing out of Havana, Cuba, admitted
destroyed 31 miles of railroad, thirteen on board three boat-loads of men claiming
depots, some cars and engines, and a great to be passengers, who seized the vessel,
quantity of cotton, provisions, and stores, put the passengers on board another ves-
Louisiana State Convention adopted a con- sel, went to Bermuda, burned the steamer
stitution abolishing slavery. 26. A gun- there, and went ashore. 30. The Confed-
boat expedition on Grand Lake, La., de- erate General Vaughan driven out of his
stroyed many boats of the Confederates, works at Carroll Station, Tenn., by Gen-
and on the 27th destroyed saw-mills worth oral Gillem. Oct. 3. John B. Meigs, Sheri-
II. M 177

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

dan s chief engineer in the Shenandoah
Valley, having been brutally murdered by
some guerillas, all the houses within a
radius of 5 miles were burned in retalia
tion. 6. A Richmond paper advocated the
employment of slaves as soldiers. 7. Com
mander Collins, in the gunboat Wachusett,
ran down and captured in the harbor of
Bahia, Brazil, the Confederate cruiser
Florida. 10. Maryland adopted a new
constitution which abolished slavery. 12.
It was announced that all the regimental
flags taken from the Nationals in the De
partment of Arkansas and the Gulf had
been retaken while on their way to Rich
mond. 13. Some of the negro Union sol
diers, prisoners of war, having been set
at work in the trenches by the Confeder
ates, General Butler put eighty-seven Con
federate prisoners of war at work, under
the fire of Confederate shells, at Dutch
Gap. 17. The governors of Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Ala
bama, and Missouri held a conference at
Augusta, Ga., and resolved to strengthen
the Confederate army with white men and
negroes. 18. Some of the feminine no
bility of England and Confederate women
opened a fair in Liverpool for the bene
fit of the Confederate cause. 22. General
Auger, about this time, put in practice
an effective way of defending National
army trains on the Manassas Gap Railway
from guerillas, by placing in each train, in
conspicuous positions, eminent Confeder
ates residing within the Union lines. 25.
General Pleasonton, in pursuit of Price
in Missouri, attacked him near the Little
Osage River; captured Generals Mar ma-
duke and Cabell, and 1,000 men, and sent
the remainder flying southward. 28.
General Gillem defeated the Confederates
at Morristown, Tenn., taking 500 prisoners
and thirteen guns. 31. Plymouth, N. C.,
taken by Commander Macomb. Nov. 5.
Forrest, with artillery, at Johnsville,
Tenn., destroyed three " tin-clad " gun
boats and seven transports belonging to
the Nationals. 8. Gen. George B. McClel-
lan resigns his commission in the National
army. A flag-of-truce fleet of eighteen
steamers departed from Hampton Roads
for the Savannah River, to effect an ex
change of 10,000 prisoners. The exchange
began Nov. 12 by Colonel Mulford near
Fort Pulaski. 13. General Gillem defeat

ed by General Breckinridge, near Bull s
Gap, Tenn., who took all his artillery,
trains, and baggage. 16. Confederates
surprised and captured Butler s picket-
line at Bermuda Hundred. 19. The Pres
ident, by proclamation, raised the block
ade at Norfolk, Va., and Pensacola and
Fernandina, Fla. 22. Hood advances from
near Florence, Ala., towards Nashville,
with 40,000 Confederate troops. 24.
Thanksgiving Day observed in the Army of
the Potomac, when 59,000 Ibs. of tur
keys, sent from the North, were consumed.
About 36,000 Ibs. were sent to Sheri
dan s army in the Shenandoah Valley.
25. An attempt was made by Confederate
agents to burn the city of New York by
lighting fires in rooms hired by the in
cendiaries in fifteen of the principal ho
tels. General Dix, in the morning, order
ed all persons from the Confederate States
to register themselves at the provost-mar
shal s office, and declared the incendiaries
to be spies, who, if caught, would be im
mediately executed. 29. General Foster
co-operated with General Sherman as he
approached the sea from Atlanta. Dec.
2. The Pope declined to commit himself to
the Confederate cause. Up to this time
sixty-five blockade-running steamers had
been taken or destroyed in attempts to
reach Wilmington, N. C., the vessels and
cargoes being worth $13,000,000. 6. Mil-
roy defeated the Confederates near Mur-
freesboro, Tenn. 8. Confederate plot to
burn Detroit discovered. 15. Rousseau,
at Murfreesboro, defeated Forrest, who
lost 1,500 men. 17. To keep out improper
persons from Canada, the Secretary of
State issued an order that all persons
entering the United States from a foreign
country must have passports, excepting
emigrants coming direct from sea to our
ports. 19. The President issued a call
for 300,000 volunteers, any deficiency to
be made up by a draft on Feb. 5, 1865.
Colonel Mulford reached Fortress Mon
roe with the last of the 12,000 Union
prisoners he was able to obtain by ex
change. 21. Admiral Farragut made vice-
admiral. 27. Completion of the destruc
tion of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad from
Corinth to below Okolona, by a raiding
force sent out by General Dana.

1865. Jan. 6. A fleet of transports and
9,000 troops, under General Terry, sailed

178

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

from Fort Monroe for an attack on Fort men had been supported by the national
Fisher. 10. Meeting in Philadelphia to government, at a cost of $113,500; and
give charitable aid to Confederates in Sa- that 50,000 freedmen were at work under
vannah. On the 14th two vessels left him, and 15,000 others under military
New York with supplies for the suffering rule. 16. By permission of the Confeder-
citizens of Savannah. 15. Confederate ate authorities, vessels were allowed to
post at Pocotaligo Bridge, S. C., taken by take cotton from Savannah to New York
the Nationals, and the (railroad) bridge to purchase blankets for Confederate pris-
saved. 16. Magazine in captured Fort oners; the first two vessels of the fleet ar-
Fisher exploded and killed or wounded rived at New York with cargoes valued at
about 300 National troops. Another ves- $6,000,000. Confederate iron-works in the
sel left New York laden with provisions Shenandoah Valley destroyed by National
for the suffering citizens of Savannah, troops. 18. General Lee wrote a letter to
The policy of Jefferson Davis unsparingly a Confederate Congressman declaring that
assailed in the Confederate Congress at the white people could not carry on the
Richmond. 17. The monitor Patapsco war, and recommending the employment
blown up by a torpedo at Charleston and of negroes as soldiers. 21. Generals
sunk, with seven officers and sixty-five Crook and Kelly seized in their beds at
men. 18. Three fine blockade-runners Cumberland, Md., and carried away pris-
went into the Cape Fear River, ignorant oners by Confederate guerillas. 22. The
of the fall of Fort Fisher, and were capt- divisions of Terry and Cox enter Wilming-
ured. 23. The main ship-channel at Sa- ton, N. C., evacuated by the Confederates,
vannah was opened. 25. Jefferson Davis 24. John Y. Beall, of Virginia, hanged
proclaimed March 10 a day for a public as a spy at Fort Lafayette, N. Y., He
fast. 26. This day was observed as a fes- was one of the pirates who tried to seize
tival in Louisiana, by proclamation of the Michigan on Lake Erie. 25. Gen.
Governor Hahn, in honor of the emancipa- Joseph E. Johnston supersedes Beaure-
tion acts in Missouri and Tennessee. Feb. gard in command of the Confederate forces
1. The legislature of Illinois ratified the in North Carolina. March 1. Admiral
emancipation amendment to the national Dahlgren s flag-ship Harvest Moon blown
Constitution; the first to do so. John S. up by a torpedo and sunk; only one life
Rock, a negro of pure blood, admitted to lost. New Jersey rejects the emancipa-
practise as a lawyer in the Supreme Court tion amendment to the national Constitu-
of the United States; the first. 2. Gen. tion. 2. The Confederates at Mobile fire
Robert E. Lee made commander-in-chief twenty-four shots at a flag-of-truce steam-
of the Confederate forces. 4. Lieutenant- er. A secret council of Confederate lead-
Commander Gushing, with fifty-one men, ers in Europe ended at Paris this day.
in four boats, destroyed cotton valued at 8. Battle near Jackson s Mills, N. C., in
$15,000 at All Saints, N. C. 5. Harry Gil- which the Confederates captured 1,500
mor s camp broken up and himself capt- Nationals and three guns. 10. Up to this
ured at Moorefield, W. Va., by Lieuten- day Sherman s march through the Caro-
ant-Colonel Whittaker, who marched over linas has resulted in the capture of four-
mountains and across streams filled with teen cities, the destruction of hundreds of
floating ice 140 miles in forty-eight miles of railroad and thousands of bales
hours with 300 picked cavalry for the of cotton, the taking of eighty-five guns,
purpose. 6. A number of soldiers in 4.000 prisoners, and 25,000 animals, and
Early s army send a petition to Jefferson the freeing of 15,000 white and black refu-
Davis to stop the war. 7. The Confeder- gees; also the destruction of an immense
ate Senate rejected the plan to raise 200,- quantity of machinery and other property.
000 negro soldiers. Of 500 Confederate 18. The Confederate Congress adjourned
prisoners at Camp Chase, Ohio, ordered sine die. It was their final session. One of
for exchange, 260 voted to remain pris- their latest acts was to authorize the
oners, preferring their good treatment raising of a negro military force. 25. R.
there. 13. Superintendent Conway, in C. Kennedy hanged at Fort Lafayette for
charge of free labor in Louisiana, reported having been concerned in the attempt to
that, during the year 1864, 14,000 freed- burn the city of New York. 27. General

179

CIVIL WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

Steele encounters and defeats 800 Con- review of Union troops in Richmond took
federates at Mitchell s Fork. 28. Moni- place. 9. Secretary Stanton ordered a sa-
tor Milwaukee blown up and sunk by a lute of 200 guns at West Point, and at
torpedo in Mobile Bay ; only one man in- each United States post, arsenal, and de-
jured. The monitor Osagc blown up and partment and army headquarters, for
sunk the next day by a torpedo in Mobile Lee s surrender. 10. The American consul
Bay. Of her crew, four were killed and at Havana hoisted the American flag,
six wounded. The Milwaukee, having when the Confederate sympathizers there
sunk in shallow water, kept up her firing, threatened to mob him, but were prevent-

30. The amount of cotton taken at Sa- ed by the authorities. 11. A proclama-
vannah reported at 38,500 bales, of which tion was issued to the effect that hereafter
G.OOO bales were Sea Island. 31. The all foreign vessels in American ports were
transport General Lyon burned off Cape to have exactly the same treatment that
Hatteras, and about 500 soldiers perished, ours have in foreign ports. 13. An order

April 1. Newbern, N. C., fired in several from the War Department announced
places by incendiaries; little harm done, that it would stop all drafting and re

cruiting in the loyal States,
curtail military expenses,
and discontinue restrictions
on commerce and trade as
soon as possible. Raleigh,
N. C., occupied by National
cavalry. 14. The colored
men of eastern Tennessee
presented a petition in the
Stale Senate for equality
before the law and the
elective franchise. Four
National vessels two gun
boats, a tug, and a trans
port blown up by torpe-
does in Mobile Bay. 15
General Saxton called a

Battle of Big Mulberry Creek, Ala.; Con- mass-meeting at Charleston, and William
federates defeated by Wilson. 2. The Lloyd Garrison addressed it. 18. The
Confederates at Richmond blow up their Confederate prisoners at Point Lookout,
forts and " rams " preparatory to evac- 22,000 in number, express, by resolutions,
uating the city. 3. Rejoicing throughout their abhorrence of the assassination of
the loyal States because of the evacuation President Lincoln. 22. General Hancock
of Richmond by the Confederate troops reported that nearly all of the command
and flight of the Confederate government, of Moseby, the guerilla chief, had surren-
National troops enter Petersburg at 3 A.M. dered, and some of his men were hunting

4. President Lincoln sent a despatch for him to obtain the $2,000 reward offer-
dated " Jefferson Davis s late residence in ed for him. 26. Booth, the murderer of
Richmond," and held a reception in that President Lincoln, found in a barn belong-
mansion. 8. The last of the state-prison- ing to one Garnett, in Virgina, 3 miles
ers in Fort Lafayette discharged. First from Port Royal, with Harrold, an accom

plice, and refused to surrender. The barn

* Fort Lafayette was built In the narrow was set on fire, and Booth, while trying
strait between Long Island and Staten ^ o s ] 1O ot one of his pursuers, was mortally
SinSrtE Z^JSSFfZf BurS wounded by a shot in the head fired by
the Civil War It was used as a prison for Sergeant Corbett, and died in about four
persons disaffected towards the national pov- hours. 27. General Howard issued an or-
ernment. On Deo. 1, 18fiS. the fort was (lpr ff) the citizens alon? the line of
partially destroyed by fire, and the place . . 01 , ,. ,

has since been used for the storage of march of Sherman s army to the national
ordnance supplies. capital to the effect that they were to

180

FORT LAFAYETTE.*

CIVILIZED TRIBES CLAIBORNE

keep at home ; that foraging was stopped ; lie went to England to seek redress. After
that supplies were to be bought; and all the King heard his story he severely rep-
marauders punished. 28. The steamer rimanded Lord Baltimore for violating
Sultana, with 2,106 persons on board, royal commands in driving Claiborne from
mostly United States soldiers, blew up, Kent Island. In the spring of 1635 Clai-
took fire, and was burned at Memphis, borne despatched a vessel for trading,
Only about 700 of the people were saved, prepared to meet resistance. The Mary-
29. President Johnson removed all re- landers sent out two armed vessels under
strictions on commerce not foreign in all Cornwallis, their commissioner, or coun-
territory east of the Mississippi, with cillor, to watch for any illegal traders
specified exceptions. within the bounds of their province. On

Civilized Tribes, THE FIVE, the official April 23 they seized Claiborne s vessel,

designation of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, The latter sent an armed boat, under the

Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole nations of command of Ratcliffe Warren, a Virginian,

Indians, all now located in the INDIAN to recapture the vessel. Cornwallis met

TERRITORY ( q. v. ) . For details, see their Warren with one of his vessels in a har-

respective titles. bor (May 10), and captured it after a

Claiborne, JOHN FRANCIS HAMTRAMCK, sharp fight, in which Warren and two of

lawyer; born in Natchez, Miss., April his men were killed; also one of Cornwal-

24, 1809; admitted to the Virginia bar; lis s crew. This event caused intense ex-

and represented Mississippi in Congress in citement. The first Maryland Assembly,

1835-38. He published Life and Corre- which had convened just before the event,

spondence of Gen-. John A. Quitman; Life decreed " that offenders in all murders

and Times of Gen. Sam. Dale; and Missis- and felonies shall suffer the same pains

sippi as a Province, a Territory, and a and forfeitures as for the same crimes in

Slate. He died in Natchez, Miss., May 17, England." A requisition was made upon

1884. Governor Harvey for the delivery of Clai-

Claiborne, or Clayborne, WILLIAM, co- borne. That functionary decided that Clai-
lonial politician ; born in Westmoreland, borne might go to England to justify his
England, about 1589; appointed survey- conduct before the home government. A
or of the Virginia plantations under the court of inquiry held three years after-
London company in 1621. In 1627 the wards to investigate the matter resulted
governor of Virginia gave him author- in a formal indictment of Claiborne, and
ity to explore the head of Chesapeake a bill of attainder passed against him.
Bay; and in 1631 Charles I. gave him a Thomas Smith, next in rank to Warren,
license to make discoveries and trade with was hanged. Claiborne, who was now
the Indians in that region. With this treasurer of Virginia, retaliated against
authority, he established a trading-post Maryland by stirring up civil war there,
on Kent Island, in Chesapeake Bay, not and, expelling Gov. Leonard Calvert
far from the site of Annapolis. When (1645), assumed the reins of government.
Lord Baltimore claimed jurisdiction over I n 1651 Claiborne was appointed, by the
Kent and other islands in the bay, Clai- council of state in England, one of the
borne refused to acknowledge his title, commissioners for reducing Virginia to
having, as he alleged, an earlier one from obedience to the commonwealth ruled by
the King. Baltimore ordered the arrest Parliament ; and he also took part in
of Claiborne. Two vessels were sent for governing Maryland by a commission,
the purpose, when a battle ensued between He was soon afterwards made secretary
them and one owned by Claiborne. The of the colony of Virginia, and held the
Marylanders were repulsed, and one of office until after the restoration of mon-
their number was killed. Claiborne was archy (1660) in England. Claiborne was
indicted for and found guilty of construe- one of the court that tried the captured
tive murder and other high crimes, and followers of NATHANIEL BACON (q. v.).
fled to Virginia. Kent Island was seized Tie resided in New Kent county, Va., until
and confiscated by the Maryland authori- his death, about 1676.
ties. Sir John Harvey, governor of Vir- Claiborne, WILLIAM CHARLES COLE,
ginia, refused to surrender Claiborne, and iurist; born in Sussex county, Va., in

181

CLAP CLARK

1775; became a lawyer, and settled in ciety of Dorchester. He died in Boston,
Tennessee, where he was appointed a ter- .Mass., Feb. 2, 1691.

ritorial judge. In 1796 he assisted in Clark, ABRAHAM, signer of the Declara-
framing a State constitution, and was a tion of Independence; born in Elizabeth-
town, N. J., Feb. 15, 1726: was a strong-
minded and energetic man. Bred a fanner.
he taught himself mathematics and a
knowledge of law ; and from his habit of
giving legal advice gratuitously he was
called " the poor man s counsellor." Mr.
Clark was a member of the committee of
public safety in Elizabethtown, and was
appointed (June 21, 1776), one of the
five representatives of New Jersey in the
Continental Congress, where he voted for
and signed the Declaration of Indepen
dence. He served in Congress (excepting
a single session) until near the close of
1783. He was one of the commissioners of
New Jersey who met at Annapolis in 1786
for the purpose of arranging national com
mercial intercourse, which led to the for
mation of the national Constitution the
following year, in which labor he was
chosen to be a participant; but ill-health
compelled him to decline. In 1790 he was
made a member of the second national Con
gress, and retained his seat until a short
time before his death in Rahway, N. J.,
Sept. 15, 1794.

Clark, ALVAN, optician; born at Ash-
member of Congress from 1797 to 1801. field, Mass., March 8, 1804, a descendant
In 1802 he was appointed governor of of the captain of the Mayflower. He shcAv-
the Mississippi Territory, and was a com- ed a genius for art in early youth, and be-
missioner, with Wilkinson, to take pos- came an engraver and portrait-painter,
session of Louisiana when it was purchased In 1835 he relinquished engraving and set
from France. On the establishment of a up a studio for painting in Boston. He
new government in 1804, he was appoint- was over forty years of age before he be-
ed governor; and when the State of came practically interested in telescope-
Louisiana was organized he was elected making. Owing to the extraordinary
governor, serving from 1812 to 1816. In acuteness of his vision, his touch, and
the latter year he became United States his unlimited patience, he was specially
Senator, but was prevented from taking skilful in grinding lenses of enormmi&gt;
his seat on account of sickness. He died size. Just before the Civil War he pro-
in New Orleans, La., Nov. 23, 1817. duced object-glasses equal, if not superior,

Clap, ROGER, pioneer; born in Salcomb, to any ever made. One, 18 inches in
England, April, 1609; settled in Dorches- diameter, then the largest ever made, went
ter, Mass., with Maverick and others in to Chicago. It revealed twenty stars,
1630; was representative of the town in hitherto unseen by mortal eyes, in the
1652-66, and also held a number of mil- nebula of Orion. With his sons, Mr. Clark
itary and civil offices. In 1665-86 he was established a manufactory of telescopes at
captain of Castle William. He wrote a Cambridge. They have produced some of
memorial of the New England worthies, otraordinary power. In 1883 they com-
and other Memoirs, which were first pub- pleted a telescope for the Russian govern-
lished in 1731 by Rev. Thomas Prince, and ment which had a clear aperture of 30
later republished by the Historical So- inches and a magnifying power of 2,000

182

WILLIAM C. C. CLAIBORNK.

CLARK

diameters. It was the largest in the world,
for which they were paid $33,000. At the
time of his death, in Cambridge, Mass.,
Aug. 19, 1887, Mr. Clark was engaged
in making a telescope for the Lick Observ
atory, California, having a lens 36 inches
in diameter. After his death the business
was carried on by his sons.

Clark, CHARLES EDGAR, naval officer;
born in Bradford, Vt., Aug. 10, 1843 ; was

CIIARLKS EDGAR CLARK.

trained in the naval academy in 1860-63,
becoming ensign in the latter year. In
1863-65 he served on the sloop Ossipee,
and participated in the battle of Mobile
Bay, Aug. 5, 1864, and the bombardment
of Fort Morgan, Aug. 23. He was
promoted lieutenant in 1867; lieutenant-
commander in 1868; commander in 1881;
and captain, June 21, 1896; and was
given command of the Monterey. He held
this post till March, 1898, when he was

given command of the battle-ship Oregon,
then at San Francisco, under orders to
hurry her around Cape Horn to the vi
cinity of Cuba. He made the now famous
run of 14,000 miles to Key West in sixty-
five days, arriving at his destination on
May 26. This was the longest and quick
est trip of any battle-ship afloat. Despite
her long voyage, the Oregon immediately
joined Admiral Sampson s squadron. Cap
tain Clark s excellent discipline was evi
dent in the effective work against the
Spanish fleet at Santiago. In company with
the Brooklyn, he gave chase to the Vizcaya,
the Colon, and the flag-ship of Admiral
Cervera, the Maria Teresa, and aided in
the destruction of each. In 1899 he was
assigned to the navy-yard, Philadelphia ;
promoted rear-admiral June 16, 1902.

Clark, FRANCIS EDWARD, clergyman;
born of New England parents in Aylmer,
Quebec, Sept. 12, 1851; studied at Kim-
ball Union Academy, in Meriden, Conn. ;
graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873,
and studied theology at the Andover
Seminary; and became pastor of the Wil-
liston Congregational Church, Portland,
Me., Oct. 19, 1876. In this church, on
Feb. 2, 1881, he founded the Society
of Christian Endeavor, which has spread
throughout the world. In 1883 he became
pastor of the Phillips Congregational
Church in South Boston, but in 1887 he
resigned that charge to become president
of the United Society of Christian En
deavor, and editor of the Golden Rule, the
official organ of the society. He is the
author of World-Wide Endeavor; Our
Journey Around the World; The Great
Secret; A New Way Around an Old World,
etc. See CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, YOUNG
PEOPLE S SOCIETY OF.

CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS

Clark, or Clarke, GEORGE ROGERS, mil- ians to make war on the American fron-

itary officer; born near Monticello, Albe- tiers. Under the authority of the State

marie co., Va., Nov. 19, 1752; was a land of Virginia, and with some aid from it

surveyor, and commanded a company in in money and supplies, Clark enlisted 200

Dunmore s war against the Indians in men for three months, with whom he em-

1774. He went to Kentucky in 1775, and barked at Pittsburg, and descended to the

took command of the armed settlers there, site of Louisville, where thirteen families,

It was ascertained in the spring of 1778 following in his train, located on an isl-

tliat the English governor of Detroit and in the Ohio (June, 1778). There

(Hamilton) was inciting the Western Ind- Clark was joined by some Kentuckians,

183

GEOKGK ROGERS CLARK.

CLABK, GEOBGE BOGEBS

and, descending the river some distance 1779), and recaptured it (Feb. 20). He
farther, hid his boats and marched to at- also intercepted a convoy of goods worth
tack Kaskaskia (now in Illinois), one of $10,000, and afterwards built Fort Jeffer-
the old French settlements near the Mis- son, on the west side of the Mississippi,
sissippi. The expeditionists were nearly The Indians from north o/ the Ohio, with

some British, raided in Kentucky in June,
1780, when Clark led a force against
the Shawnees on the Grand Miami, and
defeated them with heavy loss at Pick-
away. He served in Virginia during its
invasion by Arnold and Cornwallis; and
in 1782 he led 1,000 mounted riflemen
from the mouth of the Licking, and in
vaded the Scioto Valley, burning five Ind
ian villages and laying waste their plan
tations. The savages were so awed that
no formidable war-party ever afterwards
appeared in Kentucky. Clark made an
unsuccessful expedition against the Ind
ians on the Wabash with 1,000 men in
178G. His great services to his country
in making the frontiers a safe dwelling-
place were overlooked by his countrymen,
and he died in poverty and obscurity, near
Louisville, Ky., Feb. 18, 1818. See JEF
FERSON, THOMAS.

Capture of Vincennes. The story of the
capture of Vincennes by the " Hannibal

starved when they reached the town, of the West " is thus told in his Memoirs :
Taken entirely by surprise, the inhabi
tants submitted (July 4, 1778) without Everything being ready, on Feb. 5, after
resistance. Cahokia and two other posts receiving a lecture and absolution from
near also submitted. In the possession the priest, we crossed the Kaskaskia River
of the commandant of Kaskaskia were with 170 men, marched about 3 miles
found letters directing him to stimulate and encamped, where we lay until the
the Indians to hostilities. Clark estab- [7th], and set out. The weather wet (but
lished friendly relations with the Spanish fortunately not cold for the season) and
commander at St. Louis, across the Mis- a great part of the plains under water
sissippi. The French inhabitants in that several inches deep. It was difficult and
region, being told of the alliance between very fatiguing marching. My object was
France and the United States, became now to keep the men in spirits. I suffer-
friendly to the Americans. The Kaskas- e d them to shoot game on all occasions,
kians, and also those of Vincennes, on the and feast on it like Indian war-dancers,
Wabash, took an oath of allegiance to Vir- each company by turns inviting the others
ginia, and Clark built a fort at the Falls to their feasts, which was the case every
of the Ohio, the germ of Louisville. The night, as the company that was to give
Virginia Assembly erected the conquered the feast was always supplied with horses
country, embracing all the territory north to lay up a sufficient store of wild meat
of the Ohio claimed as within their limits, in the course of the day, myself and prin-
into the country of Illinois, and ordered cipal officers putting on the woodsmen,
500 men to be raised for its defence. Com- shouting now and then, and running as
missioned a colonel, Clark successfully la- much through the mud and water as any of
bored for the pacification of the Indian them. Thus, insensibly, without a mur-
tribes. Learning that Governor Hamilton, mur, were those men led on to the banks
of Detroit, had captured Vincennes, Clark of the Little Wabash, which we reached
led an expedition against him (February, on the L3th, through incredible difficulties,

184

CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS

far surpassing anything that any of us pitch that they soon took Post Vincennes,
had ever experienced. Frequently the di- divided the spoil, and before bedtime were
of the night wore off

versions of the night wore off the
thoughts of the preceding day. We form
ed a camp on a height which we found
on the bank of the river, and suffered our
troops to amuse themselves. I viewed
this sheet of water for some time with

far advanced on their route to Detroit.
All this was, no doubt, pleasing to those
of us who had more serious thoughts. . . .
We were now convinced that the whole of
the low country on the Wabash was
drowned, and that the enemy could easily

distrust; but, accusing myself of doubt- get to us, if they discovered us, and wish

ing, I immediately set to work, without
holding any consultation about it, or suf
fering anybody else to do so in my pres
ence; ordered a pirogue to be built imme-

ed to risk an action; if they did not, we
made no doubt of crossing the river by
some means or other. Even if Captain
Rogers, with our galley, did not get to his

diately, and acted as though crossing the station agreeable to his appointment, we

water would be only a piece of diversion, flattered ourselves that all would be well,

As but few could work at the pirogue at a and marched on in high spirits.

time, pains were taken to find diversion

for the rest to keep them in high spirits.

... In the evening of the 14th our vessel

was finished, manned, and sent to explore

The last day s march through the wa
ter was far superior to anything the
Frenchmen had an idea of. They were
backward in speaking; said that the near-

the drowned lands on the opposite side of est land to us was a small league called

the Little Wabash, with private instruc
tions what report to make, and, if possi
ble, to find some spot of dry land. They
found about half an acre, and marked the

the Sugar Camp, on the bank of the [riv
er?]. A canoe was sent off, and returned
without finding that we could pass. I
went in her myself, and sounded the wa-

trees from thence back to the camp, and ter; found it deep as to my neck. I re

made a very favorable report.

Fortunately, the 15th happened to be
a warm, moist day for the season. The
channel of the river where we lay
about 30 yards wide. A scaffold
built on the opposite shore (which was
about 3 feet under water), and our bag
gage ferried across and put on it. Our
horses swam across, and received their

turned with a design to have the men trans
ported on board the canoes to the Sugar
Camp, which I knew would spend the
was whole day and ensuing night, as the ves-
wag sels would pass slowly through the bushes.
The loss of so much time, to men half-
starved, was a matter of consequence. I
would have given now a great deal for
a day s provisions or for one of our horses.

loads at the scaffold, by which time the I returned but slowly to the troops, giv-

troops were also brought across, and we
began our march through the water. . . .

By evening we found ourselves en
camped on a pretty height, in high spirits,
each party laughing at the other, in con
sequence of something that had happened
in the course of this ferrying business, as
they called it. A little antic drummer af
forded them great diversion by floating

ing myself time to think. On our arrival,
all ran to hear what was the report. Ev
ery eye was fixed on me. I unfortunately
spoke in a serious manner to one of the
officers. The whole were alarmed without
knowing what I said. I viewed their con
fusion for about one minute, whispered
to those near me to do as I did: imme
diately put some water in my hand.

on his drum, etc. All this was greatly en- poured on powder, blackened my face,

couraged ; and they really began to think gave the war-whoop, and marched into the

themselves superior to other men, and that water without saying a word. The party

neither the rivers nor the seasons could gazed, and fell in, one after another, with-

stop their progress. Their whole conver- out saying a word, like a flock of sheep.

sation now was concerning what they
would do when they got about the enemy.
They now began to view the main Wabash
as a creek, and made no doubt but such

T ordered those near me to begin a favor
ite song of theirs. It soon passed through
the line, and the whole went on cheer
fully. I now intended to have them trans-

men as they were could find a way to cross ported across the deepest part of the wa
it- They wound themselves up to such a ter; but, when about waist deep, one of.

185

CLABK, GEORGE ROGERS

the men informed me that he thought he son among us. The whole gave a cry of
felt a path. We examined, and found it approbation, and on we went. This was
so, and concluded that it kept on the high- the most trying of all the difficulties we
est ground, which it did; and, by taking had experienced. I generally kept fifteen
pains to follow it, we got to the Sugar or twenty of the strongest men next my-
Camp without the least difficulty, where self, and judged from my own feelings
there was about half an acre of dry what must be that of others. Getting
ground, at least, not under water, where about the middle of the plain, the water
we took up our lodging. The Frenchmen about mid-deep, I found myself sensibly
that we had taken on the river appeared failing; and, as there were no trees nor
to be uneasy at our situation. They beg- bushes for the men to support themselves
ged that they might be permitted to go by, 1 feared that many of the most weak
in the two canoes to town in the night, would be drowned. I ordered the canoes
They said that they would bring from to make the land, discharge their loading,
their own houses provisions, without a and play backward and forward with all
possibility of any persons knowing it; diligence, and pick up the men; and, to
that some of our men should go with encourage the party, sent some of the
them as a surety of their good conduct: strongest men forward, with orders, when
that it was impossible we could march they got to a certain distance, to pass the
from that place till the water fell, for word back that the water was getting shal-
the plain was too deep to march. Some low, and when getting near the woods to
of the [officers?] believed that it might cry out, "Land!" This stratagem had its
be done. I would not suffer it. I never desired effect. The men, encouraged by it,
could well account for this piece of ob- exerted themselves almost beyond their
stinacy, and give satisfactory reasons to ability; the weak holding by the stronger,
myself or anybody else why I denied a ... The water never got shallower, but
proposition apparently so easy to exe- continued deepening. Getting to the
cute and of so much advantage; but some- woods, where the men expected land, the
thing seemed to tell me that it should water was up to my shoulders; but gain-
not be done, and it was not done. ing the woods was of great consequence.
The most of the weather that we had All the low men and the weakly hung to
on this march was moist and warm for the the trees, and floated on the old logs until
season. This was the coldest night we they were taken off by the canoes. The
had. The ice, in the morning, was from strong and tall got ashore and built fires,
one-half to three-quarters of an inch Many would reach the shore, and fall with
thick near the shores and in still water, their bodies half in the water, not being
The morning was the finest we had on our able to support themselves without it.
march. A little after sunrise I lectured This was a delightful dry spot of ground
the whole. What I said to them I forget, of about ten acres. We soon found that
but it may be easily imagined by a per- the fires answered no purpose, but that
son that could possess my affections for two strong men taking a weaker one by
them at that time. I concluded by in- the arms was the only way to recover him ;
forming them that passing the plain that and, being a delightful day, it soon did.
was then in full view and reaching the But, fortunately, as if designed by Provi-
opposite woods would put an end to dence, a canoe of Indian squaws and chil-
their fatigue, that in a few hours they dren was coming up to town, and took
would have a sight of their long-wished- through part of this plain as a nigh
for object, and immediately stepped into way. It was discovered by our canoes
the Avater without waiting for any reply, as they were out after the men. They
A huzza took place. As we generally gave chase, and took the Indian canoe,
marched through the water in a line, be- on board of which was near half a quar-
fore the third entered I halted, and called ter of a buffalo, some corn, tallow, ket-
to Major Bowman, ordering him to fall ties, etc. This was a grand prize, and was
in the roar with twenty-five men, and invaluable. Broth was immediately made,
put to death any man who refused to and served out to the most weakly with
march, as we wished to have no such per- great care. Most of the whole got a lit-

J86

CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS

tie; but a great many gave their part to chief, the Tobacco s son, had but a few
the weakly, jocosely saying something days before openly declared, in council
cheering to their comrades. This little with the British, that he was a brother
refreshment and fine weather by the after- and friend to the Big Knives. These
noon gave new life to the whole. Crossing were favorable circumstances; and, as
a narrow, deep lake in the canoes, and there was but little probability of our re-
marching some distance, we came to a maining until dark undiscovered, I de-
copse of timber called the Warrior s Isl- termined to begin the career immediately,
and. We were now in full view of the and wrote the following placard to the
fort and town, not a shrub between us, inhabitants:

at about 2 miles distance Every man ^ ^ INHABITANTS OF POST VINCENNES :
now feasted his eyes, and forgot that ., Qentl _ Being now witMn 2 miles
he had suffered anything, saying that all Qf your village with my army , determined
that had passed was owing to good policy to take your fort this night, and not
and nothing but what a man could bear; being willing to surprise you, I take this
and that a soldier had no right to think, mglg. *&gt;*- ^"^ ^ r ^\
etc. passing from one extreme to another, br i ng you to remain still in your houses ; and
which is common in such cases. It was those, if any there be, that are friends to the
now we had to display our abilities. The King will instantly repair to the fort and
plain between us and the town was not * &lt; ^^^.uS^do *t Jf* f5
a perfect level. The sunken grounds were fort shall be discovered afterwards, they may
covered with water full of ducks. We depend on severe punishment. On the con-
observed several men out on horseback, trary those who are true friends

.... ,,. ., f may depend on being well treated, and I

shooting them, within a half-mile of us, on( / e more request them to keep out of the

and sent out as many of our active young streets. For every one I find in arms on my

Frenchmen to decoy and take one of these arrival I shall treat him as an enemy.

men prisoner in such a manner as not " (Signed) G. R. CLASK."

to alarm the others, which they did.

The information we got from this person I bad various ideas on the

was similar to that which we got from results of this letter.

those we took on the river, except that could do us no damage, but that

of the British having that evening com- cause the lukewarm to be decided, e

pleted the wall of the fort, and that there age our friends, and astonish our enemies.

were a good many Indians in town. ... We anxiously viewed this messenge

Our situation was now truly critical until he entered the town, and in a

no possibility of retreating in case of de- minutes could discover by our glass

feat, and in full view of a town that stir in every street that we could

had, at this time, upward of 600 men trate into, and great numbers running

in it troops, inhabitants, and Indians, riding out into the commons,

The crew of the galley, though not fifty posed, to view us, which was

men, would have been now a reinforce- But what surprised us was that no

ment of immense magnitude to our little had yet happened that had the appear-

army (if I may so call it), but we would ance of the garrison being alarmed no

not think of them. We were now in the drum nor gun. We began to suppose that

situation that I had labored to get our- the information we got from our prisoners

selves in. The idea of being made prison- was false, and that the enemy already

er was foreign to almost every man, as knew of us, and were prepared. ... A

they expected nothing but torture from little before sunset we moved, and dis-

the savages, if they fell into their hands, played ourselves in full view of the town,

Our fate was now to be determined, prob- crowds gazing at us. We were plunging

ably in a few hours. We knew that noth- ourselves into certain destruction or suc-

ing but the most daring conduct would cess. There was no midway thought of.

insure success. I knew that a number We had but little to say to our men, ex-

of the inhabitants wished us well, that cept inculcating an idea of the necessity

many were lukewarm to the interest of of obedience, etc. We knew they did not

either, and I also learned that the grand want encouraging, and that anything

187

CLAKK, GEOBGE ROGERS

might be attempted with them that was tion, and took possession of the strongest
possible for such a number perfectly part of the town.

cool, under proper subordination, pleased The firing now commenced on the fort,
with the prospect before them, and much but they did not believe it was an enemy
attached to their officers. They all de- until one of their men was shot down
clared that they were convinced that an through a port, as drunken Indians fre-
implicit obedience to orders was the only quently saluted the fort after night. The
thing that \vould insure success, and hoped drums now sounded, and the business
that no mercy would be shown the person fairly commenced on both sides. Rein-
that should violate them. Such language forcements were sent to the attack of the
as this from soldiers to persons in our garrison, while other arrangements were
station must have been exceedingly agree- making in town. . . . We now found that
able. We moved on slowly in full view the garrison had known nothing of us;
of the town; but, as it was a point of that, having finished the fort that even-
some consequence to us to make ourselves ing, they had amused themselves at differ-
appear as formidable, we, in leaving the ent games, and had just retired before
covert that we were in, marched and my letter arrived, as it was near roll-call,
countermarched in such a manner that The placard being made public, many
we appeared numerous. In raising volun- of the inhabitants were afraid to show
teers in the Illinois, every person that themselves out of the houses for fear of
set about the business had a set of colors giving offence, and not one dare give in-
given him, which they brought with them formation. Our friends flew to the corn-
to the amount of ten or twelve pairs, mons and other convenient places to view
These were displayed to the best advan- the pleasing sight. This was observed
tage; and, as the low plain we marched from the garrison, and the reason asked,
through was not a perfect level, but had but a satisfactory excuse was given ; and,
frequent risings in it 7 or 8 feet higher as a part of the town lay between our
than the common level (which was cov- line of march and the garrison, we could
ered with water), and as these risings not be seen by the sentinels on the walls,
generally ran in an oblique direction to Capt. W. Shannon and another being
the town, we took the advantage of one some time before taken prisoners by one
of them, marching through the water un- of their [scouting parties], and that even-
der it, which completely prevented our ing brought in, the party had discovered
being numbered. But our colors showed at the Sugar Camp some signs of us.
considerably above the heights, as they They supposed it to be a party of ob-
were fixed on long poles procured for the servation that intended to land on the
purpose, and at a distance made no des- height some distance below the town,
picable appearance; and, as our young Captain Lamotte was sent to intercept
Frenchmen had, while we lay on the War- them. It was at him the people said
rior s Island, decoyed and taken several they were looking, when they were asked
fowlers with their horses, officers were the reason of their unusual stir. Several
mounted on these horses, and rode about, suspected persons had been taken to the
more completely to deceive the enemy. In garrison; among them was Mr. Moses
this manner we moved, and directed our Henry. Mrs. Henry went, under the pre-
march in such a way as to suffer it to tence of carrying him provisions, and
be dark before we had advanced more whispered him the news and what she had
than half-way to the town. We then seen. Mr. Henry conveyed it to the rest
suddenly altered our direction, and crossed of his fellow-prisoners, which gave them
ponds where they could not have suspect- much pleasure, particularly Captain Helm,
ed us, and at about eight o clock gained who amused himself very much during the
the heights back of the town. As there siege, and, I believe, did much damage,
was yet no hostile appearance, we were Ammunition was scarce with us, as
impatient to have the cause unriddled, the most of our stores had been put on
Lieutenant Bayley was ordered, with four- board of the galley. Though her crew
Ic-en men, to march and fire on the fort, was but few, such a reinforcement to
The main body moved in a different direc- us at this time would have been invaluable

188

CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS

in many instances. But, fortunately, at ures of their cannon were frequently shut,

the time of its being reported that the for our riflemen, finding the true direc-

whole of the goods in the town were to tion of them, would pour in such volleys

be taken for the King s use (for which when they were opened that the men

the owners were to receive bills), Colonel could not stand to the guns. Seven or

Legras, Major Bosseron, and others had eight of them in a short time got cut

buried the greatest part of their powder down. Our troops would frequently abuse

and ball. This was immediately produced, the enemy, in order to aggravate them to

and we found ourselves well supplied by open their ports and fire their cannon,

those gentlemen. that they might have the pleasure of

The Tobacco s son, being in town with cutting them down with their rifles, fifty
a number of warriors, immediately mus- of which, perhaps, would be levelled the
tered them, and let us know that he moment the port flew open; and I be-
wished to join us, saying that by the lieve that, if they had stood at their ar-
morning he would have 100 men. He tillery, tho greater part of them would
received for answer that we thanked him have been destroyed in the course of the
for his friendly disposition; and, as we night, as the greater part of our men lay
were sufficiently strong ourselves, we wish- within 30 yards of the walls, and in a
ed him to desist, and that we would coun- few hours were covered equally to those
sel on the subject in the morning; and, within the walls, and much more experi-
as we knew that there were a number of enced in that mode of fighting. . . . Some-
Indans in and near the town that were times an irregular fire, as hot as possi-
our enemies, some confusion might happen ble, was kept up from different directions
if our men should mix in the dark, but for a few minutes, and then only a con-
hoped that we might be favored with his tinual scattering fire at the ports as
counsel and company during the night, usual; and a great noise and laughter
which was agreeable to him. immediately commenced in different parts

The garrison was soon completely sur- of the town, by the reserved parties, as

rounded, and the firing continued without if they had only fired on the fort a few

intermission (except about fifteen minutes minutes for amusement, and as if those

a little before day) until about nine continually firing at the fort were only

o clock the following morning. It was regularly relieved. Conduct similar to

kept up by the whole of the troops, join- this kept the garrison constantly alarmed,

ed by a few of the young men of the town, They did not know what moment they

who got permission, except fifty men kept might be stormed or [blown up?], as

as a reserve. ... I had made myself fully they could plainly discover that we had

acquainted with the situation of the fort flung up some intrenchments across the

and town and the parts relative to each, streets, and appeared to be frequently very

The cannon of the garrison was on the busy under the bank of the river, which

upper floors of strong block-houses at each was within 30 feet of the walls. The

angle of the fort, 11 feet above the sur- situation of the magazine we knew well,

face, and the ports so badly cut that many Captain Bowman began some works in

of our troops lay under the fire of them order to blow it up, in case our artillery

within 20 or 30 yards of the walls. They should arrive; but, as we knew that we

did no damage, except to the buildings of were daily liable to be overpowered by

the town, some of which they much shat- the numerous bands of Indians on the

tered; and their musketry, in the dark, river, in case they had again joined the

employed against woodsmen covered by enemy (the certainty of which we were

houses, palings, ditches, the banks of the unacquainted with), we resolved to lose

river, etc., was but of little avail, and no time, but to get the fort in our pos-

did no injury to us except wounding a session as soon as possible. If the vessel

man or two. As we could not afford to did not arrive before the ensuing night,

lose men. great care was taken to preserve we resolved to imdermine the fort, and

them sufficiently covered, and to keep up fixed on the spot and plan of executing

a hot fire in order to intimidate the enemy this work, which we intended to commence

as well as to destroy them. The embras- the next day.

189

CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS

The Indians of different tribes that got over, much to the joy of their friends,
were inimical had left the town and But, on considering the matter, they must
neighborhood. Captain Lamotte contin- have been convinced that it was a scheme
ued to hover about it, in order, if pos- of ours to let them in, and that we were
sible, to make his way good into the fort, so strong as to care but little about them
Parties attempted in vain to surprise him. or the manner of their getting into the
A few of his party were taken, one of garrison. . . . The firing immediately com-
\\liich w r as Maisonville, a famous Indian menced on both sides with double vigor;
partisan. Two lads that captured him and I believe that more noise could not
tied him to a post in the street, and have been made by the same number of
fought from behind him as a breastwork, men. Their shouts could not be heard
supposing that the enemy would not fire for the fire-arms; but a continual blaze
at them for fear of killing him, as he was kept around the garrison, without
would alarm them by his voice. The lads much being done, until about daybreak,
were ordered, by an officer who discover- when our troops were drawn off to posts
ed them at their amusement, to untie prepared for them, about 60 or 70 yards
their prisoner, and take him off to the from the fort. A loop-hole then could
guard, which they did, but were so in- scarcely be darkened but a rifle-ball would
human as to take part of his scalp on pass through it. To have stood to their
the way. There happened to him no other cannon would have destroyed their men,
damage. As almost the whole of the without a probability of doing much ser-
persons who were most active in the de- vice. Our situation was nearly similar,
partment of Detroit were either in the It would have been imprudent in either
fort or with Captain Lamotte, I got ex- party to have wasted their men, without
tremely uneasy for fear that he would some decisive stroke required it.
not fall into our power, knowing that Thus the attack continued until about
he would go off, if he could not get into nine o clock on the morning of the 24th.
the fort in the course of the night. Find- Learning that the two prisoners they had
ing that, without some unforeseen acci- brought in the day before had a consider-
dent, the fort must inevitably be ours, able number of letters with them, I sup-
and that a reinforcement of twenty men, posed it an express that we expected
although considerable to them, would not about this time, which I knew to be of the
be of great moment to us in the present greatest moment to us, as we had not re-
situation of affairs, and knowing that we ceived one since our arrival in the coun-
had weakened them by killing or wounding try; and, not being fully acquainted with
many of their gunners, after some deliber- the character of our enemy, we were doubt-
ation, we concluded to risk the reinforce- f u i that those papers might be destroy-
ment in preference of his going again e j ; to prevent which I sent a flag [with a
among the Indians. The garrison had at letter] demanding the garrison,
least a month s provisions; and, if they The following is a copy of the letter
could hold out, in the course of that time w hich was addressed by Colonel Clark
he might do us much damage. A little to Lieutenant-Governor Hamilton on this
before day the troops were withdrawn occasion:
from their positions about the fort, except

a few parties of observation, and the firing ^pg^ ZI storm er that S now y th J re 3 atens r you, I

totally ceased. Orders were given, in case or( j er you immediately to surrender yourself,

of Lamotte s approach, not to alarm or with all your garrison, stores, etc. For, if

fire on him without a certainty of killing I am obliged to storm you may Depend on

..... T , such treatment as Is justly due to a mur-

or taking the whole. In less than a. quar derer Beware of destroying stores of any

ter of an hour, he passed within 10 feet fci n d O r any papers or letters that are In your

of an officer and a party that lay conceal- possession, or hurting one house in town ;

ed. Ladders were flung over to them; and, j^~ y U d ^ ShaU
as they mounted them, our party shouted. .. (gj gne d) G. R. CLARK."

Many of them fell from the top of the

walls som e within, and others back; The British commandant immediately

but, as they were not fired on, they all returned the following answer;

190

CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS

" Lieu tenant-Governor Hamilton begs leave We met at the church, about 80 yards

to acquaint Colonel Clark that he and his from the fort; Lieutenant-Governor Ham-

garrison are not disposed to be awed Into ., - TT j j e r j

tny action unworthy British subjects." llton &gt; Ma J or Ha y&gt; superintendent of Ind-

, , ian affairs, Captain Helm, their prisoner,

The firing then-says Clark-corn- Major Bowman % nd lf . ^ confer

menced warmly for a considerab le time; ^ Hamilton produced terms of

and we were obliged to be careful in pre- itula & ti gi d ^ contained vari .

venting our men from exposing themselves ^ ^ Qf which wag ^ the

too much, as they were now much am- . . , , , , , ., .

., garrison should be surrendered on their
mated, having been refreshed during the ,

,. being permitted to go to Pensacola on
flag They frequent y mentioned their ^ ^^ delibe |? ati Qn eye

wishes to storm the place, and put an end * j ed ^

to the business at once. . . . The make

was heavy through every crack that could ti(m&gt; j him ^ l

be discovered in any part ot the tort. T , , , , ,

. J , , , make than what I had already made

Several of the garrison got wounded, and .

"" ,. 6 that of his surrendering as prisoners at

no possibility of standing near the em- digcretion l gaid ^ hig P tr had

brasures -Towards the evening a flag ap- J^ not

peared with the following proposals:

suppose that they would be worse treated

"Lieutenant-Governor Hamilton proposes . consequence o f it; that, if he chose to
to Colonel Clark a truce for three days, dur- *

ing which time he promises there shall be no comply with the demand, though

defensive works carried on in the garrison, perhaps the sooner the better; that it

on condition that Colonel Clark shall observe, wag j n vain to make any proposition to
on his part, a like cessation of any defensive , , ,. ,. , , sens i b i e

work that is, he wishes to confer with me, that ne, Dy t le, n

Colonel Clark as soon as can be, and promises that the garrison would fall : that both

that whatever may pass between them two o f us mus t [view?] all blood spilt for the

and another person mutually agreed upon to f tur by the g arr i son as murder; that
be present shall remain secret till matters

be finished, as he wishes that, whatever the my troops were already impatient, and

result of the conference may be, it may tend called aloud for permission to tear down

to the honor and credit of each party. If and s torm the fort. If such a step was
Colonel Clark makes a difficulty of coming f would be cut

into the fort, Lieutenant-Governor Hamilton taken, many, se,

will speak to him by the gate. down; and the result of an enraged body

" (Signed) HENRY HAMILTON. O f woodsmen breaking in must be obvious

" February nth, 1719." to him It would be out of the power o f

I was at a great loss to conceive what an American officer to save a single man.
reason Lieutenant - Governor Hamilton Various altercation took place for a con-
could have for wishing a truce of three siderable time. Captain Helm attempted
days on such terms as he proposed. Num- to moderate our fixed determination. I
bers said it was a scheme to get me into told him he was a British prisoner; and
their possession. I had a different opin- it was doubtful whether or not he could,
ion and no idea of his possessing such w ith propriety, speak on the subject,
sentiments, as an act of that kind would Hamilton then said that Captain Helm
infallibly ruin him. Although we had was from that moment liberated, and
the greatest reason to expect a reinforce- m ight use his pleasure. I informed the
ment in less than three days, that would captain that I would not receive him on
at once put an end to the siege, I yet did sucn terms; that he must return to the
not think it prudent to agree to the pro- garrison, and await his fate. I then told
posals, and sent the following answer: Lieutenant-Governor Hamilton that hostil-

" Colonel Clark s compliments to Lieuten- ities should not commence until five min-

ant-Governor Hamilton, and begs leave to in- utes after the drums gave the alarm. VVe

form him that he will not agree to any terms took our leave, and parted but a few

iTJS^o??SSSi S r SS. r SS, M K fP-. -J Hamilton stopped, and po-

Mr. Hamilton is desirous of a conference with litely asked me if would be so Kind

Colonel Clark, he will meet him at the church as to give him my reasons for refusing

with Captain Helm. G R C the g arrison an F other terms than those

1779" I had offered. I told him I had no ob-

191

CLARK

jections in giving him my real reasons,
which were simply these: that I knew the
m-patpr mrt nf flip nriiipiml Tndi-iii mr-

Detroit were with him; that
I wanted an excuse to put them to death

or otherwise treat them as I thought

,, ,, f j.i_ i j

proper; that the cries of the widows and

the fatherless on the frontiers, which they
had occasioned, now required their blood
from my hand; and that I did not choose
to be so timorous as to disobey the abso-
lute commands of their authority, which
I looked upon to be next to divine; that
I would rather lose fifty men than not
to empower myself to execute this piece of
business with propriety; that, if he chose
to risk the massacre of his garrison for
their sakes, it was his own pleasure; and
that I might, perhaps, take it into my
head to send for some of those widows
to see it executed. Major Hay paying
great attention, I had observed a kind
of distrust in his countenance, which in a
great measure influenced my conversa-
tion during this time. On my concluding,
" Pray, sir," said he, " who is it that you
call Indian partisans?" "Sir," I replied,
" I take Major Hay to be one of the prin-
cipal." I never saw a man in the moment
of execution so struck as he appeared to
be, pale and trembling, scarcely able to
stand. Hamilton blushed, and, I ob-
served, was much affected at his behavior,
Major Bowman s countenance sufficiently
explained his disdain for the one and his
sorrow for the other. . . . Some moments
elapsed without a word passing on either
side. From that moment my resolutions
ehanged respecting Hamilton s situation. I
told him that we would return to onr re-
spective posts; that I would reconsider
the matter, and let him know the result.
No offensive measures should be taken in
the mean time. Agreed to; and we parted,
What had passed being made known to
our officers, it was agreed that we should
moderate our resolutions.

In the course of the afternoon of the
24th the following articles were signed,
and the garrison capitulated:

I. Lieutenant-Governor Hamilton engages,
to deliver to Colonel Clark Fort Sackvllle, as
It is at present, with all the stores, etc.

" II. The garrison are to deliver themselves

"" ""

" III. The garrison to be delivered up at
ten o clock to-morrow.

" IV&lt; Tnree da y s&lt; time to be allowed the
garrison to settle their accounts with the In-
habitants and traders of this place.

" V. The officers of the garrison to be al-
lowe c d . the j r necessary baggage, etc.

"Signed at Post St. Vincent [Vincennes],
2 4th of February, 177!&gt;.

Agreed for the following reasons : the
remoteness from succor ; the state and quan-
tity , of Provisions, etc. ; unanimity of officers
and men in its expediency ; the honorable
terms allowed ; and, lastly, the confidence In
a generous enemy.

" (Signed) HENRY HAMILTON,

" Lieut.-Gov. and Superintendent."

The business being now nearly at an
end, troops were posted in several strong
houses around the garrison and patrolled
during the night to prevent any deception
that might be attempted. The remainder
on duty lay on their arms, and for the
first time for many days past got some
rest. . . . During the siege, I got only
one man wounded. Not being able to lose
many, I made them secure themselves
well. Seven were badly wounded in the
fort through ports. . . . Almost every
man had conceived a favorable opinion of
Lieutenant-Governor Hamilton I believe
what affected myself made some impres-
sion on the whole; and I was happy to
find that he never deviated, while he
stayed with us, from that dignity of con
duct that became an officer in his situ-
ation. The morning of the 25th approach-
ing, arrangements were made for receiving
the garrison [which consisted of seventy-
nine men], and about ten o clock it was
delivered in form; and everything was im-
mediately arranged to the best advantage.

Clark, JOHN BULLOCK, military officer;
born in Madison county, Ky., April 17,
1802; went to Missouri in 1818; admitted
to the bar in 1824; commanded a regiment
in the Black Hawk War in 1832; and sub-
sequently led the force which drove the
Mormons out of Missouri. In 1857-61 he
was a Democratic member of Congress.
At the beginning of the Civil War he join-
ed the Confederate army; was made a
brigadier - general ; and commanded the
Missouri troops till seriously wounded in
August, 1801. During the remainder of
the war he was a meml&gt;er of the
erate Congress, and at the conclusion of
h ^ itiet resume d law practice at Fay-
ctte, Mo., where he died, Oct. 29, ,885.

192

CLARK CLARKE

Clark, THOMAS, author; born in Lan- in England; came to America during the
caster, Pa., in 1787; educated at St. reign of Queen Anne; and settled in New
Mary s College, in Baltimore; made an York. When Governor Cosby died he was
assistant topographical engineer, with the proclaimed governor pro tern, by the coun-
rank of captain, April 1, 1813; served cil, and later was commissioned lieuten-
in the War of 1812-15, in building de- ant-governor by the British government,
fences on the Delaware River; and after He died in Chester, England, in 1763.
the war devoted himself to literature. His Clarke, JAMES FREEMAN, author-clergy-
publications include Naval History of the man; born in Hanover, N. H., April 4,
United States from the Commencement of 1810; graduated at Harvard College in
the Revolutionary War; and Sketches of 1829, and at Cambridge Divinity School
the Naval History of the United States, in 1833. His publications relating to the
He died in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1860. United States include History of the Cam-

Clark, WILLIAM, military officer; born pnign of 1812, and Defence of General
in Virginia, Aug. 1, 1770; removed to William Hull for the Surrender of De-
what is now Louisville, Ky., in 1784. He troit; and Anti-Slavery Days. He died
was appointed an ensign in the army in Jamaica Plains, Mass., June 8, 1888.
in 1788; promoted lieutenant of infan- Clarke, or Clerke, JEREMY, one of the
try in 1792; and appointed a mem- settlers of Newport, R. I., in 1639; became
ber of Captain Lewis s expedition to the constable of the new plantation in 1640,
mouth of the Columbia River in 1804. and treasurer in 1647. He was elected
The success of the expedition was largely as an assistant to the president in 1648,
due to his knowledge of Indian habits, and when the president-elect, William Cod-
Afterwards he was made brigadier-gen- dington, failed to enter upon his office
eral for the Territory of upper Louisiana ; and to answer certain accusations brought
in 1813-21 was governor of the Mississippi against him, Clarke, who was a repub-
Territory; and in 1822-38 superintend- lican, was chosen by the assembly as pres
ent of Indian affairs in St. Louis. He ident-regent, and served as such till the
died in St. Louis, Mo., Sept. 1, 1838. following May.

See CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS; LEWIS, MERI- Clarke, JOHN, clergyman; born in Bed-

WETHEH. fordshire, England, Oct. 8, 1609; emi-

Clarke, SIB ALURED, military officer; grated to Boston in 1637, but, espousing

born in 1745; joined the British army in the cause of ANNE HUTCHINSON (q. v.),

1765; came to America, and during the and claiming full toleration in religious

Revolutionary War was lieutenant-colo- belief, he was obliged to flee. He was wel-

nel of the 7th Foot. When the British corned to Providence by Roger Williams,

took Savannah, Ga., he was placed in com- He was one of the company who gained

mand of the city, and by the strict dis- Rhode Island from the Indians, and began

cipline of his troops and his courtesy to a settlement at Pocasset in 1638. A preach-

the inhabitants won their good will. He er of the Gospel, he founded, at Newport

died in September, 1832. (1664), the second Baptist church in

Clarke, ELIJAH, military officer; born America. He was treasurer of the colony

in North Carolina; went to Georgia in in 1649. Mr. Clarke was persecuted while

1774, where he became a captain in 1776, visiting friends in Massachusetts, and

and fought both British and Indians on driven out of the colony. He accompanied

the frontiers. He was an active leader Williams to England in 1651 as agent for

in the war for independence, and was the colony, where he remained nearly

largely instrumental in the capture of twelve years, and returned (1663) with a

Augusta, Ga., in 1781. He fought many second charter for Rhode Island. He

battles and made several treaties with the resumed his pastorate at Newport, where

Indians; but in 1794 he was accused of for three successive years he was deputy-

a design to establish an independent gov- governor of the colony. His publications

ernment among the Creeks, where he had include Til Neirs from New England; or a

settled in violation of law. He died in Narrative of New England s Persecution.

Wilkes county, Ga., Dec. 15, 1799. He died in Newport, R. I., April 20, 1676.

Clarke, GEORGE, colonial governor ; born Clarke, RICHARD H., lawyer ; born in
a. N 193

CLARKE CLAY

Washington, D. C., July 3, 1827; grad
uated at Georgetown College, 1847; ad
mitted to the bar in 1848. He is the au
thor of an illustrated History of the Cath
olic Church in the United States, etc.

Clarke, ROKERT, publisher; born in
Scotland, May 1, 1829; settled in Cincin
nati, 0., in 1840. He edited Col. George
Rogers Clarke s Campaign in the Illinois
in 1778-79; Captain James Smith s Cap
acity, and Pioneer Biographies. He is the
author of The Prehistoric Remains which
icere found on the Site of the City of
Cincinnati, with a Vindication of the Cin
cinnati Tablet. He died in Cincinnati,
Aug. 6, 1899.

Clarke, SAMUEL, clergyman; born in
Warwickshire, England, in 1599. He was
the author of A True and Faithful Ac
count of the Four Chiefcst Plantations
of the English in America; and New. De
scription of the World, etc. He died in
1682.

Clarke, THOMAS CURTIS, engineer; born
in Newton, Mass., in 1827; graduated at
Harvard in 1848; specialist in bridge and
railroad engineering. He died in New
York City, June 15, 1901.

Clarke, WALTER, colonial governor;
deputy-governor of Rhode Island in 1675-
67; governor in 1676-79; deputy in
1679-86; and then governor again. In
1687 he was compelled to surrender the
government into the hands of the royal
governor who had been commissioned in
England; and in 1688 became a member of
the governor s council under the new com
mission. In 1696, eight years after the
overthrow of the royal governor, he was
again elected governor, but after two years
resigned.

Clay, CASSIUS MARCELLUS, diplomatist;
born in Madison county, Ky., Oct. 19,
1810; son of Green Clay; was graduated
at Yale College in 1832. He became a law
yer; was a member of the Kentucky legis
lature in 1835, 1837, and 1840. In June,
1845, he issued, at Lexington, Ky., the
first number of the True American, a
weekly anti-slavery paper. In August his
press was seized by a mob, after which
it was printed in Cincinnati and publish
ed at Lexington, and afterwards at Louis
ville. Mr. Clay was a captain in the war
with Mexico, and was made prisoner in
January, 1847. In 1862 he was appointed

major-general, and was United States min
ister to Russia from 1863 to 1869. He
died in White Hall, Ky., July 22, 1903.

Clay, CLEMENT CLAIBORNE, lawyer;
born in Huntsville, Ala., in 1819; grad
uated at the University of Alabama in
1835; admitted to the bar in 1840; elected
United States Senator in 1853 and 18.19;
was expelled in 1861; and elected to the
Confederate Senate. In 1864 he was a
secret Confederate agent to Canada, and
participated in laying the plans foi the
raids on the northern border. At the
close of the war, hearing that a reward
was offered for his capture, he surrender
ed himself, and was a prisoner with Jef
ferson Davis in Fort Monroe ; was released
in 1866; and resumed the practice of law
at Huntsville, Ala., where he died, Jan.
3, 1882.

Clay, GREEN, military officer; born in
Powhatan county, Va., Aug. 14, 1757.
Before he was twenty years old he emi-

.:,.!. I. X CLAY.

grated to Kentucky, where lie became a
surgeon, and laid the foundation of a fort
une. He represented the Kentucky dis
trict in the Virginia legislature, and was
a member of the Virginia convention that
ratified the national Constitution. He
)t

CLAY

also assisted in framing the Kentucky (q. v.) ; and, being left in command of
constitution in 1799. Mr. Clay served that post, he defended it against an at-
long in the Kentucky legislature. In the tack by British and Indians under Gen-
spring of 1813 he led 3,000 Kentucky vol- eral Proctor and Tecumseh. He died in
unteers to the relief of FOBT MEIGS Kentucky, Oct. 31, 1826.

CLAY, HENRY

Clay, HENRY, statesman; born in Han- Representatives. Mr. Clay was Secretary
over county, Va., April 12, 1777; received of State in the cabinet of John Quincy
the rudiments of education in a log-cabin Adams (1825-29), and again a member
school - house ; labored on a farm until of the United States Senate from 1831 till
he was fifteen years of age, when he enter- 1842. He was twice defeated as a candi
ed the office of the High Court of Chan- date for the Presidency (1832 and 1844) ;
eery, in Richmond, at which time his and was in the Senate for the last time
mother, who had married a second time, from 1849 till 1852, taking a leading part
emigrated to Kentucky. He studied law in the compromise measures of 1850, as
under the direction of Chancellor Wythe, he did in those of 1832. Mr. Clay did
and was admitted to the bar in 1797, when much by his eloquence to arouse a war
he opened a law-office in Lexington, Ky., spirit against Great Britain in 1812; and
where he obtained an extensive practice, his efforts were effective in securing an
In 1803 he was elected to the Kentucky acknowledgment of the independence of
legislature, and was speaker in 1807-8. the Spanish colonies in South America.
He became United States Senator in 1808, He always advocated the thoroughly
and member of Congress and Speaker in American policy of President Monroe in
1811-14. In 1814 he was a commission- excluding European influence on this con
tinent. He died in Washington, D. C.,
June 29, 1852.

The secret history of Clay s Compromise
Bill in 1832, which quieted rampant nulli
fication, seems to be as follows: Mr. Cal-
houn, as leader of the nullifiers, had pro
ceeded to the verge of treason in his oppo
sition to the national government, and
President Jackson had threatened him
with arrest if he moved another step for
ward. Knowing the firmness and decision
of the President, he dared not take the
fatal step. He could not recede, or even
stand still, without compromising his
character with his political friends. In
this extremity a mutual friend arranged
with Clay to propose a measure which
would satisfy both sides and save the
neck and reputation of Calhoun. In dis
cussing the matter in the Senate, the lat
ter earnestly disclaimed any hostile feel
ings towards the Union on the part of
South Carolina. He declared that the
State authorities looked only to a judicial
verdict on the question, until the con
centration of United States troops at

or to treat for peace with Great Britain, Charleston and Augusta (by order of
and afterwards, in Congress, was five the President) compelled them to make
times elected Speaker of the House of provision to defend themselves. Clay a

195

HEJfRY CLAY AT 40.

CLAY, HENBY

compromise only postponed civil war a
little less than thirty years.

The Consequences of Secession. On Feb.
C, 1850, Senator Clay delivered the follow
ing speech in the Senate chamber:

Sir, this Union is threatened with
subversion. I want, Mr. President, to

CLAY S MOSCMKNT AT LKXISGTON. KT.

Our country now extends from the
northern provinces of Great Britain to
the Rio Grande and the Gulf of Mexico
on one side, and from the Atlantic Ocean
to the Pacific on the other side the
largest extent of territory under any gov
ernment that exists on the face of the
earth, with only two solitary exceptions.
Our tonnage, from
being nothing, has
risen in magnitude
and amount so as to
rival that of the na
tion who has been
proudly characterixed
" the mistress of the
ocean." We have
gone through many
wars wars, too, with
the very nation from
whom we broke off in
1776, as weak and
feeble colonies, and
asserted our indepen
dence as a member of
the family of nations.
And, sir, we came out
of that struggle, un
equal as it was arm
ed as she was at all
points, in consequence
of the habits and nat
ure of our country
and its institutions
we came, I say, out of
that war without any
loss of honor what
ever we emerged

from it gloriously.

take a very rapid glance at the course In every Indian war and we have
of public measures in this Union pres- been engaged in many of them our ar-
ently. I want, however, before I do mies have triumphed; and, without speak-
that, to ask the Senate to look back upon ing at all as to the causes of the recent
the career which this country has run war with Mexico, whether it was riglit
since the adoption of this Constitution or wrong, and abstaining from any ex-
down to the present day. Was there pression of opinion as to the justice or
ever a nation upon which the sun of propriety of the war, when once com-
heaven has shone that has exhibited so nienced all must admit that, with respect
much of prosperity? At the commence- to the gallantry of our armies, the glory
ment of this government our population of our triumphs, there is no page or pages
amounted to about 4,000,000; it has now of history which records more brilliant
reached upward of 20,000,000. Our ter- successes. With respect to one command-
ritory was limited chiefly and principally er of an important portion of our army, I
to the border upon the Atlantic Ocean, need say nothing here; no praise is neces-
and that which includes the southern saryin behalf of one who has been elevated
shores of the interior lakes of our country, by the voice of his country to the highest

196

CLAY,

station she could place him in, mainly wars of Europe ; Jay s treaty, the alien

on account of his glorious military ca- and sedition laws, and war with France,

reer. And of another, less fortunate in I do not say, sir, that these, the leading

many respects than some other military and prominent measures which were

commanders, I must take the opportu- adopted during the administrations of

nity of saying that, for skill, for science, Washington and the elder Adams, were

for strategy, for ability and daring fight- carried exclusively by Northern counsels

ing, for chivalry of individuals and of they could not have been but mainly by

masses, that portion of the American the ascendency which Northern counsels

army which was conducted by the gallant had obtained in the affairs of the nation.

Scott, as the chief commander, stands un- So, sir, of the later period for the last

rivalled either by the deeds of Cortez him- fifty years.

self, or of those of any other commander I do not mean to say that Southern

in ancient or modern times. counsels alone have carried the measures

Sir, our prosperity is unbounded nay, which I am about to enumerate. I know
Mr. President, I sometimes fear that it they could not have exclusively carried
is in the wantonness of that prosperity them, but I say that they have been ear-
that many of the threatening ills of the ried by their preponderating influence,
moment have arisen. Wild and erratic with the co-operation, it is true the
schemes have sprung up throughout the large co-operation, in some instances of
whole country, some of which have even the Northern section of the Union. And
found their way into legislative halls; what are those measures? During that
and there is a restlessness existing among fifty years, or nearly that period, in which
us which I fear will require the chastise- Southern counsels have preponderated the
ment of Heaven to bring us back to a embargo and commercial restrictions of
sense of the immeasurable benefits and non-intercourse and non-importation were
blessings which have been bestowed upon imposed, war with Great Britain, the
us by Providence. At this moment with Bank of the United States overthrown,
the exception of here and there a particu- protection enlarged and extended to do-
lar department in the manufacturing busi- mestic manufactures I allude to the
ness of the country all is prosperity and passage of the act of 1815 or 181G
peace, and the nation is rich and power- the Bank of the United States re-establish-
ful. Our country has grown to a magni- ed, the same bank put down, re-establish-
tude, to a power and greatness, such as ed by Southern counsels and put down
to command the respect, if it does not by Southern counsels, Louisiana acquired,
awe the apprehensions, of the powers Florida bought, Texas annexed, war with
of the earth with whom we come in Mexico, California and other territories
contact. acquired from Mexico by conquest and

Sir, do I depict with colors too lively purchase, protection superseded and free

the prosperity which has resulted to us trade established, Indians removed west

from the operations of this Union? Have of the Mississippi, and fifteen new States

I exaggerated in any particular her power, admitted into the Union. It is very pos-

her prosperity, or her greatness? And sible, sir, that in this enumeration I may

now, sir, let me go a little into detail have omitted some of the important meas-

with respect to sway in the councils of ures which have been adopted during

the nation, whether from the North or this later period of time the last fifty

the South, during the sixty years of years but these I believe to be the most

unparalleled prosperity that we have en- prominent ones.

joyed. During the first twelve years of Now, sir, I do not deduce from the

the administration of the government enumeration of the measures adopted by

Northern counsels rather prevailed; and the one side or the other any just cause

out "of them sprang the Bank of the of reproach either upon one side or the

United States, the assumption of the State other; though one side or the other has

debts, bounties to the fisheries, protec- predominated in the two periods to which

tion to our domestic manufactures I al- I have referred. These measures were, to

lude to the act of 1789 neutrality in the say the least, the joint work of both par-

107 "

CLAY, HENRY

ties, and neither of them have any just where slavery exists, has been introduced;
cause to reproach the other. But, sir, I Louisiana, or all the most valuable part
must say, in all kindness and sincerity, of that State for although there is a
that least of all ought the South to re- large extent of territory north of the
proach the North, when we look at the line 36 30 , in point of intrinsic value
long list of measures which, under her and importance, I would not give the
sway in the counsels of the nation, have single State of Louisiana for the whole
been adopted; when we reflect that even of it all Louisiana, I say, with the ex-
opposite doctrines have been from time to ception of that which lies north of 36
time advanced by her; that the establish- 30 , including Oregon, to which we obtain
ment of the Bank of the United States, title mainly on the ground of its being a
which was done under the administra- part of the acquisition of Louisiana; "all
tion of Mr. Madison, met with the co- Texas; all the territories which have been
operation of the South I do not say the acquired by the government of the United
whole South I do not, when I speak of States during its sixty years operation,
the South or the North, speak of the en- have been slave territories, the theatre of
tire South or the entire North; I speak slavery with the exception that I have
of the prominent and larger proportions mentioned of that lying north of the
of Southern and Northern men. It was line 36 30 .

during Mr. Madison s administration that And here, in the case of a war made
the Bank of the United States was estab- essentially by the South growing out of
lished. My friend, whose sickness the annexation of Texas, which was a
which I very much deplore prevents us measure proposed by the South in the
from having his attendance upon this oc- councils of the country, and which led to
casion (Mr. Calhoun), was the chairman the war with Mexico I do not say all
of the committee, and carried the meas- of the South, but the major portion of the
ure through Congress. 1 voted for it South pressed the annexation of Texas
with all my heart. Although I had been upon the country that measure, as I
instrumental with other Southern votes have said, led to the war with Mexico,
in putting down the Bank of the United and the war with Mexico led to the ar-
Statcs, I changed my opinion and co- quisition of those territories which now
operated in the establishment of the bank constitute the bone of contention between
of 1816. The same bank was again put the different members of the confederacy,
clown by the Southern counsels, with And now, sir, for the first time after the
General Jackson at their head, at a later three great acquisitions of Texas, Florida,
period. Again, with respect to the policy and Louisiana have been made and have
of protection. The South in 18151 redounded to the benefit of the South-
mean the prominent Southern men, the now, for the first time, when these terri-
lamented Lowndes, Mr. Calhoun, and tories are attempted to be introduced
oLhers united in extending a certain without the institution of slavery, I put it
measure of protection to domestic manu- to the hearts of my countrymen of the
factures as well as the North. South, if it is right to press matters to the

We find a few years afterwards the disastrous consequences which have been
South interposing most serious objection indicated no longer ago than this very
to this policy, and one member of the morning, on the occasion of the presenta-
South threatening on that occasion a tion of certain resolutions evpn extending
dissolution of the Union or separation, to a dissolution of the Union. Mr. Presi-
Now, sir, let us take another view of the dent, I cannot believe it.
question and I would remark that all Such is the Union and such are the
these views are brought forward not in a glorious fruits which are now threatened
spirit of reproach but of conciliation not with subversion and destruction. Well,
to provoke, or exasperate, but to quiet, sir, the first question which naturally
to produce harmony and repose if possible, arises, is, supposing the Union to be dis-
What have been the territorial acquisi- solved for any of the causes or grievances
tions made by this country, and to what which are complained of, how far will
interests have they conduced? Florida dissolution furnish a remedy for those

198

CLAY, HENRY

grievances which are complained of, how independent of each other foreign coun-
far will dissolution furnish a remedy for tries and slaves escaping from the
these grievances? If the Union is to be United States to Canada. There would be
dissolved for any existing cause, it will no right of extradition, no right to de-
be because slavery is interdicted or not mand your slaves; no right to appeal to
allowed to be introduced into the ceded the courts of justice to indemnify you for
territories; or because slavery is threat- the loss of your slaves. Where one slave
ened to be abolished in the District of escapes now by running away from his
Columbia; or because fugitive slaves are master, hundreds and thousands would
not restored, as in my opinion they ought escape if the Union were dissevered I
to be, to their masters. These, I believe, care not how or where you run the line,
would be the causes, if there be any causes or whether independent sovereignties be
\vhich lead to the dreadful event to which established. Well, sir, finally, will you,
I have referred. Let us suppose the iu case of a dissolution of the Union, be
Union dissolved; what remedy does it, in safer with your slaves within the sepa-
a severed state, furnish for the grievances rated portions of the States than you are
complained of in its united condition? now? Mr. President, that they will es-
Will you be able at the South to push cape much more frequently from the bor-
slavery into the ceded territory? How der States no one will deny,
are you to do it, supposing the North, or And, sir, I must take occasion here to say
all the States north of the Potomac, in that, in my opinion, there is no right on
possession of the navy and army of the the part of any one or more of the States
United States? Can you expect, I say, to secede from the Union. War and dis-
under these circumstances, that if there solution of the Union are identical and
is a dissolution of the Union you can inevitable, in my opinion. There can be a
carry slavery into California and New dissolution of the Union only by consent
Mexico? Sir, you cannot dream of such or by war. Consent no one can antic-
an occurrence. ipate, from any existing state of things,
If it were abolished in the District of is likely to be given, and war is the
Columbia and the Union were dissolved, cnly alternative by which a dissolution
would the dissolution of the Union re- could be accomplished. If consent were
store slavery in the District of Columbia? given if it were possible that we were
Is your chance for the recovery of your to be separated by one great line in less
fugitive slaves safer in a state of dissolu- than sixty days after such consent was
tion or of severance of the Union than given war would break out between the
when in the Union itself ? Why, sir, what slave-holding and non-slave-holding por-
is the state of the fact? In the Union tions of this Union between the two in-
you lose some slaves and recover others; dependent parts into which it would be
but here let me revert to a fact which I erected in virtue of the act of separation,
ought to have noticed before, because it is In less than sixty days, I believe, our
highly creditable to the courts and judges slaves from Kentucky, nocking over in
of the free States. In every instance, as numbers to the other side of the river,
far as my information extends, in which would be pursued by their owners. Our
an appeal has been made to the courts of hot and ardent spirits would be restrain-
justice to recover penalties from those ed by no sense of the right which apper-
who have assisted in decoying slaves from tains to the independence of the other side
their masters in every instance, as far of the river, should that be the line of
as I have heard, the court has asserted separation. They would pursue their
the rights of the owner, and the jury has slaves into the adjacent free States; they
promptly returned an adequate verdict would be repelled, and the consequences
on his behalf. Well, sir, there is then would be that, in less than sixty days, war
some remedy while you are a part of the would be blazing in every part of this now
Union for the recovery of your slaves, happy and peaceful land,
and some indemnification for their loss. And, sir, how are you going to separate
What would you have if the Union was the States of this confederacy? In iny
severed? Why, the several parts would be humble opinion, Mr. President, we should

199

CLAY, HENRY

begin with at least three separate con- your rights within the Union better than
federates. There would be a confederacy if expelled from the Union, and driven
of the North, a confederacy of the South- from it without ceremony and without au-
ern Atlantic slave-holding States, and a thority.

confederacy of the valley of the Missis- Sir, I have said that I thought there
eippi. My life upon it, that the vast was no right on the part of one or more
population which has already concentrated States to secede from the Union. I think
and will concentrate on the head-waters so. The Constitution of the United States
and the tributaries of the Mississippi will was made not merely for the generation
never give their consent that the mouth that then existed, but for posterity un-
of that river shall be held subject to the limited, undefined, endless, perpetual pos-
power of any foreign state or community terity. And every State that then came
whatever. Such, I believe, would be the into the Union, and every State that has
consequences of a dissolution of the Union, since come into the Union, came into it
immediately ensuing; but other confeder- binding itself, by indissoluble bands, to
acies would spring up from time to time, remain within the Union itself, and to re-
as dissatisfaction and discontent were main within it by its posterity forever,
disseminated throughout the country the Like another of the sacred connections
confederacy of the Lakes; perhaps the in private life, it is a marriage which no
confederacy of New England, or of the human authority can dissolve or divorce
Middle States. Ah, sir, the veil which the parties from. And if I may be al-
covers those sad and disastrous events lowed to refer to some examples in private
that lie beyond it is too thick to be pene- life, let me say to the North and the
trated or lifted by any mortal eye or South, what husband and wife say to each
hand - other: We have mutual faults; neither

Mr. President, I am directly opposed to of us is perfect; nothing in the form of
any purpose of secession or separation. I humanity is perfect; let us, then, be kind
am for staying within the Union, and de- to each other forbearing, forgiving each
fying any portion of this confederacy to other s faults and, above all, let us live
expel me or drive me out of the Union. I in happiness and peace together,
am for staying within the Union and Mr. President, I have said, what I sol-
fighting for my rights, if necessary, with omnly believe, that dissolution of the
the sword, within the bounds and under Union and war are identical and inev-
the safeguard of the Union. I am for itable; that they are convertible terms;
vindicating those rights, not by being and such a war as it would be following
driven out of the Union harshly and un- a dissolution of the Union! Sir, we may
ceremoniously by any portion of this con- search the pages of history, and none so
federacy. Here I am within it, and here ferocious, so bloody, so implacable, so ex-
I mean to stand and die, as far as my in- terminating not even the wars of Greece,
dividual wishes or purposes can go with- including those of the Commoners of Eng-
in it to protect my property and defend land and the revolutions of France none,
myself, defying all the power on earth none of them all would rage with such
to expel or drive me from the situation violence, or be characterized with such
in which I am placed. And would there bloodshed and enormities, as would tlie
not be more safety in fighting within the war which must succeed, if that event
Union than out of it? Suppose our rights ever happens, the dissolution of the Union,
to be violated, suppose wrong to be done And what would be its termination?
to you, aggressions to be perpetrated upon Standing armies and navies, to an extent
you, can you not better vindicate them stretching the revenue of each portion of
if you have occasion to resort to the last the dissevered members, would take place,
necessity, the sword, for a restoration of An exterminating war would follow not,
those rights within, and with the sym- sir. a war of two or three years duration,
pathies of a large portion of the popula- but a war of interminable duration and
tion of the Union, than when a large por- exterminating wars would ensue until,
tion of the population have sympathies after the struggles and exhaustion of both
adverse to your own? You can vindicate parties, some Philip or Alexander, some

200

CLAYPOOLE CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY

Caesar or Napoleon, would arise and cut granted to the settlers in 1682; came with

the Gordian knot, solve the problem of his family to Pennsylvania in 1683, and

the capacity of man for self-government, held important offices,

and crush the liberties of both the severed Clayton, JOHN MIDDI.ETON, jurist; born

portions of this common empire. Can you in Dagsboro, Sussex co., Del., July 24,

doubt it? 1796; graduated at Yale College in 1815,

Look at all history consult her pages, and at the famous Litchfield Law School;
ancient or modern look at human nat- began practice in 1818; and, after serv-
n re; look at the contest in which you ing in the State legislature, and as See-
would be engaged in the supposition of retary of State, was elected to the Unit-
war following upon the dissolution of the ed States Senate in 1829 and 1835. In
Union, such as I have suggested; and I 1837 he resigned to become chief-justice
a&k you if it is possible for you to doubt of Delaware; from 1845 till 1849 was
that the final disposition of the whole again in the United States Senate; in
would be some despot treading down the the latter year became Secretary of State
liberties of the people the final result under President Taylor; and from 1851
would be the extinction of this last and till his death was again in the United
glorious light which is leading all man- States Senate. It was during his service
kind, who are gazing upon it, in the hope as Secretary of State that he negotiated
and anxious expectation that the liberty with the British government what has
that prevails here will sooner or later be since become known as the CI.AYTON-BUL-
diffused throughout the whole of the civ- WER TREATY (q. v.). He died in Dover,
ilized world. Sir, can you lightly con- Del., Nov. 9, 1856.

template these consequences? Can you Clayton, POWELL, diplomatist; born in

yield yourself to the tyranny of passion, Bethel, Pa., Aug. 7, 1833 ; received an

amid dangers which I have depicted in academical education; removed to Kansas,

colors far too tame, of what the result At the beginning of the Civil War he

would be if that direful event to which joined the Union army; in May, 1863, he

1 have referred should ever occur ? Sir, scattered a band of guerillas and captured

I implore gentlemen, I adjure them, Confederate stores at White River, Ark.;

whether from the South or the North, by figured in other important actions; and

all that they hold dear in this world by was promoted brigadier-general in August,

all their love of liberty by all their ven- 1864. After the war he removed to

eration for their ancestors by all their Arkansas, where he was elected governor

regard for posterity by all their grati- in 1868. He was a United States Senator

tude to Him who has bestowed on them in 1871-77; appointed minister to Mexico

such unnumbered and countless blessings in 1897; and raised to rank of ambassador

by all the duties which they owe to man- there in 1899.

kind and by all the duties which they Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, THE, a treaty

owe to themselves, to pause, solemnly to negotiated in April, 1850, by Secretary of

pause, at the edge of the precipice, before State Clayton, on the part of the United

the fearful and dangerous leap is taken States, and Sir Edward Bulwer, on the

into the yawning abyss below, from which part of Great Britain, for the purpose of

none who have ever taken it shall return preventing dissensions on the subject of

in safety. proposed canals and railways across the

Finally, Mr. President, and in conclu- American isthmus. It has special refer-

sion, I implore, as the best blessing which ence to the Nicaragua route, which at that

Heaven can bestow upon mo, upon earth, time had been proposed for a canal ; but

that if the direful event of the dissolu- as it declared that its purpose was " not

tion of this Union is to happen. I shall only to accomplish a particular object, but

not survive to behold the sad and heart- to establish a general principle," it must

rending spectacle. be taken to apply to all routes. By this

Claypoole, JAMES, settler; born in treaty the two governments, jointly de-

Kngland in 1634; a Quaker, and a close clared that "neither the one nor the other

friend of William Penn ; was a witness will ever obtain or maintain for itself ex-

of the signing of the Charter of Privileges elusive control over the projected ship

201

CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY

canal"; that "neither will ever erect or as still in force; but as meanwhile Mr.
maintain fortifications commanding the Blaine had left the State Department there
same or in the vicinity thereof," nor was no further diplomatic discussion on
" fortify, or colonize, or assume any do- the subject until the publication of a pro-
minion over any part of Central America." posed treaty with Nicaragua. This treaty
Further, the treaty pledged that in case was in direct violation of the Claytoii-
of war between Great Britain and the Bulwer treaty, for its object was to pro-
United States all vessels of both coun- vide for the construction of a canal across
tries should, in going through the canal, Central America, at the expense of the
be exempt from detention and capture. United States, and to be controlled when
Further, the contracting parties engaged completed by this country. The treaty
to protect and guarantee the neutrality of was not accepted by Congress, so that the
the canal, and to invite other states to do question of the abrogation of the Clayton-
likewise, " to the end that all states may Bulwer treaty remained open,
share in the honor or advantage " of as- The war between the United States and
sisting in so important a work. Now, pre- Spain created a new interest in the sub-
vious to the adoption of this treaty Great ject of an interoceanic canal as a new
Britain had held possessions in Central necessity was developed for having a
America. She had owned Balize, or Brit- speedy means of sending vessels from one
ish Honduras, since 1783, and had later ocean to the other. (See CLARK, CHARLES
acquired a protectorate over the Mosquito EDGAR). A new bill was introduced into
coast and over the Bay Islands, a group Congress for the construction of a canal
near Honduras. The question, therefore, on the Nicaragua route, and this, after
arose whether by the pledge not to occupy various vicissitudes and being amended
any part of Central America in the fut- materially, was adopted in the Senate on
ure she was bound to surrender possessions Jan. 21, 1899, by a vote of forty-eight to
held in the present. There was consider- six. The chief provisions of this bill
able debate over the matter for some years, were: the issue of 1,000,000 shares of
and it seemed at one time doubtful whether stock at $100 each, the United States to
an understanding satisfactory to both take 945,000 shares; the canal to be corn-
sides could be reached. However, on Great pleted in six years; to be ample to ac-
Britain s giving up the Bay Islands and commodate the largest sea - vessels ; and
signing a treaty with Nicaragua, yielding to cost not over $115,000,000. In case of
all claims on the Mosquito coast, the failure in negotiating with Nicaragua or
American Secretary of State, in 1860, in Costa Rica for the route the President
behalf of the government, consented to the was empowered to negotiate for another
contimied occupation of Balize, and Pres- one. The bill guaranteed the neutrality
ident Buchanan, in his next message, de- of the canal. The most important feature
clared that all disputes under the Clayton- of the bill in the present connection was
Bulwer treaty " had been satisfactorily the authority given to the President to
adjusted." open negotiations with the British govern-
This treaty then was accepted as set- ment for the abrogation of the Clayton-
tied and binding on both parties until Bulwer treaty. Under the last provision
November, 1881, when Mr. Elaine wrote to a convention was signed in February,
Mr. Lowell, the American minister to 1000, by Secretary Hay, on the part of
Great Britain, urging the abrogation of the United States, and by Lord Pauncefote
the treaty on the ground that it was form- on the part of Great Britain, in which
ed thirty years before under circumstances the Clayton-Bulwer compact for the joint
that no longer existed; that the develop- control of any canal which might be built
ment of the Pacific coast had enormously across the isthmus was annulled, and the
increased the interest of the United States United States given an exclusive, \mcon-
in the canal, and that the well-being of ditional right to build and manage such
this country demanded a modification of a water-way. The convention committed
the treaty. To this letter Lord Gran- both nations to a declaration guarantee-
ville made reply in January, stating Great ing the neutrality of such a canal, and
Britain s reasons for regarding the treaty the United States was pledged to refrain

202

CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY

from fortifying its approaches or en- Article II. It is agreed that the canal

trances, and otherwise restricting open may be constructed under the auspices of

access to it on the part of the world s the government of the United States,

commerce. On Dec. 20, 1900, the United either directly at its own cost, or by gift

States Senate ratified this convention by or loan of money to individuals or cor-

a vote of 55 to 18, modifying it in three porations, or through subscription to or

essential points, and a certified copy of purchase of stock or shares, and that,

the amended treaty was delivered to Lord subject to the provisions of the present

Pauncefote for transmission to his gov- treaty, the said government shall have

ernment. and enjoy all the rights incident to such

The British government did not see its construction, as well as the exclusive

way clear to accept the Senate amend- right of providing for the regulation and

ment, but negotiations were resumed, and management of the canal,

a new treaty was signed Nov. 16 (ratified Article III. The United States adopts

by the Senate Dec. 16, 1902), substantial- as the basis of the neutralization of such

ly in accordance with the views of the ship-canal the following rules, substan-

United States. tially as embodied in the convention of

Constantinople, signed the 28th October,
1888, for the free navigation of the Suez

The United States of America and his Canal, that is to say:

Majesty, Edward the VII. of the United 1. The canal shall be free and open to

Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland the vessels of commerce and of war of

and of the British dominions beyond the all nations observing these rules, on

seas, King, and Emperor of India, being terms of entire equality, so that there

desirous to facilitate the construction of shall be no discrimination against any

a ship-canal to connect the Atlantic and such nation or its citizens or subjects,

Pacific oceans, by whatever route may be in respect of the conditions or charges

considered expedient, and to that end to of traffic or otherwise. Such conditions

remove any objection which may arise and charges of traffic shall be just and

out of the convention of the 19th of April, equitable.

1850, commonly called the Clayton-Bui- 2. The canal shall never be blockaded,
wer treaty, to the construction of such nor shall any right of war be exercised
canal under the auspices of the govern- nor any act of hostility be committed
ment of the United States without im- within it. The United States, however,
pairing the " general principle " of neu- shall be at liberty to maintain such mil-
tralization established in article viii. of itary police along the canal as may be
that convention, have for that purpose necessary to protect it against lawless-
appointed as their plenipotentiaries: The ness and disorder.

President of the United States, John Hay, 3. Vessels of war of a belligerent shall

Secretary of State of the United States not revictual nor take any stores in the

of America, and his Majesty, Edward the canal except so far as may be strictly

VII. of the United Kingdom of Great necessary, and the transit of such vessels

Britain and Ireland and of the British through the canal shall be effected with

dominions beyond the seas, King, and the least possible delay in accordance with

Emperor of India, the Right Hon. Lord the regulations in force, and with only

Pauncefote, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., his Maj- such intermission as may result from the

esty s ambassador extraordinary and pleni- necessities of the service. Prizes shall be

potentiary to the United States; who, in all respects subject to the same rules

having communicated to each other their as vessels of war of the belligerents,

full powers, which were found to be in 4. No belligerent shall embark or dis-

due and proper form, have agreed upon embark troops, munitions of war, or war-

the following articles: like materials in the canal except in case

Article I. The high contracting parties of accidental hinderance of the transit, and

agree that the present treaty shall super- in such case the transit shall be resumed

sede the aforementioned convention of the with all possible despatch.

19th April, 1850. 5. The provisions of this article shall

203

CLEARING-HOUSES CLEAVELAND

apply to waters adjaeent to the canal, each bank employed a man to go around

within three marine miles of either end. every day and collect all checks and

Vessels of war of a belligerent shall not drafts drawn upon it by other banks in

remain in such waters longer than twenty- the city. Now, at the clearing-house, a

four hours at any one time, except in messenger and a clerk from each bank

case of distress, and in such case shall appear every morning, each clerk taking

depart as soon as possible, but a vessel a seat at the desk of his designated bank,

of war of one belligerent shall not depart arranged in the form of a hollow ellipse.

within twenty-four hours from the de- Each messenger brings with him from his

parture of a vessel of war of the other bank a sealed package for every other

belligerent. bank, properly marked with the amount

G. The plant, establishments, buildings, enclosed, containing all the checks or

and all works necessary to the construction, drafts on each bank. The messengers

maintenance, and operation of the canal take their places near the desks of their

shall be deemed to be parts thereof for the respective banks, with tabular statements

purposes of this treaty, and in time of of the amount sent to each bank and the

war, as in time of peace, shall enjoy com- aggregates. These are exhibited to the

plete immunity from attack or injury by respective clerks and noted by them on

belligerents, and from acts calculated to blank forms. At a prescribed hour the

impair their usefulness as part of the manager of the clearing-house calls to

canal. order and gives the word for proceeding.

Article IV. It is agreed that no change when all the messengers move forward

of territorial sovereignty or of inter- from left to right of the desks, handing

national relations of the country or coun- in to them the packages addressed to their

tries traversed by the before - mentioned respective banks, and taking receipts for

canal shall affect the general principle of them on their statements. These clerks

neutralization or the obligation of the make a mutual exchange of all claims,

high contracting parties under the present ami the balances, if any, are struck, each

treaty. bank paying in cash the amount of such

Article V. The present treaty shall be balance. This operation occupies about

ratified by the President of the United one hour, within which time all accounts

States by and with the advice and consent are adjusted. The balances due to the

of the Senate thereof, and by his Britan- several banks are paid into the clearing-

nic Majesty; and the ratifications shall house within about another hour.
be exchanged at Washington or at London The extent of the system, the vast

at the earliest possible time within six amount of money handled by it, and the

months from the date hereof. enormous saving of time through its op-

In faith whereof the respective pleni- erations are clearly detailed in the report
potentiaries have signed this treaty and of the comptroller of the currency. In 1903
hereunto affixed their seals. Done in there were ninety - eight clearing-houses
duplicate at Washington the 18th day of in the United States, and in the year end-
November in the year of our Lord one ing Sept. 30 the aggregate of exchanges
thousand nine hundred and one. was $114,068.H37.50!&gt;. a decrease in a year
JOHN HAY (Seal). of $1,823,301,065. In New York City the
PAUNCEFOTE (Seal). exchanges amounted to $70,833,655,940;

Clearing-houses, institutions estab- in Boston, to $6.837,767,883; in Chicago,
lished in the United States about 1853, to over $8,627,000,000; in Philadelphia, to
for the convenience and economy of bank- over $5,968,000,000; in St. Louis and Pitts-
ing institutions in large cities. The sys- burg, to over $2,300,000,000; and in Balti-
tem originated in London. By it the more, to over $1,169,000,000.
banks of a city become, in certain opera- Cleaveland, MOSES, pioneer; born in
tions, as an individual in work; for it Canterbury. Conn., Jan. 29. 17.14: gradu-
dispenses with the individual clerical la- ated at Yale College in 1777: admit-
bor of each bank associated, in the matter ted to the bar; made a brigadier-gen-
of the exchange of checks and drafts and eral in 1796: and the same year was
bills coming in from abroad. Formerly selected by a land company, of which he

204

CLEBURNE CLEMENS

was a shareholder, to survey the tract
which had been purchased in northeastern
Ohio. He set out with fifty emigrants
from Schenectady, N. Y. ; reached the
mouth of the Cuyahoga on July 22; and
finding it a favorable site for a town de
cided to settle there. His employers called
the place Cleaveland in his honor. When
the first newspaper, the Cleveland Ad
vertiser, was established, the head-line was
found to be too long for the form, and
the editor cut out the letter " a," which
revision was accepted by the public. Gen
eral Cleaveland died in Canterbury, Conn.,
Nov. 16, 1806.

Cleburne, PATRICK RONAYNE, military
officer; born in County Cork, Ireland,
March 17, 1828; came to the United
States and settled at Helena, Ark., where
he later practised law. When the Civil
War broke out he entered the Confederate
army; in March, 1861, planned the capture
of the United States arsenal in Arkansas;
in 1862 was promoted brigadier-general;
took part in many important engagements
in the war; and in recognition of his de
fence of Ringgold Gap received the thanks
of the Confederate Congress. He origi
nated the Order of the Southern Cross,
and was known as " the Stonewall of the
West." He was killed in the battle of
Franklin, Tenn., Nov. 30, 1864.

Clem, JOHN L., military officer; born
in Newark, O., in 1851. In May, 1861, he
attempted to enlist as a drummer-boy in
the 3d Ohio Volunteers, but was rejected
on account of his size and age. Subse-
quently he accompanied the 22d Michigan
Volunteers to the field, and in the summer
of 1862 was regularly enlisted as a drum-
mer in that regiment. He displayed a
fearless spirit in the battle of Shiloh,
where his drum was destroyed by a piece
of shell. At the battle of Chickamauga
he served as a marker, carried a musket
instead of a drum, and especially dis-
tinguished himself. He had been in the
thickest of the fight, and three bullets
had passed through his hat, when, sep-
arated from his companions, he was seen
running, with a musket in his hand, by
a mounted Confederate colonel, who call-
od out, "Stop! you little Yankee devil!"
The boy halted and brought his musket
to an order, whon the colonel rode up to
make him a prisoner. With a swift

movement, young Clem brought his gun
up and fired, killing the colonel instant-

JOHN L. CLEM.
(From a print jmblithed in 1862. )

ly. He escaped; and for this exploit on
the battle-field he was made a sergeant,
put on duty at headquarters of the Army
of the Cumberland, and placed on the Roll
of Honor. In 1871 he was appointed a
2d lieutenant in the United States army,
and became colonel and assistant quarter
master-general in 1903.

Clemens, JEREMIAH, statesman; born
in Huntsville, Ala., Dec. 28, 1814; grad
uated at the Alabama University in 1833 ;
took a company of riflemen to Texas in
1842; United States Senator, 1849-53;
opposed secession, but accepted office un
der the Confederacy. He wrote several
historical works. He died in Huntsville,
Ala., May 21, 1865.

Clemens, SAMUEL LANGIIORNE (pen-
name, MARK TWAIN), author; born in
Florida, Mo., Nov. 20, 1835; educated
at Hannibal, Mo. ; learned the printer s
trade, served as a Mississippi River pilot,
and became territorial secretary of Neva
da. He spent several years in mining and
newspaper work. In 1884 he established
the publishing house of C. L. Webster &
Co. in New York. The failure of this

205

CLEOPATRA S NEEDLE CLEVELAND

firm, after it had published General
Grant s Personal Memoirs, and paid over
$250,000 to his widow, involved Mr. Clem
ens in heavy losses; but by 1900 he had
paid off all obligations by the proceeds
of his books and lectures. He has trav
elled extensively in Europe, Australia,

SAMUEL LAXGJIOR.NE CLE.MK.VS.

and other places. His books include The
Jumping Frog; The Innocents Abroad;
Roughing It; Adventures of Tom Saw

yer; The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn;
The Prince and the Pauper; A Tramp
Abroad; Life on the Mississippi; A Yan
kee at King Arthur s Court; Tom Saw
yer Abroad; Pudd nhead Wilson; Joan of
Arc; More Tramps Abroad, etc.

Cleopatra s Needle. See GORRINGE,
HENRY HONEYCHURCH.

Cleveland, the most important port of
Ohio, on Lake Erie, was named after Gen.
Moses Cleaveland, director of the Connect
icut Land Company, who arrived at the
present site of Cleveland, July 22, IT .Hi,
and began the settlement at the mouth of
Cuyahoga River. In 1800 the population
was only 7; in 1810 it was 57; 1820, 150;
1830, 1,075; 1840, 6,071; 1850, 17,034. In
1854, Ohio City, on the opposite bank of
the river, was united with Cleveland, and
in 1860 the population of the united cities
was 43,838; in 1870, 92,829; 1880, 159,-
404; 1890, 261,353; 1900, 381,768.

Cleveland, BENJAMIN, military officer;
born in Prince William county, Va., May
26, 1738; removed to North Carolina in
1769; entered the American army in 1775;
led a company in the campaign of Ruther
ford against the Cherokee Indians in
1776; greatly distinguished himself at
KING S MOUNTAIN (q. v. ) ; and later set
tled in South Carolina, where he became a
judge. He died in October, 1806.

CLEVELAND, GBOVEB

Cleveland, GEOVER, twenty - second 192,000, and entered office in January,
and twenty-fourth President of the United 1883. His administration of affairs at
States, from 1885 to 1889, and from 1893 Albany secured the presentation of his
to 1897; Democrat; born in Caldwell, Es- name to the Democratic National Con-
sex co., N. J., March 18, 1837. After vention in 1884. He was nominated ; and
some experience as a clerk and some elected, after a close and exciting strug-
labor on the compilation of the Ameri- gle, over James G. Elaine, and was inau-
can Herd Book, lie became a bank clerk gurated March 4, 1885 (see CABINET,
in Buffalo, and was admitted to the PRESIDENT S). President Cleveland, in his
bar in 1S59. From 1863 to 1865 he was famous message to Congress on the sur-
assistant district-attorney, and in 1870 he plus and the tariff in December, 1887,
was elected sheriff of Erie county and forced the fighting on the revenue-reform
served three years. Elected mayor of issue. He was the candidate of his party
Buffalo in 1881, he attracted during the in 1888, but was defeated by Benjamin
first few months of his term more than Harrison, and retired in 1889. He settled
local notice, and was the Democratic can- in New York, and resumed the practice
didate for governor of New York in 1882. of law. In 1892 he received for the third
One of the successful nominees in this time the Democratic nomination. In the
" tidal-wave " Democratic year, Mr. Cleve- election he received 277 electoral rind
land received the phenomenal majority of 5,556,533 popular votes, while Harrison

206

CLEVELAND, G&OVER

(renominated) had 145 electoral and
5,175,577 popular votes. He was inau
gurated March 4, 1893. At the close of
his second term he took up the practice
of law again, making his home at Prince
ton, N. J.

Tariff Message of 1887. During both
of his administrations President Cleve
land gave much thought to the question
of the tariff, and in several of his mes
sages to Congress he urged a reform based
on the conditions of the day. Towards the
close of 1887 he deemed the condition of
the national finances so important as to
justify a special expression of his views
thereon, and accordingly he devoted his
entire message of Dec. 6 to a consideration
of the subject. The following is the text
of the message:

WASHINGTON, Dec. 6, 1887.

To the Congress of the United States,
You are confronted at the threshold of
your legislative duties with a condition
of the national finances which imperative
ly demands immediate and careful con
sideration.

The amount of money annually exacted,
through the operation of present laws,
from the industries and necessities of the
people largely exceeds the sum necessary
to meet the expenses of the government.

When we consider that the theory of our
institutions guarantees to every citizen
the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his
industry and enterprise, with only such
deduction as may be his share towards the
careful and economical maintenance of
the government which protects him, it is
plain that the exaction of more than this
is indefensible extortion and a culpable
betrayal of American fairness and justice.
This wrong inflicted upon those who bear
the burden of national taxation, like other
wrongs, multiplies a brood of evil con
sequences. The public Treasury, which
should only exist as a conduit conveying
the people s tribute to its legitimate
objects of expenditure, becomes a hoard
ing-place for money needlessly withdrawn
from trade and the people s use, thus
crippling our national energies, suspend
ing our country s development, prevent
ing investment in productive enterprise,
threatening financial disturbance, and in-
viting schemes of public plunder.

207

This condition of our Treasury is not al
together new, and it has more than once
of late been submitted to the people s
representatives in the Congress, who alone
can apply a remedy. And yet the situation
still continues, with aggravated incidents,
more than ever presaging financial con
vulsion and widespread disaster.

It will not do to neglect this situation
because its dangers are not now palpably
imminent and apparent. They exist none
the less certainly, and await the unfore
seen and unexpected occasion, when sud
denly they will be precipitated upon us.

On June 30, 1885, the excess of rev
enues over public expenditures, after
complying with the annual require
ment of the Sinking-fund Act, was $17,-
859,735.84; during the year ended June
30, 1886, such excess amounted to $49,-
405,545.20; and during the year ended
June 30, 1887, it reached the sum of $55,-
567,849.54.

The annual contributions to the sinking-
fund during the three years above speci
fied, amounting in the aggregate to $138,-
058,320.94, and deducted from the surplus
as stated, were made by calling in for that
purpose outstanding 3 per cent, bonds of
the government. During the six months
prior to June 30, 1887, the surplus revenue
had grown so large by repeated accumu
lations, and it was feared the withdrawal
of this great sum of money needed by the
people would so affect the business of the
country that the sum of $79,864,100 of
such surplus was applied to the payment
of the principal and interest of the 3 per
cent, bonds still outstanding, and which
were then payable at the option of the
government. The precarious condition of
financial affairs among the people still
needing relief, immediately after June
30, 1887, the remainder of the 3 per
cent, bonds then outstanding, amounting
with principal and interest to the sum
of $18,877,500, were called in and applied
to the sinking-fund contribution for the
current fiscal year. Notwithstanding these
operations of the Treasury Department,
representations of distress in business cir
cles not only continued, but increased, and
absolute peril seemed at hand. In these
circumstances the contribution to the
sinking-fund for the current fiscal year
was at once completed by the expenditure

CLEVELAND, GBOVEB

of $27,684,283.55 in the purchase of gov- already made for the current year, so that

eminent bonds not yet due, bearing 4 and there is no outlet in that direction.
4% per cent, interest, the premium paid In the present state of legislation the

thereon averaging about 24 per cent, for only pretence of any existing executive

the former and 8 per cent, for the latter, power to restore at this time any part of

In addition to this, the interest accruing our surplus revenues to the people by its

during the current year upon the outstand- expenditure consists in the supposition

ing bonded indebtedness of the government that the Secretary of the Treasury may

was to some extent anticipated, and banks enter the market and purchase the bonds

selected as depositaries of public money of the government not yet due, at a rali-

were permitted to somewhat increase their of premium to be agreed upon. The only

deposits. provision of law from which such a power

While the expedients thus employed to could be derived is found in an ap-

release to the people the money lying idle propriation bill passed a number of years

in the Treasury served to avert immediate ago, and it is subject to the suspicion that

danger, our surplus revenues have con- it was intended as temporary and limited

tinned to accumulate, the excess for the in its application, instead of conferring a

present year amounting on Dec. 1 to $55,- continuing discretion and authority. No

258,701.19, and estimated to reach the condition ought to exist which would

sum of $113,000,000 on June 30 next, at justify the grant of power to a single

which date it is expected that this sum, official, upon his judgment of its necessity,

added to prior accumulations, will swell to withhold from or release to the busi-

the surplus in the Treasury to $140,- ness of the people, in an unusual manner,

000,000.

There seems to be no assurance that,

money held in the Treasury, and thus af
fect at his will the financial situation of

J_ lltl v; O V V. 1I1O \j\J WV* *v

with such a withdrawal from use of the the country; and, if it is deemed wise
people s circulating medium, our business lodge in the Secretary of the Treasury
community may not in the near future be the authority in the present juncture to
subjected to the same distress which was purchase bonds, it should be plainly ves*
quite lately produced from the same ed, and provided, as far as possible, with
cause And while the functions of our such checks and limitations as will de-
national Treasury should be few and fine this official s right and discretion and
simple, and while its best condition would at the same time relieve him from undue
be reached, I believe, by its entire discon- responsibility.

nection with private business interests, In considering the question of purchas
yet when, by a perversion of its purposes, ing bonds as a means of restoring to cir-
it idly holds money uselessly subtracted culation the surplus money accumulating
from the channels of trade, there seems to in the Treasury, it should be borne in
be reason for the claim that some legiti- mind that premiums must of course be
mate means should be devised by the gov- paid upon such purchase, that
ernment to restore, in an emergency, with- be a large part of these bonds held as in
cut waste or extravagance, such money to vestments which cannot be purchased
ils place among the people. any price, and that combination* among
If such an emergency arises, there now holders who are willing to sell may rea
lists no clear and undoubted executive sonably enhance the cost of such bonds
power of relief. Heretofore the re- the government.

demption of 3 per cent, bonds, which were Jt has been suggested that the present

pavable at the option of the government, bonded debt might be refunded at a les:

has afforded a means for the disbursement rate of interest, and the difference

of the excess of our revenues; but these tween the old and new security paid

bonds have all been retired, and there are cash, thus finding use for BUrpll

in the Treasury. The success of

insist upon, plan, it is apparent, must depend upon

sinking-fund the volition of the holders of the present

no bonds outstanding the payment of
which we have a right to

The contribution to the .-im^m- ....... ~

which furnishes the occasion for expendi- bonds; and it is not entirely cert mjhat

wiucn iiirnisiies me uueusiuii iui c.-vpc .

ture in the purchase of bonds has been the inducement which must be offered

208

CLEVELAND, GROVER

them would result in more financial bene- be fully realized, and though it presents

fit to the government than the purchase features of wrong to the people as well as

of bonds, while the latter proposition peril to the country, it is but a result

would reduce the principal of the debt growing out of a perfectly palpable and

by actual payment instead of extending apparent cause, constantly reproducing

it. the same alarming circumstances a con-

The proposition to deposit the money gested national Treasury and a depleted
held by the government in banks through- monetary condition in the business of the
out the country for use by the people is, country. It need hardly be stated that
it seems to me, exceedingly objectionable while the present situation demands a
in principle, as establishing too close a remedy, we can only be saved from a
relation between the operations of the like predicament in the future by the re-
government Treasury and the business of moval of its cause.

the country, and too extensive a com- Our scheme of taxation, by means of
mingling of their money, thus fostering which this needless surplus is taken from
an unnatural reliance in private business the people and put into the public Treas-
upon public funds. If this scheme should ury, consists of a tariff or duty levied
be adopted, it should only be done as a upon importations from abroad and in-
temporary expedient to meet an urgent ternal-revenue taxes levied upon the con-
necessity. Legislative and executive ef- sumption of tobacco and spirituous and
fort should generally be in the opposite malt liquors. It must be conceded that
direction, and should have a tendency to none of the things subjected to internal-
divorce, as much and as fast as can be revenue taxation are, strictly speaking,
safely done, the Treasury Department from necessaries. There appears to be no
private enterprise. just complaint of this taxation by the con-

Of course, it is not expected that un- sumers of these articles, and there seems

necessary and extravagant appropriations to be nothing so well able to bear the

will be made for the purpose of avoiding burden without hardship to any portion

the accumulation of an excess of revenue, of the people.

Such expenditure, besides the demoraliza- But our present tariff laws, the vicious,

tion of all just conceptions of public duty inequitable, and illogical source of un-

which it entails, stimulates a habit of necessary taxation, ought to be at once

reckless improvidence not in the least revised and amended. These laws, as their

consistent with the mission of our people, primary and plain effect, raise the price

or the high and beneficent purposes of to consumers of all articles imported

our government. and subject to duty by precisely the

I have deemed it my duty to thus bring sum paid for such duties. Thus the
to the knowledge of my countrymen, as amount of the duty measures the tax paid
well as to the attention of their repre- by those who purchase for use these im-
sentatives charged with the responsibil- ported articles. Many of these things,
ity of legislative relief, the gravity of however, are raised or manufactured in
our financial situation. The failure of our own country, and the duties now
the Congress heretofore to provide against levied upon foreign goods and products are
the dangers which it was quite evident called protection to these home manufact-
the very nature of the difficulty must nee- ures, because they render it possible for
cssarily produce caused a condition of those of our people who are manufacturers
financial distress and apprehension since to make these taxed articles and soil them
your last adjournment which taxed to the for a price equal to that demanded for the
utmost all the authority and expedients imported goods that have paid customs
within executive control ; and these appear duty. So it happens that, while coin-
now to be exhausted. If disaster results paratively a few use the imported ar-
from the continued inaction of Congress, tides, millions of our people, who never
the responsibility must rest where it be- used and never saw any of the foreign
longs. products, purchase and use things of the

Though the situation thus far consider- same kind made in this country, and pay

ed is fraught with danger which should therefor nearly or quite the same en-
ii. o 209

CLEVELAND, GBOVEE

hanced price which the duty adds to to be laid upon every consumer in the
the imported articles. Those who buy land for the benefit of our manufacturers,
imports pay the duty charged thereon quite beyond a reasonable demand for gov-
into the public Treasury, but the great ernmental regard, it suits the purposes
majority of our citizens, who buy do- of advocacy to call our manufactures in-
mestic articles of the same class, pay fant industries still needing the highest
a sum at least approximately equal to this and greatest degree of favor and foster-
duty to the home manufacturer. This ing care that can be wrung from federal
reference to the operation of our tariff legislation.

laws is not made by way of instruction, It is also said that the increase in the

but in order that we may be constantly price of domestic manufactures result -

reminded of the manner in which they ing from the present tariff is necessary

impose a burden upon those who consume in order that higher wages may be paid

domestic products, as well as those who to our working-men employed in manufac-

consume imported articles, and thus ere- tories than are paid for what is called

ate a tax upon all our people. the pauper labor of Europe. All will

It is not proposed to entirely relieve acknowledge the force of an argument

the country of this taxation. It must which involves the welfare and liberal

be extensively continued as the source of compensation of our laboring people,

the government s income; and in a read- Our labor is honorable in the eyes of

justment of our tariff the interests of every American citizen; and as it lies

American labor engaged in manufacture at the foundation of our development

should be carefully considered, as well as and progress, it is entitled, without af-

the preservation of our manufacturers, fectation or hypocrisy, to the utmost rc-

It may be called protection or by any gard. The standard of our laborers life

other name, but relief from the hardships should not be measured by that of any

and dangers of our present tariff laws other country less favored, and they are

should be devised with especial precaution entitled to their full share of all our ad-

against imperilling the existence of our vantages.

manufacturing interests. But this exist- By the last census it is made to appear
ence should not mean a condition which, that, of the 17,392,000 of our population
without regard to the public welfare or a engaged in all kinds of industries, 7,670,-
national exigency, must always insure 493 are employed in agriculture, 4,074,238
the realization of immense profits instead in professional and personal service (2,-
of moderately profitable returns. As the 934,876 of whom are domestic servants
volume and diversity of our national ac- and laborers), while 1,810,256 are employ-
tivities increase, new recruits are added ed in trade and transportation, and 3,837,-
to those who desire a continuation of the 112 are classed as employed in manuf act-
advantages which they conceive the pres- iiring and mining.

ent system of tariff taxation directly af- For present purposes, however, the last
fords them. So stubbornly have all ef- number given should be considerably re-
forts to reform the present condition been duced. Without attempting to enumer-
resisted by those of our fellow-citizens ate all, it will be conceded that there
thus engaged that they can hardly com- should be deducted from those which it
plain of the suspicion, entertained to a includes 375,143 carpenters and joiners,
certain extent, that there exists an or- 285,401 milliners, dressmakers, and seam-
panized combination all along the line stresses, 172,726 blacksmiths, 133,756 tai-
to maintain their advantage. lors and tailoresses, 102,473 masons, 76,-

We are in the midst of centennial cele- 241 butchers, 41,309 bakers, 22,083 plas-

brations, and with becoming pride we terers, and 4,891 engaged in manufact-

rejoice in American skill and ingenuity, uring agricultural implements, amounti

in American energy and enterprise, and in the aggregate to 1,214,023, leaving

in the wonderful natural advantages and 2.623,089 persons employed in such manu-

resources developed by a century s nation- factoring industries as are claimed to be

al growth. Yet, when an attempt is made benefited by a high tariff.
to justify a scheme which permits a tax To these the appeal is made to save

210

CLEVELAND, GBOVEB

their employment and maintain their
wages by resisting a change. There should
be no disposition to answer such sugges
tions by the allegation that they are in
a minority among those who labor, and
therefore should forego an advantage in
the interest of low prices for the major
ity. Their compensation, as it may be
affected by the operation of tariff laws,
should at all times be scrupulously kept
in view; and yet, with slight reflection,
they will not overlook the fact that they
are consumers with the rest; that they,
too, have their own wants and those of
their families to supply from their earn
ings, and that the price of the necessaries
of life, as well as the amount of their
wages, will regulate the measure of their
welfare and comfort.

But the reduction of taxation demanded
should be so measured as not to necessi
tate or justify either the loss of employ
ment by the working-man or the lessen
ing of his wages; and the profits still
remaining to the manufacturer after a
necessary readjustment should furnish
no excuse for the sacrifice of the interests
of his employes, either in their oppor
tunity to work or in the diminution of
their compensation. Nor can the worker
in manufactures fail to understand that
while a high tariff is claimed to be neces
sary to allow the payment of remunera
tive wages, it certainly results in a very
large increase in the price of nearly all
sorts of manufactures, which, in almost
countless forms, he needs for the use of
himself and his family. He receives at the
desk of his employer his wages, and per
haps before he reaches his home is obliged,
in a purchase for family use of an article
which embraces his own labor, to return, in
the payment of the increase in price which
the tariff permits, the hard-earned com
pensation of many days of toil.

The farmer and the agriculturist, who
manufacture nothing, but who pay the in
creased price which the tariff imposes
upon every agricultural implement, upon
all he wears, and upon all he uses and
owns, except the increase of his flocks and
herds and such things as his husbandry
produces from the soil, is invited to aid in
maintaining the present situation; and
he is told that a high duty on imported
wool is necessary for the benefit of those

who have sheep to shear, in order that
the price of their wool may be increased.
They, of course, are not reminded that the
farmer who has no sheep is by this
scheme obliged, in his purchases of cloth
ing and woollen goods, to pay a tribute to
his fellow-farmer as well as to the manu
facturer and merchant, nor is any mention
made of the fact that the sheep-owners
themselves and their households must
wear clothing and use other articles manu
factured from the wool they sell at tariff
prices, and thus, as consumers, must re
turn their share of this increased price
to the tradesman.

I think it may be fairly assumed that a
large proportion of the sheep owned by the
farmers throughout the country are found
in small flocks, numbering from twenty-
five to fifty. The duty on the grade of
imported wool which these sheep yield
is 10 cents each pound if of the value of
30 cents or less, and 12 cents if of the
value of more than 30 cents. If the
liberal estimate of 6 ft. be allowed for
each fleece, the duty thereon would be
60 or 72 cents; and this may be taken
as the utmost enhancement of its price
to the farmer by reason of this duty.
Eighteen dollars would thus represent the
increased price of the wool from twenty-
five sheep, and $36 that from the wool
of fifty sheep; and at present values this
addition would amount to about one-third
of its price. If upon its sale the farmer
receives this or a less tariff profit, the
wool leaves his hands charged with pre
cisely that sum, which in all its changes
will adhere to it until it reaches the con
sumer. When manufactured into cloth
and other goods and material for use, its
cost is not only increased to the extent
of the farmer s tariff profit, but a further
sum has been added for the benefit of the
manufacturer under the operation of other
tariff laws. In the mean time the day ar
rives when the farmer finds it necessary
to purchase woollen goods and materials
to clothe himself and family for the win
ter. When he faces the tradesman for
that purpose, he discovers that he is
obliged not only to return in the way of
increased prices his tariff profit on the
wool he sold, and which then perhaps lies
before him in unmanufactured form, but
that he must add a considerable sura

211

CLEVELAND, GROVER

thereto to meet a further increase in cost one thing has been discovered which should

caused by a tariff duty on the manufact- be carefully scrutinized in an effort to

ure. Thus, in the end, he is aroused to reduce taxation.

the fact that he has paid upon a moderate The necessity of combination to main-
purchase, as a result of the tariff scheme, tain the price of any commodity to the
which when he sold his wool seemed so tariff point furnishes proof that some one
profitable, an increase in price more than is willing to accept lower prices for such
sufficient to sweep away all the tariff commodity, and that such prices are re-
profit he received upon the wool he pro- munerative; and lower prices produced
duced and sold. by competition prove the same thing.

When the number of farmers engaged in Thus, where either of these conditions

wool-raising is compared with all the exists, a case would seem to be presented

farmers in the country, and the small for an easy reduction of taxation,
proportion they bear to our population The considerations which have been pre-

is considered; when it is made apparent sented touching our tariff laws are in-

that in the case of a large part of those tended only to enforce an earnest recom-

who own sheep the benefit of the present mendation that the surplus revenues of

tariff on wool is illusory; and, above all, the government be prevented by the reduc-

when it must be conceded that the increase tion of our customs duties, and at the

of the cost of living caused by such tariff same time to emphasize a suggestion that

becomes a burden upon those with moder- in accomplishing this purpose we may dis-

ate means and the poor, the employed and charge a double duty to our people by

unemployed, the sick and well, and the granting to them a measure of relief from

young and old, and that it constitutes a tariff taxation in quarters where it is

tax which with relentless grasp is fastened most needed, and from sources where it

upon the clothing of every man, woman, can be most fairly and justly accorded,
and child in the land, reasons are sug- Nor can the presentation made of such

gested why the removal or reduction of considerations be with any degree of fair-

this duty should be included in a re- ness regarded as evidence of unfriendli-

vision of our tariff laws. ness towards our manufacturing interests

In speaking of the increased cost to or of any lack of appreciation of their

the consumer of our home manufactures value and importance. ,

resulting from a duty laid upon import- These interests constitute a leading and

ed articles of the same description, the most substantial element of our national

fact is not overlooked that competition greatness and furnish the proud proof

among our domestic producers sometimes of our country s progress. But if in

has the effect of keeping the price of the emergency that presses upon us our

their products below the highest limit manufacturers are asked to surrender

allowed by such duty. But it is notorious something for the public good and to avert

that this competition is too often stran- disaster, their patriotism, as well as a

gled by combinations quite prevalent at grateful recognition of advantages al-

this time, and frequently called trusts, ready afforded, should lead them to will-

which have for their object the regula- ing co-operation. No demand is made that

tion of the supply and price of commodi- they should forego all the benefits of gov-

ties made and sold by members of the ernmental regard; but they cannot full

combination. The people can hardly hope to be admonished of their duty, as well

for any consideration in the operation as their enlightened self-interest and safn-

of these selfish schemes. ty, when they are reminded of the fact

If, however, in the absence of such com- that financial panic and collapse, to which
bination, a healthy and free competition the present condition tends, affords no
reduces the price of any particular greater shelter or protection to our manu-
dutiable article of home production factures than to other important enter-
below the limit which it might otherwise prises. Opportunity for safe, careful, and
reach under our tariff laws, and if with deliberate reform is now afforded; and
such reduced price its manufacture con- none of us should be unmindful of a time
tinues to thrive, it is entirely evident that when an abused and irritated people, heed-

212

CLEVELAND, GBOVEB

less of those who have resisted timely The question thus imperatively pre-

and reasonable relief, may insist upon a sented for solution should be approached

radical and sweeping rectification of their in a spirit higher than partisanship, and

wrongs. considered in the light of that regard for

The difficulty attending a wise and fair patriotic duty which should characterize

revision of our tariff laws is not under- the action of those intrusted with the

estimated. It will require on the part of weal of a confiding people. But the

the Congress great labor and care, and obligation to declared party policy and

especially a broad and national contem- principle is not wanting to urge prompt

plation of the subject and a patriotic and effective action. Both of the great

disregard of such local and selfish claims political parties now represented in the

as are unreasonable and reckless of the government have, by repeated and authori-

welfare of the entire country. tative declarations, condemned the eondi-

Under our present laws more than 4,000 tion of our laws which permits the col-
articles are subject to duty. Many of these lection from the people of unnecessary
do not in any way compete with our own revenue, and have in the most solemn
manufactures, and many are hardly worth manner promised its correction ; and
attention as subjects of revenue. A con- neither as citizens nor partisans are our
siderable reduction can be made in the countrymen in a mood to condone the
aggregate by adding them to the free list, deliberate violation of these pledges.
The taxation of luxuries presents no feat- Our progress towards a wise conclusion
ures of hardship ; but the necessaries of will not be improved by dwelling upon the
life used and consumed by all the people, theories of protection and free-trade. This
the duty upon which adds to the cost savors too much of bandying epithets. It
of living in every home, should be greatly is a condition which confronts us, not a
cheapened. theory. Eelief from this condition may

The radical reduction of the duties im- involve a slight reduction of the advan-

posed upon raw material used in manu- tages which we award our home produc-

factures, or its free importation, is of tions, but the entire withdrawal of such

course an important factor in any effort to advantages should not be contemplated,

reduce the price of these necessaries. It The question of free-trade is absolutely ir-

would not only relieve them from the in- relevant, and the persistent claim made

creased cost caused by the tariff on such in certain quarters that all the efforts

material, but, the manufactured product to relieve the people from unjust and un-

being thus cheapened, that part of the necessary taxation are schemes of so-

tariff now laid upon such product, as a called free-traders is mischievous and far

compensation to our manufacturers for removed from any consideration for the

the present price of raw material, could public good.

be accordingly modified. Such reduction The simple and plain duty which we owe
or free importation would serve besides the people is to reduce taxation to the
to largely reduce the revenue. It is not necessary expenses of an economical oper-
apparent how such a change can have any ation of the government and to restore
injurious effect upon our manufacturers, to the business of the country the money
On the contrary, it would appear to give which we hold in the Treasury through
them a better chance in foreign markets the perversion of governmental powers,
with the manufacturers of other coun- These things can and should be done with
tries, who cheapen their wares by free safety to all our industries, without dan-
material. Thus our own people might ger to the opportunity for remunerative
have the opportunity of extending their labor which our working-men need, and
sales beyond the limits of home con- with benefit to them and all our people
sumption, saving them from the depression, by cheapening their means of subsistence
interruption in business, and loss caused and increasing the measure of their com-
by a glutted domestic market, and af- forts.

fording their employe s more certain and The Constitution provides that the

steady labor, with its resulting quiet and President " shall from time to time, give

contentment. to the Congress information of the state

213

CLEVELAND, GBOVER

of the Union." It has been the custom inst., I called attention to the pending
of the executive, in compliance with this boundary controversy between Great Brit-
provision, to annually exhibit to the Con- ain and the republic of Venezuela, and
gress, at the opening of its session, the recited the substance of a representation
general condition of the country, and to made by this government to her Britan-
detail with some particularity the oper- nic Majesty s government suggesting rea-
ations of the different executive depart- sons why such dispute should be sub-
ments. It would be especially agreeable to mitted to arbitration for settlement, and
follow this course at the present time, and inquiring whether it would be so sub-
to call attention to the valuable accom- mitted.

plishments of these departments during the The answer of the British government,

last fiscal year ; but I am so much impress- which was then awaited, has since been

ed with the paramount importance of the received, and, together with the despatch

subject to which this communication has to which it is a reply, is hereto appended,

thus far been devoted that I shall forego Such reply is embodied in two communi-

the addition of any other topic, and only cations addressed by the British prime

urge upon your immediate consideration minister to Sir Julian Pauncefote, the

the " state of the Union " as shown in British ambassador at this capital. It

the present condition of our Treasury and will be seen that one of these communi-

our general fiscal situation, upon which cations is devoted exclusively to obser-

every element of our safety and pros- vations upon the Monroe Doctrine, and

perity depends. claims that in the present instance a new

The reports of the heads of depart- and strange extension and development

ments, which will be submitted, contain of this doctrine is insisted on by the

full and explicit information touching United States, that the reasons justify-

the transaction of the business intrusted ing an appeal to the doctrine enunciated

to them, and such recommendations re by President Monroe are generally in-

lating to legislation in the public interest applicable " to the state of things in

as they deem advisable. I ask for these which we live at the present day," and

reports and recommendations the deliber- especially inapplicable to a controversy

ate examination and action of the legis- involving the boundary-line between Great

lative branch of the government. Britain and Venezuela.

There are other subjects not embraced Without attempting extended argument
in the departmental reports demanding in reply to these positions, it may not be
legislative consideration, and which I amiss to suggest that the doctrine upon
should be glad to submit. Some of them, which we stand is strong and sound be-
however, have been earnestly presented cause its enforcement is important to our
in previous messages, and as to them I beg peace and safety as a nation, and is essen-
leave to repeat prior recommendations. tial to the integrity of our free institu-

As the law makes no provision for any tions and the tranquil maintenance of our

leport from the Department of State, a distinctive form of government. It is

brief history of the transactions of that intended to apply to every stage of

important department, together with other our national life, and cannot become

matters which it may hereafter be deemed obsolete while our republic endures. If

essential to commend to the attention of the balance of power is justly a cause

the Congress, may furnish the occasion for for jealous anxiety among the govern-

a future communication. ments of the Old World and a subject

The Venezuela Boundary. On Dec. 17, for our absolute non-interference, none the
1895, President Cleveland sent the follow- less is an observance of the Monroe Doc-
ing message to Congress concerning the trine of vital concern to our people and
dispute between Great Britain and Venez- their government.

uela on the boundary question and its Assuming, therefore, that we may prop-
relation to the Monroe Doctrine: erly insist upon this doctrine without
regard to " the state of things in which

To the Congress. In my annual mes- we live," or any changed conditions here

sage addressed to the Congress on the 3d or elsewhere, it is not apparent why its

214

CLEVELAND, GBOVER

changed application may not be invoked ed claims. Nor is this ignored in the

in the present controversy. British reply. The prime minister, while

If a European power, by an extension not admitting that the Monroe Doctrine

of its boundaries, takes possession of the is applicable to present conditions, states:

territory of one of our neighboring re- " In declaring that the United States

publics against its will and in derogation would resist any such enterprise if it

of its rights, it is difficult to see why, to were contemplated, President Monroe

that extent, such European power does adopted a policy which received the en-

not thereby attempt to extend its system tire sympathy of the English govern-

of government to that portion of this ment of that date." He further declares:

continent which is thus taken. This " Though the language of President Mon-

is the precise action which President Mon- roe is directed to the attainment of ob-

roe declared to be " dangerous to our peace jects which most Englishmen would agree

and our safety," and it can make no dif- to be salutary, it is impossible to admit

ference whether the European system is that they have been inscribed by any ade-

extended by an advance of frontier or quate authority in the code of internation-

otherwise. al law."

It is also suggested in the British re- Again he says: "They (her Majesty s
ply that we should not seek to apply the government) fully concur with the view
Monroe Doctrine to the pending dispute which President Monroe apparently en-
because it does not embody any principle tertained, that any disturbance of the ex-
of international law which " is founded isting territorial distribution in that hem-
on the general consent of nations," and isphere by any fresh acquisitions on the
that " no statesman, however eminent, and part of any European state would be a
no nation, however powerful, are compe- highly inexpedient change."
tent to insert into the code of internation- In the belief that the doctrine for which
al law a novel principle which was never we contend was clear and definite, that
recognized before, and which has not since it was founded upon substantial considera-
been accepted by the government of any tions and involved our safety and wel-
other country." fare, that it was fully applicable to our

Practically, the principle for which we present conditions and to the state of the

contend has peculiar, if not exclusive, world s progress, and that it was directly

relation to the United States. It may related to the pending controversy, and

not have been admitted in so many words without any conviction as to the final

to the code of international law, but since merits of the dispute, but anxious to

in international councils every nation is learn in a satisfactory and conclusive

entitled to the rights belonging to it, if manner whether Great Britain sought,

the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine under a claim of boundary, to extend

is something we may justly claim, it has her possessions on this continent without

its place in the code of international law right, or whether she merely sought pos-

as certainly and as securely as if it were session of territory fairly included within

specifically mentioned, and when the her lines of ownership, this government

United States is a suitor before the high proposed to the government of Great

tribunal that administers international Britain a resort to arbitration as the

law the question to be determined is proper means of settling the question, to

whether or not we present claims which the end that a vexatious boundary dispute

the justice of that code of law can find between the two contestants might be de-

to be right and valid. termined and our exact standing and re-

The Monroe Doctrine finds its recogni- lation in respect to the controversy might

tion in those principles of international be made clear.

law which are based upon the theory that It will be seen from the correspondence

every nation shall have its rights pro- herewith submitted that this proposition

tected and its just claims enforced. has been declined by the British govern-

Of course this government is entirely ment, upon grounds which, in the circum-

confident that under the sanction of this stances, seem to me to be far from satis-

doctrine we have clear rights and undoubt- factory. It is deeply disappointing that

215

CLEVELAND CLINTON

euch an appeal, actuated by the most In making these recommendations I am

friendly feelings towards both nations di- fully alive to the responsibility incurred,

rectly concerned, addressed to the sense of and keenly realize all the consequences

justice and to the magnanimity of one of that may follow.

the great powers of the world and touch- I am, nevertheless, firm in my convic-
ing its relations to one comparatively tion that while it is a grievous thing to
weak and small, should have produced no contemplate the two great English-speak-
better results. ing peoples of the world as being other-
The course to be pursued by this gov- wise than friendly competitors in the on-
ernment, in view of the present condition, ward march of civilization and strenuous
does not appear to admit of serious doubt, and worthy rivals in all the arts of peace,
Having labored faithfully for many years there is no calamity which a great nation
to induce Great Britain to submit this can invite which equals that which fol-
dispute to impartial arbitration, and hav- lows a supine submission to wrong and
ing been now finally apprised of her re- injustice and the consequent loss of na-
fusal to do so, nothing remains but to ac- tional self-respect and honor, beneath
cept the situation, to recognize its plain which are shielded and defended a people s
requirements, and deal with it according- safety and greatness.

ly. Great Britain s present proposition For the results of this message, see

has never thus far been regarded as admis- VENEZUELA.

sible by Venezuela, though any adjust- Clifford, NATHAN, jurist; born in
ment of the boundary which that country Rumney, N. H., Aug. 18, 1803; grad-
may deem for her advantage and may en- uated at the Hampton Literary Institu-
ter into of her own free will cannot of tion; settled in York county, Me., after
course be objected to by the United States, being admitted to the bar; member of
Assuming, however, that the attitude of Congress in 1839-43; appointed attorney-
Venezuela will remain unchanged, the dis- general of the United States in 1846; and
pute has reached such a stage as to make in 1848 went to Mexico as United States
it now incumbent upon the United States commissioner to arrange terms for the
to take measures to determine with suf- cession of California to the United States.
ficient certainty for its justification what In 1849 he resumed practice in Maine;
is the true divisional line between the re- in 1858 was appointed an associate justice
public of Venezuela and British Guiana, of the United States Supreme Court, and
The inquiry to that end should of course in 1877 was president of the ELECTORAL
be conducted carefully and judicially, COMMISSION (q. v.). He published Unit-
and due weight should be given to all cd States Circuit Court Reports. He died
available evidence, records, and facts in in Cornish, Me., July 25, 1881.
support of the claims of both parties. Clingman, THOMAS LAMER, legislator;
In order that such an examination born in Huntsville, N. C., July 27, 1812;
should be prosecuted in a thorough and graduated at the University of North
satisfactory manner, I suggest that the Carolina in 1832; settled in Asheville,
Congress make an adequate appropriation N. C. ; United States Senator from 1858
for the expenses of a commission, to be till 1861, when he resigned, with other
appointed by the executive, who shall members from the Southern States. He
make the necessary investigation and re- joined the Confederate army, and was
port upon the matter with the least pos- made a brigadier-general in May, 1862.
sible delay. When such report is made In 1855 he located the highest point of
and accepted it will, in my opinion, be the Black Mountain, which has since been
the duty of the United States to resist, known as " Clingman s Peak"; and he
by every means in its power, as a wilful also discovered the highest point of the
aggression upon its rights and interests. Smoky Mountain in 1858, now known
the appropriation by Great Britain of any as " Clingman s Dome." He died in Mor-
lands or the exercise of governmental ju- ganto\vn, N. C., Nov. 3, 1897.
risdiction over any territory which, after Clinton, CHARLES, immigrant; born in
investigation, we have determined of right Longford, Ireland, in 1690. With a num-
belongs to Venezuela. bcr of relatives and friends, he sailed

216

CLINTON

from Ireland for America in May, 1729.
His destination was Philadelphia; but the
captain of the vessel, with a view to
their destruction by starvation, so as
to obtain their property, landed them on
barren Cape Cod, after receiving large
sums of money as commutation for their
lives. Clinton and his family and friends
made their way to Ulster county, about
00 miles up the Hudson and 8 miles from
it, in 1731, and there formed a settlement,
he pursuing the occupation of farmer
and surveyor. He was justice of the
peace, county judge, and lieutenant-colo
nel of Ulster county, to which he gave
its name. Two of his four sons were gen
erals in the war for independence, and
his youngest (George) was governor of
the State of New York and Vice-President
of the United States. He died in Ulster
(now Orange) county, N. Y., Nov. 19,
1773.

Clinton, DE WITT, statesman; born in
Little Britain, Orange co., N. Y., March
2, 1769; graduated at Columbia Col-

DE WITT CLINTON.

lege in 1786; studied law, and was ad
mitted to the bar in 1788, but practised
very little. He was private secretary to
his uncle George, governor of New York,
in 1790-95, in favor of whose administra
tion he wrote much in the newspapers. He
was in the Assembly of his State in 1797,
and from 1798 to 1802 was a Democratic
leader in the State Senate. He was
mayor of New York City in 1803-7, 1809-
10, and 1811-14. He was an earnest
promoter of the establishment of the New

217

York Historical Society and the Ameri
can Academy of Fine Arts. Opposed to
the War of 1812-15, he was the Peace
candidate for the Presidency in 1812, but
was defeated by James Madison. Mr.
Clinton was one of the founders and first
president of the Literary and Philo
sophical Society in New York, and was
one of the most efficient promoters of
the construction of the Erie Canal. In
1817-22, and in 1824-27, he was governor
of New York. He was the most conspicu
ous actor in the imposing ceremonies at
the opening of the Erie Canal in the fall
of 1825, when, outside the Narrows, he
poured a vessel of water from Lake Erie
into the Atlantic Ocean, as significant of
their wedding. He died in Albany, N. Y.,
Feb. 11, 1828.

Clinton, GEORGE, naval officer and co
lonial governor; youngest son of Francis,
sixth Earl of Lincoln, and rose to dis
tinction in the British navy. In 1732 he
was commissioned a commodore and gov
ernor of Newfoundland. In September,
1743, he was appointed governor of the
colony of New York, and retained that
office ten years. His administration was
a tumultuous one, for his temperament
and want of skill in the management of
civil affairs unfitted him for the duties.
He was unlettered ; and being closely con
nected with the Dukes of Newcastle and
Bedford, he was sent to New York to
mend his fortune. In his controversies
with the Assembly he was ably assisted
by the pen of Dr. Cadwallader Colden,
afterwards lieutenant-governor of the prov
ince. His chief opponent was Daniel
Horsmanden, at one time chief -justice of
the colony. After vio ent quarrels with
all the political factions in New York,
he abandoned the government in disgust,
and returned home in 17.&gt;3. He became
governor of Greenwich Hospital a sine
cure. In 1745 he was vice-admiral of the
red, and in 1757 admiral of the fleet. He
died while governor of Newfoundland,
July 10, 1761.

Clinton, GEORGE, Vice-President of the
United States from 1805 to 1812; Re
publican; born in Little Britain, Ulster
co., N. Y., July 26, 1739; was care
fully educated by his father and a Scotch
clergyman, a graduate of the University
of Aberdeen. In early youth George made

CLINTON

a successful cruise in a privateer in the he was opposed, because it would be de-
ch and Indian War, and soon after- structive of State supremacy. In 1801 he
wards joined a militia company, as lieu- was again elected governor of New York,
tenant, under his brother James, in the
expedition against Fort Frontenac in
1758. He chose the profession of law,
studied it with William Smith, and be
came distinguished in it in his native
county. In 1768 he was elected a mem
ber of the Provincial Assembly, wherein
he soon became the head of a Whig mi
nority. In 1775 he was elected to the
Continental Congress, and voted for the
resolution for independence in 1776; but
the invasion of New York by the British
from the sea called him home, and he did
not sign the Declaration of Independence.
He was appointed a brigadier-general, and
as such performed good service in his
State. On the organization of the State
of New York, in 1777, he was elected the
first governor, and held the office, by suc
cessive elections, eighteen years. He was
very energetic, both in civil and military
affairs, until the end of the war; and
was chiefly instrumental in preventing the
consummation of the British plan for
separating New England from the rest of
the Union by the occupation of a line
of military posts, through the Hudson and

CLINTON S MOXUMKXT.

and in 1804 was chosen Vice-President of
the United States. In 1808 he was a
prominent candidate for the Presidency,
but was beaten by Madison, and was re-
elected Vice-President. By his casting-
vote in the Senate of the United States,
the renewal of the charter of the Bank of
the United States was refused. While in
the performance of his official duties at
Washington, he died, April 20, 1812. His
remains rest beneath a handsome white
marble monument in the Congressional
Cemetery in Washington.

Clinton, SIR HENRY, military officer;
born in 1738; was a son of George Clin-

Champlain valleys, from New York to the ton, colonial governor of New York. He
St. Lawrence. In 1788 Governor Clinton entered the army when quite young, and
presided over the convention held at had risen to the rank of major-general in
Poughkeepsie to consider the new na- 1775, when he was sent to America with
tional Constitution. TO that instrument Howe and Burgoyne. He participated in

218

GKORGK CI.IXTOX.

CLINTON

the battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775),
and was thereafter active in service
against the oppressed colonists until June,
1782, when he returned to England. He

SIE HEN-RY CLINTON.

succeeded General Howe as commander-
in-chief of the British forces in America
in January, 1778.

In October, 1777, Sir Henry undertook
a diversion in favor of General Burgoyne,
then making his way towards Albany from
Canada, in accordance with the British

on a marauding excursion, hoping to draw
Gates from Burgoyne s front to protect
the country below. On the day after the
capture of the forts Sir Henry wrote on
a piece of tissue-paper the following de
spatch to Burgoyne: "Nous y void [here
we are], and nothing between us and
Gates. I sincerely hope this little suc
cess of ours may facilitate your opera
tions. In answer to your letter of the
28th September by C. C., I shall only say
I cannot presume to order, or even advise,
for reasons obvious. I heartily wish
you success. Faithfully yours, H. CLIN
TON." This despatch was enclosed in an
elliptical silver bullet, made so as to sep
arate at the centre, and of a size (as de
lineated in the engraving) small enough
to be swallowed by a man, if necessary. He
intrusted it to a messenger who made his
way north on the west side of the river,
and, being suspected when in the camp of
George Clinton back of New Windsor, was
arrested. When brought before General
Clinton, he was seen to cast something into
his mouth. An emetic was administered
to him, which brought the silver bullet
from his stomach. The despatch was
found in it, and the prisoner
was executed as a spy at
Hurley, a few miles from
Kingston, while that village
was in flames lighted by the
British marauders. Sir

CLINTON S DESPATCH AND BI-LLKT.

plan of conquest. Clinton, with a strong Henry died in Gibraltar, Spain, Dec. 23,
land and naval force, had captured Forts 1795.

Clinton and Montgomery, in the Hudson Clinton, JAMES, military officer; born
Highlands (Oct. 6), and sent forces of in Ulster (now Orange) county, N. Y., Aug.
both arms of the service up the river 9, 1736; son of Charles Clinton; was well

219

CLINTON, FORT

educated, but he had a strong inclination son Highlands were three forts of con-
for military life. Before the beginning of siderable strength, but with feeble garri-
the Revolutionary War he was lieuten- sons Fort Constitution, opposite West
ant-colonel of the militia of Ulster county. Point, and Forts Clinton and Montgom-
He was a captain under Bradstreet in the ery, on the west side of the river at the
capture of Fort Frontenac in 1758; and he lower entrance to the Highlands, standing
afterwards was placed in command of four on opposite sides of a creek, with high,
regiments for the protection of the fron- rocky shores. From Fort Montgomery
tiers of Ulster and Orange counties a po- on the northern side of the stream, to
sition of difficulty and danger. When the Anthony s Nose, opposite, the Americans
war for independence broke out, he was had stretched a boom and chain across the
appointed colonel of the 3d New York Reg- river to prevent the passage of hostile
iment (June 30, 1775), and accompanied vessels up that stream. Forts Clinton
Montgomery to Quebec. Made a briga- and Montgomery were under the immedi-
dier-general in August, 1776, he was ac- ate command of Gov. George Clinton,
tive in the service; and was in command of and his brother Gen. James Clinton!
Fort Clinton, in the Hudson Highlands. Tories had informed Sir Henry Clinton
when it was attacked in October, 1777. of the weakness of the garrisons, and as

soon as expected reinforcements from
Europe had arrived, he prepared trans
ports to ascend the river. He sailed (Oct.
4, 1777) with more than 3,000 troops, in
many armed and unarmed vessels, com
manded by Commodore Hotham, and land
ed them at Verplanck s Point, a few miles
below Peekskill, then the headquarters of
General Putnam, commander of the High
land posts. He deceived Putnam by a
feigned attack on Peekskill, but the more
sagacious Governor Clinton believed he
designed to attack the Highland forts.
Under cover of a dense fog, on the morn
ing of the 6th, Sir Henry re-embarked
2,000 troops, crossed the river, and landed
them on Stony Point, making a circuitous
march around the Dunderberg to fall
upon the Highland forts. At the same
time, his armed vessels were ordered to
anchor within point-blank-shot distance

In 1779 he joined Sullivan s expedition of these forts, to beat off any American
against the Senecas with 1,500 men. He vessels that might appear above the
was stationed at Albany during a great boom and chain. Sir Henry divided his
part of the war ; but he was present at the forces. One party, led by General
surrender of Cornwallis. General Clinton Vaughan, and accompanied by the baronet
was a commissioner to adjust the boun- (about 200 strong), went through a defile
dary-line between New York and Pennsyl- west of the Dundorberg, to strike Fort
vania; and was a member of both the As- Clinton, while another party (900
sembly and Senate of the State of New strong), led by Colonel Campbell, made
York. He died in Little Britain, N. Y., a longer march, back of Bear Mountain,
Dec. 22, 1812. to fall on Fort Montgomery at the same

Clinton, FORT, CAPTURE OF. While time. Vaughan had a severe skirmish
Burgoyne was contending with Gates on with troops sent out from Fort Clinton,
the upper Hudson, in 1777, Sir Henry on the borders of Lake Sinnipink, near
Clinton was attempting to make his way it: at the same time the governor sent a
up the river, to join him or to make a messenger to Putnam for aid. The mes-
diversion in his favor. Among the Hud- senger, instead, deserted to the British.

220

JAME.S Cl.IXTON.

GLITZ CLUB

Campbell and his men appeared before he was wounded twice in the battle at
Fort Montgomery at 5 P.M. and demand- Gaines s Mills; and after passing a month
ed the surrender of both forts. It was jn Libby prison was exchanged and ap-
refused, when a simultaneous attack pointed commandant at West Point; bre-

OtH. tWTN/IM WITH iOOO
CHOCK VOl/RING TO
C ftOSt THE RIVLP.

FORTS CLINTON

MOHTGOMtRf

by both divisions and by the vessels vetted brigadier-general in March, 18&lt;&gt;o;
in the river was made. The garrison retired July 1, 1885; was last seen alive
(chiefly militia) made a gallant defence at Niagara Falls, Oct. 30, 1888.
until dark, when they were overpowered Closure, a method of terminating de-
and sought safety in a scattered retreat bates; adopted by the British Parliament
to the adjacent mountains. The governor on Feb. 9, 1881, but not used until Feb.
fled across the river, and at midnight was 24, 1884. Since then it has been fre-
in the camp of Putnam, planning future quently called into use. It is also freely
operations. His brother, badly wounded, used in the French Senate and Chamber of
made his way over the mountains to his Deputies. In the United States House of
home at New Windsor. Some American Representatives a debate can be clo^otl
vessels lying above the boom, unable to by adopting the previous question, but
escape, were burned by their crews. By in the United States Senate there can be
the light of this conflagration the fugitive no closure under the present rules. De-
garrisons found their way through the bates there are brought to a close by
mountains to settlements beyond. general consent, which is sometimes
Glitz, HENRY BOYNTON, military offi- forced through physical exhaustion of
cer; born in Sackett s Harbor, N. Y., those opposing a vote.
July 4, 1824; graduated at the Unit- Cldture. See CLOSURE.
ed States Military Academy in 1845; Clubs, originally a few persons of kin-
served in the Mexican War, and for brav- dred tastes and pursuits, meeting at
cry at Cerro Gordo received the brevet stated times for social intercourse. They
of first lieutenant. During the Civil War may be political, literary, scientific, fine

221

CLTJSEBET COAL

arts, business or commercial, athletic, ing the war for independence, and a

etc.; and clubs of these classes are es- member of the council of safety in Phila-

tablished in all of the principal cities of delphia. In July, 1775, he was made joint

the United States. Political clubs often treasurer of Pennsylvania with Mr. Hille-

exert great influence in public affairs, gas; and when, in December, 1776, Con-

The oldest club in the United States is gress fled to Baltimore, Clymer was one

the Wistar Club, established in Phila- of the commissioners left in Philadelphia

delphia in 1833, and the next, the Union to attend to the public interests. In 1777

Club, of New York City, established in he was a commissioner to treat with the

1836. Indians at Fort Pitt; and in 1780 he as-

In the early part of the Civil War, sisted in organizing the Bank of North

Union League clubs were established in America. At the close of the war he

all the cities and towns in the Northern made his residence at Princeton, N. J. ;

States, and exerted a powerful influence and in 1784 was a member of the Pennsyl-

in maintaining patriotic sentiments in vania legislature. In 1787 he was a mem-

their communities. They partook some- ber of the convention that framed the

what of the character of secret and fra- national Constitution, and was a mem-

ternal organizations. A few of the largest ber of the first Congress under it. A col-

and wealthiest ones are still in existence, lector of the excise duties in 1791 which

the others having gradually disbanded a led to the WHISKEY INSURRECTION (q. v.) ,

few years after the close of the war. A and serving on a commission to treat with

striking feature of modern club-life in Southern Indians, Mr. Clymer, after con-

the United States is found in the large eluding a treaty (in June, 1796), with-

and constantly growing number of clubs drew from public life. He was one of

organized by and for women exclusively, the founders of the Pennsylvania Agri-

Of these the most conspicuous example cultural Society, the Pennsylvania Acad-

is the Sorosis, of New York City, found- emy of Fine Arts, and the Pennsylvania

ed in 1868, and claiming to be the first Bank. He died in Morrisville, Pa., Jan.

distinctively women s club in the country. 23, 1813.

The growth of these clubs reached an ex- Coal. The business of coal-mining in

tent in 1892 which warranted the or- the United States for commercial purposes

ganization of the Central Federation of has entirely grown up since 1825. It was

Women s Clubs, which has in affiliation known before the Revolution that coal ex-

with it over 2,700 women s clubs, repre- isted in Pennsylvania. As early as 1769,

senting a membership of 200,000. a blacksmith, Obadiah Gore, in the Wy-

Cluseret, GUSTAVE PAUL, military offi- oming Valley, used coal found lying on

cer; born in Paris, France, June 13, 1823; the surface of the ground. Forty years

ca^ne to., the United States in January, afterwards he tried the successful experi-

1862; enlisted in the Union army and was nient of burning it in a grate for fuel,

made aide-de-camp to General McClellan, During the Revolution anthracite coal was

and received the brevet of brigadier-gen- used in the armory at Carlisle, Pa., for

eral of volunteers in 1862 for bravery in blacksmiths fires. In 1790 an old hunter,

the battle of Cross Keys. On March 2, Philip Gintner, in the Lehigh Valley, dis-

1863, he resigned from the army, and the covered coal near the present Mauch Chunk,

next year became editor of the New Na- In 1792 the Lehigh Coal-Mining Company

tion, a weekly published in New York was formed for mining it, but it did little

City. In this paper he strongly opposed more than purchase lands. In 1806 200

the renomination of Lincoln and favored or 300 bushels were taken to Philadelphia,

Fremont. He was the author of a num- but experiments to use it for ordinary fuel

ber of articles on The Situation in the failed. In 1812 Col. George Shoemaker

United States, which were published in took nine wagon-loads to Philadelphia, but

the Courier Frcwgais. He returned to could not sell it. It was soon afterwards

France in 1867; died Aug. 23, 1900. used with success in rolling-mills in Del-

Clymer, GEORGE, signer of the Declara- aware county, and it soon found pur-

tion of Independence; born in Philadel- chasers elsewhere. But it was not until

phia in 1739; was an active patriot dur- 1825 that the coal-trade began to assume

222

COAN COBB

notable proportions, when anthracite was A^DEB DALLAS BACHE (q. v.) . On his

used in factories and in private houses for death, in 1867, PROF. BENJAMIN PEIRCE

fuel. The whole amount of anthracite (q. v.) was made superintendent. Profes-

sent to market in 1820 was 365 tons. The sor Bache greatly extended the scope of

entire product of the country in the cal- the survey, including an investigation of

endar year 1902 was 260,216,844 short the Gulf Stream, the laws of tides, and

tons of bituminous, spot value, $290.858,- their ebb and flow in harbors and rivers,

483; and 41,373,595 short tons of Penn- so that navigators might have complete

sylvania anthracite, spot value, $76,173,- information concerning tide-waters of the

586. United States. The observations and in-

Coan, TITUS, missionary: born in Kill- vestigations also include meteorological
ingsworth, Conn., Feb. 1, 1801; grad- charts changes in the weather in differ-
uated at Auburn Theological Seminary in ent seasons at various points, and the
1833. With his wife and six others he laws of storms. During the Civil War
sailed for Hawaii, Dec. 5, 1834, and reach- the work ceased on the Southern coasts,
ed Honolulu in July, 1835. His labors for the Confederates captured some of the
met with great success. In 1838-40 he vessels employed in the survey; and offi-
made over 7,000 converts, and his subse- cers and pilots engaged in the work were
quent efforts increased this number to transferred to service in the navy, and,
13,000. His publications include Life in with their minute knowledge of the
Hawaii, etc. He died in Hilo, Hawaii, coasts, greatly assisted in the national op-
Dec. 1, 1882. erations there. Professor Peirce still

Coast and Geodetic Survey, UNITED further extended the survey, so as
STATES, a national undertaking for the to constitute a great national trian-
security of the vast commerce upon the gulation a geodetic survey intended to
very extended and often dangerous coasts embrace the shores of the Atlantic and
of the United States. It is believed that Pacific oceans within its limits, and to
to Professor Patterson, of Philadelphia, form, by means of triangulation, a grand
is due the honor of having first suggested chain across the continent. The opera-
to President Jefferson the idea of a geodet- tions of " field-work " are carried on
ic survey of the coast. Mr. Gallatin was simultaneously at many points on the
then Secretary of the Treasury, and warm- coast. The Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf
ly approved the measure. The first at- coasts are divided into sections, each hav-
tempt to organize a national coast sur- ing its triangulation, astronomical, topo-
vey, " for the purpose of making complete graphical, and hydrographical parties, all
charts of our coasts, with the adjacent working independently, but upon the same
shoals and soundings," was made in 1807. system, so that the whole will form a
Congress authorized such a survey, and connected survey from Maine to Texas
appropriated $50,000 for the purpose. Mr. and from San Diego to the 49th parallel
Gallatin, with great assiduity, gathered on the Pacific. The coast of ALASKA
information for scientific uses. A plan (q. v.) , since its acquisition, has been add-
proposed by F. R. HASSLER (q. v.) was ed to the field of operations, and a very
adopted, but, on account of political dis- large amount has been done and projected
turbances in Europe and America, noth- there. The whole work is under the con
ing was done in the matter until 1811, trol of the Treasury Department, while a
when Mr. Hassler was sent to Europe for superintendent, Henry S. Pritchett, in
instruments and standards of measure. 1901, directs a-11 the details of the work.
The War of 1812-15 detained him abroad, governs the movements of the parties, and
On his return, in 1815, he was formally controls the expenditures,
appointed superintendent, and entered Cobb, DAVID, military officer; born in
upon the duties in 1816, near the city of Attleboro, Mass., Sept. 14, 1748; grad-
New York; but in less than two years it uated at Harvard College in 1766; be-
was discontinued. Mr. Hassler resumed came a physician; member of the Pro-
it in 1832, and the work has been carried vincial Congress in 1775; aide-de-camp to
on continually ever since. Mr. Hassler Washington for a number of years; and
died in 1842, and was succeeded by ALEX- brevetted brigadier-general at the close of

223

COBB COBBETT

the Revolutionary War. Washington as- ordered 2,000 copies of this work for pub-
signed him the duty of providing enter- lie distribution to promote the eultiva-
tainment for the French officers, and of tion of mulberry-trees. In 1835 Mr. Cobb
making terms for the evacuation of New became superintendent of the first silk-
York. He was a member of Congress in manufacturing company organized in New
1793-95; lieutenant-governor of Massa- England. He died in Dedham, Mass.,
chusetts in 1809. He died in Taunton, March 12, 1882.

Mass., April 17, 1839. Cobb, JOSEPH BECKIIAM, author; born

Cobb, HOWELL, statesman; born in in Oglethorpe county, Ga., April 11, 1819;
Cherry Hill, Jefferson co., Ga., Sept. 7, educated at Franklin College, Ga., set-
1815; was a lawyer by profession, and tied in Noxubee county, Miss., in 1838.
was solicitor-general of the Western cir- His publications include The Creole, or
cuit of Georgia from 1837 to 1841; a the Siege of New Orleans (a novel);
member of Congress from 1843 to 1851; Mississippi Scenes, or Sketches of South-
speaker of the 31st Congress; and gov- ern and Western Life and Adventure, etc.
ernor of Georgia from 1851 to 1853. He He died in Columbus, Ga., Sept. 15, 1858.
was again elected to Congress in 1855, Cobb, THOMAS R. R., lawyer; born in

Cherry Hill, Ga., April 10, 1823; grad
uated at the University of Georgia in
1841 ; member of the Confederate Con
gress; general in the Confederate army.
His publications include Digest of the
Laws of Georgia; Inquiry into the Law
of Negro Slavery in the United States;
and Historical Sketch of Slavery, from
the Earliest Periods. He was killed in
the battle of Fredericksburg, Va., Dec. 13,
1862.

Cobbett, WILLIAM, journalist; born in
Farnham, Surrey, England, March 9,
1762; was the self-educated son of a farm
er, and in early manhood was eight years
in the army, rising to the rank of ser-
geant-major. He obtained his discharge
HOWELL COBB. in 1791, married, and came to America in

1792, when he became a pamphleteer,

and was Secretary of the Treasury under bookseller, and journalist, having estab-
President Buchanan from 1857 to 1860. lished Peter Porcupine s Gazette in 1794.
He was a zealous promoter of the Con- He attacked Dr. Rush, of Philadelphia,
federate cause in 1860-61, and was chosen because of his treatment of yellow-fever
president of the convention at Montgom- cases, especially of his blood - letting,
ery, Ala., that organized the Confederate Rush prosecuted him for libel, and ob-
government Feb. 4, 1861. He became a tained a verdict for $5,000 damages,
brigadier - general in the Confederate That suit had been brought to a trial on
army; and at the close of the war he op- the day of Washington s death (Dec. 14,
posed the reconstruction measures of the 1799), and Cobbett remarked that it was
national government. He died in New a singular coincidence that while the
York City, Oct. 9, 1868. great patriot was dying in consequence of

Cobb, JONATHAN HOLMES, manufact- the too free use of the lancet, he should
urer; born in Sharon, Mass., July 8, be mulcted in a verdict of $5,000 for ex-
1799; graduated at Harvard College in posing and ridiculing the dangerous prac-
1817: and was one of the first to in- tice in yellow fever. In anticipation of
troduce the manufacture of silk in the the verdict, Cobbett stopped the publica-
United States. In 1831 he published tion of his paper and removed to New
Manual of the Mulberry-Tree and the Cult- York, where he was threatened with im-
ure of Silk. Two years later Congress prisonment, but procured bail. There he

224

COBDEN CLUB

issued a series of vigorous pamphlets, later aided in the attack on NEW OR-
called Rush Lights, in which he exhibited, LEANS (q. v.) . He was made admiral of
in vivid colors, the various phases of char- the blue in 1819. He died in Paris,
acter of all engaged in his prosecution. France, Jan. 20, 1832.
Then he went back to England, and issued Cockburn, SIR GEORGE, naval officer;
Porcupine s Works, in 12 octavo volumes, born in London, England, April 22, 1772;
which sold largely on both sides of the entered the royal navy in 1783, and was
Atlantic. In these he exhibited such pict- rear-admiral in 1812. During the spring
u res of his American enemies that he and summer of 1813 a most distressing
tasted the sweets of revenge. In 1802 he warfare was carried on upon land and wa-
began his famous Weekly Political Regis- ter by a British squadron, under his corn
ier, which he conducted with ability about mand, along the coasts between Delaware
thirty years, but which caused him to Bay and Charleston Harbor. It was mark-
incur fines and imprisonment because of ed by many acts of cruelty. " Chastise
his libellous utterances. He again came the Americans into submission" was the
to the United States in 1817, but returned substance of the order given to Cock-
to England in 1819, taking with him the burn by the British cabinet, and he seem-
bones of Thomas Paine. He continued the ed to be a willing servant of the will of
business of writing and publishing, and his government. An Order in Council, is-
many of his books, written in vigorous sued on Dec. 20, 1812, declared the ports
Anglo-Saxon, are very useful. He enter- and harbors of much of the American
ed Parliament in 1832, and was a. member coast in a state of blockade. Cockburn
three years. He died in Farnham, June entered between the capes of Virginia
18, 1835. early in February, 1813, with a squadron,

Cobden Club, a club instituted in Lon- of which his flag-ship was the Marlbor-

don for the purpose of putting into prac- ough, seventy-four guns. This squadron

tical application the principles of Richard bore a land force of about 1,800 men, a

Cobden. Its first annual dinner was held part of them captive Frenchmen from

July 21, 1866, with William E. Gladstone British prisons, who preferred active life

in the chair. Its active membership in- in the British service to indefinite con
cludes many of the best-known statesmen
of Great Britain, and among its honorary
members are quite a number of well-known
Americans, several of whom have been sub
jected to severe political criticism be
cause of their connection with the club.

Cochran, JOHN, surgeon ; born in Suds- SIR GEORGK COCKBURN S SIGNATCRK.

bury. Pa., Sept. 1, 1730; was a surgeon s

mate in the French and Indian War; ap- fmement in jails. The appearance of this
pointed surgeon-general in the army in force alarmed all lower Virginia ; and the
1776: and commissioned director-general militia of the Peninsula and about Nor-
of hospitals by Congress in 1781. When folk were soon in motion after the squad-
peace was concluded he settled in New ron had entered Hampton Roads. The
York, and was appointed commissioner of Secretary of the Treasury ordered the ex
loans for that State. He died in Pala- tinguishment of all the beacon-lights on
tine, N. Y., April 6, 1807. the Chesapeake coast. At the same time

Cochrane, SIR ALEXANDER FORESTER the frigate Constellation, thirty-eight guns,
INGLIS, British naval officer; born April lying at Norfolk, was making ready to
22, 1758; won great distinction in the attack the British vessels. A part of
wars with the United States and France, the British squadron went into Delaware
but most particularly in an unequal en- Bay, but the forewarned militia were
gagement with five French ships in Chesa- ready for the marauders, who only attack-
peake Bay. In the War of 1812-15 he ed the village of Lewiston.
was commander of the American station. On April 3, 1813, a flotilla of a dozen
In August, 1814, he participated with the boats filled with armed men from the Brit-
land forces in capturing Washington, and ish fleet, under Lieutenant Polkingthorne,
H. P 225

COCKBURN COCKEAN

of the St. Domingo, seventy-four guns, en- privateers, and captured both. The crew

tered the Rappahannock River and attack- of one escaped, and gave the alarm at

ed the Baltimore privateer Dolphin, ten Newbcrn. The British boats proceeded to

guns, Captain Stafford, and three armed attack that place, but found it too well

schooners prepared to sail for France. The prepared to warrant their doing so. They

three smaller vessels were soon taken, but captured Portsmouth, and plundered the

the struggle with the Dolphin was severe, country around. They decamped in haste

She was boarded, and for fifteen minutes (July 16), carrying with them cattle and

a contest raged fearfully on her deck, other property, and many slaves, to whom

when the Dolphin struck her colors. Cock- they falsely promised their freedom,

burn now went up the Chesapeake with These, and others obtained the same way,

the brigs Fantome and Hohaick, and the Cockburn sold in the West Indies on his

tenders Dolphin, Racer, and Highflyer, and private account.

proceeded to destroy Frenchtown, a hamlet Leaving Pamlico Sound, the marauders
of about a dozen houses on the west went down the coast, stopping at and
coast of Delaware. Cockburn made the plundering Dewees s and Capers s islands,
Fantome his flag-ship. The only defenders and filling the whole region of the lower
of the hamlet were a few militia who came Santee with terror. Informed of these
down from Elkton, and some drivers of outrages, the citizens of Charleston pre-
stages and transportation - wagons. The pared for the reception of the marauders,
former garrisoned a redoubt which had Fort Moultrie and other fortifications
just been erected, upon which lay four iron were strengthened, breast-works were
cannon. They were vanquished and re- thrown up at exposed places, and a body
tired. The storehouses were plundered of militia was gathered at Point Pleas-
and burned, but the women and children ant. In anticipation of the coming of an
were well treated. Property on land worth army of liberation, as they were falsely
$25,000 was destroyed, and on the water informed Cockburn s men were, the ne-
five trading-vessels were consumed. Thence groes were prepared to rise and strike for
Cockburn went up the bay to HAVRE DE freedom. Cockburn did not venture into
GRACE (q. 75.), at the mouth of the Sus- Charleston Harbor, but went down to Hil-
quehanna, which he plundered and burned, ton Head, from which he carried off slaves
Afterwards he attacked the villages of and cattle. Then he visited the Georgia
Fredericktown and Georgetown (May 6, coast, and at Dungenness House, the fine
1813), on the Sassafras River. They con- estate of Gen. Nathaniel Greene, on
tained from forty to fifty houses each. Cumberland Island, he made his head-
He first visited Fredericktown, on the quarters for the winter, sending his ma-
north shore. The militia, under Colonel rauders out in all directions to plunder
Veazy, made a stout resistance, but were the plantations on the neighboring coast,
compelled to retire. The village was laid He was concerned in the sack of Washing-
in ashes, and the storehouses were plunder- ton in 1814, and in an unsuccessful at-
ed and burned. The marauders then cross- tempt to capture Baltimore in the same
ed over to Georgetown, and served it in year. He was knighted in 1815; made
the same way. Having deprived three vil- major-general of marines in 18!
lages on the Chesapeake of property worth died in London, Aug. 19, 1853.
at least $70,000, Cockburn returned to Cocke, PHILIP ST. GEORGE, military
the fleet officer; born in Virginia in 1808; grad-
Early in July, 1813, Admiral Cock- uated at the United States Military
burn, with a part of his marauding fleet, Academy in 1832; brigadier-general in the
went southward from Hampton Roads to Confederate army in 1861; and was corn-
plunder and destroy. His vessels were the mander of the 5th Brigade in the
Kccptre, seventy - four guns (flag -ship), engagement of Bull Run. After
Romulus, Fox, and Nemesis. Off Ocracoke months service he returned to his home
Inlet, he despatched (July 12, 1813) about in Powhatan county, Va., where he died,
800 armed men in barges to the waters Doc. 26, 1861.
of Pamlico Sound. There they attacked Cockran, WILTJAM BOTJRKE,
the Anaconda and Atlas, two American born in Ireland, Feb. 28, 1854; became

226

COCKRELL COFFEE

prominent in New York politics as an pared by his brother, DAVID DUDLEY

adherent of Tammany Hall; member of FIELD (g. v.), for the State of New York.

Congress in 1891-95 and 1904-05; spoke The latter, after completing the above-

for McKintey and the gold standard in mentioned work, was appointed by the

1896, and for Bryan in 1900. legislature chairman of a commission to

Cockrell, FRANCIS MARION, statesman; prepare a political code, a penal code,

born in Johnson county, Mo., Oct. 1, and a civil code, which, with the codes

1834; graduated at Chapel Hill College in of procedure alluded to, were designed to

1853; served in the Confederate army, take the place of the common law, and

1861-65, rising from captain to brigadier- to cover the entire range of American

general; United States Senator in 1875- law. A number of the States have adopt-

1D05. ed in whole or in part this last class of

Cod, CAPE, the long, narrow, and sandy codes. Mr. Field also actively urged the

peninsula of Massachusetts ; about 65 preparation of a code of international

miles Jong, and from 1 to 20 miles wide, law, and personally prepared Outlines of

It was discovered and named by BARTHOL- an International Code, which was highly

OIIEW GOSNOLD (q. v.) , in 1602. commended by jurists and statesmen in

Cod Fisheries. At Fortune Bay, United all countries. One of Mr. Field s princi-
States fishers set nets on Sunday, Jan. 13, pal objects in his projected international
1878, contrary to local regulations; they code was to secure a general adoption of
were forcibly removed ; controversy ensued, the principle of arbitration in inter-
Mr. Evarts, for the United States, sent national disputes, an end approximately
despatch Aug. 24; correspondence, Sep- reached in the international agreement
tember, October; Marquis of Salisbury re- at the Peace Conference at The Hague, in
fused compensation; but Earl Granville 1899. See ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL
granted it; 15,000 awarded by arbitra- COURT OF.
tion, May 28, 1881. Codman, JOHN, author; born in Dor-

Coddington, WILLIAM, founder of Chester, Mass., Oct. 16, 1814; educated
Ehode Island; born in Lincolnshire, Eng- at Amherst College; followed the sea in
land, in 1001 ; came to America in 1630 1834-64, and in the Civil War was cap-
as a magistrate of Massachusetts ap- tain of the Quaker City, which carried
pointed by the crown. He was a pros- provisions to Port Royal. His publica-
perous merchant in Boston, but, taking tions relating to the United States in-
the part of ANNE HUTCHINSON (q. v.), elude Restoration of the American Carry-
lie was so persecuted that, with eighteen ing Trade; and the Mormon Country.
others, he removed to the island of Aquid- He died in Boston, Mass., April 6, 1900.
neck (now Rhode Island), where, on the Cody, WILLIAM FREDERICK, scout; born
organization of a government, he was ap- in Scott county, la., Feb. 26, 1846. In
pointed judge, or chief ruler. In March, 1857-58 he was under contract to supply
1640, Coddington was elected governor, the Kansas Pacific Railroad with all the
and held the office seven years. He went buffalo meat needed during its construe-
to England in 1651, and in 1674-75 he tion, and in eighteen months he killed
was again governor. He adopted the 4,280 buffaloes, on account of which he
tenets of the Quakers. He died Nov. 1, received his widely known sobriquet of
1678. "Buffalo Bill." He was a guide and

Codes, in general terms a collection of scout for the national government for

laws, the most notable of which in modern many years, and in the action at Indian

times is the Code Napoleon, which was Creek, in a personal encounter, killed

promulgated between 1803 and 1810, and Yellow Hand, the Cheyenne chief. He

has since been adopted in large part by is co-author of The Great Salt Lake

various countries. In the United States Trail.

the most notable codes are those prepared Coeur d Alene. An Indian tribe, which

by JUDGE STEPHEN J. FIELD (q. v.) for were subjugated by Colonel Wright in

use in California at the time of its ad- 1858. They were placed on reservations

mission into the Union, and the Codes in 1867 and 1872.

of Civil and Criminal Procedure pre- Coffee, JOHN, surveyor; born in Notta-

227

COFFIN COINAGE

JOHN COFFKK.

nay tounty, Va., in 1772. In December, Having a real attachment for his native
181X, he was colonel of Tennessee volun- country, he endowed a " Coffin School" in
teevs under Jackson, and was with him Nantucket, where many of his relatives

lived, and gave for its support $12,500.
He died in Cheltenham, England, July
23, 1839.

Coffin, JOHN, loyalist; born in Boston,
Mass., in 1750; took part in the battle of
Bunker Hill ; later recruited 400 men in
New York, who were afterwards called the
Orange Rangers ; was promoted major and
received a handsome sword from Corn-
wallis in recognition of his bravery and
skill in many important actions. Later
he was promoted major-general. He died
in King s county, N. B., in 1838.

Coffin, JOSHUA, antiquarian; born in
Newbury, Mass., Oct. 12, 1792; grad
uated at Dartmouth College in 1817; an
earnest abolitionist; helped to establish
the New England Anti-Slavery Society in
1832; published The History of Ancient
Newbury. He died in Newbury, Mass.,
June 24, 1864.

Coffin, LEVI, philanthropist; born near

in all his wars with the Creek Indians. New Garden, N. C., Oct. 28, 1798; early
He was with him also in his expedition became interested in the welfare of the
to PENSACOLA (q. v.) , and in the defence slaves in the South; financially aided on
of New Orleans. In 1817 he was surveyor their way to Canada thousands of fugitive
of public lands. He died near Florence, slaves, including Eliza Harris, who later
Ala., July 7, 1833. became widely known through Uncle Tom s

Coffin, CHARLES CARLETON (pen-name Cabin. In April, 1847, he went to Cin-
CARLETON), author; born in Boscawen, cinnati, O., and opened a "free-labor
N. H., July 26, 1823; during the Civil goods" store, which he operated success-
War was war correspondent of the Boston fully for many years. For thirty years
Journal. His publications include Days he was president of the secret society
and Nights on the Battle-field; Following known as the " underground railroad,"
the Flag; Four Years of Fighting; Caleb the purpose of which was to aid slaves
Krinkle, a Story of American Life; Story in their escape by passing them on from
of Liberty; Old Times in the Colonies; member to member. He died in Avon-
Life of Gar field, etc. He died in Brook- dale, 0., Sept. 16, 1877.
line, Mass., March 2, 1896. Coggeshall, GEORGE, author; born in

Coffin, SIR ISAAC, naval officer; born Connecticut in 1784; during the War of
in Boston, May 16, 1759; was the son of 1812-15 commanded two privateers. His
a collector of the customs in Boston, who publications relating to the United States
was a zealous loyalist. He entered the include History of American Privation
British navy in 1773. became a lieutenant and Letters of Marque during our War
in 1776, and was active on the American with England, 1812, 13, J i ; and Histori-
coast at different times during the war cal Sketch of Commerce and Navigation
for independence. He served under Rod- from the Birth of our Saviour down to the
ney, was made post-captain in 1790. and l ra-nt Date. He died in 1861.
rear - admiral of the blue in 1804, in Coinage, CONFEDERATE STATES. When
which year he was knighted. In June, Louisiana seceded and seized the United
1814, he was created admiral of the States mint at New Orleans, there were
blue, and in 1820 admiral of the white, thousands of dollars worth of gold and
He was a member of Parliament in 1818. silver bullion in store. The State issued

228

COINAGE

jointly with the Confederate government coining. Some coins had been made in

a gold coinage of $254,820 in double eagles, Bermuda for the use of the Virginia col-

and a silver coinage of $1,101,316.50 in ony as early as 1644.

half-dollars, using the United States dies Copper coins bearing the figure of an
of 1861, the dies of 1860 having been elephant were struck in England for the
destroyed. The bullion, when nearly ex- Carolinas and New England in 1694. Coins
hausted, was transferred to the Confeder- were also struck for Maryland, bearing
ate government, May, 1861, and all the the effigy of Lord Baltimore. In 1722-
United States dies were destroyed, the 23, William Wood obtained a royal patent
Confederate government ordering a new for coining small money for the " Eng-
die for its use. W 7 hen completed it was lish plantations in America." He made it
of such high relief as to be useless in the of pinchbeck an alloy of copper and tin.
press. As there was but little if any One side of the coin bore the image of
bullion to coin, no attempt was made to George I., and on the other was a large
engrave another. Four pieces, however, double rose, with the legend " Rosa Ameri-
half-dollars, were struck, which formed the cana utile dulci." In the coinage of 1724
entire coinage of the Confederate States, the rose was crowned. This base coin
The coin shows Obverse: A goddess of was vehemently opposed in the colonies,
liberty within an arc of thirteen stars. A writer of the day, speaking of the spec-
Exergue, 1861. Reverse: An American illation, said Wood had "the conscience
shield beneath a liberty-cap, the upper part to make thirteen shillings out of a pound
of the shield containing seven stars, the of brass." The power of coinage was ex-
whole surrounded by a wreath : to the left, ercised by several of the independent
cotton in bloom; to the right, sugar- States from 1778 until the adoption of
cane. Legend: Confederate States of the national Constitution. A mint was
American. Exergue: Half Dol. Boarders, established at Rupert, Vt, by legislative
milled; edge, serrated. authority in 1785, whence copper cents
Coinage, UNITED STATES. Wampum were issued, bearing on one side a plough
depreciated in value as currency in conse- and a sun rising from behind hills, and on
quence of over-production, and a final the other a radiated eye surrounded by
blow was given to it as a circulating me- thirteen stars. Some half-cents also were
dium in New England by an order from issued by the Vermont mint. In the same
the authorities of Massachusetts not to vear the legislature of Connecticut au-
roceive it in payment of taxes. As fast thorized the establishment of a mint at
as coin came to the colony of Massachu- New Haven, whence copper coins were is-
setts by trade with the West Indies, it sued having on one side the figure of a
was sent to England to pay for goods pur- human head, and on the other that of
chased there. To stop this drain of specie a young woman holding an olive-branch.
Massachusetts set up a mint, and coined This mint continued in operation about
silver threepences, sixpences, and shillings, three years. In 1786 parties obtained au-
each bearing the figure of a pine-tree on thority from the legislature of New Jer-
one side, nnd the words "New England" sey to coin money, and they established
on the other. The silver was alloyed a two mints in that State: one not far from
quarter below the English standard, with Morristown, and the other at Elizabeth-
the expectation that the debasement would town. On one side of this coinage was the
prevent the coin leaving the country. Thus head of a horse, with a plough beneath ;
the pound currency of New England came and on the reverse a shield. The head
to be one-fourth less than the pound ster- of a horse and three ploughs now form
ling of Great Britain; and this standard the chief device of the great seal of New
was afterwards adopted by the British Jersey.

Parliament for all the English American Cents and half-cents were issued in Mas-
colonies. The " mint-house " in Boston sachusetts in 1788, exhibiting on one side
existed about thirty-four years. All the an eagle with a bundle of arrows in the
coins issued from it bore the dates 1652 right talon, an olive-branch in the left,
or 1GG2, the same dies being used, prob- and a shield on its breast bearing the
ably, throughout the thirty- four years of word "cent." That device was, and is

229

COINAGE, UNITED STATES

now, the chief on the great seal of the of a dollar in silver, and a hundredth of a
United States. On the other side of the dollar in copper.

Massachusetts cent was the figure of an This report was adopted by Congress in
Indian holding a bow and arrow; also 1785, and was the origin of our copper
a single star. As early as the adoption of cent, silver dime and dollar, and golden
the "Articles of Confederation" (1781) eagle. The following year Congress framed
the subject of national coinage occupied an ordinance for the establishment of a
the attention of statesmen. In 1782, Rob- mint, but nothing further was done until
ert Morris, superintendent of finance, 1787, when the board of treasury, by au-
submitted to the Continental Congress a thority of Congress, contracted with James
plan for a metallic currency for the Unit- Jarvis for 300 tons of copper coins of
ed States, arranged by Gouverneur Mor- the prescribed standard, which were coin-
ris, who attempted to harmonize all the ed at a mint in New Haven, Conn. They
moneys of the States. He found that the bore the following devices: On one side
1440th part of the Spanish dollar was a thirteen circles linked together; a small
common divisor of all the various curren- circle in the middle, with the words
cies. Starting with that fraction as a " American Congress " within it, and, in

the centre, the sen
tence " We are one."
On the other side a
sun-dial, with the sun
above it, and the word
" Fugio "; and around
the whole, " Conti
nental Currency, 1776."
Below the dial, "Mind
your business." A
few of these pieces, it
is said, were struck in
a mint at Eupert, Vt.
The national Constitu
tion vested the right of
coinage exclusively in
the national govern-

unit, he proposed the following table of ment. The establishment of a mint was
moneys: Ten units to be equal to one authorized by act of Congress in April,
penny, ten pence to one bill, ten bills to 1792, but it did not go into full operation
one dollar (about seventy-five cents of our until 1795.

present currency) , and ten dollars to one During the interval of about three years
crown. The superintendent reported the its operations were chiefly experimental,
plan to Congress in February, 1782, and and hence the variety of silver and copper
employed Benjamin Dudley, of Boston, to coins which appeared between 1792 and
construct machinery for a mint. The sub- 1795, now so much sought after by coin-
ject was debated from time to time, and collectors. The most noted of these is the
on April 22, 1783, some coins were submit- " Washington cent," or " Liberty - cap
ted to Congress as patterns. Nothing cent," so called because it has the profile
further was done in the matter (and Mr. of Washington on one side and a liberty-
Dudley was discharged) until 1784, when cap on the other. The subject tff a device
Mr. Jefferson, chairman of a committee for the national coin caused much and
appointed for the purpose, submitted a sometimes warm debate in Congress. The
report, disagreeing with that of MOT- bill for the establishment of the mint
ris because of the diminutive size of its originated in the Senate, and provided
unit. He proposed to strike four coins for an eagle on one side of the gold and
upon the basis of the Spanish milled dollar silver coins. To this there was no ob-
as follows:. A golden piece of the value jection. The bill proposed for the reverse
of ten dollars, a dollar in silver, a tenth a representation of the head of the Presi-

230

FACSIMILE OF THE FIRST MOSEY COINED BY THE UNITED STATES.

COINAGE, UNITED STATES

dent of the United States for the time be- title of the chief officer of which is Super-
ing, with his name and order of succession intendent of the Mint. An act was passed
to the Presidency and the date of the coin- in June, 1834, changing the weight and

fineness of the gold coin, and the relative
value of gold and silver. The weight of
the eagle was reduced to 258 grains, and
the parts in proportion, of which 232
grains must be pure gold, making the fine
ness 21 carats. The silver coinage was
not then changed, but in January, 1837,
Congress reduced the weight of the

LIBKRTY-CAP CE.vx. silver dollar to 412 /2 S, and the parts

in proportion. By act of March 3, 1849,
there were added to the series of gold

age. To this it was objected that the coins the double eagle and the dollar ; and
President might not always be satisfac- in February, 1853, a 3-dollar piece. On
tory to the people, who would be disturbed March, 3, 1851, there was added to the
by the effigy of an unpopular or unworthy silver coins a 3 - cent piece ( a legal
one. Besides, the head of the President tender for sums not exceeding 30 cents),
might be viewed as a stamp of royalty on and this piece continued to be coin-
the coins, and would wound the feelings ed until April 1, 1853, when its fineness
of many. The House, after much debate, was raised and its weight reduced. By
did not agree with the Senate, and the act of Feb. 21, 1853, gold alone was
bill was sent back. Then it was proposed made a legal tender, and the weight of
to substitute a head or figure of Liberty, the half-dollar was reduced to 206 grains,
This was finally agreed to, but an attempt and smaller coins in proportion. Silver
was afterwards made to substitute the was made a legal tender only to the
head of Columbus. At last the eagle, in amount of 5 dollars. The silver dollar
the place of the head of Liberty, was was not included in the change, but re-
chosen for the golden coins. mained a legal tender. The copper cent
David Rittenhouse, of Philadelphia, was and half-cent were discontinued in 1857,
chosen the first director of the mint. At and a new cent of copper and nickel was
that city (being the seat of government) coined. In 1864 the coinage of the bronze
it was established, and was never moved cent was authorized; also 2-cent pieces,
from it. It was the sole mint until 1835, By act of March 3, 1865, a 3-cent piece
when Congress created several branches, was authorized, of three - fourths cop-
The dies used in coinage in all the mints per and one-fourth nickel. May 16, 1866,
in the United States are under the super- a coinage of 5-cent pieces, three - fourths
vision of the engraver of the mint at copper and one-fourth nickel, was author-
Philadelphia. By the act of 1792 the ized. The coinage act of 1873 prescribed
golden eagle of 10 dollars was to weigh the fineness of all gold and silver coins
270 grains, the parts in the same proper- to be .900. The gold coins were of the
tion; all of the fineness of 22 carats, same denomination as before; the silver
The silver dollar, of 100 cents, was coins were a " trade-dollar," weighing 420
to weigh 416 grains, the fractions in grains; a half-dollar, or 50-cent piece;
proportion; the fineness, 892.4 thou- a quarter-dollar, and a dime. There were
sandths. The copper cent was to weigh also 5 - cent and 3 - cent silver coins is-
264 grains; the half-cent in proportion, sued. The issuing of coins other than
In 1793 the weight of the cent was re- those enumerated in the act is prohibited,
duced to 208 grains, and the half-cent It was provided that upon the coins of the
in the same proportion. United States there shall be the follow-
Assay offices were established at New ing devices and legends: Upon one side
York in 1854; at Denver, Col., in 1864; an emblem of Liberty, with the word
and at Boisfi City, Ida., in 1872. In 1873 "Liberty" and the year of the coinage;
Congress made the mint and assay offices and upon the reverse the figure of an
a bureau of the Treasury Department, the eagle, with the inscriptions " United States

231

COINAGE COKE

of America" and " E pluribus unit in," and The highest figure ever attained by the
a designation of the value of the coin; but fund was reached on April 24 of this
on the gold dollar and 3 - dollar pieces, year, when the total reached the $502,173,-
thc dime, 5, 3, and 1 cent pieces, the 11!) mark. The diminution since then
figure of the eagle shall be omitted; and has been a little less than $1,000,000, and,
on the reverse of the silver trade-dollar of course, there is virtually no significance
the weight and the fineness of the coin in the drop. When it is considered that
shall be inscribed, with the motto " In six or seven years ago this fund amounted
God we trust" added when practicable. to a sum less than $100,000,000 the exact
The following table shows the coinage amount now held can be better apprcci-
of the mints of the United States from ated. When the fund was ebbing at that
their organization in 1792 to June 30, time it was found necessary by the nation
al administration to issue bonds to slay
the inroads which, were being made upon
it, due to demands for gold from the

1900:

Denomination.

GOLD.

Double-eagles

Eagles

Half-eagles

Three-dollar pieces (coinage discontinued under

act of Sept. 26, 1890)

Quarter-eagles

Dollars (coinage discontinued under act of Sept.

26, 1890)

Total gold

8II.VKR.

Dollars (coinage discontinued, act of Feb. 12, 1873,

and resumed under act of Feb. i 8, 1878)

Trade-dollars

Dollars (Lafayette souvenir), act of March 3, 1899.

Half-dollars..

Half-dollars (Columbian souvenir)

Quarter-do! lars

Quarter-dollars (Columbian souvenir)

Tw.-nty-cent pieces (coinage discontinued, act of

May 2, 1878)

Dime s

Half-dimes (coinage discontinued, act of Feb. 12,

1-73)

Three-cent pieces (coinage discontinued, act of Feb.

12, 1873)

Total silver

MINOR.

Five cent pieces, nickel

Three-cent pieces, nickel (coinage discontinued, act
of Sept. 26, 1890)

Two-cent pieces, bronze (coinage discontinued, act
of Feb. 12, 1873)

One-cent pieces, copper {coinage discontinued, act
of Feb 21, 1857)

One cent pieces, nickel (coinage discontinued, act
of April 22, 1864)

One-cent pieces, bronze

Half-cent pieces, copper (coinage discontinued, act
of Feb. 21, 1857)

Total minor...
Total coinage.

Value.

money centres, and it was not without

11,538,826,0*1.00 &gt;. .

3i9,oi, iMi.oo involving the government in considerable

269,066,545.00 j , , ,, ji e j j. j

debt that the fund was maintained at the

lowest figure permissible.
19499337.00 There is not a country on the face of
$2,i67,o88,i isToo the earth which holds so much gold in its
treasury as the United States now has in
$50fi,527.453.oo its coffers. Russia, England, France, and
35 9 5o, o26:oo other great money powers of Europe,
l |avc from time to time held amounts

271 000.00

|38,508,Mt 72

$ . ,1196,763,242.27

of commensurate value in their treasu
ries, but at the present time we have
any and all of them beaten by a large
4,880,219.40 margin. See BIMETALLISM; CIRCULA-

1,282,087.20 TION, MONETARY; CURRENCY, NATIONAL;
$796,171,159.55 MONETARY REFORM.

Coke, SIR EDWARD, jurist ; born at Mile-
n,967,308.io ^^ Norfolk) England, Feb. 1, 15f&gt;2;
941,349.48 educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
912,020.00 Clifford s Inn, and the Inner Temple; be-
1,562,887.44 gan the practice of law in 1578, and quick-
2,007,720.00 ]y rose to the highest rank. Passing
io,o72,758 through different grades of judicial of-
39.926.il fice ^ he j, ecame lord chief-justice of Eng
land, opposed in his whole course by a
powerful rival, Francis Bacon. Coke was
a violent and unscrupulous man, and car
ried his points in court and in politics by
On May 3, 1901, the United States sheer audacity, helped by tremendous in-
treasurer issued the following statement tellectual force. As attorney-general, he
concerning the amount of gold held by the conducted the prosecution of Sir Walter
treasury: Raleigh with shameful unfairness; and

The gold fund in the treasury now from the beginning of his reign King
amounts to $501,469,468. This is made James I. feared and hated him, but failed
up as follows: Reserve fund, $150,000,000; to suppress him. Coke was in the privy
held against gold certificates, $283,441,- council and in Parliament in 1621 when
.is .), and the general fund, $68,027,479. the question of monopolies by royal grants
This total includes both coin and bullion, was brought before the House in the case
and the average fund held during the of the council of Plymouth and the New
last month has been the highest in the England fisheries. Coke took ground
history of the government. against the validity of the patent, and so

232

GOLDEN COLD HABBOB

directly assailed the prerogative of the
King. In other cases he took a similar
course; and when the King censured the
House of Commons, as composed of " fiery,
popular, and turbulent spirits," Coke,
speaker of the House, invited that body
to an assertion of its rights, independent
of the King, in the form of a protest en
tered on its minutes. The angry monarch
sent for the book, tore out the record of
the protest with his own hands, dissolved
Parliament, and caused the arrest and the
imprisonment of Coke, Pym, and other
members for several months in the Tower.
After that he was a thorn in the side of
James and his successor. In 1628 Coke
retired from public life, and died in
Stoke Pogis, Buckinghamshire, Sept. 3,
1634. His Reports and other writings
upon law and jurisprudence were numer
ous and most important. He published
Coke upon Littleton in 1628.

Golden, CADWALLADER, physician ; born
in Dunse, Scotland, Feb. 17, 1688; grad
uated at the University of Edinburgh
in 1705, and became a physician and

CADWALLADER COLDEX.

mathematician. In 1708 he emigrated to
Pennsylvania, and returned to his na
tive country in 1712. He came again to
America in 1716, and in 1718 made
his abode in New York, where he was
made first surveyor-general of the colony,
became a master in chancery, and, in
1720, obtained a seat in Governor Bur-
net s council. He received a patent for
lands in Orange county, N. Y., about 10
miles from Newburg, and there he went

to reside in 1755. Becoming president of
the council, he administered the govern
ment in 1760, and was made lieutenant-
governor in 1761, which station he held
until his death, being repeatedly placed
at the head of alFairs by the absence or
death of governors. During the Stamp
Act excitement the populace burned his
coach. After the return of Governor
Tryon in 1775, he retired to his seat on
Long Island. Dr. Colden wrote a History
of the Five Indian Nations of Canada in
1727. He was an ardent student of bot
any, and introduced the Linnrean system
into America. He published scientific
works and was a correspondent of the
leading men of science in Europe. He died
on Long Island, N. Y., Sept. 28, 1776.

Cold Harbor, BATTLE OF. In 1864
the Army of the Potomac and a large part
of the Army of the James formed a junc
tion near Cold Harbor, a locality in Han
over county, Va., originally known as
Cool Arbor, and the old battle - ground
of McClellan and Lee in June, 1862.
Gen. W. F. Smith and 16,000 men of the
Army of the James had been taken in
transports from Bermuda Hundred around
to the White House, whence they had
marched towards the Chickahominy. Sher
idan had seized the point at Cold Harbor,
and the Nationals took a position extend
ing from beyond the Hanover road to
Elder Swamp Creek, not far from the
Chickahominy. Burnside s corps com
posed the right of the line, Warren s and
Wright s the centre, and Hancock s the
left. The Confederate line, reinforced by
troops under Breckinridge, occupied a
line in front of the Nationals Ewell s
corps on the left, Longstreet s in the cen
tre, and A. P. Hill s on the right. On the
morning of June 1, 1864, Hoke s division
attempted to retake Cold Harbor. It was
repulsed, but was reinforced by McLaws s
division. Wright s 6th Corps came up in
time to meet this new danger : and
Smith s troops from the Army of the
James, after a march of 25 miles, came
up and took post on the right of the 6th
Corps, then in front of Cold Harbor, on
the road leading to Gaines s Mills. Be
tween the two armies was a broad, open,
undulating field and a thin line of woods.
Over this field the Nationals advanced to
the attack at 4 P.M. The veterans of

233

COLD HARBOR, BATTLE OF

Smith soon captured the first line of rifle- opened one of the most sanguinary bat-
pits and 600 men. Their attack on the ties of the war. It was begun on the
second line was a failure, and with dark- right by the divisions of Barlow and Gib-
ness the struggle ceased, the Nationals bon, of Hancock s corps, supported by
having lost 2,000 men. They held the Birney s. Barlow drove the Confederates
ground, and bivouacked on the battle- from a strong position in front of their
field. works, and captured several hundred men
During the night the Confederates made and three guns, when the Confederates
desperate but unsuccessful efforts to re- rallied and retook the position. General

BATTLE OP COLD HARBOR.

take the rifle-pits. General . Grant had Gibbon, who charged at the same time,
ordered a redisposition of his army, mak- was checked by a marsh of the Chicka-
ing Hancock form the right, to the right hominy which partly separated and weak-
6f Wright s corps. Burnside was with- ened his command, and part of them
drawn entirely from the front and placed gained the Confederate works, but could
on the right and rear of Warren, who not hold them. There was a severe strug-
connected with Smith. Having made gle, and in the assaults Hancock lost 3,000
these dispositions on the 2d, it was deter- men. The other divisions of the army
mined to force the passage of the Chicka- were hotly engaged at the same time,
hominy the next morning, and compel The battle was " sharp, quick, and de-
Lee to seek safety in the fortifications cisive." The Nationals were repulsed at
around Richmond. The Nationals moved nearly every point with great slaughter.
at four o clock on the morning of the 3d. It was estimated that within the space of
Wilson s cavalry was on the right flank, twenty minutes after the struggle began
and Sheridan s held the lower crossings 10,000 Union soldiers lay dead or wound-
of the river, and covered the roads to the ed on the field, while the Confederate.
White House. Orders had been given for sheltered by their works, had not lost
a general assault along the whole line, more than 1,000. And so, at one o clock
At half-past four, or a little later, the in the afternoon of June 3, 1864, the bat-
signal for the advance was given, and then tie of Cold Harbor ended.

234

COLE COLFAX

It was one of the most sanguinary "River. He was made a brigadier-general

struggles of the great Civil War. The Na- of volunteers on May 28, 1898, and given

tionals had a fearful loss of life, but command of the 3d Brigade, 2d Division,

firmly held their position, with all their at Camp Alger. The unwholesome condi-

munitions of war. Their loss in this en- tions of the camp caused his resignation,

grtgement, and in the immediate vicinity and his death, in St. Louis, Mo., July 31,

of Cold Harbor, was reported at 13,153, 1899.

of whom 1,705 were killed and 2,406 Coleman, WILLIAM T., pioneer; born in

were missing. Immediately after the bat- Cynthiana, Ky., Feb. 29, 1824; removed to

tie Sheridan was sent to destroy the rail- San Francisco in 1849 ; became known

ways in Lee s rear, and so make Wash- through his affiliation with a secret or-

ington more secure. This task he effectu- ganization for the suppression of crime

ally performed, fighting much of the in that city, called the Vigilance Commit-

time. Grant then resolved to transfer his tee. In the course of a few months this

army to the south side of the James committee executed four notorious charac-

Rj ver . ters, and either drove out of California

Cole, THOMAS, painter ; born in Bolton- or terrified into concealment large num-

le-Moor, Lancashire, England, Feb. 1, bers of others. In 1856 public indignation

1801, of American parents who had gone was again aroused by the murder of a

to England previous to his birth, and re- well - known editor, James King,

turned in 1819, settling in Philadelphia, Vigilance Committee again became active,

where Thomas practised the art of wood- and Mr. Coleman became chairman of

engraving. He began portrait-painting the executive committee. In this capacity

iirsteubenville, 0., in 1820, soon wander- he presided at the trials and had charge

ed as an itinerant in the profession, and of the execution of four murderers, m-

finally became one of the most eminent eluding Casey, the murderer of King,

of American landscape-painters. He es- many years this organization was

tablished himself in New York in 1825. dominating power in municipal politics.

The charming scenery of the Hudson em- He died in San Francisco, Cal., Nov., 22,

ployed his pencil and brush, and orders 1893.

for* his landscapes soon came from all Coles, EDWARD, governor ; born in Albe-

quarters From 1829 to 1832 he was in marie county, Va., Dec. 15, 1786; grad-

Europe, and on his return he made his uated at William and Mary College in

home in Catskill, N. Y., where he resided 1807; went to Russia on a confidenti

until his death, Feb. 11, 1847. His two diplomatic mission for the United

great finished works are The Course of government in 1817. He removed to Ed-

Empire and The Voyage of Life, the for- wardsville, 111., in 1819, and freed all the

mcr consisting of a series of five, and the slaves which he had inherited, giving

latter of four, pictures. He produced the head of each family 160 acres of

many other fine compositions in land- land. He was governor of Illinois from

scape and figures, which gave him a place 1823 to 1826, and during his term of

at the head of his profession. Mr. Cole office he prevented the slavery party from

left unfinished at his death a series en- obtaining control of the State. Later he

titled The Cross and the World, and was settled in Philadelphia, Pa., and in

also the author of a dramatic poem and read a History of the Ordinance of .

works of fiction. before the Pennsylvania Historical

Cole, NELSON, military officer; born in cly. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., July

Dutchess county, New York,Nov. 18, 1833; 7, 1808.

subsequently settled in St. Louis, Mo. Colfax, SCHUYLER, statesman; born m

When the Civil War broke out he enter- New York City, March

ed the Union army and served with con- grandson of the last commander of Wash-

spicuous ability in numerous engagements, ington s life-guard; became a merchant
Early in 1865, at the head of 1,500 men, clerk, and then, with his family, he went
he led a successful expedition against the to New Carlisle, St. Joseph co., Ind.,
hostile Sioux, Arapahoe, and Cheyenne where for five years he was a clerk
Indians at the sources of the Yellowstone country store. In 1841 his step-father,

235

COLFAX COLLEGE SETTLEMENTS

quently lectured to large audiences upon
men lie had known and subjects connected
with his long career in public life. His
best lecture was undoubtedly that on
Lincoln and Garfield. He died suddenly,
in Mankato, Minn., Jan. 13, 1885.

Collamer, JACOB, born in Troy, N. Y.,
Jan. 8, 17U1; graduated at the Univer
sity of Vermont in 1810; admitted to
the bar in 181.3; elected a justice of the
Vermont Supreme Court in 1833; served
until his election to Congress in 1843;
appointed Postmaster-General under Pres
ident Taylor in March, 1849; elected
United States Senator in 1854, and served
until his death, in Woodstock, Vt., Nov.

SCHUYLEB COLFAX.

College Fraternities. The principal

Mr. Mathews, was elected county auditor, Greek-letter societies in the United States
and he removed to South Bend and made are as follows:

Name.

Greek

Letters.

Where Founded.

Date.

K A
A *
Z *
A A *
V Y
A Y

u e n

X V

A K E
/ *
A S-
WAX
4&gt; A O

* r A

4&gt;K I.
&lt;t&gt; K f
X &lt;f
2 X
2 A E
ATA
A T 11
K A
K S
2 N

1825

1827

1882
1833
1834
1839
1841
1844
1846
1847

1848

1850
1852
1854
1855
1856
180
18IJ5
18(17

1869

Delta Phi ....

Alpha Delta Phi ....

Hamilton

Union

Williams

Beta Theta Pi .

Miami

Chi Psi

Union

Yale

7et;i Psi

New York University

Delta Psi

Columbia. . . .,

Theta Delta Chi

Union

Phi Delta Theta

Miami

Phi Gamma Delta

Jefferson

University of Pennsylvania

Jefferson

Chi Phi

Princeton

M iami

Alabama

Bethany

Virginia Military Institute

Washington and Lee

Virginia

Sigma Nu

Virginia Military Institute

Schuyler his deputy. There he studied College Influence. The American col-
law, and finally established a weekly lege has rendered a service of greater
?ic\vspaper. In 1850 he was a member of value to American life in training men
the Indiana State constitutional conven- than in promoting scholarship. It has
tion, and the next year was a candidate affected society more generally and deeply
for Congress, but was not elected. In through its graduates than through its
1856 the newly formed Republican party contributions to the sciences. It has been
elected him to Congress, and he was re- rather a mother of men than a nurse of
elected for six consecutive terms. In De- scientists.

cember, 1863, he was elected Speaker of College Settlements, a plan to elevate

the House of Representatives, and was re- the degraded masses of large citi&lt; s.

elected in 1865 and 1867. In November, consists in the establishment in tenement

1868, he was elected Vice-President, with localities of settlements or houses where

General Grant as President. After his re- educated people live either permanently

tirement to private life in 1873 he fre- or temporarily for the purpose of work-

236

COLLEGES FOB WOMENCOLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES

ing among the poor. The first attempt Randolph-Macon Women s College, Lynch-
of this kind was made in 1867 when Ed- burg, Va. These colleges had 543 pro-
uard Denison, a graduate of Oxford Uni- lessors and instructors, 4,606 students,
versity, went to live in the East End of seventeen fellowships, 254 scholarships,
London that he might study the griev- $0,390,398 invested in grounds and build-
ances of the poor, and do educational ings, $4,122,473 invested in productive
work among them. A similar work was funds, and $1,244,350 in total income,
done by Arnold Toynbee, whose labors The second division, which comprised in-
led to his death in 1883, but whose efforts stitutions under the corporate name of
and name were perpetuated by the estab- colleges, institutes, and seminaries, and
lishment on Jan. 10, 1885, of Toynbee were largely under the control of the dif-
Hall, in Whitechapel, East London, and ferent religious organizations, numbered
afterwards of Oxford Hall. The first col- 132, with 1,933 professors and instructors,
lege settlement in the United States was 18,417 students, $8,494,071 invested in
founded in New York City in the fall of grounds and buildings, $743,700 invested
1889, by the graduates of several women s in productive funds, and $2,080,911 in
colleges. The building, at Xo. 95 Riving- total income.

ton Street, is located in one of the most Colleges in the United States. There
crowded tenement districts of the East were nine higher institutions of learn-
Side. On May 14, 1891, another settle- ing in the English-American colonies
nient was organized in New York by the before the breaking - out of the Revo-
graduates of Yale, Columbia, Princeton, lutionary War namely, Harvard, in
and other colleges. In October of the Massachusetts ; William and Mary, in
same year the graduates of Andover The- Virginia; Yale, in Connecticut; King s,
ological Seminary and other ex-collegians in New York; College of New Jersey and
began a similar work in the tenement Queen s, in New Jersey; College of Rhode
district of Boston. See ADDAMS, JANE. Island; Dartmouth, in New Hampshire;
Colleges for Women. One of the most and University of Pennsylvania. Hamp-
striking features of the development of den-Sidney College was founded in 1775,
higher education in the United States in just as the war broke out. In these colo-
the closing years of the nineteenth cen- r.ial institutions many of the brightest
tury was the opening of regular courses statesmen of the eighteenth century and
to women by a remarkably large number beginning of the nineteenth were educated,
of colleges. At the close of the school (See their respective titles. ) At the close
year 1899 there were 484 colleges and uni- of the school year 1898-99 collegiate edu-
versities in the United States, more than cation in the United States was afforded
a majority of which had been made co- by 484 colleges and universities, of which
educational. For the higher instruction 318 were co-educational, and 136 for men
of women exclusively there were 145 col- only; 145 colleges and seminaries for worn-
leges and seminaries authorized to confer en conferring degrees, forty-three insti-
degrees, having 2,441 professors and in- tutions of technology, 163 theological
structors, 20,548 students and $3,236,416 schools, ninety-six law schools, 151 medi-
in total income. The institutions exclu- cal schools, fifty dental schools, fifty-one
sively for women, organized on the general pharmaceutical schools, thirteen veter-
basis of college requirements, were divided inary schools, and 393 training-schools for
into two classes. The first comprised the nurses. These institutions combined re-
following: Mills College, in Mills College ported 21.435) professors and instructors
Station. Cal.; Rockford College, Rockford, and 224,808 students. The universities
111.; Women s College, Baltimore, Md. ; and colleges for men and for both sexes
Radcliffe, in Cambridge; Smith, in North- had 417 fellowships, 7,077 scholarships,
ampton; Mount Holvoke, in South Had- 7,096,325 volumes in their libraries, $11,-
ley; Wellesley, in Wellesley all in Mas- 004.532 invested in scientific apparatus,
sachusetts; Wells, in Aurora: Elmira, in $126,211,099 in grounds and buildings, and
Elmira; Barnard, in New York City; and $119.632,651 in productive funds, and
Vassar, in Poughkeepsie all in New $19,213.371 in total income. The schools
York; Bryn Mawr, Bryn Mawr, Pa.; and of technology had 567 scholarships, $2,-

237

COLLETON COLONIAL COMMISSIONS

632.656 invested in scientific apparatus, ed to capture privateers. On Oct. 7, 1864,

$12,785,609 in grounds and buildings, and he followed the Confederate steamer

$9,078,143 in productive funds, and $3,- Florida into the harbor of Bahia, Brazil,

424,610 in total income. Nearly all of and captured her. Later, as Brazil had

the professional schools were connected complained that her neutrality had not

with the large universities and colleges, been respected, his act was disavowed. Col-

and the training-schools for nurses were lins was promoted rear-admiral in 1874,

a part of municipal and other chartered and given command of the South Pacific

hospitals. The agricultural and mechan- squadron. He died in Callao, Peru, Aug.

ical colleges endowed by Congress are in 9, 1875.

general connected with State universities, Colman, NORMAN J., agriculturalist;

and are officially classified as schools of born near Richfi.eld Springs, N. Y., in

technology. 1827; began the practice of law in New

Colleton, JAMES, colonial governor; was Albany, Ind., and the editing of an agri-
made governor of South Carolina, and cultural paper in St. Louis, Mo., in 1871.
given 48,000 acres of land in 1686. It He was elected lieutenant-governor as a
was his duty to exercise the authority of Democrat in 1874, and was United States
the proprietaries, and enforce the laws Commissioner and Secretary of Agricul-
which were being violated by the colonists, ture in 1885-89.

Upon his arrival in the colony Colleton Colonial Civil Service. See CIVIL

excluded from the legislative halls all the SERVICE, COLONIAL.

members of the Parliament who opposed Colonial Commissions. The first of

these acts. Later the Assembly defied the two notable royal commissions to what is

proprietaries and the governor, imprison- now the United States was sent out in

ed the secretary of the colony, and after- 1634. Morton of Merry Mount had made

wards impeached, disfranchised, and drove serious charges against the people of Mas-

Colleton out of the province. sachusetts before the privy council. That

Collier, SIR GEORGE, naval officer; en- body summoned the council for New Eng-
tered the British navy in 1761 ; given land before them to answer the charges,
command of the Rainbow in 1775, and They denied having had anything to do
cruised off the American coast. In 1777 with the matters complained of, and added
he captured the American vessel Hancock; new and serious charges of their own, de-
destroyed the stores at Machias, and thir- claring themselves unable to redress their
ty vessels on the northeast coast; and grievances. They referred the whole mat-
later he ravaged the coasts of Connecti- ter to the privy council. A commission
cut and Chesapeake Bay. On Aug. 14, of twelve persons was appointed, with
1779, he captured the fleet of Commodore Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, at its
Saltonstall on the Penobscot River. He head, to whom full power was given to
died April 6, 1795. revise the laws, to regulate the Church,

Collins, JOHN, governor; born June 8, and to revoke charters. The members

1717; was an active patriot during the of the Massachusetts Company in Eng-

Revolutionary War; in 1776 was made a land were called upon to give up their

commissioner to arrange the accounts of patent, and Governor Cradock wrote for

Rhode Island with Congress; in 1778- it to be sent over. Morion wrote to one

83 was a member of the old Congress, and of the old planters that a governor-general

in 1786-89 governor of Rhode Island. He had been appointed. Orders were also is-

was then elected to the first Congress un- sued to the seaport towns of England to

der the national Constitution, but did not have all vessels intended for America

take his seat. He died in Newport, R. L, stopped. The colonists were alarmed.

March 8, 1795. The magistrates and clergy met on an isl-

Collins, NAPOLEON, naval officer; born and at the entrance to the inner harbor

in Pennsylvania, May 4, 1814; joined the of Boston, and, resolving to resist the

navy in 1834: served in the war with commissioners, agreed to erect a fort on

Mexico ; and in the Civil War was placed the island, and to advance the means for

in command of the steam-sloop Wachu- the purpose themselves until the meeting

sett, in 1863, when that vessel was assign- of the general court. They sent letters

238

COLONIAL COMMISSIONS

of remonstrance to England, and refused governor, the other commissioners pro-
to send over the charter before the meet- ceeded to Boston. Meanwhile the authori-
ing of the court. When that body met, ties of Massachusetts had sent a remon-
in May, active measures for defence were strance to England against the appoint-
adopted. They ordered a fort to be built ment of the commissioners. It was un-
in Boston. Military preparations were heeded. The Massachusetts authorities
oidered, and three commissioners were ap- were unyielding, the commissioners were
pointed to conduct " any war that might haughty and overbearing, and a bitter
befall for the space of a year next en- mutual dislike finally made their corre-
suing." The English government threat- spondence mere bickerings. The commis-
ened, but did nothing. In September, 1635, sioners proceeded to settle the boundary
a writ of quo icarranto was issued against between Plymouth and Rhode Island,
the Massachusetts Company; but every- More difficult was the settlement of the
thing went on in the colony as if no serious boundary between Rhode Island and Con-
threats were impending. The political necticut, because of opposing claims to
disorders in England were safeguards to jurisdiction over the Pequod country. The
the infant colony. It was after the appoint- commissioners finally directed that the
ment of this commission that Endicott cut region in dispute should constitute a sepa-
the cross from the standard at Salem. rate district, under the title of the
The second of these commissions was " King s Province." Neither party was
sent over in 1664. Territorial claims, satisfied, and the boundary dispute con-
rights of jurisdiction, boundaries, and tinued fifty years longer,
other matters had created controversies The commissioners now proposed to sit
in New England, which were continually as a court to hear complaints against
referred to the crown, and in 1664 the Massachusetts, of which there were thirty.
King signified his intention to appoint The general court, by public proclama-
a commission for hearing and determining tion, forbade such a proceeding, and the
all matters in dispute. This occasioned commissioners went to New Hampshire
alarm in Massachusetts, which had been and Maine, when they decided in favor of
a narrow oppressor of other colonies, es- claims of the heirs of Mason and Gorges,
pecially of Rhode Island, and against In the latter province they organized a
which serious complaints had been made, new government; and on their Teturn to
A large comet appearing at that time in- Boston the authorities complained that
creased the general alarm, for it was re- the commissioners had disturbed the peace
garded as portentous of evil, and a fast of Maine, and asked for an interview. It
was ordered. Fearing a design to seize was denied by the commissioners, who de-
their charter might be contemplated, it nounced the magistrates as traitors be-
was intrusted to a committee for safe- cause they opposed the King s orders. The
keeping. The commission was appointed, commissioners having violated a local law
consisting of Sir Richard Nicolls, Sir by a carousal at a tavern, a constable
Robert Carr, Sir George Cartwright, and \vas sent to break up the party, when one
Samuel Maverick, of Massachusetts. They of the commissioners and his servant beat
came with an armament to take possession the officer. Another constable was sent
of New Netherland. Touching at Boston, to arrest the commissioners. They had
the commissioners asked for additional gone to the house of a merchant. The
soldiers, but the request was coldly re- officer went there and reproved them, say-
ceived. The magistrates said they could ing, " It is well you have changed quar-
not grant it without the authority of the ters, or I would have arrested you."
general court. That body soon met and "What!" exclaimed Carr. "Arrest the
voted 200 soldiers. In Connecticut the King s commissioners?" "Yes, and the
commissioners were cordially received, and King himself, if he had been here." " Trea-
Governor Winthrop accompanied the ex- son! treason!" cried Maverick. "Knave,
pedition against New Netherland. After you shall hang for this!" The commission-
the conquest, they proceeded to settle the ers sent an account of their proceedings
boundary between New York and Con- to the King, and soon afterwards they
necticut. Leaving Nicolls at New York as were recalled (1666). Their acts were ap-

2.30

COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS

proved, and those of all the colonies ex
cept Massachusetts, which was ordered to
" appoint five able and meet persons to
make answer for refusing the jurisdiction
of the King s commissioners." Although
this order produced considerable alarm,
the sturdy magistrates of Massachusetts
maintained their position with much
adroitness, and the country being engaged
in a foreign war, the nation left his
Majesty to fight alone for the mainte
nance of the royal prerogative. Massachu
setts was victorious, and soon after the
departure of the commissioners a force
was sent to re-establish the authority of
that colony over Maine.

Colonial Settlements. Settlements
were made, as productive germs of colo
nies, in the following order of time: St.
Augustine, Fla., was settled by Spaniards,
under Menendez, 1565, and is the old
est settlement by Europeans within the
domain of the United States. It was per
manently occupied by the Spaniards, ex
cepting for a few years, until Florida
passed from their control (see FLORIDA
and ST. AUGUSTINE). Virginia was first
settled by the English temporarily (see
RALEIGH, SIR WALTER). The first per
manent settlement was made by them in
1607, under the auspices of London mer
chants, who that year sent five ships, with
a colony, to settle on Roanoke Island.
Storms drove them into the entrance to
Chesapeake Bay, when they ascended the
Powhatan River 50 miles, landed, and
built a hamlet, which they called James
town. The stream they named James
River both in compliment to their King.
After various vicissitudes, the settlement
flourished, and, in 1619, the first repre
sentative Assembly in Virginia was held
at Jamestown. Then were laid the foun
dations of the State of Virginia (see
VIRGINIA). Manhattan Island (now the
borough of Manhattan, city of New York)
was discovered by Henry Hudson in 1609,
while employed by the Dutch East India
Company. Dutch traders were soon after
wards seated there and on the site of
Albany, 150 miles up the Hudson River.
The government of Holland granted ex
clusive privilege to Amsterdam merchants
to traffic with the Indians on the Hudson,
and the country was called New Nether-
land. The Dutch West India Company

was formed in 1621, with unrest ri etc. 1
control over New Netherland. They bought
Manhattan Island of the Indians for about
$24, paid chiefly in cheap trinkets, and
in 1623 thirty families from Holland land
ed there and began a settlement. Then
were laid the foundations of the State of
New York, as New Netherland was called
after it passed into the possession of the
English. Late in 1620 a company of Eng
lish Puritans (see PURITANS) who had tied
from persecution to Holland, crossed the
Atlantic and landed on the shores of
Massachusetts, by permission of the Plym
outh Company (see PLYMOUTH COM
PANY). They built a town and called
it New Plymouth ; they organized a civil
government and called themselves " Pil
grims." Others came to the shores of
Massachusetts soon afterwards, and the
present foundations of the State of Mas
sachusetts were laid at Plymouth in 1620
(see PILGRIMS). In 1622 the Plymouth
Company granted to Mason and Gorges
a tract of land bounded by the rivers Mer-
rimac and Kennebec, the ocean, and the
St. Lawrence River, and fishermen settled
there soon afterwards. Mason and Gorges
dissolved their partnership in 1629, when
the former obtained a grant for the whole
tract, and laid the foundations for the
commonwealth of NEW HAMPSHIRE (q. v.).
King James of England persecuted the
Roman Catholics in his dominions, and
George Calvert, who was a zealous roy
alist, sought a refuge for his brethren
in America. King James favored his proj
ect, but died before anything of much
consequence was accomplished. His son
Charles I. granted a domain between North
and South Virginia to Calvert (then cre
ated Lord Baltimore). Before the char
ter was completed Lord Baltimore died,
but his son Cecil received it in 1632. The
domain was called Maryland, and Cecil
sent his brother Leonard, with colonists.
to settle it (see BALTIMORE; BALTIMORE,
LORDS; CALVERT, LEONARD). They ar-
lived in the spring of 1634. and, at a
place called St. Mary, they laid the foun
dations of the commonwealth of Mary
land (see MARYLAND). The Dutch navi
gator, ADRIAN BLOCK (q. v.) , sailing east
from Manhattan, explored a river some
distance inland, which the Indians called
Quon-eh-ti-cut, and in the valley watered
40

COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS

by that river a number of Puritans from brethren, the Quakers, and settlements
Plymouth began a settlement in 1633. were immediately begun there, in addition
The first permanent settlement made in to some already made by the Swedes with-
the valley of the Connecticut was planted in the domain. Unsuccessful attempts to
by Puritans from Massachusetts (near settle in the region of the Carolinas had
F&gt;oston), in 1036, on the site of Hartford, been made before the English landed on
In 1638 another company from Massachu- the shores of the James River. Some set-
setts settled on the site of New Haven, tiers went into North Carolina from
The two settlements were afterwards polit- Jamestown, between the years 1640 and
ically united, and laid the foundations of 1650, and in 1663 a settlement in the
the commonwealth of CONNECTICUT ( q. v. ) , northern part of North Carolina had an
in 1639. organized government, and the country
Meanwhile, elements were at work for was named Carolina, in honor of Charles
the formation of a new settlement between II., of England. In 1668 the foundations
Connecticut and Plymouth. Roger Will- of the commonwealth of NORTH CARO-
iams, a minister, was banished from Mas- LINA (q. v.) were laid at Eden ton. In
sachusetts in 1636. He went into the 1670 some people from Barbadoes sailed
Indian country at the head of Narragan- into the harbor of Charleston and settled
set Bay, where he was joined by a few on the Ashley and Cooper rivers (see
sympathizers, and they located themselves SOUTH CAROLINA). The benevolent Gen-
at a place which they called Providence, eral Oglethorpe, commiserating the con-
Others, men and women, joined them, and dition of the prisoners for debt, in Eng-
they formed a purely democratic govern- land, conceived the idea of founding a
ment. Others, persecuted at Boston, fled colony in America with them. The govern-
to the Island of Aquiday, or Aquitneck ment approved the project, and, in 1732,
(now Rhode Island), in 1638, and formed he landed, with emigrants, on the site of
a settlement there. The two settlements the city of Savannah, and there planted
were consolidated under one government, the germ of the commonwealth of GEOR-
called the Providence and Rhode Island GIA (q. v.).

Plantation, for which a charter was given The first English colony planted in
in 1644. So the commonwealth of RHODE America was the one sent over in 1585
ISLAND (q. v.) was founded. A small by Sir Walter Raleigh, who despatched
colony from Sweden made a settlement on Sir Richard Grenville, with seven ships
the site of New Castle, Del., and called and many people, to form a colony in
the country New Sweden. The Dutch Virginia, with Ralph Lane as their gov-
claimed the territory as a part of New ernor. At Roanoke Island Grenville left
Netherland, and the governor of the lat- 107 men under Lane to plant a colony,
ter proceeded against the Swedes in the the first ever founded by Englishmen in
summer of 1655, and brought them under America. This colony became much strait-
subjection. It is difficult to draw the line ened for want of provisions next year,
of demarcation between the first settle- and, fortunately for them, Sir Francis
ments in Delaware, New Jersey, and Penn- Drake, sailing up the American coast
sylvania, owing to their early political sit- with a squadron, visited the colony and
uation. The (present) State of Delaware found them in great distress. He gener-
remained in possession of the Dutch, and ously proposed to furnish them with
afterwards of the English, until it was supplies, a ship, a pinnace, and small
purchased by William Penn, in 1682, and boats, with sufficient seamen to stay and
annexed to PENNSYLVANIA (q. v.) . So it make a further discovery of the country;
remained until the Revolution as " the or sufficient provisions to carry them to
Territories," when it became the State of England, or to give them a passage home
DELAWARE (q. v.) . The first permanent in his fleet. The first proposal was ac-
settlement in NEW JERSEY (q. v.) was cepted; but a storm having shattered his
made at Elizabethtown in 1644. A prov- vessels, the discouraged colonists concluded
ince lying between New Jersey and Mary- to take passage for home with Drake,
land was granted to William Penn, in which they did. The whole colony
1681, for an asylum for his persecuted sailed from Virginia June 18, 1586, and
IT. Q 241

COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS

arrived at Portsmouth, England, July 28. quent and decided negatives. The pro-
Madame de Guercheville, a pious lady in vincial acts for establishing the writ of
France, zealous for the conversion of the habeas corpus were also vetoed by the
American Indians, persuaded De Monts King. He also continued the order of
to surrender his patent, and then obtained James II. prohibiting printing in the
a charter for " all the lands of New colonies. Even men of liberal tendencies,
France." She sent out missionaries in like Locke, Somers, and Chief-Justice Holt,
1613. They sailed from Honneur March conceded prerogatives to the King in the
12, and arrived in ACADIA (q. v.), where colonies which they denied him at home,
the arms of Madame Guercheville were The most renowned jurists of the king-
set up in token of possession. Her agent dom had not yet comprehended the true
proceeded to Port Royal (now Annapolis), nature of the connective principle be-
where he found only five persons, two tween the parent country and her colonies,
of whom were Jesuit missionaries pre- As early as 1696 a pamphlet appeared
viously sent over. The Jesuits went with in England recommending Parliament to
other persons to Mount Desert Island, tax the English-American colonies. Two
Just as they had begun to provide them- pamphlets appeared in reply, denying the
selves with comforts, they were attacked right of Parliament to tax the colonies,
by SAMUEL ARGALL (q. v.), of Virginia, because they had no representative in
The French made some resistance, but were Parliament to give consent. From that
compelled to surrender to superior num- day the subject of taxing the colonies was
bers. One of the Jesuits was killed, sev- a question frequently discussed, but not
eral were wounded, and the remainder attempted until seventy years afterwards,
made prisoners. Argall took fifteen of the After the ratification of the treaty of
Frenchmen, besides the Jesuits, to Vir- Paris in 1763, the British government re-
ginia; the remainder sailed for France, solved to quarter troops in America at
This success induced the governor of Vir- the expense of the colonies. The money
ginia to send an expedition to crush the was to be raised by a duty on foreign
power of the French in Acadia, under the sugar and molasses, and by stamps on all
pretext that they were encroaching upon legal and mercantile paper. It was de-
the rights of the English. Argall sailed termined to make the experiment of tax-
with three ships for the purpose. On his ing the American colonists in a way which
arrival he broke in pieces, at St. Saviour, Walpole feared to undertake. A debate
a cross which the Jesuits had set up, and arose in the House of Commons on the
raised another, on which he inscribed the right of Parliament to tax the Americans
name of King James. He sailed to St. without allowing them to be represented
Croix and destroyed the remains of De in that body. The question was decided
Mont s settlement there ; and then he went by an almost unanimous vote in the affirm-
to Port Royal and laid that deserted town ative. " Until then no act, avowedly for
in ashes. The English government did the purpose of revenue, and with the
not approve the act, nor did the French ordinary title and recital taken together,
government resent it. is found on the statute-book of the realm,"
Though the revolution in England said Burke. " All before stood on com-
(1688) found its warmest friends among mercial regulations and restraints." Then
the Low Churchmen and Non-conformists the House proceeded to consider the STAMP
there, who composed the English Whig ACT (q. v.].

party, the high ideas which William en- In 1607 the right of appeal from the

tertained of royal authority made him colonial courts to the King in council was

naturally coalesce with the Tories and sustained by the highest legal authority,

the High Church party. As to the govern- By this means, and the establishment of

ment of the colonies, he seems not to have courts of admiralty, England at length

abated any of the pretensions set up by acquired a judicial control over the col-

his predecessors. The colonial assemblies onies, and with it a power (afterwards

had hastened to enact in behalf of the peo- imitated in our national Constitution) of

pie the Bill of Rights of the Convention bringing her supreme authority to bear

Parliament. To these William gave fre- not alone upon the colonies as political

242

COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS

corporations, but, what was much more
effectual, upon the colonists as individuals.
At the beginning of the French and Ind
ian War (1754), the period when the
American people " set up for themselves "
in political and social life, there was no
exact enumeration of the inhabitants; but
from a careful examination of official rec
ords, Mr. Bancroft estimated the number
as follows:

Colonies.

White.

Colored.

207,000

50.000

&gt; 3,000

133,000

3,500

35,000

4.500

85,000

11,000

73,000

5,000

195,000

11,000

104,000

44.000

168,000

11(1,000

70.000

20,000

South Carolina

40,000

Georgia

5.000

2,000

Total

1,165.000

260,000

At this period the extent of the terri
torial possessions of England and France
in America was well denned on maps pub
lished by Evans and Mitchell that of the
latter (a new edition) in 1754. The Brit
ish North American colonies stretched
coastwise along the Atlantic about 1,000
miles, but inland their extent was very
limited. New France, as the French set
tlers called their claimed territory in
America, extended over a vastly wider
space, from Cape Breton, in a sort of cres
cent, to the mouth of the Mississippi
River, but the population was mainly col
lected on the St. Lawrence, between Quebec
and Montreal. The English colonies in
America at that time had a population
of 1,485,034, of whom 292,738 were
negroes. The French were scarcely 100,-
000 in number, but were strong in Indian
allies, who, stretching along the whole in
terior frontier of the English colonies, and
disgusted with constant encroachments
upon their territories, as well as ill-treat
ment by the English, were always ripe
and ready for cruel warfare.

The war with the French and Indians,
and the contests with royal authority in
which the colonies had been engaged at
its close, in 1763, revealed to the colonists
their almost unsuspected innate strength.
During these contests, disease and weapons
had slain 30,000 of the colonists. They
had also spent more than $16,000,000, of

which $5,000,000 had been reimbursed by
Parliament. Massachusetts alone had kept
from 4,000 to 7,000 men in the field, be
sides garrisons and recruits to the regular
regiments. They served but a few months
in the year, and were fed at the cost of
the British government. At the approach
of winter they were usually disbanded,
and for every campaign a new army was
summoned. Yet that province alone spent
$2,000,000 for this branch of the public
service, exclusive of all parliamentary dis
bursements. Connecticut had spent fully
$2,000,000 for the same service, and the
outstanding debt of New York, in 1763,
incurred largely for the public service,
was about $1,000,000.

The Southern colonies, too, had been
liberal in such public expenditures, ac
cording to their means. At that time
Virginia had a debt of $8,000,000. Every
where the English-American colonies felt
the consciousness of puissant manhood,
and were able to grapple in deadly con
flict with every enemy of their inalien
able rights. They demanded a position
of political equality with their fellow-
subjects in England, and were ready to
maintain their rights at all hazards.

In Pitt s cabinet, as chancellor of the
exchequer, was the brilliant Charles Town-
shend, loose in principles and bold in sug
gestions. He had voted for the Stamp
Act, and voted for its repeal as expedient,
not because it was just. In January,
1767, by virtue of his office, on which
devolved the duty of suggesting ways and
means for carrying on the government,
he proposed taxation schemes which
aroused the most vehement opposition in
America. He introduced a bill imposing
a duty on tea, paints, paper, glass, lead,
and other articles of British manufacture
imported into the colonies. It was passed
June 29. The exportation of tea to Amer
ica was encouraged by another act, passed
July 2, allowing for five years a draw
back of the whole duty payable on the
importation. By another act, reorganiz
ing the colonial custom-house system, a
board of revenue commissioners for
America was established, to have its seat
at Boston. Connected with these bills
were provisions very obnoxious to the
Americans, all having relation to the
main object namely, raising a revenue

243

COLONIAL SETTLEMENTS COLONIAL WARS

in America. There was a provision in caused the line to be continued down the
the first bill for the maintenance of a Ohio to the mouth of the Tennessee River,
standing army in America and enabling which stream was made to constitute the
the crown to establish a general civil western boundary of Virginia,
list; fixing the salaries of governors, In striking a balance of losses and gains
judges, and other officers in all the prov- in the matter of parliamentary taxation in
inces, such salaries to be paid by the America, it was found in 1772 that the ex-
crown, making those officers independent penses on account of the Stamp Act ex-
of the people and fit instruments for ceeded $60,000, while there had been re-
government oppression. A scheme was ceived for revenue (almost entirely from
also approved, but not acted upon, for Canada and the West India islands) only
transferring to the mother-country, and about $7,500. The operation of levying
converting into a source of revenue, the a tax on tea had been still more disastrous,
issue of the colonial paper currency. The whole remittance from the colonies
The narrow-minded Hillsborough, Brit- for the previous year for duties on toas
ish secretary of state for the colonies and wines, and other articles taxed indi-
wishing, if possible, to blot out the settle- rectly, amounted to no more than about
ments west of the Appalachian Moun- $400, while ships and soldiers for the sup-
tains, and to extend an unbroken line of port of the collecting officers had cost
Indian frontier from Georgia to Canada, about $500,000; and the East India Coin-
had issued repeated instructions to that pany had lost the sale of goods to the
effect, in order to make an impassable ob- amount of $2,500,000 annually for four or
struction of emigration westward. These five years.

instructions were renewed with emphasis After the proclamation of King George

in 1768, when John Stuart, an agent faith- III., in 1775, Joseph Hawley, one of the

ful to his trust, had already carried the stanch patriots of New England, wrote

frontier line to the northern limit of from Watertown to Samuel Adams, in Con-

iS orth Carolina. He was now ordered to gress: "The eyes of all the continent are

continue it to the Ohio, at the mouth of on your body to see whether you act with

the Kanawha. By such a line all Ken- firmness and intrepidity with the spirit

tucky, as well as the entire territory and despatch which our situation calls for.

northwest of the Ohio, would be severed It is time for your body to fix on periodi-

from the jurisdiction of Virginia and con- cal annual elections nay, to form into a

firmed to the Indians by treaties. Vir- parliament of two houses." This was the

ginia strenuously opposed this measure; first proposition for the establishment of

and, to thwart the negotiations of Stuart an independent national government for

with the Indians, sent Thomas Walker as the colonies.

her commissioner to the congress of the On April 6, 1776, the Continental Con-
Six Nations held at FORT STANWIX (q. v.) gress, by resolution, threw open their ports
late in the autumn of 1768. There about to the commerce of the world "not sub-
3.000 Indians were present, who were ject to the King of Great Britain." This
loaded with generous gifts. They com- resolution was the broom that swept awn v
plied with the wishes of the several agents the colonial system within the present
present, and the western boundary-line bounds of the republic, and the flag of
was established at the mouth of the Kana- every nation save one was invited to our
wha to meet Stuart s line on the south, harbors. Absolute free-trade was estab-
From the Kanawha northward it followed lished. The act was a virtual declaration
the Ohio and Alleghany rivers, a branch of independence.

of the Susquehanna, and so on to the Colonial Wars, SOCIETY OF, a patriotic

junction of Canada and Wood creeks, society established in 1892 to " perpetuate

tributaries of the Mohawk River. Thus the memory of those events and of the men

the Indian frontier was defined all the who, in military, naval, and civil offices

way from Florida almost to Lake On- of high trust and responsibility, by their

tario: but SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON (q. v.) , acts or counsel assisted in the establish-

pretending to recognize a right of the Six ment, defence, and preservation of the

Nations to a larger part of Kentucky, American colonies, and were in truth the

244

COLONIES COLONIZATION SOCIETY

founders of the nation. With this end in in 1787, for a home for destitute Afri-
view it seeks to collect and preserve manu- cans from different parts of the world,
scripts, rolls, and records; to provide suit- and for promoting African civilization,
able commemorations or memorials relat- He failed. In 1793 he proposed a plan of
ing to the American colonial period, and colonization to be carried on by the sev-
to inspire in its members the paternal and eral States and by the national govern-
patriotic spirit of their forefathers, and in ment. He persevered in his unavailing
the community of respect and reverence efforts until his death, in 1803. The sub-
for those whose public services made our ject continued to be agitated from time to
freedom and unity possible." Any adult time, and in 1815 a company of thirty-
male may become a member who is the eight colored persons emigrated to Sierra
descendant of an ancestor who fought in Leone from New Bedford,
any colonial battle from the Jamestown Steps had been taken as early as 1811
settlement in Virginia, in 1607, to the for the organization of a colonization so-
battle of Lexington, in 1775, or who at ciety, and on Dec. 23, 1816, the con-
any time was a governor, deputy-governor, stitution of the American Colonization
lieutenant-governor, member of the coun- Society was adopted at a meeting at
cil, or as a military, naval, or marine Washington, and the first officers were
officer in behalf of the colonies, or under chosen Jan. 1, 1817. All reference to
the flag of England, or during that period emancipation, present or future, was
was distinguished in military, official, or specially disclaimed by the society, and in
legislative life. The officers in 1900 were: the course of the current session of Con-
Governor-general, Frederick J. De Peyster, gress, Henry Clay, John Randolph, Bush-
New York; secretary-general, Walter L. rod Washington, and other slave-holders
Suydam, 45 William street, New York; took a leading part in the formation of
deputy secretary-general, Gen. Howard R. the society. In March, 1819, Congress
Bayne, New York; treasurer-general, Ed- appropriated $100,000 for the purpose of
general, George N. McKenzie, Baltimore. sending back to Africa such slaves as
ward Shippen, Philadelphia; registrar- should be surreptitiously imported. Pro-
Colonies, GRIEVANCES OF THE AMERI- vision was made for agents and emigrants
CAN. See HOPKINS, STEPHEN. to be sent out, and early in 1820 the
Colonies, VINDICATION OF THE. See society appointed an agent, put $30,000
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN. at his disposal, and sent in a government
Colonists, RIGHTS OF. See ADAMS, vessel thirty-eight emigrants, who were to
SAMUEL. erect tents for the reception of at least
Colonization Society, AMERICAN. The 300 recaptured Africans. The agents of
idea of restoring Africans in America to the United States were instructed not to
their native country occupied the minds exercise any authority over the colonists,
of philanthropists at an early period, and the government of the colony was as-
Tt seems to have been first suggested by sumed by the society.

Kev. Samuel Hopkins and Rev. Ezra A constitution for the colony (which

Stiles, of Newport, R. I., where the Afri- was named Liberia) was adopted (Jan.

can slave-trade was extensively carried 24, 1820), by which all the powers of

on. They issued a circular on the sub- the government were vested in the agent

ject in August, 1773, in which they in- of the colonization society. In 1824 a

vited subscriptions to a fund for founding plan for a civil government in Liberia

a colony of free negroes from America was adopted, by which the society re-

on the western shore of Africa. A con- tained the privilege of ultimate decision,

tribution was made by ladies of Newport Another constitution was adopted in 1828,

in February, 1774, and aid was received by which most of the civil power was

from Massachusetts and Connecticut, secured to the colonists. In 1841 Joseph

After the Revolution the effort was re- J. Roberts, a colored man, was appointed

newed by Dr. Hopkins, and he endeav- governor by the society. Import duties

ored to make arrangements by which free were levied on foreign goods, and out of

blacks from America might join the Eng- this grew a temporary difficulty with the

lish colony at Sierra Leone, established British government. British subjects vio-

245

STATK SKAI. OF COLORADO.

COLORADO

lated the navigation law with impunity, in 1540. In 1806 President Jefferson
and, when the British government was ap- sent an expedition, under Lieut. Z. M.
pealed to, the answer was that Liberia Pike, to explore this region, and it nearly
had no national existence. In this crossed the territory from north to south
emergency the society surrendered such in the mountain region, and discovered
governmental power as it had retained,
and recommended the colony to proclaim
itself a sovereign and independent state.
It was done, and such a declaration of
independence was made July 26, 1847.
The next year the independence of Liberia
was acknowledged by the United States,
Great Britain, and France. So the Amer
ican Colonization Society became mainly
instrumental in the foundation of Liberia,
and in sustaining the colony until it be
came self-supporting.

After that consummation the society
continued to send out emigrants, and to
furnish them with provisions and tem
porary dwellings; and it materially aided
the republic in the development of its
commerce and agriculture. It also aided
in the dissemination of Christianity in
that region, and in the promotion of educa
tion and the general welfare of the coun
try. The whole amount of receipts of the the mountain known as Pike s Peak. In
society from its foundation to 1875 was, in 1820 another expedition, under Col. S. H.
round numbers, $2,400,000, and those of Long, visited this region; and in 1842-
the auxiliary societies a little more than 44 Col. John C. Fremont crossed it in his
$400,000. The whole number of emigrants famous passage over the Rocky Moun-
that had been sent out to that date by tains. Before the beginning of the nine-
the parent society was nearly 14,000, and teenth century, it is believed that no
the Maryland society had sent about white inhabitants lived in Colorado, ex-
1,250; also 5,722 Africans recaptured by cepting a few Mexicans and Spaniards in
the United States government had been the southern portion. Gold was discov-
returned. The society had five presidents ered there, near the mouth of Clear Creek,
namely, Bush rod Washington, Charles in 1852, by a Cherokee cattle-dealer. This
Carroll, James Madison, Henry Clay, and and other discoveries of the precious
J. H. B. Latrobe all slave-holders. metal brought about 400 persons to Colo-

Colorado, a State occupying a moun- rado in 1858-59; and the first discovery
tainous and high plateau region, between of a gold-bearing lode was by John H.
Kansas and Nebraska on the east, Utah Gregory, May 6, 1859, in what is now
on the west, Wyoming on the north, and known as the " Gregory Mining District."
Now Mexico and Texas on the south, or- in Gilpin county. An attempt to organize
ganized as a Territory Feb. 28, 1861, from government among the miners was made
parts of its several contiguous neighbors, by the erection of Arapahoe county, and
and admitted to the Union July 4, 1876, the election of a representative to the
hence known as the " Centennial State." Kansas legislature, Nov. 6, 1858. He
The portion north of the Arkansas was instructed to urge the separation of
River, and east of the Rocky Moun- the district from Kansas and the organi-
tains, was included in the Louisiana pur- zation of a new Territory. The first move-
chase of 1803 and the remainder in the ment for a territorial government was by
Mexican cession of 1848. Francis Vas- a convention of 128 delegates held at Den-
quez de Coronado is believed to have been ver in the autumn of 1859, who decided
the first European explorer of this region to memorialize Congress on the subject.

246

COLORADO COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

Name.

The Territory was organized in 1861, and

but for the veto of President Johnson

statehood would have been granted in

1867. A further attempt was made in 8,fl2j?;;;:;;;

1873, but Congress refused to pass an en- Nathaniel P. Hill . . .!!!".!

ii. Thomas M. Bo wen

abling act. Henry M. Teller

Colorado was long noted as a silver-pro- Edward o. Woicott

ducing State, but after the repeal of the Thomas H. Patt
silver-purchase clause of the BLAND SILVEB

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

No. of Congress.

44th to 45th
44th " 47th
40th " 48th
48th " 50th

49th

51st to 57th
57th " -

Term.

1876 to 1879

1877

1879

1883

1885

1889 " 1901

1901 "

1883
1885

" 1889
&lt;i

Colquitt, ALFRED HOLT, statesman ;
born in Walton county, Ga., April 20,

^^l^^^^^ ^ T 4 ;/;^? ^ ^^V^rvea

results of a general exploitation for gold, admitted to the bar m

and within a" few years Colorado passed throughout the Mexican *ar as

from the status of a silver to that of a cer ; in 18o2 was elected to Congress;

gold State. In the calendar year 1900 the J8o9 was a member of the

State produced bullion of various kinds Jature. He favored

to the value of $50,303,964, and of this Georgia and entered the Confederate army,

total $29,226,198 was in gold and $12,- in which he rose to the rank of

433,785 in silver. Coal, both bituminous general In 18,6 he was elected gov-

and anthracite, and iron, are found in ernor of the State and in 188

great quantities; lead, zinc, copper, quick- States Senator. He dted March

silver, tellurium, salt, gypsum, and pottery

clays are plentiful. In 1899 the total Colt SAMUEL inventor; born ml

assessed valuation of taxable property was ^rd Conn., July 10

$"12902886. A strike in the mining re- Colt s revolver m 1835; laid the first sub-

gions of Teller county in 1903 extended marine cable (between Coney Island and

into 1904, and led to a reign of terror, a New York City) in He died in

Ion- service by the State militia, and a Hartford, Conn., Jan. 10, 1862.

loss" to various interests of over $23,000,- Columbia, CAPTURE OF.

000. The population in 1890 was 412,- CAROLINA.

198; in 1900, 539,700. See UNITED STATES Columbia,

See SOUTH

COLORADO, in vol. ix.

TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS.

Name.

Term.

Remarks.
Appointed by

William Oilpin

1801-62
1862-65
1865-67
1867-69
1869-73
1873-74
1874-75
1875-76

Pres:

dent Lincoln
u

Johnson
Grant

Alexander Cummings . . .
A Hunt

Edward M. McCook
Samuel H Flbert ....

K Uvard M McCook

John \. Routt ....

STATE GOVERNORS.

Name.

John L. Routt

Fred. W. Pilkin

James B. Grant

Benj. H. Eaton

Alvah Adams

Job A. Cooper

John L. Routt

Davis H. Waite

A. W. Mctntyre

Alvah Adams

Charles S. Thomas

James B. Orman

James H. Peahody

Alva Adams (to March 16)

J. F.McDonuld (Peabody resigns March 17)

1879
1883

1885

See UNITED

STATES DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, in vol.
ix. ; WASHINGTON.

Columbia, Tenn. ; 47 miles southwest
of Nashville. It contains a number of
educational institutions, and a large Unit
ed States arsenal. During the Civil War
Johnson there were two encounters here between
the National and Confederate forces; the
first on Sept. 9, 1862, when the 42d Il
linois Volunteers were engaged, and on
Nov. 24-28, when a considerable part of
General Thomas s army fought what is
sometimes known as the battle of Duck
Run.

Columbia River. Discovered by the

1876 to 1878

1887 1888

1889
1891
1893
1895
1897
1899
1901

1882

1885 Spanish in 1775; explored by Captain

in 1 " !) 2 &gt;

Lewis and Clarke in

1905
1U05

1890 1805-ti.

Columbia University, founded in 1746.
1897 Originally named King s College, after-
1901 war&lt; l s Columbia College, and in 1896
1903 Columbia University. Rev. Samuel John
son, of Stratford, Conn., was invited,
1907 in 1753, to become president of the
247

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION

proposed institution, and a royal charter in charge of twenty-four trustees. On
constituting King s College was granted May 21, 1787, William Samuel Johnson,
Oct. 31, 1754. The organization was ef- LL.D., son of the first president, was
fccted in May, 1755. The persons named chosen to fill his fathers place, and the
in the charter as governors of the col- college started on a prosperous career. A
Ifge were the Archbishop of Canterbury, new charter was obtained in 1810. A
Hie principal civil officers of the colony, medical and law school was established,
the principal clergymen of the five de- and in 1828 the Hon. James Kent de
nominations of Christians in the city of livered a course of law lectures in the
New York, and twenty private gentle- college that formed the basis of his
men. The college opened July 17, 1754, famous Commentaries. The college ..&lt;-
with a class of eight, under l)r. Johnson, cupied the original site until 1857, when
sole instructor in the vestry-room of it was removed to the square between
Trinity Church. The corner-stone of the Madison and Fourth avenues and Forty-
college building was laid Aug. 23, 1756, ninth and Fiftieth streets,
on the block now bounded by Murray, In 1892, the institution having out-
Church, and Barclay streets and College grown its accommodations, a tract of land
Place. It faced the Hudson River and was purchased on Morningside Heights,
"was the most beautifully situated of between Amsterdam Avenue, the Boule-
any college in the world." The first com- vard, and 116th and 120th streets, and
mencement was on June 21, 1758, when the erection of the first of a group of new
about twenty students were graduated, buildings, the observatory, was begun.
In 1767 a grant was made in the New Since then the work of construction has
Hampshire Grants of 24,000 acres of land, steadily progressed, and prominent among
but it was lost by the separation of that its completions is the noble library build-
part of Vermont from New York. In ing, erected by President Seth Low at a
1762 Rev. Myles Cooper was sent over cost of over $1.000.000. In 1900 the uni-
by the Archbishop of Canterbury to be- versity had $235,000 invested in scientific
come a " fellow " of the college. He was apparatus, $8,500,000 in grounds and
a strong loyalist, and had a pamphlet buildings, and $9,500,000 in productive
controversy with young Alexander Ham- funds. The total income was $854,327,
ilton, one of his pupils. Cooper became and the total benefactions, $518,667. The
president of the college, and so obnoxious departments were: Columbia College (the
were his politics that the college was at- School of Arts), School of Political
tacked by the "Sons of Liberty" and a Science. School of Philosophy, School of
mob in New York on the night of May Pure Science, School of Law, School of
10, 1775, and he was obliged to flee for Medicine. School of Applied Science. Bar-
his life. Rev. Benjamin Moore (after- nard College (for women), Teacher s Col-
wards bishop of the diocese) succeeded lege, Summer School, and Extension
him. The college was prepared for the Work. There were 35 fellowships, 230
reception of troops the next year, when scholarships, 339 professors and instruc-
the students were dispersed, the library tors, and a total of 4.034 students in all
and apparatus were stored in the City departments. The debt of the univer-
I all, and mostly lost, and the building sily. growing out of its removal to
became a military hospital. About 600 Morningside Heights, was substantially
of the volumes were recovered thirty years $3.000.000.
afterwards in a room in St. Paul s Columbiad. See OANXOX.
Chapel, when none but the sexton knew Columbian Exposition. Early in
of their existenee. In 1784 regents of a 1890 an act was passed by Congress, pro-
State University were appointed, who viding for an exhibition of arts, indus-
took charge of what property belonged tries, manufactures, and products of the
to the institution and changed its name soil, mines, and sea in 1892. This exhibi-
to Columbia College. There was no presi- tion was designed to be a commemoration
dent for several years. In 1787 the origi- and celebration of the 400th anniversary
nal charter was confirmed by the State of the discovery of America by Columbus
legislature, and the college was placed and hence was designated " The World s

248

COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION COLUMBUS

Columbian Exposition." When the ques- Affairs. The total estimated expenditure
tion of a site for the exposition came up for the fair was $26,000,000.
for determination, the four cities, New The imposing naval parade in Xew
York, Chicago, St. Louis, and Washing- York Harbor proved to be an event of sur-
tion, were competitors, and on Feb. 24 passing interest. The fair was opened
Chicago, which had given a good guaran- by President Cleveland; a poem, Prophecy,
tee of $10,000,000, was awarded that by William A. Croffut, was read, and the
honor. Congress at once appropriated usual initiatory exercises occurred, but
$1,500,000 towards providing for the sue- several weeks elapsed before all the ex-
cessful management of the enterprise. A hibits were in place. Some special feat-
commission of two persons from each ures of interest were the various con-
State and Territory was appointed by the gresses which assembled at Chicago. Aside
President on the nomination of the gov- from religious and educational reunions,
ernors, and also eight commissioners at there was a literary congress in July,
large, and two from the District of Co- which discussed copyright and general
lumbia, to constitute the World s Colum- literature; the Jews, Roman Catholics,
bian Commission. It was directed that negroes, and engineers held special " con-
the buildings should be dedicated Oct. 12, gresses." In the autumn a monster " par-
1892. The exposition was to be opened liament of religions " assembled, at which
on May 1, 1893, and closed on the last were present representatives of the lead-
Thursday of October in the same year, ing Protestant denominations, as well as
In connection with the exposition a naval of the Roman Catholic and Greek
review was directed to be held in New Churches. Confucianism, Buddhism, the
York Harbor in April, 1893, and the Presi- Brahmo Samaj, Judaism, Mohammedan-
dent was authorized to extend to foreign ism, Theosophy, and Shintoism.
nations an invitation to send ships of war The attendance, despite the business de-
to join the United States navy at Hamp- pression, was large from the United
ton Roads and proceed thence to the re- States, particularly from the West. The
view. The national commission being visit of Columbus s descendant, the Duke
chosen, the President appointed ex-Sena- of Veragua, excited much popular inter-
tor Thomas W. Palmer, of Michigan, to e&t, as did that of the Princess Eulalie of
be permanent chairman, and John T. Dick- ihe Spanish royal family. Restorations
inson, of Texas, permanent secretary, of the caravels of Columbus followed his
Col. George R. Davis, of Illinois, was track across the Atlantic, and were con-
chosen director-general of the exposition, ducted to Chicago by way of New York;
The ground selected in Chicago for the another noteworthy restoration was the
erection of the buildings included the viking ship, which also made the journey
commons known as Lake Front, consist- to the fair. The question of the Sunday
ing of 90 acres at the edge of the lake ad- opening of the fair called forth con
joining the business centre of the city, siderable controversy, and reached tho
and Jackson Park, containing over GOO courts. As to the general character of
acres. All the great buildings, except the the exposition proper, opinions have
permanent art building, were to be erected varied. No mention of the fair would be
in the park. The entire work of the ex- complete without a reference to several
position was divided into fifteen branches, popular features the gigantic Ferris
each of which was placed under the con- wheel and the Midway Plaisance, with
trol of a director of acknowledged ability its various "villages," Cairo street, etc.
and national fame. These branches in- Two great fires one in January, the
eluded the Bureau of Agriculture, the De- other in June, 1894 swept away the great
partments of Ethnology, Fish and Fish- buildings, excepting the Fine Arts Build-
eries. Mines and Mining, Liberal Arts, ing, which has boon converted into the
Publicity and Promotion. Fine Arts. Ma- Field Columbian Museum, now amply en-
chinery, Manufactures, Electricity, Horti- (lowed.

culture, Floriculture and the Woman s Colurnbian Order. See TAMMANY, So-

Department, besides the Bureau of Trans- CIKTY OF.

portation and the Department of Foreign Columbus, BARTHOLOMEW, elder broth-

249

COLUMBUS

er of Christopher Columbus; born in voyage. Bartholomew was cordially re-
Genoa about 1432. In 1470, when Chris- ceived at the Spanish Court, and Queen
topher went to Lisbon, Bartholomew was Isabella sent him in command of three
there engaged as a mariner and a con- store-ships for the colony in Hispaniola,
structor of maps and charts. It is be- or Santo Domingo. His brother received
lieved that he visited the Cape of Good him with joy, and made him lieutenant-
Hope with Bartholomew Diaz. Christo- governor of the Indies. He was uncom-
pher sent him to England to seek the aid monly brave and energetic, and, when his
of Henry VII. in making a voyage of dis- brother was sent to Spain in chains, Bar-
covery. He was captured by pirates, and tholomew shared his imprisonment, was
long retained a captive; and, on his re- released with him, and was made Lord
turn through France, he first heard of his of Mona an island near Santo Domin-
brother s great discovery beyond the At- go. He died in Santo Domingo, in May,
luntic, and that he had sailed on a second 1515.

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

Columbus, CHRISTOPHER (Cristoforo Henry s navigators. Mutual love led to
Colombo), discoverer of America; born marriage. The bride s mother placed in
in or near Genoa about 1435. At the the hands of Columbus the papers of her
age of ten years he was placed in the husband, which opened to his mind a
University of Pavia, where he was in- new field of contemplation and ambition,
structed in the sciences which pertain The desire for making explorations in
to navigation. In 1450 he entered the the western waters was powerfully stim-
marine service of Genoa, and remained in ulated by stories of vegetable produc-
it twenty years. His brother BARTHOLO- tions, timber handsomely carved, and the
MEW (q. v.) was then in Lisbon, engaged bodies of two men with dusky skins,
in constructing maps and charts, and which had been washed ashore at the
making an occasional voyage at sea. Azores from some unknown land in the
Thither Christopher went in 1470. Prince west. These had actually been seen by
Henry of Portugal was then engaged in Pedro Correo, a brother of the wife of
explorations of the west coast of Africa, Columbus. These things confirmed Colum-
seeking for a passage to India south of bus in his belief that the earth was a
that continent. The merchants of west- sphere, and that Asia might be reached by
ern Europe were then debarred from par- sailing westward from Europe. He laid
ticipation in the rich commerce of the plans for explorations, and, in 1474, corn-
East by way of the Mediterranean Sea municated them to the learned Florentine
by their powerful and jealous rivals, the cosmographer, Paul Toscanelli, who gave
Italians, and this fact stimulated ex- him an encouraging answer, and sent him
plorations for the circumnavigation of a map constructed partly from Ptolemy s
Africa. Prince Henry had persisted in and partly from descriptions of Farther
his efforts in the face of opposition of India by Marco Polo, a Venetian traveller
priests and learned professors, and had who told of Cathay (China) and Zipango
already, by actual discovery by his navi- (Japan) in the twelfth century. In 1477,
gators, exploded the erroneous belief that Columbus sailed northwest from Portu-
the equator was impassable because of gal beyond Iceland to lat. 73, when
the extreme heat of the air and water, pack-ice turned him back; and it is be-
Columbus hoped to find employment in lieved that he went southward as far as
the prince s service, but Henry died soon the coast of Guinea. Unable to fit out
after the Genoese arrived in Lisbon. a vessel for himself, it is stated that he

In the chapel of the Convent of All first applied for aid, but in vain, to the

Saints at Lisbon, Columbus became ac- Genoese. With like ill-success he applied

quainted with Felipa, daughter of Pales- to King John of Portugal, who favored his

trello, an Italian cavalier, then dead, who suit, but priests and professors interposed

had been one of the most trusted of Prince controlling objections. The King, however

250

COLUMBITS, CHRISTOPHER

sent a caravel ostensibly with provisions he determined to leave Portugal and ask

for the Cape Verde Islands, but with secret aid from elsewhere. With his son Diego,

instructions to the commander to pursue he left Lisbon for Spain secretly in 1484,

a course westward indicated by Columbus, while his brother Bartholomew prepared to

The fears of the mariners caused them to go to England to ask aid for the projected

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.

turn back from the threatenings of the enterprise from Henry VII. Genoa again

turbulent Atlantic. declined to help him; so also did Venice;

Disgusted with this pitiful trick, re- and he applied to the powerful and

duced to poverty, and having lost his wife, wealthy Spanish dukes of Medina-Sidonia

251

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

and Medina-Celi. They declined, but the invited him (1488) to return, and Henry
latter recommended the project to Queen VII. had also invited him by letter to
Isabella, then with her Court at Cordova, come to the Court of England, giving him
who requested the navigator to be sent to encouraging promises of aid. But Fer-
her. In that city he became attached to dinand and Isabella treated him kindly,
Donna Beatrice Enriques, by whom he had and he remained in Spain until 1491, when
a son, Ferdinand, born in 1487, who be- he set out to lay his projects before
came the biographer of his father. It was Charles VIII. of France,
an inauspicious moment for Columbus to On his way, at the close of a beautiful
lay his projects before the Spanish October day, he stopped at the gate of the
monarchs, for their courts were moving Franciscan monastery of Santa Maria
from place to place, in troublous times, de Rabida, near the port of Palos, in An-
surrounded by the din and pageantry of dalusia, and asked for refreshment for
war. But at Salamanca he was intro- his boy, Diego. The prior of the convent,
duced to King Ferdinand by Mendoza, Juan Perez de Marchena, became inter-
Archbishop of Toledo and Grand Cardi- ested in the conversation of the stranger,
nal of Spain. and he invited him to remain as his guest.

A council of astronomers and cosmog- To him Columbus unfolded his plans,
raphers was assembled at Salamanca to Alonzo Pinzon and other eminent navi-
consider the project. They decided that gators at Palos, with scientific men, were
the scheme was visionary, unscriptural, invited to the convent to confer with Co-
and irreligious, and the navigator was in lumbus, and Pinzon offered to furnish
danger of arraignment before the tribunal and command a ship for explorations,
of the Inquisition. For seven years longer Marchena, who had been Queen Isabella s
the patient navigator waited, while the confessor, wrote to her, asking an inter
view with her for
Columbus. It was
granted. Marche
na rode to the
camp of the mon
archs at Santa 1-Y .
when the Queen
sent a little more
than $200 to Co
lumbus to enable
him to appear de
cently at Court.
He explained his
project to the sov
ereigns. He had
already, by the
operations of a po
etic temperament,
regarded himself
as a preordained
gospel - bearer to
the heathen of un
known lands. His
name implied it
" Christ-bearer "
and hearing that
the Sultan of

Spanish monarchs were engaged with the Egypt intended to destroy the sepulchre
Moors in Granada, during which time of Jesus, he recorded a vow that he
Columbus served in the army as a volun- would devote the proceeds of his explora-
teer. Meanwhile the King of Portugal had tions to the rescue of that holy place

252

COLDMHUS HKFOKK THK

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

COLUMBl S AT THE GATK OF THE MONASTERY.

forever have
the office of
admiral over
all lands he
might discover,
with honors
equal to those
of Grand Ad
miral of Cas
tile; that he
should be vice
roy and gov
ernor - general
over the same;
that he should
receive one-
tenth of all
mineral and
other products
that might be
obtained ; that
he and his lieu
tenants should
be the sole
judges in all
disputes that

from destruction. He urged his suit with might arise between his jurisdiction and
eloquence, but the Queen s confessor op- Spain, and that he might advance one-eighth
posed the demands of Columbus, and he in any venture, and receive a correspond-
left Granada just conquered from the ing share of the profits. He was also au-
Moors for France. thorized to enjoy the title of Don, or noble.

A more enlightened civil officer at Court The monarchs fitted out two small ves-
remonstrated, and the Queen sent for him to sels caravels, or undecked ships and
return. Ferdinand
said their wars
had so exhausted
the treasury that
money could not
be spared for the
enterprise. The
Queen declared
that she would
pledge her crown
jewels, if neces-
ssiry, to supply the
money, and would
undertake the en
terprise for her
own crown of Cas
tile. An agreement
was signed by their
Majesties and Co
lumbus at Santa
Fe, April 17, 1492,
by which he and

COLUMBUS EXPLAINING HIS PLAN BKFOKK KKKIIIXANI) AM) JSARKLI.A

253

COLUMBUS, CHBISTOPHEB

THB VISION OF COLUMBUS (From an old print).

one larger vessel. Leaving Diego as page Early the next morning, Rodrigo Tri-
to Prince Juan, the heir apparent, Co- cena. a sailor of the Pinta, first saw land;
lumbus sailed from Palos in the decked but the award was given to Colum-
vessel /Santa Maria, with Martin Alonzo bus, who saw the light on the land. At
Pinzon as commander of the Pinta, and dawn a wooded shore lay before them;
his brother, Vincent Yafiez Pinzon, as and, after a perilous voyage of seventy-
commander of the Nina, the two cara- one days, the commander, with the ban-
vels. They left the port with a comple- ner of the expedition in his hand, leading
ment of officers and crews on Friday his followers, landed, as they supposed,
morning, Aug. 3, 1492, and after a voyage on the shores of Farther India. Colum-
marked by tempests the crew in mortal bus, clad in scarlet and gold, first touched
fear most of the time, and at last muti- the beach. A group of naked natives, with
nous some indications of land were dis- skins of a copper hue, watched their
covered late in the night of Oct. 11. movements with awe, and regarded the
Many times they had been deceived by strangers as gods. Believing he was in
presages of land, and what they thought India, Columbus called the inhabitants
were actual discoveries of it. The crown " Indians." Columbus took possession of
had offered a little more than $100 the land in the name of the crown of
to the man who should first discover Castile. He soon discovered it to be an
land, and to this Columbus added the island one of the Bahamas which he
prize of a silken doublet. All eyes were named San Salvador. Sailing southward,
continually on the alert. At ten o clock he discovered Cuba, Haiti, and other isl-
on the night of the llth, Columbus was ands, and these were denominated the
on his deck, eagerly watching for signs West Indies. He called Haiti Hispaniola,
of land, when he discovered a light on the or Little Spain. On its northern shores
verge of the horizon. the Santa Maria was wrecked. With her

254

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

and leaving
brother Bar-

timbers he built a fort, and leaving thirty- maica, and Porto

nine men there to defend it and the inter- Rico, founding a

ests of Castile, he sailed in the Nina for colony on Hispan-

Spain in January, 1493, taking with him iola,

several natives of both sexes. On the his

voyage he encountered a fearful tempest, tholomew lieuten-

but he arrived safely in the Tagus early in ant-governor of the

March, where the King of Portugal kindly island, he returned

received him. On the 15th he reached to Spain, reaching

Palos, and hastened to the Court at Bar- Cadiz July 11,

celona, with his natives, specimens of pre- 1494. Jealousy had

cious metals, beautiful birds, and other promulgated many

slanders concern-
him ; these
all swept

products of the newly found regions.

There he was received with great hon- ing

ors; all his dignities were reaffirmed, and were

on Sept. 25, 1493, he sailed from Cadiz away in his pres-

with a fleet of seventeen ships and 1,500 ence. The nobles

men. Most of these were merely advent- were jealous of

urers, and by quarrels and mutinies gave him, and used every

the admiral a great deal of trouble. After means in their

discovering the Windward Islands, Ja- power

BANNER OF THE EXPEDITION.

LANDING OF coLi MBcs (From an ancient manuscript).

255

to thwart his grand purposes
and to bring him into disrepute.
He calmly met their opposition
by reason, and often confused
them by simple illustrations.
He had already, by his success,
silenced the clamor of the igno
rant and superstitious priesthood

about the " unscriptural " and " ir

religious " character of his prop
osition, and finally, on May 30,
1498, Columbus sailed from San
Lucar de Barrameda, with six
ships, on his third voyage of dis
covery.

He took a more southerly course,
and discovered the continent of
South America on Aug. 1, at the
mouth of the river Orinoco, which
he supposed to be one of the rivers
flowing out of Eden. Having dis
covered several islands and the
coast of Para, he finally went to
Hispaniola to recruit his enfeebled
health. The colony was in great
disorder, and his efforts to restore
order caused him to be made the
victim of jealousy and malice. He
was misrepresented at the Spanish
Court, and Francisco de Bobadilla
was sent from Spain to inquire
into the matter. He was ambitious
and unscrupulous, and he sent Co
lumbus and his brother to Spain
in chains, usurping the govern
ment of the island. The command-

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

THK LANDING-PLACE OP COLUMBCS.

er of the ship that conveyed him across the
sea offered to liberate him while on board.
" No," he proudly replied, " the chains
have been put on by command of their
Majesties, and I will wear them until they
shall order them to be taken off. I will
preserve them afterwards as relics and
memorials of the reward of my services."
The monarchs and the people of Spain
were indignant at this treatment of the
great discoverer. He was released and
Bobadilla was recalled, but, through the
influence of the jealous Spanish nobles,
Nicolas Ovando was appointed by the King
governor of Hispaniola, instead of Colum
bus. The great admiral was neglected
for a while, when the earnest Queen, Isa
bella, caused an expedition to be fitted out
for him, and on May 9, 1502, he sailed
from Cadiz with a small fleet, mostly
caravels. He was not allowed to refit at
his own colony of Hispaniola or Santo
Domingo, and he sailed to the western
verge of the Gulf of Mexico in search of
a passage through what he always be
lieved to be Zipango (Japan) to Catli.-iy.

or China. After great sufferings, he re
turned to Spain in November, 1504, old
and infirm, to find the good Queen dead,
and to experience the bitterness of neglect
from Ferdinand, her husband. His claims
were rejected by the ungrateful monarch,
and he lived in poverty and obscurity in
Valladolid until May 20, 1506, when he
died. In a touching letter to a friend
just before his death he wrote, " I have no
place to repair to except an inn, and am
often with nothing to pay for my suste
nance." For seven years his remains lay
unnoticed in a convent at Valladolid,
when the ashamed Ferdinand had tlu in
removed to a monastery in Seville, and
erected a monument to his memory on
which were inscribed the words, "A T&lt;/.s--
////(/. y a Leon 2Vi/rro Mundo Dio Colon"
" To Castile and Leon Columbus gave a
New World." He died in the belief that
the continent he had discovered was Asia.
His remains were conveyed, in 1530, to
Santo Domingo, whore they were de
posited in the cathedral, and there they
yet remain, despite a comparatively re-
56

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

cent declaration by the Spanish govern
ment that his remains had been trans
ferred to the cathedral in Havana. A
noble monument to his memory has been
erected in the city of Genoa, Italy. See
AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF.

Columbus in Cuba. The following is
the narrative of the explorer s visit to
Cuba during his first voyage (1492) from
his Journal. The Journal was forwarded
to the King and Queen, but is now lost.
In his Life of Columbus, Ferdinand Col
umbus drew largely from the Journal (see
AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF), and in the sub
joined abstract we have parts of the
Journal word for word, with many quota
tions by another chronicler concerning
what Columbus did and said:

Sunday, Oct. 28. " I went thence in
search of the island of Cuba on a south-
southwest coast, making for the nearest
point of it, and entered a very beautiful
river without danger of sunken rocks or
other impediments. All the coast was clear
of dangers up to the shore. The mouth of
the river was 12 brazos across, and it is
wide enough for a vessel to beat in. I
anchored about a lombard-shot inside."
The Admiral says that " he never beheld
such a beautiful place, with trees border
ing the river, handsome, green, and differ
ent from ours, having fruits and flowers
each one according to its nature. There
are many birds, which sing very sweetly.
There are a great number of palm-trees of
a different kind from those in Guinea
and from ours, of a middling height,
the trunks without that covering, and
the leaves very large, with which
they thatch their houses. The coun
try is very level." The Admiral jump
ed into his boat and went on shore.
He came to two houses, which he
believed to belong to fishermen who ,-*^
had fled from fear. In one of them
he found a kind of dog that never
barks, and in both there were nets
of palm-fibre and cordage, as well as
horn fish-hooks, bone harpoons, and
other apparatus " for fishing, and sev
eral hearths. He believed that many
people lived together in one house. He
gave orders that nothing in the houses
should be touched, and so it was done."
The herbage was as thick as in An

dalusia during April and May. He
found much purslane and wild amaranth.
He returned to the boat and went up the
river for some distance, and he says it was
great pleasure to see the bright verdure,
and the birds, which he could not leave
to go back. He says that this island is
the most beautiful that eyes have seen,
full of good harbors and deep rivers, and
the sea appeared as if it never rose; for
the herbage on the beach nearly reached
the waves, which does not happen where
the sea is rough. He says that the island
is full of very beautiful mountains, al
though they are not very extensive as re
gards length, but high ; and all the country
is high like Sicily. It is abundantly sup
plied with water, as they gathered from
the Indians they had taken with them
from the island of Guanahani. These said
by signs that there are ten great rivers,
and that they cannot go round the island
in twenty days. When they came near
land with the ships, two canoes came out ;
and, when they saw the sailors get into a
boat and row about to find the depth of
the river where they could anchor, the
canoes fled. The Indians say that in this
island there are gold-mines and pearls,
and the Admiral saw a likely place for
them and mussel-shells, which are signs of
them. He understood that large ships of
the Gran Can came here, and that from
here to the mainland was a voyage of ten
days. The Admiral called this river and
harbor San Salvador.

A SPANISH CARAVEL.

Monday, Oct. 29. The Admiral weigh
ed anchor from this port and sailed
to the westward, to go to the city, where,
as it seemed, the Indians said that there

II. K

257

COLUMBUS, CHBISTOPHER

was a .king. They doubled a point 6
leagues to the northwest, and then another
point, then east 10 leagues. After an
other league he saw a river with no very
large entrance, to which he gave the name
of Rio de la Luna. He went on until the
hour of vespers. He saw another river
much larger than the others, as the Ind
ians told him by signs, and near he saw
goodly villages of houses. He called the
river Rio de Mares. He sent two boats
on shore to a village to communicate, and
one of the Indians he had brought with
him, for now they understood a little, and
show themselves content with Christians.
All the men, women, and children fled,
abandoning their houses with all they con
tained. The Admiral gave orders that
nothing should be touched. The houses
were better than those he had seen before,
and he believed that the houses would
improve as he approached the mainland.
They were made like booths, very large,
and looking like tents in a camp without

known whether these were used as orna
ments, or to be worshipped. They had
dogs which never bark, and wild birds
tamed in their houses. There was a
wonderful supply of nets and other fishing
implements, but nothing was touched. He
believed that all the people on the coast
were fishermen, who took the fish inland,
for this island is very large, and so beau
tiful, that he is never tired of praising
it. He says that he found trees and
fruits of very marvellous taste; and adds
that they must have cows or other cattle,
for he saw skulls which were like those
of cows. The songs of the birds and the
chirping of crickets throughout the night
lulled every one to rest, while the air was
soft and healthy, and the nights neither
hot nor cold. On the voyage through the
other islands there was great heat, but
here it is tempered like the month of May.
He attributed the heat of the other islands
to their flatness, and to the wind coming
from the east, which is hot. The water

THE NKW WORLD.

regular streets, but one here and another of the rivers was salt at the mouth, and
there. Within they were clean and well they did not know whence the natives
swept, with the furniture well made. All got their drinking-water, though they
are of palm branches beautifully con- have sweet water in their houses. Ships
structed. They found many images in the are able to turn in this river, both enter-
shape of women, and many heads like ing and coming out, and there are very
masks, very well carved. It was not good leading-marks. He savs that all

258

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

this sea appears to be constantly smooth, small vessels might take shelter. He
like the river at Seville, and the water could not proceed because the wind had
suitable for the growth of pearls. He come round to the north, and all the coast
found large shells unlike those of Spain, runs northwest and southeast. Another
Remarking on the position of the river cape farther on ran out still more. For
and port, to which he gave the name of these reasons and because the sky showed
San Salvador, he describes its mountains signs of a gale, he had to return to the
as lofty and beautiful, like the Pena de Rio de Mares.

las Enamoradas, and one of them has Thursday, Nov. 1. At sunrise the
another little hill on its summit, like a Admiral sent the boats on shore to
graceful mosque. The other river and the houses that were there, and they
port, in which he now was, has two round found that all the people had fled. After
mountains to the southwest, and a fine low seme time a man made his appearance,
cape running out to the west-southwest. The Admiral ordered that he should be

Tuesday, Oct. 30. He left the Rio left to himself, and the sailors returned
de Mares and steered northwest, seeing a to the boats. After dinner, one of the Ind-
cape covered with palm-trees, to which ians on board was sent on shore. He
he gave the name of Cabo de Palmas, after called out from a distance that there was
having made good 15 leagues. The Ind- nothing to fear, because the strangers were
ians on board the caravel Pinta said that good people and would do no harm to any
beyond that cape there was a river, and one, nor were they people of the Gran
that from the river to Cuba it was four Can, but they had given away their things
days journey. The captain of the Pinta in many islands where they had been. The
reported that he understood from that, Indian then swam on shore, and two of
that this Cuba was a city, and that the the natives took him by the arms and
land was a great continent trending far brought him to a house, where they heard
to the north. The king of that country, what he had to say. When they were cer-
he gathered, was at war with the Gran tain that no harm would be done to them
Can, whom they called Cami, and his they were reassured, and presently more
land or city Fava, with many other than sixteen canoes came to the ships with
names. The Admiral resolved to proceed cotton thread and other trifles. The Ad-
to that river, and to send a present, with miral ordered that nothing should be
the letter of the sovereigns, to the king taken from them, but that they might
of that land. For this service there was understand that he sought for nothing but
a sailor who had been to Guinea, and some gold, which they called nucay. Thus they
of the Indians of Guanahani wished to went to and fro between the ships and
go with him, and afterwards to return the shore all day, and they came to the
to their homes. The Admiral calculated Christians on shore with confidence. The
that he was 42 degrees to the north Admiral saw no gold whatever among
of the equinoctial line (but the hand- them, but he says that he saw one of
writing is here illegible). He says that them with a piece of worked silver
he must attempt to reach the Gran Can, fastened to his nose. They said, by signs,
who he thought was here or at the city that within three days many merchants
of Cathay, which belongs to him, and is from inland would come to buy the things
very grand, as he was informed before brought by the Christians, and would give
leaving Spain. All this land, he adds, is information respecting the king of that
low and beautiful, and the sea deep. land. So far as could be understood from

Wednesday, Oct. 31. All Tuesday their signs, he resided at a distance of
night he was beating to windward, and four days journey. They had sent many
he saw a river, but could not enter messengers in all directions, with news of
it because the entrance was narrow. The the arrival of the Admiral. These peo-
Indians fancied that the ships could enter pie," says the Admiral, " are of the same
wherever their canoes could go. Navi- appearance and have the same customs
gating onward, he came to a cape run- as those of the other islands, without any
ning out very far, and surrounded by religion, so far as I know, for up to this
sunken rocks, and he saw a bay where day I have never seen the Indians on board

259

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

ALONU THE SHORE OK CfBA.

say any prayer; though they repeat the Ayamonte, and the other Luis de Torres,

Salve and Ave Maria with their hands who had served in the household of the

raised to heaven, and they make the sign Adelantado of Murcia, and had been a

of the cross. The language is also the Jew, knowing Hebrew, Chaldee, and even

same, and they are all friends; but I be- some Arabic. With these men he sent two

lieve that all these islands are at war with Indians, one from among those he had

the Gran Can, whom they call Cavila, and brought from Guanahani, and another

his province Bafan. They all go naked native of the houses by the river-side. He

like the others." This is what the Ad- gave them strings of beads with which to

miral says. " The river," he adds, " is buy food if they should be in need, and

very deep, and the ships can enter the ordered them to return in six days. He

mouth, going close to the shore. The gave them specimens of spices, to see if

sweet water does not come within a league any were to be found. Their instructions

of the mouth. It is certain," says the Ad- were to ask for the king of that land, and

miral, " that this is the mainland, and they were told what to say on the part

that I am in front of Zayto and Guinsay, of the sovereigns of Castile, how they had

100 leagues, a little more or less, dis- sent the Admiral with letters and a pres-

tant the one from the other. It was very ent, to inquire after his health and estab-

clear that no one before has been so far lish friendship, favoring him in what he

as this by sea. Yesterday, with wind from might desire from them. They were to

the northwest, I found it cold." collect information respecting certain

Friday, Nov. 2. The Admiral de- provinces, ports, and rivers of which the

cided upon sending two Spaniards, one Admiral had notice, and to ascertain their

named Rodrigo de Jerez, who lived in distances from where he was.

260

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

This night the Admiral took an altitude
with a quadrant, and found that the dis
tance from the equinoctial line was 42
degrees. He says that, by his reckoning, he
finds that he has gone over 1,142 leagues
from the island of Hierro. He still be
lieves that he has reached the mainland.

Saturday, Nov. 3. In the morning
the Admiral got into his boat, and,
as the river is like a great lake at
the mouth, forming a very excellent port,
very deep, and clear of rocks, with a good

Sunday, Nov. 4- At sunrise the Ad
miral again went away in the boat,
and landed to hunt the birds he had seen
the day before. After a time, Martin
Alonzo Pinzon came to him with two
pieces of cinnamon, and said that a Portu
guese, who was one of his crew, had seen
an Indian carrying two very large bundles
of it; but he had not bartered for it, be
cause of the penalty imposed by the Ad
miral on any one who bartered. He further
said that this Indian carried some brown

REARING THE C1JOSS.

beach for careening ships, and plenty of
fuel, he explored it until he came to fresh
water at a distance of 2 leagues from
the mouth. He ascended a small moun
tain to obtain a view of the surrounding
eountry, but could see nothing, owing to
the dense foliage of the trees, which were
very fresh and odoriferous, so that he felt
no doubt that there were aromatic herbs
among them. He said that all he saw was
so beautiful that his eyes could never tire
of gazing upon such loveliness, nor his
ears of listening to the songs of birds.
That day many canoes came to the ships,
to barter with cotton threads and with
the nets in which they sleep, called ham-
acas.

261

things like nutmegs. The master of the
Pinto, said that he had found the cinna
mon - trees. The Admiral went to the
place, and found that they were not cinna
mon - trees. The Admiral showed the Ind
ians some specimens of cinnamon and
pepper he had brought from Castile, and
they knew it, and said, by signs, that there
was plenty in the vicinity, pointing to
the southeast. He also showed them gold
and pearls, on which certain old men said
that there was an infinite quantity in a
place called Bohio, and that the people
wore it on their necks, ears, arms, and
legs, as well as pearls. He further under
stood them to say that there were great
ships and much merchandise, all to the

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

southeast. He also understood that, far that, in the event of the place becoming

away, there were men with one eye, and rich and important, the merchants would

others with dogs noses who were canni- be safe from any other nations. He adds:

bals, and that when they captured an "The Lord, in whose hands are all vic-

enemy they beheaded him and drank his lories, will ordain all things for his

blood. service. An Indian said by signs that

The Admiral then determined to return the mastic was good for pains in the

to the ship and wait for the return of the stomach."

two men he had sent, intending to depart Tuesday, Nov. 6. " Yesterday, at night,"
and seek for those lands, if his envoys says the Admiral, " the two men came
brought some good news touching what back who had been sent to explore the
he desired. The Admiral further says: interior. They said that after walking
" These people are very gentle and timid; 12 leagues they came to a village of
they go naked, as I have said, without fifty houses, where there were 1,000 in
arms and without law. The country is habitants, for many live in one house,
very fertile. The people have plenty of These houses are like very large booths,
roots called zanahorias (yams), with a They said that they were received with
smell like chestnuts; and they have beans great solemnity, according to custom,
of kinds very different from ours. They and all, both men and women, came
also have much cotton, which they do not out to see them. They were lodged
sow, as it is wild in the mountains, and in the best houses, and the people touched
I believe they collect it throughout the them, kissing their hands and feet, mar-
year, because I saw pods empty, others veiling and believing that they came
full, and flowers all on one tree. There from heaven, and so they gave them to
are a thousand other kinds of fruits which understand. They gave them to eat of
it is impossible for me to write about, what they had. When they arrived, the
and all must be profitable." All this the chief people conducted them by the arms
Admiral says. to the principal house, gave them two

Monday, Nov. 5. This morning the chairs on which to sit, and all the natives

Admiral ordered the ship to be careen- sat round them on the ground. The

ed, afterwards the other vessels, but Indian who came with them described

Dot all at the same time. Two were al- the manner of living of the Christians,

ways to be at the anchorage, as a precau- and said that they were good people,

tion; although he says that these people Presently the men went out, and the wom-

were very safe, and that without fear all en came sitting round them in the same

the vessels might have been careened at way, kissing their hands and feet, and

the same time. Things being in this looking to see if they were of flesh and

state, the master of the Nina came to bones like themselves. They begged the

claim a reward from the Admiral because Spaniards to remain with them at least

he had found mastic, but he did not five days." The Spaniards showed the na-

bring the specimen, as he had dropped tives specimens of cinnamon, pepper, and

it. The Admiral promised him a reward, other spices which the Admiral had given

find sent Rodrigo Sanchez and master them, and they said, by signs, that there

Diego to the trees. They collected some, was plenty at a short distance from thence

which was kept to present to the sover- to the southeast, but that there they did

eigns, as well as the tree. The Admiral not know whether there was any. Finding

says that he knew it was mastic, though that they had no information respecting

it ought to be gathered at the proper cities, the Spaniards returned; and if they

season. There is enough in that district had desired to take those who wished to ac-

for a yield of 1,000 quintals every year, company them, more than 500 men and

The Admiral also found here a great deal women would have come, because they

of the plant called aloe. He further says thought the Spaniards were returning to

that the Puerto de Mares is the best in heaven. There came, however, a prin-

the world, with the finest climate and the cipal man of the village and his son, with

most gentle people. As it has a high, a servant. The Admiral conversed with

rocky cape, a fortress might be built, so them, and showed them much honor.

262

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

They made signs respecting many lands days, all of us being mortal, may your

and islands in those parts. The Admiral kingdoms remain in peace, and free from

thought of bringing them to the sover- heresy and evil, and may you be well re-

eigns. He says that he knew not what ceived before the eternal Creator, to whom

fancy took them; either from fear, or I pray that you may have long life and

owing to the dark night, they wanted to great increase of kingdoms and lordships,

land. The ship was at the time high with the will and disposition to increase

and dry, but, not wishing to make them the holy Christian religion as you have

angry, he let them go on their way, say- done hitherto. Amen!

ing that they would return at dawn, but " To-day I got the ship afloat, and pre-

they never came back. pared to depart on Thursday, in the name

The two Christians met with many peo- of God, and to steer southeast in search

pie on the road going home, men and of gold and spices, and to discover land."

women with a half-burnt weed in their These are the words of the Admiral,

hands, being the herbs they are accus- who intended to depart on Thursday, but,

tomed to smoke. They did not find vil- the wind being contrary, he could not go

lages on the road of more than five until Nov. 12.

houses, all receiving them with the same Monday, Nov. 12. The Admiral left

reverence. They saw many kinds of trees, the port and river of Mares before dawn

herbs, and sweet-smelling flowers; and to visit the island called Babeque, so

birds of many different kinds, unlike those much talked of by the Indians on board,

of Spain, except the partridges, geese, of where, according to their signs, the peo-

which there are many, and singing pie gather the gold on the beach at night

nightingales. They saw no quadrupeds with candles, and afterwards beat it into

except the dogs that do not bark. The bars with hammers. To go hither it was

land is very fertile, and is cultivated with necessary to shape a course east by south,

yams and several kinds of beans different After having made 8 leagues along the

from ours, as well as corn. There were coast, a river was sighted, and another 4

great quantities of cotton gathered, spun, leagues brought them to another river,

and worked up. In a single house they which appeared to be of great volume, and

saw more than 500 arrobas, and as much larger than any they had yet seen. The

as 4,000 quintals could be yielded every Admiral did not wish to stop nor to enter

year. The Admiral said that " it did not any of these rivers, for two reasons : the

appear to be cultivated, and that it bore first and principal one being that wind

all the year round. It is very fine, and and weather were favorable for going in

has a large boll. All that was possessed search of the said island of Babeque;

by these people they gave at a very low the other that, if there was a populous

price, and a great bundle of cotton was and famous city near the sea, it would

exchanged for the point of a needle or be visible, while, to go up the rivers, small

other trifle. They are a people," says the vessels are necessary, which those of the

Admiral, " guileless and unwarlike. Men expedition were not. Much time would

and women go as naked as when their thus be lost; moreover, the exploration of

mothers bore them. It is true that the such rivers is a separate enterprise. All

women wear a very small rag of cotton that coast was peopled near the river,

cloth, and they are of very good appear- to which the name of Rio del Sol was

ance, not very dark, less so than the given.

Canarians. I hold, most serene Princes, The Admiral says that, on the previous

that if devout religious persons were here, Sunday, Nov. 11, it seemed good to take

knowing the language, they would all turn some person from among those at Rio

Christians. I trust in our Lord that de Mares, to bring to the sovereigns,

your Highnesses will resolve upon this that they might learn our language,

with much diligence, to bring so many so as to be able to tell us what there

great nations within the Church, and to is in their lands. Returning, they

convert them, as you have destroyed those would be the mouthpieces of the Chris-

\\lio would not confess the Father, the tians, and would adopt our customs and

Son, and the Holy Ghost. And after your the things of the faith. " I saw and

263

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

knew," says the Admiral, " that these not a commodity that will yield great
people are without any religion, not idola- profit. The mastic, however, is impor
ters, but very gentle, not knowing what tant, for it is only obtained from the said
is evil, nor the sins of murder and theft, island of Chios, and I believe the harvest
being without arms, and so timid that is worth 50,000 ducats, if I remember
100 would fly before one Spaniard, al- right. There is here, in the mouth of the
though they joke with them. They, river, the best port I have seen up to this
however, believe and know that there is time, wide, deep, and clear of rocks. It
a God in heaven, and say that we have is an excellent site for a town and fort,
come from heaven. At any prayer that for any ship could come close up to the
we say, they repeat, and make the sign of walls; the land is high, with a temperate
the cross. Thus your Highnesses should climate, and very good water,
resolve to make them Christians, for I be- " Yesterday a canoe came alongside the
lieve that, if the work was begun, in a ship, with six youths in it. Five came on
little time a multitude of nations would board, and I ordered them to be detained.
be converted to our faith, with the acqui- They are here now. I afterwards sent to
sition of great lordships, peoples, and a house on the western side of the river,
riches for Spain. Without doubt, there and seized seven women, old and young,
is in these lands a vast quantity of and three children. I did this because
gold, and the Indians I have on board the men would behave better in Spain
do not speak without reason when they if they had women of their own land than
say that in these islands there are places without them. For on many occasions
where they dig out gold, and wear it on the men of Guinea have been brought to
their necks, ears, arms, and legs, the rings learn the language of Portugal, and after-
being very large. There are also precious wards, when they returned, and it was ex-
stones, pearls, and an infinity of spices, pected that they would be useful in their
In this river of Mares, whence we de- land, owing to the good company they had
parted to-night, there is undoubtedly a enjoyed and the gifts they had received,
great quantity of mastic, and much more they never appeared after arriving,
could be raised, because the trees may be Others may not act thus. But, having
planted, and will yield abundantly. The women, they have the wish to perform
loaf and fruit are like the mastic, but what they are required to do; besides, the
the tree and leaf are larger. As Pliny de- women would teach our people their
scribes it, I have seen it on the island of language, which is the same in all these
Chios in the Archipelago. I ordered many islands, so that those who make voyages
of these trees to be tapped, to see if any in their canoes are understood every-
of them would yield resin; but, as it where. On the other hand, there are
rained all the time I was in that river, I 1.000 different languages in Guinea, and
could not get any, except a very little, one native does not understand another,
which I am bringing to your Highnesses. " The same night the husband of one
It may not be the right season for tap- of the women came alongside in a canoe,
ping, which is, I believe, when the trees who was father of the three children
come forth after winter and begin to one boy and two girls. He asked me to
flower. But when I was there the fruit let him come with them, and besought me
was nearly ripe. Here also there is a much. They are now all consoled at
great quantity of cotton, and I believe it being with one who is a relation of them
would have a good sale here without send- nil. He is a man of about forty-five ycsirs
ing it to Spain, but to the great cities of of age." All these are the words of the Ad-
Ihe Gran Can, which will be discovered miral. He also says that he had felt some
without doubt, and many others ruled cold, and that it would not be wise to
over by other lords, who will be pleased to continue discoveries in a northerly direc-
serve your Highnesses, and whither will tion in the winter. On this Monday,
be brought other commodities of Spain until sunset, he steered a course oast by
and of the Eastern lands; but these are south, making 18 leagues, and reaching
to the west as regards us. There iu also a cape, to which he gave the name of
here a great yield of aloes, though this is Cabo de Cuba.

264

COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

Tuesday, Nov. 13. This night the miral approached the shore, having gone

ships were on the bowline, as the sail- over 28 miles east-southeast that night. He

ors say, beating to windward without steered south . . . miles to the land, where

making any progress. At sunset they be- he saw many islets and openings. As

gan to see an opening in the mountains, the wind was high and the sea rough, he

where two very high peaks were visible, did not dare to risk an attempt to enter,

It appeared that here was the division but ran along the coast west-northwest,

between the land of Cuba and that of looking out for a port, and saw many, but

Bohio, and this was affirmed by signs, by none very clear of rocks. After having

the Indians who were on board. As soon proceeded for 64 miles, he found a very

as the day had dawned, the Admiral made deep opening, a quarter of a mile wide,

sail towards the land, passing a point with a good port and river. He ran in

which appeared at night to be distant with her head south-southwest, afterwards

2 leagues. He then entered a large gulf, 5 south to southeast. The port was spacious

leagues to the south-southeast, and there re- and very deep, and he saw so many islands

mained 5 more, to arrive at the point where, that he could not count them all, with

between two great mountains, there ap- very high land covered with trees of many

peared to be an opening; but it could not kinds, and an infinite number of palms,

be made out whether it was an inlet of He was much astonished to see so many

the sea. As he desired to go to the island lofty islands; and assured the sovereigns

called Babeque, where, according to the that the mountains and isles he had seen

information he had received, there was sinc