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Full text of "Harper's encyclopedia of United States history from 458 A.D. to 1905. Volume 3"

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EDITION 

HARPER S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

of 
UNITED STATES HISTORY 

FROM 458 A.D. TO 1905 
BASED UPON THE PLAN OF 

BENSON JOHN LOSSINQ, LL.D. 

SOMETIME EDITOR OF "THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL RECORD" AND AUTHOR OF 
"THE PICTORIAL FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION " "THE PICTORIAL FIELD- 
BOOK OF THE WAR OF l8l2 " ETC., ETC., ETC. 

WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS COVERING EVERY PHASE OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND 
DEVELOPMENT BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING 



JOHN FISKE. 

THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN 

WM. R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D. 

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY Of CHICAGO 

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D. 

PROF. OF HISTORY AT HARVARD 

JOHN B. MOORE. 

PROF. OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AT COLUMBIA 

JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D. 

PROF. OF LITERATURE AT UNIV. OF CALIFORNIA 

WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D. 

U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 



WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D. 

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY 

GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D. 

PROF. OF HISTORY UNIV. OF TORONTO 

MOSES COIT TYLER, LL.D. 

PROF. OF HISTORY AT CORNELL 

EDWARD G. BOURNE, Ph.D. 

PROF. OF HISTORY AT YALE 

R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. 

PROF. OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA 

ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D. 

CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (Retired) 



ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC. 
WITH A PREFACE ON THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY 

WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D. 

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY 

AUTHOR OF 

"A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE" ETC., ETC. 

WITH ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, PORTRAITS, MAPS, PLANS, &c. 

COMPLETE IN TEN VOLUMES 
VOL. Ill 



HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS 
NEW YORK = 1905 - LONDON 



Copyright, Kyos, by HARPER & BROTHERS. 

Copyright, 1901, by HARPER & BROTHERS. 

All rights reserved. 



LIST OF PLATES 



PRESIDENT MILLARD FILLMORE Frontispiece 

FAC-SIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL DRAFT OF THE DECLA 
RATION OF INDEPENDENCE Facing page 40 

READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 

CITY HALL SQUARE, NEW YORK CITY . . . . "38 

INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA ..... 48 

PONTIAC S ATTACK ON FORT DETROIT " 108 

ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY "112 

ADMIRAL DAVID G. FARRAGUT "318 

THE BATTLE OF FREDERICKSBURG VOLUNTEERS 

CROSSING THE RIVER " 430 



HARPER S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



OF 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 



D. 



Dablon, CLAUDE, Jesuit missionary; 
born in Dieppe, France, in 1618; began a 
mission to the Onondaga Indians in New 
York in 1655, and six years afterwards he 
accompanied Druillettes in an overland 
journey to the Hudson Bay region. In 
1668 he went with Marquette to Lake 
Superior, and in 1670 was appointed su 
perior of the missions of the Upper Lakes. 
He prepared the Relations concerning New 
France for 1671-72, and also a narrative 
of Marquette s journey, published in John 
Cilmary Shea s Discovery and Explora 
tion of the Mississippi Valley (1853). He 
died in Quebec, Canada, Sept. 20, 1697. 

Dabney, RICHARD HEATH, educator; 
born in Memphis, Tenn., March 29, 
I860; graduated at the University of Vir 
ginia in 1881; Professor of History in the 
University of Virginia in 1897. He is the 
author of John Randolph; The Causes of 
thi- French Revolution, etc. 

Dabney, ROBERT LEWIS, clergyman; 
born in Louisa county, Va., March 5, 
1S:>0; graduated at the University of Vir 
ginia in 1842; ordained a Presbyterian 
minister in 1847: and became Professor 
<>f Church History in Union Seminary, Vir 
ginia, in 1853. When the Civil War broke 
out he entered the Confederate army as 
chaplain, and later became chief of staff to 
Ccn. Thomas J. Jackson. His publica 
tions include Life of T. J. Jackson, and 
Defence of Virginia and the South. He 
died in Victoria, Texas, Jan. 3, 1898. 

Dabney, WALTER DAVID, lawyer; born 
in Albemarle county, Va., in 1853; grad- 
TII. A 



uated at the law department of the Uni 
versity of Virginia in 1875; appointed 
legal secretary of the United States in 
ter-State commerce commission in 1890, 
and, later, solicitor of the State Depart 
ment. In 1895 he became Professor of 
Common and Statute Law in the Univer 
sity of Virginia. He died in Charlottes- 
ville, Va., March 12, 1899. 

Dabney s Mills, Va. See HATCHER S 
RUN. 

Dacres, JAMES RICHARD, naval officer; 
born in Suffolk, England, Aug. 22, 1788; 




JA.MKS Hie IIAK1) OAL KBg. 



DADE DAHLGREN 



son of Vice- Admiral Dacres, who was a 
commander in the battle with Arnold on 
Lake Champlain in 1776. The son en 
tered the royal navy in 1796, and, being 
placed in command of the frigate Guer- 
riere in 1811, was sent to fight the Amer 
icans. He proudly boasted that he would 
" send the Constitution to Davy Jones s 
locker " when he should be so fortunate 
as to meet her. She had escaped him in 
her famous retreat, but willingly met and 
fought the Ouerriere afterwards. Dacres 
was then captain. He attained the rank 
of flag-officer in 1838, and in 1845 was 
vice-admiral and commander - in - chief of 
the fleet at the Cape of Good Hope. He 
was presented with a gratuity from the 
" Patriotic Fund " at Lloyd s, in con 
sideration of his wound. He was mar 
ried, in 1810, to Arabella Boyd, who 
died in 1828. He died in Hampshire, 
England, Dec. 4, 1853. See CONSTITUTION 
(frigate). 

Dade, FRANCIS LANGHORN, military 
officer ; born in Virginia ; entered the army 
as third lieutenant in 1813. During the 
war with the Seminole Indians, while on 
the march to Fort King, he, with almost 
the entire detachment, was destroyed by 
a treacherous attack of the Indians, Dec. 
28, 1835. A monument at West Point was 
erected to the memory of Major Dade and 
the men in his command, and Fort Dade, 
35 miles from Tampa, Fla., is named in 
his honor. 

Daggett, NAPHTALI, clergyman; born 
in Attleboro, Mass., Sept. 8, 1727; grad 
uated at Yale College in 1748; ordain- 
od pastor of a Presbyterian church at 
Smithtown, Long Island, in 1751 ; and 
in 1755 was chosen professor of divinity 
at. Yale, which place he held until his 
death, in New Haven, Conn., Nov. 25, 
1780. In 1766, on the resignation of 
President Clap, he was chosen presi 
dent of the college pro tempore and 
officiated in that capacity more than a 
year. He was an active patriot when 
the War of the Revolution broke out ; and 
when the British attacked New Haven, in 
1770, he took part in the resistance made 
by the citizens and surrounding militia. 
Dr. Daggett was made a prisoner, and the 
severe treatment to which he was sub 
jected so shattered his constitution that 
he never recovered his health. After the 



famous DARK DAY (</. r.), in 1780, he- 
published an account of it. 

Dahlgren, JOHN ADOLPH, naval officer; 
born in Philadelphia, Nov. 13, 1809; en 
tered the navy in 1826, and was made rear- 
admiral in 1863. He was the inventor of 




JOHN ADOU H DAHLGRE.V. 

the Dahlgren gun, which he perfected at 
the navy-yard at Washington, and in 1862 
he was made chief of the bureau of ord 
nance. In July, 1863, he took command 
of the South Atlantic squadron, and, with 
the land forces of General Gillmore, capt 
ured Morris Island and Fort Wagner, 
and reduced Fort Sumter to a heap of 
ruins. He conducted a successful ex 
pedition up the St. John s River, in 
Florida, in 1864, and co-operated with 
General Sherman in the capture of Savan 
nah. After the evacuation of Charleston 
he moved his vessels up to that city. 
Admiral Dahlgren. besides being the in 
ventor of a cannon, introduced into the 
navy the highly esteemed light boat- 
howitzer. He was author of several 
works on ordnance, which became text 
books. He died in Washington, D. C., 
July 12, 1870. 

Dahlgren, MADELEINE VINTON, author; 
born in Gallipolis, O., about 1835; widow 
of Rear-Admiral John A. Dahlgren. She 
established and was the vice-president for 
several years of the Literary Society of 
\\;ishington; was opposed to woman suf 
frage, against which she published a 
weekly paper for two years, and also sent 



DAHLGREN DAIQUIRI 






a petition bearing many signatures to Con 
gress, requesting that women should not be 
given the elective franchise. Popes Pius 
IX. and Leo XIII. several times thanked 
her for the various services she had ren 
dered to the Roman Catholic Church. Her 
publications include Thoughts on Female 
Suffrage; Memoirs of John A. Dahlgren, 
etc. She died in Washington, D. C., May 
28, 1898. 

Dahlgren, Uuuc, artillery officer; born 
in Bucks county, Pa., in 1842; son of 
Rear-Admiral Dahlgren. At the outbreak 
of the Civil War he became aide first to 
his father and later to General Sigel, and 
was Sigel s chief of artillery at the second 
battle of Bull Run. He distinguished 
himself in an attack on Fredericksburg 
and at the battle of Chancellorsville, and 
on the retreat of the Confederates from 
Gettysburg he led the charge into Hagers- 
town. He lost his life in a raid under 
taken for the purpose of releasing Na- 



Huguenot faith in Ki8:t, and removed to 
New York to work among the French 
under the Reformed Church. In 1688 the 
French erected their first church in 
Marketfield Street, between Broad and 
Whitehall streets; in 1692 Daille narrowly 
escaped imprisonment because he had de 
nounced the violent measures of JACOB 
LEISLER (q. v.) ; and in 1696 he became 
pastor of the School Street Church in 
Boston. He died in Boston, Mass., May 
21, 1715. 

Daiquiri, a sea-coast town in the 
province of Santiago, about 15 miles east 
of Santiago, Cuba. It was here that the 
American army of invasion disembarked 
after the declaration of war against Spain 
in 1898. After GEN. WILLIAM RUFTJS 
SHAFTER (q. T. ), commander of the expe 
dition, had accepted the offer of the services 
of the Cuban troops under General Garcia, 
he furnished them with rations and am 
munition. A number of sharp-shooters, 




DAIQUIRI, WHERE THE AMERICAN ARMY OP INVASION DISKMHAHKKD. 

tional prisoners at Libby prison and Belle machine - guns, and mountain artillery 
Isle, near King and Queen s Court-house, were landed to aid the Cubans in clear- 
Va., March 4, 1864. ing the hills, after Avhich 6,000 men were 

Daille , PIERRE, clergyman ; born in put ashore on June 22. The landing was 
France in 1649; banished because of his difficult on account of the defective trans- 

3 



DAKOTA DALE 



port facilities, but still the Spaniards 
could offer no serious opposition, as they 
were held in check by the Cubans and the 
shells of the American warships, and also 
by the feint of Admiral Sampson to bom 
bard Juragua. On June 23, 6,000 more 
troops were landed, and a division under 
Maj.-Gen. HENRY W. LAWTON (q. v.) 
marched to SIBONEY (q. v.) in order to give 
place to the division of Maj.-Gen. JACOB 
F. KENT (q. v.) While General Shafter 
conducted the disembarkation, Maj.-Gen. 
Joseph Wheeler directed the operations 
ashore. The only losses sustained in this 
landing were one killed and four wounded. 

Dakota, originally formed a part of 
Minnesota Territory. It was a portion 
of the great Louisiana purchase in 1803. 
The Nebraska Territory was formed in 
1854, and comprised a part of what be 
came Dakota. The latter Territory was 
organized by act of Congress, approved 
March 2, 1861, and included the present 
States of Montana and Washington. In 
1863 a part of the Territory was included 
in Idaho, of which the northeastern part 
was organized as Montana in 1864, and 
the southern part was transferred to 
Dakota. In 1868 a large area was taken 
from Dakota to form Wyoming Territory. 
The first permanent settlements of Euro 
peans in Dakota were made in 1859, in 
what were then Clay, Union, and Yank- 
ton counties. The first legislature con 
vened March 17, 1862. Emigration was 
limited until 1866, when settlers began to 
flock in, and population rapidly increased. 
In 1889, two States were created out 
of the Territory of Dakota, and ad 
mitted to the Union as NORTH DAKOTA 
and SOUTH DAKOTA ( qq. v. ) . 

Dakota Indians. See Sioux IND 
IANS. 

Dale, RICHARD, naval officer; born 
near Norfolk, Va., Nov. 6, 1756; went 
to sea at twelve years of age, and at 
nineteen commanded a merchant ves 
sel. He was first a lieutenant in the 
Virginia navy, and entered the Con 
tinental navy, as midshipman, in 1776. 
He was captured in 1777, and confined 
in Mill Prison, England, from which 
he escaped, but was recaptured in Lon 
don and taken back. The next year 
he escaped, reached France, joined 
Paul Jones, and soon became lieu 



tenant of the Bon Hommc Ricluird, receiv 
ing a wound in the famous battle with the 
Serapis. He continued to do good service 







K1CI1AKI) DALK. 



to the end of the war, and in 1794 was 
made captain. He commanded the squad 
ron ordered to the Mediterranean in 1801, 
and in April, 1802, returning home, he 
resigned his commission. He spent the 
latter years of his life in ease in Phila 
delphia, where he died, Feb. 24, 1826. 
The remains of Commodore Dale were 
buried in Christ Church-yard, Philadel 
phia, and over the grave is a white marble 
slab with a long inscription. 




DALE S MONUMKNT. 



DALEDALY 

t 

Dale, SAMUEL, pioneer; born in Rock- He was appointed secretary of state ot 
bridge county, Va., in 1772. His parents Pennsylvania in 1701, and was engaged a? 
emigrated to Georgia in, 1783. In 1793, paymaster of a force to quell the WHISKEY 
after the death of his parents, he enlist- INSURRECTION (q. v.}. In 1801 he was ap 
ed in the United States army as a scout, pointed United States attorney for the 
and subsequently became well known as Eastern Department of Pennsylvania, and 
Big Sam." In 1831 he supervised the re- he held that place until called to the cabi- 
moval of the Choctaw Indians to the Ind- net of Madison as Secretary of the Treas- 
ian Territory. He died in Lauderdale ury in October, 1814. In 1815 he also 
county, Miss., May 24, 1841. performed the duties of the War Office, 

Dale, SIR THOMAS, colonial governor; and was earnest in his efforts to re- 
was a distinguished soldier in the Low establish a national bank. He resigned 
Countries, and was knighted by King in November, 1810, and resumed the prac- 
James in 1606. Appointed chief magis- tice of law. He died in Trenton, N. J., 
trate of Virginia, he administered the gov- Jan. 16, 1817. 

eminent on the basis of martial law; Dallas, GEOROE MIFFLIN, statesman; 
planted new settlements on the James, born in Philadelphia, July 10, 1792; a 
towards the Falls (now Richmond) ; and son of the preceding; graduated at the 
introduced salutary changes in the land College of New Jersey in 1810, and ad- 
laws of the colony. He conquered the Ap- mitted to the bar in 1813. He went 
pomattox Indians. In 1611 Sir Thomas with Mr. Gallatin to Russia as private 
Gates succeeded him, but he resumed the secretary, and returned in 1814, when 
office in 1614. In 1616 he returned to he assisted his father in the Treasury 
England; went to Holland; and in 1619 Department. In 1828 he was mayor of 
v/as made commander of the East India Philadelphia ; United States Senator from 
fleet, when, near Bantam, he fought the 1832 to 1833, and declined a re-election. 
Dutch. He died near Bantam, East Indies, He was ambassador to Russia from 
early in 1620. 1837 to 1839, and Vice-President of the 

Dall, WILLIAM HEALEY, naturalist; United States from 1845 to 1849. From 
born in Boston, Mass., Aug. 21, 1845; took 1856 to 1861 he was American minister 
part in the international telegraph ex- in London. Mr. Dallas .was an able 
pcdition to Alaska in 1865-68; appointed lawyer and statesman. He died in Phila- 
assistant in the United States coast sur- delphia, Dec. 31, 1864. 
vey of Alaska in 1871, where he spent Dallas-Clarendon Treaty, a convention 
several years in various kinds of work, negotiated in 1856 for the adjustment of 
which included the geography, natural his- difficulties between the United States and 
tory, geology, etc., of Alaska and adjacent Great Britain arising under the CLAY- 
islands. Among his books are A laska and TON-BULWER TREATY (q. r.}. It was re- 
its Resources; Tribes of the Extreme joe-ted by the Senate. 

"Northwest; Scientific Results of the Ex- Dalton, a city in Georgia, strongly 
ploration of Alaska, etc. fortified by the Confederates under Gen. 

Dallas, a city in Georgia, where, dur- Joseph E. Johnston, who checked the ad- 
ing the Atlanta campaign, Sherman s ad- vance of General Sherman until forced to 
vance under General Hooker was tempo- evacuate by a flank movement by General 
rnrily checked, May 25, 1864. Three days McPherson, May 12, 1864. 
later Hardee attacked McPherson on the Daly, CHARLES PATRICK, jurist; born 
right, with great loss. The Confederates in New York City, Oct. 31, 1816; ad- 
retired May 29. mitted to the bar in 1839; elected to the 

Dallas, ALEXANDER JAMES, statesman; New York Assembly in 1843; became jus- 
born in the island of Jamaica, June 21, tice in 1844, and chief- justice of the 
1759; leu noine in 1783, settled in Phila- Court of Common Pleas in 1871; presi- 
delphia, and was admitted to the bar. dent of the American Geographical So- 
l!c soon became a practitioner in the Su- ciety for more than forty years. Among 
preme Court of the United States. He his writings are History of Natural- 
wrote for the newspapers, and at one time ization ; First Settlement of Jews in 
was the editor of the ( oluinhimi Mn<in?inr North America; What We Know of Map* 

5 



DALZELL DANA 



and Map-Making before the Time of Mer- 
cator, etc. He died on Long Island, 
N. Y., Sept. 19, 1899. 

Dalzell, JAMES, military officer; was in 
early life a companion of Israel Putnam. 
He marched to the relief of the garrison 
of Detroit with 260 men in 1763; and on 
July 30, the day after his arrival, he led 
a sally against the Indians, in which they 
were badly defeated. During the struggle 
Dalzell was killed. The rivulet which \v;is 
the scene of this defeat is known to this 
day as " Bloody Run." 

Dalzell, ROBERT M., inventor; born 
near Belfast, Ireland, in 1793; was driven 
into exile with his family by the Irish 
Rebellion of 1798, and came to New York. 
In 1826 he settled in Rochester, N. Y., 
where he became a millwright. Later ho 
invented and introduced the elevator sys 
tem for handling and storing grain. He 
died in Rochester, N. Y., Jan. 22, 187- !. 

Dames of the Revolution, a patriotic 
organization established in the United 
States in 1896. The qualifications for 
membership are that applicants be above 
the age of eighteen years, of good moral 
standing, and descended in their own 
right from a military, naval, or marine 
officer, or official, who aided in founding 
American independence during the Revo 
lutionary War. Local chapters may be 
formed when authorized by the board 
of managers of the society. The presi 
dent in 1900 was Mrs. Edward Paulet 
Steers, and the secretary and historian 
Miss Mary A. Phillips. The headquarters 
were at 64 Madison Avenue, New York. 

Dana, CHARLES ANDERSON, journalist; 
born in Hinsdale, N. H., Aug. 8, 1819; 
was for a time a student in Harvard 
College; joined the BROOK FARM ASSOCIA 
TION (q. v.) in 1842; and, after two years 
of editorial work in Boston, became at 
tached to the staff of the New York 
Tribune in 1847. In 1848 he went to 
Europe as correspondent for several 
American newspapers, dealing particu 
larly with the numerous foreign revolu 
tions. Soon after his return to New 
York he became managing editor of the 
Tribune, and held the place till 1S62. 
when he was appointed assistant Secre 
tary of War. In 1866 he organized the 
stock company which bought the old New 
York Sun, of which he became editor- 



in-chief, continuing so till his death. In 
addition to his work as a journalist, in 
conjunction with the late George Ripley, 
he planned and edited the New American 




CIIAKLKS ANDERSON DANA. 

Cyclopedia (16 vols., 1857-63), which 
they thoroughly revised and reissued 
under the title of the American Cyclopaedia 
(1873-76). In 1883, in association with 
Rossiter Johnson, he edited Fifty Perfect 
Poems, and subsequently, in association 
with Gen. James H. Wilson, he wrote the 
Life of Ulysses 8. Grant. In 1897 his 
Reminiscences of the Civil War and East 
ern Journeys were published posthumous 
ly; he was also the compiler of House 
hold Book of Poetry. He died on Long 
Island, N. Y., Oct. 17, 1897. 

Dana, FRANCIS, jurist; born in Charles- 
town, Mass., June 13, 1743; son of Rich 
ard Dana; graduated at Harvard in 
1762. He was admitted to the bar in 
1707; was an active patriot; a delegate 
to the Provincial Congress in 1774; went 
lo Kngland in 177o with confidential let 
ters to Franklin; was a member of the 
executive council from 1776 to 1780; 
member of the Continental Congress from 
1776 to 1778, and again in 1784; member 
of the board of war, Nov. 17, 1777; and 
was at the head of a committee charged 
with the entire reorganization of the 
army. When Mr. Adams went on an em 
bassy to negotiate a treaty of peace and 
commerce with Great Britain, Mr. Dana 
\\ns secretary of the legation. At Paris, 



a 



DANA 



early in 1781, he received the appointment 
from Congress of minister to Russia, 
clothed with power to make the accession 
of the United States to the " armed neu 
trality." He resided two years at St. Pe 
tersburg, and returned to Berlin in 1783. 
He was again in Congress in the spring of 
1784, and the next year was made a justice 
of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. 
In 1791 he was appointed chief-justice of 
Massachusetts, which position he held 
fifteen years, keeping aloof from political 
life, except in 1792 and 1806, when he was 
Presidential elector. He retired from the 
bench and public life in 1806, and died in 
Cambridge, Mass., April 25, 1811. 

Dana, JAMES DWIGHT, mineralogist; 
born in Utica, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1813; 
graduated at Yale College in 1833; went 
to the Mediterranean in the Delaware as 
teacher of mathematics in the United 
States navy, and was mineralogist and 
geologist of Wilkes s exploring expedi 
tion, 1838-42 (see WILKES, CHARLES). 
For thirteen years afterwards Mr. Dana 
was engaged in preparing the reports of 
this expedition and other scientific labors. 
These reports were published by the gov 
ernment, with atlases of drawings made by 




JAMKS DWKJHT DA.NA. 



Mr. Dana. He was elected to the chair of 
Silliman Professor of Natural History 
and Geology in Yale College in 1850, 
entered on his duties in 1855, a place he 



held till 1890, and was for many years 
associated with his brother-in-law, Ben 
jamin Silliman, Jr., in editing and pub 
lishing the American Journal of Science 
and Art, founded by the elder Silliman in 
1819. Professor Dana contributed much 
to scientific journals, and was a member 
of many learned societies at home and 
abroad. In 1872 the Wollaston gold 
medal, in charge of the London Geologi 
cal Society, was conferred upon him. He 
died in New Haven, April 14, 1895. 

Dana, NAPOLEON JACKSON TECUMSEH, 
military officer; born in Fort Sullivan, 
Eastport, Me., April 10, 1822; gradu 
ated at West Point in 1842; served in the 
war with Mexico; resigned in 1855; and 
in October. 1861, became colonel of the 1st 
Minnesota Volunteers. He was in the bat 
tle at BALL S BLUFF (q. v.) ; was made 
brigadier-general early in 1862; was ac 
tive throughout the whole campaign on 
the Peninsula, participating in all the 
battles; and at Antietam commanded a 
brigade, and was wounded. A few weeks 
later he was promoted to major-general 
of volunteers; was with the Army of the 
Gulf in 1863; commanded the 13th Army 
Corps a while; and had charge of the 
district of Vicksburg and west Tennes 
see in 1864. From December, 1864, to 
May, 1865, he was in command of the 
Department of the Mississippi. He re 
signed in 1865, and was reappointed to 
the army with the rank of captain, and re 
tired in 1894. 

Dana, RICHARD, jurist; born in Cam 
bridge, Mass., July 7, 1699; graduated 
at Harvard in 1718; and was a leader of 
the bar in the Revolutionary period. He 
was a member of the Sons of Liberty, and 
also a member of the committee to in 
vestigate the incidents of the Boston 
massacre in 1770. He died May 17, 1772. 

Dana, RICHARD HENRY, poet and essay 
ist; born in Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 15, 
1787; son of Francis Dana; chose the 
profession of law, but his tastes led him 
into literary pursuits. In 1814 he and 
others founded the North American Re 
view, of which he was sole conductor for 
a while. He closed his connection with 
it in 1820. It was while Dana was editor 
of the Review that Bryant s Thanatopxifi 
was published in its pages, the author 
being then unknown. In 1821 the first 



DANA DANENHOWER 



volume of The Idle Man was published. 
It was unprofitable, and Mr. Dana 
dropped it. In it he published stories 
and essays from his own pen. In the 
same year he contributed to the New 
York Review (then under the care of Mr. 
Bryant) his first poem of much preten 
sion. The Dying Kai cn. In 1827 his most 
celebrated poetical production, The Bucca 
neer, was published, with some minor 
poems. After 1833 Mr. Dana wrote but 
little. He died in Boston, Feb. 2, 1879. 

Dana, RICHARD HENRY, 2d, lawyer; 
born in Cambridge, Mass.. Aug. 1, 1815; 
graduated at Harvard University in 1837; 
admitted to the bar in 1840; author of 
7 fro Years Before the Mast and many ar 
ticles on legal subjects; reviser of Whea- 
ton s International Law; nominated min 
ister to Great Britain in 1876, but not 
confirmed by the Senate; United States 
counsel at the Halifax conference. He 
died in Rome, Italy, Jan. 7, 1882. 

Danbury, DESTRUCTION OF. Governor 
Tryon was one of the most malignant foes 
of the American patriots during the Revo 
lutionary War. He delighted, apparently, 
in conspicuously cruel acts; and when any 
thing of that nature was to be done he 
was employed to do it by the more re 
spectable British officers. He was chosen 
to lead a marauding expedition into Con 
necticut from New York in the spring of 
1777. At the head of 2,000 men, he left 
that city (April 23), and landed at 
Compo, between Norwalk and Fairfield 
two days later. They pushed on towards 
Danbury, an inland town, where the 
Americans had gathered a large quantity 
of provisions for the army. The maraud 
ers reached the town unmolested (April 
2.V) by some militia that had retired, and. 
not contented with destroying a large 
quantity of stores gathered there, they 
laid eighteen houses in the village in 
ashes and cruelly treated some of the 
inhabitants. General Silliman, of the 
Connecticut militia, was at his home in 
Fairfield when the enemy landed. He im 
mediately sent out expresses to alarm the 
country and call the militia to the field. 
The call was nobly responded to. Hear 
ing of this gathering from a Tory scout, 
Tryon made a hasty retreat by way of 
Ridgefield, near which place he was con 
fronted by the militia under Generals 



Wooster, Arnold, and Silliman. A sharp 
skirmish ensued, in which Wooster was 
killed, and Arnold had a narrow escape 
from capture, after his horse had been 
shot under him. For his gallantry on that 
occasion the Congress presented him with 
a horse richly caparisoned. Tryon spent 
the night in the neighborhood for his 
troops to rest, and early the next morn 
ing he hurried to his ships, terribly smit 
ten on the way by the gathering militia, 
and at the landing by cannon-shot direct 
ed by Lieutenant-Colonel Oswald. They 
escaped capture only through the gal 
lant services of some marines led by Gen 
eral Erskine. About sunset the fleet de 
parted, the British having lost about 300 
men, including prisoners, during the in 
vasion. The Americans lost about 100 
men. The private losses of property at 
Danbury amounted to about $80,000. 
Danbury is now a city widely known for 
its extensive manufactures of hats, and 
has an assessed property valuation ex 
ceeding $11,500,000. The population in 
1800 was 16,552; in 1900, 1(5.537. 

Dane, NATHAN, jurist; born at Ips 
wich, Mass., Dec. 27, 1752; graduated 
at Harvard in 1778. An able lawyer 
and an influential member of Congress 
(1785-88), he was the framer of the cele 
brated ordinance of 1787. He was a 
member of the Massachusetts legislature 
several years, and was engaged to revise 
the laws of the State (1799), and revise 
and publish the charters (1811) which 
had been granted therein. Mr. Dane was 
a member of the Hartford Convention (see 
HARTFORD) in 1814. His work entitled .1 
(if/irral Abridgment (i<1 IHt/i\t of .\mrr- 
ii nn l.mr. in 9 large volumes (1823-29), 
is a monument of his learning and in 
dustry. He founded iho Dane professor 
ship of law in Harvard University. He 
died in Beverly, Feb. 15, 1835. 

Danenhower, Joiix Wn.so.v, explorer: 
born in Chicago, 111., Sept. 30, 1849: 
graduated at the United States Naval 
Academy in 1870; served on the Yantl<ili<i 
during Gen. U. S. Grant s visit to Egypt 
and the Levant; and was promoted lieu 
tenant in 1879. He joined the Aretir 
steamer Jeanette as second in command 
in 1878. The vessel sailed from San 
i Yancisco on July 8, 1879. through Her 
ing Straits into the Arctic Ocean, where 



DANFOBTH DANISH WEST INDIES 

it was held in the ice-pack for twenty-two Daniel, WILLIAM, prohibitionist; born 
months. From the place where the in Somerset county, Md., Jan. 24, 1826; 
steamer was caught the crew travelled graduated at Dickinson College in 1848 ; 
south for ninety-five days over the ice, admitted to the bar in 1851 ; elected 
drawing three boats with them. They to the Maryland legislature in 1853, 
then embarked, but were separated by a and to the State Senate in 1857; was 
storm. Lievitenant Danenhower s boat an ardent supporter of temperance meas- 
reached the Lena delta, where the Tun- ures, and in 1884 joined the National 
guses saved the crew, Sept. 17, 1881. Prohibition party, which nominated him 
After making an unsuccessful search for for Vice-President of the United States 
the other boats he left ENGINEER GEORGE with William St. John for President. The 
\V. MELVILLE (q. v.) to continue the Prohibition ticket received about 150,000 
search for LIEUT. GEORGE W. DE LONG votes. 

(q. v.), and Avith his crew made a journey Daniels, WILLIAM HAVEN, author; born 
of 6,000 miles to Orenburg. He arrived in in Franklin, Mass., May 18, 1836; edu- 
the United States in June, 1882. He pub- cated at Wesleyan University; Professor 
lished The Narrative of the Jeannette. of Rhetoric there in 1868-69. He then 
He died in Annapolis, Md., April 20, 1887. devoted himself to religious work, chiefly 

Danforth, THOMAS, colonial governor ; in the capacity of an evangelist. His pub- 
born in Suffolk, England, in 1622; set- lications include The Illustrated History 
tied in Nc\v Knglaml in 1634: in 1679 was of Methodism in the United States; A 
elected president of the province of Maine ; Short History of the People called 
and was also a judge of the Superior Methodist, etc. 

Court, in which capacity he strongly con- Danish West Indies, a group of 
demned the action of the court in the islands lying east by southeast of Porto 
witchcraft excitement of 1692. He died Rico, and consisting of St. Croix, St. 
in Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 5, 1(599. Thomas, and St. John. St. Croix is the 

Dangers from Slavery. See PARKER, largest, being about 20 miles long and 5 
THEODORE. miles wide, with an area of 110 square 

Daniel, JOHN MONCURE, editor; born in miles. It is generally flat, well watered, 
Sin fiord county, Va., Oct. 24, 1825; in and fertile. Two-fifths of the surface is 
1853 was appointed minister to Italy, in sugar plantations, and the principal 
Garibaldi requested Daniel to annex Nice crops are sugar, cotton, coffee, indigo, 
to, the United States, but Daniel declined and rum. The climate is unhealthful at 
on the ground that such action would be all seasons, and hurricanes and earth- 
contrary to the Monroe doctrine. When quakes occur frequently. The population 
the Civil War broke out Daniel hastened is about 18,000. St. Thomas is about 
home and entered the Confederate army, 17 miles long by 4 miles wide. Its sur- 
but resigned and resumed the editorship face is rugged and elevated, reaching its 
of the Richmond E.ra miner, in which he greatest height towards the centre. The 
attacked Jefferson Davis. He died in soil is sandy, and mostly uncultivated. 
Richmond, Va.. March 30, 1865. Charlotte Amalie, which is the principal 

Daniel, JOHN WARWICK, legislator; town and the seat of government for the 
born in Lynchburg, Va., Sept. 5, 1842; Danish West Indies, has an excellent 
served through the Civil War in the Con- harbor and large trade. The population 
federate army: member of Congress in of the island is about 14,000. St. John 
1885-8" and of the United States Senate has an area of 42 square miles. The 
in 1887-1905; author of Attachments chief exports are cattle and bay-rum, 
under the Code of Virginia, etc. and the population is about 1,000. Ne- 

Daniel, PETER VIVIAN, statesman; born gotiations with Denmark for the cession 
in Stafford county, Va., April 24, 1784; of the islands to the United States began 
graduated at Princeton in 1805; appoint- in 1898, after the close of the war with 
ed judge of the United States Circuit Spain ; but owing to political changes in 
Court in 1836; and to the United States the Danish government, no definite re- 
Supreme Court in 1841. He died in Rich- suits were then attained. In December, 
mond, Va., June 30, 1860. 1900, Congress became favorable to the 

9 



DANITES DABIEN SHIP CANAL 

bill of Senator Lodge, advising the pur- for the ships to return to England for 
chase of the islands, and negotiations to supplies, and, to hasten them, White went 
that end were reopened. On Dec. 29, with them, leaving behind eighty - nine 
1900, the United States offered to pay men, seventeen women, and two children. 
$3,240,000 for the islands; but the Danish Among the women was his married daugli- 
Upper House rejected the treaty to sell, ter, Eleanor Dare, who had given birth 
Oct. 22, 1902. to a daughter, in August, 1587, to whom 
Daaites, an alleged secret - order so- they gave the name of Virginia. On his 
ciety of the Mormons, accused of various way home, White touched at Ireland, 
crimes in the interest of Mormonism. where he left some potatoes which he took 
These are denied by the Mormons. " Dan from Virginia the first of that kind over 
shall be a serpent by the way, an adder seen in Europe. He started back with two 
in the path," Gen. xlix. 17. The members ships laden with supplies; but instead 
were also known as the Destroying An- of going directly to Virginia, he pur- 
gels. See MORMONS. sued Spanish ships in search of plunder. 
Darby, WILLIAM, geographer; born in His vessels were so battered that he was 
Pennsylvania in 1775; served under Gen- obliged to return to England, and Span- 
eral Jackson in Louisiana ; and was one ish war - vessels in British waters pre- 
of the surveyors of the boundary between vented his sailing for America again until 
Canada and the United States. Among 1590. He found Roanoke a desolation, 
his works are Geographical Description of and no trace of the colony was ever 
Louisiana; Geography and History of found. It is believed that they became 
Florida; View of the United States; Lect- mingled with the natives, for long years 
ures on the Discovery of America; etc. afterwards families of the Hatteras tribe 
He died in Washington, D. C., Oct. 9, 1854. exhibited unmistakable specimens of blood 
Darbytown Road, Va., the place of mixed with that of Europeans. It is sup- 
three fights during the Richmond and posed the friendly " Lord of Roanoke " 
Petersburg campaigns. The first, July 29, had saved their lives. 

1864, between Hancock s corps under Darien Ship Canal, one of the great 
Gregg and Kautz and the Confederates; interoceanic canal projects which have 
the second, Oct. 7, when Kautz was de- attracted the attention of interested na- 
feated; and the third, Oct. 13, when the tions for many years, and, most particu- 
Nationals under Butler were defeated, larly, the United States. In 1849 an 
General Lee claimed to have captured Irish adventurer published a book in 
1,000 Nationals. which he said he had crossed and re- 
Dare, VIRGINIA, the first child of Eng- crossed the Isthmus of Darien, and that 
lish parents born in the New World. In in the construction of a canal there 
1587 John White went to Roanoke Island only "3 or 4 miles of deep rock cut- 
as governor of an agricultural colony sent ting" would be required. Believing this, 
out by Sir Walter Raleigh. He was ac- an English company was formed for the 
companied by his son - in - law, William purpose, with a capital of $75,000.000, 
Dare, and his young wife. It was in- and an engineer was sent to survey a 
tended to plant the colony on the main- route, who reported that the distance be- 
land, but White went no farther than tween "tidal effects" was only 30 miles. 
Roanoke. The new colonists determined to and the summit level only 150 feet. The 
cultivate the friendship of the Indians, governments of England. France, the 
Manteo (the chief who accompanied United States, and New Granada joined, 
Amidas and Barlow to England), living late in 1853, in an exploration of the best 
with his mother and relatives on Croatan route for a canal. It was soon ascer- 
Island. invited the colonists to settle on tained that the English engineer had 
his domain. White persuaded him to re- never crossed the isthmus at all. The 
ceive the rites of Christian baptism, and summit level to which he directed the 
bestowed upon him the title of baron, expedition was 1.000 feet above tide- 
as Lord of Roanoke the first and last water, instead of 150 feet. The expedi- 
peerage ever created on the soil of the tion effected nothing. 

American republic. It became necessary In 18.14 Lieut. Isaac Strain led an 

lO 



DARK AND BLOODY GROUND DARLEY 

American expedition for the same purpose, open air. Birds became silent and went 
They followed the route pointed out by to rest; barn-yard fowls went to roost, 
the English engineer, and, after intense and cattle sought their accustomed even- 
suirering, returned and reported the pro- ing resorts. Houses were lighted with 
posed route wholly impracticable. The candles, and nearly all out-of-door work 
success of the Suez Canal revived the was suspended. The obscuration began 
project, and in 1870 two expeditions were at ten o clock in the morning and con 
sent out by the United States govern- tinned until night. The cause of the 
ment one under Commander T. O. Sel- darkness has never been revealed. The 
fridge, of the United States navy, to the air was unclouded. 

Isthmus of Darien; and the other, under Darke, WILLIAM, military officer; born 
Captain Shufeldt, of the navy, to the in Philadelphia county, Pa., in 1736; 
Isthmus of Tehuan tepee. Three routes served under Braddock in 1755, and was 
were surveyed across the narrow part with him at his defeat; entered the patriot 
of the Isthmus of Darien by Self ridge, army at the outbreak of the Revolution as 
and he reported all three as having ob- a captain; was captured at the battle of 
stacles that made the construction of a Germantown; subsequently was promoted 
canal impracticable. He reported a colonel ; and commanded the Hampshire 
route by the Atrato and Napipi rivers as and Berkeley regiments at the capture of 
perfectly feasible. It would include 150 Cornwallis in 1791. He served as lieuten- 
miles of river navigation and a canal less ant-colonel under General St. Clair, and 
than 40 miles in extent. It would call was wounded in the battle with the Miami 
for 3 miles of rock cutting 125 feet Indians, Nov. 4, 1791. He died in Jeffer- 
deep, and a tunnel of 5 miles, with a roof son county, Va., Nov. 2G, 1801. 
sufficiently high to admit the tallest- Darley, FELIX OCTAVIUS CARE, de- 
masted ships. Selfridge estimated the en- signer and painter; born in Philadel- 
tire cost at $124,000,000. The whole mat- phia June 23, 1822; evinced a taste for 
ter was referred in 1872 to a commission drawing at an early age, and while a lad 
to continue investigations. A French in a mercantile house spent his leisure 
company undertook the construction of a time in sketching. For some of these 
canal between Aspinwall and Panama in he was offered a handsome sum, and this 
1881, under the direction of Ferdinand induced him to choose art as a life pur- 
de Lesseps. After expending many mill- suit. He spent several years in Phila- 
ions, the project was temporarily aban- delphia, always living by his pencil, and 
doned in 1800. See CLAYTON - BULWER in 1848 he went to New York, where he 
TREATY: NICARAGUA SHIP CANAL; PAN- made admirable illustrations for some of 
AMA CANAL. Irving s humorous works. Among these 

Dark and Bloody Ground. Two sec- were The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and 
tions of the United States have received Rip Van Winkle. These works procured 
this appellation. First it was applied for him the reputation, at home and 
to Kentucky, the great battle-field be- abroad, as a leader in the art of outline 
tween the Northern and Southern Indians, illustrations. He illustrated a great many 
and afterwards to the portion of that books and made numerous admirable de- 
State wherein Daniel Boone and his com- signs for bank-notes. For Cooper s works 
panions were compelled to carry on a he made 500 illustrations. More than 
warfare with the savages. It was also sixty of them were engraved on steel, 
applied to the Valley of the Mohawk, in He executed four large works ordered by 
New York, and its vicinity, known as Prince Napoleon while in this country. 
Tryon county, wherein the Six Nations These were: Emigrants Attacked by 
and their Tory allies made fearful forays Indians on the Prairies; The Village 
during the Revolution. Blacksmith; The Unwilling Laborer, and 

Dark Day. On May 12, 1780, a re- The Repose. He illustrated several of 

mark-able darkness overspread all New Dickens s works, and during the Civil 

England, varying in intensity at different War delineated many characteristic 

places. In some sections persons could scenes. Some of the more elaborate pict- 

not read common printed matter in the ures on the United States government 

11 



DARLING DARTMOOR PRISON 

bonds were made by him; and also the what she had overheard. Through this 

beautiful design of the certificate of stock timely information Washington was pre- 

given as evidence of subscription for the pared and the British expedition provc d 

Centennial Exhibition in 1876. Among to be a failure. 

his later works in book illustrations Dartmoor Prison, a notable place of 
were 500 beautiful designs for Lossing s detention in Devonshire, England. At the 
Our Country. Mr. Darley went to Europe close of the War of 1812-15 prisoners 
near the close of the war, studied models held by both parties were released as soon 
in Rome, and returned with a portfolio as proper arrangements for their enlarge- 
full of personal sketches. He died in nient could be made. At the conclusion 
Claymont, Del., March 27, 1888. of peace there were about C,000 Anieri- 

Darling, HENRY, clergyman; born in tan captives confined in Dartmoor Prison, 

Reading, Pa., Dec. 27, 1823; graduated including 2,500 American seamen im- 

at Amherst College in 1842; ordained to pressed by British cruisers, who had re- 

the ministry of the Presbyterian Church fused to fight in the British navy against 

in 1847; published Slavery and the War their countrymen, and were there when 

(1863), etc. He died in Clinton, N. Y., the war began. Some had been captives 

April 20, 1891. ten or eleven years. The prison was situ- 

Darlington, WILLIAM, scientist; born ated on Dart Moor, a desolate region in 
of Quaker parents in Birmingham, Pa., Devonshire, where it had been con- 
April 28, 1782; studied medicine, Ian- structed for the confinement of PYench 
guages, and botany, and went to Calcutta prisoners of war. It comprised about 30 
as surgeon of a ship. Returning in 1807, acres, enclosed within double walls, with 
he practised medicine at West Chester seven distinct prison - houses, with en- 
with success; was a Madisonian in poli- closures. The place, at the time in ques- 
tics, and when the war broke out in 1812 tion, was in charge of Capt. T. G. Short- 
he assisted in raising a corps for the ser- land, with a military guard. He was 
vice in his neighborhood. He was chosen accused of cruelty towards the captives, 
major of a volunteer regiment, but did It was nearly three months after the 
not see any active service. He was a mem- treaty of peace was signed before they 
ber of Congress from 1815 to 1817 and were permitted to know the fact. From 
from 1819 to 1823. In his town he that time they were in daily expectation 
founded an academy, an athen;eum, and a of release. Delay caused uneasiness and 
society of natural history. Dr. Darling- impatience, and symptoms of a deter- 
ton was an eminent botanist, and a new mination to escape soon appeared. On 
and remarkable variety of the pitcher April 4 the prisoners demanded bread 
plant, found in California in 1853, was Instead of hard biscuit, and refused 
named, in his honor. Darlingtonica Call- to receive the latter. On the 6th, 
jornia. He wrote and published works so reluctantly did the prisoners obey 
on botany, medicine, biography, and his orders to retire to their quarters, that 
tnry. Dr. Darlington was a member of when some of them, with the appearance 
about forty learned societies in America of mutinous intentions, not only refused 
and Europe. He died in West Chester, to retire, but passed beyond the prescribed 
Pa., April 23, 1863. limits of their confinement, they were fired 

Darrah, LYDIA, heroine; place and date upon by order of Captain Shortland, for 

of birth unknown; lived in Philadelphia the purpose of intimidating all. The fir- 

in 1777. One of the rooms in her house ing was followed up by the soldiers, \\ith- 

was used by the British officers, who out excuse. Five prisoners were killed and 

planned to surprise Washington s army, thirty-three were wounded. This act was 

She overheard their plans, and early in regarded by the Americans as a wanton 

the morning of Dec. 3 left her home, massacre, and when the British author! 

ostensibly for the purpose of purchasing ties pronounced it " justifiable " the 

flour, but in reality to give warning to hottest indignation was excited through - 

Washington. After a walk of several out the republic. The last survivor of the 

miles in the snow she met one of Wash- Dartmoor prisoners was Lewis P. Clover, 

ington s officers , to whom she revealed who died in Brooklyn. Long Island. X. Y.. 

12 



DARTMOUTH COLLEGE 




DARTMOOR HKl.sOS. 



in February, 1870, at the age of eighty- 
nine years. 

Dartmouth College, one of the highest 
institutions of learning in the English- 
American colonies; chartered in 1769. It 
grew out of an earlier school established 
by Rev. Dr. Wheelock at Lebanon, Conn., 
designed for the education of Indian chil 
dren, he being encouraged by his success 
in educating a young Mohegan, Samson 
Occom, who became a remarkable preacher. 
Pupils from the Delaware tribe were re 
ceived, and the school soon attracted pub 
lic attention. James Moor, a farmer, gave 
two acres of land and a house for the use 
of the school, and from that time it was 
known as Moor s Indian Charity School. 
Occom accompanied Rev. N. Whittaker to 
England to raise funds for the increase of 
the usefulness of the school, and about 
$50,000 were subscribed. A board of trus 
tees was organized, of which Lord Dart 
mouth, one of the subscribers, was elected 
president. The children of the New Eng 
land Indians came to the school in large 
numbers, and Dr. Wheelock resolved to 
transfer it to a place nearer the heart of 
the Indian population in that region. He 
selected Hanover, on the Connecticut 



River, in the western part of New Hamp 
shire, and grants of about 44,000 acres of 
land were made. Governor Wentworth 
gave it a charter ( 176!)) , under the title of 
Dartmouth College, so named in honor of 
Lord Dartmouth. The institution was re 
moved, with the pupils, to Hanover, in 
1770, where President Wheelock and all 
others \lived in log cabins, for it was an 
almost untrodden wilderness. Dr. Whee 
lock held the presidency until his death, in 
1779 (see WHEELOCK, ELEAZAR-), and was 
succeeded by his son, John, who was sent 
to Europe to procure funds for the sup 
port of the college. He obtained consider 
able sums, and philosophical implements. 
In 1816 a religious controversy led to a 
conflict with the legislature, and the latter 
created a new corporation, called Dart 
mouth University, in which the property 
of the old corporation was vested. A law 
suit ensued, carried on for the college by 
Daniel Webster, which resulted (1819), 
finally, in the establishment of the in 
violability of chartered rights and the 
restoration .of the old charter. Wheelock 
was raised to the presidency in 1817, by 
the new board, but died a few months 
afterwards. He was succeeded bv William 



13 



DARTMOUTH COLLEGE DECISION DAVENANT 

Allen. At the close of 1900 the college the constitution, are "social, literary, Ins- 
reported sixty-one professors and instruct- torical, monumental, benevolent, and hon 
ors, 741 students, 85,000 volumes in the orable in every degree." In 1900 there 
library, 9,000 graduates, and $2,300,000 in were 400 chapters in the United States, 
productive funds. Rev. William J. Tucker, North and South, with about 8,000 mem- 
D.D., LL.D., was president. bers. The president was Mrs. Kate Cabell 

Dartmouth College Decision. By an Currie, Dallas, Tex.; recording secretary, 
act of the legislature of New Hampshire Mrs. John P. Hickman, Nashville, Tenn. 
in 1816, the name of Dartmouth College Daughters of the King, THE, a re- 
was changed to Dartmouth University, the ligious society of the Protestant Episco- 
management was changed, and the State un- pal Church, founded in New York City, 
dertookto control the affairs of the college. Easter evening, 1885. It is often con- 
Daniel Webster was retained to oppose the fused with the KING S DAUGHTERS (q. v.), 
action of the State, and the case was ulti- a society from which it differs in many 
mately carried up to the United States Su- lespects. Its chief purposes are to aid 
preme Court, the decision of which estab- rectors in their parish work and to ex- 
lished the inviolability of private trusts. tend Christianity among young women. 

Daston, SARAH, an alleged witch; born In 1900 the president of the council was 

about 1613. When eighty years old she Mrs. E. A. Bradley; secretary, Miss 

was imprisoned in Salem as a witch, and Elizabeth L. Ryerson. The office of the 

although the practice of punishing sup- council is in the Church Missions House, 

posed witches was meeting with public dis- 281 Fourth Avenue, New York City, 
approbation the superstitious party clam- Daughters of the Revolution, an 

ored for her conviction. She was tried organization established in New York 

in Charlestown, Mass., in February, 1693, City, Aug. 20, 1891. Any woman is 

and was acquitted. Later her persecutor, eligible for membership who is a lineal 

Minister Parris, was driven out of Salem, descendant of a military, naval, or marine 

Daughters of Liberty, a society of officer, or of a soldier or marine or sailor 

women founded in Boston in 1769, pledg- in actual service under the authority of 

ing themselves to refrain from buying any State or colony or of the Continental 

English goods. Congress, or of the Congress of any of the 

Daughters of the American Revolu- colonies or States, or of a signer of the 

tion, a society organized in Washington, Declaration of Independence, or of a mem- 

D. C., Oct. 11, 1890. All women above ber of the Continental Congress, or of any 

eighteen years of age who are descended colonial or State Congress, and of any 

from patriots, soldiers, sailors, or civil other recognized official who supported 

officers who supported the cause of inde- the cause of American independence, 

pendence, are eligible to membership. In State societies exist in a large number of 

1900 there were 492 State chapters in States. In 1900 the president-general 

fourteen States and Territories, in the was Mrs. Henry Sanger Snow; recording 

District of Columbia, and in Hawaii, with secretary-general, Mrs. L. D. Gallison. 

a total membership of about 27,000. The The office of the general society is at 156 

president-general was Mrs. Daniel Man- Fifth Avenue, New York, 
ning; recording secretary - general, Mrs. Davenant, SIR WILLIAM, dramatist and 

Albert Ackers, Nashville, Tenn. The poet; born in Oxford, England, in 1605; 

membership was reported as 35,092 in son of an innkeeper, at whose house 

February, 1901. Shakespeare often stopped while on his 

Daughters of the Confederacy, an journeys between Stratford and London, 

organization established in Nashville, and who noticed the boy. Young Davenant 

Tenn., Sept. 10, 1894. Its membership left college without a degree. Showing 

consists of the widows, wives, mothers, much literary talent, he was encouraged 

sisters, and lineal female descendants of in writing plays by persons of distinction, 

the men who served in the Confederate and on the death of Ben Jonson in 1637 

army and navy, or who were connected he was made poet-laureate. He adhered 

in any way with the Confederate cause, to the royal cause during the civil war 

The objects of the society, as declared in in F.n-jland, and escaped to France, where 

14 



DAVENPORT DAVIDSON 

he became a. KOIIIMM Catholic. After the spiritual retreats for the laity. In I80<i 

death of his King he projected (1651) a lie accepted a professorship in the College 

colony of French people in Virginia, the of St. Mary s; in 1810 went West and 

only American province that adhered to founded the St. Thomas Theological 

royalty, and, with a vessel filled with Seminary in Bardstown, Ky. ; and in 1823 

French men, women, and children, he secured a charter from the Kentucky 

sailed for Virginia. The ship was capt- legislature raising the institution he had 

ured by a parliamentary cruiser, and the founded to the grade of a university. He 

passengers were landed in England, where died in Bardstown, Ky., in 1841. 
the life of Sir William was spared, it is be- Davidson, GEORGE, astronomer ; born in 

Heved, by the intervention of John Milton, Nottingham, England, May 9, 1825 ; came 

the poet, who was Cromwell s Latin secre- to the United States in 1832; gradu- 

tary. Sir William had a strong personal ated at the Central High School, Phila- 

resemblance to Shakespeare, and it was delphia, in 1845; engaged in geodetic field 

currently believed that he was a natural and astronomical work in the Eastern 

son of the great dramatist. This idea Sir States in 1845-50, and then went to San 

William encouraged. He died in April, 1668. Francisco, and became eminent in the 

Davenport, HENRY KALLOCK, naval coast survey of the Pacific; retiring after 

officer; born in Savannah, Ga., Dec. 10, fifty years of active service in June, 1895. 

1820; joined the navy in 1838; command- He then became Professor of Geography in 

ed the steamer Hetzel in 1861-64; took the University of California. Of his 

part in the engagements on James River numerous publications, The Coast Pilot 

and off Roanoke Island ; and was promoted of California, Oregon, and Washington; 

captain in 1868. He died in Franzensbad, and The Coast Pilot of Alaska- are uni- 

Bohemia, Aug. 18, 1872. versally known and esteemed. 

Davenport, JOHN, colonist; born in Davidson, JOHN WYNN, military 

Coventry, England, in 1597. Educated at officer; born in Fairfax county, Va., Aug. 

Oxford, he entered the ministry of the Es- 18, 1824; graduated at West Point in 

tablished Church. He finally became a 1845, entering the dragoons. Accompany- 

Non-conformist, was persecuted, and re- ing Kearny to California in 1846, he 

tired to Holland, where he engaged in was in the principal battles of the war 

secular teaching in a private school. He with Mexico. He was also active in 

returned to London and came to America New Mexico, afterwards, against the Ind- 

in June, 1637, where he was received with ians. In 1861 he was made major of 

great respect. The next year he assisted cavalry, and early in 1862 brigadier- 

in founding the New Haven colony, and general of volunteers, commanding a bri- 

was one of the chosen " seven pillars * gade in the Army of the Potomac. After 

(see NEW HAVEN). He concealed Goffe serving in the campaign on the Peninsula, 

and Whalley, two T)f the "regicides," in he was transferred (August, 1862) to the 

his house, and by his preaching induced Department of the Mississippi, and co- 

the people to protect them from the King s operated with General Steele in the capt- 

commissioners sent over to arrest them ure of Little Rock, Ark. He was brevet- 

(see RKGICIDES). In 1668 he was or- ted major-general of volunteers in March, 

dained minister of the first church in 1865; promoted to lieutenant-colonel, 

Boston, and left New Haven. He was the 10th Cavalry, in 1866; was Professor of 

author of several controversial pamphlets, Military Science in Kansas Agricultural 

and of A Discourse about Civil Govern- College in 1868-71; promoted to colonel, 

mcnt in a New Plantation. He died in 2d Cavalry, in 1879. He died in St. Paul, 

Boston, March 15, 1670. Minn., June 26, 1881. 

David, JEAN BAPTIST, clergyman; born Davidson, WILLIAM, military officer; 

in France, in 1761; educated at the born in Lancaster county, Pa., in 1746; 

Diocesan Seminary of Nantes; became a was appointed major in one of the North 

priest in 1785; came to the United States Carolina regiments at the outbreak of 

in 1792; and was superintendent of mis- the Revolution; took part in the battles 

sions in lower Maryland. He was the of Brandywine, Germantown, and Mon- 

first priest in America to establish mouth; commissioned brigadier-general; 

15 



DAVIE DAVIS 






and was at Cowan s Ford, N. (. ., Feb. 1, and able supporter. In 17!)!) lie was 
1781, when the British army under Corn- ernor of North Carolina, but was soon 
wallis forced a passage. During the fight afterwards sent as one of the envoys to 
General Davidson was killed. the French Directory. Very soon after 

Davie, WILLIAM RICHARDSON, military his return he withdrew from public life, 
officer; born near Whitehaven, England, In March, 1813, he was appointed a ma- 
June 20, 1756; came to America in 1764 jor-general, but declined the service on 
with his father, and settled in South account of bodily infirmities. He died in 
Carolina with his uncle, who educated Camden, S. C., Nov. 8, 1820. 
him at the College of New Jersey (where Davis, ANDREW JACKSON, spiritualist; 

born in Blooming Grove, Orange co., N. Y., 
Aug. 11, 1826. While a shoemaker s ap 
prentice in Poughkeepsie, early in 1843, 
remarkable clairvoyant powers w r ere de 
veloped in him by the manipulation of 
mesmeric influences by William Leving- 
ston. He was quite uneducated, yet while 
under the influence of mesmerism or ani 
mal magnetism he would discourse fluent 
ly and in proper language on medical, 
psychological, and general scientific sub 
jects. While in a magnetic or trance 
state he made medical diagnoses and gave 
prescriptions. In March, 1844, he fell 
into a trance state without any previous 
manipulations, during which he con 
versed for sixteen hours, as he alleged, 
with invisible beings, and received inti 
mations and instructions concerning the 
position he was afterwards to occupy as 
a teacher from the interior state. In 
1845, while in this state, he dictated to 
Rev. William Fishbough his first and 
most considerable work, The P nudities of 

he graduated in 1776), and adopted him Mature, her Divine Revelations, and a 
as his heir. He prepared himself for Voice to Mankind, which embraces a wide 
the law as a profession, but became an ac- range of subjects. He afterwards pub- 
tive soldier in the Revolution in a troop of lished several works, all of which ho 
dragoons. When he was in command of claimed to have been the production of his 
the troop he annexed it to Pulaski s mind under divine illumination and the 
Legion. He fought at Stono, Hanging influence of disembodied spirits. Among 
Rock, and Rocky Mount; and at the head his most considerable works are Tin* 
of a legionary corps, with the rank of Great Harmonia, in 4 volumes: Tin- 
major, he opposed the advance of Corn- Penetralia; Hixtorji initJ Philoso)>lii/ of 
wallis into North Carolina. After the Evil; The Jfarliinfrcr of Health; Rfclltir 
overthrow of the American army at Cam- Kcit to the Rummer Land; and Mental 
den he saved the remnant of it; and he Diseases cud Disorders of tlic lira in. Mr. 
was a most efficient commissary under Davis may be considered as the pioneer 
General Greene in the Southern Depart- of modern spiritualism. 
ment. He rose to great eminence as a Davis, CHARLES HENRY, naval officer: 
lawyer after the war, and was a delegate born in Boston. Jan. 16. 1807: entered 
to the convention that framed the na- the naval service as midshipman in 1823: 
tional Constitution, but sickness at home was one of the chief organizers of the ex- 
compelled him to leave before the work pedition against Port Royal, S. C.. in 
ivas accomplished. In the convention of 1861, in which he bore a conspicuous part. 
North Carolina he was its most earnest For his services during the Civil War he 

16 




WILLIAM RICHARDSON DAVIE. 



DAVIS 



received the thanks of Congress and pro 
motion to the rank of rear-admiral. In 
1865 he became superintendent of the 
Xaval Observatory at Washington. He 
was a recognized authority on tidal ac 
tions and published several works on that 
subject. He died in Washington, D. C., 
Feb. 18, 1877. 

Davis, CTJSIIMAN KELLOGG, statesman; 
born in Henderson, N. Y., June 16, 1838; 




CUSH.MA.N KKLLUGli DAVIS. 

graduated at the University of Michi 
gan in 1857; studied law and began prac 
tice in Waukesha, Wis. During the Civil 
War he served three years in the Union 
army. In 1805 he removed to St. Paul, 
Minn. He was a member of the Minne 
sota legislature in 1867; United States 
district attorney for Minnesota in 1868- 
73; governor of Minnesota in 1874-75; 
and elected to the United States Senate 
in 1887, 1893, and 1899. For several years 
he was chairman of the Senate committee 
on foreign relations, and was a member 
of the commission to negotiate peace with 
Spain after the war of 1898. He pub 
lished The Law in Shakespeare. He died 
in St. Paul, Nov. 27, 1900. 

Davis, DAVID, jurist; born in Cecil 
county. Md., March 9, 1815; graduated 
at Kenyon College, 0., 1832; admitted 
to the bar of Illinois in 1835; elected 
to the State legislature in 1834; and 
appointed a justice of the Supreme Court 
of the United States in 1862. He resign 
ed this post to take his seat in the United 
States Senate on March 4, 1877, having 
been elected to succeed JOHN A. LOGAN 
in. B 17 



(q. v.) . In 1872 he was nominated for 
President by the Labor Reform party, but 
declined to run after the regular Demo 
cratic and Republican nominations had 
been made. He resigned in 1883 and re 
tired to Bloomington, 111., where he died 
June 26, 1886. 

Davis, GEORGE WHITEFIELD, military 
officer; born in Thompson, Conn., July 26, 
1839; entered the Union army as quarter 
master s sergeant in the llth Connecticut 
Infantry, Nov. 27, 1861 ; became first lieu 
tenant April 5, 1862; and was mustered 
out of the service, April 20, 1866. On 
Jan. 22, 1867, he was appointed captain 
in the 14th United States Infantry. At 
the beginning of the war with Spain he 
was commissioned brigadier-general of vol 
unteers; and on Oct. 19, 1899, he was 
promoted to colonel of the 23d United 
States Infantry; and on the reorganiza 
tion of the regular army, in February, 
1901, he was appointed one of the new 
brigadier - generals. He was for several 
years a member of the board on Public 
W r ar Records; commanded a division in 
the early part of the war with Spain; in 
May, 1899, was appointed governor-general 
of Porto Rico; and in 1904 governor of the 
American zone of the Panama Canal ces 
sion. 

Davis, HENRY GASSAWAY, legislator ; 
born in Baltimore, Md., Nov. 16, 1823; re 
ceived a country-school education; was an 
employee of the Baltimore & Ohio Rail 
road Company for fourteen vears; after- 




BRIO. -OEN. UKOKUK WHITKFIKLU DAVIS, 



DAVIS 



ward engaged in banking and coal-mining 
in Piedmont, \V. Ya. ; and was president 
of the Piedmont National Bank. In 1805 
ho was elected to the House of Delegates 
of West Virginia ; was a member of the 
national Democratic conventions in 1868 
and 1872; State Senator in 1867-G9; and 
a United States Senator in 1871-83. He 
also served on the Inter-continental Rail 
way Commission, as chairman of the 
American delegation to the Pan-American 
Congress, and was the Democratic candi 
date for Vice-President in 1!>04. 

Davis, HKNISY WIXTKR. legislator: born 
in Annapolis. Md.. Aug. Ifi. 1S17: gradu 
ated at Kenvon College in 1837: elected 



to Congress as a Whig in 1854, and at 
the dissolution of that party joined the 
American or Know -Nothing party, and 
was re-elected to Congress in 1858. In 
18151 he announced himself in favor of an 
unconditional Union while a candidate 
for re-election. He was overwhelmingly 
defeated, but in 1863 was re-elected. Al 
though representing a slave State, Senator 
Davis was a strong antislavery advo 
cate. He died in Baltimore. Md.. Dec. 30, 
1 805. 

Davis, ISAAC, patriot: born in 1745: 
took part in the fight with the British 
soldiery at Concord bridge, April 1!). 1775. 
and war, killed bv the first vollev. 



DAVIS, JEFFEBSON 



Davis, JEFFERSON, statesman ; born in 
Christian county, Ky., June 3, 1808; 
graduated at West Point in 1828; served 
as lieutenant in the BLACK HAWK WAR 
(q. v.) in 1831-32, and resigned in 1835 
to become a cotton-planter in Mississippi. 
He was a member of Congress in 1845-40, 
and served as colonel of a Mississippi regi 
ment in the war with Mexico. He was 
United States Senator from 1847 to 1851, 
and from 1857 to 1861. He was called to 
the cabinet of President Pierce as Secre 
tary of War in 1853, and remained four 
years. He resigned his seat in the Senate 
in January, 1861, and was chosen pro 
visional President of the Southern Con 
federacy in February. In November, 1861, 
he was elected permanent President for six 
years. Early in April, 1865, he and his 
associates in the government fled from 
Richmond, first to Danville, Va., and then 
towards the Gulf of Mexico. He was ar 
rested in Georgia, taken to Fort Monroe, 
and confined on a charge of treason for 
about two years, when he was released on 
bail, Horace Greeley s name heading the 
list of bondsmen for $100,000. He was 
never tried. He published The Rise and 
Fall of the Confederate Government 
H881). He died in New Orleans, La., 
Dec. 6, 1889. 

Mr. Davis was at his home, not far 
from Vicksburg, when apprised of his 
election as President of the Confederacy 
formed at Montgomery, February, 1861. 
He hastened to that city, and his journey 



18 



was a continuous ovation. He made 
twenty-five speeches on the way. Mem 
bers of the convention and the authorities 
of Montgomery met him eight miles from 
the city. He arrived at the Alabama 
capital at eight o clock at night. Can 
non thundered a welcome, and the shouts 
of a multitude greeted him. Formally re 
ceived at the railway station, he made a 
speech, in which he briefly reviewed the 
position of the South, and said the time 
for compromises had passed. " We are 
now determined," he said, " to maintain 
our position, and make all who oppose us 
smell Southern powder and feel Southern 
steel. . . . We will maintain our rights 
and our government at all hazards. 
We ask nothing we want nothing and 
we will have no complications. If the 
other States join our Confederacy, they 
can freely come in on our terms. Our 
separation from the Union is complete, 
and no compromise, no reconstruction. 
can now be entertained." The inaugural 
ceremonies took place at noon, Feb. 18. on 
a platform erected in front of the portico 
of the State-house. Davis and the Vice- 
president elect, ALEXANDER H. STKIMIK.NS 
(q. v.), with Rev. Dr. Marly, rode in 
an open barouche from the Exchange 
Hotel to the capitol, followed by a multi 
tude of State officials and citizens. The 
oath of office was administered to Davis 
by Howell Cobb, president of the Con 
gress, at the close of his inaugural ad 
dress. In the evening President Davis held 



DAVIS, JEFFERSON 




JK, I KKSiiN I)A\ I 



a levee at Estelle Hall, and the city was 
brilliantly lighted up by bonfires and 
illuminations. President Davis chose for 
his constitutional advisers a cabinet com 
prising Robert Tooinbs, of Georgia. Sec 
retary of State: Charles G. Memmingcr. 
of South Carolina. Secretary of the 
Treasury; Le Roy Pope Walker, of Ala 
bama, Secretary of War: Stephen 1!. 
Mallory, of Florida, Secretary of the 
Navy, and John H. Reagan, of Texas, 
Postmaster-General. Afterwards. Judah 
P. Benjamin was made Attorney-General. 
Two days after President Lincoln s call 



for troops, President Davis issued a procla 
mation, in the preamble of which he said 
the President of the United States had 
"announced the intention of invading the 
Confederacy with an armed force for the 
purpose of eaptur ; iv.r its fortresses, and 
thereby subverting its independence, and 
subjecting the free people thereof to the 
dominion of a foreign power." He said 
it w:-s the d ltv of his government to re 
pel this threatened invasion, and "defend 
the rights and liberties of the peop e by 
all the means which the laws of nations 
and usages of civilized warfare placed at 



DAVIS, JEFFERSON 

its dispni-al." He invited the people of family and property, riding rapidly 18 
the Confederacy to engage in privateering, miles. They were near h winsville, south 
and he exhorted those who had " felt the of Macon, Ga. The tents were pitched at 
wrongs of the past " from those whose night, and the wearied ones retired to 
enmity was " more implacable, because rest, intending to resume their flight in 
unprovoked," to exert themselves in pre- the morning. General Wilson, at Macon, 
serving order and maintaining the author- hearing of Davis s Might towards the Gulf, 
ity of the Confederate laws. This procla- had sent out Michigan and Wisconsin 
mation was met by President Lincoln by cavalry, whose vigilance was quickened 
a public notice that he should imme- by the offered reward of $100,000 for the 
diately order a blockade of all the South- arrest of the fugitive. Simultaneously, 
ern ports claimed as belonging to the Con- from opposite points, these two parties 
federacy; and also that if any person, approached the camp of Davis and his lit- 
under the pretended authority of such tie party just at dawn. May 11, 18(55. 
States, or under any other pretence, Mistaking each other for foes, they ex- 
should molest a vessel of the United changed shots with such precision that. 
States, or the person or cargo on board two men were killed and several wounded 
of her, such person would be held amen- before the error was discovered. The 
able to the laws of the United States for sleepers were aroused. The camp was 
the prevention and punishment of piracy, surrounded, and Davis, while attempting 
With this opposing proclamation the to escape in disguise, was captured and 
great Civil War was actively begun. conveyed to General Wilson s head- 

In April, 1805, Mr. Davis s wife and quarters. Davis had slept in a wrapper, 
children, and his wife s sister, had and when aroused hastily pulled on his 
accompanied him from Danville to boots and went to the tent-door. He ob- 
Washington, Ga., where, for prudential served the National cavalry. Then you 
reasons, the father separated from the are captured?" exclaimed his wife. In 
others. He soon learned that some Con- an instant she fastened the wrapper 
federate soldiers, believing that the treas- around him before he was aware, and 

then, bidding him 
adieu, urged him. 
to go to a spring 
near by, where his 
horse and arms 
were. He complied, 
and as he was 
leaving the tent- 
door, followed by 
a servant with a 
water - bucket, his 
sister-in-law Hung 
a shawl over his 
head. It was in 
this disguise that 
he was captured. 
Such is (lie story 
as told by C. K. L. 
Stuart, of Davis s 
staff. The Confed 
erate President 
was taken to Fort 
Monroe by way of 

ure that was carried away from Rich Savannah and the sea. lleagan. who was 
mond was with Mrs. Davis, had formed captured with Davis, and Alexander H. 
a plot to seize all her trunks in search Stephens were sent to Fort Warren, in 
of it. TTe hastened to the rescue of hi<? 




JKKKKKSON DAVIS S IIOMK IN RICHMOND. 



DAVIS, JEITERSON 

Inaugural Address. The following is sorted the right which the Declaration of 

the text of the inaugural address, deliv- Independence of 1776 defined to be in- 

ered at Montgomery, Ala., Feb. 18, 1861: alienable. Of the time and occasion of 

its exercise they as sovereigns were the 

Gentlemen of the Congress of the Con- final judges, each for himself. The im- 
federate States of America, Friends, and partial, enlightened verdict of mankind 
Fellow-Citizens, Called to the difficult will vindicate the rectitude of our con- 
and responsible station of chief executive duct; and He who knows the hearts of 
of the provisional government which you men will judge of the sincerity with which 
have instituted, I approach the discharge we labored to preserve the government of 
of the duties assigned me with an humble our fathers in its spirit, 
distrust of my abilities, but with a sus- The right solemnly proclaimed at the 
taining confidence in the wisdom of those birth of the States, and which has been 
who are to guide and aid me in the ad- affirmed and reaffirmed in the bills of 
ministration of public affairs, and an rights of the States subsequently ad- 
abiding faith in the virtue and patriotism m it ted into the Union of 1789, undeniably 
of the people. Looking forward to the recognizes in the people the power to re- 
speedy establishment of a permanent gov- sume the authority delegated for the pur- 
ernment to take the place of this, and poses of government. Thus the sovereign 
which by its greater moral and physical States here represented proceeded to 
power will be better able to combat with form this Confederacy, and it is by the 
the many difficulties which arise from the abuse of language that their act has been 
conflicting interests of separate nations, denominated revolution. They formed a 
I enter upon the duties of the office to new alliance, but within each State its 
which I have been chosen with the hope government has remained. The rights of 
that the beginning of our career as a person and property have not been dis- 
confederacy may not be obstructed by turbed. The agent through whom they 
hostile opposition to our enjoyment of communicated with foreign nations is 
the separate existence and independence changed, but this does not necessarily in- 
which we have asserted, and which, with terrupt their international relations. 
the blessing of Providence, we intend to Sustained by the consciousness that the 
maintain. transition from the former Union to the 

Our present condition, achieved in a present Confederacy has not proceeded 
manner unprecedented in the history of from a disregard on our part of our just 
nations, illustrates the American idea obligations or any failure to perform 
that governments rest upon the consent every constitutional duty, moved by no 
of the governed, and that it is the right interest or passion to invade the rights 
of the people, to alter and abolish govern- of others, anxious to cultivate peace and 
ments whenever they become destructive commerce with all nations, if we may not 
to the ends for which they were estab- hope to avoid war. we may at least ex- 
lished. The declared compact of the pect that posterity will acquit us of hav- 
Union from which we have withdrawn ing needlessly engaged in it. Doubly 
was to establish justice, insure domestic justified by the absence of wrong on our 
tranquillity, provide for the common de- part, and by wanton aggression on the 
fence, promote the general welfare, and part of others, there can be no cause to 
secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves doubt the courage and patriotism of the 
and our posterity; and when, in the judg- people of the Confederate States will be 
ment of the sovereign States now com- found equal to any measures of defence 
posing this Confederacy, it has been per- which soon their security may require, 
verted from the purposes for which it was An agricultural people, whose chief in- 
ordained, and ceased to answer the ends terest is the export of a commodity re- 
for which it was established, a peaceful quired in every manufacturing country, 
appeal to the ballot-box declared that, as our true policy is peace, and the freest 
far as they were concerned, the govern- trade which our necessities will permit, 
ment created by that compact should Ft is alike our interest, and that of all 
to exist. In this they merely as- those to whom we would sell and from 

21 



DAVIS, JEFFEBSON 



whom we would buy. that there should 
be the fewest practicable restrictions upon 
the interchange of commodities. There 
can be but little rivalry between ours 
and any manufacturing or navigating 
community, such as the Northeastern 
States of the American Union. It must 
follow, therefore, that mutual interest 
\\ould invite good-will and kind offices. 
Jf, however, passion or lust of dominion 
should cloud the judgment or inflame the 
ambition of those States, we must pre 
pare to meet the emergency and maintain 
by the final arbitrament of the sword 
the position which we have assumed 
among the nations of the earth. 

We have entered upon a career of inde 
pendence, and it must be inflexibly pur 
sued through many years of controversy 
with our late associates of the Northern 
States. We have vainly endeavored to 
secure tranquillity and obtain respect for 
the rights to which we are entitled. As 
a necessity, not a choice, we have re 
sorted to the remedy of separation, and 
henceforth our energies must be directed 
to the conduct of our own affairs, and the 
perpetuity of the Confederacy which we 
have formed. If a just perception of mu 
tual interest shall permit us peaceably to 
pursue our separate political career, my 
most earnest desire will have been ful 
filled. But if this be denied us. and the 
integrity of our territory and jurisdiction 
be assailed, it will but remain for us 
with firm resolve to appeal to arms and 
invoke the blessing of Providence on a just 
cause. 

As a consequence of our new condition, 
and with a view to meet anticipated 
v. ants, it will be necessary to provide a 
speedy and efficient organization of the. 
branches of the executive department hav 
ing special charge of foreign intercourse, 
finance, military affairs, and postal ser 
vice. For purposes of defcnee 1he Con 
federate States may. under the ordinary 
circumstances, rely mainly upon their 
militia: but it is deemed aihisable in the 
present condition of atl airs that there 
should be a well-instructed, disciplined 
army, more numerous than would usually 
be required on a peace establishment. I 
also suggest that, for the protection of 
our harbors and commerce on the high 
seas, a navy adapted to those objects will 



be required. These necessities have, doubt 
less, engaged the attention of Congress. 

\\ ith a constitution differing only from 
that of our fathers in so far as it is ex 
planatory of their well-known intent, 
freed from sectional conflicts, which have 
interfered with the pursuit of the general 
welfare, it is not unreasonable to ex 
pect that the States from which we have 
recently parted may seek to unite their 
fortunes to ours, under the government 
which we have instituted. For this your 
constitution makes adequate provision, 
but beyond this, if I mistake not, the judg 
ment and will of the people are. that 
union with the States from which they 
have separated is neither practicable nor 
desirable. To increase the power, de 
velop the resources, and promote the hap 
piness of the Confederacy, it is requisite 
there should be so much homogeneity that 
the welfare of every portion would be tin- 
aim of the whole. Where this does not 
exist, antagonisms are engendered which 
must and should result in separation. 

Actuated solely by a desire to preserve 
our own rights, and to promote our own 
welfare, the separation of the Confeder 
ate States has been marked by no ag 
gression upon others, and followed by no 
domestic convulsion. Our industrial pur 
suits have received no check, the cultiva 
tion of our fields progresses as hereto 
fore, and even should we be involved in 
war, there would be no considerable dimi 
nution in the production of the staples 
which have constituted our exports, in 
which the commercial world has an in 
terest scarcely less than onr own. This 
common interest of producer and con 
sumer can only be intercepted by an ex 
terior force which should obstruct its 
transmission to foreign markets, a course 
of conduct which would be detrimental to 
manufacturing and commercial inten-t - 
abroad. 

Should reason guide the action of the 
government from which we have sepa 
rated, a policy so detrimental to the civ 
ilized world, the Northern States included, 
could not be dictated by even a stronger 
desire to inflict injury upon us; hut if it 
be otherwise, a terrible responsibility will 
rest upon it. and the suffering of millions 
will bear testimony to the folly and wick 
edness of our aggressors. In the mean 



DAVIS 



time there will remain to us, besides the 
ordinary remedies before suggested, the 
well-known resources for retaliation upon 
the commerce of an enemy. 

Experience in public stations of a 
subordinate grade to this which your kind 
ness had conferred has taught me that 
care and toil and disappointments are the 
price of official elevation. You will see 
many errors to forgive, many deficiencies 
to tolerate, but you shall not find in me 
either want of zeal or fidelity to the 
cause that is to me the highest in hope 
and of most enduring affection. Your 
generosity has bestowed upon me an un 
deserved distinction, one which I neither 
sought nor desired. Upon the continu 
ance of that sentiment, and upon your 
wisdom and patriotism, I rely to direct 
and support me in the performance of the 
duties required at my hands. 

We have changed the constituent parts 
but not the system of our government. 
The Constitution formed by our fathers 
is that of these Confederate States. In 
their exposition of it, and in the judicial 
construction it has received, we have a 
light which reveals its true meaning. Tlm- 
instructed as to the just interpretation 
of that instrument, and ever remembering 
that all offices are but trusts held for the 
people, and that delegated powers are 
to be strictly construed, I will hope by 
due diligence in the performance of my 
duties, though I may disappoint your ex 
pectation, yet to retain, when retiring, 
something of the good-will and confidence 
which will welcome my entrance into 
office. 

It is joyous in the midst of perilous 
times to look around upon a people united 
in heart, when one purpose of high resolve 
animates and actuates the whole, where 
the sacrifices to be made are not weighed 
in the balance, against honor, right, lib 
erty, and equality. Obstacles may re 
tard, but they cannot long prevent the 
progress of a movement sanctioned by 
its justice and sustained by a virtuous 
people. Reverently let us invoke tie God 
of our fathers to guide and protect us 
in our efforts to perpetuate the princi 
ples which by His blessing they were able 
to vindicate, establish, and transmit to 
their posterity: and with a continuance 
of His favor, ever gratefully acknowl 



edged, we may hopefully look forward to 
success, to peace, to prosperity. 

Davis, JEFFERSON C., military officer; 
born in Clarke county, Ind., March 2, 
1828; served in the war with Mexico; 
was made lieutenant in 18.52; and was 
one of the garrison of Fort Sumter dur 
ing the bombardment in April, 1861. The 
same year he was made captain, and be 
came colonel of an Indiana regiment of 
volunteers. In December he was pro 
moted to brigadier-general of volunteers, 
and commanded a division in the battle 
of Pea Ridge early in 1862. He partici- 




JEFFKRSOX C. DAVIS. 

pa ted in the battle of Corinth in 1802: 
commanded a division in the battles ot 
Stone River, Murfreesboro, and Chicka- 
mauga in 1862-63; and in 1864 com 
manded the 14th Army Corps in the At 
lanta campaign and in the March through 
Georgia and the Carolinas. He was 
brevetted major-general in 1865, and the 
next year was commissioned colonel ot 
the 23d Infantry. He was afterwards on 
the Pacific coast; commanded troops in 
Alaska: and also commanded the forces 
that subdued the Modocs, after the murder 
of GKN. EDWARD R. S. CANBY (q. -v.) , in 
1873. He died in Chicago, 111.. Nov. 30, 
1879. 

Davis, Joiix. jurist: born in Plymouth. 
Mass., Jan. 25, 1761 ; graduated at Har 
vard College in 1781 ; admitted to the 
bar and began practice at Plymouth in 
1786. He was the last surviving inemlxT 



23 



DAVIS DAWES 

of the convention that adopted the federal active in other engagements. He was pro- 
Constitution; comptroller of the United moted rear-admiral, and retired in No- 
States Treasury in 1795-96 j and eminent vember, 1886. He died in Washington, 
for his knowledge of the history of New March 12, 1889. 

England. In 1813 he made an address Davis, JOHN W., statesman; born in 
on the Landing of the Pilgrims before the Cumberland county, Pa., July 17, 17!)!>; 
Massachusetts Historical Society, over graduated at the Baltimore Medical Col- 
which he presided in 1818-43. His pub- lege in 1821; settled in Carlisle, Ind.. 
lications include an edition of Morton s in 1823; member of Congress in 1835-37, 
New England Memorial, with many im- 1839-41, and 1843-47; speaker of the 
portant notes; Eulogy on George Wash- House of Representatives during his la>t 
ington; and An Attempt to Explain the term; United States commissioner to 
Inscription on Dighton Rock. He died in China in 1848-50; and governor of Ore- 
Boston, Mass., Jan. 14, 1847. gon in 1853-54. He was president of the 

Davis, Joiix, statesman ; born in North- convention in 1852 which nominat"d 
boro, Mass., Jan. 13, 1787; graduated at Franklin Pierce for President. He died 
Yale in 1812; admitted to the bar in 1815; in Carlisle, Ind., Aug. 22, 1859. 
member of Congress in 1824-34, dur- Davis, NOAH, jurist; born in Haver 
ing which time he opposed Henry Clay; hill, N. H., Sept. 10, 1818; justice of the 
and was elected to the United States Sen- New York Supreme Court, 1857 ; member 
ate in 1835, and resigned in 1841 to be- of Congress, 1869-70; United States dis- 
come governor of Massachusetts. He was trict attorney, 1870; again elected to the 
a strong antagonist of Jackson and Van New York Supreme Court, 1872. He pre- 
Huren, and was re-elected to the United sided at the trial of Stokes for the murder 
States Senate in 1845, but declined to of Jim Fiske and at the trial of William 
serve. He protested strongly against the M. Tweed. He retired in 1887, and died 
war with Mexico, and was in favor of the in New York City, March 20, 1902. 
exclusion of slavery in the United States Davis, RICHARD HARDING, author; born 
Territories. lie died in Worcester, Mass, in Philadelphia, Pa., April 18, 18(i4; son 
April 19, 1854. of Rebecca Harding Davis; educated at 

Davis, JOHX CHANDLER BANCROFT, Lehigh University and Johns Hopkins 

statesman; born in Worcester, Mass., Dec. University. In 1888 he joined the stall 

29, 1822; graduated at Harvard in 1840; of the New York Evening Sun. In 1890 

appointed secretary of the United States he became the managing editor of Ilar- 

legation in London in 1849; and assistant per s Weekly. His publications include 

Secretary of State in 1869, which post Our English Cousins; About I aris: The 

he resigned in 1871 to represent the Rulers of the Mediterranean; Three 

United States at the Geneva court of Gringos in Vencziu la <un1 Central Ainer- 

:u bitration on the Alabama claims. He ica; Cuba in War Time; Cuban and 

was appointed United States minister to Porto Rican Campaigns, etc. 
Germany in 1874, judge of the United Davis, VAIUXA ANXE JEFFERSOX, 

States court of claims in 1878, and re- author; second daughter of Jefferson 

porter of the United States Supreme Court Davis; born in Richmond, Va., June 27, 

in 1883. He is the author of The Case 1864; known popularly in the South as 

>f the T nitrd Stales laid before the Tri- "the Daughter of the Confederacy." Her 

Imnal of Arbitration at Geneva; Treaties childhood was mostly spent abroad, and 

of the I ni I d States, with Notes, etc. for several years she devoled herself to 

Davis, Jonx T.I.K. naval officer; born in literature. Her works include An Irish 

Carlisle, Ind., Sept. 3, 1825; joined the Knight of the Nineteenth Century; 

navy in 1841; served with the Gulf block- Sketch of the Life of Robert Emmet ; The 

"ading squadron in 1861 as executive offi- Veiled Doctor: Foreign Education for 

cer of the Water Witch; and on Oct. 12 American GirJn; and A Romance of Sum- 

of that year took part in the action with mcr SV.9. She died at Narraganset Pier. 

the Confederate ram Manassas, and in R. I., Sept. 18, 1898. 

that with the fleet near Pilot Town. Dur- Dawes, HEXIIY L.M-IIENS, statesman; 

the remainder of the war he was born in Cummington, Mass., Oct. 30, 181fi; 

24 



DA WES DAYTON 



graduated at Yale in 183!) ; admitted to 1870: studied law and was admitted to 
the bar in 1842; served in the State leg- the bar in 1872; began practice at Can- 
islature in 1848-50, and in the State ton, 0.; served as judge in the court of 
Senate in 18,50-52; member of Congress common pleas in 1886-90; appointed 
in 1857-73, and of the United States Sen- judge of the United States district court 
ate in 1875-93; and then became chairman for the northern district of Ohio in 1889, 
of the commission of the five civilized but resigned before taking office on ac- 
tnbes. IK: was author of m.iny tariff 
measures, and to him was due the intro 
duction of the Weather Bulletin in 1869. 
Me died in Pittsfield, Mass., Feb. 5, 1903. 

Dawes, WILLIAM, patriot. On April 18, 
1775, he accompanied Paul Revere, riding 
through Roxbury, while- Revere went by 
way of Charlestown. On the following 
day, when Adams and Hancock received 
the message from Warren, Revere, Dawes, 
and Samuel Prescott rode forward, arous 
ing the inhabitants. They were surprised 
by a number of British at Lincoln, and 
both Dawes and Revere were captured, 
Prescott making good his escape to Con 
cord. 

Dawson, HKXHY BARTON, author; born 
in Lincolnshire. England, June 8, 1821; 
came to New York with his parents in 
18.34. He was the author of Battles of the 
I nil < <1. Kliites Ini S ea and Land; Recol- 

WILI.IAM KUFUS PAY. 

lections of the Jersey Prison-ship; \\est- 
clien/cr County in Hie Ifcrolulion; etc. For 
many years he was editor of the Histori- count of ill health. In March, 1397, lie 




cnl Magazine. He died in 1889. 



was made assistant Secretary of State, 



Day. The Washington Prime Meridian and on April 26, 1898, succeeded John 
Conference adopted a resolution declaring Sherman as head of the department, 
the universal day to be the mean solar While in the State Department he had 
day, beginning, for all the world, at the charge, under the President, of the deli- 
moment of mean midnight of the initial cate diplomatic correspondence preced- 
meridian, coinciding with the civil day, ing and during the war with Spain, and 
and that meridian be counted from zero of the negotiation of the protocol of 
up to 24 hours, Oct. 21, 1884. See STAND- peace. After the latter had been ac- 
AUD TIME, cepted Judge Day was appointed chief 
Day, or Daye, STEPHEN, the first of the United States peace commission, his 
printer in the English-American colonies; place as Secretary of State being filled 
born in London in 1611; went to Massa- by John Hay, American ambassador to 
chusetts in 1638, and was employed to Great Britain. Judge Day was appointed 
manage the printing-press sent out by judge of the United States Circuit Court 
Rev. Mr. Clover. He began printing at for the sixth judicial circuit, Feb. 25, 1899. 
Cambridge in March, 1639. He was not and an associate justice of the United 
a skilful workman, and was succeeded in States Supreme Court in February, 1903. 
the management, about 1648, by Samuel Dayton, ELIAS. military officer; born 
Green, who employed Day as a journey- in Elizabethtown, N". J., in July, 1737; 
man. He died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. fought with the Jersey Blues under Wolfe 
22, 1668. at Quebec; was member of the coin- 
Day, WUYLIAM RuFi S, statesman: born mittee of safety at the beginning of the 
in Ravenna. O.. April 17, 1849: grad- Revolution, and became colonel of the 3d 
uated at the Vniversitv of Michigan in New Jersey Regiment. He served in New 

25 



DAYTON DEANE 

York and New Jersey; fought in several asylums have since been established, num- 

battles, the last at Yorktown, and in bering thirty-six in 1870, and a national 

January, 1783. was made a brigadier-gen- deaf mute college was established at 

oral. He was a member of Congress in Washington in 1804. In 1870 there were 

1787-88, and was afterwards in the New about 4,400 pupils in these institutions. 

Jersey legislature. He died in Elizabeth- At the close of the school year is .is 

town, July 17, 1807. the total number of schools for deaf 

Dayton, JONATHAN, statesman; born in mutes reporting to the United States 
Klizabethtown, N. J., Oct. 10, 1760; son of bureau of education was 105, with 1,100 
Elias; graduated at the College of New instructors and 10,878 pupils. There were 
Jersey in 1776: entered the army as pay- fifty-one State public schools, which had 
master of his father s regiment in August; 045 instructors in the departments of ar- 
aided in storming a redoubt at Yorktown, ticulation, aural development, and in- 
which was taken by Lafayette; and served dustrial branches, and 9,832 pupils, about 
faithfully until the close of the war. He one-third of whom were taught by the coin- 
was a member of the convention that bined system and the others by the manual 
framed the national Constitution in 1787, method. The above institutions had 
and was a representative in Congress from grounds and buildings valued at $11,175,- 
1791 to 1799. He was speaker in 1795, 933 and libraries containing 94,209 vol- 
and was made United States Senator in umes. The total expenditure for support 
1799. He held the seat until 1805. He was $2,208,704. There were also 483 
served in both branches of his State legis- pupils with eighty-one instructors en- 
lature. Suspected of complicity in Burr s rolled in private schools for the deaf, and 
conspiracy, he was arrested, but was never 563 pupils with seventy-four instructors 
prosecuted. He died in Klizabethtown, in various public day schools for the deaf. 
Oct. 9, 1824. Dean, JOHN WARD, historian; born in 

Dayton, WILLIAM LEWIS, statesman; Wiscasset, Me., March 13, 1815; became 
born in Baskingridge, N. J., Feb. 17, 1807; librarian of the New England Historical 
graduated at Princeton College in 1825; Genealogical Society, and edited ft vol- 
studied at the famous law school in umes of its Register. He has also writ- 
Litchfield, Conn., and was admitted to ten Memoir of \athaniel Ward; Micharl 
the bar in 1830; became associate judge Wigglesworth; Story of the Embarkation 
of the Supreme Court of New Jersey in of Cromwell and his Friends for \cic 
1838, and entered the United States Senate England, etc. He died Jan. 22, 1902. 
in 1842. In 1856 he was the candidate of Deane, CHARLES, historian; born in 
the newly formed Republican party for Biddeford, Me.. Nov. 10, 1813; became a 
Yice-President. From 1857 to 1801 he member of the chief historical societies 
was attorney-general of New Jersey, and of the country: author of Some Notices 
in the latter year was appointed minister of Samuel Gorton; First Plymouth Pat- 
to France, where he remained till his cnt ; Bibliography of Governor Hutchin- 
death, Dec. 1. 1804. son s Publications; Wing field s Discourse 

Deaf Mutes, EDUCATION OF. As early of I irginia : Smith s True Relation; and 

as 1793 Dr. W. Thornton published an editor of Bradford s History of Pli/moiilli 

essay in Philadelphia on Teaching the. Plantation, etc. He died in Cambridge. 

Ihnnb to X/KV/A-, but no attempt was made Ma--.. Nov. 13. 1889. 

to establish a school for the purpose -here Deane, JAMES, missionary to the Six 
until 1811, when the efTort was unsuccess- Nations: born in Groton, Conn., Aug. 
ful. A school for the instruction of the 20, 1748: graduated at Dartmouth Col- 
silent that proved successful was opened in lege in 1773. From the age of twelve 
Hartford, Conn., by REV. THOMAS H. GAL- years he was with a missionary in the 
LAUDET (q. r.) in 1817. and was chartered Oneida tril>e of Indians, and mastered 
under the name of the "Ne\v England their language. After his graduation he 
Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb." Con- went as a missionary to the Caughnawa- 
gress granted for its support a township gas and St. Francis tribes for two years; 
of land in Alabama, the proceeds of which and when the Revolution broke out, Con 
formed a fund of about $340,000. Other press employed him to conciliate the 

26 



DEANE 



tribes along the northern frontier. He 
was made Indian agent and interpreter 
at Fort Stanwix with the rank of major. 
He was many years a judge in Oneida 
county, and twice a member of the New 
York Assembly. Mr. Deane wrote an Ind 
ian mythology. He died in Westmore 
land, N. Y., Sept. 10, 1823. 

Deane, SILAS, diplomatist: born in 
Groton, Conn., Dec. 24, 1737: graduated 
at Yale College in 1758; became a 
merchant in Wethersfield, Conn. ; and 
was a delegate to the first Continental 




SILAS DEANE. 

Congress. He was very active in Con 
gress, in 1775, in fitting out a naval 
force for the colonies, and in the spring 
of 177(i was sent to France as a secret 
political and financial agent, with au 
thority to operate in Holland and else 
where. He was to ascertain the feeling 
of the French government towards the re 
volted colonies and Great Britain, and 
to obtain military supplies. Mr. Deane 
went in tl\o character of a Bermuda mer 
chant : and, the better to cover his de 
signs, he did not take any considerable 
sum of money or bills of exchange with 
him for his support. The secret com 
mittee was to send them after him by 
way of London, to arrive in Paris nearly 
as soon as himself, lest a capture should 
betray his secret. On his arrival in Paris 
he sought an interview with the Count de 
Vergenncs, the minister for foreign affairs, 
but no notice was taken of him. He re 
peated his application in vain. His re 
mittances were all captured or lost. He 
soon expended the cash he took with him. 



and was in great distress. His landlady 
became importunate, and he was threat 
ened with ejectment into the street. He 
again repeated his application for an in 
terview with Vergennes, but was denied. 

Which way to turn he knew not. lie 
walked in the fields in the suburbs in de 
spair. There he met a citizen to whom 
he revealed his distressed condition. The 
citizen invited him to make his house his 
home until remittances should arrive. 
Losing hope of either funds or an inter 
view with the minister, he resolved to 
return to America, and was actually pack 
ing his wardrobe when two letters reached 
him, announcing the Declaration of Inde 
pendence by Congress and the action of 
Arnold with the British fleet on Lake 
Champlain. Two hours later he received 
a card from Vergennes, requesting his 
company immediately. Deane, indignant 
sit the treatment he had received, refused 
to go. The next morning, as he was ris 
ing from his bed, an under-secretary 
called, inviting him to breakfast with the 
count. He again refused; but, on the 
secretary s pressing him to go, he con 
sented, and was received very cordially 
by Vergennes. A long conversation on 
American affairs took place, when Deane 
acquainted the minister with the nature 
of his mission. So began the diplomatic 
relations between France and the United 
States which resulted in the negotiation 
of a treaty of amity and alliance between 
the two nations. 

To him were intrusted the receipts and 
expenditures of money by the commission 
ers to Europe. Dr. Franklin had de 
served confidence in his ability and 
honesty. The jealous, querulous ARTHUR 
LEE ((/. v.), who became associated with 
him and Franklin, soon made trouble. He 
wrote letters to his brother in Congress 
(Richard Henry Lee), in which he made 
many insinuations against the probity of 
both his colleagues. Ralph Izard. com 
missioner to the Tuscan Court, offended 
because he was not consulted about the 
treaty with France, had written home 
similar letters: and William Carmichael. 
a secretary of the commissioners, who had 
returned to America, insinuated in Con 
gress that Deane had appropriated the 
public money to his own use. Deane was 
recalled, by order of Congress, Nov. 21, 



27 



DEANE DEARBORN 



1777: arrived at Philadelphia Aug. 10, 
1778; and on the 13th reported to Con 
gress. In that body he found false re 
ports operating against him ; and finally, 
exasperated by the treatment which he re 
ceived at their hands, he engaged in a 
controversy with influential members. 
Out of this affair sprang two violent par 
ties, Robert Morris and other members of 
Congress who were commercial experts 
taking the side of Deane, and Richard 
Henry Lee. then chairman of the com 
mittee on foreign affairs, being against 
him. 

Deane published in the Philadelphia 
Gazette an " Address to the People of 
the United States," in which he referred 
to the brothers Lee with much severity, 
and claimed for himself the credit of ob 
taining supplies from France through 
Beaumarchais. THOMAS PAINE (q. v.) , 
then secretary of the committee on for 
eign affairs, replied to Deane (Jan. 2, 
177H), availing himself of public docu 
ments in his charge. In that reply he 
declared that the arrangement had been 
made by Arthur Lee, in London, and re 
vealed the secret that the supplies, 
though nominally furnished by a com 
mercial house, really came from the 
French government. This statement 
called out loud complaints from the 
French minister (Gerard), for it exposed 
the duplicity of his government, and to 
soothe the feelings of their allies, Con 
gress, by resolution, expressly denied that 
any gratuity had been received from the 
French Court previous to the treaty of 
alliance. This resolution gave Beau 
marchais a valid claim upon Congress for 
payment for supplies which he, under the 
firm name of Hortales & Co., had sent 
to America (see BEAUMARCIIAIS, PIERRE 
ATJGUSTIN). Paine s indiscretion cost 
him his place. He was compelled to re 
sign his secret aryshi p. The discussion 
among the diplomatic agents soon led to 
the recall of all of them excepting Dr. 
Franklin, who remained sole minister at 
the French Court. Deane, who was un 
doubtedly an able, honest man. preferred 
claims for services and private expen 
ditures abroad, but, under the malign in 
fluence of the I.ees. lie was treated with 
neglect and fairly driven into poverty 
and exile, ami died in Deal, Kngland. 



Aug. 23, 1789. In 1842 Deane s long- 
disputed claim was adjusted by Congress. 
a large sum being paid over to his heirs 

Dearborn, FORT. See CHICAGO. 

Dearborn, HENRY, military officer; 
born in Northampton, N. H., Feb. 23, 
1751; became a physician, and employed 
his leisure time in the study of military 
science. At the head of sixty volunteers 
he hastened to Cambridge on the day after 
the affair at Lexington, a distance of (i."> 
miles. He was appointed a captain in 
Stark s regiment, participated in the bat 
tle of Bunker Hill, and in September fol 
lowing (1775) accompanied Arnold in his 
expedition to Quebec. He participated in 
the siege of Quebec, and was made 
prisoner, but was paroled in May. 1776, 
when he became major of Scammel s New 
Hampshire regiment. He was in the bat 
tles of Stillwater and Saratoga in the 
fall of 1777, and led the troops in 
those engagements in the latter as 
lieutenant-colonel. He was in the bat 
tle of Monmouth, was in Sulli 
van s campaign against the Indians in 
1779, and in 1781 was attached to Wash 
ington s staff as deputy quartermaster- 
general, with the rank of colonel. In 
that capacity he served in the siege of 
Yorktown. In 1784 he settled in Maine, 
and became general of militia. He was 
marshal of Maine, by the appointment of 
Washington, in 1789, member of Congress 
from 1793 to 1797, and was Secretary of 
War under Jefferson from 1801 to 1809. 
From 1809 till 1812 he was collector of 
the port of Boston, when he was appointed 
senior major-general in the United States 
army, and commancler-in-chief of the 
Northern Department. On Sept. 1, 1812, 
General Bloomfield had collected about 
8,000 men regulars, volunteers, and mili 
tia at Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain. 
besides some small advanced parties at 
Chazy and Champlain. On the arrival 
of General Dearborn, he assumed direct 
command of all the troops, and on Nov. 
1(5 he moved towards the Canada line 
with 3,000 regulars and 2,000 militia. 
He moved on to the La Colle, a small 
tributary of the Sorel. where he was met 
by a considerable force of mixed British 
and Canadian troops and Indians, under 
Lieutenant-Colonel De Salaberry, an ac 
tive British commander. Just, at dawn, 
28 



BEARING DEBTS 

on the morning of the 20th, Col. Zebulon Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen u 
M. Pike crossed the La Colle and sur- 1880-93; president of the American Rail- 
rounded a block-house. Some New York way Union in 1893-97; and in June of 
militia approaching were mistaken, in the the latter year was made chairman of the 
dim light, for British soldiers. Pike s men national council of the Social Democracy 
opened fire upon them, and for nearly of America. When president of the Amer- 
half an hour a sharp conflict was main- ican Railway Union he conducted a strike 
tained. When they discovered their mis- on the Great Northern Railway, and in 
take, they found De Salaberry approach- 1894 directed another on the Western rail 
ing with an overwhelming force. These roads, for which he was charged with con- 
were fiercely attacked, but the Americans spiracy, but was acquitted, and subse- 
were soon forced to retreat so precipi- quently, in 1895, served a sentence of six 
tately that they left five of their number months imprisonment for contempt of 
dead and five wounded on the field. The court in violating its injunction. In 189(5 
army, disheartened, returned to Platts- he lectured on The Relations of ike Church 
burg. Dearborn was superseded July 6, to Labor, and in 1900 and 1904 was the 
1813, in consequence of being charged with candidate of the Social Democratic Na- 
political intrigue. He asked in vain for tional party for President, 
a court of inquiry. In 1822-24 he was Debt, NATIONAL. The tables on pages 
the American minister in Portugal. He 30 and 31 show the amount and details of 
died in Roxbury, near Boston, Juno 6, the public debt of the United States on 
1829. July 1, 1902, according to the official re- 

Dearing, JAMES, soldier ; born in Camp- port of the Secretary of the Treasury, 

bell county, Va., April 25, 1840; gradu- See ASSUMPTION; NATIONAL DEBT. 
ated at Hanover Academy; became a Debtors. In the United States even as 

cadet at West Point, but at the outbreak late as 1829 it was estimated that there 

of the Civil War resigned to join the Con- were 3,000 debtors in prison in Massa- 

federate army, in which he gained the chusetts; 10,000 in New York; 7,000 in 

rank of brigadier-general. He took part Pennsylvania ; and a like proportion in 

in the principal engagements between the the other States. Imprisonment for debt 

Army of the Potomac and the Army of was abolished in the United States by an 

Northern Virginia, and was mortally act of Congress in 1833, though not fully 

wounded in an encounter with Brig.-Gen. enforced until 1839. Kentucky abolished 

Theodore Read, of the National army. The the law in 1821 ; Ohio in 1828 ; Maryland 

two generals met on opposite sides of the in 1830; New York in 1831; Connecticut 

Appomattox in April, 1805, and in a pis- in 1837: Alabama in 1848. 
tol fight Read was shot dead and Dearing In 1828 there were 1,088 debtors im- 

was so severely wounded that he died soon prisoned in Philadelphia ; the sum total 

afterwards in Lynchburg, Va. of their debts was only $25.409. and the 

Death Penalty. See LIVINGSTON, ED- expense of keeping them $302.070. which 

WARD. was paid by the city, and the total amount 

Deatonsville, Va. See SAILOR S CREEK, recovered from prisoners by this process 

De Bow, JAMES DUNWOODY BROWNSON, was only $295. 

journalist; born in Charleston, S. C., Debts, BRITISH. When the Revolution 
July 10, 1820; became editor of the South- broke out many American citizens owed 
ern Quarlcrly Review in 1844, but with- money to British creditors. These debts 
drew the next year and established De were generally repudiated, but the treaty 
Itoir s Commercial Review in New Orleans, of 1783 provided for their payment. Some 
which was successful until the Civil War. of the State governments permitted tin- 
After the war it was resumed in New payment of such debts into the State 
York City, subsequently in Nashville, Treasuries, and then refused to entertain 
Tenn. He died in Elizabeth, N. J., Feb. suits on the part of the creditors. The 
22, 1867. United States Supreme Court, in the case 

Debs, EUGENE VICTOR, labor leader; of Ware vs. Hylton, decided that such 

born in Terre Haute, Ind., Nov. 5, 1855; debts should be paid, but payinents were 

frand secretary and treasurer of the evaded in various way, 

29 



DEBT, NATIONAL 



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63 5 



81 



DECATUB 

Decatur, STEPHEN, naval officer : born The Philadelphia had chased a, Tripolitan 
ill Sinnepuxent, Md., Jan. 5, 1779; died ship into the harbor in front of that town. 
near Washington, D. C., March 22, 1820; and struck upon a rock not laid down on 
entered the United States navy as a the charts. Fast bound, she was captured 
midshipman April 30, 1798, and rose to by the Tripolitans, and Captain Bain- 
bridge and his officers were made 
prisoners of war, and the crew 
were made slaves. 

Decatur caught a Tripolitan 
ketch laden with maidens, whom 
the Bashaw was sending to the 
Sultan at Constantinople as a 
present. 

The captured ketch was taken 
into the United States service and 
renamed the Intrepid. In her 
Decatur and seventy - four brave 
young men sailed for Tripoli, ac 
companied by the Siren, under 
Lieutenant (afterwards Commo 
dore ) Stewart. 

On a bright moonlit evening 
they sailed boldly into the harbor, 
warped alongside the Philadelphia, 
sprang on board, and after a fierce 
struggle all the Tripolitans were 
killed or driven into the sea, the 
Philadelphia was set on fire, and 
the Intrepid was towed out of the 
harbor by the boats of the XiVoi. 
The Bashaw was greatly alarm 
ed by this display of American 
energy and boldness, and acted 
with more caution in the future. 

Decatur commanded a division 
of gunboats in the attack on Trip 
oli, Aug. 3, 1804. In this action 
Decatur commanded a gunboat, 
which he laid alongside of a large 
Tripolitan war-ship, which he 
captured after a brief struggle. 
Immediately boarding another ves 
sel, Decatur had a desperate per 
sonal struggle with the command 
er. The fight was brief but deadly. 

^XgBBl^B^*"^ Decatur slew his antagonist. 

and the vessel was captured." The 
Americans withdrew, but four 
days later renewed the conflict. 
which was indecisive, but on Aug. 
24 and 28, and Sept. 3, Prehlc re- 

captain in 1804. His first notable ex- peated the attack, and on the night of 
ploit was the destruction of the Phila- Sept. 4 the Intrepid, under Captain Bom- 
delphia in the harbor of Tripoli, in the ers as a fire-ship, was lost in the att 
Preble Expedition, for which Congress with all on board, 
gave him thanks, a sword, and promotion. In command of the frigate 

32 




/;? 

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STKPIIKN UKI ATl H 



DECATUR, STEPHEN 



States, Decatur 
captured the 
frigate Mace 
donian, Oct. 25. 

1812, for which 
Congress gave 
him a gold med 
al. The Mace 
donian was a 
ne\v ship, rated 
at thirty - six, 
but carrying 
forty-nine guns. 
She was badly 
cut in the fight, 
and Decatur 
thought best to 
order his prize 
to Newport, 
while he return 
ed in the United 
States to New 
London. Both 
vessels sailed 

into New York harbor on New Year s Day, 

1813. The Corporation gave Decatur the 
" freedom of the city," and requested his 
portrait for the picture-gallery in the City 
Hall, where it still hangs. In January, 1815, 
after a running fight, the President, his flag 
ship, was captured by a British squadron ; 





ALGIERS IN 1812. 

and a few months later he was sent to the 
Mediterranean, and compelled the govern 
ment of Algiers to relinquish its barbarous 
conduct towards other powers and to pay 
for American property destroyed (see AL 
GIERS). He was appointed a navy com 
missioner in November, 1815, and made 

his residence in the 
fine mansion of Kal- 
orama, about a mile 
from Georgetown, 
built by Joel Bar 
low. Decatur had 
opposed the rein 
statement of Barren 
to his former posi 
tion in the navy, and 
a duel was the con 
sequence. They 
fought at the famous 
duelling-ground near 
Bladensburg, when 
Decatur was mortal 
ly wounded, and was 
taken to Washing 
ton. Gen. Solomon 
Van Rensselaer 
wrote to his wife 
from that city, on 
March 20, 1820, as 



KALORAMA. 



follows : " I 
only time, 



have 
after 



in. 



DECATUB DECLABATION OF COLONIAL BIGHTS 



writing to several, to say that an affair to Philadelphia and reinterred, with ap- 
of honor took place this morning between propriate ceremonies, in St. Peter s ceme- 
Commodores Decatur and Barren, in which tery. Over them a beautiful monument, 
both fell at the first fire. The ball en- delineated in the accompanying engraving, 
tered Decatur s body two inches above the was erected. 

hip and lodged against the opposite side. Decimal System. In 1782, Gouverneur 
I just came from his house. He yet lives, Morris, assistant fiscal agent of the Conti- 
but will never see another sun. Barren s nental Congress, reported a decimal cur- 
wound is severe, but not dangerous. The rency system, designed to harmonize the 

moneys of the States. He ascer- 

^^g^^^BB^^^^ tained that the 1,440th part of a 

Spanish dollar was a common di 
visor for the various currencies. 
With this as a unit he proposed 
the following table of moneys: 10 
units to be equal to 1 penny, 10 
pence to 1 bill, 10 bills 1 dollar 
(about 75 cents of the present 
currency), 10 dollars 1 crown. In 
1784, Mr. Jefferson, as chairman 
of a committee of Congress, pro 
posed to strike four coins upon the 
basis of the Spanish dollar, as fol 
lows: A gold piece worth 10 dol 
lars, a dollar in silver, a 10th of 
a dollar in silver, a 100th of a 
dollar in copper. Congress adopt 
ed his proposition, hence the cent, 
dime, dollar, and eagle of the Unit 
ed States currency. See METRIC 
SYSTEM. 

Declaration of Colonial Bights, 
In the first Continental Congress 
(1774) a committee of two from 
each colony framed and reported, 
in the form of a series of ten re 
solves, a declaration of the rights 
of the colonies: 1. Their natural 
ball struck the upper part of his hip and rights; 2. That from their ancestry they 
turned to the rear. He is ruined in pub- were entitled to all the rights, liberties, 
lie estimation. The excitement is very and immunities of free and natural-born 
great." Decatur died March 22, and his subjects of England; 3. That by the emi- 
remains were taken from the house in gration to America by their ancestors they 
Washington to Kalorama by the following never lost any of those rights, and that 
officers: Commodores Tingey, Macdonough, their descendants were entitled to the 
Rodgers, and Porter, Captains Cassin, Bal- exercise of those rights; 4. That the foun- 
lard, and Chauncey, Generals Brown and dation of all free governments is in the 
Jesup, and Lieutenant McPherson. The riht of the people to participate in their 
funeral was attended by nearly all the legislative council; and as the American 
public functionaries in Washington, Amer- colonists could not exercise such right in 
ican and foreign, and a great number of the British Parliament, they were entitled 
citizens. While the procession was mov- to a free and exclusive power of legisla- 
ing minute-guns were fired at the navy- tion in their several provincial legislat- 
yard. His remains were deposited in Joel ures, where the right of representation 
Barlow s vault at Kalorama, where they could alone be preserved. (They conceded 
remained until 1840. when they were taken the right of Parliament to regulate ex- 

34 




DECATUR S MONUMENT. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



ternaj commerce, hut denied its right to 
tax them in any way, without their con 
sent, for raising an internal or external 
revenue.) 5. That they were entitled to 
the common law of England, and more 
especially the great privilege of being 
tried by their peers of the vicinage ac 
cording to the course of law; 6. That they 
were entitled to the benefit of English 
statutes at the time of the emigration of 
their ancestors ; 7. That they were en 
titled to all the immunities and privi 
leges conferred upon them by royal char 
ters or secured to them by provincial laws ; 
8. That they had a right peaceably to as 
semble, state their grievances, and peti 
tion the King without interference of 
ministers; 9. That the keeping of a stand 
ing army in any colony, without the con 
sent of the legislature, was unlawful ; 10. 



That the exercise of legislative power in 
several colonies by a council appointed 
during pleasure by the crown was uncon 
stitutional, dangerous, and destructive to 
the freedom of American legislation. The 
report of the committee designated the 
various acts of Parliament which were 
infringements and violations of the rights 
of the colonists, and declared that the re 
peal of them was essentially necessary in 
order to restore harmony between Great 
Britain and the American colonies. The 
acts enumerated were eleven in number 
namely, Sugar act, stamp act, two quar 
tering acts, tea act, act suspending the 
New York legislature, two acts for the 
trial in Great Britain of offences commit 
ted in America, Boston Port bill, the act 
for regulating [subverting] the govern 
ment of Massachusetts, and the Quebec act. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



Declaration of Independence. It was 
very important to have Lee s resolution 
for independence, offered June 7, 1776, 
prefaced by a preamble that should clear 
ly declare the causes which impelled the 
representatives of the people to adopt it. 
To avoid loss of time, a committee was 
appointed (June 11) to prepare such 
declaration. The committee was composed 
of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benja 
min Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Rob 
ert R. Livingston. Mr. Lee having been 
called home before the appointment of the 
committee, Mr. Jefferson was put in his 
place. He was requested by the com 
mittee, after discussing the topics, to 
make a draft of a declaration of inde 
pendence. It was discussed in committee, 
amended very slightly, and finally report 
ed. Debates upon it were long and ani 
mated. There was some opposition to 
voting for independence at all, and it was 
considerably amended. It was evident 
from the beginning that a majority of the 
colonies would vote for independence (the 
vote in Congress vas by colonies), but it 
was important that the vote should be 
unanimous. 

The declaration was warmly debated on 
the day (July 2) when the resolution was 
passed, and also on the 3d. Meanwhile 
news came of the arrival of a large Brit 



ish armament, under the brothers Howe, 
at Sandy Hook. Immediate and united 
action was essential. McKean, one of the 
two representatives of Delaware present, 
burning with a desire to have the vote 
of his colony recorded in the affirmative, 
sent an express after the third delegate, 
Caesar Rodney. He was 80 miles from 
Philadelphia. Ten minutes after receiving 
McKean s message Rodney was in the sad 
dle, and, riding all night, he reached the 
floor of Congress (July 4) just in time 
to secure the vote of Delaware in favor 
of independence. All three of the delegates 
from Delaware voted for the declaration. 
The vote of Pennsylvania was also secured, 
a majority of its seven delegates being in 
favor of the measure; and on the 4th of 
July, 1770, the Declaration of Indepen 
dence was adopted by the unanimous vote 
of the Congress. Ree WTXTTTKOP, R. C. 

On Thursday, July 4, 1770, agreeable 
to the order of the day, Congress resolved 
itself into a committee of the whole to 
consider the declaration, President John 
Hancock in the chair. The secretary, 
Benjamin Harrison, reported that the 
committee had agreed upon a declaration, 
which was read and adopted as follows: 

When, in the course of human events, 
it becomes necessary for one people to 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

dissolve the ]>olitical bands which have experience hath shown that mankind are 
connected them with another, and to as- more disposed to sull er, while evils are 
sume among the powers of the earth the sufferable, than to right themselves by 
separate and equal station to which the abolishing the forms to which they are 

accustomed. But when a 
long train of abuses and 
usurpations, pursuing in 
variably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce 
them under absolute des 
potism, it is their right, it 
is their duty, to throw off 
such government and to 
provide new guards for 
their future security. Such 
has been the patient suf- 
r ferance of these colonies; 
and such is now the ne 
cessity which constrains 
them to alter their formal 
s\ >\cm of government. The 
history of the present King 
of Great Britain is a his 
tory of repeated injuries 
and usurpations, all hav 
ing in direct object the es 
tablishment of an abso 
lute tyranny over these 
States. To prove this, 
let facts be submitted to a 
candid world. 

laws of nature and of nature s God en- He has refused his assent to laws the 
title them, a decent respect for the opin- most wholesome and necessary for the 
ions of mankind requires that they should public good. 

declare the causes which impel them to He has forbidden his governors to pass 
the separation. laws of immediate and pressing impor- 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: tance, unless suspended in their opera- 
that all men are created equal ; that they tions till his assent should be obtained ; 
are endowed by their Creator with cer- and, when so suspended, he has utterly 
tain inalienable rights; that among these neglected to attend to them, 
are life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap- He has refused to pass other laws for 
piness; that, to secure these rights, the accommodation of large districts of 
governments are instituted among men, people, unless those people would ^rel in- 
deriving their just powene from the con- quish the right of representation in the 
sent of the governed; that whenever any legislature a right inestimable to them, 
form of government becomes destructive and formidable to tyrants only, 
of these ends, it is the right of the people He has called together legislative bodies 
to alter or to abolish it, and to institute at phu-es unusual, uncomfortable, and dis- 
a new government, laying its foundation tant from the depository of their public 
on such principles, and orguni/.ing its records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing 
powers in such form, as to them shall them into compliance with his measures, 
seem most likely to effect their safety and He has dissolved representative houses 
happiness. Prudence, indeed, will die- repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firm- 
tate that governments long established ness, his invasions on the rights of 
should not be changed for light and people. 

transient causes; and, accordingly, all He has refused, for a long time after 

36 




HOUSE IX WHICH JEFFERSON WROTE THK DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



such dissolutions, to cause others to be 
elected; whereby the legislative powers, 
incapable of annihilation, have returned 
to the people at large for their exercise; 
the State remaining, in the mean time, 
exposed to all the danger of invasion from 
without and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the popu 
lation of these States; for that purpose 



He has made judges dependent on his 
will alone for the tenure of their offices 
and the amount and payment of their 
salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new of 
fices, and sent hither swarms of officers, 
to harass our people and eat out their 
substance. 

He has kept among us, in time of peace, 




IXUKI KXIlKXOB HALL, PHILADELPHIA. 



obstructing the laws for naturalization of standing armies, without the consent of 
foreigners, refusing to pass others to en- our legislatures. 



courage their migration hither, and rais 
ing the conditions of new appropriations 
of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of 
justice, by refusing his assent to laws for 
establishing judiciary powers. 



37 



He has affected to render the military 
independent of and superior to the civil 
power. 

He has combined with others to subject 
us to a jurisdiction foreign to our consti 
tution and unacknowledged by our laws; 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 




GARDKN HOUSE I-V WHICH . EFFERSOX AND OTHKRS CKLEIiRATED 
THE PASSAGE OP THE DECLARATION. 



For abolishing the free system 
of English law in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an ar 
bitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries so as to render it at 
once an example and fit instru 
ment for introducing the same ab 
solute rule into these colonies: 

For taking away our charters, 
abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering fundamentally the 
forms of our government: 

For suspending our own legislat 
ures, and declaring themselves in 
vested with power to legislate for 
us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here 
by declaring us out of his protec 
tion, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, rav 
aged our coasts, burned our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our peo 
ple. 

giving his assent to their acts of pre- He is at this time transporting large 
tended legislation, armies cf foreign mercenaries, to com- 

For quartering large bodies of armed plete the works of death, desolation, and 
troops among 
us: 

For protect 
ing them, by a 
mock trial, from 
punishment for 
any murders 
which they 
should commit 
on the inhabi 
tants of these 
States: 

For cutting 
off our trade 
with all parts 
of the world: 

For imposing 
taxes on us 
without our 
consent: 

For depriving 
us, in many 
cases, of the 
benefits of trial 
by jury: 

For trans 
porting us be 
yond seas, to be 
tried for pre 
tended offences: TABLK AND CHAIR TSKD AT THR SIGNING OF THK DKn.AR^rioN OF ixmcPKM>Kjrc*. 

38 







DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

tyranny, already begun, with circum- Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis- 

stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely solved; and that, as free and independent 

paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and States, they have full power to levy war, 

totally unworthy the head of a civilized conclude peace, contract alliances, estab- 

nation. lish commerce, and to do all other acts and 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, things which independent states may of 

taken captive on the high seas, to bear right do. And for the support of this 

arms against their country, to become the declaration, with a firm reliance on the 

executioners of their friends and breth- protection of Divine Providence, we mu- 

ren, or to fall themselves by their hands, tually pledge to each other our lives, our 

He has excited domestic insurrections fortunes, and our sacred honor, 
among us, and has endeavored to bring Signed by order and in behalf of the 

on the inhabitants of our frontiers the Congress. 

merciless Indian savages, whose known JQHN HANCOCKj Pres ident. 

rule of warfare is an undistinguished de- Atteated CHARLES THOMPSON, Secretary, 
struction of all ages, sexes, and condi 
tions. Jfeio Hampshire. 

In every stage of these oppressions we JQSIAH BARTLETT, WILLIAM WIIIPPLE, 
have petitioned for redress in the most MATTHEW THORNTON. 

humble terms; our petitions have been 

answered only by repeated injury. A Massachusetts Bay. 

prince whose character is thus marked SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, 

by every act which may define a tyrant, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY. 

is unfit to be ruler of a free people. 

VT , ,. . ,. Rhode Island, Etc. 

JNor have we been wanting in attention 

to our British brethren. We have warned STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY. 

them, from time to time, of attempts Connecticut 

made by their legislatures to extend an R SHERMAN SAMUE rj HUNTINGTON, 

unwarrantable jurisdiction over us We WmuAM WlLLIAMSj OLIVER WOLCOTT. 

have reminded them of the circumstances 

of our emigration and settlement here. New York. 

We have appealed to their native justice WILLIAM FLOYD, PHILIP LIVINGSTON, 

and magnanimity, and we have conjured FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS. 

them, by the ties of our common kindred, 

to disavow these usurpations, which would New Jersey. 

inevitably interrupt our connections and RICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON, 

correspondence. They, too, have been FRANCIS HOPKINSON, JOHN HART, 

deaf to the voice of justice and consan- ABRAHAM CLARK. 

guinity. We must therefore acquiesce in ,, , ~ 7 . 

J . . , , North Carolina. 

the necessity which denounces our separa- 

tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest WILLIAM HOOPER, JOSEPH HEWES, 

of mankind, enemies in war in peace, 

friends. Georgia. 

We therefore, the representatives of BuTTQN QWINNETT, LyMAN HALL, 

the United States of America, m general GEQRGE WALTQX> 

Congress assembled, appealing to the bu- 

preme Judge of the world for the recti- Pennsylvania. 

tude of our intentions, do, in the name ROBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH, 

and by the authority of the good people BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN MORTON, 

of these colonies, solemnly publish and GEORGE CLYMER, JAMES SMITH, 

declare that these united colonies are, GEORGE TAYLOR, WILLIAM PACA, 

and of good right ought to be, free and GEORGE Ross, 

independent States; that they are ab 
solved from all allegiance to the British Delaware. 

crown, and that all political connection CAESAR RODNEY, GEORGE READ, 

between them and the states of Great THOMAS ~ 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE 

Maryland. for such an act, he characterized it as 

SAMUEL CHASE, JAMES WILSOTT, made up of " glittering and sounding gen- 

THOMAS STONE, eralities of natural right." What the 

CHARLES CARROLL OF CARROLLTON. great advocate then so unhesitatingly sug- 

Virginia gested, many a thoughtful American since 

... then has at least suspected that our 
GEORGE \VYTHE, RICHARD HENRY LEE. , 

THOMAS IFFFFRSOV p proclamation, as a piece of political 

literature, cannot stand the test of modern 

BENJAMIN HARRISON , . 

THOMAS NELSON, JR., analysis; that it belongs to the immense 

FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, dass / ^P"* productions; that it 

is, in tact, a stately patch-work of sweep- 
CARTER BRAXTON. 

ing propositions of somewhat doubtful 

South Carolina. validity; that it has long imposed upon 
EDWARD RUTLEDGE, mankind by the well-known effectiveness 
THOMAS HEYWARD, JR., of verbal glitter and sound; that, at the 
THOMAS LYNCH, JR., best, it is an example of florid political 
ARTHUR MIDOLETON. declamation belonging to the sophomoric 
Declaration of Independence in the period of our national life, a period which, 
Light of Modern Criticism, THE. As a as we flatter ourselves, we have now out- 
student, critic, and compiler of American grown. 

history PROF. MOSES C. TYLER (q. v.) held Nevertheless, it is to be noted that what- 

an established position among the most ever authority the Declaration of Inde- 

eminent scholars. In 18(57 he was appoint- pendence has acquired in the world, has 

ed to the chair of English Literature at been due to no lack of criticism, either at 

the University of Michigan, which he the time of its first appearance, or since 

occupied until 1881, when he was called then; a fact which seems to tell in favor 

to the University of Cornell as Professor of its essential worth and strength. From 

of American History. On the subject of the date of its original publication down 

criticisms on the Declaration of Indepen- to the present moment, it has been at- 

dence he writes: tacked again and again, either in anger 

or in contempt, by friends as well as by 

It can hardly be doubted that some enemies of the American Revolution, by 
hinderance to the right estimate of the liberals in politics as well as by conser- 
Declaration of Independence is occa- vatives. It has been censured for its sub- 
sioned by either of two opposite condi- stance, it has been censured for its form, 
tions of mind, both of which are often to for its misstatements of fact, for its fal- 
be met with among us: on the one hand, lacies in reasoning, for its audacious novel- 
a condition of hereditary, uncritical awe ties and paradoxes, for its total lack of all 
, ind worship of the American Revolution, novelty, for its repetition of old and 
and of that state paper as its absolutely threadbare statements, even for its down- 
perfect and glorious expression; on the right plagiarisms; finally for its grandiose 
other hand, a later condition of cultivated and vaporing style. 

distrust of the Declaration as a piece of One of the earliest and ablest of its 

writing lifted up into inordinate renown assailants was Thomas Hutchinson, the 

by the passionate and heroic circumstances last civil governor of the colony of Massa- 

of its origin, and ever since then extolled chusetts, who, being stranded in London 

beyond reason by the blind energy of by the political storm which had blown 

patriotic enthusiasm. Turning from the him thither, published there, in the 

former state of mind, which obviously autumn of 1776, his Strictures Upon the 

calls for no further comment, we may Declaration of the Congress at Phila- 

note, as a partial illustration of the latter, <l<\i>hia. wherein, with an unsurpassed 

that American confidence in the supreme knowledge of the origin of the contro- 

intellectual merit of this all-famous docu- vrrsy. and with an unsurpassed acumen 

ment received a serious wound from the in the discussion of it, he traverses the 

hand of Rufns Choate, when, with a cour- entire document, paragraph by pani 

age greater than would now be required graph, for the purpose of showing that 

40 



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41 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE 

its allegations in support of American Philip II. to the people of the Nether- 
independence are " false and frivolous." lands. 

A better-written, and, upon the whole, This temperate criticism from an able 
a more plausible and a more powerful, and a liberal English statesman of the 
arraignment of the great declaration was nineteenth century may be said to touch 
the celebrated pamphlet by Sir John the very core of the problem as to the his- 
Dalrymple, The Rights of Great Britain toric justice of our great indictment of 
Asserted against the Claims of America,: the last King of America: and there is 
Being an Answer to the Declaration of deep significance in the fact that this is 
the General Congress a pamphlet scat- the very criticism upon the document, 
tered broadcast over the world at such a which, as John Adams tells us, he himself 
rate that at least eight editions of it had in mind when it was first submitted 
were published during the last three or to him in committee, and even when, 
four months of the year 1770. Here, shortly afterwards, he advocated its adop- 
again, the manifesto of Congress is sub- tion by Congress. After mentioning cer- 
jocted to a searching examination, in tain things in it with which he was de- 
order to prove that "the facts are either lighted, he adds: 

wilfully or ignorantly misrepresented, " There were other expressions which I 

and the arguments deduced from premises would not have inserted if I had drawn it 

that have no foundation in truth." It is up particularly that which called the 

doubtful if any disinterested student of King tyrant. I thought this too personal : 

history, any competent judge of reason- for I never believed George to be a tyrant 

ing, will now deny to this pamphlet the in disposition and in nature. I always be- 

praise of making out a very strong case lieved him to be deceived by his courtiers 

against the historical accuracy and the on both sides of the Atlantic, and in his 

logical soundness of many parts of the official capacity only cruel. I thought the 

Declaration of Independence. expression too passionate, and too much 

Undoubtedly, the force of such cen- like scolding, for so grave and solemn a 
sures is for us much broken by the fact document; but, as Franklin and Sherman 
that they proceeded from men who were were to inspect it afterwards, I thought it 
themselves partisans in the Revolutionary would not become me to strike it out. I 
controversy, and bitterly hostile to the consented to report it." 
whole movement which the declaration A more minute and more poignant criti- 
was intended to justify. Such is not the cism of the Declaration of Independence 
case, however, with the leading modern has been made in recent years by still 
English critics of the same document, another English writer of liberal ten- 
who, while blaming in severe terms the dencies, who, however, in his capacity as 
policy of the British government towards critic, seems here to labor under the dis- 
the thirteen colonies, have also found advantage of having transferred to the 
much to abate from the confidence due to document which he undertakes to judge 
this official announcement of the reasons much of the extreme dislike which he has 
for our secession from the empire. For for the man who wrote it, whom, indeed, 
example, Earl Russell, after frankly he regards as a sophist, as a demagogue. 
saying that the great disruption pro- as quite capable of inveracity in speech, 
claimed by the Declaration of Indepen- and as bearing some resemblance to Robes- 
dence was a result which Great Britain pierre "in his feline nature, his malig- 
had " used every means most fitted to nant egotism, and his intense suspicions- 
bring about," such as "vacillation in ness, as well as in his bloody-minded, yet 
council, harshness in language, feebleness possibly sincere, philanthropy." In the 
in execution, disregard of American sym- opinion of Prof. Goldwin Smith, our great 
pathies and affections," also pointed out national manifesto is written " in a high- 
that "the truth of this memorable decla- ly rhetorical strain": "it opens with 
ration" was "warped" by "one singular sweeping aphorisms about the natural 

( l ( ,f ec t" namely, its exclusive and ex- rights of man. at which political science 

eessive arraignment of Ccorge 111. "as now smiles, and which . . . might seem 

c and despotic tyrant." much like strange when framed for slave-hold in." 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE 



communities by a publicist who himself 
held slaves"; while, in its specifications 
of fact, it " is not more scrupulously 
truthful than are the general utterances " 
of the statesman who was its scribe. Its 
charges that the several offensive acts of 
the King, besides " evincing a design to 
reduce the colonists under absolute 
despotism," " all had as their direct object 
the establishment of an absolute tyranny," 
are simply " propositions which history 
cannot accept." Moreover, the declara 
tion " blinks the fact that many of the 
acts, styled steps of usurpation, were 
measures of repression, which, however 
unwise or excessive, had been provoked by 
popular outrage." " No government could 
allow its officers to be assaulted and their 
houses sacked, its loyal lieges to be tarred 
and feathered, or the property of mer 
chants sailing under its flag to be thrown 
by lawless hands into the sea." Even 
" the preposterous violence and the mani 
fest insincerity of the suppressed clause " 
against slavery and the slave-trade " are 
enough to create suspicion as to the spirit 
in which the whole document was framed." 

Finally, as has been already intimated, 
not even among Americans themselves has 
the Declaration of Independence been per 
mitted to pass on into the enjoyment of 
its superb renown without much critical 
disparagement at the hands of statesmen 
and historians. No doubt Calhoun had 
its preamble in mind when he declared 
that " nothing can be more unfounded 
and false " than " the prevalent opinion 
that all men are born free and equal " ; 
for " it rests upon the assumption of a 
fact which is contrary to universal ob 
servation." Of course, all Americans 
who have shared to any extent in Cal- 
houn s doctrines respecting human society 
could hardly fail to agree with him in re 
garding as fallacious and worthless those 
general propositions in the declaration 
which seem to constitute its logical start 
ing-point, as well as its ultimate defence. 

Perhaps, however, the most frequent 
form of disparagement to which Jeffer 
son s great state paper has been subjected 
among us is that which would minimize 
his merit in composing it, by denying to 
it the merit of originality. For example, 
Richard Henry Lee sneered at it as a 
thing " copied from Locke s Treatise on 



Government" The author of a life of 
Jefferson, published in the year of Jeffer 
son s retirement from the Presidency, sug 
gests that the credit of having composed 
the Declaration of Independence " has 
been perhaps more generally, than truly, 
given by the public " to that great man. 
Charles Campbell, the historian of Vir 
ginia, intimates that some expressions in 
the document were taken without ac 
knowledgment from Aphra Behn s tragi 
comedy, The Widow-Ranter, or the His 
tory of Bacon in Virginia. John Stock 
ton Littell describes the Declaration of 
Independence as " that enduring monu 
ment at once of patriotism, and of genius 
and skill in the art of appropriation " 
asserting that " for the sentiments and 
much of the language " of it, Jefferson 
was indebted to Chief-Justice Drayton s 
charge to the grand jury of Charleston, 
delivered in April, 177G, as well as to the 
Declaration of Independence said to have 
been adopted by some citizens of Mecklen 
burg county, N. C., in May, 1775. Even 
the latest and most critical editor of the 
writings of Jefferson calls attention to 
the fact that a glance at the Declaration 
of "Rights, as adopted by Virginia on June 
12, 1770, "would seem to indicate the 
source from which Jefferson derived a 
most important and popular part " of his 
famous production. By no one, however, 
has the charge of a lack of originality 
been pressed with so much decisiveness 
as by John Adams, who took evident 
pleasure in speaking of it as a document 
in which were merely " recapitulated " 
previous and well-known statements of 
American rights and wrongs, and who, 
as late as in the year 1822, deliberately 
wrote : 

" There is not an idea in it but what 
had been hackneyed in Congress for two 
years before. The substance of it is con 
tained in the declaration of rights and the 
violation of those rights, in the journals 
of Congress, in 1774. Indeed, the essence 
of it is contained in a pamphlet, voted 
and printed by the town of Boston, before 
the first Congress met, composed by 
James Otis, as I suppose, in one of his 
lucid intervals, and pruned and polished 
by Samuel Adams." 

Perhaps nowhere in our literature 
v.-ould it be possible to find a criticism 



43 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE 

brought forward by a really able man opinions as to men and as to events in all 

against any piece of writing less appli- that ugly quarrel, their notions of justice, 

cable to the case, and of less force and of civic dignity, of human rights; finally, 

value, than is this particular criticism by their memories of wrongs which seemed 

John Adams and others, as to the lack of to them intolerable, especially of wrongs 

originality in the Declaration of Tnde- inflicted upon them during those twelve 

pendence. Indeed, for such a paper as years by the hands of insolent and brutal 

Jefferson was commissioned to write, the men, in the name of the King, and by his 

one quality which it could not properly apparent command? 

have had, the one quality which would Moreover as the nature of the task laid 
have been fatal to its acceptance either upon him made it necessary that he should 
by the American Congress or by the thus state, as the reasons for their in- 
American people is originality. They tended act, those very considerations both 
were then at the culmination of a tre- as to fact and as to opinion which had 
mendous controversy over alleged griev- actually operated upon their minds, so 
ances of the most serious kind a con- did it require him to do so, to some ex- 
troversy that had been steadily raging tent, in the very language which the 
for at least twelve years. In the course people themselves, in their more formal 
of that long dispute, every phase of it, and deliberate utterances, had all along 
whether as abstract right or constitu- been using. In the development of po- 
tional privilege or personal procedure, had litical life in England and America, there 
been presented in almost every conceiv- had already been created a vast literature 
able form of speech. At last, they had of constitutional progress a literature 
resolved, in view of all this experience, no common to both portions of the English 
longer to prosecute the controversy as race, pervaded by its own stately tra- 
riembers of the empire; they had resolved ditions, and reverberating certain great 
to revolt, and, casting off forever their phrases which formed, as one may say, 
ancient fealty to the British crown, to almost the vernacular of English justice, 
separate from the empire, and to estab- and of English aspiration for a free, 
lish themselves as a new nation among manly, and orderly political life. In this 
the nations of the earth. In this emer- vernacular the Declaration of Indepen- 
gency, as it happened, Jefferson w r as called dence was written. The phraseology thus 
upon to put into form a suitable state- characteristic of it is the very phrase- 
ment of the chief considerations which ology of the champions of constitutional 
prompted them to this great act of revolu- expansion, of civic dignity and progress, 
tion, and which, as they believed, justified within the English race ever since Magna 
it. What, then, was Jefferson to do? Was Charta; of the great state papers of Eng- 
he to regard himself as a mere literary lish freedom in the seventeenth century, 
essayist, set to produce before the world particularly the Petition of Right in 10-20. 
a sort of prize dissertation a calm, ana- and the Bill of Rights in 1780; of the 
lytic, judicial treatise on history and poli- great English charters for colonization in 
tics with a particular application to Anglo- America; of the great English exponents 
American affairs one essential merit of of legal and political progress Sir Kd- 
which would be its originality as a con- ward Coke, John Milton, Sir Philip Sid- 
tribution to historical and political lit- ney, John Locke; finally, of the great 
erature? Was he not, rather, to regard American exponents of political liberty, 
himself as, for the time being, the very and of the chief representative bodies, 
mouthpiece and prophet of the people whether local or general, which had con- 
whom he represented, and as such required vened in America from the time of the 
to bring together and to set in order, in Stamp Act Congress until that of the 
their name, not what was new, but what Congress which resolved upon our in- 
was old; to gather up into his own soul, dependence. To say, therefore, that the 
as much as possible, whatever was then official declaration of that resolve is ;i 
also in their souls, their very thoughts and paper made up of the very opinions, he- 
passions, their ideas of constitutional liefs, unbeliefs, the very sentiments, prej- 
law, their interpretations of fact, their udices, passions, even the errors in judg- 

44 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE 

ment and the personal misconstructions Livingston, and, best of all, but for his 
if they were such which then actually own opposition to the measure, John 
impelled the American people to that Dickinson; but had any one of these other 
mighty act, and that all these are ex- men written the Declaration of Indepen- 
pressed in the very phrases which they uence, while it would have contained, doubt- 
had been accustomed to use, is to pay less, nearly the same topics and nearly 
to that state paper the highest tribute as the same great formulas of political state- 
to its fitness for the purpose for which it ment, it would yet have been a wholly dif. 
was framed. ferent composition from this of Jeffer- 

Of much of this, also, Jefferson him- son s. No one at all familiar with his 

self seems to have been conscious; and other writings, as well as with the writ- 

perhaps never does he rise before us with ings of his chief contemporaries, could 

more dignity, with more truth, than when, ever have a moment s doubt, even if the 

late in his lifetime, hurt by the captious fact were not already notorious, that this 

and jangling words of disparagement then document was by Jefferson. He put into 

recently put into writing by his old com- it something that was his own, and that 

rude, to the effect that the Declaration no one else could have put there. He put 

of Independence " contained no new ideas, himself into it his o\vn genius, his own 

that it is a commonplace compilation, its moral force, his faith in God, his faith in 

sentences hackneyed in Congress for two ideas, his love of innovation, his passion 

years before, and its essence contained in for progress, his invincible enthusiasm, 

Otis s pamphlet," Jefferson quietly re- his intolerance of prescription, of injus- 

marked that perhaps these statements tice, of cruelty; his sympathy, his clarity 

might " all be true : of that I am not of vision, his affluence of diction, his 

to be the judge. . . . Whether I had power to fling out great phrases which 

gathered my ideas from reading or re- will long fire and cheer the souls of men 

flection, I do not know. I only know that struggling against political unrighteous- 

I turned to neither book nor pamphlet ness. 

while writing it. I did not consider it And herein lies its essential original- 

as any part of my charge to invent new ity, perhaps the most precious, and, in- 

ideas altogether and to offer no senti- deed, almost the only, originality ever 

ment which had ever been expressed be- attaching to any great literary product 

fore." that is representative of its time. He 

Before passing from this phase of the made for himself no improper claim, 

subject, however, it should be added that, therefore, when he directed that upon the 

while the Declaration of Independence granite obelisk at his grave should be 

lacks originality in the sense just indi- carved the words: "Here was buried 

cated, in another and perhaps in a higher Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declara- 

sense, it possesses originality it is in- tion of Independence." 

dividualized by the character and by the If the Declaration of Independence is 

genius of its author. Jefferson gathered now to be fairly judged by us, it must 

up the thoughts and emotions and even be judged with reference to what it was 

the characteristic phrases of the people intended to be namely, an impassioned 

for whom he wrote, and these he per- manifesto of one party, and that the 

fectly incorporated with what was al- weaker party, in a violent race-quarrel ; 

ready in his mind, and then to the music of a party resolved, at last, upon the 

of his own keen, rich, passionate, and en- extremity of revolution, and already 

kindling style, he mustered them into that menaced by the inconceivable disaster of 

stately triumphant procession wherein, as being defeated in the very act of armed 

some of us still think, they will go march- rebellion against the mightiest military 

ing on to the world s end. power on earth. This manifesto, then, is 

There were then in Congress several not to be censured because, being avow- 
other men who could have written the edly a statement of its own side of the 
Declaration of Independence, and written quarrel, it does not also contain a mod- 
it well notably Franklin, either of the crate and judicial statement of the op- 
two Adamses, Richard Henry Lee, William posite side; or because, being necessarily 

45 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE 

partisan in method, it is likewise both fact, when he should make his first at- 

partisan and vehement in tone; or be- tempt to gain all power over his people, 

cause it bristles with accusations against by assuming the single power to take 

the enemy so fierce and so unqualified their property without their consent, 

as now to seem in some respects over- Hence it was, as Edmund Burke pointed 

drawn ; or because it resounds with cer- out in the House of Commons only a 

tain great aphorisms about the natural few weeks before the American Revolution 

rights of man, at which, indeed, political entered upon its military phase, that: 

science cannot now smile, except to its " The great contests for freedom . . . 

own discomfiture and shame aphorisms were from the earliest times chiefly upon 

which are likely to abide in this world as the question of taxing. Most of the con- 

the chief source and inspiration of heroic tests in the ancient commonwealths turned 

enterprises among men for self-deliver- primarily on the right of election of mag- 

ance from oppression. istrates, or on the balance among the sev- 

Taking into account, therefore, as we eral orders of the state. The question 
are bound to do, the circumstances of its of money was not with them so immediate, 
origin, and especially its purpose as a But in England it was otherwise. On 
solemn and piercing appeal to mankind on this point of taxes the ablest pens and 
behalf of a small and weak nation against most eloquent tongues have been ex- 
the alleged injustice and cruelty of a ercised, the greatest spirits have acted 
great and powerful one, it still remains and suffered. . . . They took infinite pains 
our duty to inquire whether, as has been to inculcate, as a fundamental principle, 
asserted in our time, history must set that in all monarchies the people must in 
aside either of the two central charges efl ect, themselves, mediately or immediate- 
embodied in the Declaration of Inde- Iy ; possess the power of granting their own 
pendence. money, or no shadow of liberty could sub- 

The first of these charges affirms that sist. The colonies draw from you, as 

the several acts complained of by the with their life-blood, these ideas and prin- 

colonists evinced " a design to reduce ciples. Their love of liberty, as with you, 

them under absolute despotism," and had fixed and attached on this specific point 

as their " direct object the establishment of taxing. Liberty might be safe or might 

of an absolute tyranny " over the Ameri- be endangered in twenty other particulars 

can people. Was this, indeed, a ground- without their being much pleased or 

less charge, in the sense intended by alarmed. Here they felt its pulse, and as 

the words "despotism" and "tyranny" they found that beat, they thought them 

that is, in the sense commonly given selves sick or sound." 

to those words in the usage of the Eng- Accordingly, the meaning which the 
lish - speaking race? According to that English race on both sides of the Atlantic 
usage, it was not an Oriental despotism were accustomed to attach to the words 
that was meant, nor a Greek tyranny, nor " tyranny " and " despotism," was a mean- 
a Roman, nor a Spanish. The sort of ing to some degree ideal ; it was a meaning 
despot, the sort of tyrant, whom the drawn from the extraordinary political 
English people, ever since the time of sagacity with which that race is endow- 
King John, and especially during the ed. from their extraordinary sensitive- 
period of the Stuarts, had been accus- ness as to the use of the taxing-power 
tomed to look for and to guard against, in government, from their instinctive per- 
was the sort of tyrant or despot that could eeption of the commanding place of the 
be evolved out of the conditions of Eng- taxing-power among all the other forms 
lish political life. Furthermore, he was of power in the state, from their perfect 
not by them expected to appear among assurance that he who holds the purse 
them at the outset in the fully developed with the power to fill it and to empty it, 
sl ape of a Philip or an Alva in the holds the key of the situation can main- 
Netherlands. They were able to recog- tain an army of his own, can rule without 
n\ze him, they were prepared to resist consulting Parliament, can silence criti- 
him, in the earliest and most incipient cism, can crush opposition, can strip his 
of his being at tho moment, in subjects of every vestige of political life; 

40 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE 

in other words, he can make slaves of ly succeeded himself determining what 

them, he can make a despot and a tyrant should be the policy of each administra- 

of himself. Therefore, the system which tion, what opinions his ministers should 

in the end might develop into results so advocate in Parliament, and what meas- 

palpably tyrannic and despotic, they vires Parliament itself should adopt. Says 

bluntly called a tyranny and a despotism Sir Erskine May: 

in the beginning. To say, therefore, that " The King desired to undertake per- 
the Declaration of Independence did the sonally the chief administration of public 
same, is to say that it spoke good Eng- affairs, to direct the policy of his minis- 
lish. Of course, history will be ready to ters, and himself to distribute the patron- 
set aside the charge thus made in language age of the crown. He was ambitious not 
not at all liable to be misunderstood, just only to reign, but to govern." " Strong 
so soon as history is ready to set aside the as were the ministers, the King was re- 
common opinion that the several acts of solved to wrest all power from their 
the British government, from 1764 to hands, and to exercise it himself." " But 
1776, for laying and enforcing taxation in what was this in effect but to assert that 
America., did evince a somewhat particu- the King should be his own minister? . . . 
lar and systematic design to take away The King s tactics were fraught with dan- 
some portion of the property of the Amer- ger, as well to the crown itself as to the 
ican people without their consent. constitutional liberties of the people." 

The second of the two great charges Already, prior to the year 1778, accord- 
contained in the Declaration of Indepen- ing to Lecky, the King had " laboriously 
dence, while intimating that some share built up " in England a " system of per- 
in the blame is due to the British Par- sonal government"; and it was because 
liament and to the British people, yet he was unwilling to have this system dis- 
fastens upon the King himself as the one turbed that he then refused, " in defiance 
person chiefly responsible for the scheme of the most earnest representations of his 
of American tyranny therein set forth, own minister and of the most eminent 
and culminates in the frank description politicians of every party ... to send 
of him as " a prince whose character is for the greatest of living statesmen at the 
thus marked by every act which may de- moment when the empire appeared to be 
fine a tyrant." Is this accusation of in the very agonies of dissolution. . . . 
George III. now to be set aside as unhis- Either Chatham or Eockingham would 
toric? Was that King, or was he not, have insisted that the policy of the coun- 
chieny responsible for the American policy try should be directed by its responsible 
of the British government between the ministers and not dictated by an irrespon- 
years 1764 and 1776? If he was so, then sible sovereign." 

the historic soundness of the most im- This refusal of the King to pursue the 
portant portion of the Declaration of In- course which was called for by the con- 
dependence is vindicated. stitution, and which would have taken the 

Fortunately, this question can be an- control of the policy of the government 
swered without hesitation, and in a few out of his hands, was, according to the 
words; and for these few words, an same great historian, an act "the most 
American writer of to-day, conscious of criminal in the whole reign of George III. 
his own basis of nationality, will rightly ... as criminal as any of those acts 
prefer to cite such words as have been which led Charles I. to the scaffold." 
uttered upon the subject by the ablest Even so early as the year 1768, accord- 
English historians of our time. Upon ing to John Richard Green, " George 
their statements alone it must be con- III. had at last reached his aim. . . . 
eluded that George III. ascended his In the early days of the ministry " 
throne with the fixed purpose of resum- (which began in that year) " his in- 
ing to the crown many of those powers fluence was felt to be predominant. In 
which, by the constitution of England, did its later and more disastrous days it was 
not then belong to it, and that in this supreme; for Lord North, who became the 
purpose, at least during the first twenty- head of the ministry on Grafton s retire- 
five years of his reign, he substantial- ment in 1770, was the mere mouthpiece 

47 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE 



of the King. Not only did lie direct the 
minister. a careful observer tells us, in 
all important matters of foreign and do 
mestic policy, but he instructed him as 
to the management of debates in Parlia 
ment, suggested what motions should be 
made or opposed, and how measures should 
be carried. He reserved for himself all 
the patronage, he arranged the whole cast 
of the administration, settled the relative 
place and pretensions of ministers of 
state, law officers, and members of the 
household, nominated and promoted Die 
English and Scotch judges, appointed and 
translated bishops and deans, and dis 
pensed other preferments in the Church. 
He disposed of military governments, 
regiments, and commissions, and himself 
ordered the marching of troops. He gave 
and refused titles, honors, and pensions. 
All this immense patronage was steadily 
used for the creation of a party in both 
Houses of Parliament attached to the King 
himself. . . . George was, in fact, sole 
minister during the fifteen years which fol 
lowed; and the shame of the darkest hour 
of English history lies wholly at his 
door." 

Surely, until these tremendous verdicts 
of English history shall be set aside, there 
need be no anxiety in any quarter as to 
the historic soundness of the two great 
accusations which together make up the 
principal portion of the Declaration of 
Independence. In the presence of these 
verdicts also, even the passion, the in 
tensity of language, in which those ac 
cusations are uttered, seem to find a per 
fect justification. Indeed, in the light of 
the most recent and most unprejudiced 
expert testimony, the whole document, 
both in its substance and in its form, 
seems to have been the logical response of 
a nation of brave men to the great words 
of tre greatest of English statesmen, as 
spoken in the House of Commons precise 
ly ten years before: 

" This kingdom has no right to lay a 
tax on the colonies. Sir. I rejoice that 
America has resisted. Three millions of 
people, so dead to all the feelings of lib 
erty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, 
would have been fit instruments to make 
slaves of the rest." 

Thus, ever since its first announcement 
to the world, and down almost to the 



present moment, has the Declaration of 
Independence been tested by criticism of 
every possible kind by criticism intended 
and expected to be destructive. Apparent 
ly, however, all this criticism has failed 
to accomplish its object. 

It is proper for us to remember, also, 
that what we call criticism is not the 
only valid test of the genuineness and 
worth of any piece of writing of great 
practical interest to mankind: there is, 
in addition, the test of actual use and ser 
vice, in direct contact with the common 
sense and the moral sense of large masses 
of men, under various conditions, and for 
a long period. Probably no writing which 
is not essentially sound and true has ever 
survived this test. 

Neither from this test has the great 
Declaration any need to shrink. As to 
the immediate use for which it was sent 
forth that of rallying and uniting the 
friends of the Revolution, and bracing 
them for their great task its effective 
ness was so great and so obvious that it 
lias never been denied. During the 
century and a quarter since the Revolu 
tion, its influence on the political char 
acter and the political conduct of the 
American people has been great beyond 
calculation. For example, after we had 
achieved our own national deliverance, 
and had advanced into that enormous and 
somewhat corrupting material prosperity 
which followed the adoption of the Con 
stitution and the development of the cot 
ton interest and the expansion of the re 
public into a. transcontinental power, we 
fell under an appalling temptation the 
temptation to forget, or to repudiate, or 
to refuse to apply to the case of our 
human brethren in bondage, the principles 
which we had once proclaimed as the 
basis of every rightful government. The 
prodigious service rendered to us in this 
awful moral emergency by the Declara 
tion of Independence was, that its public 
repetition, at least once every year, in the 
hearing of vast throngs of the American 
people in every portion of the republic, 
kept constantly before our minds, in a 
form of almost religious sanctity, those 
fe\v great ideas as to the dignity of 
human nature, and the sacredness of per 
sonality, and the indestructible rights of 
man as mere man, with which we had so 



48 



Ill 




INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN THE CENTENNIAL YEAR. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH 



gloriously identified the beginnings of our 
national existence. It did at last become 
very hard for us to listen each year to the 
preamble of the Declaration and still to 
remain the owners and users and 
catchers of slaves; still harder, to accept 
the doctrine that the righteousness and 
prosperity of slavery was to be accepted 
as the dominant policy of the nation. The 
logic of Calhoun was as flawless as usual, 
when he concluded that the chief ob 
struction in the way of his system was 
the preamble of the Declaration of In 
dependence. Had it not been for the in 
violable sacredness given by it to those 
sweeping aphorisms about the natural 
rights of man. it may be doubted whether 
Calhoun might not have won over an im 
mense majority of the American people 
to the support of his compact and plaus 
ible scheme for making slavery the basis 
of the republic. It was the preamble of 
the Declaration of Independence which 
elected Lincoln, which sent forth the 
Emancipation Proclamation, which gave 
victory to Grant, which ratified the Thir 
teenth Amendment. 

We shall not here attempt to delineate 
the influence of this state paper upon 
mankind in general. Of course, the 
emergence of the American Republic as an 
imposing world-power is a phenomenon 
which has now for many years attracted 
the attention of the human race. Surely, 
no slight effect must have resulted from 
the fact that, among all civilized peoples, 
the one American document best known 
is the Declaration of Independence and 
that thus the spectacle of so vast and 
beneficent a political success has been 
everywhere associated with the assertion 
of the natural rights of man. " The doc 
trines it contained," says Buckle, "were 
not merely welcomed by a majority of the 
French nation, but even the government 
itself was unable to withstand the gen 
eral feeling." " Its effect in hastening 
the approach of the French Revolu 
tion . . . was indeed most remark 
able." Elsewhere, also, in many lands, 
among many peoples, it has been cited 
again and again as an inspiration to po 
litical courage, as a model for political 
conduct; and if. as the brilliant historian 
just alluded to has affirmed, " that noble 
Declaration . . . ought to be hung 



up in the nursery of every king, and 
blazoned on the porch of every royal pal 
ace," it is because it has become the 
classic statement of political truths which 
must at last abolish kings altogether, or 
else teach them to identify their existence 
with the dignity and happiness of human 
nature. 

Declaration of Independence, DUTCH. 
The following is the text of the declara 
tion of the States General of the United 
Provinces, setting forth that Philip II. 
had forfeited his right of sovereignty over 
the said provinces, promulgated at The 
Hague, July 26, 1581: 
The States General of the United Prov 
inces of the Low Countries, to all whom 
it may concern, do by these Presents 
send greeting: 

As tis apparent to all that a prince is 
constituted by God to be ruler of a people, 
to defend them from oppression and vio 
lence as the shepherd his sheep; and 
whereas God did not create the people 
slaves to their prince, to obey his com 
mands, whether right or wrong, but 
rather the prince for the sake of the sub 
jects (without which he could be no 
prince), to govern them according to 
equity, to love and support them as a 
father his children or a shepherd his flock. 
and even at the hazard of life to defend 
and preserve them. And when he does not 
behave thus, but, on the contrary, op 
presses them, seeking opportunities to 
infringe their ancient customs and privi 
leges, exacting from them slavish compli 
ance, then he is no longer a prince, but a 
tyrant, and the subjects are to consider 
him in no other view. And particularly 
when this is done deliberately, unauthor 
ized by the States, they may not on\v 
disallow his authority, but legally pro 
ceed to the choice of another prince for 
their defence. This is the only method 
left for subjects whose humble petitions 
and remonstrances could never soften their 
prince or dissuade him from his tyran 
nical proceedings; and this is what the 
law of nature dictates for the defence of 
liberty, which we ought to transmit to 
posterity, even at the hazard of our lives. 
And this we have seen done frequently in 
several countries upon the like occasion, 
whereof there are notorious instances, and 
more justifiable in our land, which has 



III. D. 



40 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH 

been always governed according to their .prince s creatures at devotion; and by 
ancient privileges, which are expressed h. the addition of the said canons he would 
the oath taken by the prince at his ad- have introduced the Spanish inquisition, 
mission to the government; for most of which has been always as dreadful and 
the provinces receive their prince upon detested in these provinces as the worst 
certain conditions, which he swears to of slavery, as is well known, in so much 
maintain, which, if the prince violates, he that his imperial majesty, having once 
is no longer sovereign. Xow thus it was before proposed it to these States, and 
with the King of Spain after the demise upon whose remonstrances did desist, and 
of the Emperor, his father, Charles the entirely gave it up, hereby giving proof of 
Fifth, of glorious memory (of whom he the great affection he had for his sub- 
received all these provinces), forgetting jects. But, notwithstanding the many 
the services done by the subjects of these remonstrances made to the King both by 
countries, both to his father and himself, the provinces and particular towns, in 
by whose valor he got so glorious and writing as well as by some principal lords 
memorable victories over his enemies that by word of mouth; and, namely, by the 
his name and power became famous and Baron of Montigny and Earl of Egmont, 
dreaded over all the world, forgetting also vho with the approbation of the Duchess 
the advice of his said imperial majesty, of Parma, then governess of the Low 
made to him before to the contrary, did Countries, by the advice of the council of 
rather hearken to the counsel of those State were sent several times to Spain 
Spaniards about him, who had conceived a upon this affair. And, although the King 
secret hatred to this land and to its lib- had by fair words given them grounds to 
erty, because they could not enjoy posts of hope that their request should be coin- 
honor and high employments here under plied with, yet by his letters he ordered 
the States as in Naples, Sicily, Milan, and the contrary, soon after expressly com- 
the Indies, and other countries under the manding, upon pain of his displeasure, to 
King s dominion. Thus allured by the admit the new bishops immediately, and 
riches of the said provinces, wherewith put them in possession of their bishop- 
many of them were well acquainted, the lies and incorporated abbeys, to hold 
said counsellors, I say, or the principal of the court of the inquisition in the places 
them, frequently remonstrated to the King where it had been before, to obey and 
that it was more for his majesty s reputa- follow the decrees and ordinances of the 
tion and grandeur to subdue the Low Conn- Council of Trent, which in many articles 
tries a second time, and to make himself are destructive of the privileges of the 
absolute (by which they mean to tyran- country. This being come to the knowl- 
nize at pleasure), than to govern accord- edge of the people gave just occasion to 
ing to the restrictions he had accepted, great uneasiness and clamor among them, 
and at his admission sworn to observe, and lessened that good affection they had 
From that time forward the King of always borne toward the King and his 
Spain, following these evil counsellors, predecessors. And, especially, seeing that 
sought by all means possible to re- he did not only seek to tyrannize over 
duce this country (stripping them of their their persons and estates, but also over 
ancient privileges) to slavery, under their consciences, for which they bo- 
the government of Spaniards having first, lieved themselves accountable to God only, 
under the mask of religion, endeavored to Upon this occasion the chief of the nobil- 
settle new bishops in the largest and ity in compassion to the poor people, in 
principal cities, endowing and incorporat- the year 1566, exhibited a certain re- 
ing them with the richest abbeys, assign- monstrance in form of a petition, humbly 
ing to each bishop nine canons to assist praying, in order to appease them and 
him as counsellors, three whereof should prevent public disturbances, that it would 
superintend the inquisition. By this in- please his majesty (by shewing that 
corporation the said bishops (who might clemency due from a good prince to his 
be strangers as well as natives) would people) to soften the said points, ami 
have had the first place and vote in the especially with regard to tVp rigorous 
assembly of the States, and always the inquisition, and capital punishments for 

50 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH 

matters of religion. And to inform the as OIK- of its greatest enemies, uceoni- 
King of tli is affair in a more solemn man- panied with counsellors too like himself, 
ner, and to represent to him how neces- And, although he came in without the 
sary it was for the peace and prosperity least opposition, and was received by the 
of the public to remove the aforesaid in- poor subjects with all marks of honor 
novations, and moderate the severity of and respects, as expecting no less from 
his declarations published concerning di- him than tenderness and clemency, which 
vine worship, the Marquis de Berghen, t lie King had often hypocritically promised 
and the aforesaid Baron of Montigny had in his letters, and that himself intended 
been sent, at the request of the said to come in person to give orders to their 
lady regent, council of state, and of the general satisfaction, having since the de- 
States General as ambassadors to Spain, parture of the Duke of Alva equipped a 
where the King, instead of giving them fleet to carry him from Spain, and an- 
audience, and redress the grievances they other in Zealand to come to meet him at 
had complained of (which for want of a the great expense of the country, the bet- 
timely remedy did always appear in their tei to deceive his subjects, and allure 
evil consequences among the common them into the toils, nevertheless the said 
people), did, by the advice of Spanish duke, immediately after his arrival 
council, declare all those who were con- (though a stranger, and no way related 
cerned in preparing the said remonstrance to the royal family), declared that he had 
to be rebels, and guilty of high treason, a captain-general s commission, and soon 
and to be punished with death, and con- after that of governor of these provinces, 
fiscation of their estates; and, what s contrary to all its ancient customs and 
more (thinking himself well assured of privileges; and, the more to manifest his 
reducing these countries under absolute designs, he immediately garrisons the 
tyranny by the army of the Duke of principal towns and castles, and caused 
Alva), did soon after imprison and put fortresses and citadels to be built in the 
to death the said lords the ambassadors, great cities to awe them into subjection, 
and confiscated their estates, contrary to and very courteously sent for the chief 
the law of nations, which has been always nobility in the King s name, under pre- 
religiously observed even among the most tence of taking their advice, and to em- 
tyrannic and barbarous princes. And, al- ploy them in the service of their country, 
though the said disturbances, which And those who believed his letters were 
in the year 1566 happened on the seized and carried out of Brabant, con- 
fcre-mentioned occasion, were now ap- trary to law, where they were imprisoned 
peased by the governess and her and prosecuted as criminals before him 
ministers, and many friends to lib- who had no right, nor could be a eom- 
erty were either banished or sub- potent judge; and at last he, without 
dued, in so much that the King had not bearing their defence al large, sentenced 
any shew of reason to use arms and vio- them to death, which was public y and 
lonces, ami further oppress this country, ignominiously executed. The others, bet- 
yet for these causes and reasons, long ter acquainted with Spanish hypocrisy, re 
time before sought by the council of siding in foreign countries, were declared 
Spain (as appears by intercepted letters outlawries, and had their estates confis- 
from the Spanish ambassador, Alana, then cated, so that the poor subjects could 
in France, writ to the Duchess of Parma), make no use of their fortresses nor be as- 
to annul all the privileges of this coun- sisted by their pnnces in defence of their 
try, and govern it tyrannically at pleasure liberty against the violence of the pope; 
as in the Indies; and in their new con- besides a great number of other gentle- 
quests he has. at the instigation of the men and substantial citi/ens. some of 
council of Spain (shewing the little re- whom were executed, ami others banished 
gtvrd he had for his people, so contrary to that their estates mi _rht be confiscated, 
the duty which a good prince owes to his plaguing the other honest inhabitants, not 
subjects), sent the Duke of Alva with a only by the injuries done to their wives, 
powerful army to oppress this land, who children, and estates by the Spanish sol- 
for hi* inhumane cruellies is looked irton diers lodged in their hovios. as 

31 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH 



by diverse contributions, which they were 
forced to pay toward building citadels aiui 
new fortifications of towns even to their 
own ruin, besides the taxes of the hun 
dredth, twentieth and ten the penny, to 
pay both the foreign and those raised in 
the country, to be employed against their 
fellow-citizens and against those who at 
the hazard of their lives defended their 
liberties. In order to impoverish the sub 
jects, and to incapacitate them to hinder 
his design, and that he might with more 
ease execute the instructions received in 
Spain, to treat these countries as new 
conquests, he began to alter the course of 
justice after the Spanish mode, directly 
contrary to our privileges; and, imagin 
ing at last he had nothing more to fear, 
he endeavored by main force to settle a 
tax called the tenth penny on merchandise 
and manufactory, to the total ruin of 
these countries, the prosperity of which 
depends upon a flourishing trade, notwith 
standing frequent remonstrances, not by 
a single province only, but by all of them 
united, which he had effected, had it not 
been for the Prince of Orange with diverse 
gentlemen and other inhabitants, who had 
followed this prince in his exile, most 
of whoin were in his pay. and banished by 
the Duke of Alva with others who 
espoused the liberty of their country. 
Soon after the provinces of Holland and 
Zealand for the most part revolted, put 
ting themselves under the protection of 
the Prince of Orange, against which 
provinces the said duke during his gov 
ernment, and the great commander (whom 
the King sent to these countries, not to 
heal the evil, but to pursue the same tyran 
nical courses by more secret and cautious 
methods) who succeeded him, forced the 
provinces, who by garrisons and citadels 
were already reduced under the Spanish 
yoke, both with their lives and fortunes 
to conquer them, shewing no more mercy 
to those they employ to assist them than 
if they had been enemies, permitting the 
Spaniards, under pretence of mutiny, to 
enter the city of Antwerp forcibly, in the 
sight of the great commander, and In I .ve 
there at discretion for the space of six 
weeks at the expense of the inhabitants, 
and obliging them (to be free from 
Spanish violence) to furnish the sum of 
four hundred thousand florins for the 



payment of the troops. After which 
the said troops, made more insolent 
by the connivance of their command 
ers, proceeded to open violence, endeavor 
ing first to surprise the city of Brus 
sels, the prince s usual residence, to 
be the magazine of their plunder; but, 
not succeeding in that, they took by force 
the town of Alost, and after that surprised 
and forced Maestricht. and soon after the 
said city of Antwerp, which they plundered 
and burnt, and massacred the inhabitants 
in a most barbarous manner, to the irrep 
arable loss not only of the citizens, but to 
all nations who had any effects there. And 
notwithstanding the said Spaniards had 
been, by the council of state (upon which 
the King, after the decease of the great 
commander, had conferred the government 
of the country) in the presence of Jeron- 
imo de Rhoda, declared enemies to the 
States, by reason of their outrageous vio 
lences, nevertheless the said Rhoda, upon 
his own authority (or as it is imagined) 
by virtue of certain private instructions 
which he might possibly have received 
from Spain, undertook to head the 
Spaniards and their accomplices, and to 
use the King s name (in defiance of the 
said council) and authority, to counterfeit 
the great seal, and act openly as governor 
and lieutenant - general, which gave oc 
casion to the States at the same time to 
agree with the aforesaid Prince of Orange, 
in conjunction with the provinces of Hol 
land and Zealand, which agreement was 
approved by the said council of state (as 
the only legal governors of the country ) , 
to declare war unanimously against the 
Spaniards as their common enemy, to 
drive them out of the country; at the 
same time, like good subjects, making use 
of all proper applications, humbly peti 
tioning the King to have compassion on ac 
count of the calamities already suffered, 
and of the greater expected hourly, unless 
his majesty would withdraw his troops, 
and exemplarily punish the authors of the 
plundering and burning of our principal 
cities as some small satisfaction to the 
distressed inhabitants, and to deter others 
from committing the like violences. 
Nevertheless, the King would have us be 
lieve that all this was tnuisacted without 
his knowledge, and that he intended tc 
punish the authors, and that for the future 



DECLABATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH 



we might expect all tenderness and clem 
ency, and as a gracious prince would give 
all necessary orders to procure the public 
peace. And yet he not only neglected to 
do us justice in punishing the offenders; 
that, on the contrary, it is plain all was 
done by orders concerted in the council 
of Spain; for soon after the letters were 
intercepted directed to Ehoda and other 
captains, who were the authors of all our 
miseries, under the King s own hand, in 
which he not only approves of their pro 
ceedings, but even praises and promises 
them rewards, and particularly to the said 
Rhoda as having done him singular ser 
vices, which he performed to him and to 
all the rest who were ministers of his 
tyranny, upon his return to Spain. And, 
the more to blind his subjects, he sent 
at the same time Don John, his natural 
brother, as of his blood, to govern 
these countries, who under pretence 
of approving the treaty of Ghent con 
firming the promise made to the 
States of driving out the Spaniards, 
of punishing the authors of the dis 
turbances, of settling the public peace, and 
of re-establishing their ancient liberties, 
endeavored to divide the said estates in 
order to enslave one after another, which 
was soon after discovered by the provi 
dence of God, who is an enemy to all 
tyranny, by certain intercepted letters, from 
which it appeared that he was charged by 
the King to follow the instructions of 
Rhoda; and, the better to conceal this 
fraud, they were forbidden to see one an 
other, but that he should converse friendly 
with the principal lord of the country, 
that, gaining them over to his party, he 
might by their assistance reduce Holland 
and Zealand, after which the other prov 
inces would be easily subdued. Whereupon 
Don John, notwithstanding his solemn 
promise and oath, in the presence of all 
the aforesaid States, to observe the pacifi 
cation of Ghent, and other articles stipu 
lated between him and the States of all 
the provinces, on the contrary sought, by 
all possible promises made to the colonels 
already at his devotion, to gain the Ger 
man troops, who were then garrisoned in 
the principal fortresses and the cities, 
that by their assistance he might master 
them, as he had gained many of them al 
ready, and held them attached to his in 



terest in order, by their assistance, to 
force those who would not join with him 
in making war against the Prince of 
Orange, and the provinces of Holland and 
Zealand, more cruel and bloody than any 
war before. But, as no disguises can long 
conceal our intentions, this project was 
discovered before it could be executed ; 
and he, unable to perform his promises, 
and instead of that peace so much boasted 
of at his arrival a new war kindled, not 
yet extinguished. All these considera 
tions give us more than sufficient reason 
to renounce the King of Spain, and seek 
some other powerful and more gracious 
prince to take us under his protection ; 
and. more especially, as these countries 
have been for these twenty years aban 
doned to disturbance and oppression by 
their King, during which time the in 
habitants were not treated as subjects, 
but enemies, enslaved forcibly by their 
own governors. 

Having also, after the decease of Don 
John, sufficiently declared by the Baron 
de Selles that he would not allow the 
pacification of Ghent, the which Don John 
had in his majesty s name sworn to main 
tain, but daily proposing new terms of 
agreement less advantageous. Notwith 
standing these discouragements we used 
all possible means, by petitions in writing, 
and the good offices of the greatest princes 
in Christendom, to be reconciled to our 
King, having lastly maintained for a long 
time our deputies at the Congress of 
Cologne, hoping that the intercession of 
his imperial majesty and of the electors 
would procure an honorable and lasting 
peace, and some degree of liberty, particu 
larly relating to religion (which chiefly 
concerns God and our own consciences), 
at last we found by experience that noth 
ing would be obtained of the King by 
prayers and treaties, which latter he 
made use of to divide and weaken the 
provinces, that he might the easier exe 
cute his plan rigorously, by subduing 
them one by one, which afterwards plain 
ly appeared by certain proclamations and 
proscriptions published by the King s 
orders, by virtue of which we and all offi 
cers and inhabitants of the United Prov 
inces with all our friends are declared 
rebels, and MS such, to have forfeited our 
lives and estates. Thus, by rendering us 



53 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH 



odious to all, he might interrupt our 
commerce, likewise reducing us to despair, 
offering a great sum to any that would 
assassinate the Prince of Orange. So, 
having no hope of reconciliation, and find 
ing no other remedy, we have, agreeable 
to the law of nature in our own defence, 
and for maintaining the rights, privi 
leges, and liberties of our countrymen, 
wives, and children, and latest posterity 
from being enslaved by the Spaniards, 
been constrained to renounce allegiance 
to the King of Spain, and pursue such 
methods as appear to us most likely 
to secure our ancient liberties and privi 
leges. Know all men by these pres 
ents that, being reduced to the last ex 
tremity, as above mentioned, we have 
unanimously and deliberately declared, 
and do by these presents declare, that he 
King of Spain has forfeited, ipso jure, all 
hereditary rights to the sovereignty of 
those countries, and are determined from 
henceforward not to acknowledge his 
sovereignty or jurisdiction, nor any act 
of his relating to the domains of the Low 
( ountries, nor make iise of his name as 
prince, nor suffer others to do it. In con 
sequence whereof we also declare all offi 
cers, judges, lords, gentlemen, vassals, and 
all other the inhabitants of this country 
of what condition or quality soever, to 
be henceforth discharged from all oaths 
and obligations whatsoever made to the 
King of Spain as sovereign of those 
countries. And whereas, upon the motives 
already mentioned, the greater part of 
the United Provinces have, by common 
consent of their members, submitted to 
the government and sovereignty of the il 
lustrious Prince and Duke of Anjou, upon 
certain conditions stipulated with his 
highness, and w r hereas the most serene 
Archduke Matthias has resigned the gov 
ernment of these countries with our ap 
probation, we command and order all 
justiciaries, officers, and all whom it may 
concern, not to make use of the name, 
titles, great or privy seal of the King of 
Spain from henceforward: but in lieu of 
:ln in, as long as his highness the Duke 
of Anjou is absent upon urgent affairs re 
lating to the welfare of these countries, 
having so agreed with his highness or 
otherwise, they shall provisionally use 
I lie name aiu title of the president and 



council of the province. And, until such 
a president and counsellors shall be nomi 
nated, assembled, and act in that capac 
ity, they shall act in our name, except 
that in Holland and Zealand where they 
shall use the name of the Prince of 
Orange, and of the States of the said 
provinces till the aforesaid council shall 
legally sit, and then shall conform to the 
directions of that council agreeable to the 
contract made with his highness. And, 
instead of the King s seal aforesaid, they 
shall make use of our great seal, contre- 
seal, and signet, in affairs relating to the 
public, according as the said council shall 
from time to time be authorized. And in 
affairs concerning the administration of 
justice, and transactions peculiar to each 
province, the provincial council and other 
councils of that country shall use respec 
tively the name, title, and seal of the said 
province, where the case is to be tried, 
and no other, on pain of having all let 
ters, documents, and despatches annulled. 
And, for the better and effectual perform 
ance hereof, we have ordered and com 
manded, and do hereby order and com 
mand, that all the seals of the King of 
Spain which are in these United Prov 
inces shall immediately, upon the publi 
cation of these presents, be delivered to 
the estate of each province respectively, 
or to such persons as by the said estates 
shall be authorized and appointed, upon 
peril of discretionary punishment. 

Moreover, we order and command that 
from henceforth no money coined shall be 
stamped with the name, title, or arms of 
the King of Spain in any of these United 
Provinces, but that all new gold and silver 
pieces, with their halves and quarters, 
shall only bear such impressions as the 
States shall direct. We order likewise and 
command the president and other lords of 
the privy council, and all other chancel 
lors, presidents, and lords of the provin 
cial council, and all presidents, account 
ant-general, and to others in all the 
chambers of accounts respectively in these 
said countries, and likewise to all other 
judges and officers, us we hold them dis 
charged from henceforth of their oath 
made to the King of Spain, pursuant to 
the tenor of their commission, that they 
shall take a new oath to the States of 
that country on whose jurisdiction they 
54 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



depend, or to commissaries appointed by 
them, to be true to us against the King 
of Spain and all his adherents, according 
to the formula of words prepared by the 
States General for that purpose. And 
we shall give to the said counsellors, 
justiciaries, and officers employed in these 
provinces, who have contracted in our 
name with his highness the Serenisme, 
Duke of Anjou, an act to continue them 
in their respective offices, instead of new 
commissions, a clause annulling the for 
mer provisionally till the arrival of his 
highness. Moreover io all such counsel 
lors, accomptants. justiciaries, and officers 
in these provinces, who have not contract 
ed with his highness aforesaid, we shall 
grant new commissions under our hands 
and seals, unless any of the said officers 
are accused and convicted of having acted 
under their former commissions against 
the liberties and privileges of this coun 
try or of other the like maladministra 
tion. We further command the president 
and members of the privy council, chan 
cellor of the Duchy of Brabant, also the 
chancellor of the Duchy of Gueldres, and 
county of Zutphen, to the president and 
members of the council of Holland, to the 
receivers of great officers of Beooster- 
scheldt and Bewesterscheldt in Zealand, to 
the president and council of Frise, and to 
the Escoulet of Mechelen, to the president 
and members of the council of Utrecht, 
and to all other justiciaries and officers 
whom it may concern, to the lieutenants 
all and every of them, to cause this our 
ordinance to be published and proclaimed 
throughout their respective jurisdictions, 
in the usual places appointed for that pur 
pose, that none may plead ignorance. And 
to cause our said ordinance to be observed 
inviolably, punishing the offenders im 
partially and without delay ; for so tis 
found expedient for the public good. And, 
for better maintaining all and every arti 
cle hereof, we give to all and every of 
you, by express command, full power and 
authority. In witness wherof we have 
hereunto set our hands and seals, dated 
in our assembly at the Hague, the six and 
twentieth day of July, 1581, indorsed by 
the orders of the States General, and 
signed J. DE ASSEUERS. 

Declaration of Independence, MECK 
LENBURG, a document alleged to have 



comprised a number of resolutions 
adopted at a meeting of the citizens of 
Mecklenburg county, N. C., in May, 1775, 
thus antedating by more than a year that 
which is now universally recognized as 
the American Declaration of Indepen 
dence. The Mecklenburg Declaration has 
been a subject of historical controversy 
from the time that it was first made pub 
lic, and this controversy has given birth 
to a literature which sharply questions 
the authenticity of the declaration. The 
circumstances alleged under which this 
declaration was made known are, in brief, 
as follows: In the spring of 1775, Col. 
Adam Alexander called upon the people of 
Mecklenburg county to appoint delegates 
to a convention to devise ways and means 
to assist their brethi en in Boston. The 
delegates met in Charlotte on May 19, al 
most immediately after the receipt of 
news of the battle of Lexington. Colonel 
Alexander was elected chairman, and John 
McKnitt Alexander clerk of the conven 
tion. After a free and full discussion of 
the various objects for which the conven 
tion had been called, it was unanimously 
ordained : 

1. Resolved, that whosoever directly or 
indirectly abetted, or in any way, form, 
or manner, countenanced the unchartered 
and dangerous invasions of our rights, as 
claimed by Great Britain, is an enemy 
to this country, to American, and to the 
inherent and inalienable rights of man. 

2. Resolved, that we, the citizens of 
Mecklenburg county, do hereby dissolve 
the political bands which have connected 
us to the mother - country, and hereby 
absolve ourselves from allegiance to the 
British crown, and abjure all political 
connection, contract, or association with 
that nation, who have wantonly trampled 
on our rights and liberties, and in 
humanly shed the innocent blood of 
American patriots at Lexington. 

3. Resolved, that we do hereby declare 
ourselves a free and independent people; 
are, and of right ought to be, a sovereign 
and self-governing association, under the 
control of no power other than that of 
our God and the general government of 
the Congress ; to the maintenance of 
v.-hieh independence we solemnly pledge 
to each other our mutual co-operation, 



55 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, MECKLENBURG 

our lives, our fortunes, and *ur most the crown of Great Britain never can be 

sacred honor. considered as holding rights, privileges, 

4. Resolved, that, as we acknowledge immunities, or authority therein, 
the existence and control of no law or f>. Resolved, that it is also further de- 
legal officer, civil or military, within this creed that all, each, and every military 
county, we do hereby ordain and adopt, officer in this county is hereby rein- 
as a rule of life, all, each, and every of stated to his former command and au- 
our former laws; wherein, nevertheless, thority, he acting conformably to these 




I/ <^ 

Jleftfy ^tnunS- 

C^ Js<3) 

{/}. ?*j- e/jTr&7*&<rtt / ^-> 



ADTCKiKArilrt OK TIIK MKMBKK.S OF THK MECKLESBl KO COMMITTEK. 

56 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE DECLARATION OF RIGHTS 

regulations, and that every member pres- mere day of the month on the ground that 
ent of this delegation shall henceforth be this discrepancy was explainable by the 
a civil officer viz., a justice of the peace use of the old style and the new style of 
in the character of a " committee-man," to calendars; but they ignored the facts that 
issue process, hear and determine all the two sets of resolutions were dissimi- 
matter of controversy, according to said lar, that the latter were comparatively 
adopted laws, and to preserve peace, and mild, and that the former contained ex- 
union, and harmony in said county, and pressions almost identical with the ac- 
to use every exertion to spread the love cepted Declaration of Independence of 
of country and fire of freedom through- 1776. It is to be further stated that an 
out America, until a more general and attempt was made to reconcile these dis 
organized government be established in crcpancios and similarities on the ground 
this province. that as the book alleged to have contained 

These resolutions were supplemented by the original text had been destroyed by 
a number of minor provisions to insure fire, some one, years afterwards, had pre- 
the safety of the citizens, and at 2 A.M. pared from recollection the draft of the 
on May 20, the resolutions were unani- resolutions which were published in the 
raously adopted. A few days afterwards Raleigh Register. The fact has been es- 
Capt. James Jack, of Charlotte, was ap- tablished by acceptable evidence that the 
pointed messenger to convey a draft of the document taken to Philadelphia by Cap- 
resolutions to the Congress then in session tain Jack contained the twenty resolutions 
in Philadelphia, and on the return of of May 31, and not the declaration of 
Captain Jack, the Charlotte convention May 20. The foregoing are the principal 
was informed that their proceedings had facts touching this historical controversy; 
been individually approved by the mem- and while Bancroft accepts the declaration 
bers of Congress, but that it was deemed as an authentic document, equally emi- 
premature to lay them before the House, nent historians have agreed that it was 

On April 30, 1818, a copy of the alleged not entitled to the standing of a verified 

Declaration of Independence was first document. 

made public in the Raleigh Register, and Declaration of Paris. See CUBA: Me- 

following the text was a certificate Kinlcy s Message. 

signed " James MeKnitt," tending to show Declaration of Rights by Virginia, 
that the text was a true copy of the papers George Mason drafted for Virginia a 
left in his hands by John Matthew Alex- declaration of rights, and on May 27, 1776, 
ander, deceased; and that the original Archibald Carey presented it to the Vir- 
book was burned in April, 1800. When ginia convention. On June 12 it was 
the Raleigh Register published this state- adopted. It declared that all men are 
mont there was a general demand for the by nature equally free, and are invested 
proof concerning such an important event, with inalienable rights namely, the en- 
that had been allowed to slumber for joyment of life, liberty, property, and the 
more than forty years. All the questions pursuit of happiness and safety; that all 
involved were investigated by a committee power is vested in. and consequently de- 
of the North Carolina legislature in 1831, rivod from, the people; that government 
and its report so far satisfied the people is, or ought to be, instituted for the com- 
of that State that May 20 was made a mon benefit and security of the people. 
State holiday. In 1838, Peter Force, a nation, or community, and that when gov- 
well-known scholar, announced the dis- eminent shall fail to perform its required 
covery of another set of resolutions, en- functions, a majority of the people have 
dorsed as having been adopted by the peo- an inalienable right to reform or abolish 
pie of Mecklenburg county on May 31, or it; that, public services not being de- 
eleven days after the resolutions above scendible, the office of magistrate, legis- 
quoted. The last set of resolutions num- lator, or judge ought not to be hereditary; 
bered twenty, and made no declaration that the legislative and executive powers 
of independence. Some parties who de- of the state should be distinct from the 
fended the resolutions of May 20 claimed judicature, and that the members of the 
that there should be no question as to the first two should, at fixed periods, return 

57 



DECLABATOBY ACT DEEBFIELD 

unto the body from which they were and vehemently declared that " taxation 
originally taken, and the vacancies be sup- and representation are inseparable." The 
plied by frequent elections; that elections declaratory act became a law, but it was 
ought to be free; that all men having a distasteful to thinking Americans, for it 
permanent interest in and attachment to involved the kernel of royal prerogative, 
the country have the right of suffrage, which the colonists rejected. But it was 
and cannot be taxed or deprived of their overlooked. Pitt had the honor of the 
property for public uses without their own repeal. The London merchants lauded 
consent or that of their representatives him as a benefactor, and there was a 
freely elected, nor bound by any law to burst of gratitude towards him in Amer- 
which they have not, in like manner, as- ica. New York voted a statue to Pitt and 
sented; that there ought to be no arbi- the King; Virginia voted a statue to tli; 1 
trary power for suspending laws, for re- monarch; Maryland passed a similar vote, 
quiring excessive bail, or for granting of and ordered a portrait of Lord Camden: 
general warrants; that no man ought to and the authorities of Boston ordered full- 
be deprived of liberty except by the law length portraits of Barr and Conway, 
of the land or the judgment of his peers, friends of the Americans, for Faneuil Hall, 
holding sacred the ancient trial by jury; Decoration Day. See MEMORIAL DAY. 
that the freedom of the press is one of De Costa, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, clergy - 
the greatest bulwarks of liberty, and can man; born in Charlestown, Mass., July 
never be restrained but by despotic gov- 10, 1831; graduated at the Concord 
crnments; that a well-regulated militia, Biblical Institute in 1856; was a chaplain 
composed of the body of the people, trained in the National army in 18G1-G3; and is 
to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe the author of The Pre-Columbian Dis- 
defence of a free state; that standing covery of America by the Northmen; The 
nrinies in times of peace should be avoided Northmen in Maine, etc. 
as dangerous to liberty, and in all cases Deep Bottom, VA. In Grant s Virginia 
the military should be under strict subor- campaign in 1864 this place, then held by 
dination to the civil power; that the General Foster, was attacked by a part of 
people have a right to uniform govern- Lee s army without success, June 21. A 
ment; that no free government can be counter attack by the Nationals was order- 
preserved but by a firm adherence to jus- ed July 2(5 and 27, which was partly suc- 
tice, moderation, temperance, frugality, cessful. The Confederates retired to Cha- 
and virtue, and by frequent recurrences to pin s Bluff, which they continued to hold, 
fundamental principles: and that religion Deerfield, a town on the west bank of 
can be directed only by reason and con- the Connecticut River. in Franklin 
viction, not by force or violence; there- county, Mass.; notable as having been 
fore all men are equally entitled to the twice the victim of a foray by French and 
free exercise of it according to the die- Indians. During King Philip s War a 
tates of conscience. The unanimous voice terrible slaughter occurred a mile from the 
of the convention approved of this dec- town, Sept. 18 (O. S.), 167"). The Ind- 
laration. i<ins had burned Deerfield and murdered 
Declaratory Act, THE. Pitt concluded some of the inhabitants. The survivors 
his speech in the British House of Com- fled, leaving about 3,000 bushels of wheat 
mons against the Stamp Act by a propo- in stacks in the field. Capt. Thomas Lo- 
sition for its absolute and immediate re- throp, commanding part of a force at Had- 
peal, at the same time recommending an ley. was sent with eighty men to secure 
act, to accompany the repeal, declaring, this grain. As they approached Deerfield 
in the most unqualified terms, the sov- they fell into an Indian ambush, and the 
ereign authority of Great Britain over her captain and seventy-six men were slain. 
colonies. This was intended as a salve In 1704, a party of French and Indians, 
for the national honor, necessary, as Pitt under Maj. Hertel de Rouville, who had 
knew, to secure the repeal of the act. But travelled on snow-shoes from Canada, ap- 
Lord Camden, who was the principal sup- proached Deerfield. The chief object of 
porter of the repeal bill in the Upper the expedition was to procure a little bell 
House, was opposed to the declaratory act, hung over the meeting-house in that vil- 

38 



DEERHOUND DELAFIELD 



lage. It had been bought in France for 
the church in the Indian village of 
Caughnawaga, 10 miles above Montreal. 
The vessel that bore it to America was 
captured by a New England privateer and 
taken into Boston Harbor. The bell was 
sold to the Deerfield congregation. Father 
Nicolas, the priest at Caughnawaga, per 
suaded the Indians to accompany him, 
under De Rouville, to get the bell. When 
the invaders approached Deerfield, the 
snow lay 4 feet deep in that region, and 
was covered by a hard crust that bore the 
men. Upon drifts that lay by the pali 
sades they w r ere able to crawl over these 
defences in the gloom of night, while the 
inhabitants were slumbering. The first 
intimation the villagers had of danger was 
the bursting in of the doors before the 
dawn (March 1, 1704), and the terrible 
sound of the war-whoop. The people were 
dragged from their beds and murdered, 
without regard to age or sex, or carried 
into captivity. The village was set on 
firo. and every building, excepting the 
chapel and one dwelling-house, was laid in 
ashes. Forty-seven of the inhabitants 
were killed, and 120 were captives on their 
way through the wilderness towards 
Canada an hour after sunrise. Under the 
direction of Father Nicolas, the bell was 
carried away, and finally found its des 
tined place in the belfry of the church 
at Caughnawaga, where it still hangs. 
Among the victims of this foray were 
REV. Jonx WILLIAMS (q. v.), pastor of 
the church at Deerfield, and his family, 
who were carried into captivity, except 
ing two children, who were murdered. 

Deerhound, the name of an English 
yacht, which, while conveying arms to the 
Carlists, was seized by the Spanish gov 
ernment vessel Buenaventura, off Biarritz, 
and captain and crew imprisoned, Aug. 13, 
1873; and released about Sept. 18. This 
yacht rescued Captain Semmes and part 
of his crew from the Alabama, after her 
destruction by the Kearsarae, June 10, 
18G4. 

Defective Classes. In no country on 
earth has there been such a general and 
liberal provision by national and local 
authorities, societies, and individuals for 
the education of defective youth as in the 
United Stales. For details of this grand 
work, see BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE: 



DEAF MUTES, EDUCATION OF THE; FEEBLE 
MINDED, EDUCATION OF THE; and REFORM 
SCHOOLS. 

De Forest, JOHN WILLIAM, military 
officer; born in Humphreysville (now 
Seymour), Conn., March 31, 1826; entered 
the National army as captain at the be 
ginning of the Civil War ; served con 
tinuously till January, 18G5; and was ad 
jutant-general of the Veteran Reserve 
Corps in 1865-68. His publications in 
clude The History of the Indians of Con 
necticut, from the Earliest-known Period 
to 1850, etc. 

De Grasse, COUNT. See GRASSE-TILLY, 
FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL, COUNT DE. 

De Haas, JOHN PHILIP, military offi 
cer; born in Holland about 1735; was de 
scended from an ancient -family in north 
ern France; came to America in 1750; 
was an ensign in the French and Indian 
War; participated in a sharp conflict 
with Indians near Pittsburg; and was 
colonel of the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment 
in 1776. He served in the American 
army in Canada, and afterwards at Ticon- 
deroga. He led his regiment from Lake 
Champlain to New York, and partici 
pated in the battle on Long Island in 
August, 1776. In February, 1777, he was 
promoted to brigadier-general. General 
De Haas was a good disciplinarian, and 
served in various capacities during the 
entire war with credit to himself and 
benefit to his adopted country. The lat 
ter years of his life were passed in Phila 
delphia, where he died June 3, 1786. 

De Haven, EDWIN J., explorer; born 
in Philadelphia in 1819; entered the navy 
as midshipman, rose to lieutenant in 1841, 
and resigned in 1857. He was with 
Wilkes in his great exploring expedition 
in 1838-42, and commanded the first ex 
ploring expedition fitted out at New York 
to search for Sir John Franklin in the 
Arctic seas. The expedition consisted of 
the Advance. 140 tons, and the Rescue, 90 
tons. Dr. Kane, who accompanied the ex 
pedition, published a full account of it. 
After his return Lieutenant De Havon 
was employed on coast survey duty and 
in the Naval Observatory. He died in 
Philadelphia Oct. 2, 1865. 

De Kalb, JOHANN, BARON. See KALB, 
JOIIANN, BARON DE. 

Delafield, RICHARD, military engineer; 



59 



DELAGOA BAY DE LANCEY 

born in New York City, Sept. 1, 1798; Portuguese engineers certified was the bor- 
graduated at the United States Mili- der of the Transvaal. In 1889 the Portu- 
tary Academy in 1818, and entered the guese government served notice on Colonel 
corps of engineers; was engaged in build- McMurdo that the real frontier was 6 
ing the defences of Hampton Roads, the miles further inland, and that if the road 
fortifications in the district of the Mis- was not built to that point within four 
sissippi, and those within the vicinity months it would be seized by Portugal, 
of Delaware River and Bay in 1819-38; Before McMurdo s side of the contro- 
superintendent of West Point in 1838-45 versy could be heard, Portugal confiscated 
and in 1856-G1; and became chief of en- the entire property (June, 1889). The 
gineers in 1864. At the close of the Civil United States, in behalf of the McMurdo 
War he was brevetted major-general, U. interests, united with England to compel 
S. A., " for faithful, meritorious, and dis- Portugal to make proper reparation, and 
tinguished services in the engineer depart- Portugal consented to have the dispute 
ment during the rebellion." He was re- settled by arbitration. The tribunal was 
tired in 18G6. He died in Washington, organized in Berne, Switzerland, in 1890, 
D. C., Nov. 5, 1873. but it was not till March 29, 1900, that a 
Delagoa Bay, a large bay, the estuary conclusion was reached. The total award 
of several rivers, on the southeast coast to the claimants was $3,202,800, with in- 
of Africa, situated between lat. 25 40 terest from 1889, and by a compromise 
and 26 20 S. It extends GO miles from the fieirs of Colonel McMurdo were award- 
north to south, and 20 miles from east to ed $500,000 towards the close of 1900. 
west. It was discovered by the Portu- De Lancey, EDWARD FLOYD, historian; 
guese in 1498, and for nearly 400 years born at Mamaroneck, N. Y., April 3, 
was in dispute between England and Por- 1821; graduated at Hobart College in 
tugal, the Boers also putting in a claim 1813; is a member and officer of many 
to it in 1835. It is the only seaport avail- historical organizations, and the author 
able for the Transvaal, but it is not in of biographies of James De Lancey, James 
that territory. The contention between W. Beekman, William Allen; Document - 
England and Portugal was referred to ary History of New York; Capture of Fort 
President Thiers, and settled by President Washington, and many other historical 
MacMahou, his successor, in 1875, in works. ^ 

favor of Portugal. By an agreement Eng- De Lancey, ETIEXXE ( STEPHEN ) ; mer- 
land received the right of pre-emption, chant; born in Caen, France, Oct. 24, 
It was understood in the early part of the 1GG3; fled to Holland on the revocation 
war between the British and the Boers of the Edict of Nantes; and went thence 
(1899-1900) that Great Britain had to England and became a British subject, 
either purchased the bay and its imme- He landed in New York, June 7, 1G8G; 
diate surroundings outright or had nego- became a merchant and amassed a large 
tiated an arrangement with Portugal by fortune; and was at all times a public- 
which the bay could not be used for any spirited citizen. In 1700 he built the De 
purpose host ile to British interest. In Lancey house, which subsequently became 
1883 Col. Edward McMurdo, a civil engi- known as the "Queen s Head" and 
neer of Kentucky, received from the King " Fraunce s Tavern." In the large room, 
of Portugal an extremely liberal conces- originally Mrs. De Lancoy s drawing-room, 
sion for the construction of a railroad Washington bade farewell to the officers 
from Lorenzo Marques to the Transvaal of the Army of the Revolution. He died 
frontier, a distance of 57 miles. This in New York City, Nov. 18, 1741. 
concession also included the grant of large De Lancey, JAMKS. jurist; born in 
tracts of land along the projected route, New^York City, Nov. -27. 1703; eldest son 
the territory upon which much of the of Eticnne De Lancey: graduated at 
town of Lorenzo Marques now stands, an the University of Cambridge, England, 
island in Delagoa Bay, and certain com- and soon after his return to New York 
inercial privileges along the shore. By (1729) was made a justice of the Su- 
the aid of British capital the road -was preme Court of that province, and chief- 
completed in November, 1887, to what the justice in 1733. For two years, as lieu- 

60 



DE LANCEY DELAWARE 



tenant-governor, he was acting governor 
(1753-55), after the death of Governor 
Osborn. Judge De Lancey was for many 
years the most influential man in the 
politics and legislation of the colony, and 
was one of the founders of King s Col 
lege (now Columbia University). He 
wrote a Review of the Military Opera 
tions from, 1753 to 1156. He died in New 
York City, July 30, 1760. 

De Lancey, OLIVER, military officer; 
born in New York City, Sept. 16, 1708; 
brother of Judge De Lancey; for many 
years a member of the Assembly and 
Council, also a colonel of the pro 
vincial troops, and when the Revolution 
broke out he organized and equipped, 
chiefly at his own expense, a corps of 
loyalists. In 1777 he was appointed a 
brigadier-general in the royal service. His 
military operations were chiefly in the 
region of New York City. At the evacua 
tion of that city in 1783 he went to Eng 
land. He died in Beverley, England, 
Nov. 27, 1785. 

De Lancey, OLIVER, military officer; 
born in New York City in 1752; edu 
cated abroad; entered the British army 
in 17G6, and rose to major in 1773; was 
with the British army in Boston during 
the siege in 1775-76, and accompanied it 
to Nova Scotia. He returned with it to 
Staten Island in June, and commanded the 
British cavalry when the army invaded 
Long Island in August, which formed the 
advance of the right column. To him Gen 
eral Woodhull surrendered under promise 
of protection, but it was not afforded, and 
the patriot was murdered. He was active 
under Sir Henry Clinton throughout the 
war. In 1781 he succeeded Major Andr6 as 
adjutant -general, and on his return to 
England undertook the arrangement of the 
claims of the loyalists for compensation 
for losses in America. He was also at the 
head of a commission for settling all 
army accounts during the war. Because 
of defalcations in his public accounts, he 
was removed from office. He was elected 
to Parliament in 1796; was promoted to 
lieutenant-general in 1801, and to general 
in 1812. He died in Edinburgh. Scotland, 
Sept. 3, 1822. 

Delano, COLUMBUS, statesman ; born in 
Shoreham, Vt., June 5, 1809; settled in 
Mount Vernon, O., in 1817; admitted 



to the bar in 1831, and became prominent 
as a criminal lawyer. He was a member 
of Congress in 1844-04 and 1866-68; was 
appointed United States commissioner of 
internal revenue in 1869, and later by 
reorganizing the bureau increased the re 
ceipts in eight months more than 100 per 
cent.; and was Secretary of the Depart 
ment of the Interior in 1870-75. He died 
in Mount Vernon, O., Oct. 23, 1896. 

Delaware, the first of the thirteen 
original States that ratified the federal 
Constitution ; takes its name from Lord 
De la Warr (Delaware), who entered the 
bay of that name in 1610, when he was 
governor of Virginia. It had been dis 
covered by Hudson in 1609. In 1629 
Samuel Godyn, a director of the Dutch 
West India Company, bought of the Ind 
ians a tract of land near the mouth of 
the Delaware; and the next year De 
Vries, with twenty colonists from Hol 
land, settled near the site of Lewes. The 
colony was destroyed by the natives three 
years afterwards, and the Indians had 
sole possession of that district until 1638, 
when a colony of Swedes and Finns 




STATE SEAL OF DELAWARE. 

landed on Cape Henlopen, and purchased 
the lands along the bay and river as far 
north as the falls at Trenton (see NEW 
SWEDEN). They built Fort Christiana 
near the site of Wilmington. Their settle 
ments were mostly planted within the 
present limits of Pennsylvania. The 
Swedes were conquered by the Dutch of 



61 



DELAWARE 




O1,L) SWKIlISH CIII KCII. WILMINGTOK. DKI.AW AKK. 



New Netherland in 1G55, and from 
that time until 1664, when New Nether- 
land was conquered by the English, 
the territory was claimed by the 
Dutch, and controlled by them. Then 
Lord Baltimore, proprietor of Maryland, 
claimed all the territory on the west side 
of Delaware Bay, and even to lat. 40 ; 
and settlers from Maryland attempted to 
drive away the settlers from the present 
State of Delaware. Wlien William Pc-nn 
obtained a grant of Pennsylvania, he was 
very desirous of owning the land on Dela 
ware Bay to the sea, and procured from 
the Duke of York a release of all his title 



and claim to New Castle and 12 miles 
around it, and to the land between that 
tract and the sea: and in the presence of 
all the settlers he produced his deeds 
(October, 1682), and formally accepted 
the surrender of the territory. Lord Bal 
timore pressed his claim, but in 1685 the 
Lords of Trade and Plantations made a 
decision in Penn s favor. A compromise 
afterwards adjusted all conflicting claims. 
The tracts which now constitute the State 
of Delaware, Penn called " The Terri 
tories," or " Three Lower Counties on the 
Delaware." They were governed as a 
part of Pennsylvania for about twenty 



DELAWARE 



years afterwards, and each county had 
six delegates in the legislature. Then 
Penn allowed them a separate legislature; 
but the colony was under the governor of 
1 ennsylvania until 1776, when the in 
habitants declared it an independent 
State. A constitution was adopted by a 
convention of the people of the three 
counties New Castle, Kent, and Sussex 
Sept. 20, 1776. A State government 
Mas organized, and John McKinley was 
elected its first governor. In 1792 a sec 
ond constitution was framed and adopted. 
Although Delaware was a slave State, it 
refused to secede at the outbreak of the 
Civil War; and, though it assumed a 
sort of neutrality, it furnished several 
regiments of volunteers for the Union 
army. In all the wars Delaware patri 
otically furnished its share of men and 
money for the public defence. In 1902 
the State had an assessed property valua 
tion of $69,351.696; and in 1904 had 
assets of $635,250, in excess of all lia 
bilities. The population in 1890 was 
168,493; in 1900. 184,735. 

When Howe entered Philadelphia (Sep 
tember, 1777) the Americans still held 
control of the Delaware River below that 
city. On Mud Island, near the confluence 
of the Schuylkill and Delaware, was 
built Fort Mimin. On the New Jersey 
shore, opposite, at Red Bank, was Fort 
Mercer, a strong redoubt, well furnished 
with heavy artillery. At Billingsport, on 
the same shore, 3 miles lower down, were 
extensive but unfinished works designed 
lo guard some obstructions in the river 
there. Other formidable obstructions 
were placed in the river below forts 
Mimin and Mercer, in the form of 
ckcvaux-dc-frise sunken crates of stones, 
with heavy spears of iron-pointed timber, 
to receive and pierce the bows of vessels. 
Besides these, there were floating batteries. 
See MERCER, FORT; MIFFLIN, FORT; UNIT 
ED STATES DELAWARE, in vol. ix. 

GOVERNORS OF DELAWARE. 

UNDKR THK SWKDKS. 



GOVERNORS OF DELAWARE Continual. 

ENGLISH COLONIAL. 

From 1664 up to 1682, under the government of New 
York; aud from 1683 up to 1773, uuder the proprietary 
government of Pennsylvania. 

STATE. 



Name. 


Pate. 


John McKmlev 


1776 to 1777 


Caesar Rodnev 


1778 " 1781 


John Dickinson 


1782 " 1783 


John Cook 


1783 


Nicholas Van Dyke 


1784 to 1786 


Thomas Collins 


1786 " 1789 


Joshua Clayton 


1789 " 1796 


Gunning Bedford 


1796 " 1797 


Daniel Rodgers 


1797 1T98 


Richard Bassetl 


1798 1801 


James Sykes 


1801 180 


David Hall 


1802 1805 


Nathaniel Mitchell 


1805 1808 


George Truitt 


1808 " 1811 


Joseph Hazlett 


1811 " 1814 


Daniel Rodney 


1814 " 1817 


John Clark 


1817 " 1820 


Jacob Stout 


1820 " 1821 


John Collins 


1821 " 1822 


Caleb Rodney 


1822 " 1823 


Joseph Hazlett 


1823 " 1824 


Samuel Pavnter 


1824 " 1827 


Charles Po lk 


1827 " 1830 


David Hazzard.... 


1830 1833 


Caleb P. Bennett 


1833 1836 


Charles Polk 


1836 1837 


Cornelius P. Comegys 


1837 1840 


William B. Cooper 


1840 1844 


Thomas Stockton 


1844 " 1846 


Joseph Maul 


1846 


William Temple 


1846 


William Thorp 


1847 to 1851 


William H. Ross 


1851 " 1855 


Peter F. Causey .. 


1855 " 1859 


William Burton 


1859 " 1863 


William Cannon 


1863 " 1867 


Grove Saulsbury 


1867 " 1871 


James Ponder 


1871 " 1875 


John P. Cochrau 


1875 " 1879 


John W. Hull 


1879 " 1883 


Charles C. Stockley 


1883 1887 


Benjamin T. Biggs 


1887 " 1891 


Robert J. Reynolds 


1891 " 1895 


Joshua H. Marvil 


1895 


William T. Watson 


1895 to 1897 


Ebe VV. Tuunell 


1897 " 1901 


John Hunn 


1901 " 1905 


Preston Lea 


1905 " 1909 



UNITED STATES SENATORS 



Name. 


Date. 


Peter Minuit 


1638 to KilO 


Peter Hollender 


1640 " ll)4 


Johan Printz 


1643 " 1652 


Johan Pappegoia 


1653 " 1654 


Johan C. Rising.. 


1654 " 1655 



UNDKR THE BOTCH. 

Peter stuvves-ant I 1656 to 1664 



Name. 


No. of Congress 


Date. 


Richard Bassett 


Island 2d 


1789 to 1793 


George Read 


1st " 2d 


1789 17113 


Henrv I/atimer 


3d to 6th 


1793 1.S01 




3d " 5th 


1793 1798 




Mb 


1798 


William Hill Wells 


5th to 8th 


1799 to 1805 


Samuel White 


7th llth 


1801 1809 


James A. Bayard 


8th 12th 


1805 1813 




llth 16th 


1810 < 1821 


William Hill Wells 


13th 14th 


1813 1817 


Nicholas Van Dvke 


15th 19th 


1817 1827 


Cfesar A. Rodney 


17th 


1821 1823 




18th to 19th 


1824 1827 


Daniel Rodnov . ... 


19th 


1826 


Henry M Ridgely 


19th to 20th 


1827 to 1829 


Louis MrT,ane 


20th " 21st 


1827 " 1829 


Jolin M Clavtou 


21st 23d 


182!) " 1835 




21st 2:ld 


1830 " IHHti 




24th 28th 


1836 " 184.-> 


Thomas Clayton 


24th 29th 


1837 " 1847 


John H. Clayton . . 


29th 30th 


1845 " 1849 



C.3 



DELAWARE DELAWARE INDIANS 



UNITED STATES SENATORS Continued. 



Name. 


No. of Congress. 


Date. 




30th to 31st 


1849 to 1H51 


1 resley Spruaure 


30th " 32d 


1847 " 1853 


James A. Bayard 


32d " 3Hth 


1851 " 18G4 


Joliu M. Clayton 
Joseph P. Comegvs 


33d " 34th 
34th 


1853 " 1856 
185C 


Martin Bates 


35th 


1858 


Willanl Saulsburv 


3Gth to 41st 


1859 to 1871 


George Head Kiddle 


38th " 4Uth 


18C4 " 1867 


James A. Bayard 


40lh 


1807 " 1869 


Thomas Francis Bayard. . 
Eli Saulsbury 


41st to 48th 
4 (1 " 00th 


18G9 " 1885 
1871 " 1889 


George Gray 


4!. til " 5Gth 


1885 " 1S99 


Anthony Higgins 


51st " C4th 


.) " 1895 


Richard R. Kenney 


54th " Of.th 


1897 " 1901 


Lewis H. Ball 


. r )8th 1 


1903 " 1905 


James F. Allee 


58th to 50th 


1903 " 1907 



Delaware, or Delawarr, THOMAS WEST, 
3n LORD; appointed governor of Virginia 
in 1609. He built two forts at the mouth 
of the James River, which he named 
Henry and Charles, in honor of the King s 
sons. In 1611 he sailed for the West 
Indies, hut was driven hack by a storm 
and landed at the mouth of the Delaware 
River, whence he sailed for England. In 
1618 he embarked for Virginia and died 
on the voyage. 

Delaware Indians, an important fam 
ily of the Algonquian nation, also called 
Lenni-Lcnapes, or " men." When the 
Europeans found them, they were dwell 



ing in detached bands, under separate 
sachems on the Delaware River. The 
Dutch traded with them as early as 1613, 
and held friendly relations with them; 
but in 1632 the Dutch settlement of Swan- 
endael was destroyed by them. The 
Swedes found them peaceful when they 
settled on the Delaware. This family 
claim to have come from the west with 
the Minquas. to whom they became vas 
sals. They also claimed to be the source 
of all the Algonquians, and were styled 
" grandfathers." The Dclawares com 
prised three powerful families (Turtle, 
Turkey, and Wolf), and were known as 
Minscys, or Munsees, and Delawares 
proper. The former occupied the northern 
part of New Jersey and a portion of Penn 
sylvania, and the latter inhabited lower 
New Jersey, the banks of the Delaware 
below Trenton, and the whole valley of 
the Schuylkill. After the conquest of 
New Netherland, the English kept up 
trade with the Delawares, and William 
Penn and his followers bought large tracts 
of land from them. They were parties 
on the Indian side to the famous treaty 
with Penn. At that time the Indians 
within the limits of his domain were 
estimated at 6,000 in number. The FIVE 




WILLIAM PENS PURCHASING LAND FROM THE DELAWARE INDIANS. 

64 



DELAWARE INDIANS DELMAR 

NATIONS (</. r.) conquered the Delawares, of a treaty in 1787, a small hand of DeUi- 
ajid called them "women" in contempt; wares returned to the Muskingum, the 
and when, at the middle of the eighteenth remainder being hostile. These fought 
century, the latter, dissatisfied with the Wayne, and were parties to the treaty at 
interpretation of a treaty, refused to Greenville in 1795. The scattered tribes 
leave their land, the Five Nations in Ohio refused to join Tecumseh in the 
haughtily ordered them to go. War of 1812, and in 1818 they ceded all 

Commingling with warlike tribes, the their lands to the United States, and set- 
Delawares became warlike themselves, and tied on the White River, in Illinois, to 
developed great energy on the war-path, the number of 1,800, leaving a small 
They fought the Cherokees, and in 1773 remnant behind. They finally settled in 
some of them went over the mountains Kansas, where missions were established 
and settled in Ohio. As early as 1741 among them, and they rapidly increased 
the Moravians had begun missionary work in the arts of civilized life. In the Civil 
among them on the Lehigh, near Bethle- War, the Delawares furnished 170 soldiers 
hem and Nazareth, and a little church for the National army. Having acquired 
was soon filled with Indian converts. At land from the Cherokees in the Indian 
the beginning of the French and Indian Territory, they now occupy the Coowees- 
War the Delawares were opposed to the coowee and Delaware districts; numbered 
English, excepting a portion who were led 754 in 1900. 

by the Moravians; but in treaties held Delaware River, WASHINGTON S PAS- 
at Easton, Pa., at different times, from SAGE OF THE. At the close of November, 
1750 until 1761, they made peace with the 177G, the British occupied New Jersey, 
English, and redeemed themselves from and only the Delaware River shut off Corn- 
their vassalage to the Six NATIONS (q. v.}. wallis from Philadelphia. On Dec. 2, 
They settled on the Susquehanna, the Washington, with a considerable force, 
Christian Indians apart. Then another crossed the river, securing every boat so 
emigration over the mountains occurred, that the British were unable to follow 
and they planted a settlement at Mus- him. Determined to surprise the Hessians, 
kingum, 0. These joined Pontiac, and under Colonel Rahl, at Trenton, Washing- 
besieged Fort Pitt and other frontier ton recrossed the river a few miles above 
posts, but were defeated in August, 17G3, Trenton on Dec. 25, with 2,400 men and 
by Colonel Bouquet, and their great chief, twenty pieces of artillery. Owing to the 
Teedyuscung, was killed. Their towns darkness and the floating ice it was 4 
were ravaged, and the Moravian converts, A.M. on the 26th before the entire force 
who were innocent, fled for refuge to had crossed. General Knox, the constant 
Philadelphia. These returned to the Siis- companion of Washington throughout the 
quehanna in 1764, and the Ohio portion war, had crossed the river before it became 
made peace at Muskingum the same choked with ice, and during the night 
year, and at Fort Pitt in 1765. The that Washington and his party recrossed 
remainder in Pennsylvania emigrated to it, Knox stood on the opposite shore, and 
Ohio, and in 1786 not a Delaware was indicated where a landing could be safely 
left east of the Alleghany Mountains, made. See TKENTON. BATTLE OF. 
Moravian missionaries went with their Delfthaven, the port of Holland from 
flocks, and the Christian Indians increased, which the Pilgrim fathers sailed in tho 
The pagans kept upon the war-path until K^cedircll. July 22, 1620, for Southamp- 
tlicy wore severely smitten in a drawn ton. They embarked on the Mayflower at 
battle at Point Pleasant, in 1774. Plymouth. 

The Delawares joined the English when Delmar, ALEXANDER, political econo- 
the Revolutionary War broke out, but mist : born in New York, Aug. 9, 1836 : 
made peace with the Americans in 1778, edited Daily Ann rlcmi Times; Hunt s 
\\licn a massacre of ninety of the Chris- Merchants M<i<r;ine; Financial Chron- 
tian Indians in Ohio by the Americans icle, etc., and published Gold Money and 
aroused the fury of the tribe. Being Paper Money; Treatise on Taxation; The 
almost powerless, they fled to the Huron National Banking System; History of 
Piiver and Canada. Under the provisions Money and the Monetary System, etc. 
HI. E 65 



DE LONG DEMOCRACY IN NEW NETHEBLAND 

De Long, GEORGE WASHINGTON, ex- port, Melville with his party started im- 
plorer; born in New York City, Aug. 22, mediately on a search for De Long and 
1844; graduated at the United States his companions, and on March 23, 1882. 
Naval Academy in 1805, and promoted found their remains, together with the 
ensign in 18G6; master in 1868; lieuten- records of the expedition and De Long s 
ant in 1869; and lieutenant-commander, diary written up to Oct. 30 previous. The 
Nov. 1, 1879. He was with Capt. Daniel United States government had the remains 
L. Braine on the Juniata, when he was of De Long and his companions brought 
ordered, in 1873, to search for the miss- home and they were interred with appro- 
ing Arctic steamer Polaris and her crew, priate honors on Feb. 22, 1884. See The 
On Jury 8, 1879, he was given command of Voyage of the Jcannette, by Mrs. De 
the Jeannettc, which had been fitted out Long; and In the Lena Delta, by George 
by JAMES GORDON BENNETT, JR. (q. v.) , W. Melville. 

for a three years exploration trip via Deming, WILLIAM, gun-founder; born 
Bering Strait. By an act of Congress the in 1736; during the Revolution construct- 
vessel was placed under the authority of ed the first wrought-iron cannon ever made 
the government. After touching at Ouna- in America, one of which was captured 
laska, St. Michael s and St. Lawrence by the British at the battle of Brandy- 
Bay, the Jeannette sailed to Cape Serdze wine, and is kept as a curiosity at the 
Kamen, Siberia, in search of Professor Tower of London. He died in Mifflin, Pa., 
Nordenskjold, the Swedish explorer. Sail- Dec. 19, 1830. 

ing northward the vessel was caught in Democracy in New Netherland. 
the pack-ice, Sept. 5, 1879, off Herald Isl- Gov. WILLIAM KIEFT (q. v.) had resolved 
and, and, after drifting 600 miles to the to chasten the Raritan Indians for a grave 
northwest in a devious course, was crushed offence. He called upon the people to 
by the ice, June 13, 1881. Thus Lieuten- shoulder their muskets for a fight. They 
ant-Commander De Long and his crew knew his avarice and greed, and withal his 
were adrift in the Arctic Sea 150 miles cowardice, and boldly charged these things 
from the New Siberian Islands and more upon him. " It is all well for you," they 
than 300 miles from the nearest point of said, " who have not slept out of the fort 
the mainland of Asia. With his party he a single night since you came, to endanger 
started southward, and on July 28, 1881, our lives and our homes in undefended 
arrived at Bennett Island, and on Aug. 20 places," and they refused to obey. This 
at Thaddeus Island, from which place they attitude of the people transformed the 
travelled in boats. De Long, with four- governor. He invited (Aug. 23, 1641) the 
teen others out of his crew of thirty- heads of families of New Amsterdam to 
three, reached the main mouth of the meet him in consultation on public af- 
Lena River, Sept. 17, having travelled fairs. They assembled at the fort, and 
about 2,800 miles, and landing on the promptly chose twelve citizens to represent 
mainland about 500 miles from their ship. them. So appeared the first popular as- 
With his men he proceeded as fast as he sembly, and so was chosen the first rep- 
could until Oct. 9, when it became im- resentative congress in New Netherland. 
possible to travel farther owing to the It was a spontaneous outgrowth of the 
debility of the men. The party had sepa- innate spirit of democracy that animated 
rated into three branches, one command- the people. The twelve were the vigorous 
ed by De Long, the second by Lieutenant seeds of that representative democracy 
C liipp. and the third by CHIEF EXCI.VEER which bore fruit in all the colonies more 
GEORGE W. MELVILLE (q. v.). All of De than a century later. Again, when the 
Long s party, excepting two, perished; colony was threatened with destruction by 
Chipp s boat was lost in a gale, with the Indians, Kieft summoned the people 
eight men; but Melville, with nine others, into council (September, 1643), who 
succeeded in reaching a small village on chose eight men as the popular represen- 
the Lena. The two survivors of the De tatives to act with the governor in pub- 
Long party, who had been sent by that lie affairs. Again when Gov. PETER 
officer in search of relief, met the Melville STTJYVESANT (q. v.} found the finances of 
party on Oct. 29. On hearing their re- the colony of New Netherland in such a 

66 



DEMOCBACY IN NEW NETHERLAND 

wretched condition that taxation was was to form and adopt a remonstrance 
necessary, he dared not tax the people against the tyrannous rule of the govern- 
without their consent, for fear of offend- or. It was drawn by Baxter, signed by 
ing the States-General, so he called a all the delegates present, and sent to the 
convention of citizens, and directed them governor, with a demand that he should 
to choose eighteen of their best men, of give a " categorical answer." In it the 
whom he might select nine as represen- grievances of the people were stated 
tatives of the tax-payers, and who should under six heads. Stuyvesant met this 
form a co-ordinate branch of the local severe document with his usual pluck, 
government. He tried to hedge them He denied the right of some of the dele- 
around with restrictions, but the nine gates to seats in the convention. He de- 
proved to be more potent in promoting nounced the whole thing as the wicked 
popular liberty than had Kieft s twelve, work of Englishmen, and doubted whether 
They nourished the prolific seed of George Baxter knew what he was about, 
democracy, which burst into vigorous life He wanted to know whether there was 
in the time of JACOB LEISLEE ( q. v.). no one among the Dutch in New Nether- 
Stuyvesant tried to stifle its growth. The land " sagacious and expert enough to 
more it was opposed, the more vigorous draw up a remonstrance to the Director- 
it grew. General and his council," and severely 
Late in the autumn of 1653 a conven- reprimanded the new city government of 
tion of nineteen delegates, who represented New Amsterdam (New York) for " seiz- 
eight villages or communities, assembled ing this dangerous opportunity for con- 
at the town-hall in New Amsterdam, os- spiring with the English [with whom 
tensibly to take measures to secure them- Holland was then at war], who were ever 
selves from the depredations of the bar- hatching mischief, but never performing 
barians around them and sea-rovers. The their promises, and who might to-morrow 
governor tried in vain to control their ally themselves with the North" mean- 
action ; they paid A r ery little attention to ing Sweden and Denmark. The conven- 
his wishes or his commands. He stormed tion was not to he intimidated by bluster, 
and threatened, but prudently yielded to They informed Stuyvesant, by the mouth 
the demands of the people that he should of Beeckman, that unless he answered 
issue a call for another convention, and their complaints, they would appeal to 
give legal sanction for the election of dele- the States-General. At this the governor 
gates thereto. These met in New Am- took fire, and, seizing his cane, ordered 
sterdam on Dec. 10, 1653. Of the eight Beeckman to leave his presence. The 
districts represented, four were Dutch and plucky ambassador coolly folded his arms, 
four English. Of the nineteen delegates, and silently defied the magistrate, 
ten were of Dutch and nine were of Eng- When Stuyvesant s anger had abated, he 
lish nativity. This was the first really asked Beeckman s pardon for his rude- 
representative assembly in the great State ness. He was not so complaisant with the 
of New York chosen by the people. The convention. He ordered them to dis- 
names of the delegates were as follows: perse on pain of his "high displeasure." 
From New Amsterdam, Van Hattem, The convention executed their threat by 
Kregier, and Van de Grist; from sending an advocate to Holland to lay 
Breucklen (Brooklyn), Lubbertsen, Van their grievances before the States-Gen 
der Beeck, and Beeckman; from Flushing, eral. 

Hicks and Flake; from Newtown, Coe and It has been observed how the first germ 

Hazard; from Heemstede (Hempstead), of democracy or republicanism appeared 

Washburn and Somers; from Amersfoort in New Amsterdam, and was checked in 

(Flatlands), Wolfertsen, Strycker, and its visible growth by the heel of power. 

Swartwout; from Midwont (Flatbush), It grew, nevertheless. It was stimulated 

Elbertsen and Spicer; and from Graves- by the kind acts of Gov. THOMAS DONGAN 

end, Baxter and Hubbard. Baxter was (q. v.) ; and when the English revolution 

at that time the English secretary of of 1688 had developed the strength of 

the colony, and he led the English the people s will, and their just aspira- 

dolegates. The object of this convention tions were formulated in the Bill of 

67 



DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES 



Rights, it sprang up into a vigorous 
fruit-bearing plant. It* power was mani 
fested in the choice and administration 
of Leisler as ruler until a royal governor 
was appointed, and his death caused the 
line of separation between democracy and 
aristocracy republicanism and monarchy 
" Leislerians " and " Anti-Leislerians " 
to be distinctly drawn. During the 
exciting period of Leisler s rule, the 
aristocratic or royalist party were led by 
NICHOLAS BAYARD ( q. v. ) , a wealthy and 
influential citizen, who was warmly sec 
onded by ROREET LIVINGSTON (q. v.). 
These two men were chiefly instrumental 
in bringing Leisler to the scaffold and 
treating his family and friends in a 
shameful manner. This conduct was con 
tinued until the Earl of Bellomont suc 
ceeded Fletcher as governor, when the 
Anti-Leislerians " were reduced to a 
minority, and kept quiet for a while. 
After the death of Bellomont (March 5, 
1701), John Nanfan, his lieutenant, ruled 
for a while. Nanfan favored the demo 
cratic party. As soon as it was known 
that LORD CORNBTJRY (q. v.) , a thorough 
aristocrat and royalist, had been appointed 
governor, Bayard and his party heaped 
abuse not only upon the dead Bellomont, 
but upon Nanfan. The latter saw that 
Bayard was on the verge of a pit which 
he had digged himself, and he pushed him 



into it. Bayard had procured an act, in 
1091, aimed at Leisler and his supporters, 
providing that any person who should in 
any manner endeavor to disturb the gov 
ernment of the colony should be deemed 
" rebels and traitors unto their majesties," 
and should incur the pains and penalties 
of the laws of England for such offence. 
Bayard was arrested on a charge of 
treason, tried, convicted, and received the 
horrid sentence then imposed by the Eng 
lish law upon traitors to be hanged, quar 
tered, etc. Bayard applied for a reprieve 
until his Majesty s pleasure should be 
known. It was granted, and in the mean 
time Cornbury arrived, when all was re 
versed. Bayard was released and rein 
stated. The democrats were placed under 
the lash of the aristocrats, which Bayard 
and Livingston used without mercy by the 
hand of the wretched ruler to whom they 
offered libations of flattery. The chief- 
justice who tried Bayard, and the advocate 
who opposed him, were compelled to fly to 
England. From that time onward there 
was a continuous conflict by the democ 
racy of New York with the aristocracy 
as represented by the royal governors and 
their official parasites. It fought bravely, 
and won many victories, the greatest of 
which was in a fierce battle for the free 
dom of the press, in the case of JOHX 
PETER ZENGER (q. v.). 



DEMOCRACY 



Democracy in the "United States, 
CHARACTER OF.* Prof. Woodrow Wilson 
of Princeton University (Professor of 
Jurisprudence and Politics), the well- 
known author, critic, and lecturer, writes 
as follows: 

Everything apprises us of the fact that 
we are not the same nation now that 
we were when the government was form 
ed. In looking back to that time, the im- 
pres3ion is inevitable that we started with 
sundry wrong ideas about ourselves. We 
deemed ourselves rank democrats, whereas 
we were in fact only progressive English- 



advocacy, the Federalist, and note the 
perverse tendency of its writers to refer 
to Greece and Rome for precedents that 
Greece and Rome which haunted all our 
earlier and even some of our more mature 
years. Recall, too, that familiar story of 
Daniel Webster which tells of his coming 
homo exhausted from an interview with 
the first President-elect Harrison, whose 
Secretary of State he was to be, and ex 
plaining that he had been obliged in the 
course of the conference, which concerned 
the inaugural address about to be deliver 
ed, to kill nine Roman consuls whom it 
had been the intention of the good con- 



men. Turn the leaves of that sage man- queror of Tippecanoe publicly to take mto 
ual of constitutional interpretation and 
* By courtesy of Messrs. Charles Scribner s 



Sons. 



office with him. The truth is that we long 
imagined ourselves related in some un 
explained way to all ancient republicans. 



08 



DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF 

Strangely enough, too, we at the same sympathy also, though little justification, 

time accepted the quite incompatible for such as caught a generous elevation 

theory that we were related also to the of spirit from the speculative enthusiasm 

French philosophical radicals. We claim- of Rousseau. 

ed kinship with democrats everywhere For us who stand in the dusty matter- 

with all democrats. We can now scarcely of-fact Avorld of to-day, there is a touch 

realize the atmosphere of such thoughts, of pathos in recollections of the ardor for 

We are no longer wont to refer to the democratic liberty that filled the air 

ancients or to the French for sanction of of Europe and America a century ago 

what we do. We have had abundant ex- with such quickening influences. We 

perience of our own by which to reckon, may sometimes catch ourselves regretting 

" Hardly any fact in history," says Mr. that the inoculations of experience have 

Bagehot, writing about the middle of the closed our systems against the infections 

century, " is so incredible as that forty of hopeful revolution. 
and a few years ago England was ruled 

bv Mr Perceval It seems almost the Bliss was Jt in that dawn to be alive 

But to be young was very heaven ! O times 

same as being ruled by the Record news- in which the meagre, stale, forbidding 

paper." (Mr. Bagehot would now prob- ways 

ably say the Standard newspaper.) "He f custom law and statute took at once 

The attraction of a country in romance ! 

had the same poorness of thought, the When Reas on seemed the most to assert 

same petty conservatism, the same dark her rights, 

and narrow superstition." " The mere fact When most intent on making of herself 

of such a premier being endured shows ^^^^^oiSg Torwa^ Tn^er 

how deeply the whole national spirit and name ! 

interest was absorbed in the contest with Not favored spots alone, but the whole 

Napoleon, how little we understood the 

, , , ,, The beauty wore of promise, that which 

sort of man who should regulate its con- sets 

duct in the crisis of Europe, as Sydney (As at some moment might not be unfelt 

Smith said, he safely brought the cu- Among the bowers of paradise itself) 

rates salaries improvement bill to a hear- 1 "* r S6 ab Ve the F Se fu " 



ing ; and it still more shows the horror 

of all innovation which the recent events Such was the inspiration which not 

of French history had impressed on our Wordsworth alone, but Coleridge also, 

wealthy and comfortable classes. They and many another generous spirit whom 

were afraid of catching revolution, as old we love, caught in that day of hope. 

women of catching cold. Sir Archibald It is common to say, in explanation of 

Alison to this day holds that revolution our regret that the dawn and youth of 

is an infectious disease, beginning no one democracy s day are past, that our prin- 

knows how, and going on no one knows ciples are cooler now and more circum- 

where. There is but one rule of escape, spect, with the coolness and circum- 

explains the great historian: Stay still; spection of advanced years. It seems to 

don t move; do what you have been ac- some that our enthusiasms have become 

customed to do; and consult your grand- tamer and more decorous because our 

mother on everything. sinews have hardened ; that as experience 

Almost equally incredible to us is the has grown idealism has declined. But to 

ardor of revolution that filled the world in speak thus is to speak with the old self- 

those first days of our national life the deception as to the character of our 

fact that one of the rulers of the world s politics. If we are suffering disappoint- 

mind in that generation was Rousseau, ment, it is the disappointment of an 

the apostle of all that is fanciful, unreal, awakening: we were dreaming. For we 

and misleading in politics. To be ruled never had any business hearkening to 

by him was like taking an account of life Rousseau or consorting with Europe in 

from Mr. Rider Haggard. And yet there revolutionary sentiment. The government 

is still much sympathy in this timid world which we founded one hundred years ago 

for the dull people who felt safe in the was no type of an experiment in ad- 

hands of Mr. Perceval, and, happily, much vanced democracy, as we allowed Europe 

69 



DEMOCBACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OP 

and even ourselves to suppose; it was freedom of thought and the diffusion of 
simply an adaptation of English consti- enlightenment among the people. Steam 
tutional government. If we suffered Eu- and electricity have co-operated with sys- 
rope to study our institutions as instances tematic popular education to accomplish 
in point touching experimentation in this diffusion. The progress of popular 
politics, she was the more deceived. If education and the progress of democracy 
we began the first century of our national have been inseparable. The publication 
existence under a similar impression our- of their great encyclopaedia by Diderot 
selves, there is the greater reason why and his associates in France in the last 
we should start out upon a new century century, was the sure sign of the change 
of national life with more accurate con- that was setting in. Learning was turn- 
ceptions. ing its face away from the studious few 
To this end it is important that the towards the curious many. The intellect- 
following, among other things, should be ual movement of the modern time was 
kept prominently in mind: emerging from the narrow courses of 

1. That there are certain influences scholastic thought, and beginning to 
astir in this country which make for spread itself abroad over the extended, if 
democracy the world over, and that these shallow, levels of the common mind. The 
influences owe their origin in part to the serious forces of democracy will be found, 
radical thought of the last century; but upon analysis, to reside, not in the dis- 
that it was not such forces that made us turbing doctrines of eloquent revolution- 
democratic, nor are we responsible for ary writers, not in the turbulent discon- 
them. tent of the pauperized and oppressed, so 

2. That, so far from owing our gov- much as in the educational forces of the 
ernments to these general influences, we last 150 years, which have elevated the 
began, not by carrying out any theory, masses in many countries to a plane of 
but by simply carrying out a history understanding and of orderly, intelligent 
inventing nothing, only establishing a purpose more nearly on a level with the 
specialized species of English govern- average man of the classes that have 
ment; that we founded, not democracy, hitherto been permitted to govern. The 
but constitutional government in America, movements towards democracy which 

3. That the government which we thus have mastered all the other political ten- 
set up in a perfectly normal manner dencies of our day are not older than the 
has nevertheless changed greatly under middle of the last century ; and that is just 
our hands, by reason both of growth and the age of the now ascendant movement 
of the operation of the general democratic towards systematic popular education, 
forces the European, or rather world- Yet organized popular education is only 
wide, democratic forces of which I have one of the quickening influences that have 
spoken. been producing the general enlighten- 

4. That two things, the great size to ment which is everywhere becoming the 
which our governmental organism has promise of general liberty. Rather, it is 
attained, and, still more, this recent ex- only part of a great whole, vastly larger 
posure of its character and purposes to than itself. Schools are but separated 
the common democratic forces of the age seed-beds, in which the staple thoughts 
of steam and electricity, have created new of the steady and stay-at-home people are 
problems of organization, which it be- prepared and nursed. Not much of the 
hooves us to meet in the old spirit, but world, moreover, goes to school in the 
with new measures. school-house. But through the mighty 

influences of commerce and the press the 
world itself has become a school. The 

First, then, for the forces which are air is alive with the multitudinous voices 

bringing in democratic temper and method of information. Steady trade-winds of 

the world over. It is matter of familiar intercommunication have sprung up which 

knowledge what these forces are, but it carry the seeds of education and enlight- 

\vill be profitable to our thought to pass enment, wheresoever planted, to every 

them once more in review. They are quarter of the globe. No scrap of 

70 



DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF 

thought can escape being borne away without stirring from home, by merely 

from its place of birth by these all- spelling out the print that covers every 

absorbing currents. No idea can be kept piece of paper about him. If men are 

exclusively at home, but is taken up thrown, for any reason, into the swift 

by the trader, the reporter, the traveller, and easy currents of travel, they find 

the missionary, the explorer, and is given themselves brought daily face to face with 

to all the world in the newspapers, the persons native of every clime, with prac- 

uovel, the memoir, the poem, the treatise, tices suggestive of whole histories, with 

till every community may know, not only a thousand things which challenge 

itself, but all the world as well, for the curiosity, inevitably provoking inquiries 

small price of learning to read and keep- such as enlarge knowledge of life and 

ing its ears open. All the world, so shake the mind imperatively loose from 

far as its news and its most insistent old preconceptions. 

thoughts are concerned, is fast being made These are the forces which have estab- 

every man s neighbor. lished the drift towards democracy. 

Carlyle unquestionably touched one of When all sources of information are 
the obvious truths concerning modern accessible to all men alike, when the 
democracy when he declared it to be the world s thought and the world s news are 
result of printing. In the newspaper scattered broadcast where the poorest 
press a whole population is made critic may find them, the non-democratic forms 
of all human affairs ; democracy is " virtu- of government must find life a desperate 
ally extant," and " democracy virtually venture. Exclusive privilege needs pri- 
extant will insist on becoming palpably vacy, but cannot have it. King^nip of 
extant." Looked at in the large, the the elder patterns needs sanctity, but can 
newspaper press is a type of democracy, find it nowhere obtainable in a world of 
bringing all men without distinction un- news items and satisfied curiosity. The 
der comment made by any man without many will no longer receive submissively 
distinction ; every topic is reduced to a the thought of a ruling few, but insist 
common standard of news; everything upon having opinions of their own. The 
is noted and argued about by everybody, reaches of public opinion have been in- 
Nothing could give surer promise of finitely extended; the number of voices 
popular power than the activity and that must be heeded in legislation and 
alertness of thought which are made in executive policy has been infinitely 
through such agencies to accompany the multiplied. Modern influences have in- 
training of the public schools. The ac- clined every man to clear his throat for 
tivity may often be misdirected or un- a word in the world s debates. They have 
wholesome, may sometimes be only fever- popularized everything they have touched, 
ish and mischievous, a grievous product In the newspapers, it is true, there is 
of narrow information and hasty con- very little concert between the writers; 
elusion ; but it is none the less a stirring little but piecemeal opinion is created by 
and potent activity. It at least marks their comment and argument; there is 
the initial stages of effective thought. It no common voice amid their counsellings. 
makes men conscious of the existence and But the aggregate voice thunders with 
interest of affairs lying outside the dull tremendous volume; and that aggregate 
round of their own daily lives. It gives voice is " public opinion." Popular edu- 
them nations, instead of neighborhoods, cation and cheap printing and travel 
to look upon and think about. They vastly thicken the ranks of thinkers every- 
catch glimpses of the international con- where that their influence is felt, and by 
nections of their trades, of the universal rousing the multitude to take knowledge 
application of law, of the endless variety of the affairs of government prepare the 
of life, of diversities of race, of a world time when the multitude will, so far as 
teeming with men like themselves, and possible, take charge of the affairs of 
yet full of strange customs, puzzled by government the time when, to repeat 
dim omens, stained by crime, ringing with Carlyle s phrase, democracy will become 
voices familiar and unfamiliar. palpably extant. 

And all this a man can nowadays get But, mighty as such forces are, demo- 

71 



DEMOCBACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF 

cratic as they are, no one can fail to per- ment of the men to whom we owe the 
ceive that they are inadequate to produce establishment of our institutions in the 
of themselves such a government as ours. United States, we are at once made aware 
There is little in them of constructive that there is no communion between their 
efficacy. They could not of themselves democracy and the radical thought and 
build any government at all. They are restless spirit called by that name in 
critical, analytical, questioning, quizzing Europe. There is almost nothing in corn- 
forces; not architectural, not powers that mon between popular outbreaks such as 
devise and build. The influences of pop- took place in France at her great Revolu- 
ular education, of the press, of travel, tion and the establishment of a government 
of commerce, of the innumerable agen- like our own. Our memories of the year 
cies which nowadays send knowledge and 1789 are as far as possible removed from 
thought in quick pulsations through every the memories which Europe retains of 
part and member of society, do not neces- that pregnant year. We manifested 100 
sarily mould men for effective endeavor, years ago what Europe lost, namely, self- 
They may only confuse and paralyze the command, self-possession. Democracy in 
mind with their myriad stinging lashes of Europe, outside of closeted Switzerland, 
excitement. They may only strengthen has acted always in rebellion, as a de- 
the impression that " the world s a stage," structive force: it can scarcely be said 
and that no one need do more than sit to have had, even yet, any period of 
and look on through his ready glass, the organic development. It has built such 
newspaper. They overwhelm one with im- temporary governments as it has had op 
pressions, but do they give stalwartness portunity to erect on the old foundations 
to his manhood? Do they make his hand and out of the discredited materials of 
any steadier on the plough, or his pur- centralized rule, elevating the people s 
pose any clearer with reference to the representatives for a season to the throne, 
duties of the moment? They stream light but securing almost as little as ever of 
about him. it may be, but do they clear that every-day local self-government which 
his vision? Is he better able to see be- lies so near to the heart of liberty. Democ- 
cause they give him countless things to racy in America, on the other hand, and 
look at? Is he better able to judge be- in the English colonies has had, almost 
cause they fill him with a delusive sense from the first, a truly organic growth, 
of knowing everything? Activity of mind There was nothing revolutionary in its 
is not necessarily strength of mind. It movements : it had not to overthrow other 
may manifest itself in mere dumb show; polities; it had only to organize itself. 
it may run into jigs as well as into stren- It had not to create, but only to expand, 
nous work at noble tasks. A man s farm self-government. It did not need to 
does not yield its fruits the more abun- spread propaganda: it needed nothing but 
dantly in their season because he reads to methodize its ways of living, 
the world s news in the papers. A mer- In brief, we were doing nothing essen- 
chant s shipments do not multiply because tially new a century ago. Our strength 
he studies history. Banking is none the and our facility alike inhered in our tra- 
less hazardous to the banker s capital and ditions; those traditions made our char- 
taxing to his powers because the best acter and shaped our institutions. Lib- 
writing of the best essayists is to be erty is not something that can be created 
bought cheap. by a document; neither is it something 
jy which, when created, can be laid away in 

a document, a completed work. It is an 

Very different were the forces behind organic principle a principle of life, re- 
us. Nothing establishes the republican newing and being renewed. Democratic 
state save trained capacity for self-gov- institutions are never done : they are like 
ernment, practical aptitude for public af- living tissue, always a-making. It is a 
fairs, habitual soberness and temperate- strenuous thing, this of living the life of 
ness of united action. When we look a free people ; and our success in it de- 
back to the moderate sagacity and stead- pends upon training, not upon clever 
fast, self-contained habit in self-govern- invention. 

72 



DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF 

Our democracy, plainly, was not a body through long heredity. It is poison to the 

of doctrine; it was a stage of develop- infant, but tonic to the man. Monarchies 

ment. Our democratic state was not a may be made, but democracies must grow, 
piece of developed theory, but a piece of It is a deeply significant fact, therefore, 

developed habit. It was not created by again and again to be called to mind, that 

mere aspirations or by new faith; it was only in the United States, in a few other 

built up by slow custom. Its process was governments begotten of the English race, 

experience, its basis old wont, its meaning and in Switzerland, where old Teutonic 

national organic oneness and effective life, habit has had the same persistency as in 

It came, like manhood, as the fruit of England, have examples yet been furnish- 

youth. An immature people could not have ed of successful democracy of the modern 

had it, and the maturity to which it type. England herself is close upon 

was vouchsafed was the maturity of free- democracy. Her backwardness in entering 

dom and self-control. Such government upon its full practice is no less instruc- 

as ours is a form of conduct, and its only tive as to the conditions prerequisite to 

stable foundation is character. A par- democracy than is the forwardness of ber 

ticular form of government may no more offspring. She sent out to all her colonies 

be adopted than a particular type of which escaped the luckless beginning of 

character may be adopted: both institu- being made penal settlements, compara- 

tions and character must be developed tively small, homogeneous populations of 

by conscious effort and through trans- pioneers, with strong instincts of self- 

mitted aptitudes. government, and with no social materials 

Governments such as ours are founded out of which to build government other- 
upon discussion, and government by dis- wise than democratically. She, herself. 
cussion conies as late in political as scien- meanwhile, retained masses of population 
tine thought in intellectual development, never habituated to participation in gov- 
It is a habit of state life created by long- ernment, untaught in political principle 
established circumstance, and is possible either by the teachers of the hustings or of 
for a nation only in the adult age of its the school-house. She has had to approach 
political life. The people who success- democracy, therefore, by slow and cau- 
fully maintain such a government must tious extensions of the franchise to those 
have gone through a period of political prepared for it; while her better colonies, 
training which shall have prepared them born into democracy, have had to receive 
by gradual steps of acquired privilege all comers within their pale. She has 
for assuming the entire control of their been paring down exclusive privileges and 
affairs. Long and slowly widening ex- levelling classes; the colonies have from 
perience in local self-direction must have the first been asylums of civil equality, 
prepared them for national self-direction. They have assimilated new while she has 
They must have acquired adult self-re- prepared old populations, 
liance, self-knowledge, and self-control, Erroneous as it is to represent govern- 
adult soberness and deliberateness of ment as only a commonplace sort of busi- 
judgment, adult sagacity in self-govern- ness, little elevated in method above mer- 
ment, adult vigilance of thought and chandising, and to be regulated by count- 
quickness of insight. When practised, not ing-house principles, the favor easily won 
by small communities, but by wide na- for such views among our own people is 
tions, democracy, far from being a crude very significant. It means self-reliance in 
form of government, is possible only government. It gives voice to the emi- 
among peoples of the highest and steadi- nently modern democratic feeling that 
est political habit. It is the heritage of government is no hidden cult, to be left 
races purged alike of hasty barbaric pas- to a few specially prepared individuals, 
sions and of patient servility to rulers, but a common, every-day concern of life, 
and schooled in temperate common counsel, even if the biggest such concern. It is 
It is an institution of political noonday, this self-confidence, in many cases mis- 
not of the half-light of political dawn, taken, no doubt, which is gradually 
It can never be made to sit easily or safely spreading among other peoples, less justi- 
on first generations, but strengthens fied in it than are our own. 

73 



DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF 

One cannot help marvelling that facts by neighbors, by peoples not only homo- 
so obvious as these should have escaped geneous, but characterized within by the 
the perception of some of the sagest existence among their members of a quick 
thinkers and most thorough historical sympathy and easy neighborly knowl- 
scholars of our day. Yet so it is. Sir edge of each other. Not foreseeing steam 
Henry Maine, even, the great interpreter and electricity or the diffusion of news 
to Englishmen of the historical forces and knowledge which we have witnessed, 
operative in law and social institutions, our fathers were right in thinking it im- 
has utterly failed, in his plausible work possible for the government which they 
on Popular Government, to distinguish had founded to spread without strain or 
the democracy, or rather the popular break over the whole of the continent, 
government, of the English race, which Were not California now as near neighbor 
is bred by slow circumstance and founded to the Atlantic States as Massachusetts 
upon habit, from the democracy of other then was to New York, national self-gov- 
peoples, which is bred by discontent and ernment on our present scale would as- 
founded upon revolution. He has missed suredly hardly be possible, or conceivable 
that most obvious teaching of events, that even. Modern science, scarcely less than 
successful democracy differs from unsuc- our pliancy and steadiness in political 
cessful in being a product of history habit, may be said to have created the 
a product of forces not suddenly become United States of to-day, 
operative, but slowly working upon whole Upon some aspects of this growth it is 
peoples for generations together. The very pleasant to dwell, and very profit- 
level of democracy is the level of every- able. It is significant of a strength which 
day habit, the level of common national it is inspiring to contemplate. The ad- 
experiences, and lies far below the eleva- vantages of bigness accompanied by 
tions of ecstasy to which the revolutionist abounding life are many and invaluable, 
climbs. It is impossible among us to hatch in a 
jjj corner any plot which will affect more 

than a corner. With life everywhere 

While there can be no doubt about the throughout the continent, it is impossi- 

derivation of our government from habit ble to seize illicit power over the whole 

rather than from doctrine, from English people by seizing any central offices. To 

experience rather than from European hold Washington would be as useless to 

thought; while it is evident that our in- a usurper as to hold Duluth. Self-gov- 

stitutions were originally but products of ernment cannot be usurped, 
a long, unbroken, unperverted constitu- A French writer has said that the au- 

tional history; and certain that we shall tocratic ascendency of Andrew Jackson 

preserve our institutions in their integrity illustrated anew the long - credited ten- 

and efficiency only so long as we keep dency of democracies to give themselves 

true in our practice to the traditions from over to one hero. The country is older 

which our first strength was derived, now than it was when Andrew Jackson 

there is, nevertheless, little doubt that delighted in his power, and few can be- 

the forces peculiar to the new civilization licve that it would again approve or ap- 

of our day, and not only these, but also plaud childish arrogance and ignorant 

the restless forces of European democratic arbitrariness like his; but even in his 

thought and anarchic turbulence brought case, striking and ominous as it was, it 

to us in such alarming volume by immi- must not be overlooked that he was suf- 

gration, have deeply affected and may fered only to strain the Constitution, not 

deeply modify the forms and habits of to break it. He held his office by order- 

our politics. ly election; he exercised its functions 

All vital governments and by vital within the letter of the law; he could 
governments I mean those which have silence not one word of hostile criticism : 
life in their outlying members as well and, his second term expired, he passed 
as life in their heads all systems in into private life as harmlessly as did 
which self-government lives and retains James Monroe. A nation that can quiet- 
its self-possession, must be governments ly reabsorb a vast victorious army is no 

74 



DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF 



more safely free and healthy than is a 
nation that could reabsorb such a Presi 
dent as Andrew Jackson, sending him 
into seclusion at the Hermitage to live 
without power, and die almost forgotten. 

A huge, stalwart body politic like 
ours, with quick life in every individual 
town and county, is apt, too, to have 
the strength of variety of judgment. 
Thoughts which in one quarter kindle en 
thusiasm may in another meet coolness 
or arouse antagonism. Events which are 
fuel to the passions of one section may 
be but as a passing wind to another sec 
tion. No single moment of indiscretion, 
surely, can easily betray the whole coun 
try at once. There will be entire popula 
tions still cool, self-possessed, unaffect 
ed. Generous emotions sometimes sweep 
whole peoples, but, happily, evil passions, 
sinister views, base purposes, do not and 
cannot. Sedition cannot surge through 
the hearts of a wakeful nation as patriot 
ism can. In such organisms poisons dif 
fuse themselves slowly; only healthful 
life has unbroken course. The sweep of 
agitations set afoot for purposes unfamil 
iar or uncongenial to the customary pop 
ular thought is broken by a thousand ob- 
ftacles. It may be easy to reawaken old 
enthusiasms, but it must be infinitely 
hard to create new ones, and impossible 
to surprise a whole people into unpre 
meditated action. 

It is well to give full weight to these 
great advantages of our big and strenu 
ous and yet familiar way of conducting 
affairs; but it is imperative at the same 
time to make very plain the influences 
which are pointing towards changes in 
our politics changes which threaten loss 
of organic wholeness and soundness. The 
union of strength with bigness depends 
upon the maintenance of character, and 
it is just the character of the nation 
which is being most deeply affected and 
modified by the enormous immigration 
which, year after year, pours into the 
country from Europe. Our own tem 
perate blood, schooled to self-possession 
and to the measured conduct of self-gov 
ernment, is receiving a constant infusion 
and yearly experiencing a partial corrup 
tion of foreign blood. Our own equable 
habits have been crossed with the fever 
ing humors of the restless Old World. 



We are unquestionably facing an ever-in 
creasing difficulty of self-command with 
ever-deteriorating materials, possibly with 
degenerating fibre. We have so far suc 
ceeded in retaining 

" Some sense of duty, something of a faith, 
Some reverence for the laws ourselves have 

made, 
Some patient force to change them when 

we will, 
Some civic manhood firm against the 

crowd ;" 

But we must reckon our power to con 
tinue to do so with a people made up of 
" minds cast in every mould of race 
minds inheriting every bias of environ 
ment, warped by the diverse histories of 
a score of different nations, warmed or 
chilled, closed or expanded, by almost 
every climate on the globe." 

What was true of our early circum 
stances is not true of our present. We 
are not now simply carrying out under 
normal conditions the principles and 
habits of English constitutional history. 
Our iasks of construction are not done. 
We have not simply to conduct, but also 
to preserve and freshly adjust our gov 
ernment. Europe has sent her habits 
to \is, and she has sent also her politi 
cal philosophy, a philosophy which has 
never been purged by the cold bath of 
practical politics. The communion which 
we did not have at first with her heated 
and mistaken ambitions, with her radi 
cal, speculative habit in politics, with her 
readiness to experiment in forms of gov 
ernment, we may possibly have to enter 
into now that we are receiving her popu 
lations. Not only printing and steam 
and electricity have gotten hold of us to 
expand our English civilization, but also 
those general, and yet to us alien, forces 
of democracy of which mention has al 
ready been made; and these are apt to 
tell disastrously upon our Saxon habits in 
government. 

IV 

It is thus that we are brought to our 
fourth and last point. We have noted 
( 1 ) the general forces of democracy which 
have been sapping old forms of govern 
ment in all parts of the world; (2) the 
error of supposing ourselves indebted to 
those forces for the creation of our gov- 



DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF 

eminent, or in any way connected with ards, not policies. Questions of govern- 
them in our origins; and (3) the effect ment are infinitely complex questions, and 
they have nevertheless had upon us as no multitude can of themselves form clear- 
parts of the general influences of the age, cut, comprehensive, consistent conclusions 
as well as by reason of our vast immigra- touching them. Yet without such conclu- 
tion from Europe. What, now, are the sions, without single and prompt purposes, 
new problems which have been prepared government cannot be carried on. Neither 
for our solution by reason of our growth legislation nor administration can be done 
and of the effects of immigration? They at the ballot-box. The people can only 
may require as much political capac- accept the governing act of representa- 
ity for their proper solution as any that tives. But the size of the modern de- 
eonfronted the architects of our govern- mocracy necessitates the exercise of per- 
ment. suasive power by dominant minds in the 

These problems are chiefly problems of shaping of popular judgments in a very 

organization and leadership. Were the different way from that in which it was 

nation homogeneous, were it composed exercised in former times. " It is said 

simply of later generations of the same by eminent censors of the press," said Mr. 

stock by which our institutions were Bright on one occasion in the House of 

planted, few adjustments of the old ma- Commons, " that this debate will yield 

chinery of our politics would, perhaps, about thirty hours of talk, and will end 

be necessary to meet the exigencies of in no result. I have observed that all 

growth. Biit every added element of va- great questions in this country require 

riety, particularly every added element thirty hours of talk many times repeat- 

of foreign variety, complicates even the ed before they are settled. There is much 

simpler questions of politics. The dan- shower and much sunshine between the 

gers attending that variety which is hete- sowing of the seed and the reaping of the 

rogencity in so vast an organism as ours harvest, but the harvest is generally reap- 

are, of course, the dangers of disintegra- ed after all." So it must be in all self- 

tion nothing less; and it is unwise to governing nations of to-day. They are 

think these dangers remote and merely not a single audience within sound of an 

contingent because they are not as yet orator s voice, but a thousand audiences, 

very menacing. We are conscious of one- Their actions do not spring from a single 

ness as a nation, of vitality, of strength, thrill of feeling, but from slow conolu- 

of progress; but are we often conscious of sions following upon much talk. The talk 

common thought in the concrete things of must gradually percolate through the 

national policy? Does not our legislation whole mass. It cannot be sent straight 

wear the features of a vast conglomerate? through them so that they are electrified 

Are we conscious of any national leader- as the pulse is stirred by the call of a 

ship? Are we not, rather, dimly aware trumpet. A score of platforms in every 

of being pulled in a score of directions neighborhood must ring with the insistent 

l>y a score of crossing influences, a multi- voice of controversy: and for a few Vmn- 

tude of contending forces? dreds who hear what is said by the public 

This vast and miscellaneous democracy speakers, many thousands must read of 
of ours must be led; its giant faculties the matter in the newspapers, discuss it 
must be schooled and directed. Leader- interjectionally at the breakfast - table, 
ship cannot belong to the multitude; desultorily in the street-cars, laconically 
inasses of men cannot be self - directed, on the streets, dogmatically at dinner ; 
neither can groups of communities. We all this with a certain advantage, of 
speak of the sovereignty of the people, course. Through so many stages of con- 
but that sovereignty, we know very well, sideration passion cannot possibly hold 
is of a peculiar sort; quite unlike the out. It gets chilled by over-exposure. It 
sovereignty of a king or of a small, easily finds the modern popular state organized 
concerting group of confident men. It for giving and hearing counsel in such a 
is judicial merely, not creative. It passes way that those who give it must be care- 
judgment or gives sanction, but it can- ful that it is such counsel as will wear 
not direct or suggest. It furnishes stand- well. Those who hear it handle and ex- 

7fi 



DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF 

ainine it enough to test its wearing quali- body to be persuaded, it must know its 

ties to the utmost. All this, however, persuaders; in order to be effective, it 

when looked at from another point of must always have choice of men who are 

view, but illustrates an infinite difficulty impersonated policies. Just because none 

of achieving energy and organization, but the finest mental batteries, with pure 

There is a certain peril almost of disinte- metals and unadulterated acids, can send 

gration attending such phenomena. a current through so huge and yet so rare 

Every one now knows familiarly enough a medium as democratic opinion, it is the 
how we accomplished the wide aggre- more necessary to look to the excellence 
gations of self-government characteristic of these instrumentalities. There is no per- 
of the modern time, how we have articu- manent place in democratic leadership 
lated governments as vast and yet as except for him who " hath clean hands 
whole as continents like our own. The and a pure heart." If other men come 
instrumentality has been representation, temporarily into power among us, it is 
of which the ancient world knew nothing, because we cut our leadership up into 
and lacking which it always lacked nation- so many small parts, and do not subject 
al integration. Because of representation any one man to the purifying influences 
and the railroads to carry representatives of centred responsibility. Never before 
to distant capitals, we have been able to was consistent leadership so necessary; 
rear colossal structures like the govern- never before was it necessary to concert 
ment of the United States as easily as the measures over areas so vast, to adjust 
ancients gave political organization to a laws to so many interests, to make a corn- 
city; and our great building is as stout pact and intelligible unit out of so many 
as was their little one. fractions, to maintain a central and domi- 

But not until recently have we been nant force where there are so many 

able to see the full effects of thus send- forces. 

ing men to legislate for us at capitals dis- It is a noteworthy fact that the admira- 
tant the breadth of a continent. It makes tion for our institutions which has during 
the leaders of our politics, many of them, the past few years so suddenly grown to 
mere names to our consciousness instead large proportions among publicists abroad 
of real persons whom we have seen and is almost all of it directed to the restraints 
heard, and whom we know. We have to we have effected upon the action of gov- 
accept rumors concerning them, we have ernment. Sir Henry Maine thought our 
to know them through the variously col- federal Constitution an admirable reser- 
ored accounts of others ; we can seldom voir, in which the mighty waters of de 
test our impressions of their sincerity by mocracy are held at rest, kept back from 
standing with them face to face. Here free destructive course. Lord Rosebery 
certainly the ancient pocket republics had has wondering praise for the security of 
much the advantage of us: in them citi- our Senate against usurpation of its func- 
xens and leaders were always neighbors; tions by the House of Representatives, 
they stood constantly in each other s pres- Mr. Goldwin Smith supposes the saving 
ence. Every Athenian knew Themisto- act of organization for a democracy to 
cles s manner, and gait, and address, and be the drafting and adoption of a written 
felt directly the just influence of Aris- constitution. Thus it is always the static, 
tides. No Athenian of a later period need- never the dynamic, forces of our govern 
ed to be told of the vanities and fop- ment which are praised. The greater part 
peries of Alcibiades, any more than the of our foreign admirers find our success 
elder generation needed to have described to consist in the achievement of stable 
to them the personality of Pericles. safeguards against hasty or retrogressive 

Our separation from our leaders is the action : we are asked to believe that we 

greater peril, because democratic govern- have succeeded because we have taken Sir 

ment more than any other needs organiza- Archibald Alison s advice, and have resist- 

tion in order to escape disintegration: and ed the infection of revolution by staying 

it can have organization only by full quite still. 

knowledge of its leaders and full confi- But, after all, progress is motion, gov- 

dence in them. Just because it is a vast ernment is action. The waters of demoe- 

77 



DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES DEMOCRATIC PARTY 

racy are useless in their reservoirs unless We shall not again have a true national 

they may be used to drive the wheels of life until we compact it by such legisla- 

policy and administration. Though we tive leadership as other nations have. But 

be the most law-abiding and law-directed once thus compacted and embodied, our 

nation in the world, law has not yet nationality is safe. 

attained to such efficacy among us as to Democratic Clubs. The opposition 

frame, or adjust, or administer itself, party to Washington formed many clubs 

It may restrain, but it cannot lead us; or societies to express sympathy with 

and I believe that unless we concentrate France and the principles of the French 

legislative leadership leadership, that is, Revolution in 1793 and 1794. They 

in progressive policy unless we give leave passed out of existence about the end of 

to our nationality and practice to it by the 18th century. See GENEST, EDMOXD 

such concentration, we shall sooner or later CHARLES: DEMOCRATIC SOCIETIES. 

suffer something like national paralysis in Democratic Party. For the origin and 

the face of emergencies. We have no one early development of the party, see the 

in Congress who stands for the nation, article REPUBLICAN PARTY. Its main 

Each man stands but for his part of the tenets were strict construction of the 

nation ; and so management and combina- Constitution and opposition to extension 

tion, which may be effected in the dark, of the federal powers. Jefferson, Madi- 

are given the place that should be held son, and Monroe were members of the then 

by centred and responsible leadership, dominant party, and under the last-named 

which would of necessity work in the President party lines for a short time 

focus of the national gaze. disappeared in the so-called " era of 

What is the valuable element in mon- good feeling." Soon afterwards the 

archy which causes men constantly to turn Democrats came under the leadership of 

to it as to an ideal form of government, Jackson, and were opposed to the Na- 

could it but be kept pure and wise? It tional Republicans and Whigs. Jackson s 

is its cohesion, its readiness and power to successor, Van Buren, was a Democrat. A 

act, its abounding loyalty to certain con- Whig interval (1841-45) ensued. Then 

crete things, to certain visible persons, its followed the Democratic administration 

concerted organization, its perfect model of Polk, succeeded (1849-53) by another 

of progressive order. Democracy abounds Whig administration. Pierce and Bu- 

with vitality; but how shall it combine chanan were the last Presidents elected 

with its other elements of life and by the party for a long period. In the 

strength this power of the governments general confusion caused by the increas- 

that know their own minds and their own ing prominence of slavery the Democrats 

aims? We have not yet reached the age at first profited, while the Whigs disap- 

when government may be made imper- peared. In the Civil War many " war 

sonal. Democrats " acted temporarily with the 

The only way in which we can preserve Republicans. McClellan, though defeated, 
our nationality in its integrity and its received a large popular vote in 18G4. 
old-time originative force in the face of Seymour in 18G8, Greeley in 1872 were de- 
growth and imported change is by concen- feated. In 1876 the Democrats came near 
trating it; by putting leaders forward, success (see ELECTORAL COMMISSION; 
vested with abundant authority in the HAYES, RUTHERFORD BURCHARD; TILDEN, 
conception and execution of policy. There SAMUEL JONES). The House was now 
is plenty of the old vitality in our na- frequently Democratic, but the Presidency 
tional character to tell, if we will but was again taken by their competitors in 
give it leave. Give it leave, and it will 1880. In 1884 they succeeded in a close 
the more impress and mould those who campaign. The two wings of the party, 
come to us from abroad. I believe that revenue reform and protectionist, long re- 
we have not made enough of leadership. fused to work together. Under the leader- 

. . ship of Morrison, Carlisle, and Cleveland, 

" A people is but the attempt of many V - 

To rise to the completer life of one ; tanff reform became the dominating issue. 

And those who live as models for the mass Defeated in 1888, the Democrats gained 

Arc singly of more value than they all." a sweeping victory in 1890, and in 1892 

78 



DEMOCRATIC SOCIETIES 



regained control of all departments, only 
to lose all again in 1896, when the party 
allowed itself to be diverted from its orig 
inal principles by the Populists and sil 
ver men. In 1900 the same elements con 
trolled it, with the addition of the Anti- 
Expansionists. In both 1896 and 1900 it 
lost its national ticket. See BRYAN, 
WILLIAM JENNINGS. 

Democratic Societies. In imitation of 
the Jacobin clubs in Paris, members of 



tificate of every member, in which he was 
commended to the good offices of every 
similar society in the Union. The in 
formed and thoughtful citizens saw scarce 
ly any resemblance between French and 
American democracy. The former as 
sumed the aspect of violence in every 
form, while the latter was calm, just, and 
peaceful. A pamphlet was published in 
1796 in which the difference is delineated 
by an engraving called The Contrast. It 




THE CONTRAST. 



the Republican party, at about the time 
when Genet arrived from France, formed 
secret associations, which they called 
" Democratic societies." Their ideas and 
feelings were almost wholly French, and 
a large proportion of their membership 
consisted of French people. They were 
disloyal to the government of the United 
States, and sought to control the politics 
of the Union. They seem to have been 
inspired with the fanaticism which at that 
time controlled France. They vigorously 
denounced and opposed Washington s 
proclamation of neutrality. The societies 
existed in various States, and first intro 
duced the word " Democrat " into Ameri 
can politics. Many of the Republican par 
ty would not adopt the word, preferring 
the old name, until the combined oppo 
sition became known as the Democratic 
Republican party. The Democratic so 
cieties flourished for a while with great 
vigor. Their members were pledged to 
secrecy. Each society had a distinct seal 
of its own, which was attached to the cor- 



was soon after that these societies began 
to dwindle in numbers and soon disap 
peared. 

The certificate of membership in these 
societies read as follows: "To all other 
societies established on principles of 
LIBERTY, 
EQUALITY, 
UNION, PA 
TRIOTIC VIR 
TUE, AND PER 
SEVERANCE: We. 
the members of 
the Republican 
Society of 
Baltimore, cer 
tify and declare 
to all Repub 
lican or Demo 
cratic societies, 
and to all Re- SEAL. 
publicans in 
dividually, that citizen hath been 




admitted, and now is a member of our 
society, and that, from his known zeal 



DE MONTS 



to promote Republican principles and the full powers to settle and rule in a region 
rights of humanity, we have granted extending over six degrees of latitude, 
him this our certificate (which he has from Cape May to Quebec. The domain 
signed in the margin), and do recommend was named Cadi6 in the charter (see 

ACADIA ) . Vested with the 
monopoly of the fur-trade in 
the region of the river and 
gulf of St. Lawrence, they at 
tempted to make a settlement 
on the former. Making ar 
rangements with Champlain 
as chief navigator, De Monts 
sailed from France in March, 
1604, with four ships, well 
manned, accompanied by his 
bosom friend, the Baron de 
Poutrincourt, and Pont- 
Greve as his lieutenants; and 
finding the St. Lawrence ice 
bound, on his arrival early in 
April, he determined to make 
a settlement farther to the 
southward. The ships also 
bore a goodly company of 
Protestant and Roman Cath 
olic emigrants, with soldiers, 
artisans, and convicts. There 
wore several Jesuits in the 
company. Passing around 
Cape Breton and the penin 
sula of Nova Scotia into the 
Bay of Fundy, they anchored 
in a fine harbor on the north 
ern shore of that peninsula 
early in May. Poutrincourt 
was charmed with the coun 
try, and was allowed to re 
main with a part of the com 
pany, while De Monts, with 
the remainder, seventy in 
number, went to Passama- 

DK MONTS. quoddy Bay, and on an isl 

and near the mouth of the 

him to all Republicans, that they may re- St. Croix, built a fort, and there spent a 
ceive him with fraternity, which we offer terribly severe winter, that killed half of 
to all those who may come to us with them. 




similar credentials. In witness where 
of, etc. Alexander McKinn, president; 



In the spring they returned to Poutrin- 
court s settlement, which he had named 



George Sears, secretary." The seal of the Port Royal now Annapolis, N. S. Early 

Baltimore Society, which issued the the next autumn De Monts and Poutrin- 

above certificate, is composed of a figure court returned to France, leaving Cham- 

of Liberty, with pileus, Phrygian cap, and plain and Pont-Greve 1 to make further ex- 



fasces, with the name of the society. 

De Monts, SIEUR (PIERRE DE GAST), 
was a wealthy Huguenot, who was com 
missioned viceroy of New France, with 



plorations. There was a struggle for rule 
and existence at Port Royal for a few 
years. Poutrincourt returned to France 
for recruits for his colony. Jesuit 



80 



DENISON DENNISON 

priests who accompanied him on his re- lications include History of the 1st Rhode 

turn to Acadia (Nova Scotia) claimed Island Cavalry; Westerly and Its Wit- 

the right to supreme rule by virtue of nesses for 250 Years; History of the 3d 

their holy office. Poutrincourt resisted Rhode Island Heavy Artillery, etc. He 

their claim stoutly, saying, "It is my part died in Providence, R. I., Aug. 16, 1901. 
to rule you on earth; it is your part to Dennie, JOSEPH, journalist; born in 

guide me to heaven." When he finally Boston, Aug. 30, 1768; graduated at 

left Port Royal (1612) in charge of his Harvard in 1790; became a lawyer; but 

son, the Jesuit priests made the same abandoned his profession for the pursuit 

claim on the fiery young Poutrincourt, of literature. He contributed articles to 

who threatened them with corporal pun- various newspapers, while yet practising 

ishment, when they withdrew to Mount law, over the signature of " Farrago." In 

Desert Island and set up a cross in token 1795 he became connected with a Boston 

of sovereignty. They were there in 1613, weekly newspaper called The Tablet. It 

when Samuel Argall, a freebooter of the survived only three months, when Dennie 

seas, went, under the sanction of the gov- became the editor of the Farmer s Weekly 

ernor of Virginia, to drive the French Museum, at Walpole, N. H., which ac- 

from Acadia as intruders on the soil of quired an extensive circulation. To it he 

a powerful English company. The Jesuits contributed a series of attractive essays 

at Mount Desert, it is said, thirsting for under the title of The Lay Preacher. These 

vengeance, piloted Argall to Port Royal, gave their author a high reputation and 

He plundered and burned the town, drove were extensively copied into the news- 

the inhabitants to the woods, and broke papers of the country. He went to Phil- 

up the settlement. Unable to contend adelphia in 1799, where he was confiden- 

with the English company, De Monts tial secretary to Timothy Pickering, then 

abandoned Acadia and proposed to plant Secretary of State. In that place he re- 

a colony on the St. Lawrence River, under mained for a few months, and after edit- 

the direction of Champlain and Pont- ing for a short time the United States 

Greve. But his monopoly was partially Gazette, he commenced, in conjunction 

revoked in 1608. Under the auspices of with Asbury Dickens, the Portfolio, at 

a company of merchants at Dieppe and first a weekly, but afterwards a> monthly 

St. Malo, settlements were begun at periodical, which acquired a high reputa- 

Quebec and Montreal. Soon afterwards tion. In that publication he adopted the 

the fortune of De Monts was so much re- literary name of " Oliver Oldschool." The 

duced that he could not pursue his scheme Portfolio became the recognized leader in 

of colonization, and it was abandoned. periodical literature, and was enriched by 

Denison, DAXIEL, military officer; born the contributions of some of the foremost 
in England in 1613; settled in New Eng- writers in the country. Mr. Dennie con- 
land about 1G31 ; was commissioner to tinned hit, connection with it until his 
arrange the differences with D Aulny, the death, Jan. 7, 1812. 

French commander at Penobscot, in 1646 Dermison, WILIJAM ; war governor; 

and 1653; and later was major-general of born in Cincinnati, O-, Nov. 23, 1815; was 

the colonial forces for ten years. He was educated at the Miami University, and 

made commander-in-chief of the Massa- graduated in 1835. Admitted to the bar 

chusetts troops in 1675, but owing to ill- in 1840, he became an eminent practi- 

ness during that year was not able to tioner. In 1848-50 he was a member of 

lead his forces in the Indian War. He the Ohio legislature; and he took an 

published Irenicon, or Salve for New Eng- active part in financial and railroad mat- 

land s Sore. He died in Ipswich, Mass., ters. Mr. Dennison was one of the 

Sept. 20, 1682. founders of the Republican party in 1856. 

Denison, FREDERIC, clergyman : born in In 1860 he was chosen governor of Ohio, 

Stonington, Conn., Sept. 28, 1819: grad- which office he held two years, during 

natod at Brown College in 1847: or- which time he performed most important 

dained to the Baptist ministry: chaplain official service in putting troops into the 

of the 3d Rhode Island Heavy Artillery field for the Union army. From October, 

for three years in the Civil War. His pub- 1864, to July, 1866, he was Postmaster- 
ITT. F Rl 




DE NONVILLE DENTISTRY 

ing from the west. Thence he pene 
trated to Ontario county, where he was 
attacked by a party of Senecas in ambush, 
but he repulsed his assailants. The next 
day two old Seneca prisoners, after hav 
ing been confessed by the Jesuit priests, 
were cooked and eaten by the savages and 
the French. Withdrawing to a point in 
Monroe county, De Nonville proceeded to 
take possession of the whole Seneca 
country (July, 1687) in the name of 
King Louis, with pompous ceremonies. 
After destroying all the stored corn (more 
than 1,000,000 bushels), the growing 
crops, cabins, and a vast number of swine 
belonging to the natives whose country 
WILLUM DEXMSOX. he had invaded, De Nonville returned to 

Irondequoit Bay and thence to Montreal. 

General, when he withdrew from the cab- An act of gross treachery committed by 
inet of President Johnson. He died in him before he undertook the expedition, 
Columbus, O., June 15, 1882. in seizing deputies from those nations and 

De Nonville, MARQUIS, military officer ; sending them to France, gave the death- 
after reaching the rank of colonel in the blow to Jesuit missions among the Five 
French army was appointed (1685) gov- Nations. Lamberville, a faithful mis- 
ernor of Canada, with instructions to sionary, barely escaped with his life, 
" humble the pride of the Iroquois," who through the generosity of the Ononda- 
were the friends of the English and had gas. 

rejected overtures from the French. He Dent, FREDERICK TRACY, military offi- 
took post at Fort Frontenac, on the site cer; born in White Haven, Mo., Dec. 17, 
of Kingston, Canada, and there prepared 1820; graduated at the United States 
for an expedition against a portion of the Military Academy in 1843; served in the 
Five Nations. He declared to his war with Mexico with marked distinction; 
sovereign that the Indians sustained and later was prominent in frontier duty, 
themselves only by the aid of the English, In 1863-64 he commanded a regiment in 
who were " the chief promoters of the in- New York City to suppress riots ; in the 
solence and arrogance of the Iroquois." latter year he became a staff officer to 
He tried to induce them to meet him in General Grant; and in 1865 was command- 
council, to seduce them from the influence ant of Eichmond and of the garrison at 
of the English, and a few went to Fronte- Washington. After the war he received 
i>ac; but when Dongan heard of the de- the brevets of brigadier-general in the 
signs of the French he invited representa- regular and volunteer armies; retired in 
tives of the Five Nations to a council in 1883. He died in Denver, Col., Dec. 24, 
New York City. They came, and Dongan 1892. 

told them the King of England would be Dent, JOHN HERBERT, naval officer; 
their "loving father," and conjured them born in Maryland in 1782; entered the 
not to listen to the persuasions of the navy in 1798; served on the frigate (Jon- 
French. Finally, in May, 1687, De Non- stellation in 1799 when she captured the 
ville was joined by 800 French regulars French vessels Insurgente and La Ven- 
from France, and soon afterwards he, cjeance. He had command of the Nautilus 
assembling more than 2,000 French regu- and Scourge in Treble s squadron during 
lars, Canadians, and Indians, proceed- the war with Tripoli, and took part in 
ed. at their head, to attack the Sene- the assault on the city of Tripoli in 
cas. He coasted along the southern shores 1804; and was promoted captain in 1811. 
of Lake Ontario to Irondequoit Bay, in He died in St. Bartholomew s parish, Md., 
Monroe county, where he landed and was July 31, 1823. 

joined by some French and Indians com- Dentistry, SCHOOLS OP. The develop- 

82 



DENTON DEPENDENT CHILDREN 



ment of the science of dentistry in the 
United States is well attested by the num 
ber of institutions giving instruction 
therein. For the most part these schools 
are departments of the universities and 
large colleges which are authorized to 
grant degrees and diplomas. At the end 
of the school year 1898 there were fifty 
such departments or schools, having 961 
professors and instructors, 6,774 students, 
and graduating classes aggregating 1,849 



students. In the ten years then ending 
the number of schools had exactly doubled, 
and the number of students showed an in 
crease of 327 per cent. 

Denton, DANIEL, author; in 1670 he 
published in London A Brief Description 
of New York, which in 1845 was repub- 
lished with notes in New York. It is be 
lieved that this was the first printed Eng 
lish history of New York and New Jer 
sey. 



DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF 

Dependent Children, CARE OF. Henri- and the reduction to mechanical routine 

etta Christian Wright, an American lady of all the ordinary offices of life, the child 

who has taken an active interest in had become dulled in faculty, unthinking, 

philanthropic work, and has been specially and dependent. In the institution, he had 

interested in the condition of poor chil- been, during the formative period of his 

dren deprived of their natural protectors, life, a " number," and he " ate, drank, 

and whose education and training, there- studied, marched, played and slept in 

fore, have to be assumed by the com- companies, platoons, and regiments." A 

munity, writes as follows: visitor to one institution found a class of 

boys between eleven and thirteen years of 

The history of the state care of children age who had never brushed their own hair, 

the world over has been that of the work- the matron having found it easier to stand 

house or almshouse. In France, indeed, them in rows and perform this service for 

boarding-out seems to have been applied them than to teach each individual boy 

widely as early as 1450, when an ordi- how to do jt for himself. Hundreds of 

nance was passed regulating the salaries girls in their teens left the institution 

of the nurses and agents employed in car- yearly who had never made a fire, placed 

ing for pauper children in country homes, a tea-kettle to boil, or performed any of 

Fosterage existed even earlier in England, the minor household duties so necessary 

where, in the reign of Edward III., an to their training as domestic servants. It 

act was passed forbidding English chil- was, in fact, discovered that the child, 

dren from being cared for by Irish foster who, at great expense to the state, had 

parents, as it had been found that such been fed and taught for a long period of 

care denationalized the children. Statis- years, was less capable of earning his 

tics attest the evils of the workhouse and living than the youth who had grown up 

the almshouse, where the children were half naked and half starved " in his 

herded with adult paupers, unfitting them parents cottage in the peat bogs of Ire- 

for anything but lives of pauperism and land, 

lowest crime. The pauper child, helpless and hopeless. 

The efforts of private individuals at last had made an appeal to nature, and nature 
rescued the workhouse waifs, and placed had avenged him. In place of the promise 
them in institutions set apart for the care of youth and the ideals which wore to 
of children alone. Here the child was guarantee the security of the state, she 
made cleanly in habit, and amenable to returned, for value received, the institu- 
discipline, while ophthalmia, scrofula, and tionalizod youth, a drag upon society, and, 
other diseases inherent in institution life in the end, an added burden to the tax- 
showed some signs of abatement. But payer. Grave as were these defects, there 
when the child left the institution, it was was added the still graver one that in- 
found that he still lacked in the great es- stitutions increased juvenile pauperism, 
sential to success capacity. From the sys- Wherever a new institution arose, there 
tem of constant espionage and guidance, sprang up, as if from the ground, him- 

83 



DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF 

dreds of applicants for admission. The sent themselves and their wards at the 
idle and vicious parents eagerly took ad- annual meetings of the society, the so- 
vantage of the means thus oll ered for the ciety paying the travelling expenses. It 
support of their children during the non- was found that the cost under the board- 
wage-earning period; and, with every ing-out system was one-third per capita 
new gift of a costly edifice, the state of that expended in institutions, while 
found itself putting a premium upon the the rate of mortality was under 1 per 
poverty it was vainly endeavoring to cent. In 1859, thirty-one years after the 
stamp out. establishment of the society, the death 

In the mean time a remedy for the evil rate of the children in a single work- 
had already arisen. In 1828, an educa- house in Cork was 80 per cent, in one 
tion inquiry commission, reporting upon year, while nearly all the survivors were 
the condition of the Protestant charter afflicted with scrofula. These horrors 
schools of Ireland, found so discredit- were exceeded by the revelations of the 
able a state of things that the schools Dublin workhouse, which so excited popu- 
were abolished, no provision being made, lar indignation that an act was passed 
meanwhile, for the orphans of that faith, in 1862 authorizing the boarding-out of 
Not long afterwards, three Protestant workhouse children. 

Irish workingmen, considering it their That the problem of the state care of 
duty to care for the children of a com- children was solved by the incorporation 
rade who had just died, started a sub- of the Protestant Orphan Society of Ire- 
scription of a penny a week, and, with land is proved by the subsequent history 
the sum of threepence as capital, founded of dependent child-life in nearly every 
a refuge for the children among some re- civilized quarter of the globe. In places 
spectable laboring people of their own widely separated by geographical limits, 
f a ith. as well as by the differences of race and 

On the ruins of the charter schools creed, the state care of children is evolv- 
arose, from the act of these workingmen, ing from institutionalism to the natural 
the Protestant Orphan Society of Ireland, conditions of home life. England, Ire- 
which has been the parent of the modern land, Russia, Italy, Scotland, Germany, 
system of boarding - out the dependent Switzerland, and other European coun- 
children of the state. The methods of tries have their several modifications of 
this society have been sustained, in the the boarding-out system, attributable to 
main, by succeeding organizations. The the varying conditions of social life, but 
orphans were placed, as far as possible, conforming in the main to the leading 
in the families of small farmers, or features of the original plan. And al- 
laborers, whose station in life corre- though no one of these countries is yet 
sponded to their own. In every case, the freed entirely from the bane of institu- 
children were given into the charge of tionalism, yet year by year fosterage 
the mother of the family, who was made is becoming more popular, as its benefi- 
directly responsible for their care. A cent effects become more and more widely 
certificate of character was required from known. In Belgium, so thoroughly rec- 
the parish priest and the nearest magis- ognized is the value of home training 
trate, attesting to her " morality and for future citizens, that <ill boys under 
sobriety, to the suitability of her house the care of the state arc boarded out. 
and family, and the possession of one or though the girls are in many cases still 
more cows," while it was also stipulated retained in institutions. In some of the 
that she receive no children from the departments of France, the system of 
foundling hospital or any other chari- fosterage has arrived at the precision 
table institution. The homes were visited of a military organization. Here the 
by inspectors, whose reports contained child, who would otherwise be placed 
the history of every child while under the in a foundling or orphan asylum, is en- 
care of "the society. The Protestant rolled at birth as an enfant de la patrie, 
clergyman of each district was also a and, whenever possible, is placed at once 
regular correspondent of the society, and in a foster-home in the country. There 
the foster-mothers were required to pre- his physical and moral welfare and his 

84 



DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF 

education are watched over by the agent waifs, known as " street children," who 

de surveillance, in whose quarterly reports had no homes, who begged and stole their 

is recorded the history of the child until food, who slept in the streets, assisted 

his twelfth year. He is then eligible for professional criminals in their nefarious 

apprenticeship, and he receives from the practices, and in time were graduated into 

state a certain sum of money for an out- the ranks of the adult criminal. This 

fit. But, in nearly all cases, the affec- menace to society, undreamed of by the 

tion between the child and its foster- more orderly class, was made officially 

parents has become by this time so strong public by the report of the superintendent 

that he is either adopted legally or re- of police, and out of the exigency arose, in 

tained in the family as an apprentice, 1853, the New York Children s Aid So- 

the money that he earns being placed in ciety, whose president, Charles Loring 

the savings-bank, in order that he may Brace, grasped with the intuition of genius 

have a little capital to begin the world the true solution of the problem of child- 

with on reaching his majority. saving. When Mr. Brace asked the chief 

Australia has, perhaps, the most perfect of police to confer with him in regard to 
system of boarding-out yet evolved. As means for saving these children, the chief 
early as 1852 the first legislature of replied that the attempt would be use- 
South Australia decreed that no public less. Nevertheless Mr. Brace began his 
money should be given to denominational work; and, knowing that this wreckage 
schools, whether educational or charitable, of civilization could be saved only by a 
Twenty-five years ago the state began return to nature, he at once began 
boarding-out its dependent children; the placing the wards of the society in 
saving to the government, as well as the homes in the East and West. In 
rapid decrease in the juvenile pauper class, 1854 the first company of forty-six 
at once made the new departure accept- children left the office of the society, 
able, though the law compelling children the greater number to find homes in 
to attend school throughout the entire Michigan and Iowa. Within the sec- 
year increased the expense of fosterage in ond year the society had placed nearly 
Australia beyond that in European coun- 800 children in homes in the Eastern and 
tries. Western States. The society has contin- 

The American poorhouse, from the first ued its work on the same lines, and 

fell into line with the English workhouse through its efforts thousands of men and 

in its influence as a breeder of crime and women have been saved from lives of 

pauperism. The poorhouse child came pauperism and crime. The reports of the 

either from the directly vicious class, or society, which has always kept in touch 

from those " waterlogged " families with with its wards, show how fully the faith 

whom pauperism was hereditary, and, as a of its founders has been justified, and how 

rule, he left his early home but to return they builded even better than they knew, 

to it in later life. The enactment of each From out this army of waifs, rescued from 

new law to mitigate the evils of the alms- the gutter and the prison, there have 

house only made the idle and vicious come the editor, the judge, the bank presi- 

parent more eager to accept the advan- dent, the governor, while thousands of 

tages thus offered to his offspring, and simpler careers attest the beneficence of 

pauperism increased out of all proportion this noble charity. There is small reason 

to the growth of the country. to doubt that, if the guardianship of the 

Outside the almshouse there was a con- entire dependent children of the State had 

dition even worse. All over the country, been given over to the Children s Aid So- 

and especially in cities, there arose a class ciety, the question of juvenile pauperism 

of children who anticipated in character and crime would long since have been 

the adult tramp of to-day. These were solved. But this was not to be. and alms- 

in many cases runaways, to whom the houses and institutions still retained the 

restraints of the almshouse were irksome, greater number of children committed to 

and they also formed the larger proper- their care. The evil was greatly aug- 

tion of juvenile criminals. In 1848 there mented by the passage of the now cele- 

were, in New York City alone, 30,000 such bratod "children s law" in 1875, which 

85 



DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OP 

contained a clause providing that all chil- before the passage of the " children s 
dren committed to institutions should be law," showed that only 8 per cent, of the 
placed in those controlled by persons of total had been in institutions over five 
the same religious faith as the parents of years. An equally striking fact is that, 
the children. Mrs. Charles Russell Low- since the passage of the " children s 
ell says : " The direct effect of this pro- law," the number of children placed in 
vision is found in the establishment of families by institutions has greatly de- 
nine Roman Catholic and two Hebrew in- creased. In 1875, out of 14,773 children 
stitutions to receive committed children, in institutions, there were 823 placed in 
all except three having between 300 and families. In 1884, out of 33,558 children 
1,300 inmates each." in institutions, there were only 1,370 
Within twenty years after this law placed in families. While the population 
passed the number of inmates in the of the State of New York increased but 
twenty-seven institutions benefited direct- 38 per cent, during the first seventeen 
ly by it increased from 9,000 to 16,000. years after the passage of the law, the 
In 1889, of the 20,384 children cared for number of children in institutions in- 
in the city institutions, only 1,776 were creased 96 per cent. 

orphans and 4,987 half-orphans. The re- In New York City a report of 1894 
maining 13,621 had been committed by shows the distribution of its 15,331 de- 
magistrates, many on the request of par- pendent children as follows: 1,975 in 
ents, or had been brought by parents Hebrew institutions, 2,789 in Protestant 
voluntarily to the institution. In Kings institutions, 10,567 in Roman Catholic 
county alone, five years after the passage institutions. This did not include the 
of the " children s law," the number of blind, deaf, feeble-minded, and delinquent 
dependent children increased from 300 to children who are cared for in special in- 
1,479, most of the commitments being stitutions. 

made by parents anxious to be relieved As opposed to its institutions, the State 
of the care of their children until the has, in several of its counties, adopted to 
wage-earning period was reached. An- some degree the more natural method of 
other objectionable feature arose from the child-saving, with marked results. Alarmed 
greater length of time that children have at the increasing expense of its juvenile 
been retained in institutions since the institutions, Erie county in 1879 began 
passage of the law. With a direct per to take measures for boarding-out its de- 
capita income from the State, the institu- pendent children, and through the me- 
tions have not been able to withstand the diumship of the newspapers the agent 
temptation to keep their charges as long placed the needs of the county before the 
as possible. The reports of the comp- people. He also interested clergymen and 
troller s office for October, 1894, showed editors in the project. Advertising cards, 
that 1,935 children in institutions had with pictures of the children, were sent 
been inmates over five years; fifty-five of out, and this vigorous canvass resulted in 
these were in Protestant institutions, 2G8 speedy applications for the children, who 
in Hebrew institutions, and 1,612 in Roman were sent to good country homes by the 
Catholic institutions. The same year show- score. The agent always impressed upon 
ed an average of 567 children in institu- the foster-parents the fact that the child 
tions between thirteen and fourteen years was still the ward of the county, which 
of age, 444 between fourteen and fifteen, expected them to co-operate with it in 
and 247 between fifteen and sixteen years training him to a life of usefulness. The 
of age. One institution in 1892 had wards chief opposition came from the institu- 
twenty-two years old, and was " caring tions, which in many cases refused to let 
for" 129 youths over seventeen years of the children go. But the board of super- 
age. In 1894 it was found that 23 per visors met this obstacle by reducing the 
cent, of the dependent children of New per capita price of board, and by passing 
York City had been in institutions at pub- a resolution declaring that, if any child 
lie cost over periods ranging from five was refused to the county s agent, the 
to fourteen years. A report of the State superintendent of the poor would at once 
board of charities for 1873, three years stop payment for his board. This opened 

86 



DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF 

the doors of the institutions, and Erie as fast as the general population. When 

county, which in 1879 was paying $48,000 New York City had a population of 

yearly for the support of its dependent 1,750,000, it supported over 15,000 chil- 

children, had by 1892 decreased its ex- dren in institutions, or one dependent child 

penses two-thirds, though the population to every 117 of population. The number of 

had increased one-third. Monroe, West- dependent children in Philadelphia in 

Chester, and Orange counties also placed 1894 was one to every 1,979 of its popula- 

out their children to some extent. tion. This difference arises from the fact 

When the revised constitution went into that Philadelphia had ceased to be an 
effect there were 15,000 children, or more, institutionalized city, and boarded or 
in institutions in New York City, costing placed out nearly all its dependent chil- 
the city over $1,500,000 yearly. The in- dren, the Philadelphia Children s Aid So- 
stitutions throughout the State received ciety being the agent employed. Nearly 
about $2,500,000 yearly for the support of every county poor-board also takes advan- 
their charges. The revised constitution tage of its aid to place its dependent 
gave the State board of charities juris- children, as far as possible, in its care, 
diction over all the charities in the State, During the thirteen years of its exist- 
whether public or private, and a law was ence the Children s Aid Society had re- 
enacted by the legislature putting the ceived about 6,004 children from the vari- 
placing-out of children into the hands of ous almshouses, poor-boards, and courts, 
this board. Under this law, during the and placed them in homes in the country, 
years 1896 and 1897, 1,500 children were It has the names of over 700 families 
placed in homes in the rural communities, whose respectability and fitness are 
The number of children in institutions vouched for, the society s agents having 
was further decreased by the action of the visited and ascertained by personal in- 
State Charities Aid Association in ap- vestigation their status in the commu- 
pointing examiners to investigate the nity. Most of these families are at a dis- 
status of the children already in institu- tance of at least 100 miles from any large 
tions, or for whom application had been city, it being deemed best, in case of de- 
made. The official report of the examin- linquent children especially, to bring 
ers for 1896 and 1897 shows that, out of them up amid strictly rural surroundings. 
26,561 investigations, 7,303 cases were dis- The attitude of the society towards its 
approved, though the children in many charges is that " its duty to the child is 
cases had been in the institutions for not one of mere support, but one of 
years. preparation for life," and that the sole 

Boys of twelve, thirteen, fifteen, six- question arising in the mind of the ob- 
teen, and seventeen years of age were server of city-institution life should be, 
found, whose families were amply able " Is the precise thing which I am looking 
to provide for them, but who had been at the very best thing that can be pro- 
supported by the State for periods rang- vided, in order that the child may have 
ing from six to nine years. One girl of the same reliance which makes the coun- 
sixteen was found who had spent twelve try boy, on the whole, the best wage- 
years of her life in institutions, being left earner that the city ever sees?" 
at the critical age without home ties or The society possesses thousands of rec- 
interests, and with an utter lack of train- ords attesting the happiness and well 
ing in ordinary domestic affairs. The being of its wards, and the unwritten 
monthly reports from the comptroller s records obtained through personal visits 
office show a pecuniary saving from the from its agents are more satisfactory 
decrease of dependent children, while the still. The agent finds the little sickly 
moral gains through the return of these two-year-old, whom she left a few months 
children to the normal ways of life is, before hardly expecting to see it alive 
of course, incalculable. Hitherto ihe again, well nourished and radiant with 
State of New York has paid two-fifths of returning vitality, surrounded by toys, 
nil the money spent in the United States dressed in clean clothing, the care and 
for the care of dependent children, while the pet of the whole family. One baby, 
child pauperism has increased three times left at the age of eleven months unable 

87 



DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF 

to hold up its head or sit alone, had been has no dependent children, technically 
restored to perfect health. The foster- speaking, in institutions supported by the 
mother here had expressed a preference State. Largely affected by the problem 
for a "real smart baby," one that she of immigration, and under the strain pro- 
could show off to her neighbors. But, as duced by great centres of population en- 
she bent over this tiny sufferer, his little, gaged in mill and factory work, and so 
thin face made its undeniable appeal, and removed from the more healthful in- 
she said, as she cried over him, that fluences of smaller village and country 
"somebody would have to keep him, and life, this State has yet so successfully 
she calculated she could do it as well solved the problem of juvenile pauperism 
as any one else." The agent carries away that, out of a population of 2,500,000, it 
innumerable mental pictures of these has only 2,852 wards to support. The 
little waifs who have found home and State has a nursery at Roxbury, where 
health in the beautiful hill country of destitute infants are cared for while re- 
Pennsylvania. She sees the children on quiring medical or surgical treatment, 
the benches of the village school, or shar- and where children boarded out are 
ing the innocent pleasures of childhood in brought for treatment when necessary, 
wood and meadow. She finds them in the The nursery is a temporary home only in 
barn or field with the foster-father, pick- the strictest sense of the word, boarding- 
ing up useful knowledge, learning ways out being the end in view. There is also 
of industry and honest living, and, above a temporary boarding-place at Arlington, 
all, sharing the interest of the family as and a home for wayward boys. The 
if he were to the manor born. Very State has two industrial schools, the Ly- 
often these boarded-out children step man School for Boys, and the State In- 
into a place left vacant by death, and dustrial School for Girls. There are 
often they bring to a childless home the also two reform schools. With these 
first knowledge of the privileges and bless- exceptions, the dependent children of 
ings that come with children. The so- Massachusetts are placed or boarded 
ciety has innumerable photographs show- out. 

ing the children in their comfortable In 1889 California paid $231,215 for 

homes, studying in the cosey sitting- the support of 36,000 children in 

rooms, playing games with the farmer s asylums, while Michigan, with double the 

older boys, or with the farmer himself, population of California, paid only $35,- 

and sharing, in fact, in all the simple and 000 for the support of 230 children. In 

sweet scenes of family life. 1893, California, still working under the 

A most careful method of supervision old system, paid $250,000 for the support 

is enforced by the society, not only of 40,000 children in institutions, while 

through frequent visits of its agents, but Minnesota, with a population about equal 

through numerous reports made by the to California, supported only 169 depend- 

physicians, school - teachers, and other ent children in its State public schools, 

reliable and interested persons. Ques- the remainder being placed or boarded 

tion blanks are sent for these reports, out. 

which are filed and make a full record of There are, in all, perhaps eight or nine 
the child s history while under the care States in the Union in which boarding- 
of the society. As far as possible, the out and placing-out are carried on in 
children are boarded in families of the greater or loss degree, these systems af- 
same religion as that of their parents, fecting about three-tenths of the depend- 
In order not to create a class distinction, ent children in the country. The remain- 
the society does not allow the boarded-out ing seven-tenths, numbering more than 
children of a village or farming district 70,000, are still in institutions, 
ever to exceed 2 or 3 per cent, of the The United States is an institutional- 
child population. ized land, and the great republic, which 

Massachusetts, with a population to boasts of freedom and equality, still re- 

the square mile exceeding that of Xew gards her dependent children as aliens 

York, and in which the artificial condi- and brands them with the stigma of 

tions of living are practically the same, pauperism. 

88 



DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF 

The evolutionist sees the earliest mani- posited in the letter-boxes were delivered? 
festation of altruism in that primary in- Would the community rest contented in 
stinct, found even in the lowest forms the satisfaction that a large majority of 
of plant life, to protect the young in its citizens were not unjustly thrown into 
the seed and bud the instinct of mother- prison? Would a father be satisfied to 
hood. Upon this eternal principle of life know that five of his six children were 
the problem of child-saving must rest, not actually suffering from hunger and 
There is no one so morally fit to rear an cold?" And this is the principle upon 
unfortunate child as the mother of a re- which child-savers must act. The insti- 
spectable family, whose experience with tution may save the child up to a certain 
her own brood has taught her the needs point. But we want him saved for all 
and demands of childhood. Nowhere else time. Only the abandonment of the cost- 
is so abundantly manifested that trust in ly institutions the expensive buildings 
the " larger hope," as in the patience that might with profit in New York City be 
waits upon motherhood. To this patience turned into public schools and an ac- 
and this hope the State may well com- ceptance of the method which experience 
mit the welfare of its most unfortunate has so far shown to be the best, can solve 
class. For, although the institution life the question of pauperism in the United 
of to-day is not accompanied by all the States with success. 

horrors that once disfigured it, yet sore The boarding-out system is another ex- 
eyes, diseased bodies, and a high death ample of the truth of the adage that 
rate still prevail. According to the official " mercy is twice blessed." The love and 
report of 1897 the death rate at the In- care of the foster-parents are in large 
fants Asylum on Randall s Island was, measure repaid by their charges, who yield 
for foundlings, 80 per cent.; for other them in old age that affectionate pro- 
children without their mothers, 59 per tection which is the privilege of children, 
cent.; children with their mothers, 13 per When at service, they save their wages 
cent. Out of 366 children under six and deny themselves little luxuries, that 
months of age, admitted without their they may help their foster-parents. They 
mothers in 1896, only twelve lived, the come back to their former homes to be 
remainder dying between five and six married; and, in case of a family, if 
weeks after admission to the asylum. In- either parent dies, the survivor brings the 
stitutionalism is an artificial system, with children to the foster-mother to be cared 
the stigma of failure attaching to it. in- for. Joy and sorrow are shared together, 
asmuch as its presence always indicates and, when attacked by fatal sickness, it 
an increase of the very evil it was origi- is to the foster-home that the child re- 
nally meant to combat. Without admit- turns to die. 

ting as truth the statement, made by some Nature, the wise teacher, has sealed her 
experts, that all institution-bred children approval of fosterage by forging that 
turn out either knaves or fools, sufficient mysterious tie which binds parent and 
testimony may be found to force home child, which no absence may sunder and 
the startling argument that, of the 100,- which remains unbroken even in death. 
000 children eared for by the State to- Boarding-out has paid in every sense. Out 
day, there is grave danger that the seven- of the class in which pauperism was 
tenths who are in institutions will carry hereditary sometimes three or four gen- 
through life the brand of a system which orations of the same family being paupers 
has handicapped them in the race for it has created a respectable working 
success. class, at a cost in dollars and cents far be- 

Mr. Homer Folks, secretary of the State low the cost of institution life. Over the 

Charities Aid Association of New York, neglected and despised paiiper child it has 

in speaking of child-saving, says: "Would extended the ajgis of the State, making 

the directors of a bank be satisfied with the least of these little ones understand 

knowing that most of its funds were not that, though deprived of love and home by 

stolon? Would the working of the pos- fate, he has still a mother-land whose care 

tal department be considered satisfactory will guard him lovingly and whose honor 

if simply a majority of the letters de- must be his sacred ideal. 

89 



DEPEW, CHATJNCEY MITCHELL 



Depew, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL, capital- the following oration at the centennial of 

ist; born in Peekskill, N. Y., April 23, Washington s inauguration as first Presi- 

1834; graduated at Yale University in dent of the United States, in New York 

1856; studied law and was admitted to City: 



the bar in 1858; member of New York 
Assembly in 1801-62; secretary of state 



We celebrate to-day the centenary of 



of New York in 1863. He became attorney our nationality. One hundred years ago 
for the New York and Harlem River Rail- the United States began their existence, 
road in 1866, and for the New York Cen- The powers of government were assumed 

by the people of the republic, and 1 lies- 
became the sole source of authority. The 
solemn ceremonial of the first inaugura 
tion, the reverent oath of Washington, the 
acclaim of the multitude greeting their 
President, marked the most unique event 
of modern times in the development of free 
institutions. The occasion was not an 
accident, but a result. It was the culmina 
tion of the working out by mighty forces 
through many centuries of the problem of 
self-government. It was not the triumph 
of a system, the application of a theory, 
or the reduction to practice of the ab 
stractions of philosophy. The time, the 
country, the heredity and environment of 
the people, the folly of its enemies, and 
the noble courage of its friends, gave to 
liberty, after ages of defeat, of trial, of 
experiment, of partial success and sub 
stantial gains, this immortal victory. 
Henceforth it had a refuge and recruiting 
station. The oppressed found free homes 
in this favored land, and invisible armies 
marched from it by mail and telegraph, 

tral and Hudson River Railroad in 1869. by speech and song, by precept and ex- 
He was second vice-president of the last ample, to regenerate the world, 
mentioned road in 1885-98, and also presi- Puritans in New England, Dutchmen in 
dent of the West Shore Railroad until 
1898, 




- 



CHAUSCET MITCHELL DEPEW. 



the West Shore Railroad 
when he became chairman of 



New York, Catholics in Maryland, Hugue- 
the nots in South Carolina, had felt the fires 



board of directors of the New York Cen- of persecution and were wedded to re- 
tral and Hudson River, the Lake Shore ligious liberty. They had been purified 
and Michigan Southern, the Michigan in the furnace, and in high debate and on 
Central, and the New York, Chicago, and bloody battle-fields had learned to sacri- 
St. Louis railroads. In 1885 he refused to fice all material interests and to peril 
be a candidate for the United States Sen- their lives for human rights. The prin- 
ate, and also declined the office of United ciples of constitutional government had 
States Secretary of State, offered by Presi- been impressed upon them by hundreds of 
dent Benjamin Harrison. In 1888 he was years of struggle, and for each principle 
a prominent candidate for the Presidential they could point to the grave of an an- 
nomination in the National Republican cestor whose death attested the feroc its- 
Convention, and in 1899 was elected of the fight and the value of the conces- 
United States Senator from New York, sion wrung from arbitrary power. They 
He is widely known as an orator and knew the limitations of authority, they 
after-dinner speaker. could pledge their lives and fortunes to 
Washington Centennial Oration. On resist encroachments upon their rights, 
April 30, 1889, Senator Dfpew delivered but it required the lesson of Indian massa.- 

90 



DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL 



cres, the invasion of the armies of France 
from Canada, the tyranny of the British 
crown, the seven years war of Revolu 
tion, and the five years of chaos of the 
Confederation to evolve the idea upon 
which rest the power and permanency of 
the republic, that liberty and union are 
one and inseparable. 

The traditions and experience of the 
colonists had made them alert to discover 
and quick to resist any peril to their lib 
erties. Above all things, they feared and 
distrusted power. The town-meetings 
and the colonial legislature gave them 
confidence in themselves, and courage to 
check the royal governors. Their inter- 



upon the field of Runnymede, which 
wrested from King John Magna Charta, 
that great charter of liberty, to which 
Hallam, in the nineteenth century, bears 
witness " that all which had been since 
obtained is little more than as confirma 
tion or commentary." There were the 
grandchildren of the statesmen who had 
summoned Charles before Parliament and 
compelled his assent to the Petition of 
Rights, which transferred power from the 
crown to the commons, and gave repre 
sentative government to the English- 
speaking race. And there were those who 
had sprung from the iron soldiers who 
had fought and charged with Cromwell at 



ests, hopes, and affections were in their Naseby and Dunbar and Marston Moor. 



several commonwealths, and each blow by 
the British ministry at their freedom, 



Among its members were Huguenots, 
whose fathers had followed the white 



each attack upon their rights as English- plume of Henry of Navarre and in an age 



men, weakened their love for the mother 
land, and intensified their hostility to 
the crown. But the same causes which 



of bigotry, intolerance, and the deification 
of absolutism had secured the great edict 
of religious liberty from French despot- 



broke down their allegiance to the central ism; and who had become a people with- 



government increased their confidence in 
their respective colonies, and their faith 
in liberty was largely dependent upon the 
maintenance of the sovereignty of their 
several States. The farmers shot at Lex 
ington echoed round the world, the spirit 
which it awakened from its slumbers 
could do and dare and die, but it had not 



out a country, rather than surrender their 
convictions and forswear their consciences. 
In this Congress were those whose ances 
tors were the countrymen of William of 
Orange, the Beggars of the Sea, who had 
survived the cruelties of Alva, and broken 
the proud yoke of Philip of Spain, and 
who had two centuries before made a 



yet discovered the secret of the perma- declaration of independence and formed 
nence and progress of free institutions, a federal union which were models of 

freedom and strength. 
These men were not 



Patrick Henry thundered in the Virginia 
convention ; James Otis spoke with trump- 



revolutionists, 



et tongue and fervid eloquence for united They were the heirs and the guardians of 



action in Massachusetts; Hamilton, Jay, 
and Clinton pledged New York to respond 
with men and money for the common 
cause; but their vision only saw a league 



the priceless treasures of mankind. The 
British King and his ministers were the 
revolutionists. They were reactionaries, 
seeking arbitrarily to turn back the hands 



of independent colonies. The veil was not upon the dial of time. A year of doubt 
yet drawn from before the vista of popu- and debate, the baptism of blood upon bat 
tle-fields, where soldiers from every colony 
fought, under a common standard, and 

The Continental Congress partially consolidated the Continental army, grad- 
grasped, but completely expressed, the ually lifted the soul and understanding of 
central idea of the American republic, this immortal Congress to the sublime 
fully 



lation and power, of empire and liberty, 
which would open with national union. 



More fully than any other body which 
ever assembled did it represent the victo- 



declaration: "We, therefore, the repre 
sentatives of the United States of Amer- 



ries won from arbitrary power for human ica, in general Congress assembled, a-ppeal- 



rights. In the New World it was the con 
servator of liberties secured through cen- 



ing to the Supreme Judge of the World 
for the rectitude of our intentions, do, 



turies of struggle in the Old. Among the in the name and by the authority of the 



delegates were the descendants of the men 
who had stood in that brilliant array 



91 



good people of these colonies, solemnly 
publish and declare that these united 



DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL 

colonies are, and of right ought to be, tives and powers wrested from crown and 

free and independent States." parliament. It condensed Magna Charta, 

To this declaration John Hancock, pro- the Petition of Rights, the great body of 
scribed and threatened with death, affixed English liberties embodied in the common 
a signature which stood for a century like law and accumulated in the decisions of 
the pointers to the north star in the fir- the courts, the statutes of the realm, and 
mament of freedom; and Charles Carroll, an undisputed though unwritten constitu- 
taunted that among many Carrolls, he, tion; but this original principle and <ly- 
the richest man in America, might escape, namic force of the people s power sprung 
added description and identification with from these old seeds planted in the virgin 
of Carrollton." Benjamin Harrison, a soil of the New World, 
delegate from Virginia, the ancestor of More clearly than any statesman of the 
the distinguished statesman and soldier period did Thomas Jefferson grasp and 
who to-day so worthily fills the chair of divine the possibilities of popular govern- 
Washington, voiced the unalterable de- ment. He caught and crystallized the 
termination and defiance of the Congress, spirit of free institutions. His philosophi- 
He seized John Hancock, upon whose head cal mind was singularly free from the 
a price was set, in his arms, a-nd placing power of precedents or the chains of prcju- 
him in the Presidential chair, said: "We dice. He had an unquestioning and abid- 
\vill show Mother Britain how little we ing faith in the people, which was ac- 
care for her by making our President a cepted by but few of his compatriots. 
Massachusetts man, whom she has excluded Upon his famous axiom, of the equality 
from pardon by public proclamation"; of all men before the law, he constructed 
and when they were signing the declara- his system. It was the trip-hammer es- 
tion, and the slender Elbridge Gerry ut- sential for the emergency to break the 
torn! the grim pleasantry, " We must hang links binding the colonies to imperial au- 
together or surely we will hang separate- thority, and to pulverize the privileges 
ly," the portly Harrison responded with of caste. It inspired him to write the 
a more daring humor, " It will be all over Declaration of Independence, and per- 
with me in a moment, but you will be suaded him to doubt the wisdom of 
kicking in the air half an hour after I the powers concentrated in the Con- 
am gone." Thus flashed athwart the stitution. In his passionate love of 
great charter, which was to be for the liberty he became intensely jealous of au- 
signers a death-warrant or a diploma of thority. He destroyed the substance 
immortality, as with firm hand, high pur- of royal prerogative, but never emerged 
pose and undaunted resolution, they sub- from its shadow. He would have the 
scribed their names, this mockery of fear States as the guardians of popular rights, 
and the penalties of treason. and the barriers against centralization, 

The grand central idea of the Declara- and he saw in the growing power of the 
tion of Independence was the sovereignty nation ever - increasing encroachments 
of the people. It relied for original power, upon the rights of the people. For the 
not upon States or colonies, or their citi- success of the pure democracy which must 
zens as such, but recognized as the au- precede presidents and cabinets and con- 
thority for nationality the revolutionary gresses, it was, perhaps, providential that 
rights of the people of the United States, its apostle never believed a great people 
It stated with marvellous clearness the could grant and still reiain, could give 
encroachments upon liberties which and at will reclaim, could delegate and 
threatened their suppression and justified yet firmly hold the authority which ulti- 
revolt, but it was inspired by the very mately created the power of their re- 
genius of freedom, and the prophetic pos- public and enlarged the scope of their 
sibilities of united commonwealths cover- own liberty. 

ing the continent in one harmonious re- Where this master-mind halted, all 
public, when it made the people of the stood still. The necessity for a permanent 
thirteen colonies all Americans and de- union was apparent, but each State must 
volved upon them to administer by them- have hold upon the bowstring which en- 
selves, and for themselves, the preroga- circled its throat. It was admitted that 

92 



DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL 

union gave the machinery required sue- temporary strength to the Confederation, 
cessfully to fight the common enemy, but peace developed this fatal weakness. It 
yet there was fear that it might become derived no authority from the people, and 
a Frankenstein and destroy its creators, could not appeal to them. Anarchy 
Thus patriotism and fear, difficulties of threatened its existence at home, and con- 
communication between distant com- tempt met its representatives abroad, 
munities, and the intense growth of " Can you fulfil or enforce the obliga- 
provincial pride and interests, led this tions of the treaty on your part if we 
Congress to frame the Articles of Con- sign one with you?" was the sneer of the 
federation, happily termed the League of courts of the Old World to our ambassa- 
Friendship. The result was not a govern- dors. Some States gave a half-hearted 
ment, but a ghost. By this scheme the support to its demands; others defied 
American people were ignored and the them. The loss of public credit was 
Declaration of Independence reversed. The speedily followed by universal bankruptcy. 
States, by their legislatures, elected dele- The wildest fantasies assumed the force 
gates to Congress, and the delegate rep- of serious measures for the relief of the 
resented the sovereignty of his common- general distress. States passed exclusive 
wealth. All the States had an equal and hostile laws against each other, and 
voice without regard to their size or popu- riot and disorder threatened the disin- 
lation. It required the vote of nine States tegration of society. " Our stock is stolen, 
to pass any bill, and five could block the our houses are plundered, our farms are 
wheels of government. Congress had none raided," cried a delegate in the Massa- 
of the powers essential to sovereignty. It chusetts Convention ; " despotism is better 
could neither levy taxes nor impose duties than anarchy!" To raise $4,000,000 a 
nor collect excise. For the support of year was beyond the resources of the gov- 
the army and navy, for the purposes of eminent, and $300,000 was the limit of the 
war, for the preservation of its own func- loan it could secure from the money-lend- 
tions, it could only call upon the States, ers of Europe. Even Washington ex- 
but it possessed no power to enforce its claimed in despair : " I see one head 
demands. It had no president or executive gradually changing into thirteen; I see 
authority, no supreme court with gen- one army gradually branching into thir- 
eral jurisdiction, and no national power, teen ; which, instead of looking up to Con- 
Each of the thirteen States had seaports gress as the supreme controlling power, 
and levied discriminating duties against are considering themselves as depending 
the others, and could also tax and thus on their respective States." And later, 
prohibit interstate commerce across its w j hen independence had been won, the 
territory. Had the Confederation been a impotency of the government wrung from 
union instead of a league, it could have him the exclamation: "After gloriously 
raised and equipped three times the num- and successfully contending against the 
ber of men contributed by reluctant States, usurpation of Great Britain, we may fall 
and conquered independence without for- a prey to our own folly and disputes." 
eign assistance. This paralyzed govern- But even through this Cimmerian dark- 
ment, without strength, because it could ness shot a flame which illuminated the 
not enforce its decrees ; without credit, coming century and kept bright the beacon 
because it could pledge nothing for the fires of liberty. The architects of constitu- 
payment of its debts ; without respect, tional freedom formed their institutions 
because without inherent authority; with wisdom which forecasted the future, 
would, by its feeble life and early death, They may not have understood at first the 
have added another to the historic trag- whole truth, but, for that which they 
edies which have in many lands marked knew, they had the martyrs spirit and the 
the suppression of freedom, had it not crusaders enthusiasm. Though the Con- 
been saved by the intelligent, inherited, federation was a government of checks 
and invincible understanding of liberty without balances, and of purpose without 
by the people, and the genius and pa- power, the statesmen who guided it 
triotism of their leaders. demonstrated often the resistless force of 
But while the perils of war had given great souls animated by the purest pa- 

93 



DEPEW, CHATJNCEY MITCHELL 



triotism, and united in judgment and 
effort to promote the common good, by 
lofty appeals and high reasoning, to ele 
vate the masses above local greed and 
apparent self-interest to their own broad 
plane. 

The most significant triumph of these 
moral and intellectual forces was that 
which secured the assent of the States to 
the limitation of their boundaries, to the 
grant of the wilderness beyond them to 
the general government, and to the in 
sertion in the ordinance erecting the 
Northwest Territories, of the immortal 
proviso prohibiting " slavery or invol 
untary servitude " within all that broad 
domain. The States carved out of this 
splendid concession were not sovereign 
ties which had successfully rebelled, but 
they were the children of the Union, born 
of the covenant and thrilled with its life 
and liberty. They became the bulwarks 
of nationality and the buttresses of free 
dom. Their preponderating strength first 
checked and then broke the slave power, 
their fervid loyalty halted and held at 
bay the spirit of State rights and seces 
sion for generations; and when the crisis 
came, it was with their overwhelming as 
sistance that the nation killed and buried 
its enemy. The corner-stone of the edifice 
whose centenary we are celebrating was 
the ordinance of 1787. It was constructed 
by the feeblest of Congresses, but few en 
actments of ancient or modern times have 
had more far-reaching or beneficial in 
fluence. It is one of the sublimest para 
doxes of history that this weak confed 
eration of States should have welded the 
chain against which, after seventy-four 
years of fretful efforts for release, its 
own spirit frantically dashed and died. 

The government of the republic by a 
Congress of States, a diplomatic con 
vention of the ambassadors of petty com 
monwealths, after seven years trial was 
falling asunder. Threatened with civil 
war among its members, insurrection and 
lawlessness rife within the States, foreign 
commerce ruined and internal trade para 
lyzed, its currency worthless, its mer 
chants bankrupt, its farms mortgaged, its 
markets closed, its labor unemployed, it 
was like a helpless wreck upon the ocean, 
tossed about by the tides and ready to be 
engulfed by the storm. Washington gave 



the warning and called for action. It was 
a voice accustomed to command, but now 
entreating. The veterans of the war and 
the statesmen of the Revolution stepped 
to the front. The patriotism which had 
been misled, but had never faltered, rose 
above its interests of States and the 
jealousies of jarring confederates to find 
the basis for union. " It is clear to 
me as A B C," said Washington, " that 
an extension of federal powers would 
make us one of the most happy, wealthy, 
respectable, and powerful nations that 
ever inhabited the terrestrial globe. With 
out them we should soon be everything 
which is the direct reverse. I predict the 
worst consequences from a half-starved, 
limping government, always moving upon 
crutches, and tottering at every step." 
The response of the country was the con 
vention of 1787, at Philadelphia. The 
Declaration of Independence was but the 
vestibule of the temple which this illustri 
ous assembly erected. With no successful 
precedents to guide, it auspiciously 
worked out the problem of constitutional 
government, and of imperial power and 
home rule, supplementing each other in 
promoting the grandeur of the nation and 
preserving the liberty of the individual. 

The deliberations of great councils have 
vitally affected, at different periods, the 
history of the world and the fate of em 
pires, but this congress builded, upon 
popular sovereignty, institutions broad 
enough to embrace the continent, and 
elastic enough to fit all conditions of race 
and traditions. The experience of a hun 
dred years has demonstrated for us the 
perfection of the work, for defence against 
foreign foes and for self-preservation 
against domestic insurrections, for limit 
less expansion in population and material 
development, and for steady growth in 
intellectual freedom and force. Its con 
tinuing influence upon the welfare and 
destiny of the human race can only be 
measured by the capacity of man to culti 
vate and enjoy the boundless opportuni 
ties of liberty and law. The eloquent 
characterization of Mr. Gladstone con 
denses its merits: "The American Consti 
tution is the most wonderful work ever 
struck off at a given time by the brain 
and purpose of man." 

The statesmen who composed this great 



94 



DEPEW, CHATJNCEY MITCHELL 

senate were equal to their trust. Their lender the advantage of their position, 

conclusions were the result of calm de- and the smaller States saw the danger to 

bate and wise concession. Their character their existence. Roman conquest and as- 

and abilities were so pure and great as similation had strewn the shores of time 

to command the confidence of the country with the wrecks of empires, and plunged 

for the reversal of the policy of the in- civilization into the perils and horrors of 

dependence of the State of the power of the dark ages. The government of Crom- 

the general government, which had well was the isolated power of the might- 

hitherto been the invariable practice and iest man of his age, without popular au- 

almost universal opinion, and for the thority to fill his place or the hereditary 

adoption of the idea of the nation and its principle to protect his successor. The 

supremacy. past furnished no light for our State 

Towering in majesty and influence builders, the present was full of doubt 
above them all stood Washington, their and despair. The future, the experiment 
President. Beside him was the vener- of self-government, the perpetuity and 
able Franklin, who, though eighty-one development of freedom, almost the 
years of age, brought to the deliberations destiny of mankind, was in their hands, 
of the convention the unimpaired vigor At this crisis the courage and confi- 
and resources of the wisest brain, the dence needed to originate a system 
most hopeful philosophy, and the largest weakened. The temporizing spirit of 
experience of the times. Oliver Ells- compromise seized the convention with 
worth, afterwards chief-justice of the the alluring proposition of not proceed- 
United States, and the profoundest juror ing faster than the people could be edu- 
in the country ; Robert Morris, the won- cated to follow. The cry, " Let us not 
derful financier of the Revolution, and waste our labor upon conclusions which 
Gouverneur Morris, the most versatile will not be adopted, but amend and ad- 
genius of his period; Roger Sherman, one journ," was assuming startling unanim- 
of the most eminent of the signers of ity. But the supreme force and majestic 
the Declaration of Independence ; and sense of Washington brought the assem- 
John Rutledge, Rufus King, Elbridge blage to the lofty plane of its duty and 
Gerry, Edmund Randolph, and the Pinck- opportunity. He said : " It is too prob- 
neys, were leaders of unequalled patriot- able that no plan we propose will be 
ism, courage, ability, and learning; while adopted. Perhaps another dreadful con- 
Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, flict is to be sustained. If, to please the 
as original thinkers and constructive people, we offer what we ourselves dis- 
statesmen, rank among the immortal few approve, how can we afterwards defend 
whose opinions have for ages guided our work? Let us raise a standard to 
ministers of state, and determined the which the wise and honest can repair: 
destinies of nations. the event is in the hands of God." " 1 

This great convention keenly felt, and am the state," said Louis XIV., but his 

with devout and serene intelligence met, line ended in the grave of absolutism. 

its tremendous responsibilities. It had " Forty centuries look down upon you," 

the moral support of the few whose aspi- was Napoleon s address to his army in 

rations for liberty had been inspired or the shadow of the Pyramids, but his 

renewed by the triumph of the American soldiers saw only the dream of Eastern 

Revolution, and the active hostility of empire vanish in blood. Statesmen and 

every government in the world. parliamentary leaders have sunk into 

There were no examples to follow, and oblivion or led their party to defeat by 

the experience of its members led part of surrendering their convictions to the 

them to lean towards absolute central- passing passions of the hour; but Wash- 

i/ation as the only refuge from the an- ington in this immortal speech struck 

archy of the confederation, while the rest the keynote of representative obligation, 

clung to the sovereignty of the States, for and propounded the fundamental prin- 

fear that the concentration of power ciple of the purity and perpetuity of 

would end in the absorption of liberty, constitutional government. 

The large States did not want to sur- Freed from the limitations of its en- 
it ; 



DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL 

vironment, and the question of the adop- and yet enlarge its scope and broaden its 

tion of its work, the convention erected powers, and to make the name of an 

its government upon the eternal foun- American citizen a title of honor through- 

dations cf the power of the people. It dis- out the world, came complete from this 

missed the delusive theory of a compact great convention to the people for adop- 

between independent States, and derived tion. As Hancock rose from his seat in 

national power from the people of the the old Congress, eleven years before, to 

United States. It broke up the ma- sign the Declaration of Independence, 

chinery of the Confederation and put in Franklin saw emblazoned on the back of 

practical operation the glittering gener- the President s chair the sun partly above 

alities of the Declaration of Independence, the horizon, but it seemed setting in a 

From chaos came order, from insecurity blood-red sky. During the seven years of 

came safety, from disintegration and civil the Confederation he had gathered no 

war came law and liberty, with the prin- hope from the glittering emblem, but now, 

ciple proclaimed in the preamble of the as with clear vision he beheld fixed upon 

great charter: "We, the people of the eternal foundations the enduring struct- 

United States, in order to form a more ure of constitutional liberty, pointing to 

perfect union, establish justice, insure the sign, he forgot his eighty-two years, 

domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- and with the enthusiasm of youth elec- 

mon defence, promote the general welfare, trifled the convention with the declara- 

and secure the blessings of liberty to our- tion: "Now I know that it is the rising 

selves and our posterity, do ordain and sun." 

establish this Constitution for the United The pride of the States and the am- 

States." With a wisdom inspired of God, bition of their leaders, sectional jealousies, 

to work out upon this continent the lib- and the overwhelming distrust of central- 

erty of man, they solved the problem of ized power, were all arrayed against the 

the ages by blending and yet preserving adoption of the Constitution. North 

local self-government with national au- Carolina and Khode Island refused to join 

thority, and the rights of the States with the Union until long after Washington s 

the majesty and power of the republic, inauguration. For months New York was 

The government of the States, under the debatable ground. Her territory, extend- 

Articles of Confederation, became bank- ing from the sea to the lakes, made her 

rupt because it could not raise $4,000,000; the keystone of the arch. Had Arnold s 

the government of the Union, under the treason in the Revolution not been foiled 

Constitution of the United States, raised by the capture of Andre 1 , England would 

$6,000,000.000, its credit growing firmer have held New York and subjugated the 

as its power and resources were demon- colonies, and in this crisis, unless Now 

strated. The Congress of the Confed- York assented, a hostile and powerful 

eration fled from a regiment which it commonwealth dividing the States made 

could not pay; the Congress of the Union the Union impossible. 

reviewed the comrades of 1,000,000 of Success was due to confidence in Wash- 
its victorious soldiers, saluting, as they ington and the genius of Alexander Ham- 
marched, the flag of the nation, whose ilton. Jefferson was the inspiration of 
supremacy they had sustained. The independence, but Hamilton was the in- 
promises of the confederacy were the scoff carnation of the Constitution. In no age 
of its States ; the pledge of the republic or country has there appeared a more 
was the honor of its people. precocious or amazing intelligence than 
The Constitution, which was to be Hamilton. At seventeen he annihilated 
straightened by the strains of a century, the president of his college upon the ques- 
to be a mighty conqueror without a sub- tion of the rights of the colonies in a series 
ject province, to triumphantly survive of anonymous articles which were credited 
the greatest of civil wars without the con- to the ablest men in the country; at 
fiscation of an estate or the execution of forty-seven, when he died, his briefs had 
a political offender, to create and grant become the law of the land, and his 
home rule and State sovereignty to fiscal system was, and after 100 years re- 
twenty-nine additional commonwealths, mains, the rule and policy of our govern- 

Ofi 



DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL 



inent. He gave life to the corpse of na 
tional credit, and the strength for self- 
possession and aggressive power to the 
federal union. Both as an expounder of 
the principles and an administrator of 
the affairs of government he stands su 
preme and unrivalled in American his 
tory. His eloquence was so magnetic, his 
language so clear and his reasoning so 
irresistible, that he swayed with equal 
ease popular assemblies, grave senates, 
and learned judges. He captured the peo 
ple of the whole country for the Constitu 
tion by his papers in The Federalist, and 
conquered the hostile majority in the New 
York convention by the splendor of his 
oratory. 

But the multitudes whom no arguments 
could convince, who saw in the executive 
power and centralized force of the Con 
stitution, under another name, the dread 
ed usurpation of king and ministry, were 
satisfied only with the assurance, " Wash 
ington will be President." . " Good," cried 
John Lamb, the able leader of the Sons 
of Liberty, as he dropped his opposition, 
" for to no other mortal would I trust 
authority so enormous." " Washington 
will be President " was the battle-cry of 
the Constitution. It quieted alarm and 
gave confidence to the timid and courage 
to the weak. The country responded with 
enthusiastic unanimity, but the chief with 
the greatest reluctance. In the supreme 
moment of victory, when the world ex 
pected him to follow the precedents of the 
past and perpetuate the power a grateful 
country would willingly have left in his 
hands, he had resigned and retired to 
Mount Vernon to enjoy in private sta 
tion his well-earned rest. The convention 
created by his exertions to prevent, as he 
said, " the decline of our federal dignity 
into insignificant and wretched fragments 
of empire," had called him to preside over 
its deliberations. Its work made possible 
the realization of his hope that " we 
might survive as an independent repub 
lic," and again he sought the seclusion of 
his home. But, after the triumph of the 
war and the formation of the Constitu 
tion, came the third and final crisis: the 
initial movements of government which 
were to teach the infant State the steadier 
steps of empire. 

He alone could stay assault and in 



spire confidence while the great and com 
plicated machinery of organized govern 
ment was put in order and set in motion. 
Doubt existed nowhere except in his mod 
est and unambitious heart. " My move 
ments to the chair of government," he 
said, " will be accompanied by feelings 
not unlike those of a culprit who is going 
to the place of his execution. So unwill 
ing am I, in the evening of life, nearly 
consumed in public cares, to quit a peace 
ful abode for an ocean of difficulties, with 
out that competency of political skill, 
abilities, and inclination, which are neces 
sary to manage the helm." His whole 
life had been spent in repeated sacrifices 
for his country s welfare, and he did not 
hesitate now, though there is an under 
tone of inexpressible sadness in this entry 
in his diary on the night of his departure: 
" About 10 o clock I bade adieu to Mount 
Vernon, to private life, and to domestic 
felicity, and with a mind oppressed with 
more anxious and painful sensations than 
I have words to express, set out for New 
York with the best disposition to render 
service to my country in obedience to its 
call, but with less hope of answering its 
expectations." 

No conqueror was ever accorded such a 
triumph, no ruler ever accorded such a 
welcome. In this memorable march of 
six days to the capital, it was the pride 
of States to accompany him with the 
masses of their people to their borders, 
that the citizens of the next common 
wealth might escort him through its terri 
tory. It was the glory of cities to re 
ceive him with every civic honor at their 
gates, and entertain him as the savior of 
their liberties. He rode under triumphal 
arches from which children lowered laurel 
wreaths upon his brow. The roadways 
were strewn with flowers, and as they 
were crushed beneath his horse s hoofs, 
their sweet incense wafted to heaven the 
ever-ascending prayers of his loving 
countrymen for his life and safety. The 
swelling anthem of gratitude and rever 
ence greeted and followed him along the 
country - side and through the crowded 
streets : " Long live George Washington ! 
Long live the father of his people!" 

His entry into New York was worthy 
the city and State. He was met by the 
chief officers of the retiring government 



ill. 



97 



DEPEW, CHATTNCEY MITCHELL 



of the country, by the governor of the and of hope from the generous assistance 

commonwealth, and the whole population, of France, and peace had come and inde- 

This superb harbor was alive with fleets pendence triumphed. As the last soldier 

and flags, and the ships of other na- of the invading enemy embarks, Wash- 

tions, with salutes from their guns and ington, at the head of the patriotic host, 

the cheers of their crews, added to the enters the city, receives the welcome and 

joyous acclaim. But as the captains who gratitude of its people, and in the tavern 

had asked the privilege, bending proudly which faces us across the way, in silence 

to their oars, rowed the President s barge more eloquent than speech, and with 

swiftly through these inspiring scenes, tears which choke the words, he bids 

Washington s mind and heart were full farewell forever to his companions in 



of reminiscence and foreboding. 



arms. Such were the crowding memories 



He had visited New York thirty-three of the past suggested to Washington in 
years before, also in the month of April, 1789 by his approach to New York. But 
in the full perfection of his early man- the future had none of the splendor of 
hood, fresh from Braddock s bloody field, precedent and brilliance of promise which 
and wearing the only laurels of the battle, 
bearing the prophetic blessing of the ven 
erable President Davies, of Princeton Col 
lege, as " that heroic youth Colonel Wash 



have since attended the inauguration of 
our Presidents. An untried scheme, 
adopted mainly because its administra 
tion was to be confided to him, was to 



ington, whom I cannot but hope Provi- be put in practice. He knew that he was 
dence has hitherto preserved in so signal to be met at every step of constitutional 
a manner for some important service to progress by factions temporarily hushed 
the country." It was a fair daughter of into unanimity by the terrific force of 
our State whose smiles allured him here, the tidal wave which was bearing him to 
and whose coy confession that her heart the President s seat, but fiercely hostile 
was another s recorded his only failure upon questions affecting every power of 
and saddened his departure. Twenty years nationality and the existence of the 
passed, and he stood before the New York federal government. 
Congress, on this very spot, the unani 
mously chosen commander-in-chief of the on great occasions he not only rose to the 
Continental army, urging the people to full ideal of the event, he became him- 
more vigorous measures, and made pain- self the event. One hundred years ago to- 
fully aware of the increased despera- day, the procession of foreign ambassa- 
tion of the strusrsle, from the aid 



Washington was never dramatic, but 



dors, of statesmen and generals, of civic 
domestic societies and military companies, which 



struggle, from 

to be given to the enemy by 

sympathizers, when he knew that the escorted him, marched from Franklin 

same local military company which es- Square to Pearl street, through Pearl to 

corted him was to perform the like ser- Broad, and up Broad to this spot, but 

vice for the British Governor Tryon on the people saw only Washington. As he 



his landing on the morrow. Returning 
tor the defence of the city the next sum- 



stood upon the steps of the old govern 
ment building here, the thought must 



mer, he executed the retreat from Long have occurred to him that it was a cradle 

Island, which secured from Frederick the of liberty, and, as such, giving a bright 

Great the opinion that a great com- omen for the future. In these halls in 

mander had appeared, and at Harlem 1735, in the trial of John Zenger, had 

Heights he won the first American vie- been established, for the first time in its 

tory of the Revolution, which gave that history, the liberty of the press. Hero 

confidence to our raw recruits against the the New York Assembly, in 1704. m;i<lc 

famous veterans of Europe which carried the protest against the Stamp Act, and 

our army triumphantly through the war. proposed the general conference, which 

Six years more of untold sufferings, was the beginning of united colonial ac- 

of freezing and starving camps, of tion. In this old State-house, in 17<r>. 
the snow by 



marches over 



snow by barefooted the Stamp Act Congress, the first and the 
attack and splendid father of American congresses, assembled 



soldiers to heroic 

victory, of despair with an unpaid army, and presented to the English government 

98 



DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL 

that vigorous protest which caused the with responding acclaim all over the 

repeal of the act and checked the first land : " Long live George Washington, 

step towards the usurpation which lost the President of the United States!" 

American colonies to the British Empire. The simple and imposing ceremony over, 

Within these walls the Congress of the the inaugural read, the blessing of God 

Confederation had commissioned its am- prayerfully petitioned in old St. Paul s, 

bassadors abroad, and in ineffectual efforts the festivities passed, and Washington 

at government had created the necessity stood alone. No one else could take 

for the concentration of federal authority, the helm of state, and enthusiast and 

now to be consummated. doubter alike trusted only him. The 

The first Congress of the United States teachings and habits of the past had edu- 
gathered in this ancient temple of liberty, cated the people to faith in the indepen- 
greeted Washington, and accompanied him dence of their States, and for the supreme 
to the balcony. The famous men visible authority of the new government there 
about him were Chancellor Livingston, stood against the precedent of a century 
Vice-President John Adams, Alexander and the passions of the hour little besides 
Hamilton, Governor Clinton, Roger Sher- the arguments of Hamilton, Madison, and 
man, Richard Henry Lee, General Knox, Jay in The Federalist, and the judgment 
and Baron Steuben. But we believe that of Washington. With the first attempt 
among the invisible host above him, at to exercise national power began the duel 
this supreme moment of the culmination to the death between State sovereignty, 
in permanent triumph of the thousands claiming the right to nullify federal laws 
of years of struggle for self-government, or to secede from the Union, and the 
were the spirits of the soldiers of the power of the republic to command the re- 
Revolution who had died that their coun- sources of the country, to enforce its au- 
try might enjoy this blessed day, and thority, and protect its life. It was the 
with them were the barons of Runny- beginning of the sixty years war for the 
mede, and William the Silent, and Sidney, Constitution and the nation. It seared 
and Russell, and Cromwell, and Hampden, consciences, degraded politics, destroyed 
and the heroes and martyrs of liberty of parties, ruined statesmen, and retarded 
every race and age. the advance and development of the conn- 

As he came forward, the multitude in try; it sacrificed thousands of precious 
the streets, in the windows, and on the lives and squandered thousands of 
roofs sent up such a rapturous shout that millions of money; it desolated the fair- 
Washington sat down overcome with emo- est portion of the land, and carried mourn- 
tion. As he slowly rose and his tall and ing into every home, North and South; 
majestic form again appeared, the people, but it. ended at Appomattox in the abso- 
deeply affected, in awed silence viewed the lute triumph of the republic, 
scene. The chancellor solemnly read to Posterity owes to Washington s ad- 
him the oath of office, and Washington, ministration the policy and measures, the 
repeating, said: "I do solemnly swear force and direction, which made possible 
that I will faithfully execute the office of this glorious result. In giving the organ- 
President of the United States, and will, ization of the Department of State and 
to the best of my ability, preserve, pro- foreign relations to Jefferson, the Treas- 
tect, and defend the Constitution of the ury to Hamilton, and the Supreme Court 
United States." Then he reverently bent to Jay, he selected for his cabinet and 
low and kissed the Bible, uttering with called to his assistance the ablest and 
profound emotion: "So help me, God." most eminent men of his time. Hamil- 
The chancellor waved his robes and shout- ton s marvellous versatility and genius 
ed: "It is done; long live George Wash- designed the armory and the weapons for 
ington, President of the United States!" the promotion of national power and 
" Long live George Washington, our first greatness, but Washington s steady sup- 
President!" was the answering cheer of port carried them through. Parties 
the people, and from the belfries rang the crystallized, and party passions were in- 
bells, and from forts and ships thundered tense, debates were intemperate, and the 
the cannon, echoing and repeating the cry Union openly threatened and secretly 

99 



DEPEW, CHATTNCEY MITCHELL 

plotted against, as the firm pressure of the Deity and believed liberty impossible 
this mighty personality funded the debt without law. He spoke to the sober judg- 
and established credit, assumed the State ment of the nation, and made clear the 
debts incurred in the War of the Revo- danger. He saved the infant government 
lution and superseded the local by the from ruin, and expelled the French minis- 
national obligation, imposed duties upon ter who had appealed from him to the 
imports and excise upon spirits, and ere- people. The whole land, seeing safety only 
ated revenue and resources, organized a in his continuance in office, joined Jeffer- 
national banking system for public needs son in urging him to accept a second term, 
and private business, and called out an " North and South," pleaded the Secre- 
army to put down by force of arms resist- tary, " will hang together while they have 
ance to the federal laws imposing un- you to hang to." 

popular taxes. Upon the plan marked No man ever stood for so much to his 
out by the Constitution, this great ar- country and to mankind as George Wash- 
chitect, with unfailing faith and unfalter- ington. Hamilton, Jefferson and Adams, 
ing courage, builded the republic. He Madison and Jay, each represented some 
gave to the government the principles of of the elements which formed the Union, 
action and sources of power which carried Washington embodied them all. They 
it successfully through the wars with fell, at times, under popular disapprov- 
Great Britain in 1812 and Mexico in 1848, al, were burned in effigy, were stoned, 
which enabled Jackson to defeat nullifica- but he, with unerring judgment, was 
tion, and recruited and equipped millions always the leader of the people. Milton 
of men for Lincoln, and justified and said of Cromwell, "that war made him 
sustained his proclamation of emancipa- great, peace greater." The superiority 
tion. f Washington s character and genius 
The French Revolution was the bloody were more conspicuous in the formation 
reality of France and the nightmare of the of our government and in putting it 
civilized world. The tyranny of centuries on indestructible foundations than in 
culminated in frightful reprisals and reck- leading armies to victory and conquering 
less revenges. As parties rose to power the independence of his country. The 
and passed to the guillotine, the frenzy of Union in any event," is the central 
the revolt against all authority reached thought of his farewell address, and all 
every country and captured the imagina- the years of his grand life were devoted 
tions and enthusiasm of millions in every to its formation and preservation. He 
land, who believed they saw that the mad- fought as a youth with Braddock and in 
ness of anarchy, the overturning of all the capture of Fort Duquesne for the pro- 
institutions, the confiscation and distribu- tection of the whole country. As com- 
tion of property, would end in a millenni- mander-in-chief of the Continental army, 
urn for the masses and the universal his commission was from the Congress 
brotherhood of man. Enthusiasm for of the united colonies. He inspired 
France, our late ally, and the terrible the movement for the republic, was the 
commercial and industrial distress occa- president and dominant spirit of the con- 
sioned by the failure of the government vention which framed its Constitution, 
under the Articles of Confederation, and its President for eight years, and 
aroused an almost unanimous cry for guided its course until satisfied that, mov- 
the young republic, not yet sure of its ing safely along the broad highway of 
own existence, to plunge into the vor- time, it would be surely ascending towards 
tex. The ablest and purest statesmen of the first place among the nations of the 
the time bent to the storm, but Washing- world, the asylum of the oppressed, the 
ton was unmoved. He stood like the rock- home of the free. 

ribbed coast of a continent between the Do his countrymen exaggerate his vir- 

surging billows of fanaticism and the child tues? Listen to Gui/ot, the historian of 

of his love. Order is Heaven s first law, civilization: "Washington did the two 

and the mind of Washington was order, greatest things which in politics it is 

The Revolution defied God and derided permitted to man to attempt. He main- 

the law Washington devoutly reverenced tained by peace the independence of his 

100 



DEPEW, CHATTNCEY MITCHELL 

country which he conquered by war. He clouds overhead and no convulsions under 
founded a free government in the name our feet. We reverently return thanks 
of the principles of order and by re- to Almighty God for the past, and with 
establishing their sway." Hear Lord confident and hopeful promise march upon 
Erskine, the most famous of English ad- sure ground towards the future. The sim- 
vocates: "You are the only being for pie facts of these 100 years paralyze the 
whom I have an awful reverence." Re- imagination, and we contemplate the vast 
member the tribute of Charles James Fox, accumulations of the century with awe 
the greatest parliamentary orator who and pride. Our population has grown 
ever swayed the British House of Com- from 4,000,000 to 65,000,000. Its centre, 
mons: "Illustrious man, before whom all moving westward 500 miles since 1789, is 
borrowed greatness sinks into insig- eloquent with the founding of cities and 
nificance." Contemplate the character the birth of States. New settlements, 
of Lord Brougham, pre-eminent for two clearing the forests and subduing the 
generations in every department of hu- prairies, and adding 4,000,000 to the few 
man activity and thought, and then im- thousands of farms which were the sup 
press upon the memories of your children port of Washington s republic, create one 
his deliberate judgment : " Until time of the great granaries of the world, and 
shall be no more will a test of the prog- open exhaustless reservoirs of national 
ress which our race has made in wisdom wealth. 

and virtue be derived from the venera- The infant industries, which the first 
tion paid to the immortal name of Wash- act of our first administration sought to 
ington." encourage, now give remunerative employ- 
Chatham, who, with Clive, conquered ment to more people than inhabited the re- 
an empire in the East, died broken- public at the beginning of Washington s 
hearted at the loss of the empire in the Presidency. The grand total of their 
West, by follies which even his power annual output of $7,000,000,000 in value 
and eloquence could not prevent. Pitt places the United States first among the 
saw the vast creations of his diplomacy manufacturing countries of the earth, 
shattered at Austerlitz, and fell murmur- One-half the total mileage of all the rail 
ing: "My country! how I leave my roads, and one-quarter of all the telegraph 
country!" Napoleon caused a noble lines of the world within our borders, 
tribute to Washington to be read at the testify to the volume, variety, and value 
head of his armies, but, unable to rise of an internal commerce which makes 
to Washington s greatness, witnessed the these States, if need be, independent 
vast structure erected by conquest and and self-supporting. These 100 years of 
cemented by blood, to minister to his own development under favoring political con- 
ambition and pride, crumble into frag- ditions have brought the sum of our na- 
ments, and, an exile and a prisoner, he tional wealth to a figure which has passed 
breathed his last babbling of battle-fields the results of 1,000 years for the mother- 
and carnage. Washington, with his finger land herself, otherwise the richest of mod- 
upon his pulse, felt the presence of death, ern empires. 

and, calmly reviewing the past and fore- During this generation, a civil war of 

casting the future, answered to the sum- unequalled magnitude caused the expendi- 

mons of the grim messenger, " It is well," ture and loss of $8,000,000,000, and kill- 

and, as his mighty soul ascended to God, ed 600,000, and permanently disabled over 

the land was deluged with tears and the 1,000,000 young men, and yet the impetu- 

world united in his eulogy. Blot out from ous progress of the North and the mar- 

the page of history the names of all the vellous industrial development of the new 

great actors of his time in the drama of and free South have obliterated the evi- 

nations, and preserve the name of Wash- deuces of destruction, and made the war 

ington, and the century would be re- a memory, and have stimulated pro- 

nowned. duction until our annual surplus nearly 

We stand to-day upon the dividing line equals that of England, France, and Ger- 

between the first and second century of many combined. The teeming millions of 

constitutional government. There are no Asia till the patient soil and work the 

101 



DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL 



shuttle and loom as their fathers have 
done for ages ; modern Europe has felt the 
influence and received the benefit of the in 
calculable multiplication of force by in 
ventive genius since the Napoleonic wars; 
and yet, only 269 years after the little 
band of Pilgrims landed on Plymouth 
Rock, our people, numbering less than 
one-fifteenth of the inhabitants of the 
globe, do one-third of its mining, one- 
fourth of its manufacturing, one-fifth of 
its agriculture, and own one-sixth of its 
wealth. 

This realism of material prosperity, 
surpassing the wildest creations of the ro 
mancers who have astonished and delighted 
mankind, would be full of dangers for 
the present and menace for the future, if 
the virtue, intelligence, and independence 
of the people were not equal to the wise 
regulation of its uses and the stern pre 
vention of its abuses. But following the 
growth and power of the great factors, 
whose aggregation of capital made possible 
the tremendous pace of the settlement 
of our national domain, the building of 
our great cities and the opening of the 
lines of communications which have 
united our country and created our re 
sources, have come national and State 
legislation and supervision. Twenty mill 
ions, a vast majority of our people of in 
telligent age, acknowledging the author 
ity of their several churches, 12,000,000 
of children in the common schools, 345 
universities and colleges for the higher 
education of men and 200 for women, 450 
institutions of learning for science, law, 
medicine, and theology, are the despair of 
the scoffer and the demagogue, and the 
firm support of civilization and liberty. 

Steam and electricity have changed the 
commerce not only, they have revolution 
ised also the governments of the world. 
They have given to the press its power, 
and brought all races and nationalities 
into touch and sympathy. They have test 
ed and are trying the strength of all sys 
tems to stand the strain and conform to 
the conditions which follow the germinat 
ing influences of American democracy. At 
the time of the inauguration of Washing 
ton, seven royal families ruled as many 
kingdoms in Italy, but six of them have 
seen their thrones overturned and their 



rope. Most of the kings, princes, dukes, 
and margraves of Germany, who reigned 
despotically, and sold their soldiers for 
foreign service, have passed into history, 
and their heirs have neither prerogatives 
nor domain. Spain has gone through 
many violent changes, and the permanency 
of her present government seems to depend 
upon the feeble life of an infant prince. 
1 Yaiu c. our ancient friend, with repeated 
and bloody revolution, has tried the gov 
ernment of Bourbon and convention, of di 
rectory and consulate, of empire and citi 
zen king, of hereditary sovereign and re 
public, of empire, and again republic. The 
llapsbnrg and Hohenzollern, after convul 
sions which have rocked the foundations 
of their thrones, have been compelled to 
concede constitutions to their people and 
to divide with them the arbitrary power 
wielded so autocratically and brilliantly 
by Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great. 
The royal will of George III. could crowd 
the American colonies into rebellion, and 
wage war upon them until they were lost 
to his kingdom, but the authority of the 
crown has devolved upon ministers who 
hold office subject to the approval of 
the representatives of the people, and 
the equal powers of the House of Lords 
have been vested in the Commons, leaving 
to the peers only the shadow of their an 
cient privileges. But to-day the American 
people, after all the dazzling developments 
of the century, are still happily living un 
der the government of Washington. The 
Constitution during all that period has 
been amended only upon the lines laid 
down in the original instrument, and in 
conformity with the recorded opinions of 
the Fathers. The first great addition was 
the incorporation of a bill of rights, and 
the last the embedding into the Constitu 
tion of the immortal principle of the 
Declaration of Independence of the 
equality of all men before the law. No 
crisis has been too perilous for its powers, 
no revolution too rapid for its adaptation, 
and no expansion beyond its easy grasp 
and administration. It has assimilated 
diverse nationalities with warring tradi 
tions, customs, conditions, and languages, 
imbued them with its spirit, and won their 
pas-ionate loyalty and love. 

The flower of the vouth of the nations 



rnuntries disappear from the map of Eu- of continental Kurope are conscripted from 

^ i s\ r\ 



10 



DEPEW DERMER 



productive industries and drilling in 
camps. Vast armies stand in battle array 
along the frontiers, and a kaiser s whim 
or a minister s mistake may precipitate 
the most destructive war of modern times. 
Both monarchical and republican govern 
ments are seeking safety in the repression 
and suppression of opposition and criti 
cism. The volcanic forces of democratic 
aspiration and socialistic revolt are rapid 
ly increasing and threaten peace and se 
curity. We turn from these gathering 
storms to the British Isles and find their 
people in the throes of a political crisis in 
volving the form and substance of their 
government, and their statesmen far from 
confident that the enfranchised and un 
prepared masses will wisely use their 
power. 

But for us no army exhausts our re 
sources nor consumes our youth. Our 
navy must needs increase in order that the 
protecting flag may follow the expanding 
commerce which is successfully to compete 
in all the markets of the world. The sun 
of our destiny is still rising, and its rays 
illumine vast territories as yet unoccu 
pied and undeveloped, and which are to 
be the happy homes of millions of people. 
The questions which affect the powers of 
government and the expansion or limita 
tion of the authority of the federal Con 
stitution are so completely settled, and so 
unanimously approved, that our political 
divisions produce only the healthy antag 
onism of parties, which is necessary for 
the preservation of liberty. Our insti 
tutions furnish the full equipment of 
shield and spear for the battles of freedom, 
and absolute protection against every dan 
ger which threatens the welfare of the peo 
ple will always be found in the intelli 
gence which appreciates their vahie, and 
the courage and morality with which 
their powers are exercised. The spirit of 
\Vashington fills the executive office. 
Presidents may not rise to the full meas 
ure of his greatness, but they must not 
fall below his standard of public duty 
and obligation. His life and character, 
conscientiously studied and thoroughly 
understood by coming generations, will 
bo for them a liberal education for pri 
vate life and public station, for citizen 
ship and patriotism, for love and devotion 
to union and liberty. With their inspir- 



103 



ing past and splendid present, the people 
of these United States, heirs of 100 years 
marvellously rich in all which adds to 
the glory and greatness of a nation, with 
an abiding trust in the stability and elas 
ticity of their Constitution, and an 
abounding faith in themselves, hail the 
coming century with hope and joy. 

De Peyster, ABRAHAM, jurist; born in 
New Amsterdam (New York), July 8, 
1658; eldest son of Johannes De Peyster, 
a noted merchant of his day. Between 1691 
and 1695 he was mayor of the city of 
New York; was first assistant justice and 
then chief-justice of New York, and was 
one of the King s council under Governor 
Hyde (afterwards Lord Cornbury), and 
as its president was acting-governor for 
a time in 1701. Judge De Peyster was 
colonel of the forces in New York and 
treasurer of that province and New 
Jersey. He was a personal friend and 
correspondent of William Penn. Having 
amassed considerable wealth, he built a 
fine mansion, which stood, until 1856, in 
Pearl street. It was used by Washington 
as his headquarters for a while in 1776. 
He died in New York City Aug. 10, 1728. 

De Peyster, JOHANNES, founder of the 
De Peyster family; born in Haarlem, Hol 
land, about 1600; emigrated to America 
on account of religious persecution, and 
died in New Amsterdam (now New York 
City) about 1685. 

De Peyster, JOHN WATTS, military his 
torian; born in New York City, March 
9, 1821; elected colonel New York militia 
in 1845; appointed adjutant-general New 
York, 1855; is author of The Dutch at 
the North Pole; The Dutch in Maine; 
Decisive Conflicts of the Late Civil War; 
Personal and Military History of Gen. 
Philip Kearny, etc. 

Dermer, THOMAS, an active friend of 
colonization schemes, and a man of pru 
dence and industry, was employed by the 
Plymouth Company after his return from 
Newfoundland, in 1618, to bring about, if 
possible, reconciliation with the Indians 
of New England, and to make further ex 
plorations. He sailed from Plymouth with 
two vessels (one a small, open pinnace) 
in February, 1619, touched at Mohesran 
Island, and then visited the coast. Der 
mer was accompanied from England by 
Squanto; also by Samoset, a native of 



DERNE EXPEDITION DE SMET 

Sagadahock, whom John Mason, governor the siege of LOUISBURQ (q. v.) , and was 
of Newfoundland, had lately sent home, aide-de-camp to Wolfe when he fell at 
he having been one of Hunt s captives. Quebec, that general dying in Desbarres s 
Dermer succeeded, m a degree, and pro- arms. He was active in the retaking of 
ceeded to explore the coast to Virginia. Newfoundland in 1762, and for ten years 
He sent home his ship from Mohegan Isl- afterwards he was employed in a coast 
and, laden with fish and furs, and, leav- survey of Nova Scotia. He prepared 
Squanto at Saco, sailed southward, charts of the North American coasts in 
Near Cape Cod he was captured by Ind- 1775 for Earl Howe, and in 1777 he pub- 
dians, but ransomed himself by a gift of lished The Atlantic Neptune, in two large 
some hatchets. Passing Martin s (Mar- folios. He was made governor of Cape 
tha s) Vineyard, he navigated Long Isl- Breton, with the military command of 
and Sound by the help of an Indian pilot, Prince Edward s Island, in 1784 and in 
the first Englishman who had sailed upon 1804, being then about eighty-two years 
these waters, and passed out to sea at of age, he was made lieutenant-governor 
Sandy Hook. The current was so swift of Prince Edward s Island. He died in 
that he did not stop at Manhattan; but Halifax, N. S., Oct. 24, 1824. 
on his return from Virginia (1620) he Deseret, PROPOSED STATE OF. See MOR- 
touched there and held a conference with MONS. 

some Dutch traders " on Hudson s River," Desert Land Act, passed March 3, 
warning them that they were on English 1877, allowing settlers 640 acres for pur- 
territory. Dermer sent a journal of his poses of irrigation and improvement 
proceedings to Gorges, and thus, no doubt,. De Smet, PETER JOHN, missionary; 
hastened the procurement of the new char- born in Termonde, Belgium, Dec. 31, 1801 ; 
ter for the PLYMOUTH COMPANY (q. v.). studied in the Episcopal seminary of 
Derne Expedition. See TRIPOLI, WAR Mechlin. With five other students he 

sailed from Amsterdam in 1821 for the 

Derry, JOSEPH T., author; born in Mil- United States, and entered the Jesuit 
ledgeville, Ga., Dec. 13, 1841; graduated school at Whitemarsh, Md. In 1828 he 
at Emory College in 1860; enlisted in the went to St. Louis and aided in founding 
Oglethorpe Infantry in January, 1861, the University of St. Louis, where he 
and with his company joined the Confed- later became a professor. In 1838 he 
erate army, March 18, 1861; served founded a mission among the Pottawat- 
throughout the war, participating in the tomie Indians on Sugar Creek. In July, 
West Virginia, the Tennessee, and the 1840, he went to the Peter Valley in the 
Atlanta campaigns, being taken prisoner Rocky Mountains, where he met about 
t the battle of Kenesaw Mountain, June 1,600 Flathead Indians. By the help of 
27, 1864. Among his works are a School an interpreter he translated the Command- 
History of the United States; History of ments, the Lord s Prayer, and the Creed 
Georgia; and the volume on Georgia in into their language, and these within two 
the Confederate Military History of which weeks time the Flatheads learned. Dur- 
Gen. Clement A. Evans is editor. ing his journey back to St. Louis he was 

De Russy, FORT (La.), captured March several times surrounded by the Black - 
14, 1864, by Gen. A. J. Smith with 10,000 feet Indians, who, when they saw his cru- 
Nationals. Gen. Dick Taylor surrendered cifix and black gown, showed him the 
with about 10,000 men. See RED RIVER greatest respect. On Sept. 24, 1841, with 
EXPEDITION. a party of other missionaries, he reached 

Desbarres, JOSEPH FREDERICK WAL- Bitter Root River, where the mission of 
LET, military officer; born in England, of St. Mary s was begun. After spending 
French ancestry, in 1722; educated for about a year in learning the Blackfeet 
the army at the Royal Military College language and in endeavoring to make St. 
at Woolwich, and, as lieutenant, came to Mary s a permanent mission, he went to 
America in 1756, and, raising 300 recruits Europe to solicit aid. After arousing 
in Pennsylvania and Maryland, formed great enthusiasm in Belgium and France 
them into a corps of field-artillery. He he sailed from Antwerp in December, 
distinguished himself as an engineer in 1843, with five Jesuits and six sisters, 

104 



DE SOTO 



and in August, 1844, arrived at Fort Van 
couver, and planted a central mission on 
the Willamette River. In 1845 he under 
took a series of missions among the Sin- 
poils, Zingomenes, Okenaganes, Koote- 
nays, and Flatbows. He made several 
trips to Europe for aid. Father De Smet 
wrote The Oregon Missions and Travels 
Over the Rocky Mountains; Western Mis 
sions and Missionaries; New Indian 
Sketches, etc. He died in St. Louis, Mo., 
in May, 1872. 

De Soto, FERNANDO, discoverer; born 
in Xeres, Estremadura, Spain, about 1496, 
of a noble but impoverished family. Da- 
vila, governor of Darien, was his kind 
patron, through whose generosity he re 
ceived a good education, and who took 
him to Central America, where he en 
gaged in exploring the coast of the Pacific 
Ocean hundreds of miles in search of a 
supposed strait connecting the two oceans. 
When Pizarro went to Peru, De Soto ac 
companied him, and was his chief lieu 
tenant in achieving the conquest of that 
country. Brave and judicious, De Soto 
was the chief hero in the battle that re 
sulted in the capture of Cuzco, the capital 







FERNANDO DE 9OTO. 

of the Incas, and the destruction of their 
empire. Soon after that event he re 
turned to Spain with large wealth, and 
was received by King Charles V. with 
great consideration. He married Isabella 



Bobadilla, a scion of one of the most re 
nowned of the Castilian families, and his 
influence at Court was thereby strength 
ened. Longing to rival Cortez and Pi 
zarro in the brilliancy of his deeds, and 
believing Florida to be richer in the pre 
cious metals than Mexico or Peru, De Soto 
offered to conquer it at his own expense. 
Permission was readily given him by his 
King, who commissioned him governor of 
Cuba, from which island he would set out 
on his conquering expedition. Elegant in 
deportment, winning in all his ways, an 
expert horseman, rich and influential, and 
then thirty-seven years of age, hundreds 
of young men, the flower of the Spanish 
and Portuguese nobility, flocked to his 
standard, the wealthier ones dressed in 
suits of gorgeous armor and followed by 
trains of servants. With these and his 
beautiful young wife and other noble 
ladies De Soto sailed from Spain early in 
April, 1538, with seven large and three 
small vessels, the San Christoval, of 800 
tons, being his flag-ship. 

Amply supplied and full of joy in the 
anticipation of entering an earthly para 
dise, gayety and feasting, music and 
dancing prevailed on board the flag-ship 
during that sunny voyage, in which richly 
dressed ladies, with handsome pages to do 
their bidding, were conspicuous, especially 
on warm moonlit nights within the tropic 
of Cancer. At near the close of May the 
fleet entered Cuban waters. De Soto occu 
pied a whole year preparing for the expe 
dition, and at the middle of May, 1539, he 
sailed from Cuba with nine vessels, bearing 
1,000 followers, and cattle, horses, mules, 
and swine, the first of the latter seen on 
the American continent. He left public af 
fairs in Cuba in the hands of his wife and 
the lieutenant-governor. The voyage to 
Florida was pleasant, and the armament 
landed on the shores of Tampa Bay on 
May 25, near where Narvaez had first 
anchored. Instead of treating the natives 
kindly and winning their friendship, 
De Soto unwisely sent armed men to 
capture some of them, in order to learn 
something about the country he was to 
conquer. The savages, cruelly treated by 
Narvaez, and fearing the same usage by 
De Soto, were cautious. They were also 
wily, expert with the bow, revengeful, and 
fiercely hostile. With cavaliers clad in 



105 



DE SOTO, FERNANDO 




DE SOTO DISCOVERING THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 



-j glided across the 
] river, and with kind 
words welcomed the 
. Spaniards and of- 
fered them her 
services. Presents 
were exchanged. A 
magnificent string of 
pearls was hung 
upon her neck. This 
she drew over her 
head and hung it 
around the neck of 
De Soto as a token 
of her regard. Then 
she invited him and 
his followers to cross 
over to her village. 
In canoes and on 
log-rafts they pass 
ed the stream, and, 
encamping in the 
shadows of mul 
berry-trees, they 
soon received a 
bountiful supply of 

steel and riding 113 horses, with many venison and wild turkeys. There they en- 
footmen armed with arquebuses, cross- joyed the young queen s hospitality until 
bows, swords, shields, and lances, and a May, and when they departed De Soto 
single cannon, and supplied with savage requited the kindness of the royal maiden 
bloodhounds from Cuba, and handcuffs, with foul treachery. He carried her away 
iron neck-collars, and chains for the cap- a prisoner, and kept her near his person 
tives, De Soto began his march in June, as a hostage for the good behavior of her 
1539. He was accompanied by mechanics, people towards the Spaniards. She finally 
priests, inferior clergy, and monks in escaped, and returned home a bitter 
sacerdotal robes bearing images of the enemy of the perfidious white people. 
Virgin, holy relics, and sacramental bread De Soto crossed the beautiful country 
and wine, wherewith to make Christians of the Cherokees (see CHEROKEE INDIANS), 
of the captured pagans. and penetrated the fertile Coosa region, 

At the very outset the expedition met where the Spaniards practised the most 
with determined opposition from the dusky cruel treachery towards the friendly 
inhabitants, but De Soto pressed forward natives. De Soto was rewarded in kind 
Inwards the interior of the fancied land not long afterwards, and in a terrible 
of gold. He wintered east of the Flint battle with the Mobilians, on the site of 
River, near Tallahassee, on the borders of Mobile, the expedition was nearly ruined. 
Georgia, and in March, 1540, broke up his Turning northward with the remnant of 
encampment and marched northward, hav- his forces, he fought his way through the 
ing been told that gold would be found in Chickasaw country (see CIIICKASAW IND- 
that direction. He reached the Savannah TANS), and reached the upper waters of 
River, at Silver Bluff. On the opposite the Yazoo River late in December, where 
side of the stream, in (present) Barmvell he wintered, in great distress. Moving 
county, lived an Indian queen, young, beau- westward in the spring, lie discovered the 
tiful, and a maiden, who ruled over a largo Mississippi River, in all its grandeur, in 
extent of country. In a richly wrought May, 1541. It was near the Lower Clma- 
e;mop, filled with shawls and skins and saw Bluff, in Tunica county, Miss. Cross- 
other things for presents, the dusky cacica ing the mighty stream, De Soto went west- 

106 



DE SOTO DE TROBBIAND 



ward in his yet fruitless search for gold, 
and spent a year in the country towards 
the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. 
Returning to the Mississippi in May, 
1542, he died of a fever on its banks on 
the 21st. 

As he had declared to the Indians, who 
were sun-worshippers, that he was a son of 
the sun, and that Christians could not die, 
it was thought wise to conceal his death 
from the pagans. He was secretly buried 
in the gateway of the Spanish camp. The 
Indians knew he was sick. He was not to 
be seen, and they saw a new-made grave. 
They looked upon it and pondered. Mos- 
coso ordered the body to be taken up at 
the dead of night. He was wrapped in 
mantles in which sand had been sewed up, 
taken in a boat to the middle of the great 
river, and there dropped to the bottom in 
19 fathoms of water. Herrera says it 
was sunk in a hollow live-oak log. When 
the Indian chief asked Moscoso for De 
Soto, that leader replied, " He has ascend 
ed to heaven, but will return soon." 

Before his death De Soto had conferred 
the leadership of the expedition upon 
Moscoso, his lieutenant, who, with the 
wretched remnant of the expedition, 



made their way to Mexico, where the ele 
gant Castilian ladies at the court of the 
viceroy were enraptured by the beauty of 
the dusky Mobilian girls. The news of 
De Soto s death cast a gloom over Havana, 
and poor Dona Isabella, wife of the great 
leader, who had so long waited for his 
return, died of a broken heart. 

Despard, JOHN, military officer; born 
in 1745; joined the British army in 1760; 
came to America in 1773; was present 
at the capture of Fort Montgomery and 
of Charleston; and was with Cornwallis 
in the campaign which culminated in the 
surrender at Yorktown. He was promoted 
colonel in 1705, and major-general in 
1798. He died in Oswestry, England, 
Sept. 3, 1829. 

D Estaing, COUNT. See ESTAING, 
CHARLES HECTOR, COUNT D . 

Destroying Angels. See DANITES. 

De Trobriand, PHILIPPE REGIS, mili 
tary officer; born in Chateau des Ro- 
chettes, Prance, June 4, 1816; came to the 
United States in 1841; joined the Nation 
al army as colonel of the 55th New York 
Regiment in August, 1861 ; took part in 
the engagements at Fredericksburg, Chan- 
cellorsville, Gettysburg, etc.; was present 




THE BURIAL OP DE SOTO. 



wandered another year in the region west 
of the Mississippi ; and returning to that 
river in May, 1543, they built rude ves 
sels, and, with a number of beautiful Ala 
bama girls whom they had carried away 
cuptive after the battle at Maubila, they 



as the commander of a division at Lee s 
surrender; received the brevet of major- 
general of volunteers in April, 1865. He 
joined the regular army in 18(10; received 
the brevet of brigadier-general in l!Sti7; 
retired in 1879. He published Quatre ans 



107 



DETROIT 



dv campagnes a I wmee du Potomac. He 
died in Bayport, L. I., July 7, 1897. 

Detroit, a city, port of entry, metropolis 
of Michigan, and county seat of Wayne 
county; on the Detroit River, 7 miles 
from Lake St. Clair, and about 18 miles 
from Lake Erie. It is noted for the 
variety and extent of its manufactures 
and for its large traffic on the Great 
Lakes. For the defence of the harbor and 



Foreign commerce and interstate trade 
are facilitated by an excellent harbor, ex 
tensive dry-docks, and important steam 
boat and railroad connections. According 
to the census of 1000 the city had 2,847 
manufacturing establishments, employing 
$71,751,193 capital and 45,707 wage- 
earners; paying $18,718,081 for wages and 
$52,349,347 for materials used; and hav 
ing a combined output valued at $100,- 




LANDING OF CADILLAC. 



city the federal government is construct 
ing Fort Wayne, a short distance below 
the city, which is designed to be the 
strongest American fortification on the 
northern frontier. The value of tin- 
foreign trade of the city in merchandise 
during the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1904, was: Imports, $4,467,154; exports. 
$23,698,435, both a considerable increase 
over the returns of the previous year. 
The principal shipments arc grains, moat, 
wool, iron and copper ores, and lumber. 



108 



892,838. The principal manufactures were: 
Foundry and machine-shop products, $8,- 
943,311; druggists preparations, $4,915.- 
913; smoking and chewing tobacco and 
snuff, $3.74(i,045: iron and steel, $3,198,- 
881; packed meat, s::. 107,430; cigars and 
cigarettes. *2.790.2<i8 : malt liquors, $2,- 
f>9. J. lilt;! : and steam -heal ing apparatus. $2.- 
104.0(H>. In 1903 the assessed property 
valuations were: Real estate, $190, 197,- 
060; personal, $81,671,860 total, $271.- 
808,920; and the tax rate was $16.57 per 




H 



O 



W 
Q 

h 

a! 
O 

fe 

z 

o 



71 



o 
~ 



DETROIT 

$1,000. The city owned property free were forced to make a precipitate retreat 
from all encumbrance estimated in 1902 in the darkness, leaving twenty of their 
at $25,427,139. The net general city debt, comrades killed and forty-two wounded 
Jan. 1, 1904, was $3,037,938; net special on the border of the brook, which has 
debt, $291,276 total net debt, $3,929,214, ever since been called Bloody Run. Dal- 
besides a water debt of about $1,000,000. zell was slain while trying to carry off 
The population in 1890 was 205,876; in some of the wounded, and his scalp be- 
1900, 285,704. came an Indian s trophy. Pontiac con- 
Detroit was first settled by Antoine Ca- tinned the siege of Detroit until the ar- 
dillac, July 24, 1701, with fifty soldiers rival of Colonel Bradstreet in May, 1764. 
and fifty artisans and traders. Three In January, 1774, the British Parlia- 
years later the first white child, a daugh- ment included Detroit and its dependent 
ter of Cadillac, was baptized in the place, territory with Canada, and the first civil 
which was called by the French "La Ville government was instituted June 22, 1774, 
d Etroit." The French surrendered Detroit with GENERAL HENRY HAMILTON (q. v.) as 
to the English, under Maj. Robert Rodgers, governor. Governor Hamilton, a, human 
Nov. 29, 17GO. tiger, delighting in blood, instigated the 
The tragedy of Pontiac s War opened Indians to murder the defenceless set- 
in Detroit. Under pretext of holding a lers on the border. He organized an ex- 
friendly council with Major Gladwin, com- pedition in 1779 to capture Vincennes, 
mander of the fort, the wily chief entered but GENERAL GEORGE ROGERS CLARK (q. v.) 
it in May, 1763, with about 300 warriors, attacked him on the way on March 5, 
each carrying a knife, tomahawk, and and forced him to an unconditional sur- 
short gun under his blanket. When Pon- render. Hamilton was sent to Virginia, 
tiac should rise and present the green side put into irons by Thomas Jefferson, and 
of a belt, the massacre of the garrison escaped hanging only through the inter- 
was to begin. Gladwin was warned of cession of Washington, but was finally 
the plot the day before by a friendly Ind- paroled. The British troops were allowed 
ian, and the calamity was averted by to return to Detroit. 

the appointment of another day for the In 1782 Detroit had a permanent popu- 
council. When the Indians retired, the lation of 2,190, of whom 178 were slaves, 
gates of the fort were closed upon them, but the withdrawal of the British gar- 
and, knowing the reason, Pontiac began rison and the exodus of the English set- 
a siege that lasted a year. tiers to found Amherstburg reduced the 
General Amherst hastily collected a inhabitants to about 500, most of whom 
small body in the East for the relief of were of French descent. During the forty- 
Detroit and reinforcement of Fort Ni- five years after the close of the war 
agara, and sent them under the command Detroit grew slowly, in 1828 having a 
of Captain Dalzell, one of his aides. Dal- population of 1,517 only. The opening of 
zell left reinforcements at Niagara, and the Erie Canal in 1825 sent a tide of emi- 
proceeded to Detroit with the remainder ^ration westward, and Detroit began its 
of his troops and provisions in a vessel marvellous growth. Beginning with 2,222 
that arrived on the evening of July 30. inhabitants in 1830, it has on an average 
They succeeded in entering the fort with doubled each decade. 

provisions. Pontiac had already sum- The city was the scene of disastrous 

moned Gladwin to surrender ; now Dal- operations in the early part of the War 

zell proposed to make a sortie and attack of 1812-15. In August, 1812, General 

the besieging Indians. Gladwin thought Brock, governor of Upper Canada, with 

it would be imprudent, but Dalzell per- a few regulars and 300 militia, hastened 

sisted, and before daylight on the morn- to Amherstburg, arriving there on the 

ing of July 31 he sallied out with 240 night of Aug. 13, and on the following 

chosen men to attack the Indians, who lay morning held a conference with Tecumseh 

about a mile up the river. Pontiac was and 1,000 Indians, telling them he had come 

on the alert, and, at a small stream on to assist in driving the Americans from 

the northern verge of Detroit, the Eng- their rightful hunting-grounds north of the 

lish, furiously assailed by the Indians, Ohio. The Indians were pleased, and, at 

109 



DETROIT 



a subsequent interview with Tecumseh 
and the other chiefs, they assured him 
that the Indians would give him all 
their strength in the undertaking. Then 
Brock marched from Maiden to Sandwich, 
which the Americans had deserted, and a 
battery was planted opposite Detroit, 
which commanded the fort there. The 
American artillerists begged permission 
to open fire upon it, and Captain Snelling 
asked the privilege of going over in the 
night to capture the British works. Hull 
would not allow any demonstrations 
against the enemy, and the latter pre 
pared for assault without any molesta 
tion. Hull was much deceived by letters 
intended to be intercepted, showing 
preparations for large and immediate re 
inforcements to Brock s army; and he 
had also been deceived into the belief 
that a large portion of the followers of 
the latter, who were only militia, were 
regulars. The militia had been dressed 
in scarlet uniforms, and were paraded so 
as to show treble their real number. Hull 
was hemmed in on every side; his pro 
visions were scarce, and he saw no chance 
of receiving any from Ohio. He knew 



that if the Indians were exasperated 
and the fort should be taken there 
would be a general massacre of the 
garrison and the inhabitants, and his 
kindness of heart and growing caution, 
incident to old age, made him really 
timid and fearful. When Brock s prepa 
rations for attack were completed (on the 
15th), he sent a summons to Hull for an 
unconditional surrender of the post. In 
that demand was a covert threat of let 
ting loose the bloodthirsty Indians in 
case of resistance. Hull s whole effective 
force at that time did not exceed 1,000 
men. The fort was thronged with trem 
bling women and children and decrepit 
old men of the village and surrounding 
country, who had fled to it for protection 
from the Indians. He kept the flag that 
bore the summons waiting fully two hours, 
for his innate bravery and patriotism bade 
him refuse and fight, while his fear of 
dreadful consequences to his army and the 
people bade him surrender. His troops 
were confident in their ability to success 
fully confront the enemy, and he finally 
refused compliance with the demand. Ac 
tive preparations were then made for de- 




A BUSINESS STREET IN DETROIT IN 1899. 

110 



DETROIT DE VRIES 

fence. The British opened a cannonade English after the conquest of Canada, in 
and bombardment from their battery, 1760. It was quadrangular in form, with 
which was kept up until near midnight, bastions and barracks, and covered about 
The firing was returned with spirit; but two acres of ground. The embankments 
Hull would listen to no suggestion for were nearly 20 feet high, with a deep 
the erection of a battery at Spring Wells ditch, and were surrounded with a double 
to oppose the enemy if they should at- row of pickets. The fort did not corn- 
tempt to cross the river. Early on the mand the river. The tow n, also, was sur- 
morning of the 16th they crossed and rounded by pickets 14 feet in height, with 
landed unmolested; and as they moved loop-holes to shoot through, 
towards the fort, in single column, Te- De Vaca. See CABEZA DE VACA. 
cumseh and his Indians, 700 strong, who Devens, CHARLES, jurist; born in 
had crossed 2 miles below during the Charlestown, Mass., April 4, 1820; grad- 
rnght, took position in the woods on their uated at Harvard University in 1838; 
left as flankers, while the right was pro- studied at the Cambridge Law School, and 
tected by the guns of the Queen Charlotte, practised the profession of law several 
in the river. They had approached to a years. In 1848 he was a State Senator, 
point within 500 yards of the American and from 1849 to 1853 was United States 
line, when Hull sent a peremptory order marshal for Massachusetts. He was en- 
for the soldiers to retreat within the al- gaged in his profession at Worcester, 
ready overcrowded fort. The infuriated Mass., when the Civil War began, and 
soldiers reluctantly obeyed; and while was one of the earliest Union volunteers, 
the enemy were preparing to storm the becoming major of a rifle battalion April 
fort, Hull, without consulting any of his 16, 1861, and colonel of the 15th Massa- 
ofncers, hoisted a white flag, and a capitu- chusetts Regiment in July following. Be- 
lation for a surrender was soon agreed fore the arrival of Colonel Baker, he com- 
upon. The surrender took place at noon, manded at BALL S BLUFF ( q. v . ) , and again 
Aug. 16, 1812. The fort, garrison, army, after that officer s death. In April, 1862, 
and the Territory of Michigan were in- te was made brigadier-general; served on 
eluded in the terms of surrender. The the Peninsula; was wounded at Fair 
spoils of victory for the British were Oaks; was in the battles of Soutli Moun- 
2,500 stand of arms, twenty-five iron and tain and Antietam; and commanded a 
eight brass pieces of ordnance, forty bar- division in the llth Army Corps at 
rels of gunpowder, a. stand of colors, a Chancellorsville. In the Richmond cam- 
great quantity of military stores, and the paign of 1864-65 he was continually en- 
armed brig John Adams. One of the gaged, and in December, 1864, he was in 
brass cannon bore the following inscrip- temporary command of the 24th Army 
tion: "Taken at Saratoga on the 17th Corps. In April, 1865, he was brevetted 
of October, 1777." General Hull and his major-general of volunteers, and in 1867 
fellow-captives were sent first to Fort was appointed a justice of the Superior 
George and then to Montreal, where they Court of Massachusetts. He was United 
arrived Sept. 6, when they were paroled, States Attorney - General in 1877-81, and 
and returned to their homes. Hull was justice of the Massachusetts Supreme 
tried for treason and cowardice, and sen- Court from 1881 till his death, in Boston, 
tenced to be shot, but \vas pardoned by Jan. 7, 1891. 

the President. His character has since De Vries, DAVID PIETERSSEN, colonist, 

been fully vindicated. See HULL, WILL- In December, 1630, he sent out a number 

IAM. of emigrants from Holland who establisli- 

Detroit, FORT. The old French village ed a settlement called Swanendal, near the 

of Detroit contained 160 houses in 1812, mouth of the Delaware River, where they 

and about 800 souls. It stretched along began the cultivation of grain and to- 

the river at a convenient distance from bacco. Two years later when De Vries 

the water, and the present Jefferson Ave- arrived at the head of a second party he 

nue was the principal street. On the high found that all the first settlers had been 

ground in the rear, about 250 yards from massacred by the Indians. In April, 1634, 

the river, stood Fort Detroit, built by the he concluded that his enterprise was un- 

111 



DEWEY 



successful, and the expedition returned to 
Holland. He is the author of Voyages from 
Holland to America, from 1632 till 164. f . 
Dewey, GEORGE, naval officer; born in 
Montpelier, Vt., Dec. 26, 1837; gradu 
ated at the United States Naval Academy 
in 1858; and served on the frigate Wa- 
bash in the Mediterranean squadron until 
the beginning of the Civil War, when he 
was assigned to the steam sloop Missis 
sippi of the West Gulf squadron. On 
April 19, 1861, he was commissioned lieu 
tenant, and was with Admiral Farragut 
when the latter s squadron forced the 
passage of forts St. Philip and Jackson 
in April, 1862. He also took part in the 
attack on Fort St. Philip and the subse 
quent battles with gunboats and iron 
clads which gave Farragut control of New 
Orleans. In the smoke of the battle the 
Mississippi ran aground within range of 
the shore batteries. When it was seen 



in 1884 to captain; and in 1896 to com 
modore. He was appointed to command 
the Asiatic squadron in January, 1898, an 
assignment then considered but little 
short of exile. About March of the same 
year, when it became evident that war 
would be declared between the United 
States and Spain, Commodore Dewey, act 
ing on orders from Washington, began to 
mobilize his vessels in the harbor of 
Hong-Kong. After the declaration of 
war he received orders to capture or de 
stroy the Spanish fleet known to be in 
Philippine waters. It was then supposed 
that the harbor of Manila, where the Span 
ish fleet was most likely to rendezvous, 
was mined with explosives and supplied 
with search-lights, and that the forts of 
CAVITE (q. v.) had been put in readiness 
for an attack. Taking all chances, the 
United States squadron sailed boldly into 
the bay on the night of April 30. Dewey s 



I 




BIRTHPLACE OF ADMIRAL DEWEY. 

that the ship could not be saved, the offi- squadron comprised the flagship Olympia, 

cers and men set her afire and escaped in a first-rate steel-protected cruiser; the 

the boats. Later, Dewey served in the Boston, the Haiti more, and the Raleigh, 

North Atlantic blockading squadron, and second-rate steel-protected cruisers; the 

still later with the European squadron. Concord and J clrcl, steel gunboats; the 

In 1872 he was promoted to commander; McCulloch, revenue-cutter; and two new 

112 




ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY 



DEWEY, GEOBGE 




TRIUMPHAL AKCH ERECTED IS NEW YORK CITY TO CELKBRATK DKWEY S RETURN. 



Iy purchased supply ships. The Spanish 
squadron consisted of the Reina Christina, 
steel cruiser; the Castilia, wooden cruiser; 
the Don Antonio de Ulloa, iron cruiser; 
the Don Juan de Austria, iron cruiser ; the 
Isla de Cuba, steel protected cruiser; the 
Isla dc Luzon, steel protected cruiser; 
the Isla de Mindanao, auxiliary cruis- 
er; the gunboats General Lezo, El Cano, 
and Marques del Duero, and two 
torpedo - boats. Early on Sunday morn- 
ing, May 1, Dewey attacked the Spanish 
squadron, under command of Admiral 
Montojo. Two engagements were fought; 
during the interval between them the 
American ships drew off to the east side 
of the bay, that the men might rest and 
have breakfast. The fight lasted two 
hours, and resulted in the destruction of 
the Spanish squadron, by fire and sinking, 
without the loss of an American ship or 
man. Immediately after the receipt of 
Dewey s brief message of victory, the Pres- 
ident promoted him to rear-admiral, and 
Congress voted him the thanks of the coun- 
try and a sword. Subsequently, the grade 
of admiral was revived, and the President 
conferred it on him. Holding the bay of 
Manila and the Cavite works, he had 
III. H 



the chief city* of the Philippines at his 
mercy, but made no attempt to occupy 
that city. There ensued a period of mas- 
terful diplomacy, which won for the victor 
high commendation. Between the im- 
minent dangers of foreign complications 
and the operations of the native insur- 
gents under AGUIXALDO (q. v.), he 
acquitted himself with rare judgment. 
After the occupation of MANILA (q. v.) 
by the American troops, he was granted 
leave to return home, whenever and how- 
ever it should suit his convenience; and, 
sailing in his battle-scarred flag-ship, he 
reached New York on Sept. 20, 1899, and 
was given the grandest reception ever 
accorded a public officer, the demonstra- 
tions comprising a naval parade up the 
river to General Grant s tomb, on the 29th, 
and a land parade on the following day. 
Subsequently, he established his residence 
in Washington, D. C., in a dwelling pre- 
sented to him by popular subscription. 

Dewey, MELVIL, librarian; born in 
Adams Centre, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1851; 
graduated at Amherst in 1874; edited the 
Library Journal in 1876-81; became di- 
rector of the New York State Library in 
1888; is author of Decimal Classification 



DE WITT DICKINSON 

and Relative Index; Library School Rules, It is of him that the story is told that 

etc. he sent a lot of warming-pans to the West 

De Witt, SIMEON, surveyor; born in Indies, which he disposed of at a large 

Ulster county, N. Y., Dec. 26, 1756; profit to the sugar manufacturers for use 

graduated at Queen s (now Rutgers) Col- as skimmers. He died in Newburyport, 

lege in 1776; joined the army under Mass., Oct. 26, 1806. 

Gates; and was made assistant geog- De Zeng, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, BARON, 
rapher to the army in 1778, and chief military officer; born in Dresden, Saxony, 
geographer in 1780. He was surveyor- in 1756; came to America in 1780 as cap- 
general of New York fifty years (1784- tain in one of the Hessian regiments; and 
1834). In 1796 he declined the appoint- at the end of the Revolutionary War mar- 
ment of surveyor-general of the United ried an American lady and settled in Red 
States. He was regent, vice-chancellor, Hook. N. Y. He was naturalized in 1789, 
and chancellor of the State of New York, and became intimate with Chancellor 
member of many learned societies, and Livingston, Governor Clinton, General 
author of Elements of Perspective (1835). Schuyler, and others, and was greatly in- 
He died in Ithaca, N. Y., Dec. 3, 1834. terested in the opening of canals and in 

Dexter, HENRY MARTYN, clergyman; the navigation of the interior waters and 

born in Plympton, Mass., Aug. 13, 1821; lakes. He died in Clyde, N. Y., April 26, 

graduated at Yale in 1840; became pas- 1838. 

tor of the Congregational Church in Diamond State. A name applied to 

Manchester in 1844; removed to Boston the State of Delaware because of its 

as pastor of the Berkeley Street Church small size, its wealth, and its importance. 

in 1849. He is the author of Congregation- Diaz del Castillo, BERNAL, military 

alism of the Last 300 Years; As to Roger officer; born in Medina del Campo, Spain, 

William* and his Banishment from the about 1498 ; came to America as an ad- 

Massachusetts Colony; History of Old venturer in 1514, joining the expedition 

Plymouth Colony; and the editor of of Cordova in 1517, and of Grijalva in 

Church s Eastern Expeditions; Entertain- 1518. He served Cortez faithfully and 

ing Passages Relating to Philip s War. He valiantly. During his adventurous career 

died in New Bedford, Mass., Nov. 13, 1890. he was engaged in 119 battles and skir- 

Dexter, SAMUEL, jurist; born in Bos- mishes, and was wounded several times. Tie 
ton, May 14, 1761 ; graduated at Har- wrote a history of the conquest of New 
vard in 1781; studied law at Worces- Spain, which he completed in 1568, in 
ter, and became a State legislator, in tended to correct the misstatements of 
which place he was distinguished for in- Gomara s Chronicle of New Spain, in 
tellectual ability and oratory. President which nearly all the glory of its conquest 
Adams appointed him, successively, Sec- was given to Cortez. Diaz was a rough, 
retary of War (1800) and of the Treas- unlettered soldier, and his history has 
ury ( 1801 ) , and for a while he had charge been pronounced a " collection of fables." 
of the State Department. On the acces- He died in Guatemala, about 1593. 
sion of Jefferson (1801) he resumed the Dickerson, MAHLON, statesman; born 
practice of law. He declined foreign em- in Hanover, N. J., April 17, 1770; grad- 
bassies offered by Adams and Madison, uated at Princeton in 1789; practised law 
Mr. Dexter was a Federalist until the in Philadelphia, where he became recorder 
War of 1812, when, being in favor of that of the city court. He returned to New 
measure, he separated himself from his Jersey, was elected a member of the leg- 
party. He was the first president of the islature in 1814, governor of the State 
first temperance society formed in Massa- in 1815, and United States Senator in 
clmsetts. He died in Athens, N. Y., May 1816. He was Secretary of the Navy un- 
4 1816. dcr Presidents Jackson and Van Buren. 

Dexter, TIMOTHY, merchant; born in He died in Succasunna, N. J., Oct. 5, 

Maiden, Mass., Jan. 22. 1743. Inordinate 1853. 

vanity and extraordinary shrewdness were Dickinson, ANNA ELIZABETH, reformer ; 

combined in him with almost imbecility born in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 28, 1842; 

in all matters excepting those of trade, made her first appearance among public 

114 



DICKINSON 




JOHN DICKINSON. 



speakers in 1857, and spoke frequently on May of that year. He was successively 
temperance and slavery. During the Civil president of the States of Delaware and 
War she was employed by Republican com- Pennsylvania (1781-85), and a member 
mittees to make addresses, and after its of the convention that framed the na- 
conclusion she lectured on reconstruction tional Constitution (1787). Letters from 
and on woman s work and wages. She his pen, over the signature of " Fabius." 
was an ardent advocate for woman s suf 
frage. 

Dickinson, CHARLES WESLEY, inventor; 
born in Springfield, N. J., Nov. 23, 1823; 
became a machinist, and gave his attention 
to fine machinery. He perfected the bank 
note engraving lathe, first used by the 
national government in 1862; and invent 
ed a pantograph tracer, improved type 
setting and type - distributing machines, 
etc. He died in Belleville, N. J., July 2, 
1900. 

Dickinson, DON M., lawyer; born in 
Port Ontario, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1846; set 
tled in Michigan in 1848; graduated at 
the Law Department of the University of 
Michigan in 1806; began practice in 
Detroit; member of the Democratic 
National Committee in 1884-85 ; served as 
Postmaster-General of the United States 
in 1888-89. He was appointed senior 
counsel for the United States before the 
Bering Sea Claims Commission in 1896. 

Dickinson, JOHN, publicist; born in advocating the adoption of the national 
Maryland, Nov. 13, 1732; son of Chief- Constitution, appeared in 1788; and an 
Justice Samuel D. Dickinson ; studied law other series, over the same signature, or 
in Philadelphia and at the Temple in Lon- our relations with France, appeared in 
don, and practised his profession in Phila- 1797. Mr. Dickinson assisted in framinp 
delphia. In the Pennsylvania Assembly, the constitution of Delaware in 1792. Hi? 
to which he was elected in 1764, he showed monument is DICKINSON COLLEGE (q. v.) 
great legislative ability, and was a ready at Carlisle, Pa., which he founded and 
and vehement debater. At the same time, liberally endowed. He died in Wilmington 
he wrote much on the subject of Brlt sh Del., Feb. 14, 1808. 

infringement on the liberties of the colo- Dickinson, PHILEMON, military officer, 
nies. The most noted of these writings born in Croisedore, Md., April 5, 1739. 
were papers (twelve in number) entitled settled near Trenton, N. J. In July, 1775 
Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer, etc., he entered the patriot army; in October 
published in the Pennsylvania Chronicle in of the same year was promoted brigadier 
1767. Mr. Dickinson was a member of general; in 1776 was a de egate to the Pro 
the first Continental Congress, and wrote vincial Congress of New Jersey; in 1777 
several of the state papers put forth by was promoted major-general of the Ne\\ 
that body. Considering the resolution of Jersey troops; in October of that year 
independence unwise, he voted against it marched against the British on Staten Tsl 
and the Declaration, and did not sign the and, for which he received the thanks ot 
latter document. This made him rmpopu- Washington; and served with marked dis 
lar. In 1777 he was made a bri<jad ; er-fr e n- tinction during the remainder of the Revo 
eral of the Pennsylvania militia. He was lutionary War. In 1784 he served on the 
elected a representative in Congress from commission to choose a site for the city 
Delaware in 1779, and wrote the Address of Washington. He died near Trenton. 
to the States put forth by that body in N. J., Feb. 4, 1809. 

115 



DICKINSON COLLEGE DINWIDDIE 



Dickinson College, a co-educational 
institution in Carlisle, Pa. ; under the con 
trol of the Methodist Episcopal Church; 
organized in 1783; reported at the end of 
1900, thirty professors and instructors, 
480 students, 45,000 volumes in the 
library, 3,951 graduates, and $375,000 in 
productive funds; president, George E. 
Reed, S.T.D., LL.D. 

Dickson, JOHN, statesman; born in 
Keene, N. H., in 1783; graduated at 
Middlebury College in 1808 ; practised law 
in Rochester, N. Y., in 1813-25; member 
of Congress in 1831-35. He is credited 
with having delivered " the first important 
anti-slavery speech ever made in Con 
gress." He published Remarks on the Pres 
entation of Several Petitions for the 
Abolition of Slavery and the Slave-trade 
in the District of Cohunbia. He died in 
West Bloomfield, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1852. 

Dieskau, LUDWIG AUGUST, BARON, mili 
tary officer; born in Saxony in 1701; was 
lieutenant-colonel of cavalry under Mar 
shal Saxe, and was made brigadier-gen 
eral of infantry in 1748, and commander 
of Brest. In 1755 he was sent to Canada 
with the rank of major-general ; and in an 
attack upon the fortified encampment of 
Gen. William Johnson at the head of Lake 
George (Sept. 8, 1755) he was so severely 
wounded that he died in Surenne, near 
Paris, Sept. 8, 1757. 

Digges, EDWARD, colonial governor; 
born in England in 1620; came to Ameri 
ca and introduced the silk-worm into Vir 
ginia ; became governor of that colony in 
1655, but before the close of the year 
resigned and became the bearer of a letter 
from the Virginia Assembly to Cromwell. 
He died in Virginia, March 15, 1675. 

Dimick, JUSTIN, military officer; born 
in Hartford county, Conn., Aug. 5, 1800; 
graduated at the United States Mili 
tary Academy in 1819; served in the war 
with Mexico, and greatly distinguished 
himself at Contreras and Churubusco. In 
1861-63 he commanded the depot of 
prisoners at Fort Warren, Mass. He was 
retired in 1863; received the brevet of 
brigadier-general, U. S. A., in 1865. He 
died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 13, 1871. 

Dingley, NELSON, legislator; born in 
Durham, Me., Feb. 15, 1832; gradu 
ated at Dartmouth College in 1855; 
studied law in Auburn nnd WTS admitted 

1 



to the bar there in 1856; and in the last 
mentioned year became editor and pro 
prietor of the Lewiston Journal, a con 
nection he retained till his death. From 
1861 till 1873 he was a member of the 
State legislature, and in 1873 and 1875 
was elected governor of Maine. In 1881 
he was elected to Congress to fill the va 
cancy caused by the election of William 
P. Frye to the United States Senate, and 
by re-elections held the seat till his death. 




XKLSOX D1NI1I.KY. 



From the opening of his congressional 
career he was conspicuous as an advocate 
of high tariff. In 1890 he aided in the 
formulation of the McKinley tariff bill ; in 
1894 was a strong opponent of the Wilson 
bill; and in 1897, as chairman of the 
committee on ways and means, he brought 
forward the tariff bill which was adopted 
under his name. President McKinley 
tendered him the post of Secretary of the 
Treasury, but he declined it. In 1898 he 
became a member of the Joint High Com 
mission to negotiate a settlement of ex 
isting differences between the United 
States and Canada. He died in Washing 
ton, D. C., Jan. 13, 1899. 

Dinwiddie, ROIJERT, colonial governor; 
born in Scotland about 1690. While act 
ing as clerk to a collector of customs in 
the West Indies he discovered and ex 
posed enormous frauds practised by his 
principal, and was rewarded with the 



DINWIDDIE, BOBEBT 

office of surveyor of the customs, and withdraw his troops from the disputed 
afterwards with that of lieutenant-govern- territory. Dinwiddie immediately pre- 
or of Virginia. He arrived in the colony pared for an expedition against the 
in 1752. He was rapacious, and unscrupu- French, and asked the other colonies to 
lous in the accumulation of wealth, co-operate with Virginia. This was the 
Owing to his exaction of enormous fees first call for a general colonial union 
authorized by the board of trade for the against the common enemy. All hesi- 
issue of patents for lands, he gained the tated excepting North Carolina. The 
ill-will of the people of Virginia, and legislature of that province promptly voted 
when he called for money to enable him 400 men, who were soon on the march 
to oppose the encroachments of the for Winchester, the place of rendezvous; 
French, the House of Burgesses paid no but they eventually proved of little worth, 
attention to his expressed wishes. Din- for, doubtful of being paid for their ser- 
widdie, unmindful of this conduct, en- vices, a great part of them were dis- 
listed a captain s command, and sent them banded before they reached the Shenan- 
to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio doah Valley. Some volunteers from 
(now Pittsburg), and called on neighbor- South Carolina and New York hastened 
ing colonies for aid in the work. He sent to the gathering - place. Virginia respond- 
George Washington to the French com- ed to the call to arms by organizing 
mander on a mission of " observation, a regiment of 600 men, of which Joshua 
Washington proved himself to be a zeal- Fry was appointed colonel and Major 
ous officer; and Dinwiddie, discovering his Washington lieutenant-colonel. The Vir- 
capacity, made him adjutant-general of a ginians assembled at Alexandria, on 
military district. the Potomac, whence Lieutenant - Colonel 

The revelations made to Washington Washington, with the advance, marched 
at Fort Le Boeuf, the evident preparations (April 2, 1754) at their head for the 
of the French to make a concerted move- Ohio. Meanwhile Captain Trent had re- 
nient to secure the occupation of the Ohio cruited a company among the traders west 
region, and the tenor of St. Pierre s an- of the mountains, and had begun the erec- 
swer to Dinwiddie s letter, convinced the tion of a fort at the forks of the Ohio. 

They were attacked (April 18) by a party 
of French and Indians, who expelled Trent 
and his men, completed the fort, and 
named it Duquesne, in honor of the cap 
tain - general of Canada. News of this 
event reached Washington at Will s 
Creek (now Cumberland). He pushed 
forward with 150 men to a point on the 
Monongahela less than 40 miles from Fort 
Duquesne. There he was informed that 
a strong force of French and Indians was 
marching to intercept him. He wisely fell 
back to the Great Meadows, where he 
erected a stockade, and called it Fort Ne 
cessity. Before it was completed, a few 
of his troops attacked an advanced party 
of the enemy under Jumonville in the 
night, and the commander and several of 
hi? men were killed. Some of his capt 
ured men were sent to Governor Dinwid 
die. Reinforced, Washington marched for 

latter of the necessity of quick and ener- Fort Duquesne again, but was driven back 
c-tic countervailing measures. St. Pierre to Fort Necessity, which he was obliged 
declared that he was acting under the in- to surrender on July 3. See NECESSITY, 
st ructions of his superior, the Marquis FORT. 

Duquesne, at Montreal, and refused to Dinwiddie was the first to suggest to 

117 




DINWIDDIE COURT-HOUSEDIPLOMATIC SERVICE 



the British board of trade the taxing of 
the colonies (1754) for funds to carry on 
the war with the French and Indians; 
and he was one of the five colonial gov 
ernors who memorialized Parliament 
(1755) in favor of the measure. He had 
much clashing and vexation with the 
House of Burgesses; and worn out with 
trouble and age, he left Virginia under 
a cloud caused by a charge made by his 
enemies that he had appropriated to his 
own use 20,000 transmitted to him for 
compensation to the Virginians fc>r money 
expended by them in the public service. 
He died in Clifton, England, Aug. 1, 1770. 

Dinwiddie Court-house, ACTIONS AT. 
In March, 1865, the National force under 
General Sheridan crossed the Appomat- 
tox River from Bermuda Hundred, passed 
to the rear of the army before Peters 
burg, and early on the morning of the 29th 
marched down the Jerusalem plank-road, 
and turning westward pushed on by way 
of Reams s Station to Dinwiddie Court 
house, where he halted for the night at 
5 P.M. Sheridan expected to cut loose 
from the rest of the army on the 30th 
to make a raid on the South Side and Dan 
ville railroads, but General Grant sud 
denly changed his plans. General Lee, 
seeing that his only line of communication 
might be cut off at any hour, and feeling 
the necessity of maintaining his ex 
tended line of works covering Peters 
burg and Richmond, concentrated a force 
of about 15,000 men, and hastened to place 
them in front of the 5th and 2d Corps of 
the National army. He then sought to 
strike a heavy blow on the extreme west 
of Grant s lines, then held by Sheridan, 
which he supposed was a weak point. 
Sheridan captured the works at Five 
Forks, and so gained the key to the whole 
region that Lee was striving to protect. 
In the struggle to regain this point strong 
parts of both armies were soon facing each 
other at Dinwiddie Court - house. Here 
Sheridan won the day after a severe en 
gagement, the Confederates being unable 
to make any rally, and the fighting ceased 
with darkness. During the night the Con 
federates retired. 

Diocese, originally a division of de 
partments or districts under the civil 
government of the Roman Empire, sub 
sequently restricted to the territory under 



the supervision of a bishop. In the United 
States dioceses of the Protestant Episco 
pal Church bear the name of the State, 
part of the State, or Territory under the 
bishop s jurisdiction ; in the Roman 
Catholic Church they take the name of 
the city containing the bishop s cathedral. 
Diplomatic Service. The following is 
a table of the chiefs of the United States 
embassies and legations in foreign coun 
tries on Jan. 1, 1901: 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 

William P. Lord, Envoy Extraordinary 
and Minister Plenipotentiary, Buenos 
Ayres. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Addison C. Harris, Envoy Extraordi 
nary and Minister Plenipotentiary, Vienna. 

BELGIUM. 

Lawrence Townsend, Envoy Extraor 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 
Brussels. 

BOLIVIA. 

George H. Bridgman, Envoy Extraor 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, La 
Paz. 

BRAZIL. 

Charles Page Bryan, Envoy Extraor 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, Rio 
de Janeiro. 

CHILE. 

Henry L. Wilson, Envoy Extraordinary 
and Minister Plenipotentiary, Santiago. 

CHINA. 

Edwin H. Conger, Envoy Extraordinary 
and Minister Plenipotentiary, Peking. 

COLOMBIA. 

Charles Burdett Hart, Envoy Extraor 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 
Bogota. 

COSTA RICA. 

William L. Merry, Envoy Extraor 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, San 



DENMARK. 

Lnurits S. Swenson, Envoy Extraor 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 
Copenhagen. 
18 



DIPLOMATIC SERVICE 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. NETHERLANDS. 

William F. Powell, ChargS d Affaires, Stanford Newel. Envoy Extraordinary 
Port au Prince. and Minister Plenipotentiary, The Hague. 

ECUADOR. NICARAGUA AND SALVADOR. 

Archibald J. Sampson, Envoy Extraor- William L. Merry, Envoy Extraordinary 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, and Minister Plenipotentiary, San Jose. 
Quito. (See Costa Rica.) 

EGYPT. 

PARAGUAY AND URUGUAY. 
John G. Long, Agent and Consul-Gen 
eral Cairo. William R. Finch, Envoy Extraordi- 
TTWvnE nary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 

Jc KAA L/lL. _ . _ 

Montevideo. 
Horace Porter, Ambassador Extraor- PERSIA. 

dinary and Plenipotentiary, Paris. 

Herbert W. Bowen, Minister Resident 

GERMAN EMPIRE. a nd Consul-General, Teheran. 

Andrew D. White, Ambassador Ex- PERU 

traordinary and Plenipotentiary, Berlin. 

Irving B. Dudley, Envoy Extraordinary 

GREAT BRITAIN. and Minister Plenipotentiary, Lima. 

Joseph H. Choate, Ambassador Extraor- PORTTTPAT 

dinary and Plenipotentiary, London. 

John N. Irwin, Envoy Extraordinary 
GREECE, RUMANIA, AND SERVIA. and Minister Plenipotentiary, Lisbon. 

Arthur S. Hardy, Envoy Extraordinary P 

and Minister Plenipotentiary, Athens. 

Charlemagne Tower, Ambassador EX- 
GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS. traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 
W. Godfrey Hunter, Envoy Extraor- St. Petersburg, 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, SIAM. 

Guatemala City. ^. 

Hamilton King, Minister Resident and 

HAITI. Consul-General, Bangkok. 

William F. Powell, Envoy Extraor- 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, Port 

au Prince. Bellamy Storer, Envoy Extraordinary 

ITALY an< ^ Minister Plenipotentiary, Madrid. 



Ambassador Extraor- SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 



dinary and Plenipotentiary, Rome. William W. Thomas, Jr., Envoy Ex- 

JAPAN traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 

Stockholm. 

Alfred E. Buck, Envoy Extraordinary 

j -\f i -m A- rr> i SWITZERLAND. 

and Minister Plenipotentiary, lokio. 

John G. A. Leishman, Envoy Extraor- 

KOREA. dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 

Horace N. Allen, Minister Resident Berne, 
and Consul-General, Seoul. TURKEY. 

LIBERIA Oscar S. Straus, Envoy Extraordinary 

and Minister Plenipotentiary, Constanti- 
Owen L. W. Smith, Minister Resident , 

and Consul-General, Monrovia. VENEZUELA. 

MEXICO. Francis B. Loomis, Envoy Extraordi- 

Powell Clayton, Ambassador Extraor- nary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 
dinary and Plenipotentiary, Mexico. cas. 

119 



DIPLOMATIC SEBVICE 



The following is a table of the chiefs 
of the foreign embassies and legations in 
the United States on Jan. 1, 1901: 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 

Dr. Eduardo Wilde, Envoy Extraordi 
nary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Mr. Ladislaus Hengelmuller von Hen- 
gervar, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister 
Plenipotentiary. 

BELGIUM. 

Count G. de Lichtervelde, Envoy Ex 
traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 

BOLIVIA. 

Senor Don Fernando E. Guachalla, 
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni 
potentiary. 

BRAZIL. 

Mr. J. F. de Assis-Brasil, Envoy Ex 
traordinary and Minister Plenipoten 
tiary. 

CHILE. 
Senor Don Carlos Morla Vicuna, Envoy 



GERMANY. 

Herr von Holleben, Ambassador Ex 
traordinary and Plenipotentiary. 

GREAT BRITAIN. 

The Right Honorable Lord Pauncefote, 
of Preston, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., Ambassador 
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. 

GUATEMALA. 

Senor Don Antonio Lazo Arriaga, Envoy 
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten 
tiary. 

HAITI. 

Mr. J. N. Lger, Envoy Extraordinary 
and Minister Plenipotentiary. 

ITALY. 

Baron de Fava, Ambassador Extraor 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 

JAPAN. 

Mr. Kogoro Takahira, Envoy Extraor 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 

KOREA. 
Mr. Chin Pom Ye, Envoy Extraordinary 



Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten- a nd Minister Plenipotentiary, 
tiary. 

CHINA. MEXICO. 

Mr. Wu Ting-Fang, Envoy Extraordi- Senor Don Manuel de Azpiroz, Am 
bassador Extraordinary and Plenipoten 
tiary. 

NETHERLANDS. 



nary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 

COLOMBIA. 

Senor Dr. Luis Cuervo Marqucz, 
Charge d Affaires. 

COSTA RICA. 
Sefior Don Joaquin Bernardo Calvo, 



Baron W. A. F. Gevers, Envoy Extraor 
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 

NICARAGUA. 
Senor Don Luis F. Corea, Envoy Ex- 



Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, 
potentiary. 

DENMARK. 
Mr. Constantin Brun, Envoy Extraor 



dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. 
Senor Don Emilio C. Joubert, Charge 



PERU. 

Mr. Manuel Alvarez Calderon, Envoy 
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten 
tiary. 

PORTUGAL. 

Viscount de Santo-Thyrso, Envoy Ex 
traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 

RUSSIA. 



d Affaires. 

ECUADOR. 
Senor Don Luis Felipe Carbo, Envoy 

Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten- 

.- dmary and Plenipotentiary. 

FRANCE. 

M. Jules Cambon, Ambassador Extraor 
dinary and Plenipotentiary. 



Extraor- 



120 



SALVADOR. 

Senor Don Rafael Zaldivar, Envoy Ex 
traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. 



DIRECTORY DISCIPLES OF CHRIST 

SIAM. tourneur, and Carnot. The latter organ- 

Phya Prashiddhi, Envoy Extraordinary iiced the armies with great skill. 

and Minister Plenipotentiary, accredited Disbanding of the Union Armies, 

both to the United States and Great See ARMY, DISBANDING OF THE UNION 

Britain. ARMIES. 

SPAIN. Disbrowe, SAMUEL, magistrate; born 

in Cambridgeshire, England, Nov. 30, 

Duke de Arcos, Envoy Extraordinary 1P1A 

,,,.., J 1019; came to America in 1639; and 

and Minister Plenipotentiary. , , , ,, T ,. .. .. ., 

bought from the Indians the site of Guil- 

SWEDEN AND NORWAY, ford, Conn. The constitution of this set 
tlement in the writing of Disbrowe is still 

Mr. A. Grip, Envoy Extraordinary and , r j- 

Tir--j.-r.i- a.- preserved and provides for judiciary, ex- 

Mmister Plenipotentiary. <- j i i A- 

ecutive, and legislative departments, etc. 

SWITZERLAND. He returned to England in 1650, and died 

in Cambridgeshire, Dec. 10, 1690. 

Mr. J. B. Pioda, Envoy Extraordinary Disciples of Christ a re i igious body 

and Minister Plenipotentiary. founded in Washington, Pa., 1811, by 

TRY Thomas Campbell, a minister who had 

left the Presbyterian Church in Ire- 

Ali Ferrouh Bey, Envoy Extraordinary ]and and came to the United States in 

and Minister Plenipotentiary. 1807 He deplored the divided state of 

Uruguay ^ c Church and the evils which arose there 
from. He held that the only remedy for 

Senor Dr. Don Juan Cuestas, Minis- this wag a complete resto ration of primi- 

** tive apostolic Christianity. This view met 

with some approval, a new sect was 

Senor Don Augusto F. Pulido, Charge formed, and the first church was organized 
d Affaires ad interim. on May 4, 1811. In addition to the funda- 
See CONSULAR SERVICE. mental truths which the Disciples of 
Directory, FRENCH, the name given to Christ hold in common with all Chris- 
the government of the French Republic, tian bodies the following may be cited as 
established by a constitution in August, some of their more particular principles: 
1795, framed by the moderate republican 1. The Church of Christ is intentionally 
party after the fall of Robespierre and the and constitutionally one; and all divisions 
end of the Reign of Terror. The executive which obstruct this unity are contrary to 
directory consisted of five persons, who the will of God, and should be ended. 2. 
promulgated the laws, appointed the min- As schisms sprang from a departure from 
isters, and had the management of mili- the New Testament Christianity, the rem- 
tary and naval affairs. They decided ques- edy for them is to be found in the restora 
tions by a majority vote, and presided, by tion of the Gospel in its purity. 3. In 
turns, three months each, the presiding order to accomplish this restoration all 
member having the signature and the seal, human formulation of doctrine as authori- 
During their terms of office none of them tative bases for church membership must 
could have a personal command, or absent be surrendered, and the Bible received 
himself for more than five days from the alone as the basis of all faith and prac- 
place where the council held its sessions tice; the exchange of all party names for 
without its permission. The legislative scriptural names, and the restoration of 
power, under the constitution, was vested the ordinances as they were originally. 
in two assemblies, the Council of Five The polity of the Disciples is congrega- 
Hundred and the Council of the Ancients, tional ; the local churches have elders and 
the former having the exclusive right of deacons. They have no general body for 
preparing laws for the consideration legislative purposes, but combine in dis- 
of the latter. The judicial authority was trict arid national organizations for mis- 
committod to elective judges. The first sionary work. In 1900 they reported 6,528 
directors chosen (Nov. 1, 1795) were MM. ministers, 10,528 churches, and 1,149,982 
Barras, Revelliere-Lepeaux, Rewbell, Le- communicants. 

121 



DISCOVERIES OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY DISMAL SWAMP 



Discoveries of the Nineteenth Cen 
tury. Alfred Russell Wallace, in his book, 
The Wonderful Century, makes a compari 
son between the great inventions and dis 
coveries of the nineteenth century and 
those of the entire previous historical pe 
riod, which is as follows: 

OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

1. Railways. 

2. Steamships. 

3. Electric telegraphs. 

4. The telephone. 

5. Lucifer matches. 

6. Gas illumination. 

7. Electric lighting. 

8. Photography. 

9. The phonograph. 

10. Rontgen rays. 

11. Spectrum- analysis. 

12. Anaesthetics. 

13. Antiseptic surgery. 

14. Conservation of energy. 

15. Molecular theory of gases. 

16. Velocity of light directly measured, 

and earth s rotation experimental 
ly shown. 

17. The uses of dust. 

18. Chemistry, definite proportions. 

19. Meteors and the meteoritic theory. 

20. The Glacial Epoch. 

21. The antiquity of man. 

22. Organic evolution established. 

23. Cell theory and embryology. 

24. Germ theory of disease, and the 

function of the leucocytes. 

OF ALL PRECEDING AGES. 

1. The mariner s compass. 

2. The steam-engine. 

3. The telescope. 

4. The barometer and thermometer. 

5. Printing. 

6. Arabic numerals. 

7. Alphabetical writing. 

8. Modern chemistry founded. 

9. Electric science founded. 

10. Gravitation established. 

11. Kepler s laws. 

12. The differential calculus. 

13. The circulation of the blood. 

14. Light proved to have finite ve 

locity. 

15. The development of geometry. 
Disfranchisement. Several of the 



Southern States have revised, and others 



contemplate the revision, of their consti 
tutions with a view to disfranchise illit 
erate negroes. 

Louisiana. There is an educational 
qualification, which, however, does not ap 
ply to men or to the sons or grandsons of 
men who were qualified to vote in 1867, 
nor to foreigners naturalized before Jan. 
1, 1898. 

Mississippi. An educational qualifica 
tion and a poll tax of $2, which may be 
further increased by a county poll tax 
of $1. 

North Carolina. An educational quali 
fication and a poll tax are necessary, with 
the exception that the educational qualifi 
cation shall not apply to any one who 
was entitled to vote under the laws of any 
State in the United States on Jan. 1, 1867. 
South Carolina. On Jan. 1, 1896, a 
new constitution went into effect by which 
voters could be enrolled up to Jan. 1, 
1898, provided they could read or could 
explain to the satisfaction of the register 
ing officer such parts of the Constitution 
of the United States as might be read 
to them, but after Jan. 1, 1898, only 
those able to read and write any re 
quired part of the Constitution, or who 
could prove themselves tax-payers on 
property worth not less than $300, could 
be enrolled as voters. 

Maryland. A new law was passed 
March 20, 1901, practically making an 
educational qualification to read and write 
necessary for enrolment as a voter. 
Sec also ELECTIVE FRANCHISE. 
Dismal Swamp, a morass in southern 
Virginia, extending into North Carolina. 
It was formerly 40 miles long and 25 
miles wide, but has become somewhat re 
duced in area by drainage of its border. 
It is densely timbered with cypress, juni 
per, cedar, pine, etc. Lake Drummond, 
near its centre, covers about 6 square 
miles. This swamp rises towards its 
centre, which is considerably higher than 
its margin. The canal, constructed 
through the swamp to connect Chesapeake 
Bay with Albcmarle Sound, has large his 
toric interests. The company organized 
to build the canal received a joint charter 
from the legislative assemblies of Vir 
ginia and North Carolina on Dec. 1, 1787. 
The canal was opened to navigation in 
1822; was wholly finished in 1828; and 



122 



DISOSW AY DISUNION 



was built with the assistance of the na 
tional government and the State of Vir 
ginia at a cost of $1,800,000. Originally 
it was 32 feet wide and 4 feet deep. Sub 
sequently the width was increased to 40 
feet and the depth to 6 feet, and the de 
caying wooden locks were replaced with 
stone ones. This canal was for many 
years the principal means of communi 
cation between the North and the South, 
and was a very profitable venture. After 
the Civil War its usefulness departed. 
Early in 1899, the canal, as entirely re 
constructed, was reopened to navigation. 
It now extends from the village of Deep 
Creek, Va., to South Mills, N. C., a dis 
tance of 22 miles. The present canal is 
one of the most important links in the 
chain of inland waterways along the coast 
from New York to Florida, and, as the 
dangers of Cape Hatteras are avoided by 
it, it has a large value both in peace and 
war. Thomas Moore the poet, while at 
Norfolk, put into verse an Indian legend, 
under the title of The Lake of the Dismal 
Swamp. 

Disosway, GABRIEL POILLON, anti 
quary; born in New York City, Dec. 6, 
1799; graduated at Columbia College in 
1819; author of The Earliest Churches of 
New York and its Vicinity. He died on 
Staten Island, N. Y., July 9, 1868. 

District of Columbia, the Federal Dis 
trict and seat of government of the United 
States. In 1791 the District was erected 
into two counties, as divided by the Poto 
mac, and was placed under the jurisdic 
tion of a circuit court, composed of a 
chief-justice and two assessors ; the judg 
ment of this court to be final in criminal 
cases, but in civil cases, where the amount 
in dispute exceeded $100 in value, a writ 
of error to lie in the Supreme Court of 
the United States. This arrangement was 
afterwards modified. Instead of provid 
ing a homogeneous code of laws for the 
District, those of Maryland and Virginia 
were continued. A bill to abolish slavery 
in the District was passed by the Congress 
(April 11, 1862), and became a law by 
the signature of the President, April 16. 
It provided for the payment, out of the 
treasury of the United States, of an aver 
age of $.300 lo the master or mistress of 
each slave thus emancipated. Thus eman 
cipation began at the national capital. In 



connection with this event was a curious 
proceeding. A free negro of the District, 
who had bought and paid for his slave 
wife, she and her children being, by the 
slave code, his lawful slaves, claimed and 
received compensation for her and her 
half-dozen children. In 1871, the District 
was organized as a Territory with a ter 
ritorial form of government. So extrava 
gant, however, were the expenditures made 
for public improvements by the officials of 
the Territory, that in 1874 Congress re 
pealed the act creating the Territory, and 
invested the executive powers of the munic 
ipality in three commissioners two civil 
ians and a United States engineer officer 
appointed by the President. All legisla 
tive powers were assumed by Congress. 
The law provided was the common law of 
England, modified by acts of Congress. 
There is a supreme court of six justices, 
with other tribunals and officials. The 
expenses of the municipality are defrayed 
one-half by revenues from taxes levied on 
private property, and one-half by con 
gressional appropriations. The citizens 
have no right to vote on national or local 
questions. 

In 1900 the city of WASHINGTON" (q. v.) 
was co-extensive with the District of Co 
lumbia, the former corporations of George 
town and Washington having been abol 
ished, and the public affairs of the district 
placed under the management of three 
commissioners. The total funded debt was 
$15,091,300, and the assessed valuation 
$191,049,744. The population in 1890 was 
230,392; in 1900, 278,718. See UNITED 
STATES DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, in .vol. ix. 

Disunion, EARLY THREATS OF. In 
angry debates in Congress on the subject 
of the fisheries, in 1779, threats of dis 
union were made by deputies of the 
North and the South. It was shown that 
the prosperity of New England depended 
on the fisheries; but in this the Southern 
States had no common interest. Indeed, 
in all the States the doctrine of State 
supremacy was so universally prevalent 
that the deputies in Congress, instead of 
willingly legislating for the whole, legis 
lated for their respective States. When 
appeals had been made in Congress for a 
favorable consideration of New England 
in relation to the fisheries without effect, 
Samuel Adams said that " it would be- 



123 



DIVORCE LAWS 



come more and more necessary for the 
two empires [meaning the Northern and 
Southern States divided by Mason and 
Dixon s line] to separate." When the 
North offered a preliminary resolution 
that the country, even if deserted by 
France and Spain, would continue the war 
for the sake of the fisheries, four States 
drew up a protest, declaring peremptorily 
that if the resolution should be adopted 
they would withdraw from the confedera 
tion. These sectional interests continu 
ally stood in the way of a perfect union 
of the struggling colonists. The inflexible 
tenacity with which each State asserted 
its title to complete sovereignty often 
menaced the Union with destruction, and 
independence became, in the minds of 
some, an idle dream. When, in August, 
1781, envoys from Vermont were in Phila 
delphia, entreating for the admission of 
their State into the Union, the measure 
was opposed by the Southern delegates, 
because it would " destroy the balance of 
power " between the two sections of the 
confederacy, and give the preponderance 
to the North. The purchase of Louisiana 
was deprecated and violently opposed by 
the Federalist leaders, because it would 
strengthen the Southern political influ 
ence then controlling the national govern 



ment. They professed to regard the meas 
ure as inimical to the Northern and East 
ern sections of the Union. The Southern 
politicians had made them familiar with 
the prescription of disunion as a remedy 
for incurable political evils, and they re 
solved to try its efficacy in the case in 
question. All through the years 1803 and 
1804 desires for and fears of a dissolu 
tion of the Union were freely expressed in 
what were free-labor States in 18G1. East 
of the Alleghanies, early in 1804, a select 
convention of Federalists, to be held in 
Boston, was contemplated, in the ensuing 
autumn, to consider the question of dis 
union. Alexander Hamilton was invited 
to attend it, but his emphatic condemna 
tion of the whole plan, only a short time 
before his death, seems to have discon 
certed the leaders and dissipated the 
.-cheme. The Rev. Jedidiah Morse, then 
very influential in the Church and in poli 
tics in New England, advocated the sever 
ance of the Eastern States from the Union, 
so as to get rid of the evils of the slave 
system; and, later, Josiah Quincy, in a 
debate in the House of Representatives, 
expressed his opinion that it might be 
come necessary to divide the Union as a 
cure of evils that seemed to be already 
chronic. 



DIVOBCE LAWS 

Divorce Laws. Excepting in South part of husband; conviction of felony. 

Carolina, which has no divorce laws, a Residence required, six months; either 

violation of the marriage vow is cause party may marry again, 

for divorce in all the States and Ter- Arkansas. Permanent or incurable m- 

ritories Other legal causes are shown sanity; wilful desertion one year; convic- 



below : 



tion of felony or other infamous crime; 
cruel treatment as to endanger life; per- 



Alabama. Voluntary abandonment for sonal indignities such as to render con- 
two years; habitual drunkenness after dition intolerable; habitual drunkenness 
marriage and incapacity; imprisonment one year. Residence required, one year; 
in penitentiary for two years on a sen- either party may marry again, 
tence of seven years or more. In making California. Habitual drunkenness, neg- 
decree chancellor may decide whether de- lect, or wilful desertion one year; ex- 
fendant may marry again or not. Resi- tr erne cruelty; conviction of felony. Resi 
dence of one year in State required; but dence required, one year; either may re- 
if the application is made on ground ot marry. 

desertion, three years residence is re- Colorado. Habitual drunkenness; wil- 

quired. fnl desertion or failure on part of lius- 

Arizona. Excesses or cruel treatment; band to provide for wife, either conlinned 

habitual intemperance; abandomuent for for one year; conviction of felony: cx- 

t j x months; wilful neglect to provide on treme cruelty, causing either mental or 

124 



DIVOBCE LAWS 

physical suffering. Residence required, dence required, six months; either may 

one year; neither can remarry within remarry. 

one year. Illinois. Extreme and repeated cruel- 

Connecticut. Habitual intemperance; ty; conviction of felony or other infamous 

intolerable cruelty; sentence to imprison- crime; attempt by either party on life 

ment for life; fraudulent contract; wil- of other; wilful desertion two years, 

ful desertion and total neglect of duty Residence required, one year; no statute 

for three years; absent and unheard of as to remarrying. 

seven years; any infamous crime involv- Indiana. Habitual drunkenness; cruel 

ing violation of conjugal duty, and pun- and inhuman treatment; abandonment 

ishable by imprisonment in State prison, two years; failure on part of husband to 

Residence required, three years: either support wife for two years. Residence 

may remarry. required, two years; either may marry 

Delaware. Married under age; force or again, except as limited in decree, 
fraud in procuring marriage; extreme Kansas. Fraudulent contract; convic- 
cruelty; habitual drunkenness; convic- tion of and imprisonment for felony; 
tion of felony; desertion three years; wil- habitual drunkenness; extreme cruelty; 
ful failure of husband to provide three gross neglect of duty; abandonment one 
years. No statute as to residence; either year. Residence required, one year; par- 
may remarry, but party guilty of infi- ties may remarry at once, unless appeal 
delity must not marry party with whom is taken, and then thirty days after final 
crime was committed. judgment on the appeal. 

District of Columbia. Wilful desertion Kentucky. Uniting with religious so- 

for two years; habitual drunkenness; ciety which forbids marriage of husband 

cruelty and abuse endangering life or and wife; abandonment one year; living 

health ; insane at marriage. Divorces apart without cohabitation five years ; 

from bed and board may be granted for condemnation for felony; force, duress or 

cruelty and reasonable apprehension of fraud in procuring marriage. Wife may 

physical harm. Residence required, two obtain divorce for husband s neglect to 

years; no statutory provision as to re- provide, and habitually treating her in 

marrying. such cruel and inhuman manner as to de- 

Florida. Wilful, obstinate, and contin- stroy her peace and happiness ; cruel beat- 

ned desertion one year; habitual intern- ing or injury indicating outrageous temper 

perance for one year; extreme cruelty; and endangering her life; confirmed hab- 

habitual indulgence in violent temper, its of intoxication. Residence required, 

A person who has been a resident of Flor- one year; either may remarry, 

ida for two years, and whose husband Louisiana. Desertion for five years, 

or wife has procured a divorce in any having been summoned to return within 

other State or country, may obtain a one year of filing claim; attempt on life 

divorce. Residence required, two years; of other; fugitive from justice; habitual 

either may marry again. intemperance to excess; condemnation to 

Georgia. Habitual drunkenness; cruel ignominious punishment; cruel treat- 
treatment; wilful desertion three years; ment or outrages of such nature as to 
mental incapacity at time of marriage; render living together insupportable. No 
conviction of crime involving moral turpi- divorce, except for infidelity, shall be 
tude under which party has been sen- granted, except decree of separation pre- 
tenced to imprisonment for two years or viously had and parties lived apart one 
longer; force, menaces, threats, duress, year. No statute as to previous resi- 
and fraud in procuring marriage. In pro- dence; woman cannot marry for ten 
curing divorce, concurrent verdict of two months after marriage is dissolved ; on 
juries at different terms of court are divorce for infidelity guilty party shall 
necessary. Applicant must reside in State: not marry person with whom crime was 
no statute as to marrying again. committed. 

Idaho. Conviction of felony; extreme Maine. Sentence to imprisonment for 

cruelty ; habitual intemperance ; wilful life ; desertion for three years ; failure 

desertion and neglect one year. Resi- of husband to provide for wife; cruel and 

125 



DIVORCE LAWS 

abusive treatment; gross and confirmed drunkenness one year; desertion one year, 

habits of intoxication. Residence re- husband deserting wife and leaving State 

quired, oile year; either may remarry. without intention of returning. Resi- 

Maryland. Abandonment three years; dence required, one year, 
any cause which would render marriage Xcbraska. Extreme cruelty; utter de 
void a6 initio. Residence required, two sertion two years; sentenced to imprison- 
years; in cases of divorce for infidelity, ment for life or for three years or more; 
court may decree that guilty party shall habitual drunkenness; wilful desertion for 
not marry during life of other. five years. Divorce from bed and board 

Massachusetts. Sentence to hard labor or from bonds of matrimony may be 

for five years or longer; where either granted for extreme cruelty by personal 

party has joined religious society that violence or other means, utter desertion 

professes to believe relation of husband two years, or failure of husband to pro- 

and wife unlawful, and has continued vide. Previous residence, six months ; 

with such society three years, refusing neither can remarry within time allowed 

for that time to cohabit; husband cruelly for appeal, nor before final judgment if 

and wantonly refusing to provide; gross appeal is taken. 

and confirmed habits of intoxication with Nevada. Neglect of husband to pro- 
liquors, by opium or other drugs; cruel vide for one year; extreme cruelty; wilful 
and abusive treatment; utter desertion desertion one year; conviction of felony 
three years. Residence required, three or infamous crime; habitual gross drunk- 
years where parties have resided together enness. Residence required, six months; 
in State, otherwise five years; guilty either may remarry, 
party cannot marry for two years. New Hampshire. Conviction of crime 

Michigan. Imprisonment for life or and imprisonment for one year; extreme 
three years or more; where either has cruelty; where either party has treated 
obtained divorce in another State; neglect other as to injure health or endanger 
by husband to provide; habitual drunken- reason; habitual drunkenness three years; 
ness; desertion for two years. Resi- absent and unheard of three years; deser- 
dence required, one year; court may or- tion for three years with refusal to co 
der that guilty party shall not marry for habit; desertion for three years with re- 
term not exceeding two years. fusal to support; where either party has 

Minnesota. Wilful desertion, one year; joined society professing to believe rela- 

sentence to State prison; cruel and in- tion of husband and wife unlawful, and 

human treatment; habitual drunkenness refusal to cohabit with other for six 

one year. Residence required, one year; months; where wife has resided out of 

either party may marry again. State ten years without husband s con- 

Mississippi. Insanity or idiocy at time sent, without returning to claim her mari- 

of marriage unknown to other; habitual tal rights; where wife of alien has resided 

cruel and inhuman treatment ; habitual in State three years, and .her husband has 

drunkenness; wilful desertion two years; left United States with intention of be- 

sentenced to penitentiary. Residence re- coming citizen of another country, not 

quired, one year; court may decree that having made suitable provision for her 

guilty party shaJl not remarry. support. One or the other must be resi- 

Missouri. Conviction of crime or felony dent of State one year, unless both were 
prior to marriage unknown to other; con- domiciled in State when action was com- 
viction of felony or infamous crime; ab- menced, or defendant was served with pro- 
sent without cause one year ; habitual cess in State, the plaintiff being domiciled 
drunkenness one year; husband guilty of therein; either c;m remarry, 
such conduct as to constitute him a va- New Jersey. Extreme cruelty; wilful, 
grant; cruel or barbarous treatment as to continued and obstinate desertion for 
endanger life; indignities as to render two years. Residence required, three 
condition intolerable. Residence required, years; no statutory provision as to re- 
one year; either may remarry. marriage. 

Montana. Extreme cruelty; conviction New Mexico. Neglect of husband to 

of felony or infamous crime; habitual provide; habitual drunkenness; cruel or 

120 



DIVORCE XAWS 

inhuman treatment; abandonment. Resi- viction of felony; personal indignities or 

deuce required, one year. cruel and inhuman treatment rendering 

New York. Absolute divorce granted life burdensome. Residence required, one 
only for adultery. Residence required, year; neither can marry until expira- 
one year. When woman under age of six- tion of time for appeal, and in case of ap- 
teen is married without consent of parent peal, until after judgment on the appeal, 
or guardian, when consent was obtained Pennsylvania. Conviction of felony 
by fraud, force or duress, or where either and sentence for two years or longer; wil- 
party was insane or idiot, marriage may ful and malicious desertion for two years, 
be annulled. In such cases either party or \vhere husband by cruelty and abuse 
may remarry, but in cases of absolute di- has endangered his wife s life, or offered 
vorce guilty party shall not marry during such indignities to her person as to render 
life of other, with the following excep- her condition intolerable and her life 
tions: He may be permitted by court to burdensome, and thereby forced her to 
remarry upon proving that the other party withdraw from his home and family; 
has remarried, that five years have elapsed where wife, by cruel and barbarous treat- 
since divorce was granted, and that his ment, renders husband s condition intoler- 
conduct has been uniformly good. If the able; fraud, force or coercion in procuring 
guilty party marries in another State in marriage. Residence required, one year; 
accordance with law r s of that State, the either may remarry, 
marriage will be held good in New York. Rhode Island. Where marriage was 

North Carolina. Divorce may be void or voidable by law; where either 
granted to wife if husband is indicted for party is for crime deemed civilly dead, or 
felony, and flees from the State and does from absence or other circumstances pre- 
not return for one year; to the husband sumed to be dead; wilful desertion for 
if wife refuses relations with him for one five years or for a shorter time, in discre- 
year. Divorces from bed and board may tion of court; extreme cruelty; continued 
be granted for habitual drunkenness, drunkenness; neglect or refusal of hus- 
abandonment, cruel or barbarous treat- band to provide, or for any other gross 
ment endangering life, indignities to per- misbehavior or wickedness in either party 
son as to render condition intolerable, repugnant to or in violation of the mar- 
maliciously turning other out - of - doors, riage covenant, and where parties have 
Residence required, two years; on abso- lived apart for ten years. Residence re- 
lute divorce either may remarry. quired, one year; no statute as to re- 

North Dakota. Conviction of felony; marrying. 

extreme cruelty, wilful desertion, wilful Tennessee. Habitual drunkenness; wil- 
neglect and habitual intemperance, each ful or malicious desertion for two years; 
continued for one year. Residence re- attempting life of other; conviction of in 
quired, ninety days; guilty party cannot famous crime; conviction and sentence to 
marry during life of other. South Dakota penitentiary for felony; refusal of wife to 
same. move into this State, and wilfully absent- 

Ohio. Imprisonment in penitentiary; ing herself from husband for two years, 
gross neglect of duty; extreme cruelty; Divorces from bed and board may be 
habitual drunkenness for three years; granted for cruel and inhuman treatment 
fraudulent contract; divorce procured by to wife, indignities to her person render- 
either in another State. Residence re- ing her condition intolerable, and forcing 
quired, one year; either may remarry. her to withdraw, abandoning her or turn- 

OWahoma. Habitual intemperance; ex- ing her out-of-doors, and refusing or neg- 
treme cruelty; abandonment one year; lecting to provide for her. Residence re- 
fraudulent contract; gross neglect of quired, two years; on absolute divorce 
duty ; conviction of felony and imprison- either may remarry, but on divorce for in- 
ment. Residence required, ninety days; fidelity guilty one shall not marry party 
decree does not become absolute till six with whom crime was committed during 
months after its date. life of other. 

Oregon. Wilful desertion one year; Texas. Desertion for three years; ex- 
habitual, gross drunkenness one year; con- cesses; conviction of felony and imprison- 

127 



DIVORCE LAWS 

merit in State prison; cruel treatment or ual drunkenness for one year; imprison- 

outrages, if of nature to render living to- ment for life or for three years or more; 

gether insupportable. Residence required, cruel and inhuman treatment by personal 

six months; either may remarry. violence; where parties have voluntarily 

Utah. Conviction of felony; habitual lived apart five years. Residence re- 
drunkenness; wilful neglect to provide for quired, one year; either may remarry, 
wife; wilful desertion more than one Wyoming. Conviction of felony or in- 
year; cruel treatment as to cause bodily famous crime prior to marriage unknown 
injuries or mental distress. Residence re- to other; conviction and sentence for f el- 
quired, one year; either may remarry. ony; wilful desertion one year; neglect of 

Vermont. Sentence to hard labor in husband to provide for one year; habitual 
State prison for life or for three years or drunkenness; such indignities as to ren- 
more; fraud or force in procuring mar- der condition intolerable. Residence re- 
riage, or either under age of consent; hus- quired, six months; no statute as to re- 
band grossly, wantonly, and cruelly neg- marrying. 

lecting to provide; wilful desertion three Divorce Laws, UNIFORM. Upon the 
years, or absence seven years unheard of; question of the desirability of a uniform 
intolerable severity. Petitioner must re- divorce law in the United States, ELIZA- 
side in the State at least one year ; guilty BETH CADY STANTON (q. v.) , the well- 
party shall not marry again for the term known advocate of woman s suffrage, 
of three years. writes as follows: 

Virginia. Wilful desertion five years; 

fugitive from justice two years; convic- There has been much discussion of late in 
tion of infamous offence prior to mar- regard to the necessity for an entire re- 
riage unknown to other ; sentenced to vision of the laws on divorce. For this pur- 
confinement in penitentiary. Divorces pose, the State proposes a committee of 
from bed and board may be granted for learned judges, the Church another of dis- 
cruelty, reasonable apprehension of bodily" tinguished bishops, to frame a national 
harm, abandonment or desertion. Resi- law which shall be endorsed by both Church 
dence required, one year; court may de- and State. Though women are as deeply 
cree that guilty party may not remarry interested as men in this question, there 
without the consent of court. is no suggestion that women shall be 

Washington. Abandonment one year; represented on either committee. Hence, 

habitual drunkenness or neglect or re- the importance of some expressions of 

fusal to provide; consent to marriage ob- their opinions before any changes are 

tained by force or fraud; cruel treatment made. As judges and bishops are pro- 

or personal indignities rendering life bur- verbially conservative, their tendency 

densome; chronic mania or dementia of would be to make the laws in the free 

either party for ten years; imprisonment States more restrictive than they now 

in penitentiary or any other cause deemed are, and thus render it more difficult for 

sufficient by the court. Residence re- wives to escape from unhappy marriages, 

quired, one year; neither party can marry The States which have liberal divorce 

until time for repeal has elapsed, or if laws are to women what Canada was to 

appeal is taken, not until after final judg- the slaves before the emancipation. The 

ment. applicants for divorce are chiefly women, 

West Virginia. Wilful desertion three as Naquet s bill, which passed the 

years; husband notoriously immoral; wife Chamber of Deputies of France, abun- 

immoral before marriage unknown to hus- dantly proves. In the first year there were 

band; imprisonment in penitentiary. 3,000 applications, the greater number 

Divorces from bed and board may be being women. 

granted for habitual drunkenness, aban- Unhappy husbands have many ways of 
donment, desertion, cruel and inhuman mitigating their miseries which are not 
treatment, or reasonable apprehension of open to wives, who are financial depend- 
bodily harm. Residence required, one ants and burdened with children. Hus- 
year; no statute as to remarriage. bands can leave the country and invest 

Wisconsin. Neglect to provide ; habit- their property in foreign lands. Laws 

128 



DIVORCE LAWS, UNIFORM 



affect only those who respect and obey necessary that a private act of Par- 

them. Laws made to restrain unprin- liament should be passed in order that a 

cipled men fall with crushing weight on divorce could be obtained. In 1857, the 

women. A young woman with property State took action looking towards the 

of her own can now easily free herself granting of divorces by the courts with- 

from an unworthy husband by spending out the interposition of Parliament, but 

a year in a free State, and in due time this action has not been sanctioned by 

she can marry again. the Church of England. Hence has arisen 

Because an inexperienced girl has a peculiar state of affairs in England, 

made a mistake partly, in many cases, which has led to considerable confusion, 

through the bad counsel of her advisers The Church forbids the marriage of either 

shall she be denied the right to marry party, except of the innocent parties in 

again? We can trace the icy fingers of cases where the cause is adultery. But as 

the canon law in all our most sacred the State permits the marriage of divorced 

relations. Through the evil influences of parties, the ministers of the Church of 

that law, the Church holds the key to England were put in an awkward position, 

the situation, and is determined to keep As ministers of the Church, they were 

it. At a triennial Episcopal convention forbidden to marry these persons, but as 

held in Washington, D. C., bishops, with the Church is allied to the State, and to 

closed doors, discussed the question of a certain extent subject to it, a number 

marriage and divorce ad libitum, a large of them believed it their civil duty to per- 

majority of the bishops being in favor of form such marriages, and they performed 

the most restrictive canons; and, though them in violation of the canonical law. 

an auxiliary convention was held at the The agitation over this question has at- 

same time, composed of 1,500 women, tracted a great deal of attention during 

members of the Episcopal Church, they the last few years, and is looked upon as 

had no part in the discussion, covering being one of the most powerful causes 

a dozen or more canon laws. which may lead to the disestablishment of 

A recent writer on this subject says: the Church of England. 

Marriage should be regarded as a> civil 

"There is no doubt that the sentiment in contract, entirely under the jurisdiction 

the Episcopal Church, at least among the of tfae gtate _ The Ieg3 



clergy, is strongly in favor of the Church 
setting its face firmly against divorce. An Church has in our temporal affairs, the 
evidence of this is the circulation of a peti- better. 

it 



tlon to the convention requesting that 

adopt some stringent rule for this purpose, , . , . 

which has already received the signatures of can have an ? J ustlce 
about 2,000 of the clergy. The proposition to 



Lord Brougham says: "Before woman 

,, , ,. 

the laws of En g 
land, there must be a total reconstruction 



and finds 
Church." 



many supporters in the Low 



adopt a stringent canon received the undivid- of the whole marriage system; for any at- 
ed support of 3igh Church ministers, tempt to amend it wou]d prove ugelesg . 

The great charter, in establishing the su 
premacy of law over prerogative, provided 
The question of marriage and divorce, only for justice between man and man; 
and the attitude the Church should take for woman nothing was left but common 
towards divorced persons who wish to law, accumulations and modifications of 
marry again, has been up before many original Gothic and Roman heathenism, 
general conventions. Ihe attitude of the which no amount of filtration through ec- 
Episcopal Church has always been strongly clesiastical courts could change into 
against divorce, and particularly against Christian laws. They are declared un- 
the marriage of divorced persons. The worthy of a Christian people by great 



marriage 
Catholic Church 



divorced persons. 

takes a still narrower jurists; still, they remain unchanged." 



ground, positively declining to recognize There is a demand just now for an 



such an institution as divorce. 



amendment to the United States Consti- 



As early as the year 1009, it was en- tution that shall make the laws of mar- 
acted by the Church authorities of Eng- riage and divorce the same in all the 
land that a Christian should never marry States of the Union. As the suggestion 
a divorced woman. Down to 1857, it was eomos umrormly from those who con- 
in. I 12 .) 



DIVORCE LAWS, UNIFORM 

aider the present divorce laws too liberal, wholly to the civil rather than to the 
we may infer that the proposed national canon law, to the jurisdiction of the sev- 
law is to place the whole question on the eral States rather than to the nation, 
narrowest basis, rendering null and void As many of our leading ecclesiastics and 
the laws that have been passed in a statesmen are discussing this question, it 
broader spirit, according to the needs and is surprising that women, who are equally 
experiences of certain sections of the sever- happy or miserable in these relations, 
eign people. And here let us bear in mind manifest so little interest in the pending 
that the widest possible law would not proposition, and especially as it is not 
make divorce obligatory on any one, while to their interest to have an amend- 
a restricted law, on the contrary, would ment to the national Constitution estab- 
compel many, who married, perhaps, un- lishing a uniform law. In making any 
der more liberal laws, to remain in uncon- contract, the parties are supposed to have 
genial relations. an equal knowledge of the situation, and 

We are still in the experimental stage an equal voice in the agreement. This 
on this question; we are not qualified to has never been the case with the contract 
make a law that would work satisfactorily of marriage. Women are, and always 
over so vast an area as our boundaries now have been, totally ignorant of the pro- 
embrace. I see no evidence in what has visions of the canon and civil laws, which 
been published on this question, of late, men have made and administered, and 
by statesmen, ecclesiasts, lawyers, and then, to impress woman s religious nat- 
judges, that any of them have thought ure with the sacredness of this one-sided 
sufficiently on the subject to prepare a contract, they claim that all these heter- 
well-digested code, or a comprehensive ogenoous relations called marriage are 
amendment of the national Constitution, made by God, appealing to that passage 
Some view marriage as a civil contract, of Scripture, " What God hath joined 
though not governed by the laws of other together, let no man put asunder." 
contracts; some view it as a religious or- Now, let us substitute the natural laws 
dinance a sacrament; some think it a for God. When two beings contract, the 
relation to be regulated by the State, State has the right to ask the question, 
others by the Church, and still others Are the parties of proper age, and have 
think it should be left wholly to the indi- they sufficient judgment to make so im- 
vidual. With this divergence of opinion portant a contract? And the State should 
among our leading minds, it is quite evi- have the power to dissolve the contract 
dent that we are not prepared for a na- if any incongruities arise, or any deception 
tional law. has been practised, just as it has the 

Local self-government more readily per- power to cancel the purchase of a horse, 
mits of experiments on mooted questions, if he is found to be blind in one eye, balks 
which are the outcome of the needs and when he should go, or has a beautiful 
convictions of the community. The false tail, skilfully adjusted, which was 
smaller the area over which legislation the chief attraction to the purchaser, 
extends, the more pliable are the laws. We must remember that the reading 
By leaving the States free to experiment of the marriage service does not signify 
in their local affairs we can judge of the that God hath joined the couple together, 
working of different laws under varying That is not so. Only those marriages that 
circumstances, and thus learn their com- are harmonious, where the parties are 
parative merits. The progress education really companions for each other, are in 
has made in America is due to the fact the highest sense made by God. But 
that we have left our system of public in- what shall we say of that large class of 
struction in the hands of local author- men and women who marry for wealth, 
ities. How different would be the solu- position, mere sensual gratification, with- 
tion of the great educational question of out any real attraction or religious sense 
manual labor in tho schools, if the matter of loyalty towards each other. You might 
had to be settled at Washington! as well talk of the same code of regula- 

From these considerations, our wisest tions for honest, law-abiding citizens, and 
course seems to be to leave these questions for criminals in our State prisons, as for 

130 



DIX 



these t\vo classes. The former are a law latures to aid the unfortunate, and was in 
to themselves ; they need no iron chains strumental in bringing about the founda- 
to hold them together. The other class, tion of several State asylums for the in- 
having no respect for law whatever, will sane. At the breaking out of the Civil War 
defy all constitutional provisions. The she was appointed superintendent of hos- 
time has come when the logic of facts pital nurses, and after the close of the 
is more conclusive than the deductions war she resumed her efforts in behalf of 
of theology. the insane. She died in Trenton, N. J., 

It is a principle of the common law of July 19, 1887. 

England that marriage is a civil contract, Dix, JOHN ADAMS, military officer; 
and the same law has been acknowl- born in Boscawen, N. H., July 24, 1798. 
edged by statutes in several of our After he left the academy at Exeter, N. H., 
American States; and in the absence of he completed his studies in a French 
expressed statute to the contrary, the college at Montreal. He entered the army- 
common law of England is deemed the as a cadet in 1812, when the war with 
common law of our country. 

Questions involved in marriage and 
divorce should be, in the churches, mat 
ters of doctrinal teaching and discipline 
only; and, after having discussed for 
centuries the question as to what the 
Bible teaches concerning divorce, without 
arriving at any settled conclusion, they 
should agree somewhat among themselves 
before they attempt to dictate State legis 
lation on the subject. It simplifies this 
question to eliminate the pretensions of 
the Church and the Bible as to its reg 
ulation. As the Bible sanctions divorce 
and polygamy, in the practice of the 
chosen people, and is full of contradic 
tions, and the canon law has been pliable 
in the hands of ecclesiastics, enforced or 
set aside at the behests of kings and 

nobles, it would simplify the discussion England began. While his father, Lieu- 
to confine it wholly to the civil law, re- tenant-Colonel Dix, was at Fort McHenry, 
garding divorce as a State question. Baltimore, young Dix pursued his studies 

Dix, DOROTHEA LYNDE, philanthropist; at St. Mary s College. In the spring of 
born in Worcester, Mass., about 1794. 1813 he was appointed an ensign in the 
After her father s death she supported her- army, and was soon promoted to third 
self by teaching a school for young girls lieutenant, and made adjutant of an in- 
in Boston. Becoming interested in the dependent battalion of nine companies, 
welfare of the convicts in the State prison He was commissioned a captain in 1825, 
at Charlestown, her philanthropic spirit and having continued in the army sixteen 
expanded and embraced all of the unfort- years, in 1828 he left the military service, 
unate and suffering classes. Having in- His father had been mortally hurt at 
herited from a relative property sufficient Chrysler s Field, and the care of extri- 
to render her independent, she went to eating the paternal estate from difficulties, 
Europe for her health. Returning to Bos- for the benefit of his mother and her nine 
ton in 1837, she devoted her life to the children, had devolved upon him. He had 
investigation and alleviation of the con- studied law while in the army. After 
dition of paupers, lunatics, and prisoners, visiting Europe for his health, Captain 
encouraged by her friend and pastor, Dr. Dix settled as a lawyer in Cooperstown, 
Channing. In this work she visited every N. Y. He became warmly engaged in 
State in the Union east of the Rocky politics, and in 1830 Governor Throop ap- 
Mountains. endeavoring to persuade legis- pointed him adjutant-general of the State. 

131 




JOHN ADAMS DIX. 




/ 



132 



DIX, JOHN A. 

In 1833 he was elected secretary of state was handed over to the authorities of 

of New York, which office made him a Louisiana. As Secretary Dix s order was 

member of the Board of Regents of the flashed over the land it thrilled every heart 

University and conferred upon him other with hope that the temporizing policy of 

important positions. Chiefly through his the administration had ended. The loyal 

exertions public libraries were introduced people rejoiced, and a small medal was 

into the school districts of the State and struck by private hands commemorative 

the school laws systematized. In 1842 of the event, on one side of which was 

he was a member of the New York As- the Union flag, and around it the words, 

sembly, and from 1845 to 1849 of the " THE FLAG OF OUR UNION, 1863 "; on the 

United States Senate. In the discussion of other, in two circles, the last clause of 

the question of the annexation of Texas and Dix s famous order. After the war the 

of slavery he expressed the views of the authorship of the famous order was 

small Free Soil party whose candidate for claimed for different persons, and it was 

governor he was in 1848. In 1859 he was asserted that General Dix was only the 

appointed postmaster of New York City; medium for its official communication. 

and when in January, 1861, Buchanan s In reply to an inquiry addressed to Gen- 

cabinet was dissolved, he was called to the eral Dix at the close of August, 1873, 

post of Secretary of the Treasury. In that he responded as follows from his country 

capacity he issued a famous order under residence: 
the following circumstances : He found 

the department in a wretched condition, SEAFIELD, WEST HAVEN, N. Y , Sep*. 21, 1873. 

and proceeded with energy in the adminis- JJ - ^^^S^^^^ 

tration of it. Hearing of the tendency suggestion from any one, and it was sent off 

in the slave-labor States to seize United three days before it was communicated to the 

States property within their borders, he President or cabinet. Mr. Stanton s letter to 

. , , , . , Mr. Bonner, of the Ledger, stating that it 

sent a special agent of his department was wholly mine> was pub ii she d in the New 

(Hemphill Jones) to secure for service York Times last October or late in Septem- 

revenue cutters at Mobile and New Or- Der to silence forever the misrepresentations 

leans He found the Leini* rv<?<? in the ln re S ard to lt - After writing it (about seven 

o clock in the evening), I gave it to Mr. 

hands of the Confederates at Mobile. The Hardy, a clerk in the Treasury Department, 

Robert McClelland, at New Orleans, was to copy. The copy was signed by me, and 

in command of Capt. J. G. Ereshwood, of seQ t to tne telegraph office the same evening, 

T , . and the original was kept, like all other 

the navy. Jones gave the captain an origina] despatches. It is now, as you state, 

order from Dix to sail to the North, in possession of my son, Rev. Dr. Dix, No. 
Breshwood absolutely refused to obey the 
order. This fact Jones made known, by 
telegraph, to Dix, and added that the col- 
lector at New Orleans (Hatch) sustained 
the rebellious captain. Dix instantly tele- 
graphed back his famous order, of which 



2 ^ West Twenty-fifth street, New York. It 



Very truly yours, 



JOHN A. Dix. 



General Dix was appointed major-gen- 
of volunteers May 16, 1861; com 
mander at Baltimore, and then at Fort 
Monroe and on the Virginia peninsula ; 
and in September, 1862, he was placed in 
command of the 7th Army Corps. He was 
also chosen president of the Pacific Rail 
way Company. In 1866 he was appointed 
minister to France, which post he filled 
until 1869. , He was elected governor of 
the State of New York in 1872, and re- 
t j re( j to pr i v ate life at the end of the 
term of two years, at which time he per- 

a fac-simile is given on the opposite page, formed rare service for the good name of 
The Confederates in New Orleans had pos- the State of New York. General Dix was 
session of the telegraph, and did not allow a fine classical scholar, and translated 
this despatch to pass, and the McClelland several passages from Catullus, Virgil, and 

133 




THB DIX MEDAL. 



DIXIE DODGE 

others into polished English verse. He Docks, artificial basins for the re 
made a most conscientious and beautiful ception of vessels for safety, for repairing, 
translation of the Dies Irce. He died in and for commercial traffic. Those for the 
New York City, April 21, 1879. safety of vessels are known as wet-docks; 

Dixie, a supposed imaginary land of those for repairing only, as dry -docks; 
luxurious enjoyment somewhere in the and those for commercial traffic, as basins 
Southern States, and during the Civil War or docks. Wet and dry docks are float- 
it became a collective designation for the ing or stationary, according to construc- 
slave-labor States. " Dixie " songs and tion. Basins or docks are constructed over 
" Dixie " music prevailed all over those large areas, comprising docks for loading 
States and in the Confederate army. It and unloading vessels, and convenient 
had no such significance. It is a simple waterways for the movement of vessels. 
refrain that originated among negro emi- The most notable dry-docks in the United 
grants to the South from Manhattan, or States are at Boston, Mass.; Portland, 
New York, island about 1800. A man Me.; Norfolk, Va. ; Savannah, Ga. ; Mare 
named Dixy owned a large tract of land Island, Cal. ; Detroit, Mich.; and Puget 
on that island and many slaves. They Sound, Wash. The costliest of these are 
became unprofitable, and the growth of at the navy-yards. In 1901 one of the 
the abolition sentiment made Dixy s largest dry-docks in the world was under 
slaves uncertain property. He sent quite construction at Newport News. At New 
a large number of them to Southern York City, as well as all the large ports, 
planters and sold them. The heavier there are numerous floating dry-docks for 
burdens imposed upon them there, and the repair of the merchant marine. The 
the memories of their birthplace and its most notable basins or docks for corn- 
comforts on Manhattan, made them sigh mercial traffic are in Brooklyn, N. Y., 
for Dixy s. It became with them synon- where over 4,000 vessels are annually un- 
ymous with an earthly paradise, and the loaded. The chief of these is the Atlantic 
exiles sang a simple refrain in a pathetic Docks, covering an area of 40 acres, 
manner about the joys of Dixy s. Ad- an d capable of accommodating 500 ves- 
ditions to it elevated it into the dignity sels at one time. South of this artificial 
of a song, and it was chanted by the construction are the Erie and Brooklyn 
negroes all over the South, which, in the basins, similar in design and purpose, and 
Civil War, was called the " Land of still further south are two other docks 
Dixie." f the repair character. 

Dixon, WILLIAM HEPWORTH, author; Dodge, GREXVILLE MELLEN, military 
born in Yorkshire, England, June 30, officer; born in Danvers, Mass., April 12, 
1821; was mostly self-educated. He visit- 1831; educated at Partridge s Mili- 
ed the United States in 1866 and 1874. tary Academy, Norwich, Conn., and be- 
His treatment of the United States in his came a railroad surveyor and engineer 
published works has been considered un- in Illinois, Iowa, and the Rocky Moun- 
fair and incorrect in this country. His tains. He was sent to Washington in 
books relating to the United States in- 1861 to procure arms and equipments for 
elude White Conquest (containing in- Iowa volunteers, and became colonel of 
formation of the Indians, negroes, and the 4th Iowa Regiment in July. He corn- 
Chinese in America) ; Life of William manded a brigade on the extreme right at 
Penn; and New America. He died in Lon- the battle of Pea Ridge, and was wounded, 
don, Dec. 27, 1879. 1 or his services there he was made 

Dobbin, JAMES COCIIBANE, statesman; brigadier - general. He was appointed to 
born in Fayetteville, N. C., in 1814; grad- the command of the District of the 
uated at the University of North Caro- Mississippi in June, 1862. He was with 
lina in 1832; elected to Congress in 1845; Sherman in his Georgia campaign, and 
and in 1848 to the State legislature, of was promoted to major-general. He final- 
which he became speaker in 1850. In ly commanded the 16th Corps in that 
1853 President Pierce appointed him campaign, and in December, 1864, he 
Secretary of the Navy. He died in succeeded Rosecrans in command of the 
Fayetteville, Aug. 4, 1857. Department of Missouri. In 1867-69 he 

134 



DODGE DONALDSON 




SANFORD BALLARD DOLE. 



was a member of Congress from Iowa, 
and subsequently was engaged in railroad 
business. 

Dodge, HENRY, military officer; born 
in Vincennes, Ind., Oct. 12, 1782; com 
manded a company of volunteers in the 
War of 1812-15, and rose to the rank of 
lieutenant-colonel of mounted infantry 
in 1814. He fought the Indians from 
1832 to 1834, when he made peace on the 
frontiers, and in 1835 commanded an ex 
pedition to the Rocky Mountains. He 
was governor of Wisconsin and superin 
tendent of Indian affairs from 1836 to 
1841 ; a delegate in Congress from 1841 
to 1845 ; and United States Senator from 
1849 to 1857. He died in Burlington, 
la., June 19, 1867. 

Dodge, RICHARD IRVING, military offi 
cer; born in Huntsville, N. C., May 19, the annexation of Hawaii to the United 
1827; graduated at the United States States, was governor of the Territory of 
Military Academy in 1848; served Hawaii in 1900-03; then became United 
through the Civil War; was commissioned states district judge for Hawaii, 
colonel of the llth Infantry June 26, Dollar. Stamped Spanish dollars 
1882; retired May 19, 1891. His pub- (value 4s. 9d.) were issued from the 
lications include The Black Hills; The British mint in March, 1797, but called 
Plain of the Great West; Our Wild Ind- in in October following. The dollar is the 
ians, etc. He died in Sackett s Harbor, unit of the United States money. It is 
June 18, 1895. coined in silver, formerly also in gold, and 

Dodge, THEODORE AYRAULT, military i s worth 4s. ly+d. English money. See 
officer; born in Springfield, Mass., May COINAGE. 

28, 1842; graduated at London Uni- Dominion of Canada. See CANADA. 
versity in 1861; enlisted in the National Donaldson, EDWARD, naval officer; born 
army in 1861; promoted first lieutenant in Baltimore, Md., Nov. 17, 1816; joined 
Feb. 13, 1862; brevetted colonel in 1866; the navy in 1835; during the Civil War 
retired in 1870. He is the author of he took part in the capture of New 
Bird s-Eye View of the Civil War; Cam- Orleans, the passage of Vicksburg, the 
paign of Chancellorsville ; Great Cap- battle of Mobile Bay, etc.; was promoted 
tains, etc. rear-admiral Sept. 21, 1876, and retired 

Dole, SANFORD BALLAKD, statesman; a few days later. He died in Baltimore, 
born in Honolulu, Hawaii, April 23, Md., May 15, 1889. 

1844; son of American missionaries; edu- Donaldson, JAMES LOWRY, military of- 
cated at Oahu College, Hawaii, and ficer; born in Baltimore, Md., March 7, 
Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.; 1814; graduated at the United States 
was admitted to the bar in Boston, and Military Academy in 1836; served in the 
returned to Honolulu to practise. He war with Mexico and through the Civil 
was a member of the Hawaii legislature War; was promoted colonel and brevetted 
in 1884 and 1886; became active in the major-general of volunteers; resigned in 
reform movement of 1887 ; was judge of January, 1874. He was a personal friend 
the Supreme Court of Hawaii in 1887-93; of Gen. G. H. Thomas, to whom he made 
was chosen chief of the provisional gov- known a plan to establish cemeteries for 
ernment in 1893, and in the following the scattered remains of soldiers who had 
year was elected president under the con- been killed in battle. It was this sugges- 
stitution of the newly formed republic tion which led to the institution of Deco- 
for the period of seven years. He was ration, or Memorial, Day. He died in Bal- 
an active promoter of the movement for timore, Md., Nov. 4, 1885. 

135 



DONELSON DONELSON, FORT 



Donelson, ANDREW JACKSON, states 
man: born in Nashville, Tenn., Aug. 25, 
1800; graduated at West Point in 1820; 
resigned from the army in 1822; appoint 
ed minister to the republic of Texas in 
1844; minister to Prussia in 1846; and 
to the Federal Government of Germany 
in 1848. He abandoned the Democratic 
party, joined the American party, and was 
its candidate for Vice-President on the 
ticket with Millard Fillmore in 1856. He 
died in Memphis, Tenn., June 26, 1871. 

Donelson, FORT, a notable fortification 
on the Cumberland River in Tennessee, 
63 miles northwest of Nashville. After 
the capture of FORT HENRY (q. v. ), there 
was no hinderance to the river navy going 
up the Tennessee to the fertile cotton 
regions of the heart of the Confederacy. 
Foote sent Lieut.-Com. S. L. Phelps, with 
three vessels, to reconnoitre the borders 



ated on the high left bank of the Cum 
berland River, at Dover, the capital of 
Stewart county, Tenn. It was formed 
chiefly of outlying intrench ments, cover 
ing about 100 acres, upon hills furrowed 
by ravines. At Fort Henry, General 
Grant reorganized his army in three di 
visions, under Generals McClernand, 
Smith, and Lew. Wallace. Commodore 
Foote returned to Cairo to take his mor 
tar-boats up the Cumberland River to 
assist in the attack. On the morning of 
Feb. 12, 1862, the divisions of McCler 
nand and Smith marched for Fort Donel 
son, leaving Wallace with a brigade to 
hold the vanquished forts on the Ten 
nessee. On the same evening Fort 
Donelson was invested. 

Grant resolved to wait for the arrival 
of the flotilla bearing troops that would 
complete Wallace s division before making 







FOKT DONKI.SOX. 



of that river. They penetrated to Flor- the attack. General Pillow was in com- 

ence, Ala., seizing Confederate vessels and mand of the fort; but, on the morning 

destroying Confederate property, and dis- of the 13th, General Floyd arrived from 

covered the weakness of the Confederacy Virginia with some troops and superseded 

in all that region, for Unionism was him. They were assisted by GEN. SIMON 

everywhere prevalent, but suppressed by B. BUCKNER (q. v.), a better soldier than 

the mailed hand of the Confederate lead- either. All day (Feb. 13) there was skir- 

ers. Phelps s report caused an immediate mishing, and at night the weather became 

against Fort Donelson, situ- extremely cold, while a violent rain-storm 

136 



DONELSON, FORT 

was falling. The National troops, biv- Oglesby s brigade received the first shock, 
ouacking without tents, suffered intense- but stood firm until their ammunition 
ly. They dared not light camp-fires, for began to fail, when they gave way under 
they would expose them to the guns of the tremendous pressure, excepting the ex- 
their foes. They were without sufficient treme left, held by COL. JOHN A. LOGAN 
food and clothing. Perceiving the perils (q. v.) , with his Illinois regiment. Imi- 
of his situation, Grant had sent for Wai- tating their commander, they stood as 
lace to bring over his troops. He arrived firmly as a wall, and prevented a panic 
about noon on the 14th. The transports and a. rout. The light batteries of Tay- 
had arrived, and Wallace s division was lor, McAllister, and Dresser, shifting posi- 
completed and posted between those of tions and sending volleys of grape and 
McClernand and Smith, by which the canister, made the Confederate line recoil 
thorough investment of the fort was com- again and again. At eight o clock Mc- 
pleted. At three o clock that afternoon demand s division was so hard pressed 
the bombardment of the fort was begun that he sent to Wallace for help. Wallace, 
by the Carondelet, Captain Walke, and. being assigned to a special duty, could 
she was soon joined by three others ar- not comply without orders, for which he 
mored gunboats in the front line. A sec- sent. Grant was away, in consultation 
end line was formed of unarmored boats, with Commodore Foote, who had arrived. 
The former were exposed to a tremendous Again McClernand sent for help, say- 
pounding by missiles from the shore-bat- ing his flank was turned. Wallace took 
teries; and they were compelled to retire, the responsibility. Then Buckner ap- 
after receiving 140 shots and having fifty- peared. The battle raged fiercely. McCler- 
four men killed and wounded. Foote re- nand s line was falling back, in good 
turned to Cairo to repair damages and to order, and calling for ammunition. Wai- 
bring up a sufficient naval force to assist lace took the responsibility of order- 
in carrying on the siege. Grant resolved ing some up. Then he thrust his brigade 
to wait for the return of Foote and the (Colonel Thayer commanding) between 
arrival of reinforcements. But he was the retiring troops and the advancing 
not allowed to wait. Confederates, flushed with hope, and 
On the night of the 14th the Confeder- formed a new line of battle across the 
ate leaders held a council of war and it road. Back of this was a reserve. In this 
was concluded to make a sortie early the position they awaited an attack, while 
next morning, to rout or destroy the in- McClernand s troops supplied themselves 
vading forces, or to cut through them and with ammunition from wagons which Wai- 
escape to the open country in the direc- lace had ordered up. Just then the com- 
tion of Nashville. This was attempted bined forces of Pillow and Buckner fell 
at five o clock (Feb. 15). The troops en- upon them and were repulsed by a bat- 
gaged in it were about 10,000 in number, tery and the 1st Nebraska. The Confed- 
commanded by Generals Pillow and Bush- erates, after a severe struggle, retired to 
rod R. Johnson. They advanced from their works in confusion. This was the 
Dover Mississippians, Tennesseeans, and last sally from the fort. " God bless you!" 
Virginians accompanied by Forrest s wrote Grant s aide the next day to Wai- 
cavalry. The main body was directed to lace. " you did save the day on the right." 
attack McClernand s division, who occu- It was now noon. Grant was in the 
pied the heights that reached to the river, field, and after consultation with McCler- 
.Buckner was directed to strike Wallace s r.and and Wallace, he ordered the former 
division, in the centre, at the same time, to retake the hill he had lost. This was 
so that it might not be in a. condition to soon bravely done, and the troops biv- 
help McClernand. These movements were ouacked on the field of victory that cold 
not suspected by the Nationals, and so winter night. Meanwhile, General Smith 
quick and vigorous was Pillow s attack had been smiting the Confederates so vig- 
that Grant s right wing was seriously orously on their right that, when night 
menaced within twenty minutes after the came on, they were imprisoned within 
sortie of the Confederates was known. The their trenches, unable to escape. Find- 
attack was quick, furious, and heavy, ing themselves closely held by Grant, the 

137 



DONGAN 

question, How shall we escape? was a duke s domain, and he took measures to 
paramount one in the minds of Floyd protect the territory from encroach- 
and Pillow. At midnight the three Con- ments. Dongan managed the relations 
federate commanders held a private coun- between the English, French, and Indians 
cil, when it was concluded that the gar- with dexterity. He was not deceived by 
rison must surrender. " / cannot sur- the false professions of the French rulers 
render," said Floyd; "you know my po- or the wiles of the Jesuit priests; and 
sition with the Federals; it won t do, when DE NONVILLE (q. v.) invaded the 
it won t do." Pillow said, "I will not country of the Five Nations (1686) he 
surrender myself nor my command; I showed himself as bold as this leader in 
will die first." " Then," said Buckner, defence of the rights of Englishmen, 
coolly, " the surrender will devolve on Dongan sympathized with the people of 
me." Then Floyd said, " General, if his province in their aspirations for lib- 
you are put in command, will you allow erty, which his predecessor (Andros) had 
me to take out, by the river, my brigade ?" denied ; and he was instrumental in the 
" If you will move before I surrender," formation of the first General Assembly 
Buckner replied. Floyd offered to sur- of New York, and in obtaining a popular 
render the command, first, to Pillow, who form of government. When the King vio- 
replied, " I will not accept it I will never lated his promises while he was duke, 
surrender." Buckner said, like a true Dongan was grieved, and protested; and 
soldier, " I will accept it, and share the when the monarch ordered him to intro- 
fate of my command." Within an hour duce French priests among the Five Na- 
after the conference Floyd fled up the tions, the enlightened governor resisted 
river with a part of his command, and Pil- the measure as dangerous to English 
low sneaked away in the darkness and power on the continent. His firmness in 
finally reached his home in Tennessee, defence of the rights of the people and 
The Confederates never gave him employ- the safety of the English colonies in 
ment again. The next morning, the fort America against what he could not but 
and 13,500 men were surrendered, and the regard as the treachery of the King 
spoils of victory were 3,000 horses, forty- finally offended his sovereign, and he was 
eight field-pieces, seventeen heavy guns, dismissed from office in the spring of 
20,000 muskets, and a large quantity of 1688, when Andros took his place, bear- 
military stores. During the siege the ing a vice-regal commission to rule all 
Confederates lost 237 killed and 1,000 New England besides. Dongan remained 
wounded ; the National loss was estimated in the province until persecuted by Leisler 
at 446 killed, 1,755 wounded, and 152 in 1690, when he withdrew to Boston. He 
made prisoners. died in London, England, Dec. 14, 1715. 

Dongan, THOMAS, colonial governor; On May 24, 1901, eight loose sheets of 
born in Castletown, county Kildare, Ire- parchment, containing the engrossed acts 
land, in 1634; a younger son of an Irish passed during 1687-88, and bearing the 
baronet; was a colonel in the royal army, signature of Thomas Dongan as governor 
and served under the French King. In of the province of New York, were re- 
1(>78 he was appointed lieutenant-governor stored to the State of New York by the 
of Tangier, Africa, whence he was re- Commonwealth of Massachusetts. This in- 
called in 1680. The relations between teresting historical find was accounted 
England and France were then delicate, for on the presumption that the docu- 
and Dongan being a Roman Catholic, like ments had formed a part of the archives 
the proprietor of New York, he was of Massachusetts since the time of Sir Ed- 
chosen by Duke James governor of that mund Andros, and the fact that they 
province (1683), as it was thought his related to the province of New York had 
experience in France might make it easier been entirely overlooked, 
to keep up friendly relations with the The dates and titles of the Dongan 
French on the borders. Dongan caused acts are: 

a company of merchants in New York to March 17, 1686-87. An Act to Prevent 

be formed for the management of the Frauds and Abuses in the County of Suf- 

fisheries at Pemaquid, a part of the folk. 

138 



DONGAN CHARTER DORCHESTER HEIGHTS 

June 17, 1687. An Act for Raising %d. and from Concord, April 19, 1775, by the 

per Pound on All Real Estates. rebels." He died near Bristol, England, 

Aug. 20, 1687. A Bill for Raising Id. in March, 1821. 

per Pound on All Persons, Estates, etc. Donnelly, IGNATIUS, author; born in 

Sept. 2, 1687. An Act for Raising y 2 d. Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 3, 1831; removed 
per Pound on All Persons, Estates, etc. to Minnesota in 1856; elected lieutenant- 
Sept. 2, 1687. An Act for Regulating governor of the State in 1859 and 1861; 
the Collection of His Majesty s Excise. Representative in Congress, 1863-69; 

Sept. 27, 1687. An Act for Naturaliz- president of the State Farmers Alliance 

ing Daniel Duchemin. of Minnesota for several years; nominee of 

Oct. 11, 1687. A Bill to Prevent Frauds the Anti - Fusion People s party for Vice- 
in His Majesty s Excise by Ordinary Keep- President of the United States in 1900. 
ers. He was the author of Atlantis, the Antedi- 

May 17, 1688. An Act for Raising luvian World; The Great Cryptogram, in 

2,555 6s. on or before the First Day of which he undertook to prove by a word 

November, 1688. See NEW YORK. cipher that Francis Bacon was the author 

Dongan Charter, THE. See NEW YORK of Shakespeare s plays; The American 

CITY. People s Money, etc. He died in Min- 

Doniphan, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, mill- neapolis, Minn., Jan. 2, 1901. 

tary officer; born in Kentucky, July 9, Donnohue, DILLIARD C., lawyer; born 

1808; graduated at Augusta College in in Montgomery county, Ky., Nov. 20, 1814; 

1826; admitted to the bar in 1830. In was appointed a special commissioner to 

addition to his legal studies he was in- Haiti in 1863 to investigate the practica- 

terested in military matters and became bility of colonizing the slaves of the South 

brigadier-general in the Missouri State in that republic after their freedom. Both 

militia. In 1838 he compelled the MOR- President Lincoln and Secretary Seward 

MONS (q. v.) , under Joseph Smith, to give favored this plan, but the report of Mr. 

up their leaders for trial, lay down their Donnohue showed that it would not be 

arms, and leave the State. In 1846 he feasible. He died in Greencastle, Ind., 

entered the United States service as colo- April 2, 1898. 

nel of the 1st Missouri Regiment; in De- Donop, CARL EMIL KURT VON, mili- 

cember of that year he defeated a superior tary officer; born in Germany, in 1740; 

force of Mexicans at BRACETI KIVER ( q. was in command of a detachment of mer- 

v.) ; two days later he occupied El Paso, cenary Hessian troops during the early 

In February, 1847, with less than 1,000 part of the Revolutionary War. On Oct. 

men, after a march of over 200 miles 22, 1777, while leading a charge against 

through a sterile country, he met a force Fort Mercer, at Red Bank, N. J., he 

of 4,000 Mexicans at the pass of Sacra- was mortally wounded, and died on the 

mento. He attacked with such vigor that 25th. 

the Mexicans were soon overpowered, hav- Doolittle, AMOS, engraver; born in 

ing lost over 800 in killed and wounded, Cheshire, Conn., in 1754; was self-edu- 

Doniphan s own loss being one man killed, cated ; served an apprenticeship with a 

eleven wounded. He subsequently marched silversmith; and established himself as 

700 miles through a hostile country until an engraver on copper in 1775. While a 

he reached Saltillo. He died in Richmond, volunteer in the camp at Cambridge 

Mo., Aug. 8, 1887. (1775) he visited the scene of the skir- 

Donkin, ROBERT, military officer; born mish at Lexington and made a drawing 
March 19, 1727; joined the British army and engraving of the affair, which fur- 
in 1746; served through the Revolution- nishes the historian with the only correct 
ary War, first as aide-de-camp to General representation of the buildings around 
Gage, and then as major of the 44th the " Green " at that time. He after- 
Regiment. He published Military Col- wards made other historical prints of the 
lections and Remarks, "published for the time. He died in New Haven, Conn., 
benefit of the children and widows of the Jan. 31, 1832. 

valiant soldiers inhumanly and wantonly Dorchester Heights, an elevation south 

butchered when peacefully marching to of Boston, which, on March 4, 1776, \v;i- 

139 



DORNIN DOUBLEDAY 



occupied by the Americans, who threw of the Territories of Iowa and Wisconsin, 
up strong intrenchments during the night. He aided in founding Madison, Wis., which 
This movement had much to do with city was made the capital of the State 
the evacuation of Boston by the British through his efforts. He held a scat in 
on March 17 following. Congress in 1836-41 and 1840-53; 

Dornin, THOMAS ALOYSIUS, naval of- governor of Wisconsin in 1841-44; and 
ficer; born in Ireland about 1800; entered was appointed governor of Utah in 1864. 
the United States navy in 1815; prevented He died in Salt Lake City, Ut., June 13, 
William Walker s expedition from invad- 1865. 

ing Mexico in 1851; later sailed to Ma- Doubleday, ARNER, military officer; 
zatlan and secured the release of forty born in Ballston Spa, N. Y., June 26, 
Americans there held as prisoners; after- 1819; graduated at West Point in 1842; 
wards captured two slavers with more 
than 1,400 slaves, and took them to Li 
beria; was promoted commodore and re 
tired during the Civil War. He died in 
Norfolk, Va., April 22, 1874. 

Dorr, THOMAS WILSON, politician; 
born in Providence, R. I., Nov. 5, 1805; 
graduated at Harvard in 1823; stud 
ied law with Chancellor Kent; and be 
gan its practice in 1827. He is chiefly 
conspicuous in American history as the 
chosen governor of what was called the 
" Suffrage party," and attempted to take 
the place of what was deemed to be 
the legal State government (see RHODE 
ISLAND). He was tried for and convicted 
of high treason, and sentenced to im 
prisonment for life in 1842, but was par 
doned in 1847; and in 1853 the legislat 
ure restored to him his civil rights and 
ordered the record of his sentence to be 

expunged. He lived to see his party tri- served in the artillery in the war with 
umph. He died in Providence, Dec. 27, Mexico; rose to captain in 1855; and 
1854. served against the Seminole Indians 

Dorr s Eebellion. See DORR, THOMAS in 1856-58. Captain Doubleday was an 
WILSON; RHODE ISLAND. efficient officer in Fort Sumter v. ith Major 

Dorsey, STEPHEN WALLACE, politician; Anderson during the siege. lie fired the 
born in Benson, Vt., Feb. 28, 1842; re- first gun (April 12, 1861) upon the Con 
ceived a common - school education : re- federates from that fort. On May 14 he 
moved to Obcrlin, O. ; served in the Civil was promoted to major, and on Feb. 3, 
War in the National army; was elected 1862, to brigadier-general of volunteers, 
president of the Arkansas Central Rail- In Hooker s corps, at the battle of Antie- 
way; removed to Arkansas: chosen chair- tarn, he commanded a division; and when 
man of the Republican State Committee; Reynolds fell at Gettysburg, Doubleday 
was United States Senator in 1873-79; took command of his corps. He had been 
was twice tried for complicity in the STAR made major-general in November, 1862, 
ROUTE FRAUDS (q. r.) , the second trial and had been conspicuously engaged in 
resulting in a verdict of not guilty. the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancel- 

Doty, JAMES DTTANE, governor; born in lorsville. He was brevetted brigadier-gen- 
Salem, N. Y., in 1799; studied law and eral and major-general of the United Slates 
settled in Detroit; member of the Michi- army in March, 1865; was commissioned 
gan legislature in 1834, and there intro- colonel of the 35th Infantry in September, 
duced the bill which provided for the 1867: and was retired in December, 1873. 
division of Michigan and the establishment He died in Mendham, N. J., Jan. 26, 1893. 

140 




AHXKB nOCBLRDAY. 



DOUGHFACES DOUGLAS 



General Doubleday was author of Reminis 
cences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 
1860-61 ; Chan cellar sville and Gettysburg, 
and other military works. 

Doughfaces. During the great debate 
on the slavery question in 1820, elicited 
by proceedings in relation to the admis 
sion of Missouri as a free-labor or slave- 
labor State, eighteen Northern men were 
induced to vote for a sort of compromise, 
by which the striking out t .o prohibition 
of slavery from the Missouri bill was car 
ried by 90 to 87. John Randolph, who 
denounced the compromise as a " dirty 
bargain," also denounced these eighteen 
Northern representatives as " dough 



faces " plastic in the hands of expert 
demagogues. The epithet was at once 
adopted into the political vocabulary of 
the republic, wherein it remains. 

Douglas, SIR CHARLES, naval officer; 
born in Scotland; joined the British navy; 
was placed in command of the fleet sent 
to the Gulf of St. Lawrence at the begin 
ning of the Revolutionary War. Early 
in 1776 he relieved Quebec, then under 
siege by the Americans, after a difficult 
voyage through the drifting ice of the 
river. He introduced locks in lieu of 
matches for firing guns on board ships; 
and was promoted rear-admiral in 1787. 
He died in 1789. 



DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD 



Douglas, STEPHEN ARNOLD, statesman; 
born in Brandon, Vt., April 23, 1813; 
learned the business of cabinet-making; 
studied law; became an auctioneer s clerk 
in Jacksonville, 111. ; and taught school 
until admitted to the bar, when he soon 
became an active politician. Because of 
his small stature and power of intellect 
and speech he was called " The Little 
Giant." He was attorney-general of Illi 
nois in 1835; was in the legislature; 
chosen secretary of state in 1840; judge 
in 1841; and was in Congress in 1843-47. 
He was a vigorous promoter of the war 
with Mexico, and was United States Sena 
tor from 1847 to 1861. He advanced and 
supported the doctrine of popular sov 
ereignty in relation to slavery in the Terri 
tories, and was the author of the Kansas- 
Nebraska bill (see KANSAS) ; and in 
1856 was a rival of Buchanan for the 
nomination for the Presidency. He took 
sides in favor of freedom in Kansas, and 
so became involved in controversy with 
President Buchanan. He was a candidate 
of the Democratic party in 1860 for Presi 
dent of the United States, but was de 
feated by Abraham Lincoln. He died in 
Chicago, 111., June 3, 1861. See KANSAS. 

The Douglas-Lincoln Debate. In open 
ing this famous debate, in Ottawa, 111., 
on Aug. 21, 1858, Mr. Douglas spoke as 
follows : 

Ladies and Gentlemen, I appear before 
you to-day for the purpose of discussing 

1 



the leading political topics which now agi 
tate the public mind. By an arrangement 
between Mr. Lincoln and myself, we are 
present here to-day for the purpose of hav 
ing a joint discussion, as the representa 
tives of the two great political parties of 
the State and Union, upon the principles 
in issue between those parties; and this 
vast concourse of people shows the deep 
feeling which pervades the public mind in 
regard to the questions dividing us. 

Prior to 1854, this country was divided 
into two great political parties, known as 
the Whig and Democratic parties. Both 
were national and patriotic, advocating 
principles that were universal in their 
application. An old-line Whig could pro 
claim his principles in Louisiana and 
Massachusetts alike. Whig principles 
had no boundary sectional line: they were 
not limited by the Ohio River, nor by the 
Potomac, nor by the line of the free and 
slave States, but applied and were pro 
claimed wherever the Constitution ruled 
or the American flag waved over the 
American soil. So it was and so it is 
with the great Democratic party, which, 
from the days of Jefferson until this 
period, has proven itself to be the historic 
party of this nation. While the Whig 
and Democratic parties differed in regard 
to a bank, the tariff, distribution, the 
?pecie circular, and the sub-treasury, they 
agreed on the great slavery question which 
now agitates the Union. I say that the 
Whig party and the Democratic party 
II 



DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ABNOLD 




STEPHEN ARNOLD DOUGLAS. 



agreed on the slavery question, while they 
differed on those matters of expediency to 
which I have referred. The Whig party 
and the Democratic party jointly adopted 
the compromise measures of 1850 as the 
basis of a proper and just solution of the 
slavery question in all its forms. Clay 
was the great leader, with Webster on 
his right and Cass on his left, and sus 
tained by the patriots in the Whig and 
Democratic ranks who had devised and 
enacted the compromise measures of 
1850. 

In 1851 the Whig party and the Demo 
cratic party united in Illinois in adopting 
resolutions endorsing and approving the 
principles of the compromise measures 
of 1850 as the proper adjustment of that 
question. In 1852, when the Whig party 
assembled in convention at Baltimore for 
the purpose of nominating a candidate for 



142 



the Presidency, the first thing it did was 
to declare the compromise measures of 
1850, in substance and in principle, a suit 
able adjustment of that question. [Here 
the speaker was interrupted by loud and 
long-continued applause.] My friends, 
silence will be more acceptable to me in 
the discussion of these questions than 
applause. I desire to address myself to 
your judgment, your understanding, and 
your consciences, and not to your passions 
or your enthusiasm. When the Demo 
cratic convention assembled in Baltimore 
in the same year, for the purpose of nom 
inating a Democratic candidate for the 
Presidency, it also adopted the com 
promise measures of 1850 as the basis of 
Democratic action. Thus you see that up 
to 1853-54 the Whig party and the Demo 
cratic party both stood on the same plat 
form with regard to the slavery question. 



DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD 

That platform was the right of the peo- was then about to become vacant, and 
pie of each State and each Territory to that Trumbull should have my seat when 
decide their local and domestic institu- my term expired. Lincoln went to work 
tions for themselves, subject only to the to abolitionize the Old Whig party all 
federal Constitution. over the State, pretending that he was 

During the session of Congress of 1853- then as good a Whig as ever; and Trum- 
54 I introduced into the Senate of the bull went to work in his part of the State 
United States a bill to organize the Ter- preaching abolitionism in its milder and 
ritories of Kansas and Nebraska on that lighter form, and trying to abolitionize 
principle which had been adopted in the the Democratic party, and bring old 
compromise measures of 1850, approved by Democrats handcuffed and bound hand 
the Whig party and the Democratic party and foot into the abolition camp. In pur- 
iu Illinois in 1851, and endorsed by the suance of the arrangement the parties met 
Whig party and the Democratic party at Springfield in October, 1854, and pro- 
in national convention in 1852. In order claimed their new platform. Lincoln 
that there might be no misunderstand- was to bring into the abolition camp the 
ing in relation to the principle involved old-line Whigs, and transfer them over to 
in the Kansas and Nebraska bill, I put Giddings, Chase, Fred Douglass, and Par- 
forth the true intent and meaning of the 
act in these words : " It is the true in 
tent and meaning of this act not to legis 
late slavery into any State or Territory, 
or to exclude it therefrom, but to leave 
the people thereof perfectly free to form 
and regulate their domestic institutions 
in their own way, subject only to the fed 
eral Constitution." Thus you see that up 
to 1854, when the Kansas and Nebraska 
bill was brought into Congress for the 
purpose of carrying out the principles 
which both parties had up to that time en 
dorsed and approved, there had been no 
division in this country in regard to that 
principle except the opposition of the abo 
litionists. In the House of Representa 
tives of the Illinois legislature, upon a 
resolution asserting that principle, every 
Whig and every Democrat in the House 
voted in the affirmative, and only four 
men voted against it, and those four were 
old-line abolitionists. 

In 1854 Mr. Abraham Lincoln and Mr. 
Lyman Trumbull entered into an arrange 
ment, one with the other, and each with 
his respective friends, to dissolve the old 
Whig party on the one hand, and to dis 
solve the old Democratic party on the 
other, and to connect the members of 
both into an abolition party, under the 
name and disguise of a Republican party. 
The terms of that arrangement between 
Lincoln and Trumbull have been pub 
lished by Lincoln s special friend, James 
H. Matheny, Esq. ; and they were that 
Lincoln should have General Shields s 
place in the United States Senate, which 

143 




MOXUMK.N T TO STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. 



DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD 

son Lovejoy, who were ready to receive sitions; and yet I venture to say that 

them and christen them in their new you cannot get Mr. Lincoln to come out 

faith. They laid down on that occasion and say that he is now in favor of each one 

a platform for their new Republican party, of them. That these propositions, one and 

which was thus to be constructed. I have all, constitute the platform of the Black 

the resolutions of the State convention Republican party of this day, I have no 

then held, which was the first mass State doubt; and, when you were not aware for 

convention ever held in Illinois by the what purpose I was reading them, your 

Black Republican party; and I now hold Black Republicans cheered them as good 

them in my hands and will read a part Black Republican doctrines. My object 

of them, and cause the others to be in reading these resolutions was to put 

printed. Here are the most important the question to Abraham Lincoln this day, 

and material resolutions of this abolition whether he now stands and will stand by 

platform: each article in that creed, and carry it 

out. 

"1. Resolved, That we believe this truth j a es i re to know whether Mr. Lincoln 
to be self-evident, that, when parties become , i. j-j -IQKA t~ 
subversive of the ends for which they are to da y stands as he dld m 1854 m favor 
established, or incapable of restoring the of the unconditional repeal of the fugitive- 
government to the true principles of the Con- slave law. I desire him to answer whether 
stitution it is the right and duty of the peo- hft gtands pledged to-day, as he did in 
pie to dissolve the political bands by which . ... , 
they may have been connected therewith, and 18 o 4 > against the admission of any more 
to organize new parties upon such principles slave States into the Union, even if the 
and with such views as the circumstances people want them. I want to know 
e 6xigencieS f the Datl n may ^ whether he stands pledged against the ad- 
2. Resolved, That the times imperatively mission of a new State into the Union 
demand the reorganization of parties, and, with such a constitution as the people of 
repudiating all previous party attachments, that gtate gee fit to make j want 
names, and predilections, we unite ourselves , , , 
together in defence of the liberty and Con- to know whether he stands to-day pledged 
stitution of the country, and will hereafter to the abolition of slavery in the District 
co-operate as the Republican party, pledged o f Columbia. I desire him to answer 

P^es : ^3S"? t lS&*!t *%* whether he stands pledged to the pro- 

government back to the control of first prin- lubition of the slave-trade between the 

ciples ; to restore Nebraska and Kansas to different States. I desire to know whether 

the position of free Territories ; that as the hc gtandg pledged to pro hibit slavery in 

Constitution of the United States vests in the ,, ., , .. . , . TT ., , O i 

States, and not in Congress, the power to all the Territories of the United 

legislate for the extradition of fugitives from north as well as south of the Missouri 

labor, to repeal and entirely abrogate the Compromise line. I desire him to answer 

fugitive-slave law; to restrict slavery to h th he j opposed to the acquisition 
those States in which it exists ; to prohibit 

the admission of any more slave States into of any more territory unless slavery is 

the Union ; to abolish slavery in the District prohibited therein. I want his answer 

of Columbia ; to exclude slavery from all the to tnese ques tions. Your affirmative 

Territories over which the general govern- . S , ... , .... , , 

ment has exclusive jurisdiction ; and to resist cheers in favor of this abolition plal- 

che acquirement of any more Territories un- form are not satisfactory. I ask Abraham 

less the practice of slavery therein forever Lincoln to answer these questions, in 

shall have been prohibited. d that h j t t him down to ]mvor 

" 3. Resolved, That in furtherance of these 

principles we will use such constitutional and Egypt, I may put the same questions to 

lawful means as shall seem best adapted to him. My principles are the same every- 

their accomplishment, and that we will sup- where . I can proclaim them alike in the 

port no man for office, under the general or South thp Fist and the West 

State government, who is not positively and Kast - a 

fully committed to the support of these prin- My principles will apply wherever the Con- 

oiples, and whose personal character and con- stitution prevails and the American flag 

duet is not a guarantee that he is reliable, v;avps j desire to knQW whether Mr . 

and who shall not have abjured old party . . .,11. i 

allegiance and ties. Lincoln s principles will bear transplant 
ing from Ottawa to Jonesboro? I put 

Now, gentlemen, your Black Republi- these questions to him to-day distinctly, 

cans have cheered every one of those propo- and ask an answer. I have a right to an 

144 



DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD 

answer; for I quote from the platform of brated proviso, and the abolition tornado 
the Republican party, made by himself swept over the country, Lincoln again 
and others at the time that party was turned up as a member of Congress from 
formed, and the bargain made by Lincoln the Sangamon district. I was then in the 
to dissolve and kill the Old Whig party, Senate of the United States, and was 
and transfer its members, bound hand and glad to welcome my old friend and corn- 
foot, to the abolition party, under the panion. While in Congress, he distin- 
direction of Giddings and Fred Douglass, guished himself by his opposition to the 
In the remarks I have made on this plat- Mexican War, taking the side of the corn- 
form, and the position of Mr. Lincoln mon enemy against his own country ; 
upon it, I mean nothing personally dis- and, when he returned home, he found 
respectful or unkind to that gentleman, that the indignation of the people fol- 
I have known him for nearly twenty-live lowed him everywhere, and he was again 
years. There were many points of sym- submerged, or obliged to retire into pri- 
pathy between us when we first got ac- vate life, forgotten by his former friends, 
quainted. We were both comparatively He came up again in 1854, just in time 
boys, and both struggling with poverty to make this abolition or Black Repub- 
in a strange land. I was a school-teacher lican platform, in company with Gid- 
in the town of Winchester, and he a dings, Lovejoy, Chase, and Fred Doug- 
flourishing grocery-keeper in the town lass, for the Republican party to stand 
of Salem. He was more successful upon. Trumbull, too, was one of our own 
in his occupation than I was in mine, contemporaries. He was born and raised 
and hence more fortunate in this world s in old Connecticut, was bred a Federalist, 
goods. but, removing to Georgia, turned nulli- 
Lincoln is one of those peculiar men fier when nullification was popular, and. 
who perform with admirable skill ev- as soon as he disposed of his clocks and 
erything which they undertake. I made wound up his business, migrated to Illi- 
as good a school-teacher as I could, nois, turned politician and lawyer here, 
and, when a cabinet-maker, I made a and made his appearance in 1841 as a 
good bedstead and tables, although my member of the legislature. He became 
old boss said I succeeded better with noted as the author of the scheme to re-, 
bureaus and secretaries than with any- pudiate a large portion of the State debt 
thing else! but I believe that Lincoln of Illinois, which, if successful, would 
was always more successful in business have brought infamy and disgrace upon 
than I, for his business enabled him to the fair escutcheon of our glorious State, 
get into the legislature. I met him The odium attached to that measure con- 
there, however, and had sympathy with signed him to oblivion for a time. I 
him, because of the uphill struggle we helped to do it. I walked into a public 
both had in life. He was then just as meeting in the hall of the House of Repre- 
good at telling an anecdote as now. sentatives, and replied to his repudiating 
He could beat any of the boys wrestling speeches, and resolutions were carried 
or running a foot-race, in pitching over his head denouncing repudiation, 
quoits or tossing a copper; could ruin and asserting the moral and legal obliga- 
more liquor than all the boys of the town tion of Illinois to pay every dollar of the 
together ; and the dignity and impartial- debt she owed and every bond that bore 
ity with which he presided at a horse- her seal. TrumbulPs malignity has fol- 
race or fist-fight excited the admiration lowed me since I thus defeated his infa- 
and won the praise of everybody that was mous scheme. 

present and participated. I sympathized These two men, having formed this 
with him because he was struggling with combination to abolitionize the Old Whig 
difficulties, and so was I. Mr. Lincoln party and the old Democratic party, and 
served with me in the legislature in 1836, put themselves into the Senate of the 
when we both retired: and he subsided or United States, in pursuance of their bar- 
became submerged, and he was lost sight gain, are now carrying out that arrange- 
of as a public man for some years. In ment. Matheny states that Trumbull 
1846, when Wilmot introduced his cele- broke faith; that the bargain was that 
Til. K 145 



DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD 



Lincoln should be the Senator in Shields s 
place, and Trumbull was to wait for 
mine; and the story goes that Trumbull 
cheated Lincoln, having control of four 
or five abolitionized Democrats who were 
holding over in the Senate. He would 
not let them vote for Lincoln, which 
obliged the rest of the abolitionists to 
support him in order to secure an aboli 
tion Senator. There are a number of 
authorities for the truth of this besides 
Matheny, and I suppose that even Mr. 
Lincoln will not deny. 

Mr. Lincoln demands that he shall have 
the place intended for Trumbull, as Trum 
bull cheated him and got his; and Trum 
bull is stumping the State, traducing me 
for the purpose of securing the position 
for Lincoln, in order to quiet him. It 
was in consequence of this arrangement 
that the Republican convention was im 
panelled to instruct for Lincoln and no 
body else; and it w r as on this account 
that they passed resolutions that he was 
their first, their last, and their only 
choice. Archy Williams was nowhere, 
Browning was nobody, Wentworth was 
not to be considered; they had no man 
in the Republican party for the place ex 
cept Lincoln, for the reason that he de 
manded that they should carry out the ar 
rangement. 

Having formed this new party for the 
benefit of deserters from Whiggery and 
deserters from Democracy, and having 
laid down the abolition platform which I 
have read, Lincoln now takes his stand 
and proclaims his abolition doctrines. 
Let me read a part of them. In his 
speech at Springfield to the convention 
which nominated him for the Senate he 
said: 

" In my opinion, it will not cease until a 
crisis shall have been reached and passed. 
A house divided against itself cannot 
stand. I believe this government cannot en 
dure permanently half slave and half free. 
I do not expect the Union to be dissolved I 
do not expect the house to fall but I do 
expect it will cease to be divided. It will be 
come all one thing or all the other. Either 
the opponents of slavery will arrest the fur 
ther spread of it, and place it where the 
public mind shall rest in the belief that it 
is in the course of ultimate extinction, or its 
advocates will push it forward till it shall 
become alike lawful in all the States old as 
well as new, North as well as South." 
[" Good, " Good," and cheers.] 



146 



I am delighted to hear you Black Re 
publicans say, " Good." I have no doubt 
that doctrine expresses your sentiments; 
and I will prove to you now, if you will 
listen to me, that it is revolutionary and 
destructive of the existence of this gov 
ernment. Mr. Lincoln, in the extract 
from which I have read, says that this 
government cannot endure permanently in 
the same condition in which it was made 
by its framers divided into free and slave 
States. He says that it has existed for 
about seventy years thus divided, and yet 
he tells you that it cannot endure per 
manently on the same principles and in 
the same relative condition in which our 
fathers made it. Why can it not exist 
divided into free and slave States? Wash 
ington, Jefferson, Franklin, Madison, 
Hamilton, Jay, and the great men of that 
day made this government divided into 
free States and slave States, and left each 
State perfectly free to do as it pleased on 
the subject of slavery. Why can it not 
exist on the same principles on which 
our fathers made it? They knew when 
they framed the Constitution that in a 
country as wide and broad as this, with 
such a variety of climate, production, and 
interest, the people necessarily required 
different laws and institutions in different 
localities. They knew that the laws and 
regulations which would suit the granite 
hills of Xew Hampshire would be un- 
suited to the rice plantations of South 
Carolina; and they therefore provided 
that each State should retain its own 
legislature and its own sovereignty, with 
the full and complete power to do as it 
pleased within its own limits, in all that 
was local and not national. One of the 
reserved rights of the States was the 
right to regulate the relations between 
master and servant, on the slavery ques 
tion. At the time the Constitution was 
framed there were thirteen States in the 
Union, twelve of which were slave-hold 
ing States, and one a free State. Sup 
pose this doctrine of uniformity preached 
by Mr. Lincoln, that the States should all 
be free or all be slave, had prevailed; and 
what would have been the result? Of 
course, the twelve slave-holding States 
would have overruled the one free State; 
and slavery would have been fastened by 
a constitutional provision on every inch 



DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD 



of the American republic, instead of being of schools and churches, reads from the 



left, as our fathers wisely left it, to each 
State to decide for itself. Here I assert 
that uniformity in the local laws and 
institutions of the different States is 
neither possible nor desirable. If uniform 
ity had been adopted when the govern 
ment was established, it must inevitably 
have bet-n the unformity of slavery every 
where, or else the uniformity of negro 
citizenship and negro equality every 
where. 

We are told by Lincoln that he is utter 
ly opposed to the Dred Scott decision, 
and will not submit to it, for the reason 
that he says it deprives the negro of the 
rights and privileges of citizenship. That 
is the first and main reason which he as 
signs for his warfare on the Supreme 
Court of the United States and its deci 
sion. I ask you, Are you in favor of 
conferring upon the negro the rights and 
privileges of citizenship? Do you desire 
to strike out of our State constitution that 
clause which keeps slaves and free negroes 
out of the State, and allow the free ne 
groes to flow in, and cover your prairies 
with black settlements? Do you desire 
to turn this beautiful State into a free 
negro colony, in order that, when Missouri 
abolishes slavery, she can send 100,000 
emancipated slaves into Illinois, to be 
come citizens and voters, on an equality 
with yourselves? If you desire negro citi 
zenship, if you desire to allow them to 
come into the State and settle with the 
white man, if you desire them to vote on 
an equality with yourselves, and to make 
them eligible to office, to serve on juries, 
and to adjudge your rights, then support 
Mr. Lincoln and the Black Republican 
party, who are in favor of the citizenship 
of the negro. For one, I am opposed to 
negro citizenship in any and every form. 
I believe this government was made on 
the white basis. I believe it was made 
by white men, for the benefit of white 
men and their posterity forever: and I 
am in favor of confining citizenship to 
white men, men of European birth 
and descent, instead of conferring it 
upon negroes, Indians, and other inferior 
races. 

Mr. Lincoln, following the example and 
lead of all the little abolition orators who 
go around and lecture in the basements 



Declaration of Independence that all men 
were created equal, and then asks how 
can you deprive a negro of that equality 
which God and the Declaration of Inde 
pendence award to him ? He and they 
maintain that negro equality is guaranteed 
by the laws of God, and that it is assert 
ed in the Declaration of Independence. If 
they think so, of course they have a right 
to say so, and so vote. I do not question 
Mr. Lincoln s conscientious belief that the 
negro was made his equal, and hence is 
his brother: but, for my own part, I do 
not regard the negro as my equal, and 
positively deny that he is my brother or 
any kin to me whatever. Lincoln has evi 
dently learned by heart Parson Lovejoy s 
catechism. He can repeat it as well as 
Farnsworth, and he is worthy of a medal 
from Father Giddings and Fred Douglass 
for his abolitionism. He holds that the 
negro was born his equal and yours, and 
that he was endowed with equality by the 
Almighty, and that no human law can de 
prive him of these rights which were 
guaranteed to him by the Supreme Ruler 
of the universe. Now I do not believe that 
the Almighty ever intended the negro to 
be the equal of the white man. If he did, 
he has been a long time demonstrating the 
fat. For thousands of years the negro 
has been a race upon the earth ; and dur 
ing all that time, in all latitudes and 
climates, wherever he has wandered or 
been taken, he has been inferior to the 
race which he has there met. He belongs 
to an inferior race, and must always oc 
cupy an inferior position. I do not hold 
that, because the negro is our inferior, 
therefore he ought to be a slave. By no 
moans can such a conclusion be drawn 
from what I have said. On the contrary, 
I hold that humanity and Christianity 
both require that the negro shall have and 
enjoy every right, every privilege, and 
every immunity consistent with the safety 
of the society in which he lives. On that 
point, I presume, there can be no diversity 
of opinion. You and I are bound to ex 
tend to our inferior and dependent beings 
every right, every privilege, every facility, 
and immunity consistent with the pub 
lic good. The question then arises, 
What rights and privileges are con 
sistent with the public good? This 



14? 



DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD 



is a question which each State and 
each Territory must decide for it- 
self. Illinois has decided it for 
herself. We have provided that the negro 
shall not be a slave; and we have also 
provided that he shall not be a citizen, but 
protect him in his civil rights, in his life, 
his person, and his property, only depriv- 
ing him of all political rights whatsoever, 
and refusing to put him on an equality 
with the white man. That policy of Illi- 
nois is satisfactory to the Democratic 
party and to me, and, if it were to the 
Republicans, there would then be no ques- 
tion upon the subject; but the Republi- 
cans say that he ought to made a citi- 
zen, and, when he becomes a citizen, he 
becomes your equal, with all your rights 
and privileges. They assert the Dred 
Scott decision to be monstrous because it 
denies that the negro is or can be a citi- 
zen under the Constitution. 

Now I hold that Illinois had a right 
to abolish and prohibit slavery as she did, 
and I hold that Kentucky has the same 
riht to continue and protect slavery that 
Illinois had to abolish it. I hold that New 
York had as much right to abolish slavery 
as Virginia had to continue it, and that 
each and every State of this Union is a 
sovereign power, with the right to do as 
it pleases upon this question of slavery 
and upon all its domestic institutions, 
Slavery is not the only question which 
comes up in this controversy. There is a 
far more important one to you; and that 
is, What shall be done with the free negro? 
We have settled the slavery question as 
far as we are concerned: we have prohibit- 
ed it in Illinois forever, and, in doing so, 
I think we have done wisely, and there 
is no man in the State who would be 
more strenuous in his opposition to the 
introduction of slavery than I would; but, 
when we settled it for ourselves, we ex- 
hausted all our power over that subject, 
We have done our whole duty, and can 
do no more. We must leave each and 
every other State to decide for itself the 
same question. In relation to the policy 
to be pursued towards the free negroes, 
we have said that they shall not vote; 
while Maine, on the other hand, has said 
that they shall vote. Maine is a sovereign 
State, and has the power to regulate the 
qualifications of voters within her 1 mits. 

1 



I would never consent to confer the right 
of voting and of citizenship upon a negro, 
but still I am not going to quarrel with 
Maine for differing from me in opinion. 
Let Maine take care of her own negroes, 
and fix the qualifications of her own voters 
to suit herself, without interfering with 
Illinois; and Illinois will not interfere 
with Maine. So with the State of New 
York. She allows the negro to vote pro- 
vided he owns two hundred and fifty dol- 
lars worth of property, but not otherwise. 
While would not make any distinc- 
tion whatever between a negro who 
held property and one who did not, yet, 
if the sovereign State of New York 
chooses to make that distinction, it is 
her business, and not mine; and I will 
not quarrel with her for it. She can do as 
she pleases on this question if she minds 
her own business, and we will do the 
same thing. Now, my friends, if we will 
only act conscientiously and rigidly 
"pon this great principle of popular 
sovereignty, which guarantees to each 
State and Territory the right to do as 
it pleases on all things local and domes- 
tic, instead of Congress interfering, we 
will continue at peace one with another. 
Why should Illinois be at war with Mis- 
souri, or Kentucky with Ohio, or Vir- 
ginia with New York, merely because 
their institutions differ? Our fathers 
intended that our institutions should 
differ. They knew that the North and 
the South, having different climates, pro- 
ductions, and interests, required different 
institutions. This doctrine of Mr. Lin- 
coin, of uniformity among the institu- 
tions of the different States, is a new 
doctrine, never dreamed of by Washing- 
ton, Madison, or the framers of this 
government. Mr. Lincoln and the Re- 
publican party set themselves up as 
wiser than these men who made this gov- 
ernment, which has nourished for seventy 
years under the principle of popular 
sovereignty, recognizing the right of each 
State to do as it pleased. Under that 
principle, we have grown from a na- 
tion of 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 to a nation 
of about 30,000,000 people. We have 
crossed the Alleghany Mountains and 
filled up the whole Northwest, turning 
the prairie into a garden, and building 
up churches and schools, thus spreading 
48 



DOUGLAS DOW 



civilization and Christianity where before 
there was nothing but savage barbarism. 
Under that principle we have become, 
from a feeble nation, the most powerful 
on the face of the earth; and, if we only 
adhere to that principle, we can go for 
ward increasing in territory, in power, 
in strength, and in glory until the re 
public of America shall be the north star 
that shall guide the friends of freedom 
throughout the civilized world. And 
why can we not adhere to the great prin 
ciple of self-government upon which our 
institutions were originally based? I 
believe that this new doctrine preached 
by Mr. Lincoln and his party will dis 
solve the Union if it succeeds. They are 
trying to array all the Northern States 
in one body against the South, to excite 
a sectional war between the free States 
and the slave States, in order that the 
one or the other may be driven to the 
wall. 

For Mr. Lincoln s reply, see LINCOLN, 
ABRAHAM. 

Douglas, WILLIAM, military officer; 
born in Plainfield, Conn., Jan. 17, 1742; 
served in the French and Indian War, 
and was present at the surrender of Quebec. 
He recruited a company at the beginning 
of the Revolutionary War and accom 
panied Montgomery in the expedition 
against Canada. He participated in the 
unfortunate campaign which ended in the 
fall of New York, and greatly distinguished 
himself in the engagements on Long Island 
and Harlem Plains. He died in North- 
ford, Conn., May 28, 1777. 

Douglass, FREDERICK, diplomatist; 
born in Tuckahoe, Talbot co., Md., in Feb 
ruary, 1817; was a mulatto, the son of a 
slave mother: lived in Baltimore after he 
was ten years of age, and secretly taught 
himself to read and write. Endowed with 
great natural moral and intellectual abil 
ity, he fled from slavery at the age of 
twenty-one years, and, going to New Bed 
ford, married, and supported himself by 
day-labor on the wharves and in work 
shops. In 1841 he spoke at an anti-slavery 
convention at Xantucket, and soon after 
wards was made the agent of the Massa 
chusetts Anti - slavery Society. He lect 
ured extensively in New England, and. 
going to Great Britain, spoke in nearly 
all the large towns in that country on 



the subject of slavery. On his return, in 
1847, he began the publication, at Roches 
ter, N. Y., of the North Star (afterwards 
Frederick Douglass s Paper). In 1870 he 




FREDERICK DOUGLASS. 

became editor of the National Era at 
Washington City; in 1871 was appointed 
assistant secretary of the commission to 
Santo Domingo; then became one of the 
Territorial Council of the District of Co 
lumbia; in 1876-81 was United States 
marshal for the District; in 1881-86 was 
recorder of deeds there; and in 1889-91 
was United States minister to Haiti. He 
was author of Narrative of My Experi 
ences in Slavery (1844); My Bondage 
and My Freedom (1855); and Life and 
Times of Frederick Douglass (1881). He 
died near Washington, D. C., Feb. 20, 
1895. 

Dow, LORENZO, clergyman; born in 
Coventry, Conn., Oct. 16, 1777; was 
ordained in the Methodist ministry; went 
as a missionary to Ireland in 1799 and 
1805; introduced camp-meetings into Eng 
land; and through a discussion which re 
sulted from these the Primitive Methodist 
Church was organized. On account of his 
eccentricities he was nicknamed " Crazy 
Dow." He died in Georgetown, D. C., 
Feb. 2, 1834. 

Dow, NEAL, reformer; born in Port 
land, Me., March 20, 1804. From the 
time he was a boy he was noted for his 
zeal in the temperance cause, and was 
one of Hie founders of the Prohibition 
party. In 1851 he drafted the famous 



149 



DO WIE DRAKE 

prohibitory law of Maine, and was elected Drake, SIB FRANCIS, navigator ; born 

mayor of Portland in 1851 and 1854. In near Tavistock, Devonshire, England, be- 

the Civil War he was commissioned colonel tween 1539 and 1546. Becoming a seaman 

of the 13th Maine Volunteers; was pro- in early youth, he was owner and master 

moted to brigadier -general ; and was a of a ship at the age of eighteen years, 

prisoner of war at Mobile and in Libby After making commercial voyages to 

prison. In 1880 he was the candidate of Guinea, Africa, he sold her, and invested 

the Prohibition party for President, and the proceeds in an expedition to Mexico, 

in 1894 temperance organizations through- under Captain Hawkins, in 1567. The 

out the world observed his ninetieth birth- fleet was nearly destroyed in an attack 

day. He died in Portland, Me., Oct. 2, 1897. by the Spaniards at San Juan de Ulloa 

Dowie, JOHN ALEXANDER, adventurer; (near Vera Cruz), and Drake returned to 
born in Scotland. At one time a pastor England stripped of all his property. The 
in Australia, he afterwards went to Chi- Spanish government refused to indemnify 
cago, 111., and became a " healer," real- him for his losses, and he sought revenge 
estate operator, newspaper proprietor, and and found it. Queen Elizabeth gave him 
manufacturer. He founded a lace-making a commission in the royal navy, and in 
industry near Waukegan, 111. The place 1572 he sailed from Plymouth with two 
was called " Zion " and his followers ships for the avowed purpose of plunder- 
" Zionites." He announced that he was ing the Spaniards. He did so successfully 
the Prophet Elijah returned to earth, and on the coasts of South America, and re- 
surrounded himself with armed guards turned in 1573 with greater wealth than 
under a pretence that his life was in he ever possessed before. Drake was wel- 
danger. In 1904 he proclaimed himself First corned as a hero; he soon won the title 
Apostle of the Christian Catholic Church, honorably by circumnavigating the globe. 

Downie, GEORGE, naval officer ; born in He had seen from a mountain on Darien 
Ross, Ireland ; at an early age entered the the waters of the Pacific Ocean, and re- 
British navy; in 1812 was given command solved to explore them. Under the patron- 
of the squadron on the Lakes and com- age of the Queen, he sailed from Plymouth 
manded the British fleet at the battle of in December, 1577; passed through the 
Plattsburg, in which he was killed, Sept. Strait of Magellan into the Pacific Ocean; 
11, 1814. pillaged the Spanish settlements on the 

Draft Riots. See CONSCRIPTION; NEW coasts of Peru and Chile, and a Spanish 

YORK (city). galleon laden with gold and silver bullion; 

Dragoons, an old name for cavalry. and, pushing northward, discovered the bay 

Drainsville, SKIRMISH AT. The loyal of San Francisco, took possession of Cali- 

people of the country became impatient fornia in the name of his Queen, and 

because the Army of the Potomac, fully named the country New Albion, or New 

200,000 strong at the end of 1861, was England. 

seemingly kept at bay by 60,000 Con- He had sailed northward as high, prob- 
federates. There was a sense of relief ably, as latitude 46, or near the boundary 
when, on Dec. 20, Gen. E. 0. C. Ord had between Oregon and the British posses- 
a sharp skirmish with a Confederate sions, and possibly he went farther north, 
force near Drainsville, led by Gen. J. E. B. for he encountered very cold weather in 
Stuart. Ord had gone out to capture June, and turned back. Drake entered a 
Confederate foragers, and to gather for- fine bay and landed his stores, prepara- 
age from the farms of Confederates. He tory to repairing his ship; and he re- 
was attacked by Stuart, who had come up mained on the coast fully a month, 
from Centreville. A severe fight occurred, hospitably treated by the natives. Late 
and the Confederates were beaten and in June he was visited by the king of the 
fled. The Nationals lost seven killed and country and his official attendants. The 
sixty - three wounded; the Confederates former was dressed in rabbit-skins a 
lost forty-three killed and 143 wounded, peculiar mark of distinction. His officers 
The Nationals returned to camp with six- were clad in feathers, and his other fol- 
taen wagon-loads of hay and twenty-two lowers were almost naked. Drake received 
of corn. them cordially. The sceptre-bearer and 

150 



DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS 



another officer made speeches, after which country to the English by the king and 
the natives indulged in a wild dance, in people. On the same plate were engraved 

the portrait and arms of the Queen and 
the navigator. Then he sailed for the 
Molucca Islands. It is believed that Sir 
Francis Drake entered the " Golden Gate " 



which the women joined. Then Drake 
was asked to sit down, when the king and 
his people desired him to become the 
king and governor of the country." Then 




SIR FRANCIS DRAKK. 



the king, singing with all the rest, set a 
crown upon Drake s head, and saluted him 
as Hioh, or sovereign. Drake accepted the 
honor in the name of Queen Elizabeth. 
After taking possession of the country he 
erected a wooden post, placed upon it a 
copper plate, with an inscription, on which 
was asserted the right of Queen Elizabeth 
and her successors to the kingdom, with 
the time of his arrival there, and a state 
ment of the voluntary resignation of the 



of San Erancisco Bay, and that near its 
shores the ceremony of his coronation took 
place. 

Fearing encounters with the Spaniards 
on his return with his treasure-laden ves 
sels, Drake sought a northeast passage to 
England. Met by severe cold, he turned 
back, crossed the Pacific to the Spice Isl 
ands, thence over the Indian Ocean, and, 
doubling the Cape of Good Hope, reached 
England in November, 1580. The delighted 



151 



DRAKE 



Queen knighted Drake, who afterwards 
plundered Spanish towns on the Atlantic 
coasts of America; and, returning, took 
a distressed English colony from Roanoke 
Island and carried them to England. In 
command of a fleet of thirty vessels, in 
1587, he destroyed 100 Spanish vessels in 
the harbor of Cadiz; and from a captured 
vessel in the East India trade the English 
learned the immense value of that trade 
and how to carry it on. As vice-admiral, 
Drake materially assisted in defeating the 
Spanish Armada in 1588; and the next 
year he ravaged the coasts of the Spanish 
peninsula. After various other exploits 
of a similar kind, he accompanied Haw 
kins to the West Indies in 1595. Haw 
kins died at Porto Rico, and Drake, in 
supreme command, gained victory after 



raphy; Life of Gen. Henry Knox ; The 
Town of Roxbury; Indian History for 
Young Folks, etc. He edited Schoolcraft s 
History of the Indians. He died in Wash 
ington, D. C., Feb. 22, 1885. 

Drake, JOSEPH RODMAN. See HALLECK, 
FITZ-GREENE. 

Drake, SAMUEL ADAMS, historian; born 
in Boston, Mass., Dec. 20, 1833; adopted 
journalism as a profession, but at the be 
ginning of the Civil War entered the 
Xational service and rose to the rank 
of colonel of United States volunteers in 
1863. He is the author of A T oofcs and Cor 
ners of the New England Coast; The Mak 
ing of New England; Old Landmarks of 
Boston; History of Middlesex County, etc. 

Drake, SAMUEL GARDNER, antiquarian; 
born in Pittsfield, N. H., Oct. 11, 1798; re- 




PART OF MAP OP DRAKE S VOYAGES, PCBMSHED AT CLOSE OP SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

victory over the Spaniards. He died near ceived a common-school education, and 

Puerto Bello, Dec. 27, 1595, and was taught in a district school for several 

buried at sea. years. Settling in Boston, he there estab- 

Drake, FRANCIS SAMUEL, biographer : lished the first antiquarian book-store in 

born in Xortlnvood. X. II., Feb. -2-2. 1S-JS; !),< Cnifcd States, in 1828. He was one 

Bon of Samuel Gardner Drake. He is the of the founders of the New England His- 

author of Dictionary of American Biog- torical Genealogical Society of which he 

152 



DRAMA DRAPER 




JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER. 



was at one time president, and in 1847 to the United States in 1833, and con- 
began the publication of the New England tinued his medical and chemical studies 
Genealogical Register, continuing it many in the University of Pennsylvania, where 
years as editor and publisher, making 
large contributions of biography to its 
pages. Mr. Drake resided in London 
about two years (1858-60). He prepared 
many valuable books on biographical and 
historical subjects. His Book of the Ind 
ians is a standard work on Indian history 
and biography. He prepared an excellent 
illustrated History of Boston, and his 
illustrative annotations of very old Amer 
ican books and pamphlets are of exceed 
ing value. He died in Boston, June 14, 
1875. 

Drama, EARLY AMERICAN. As early 
as 1733, there appears to have been a 
sort of theatrical performance in the city 
of New York. In October of that year, 
George Talbot, a merchant, published a 
notice in Bradford s Gazette, directing in 
quiries to be made at his store " next 
door to the Play-house." In 1750 some 

young Englishmen and Americans got up he took the degree of M.D. He became 
a coffee-house representation of Otway s ( 1830-39) Professor of Chemistry, Natural 
Orphans in Boston. The pressure for en- Philosophy, and Physiology in Hampden- 
trance to the novelty was so great that Sidney College, Virginia. From 1839 Dr. 
a disturbance arose, which gave the au- Draper was connected, as professor, with 
thorities reason for taking measures for the University of the City of New York, 
the suppression of such performances. At and aided in establishing the University 
the next session of the legislature a law Medical College, of which he was appoint- 
was made prohibiting theatrical enter- ed (1841) Professor of Chemistry. In 1850 
tainments, because, as it was expressed physiology was added to the chair of 
in the preamble, they tended not only " to chemistry. From that year he was the 
discourage industry and frugality, but president of the medical faculty of the in- 
likewise greatly to increase immoral- stitution, and in 1874 he was also presi- 
ity, impiety, and a contempt for religion." dent of the scientific department of the 
Regular theatrical performances were in- university. Dr. Draper was one of the 
troduced into America soon afterwards, most patient, careful, and acute of scien- 
when, in 1752, a company of actors from tine investigators. His industry in ex- 
London, led by William and Lewis Hal- perimental researches was marvellous, and 
lam, played (a part of them) the Beaux his publications on scientific subjects are 
Stratagem at Annapolis. Soon afterwards voluminous. He contributed much to 
the whole brought out the play of the other departments of learning. His His- 
Merchant of Venice at Williamsburg, Va. tcry of the Intellectual Development of 
The same company afterwards played at Europe appeared in 1862; his Thoughts 
Philadelphia, Perth Amboy, New York, on the Future Civil Policy of America, in 
and Newport. The laws excluded them 1865; and his History of the American 
from Connecticut and Massachusetts. Civil War, in 3 volumes, appeared be- 

Dramatic Art. See JEFFERSON, Jo- tween 1867 and 1870. To Dr. Draper are 
SEPII. due many fundamental facts concerning 

Draper, JOHN WILLIAM, scientist; born the phenomena of the spectrum of Jight 
in St. Helen s, near Liverpool, England, and heat. Among his later productions 
May 5, 1811; was educated in scientific were reports of experimental examinations 
studies at the University of London ; came of the distribution of heat and of cherni- 

153 



DRAPER DRAYTON 

cal force in the spectrum. Dr. Draper s in American history. "In order to 
researches materially aided in perfecting stimulate your exertions in favor of your 
Daguerre s great discovery. In 1870 the civil liberties, which protect your relig- 
Eumford gold medal was bestowed upon icus rights," he said, " instead of dis- 
Dr. Draper by the American Academy of coursing to you on the laws of other 
Sciences. He died Jan. 4, 1882. states and comparing them to our own, 

Draper, LYMAN COPELAND, historian; allow me to tell you what your civil lib- 
born in Evans, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1815. In erties are, and to charge you, which I do 
1833 he gathered information regarding in the most solemn manner, to hold them 
the Creek chief Weatherford, and from dearer than your lives a lesson and 
that time onward he was an indefatigable charge at all times proper from a judge, 
student, devoting his life to the collection but particularly so at this crisis, \vlu n 
of materials bearing upon the history of America is in one general and grievous 
the Western States and biographies of commotion touching this truly important 
the leading men of the country. In 1853 point." The judge then discoursed on 
he was appointed secretary of the Wis- the origin of the colony, the nat- 
consin State Historical Society and was ure of the constitution, and their 
connected with the library of the society, civil rights under it, and concluded by 
with a few short intervals, till his death, saying that some might think his charge 
He published the Collections of the State inconsistent with his duty to the King 
Historical Society (10 volumes); The who had just placed him on the bench; 
Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence, 
etc. He died in Madison, Wis., Aug. 26, 
1891. 

Drayton, PERCIVAL, naval officer; born 
in South Carolina, Aug. 25, 1812; entered 
the navy as a midshipman in 1827; was 
promoted lieutenant in 1838; took part in 
the Paraguay expedition in 1858; com 
manded the monitor Passaic in the bom 
bardment of Fort McAllister, and Far- 
ragut s flag - ship, the Hartford, in the 
battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864; and 
afterwards became chief of the bureau of 
navigation. He died in Washington, D. C., 
Aug. 4, 1865. 

Drayton, WILLIAM HENRY, statesman; 
born in Drayton Hall, S. C., in Septem 
ber, 1742; educated in England, and on WILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON. 
his return he became a political writer. 

In 1771 he was appointed privy coun- " but, for my part," he said, " in my 
cillor for the province of South Carolina, judicial character I know no master but 
but he soon espoused the cause of the the law. I am a servant, not to the King, 
patriots, and protested against the pro- but to the constitution ; and, in my esti- 
ceedings of his colleagues. In 1774 he rnation, I shall best discharge my duty 
addressed a pamphlet to the Continental as a good servant to the King and a trusty 
Congress, in which he stated the griev- officer under the constitution when I 
ances of the Americans, and drew up a boldly declare the laws to the people and 
bill of rights, and substantially marked instruct them in their civil rights." This 
out the line of conduct adopted by the charge, scattered broadcast bv the press, 
Congress. He was appointed a judge in had a powerful influence in the colonies, 
1774, but was suspended from the office and, with other patriotic acts, cost Judge 
when he became a member of the com- Drayton his office. In 1775 he was presi- 
mittee of safety at Charleston. The first dent of the Provincial Congress of South 
charge to the grand jury at Camden, S. C., Carolina. In 1776 he became chief-jus- 
in 1774, by Judge Drayton is conspicuous tice of the State; and his published charge 

154 




DRED SCOTT CASE DRUMMOND 

to a grand jury in April, that year, dis- "all men are created equal"; that the 
played great wisdom and energy, and was patriots of the Revolution and their pro- 
widely circulated and admired. Mr. Dray- genitors " for more than a century be- 
ton was chosen president, or governor, of fore " regarded the negro race as so far 
South Carolina in 1777, and in 1778-79 inferior that they had no rights which 
was a member of the Continental Congress, the white man was bound to respect, and 
He wrote a history of the Revolution to that they were never spoken of except as 
the end of the year 1778, which was pub- property. He also declared that the 
lished by his son in 1821. He died in framers of the national Constitution 
Philadelphia, Sept. 3, 1779. held the same views. The chief-justice 

Dred Scott Case, THE. At about the went further in his extra-judicial decla- 
time that Mr. Buchanan became Presi- rations, saying that the MISSOURI 
dent-elect of the republic, a case of much COMPROMISE (q. v.) and all other acts 
moment was adjudicated by the Supreme restricting slavery were unconstitu- 
Court of the United States. A negro tional, and that neither Congress nor 
named Dred Scott had been the slave of local legislatures had any authority for 
a United States army officer living in restricting the spread over the whole 
Missouri. He was taken by his master Union of the institution of slavery. The 
to a military post in Illinois, to which dominant party assumed that the de- 
the latter had been ordered in the year cision was final; that slavery was a na- 
1834. There Scott married the female tional institution, having the right to 
slave of another officer, with the consent exist anywhere in the Union, and that 
of their respective masters. They had the boast of a Georgia politician that 
two children born in that free-labor Ter- ho should yet " count his slaves on 
ritory. The mother was bought by the Bunker Hill " might be legally carried 
master of Scott, and parents and chil- out. President Buchanan, who had been 
dren were taken by that officer back to informed of this decision before its 
Missouri and there sold. Scott sued for promulgation, foreshadowed his course in 
his freedom on the plea of his involun- the matter in his inaugural address 
tary residence in a free-labor Territory (March 4, 1857), in which he spoke of 
and State for several years. The case the measure as one which would " speed- 
was tried in the Circuit Court of St. ily and finally " settle the slavery ques- 
Louis, and the decision was in Scott s t ; on. The decision was promulgated 
favor. The Supreme Court of the State March 6, 18.57. 

reversed the decision, and the case was Drewry s, or Drury s, Bluff. See 
carried to the Supreme Court of the Unit- RODGERS, JOHN. 

ed States, CHIEF-JUSTICE ROGER B. Drum, RICHARD COULTER, military oili- 
TANEY (q. v.) presiding. The chief-jus- cer; born in Pennsylvania, May 28, 182.) ; 
tice and a majority of the court were joined the army in 1846, and served in the 
friends of the slave system, and theii de- Mexican War, being present at the siege 
cision, which, for prudential reasons, was of Vera Cruz and the actions of Chapul- 
withheld until after the Presidential elec- tepee and Mexico City. He was com 
tion in 1856, was against Scott. The missioned colonel and assistant adju- 
chief-justice declared that any person tant-general, Feb. 22, 1869; promoted 
" whose ancestors were imported into this brigadier-general and adjutant-general, 
country and held as slaves" had no right June 15, 1880; and retired May 28, 1889. 
to sue in a court in the United States; Drummond, SIR GEOKGE GORDON, mili- 
in other words, he denied the right of tary officer; born in Quebec in 1771; en- 
citizenship to any person who had been tered the British army in 1789; served in 
a slave or was a descendant of a slave. Holland and Egypt; and in 1811 was 
The chief-justice, with the sanction of a made lieutenant-general. In 1813 he was 
majority of the court, further declared second in command to Sir George Prevost : 
that the framers and supporters of the planned the capture of Fort Niagara in 
Declaration of American Independence December of that year; took the villages 
did not include the negro race in our of Black Rock and Buffalo; captured Os- 
country in the great proclamation that wego in May, 1814; and was in chief com- 

155 



DRUMMOND DUANE 



mand of the British forces at the battle In 1783-84 he was a member of the coun- 
of LUNDY S LANE (q. v.) in July. In Au- cil and State Senator, and in 1788 was a 
gust he was repulsed at Fort Erie, with member of the convention of New York 
heavy loss, and was severely wounded. He that adopted the national Constitution, 
succeeded Prevost in 1814, and returned From 1789 to 1794 he was United States 
to England in 1816. The next year he re- district judge. He died in Duanesburg, 
ccived the grand cross of the Bath. He N. Y., Feb. 1, 1707. 
died in London, Oct. 10, 1854. Late in May, 1775, Judge Duane moved 

Drummond, WILLIAM, colonial gov- in Congress, in committee of the whole, 
ernor ; born in Scotland ; was appointed the " opening of negotiations in order to 
governor of the Albemarle county colony accommodate the unhappy disputes sub- 
by Sir William Berkeley, governor of Vir- sisting between Great Britain and the col- 
ginia, and joint proprietary of Carolina, onies, and that this be made a part of the 
During the Bacon rebellion (see BACON, [second] petition to the King" prepared 
NATHANIEL), when Berkeley retreated to by John Jay. It was a dangerous pro- 
Accomac, Drummond proposed that 
Berkeley should be deposed. This prop 
osition met with the favor of the lead 
ing planters, who met at Williamsburg 
and agreed to support Bacon against 
the government. The death of Bacon 
left the rebellion without a competent 
leader. Sir William Berkeley wreaked 
his vengeance on thirty-three of the 
principal offenders. When Drummond 
was brought before him Berkeley ex 
claimed: " I am more glad to see you 
than any man in Virginia. You shall 
be hanged in half an hour." He died 
Jan. 20, 1077. 

Drury s Bluff, BATTLE AT. See 
RODGERS, JOHN. 

Dry Tortugas, a group of several 
small, barren islands, about 40 miles 
west of the Florida Keys. They served 
as a place of imprisonment during the 
Civil War. 

Dryden, JOHN FAIKFIELD, states 
man; born near Farmington, Maine, 
Aug. 7, 1839; educated at Yale Uni 
versity; removed to New Jersey, 1871; 
established the Prudential Insurance 
Company in 1875; elected to the Unit 
ed States Senate from Xcw Jersey to 
fill vacancy caused by the death of 
General Se\vell in 1001. 

Duane, .IAMKS, jurist: born in New po.-al at that time, as it was calculated 
York City, Feb. 0, 1733. In 1759 he to cool the ardor of resistance which the.i 
married a daughter of Col. Robert Liv- animated the people. Duane was a stanch 
ingston. He was a member of the first patriot, but was anxious for peace, if it 
Continental Congress (1774) ; of the could be procured with honor and for the 
Provincial Convention of New York in good of his country. His proposition was 
1770-77: also in Congress, 1780-82. considered by Congress at the same time 
He returned to New York City in 1783, when a proposition for a similar purpose 
after tin- evacuation, and was the first which had come from Lord North was 
mayor of lhat city after the Revolution, before that body. The timid portion of 

156 




DUANE DU CHAILLTT 



i 




PAUL BELLONI DF CHAILLU. 



Congress prevailed, and it was resolved sion of Idaho to the Union in 1890; and 

to address another petition to his Majesty, was its first Senator, serving from 1891 

but at the same time to put the colonies to 1897; and was re-elected in 1901. 

into a state of defence. Duane s motion Dubois, WILLIAM EDWARD B., educator; 

was carried, but against a most deter- born in Great Barrington, Mass., Feb. 23, 

mined and unyielding opposition, and it 

rather retarded the prospect of a peaceful 

solution. It had no practical significance, 

unless it was intended to accept the 

proposition of Lord North as the basis for 

an agreement. 

Duane, JAMES CHATHAM, military offi 
cer; born in Schenectady, N. Y., June 30, 
1824; graduated at the United States 
Military Academy in 1848, and served 
with the corps of engineers till 1854. 
He rendered excellent work during the 
Civil War, notably in the building of a 
bridge 2,000 feet long over the Chicka- 
hominy River. He was brevetted brig 
adier-general in 1865; promoted brig 
adier-general and chief of engineers, U. S. 
A., in 1886; retired June 30, 1888. From 
his retirement till his death, Nov. 8, 1897, 
he was president of the New York 
Aqueduct Commission. 

Duane, WILLIAM, statesman ; born in 
Devonshire, England, March 18, 1747; re- 1868, of negro descent; was graduated at 
moved to New York in 1768; member of Harvard University in 1890; and became 
the New York provincial congress; dele- professor of economics and history in At- 
gate to the Continental Congress, 1777-78; lanta University in 1896. He wrote Tine 
secretary of the treasury board, 1789; Suppression of the Slave Trade, etc. 
Assistant Secretary of the Treasury under Du Chaillu, PAUL BELLONI, explorer; 
Hamilton. He died in New York City, born in New Orleans, La., July 31, 1838. 
May 7, 1799. He is best known by the results of two 

Duane, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, jurist; exploring trips to west Africa, during 
born in Rhinebeck, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1780; which he discovered and examined consid- 
entered the United States navy in 1798; erabie territory almost unknown previous- 
admitted to the bar in 1802; member of ly, and added sixty species of birds and 
the State Assembly; judge of the New twenty of mammals to the zoology of 
York Supreme Court, 1822-29; president Africa. His accounts of the gorillas and 
of Columbia College, 1829-42. He wrote pygmies excited a large interest among 
The Life of Lord Sterling, The Steamboat scientists, and for a time many of his as- 
Con troversy, etc. He died in New York sertions were sharply contradicted as be- 
City, May 30, 1858. ing impossible; but subsequent explo- 

Duane, WILLIAM JOHN, lawyer; born rations by others confirmed all that he 
in Ireland in 1780; was Secretary of the had claimed. His publications include 
United States Treasury in 1833, but was Explorations and Adventures in Equa- 
opposed to General Jackson s action in the torial Africa; A Journey to Ashango 
matter of the United States Bank, and Land; Stories of the Gorilla Country; 
was therefore removed from office. He Wild Life Under the Equator; My Apingi 
died in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 27, 1865. Kingdom; The Country of the Dwarfs; 

Dubois, FRED T., legislator; born in The Land of the Midnight Sun; The 
Crawford county, 111., May 27, 1851; re- Viking Age; Ivar, the Viking; The 
moved to Idaho in 1880; was a member of People of tJ>n Great African Forest; etc. 
Congress in 1887-91; secured the admis- Ho died in St. Petersburg, April 29, 1903. 

157 



DUCHE DUDLEY 



Duche, JACOB, clergyman ; born in 
Philadelphia, in 1737; educated at the 
University of Pennsylvania; and became 
an eloquent Episcopalian. A descendant 
of a Huguenot, he naturally loved free 
dom. He was invited by the Con 
tinental Congress of 1774 to open 
their proceedings with prayer. In 1775 he 
became rector of Christ Church, and 
espoused the patriot cause. Of a timid 
nature, Duche", when the British took pos 
session of Philadelphia ( 1777) , alarmed by 
the gloomy outlook, forsook the Amer 
icans, and, in a letter to Washington, 
urged him to do likewise. This letter 
was transmitted to Congress, and Duche" 
fled to England, where he became a popu 
lar preacher. His estate was confiscated, 
and he was banished as a traitor. In 1790 
Duche" returned to Philadelphia, where he 
died Jan. 3, 1798. 

First Prayer in Congress. The follow 
ing is the text of Dr. Duche"s first prayer 
in Congress: 

Lord, our Heavenly Father, high and 
mighty King of kings and Lord of lords, 
Who dost from Thy throne behold all the 
dwellers of the earth, and reignest with 
power supreme and uncontrollable over 
the kingdoms, empires, and governments, 
look down in mercy, we beseech Thee, on 
these American States, who have fled to 
Thee from the rod of the oppressor and 
thrown themselves on Thy gracious pro 
tection. Desiring to be henceforth only 
dependent on Thee, to Thee have they ap 
pealed for the righteousness of their 
cause: to Thee do they now look up for 
that countenance and support which 
Thou alone canst give. Take them, there 
fore, Heavenly Father, under Thy nurtur 
ing care: give them wisdom in council 
and valor in the field. Defeat *,he 
malicious designs of our adversaries, 
convince them of the unrighteousness of 
their cause; and, if they still persist in 
their sanguinary purpose, oh ! let the voice 
of Thy unerring justice, sounding in their 
hearts, constrain them to drop the 
weapons of war in their unnerved hands 
in the day of battle. Be Thou present, O 
Cod of wisdom, and direct the councils of 
this honorable assembly; enable them 
to settle things on the best and surest 
foundation, that the scene of blood may 

158 



be speedily closed; that order, harmony, 
and peace may be restored, and truth and 
justice, religion and piety prevail and 
flourish among the people. Preserve the 
health of their bodies and the vigor of 
their minds; shower down on them and 
the millions they represent such temporal 
blessings as Thou seest expedient for them 
in this world, and crown them with ever 
lasting glory in the world to come. All 
this we ask in the name and through the 
merits of Jesus Christ, Thy Son, our 
Saviour. Amen. 

Duchesne, PHILIPPA ROSE, missionary; 
born in France in 1769; came to America 
in 1818 and engaged in religious work 
among the Indians of Louisiana. In 1820 
she founded in Barriens, on the Bois- 
Brule, the first permanent home of the 
sisterhood of the Sacred Heart in America, 
and lived to see the order established in 
all the large cities of the United States. 
She died in St. Charles, La., in 1852. 

Ducking-stool. The English colonies 
in America continued for a long time the 
manners and customs of their native land ; 
among others, that of the use of the duck 
ing-stool for the punishment of inveterate 
scolding women. Bishop Meade, in Old 
Churches, Ministers, and Families in Vir 
ginia, says, " If a woman was convicted 
of slander, her husband was made to pay 
five hundred-weight of tobacco"; but the 
law proving insufficient, the penalty was 
changed to ducking. Places for ducking 
were prepared at court-houses. An in 
stance is mentioned of a woman who was 
ordered to be ducked three times from a 
vessel lying in the James River. The 
woman was tied to a chair at the longer 
end of a lever, controlled at the shorter 
end by men with a rope. The stool being 
planted firmly, the woman was raised on 
the lever, and then lowered so as to be 
plunged under the water. 

Dudley, DEAN, genealogist ; born in 
Kingsfield, Me., May 23, 1823; admitted 
to the bar in 1854. Among his works are 
genealogies of the Dudley and Swift 
families; Officers of Our Union Army and 
\<i r ?/, etc. 

Dudley, JOSEPH, colonial governor ; 
born in Roxbury, Mass., July 23, 1047; 
graduated at Harvard in 1G65; pre 
pared for the ministry, but, preferring 
politics, became a representative in th" 



DUDLEY DUG SPRINGS 



general court and a magistrate. From 
1677 to 1681 he was one of the commis 
sioners for the united colonies of New Eng 
land. He was in the battle with the Nar- 
raganseta in 1675, and was one of the com 
missioners who dictated the terms of a 
treaty with that tribe. In September, 1685, 
King James commissioned him president 
of New England, and in 1687 he was made 
chief-justice of the Supreme Court. Dud 
ley was sent to England with Andros 
in 1689, and the next year was made 
chief-justice of New York. He went to 
England in 1693, and was deputy govern 
or of the Isle of Wight. He entered 
Parliament in 1701, and from 1702 to 
1715 he was captain-general and governor 
of Massachusetts. Then he retired to his 
quiet home at Roxbury, where he died, 
April 2, 1720. 

The disputes between the royal govern 
ors and the people, which continued 
about seventy years, were begun in Mas 
sachusetts with Dudley. In his first 
speech he demanded a " fit and convenient 
house " for the governor, and a settled 
and stated salary for him. The House, 
in their answer the next day, observed 
that they would proceed to the considera 
tion of these propositions " with all con 
venient speed." They resolved to present, 
out of the public treasury, the sum of 
500, and said, " as to settling a salary 
for the governor, it is altogether new to 
us, nor can we think it agreeable to our 
present constitution, but we shall be 
ready to do, according to our ability, 
what may be proper on our part for the 
support of the government." The govern 
or sent for the speaker and the repre 
sentatives to come to his chamber, when 
he declared his disappointment because 
of their procedure, and expressed a hope 
that they would think better of the mat 
ter. 

Dudley, THOMAS, colonial governor; 
born in Northampton, England, in 1576; 
was an officer of Queen Elizabeth, serving 
in Holland ; and afterwards he became a 
Puritan, and retrieved the fortunes of 
the Earl of Lincoln by a faithful care of 
his estate as his steward. He came to 
T5oston in 1030, as deputy governor, with 
his son-in-law, Simon Bradstreet, and 
held the office ton years. He was ap 
pointed major-general of the colony in 



1644. He died in Roxbury, Mass., July 
31, 1653. 

Duelling. See BLADENSBURG DUEL 
LING FIELD. 

Duer, WILLIAM, statesman; born in 
Devonshire, England, March 18, 1747; 
in 1767 was aide to Lord Clive in India; 
came to America, and in 1768 purchased 
a tract of land in Washington county, 
N. Y. ; became colonel of the militia, 
judge of the county court, member of the 
New York Provincial Congress, a-nd of 
the committee of safety. He was one of 
the committee that drafted the first consti 
tution of the State of New York (1777), 
and was a delegate in Congress in 1777- 
78; and he was secretary of the Treasury 
Board until the reorganization of the 
finance department under the national 
Constitution. He was assistant Secre 
tary of the Treasury under Hamilton 
until 1790. Colonel Duer married (1779) 
Catharine, daughter of Lord Stirling. 
He died in New York City, May 7, 1799. 

Duffield, WILLIAM WARD, military 
officer; born in Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 19, 
1823; graduated at Columbia College 
in 1842; served with gallantry in the war 
with Mexico. In 1861 he was made 
colonel of the 9th Michigan Infantry; in 
1862 he captured the Confederate force at 
Lebanon, and was made commander of all 
the troops in Kentucky. He was brevetted 
major-general of volunteers in 1863, and 
was compelled by his wounds to resign 
from the army before the close of the 
war. He published School of Brigade and 
Evolutions of the Line. 

Dug Springs, BATTLE AT. General 
Lyon was 80 miles from Springfield when 
he heard of the perils of Sigel after the 
fight at Carthage. He pushed on to the 
relief of the latter, and on July 13, 1861, 
he and Sigel joined their forces, when 
the general took the chief command. The 
combined armies numbered, at that time, 
about 6,000 men, horse and foot, with 
eighteen pieces of artillery. There Lyon 
remained in a defensive attitude for some 
time, waiting for reinforcements which had 
been called for, but which did not come. 
The Confederates had been largely rein 
forced; and at the c ] ose of Jify 
Lyon was informed that they w<-ic 
marching upon Springfield in I \v<> ci. 
limns 20,000 under the respective 



; ~ 



DU LHUT DUNLAP 



commands of Generals Price, McCul- 
loch, Pearce, McBride, and Rains. 
Lyon went out to meet them with 
about 6,000 men, foot and horse, and 
eighteen cannon, leaving a small force 
to guard Springfield. At Dug Springs, 
19 miles southwest of Springfield, in a 
broken, oblong valley, they encountered 
a large Confederate force under Gen 
eral Rains. While the National vanguard 
of infantry and cavalry, under Steele and 
Stanley, were leading, they were unex 
pectedly attacked by Confederate infan 
try, who suddenly emerged from the 
woods. A sudden charge of twenty-five of 
Stanley s horsemen scattered the Confed 
erates in every direction. The charge was 
fearful, and the slaughter was dreadful. 
" Are these men or devils, they fight so ?" 
asked some of the wounded. Confederate 
cavalry now appeared emerging from the 
woods, when some of Lyon s cannon, man 
aged by Captain Totten, threw shells that 
frightened the horses, and the Confeder 
ates were scattered. They then withdrew, 
leaving the valley in the possession of the 
Nationals. Lyon s loss was eight men 
killed and thirty wounded; that of Rains 
was about forty killed and as many 
wounded. 

Du Lhut, or Duluth, DANIEL GREY- 
SOLON, explorer; born in Lyons, France; 
carried on a traffic in furs under the pro 
tection of Count Frontenac; explored the 
upper Mississippi in 1678-80, at which 
time he joined Father Hennepin and his 
companions. He took part in the cam 
paign against the Seneca Indians in 1687 
and brought with him a large number of 
Indians from the upper lakes. In 1695 he 
was placed in command of Fort Frontenac 
and in 1697 was promoted to the command 
of a company of infantry. He died near 
Lake Superior in 1709. The city of 
Duluth was named after him. 

Dummer, FORT. In the war against 
the Nor ridge wock Indians (1723) repeated 
attempts were made to engage the as 
sistance of the Mohawks, but they were 
unsuccessful, and Massachusetts was ad 
vised, with justice, to make peace by re 
storing to the Indians their lands. The 
attacks of the barbarians extended all 
along the northern frontier as far west 
as the Connecticut River. To cover the 
towns in that vallev Fort Dummer was 



erected on the site of what is now Brattle- 
boro, in Vermont, the oldest English set 
tlement in that State. 

Dummer, JEKEMIAH, patriot; born in 
Boston, Mass., in 1680; was graduated at 
Harvard in 1699; went to England as 
agent of Massachusetts in 1710, and re 
mained in London till 1721. He published 
a defence of the New England charters, 
in which he claimed that the colonists 
through redeeming the wilderness did not 
derive their rights from the crown but 
by purchase or conquest from the natives. 
He died in Plaistow, England, May 19, 
1739. 

Dunkards, or GERMAN BAPTISTS, a 
body of Christians who trace their origin 
back to Alexander Mack, one of a small 
number of Pietists who had migrated to 
the province of Witgenstein, Germany, to 
escape persecution. In 1708 he became 
their minister, and after they were bap 
tized in the Eder by being thrice im 
mersed, a church was formed. In 1719 
Mr. Mack and all his followers came by 
way of Holland to America and settled 
in and around Philadelphia. From this 
beginning the Dunkards have spread 
through the Eastern, Northern, and West 
ern States. Their doctrine is similar to 
that of the Evangelical Churches. They 
endeavor to follow closely the teachings 
of the Bible. They dress plainly, refrain 
from taking active part in politics, affirm 
instead of taking an oath, settle their 
quarrels among themselves without going 
to law, do not join secret societies, etc. 
They hold that every believer should be 
immersed face forward, being dipped at 
the mention of each name of the Trinity. 
The Dunkards now consist of three bodies 
the Conservative, Old Order, and Pro 
gressive. In 1900 they reported 2,993 
ministers, 1,123 churches, and 111,287 
members, the strongest branch being 
the Conservatives, who had 2,612 minis 
ters, 850 churches, and 95,000 members. 

Dunlap, JOHN, printer; born in 
Strabane, Ireland, in 1747; learned the 
printing trade from his uncle, who was in 
business in Philadelphia, and at the age of 
eighteen began the publication of the 
Pennsylvania Packet. This was made a 
daily paper in 1784, and was the first 
daily issued in the United States. The 
title was afterwards changed to the North- 



HiO 



DUNLAP DUNMORE 



American and United States Gazette. As 
printer to Congress Mr. Dunlap printed 
the Declaration of Independence. He died 
in Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 27, 1812. 

Dunlap, WILLIAM, painter, dramatist, 
and historian ; born in Perth Amboy, 
N. J., Feb. 19, 1766. His father, being a 
loyalist, went to New York City in 1777, 
where William began to paint. He made 
a portrait of Washington at Rocky Hill, 
N. J., in 1783. The next year he went to 
England and received instructions from 
Benjamin West. He became an actor 
for a short time, and in 1796 was one of 
the managers of the John Street Theatre, 
New York. He took the Park Theatre in 
1798. From 1814 to 1816 he was pay 
master-general of the New York State 
militia. He began a series of paintings 
in 1816. In 1833 he published a History 
of the American Theatres, and in 1834 a 
History of the Arts of Design. His His 
tory of New Netherland and the State of 
Neic York was published in 1840. Mr. 
Dunlap was one of the founders of the 
National Academy of Design. He died in 
New York City, Sept. 28, 1839. 

Dun.in.ore, JOHN MURRAY, EARL OF, 
royal governor ; born in Scotland in 
1732; was descended In the feminine line 
from the house of Stuart. He was 
made governor of New York in January, 
1770, and of Virginia, July, 1771, arriv 
ing there early in 1772. When the Vir 
ginia Assembly recommended a committee 
of correspondence (March, 1773), he im- 




SKAL OP LOKU DUNMORK. 



mediately dissolved it, and in May, 1774, 
he again dissolved the Assembly because 
it had passed a resolution making the 1st 
of June a day of fasting and prayer. This 



was the same day which had been ap 
pointed by the Massachusetts legislature 
for the same purpose. 

In 1775, finding the people of his 
colony committed to the cause of free 
dom, he engaged in a conspiracy to bring 
the Indians in hostile array against 
the Virginia frontier. He employed Dr. 
John Connelly, whom he had commis 
sioned in 1774 to Jead a movement for 
sustaining the claims of Virginia to the 
whole district of Pennsylvania west of 




LORD DUNMOKK S SIGNATURE. 

the Alleghany Mountains. He was a na 
tive of Pennsylvania, and lived at Pitts- 
burg; and it is believed that he suggested 
to Dunmore the plan of combining the 
Western Indians against the colonists. 
He visited General Gage at Boston early 
in the autumn of 1775, and immediately 
after his return to Williamsburg he left 
Dunmore and departed for the Ohio coun 
try, with two companions. They were 
stopped near Hagerstown as suspicious 
persons, sent back to Frederick, and there 
an examination of Connelly s papers re 
vealed the whole nefarious plot. He bore 
Dunmore s commission of colonel, and was 
directed to raise a regiment in the west 
ern country and Canada, the rendezvous 
to be at Detroit, where hostilities against 
the white people might be more easily 
fomented among the Indians. Thence he 
was to march in the spring, enter Vir 
ginia with a motley force, and meet Dun- 
more at Alexandria, on the Potomac, who 
would be there with a military and naval 
force. The arrest of Connelly frustrated 
the design. He was put in jail and his 
papers were sent to the Continental Con 
gress. He was kept a prisoner until 
about the end of the war. 

What is known historically as " Dun 
more s War " was a campaign against 
the Ohio Indians undertaken by Lord 
Dunmore in 1774. 



in. L 



161 



DUNMORE, JOHN MURRAY, EARL OF 

The cold-blooded murder of the family an insurrection among the slaves. Final- 
of LOGAN (q. v.), an eminent Mingo chief, ly, late in April, he caused marines to 
and other atrocities, had caused fearful come secretly at night from the Fowey, 
retaliation on the part of the barbarians, a sloop-of-vvar in the York River, and carry 
While Pennsylvanians and the agents of to her the powder in the old magazine at 
the Six Nations were making efforts for Williamsburg. The movement was dis- 
peace, Governor Dunmore, bent on war, covered. The minute-men assembled at 
called for volunteers, and 400 of these dawn, and were with difficulty restrained 
were gathered on the banks of the Ohio, a from seizing the governor. The assembled 
little below Wheeling. This force marched people sent a respectful remonstrance to 
against and destroyed (Aug. 7, 1774) a Dunmore, complaining of the act as spe- 
Shawnee town on the Muskingum. They cially cruel at that time, when a servile 
were followed by Dunmore, with 1,500 Vir- insurrection was apprehended. The gov- 
ginians, who pressed forward against an ernor replied evasively, and the people de- 
Indian village on the Scioto, while Col. manded the return of the powder. When 
Andrew Lewis, with 1,200 men, encoun- Patrick Henry heard of the act, he gath- 
tered a force of Indians at Point Pleasant, ered a corps of volunteers and marched 
at the mouth of the Great Kanawha towards the capital. The frightened gov- 
Eiver (Oct. 10), where a bloody battle en 
sued. The Indians were led by Logan, 
Cornstalk, and other braves. The Vir 
ginians were victorious, but lost seventy 
men killed and wounded. Dunmore was 
charged with inciting the Indian war and 
arranging the campaign so as to carry out 
his political plans. It was charged that 
he arranged the expedition so as to have 
the force under Lewis annihilated by the 
Indians, and thereby weaken the physical 

strength and break down the spirits of RBMAINS OP LORD 
the Virginians, for they were defying royal 

power. His efforts afterwards to incite ernor sent a deputation to meet him. One 
a servile insurrection in Virginia for the of them was the receiver-general of the 
same purpose show that he was capable province. They met 16 miles from Will- 
of exercising almost any means to accom- iamsburg, where the matter was com- 
plish his ends. The Indians in the Ohio promised by the receiver-general paying 
country, alarmed at the approach of Dun- the full value of the powder. Henry sent 
more, had hastened to make peace. Logan the money to the public treasury and re- 
refused to attend the conference for the turned home. 

purpose, but sent a speech which became In November, 1775, Lord Dunmore pro- 
famous in history. Dunmore s officers in ceeded in the w r ar-ship Fowey to Norfolk, 
that expedition, having heard of the move- where he proclaimed freedom to all slaves 
ments in New England, and of the Con- who should join the royal standard, which 
tinental Congress, held a meeting at Fort he had unfurled, and take up arms against 
Gower (mouth of the Hockhocking River ), the "rebels." He declared martial law 
and after complimenting the governor and throughout Virginia, and made Norfolk 
declaring their allegiance to the King, re- the rendezvous for a British fleet. He sent 
solved to maintain the rights of the colo- marauding parties on the shores of the 
riists by every means in their power. Elizabeth and James rivers to distress the 

The bold movement in the Virginia Whig inhabitants. Being repelled with 

convention (March, 1775) excited the spirit, he resolved to strike a severe blow 

official wralh of Governor Dunmore, who that should produce terror. He began to 

stormed in proclamations: and to frighten lay waste the country around. The peo- 

the Virginians (or. probably, with a more pie were aroused and the militia were 

mischievous intent), he caused a rumor rapidly gathering for the defence of the 

to be circulated that ho intended to excite inhabitants, when Dunmore, becoming 

162 




DUNMOBE S WAR DUPONT 




THE OLD MACAZINE AT WILLIAMSISURG. 



alarmed, constructed batteries at Norfolk, the preparation of his system of military 
armed the Tories and negroes, and fortified tactics for the use of the United States 
a passage over the Elizabeth River, known troops. From 1781 to 1783 he was secre- 
as the Great Bridge, a point where he ex- tary to Robert R. Livingston, then at the 
pected the militiamen to march to 
attack him. Being repulsed in a 
battle there (Dec. 9, 1775), Dun- 
more abandoned his intrenchments 
at Norfolk and repaired to his 
ships, when, menaced by famine 
for the people would not furnish 
supplies and annoyed by shots 
from some of the houses, he can 
nonaded the town (Jan. 1, 1776) 
and sent sailors and marines 
ashore to set it on fire. The 
greater portion of the compact 
part of the city was burned while 
the cannonade was kept up. The 
part of the city which escaped was 
presently burned by the Virgin 
ians to prevent it from becoming 

a shelter to the enemy. Thus perished, a head of the foreign office of the govern- 
prey to civil war, the largest and richest ment; and then studying law, was ad- 
of the rising towns of Virginia. After mitted to practice in 1785, becoming emi- 
committing other depredations on the Vir- nent in the profession on questions of civil 
ginia coast, he landed on Gwyn s Isl- and international law. He finally devoted 
and, in Chesapeake Bay, with 500 men, himself to literature and science, and 
black and white, cast up some intrench- made many valuable researches into the 
ments, and built a stockade fort. Virginia language and literature of the North 
militia, under Gen. Andrew Lewis, at- American Indians. In 1819 he published 
tacked and drove him from the island, a Memoir on the Structure of the Indian 
In this engagement Dunmore was wounded. Languages. When seventy-eight years of 
Burning several of his vessels that were age (1838) he published a Dissertation on 
aground, Dunmore sailed away with the the Chinese Language; also a translation 
remainder, with a large amount of booty, of a Description of New Sweden. In 1835 
among which were about 1,000 slaves, the French Institute awarded him a prize 
After more plundering on the coast the for a disquisition on the Indian languages 
vessels were dispersed, some to the West of North America. Mr. Duponceau opened 
Indies, some to the Bermudas and St. a law academy in Philadelphia in 1821, 
Augustine, and Dunmore himself pro- and wrote several essays on the subject of 
ceeded to join the naval force at New law. He died in Philadelphia, April 2, 
York, and soon afterwards went to Eng- 1844. 

land. In 1786 Dunmore was made gov- Du Pont, ELEUTHERE IRE*NEE, scientist; 
ernor of Bermuda. He died in Ramsgate, born in Paris, France, June 24, 1771; son 
England, in May, 1809. of Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours; 

Dunmore s War. See CRESAP, Mi- emigrated to the United States in 1799; 
CIIAEL; DUNMORE, JOHN MURRAY, EARL bought a tract of land near Wilmington, 
OF; LOGAN. Del., where he established the powder 

Duponceau, PETER STEPHEN, philolo- works, which have since been maintain- 
gist; born in the Isle of Rhe, France, ed by the Dupont (modern form) family. 
June 3, 1760; went to Paris in 1775, where He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 31, 
he became acquainted with Baron Steu- 1834. 

ben, and accompanied him to America as Dupont, SAMUEL FRANCIS, naval officer ; 
his secretary. He was brevetted a captain born in Bergen Point, N. J., Sept. 27. 
(February, 1778), and assisted Steuben in 1803; entered the United States navy as 

103 



DUPORTAIL DUQUESNE 

midshipman at twelve years of age, and America. He died at sea in 1802, when 
became commander, Oct. 28, 1842. He returning to France. 

saw much active service on the California Dupratz, ANTOINE SIMON LE PAGE, ex- 
coast during the war with Mexico, clear- plorer; born in Tourcoing, France, in 
ing the Gulf of California of Mexican ves- 1689; settled on the Mississippi River 
sels. He was promoted to captain in among the Natchez Indians in 1720. For 
1855; and in October, 1861, he pro- eight years he explored the regions water- 
ceeded, in command of the South Atlantic ed by the Missouri and Arkansas rivers, 
squadron, to capture Port Royal Island, He published a History of Louisiana, or of 
on the South Carolina coast, to secure the Western Parts of Virginia and Caro- 
a central harbor and depot of supplies on Una. He died in Paris, France, in 1775. 
the Southern shores. In July Commodore Duquesne, FORT, a fortification erected 
Dupont was made a rear-admiral, and in by the French on the site of the city of 
April, 1863, he commanded the fleet which Pittsburg, Pa., in 1754. While Captain 
made an unsuccessful effort to capture Trent and his company were building this 
Charleston. Admiral Dupont assisted in fort, Captain Contrecoeur, with 1,000 
organizing the naval school at Annapolis, Frenchmen and eighteen cannon, went 
and was the author of a highly com- down the Alleghany River in sixty bateaux 

and 300 canoes, took possession of the un 
finished fortification, and named it Fort 
Duquesne, in compliment to the captain- 
general of Canada. Lieutenant-Colonel 
Washington, with a small force, hurried 
from Cumberland to recapture it, but 
was made a prisoner, with about 400 men, 
at Fort Necessity. In 1755 an expedition 
for the capture of Fort Duquesne, com 
manded by GEN. EDWARD BRADDOCK 
(q. v.), marched from Will s Creek (Cum 
berland) on June 10, about 2,000 strong, 
British and provincials. On the banks 
of the Monongahela Braddock was de 
feated and killed on July 9, and the ex 
pedition was ruined. 

Washington was a lieutenant-colonel 
under Braddock in the expedition against 
Fort Duquesne, in 1755, and in that of 
1758. In the former he was chiefly in- 
mended report on the use of floating bat- strumental in savin- a portion of the 
teries for coast defence. He died in Phila- British and provincial troops from utter 
delphia, June 23, 18G5. destruction. At the battle near the Mo- 

Duportail, Louis LEBEGUE, CHEVALIER, nongahela, where Braddock was killed, ev- 
military officer; born in France in 1736; cry officer but Washington was slam or 
came to America in the early part of the wounded; and he, alone, led the surviv- 
IN volutionary War, and was appointed ors on a safe retreat. He was not injured 
brigadier-general in the Continental army during the battle. To his mother 
in November, 1777, and major-general, wrote: "I luckily escaped unhurt, 
November 1781. He was directing engi- though I had four bullets through my 
neer at the sie^e of Yorktown in the fall coat, and two horses shot under me. 
of 1781 Returning to France, he was To his brother he wrote: 
named marechal-de-camp ; and in Novem- powerful dispensation of Providence, 
her 1790 was made minister of war. In have been protected beyond all 
December, 1701. ho resigned; and when probability or expectation. Death was 
engaged in military service in Lorraine, levelling my companions on every side, 
he received a warning of the designs of An Indian chief, who, fifteen years after- 
the Jacobins, and sought safety in wards, travelled a long way to see Wash- 

164 




SAMUEL FRANCIS DCHONT. 



DUQUESNE DURAND 




CAPTCHE OF KOKT UU^UKSXE. 



ington when he 
was in Ohio, said 
he had singled him 
out for death, and 
directed his fellows 
to do the same. 
He fired more than 
a dozen fair shots 
at him, but could 
not hit him. " We 
felt," said the 
chief, " that some 
Manitou guarded 
your life, and that 
you could not be 
killed." 

The expedition of 
1758 was com- 
manded by Gen. 
John Forbes, who 
had about 9,000 
men at his dis 
posal at Fort 
Cumberland and 
Raystown. These 
included Virginia 

troops under Colonel Washington, the Forbes intended to propose an abandon- 
Eoyal Americans from South Carolina, ment of the enterprise, when three 
and an auxiliary force of Cherokee Ind- prisoners gave information of the ex- 
ians. Sickness and perversity of will trenie weakness of the French garrison, 
and judgment on the part of Forbes Washington was immediately sent for- 
caused delays almost fatal to the expedi- ward, and the whole army prepared to 
tion. He was induced, by the advice of follow. When the Virginians were within 
some Pennsylvania land speculators, to a day s march of the fort, they were dis 
use the army in constructing a military covered by some Indians, who so alarmed 
road farther north than the one made by the garrison by an exaggerated account 
Braddock. Washington, who knew the of the number of the approaching troops 
country well, strongly advised against that the guardians of Fort Duquesnc, re- 
this measure, but he was unheeded, and duced to 500, set it on fire (Nov. 24), and 
so slow was the progress of the troops fled down the Ohio in boats with such 
towards their destination, that in Sep- haste and confusion that they left every- 
tember, when it was known that there thing behind them. The Virginians took 
were not more than 800 men at Duquesne, possession the next day, and the name 
Forbes, with 0,000 troops, was yet oast of the fortress was changed to Fort Pitt, 
of the Alleghany Mountains. Major in honor of the great English statesman. 
Grant, with a scouting-party of Colonel Durand, ASIIER BROWN, painter and en- 
Bouquet s advance corps, was attacked graver; born in Jefferson, N. J., Aug. 21, 
(Sept. 21), defeated, and made a pris- 179(5. His paternal ancestors were Hugue- 
oner. Still Forbes went creeping on. nots. His father was a watch-maker, and 
wasting precious time, and exhausting the in his shop he learned engraving. In 1812 
patience and respect of Washington and he became an apprentice to Peter Mave- 
other energetic officers; and when Bou- rick, an engraver on copper-plate, and be- 
quet joined the army it was 50 miles came his partner in 1817. Mr. Durand s 
from Fort Duquesne. The winter was ap- first large work was his engraving on 
preaching, the troops were discontented, copper of Trumbull s Drclanttion of In- 
and a council of war was called, to which dependence. He was engaged upon it a 

165 



DURANT DUSTIN 

year, and it gave him a great reputation. Dustin, HANNAH, heroine; born about 
His engravings of Musidora and Ariadne 1660; married Thomas Dustin, of Haver- 
place him among the first line-engravers of hill, Mass., Dec. 3, 1677. When, in the 
his time. In 1835 he abandoned that art spring of 1697, the French and Indians 
for painting. Mr. Durand was one of the devastated the New England frontier set- 
first officers of the National Academy of tlements, Haverhill, within 30 miles of 
Design, and was its president for several Boston, suffered severely, forty of its in- 
years. He died in South Orange, N. J., habitants being killed or carried into cap- 
Sept. 17, 1886. tivity. Among the latter were a part of 

Durant, HENRY TOWLE, philanthropist; the family of Thomas Dustin, who was in 

born in Hanover, N. H., Feb. 20, 1822; the field when the savages first appeared, 

graduated at Harvard College in 1841; Mounting his horse, he hastened to his 

admitted to the bar in 1846; and be- house to bear away his wife, eight chil- 

came connected with Rufus Choate and dren, and nurse to a place of safety. His 

other celebrated lawyers in practice in youngest child was only a week old. He 

Boston. Later he devoted himself to the ordered his other children to fly. While 

promotion of education, and through his he was lifting his wife and her babe from 

efforts Wellesley College was founded at the bed the Indians attacked his house, 

a cost of $1,000,000. It was opened in "Leave me," cried the mother, "and fly 

1875, was maintained by him at an ex- to the protection of the other children." 

pense of $50,000 a year until his death. Remounting his horse he soon overtook the 

and afterwards was aided by his widow, precious flock, and placing himself be- 

He died in Wellesley, Mass., Oct. 3, 1881. tween them and the pursuing Indians, he 

Durell, EDWARD HENRY, jurist ; born in defended them so valiantly with his gun 

Portsmouth, N. H., July 14, 1810; gradu- that he pressed back the foe. Meanwhile 

ated at Harvard in 1831; removed to New the savages had entered the house, ordered 

Orleans in 1836. He held many offices the feeble mother to rise and follow them, 

under the State government; resisted se- killed the infant, and set fire to the dwell- 

cession in 1861 ; president of the Louisiana ing- Half dressed, she was compelled to 

constitutional convention in 1864. Among g with her captors through melting snow 

his publications are History of Seventeen in their hasty retreat, accompanied by 

Years from I860 to 1877 ; Essay on the her nurse. They walked 12 miles the first 

History of France; etc. He died in Scho- C ia 7 without shoes, and were compelled to 

harie, N. Y., March 29, 1887. li fi on the wet ground at night, with no 

Durrie, DANIEL STEELE, antiquarian; covering but the cold gray sky. This was 

born in Albany, N. Y., Jan. 2, 1819; repeated day after day, until they reached 

appointed librarian of the State Historical an island in the Merrimac 6 miles above 

Society of Wisconsin in 1858; published Concord, N. H., the home of the leader of 

genealogies of the Steele and Holt the savages, who claimed Mrs. Dustin and 

families; also a Bibliographica Genea- her nurse as his captives. They were 

logica Americana; History of Madison, lodged with his family, which consisted 

Wis.; History of Missouri; and the Wis- of two men, three women, seven children. 

consin Biographical Dictionary. and a captive English boy, who had been 

Duryee, ABRAM, military officer; born with them more than a year. They were 

in New York City, April 29, 1815; joined told that they would soon start for an 

Ihe State militia in 1833; became colonel Indian village where they would be com- 

of the 27th Regiment, now the 7th, in pelled to "run the gantlet"; that is, be 

1849; commanded his regiment during the stripped naked, and run for their lives be- 

Astor Place riots. In April, 1861, he tween two files of Indian men, women, 

raised a regiment known as " Duryee s and children, who would have the privilege 

Zouaves," which took part in the battle of of scoffing at them, beating them, and 

Big Bethel. In 1861 he was promoted to wounding them with hatchets, 

brigadier-general, and served with the The two women resolved not to endure 

Army of the Potomac until 1863, when he the indignity. Mrs. Dustin planned a 

resigned. He died in New York City, means of escape, and leagued the nurse 

Sept. 27, 1890. and the English boy with her in the exe- 

166 



DUSTIN DUTCH GAP CANAL 



cution of it. Believing in the faithful 
ness of the lad and the timidity of the 
women, the Indians did not keep watch 
at night. Through inquiries made by the 
lad, Mrs. Dustin learned how to kill a 
man instantly, and to take off his scalp. 
Before daylight one morning, when the 
whole family were asleep, Mrs. Dustin 
and her companions instantly killed ten 
of the slumberers, she killing her captor, 
and the boy despatching the man who 
told him how to do it. A squaw and a 
child fled to the woods and escaped. After 
scuttling all the boats but one, they fled 
in it down the river, with provisions from 
the wigwam. Mrs. Dustin remembered 
they had not scalped the victims, so, re 
turning, they scalped the slain savages, 
and bore their trophies away in a bag, as 
evidence of the truth of the story they 
might relate to their friends. At Haver- 
hill they were received as persons risen 
from the dead. Mrs. Dustin found her hus 
band and children safe. Soon afterwards 
she bore to the governor, at Boston, the 
gun, tomahawk, and ten scalps, and the 
general court gave these two women $250 



shire erected a commemorative monu 
ment in 1874. On it are inscribed the 
names of Hannah Dustin, Mary Neff, and 
Samuel Leonardson, the latter the Eng 
lish lad. 

Dutch Gap Canal. There is a sharp 
bend in the James River between the 
Appomattox and Richmond, where the 
stream, after flowing several miles, ap 
proaches itself within 500 yards. To 
flank Confederate works and to shorten 
the passage of the river 6 or 7 miles, 
General Butler set a large force of 
colored troops at work, in the summer of 
1864, in cutting a canal for the passage 
of vessels across this peninsula. This 
canal was completed, with the exception 
of blowing out the bulkhead, at the close 
of December, 18(54. It \vas 500 yards in 
length, 60 feet in width at top, and 65 
below the surface of the bluff. It was 
excavated 15 feet below high- water mark. 
On New Year s Day, 1865, a mine of 
12,000 Ibs. of gunpowder was exploded 
under the bulkhead, and the water 
rushed through, but not in sufficient 
depth for practical purposes, for the mass 




PING FKOM THK INDIANS. 



each, as a reward for their heroism. They of the bulkhead (left to keep out the 
received other tokens of regard. The water) fell back into the opening after 
island where the scene occurred is called the explosion. The canal was then swept 
Dustin s Island. On its highest point by Confederate cannon, and could not be 
citizens of Massachusetts and New Hamp- dredged. As a military operation, it was 

167 



DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY 

a failure. It was excavated in 140 days, of America or the West Indies between 
and has since been made navigable. Newfoundland and the Strait of Magellan, 
While a greater part of the National except with the permission of the corn- 
naval force on the James River was on pany. It was vested with sovereign 
the expedition against FOKT FISHER powers, to be exercised in the name of the 
( q. v. ) , the Confederates sent down from States-General, and to report to that body, 
the shelter of Fort Darling, on Drewry s from time to time, all its transactions. 
Bluff, a squadron of vessels for the pur- The government of the company was 
pose of breaking the obstructions at the vested in five separate chambers of mana- 
lower end of the Dutch Gap Canal, and gers, the principal one at Amsterdam, and 
destroying the pontoon bridges below, so the other four in as many separate cities, 
as to separate the National troops lying General executive powers were intrusted 
on both sides of the James. The squad- to a board of nineteen delegates, called the 
ron moved silently under cover of dark- College of Nineteen, in which one dele- 
ness, but was observed and fired upon gate represented the States-General, by 
when passing Fort Brady. The vessels whom the company was guaranteed pro- 
responded, and dismounted a 100-pounder tection, and received assistance to the 
Parrott gun in the fort. The Fredericks- amount of $380,000. 

burg broke the obstructions at Dutch Gap The company was organized on June 
and passed through, but two other 21, 1623; and with such a charter, 
iron-clads and an unarmored gunboat such powers, and such privileges, it be- 
grounded. At dawn the gunboat Drewry gan the settlement and development of 
had been abandoned, and a shell from a New Netherland. The English claimed 
National battery exploded her magazine, the domain, and the Dutch hastened to ac- 
when she was blown to a wreck. So hot quire eminent domain, according to the 
was the fire from the shore that the voy- policy of England, by planting permanent 
age of the Confederate vessels was settlements there; and the same year 
checked, and all but the ruined Drewry (1623) they sent over thirty families, 
fled up the river. chiefly Walloons, to Manhattan. The 
Dutch West India Company. The management of New Netherland was in- 
Dutch East India Company was a great trusted to the Amsterdam chamber. Their 
monopoly, the profits of the trade of which traffic was successful. In 1624 the ex- 
were enormous. Their ships whitened the ports from Amsterdam, in two ships, were 
Indian seas, and in one year the share- worth almost $10,000, and the returns 
holders received in dividends the amount from New Netherland were considerably 
of three-fourths of their invested capital, more. The company established a trad- 
It was believed that trade with the West- ing-post, called Fort Orange, on the site 
ern Continent might be made equally of Albany, and traffic was extended east- 
profitable, and as early as 1607 William ward to the Connecticut River, and even 
Ussellinx suggested a similar association to Narraganset Bay; northward to the 
to trade in the West Indies. The States- Mohawk Valley, and southward and west- 
General of Holland were asked to incor- ward to the Delaware River and beyond, 
porate such an association. The govern- To induce private capitalists to engage in 
ment, then engaged in negotiations for a the settlement of the country, the corn- 
truce with Spain, refused; but when that pany gave lands and special privileges to 
truce expired, in 1621, a charter was such as would guarantee settlement and 
granted to a company of merchants which cultivation. These became troublesome 
gave the association almost regal powers landholders, and in 1638 the rights of the 
to " colonize, govern, and protect " New company, it was claimed, were interfered 
Netherland for the term of twenty-four with by a settlement of Swedes on the 
years. It was ordained that during that Delaware. In 1640 the company establish- 
time none of the inhabitants of the United ed the doctrines and rituals of the Re- 
Provinces (the Dutch Republic) should be formed Church in the United Provinces 
permitted to sail thence to the coasts of as the only theological formula to be al- 
Africa between the tropic of Cancer and lowed in public worship in New Nether- 
the Cape of Good Hope; nor to the coasts land. The spirit of popular freedom, 

168 



DUTTON DWIGHT 

which the Dutch brought with them from lication of Arcturus: a Journal of Books 
Holland, asserted its rights under the and Opinions, in connection with Cor- 
tyranny of WILLIAM KIEFT ( q. v. ) , and a nelius Matthews, which was continued 
sort of popular assembly was organized at about a year and a half. He contributed 
New Amsterdam. Its affairs in New to the early numbers of the New York 
Netherland were necessarily under the di- Review. In 1847, in connection with his 
rect management of a director-general brother George, he commenced the Liter- 
or governor, whose powers, as in the ary World, a periodical which continued 
case of Kieft and Stuyvesant, were (with an interval of a year and five 
sometimes so arbitrarily exercised that months) until the close of 1853. In 
much popular discontent was mani- 1856 the brothers completed the Cyclo- 
fested, and their dealings with their pcedia of American Literature, in 2 vol- 
neighbors were not always satis- limes, a work of great research and value, 
factory to the company and the States- To this Evert added a supplement in 1865. 
General; yet, on the whole, when we His other important works are, Wit and 
consider the spirit of the age, the colony, Wisdom of Sidney Smith; National Por- 
which, before it was taken possession of trait-Gallery of Eminent Americans; His- 
by the English in 1664, was of a mixed tory of the War for the Union; History 
population, was managed wisely and well ; of the World from the Earliest Period 
and the Dutch West India Company was to the Present Time; and Portrait - Gal- 
one of the most important instruments in If-ry of Eminent Men and Women of 
planting the good seed from which our Europe and America (2 volumes). Mr. 
nation has sprung. Duyckinck s latest important literary 

Button, CLARENCE EDWARD, military labor was in the preparation, in connection 
officer; born in Wallingford, Conn., May with WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT (q. v.), of. 
15, 1841 ; graduated at Yale College a new and thoroughly annotated edition 
in 1860; served in the National army in of Shakespeare s writings. Evert died in 
1862-64 and took part in several impor- New York City, Aug. 13, 1878. His 
tant engagements; was appointed a second brother, GEORGE LONG, was born in New 
lieutenant of ordnance, U. S. A., Jan. 20, York City, Oct. 17, 1823; graduated 
1864; and was promoted major May 1, at the University of the City of New 
1890. After the close of the Civil War York in 1843. Besides his assistance in 
he was assigned to duty with the United the conduct of the Literary World and 
States Geological Survey. His publi- the preparation of the Cyclopaedia of 
cations include Geology of the High American Literature, he published biog- 
Plateaus of Utah; Hawaiian Volcanoes; raphies of George Herbert ( 1858), Bishop 
The Charleston Earthquake of 1886; Ter- Thomas Ken (1859), Jeremy Taylor 
tiary History of the Grand Canon Dis- (1860), and Bishop La timer (1861). He 
trict; Mount Taylor and the Zuni died in New York City March 30, 1863. 
Plateau, etc. Dwight, THEODORE, journalist; born 

Duval, GABRIEL, statesman; born in in Northampton, Mass., Dec. 15, 1764; 
Prince George county, Md., Dec. 6, 1752; was a grandson of the eminent theologian 
was a member of Congress, 1794-96, when Jonathan Edwards; became eminent as a 
he resigned upon his appointment as judge lawyer and political writer; was for 
of the Supreme Court of Maryland. In many years in the Senate of Connecticut; 
1811 he was appointed to the United and in 1806-7 was in Congress, where 
States Supreme Court and served until he became a prominent advocate for the 
1836, when he resigned. He died in Prince suppression of the slave-trade. During 
George county, March 6, 1844. the War of 1812-15 he edited the Mirror, 

Duyckinck, EVERT AUGUSTUS, author; at Hartford, the leading Federal news- 
born in New York City, Nov. 23, 1816; paper in Connecticut; and was secretary 
graduated at Columbia College in 1835. of the HARTFORD CONVENTION (q. v.) in 
His father was a successful publisher, 1814, the proceedings of which he pub 
and Evert early showed a love for lished in 1833. He published the Albany 
books and a taste for literary pursuits. Daily Advertiser in 1815. and was the 
In December, 1840, he commenced the pub- founder, in 1817, of the New York Daily 

169 



DWIGHT DYER 



Advertiser, with which he was connected 
until the great fire in 1835, when he re 
tired, with his family, to Hartford. Mr. 
Ihvight was one of the founders of the 
American Bible Society. He was one of 
the writers of the poetical essays of the 
" Echo " in the Hartford Mercury. He 
was also the author of a Dictionary of 
Roots and Derivations. He died in New 
York City, July 12, 1846. 

Dwight, THEODORE, author; born in 
Hartford, Conn., March 3, 1796; grad 
uated at Yale College in 1814; set 
tled in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1833. In as 
sociation with George White it is said 
that he induced about 9,000 people to 
leave the East and settle in Kansas. He 
was the author of a New Gazetteer of the 
United States (with William Darby) ; 
History of Connecticut; The Kansas War: 
or the Exploits of Chivalry in the Nine 
teenth Century; Autobiography of General 
Garibaldi, etc. He died in Brooklyn, N. 
Y., Oct. 16, 1806. 

Dwight, THEODORE WILLIAM, educator 
and jurist; born in Catskill, N. Y., July 
18, 1822; graduated at Hamilton College 
in 1840; appointed Professor of Municipal 
Law in Columbia in 1858; Professor of 
Constitutional Law in Cornell in 1868, 
and lecturer on constitutional law in Am- 
herst in 1869; appointed a judge of the 



Dwight, TIMOTHY; born in Norwich, 
Conn., Nov. 16, 1828; graduated at Yale 
in 1849; tutored at Yale 1851-55; Profes- 




THKODORK WILLIAM DWIGHT. 



commission of appeals in January, 1874. 
Professor Dwight was the most distin 
guished teacher of law in the United 
States. He died in Clinton, N. Y., June 
28, 1892. 







TIMOTHY DWIGHT. 

sor of Sacred Literature and New Testa 
ment Greek at Yale, 1858-86; president 
of Yale University, 1886-99, when he re 
signed the office. 

Dwight, TIMOTHY, educator; born in 
Northampton, Mass., May 14, 1752; 
graduated at Yale College in 1769, and 
was a tutor there from 1771 to 1777. when 
he became an army chaplain, and served 
until October, 1778. In 1781 and 1786 
was a member of the Connecticut legis 
lature. In 1783 he was a settled minister 
at Greenfield and principal of an academy 
there; and from 1795 until his death was 
president of Yale College. He published 
Trurcls in New England and New Tori:, 
in 4 volumes. He died in New Haven, 
Conn., Jan. 11, 1817. 

Dyer, DAVID PATTERSON, lawyer; born 
in Henry county, Va., Feb. 12. 1838; re 
moved to Missouri in 1841; educated at 
St. Charles College; admitted to the bar 
in 1859, and practised till 1875. He was 
a member of Congress in 1869-71; ap 
pointed United States attorney in 187."): 
removed to St. Louis; prosecuted tin- 
great "Whisky Ring in 1875-76; was 
defeated for governor of Missouri in 1880: 
delegate-at-large to the National Republi 
can Convention in 1888 and 1900; and be 
came United Slates attorney for the east 
ern district of Missouri in 1902. 

Dyer, ELIPIIALET, jurist; born in 



170 



DYER 



Windham, Conn., Sept. 28, 1721; grad 
uated at Yale College in 1740; became 
a lawyer; and was a member of the 
Connecticut legislature from 1745 to 17(12. 
He commanded a regiment in the French 
and Indian War; was made a member 
of the council in 1762; and, as an active 
member of the Susquehanna Company, 
went to England as its agent in 1763. 
Mr. Dyer was a member of the Stamp Act 
Congress in 1765, and was a member of 
the first Continental Congress in 1774. 
He remained in that body during the en 
tire war excepting in 1779. He was judge 
of the Supreme Court of Connecticut in 
1766, and was chief -justice from 1789 to 
1793. He died in Windham, May 13, 
1807. Judge Dyer is alluded to in the 
famous doggerel poem entitled Lawyers 
and Bullfrogs, the introduction to which 
avers that at Old Windham, in Connecti 
cut, after a long drought, a frog-pond be 
came almost dry, and a terrible battle was 
fought one night by the frogs to decide 
which should keep possession of the re 
maining water. Many " thousands were 
defunct in the morning." There was an 
uncommon silence for hours before the 
battle commenced, when, as if by a pre 
concerted agreement, every frog on one 
side of the ditch raised the w&r-cry, 
"Colonel Dyer! Colonel Dyer!" and at 
the same instant, from the opposite side, 
resounded the adverse shout of " Elderkin 
too ! Elderkin too !" Owing to some pecu 
liarity in the state of the atmosphere, the 
sounds seemed to be overhead, and the 
people of Windham were greatly fright 
ened. The poot says: 

" This terrible night the parson did fright 

His people almost in despair ; 
For poor Windham souls among the bean 
poles 
He made a most wonderful prayer. 



Lawyer Lucifer called up his crew ; 
Dyer and Elderkin, you must come, too : 
Old Colonel Dyer you know well enough, 
He had an old negro, his name was Cuff." 

Dyer, MARY, Quaker martyr; was the 
wife of a leading citizen of Rhode Island. 
Having embraced the doctrines and dis 
cipline of the Friends, or Quakers, she 
became an enthusiast, and went to Boston, 
whence some of her sect had been banished, 
to give her " testimony to the truth." In 
that colony the death penalty menaced 
those who should return after banish 
ment. Mary was sent away and returned, 
and was released while going to the gal 
lows with Marmaduke Stevenson with a 
rope around her neck. She unwillingly 
returned to her family in Rhode Island; 
but she went back to Boston again for the 
purpose of offering up her life to the 
cause she advocated, and she was hanged 
in 1660. Mary had once been whipped on 
her bare back through the streets of Bos 
ton, tied behind a cart. 

Dyer, OLIVER, author; born in Porter, 
N. Y., April 26, 1824; was educated at 
the Genesee Wesleyan Seminary, Lima. 
N. Y. ; taught school ; and later lectured 
on and taught the Isaac Pitman system of 
phonography. In 1848 he became a re 
porter in the United States Senate; later 
studied law and practised for a short time, 
abandoning it to devote himself to jour 
nalism; and was on the staff of the 
Tribune, Sun, and Ledger of New York, 
lie was ordained in the Swedenborgian 
Church in 1876, and had charge of a 
church in Mount Vernon. He was au 
thor of The Wickedest Alan in New 
York; Great Senators of the United 
States Forty fears Ago; Life of An 
drew Jackson; and Sketch of Henry W. 
Crrady. 



E. 



E Pluribus Unum. Its earliest oc- tion of the mouth of the Mississippi by 
currence is in a Latin poem called More- jetties. He was authorized to undertake 
turn, which is ascribed to Virgil. It was it (and was very successful), for which 
suggested as the motto for the SEAT, OF the government paid him $5,125,000. At 
THE UNITED STATES ((/. v.) by the com- the time of his death, in Nassau, N. P., 
mittee of the Great Seal, consisting of March 8, 1887, he was engaged in the pro- 
Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and motion of a project he had conceived of 
Thomas Jefferson, on Aug. 10, 1776. constructing a ship railway across the 

Eads, JAMES BUCHANAN, engineer; Isthmus of Tehuantepec, between the At- 
born in Lawrenceburg, Ind., May 23, 1820. lantic and Pacific oceans. In 1881 he re 
in 1861 he was employed by the national ceived the Albeit medal from the British 
government to construct gunboats suit- Society of Arts, the first American to be 
able for use in Western rivers. In the thus honored. 

space of sixty-five days he constructed The jetty system consists simply of a 
seven iron-clad gunboats. In 1862 he built dike or embankment projecting into the 
six more; also heavy mortar-boats. At water, whose purpose is to narrow the 

channel so that the natural action of the 
water will keep it clear of sediment or 
other obstruction. The Mississippi River 
is. at its mouth, 40 feet deep and 1% 
miles wide, and carries every minute 
72,000,000 feet of water to the Gulf, 
which holds in solution nearly 20 per 
cent, of mud and sand. The river has 
three channels to the sea the Southwest 
Pass, the Passe 1 Outre, and the South 
Pass the first carrying out about 50 
per cent, of its water, the second 40 per 
cent., and the third 10 per cent. There 
is a bar at the mouth of each pass, and 
each has a channel through which large 
vessels may pass. This channel is about 
1,200 feet wide and 50 feet deep in the 
large passes, and 600 feet wide and 35 
feet deep in the small one. The swift 
and concentrated current keeps the chan 
nel open, but the bar is continually 
spreading outward, and as it thus 
spreads the water excavates a channel 
through it, though not of a uniform depth 
or width. Thus, a frequent dredging of 
the beginning of July, 1874, he completed the channel was necessary to prevent the 
the magnificent iron railroad bridge across continual grounding of vessels upon it. 
the Mississippi at St. Louis. Then he Captain Eads was the first to suggest 
pressed upon the attention of the govern- that this laborious and expensive dredg- 
ment his plan for improving the naviga- ing process might be done away with by 

172 




JAMES Bl CIUXAN KA1>S. 



EADS EAGLE 



the use of jetties. He reasoned that if in the Gulf. Five and a half million cubic 

the banks of the passage through the bar yards of earth had been removed, mainly 

could be extended, not gradually, but by the action of the strong current 

immediately, into the deep water of the created by the jetty. In the construc- 




POItT EADS. SOUTH PASS OF THE MISSIS.-ll Pl KlVtK. 



Gulf some 2 miles or more, it Avould 
produce force enough to excavate a 
channel the whole length of the bar. 
This project he undertook to carry out 
at his own expense, agreeing not to re 
ceive compensation for the work until it 
was completed; and the trutli of his rea 
soning was proved by the results. In 
the winter of 1874-75 he laid his plan be 
fore Congress, and in March, 1875, a bill 
was passed empowering him to put it 
into execution. The work was begun in 
June, 1875. The jetties were laid out 
parallel with the current of the river, 
and at right angles with the Gulf cur 
rent, extending with a slight curve 2% 
miles out from the mouth of the river. 
Piles were first driven in to mark the 
path of the jetties ; then willows fastened 
together in enormous mattresses were 
sunk, and these filled in with stones and 
gravel. This work was done on the 
South Pass, the narrowest of the three 
channels of the Mississippi delta. Cap 
tain Eads wished to try his experiment 
on the Southwest Pass, the deepest and 
widest channel, but Congress would not 
permit him to do so. The work of mak 
ing the South Pass jetties was completed 
July 9, 1879. A channel 30 feet deep, 
with a minimum width of 45 feet, had 
been made from the river to deep water 

1 



tion of this important improvement the 
following amount of material had been 
used: Willow, 592,000 cubic yards; stone, 
100,000 cubic yards; gravel, 10,000 cubic 
yards; concrete, 9,000 tons; piling and 
lumber, 12,000,000 feet. Captain Eads s 
plan has been proved to be very success 
ful, for the banks of the jetty continue 
firm, and the channel is kept clear by 
the movement of the concentrated current 
between them. 

Eagan, CHARLES PATRICK, military offi 
cer ; born in Ireland in January, 1841 ; 
served through the Civil War in the 1st 
Washington Territory Infantry; was com 
missioned 2d lieutenant 9th United States 
Infantry in 1866; and became brigadier- 
general and commissary-general May 3, 

1898. During the American-Spanish War 
he was in charge of the commissary de 
partment of the army, and in January, 

1899, was tried by court-martial for criti 
cising General Miles during an investiga 
tion into the character of supplies furnish 
ed to the army during the war; was sus 
pended from rank and duty for six years 
on Feb. 9 ; and was restored and imme 
diately retired Dec. 6, 1900. 

Eagle, the standard of the Persian and 

the Roman; also adopted by Charlemagne 

with a second head as the standard of the 

holy Roman empire of Germany. The 

73 



EAGLE EARLE 

eagle was the standard of France during England; China - Collecting in America; 
the empire, as it is now of Austria. Rus- Customs and Fashions in Old New Eng- 
sia, and Prussia. The great seal of the land; Life of Margaret Winthrop; Diary 
United States (see SEAL OF THE UNITED of a Boston School -Girl; Costume of 
STATES) bears a shield on the breast of Colonial Times; Colonial Dames and 
the eagle. The $10 gold coin of the Good-wives; Old Narragansett ; Colonial 
United States is also called an eagle. It Days in Old New York; Curious Punish- 
\vas first coined in 1794. No eagles were ments of Bygone Days; Home Life in 
coined between 1805 and 1837. The $20 Colonial Days; Child Life in Colonial 
gold coin is popularly known as the double Days; Coach and Tavern Days; and was 
eagle. part author of Early Prose and Verse; 

Eagle, HENRY, naval officer; born in Historic New York; Chap Book Essays; 
New York City, April 7, 1801; entered the Old-Time Gardens, Sundials, and Roses of 
navy in 1818; and had command of the Yesterday; etc. 

l)omb-vessel JEtna and also a part of the Earle, PLINY, inventor; born in Leices- 
(rulf fleet during the Mexican War. At ter, Mass., Dec. 17, 1762; became connect- 
the beginning of the Civil War he carried ed with Edward Snow in 1785 in the man- 
important messages from Brooklyn to ufacture of machine and hand cards for 
Washington. While in command of the carding wool and cotton. Mr. Earle had 
Monticello he was engaged in the first first made them by hand, but afterwards 
naval engagement of the war, silencing the by a machine of his own invention, 
guns of Sewell s Point battery, Va., May OLIVER EVANS (q. v.) had already invent- 
19, 1861. He was promoted commodore in ed a machine for making card-teeth, which 
1862; retired in January, 1863. He died produced 300 a minute. In 1784 Mr. Crit- 
in November, 1882. tenden, of New Haven, Conn., invented a 

Eagle, JAMES PHILLIP, clergyman ; born machine which produced 86,000 card- 
in Maury county, Tenn., Aug. 10, 1837; teeth, cut and bent, in an hour. These 
acquired a country-school and a collegiate card-teeth were put up in bags and dis- 
education; served in the Confederate tributed among families, in which the 
army in the Civil War, and attained the women and children stuck them in the 
rank of colonel. After the war he became leather. Leicester was the chief seat of 
a Baptist minister and cotton-planter; this industry, and to that place SAMUEL 
was a member of the Arkansas legislature SLATER (q. v.) , of Rhode Island, went 
for four years; and of the constitutional for card clothing for the machines in his 
convention in 1874; one of the commis- cotton-mill. Hearing that Pliny Earle 
sioners to adjust the debt of the Brook- was an expert card-maker, he went to him 
Baxter war over the governorship in 1874; and told him what he wanted. Mr. Earle 
and was governor of Arkansas in 1889-93. invented a machine for pricking the holes 

Eames, WILBERFORCE, librarian; born in the leather a tedious process by hand 
in Newark, N. J., Oct. 12, 1855; appointed and it worked admirably. A few years 
assistant in the Lenox Library, 1885; li- afterwards Eleazer Smith (see WH ITTE- 
brarian in 1893. He is the author of MORE, AMOS) made a great improvement 
many bibliographical books, among them by inventing a machine that not only 
an account of the early New England cat- pricked the holes, but set the teeth more 
echisms, a comparative edition of the va- expertly than human fingers could do. 
rious texts of Columbiis s letter announc- About 1843 William B. Earle, son of 
ing the discovery of America, and editor Pliny, improved Smith s invention, and 
of several volumes of Sabin s Dictionary the machine thus produced for making 
of Books relating to America, besides card clothing proved the best ever made, 
many articles on bibliographical subjects. By Mr. Earle s first invention the labor of 

Earle, ALICE MORSE, author; born in a man for fifteen hours could be perform- 
Worcester, Mass.. April 27, 1853. She ed in fifteen minutes. Mr. Earle possessed 
has written extensively on the manner and extensive attainments in science and liter- 
customs of the colonial periods in New ature. He died in Leicester, Nov. 19, 1832. 
England and New York. Among her publi- Earle, THOMAS, statesman ; born in Lei- 
cntions are Tin- Xiihl,ntli in Puritan New cestor, Mass., April 21, 1796; removed to 

17-f 



EARLY EARTHQUAKES 



Philadelphia in 1817; he edited succes 
sively The Columbian Observer, Standard, 
Pennsylvanian, and Mechanics Free Press 
and Reform Advocate. He was a member 
of the Pennsylvania constitution conven 
tion of 1837, and is believed to have draft 
ed the new constitution. He died in Phila 
delphia, July 14, 1849. 

Early, JUBAL ANDERSON, military offi 
cer; born in Franklin county, Va., Nov. 
3, 1816; graduated from West Point in 
1837, and served in the Florida war the 
same year. In 1838 he resigned his com 
mission and studied law. In 1847 he 




JUBAL A. EARLY. 

served as a major-general of volunteers 
during the war with Mexico. He was ap 
pointed colonel in the Confederate ser 
vice at the outbreak of the Civil War. He 
was one of the ablest and most successful 
of the Confederate generals, but was de 
feated at Winchester, Fisher s Hill, and 
Cedar Creek. At Gettysburg he com 
manded a division of Lee s army, and the 
second at Cedar Creek, where Sheridan 
arrived in time to rally his men after his 
famous ride. In 1888 he published a book 
giving the history of the last year of the 
Civil War, dviring which time he was in 
command of the army of the Shenandoah. 
He died in Lynch burg, Va., March 2, 1894. 
Earthquakes. On June 1, 1638, be 
tween the hours of 3 and 4 P.M., the 
weather clear and warm, and the wind 
westerly, all New England was violently 
shaken by an internal convulsion of the 
earth. It oame on with a noise like con- 



175 



tinned thunder, and the shock lasted about 
four minutes. The earth shook with such 
violence that in some places the people 
could not stand upright without difficulty, 
and many movable articles in the houses 
were thrown down. The earth was unquiet 
for twenty days afterwards. On Jan. 26, 
1663, a heavy shock of earthquake was 
felt in New England and in New York, 
and was particularly severe in Canada, 
where it was recorded that "the doors 
opened and shut of themselves with a 
fearful clattering. The bells rang with 
out being touched. The walls were 
split asunder. The floors separated and 
fell down. The fields put on the appear 
ance of precipices, and the mountains 
seemed to be moving out of their places." 
Small rivers were dried up; some moun 
tains appeared to be much broken and 
moved, and half-way between Quebec and 
Tadousac two mountains were shaken 
down, and formed a point of land extend 
ing some distance into the St. Lawrence. 
On Oct. 29, 1727, there was a severe 
earthquake in New England, lasting about 
two minutes. Its course seemed to be 
from the Delaware River, in the south 
west, to the Kennebec, in the northeast, 
a distance of about 700 miles. It oc 
curred at about twenty minutes before 
eleven o clock in the morning, and the 
sky was serene. Pewter and china were 
cast from their shelves, and stone walls 
and chimney-tops were shaken down. In 
some places doors were burst open, and 
people could hardly keep their feet. 
There had been an interval of fifty-five 
years since the last earthquake in New 
England. On the same day the island of 
Martinique, in the West Indies, was 
threatened with total destruction by an 
earthquake which lasted eleven hours. 
On Nov. 18, 1755, an earthquake shock 
was felt from Chesapeake Bay along the 
coast of Halifax. Nova Scotia, about 800 
miles : and in the interior it seems to 
have extended, from northwest to south 
east, more than 1,000 miles. In Boston 
100 chimneys were levelled with the roofs 
of the houses, and 1,500 shattered. The 
vane on the public market was thrown to 
the earth. At New Haven, Conn., the 
ground moved like waves of the sea; the 
houses shook and cracked, and many 
chimneys were thrown down. It oc- 



EARTHQUAKES EAST INDIA COMPANY 




A RESULT OK THE KAKTH(jCAKK IX CHARLK8TON. AUGUST 31, 1886. 

curred at four o clock in the morning, 2.000 houses were overthrown; and half 
and lasted four and a half minutes. At of the island of Madeira, 660 miles south- 
the same time there was a great tidal- west from Portugal, became a waste, 
wave in the West Indies. In April, the The last earthquake of consequence was 
same year, Quito, in South America, was on Aug. 31, 1886, when a large part of 
destroyed by an earthquake; and eighteen the city of Charleston, S. C., was de- 
days before the earthquake in North stroyed, with many lives. 
America there was an awful and exten- East India Company, THE. At the 
fiive one in southern Europe that extend- close of 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a 
ed into Africa. The earth was violently charter to a company of London mer- 
shaken for 5,000 miles even to Scotland, chants for the monopoly of the trade over 
In eight minutes the city of Lisbon, with a vast expanse of land and sea in the re- 
50,000 inhabitants, was swallowed up. gion of the East Indies, for fifteen years. 
Other cities in Portugal and Spain were The charter was renewed from time to 
partially destroyed. One half of Fez, in time. The first squadron of the company 
northern Africa, was destroyed, and more ffive vessels) sailed from Torbay (Feb. 
than 12,000 Arabs perished. In the islan . 15, 1601) and began to make footholds, 
of Mitylene, in the Grecian Archipelago, speedily, on the islands and continental 

176 



EASTMAN EASTPORT 



shores of the East, establishing factories 
in many places, and at length obtaining 
a grant (1698) from a native prince of 
Calcutta and two adjoining villages, with 
the privilege of erecting fortifications. 
This was the first step towards the ac 
quirement by the company, under the 
auspices of the British government, of 
vast territorial possessions, with a popu 
lation of 200,000,000, over which, in 1877, 
Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress. 
The company had ruled supreme in India, 
with some restrictions, until 1858, when 
the government of that Oriental empire 
was vested in the Queen of England. 
Though the company was not abolished, 
it was shorn of all its political power, as 
it had been of its trade monopoly. The 
East India Company first introduced tea 
into England, in the reign of Charles 
II. 

Eastman, HARVEY GRIDLEY, educator; 
born in Marshall, Oneida co., N. Y., Oct. 
16, 1832: after attending the common 
schools of his neighborhood, completed his 
education at the State Normal School at 
Albany; and at the age of twenty-three 
opened a commercial school at Oswego, 
N. Y., having been a teacher in a similar 
school kept by his uncle in Rochester. In 
that school he first conceived the plan of a 
commercial or business college. On Nov. 3, 
1859, Mr. Eastman opened a business col 
lege in Poughkeepsie, with a single pupil. 
In 1865 there were more than 1,700 stu 
dents in the college. It was the first insti- 
tiition in which actual business was 
taught. Mr. Eastman was a very liberal 
and enterprising citizen, foremost in every 
judicious measure which promised to bene 
fit the community in which he lived. He 
was twice elected mayor of the city, and 
held that office at the time of his death, 
in Denver, Col., July 13, 1878. On the 
day of his funeral the city was draped in 
mourning and nearly all places of busi 
ness were closed, for he was eminently re 
spected as a citizen and as a public officer. 

Easton, JAMES, military officer; born in 
Hartford, Conn. : became a builder, and 
settled in Pittsfield, Mass., in 1763. Ac 
tive in business and strong in intellect, he 
became a leader in public affairs there, 
and was chosen to a seat in the Massa 
chusetts Assembly in 1774. He was also 
colonel in the militia, and held the posi- 

III. M 17 



tion of leader of the minute-men of that 
town. When the expedition to assail 
Ticonderoga was organized in western 
Massachusetts, Colonel Easton joined 
Allen and Arnold in accomplishing the 
undertaking, and it was he who bore the 
first tidings of success to the Provincial 
Congress of Massachusetts. He died in 
Pittsfield, Mass. 

Easton, JOHN, colonial governor; son 
of Nicholas; was governor of Rhode Island 
in 1690-95. He was the author of a Nar 
rative of the Causes which led to Philip s 
Indian War. 

Easton, LANGDON CHEVES, military offi 
cer; born in St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 10, 1814; 
graduated at the United States Mili 
tary Academy in 1838; and served in the 
Florida, Mexican, and Civil wars. In 
December, 1863, he was appointed chief 
quartermaster of the Army of the Cumber 
land; and in May, 1864, was assigned the 
same post in the army under General 
Sherman. He received the brevet of ma 
jor-general in March, 1865; retired in Jan 
uary, 1881. He died in New York City, 
April 29, 1884. 

Easton, NICHOLAS, colonial governor; 
born in 1593; came to America in 1634, 
and settled in Ipswich, Mass. In 163S 
he removed to Rhode Island and erected 
the first house in Newport ; was govern 
or of Rhode Island and Providence in 
1650-52. He died in Newport, R. I., Aug. 
15, 1675. 

Eastport, CAPTURE OF. Early in July. 
1814, Sir Thomas M. Hardy sailed secretly 
from Halifax with a squadron, consisting 
of the Ramillics (the flag-ship), sloop 
Martin, brig Borer, the Bream, the bomb- 
ship Terror, and several transports, with 
troops under Col. Thomas Pilkington. The 
squadron entered Passamaquoddy Bay on 
the llth, and anchored off Fort Sullivan, 
at Eastport, Me., then in command of Maj. 
Perley Putnam with a garrison of fifty 
men, having six pieces of artillery. Hardy 
demanded an instant surrender, giving 
Putnam only five minutes to consider. 
The latter promptly refused, but at the 
importunity of the alarmed inhabitants, 
who were indisposed to resist, he surren 
dered the post on condition that, while the 
British should take possession of all 
public property, private property should 
be respected. This was agreed to, and 



EATON 

1,000 armed men, with women and chil- the United States Bureau of Education, 

dren, a battalion of artillery, and fifty or with circulars and bulletins for sixteen 

sixty pieces of cannon were landed on the years, addresses, and numerous magazine 

main, when formal possession was taken articles. 

of the fort, the town of Eastport, and all Eaton, JOHN HENRY, statesman; born 
the islands and villages in and around in Tennessee in 1787 ; was United States 
Passamaquoddy Bay. Several vessels laden Senator from Tennessee in 1818-29; re- 
with goods valued at $300,000, ready to be signed to become Secretary of War under 
smuggled into the United States, were President Jackson ; appointed governor 
seized. Sixty cannon were mounted, and of Florida Territory in 1834; resigned to 
civil rule was established under British become United States minister to Spain 
officials. The British held quiet posses- in 1836. He published a Life of Andrew 
sion of that region until the close of the Jackson, who was his colleague in the 
war. Senate for two years. He died in Wash- 
Eaton, DOP.MAN BRIDG At AN, lawyer; born ington, D. C., Nov. 17, 1856. See EATON, 
in Hardwick, Vt., June 27, 1823; grad- MARGARET L. O NEILL. 
uated at the University of Vermont in Eaton, MARGARET L. O NEILL, daughter 
1848; was active in promoting civil ser- of William O Neill, an Irish hotel-keep- 
vice reform, and was a member of the er in Washington; born in 1796, and after 
United States Civil Service Commission the death of her first husband, John B. 
for many years. He was the author of Timberlake, she married John Henry 
Civil Service in Great Britain; The In- Eaton, United States Senator from Ten- 
dependent Movement in Neiv York, etc.; nessee. Upon the appointment of her 
and editor of the 7th edition of Kent s husband to the office of Secretary of War, 
Commentaries. He died in New York Mrs. Eaton was not recognized socially 
City, Dec. 23, 1900. by the wives of the other members of the 
Eaton, JOHN, educator ; born in Sut- cabinet. President Jackson interfered, and 
ton, N. H., Dec. 5, 1829; was graduated demanded that Mrs. Eaton should receive 
at Dartmouth College in 1854; applied the usual social courtesies. In consequence 
himself to educational pursuits till 1859, of these social quarrels, a disruption of the 
when he entered Andover Theological cabinet took place in 1831. After Mr. 
Seminary, and in 1862, after his ordi- Eaton s death his widow married an Ital- 
nation, was appointed chaplain of the ian. She died in Washington, Nov. 8, 
27th Ohio Volunteer Infantry. In No- 1879. 

vember of the same year he was made Eaton, THEOPHILTJS, colonial governor ; 
superintendent of freedmen, and later born in Stony Stratford, England, in 
was given supervision of all military 1591 ; was bred a merchant, and was for 
posts from Cairo to Natchez and Fort some years the English representative at 
Smith. In October, 1863, he became the Court of Denmark. Afterwards he was 
colonel of the 63d United States Colored a distinguished London merchant, and ac- 
Infantry, and in March, 1865, was companied Mr. Davenport to New Eng- 
brevetted brigadier-general. He was editor land in 1637. With him he assisted in 
of the Memphis Post in 1866-67, and founding the New Haven colony, and was 
State superintendent of public instruc- chosen its first chief magistrate. Mr. 
tion in Tennessee in 1867-69. From 1871 Eaton filled the chair of that office con- 
to 1886 he was commissioner of the United tinuously until his death, Jan. 7, 1658. 
States Bureau of Education, and then be- Eaton, WILLIAM, military officer ; born 
came president of Marietta College, O., in Woodstock, Conn., Feb. 23, 1764; grad- 
where he remained until 1891; was presi- uated at Dartmouth College in 1790; en- 
dent of the Sheldon Jackson College of tered the Continental army at the age 
Salt Lake City in 1895-98, when he was of sixteen ; and was discharged in 1783. 
appointed inspector of public education In 1797 he was appointed American con- 
in Porto Rico. He is author of History sul at Tunis, and arrived there in 1799. 
of Thetford Academy; Mormons of To- He acted with so much boldness and tact 
day; The Freedman in the War (re- that he secured for his country the free- 
port) ; Schools of Tennessee; reports of dom of its commerce from attacks by 

178 



EBEN-EZER ECONOCHACA 

Tunisian cruisers. He returned to the Choctaw Indians, arrived near Econocha- 

United States in 1803; was appointed ca, or Holy Ground, a village built bv 

naval agent of the United States for the \Veathersford upon a bluff on the left 

Barbary States, and accompanied the bank of the Alabama, just below Powell e 

American fleet to the Mediterranean in Ferry, Lowndes co., in an obscure place, 

1804. He assisted Hamet Caramelli, the as a " city of refuge " for the wounded 

rightful ruler of Tripoli, in an attempt to and dispersed in battle, fugitives from 

recover his throne, usurped by his brother, their homes, and women and children. 

Soon afterwards Eaton returned to the No path or trail led to it. It had been 

United States, and passed the remainder of dedicated to this humane purpose by 

his life at Brimfield. For his services to Tecmnseh and the Prophet a few months 

American commerce the State of Massa- before, and the Cherokees had been assured 

chusetts gave him 10,000 acres of land, bj them that, like Auttose, no white man 

The King of Denmark gave him a gold could tread upon the ground and live, 

box in acknowledgment of his services to There the Indian priests performed their 

commerce in general and for the release incantations, and in the square in the 

of Danish captives at Tunis. Burr tried centre of the town the most dreadful 

to enlist General Eaton in his conspiracy, cruelties had already been perpetrated, 

and the latter testified against him on White prisoners and Creeks friendly to 

his trial. He died in Brimfield, Mass., them had been there tortured and roasted. 

June 1, 1811. See TRIPOLI, WAK WITH. On the morning of Dec. 23 Claiborne ap- 

Eben-Ezer or Amana Community, peared before the town. At that moment 

A communistic society originating in Ger- a number of friendly half-bloods of both 

many at the beginning of the eighteenth sexes were in the square, surrounded by 

century. They removed to America in pine-wood, ready to be lighted to consume 

1843 and settled near Buffalo, N. Y., but them, and the prophets were busy in their 

removed to Iowa in 1855. mummery. The troops advanced in three 

Eckford, HENRY, naval constructor; columns. The town was almost surround- 
born in Irvine, Scotland, March 12, 1775; ed by swamps and deep ravines, and the 
learned his profession with an uncle at Indians, regarding the place as holy, and 
Quebec, began business for himself in New having property there of great value, 
York in 1796, and soon took the lead in though partially surprised, prepared to 
his profession. During the War of 1812- fight desperately. They had conveyed 
15 he constructed ships-of-war on the their women and children to a place of 
Lakes with great expedition and skill ; safety deep in the forest. By a simul- 
and soon after the war he built the steam- taneous movement, Claiborne s three col- 
ship Robert Fulton, in which, in 1822, umns closed upon the town at the same 
he made the first successful trip in a craft moment. So unexpected was the attack 
of that kind to New Orleans and Havana, that the dismayed Indians broke and fled 
Made naval constructor at Brooklyn in before tlie whole of the troops could got 
"820, six ships-of-the-line were built after into action. Weathersford was there. TliP 
his models. Interference of the board of Indians fled in droves along the bank of 
naval commissioners caused him to leave the river, and by swimming and the use 
the service of the government, but he of canoes they escaped to the other side 
afterwards made ships-of-war for Euro- and joined their families in the forest, 
pean powers and for the independent Weathersford, when he found himself de- 
states of South America. In 1831 he serted by his warriors, fled swiftly on a 
built a war-vessel for the Sultan of Tur- horse to a bluff on the river between two 
key, and, going to Constantinople, organ- ravines, hotly pursued, when his horse made 
ized a navy-yard there, and there he died, a mighty bound from it, and the horse 
Nov. 12, 1832. and rider disappeared under the water for 

Econochaca, BATTLE AT. Marching a moment, when both arose, Weathersford 

from Fort Deposit, in Butler county, Ala. grasping the mane of his charger with one 

(December, 1813), General Claiborne, hand and his rifle with the other. He 

pushing through the wilderness nearly escaped in safety. Econochaca was plun- 

30 miles with horse and foot and friendly dered by the Choctaws and laid in ashes. 

179 



EDDIS EDGAR 

Fully 200 houses were destroyed, and office many of the tea-party disguised 
thirty Indians killed. The Tennesseeana themselves, and were there regaled with 
lost one killed and six wounded. punch after the exploit at the wharf was 

Eddis, WILLIAM, royalist; born in Eng- performed. He began, with Mr. < ill, i 
land about 1745; came to America in 1769, 1755, the publication of the Boston Gazette 
and settled in Annapolis, Md. He was and Country Journal, which became a 
surveyor of customs till the troubles be- very popular newspaper, and did em. 
tween the colonies and the home govern- service in the cause of popular liberty, 
ment became so strong that it was unsafe Adams, Hancock, Otis, Qumcy, Warren 
for rovalists to remain in the country. On and other leading spirits were cpnstani 
June ll 1776, he was ordered, with others, contributors to its columns, while Mr. 
by the patriot " Committee of Observa- Edes himself wielded a caustic pen. 
tion," to leave the country before Aug. 1. was in Watertown during the siege of 
His time, however, was extended, and he Boston, from which place he issued the 
continued in office till April, 1777, when Gazette, the " mouth-piece of the VA Ings 
he returned to England. He was the au- It was discontinued in 1798, after a 1 
thor of Letters from America. sustained by Edes, of forty years. He 

Eddy, RICHARD, author; born in Provi- died in Boston, Dec. ] 

dence, R. I, June 21, 1828; removed to Edes, HENRY HERBERT ""toTian; ; born 
Clinton N Y., in 1848; studied theology in Charlcstown, Mass, March 29, . 
there and was ordained to the ministry of is a member of many historical societies 
the Unitarian Church. In 1861-63 he was and the author of History of the Harvard 
chaplain of the 60th New York Regiment; Church in Charleston; Historical Sketch 
in 1878 was elected president of the Uni- of Charlestown; editor of 
tarian Historical Society; and became edi- Genealogies and Estates of Charlestown ; 
tor of the Vniversalist Quarterly. His Foote s Annals of King s Chapel Boston 
publications include a History of the 60th etc.; and a contributor to the Memorial 
Regiment, ~Kew YorJs State Volunteers; History of Boston. 

Universalism in America, a History; Alco- Edes, PETER patriot; born in Boston 
hoi in History. and three sermons on Lin- Mass, Dec 17 1756 ; educat ed at 
coin entitled The Martyr to Liberty. Boston Latin School. Shortly aftei the 

Eden CHARLES, colonial governor; battle of Bunker Hill he was impriF 
born in England in 1673; appointed gov- oned by Ceneral Gage, who charged him 
ernor of North Carolina, July 13, 1713. with having fire-arms concealed in his 
Durin" his administration he arrested house. He spent 107 days in a room of 
the pfrate Edward Teach, usually called the Boston jail. He was the publisher 
" Black-Beard." He died in North Caro- of an edition of the Fifth of March Ora 
lina March 17 1722. tions ; also an oration on Washington. 

Eden Sm ROBERT, royal governor; born In 1837 the diary of his imprisonment, 
in Durham, England. Succeeding Gov- containing a list of the prisoners capt- 
ernor Sharpe as royal governor of Mary- ured at Bunker Hill, was published 
land in 1708, he was more moderate in Bangor, and a letter about the " Boston 
his administration than his predecessors, tea-party," addressed to his grandson, ap- 
He complied with the orders of Congress pears in the Proceedings of the Massu- 
to abdicate the government. He went to chusetts Historical Society. He died in 
England and at the close of the war re- Bangor, Me., March 30, 1840. 
turned to recover his estate in Maryland. Edgar, HENRY CORNELIUS, clergyman; 
He had married a sister of Lord Balti- born in Rahway, N. J, April 11, 
more and was created a baronet, Oct. 19, graduated at Princeton College in 1831 ; 
1776. He died in Annapolis, Md, Sept. 2, became a merchant; was licensed 
1786 preach by the Presbyterian Church in 

Edes, BEX.MMIN, journalist; born in 1845. During the Civil War he spoke 
Charlestown. Mass, Oct. 14, 1732: was forcibly against slavery. His published 
captain of the Ancient and Honorable Ar- orations and sermons include Three Lect- 
tillery Company in 1760, and one of the tires on Slavery; Four DtmowMl OceOr 
Boston Sons of Liberty. In his printing- atoned ly the Death of Lincoln ; An Ex- 

190 



EDGREN EDISON 



position of the Last Nine Wars; Chris 
tianity our Nation s Wisest Policy; A 
Discourse Occasioned by the Death of 
President Garfield, etc. He died in Easton, 
Pa., Dec. 23, 1884. 

Edgren, AUGUST HJALMAR, author: 
born in Wermland, Sweden, Oct. 18, 
1840; graduated at the University of Up- 
sola ; came to the United States, arid 
joined the National army in January, 
1802; was promoted first lieutenant and 
assigned to the Engineer Corps in Au 
gust, 1863. Soon after he returned to 
Sweden. His publications include The Lit 
erature of America ; The Public Schools 
and Colleges of the United States; Amer 
ican Antiquities, etc. 

Edict of Nantes, THE, an edict pro 
mulgated by Henry IV. of France, which 
gave toleration to the Protestants in 
feuds, civil and religious, and ended the 
religious wars of the country. It was 
published April 13, 1598, and was con 
firmed by Louis XIII. in 1G10, after the 
murder of his father; also by Louis XIV. 
in 1052: but it was revoked by him, Oct. 
22, 1085. It was a great state blunder, 
for it deprived France of 500,000 of her 
best citizens, who fled into Germany, Eng 
land, and America, and gave those coun 
tries the riches that flow from industry, 
skill, and sobriety. They took with them 
to England the art of silk-weaving, and 
eo gave France an important rival in that 
branch of industry. 

Edison, THOMAS ALVA, electrician ; 
born in Milan, O., Feb. 11, 1847. He was 
taught by his mother till he was twelve 
years old, when he began work as a news 
paper boy, obtaining an exclusive contract 
for the sale of newspapers on the Detroit 
division of the Grand Trunk Railway. He 
continued at this work for five years. 
Meanwhile he bought a small printing 
outfit, which he carried on the train, and 
by which he printed a small weekly paper, 
called The Grand Trunk Herald. Its sub 
scription list showed 450 names. When 
the Civil War broke out the enormous in 
crease in newspaper traffic confined his 
whole attention to that branch of his busi 
ness. He conceived and carried out the 
idea of having largo bulletin-boards set 
up at every station along the line of the 
railroad, on which he caused to be chalked 
by telegraph operators and station agents 



the news headings of his papers. The re 
lations which he thus formed with tele 
graph operators awakened a desire to 
learn telegraphy. Not content with the 
opportunities offered by the railway tele 
graph, he, with a neighbor who had simi 
lar inclinations, built a line a mile long 
through a wood which separated their 
homes. Edison made the instruments, but 
having no way of getting a battery felt 
at a loss as to how he should proceed. He 
soon thought of a novel expedient, but 
its application proved a total failure. 
Having noticed that electric sparks were 
generated by rubbing a cat s back, he fas 
tened a wire to a cat s leg, and rubbing 
its fur briskly, watched for an effect upon 
the instrument, but none followed. While 
engaged in commercial telegraphy in Cin 
cinnati in 1867, he conceived the idea of 
transmitting two messages over one wire 
at the same time, totally ignorant that 
this had been attempted by electricians 
many years before. He continued to make 
experiments in every branch of telegraphy, 
attending to his office duties at night and 
experimenting in the daytime. In 1869 
he retired from the operator s table, and, 
leaving Boston, where he was then em- 




THOMAS ALVA KDISO.V. 

ployed, wont to New York with original 
apparatus for duplex and printing teleg 
raphy, the latter being the basis of nearly 
all the subsequent Gold and Stock Ex 
change telegraph reporting instruments. 
Fn New York he soon formed an alliance 



181 




GKOKGK FRANKLIN EDMUNDS. 



EDMONDS EDUCATION 

with electricians and manufacturers, and, elusion of twenty-five years of uninter- 
after a few years of varied experience with rupted service. In 1897 he was chosen 
partners in the laboratory and in the shop, chairman of the monetary commission 
he removed to Menlo Park, N. J., in 1876, 
where he established himself on an inde 
pendent footing, with everything which 
could contribute to or facilitate invention 
and research. In 1886 Mr. Edison bought 
property in Llewellyn Park, Orange, N. 
J., and later removed there from Menlo 
Park. His inventions are many and 
varied. His contributions to the develop 
ment of telegraphy are represented by 
sixty patents and caveats assigned to the 
Gold and Stock Telegraph Company of 
New York, and fifty to the Automatic 
Telegraphy Company. His inventions in 
clude the incandescent electric light, the 
carbon telegraph transmitter, the micro- 
tasimeter for the detection of small 
changes in the temperature; the mega 
phone, to magnify sound ; the phonograph, 
the patent of which he sold for $1,000,000 ; 
the aerophone; the kinetoscope, etc. On 
Sept. 27, 1889, he was made a Chevalier 
of the Legion of Honor by the French gov 
ernment, appointed by the Indianapolis monetary 
Edmonds, JOHN WORTH, lawyer; born conference, which reported to Congress a 
in Hudson, N. Y., March 13, 1799; grad- scheme of currency reform, 
uated at Union College in 1816; ad- Education. Popular education made 
mitted to the bar in 1810; elected to the rapid progress in the United States dur- 
New York Assembly in 1831, and the New ing the nineteenth century. In 1776 there 
York Senate in 1832; became a circuit were seven colleges in the English- 
judge in 1845, and was appointed to the American colonies, and the common 
Court of Appeals in 1852. He was the schools were few and very inferior. At 
author of Spiritualism; Letters and the end of the school year, 1898-99, the 
Tracts on Spiritualism, besides a number population of the country was estimated 
of law books. He died in New York Cily, at 76,000,000, of which 20y 2 per cent. 
April 5, 1874. was enrolled in the public elementary 
Edmunds, GEORGE FRANKLIN, states- and high schools, or 15,138,715; and the 
man; born in Richmond, Vt., Feb. 1, total in all schools, elementary, second- 
1S28; took an early and active part in ary, and higher, both public and private, 
Vermont politics, serving several terms in was 16,738,362. Of the total enrolment, 
both houses of the legislature; was 10,389,407 were in average daily attend- 
speaker of the House of Representatives ance in the public schools. There was a 
and president pro ton. of the Senate. In total of 415,660 teachers (males, 131,71)3; 
1866 he entered the United States Senate females, 283,867), to whom $128,662.880 
as a Republican, and till 1891 was one was paid in salaries. All public-school 
of the foremost men in Congress. Towards property had a value of $524,689,255. The 
the close of his senatorial career he was receipts of the school-year were $194.- 
the author of the acts of 1882 and 1887 998,237; the expenditures, exclusive of 
for the suppression of polygamy and the payments on bonded debts, $197,281,603. 
regulation of affairs in Utah, and of the The expenditure per capita of population 
anti-trust law (1890). In 1886 he framed was $2.67, and the average daily expendi- 
tho act for counting the electoral vote, ture per pupil, 13.3 cents. These figures 
Ho resigned his seat in 1891 at the con- exclude statistics of the education of the 

182 



EDUCATION 



blind, the deaf, and other defective 
classes, which are treated separately in 
this work, and also SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
(? *) 

Education, AMERICAN PUBLIC. See 
HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT. 

Education, CHAUTAUQUA SYSTEM OF. 
See CHAUTAUQUA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 

Education, ELEMENTARY. WILLIAM 
TORREY HARRIS (q. v.), the U. S. Com- 



the country has been considered to be the 
weakest part of the entire system, al 
though it is conceded on all hands that 
the teachers in secondary schools are, on 
the average, much superior in profes 
sional and general culture to the teachers 
in elementary schools, if not to those in 
colleges. The reason for this defect in 
secondary schools has been found in the 
course of study. A majority of the pub- 



missioner of Education since 1889, one of lie high schools and a larger majority of 



the highest authorities on the subject of 
education, writes as follows: 



At the meeting in 1892 the National 
Educational Association appointed a com- 



the private academies dilute their sec 
ondary course of study by continuing ele 
mentary studies beyond their proper limit. 
Arithmetic, descriptive geography, gram 
mar, history of one s native country, lit- 



mittee of ten persons to consider and re- erature written in the colloquial vocabu- 

port upon the subjects of study and the lary, are each and all very nourishing to 

methods of instruction in secondary the mind when first begun, but their edu- 
schools, including public high 



schools, 

private academies, and schools preparing 
students for college. President Eliot, of 
Harvard, was appointed chairman, with 
nine associates, four of whom were presi 
dents of colleges, one a professor in a col 
lege, two principals of public high 
schools, and one head master of a pre 
paratory school. This committee of ten, 
as it is generally called, had author 
ity to select the members of special con- 



cative value is soon exhausted. The 
mind needs for its continuous develop 
ment more advanced branches, such as 
algebra and geometry, physical geogra 
phy, a foreign language, general history. 
But for these the secondary school often 
substitutes other branches that involve no 
new methods nor more complex ideas, 
and the pupil stops in the elementary 
stage of growth. 

The influence of the report of the com- 



ferences and to arrange meetings for the mittee of ten has been to impel secondary 
discussion of the principal subjects taught schools towards the choice of well-bal- 
in preparatory schools. The subjects rep- anced courses of study containing subjects 
resented were Latin, Greek, English, other which belong essentially to secondary edu- 
modern languages, mathematics, natural 
philosophy (including physics, astronomy, 
and chemistry), natural history (and 



biology, including botany, zoology, and 
physiology), history (including also civil 
government and political economy), 
geography (including physical geography, 
geology, and meteorology). The National 



cation, like algebra, Latin, or physics ; and 
at the same time either to discontinue 
elementary branches, or to apply to the 
study of these a superior method, by which 
their principles are traced into higher 
branches and explained. 

The success of the report of the com 
mittee of ten has been such as to arouse 



Educational Association appropriated the eager interest in a similar inquiry into 



sum of $2,500 towards defraying the ex 
penses of the conferences. 

The report was completed and pub 
lished in the spring of 1894. Thirty 
thousand copies were distributed by the 
national bureau of education, and since 
then edition after edition has been print 
ed and sold by the National Educational 
Association through an agent. 

No educational document before pub- 



the work of the elementary schools. Al 
ready, in February, 1893, a committee 
had been appointed by the department of 
superintendence in the National Educa 
tional Association. It was made to con 
sist of fifteen members instead of ten, 
and has been known as the committee of 
fifteen. 

The report of this committee of fif 
teen was submitted to the department 



Halted in this country has been more of superintendents at the meeting in 18!).l. 
widely read or has excited more helpful It is the object of this paper to indicate 
discussion. The secondary instruction of briefly the points that give it importance. 

183 



EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY 

If one were to summarize concisely the who, in most cases, controls the licensing 
history of educational progress in the of teachers in rural districts. 
United States for the nineteenth century With the advent of the professional 
as regards the elementary schools, he teacher and the expert supervisor, there 
would say that there has been a change has arrived an era of experiment and agi- 
from the ungraded school in the sparsely tation for reforms. 

settled district to the graded school of The general trend of school reforms may 
the city and large village. The ungraded be characterized as in the direction of se- 
school held a short session of three or curing the interest of the pupil. All the 
four months, was taught by a makeshift new devices have in view the awakening 
teacher, had mostly individual instruc- of the pupil s inner spring of action. He 
tion, with thirty or forty recitations to is to be interested and made to act along 
be heard and five minutes or less of the lines of rational culture through his own 
teacher s time per day for each. impulse. The older methods looked less 

The graded school has classified its to interesting the pupil than to disciplin- 
pupils according to the degree of advance- ing the will in rational forms. Make 
ment and assigns two classes to a teacher, the pupil familiar with self-sacrifice, 
Instead of five minutes for a recitation, make it a second nature to follow the be- 
there are twenty or thirty minutes, and hest of duty and heroically stifle selfish 
the teacher has an opportunity to go be- desires "this was their motto, expressed 
hind the words of the book and by discus- or implied. It was an education ad- 
sion and questioning probe the lesson, find dressed primarily to the will. The new 
what the pupil really understands and education is addressed to the feelings and 
can explain in his own words. Each mem- desires. Its motto is: "Develop the 
ber of the class learns more from the an- pupil through his desires and interests." 
swers of his fellow-pupils and from the Goethe preached this doctrine in his Wil- 
cross-questioning of the teacher than he helm Meister. Froebel founded the 
could learn from a lesson of equal length kindergarten system on it. Colonel 
with a tutor entirely devoted to himself. Parker s Quincy school experiment was, 

The graded school continues for ten and his Cook County Normal School is, 
months instead of three, and employs or a centre for the promulgation of this 
may employ a professional educated teach- idea. Those who advocate an extension 
er. This is the most important item of of the system of elective studies in the 
progress to be mentioned in the history colleges and its introduction even into 
of our education. Normal schools, 200 secondary and elementary schools justify 
in number, have been created in the va- it by the principle of interest, 
rious States, and it is estimated that the It is noteworthy that this word " in- 
cities, large and small, have an average terest " is the watchword of the disciples 
of 50 per cent, of professionally trained of the Herbartian system of pedagogy. 
teachers, while the ungraded schools in Herbart, in his psychology, substituted 
the rural districts are taught by persons desire for will. He recognizes intellect 
who leave their regular vocations and re- and feeling and desire (Begicrdc). De- 
sort to teaching for a small portion of the sire is, of course, a species of feeling 
year. for feeling includes sensations and desires, 

The urban and suburban population, the former allied to the intellect and the 
counting in the large villages, is at pres- latter to the will. But sensation is not 
cnt about 50 per cent, of the population yet intellect, nor is desire will ; both are 
of the whole country. only feeling. 

One improveinont leads to another, and I have described and illustrated this 
where the graded school has been estab- general trend of school reform in order 
lished with its professionally trained to show its strength and its weakness, 
teachers it has been followed by the ap- and to indicate the province marked out 
pointment of experts as superintendents, for a report that should treat of the 
until over 800 cities and towns in the branches of study and the methods of in 
nation have such supervision. The fifty struction in the elementary school and 
Stnto* have each a State superintendent, suggest improvement. 

184 



EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY 



While the old education in its exclusive 
devotion to will-training has slighted the 
intellect and the heart (or feelings), the 
new education moves likewise towards an 
extreme as bad, or worse. It slights di 
rect will-culture and tends to exaggerate 
impulse and inclination or interest. An 
educational psychology that degrades will 
to desire must perforce construct an 
elaborate system for the purpose of de 
veloping moral interests and desires. 
This, however, does not quite succeed until 
the old doctrine of self-sacrifice for the 
sake of the good is reached. 

" Our wills are ours, to make them thine." 

The philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita 
holds that the goal of culture is to anni 
hilate all interest and attain absolute in 
difference this is adopted by Buddhism 
in the doctrine of Nirvana. Indian re 
nunciation reaches the denial of selfhood, 
while the Christian doctrine of renunci 
ation reaches only to the denial of selfish 
ness and the adoption of altruistic in 
terests. 

However this may be, the pedagogic im 
pulse to create devices for awakening the 
interest of the pupil becomes sometimes 
a craze for novelty. Change at any price 
and change of any kind is clamored for. 
It is a trite saying that change is not 
progress. It is more apt to be movement 
in a circle or even retrogression. An 
amusing example was lately furnished in 
educational circles. A superintendent of 
rural schools defended their want of classi 
fication as an advantage. It was " individ- 
xial instruction," and, as such, an improve 
ment over that of the graded school of 
the cities. His reactionary movement re 
ceived the support of some of the advo 
cates of educational reform on the ground 
that it was a new departure. This hap 
pened at a time when one-half of the 
school children in the United States are 
still taught, or rather allowed to memo 
rize their text-books, by this method. 

The sub-committees on training of 
teachers and on organization of city 
school systems have brought forward, in 
their respective reports, the latest de 
vised measures for the perfection of nor 
mal schools and the procurement of ex- 
nert supervisors for city school systems. 
The import mice of the recommendations 



regarding schools for the training of 
teachers is seen when one recalls to mind 
the fact that the entire upward movement 
of the elementary schools has been in 
itiated and sustained by the employment 
of professionally trained teachers, and 
that the increase of urban population has 
made it possible. In the normal school 
the candidate is taught the history of 
education, the approved methods of in 
struction, and the grounds of each 
branch of study as they are to be found 
in the sciences that it presupposes. 

The method of eliminating politics 
from the control of a city school system is 
discussed in Judge Draper s frank and 
persuasive style, and a plan in essential 
particulars similar to that adopted in 
the city of Cleveland is recommended for 
trial in all large cities. A small school- 
board of five or ten members is appointed 
by the mayor, which, in turn, elects a 
school-director (but this officer may also 
be appointed by the mayor), who takes 
charge of the business side of the manage 
ment of schools. For the professional 
side of the work a superintendent is ap 
pointed by the school-director, with the 
approval of two-thirds or three-fourths 
of the school-board. The terms of office 
suggested are, respectively, for the mem 
bers of the school-board appointed by the 
mayor, five years ; for the school-director, 
five years; for the superintendent, five 
to ten years. The superintendent ap 
points all teachers from an eligible list 
of candidates whose qualifications are de 
fined by the school-board. 

This plan of government is based on 
the idea of the importance of personal 
responsibility at all points in the ad 
ministration. Only an actual trial can 
determine its strength or weakness. All 
plans, as Judge Draper well says, pre 
suppose a public spirit and a moral sense 
on the part of the people; they presuppose 
a sincere desire for good schools and a fair 
knowledge of what good schools are and of 
the best means of creating them. Where 
the whole people possesses political power, 
the intelligent and virtuous citizens must 
exert a continual influence or else tho 
demagogues will come into office. For the 
natural representative of the weakling 
classes is the demagogue. Whether the 
citizen is weak in intellect, or thrift, 01 



J85 



EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY 

morals, it is all the same ; he will vote peal to experimental psychology in dealing 



for the demagogue as ruler. 



with the question of the time devoted to 



The report on the correlation of studies the several branches. For example, it 
is an attempt to reconcile the old and the often discusses the danger of too much 



new in education by discovering what in 
the course of study is or should be perma 
nent and what in the nature of things is 
transient. It admits the claims of the new 
education, as to making the appeal to the 
child s interest paramount, so far as this 
relates to the methods of instruction, but 
it finds a limit to this in the matters to 
be taught. It discusses the educational 
value of the five principal factors of the 
course of study in order to determine 



thoroughness of drill in teaching and the 
use of processes that become mechanical 
after some time. The rapid addition of 
numbers, the study of the geometrical 
solids, the identification of the colors of 
the spectrum, the reading of insipid pieces 
written in the colloquial vocabulary, the 
memorizing of localities and dates; all 
these things may be continued so long un 
der the plea of " thoroughness " as to para 
lyze the mind, or fix it in some stage of ar- 



clearly where the proposed new branches rested growth. 



of study belong and what they add to the 
old curriculum. These five components of 
a course of study are: (1) Grammar, as a 
study of the structure of language; (2) 
Literature, as a study of the art form of 



The committee have been at much pains 
to point out the importance of leaving a 
branch of study when it has been studied 
long enough to exhaust its educational 
value. It is shown in the case of arithme- 



language literature as furnishing a reve- tic that it ought to be replaced by algebra 
lation of human nature in all its types; two years earlier than is the 
(3) Mathematics, as furnishing the laws the public schools at present. 



of matter in movement and rest the laws 
grounded in the nature of space and time ; 
(4) Geography, as a compend of natural 
and social science unfolding later, in 
secondary and higher education, into 
geology, botany, zoology, meteorology on 
the one hand, and into anthropology and 



custom in 
The arith 
metical method should not be used to solve 
the class of problems that are more easily 
solved by algebra. So, too, it is contended 
that English grammar should be discon 
tinued at the close of the seventh year, 
and French, German, or Latin preferably 
the last substituted for it. The edu- 



sociology, economics and politics on the cative value of a study on its psychological 
other; (5) History, as showing the origin side is greatest at the beginning. The 
and growth of institutions, especially of first six months in the study of algebra 



the state. It appears that these five 
branches cover the two worlds of man and 
nature, and that all theoretical studies fall 
within these lines. This is the correlation 
of study. Each essential branch has some 
educational value that another does not 
possess. Each branch also serves the func 
tion of correlating the child to his environ 
ment namely, to the two worlds of 
nature and human society. 

Hitherto, we are told in this report, 
the course of study has been justified on 
psychological grounds " literature culti 
vates the memory and the imagination " ; 
" arithmetic the reason," etc. But each 
branch has in some measure a claim on 
all the faculties. Arithmetic cultivates 
the memory of quantity, the imagination 
of successions, and the reason in a peculiar 



or Latin it is claimed that even the first 
four weeks are more valuable than the 
same length of time later on. For the 
first lessons make one acquainted with a 
new method of viewing things. 

In recommending the introduction of 
Latin and algebra into the seventh and 
eighth years of the elementary school 
course, the committee are in accord with 
the committee of ten, who urged the 
earlier commencement of the secondary 
course of study. 

The committee urge strongly the subor 
dination of elocution and grammar in the 
reading exercises to the study of the con 
tents of the literary work of art, holding 
that the best lesson learned at school is 
the mastery of a poetic gem or a selection 
from a great prose writer. It is contend- 



figure of the syllogism different from the cd that the selections found in the school 
three figures iised in qualitative reasoning, readers often possess more literary unity 



The report, however, makes frequent ap- than 

186 



the whole works from which they 



EDUCATIONAL LAND GRANTS EDWARDS 

were taken, as in the case of Byron s Bat- called Fort Lyman after their commander. 
tie of Waterloo from Childe Harold. The A garrison of 2,500 men under the Earl of 
importance of studying the unity of a London, and later under General Webb, 
work of art is dwelt upon in different made several expeditions against Canada, 
parts of the report, and the old method After Munro s defeat at FORT WILLIAM 
of parsing works of art censured. HENRY (q. v.) the remnant of the Amer- 

An example of the Herbartian correla- ican army fled to Fort Edward. During 
tion is found in the method recommended Burgoyne s advance in July, 1777, General 
for teaching geography namely, that the Schuyler sought shelter here. See HUB- 
industrial and commercial idea should be BARDTOX, BATTLE OF: McCREA, JANE. 
the centre from which the pupil moves Edward VII., ALBERT EDWARD, King 
out in two directions from the supply of of Great Britain and Emperor of India; 
his needs for food, clothing, shelter, and born in Buckingham Palace, Nov. 9, 
culture he moves out on the side of nat- 1841; eldest son of Queen Victoria and 
ure to the "elements of difference," that Ihe Prince Consort; created Prince of 
is to say, to the differences of climate, soil, Wales and Earl of Chester a month after 
productions, and races of men, explaining his birth ; educated by private tutors, 
finally by geology, astronomy, and meteor- at Christ Church, Oxford, and at Cam- 
ology how these differences arose. On the bridge. In 1860, under the guidance of 
other hand, he moves towards the study the Duke of Newcastle, he visited the 
of man, in his sociology, history, and United States, where he received an en- 
economics, discovering what means the thusiastic welcome. President Buchanan 
race has invented to overcome those " ele- and his official family extended to him 
ments of difference " and supply the mani- a grand entertainment at the national 
fold wants of man wherever he lives by capital, and the cities which he visited 
making him participant in the produc- vied with one another in paying him 
tions of all climes through the world com- high honors. The courtesies so generous- 
merce. ly extended to him laid the foundation 

Likewise in the study of general his- for the strong friendship which he always 
tory the committee suggest that the old afterwards manifested for Americans, 
method of beginning with the earliest ages After this trip he travelled in Germany, 
be discontinued and that a regressive Italy, and the Holy Land. In 1863 he 
method be adopted, proceeding from married the Princess Alexandra, daughter 
United States history back to English of Christian IX., King of Denmark, and 
history, and thence to Rome, Greece, and after his marriage he made prolonged 
Judea, and the other sources of our civili- tours in many foreign countries, most 
Cation. notably in Egypt and Greece in 1869, and 

In contrast to this genuine correlation in British India in 1875-76. He has al- 
the report describes an example of what ways been exceedingly fond of out-door 
it calls "artificial correlation" where sports and athletics in general, and has 
Robinson Crusoe or some literary work of kept himself in close touch with his peo- 
art is made the centre of study for a con- pie. On the death of Queen Victoria, 
siderable period of time, and geography, Jan. 22, 1901, he succeeded to the throne, 
arithmetic, and other branches taught in- and was formally proclaimed king and 
cidentally in connection with it. emperor at St. James s Palace, London, 

Educational Land Grants. The United on the 24th. 

States has granted nearly 100,000,000 Edward, FORT, a defensive work built 
acres to the individual States for educa- by the New England troops in 1755 on the 
tional endowments, or the erection of east bank of the Hudson River, 45 miles 
schools and colleges. In many instances north of Albany. 

these grants were mismanaged, but in Edwards, JONATHAN, theologian; born 
others they have proved of great service, in East Windsor, Conn., Oct. 5, 1703; 

Edward, FORT, on the Hudson River, graduated at Yale College in 1720, having 
forty-five miles north of Albany; built by begun to study Latin when he was six 
the 6,000 New England troops in the years of age. He is said to have reasoned 
French and Indian war in 1755; originally out for himself his doctrine of free-will 

187 



EDWARDS EGBERT 




JONATHAN KDWAKDS. 



before he left college, at the age of seven- fice until its organization as a State in 
teen. He began preaching to a Presby- 1818. From 1818 till 1824 he was United 
terian congregation before he was twenty States Senator, and from 1826 to 1830 
years old. and became assistant to hia governor of the State. He did much, by 
grandfather, Rev. Mr. Stoddard, minister promptness and activity, to restrain Indian 
at Northampton, MasH.., whom he sue- hostilities in the Illinois region during the 
ceeded as pastor. He was dismissed in War of 1812. He died in Belleville, 111., 
1750, because he insisted upon a purer July 20, 1833. See A. B. PLOT. 
and higher standard ot admission to the Edwards, OLIVER, military officer; born 

in Springfield, Mass., Jan. 30, 1835; was 
commissioned first lieutenant in the 10th 
Massachusetts Volunteers at the outbreak 
of the Civil War, and was promoted brig 
adier-general, May 19, 1865, for " con 
spicuous gallantry." He received the 
surrender of Petersburg, Va., and com 
manded Forts Hamilton and Lafayette, in 
New York Harbor, during the draft riots 
of 1863. He was mustered out of the 
army in 1866. 

Edwards, PIERREPONT, jurist; born in 
Northampton, Mass., April 8, 1750; the 
youngest son of Jonathan Edwards, Sr. : 
graduated at the College of New Jersey 
in 1768. His youth was spent among 
the Stockbridge Indians, where his father 
was missionary, and he acquired the 
language perfectly. He became an emi 
nent lawyer; espoused the cause of the 

communion-table. Then he began his patriots, and fought for liberty in the 
missionary work (1751) among the Stock- army of the Revolution. He was a mcm- 
bridge Indians, and prepared his greatest her of the Congress of the Confederation 
work, on The Freedom of the Will, which in 1787-88, and in the Connecticut con- 
was published in 1751. He was inaugu- vention warmly advocated the adoption of 
rated president of the College of NJ\V the national Constitution. He was judge 
Jersey, in Princeton, Feb. 16, 1758, and of the United States District Court in 
died of small-pox, March 22, 1758. He Connecticut at the time of his father s 
married Sarah Pierrepont, of New Haven, death. Mr. Edwards was the founder of 
in 1727, and they became the grand- the "Toleration party" in Connecticut. 
parents of Aaron Burr. which made him exceedingly unpopular 

Edwards, NIXIAX, jurist; born in with the Calvinists. He died in Bridge- 
Montgomery county. Md.. in March, 1775. port. Conn., April 5, 1826. 
William Wirt directed his early educa- Egbert, HARKY C., military officer ; born 
tion, which was finished at Dickinson Col- in Pennsylvania, Jan. 3, 1830; joined the 
lege, and in 181!) he settled in the Green 12th United States Infantry, Sept. 23. 
River district of Kentucky. Before he 1861; served with distinction in the ac- 
was twenty-one he became a member of tions of Gaincs s Mills, Malvcrn Hill, Cedar 
the Kentucky legislature; was admitted Mountain, Gettysburg, etc. He was taken 
to the bar in Kentucky in 1798, and to prisoner at Cedar Mountain and at Get- 
that of Tennessee the next year, and rose tysburg, and was seriously wounded at 
very rapidly in his profession. He passed Bethesda Church. When the war with 
through the oftices of circuit judge and Spain broke out he was lieutenant-colonel 
judge^of appeals to the bench of chief-jus- of the 6th United States Infantry, which 
lice of Kentucky in 1808. The next year he commanded in the Santiago campaign 
he was appointed the first governor of the until he was shot through the body at 
Territory of Illinois, and retained that of- HI Canoy, July 1, 1898. He was pro- 

188 



EQGLESTON EL CANEY 



moted colonel of the 22d Infantry, and 
before his wound was completely healed 
sailed for the Philippine Islands. He ar 
rived at Manila with his command, March 
4, 1899, and while leading a charge 
against Malinta he received a wound, 
from which he died March 26 following. 

Eggleston, EDWARD, author; born in 
Vevay, Ind., Dec. 10, 1837; was mainly 
self-educated; later became a minister 
in the Methodist Episcopal Church. His 
publications of a historical character in 
clude History of the United States and 
Its People; Household History of the 
United States and Its People; A First 
Rook of American History; and The Be 
ginners of a Nation. He died at Lake 
George, N. Y., Sept. 3, 1902. 

Eggleston, GEORGE CARY, author; born 
in Vevay, Ind., Nov. 26, 1839; brother of 
Edward Eggleston; began the practice of 
law in Virginia; served in the Confed 
erate army during the Civil War, and 
then removed to the West. His publica 
tions include Red Eagle and the War 
with the Creek Indians; Strange Stories 
from History; an edition of Haydn s Dic 
tionary of Dates; and compilations of 
American War Ballads and Southern Sol 
dier Stories. 

Eggleston, JOSEPH, military officer; 
born in Amelia county, Va., Nov. 24, 1754; 
was graduated at William and Mary Col 
lege in 1776; joined the cavalry of the 
American army; became captain, and ac 
quired the reputation of being an officer 
of great efficiency. In 1781 he displayed 
remarkable bravery in the action of Guil- 



ford Court-house and in the siege of Au 
gusta; later in the same year he won the 
first success in the battle of Eutaw by a 
well-directed blow against the vanguard 
of the British column. He held a seat 
in Congress in 1798-1801. He died in 
Amelia county, Va., Feb. 13, 1811. 

Egle, WILLIAM HENRY, librarian; born 
in Harrisburg, Pa., Sept. 17, 1830; grad 
uated at the University of Pennsylvania 
in 1859; is the author of History of 
Pennsylvania; Pennsylvania in the Rev 
olution; Pennsylvania Genealogies; His 
torical, Biographical, and Genealogical 
Notes and Queries; Some Pennsylvania 
Women in the Revolution, etc. 

Elbert, SAMUEL, military officer; born 
in Prince William parish, S. C., in 1743; 
was made captain of a grenadier company 
in 1774; joined the Revolutionary army 
in 1776. He led an expedition into East 
Florida in April, 1778, and took Fort 
Oglethorpe; afterwards displayed great 
bravery in the assault on Savannah in 
December, 1778. He was captured by the 
British in the engagement at Brier Creek, 
March 3,1779; afterwards was exchanged 
and re-entered the American army; was 
brevetted brigadier-general, Nov. 3, 1783; 
became governor of Georgia in 1785. He 
died in Savannah, Ga., Nov. 2, 1788. 

El Caney, an elevated suburban vil 
lage 3 miles northeast of Santiago, in the 
province of Santiago, Cuba. It was here, 
on July 1, 1898, that the American army 
of liberation met its first serious oppo 
sition. After the landing of the troops 
at DAIQUIRI (q. v.) on June 20-22, a 




SfAXHH EARTHWORKS AND INTKKNCHMK.XTS AT IL CAN1T. 

189 



ELDORADO ELECTION BILL 



forward movement began, and by the 27th 
the whole army, 16,000 strong, had 
reached points within 3 miles of Santiago. 
General Shafter, in consultation with the 
other generals, determined on an envelop 
ing movement to prevent a junction of 
the forces under General Pando and those 
under General Linares in Santiago. In 
accordance with this plan the division of 
General Lawton moved out on June 30, 
into positions previously determined. By 




BLOCK-HOUSE AT EL CANKY. 



daylight on July 1, Capt. Allyn K. Cap- 
ron s light battery reached a commanding 
hill, 2,400 yards from the village. The 
brigade of Maj.-Gen. Adna E. Chaffee was 
assigned a position east of El Caney that 
he might be prepared to attack after the 
first bombardment, and Brig.-Gen. Will 
iam Ludlow went around to the west with 
his brigade for the purpose of preventing 
a retreat of the Spaniards into Santiago. 
As soon as the battery opened fire upon 
the stone block-house and church in the 
centre of the village, and also the 
trenches where the Spanish infantry was 
situated, General Chaff ee s brigade, com 
posed of the 7th, 12th, and 17th Infantry, 
moved to attack in the front, keeping up 
a constant but careful fire, as the men 



had only 100 rounds of ammunition each. 
In the rear, General Ludlow moved his 
troops forward, and from the south came 
the reserves of Brig.-Gen. Evan Miles. 
Thus the village was the centre of a con 
centrated fire and was nearly encircled 
with the lines steadily closing in. So 
stubborn, however, was the defence that 
reinforcements under Maj.-Gen. John C. 
Bates were ordered up to strengthen the 
line, which had been considerably weak 
ened in the desperate assaults. After the 
enemy had left their intrenchments, the 
fire was concentrated upon the brick fort, 
from which the Spaniards poured a gall 
ing musketry fire into the American lines. 
The fort could not long withstand the 
attack, and rents were soon torn in its 
thick walls. At this juncture the com 
mands under Chaffee, Bates, and Miles 
made a charge, and captured the work, 
but not until all the men defending it 
were killed or wounded. After its capt 
ure the smaller block-houses ceased fight 
ing, with the exception of one which was 
soon destroyed by a few shots of Cap- 
ron s battery. The brave defence of El 
Caney was directed by Brig.-Gen. Vera de 
Rey (who died fighting), with 520 men, of 
whom scarcely a fifth remained alive at the 
end of the action. See SAN JUAN HILL. 

Eldorado, the fabled country in Amer 
ica containing numerous kingdoms, the 
cities of which were filled with gold. 

Eldridge, HAMILTON N., military offi 
cer; born in South Williamstown, Mass., 
Aug. 23, 1831; graduated at Williams 
College in 1856; and engaged in law 
practice in 1857. He recruited the 127th 
Illinois Regiment in July, 1862; was pro 
moted colonel; and was brevetted briga 
dier-general of volunteers in recognition of 
his bravery at Vicksburg. He died in Chi 
cago, 111., Nov. 27, 1882. 



ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL 

Election Bill, FEDERAL. During the cussion which it aroused, both in and out 

discussion on the Federal Election Bill, of Congress, is a long bill. Yet if any one 

the HON. THOMAS BRACKETT REED, Speak- will take the trouble to compare it with 

er of the House of Representatives (q. v.) , the general election laws of most, if not all, 

wrote as follows: of the States, he will find that in its class 

it is more conspicuous for brevity than 

The national election bill of 1890, as was for length. The truth is that no election 

pointed out several times during the dis- law which attempts to provide accurately 

100 



ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL 



for all the different stages of an election 
can be otherwise than long. At the same 
time, although it takes many paragraphs 
in a bill to state exactly how each act, 
great and small, having relation to an 
election shall be performed, it is perfectly 
easy to put into very few woKls the pur 
pose of an election law and the methods 
by which it proposes to accomplish that 
purpose. 

The first object of the national elec 
tion law was to secure entire publicity 
in regard to every act connected with the 
election of members of Congress. To ef 
fect this it provides for the appointment 
of United States officers, selected from the 
two leading political parties, to watch 
over and report upon naturalization, 
registration, the conduct of the election, 
the count of the ballots, and the certifi 
cation of the members. These officers 
have no power whatever to interfere with 
local officers or existing methods. Their 
only duty is to protect the honest voter, 
secure evidence to punish wrong-doers, 
and make public every fact in connection 
with the election. The State systems, 
whether they provide for the secret and 
official ballot or otherwise, are all care 
fully protected under this law against 
any interference from United States offi 
cers. Moreover, if the officers of the 
United States at any election precinct 
exercise their powers improperly, the 
local officers are there to report their 
conduct. Thus is obtained a double as 
surance of publicity from two sets of men, 
among whom both the leading political 
parties are represented, without any in 
terference with local officers or local sys 
tems. 

At only one point does the United 
States take what may be called control 
of any essential step in the election of 
Representatives. Where an entire con 
gressional district is placed under the 
law, a United States board of canvassers 
appointed for the district receives the 
supervisors returns, and on those returns 
issues a certificate for the candidate who 
appears to be elected. If that certificate 
agrees with the certificate of the State 
officers, the name of the candidate who 
holds them both is, of course, placed upon 
the roll of members of the House. If the 
two certificates disagree, then the certifi 



cate of the United States board is prima 
facie evidence and places the name of the 
holder upon the roll of Representatives; 
but in this case any candidate may appeal 
from the decision of the board of can 
vassers to the circuit court of the United 
States, which has power to set aside the 
certificate of the canvassers and virtually 
decide whose name shall be placed on the 
roll of the House. A candidate who is 
not willing to have his cause tried by a 
court of high jurisdiction must be hard 
to please, when we consider that the only 
other known method is that of a com 
mittee of Congress made up of party 
representatives. 

Thus it will be seen that the whole pur 
pose of this bill may be summed up in 
one word " publicity." It proceeds on 
the sound American theory that all that 
is necessary, in the long run, to secure 
good government and to cure evils of any 
kind in the body politic is that the people 
should be correctly informed and should 
know all the facts. It proposes, therefore, 
by making public all the facts relating to 
elections, to protect the voters and to 
render easy the punishment of fraud. If 
wrong exists, it will disclose and punish 
it. If all is fair and honest, it proves that 
all is well, restores public confidence, and 
removes suspicion. There is absolutely 
nothing in this bill except provisions to 
secure the greatest amount of publicity 
in regard to elections, and to protect 
the ballot-box by making sure the pun 
ishment of those who commit crimes 
against the suffrage. It interferes with 
no man s rights; it changes no local 
system; it disturbs no local officers; but 
it gives publicity to every step and detail 
of the election, and publicity is the best, 
as it is the greatest, safeguard that we 
can have in this country for good govern 
ment and honest voting. No wrong can 
long continue when the people see and 
understand it, and nothing that is right 
and honest need fear the light. The 
Southern Democrats declare that the en 
forcement of this or any similar law will 
cause social disturbances and revolution 
ary outbreaks. As the negroes now dis 
franchised certainly will not revolt be 
cause they receive a vote, it is clear, there 
fore, that this means that the men who 
now rule in those States will make social 



101 



ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL 



disturbances and revolution in resistance 
to a law of the United States. It is also 
not a little amusing to observe that small 
portion of the newspaper press which has 
virtue generally in its peculiar keeping, 
raving in mad excitement merely because 
it is proposed to make public everything 
which affects the election of the repre 
sentatives of the people in Congress. There 
must be something very interesting in the 
methods by which these guardians of vir 
tue hope to gain and hold political power 
when they are so agitated at the mere 
thought of having the darkness which now 
overhangs the places where they win their 
victories dispersed. 

So much for the purpose of the bill. 
A word now as to some of the objections 
which have been raised against it. The 
most common is that which is summed up 
in the phrase " force bill." There is noth 
ing very novel in this epithet, for it can 
hardly be called an argument, or the sug 
gestion of one. It proceeds on the old 
doctrine of giving a dog a bad name a 
siiying which is valuable, but perhaps a 
trifle musty. There was a bill introduced 
many years ago to which that description 
was applied not without effect; and the 
persons opposed to the new measure, whose 
strongest intellectual quality is not orig 
inality, brought out the old name with 
out much regard to its appropriateness. 
The trouble with this is that the old bill 
and the new one are totally unlike, and 
that what applies to one has no applica 
tion to the other except that they both 
aim to protect American voters in their 
rights. There is no question of force in 
the new bill. One able editor referred to 
it as " bristling with bayonets in every 
line"; but as there is absolutely no allu 
sion to anything or anybody remotely con 
nected with bayonets, it is to be feared 
that the able editor in question had not 
read the bill. So anxious, indeed, are the 
opponents of the measure on this point 
that, not finding any bayonets in the bill, 
they themselves have put them in rather 
than not have them in at all. One news 
paper took a clause from the revised 
statutes of the United States relating to 
United States troops and printed it as a 
part of the election bill, although the 
bill contains no such clause, but merely 
re-enacts a law which has been on the 



statute-books for twenty years, and which 
would have remained and been in force, 
whether re-enacted or not, so long as it 
was not repealed. 

The President of the United States has 
from the beginning of the government had 
power to use the army and navy in sup 
port of the laws of the United States, and 
this general power was explicitly con 
ferred many years ago in that portion of 
the revised statutes which now comes 
under the title " civil rights." The new 
election bill neither adds to nor detracts 
from that power, and as the liberties of 
the country have been safe under it for 
at least twenty years, it is not to be ap 
prehended that they will now be in danger. 
The fact is that the talk about this being 
a " force bill " and having bayonets in 
every line is mere talk designed to 
frighten the unwary, for the bill is really 
an " anti-force " bill, intended to stop the 
exercise of illegal force by those who use 
it at the polls North or South ; and it is 
exactly this which the opponents of the 
bill dread. The United States have power 
to enforce all the laws which they make, 
whether they are laws regulating elections 
or for other purposes. That power the 
United States must continue to hold and 
to exercise when needful, and the na 
tional election law neither affects nor 
extends it in any way. 

The objection next in popularity is that 
the measure is sectional, and not national. 
That this should be thought a valuable 
and important shibboleth only shows how 
men come to believe that there is real 
meaning in a phrase if they only shout it 
often enough and loudly enough. Repeti 
tion and reiteration are, no doubt, pleas 
ant political exercises, but they do no* 
alter facts. In the first place, if we look 
a little below the surface, it will be found 
that no more damaging confession could 
be made than this very outcry. The law 
when applied can have but one of two 
results. It will either disclose the exist 
ence of fraud, violence, or corruption in 
a district, or show that the election is 
fair and honest. If the latter proves to 
be the case, no one can or would object 
to any law which demonstrates it. If, on 
the other hand, fraud is disclosed, then 
the necessity of this legislation is proved. 
The election law is designed to meet and 






ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL 



overcome fraud, force, or corruption, as abridgment of those liberties with the 
the case may be, in elections anywhere and ballot-box of which the performances in 
everywhere, and if it is sectional, it can Hudson county, N. J., have afforded the 
only be so because fraudulent elections are most recent illustration. The South 
sectional. Those who rave against the bill shouts loudest, but it is merely because 
as sectional that is, as directed against the ruling statesmen there think they have 
the South, for Southern and sectional ap- most to lose by fair elections. What 
pear to have become synonymous terms chiefly troubles the opponents of the bill 
admit by so doing that they have a North and South is, not that it is sec- 
monopoly of impure elections. If it were tional, but that it will check, if not stop, 
otherwise, the law, even when applied, cheating at the polls everywhere, 
would not touch them except to exhibit Another objection of a sordid kind 



their virtues in a strong light. 

In the sense, however, in which 



brought forward against the bill is that 
the it will cost money. If this or any other 



charge of sectionalism is intended there measure will tend to keep the ballot-box 

is no truth in it. Why, it has been asked, pure, it is of little consequence how much 

did not the Republicans accept the amend- it costs. The people of the United States 

ment of Mr. Lehlbach, of New Jersey, and can afford to pay for any system which 

make the measure really national? The protects the vote and makes the verdict 

Lehlbach amendment, if adopted, would of the ballot-box so honest as to command 
have made the bill universally compulsory, 
but would not have made it one whit more 



national than it now is. 



universal confidence ; but it is, of course, 
for the interest of the enemies of the law 
The clause on to make the expense seem as startling as 



which the accusation of sectionalism rests possible. They talk about $10,000,000 be- 
is that which makes the application of the ing the least probable expenditure. As- 
bill optional ; but to make a measure op- suming, as they do, that the law will be 
tional is not to make it sectional. If put in operation everywhere, this sum is 
everybody and every part of the country at least twice too large. Careful and lib- 
have the option, the bill is as broadly na- eral estimates put the cost, supposing the 
tional as if every provision in it were law were to be applied in every district, 
compulsory. No one would think of call- at less than $5,000,000; but as there is 
ing the local-option liquor laws, which are no probability that the law will be asked 
not uncommon in the States, special and for in a third of the districts, the cost 
not general legislation; and it is equally would not reach a third of the sum ac- 
absurd to call an election law containing tually necessary for all districts. Admit- 
the local-option principle sectional. A ting, however, that $5,000,000 or $6,000,- 
law which may be applied anywhere on 000 would be expended, no better expendi- 
the fulfilment of a simple and easily-ful- ture of money could be made than one 
filled condition is as national and general which would protect the ballot, give pub- 
as a law which must be applied every- licity to the conduct of elections, and 



where, whether asked for or not. 



demonstrate to all men their fairness and 



Moreover, the origin of the legislation honesty. The States of the North have 

of which this is a mere continuance is the not hesitated to take upon themselves the 

best proof of its national character. The burden of the expense of their own elec- 

original supervisors law, of which this tions under the secret and official ballot, 

is an extension, was designed especially and the wisdom of this policy is beyond 

to meet the notorious frauds in the city question. It is difficult to see why the 

of New York, and the new bill aims quite policy which is sound for the States is 

as much to cure frauds in the great cities not sound for the United States. 
of the North as in any part of the coun- It is also objected that the penal clauses 

try. It is, indeed, the knowledge of this are very severe. This is perfectly true, 

fact which sharpens the anguish of the They are very severe; nnd if any crime is 

Northern Democrats at what they pa- more deserving of severe punishment or 

thetieally call an invasion of State rights, more dangerous to the public weal than 

It is not the peril of State rights which a crime against the ballot, it has not yet 

afflicts them, but the thought of an been made generally known in this coun- 
in. N 103 



ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL 



try. The penal clauses of the law are 
intentionally severe, and the penalties are 
purposely made heavy. The penalties 
against murder, highway robbery, and 
burglary are also heavy and severe, but in 
every case it is easy to avoid them. Do 
not be a murderer, a burglar, or a high- 
wayman ; do not commit crimes against 
the ballot, and the penalties for these 
offences will be to you as if they never 
existed. 

The last objection here to be touched, 
and the only one remaining which has 
been zealously pushed, is that the enforce- 
ment of this law will endanger Northern 
property and affect Northern business in 
the South. It is not easy to see why honest 
elections, whether State or national, should 
affect injuriously either property or busi- 
ness. If honest elections are hostile to 
property and business, then the American 
system of free government is indeed in 
danger; and no more infamous reflection 
could be made upon the people of America 
than to say that they cannot be trusted to 
express their will by their votes, but 
must have their votes suppressed in the 
interests of order and virtue. No one, 
however, really believes in anything of 
the sort. This is simply a revival of the 
old cry of the Northern " doughface " 
against the agitation of the slavery ques- 
tion in the days before the war. It was 
base and ignoble then, but at that dark 
period there was at least a real danger 
of war and bloodshed behind the issue, 
Now it is not only as utterly ignoble and 
base as before, but it is false and ludi- 
crous besides. Property and business in 
the Southern States, as elsewhere, de- 
pend almost wholly for protection on 
State laws and municipal ordinances; 
and neither this nor any other national 
law, even if it could be conceived to be 
injurious to business interests, could 
touch either State or municipal govern- 
iiients. The proposition, without any 
disguise, really is that fair elections of 
Congressmen would endanger business 
and property in the Southern States; and 
Ihe mere statement of the proposition 
is its complete confutation, for, even if 
Congress had the power or the desire to 
interfere in local legislation, the election 
of fifteen or twenty Republicans in the 
South would not affect the composition 



of the House materially, and as Congress 
has no such power, the cry, of course, ia 
wholly without meaning. So keen, how- 
ever, is the sympathy of the Northern 
Democrats with this view of the subject, 
that definite threats of war against the 
national government have been heard. 

But there is, unfortunately, a much 
more serious side to this phase of the 
question. Legislation is proposed which 
the South does not like, and, thereupon, 
headed by the gallant Governor Gordon, 
Southern leaders and Southern news- 
papers begin to threaten and bluster as 
if we were back in the days of South 
Carolinian nullification. It is the old 
game of attempting to bully the North 
and West by threats. The North and 
West are to be boycotted for daring to 
protect citizens in their constitutional 
rights, and even more dreadful things are 
to follow. It has been generally believed 
that the war settled the proposition that 
this country is a nation, and that the 
nation s laws lawfully enacted are su- 
preme. Yet here we have again the old 
slavery spirit threatening to boycott 
Northern business, trying to bully the 
Northern people, raising the old sectional 
cry, and murmuring menaces of defiance 
and resistance if a certain law which can 
injure no honest man is enacted. The 
war was not wholly in vain, and it is 
time that this vaporing was stopped. 
The laws of the United States will be 
obeyed; election laws, as well as every 
other, will be enforced; and the sensible 
way is to discuss the question properly 
and have the people pass upon it, and 
to throw aside these threats of boycott 
and nullification as unworthy the use or 
notice of intelligent men. 

The difficulty, however, with all these 
objections, both for those who make them 
and those who reply to them, is that they 
are utterly unreal. They are but Ili c 
beating of gongs and drums, without any 
greater significance than mere noise can 
possess. The national election bill is a 
moderate measure. It is not a force bill; 
it does not interfere in any way with 
local elections or local government. It 
does not involve extravagant expendi- 
ture, nor is it sectional in its scope. It 
does not seek to put the negro or any 
other class of citizens in control anv- 



ELECTION BILL ELECTIONS 



where, but aims merely to secure to 
every man who ought to vote the right 
to vote and to have his vote hon 
estly counted. No one knows these 
facts to be true better than the opponents 
of the bill ; but their difficulty is that they 
cannot bring forward their real and hon 
est objection, and so they resort to much 
shrieking and many epithets. They be 
lieve, whether rightly or wrongly, that 
fair elections mean the loss of the na 
tional House at least nine times out of 
ten to the party to which they belong. 
They believe that fair elections mean the 
rise of a Republican party in every South 
ern State, led by and in good part com 
posed of white men, native to the ground, 
whose votes are now suppressed under the 
pretence of maintaining race supremacy as 
against the negro. They believe that the 
law threatens the disappearance of the 
race issue on which they found their power 
and the fall of the narrow oligarchy which 
for so many years has ruled with iron 
hand in the Southern States and in the 
national conventions of the Democratic 
party. 

The real objection to the bill, in other 
words, comes from the fact that one of 
the two great parties believes that free 
elections imperil their power. They know 
that by this bill the United States officers, 
taken from both parties, are appointed by 
the courts, the body furthest removed 
from politics. They know that these United 
States officers will be held in check by 
local officers and be utterly unable to in 
terfere with the proper conduct of the 
election. But they know also that the 
result will be publicity, and they believe 
that in consequence of publicity many dis 
tricts will be lost to them. This law is as 
fair to one party as another; but if one 
party is cheating that party will suffer, 
and where the cry against the law is loud 
est it is the best evidence of its necessity, 
and proves that those who resist it profit 
by the wrong-doing which it seeks to cure. 

The Constitution of the United States 
promises equal representation to the peo 
ple, and it makes the negro a citizen. 
Equality of representation has been de 
stroyed by the system in the South which 
makes one vote there overweigh five or 
six votes in the North, and the negro has 
been depr ? *ed of the rights the nation 



gave. No people can afford to stand quiet 
and see its charter of government made a 
dead-letter; and no wrong can endure and 
not be either cured or expiated. Fair elec 
tions North and South are vital to the 
republic. If we fail to secure them, or if 
we permit any citizen, no matter how 
humble, to be wronged, we shall atone 
for it to the last jot and tittle. No 
great moral question of right and 
wrong can ever be settled finally except 
in one way, and the longer the day 
of reckoning is postponed the larger 
will be the debt and the heavier its pay 
ment. 

Elections, FEDERAL CONTROL OF. When 
the question of the federal control of 
elections was under discussion, the Hon. 
Henry Cabot Lodge, U. S. Senator from 
Massachusetts, wrote: 



No form of government can be based on 
systematic injustice: least of all a repub 
lic. All governments partake of the im 
perfections of human nature, and fall far 
short not only of the ideals dreamed of by 
good men, but even of the intentions of 
ordinary men. Nevertheless, if perfection 
be unattainable, it is still the duty of 
every nation to live up to the principles 
of simple justice, and at least follow the 
lights it can clearly see. 

Whatever may have been the intentions 
of our forefathers, the steady growth of 
our government has been towards a 
democracy of manhood. One by one the 
barriers which kept from the suffrage the 
poor and the unlearned have been swept 
away, and, in the long run, no majority 
has been great enough, no interest has 
been strong enough, to stand up against 
that general public opinion which con 
tinually grows in the direction of larger 
liberty. That public opinion has never 
known a refluent wave. What democracy 
has gained it has always kept. If you 
suppose that the progress of democracy 
among white men has been pleasant for 
those gentlemen who were at ease in their 
possessions, you have not read history. 
It is not an agreeable thing in any day 
or generation to distribute power which 
any set of men have always had exclu 
sively to themselves among those who nev 
er had it before. It lessens one and exalts 
the other. 



195 



ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF 

We of the North have by no means late the laws relating to close time de- 
reached the perfection of self -government, barred from complaining of murder else- 
Our apportionments of congressional dis- where when its own families suffer by it? 
tricts are by no means utterly fair; but Must we ourselves reach absolute perfec- 
there is a limitation to injustice beyond tion before we ask others to treat us de- 
which no party does to go, except in In- cently? Is robbery by violence to be tol- 
diana, where 4,000 majority in the State erated and approved until we have utterly 
gives Republicans but three out of thir- abolished petty larceny? The difference 
teen Congressmen. Our voters are not between the nation of highest and the 
entirely free from undue influence, but nation of lowest civilization is only in 
there is a point beyond which no employer degree. 

dares to go ; and the votes in manufact- But, after all, have we any right to 

uring districts show how sturdy is the complain of bad actions in the South ? 

defiance of most workingmen to even a Why should not the citizens of each State 

dictation which is only inferred. Many be allowed to manage their own affairs? 

a man seems to vote against his own and If you have any confidence in a repub- 

his employer s interest to show that he lican form of government, why not show 

is in every way his own master. But it? Let them wrestle with their problem 

whichever way he votes, his vote gets alone. It is theirs; let them manage it. 

counted, and his will, whether it be feeble If it were founded on fact, this would be 

or sturdy, gets expressed. a powerful appeal to one who believes as 

It often happens that when debate does the writer of this article, in democ- 
springs up about the condition of affairs racy which is to say, in government by 
in other parts of the Union, when in- all the people; who believes that no com- 
timidation with shot-guns and mobs, when munity can permanently dethrone justice; 
systematic falsifications of returns, are who believes that all the laws of this uni- 
made subjects of comment, the errors and verse are working towards larger liberty, 
shortcomings in the North are dragged greater equality, and truer fraternity, 
in as a justification for all that has hap- But so far as federal elections are con- 
pened of illegal action elsewhere. This cerned, this appeal is founded on no fact 
kind of answer is so common, and so re- whatever. When he goes to elect a mem- 
minds one of the beam and the mote of ber of Congress, the man from Missis- 
Scripture, that it is worth analyzing, sippi or the man from Maine does not go 
It is founded on the axiom of geometry to the polls as a citizen of Mississippi or 
that things which are equal to the same of Maine, but as one of the people of the 
thing are equal to each other. This is United States. All meet on common 
undoubtedly true, if you are sure of the ground. They are citizens of one great 
first equality. All things are not equal republic one and indivisible. Each one 
because they have the same names, votes for the government of himself and 
When an employer intimates to some of of the other. The member from Missis- 
his workmen that he cares most for men sippi whom the one elects and the mem- 
who look after his interests, and that his ber from Maine whom the other sends to 
interests arc with such and such a party, Washington must unite in making the 
that employer is guilty of intimidation, laws which govern both. The member 
When the interesting collection of gentle- from Mississippi has the same right to de- 
men in a Southern district go forth to fire mand that the member from Maine shall 
guns all night, in order, as the mem- be elected according to the law of the 
ber from that district phrased it in open land as he has to demand the same thing 
House, "to let the niggers know there is of a colleague from his own State, 
going to be a fair election the next The object of assembling the Congress 
day," they also are guilty of intimidation, together is to declare the will of the peo- 
Nevertheless. there is a difference; espe- pie of the United States. How can that 
cially if there be an honest eye to see it. will be declared if there be more than 
Murder and catching fish out of season twenty men returned to the House who 
are both crimes; but there are odds in never were elected, whose very presence 
crimes. Is a community where men vio- is a violation of the Constitution of the 

1M 



ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OP 

United States and of the law of the land! press his negro and have him also? Among 

Still less will the will of the people be all his remedies, he has never proposed 

declared if those twenty men shift the to surrender the representation which he 

control of the House from one party to owes to the very negro whose vote he re- 

the other. All free countries are gov- fuses. The negro is human enough to be 

erned by parties. They can never be gov- represented, but not human enough to 

erned any other way. If, then, fraud have his vote counted, 

changes the very principles on which a Suppose it were a fact that negro domi- 

country be governed, how can it be justi- nation and barbarism would follow from 

fied? honest voting in the Southern State elec- 

The attempted justification is this: tions; suppose it were a fact that disre- 
We in the South, inasmuch as you have gard of law and complete violation of the 
conferred the right of suffrage on the rights secured to the negro by the Con- 
negro, and inasmuch as he is in the ma- stitution were absolutely necessary to pre- 
jority in many of our States, are in grave serve the civilization of the South ; what 
danger of being overwhelmed by mere has that to do with federal elections? 
ignorant numbers. We white people who Violation of law and disregard of statutes 
pay the taxes will never permit these bar- are not needed to save the United States. 
barians to rule over us. When we Evidently, then, the question of race 
thought it necessary to prevent their supremacy and of good government in the 
domination, we swarmed around their South has nothing whatever to do with 
cabins by night ; we terrorized them ; we that other question which concerns our 
showed them by examples that to be a whole people, whether the Republican 
politician was dangerous that it led to party of the United States shall receive 
death even. Those things have in great and have counted the votes which belong 
measure passed away now, and we simply to it by virtue of the Constitution of the 
falsify the count; we stuff the ballot- country. If you tell us that these are 
boxes. That makes less trouble and is ignorant votes and ought not to be 
just as effectual. Finding that their counted, we answer and the answer is 
votes do not count, the negroes have lately conclusive that ignorance is everywhere, 
ceased to vote. Whether clothed in the and that the Democratic party never 
fervid eloquence of the late Mr. Grady or failed to vote its ignorance to the utter- 
in the strange language of the governor most verge of the law. Why should they, 
of South Carolina, which will be quoted of all partisans, claim that only scholars 
further on, this is the justification. should vote? Is the high and honorable 

But this justification does not in the esteem in which the chief officers of the 
least touch the subject of federal elec- greatest Democratic city the city of New 
tions. Every Southern man knows that York are now held among men an ex- 
there is no possibility of negro domination ample of what intelligence will do for a 
in the United States. No federal taxes community? If a man thinks the same 
will ever be imposed by the negro. No thing of the republic that I do, must 
federal control is within his power. If there be an inquest held over his intelli- 
all this wrong at the ballot-box be needed gence before I can have his vote counted 
to preserve a proper local State govern- with mine in the government of the 
ment, to keep the Caucasian supreme in United States? 

the State, not a living soul can dare to Or, to put it more directly, in the Ian- 
say that the same wrong, or any other, guage of ex-Governor Bullock, of Georgia, 
is necessary for Caucasian supremacy in which is quoted in the Atlanta Constitu- 
the United States. In fact, transferred to tion, " It is now generally admitted with 
the broader arena, the struggle is between us that there is no more danger to the 
the proud Caucasian and the Caucasian body politic from an ignorant and vicious 
who is not so proud. If it be a race ques- black voter than from an illiterate and 
tion, is there any reason why the white vicious white voter." 

man in the South should have two votes This system of false counting is not in 
to my one? Is he alone of mortals to eat dulged in with impunity. Its baleful in- 
h!s <>kp n<l hnvp it too? Is he to sup- fluence has nowhere more clearly shown 

107 



ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF 

itself than in its effects upon the sense of seat and cannot find his supervisor, he 
justice of Southern men. Where else on has no remedy. Even among the most 
earth would you get such a declaration intelligent and alert politicians it is easy 
as came from John P. Finley, of Green- to see what a vast chance there is for mis- 
ville, Miss., for twelve years treasurer of behavior, and it needs no specification to 
his county a declaration made in the show how it works in South Carolina 
presence of his fellow-citizens that he did among that part of the population which 
not consider ballot-box stuffing a crime, has just struggled to manhood. But in 
but a necessity; that in a case of race order that the work of government by the 
supremacy a man who stuffed a ballot- minority may be complete, the law decrees 
box would not forfeit either his social or that there shall be eight different ballot- 
business standing; and that ballot-box boxes, so that those who can read can 
stuffing, so far as he knew, was looked know where to put their tickets and those 
upon by the best element in the South as who cannot read can exercise their ingenu- 
a choice between necessary evils? You ity. The law also provides that the officials, 
would search far before you would find who alone are present with the voter, 
the parallel of what Watt K. Johnson shall read to him the inscriptions on the 
said in the same case (Hill vs. Catchings). ballot-boxes; but as the governor provides 
" I would stuff a ballot-box," said he, " if that all the officials shall be of one party, 
required to do it, to put a good Republi- it is easy to see how valuable this provi- 
can in office, as I would a Democrat, as sion is. In order that the negro shall 
my object is to have a good honest gov- have no advantage from the position of 
ernment." the boxes becoming known, the boxes are 
" Good honest government " by ballot- shuffled from time to time, and if a ballot 
box stuffing! Think of the moral condi- gets into a wrong box it cannot be count- 
tion of a community where a man would ed. In the Miller and Elliott case, Mr. 
dare openly to make such an avowal. In Elliott s counsel, unable to deny the shift- 
saying this there is no purpose to speak ing of ballot-boxes, justifies it on the 
unkindly, but only to point out the inevi- ground that there is no law against it, 
table effect upon public morals of con- and on the further ground that it is in 
tinued violation of law. No community the spirit of the law; which last defence 
can encourage systematic disregard of is true. 

law, even for purposes deemed justifiable, With this preliminary statement the 
without injury to all other laws and to reader can enter into the grim humor of 
its own moral sense. It only needs to the reply of the governor of South Caro- 
have the fence broken down in one place lina, himself a candidate for re-election, 
to have the bad cattle range through the when the Republicans asked that among 
whole garden. the judges of election should be some Re- 
While this state of things exists in Mis- publicans. It would seem not unreason- 
sissippi, a glance at South Carolina will able that one of the groat parties^ to the 
irive even more food for reflection. In political contest should have a " sworn 
that State, by law there was but one reg- official " to see that the voter was correct- 
istration at the home of the voter (at the ly told which box to put his vote into, and 
polling precinct), which took place in to see that the voto was rightly counted. 
1882. Since that time all additions to the The governor, however, rose above party, 
list have been made at the county seats, rejected the Repub ioan request, put none 
Whenever a man moves not merely from but Democrats on guard, and in his reply 
county to county, not merely from town used, among other similar things, the fol- 
to town, not only from precinct to pre- lowing words: 

cinct, but whenever he removes from house ., To the eterna , honol . of mir state and 

to house in the same precinct, he t n( > Democratic party, it can now be said 

must have a new certificate from the that our elections are the freest and fairest 

supervisor of registration, who, nomi- * ^"Sf^.^^ffi^ 

nally at least, has his office at the county ( . om1 jtj,, n . ran. under her just and equal 

M at Without this changed certificate, he laws. Impartially administered, as they are. 

is disfranchised. If he travels to the county be by any perversion or intimidation barred 

198 



to-day between us and their rule is a flimsy 
statute the eight-box law which depends 
for its effectiveness upon the unity of the 
white people." 



ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF 

at the polls from the free and full exercise which it did after waiting for the death 

of his suffrage. There Is not only perfect o f t v Pm itpstint 
freedom in voting, but the amplest protection 

afforded the voter." " an J man replies, as sometimes peo 

ple do, " You are assuming that the 

These words were in his letter of Sept. colored man will vote your ticket, and 

29, 1888. On July 30 preceding, just that is not so," the plain answer is: "It 

two months before, that same governor is either so or not so. If it is so, then 

said, in a public speech, which you will we are deprived of a vote which belongs 

find in the Charleston News and Courier to us under the Constitution of the 

of the 31st, the following: United States. If it be not so, and the 

negro is voting the Democratic ticket 

^nn^n baVe "^ th ? ^ , f *%*** from choice > where is vour race is sue? 

400,000 over a majority of 600,000. No T * u 1. 

army at Austerlitz or Waterloo or Gettys- both . whlte man and negro are agreed 

burg could ever be wielded like that mass of n white supremacy, why do you send 

600,000 people. The only thing which stands so much Southern eloquence North to 

touch our Caucasian hparts?" 

inis state of things cannot be good for 
this nation, either North or South. Re 
member that this is not a question of 

Of course, the utterance of July 30 was outcries and epithets, of reproaches and 

for the home market, and the letter of hysterics. It is a plain question of jus- 

September for export. But when you tice and fair-dealing. Both sections of 

consider that both these statements were this country can afford to be fair and 

made to the same community, by the open with each other. If you say that 

governor of the State, you can form you have a right of local self-government 

some idea of the effect which this system which we have no business to interfere 

of action at the polls has had on the with, and that, unless you are allowed 

morale of the people. to go on in your own way, you fear 

This course of utterly riding over the disaster most foul, the next thing for 

will of the voter has been carried to such all of us to do is to find some plan 

excess as was never dreamed at the out- which will give us the votes of the whole 

set, even by those who planned the first people of the United States, and leave 

great wrongs. When South Carolina, by you your local self-government. 
a gerrymander which remains up to date To put this whole matter in a nutshell, 

the greatest spectacle that has ever been the Republican party alleges that it is 

put upon a map, and which to this day deprived by all manner of devices differ- 

almost defies belief, put 31,000 colored ing in different States, but having one 

people in one district with only 6,000 common purpose of votes which under 

whites, the framers of the act meant at the Constitution of the land that party 

least that that district should have the is entitled to. To this the parties offend- 

representative of its choice. But, en- ing reply that the suppression of votes 

couraged by the success of the Southern and voters is necessary to prevent the 

plan elsewhere, even that district has threatened destruction of local self-gov- 

been taken away. It is well known that ernment by the numerical superiority of 

in the South itself this was regarded as race ignorance in very many States. We 

an outrage, but the voice of those so re- have a right, say they, to prevent, by vio- 

garding it has fallen into the silence of lence or by fraud, if need be, the control 

consent. of the ignorant in our own States. 

In Alabama the 4th district was so Suppose all that to be so; suppose that 

made that 27,000 colored men were all you are doing is needful for your pres- 

packed in with 6,000 whites, and at every ervation, and that you must keep on at 

election the Democratic candidate is re- all costs: how does that give you the 

turned. So flagrant was one of the in- right to govern us by your methods? 

stances that the Forty-eighth Congress, If you have the right of local self-govern- 

Democratic by ninety-five majority, was ment, have we not the right of national 

obliged to disgorge the sitting member, self-government? If you of the States 

109 



ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF 

are willing to take all hazards to save over, the exercise of this supervisory 

yourselves from ignorant negro domina- power is to be called into being by 

tion, are you going to blame us of the petition, thus singling out by their own 

United States if we refuse to submit to signatures those persons who are respon- 

fraudulent domination ? You think negro sible for the claim that the elections need 

domination unbearable. We think fraudu- supervision, and who thereby become ob- 

lent domination a crime. noxious to the very violence which they 

But we need not quarrel. There must are striving to avoid. 

be some remedy consistent with the Con- In some States, like North Carolina 
stitution, which was intended to provide and Virginia, a supervisor law would be 
for this very local government, and for very helpful; but there are States and 
this very federal government. Each was communities with regard to which it is 
to be respected within its sphere, and each said that it would be assuming a terrible 
was to subsist side by side with the other, responsibility to enact it. Against such 
So far as the election of members of Con- a law the South urges sectionalism and its 
gress was concerned, the Constitution pro- interference with local self-government; 
vides for the very condition in which we for no supervision which does not examine 
find ourselves. In the first instance, the all the boxes and count all the votes is 
legislature of the State may make the worth the trouble of enacting. It is true 
regulations for the election of members, that in New York City, under the able and 
but Congress may make or alter them in thorough management of the chief super- 
accordance with its own will. It may visor, great results have been accom- 
alter them by providing for federal super- plished by this law, and elections are held 
vision, or it may make such new regula- so satisfactory to both parties that there 
tions as will assume the entire election have been no contested elections from that 
from registration to certification. city in my remembrance. Whether in 

We have, then, two kinds of remedy other regions, among a different people, in 
the alteration of State regulations and the sparsely settled places, this could be so 
making of new ones of our own. As to well done is the point at issue. 
the first method, so far as it was ex- In what we call theory, no really valid 
hibited in the proposed Senate bill for su- objection can be urged against federal 
pervision, the Senator from Alabama, Mr. supervision, for an honest count can hurt 
Pugh, when the bill was presented in the no one. Even if all the boxes are sub- 
Senate, rose and declared: jected to the supervision of a second set 

of men, the result in New York proves 

" If the bill becomes a law its execution that when once esta bli s hed it is a solid 
will Insure the shedding of blood and the . . , , . 

destruction of the peace and good order safeguard satisfactory to honest people, 

of this country. Its passage will be resisted So easily does the system now move, and 

by every pariiamentary method, and every so f ree j s jt f rom friction, that it is doubt- 

rnK Stat" ** ^ Constltutl n f the ful if a tenth of the readers of this article 

even remember that the system is fully 

This declaration, made at a time when established. Many contests, however, 

de-bate is not usual on a bill, will attract were necessary to thus establish it in New 

attention to the objections which are urged York City. But this is a practical world, 

against the supervisor law. Some of where all unnecessary difficulties ought to 

them are worth reproducing in order that be avoided, and where the middle way is 

people may carefully consider all parts often the best because it is the middle 

of a question which must have a settle- way. 

ment, and can never have any final settle- In this case the middle course is ap- 

ment which is not right. The supervisor parently but only apparently the most 

law is the subject of objection, among radical. Let the country at once assume 

other things, because, while it leaves the at least the count and return of its own 

elections in the hands of the States, it elections. It may be that this could be 

proposes to set watchers over the State done in a way that would leave the States 

officials, and to use a kind of dual control which object to supervision free from all 

liable to all manner of friction, More- interference from their neighbors, as it 

200 



ELECTIVE FRANCHISE 

would certainly leave us free from false ton in cities and towns and in voting pre- 

counting and false returns. They could cincts having 250 voters or more. 

then govern their own people in their own In Texas cities of 10,000 or over may 

way, free from federal supervision in require registration. In Rhode Island 

congressional elections, and the United non-taxpayers are required to register be- 

States could govern itself free from all fore Dec. 31, each year. Registration is 

fear of those practices deemed indispen- prohibited by constitutional provision in 

sable to local government. All we ask is Arkansas and West Virginia. 

that in national matters the majority The qualifications for voting in each 

of the voters in this country may rule. State and the classes excluded from suf- 

Why should any Southern man object to frage are as follows: 

this? Alabama. Citizen or alien who has de- 

Elective Franchise. During the Colo- clared intention; must have resided in 

nial period the people elected their repre- State one year, county three months, town 

sentatives in the assemblies or legislatures or precinct thirty days; persons convicted 

by ballot or, as in Virginia, by a viva voce of crime punishable by imprisonment, 

vote. The governors of Rhode Island idiots or insane excluded from suffrage, 

and Connecticut were the only ones elected Arkansas. Citizen or alien who has 

by the people, with the exception of Massa- declared intention ; must have resided in 

chusetts from 1620 to 1691. The CONSTI- State one year, county six months, pre- 

TTJTION OF THE UNITED STATES ( q. v.) pre- cinct thirty days ; persons convicted of 

scribes the methods of electing the Presi- felony, until pardoned, failing to pay poll 

dent, Vice-president, and members of each tax, idiots or insane excluded. 

House of Congress. Local elections are California. Citizen by nativity, nat- 

regulated by State laws. In all the uralization or treaty of Queretaro; must 

States except Wyoming and Colorado have resided in State one year, county 

(where women are entitled to full suf- ninety days, precinct thirty days; Chinese, 

frage) the right to vote at general elec- insane, embezzlers of public moneys, con- 

tions is restricted to males twenty-one victed of infamous crime excluded, 

years of age or over. Colorado. Citizen or alien who has 

The registration of voters is required in declared intention four months previous 

the following States and Territories: to offering to vote; must have resided in 

Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, State six months, county ninety days, 

Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, town or precinct ten days; persons under 

Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, guardianship, in prison, insane or idiots 

Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Mon- excluded. 

tana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jer- Connecticut. Citizen who can read 

sey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Penn- constitution or statutes; must have re- 

sylvania, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, sided in State one year, town six months; 

Virginia and Wyoming. In some counties persons convicted of felony or theft ex- 

in Georgia registration is required by eluded. 

local law. In Kentucky registration is Delaware. Citizen and paying county 
required in cities; in Kansas in cities of tax after age of twenty-two; must have 
the first and second class; in Nebraska resided in State one year, county one 
and Iowa in cities of 2,500 population month, precinct fifteen days; idiots, in- 
and over; in North Dakota in cities of sane, paupers, felons excluded, 
over 3,000; in Ohio in some cities; in Florida. Citizen or alien who has de- 
Maine in towns of 500 or more voters; in clared intention and paid capitation tax 
South Dakota in cities and towns of over two years ; must have resided in State one 
1,000 voters and in counties where regis- year, county six months; persons under 
tration has been adopted by popular vote; guardianship, insane, convicted of felony 
in Tennessee in all counties of 50,000 or or any infamous crime excluded, 
more inhabitants; in New York in all Georgia. Citizen who has paid all his 
cities and villages of over 5,000 popula- taxes since 1877; must have resided in 
tion: in Missouri in cities of 100,000; in State one year, county six months; idiots. 
Wisconsin in some cities. In Washing- insane, convicted of crime punishable by 

201 



ELECTIVE FRANCHISE 

imprisonment until pardoned, tax delin- Massachusetts. Citizen who can read 

qiients excluded. constitution in English, and write; must 

Idaho. Citizen; must have resided in have resided in State one year, town six 

State six months, county thirty days; Chi- months; paupers (except United States 

nese, Indians, Mormons, felons, insane, soldiers and sailors honorably discharged) 

convicted of treason or election bribery and persons under guardianship excluded, 

excluded. Michigan-. Citizen or inhabitant who 

Illinois. Citizen ; must have resided has declared intention under United States 

in State one year, county ninety days, laws two years and six months before elec- 

town or precinct thirty days; persons con- tion and lived in State two and a half 

victed of crime punishable in penitentiary years; must have resided in State six 

until pardoned and restored to rights ex- months, town or county twenty days; 

eluded. Indians, duellists, and accessories ex- 

Indiana. Citizen or alien who has de- eluded. 

clared intention and resided one year in Minnesota. Citizen or alien who has 

United States and six months in State; declared intention and civilized Indians; 

must have resided in State six months, must have resided in United States one 

town sixty days, precinct thirty days; year prior to election, State four months, 

persons convicted of crime and disfran- town or precinct ten days; persons con- 

chised by judgment of court excluded. victed of treason or felony unless pardon- 

lowa. Citizen; must have resided in ed ; under guardianship or insane excluded. 

State six months, county sixty days; idiots, Mississippi. Citizen who can read or 

insane, convicted of infamous crime, non- understand constitution after Jan. 1, 

resident United States soldiers and ma- 1892; must have resided in State two 

rines excluded. years, town or precinct one year (except 

Kansas. Citizen or alien who has de- clergymen, who are qualified after six 
clared intention; must have resided in months in precinct); insane, idiots, Ind- 
State six months, town or precinct thirty ians not taxed, felons, persons who have 
days; idiots, insane, convicts, rebels not not paid taxes excluded, 
restored to citizenship, persons under Missouri. Citizen or alien who has de- 
guardianship, public embezzlers, bribed, clared intention not less than one year nor 
excluded. more than five before offering to vote ; 

Kentucky. Citizen; must have resided must have resided in State one year, town 

in State one year, county six months, town sixty days; United States soldiers and 

or precinct sixty days ; idiots, insane, marines, paupers, criminals convicted once 

persons convicted of treason, felony, or until pardoned, felons and violators of 

bribery at election excluded. suffrage laws convicted a second time 

Louisiana. Citizen or alien who has de- excluded. 

clared intention; must have resided in Montana. Citizen; must have resided 
State one year, county six months, pre- iii State one year, county thirty days; 
cinct thirty days; idiots, insane, persons Indians, felons, and soldiers excluded, 
convicted of treason, embezzlement of pub- Nebraska. Citizen or alien who has de- 
lie funds, or any crime punishable by im- clared intention thirty days prior to elec- 
prisonment in penitentiary excluded. tion ; must have resided in State six 

Maine. Citizen ; must have resided in months, county forty days, town or pre- 

town three months; paupers, persons un- cinct ten days; idiots, insane, convicted 

der guardianship. Indians not taxed, and of treason or felony unless pardoned, sol- 

in 1893 all new voters who cannot read diers and sailors excluded, 

constitution or write their own names in Nevada. Citizen; must have resided in 

English excluded. State six months, town or precinct thirty 

Maryland. Citizen; must have resided days; idiots, insane, convicted of treason 
in State one year, county six months ; per- or felony, unamnestied Confederates who 
sons over twenty-one years convicted of bore arms against the United States ex- 
larceny or other infamous crime unless eluded. 

pardoned, under guardianship as lunatic- New Hampshire. Inhabitants, native or 

or non compos mentis excluded. naturalized; must have resided in town 

202 



ELECTIVE FRANCHISE ELECTORAL COLLEGES 

six months; paupers (except United compos mentis, convicted of bribery or in 
states soldiers and sailors honorably dis- famous crime until restored to right to 
charged ) , persons excused from paying vote, under guardianship excluded, 
taxes at their own request excluded. South Carolina. Citizen; must have 

New Jersey. Citizen ; must have re- resided in State one year, town sixty days ; 

sided in State one year, county five persons convicted of treason, murder, or 

months; idiots, insane, paupers, persons other infamous crime, duelling, paupers, 

convicted of crimes (unless pardoned) insane, and idiots excluded, 

which exclude them from being witnesses South Dakota. Citizen or alien who 

excluded. has declared intention ; must have resided 

New York. Citizen ninety days previ- in United States one year. State six 

cus to election; must have resided in months, county thirty days, precinct ten 

State one year, county four months, town days; persons under guardianship, idiots, 

or precinct thirty days; persons convicted insane, convicted of treason or felony un- 

of bribery or any infamous crime, unless less pardoned excluded, 

sentenced to reformatory or pardoned, bet- Tennessee. Citizen; must have resided 

tors on result of any election at which in State one year, county six months, and 

they offer to vote, bribers and bribed for be resident of precinct or district; persons 

votes excluded. convicted of bribery or other infamous of- 

North Carolina. Citizen; must have fence excluded. 

resided in State one year, county ninety Texas. Citizen; must have resided in 

days; persons convicted of felony or other State one year, town six months, and be 

infamous crime, idiots, and lunatics ex- actual resident of precinct or district; 

eluded. idiots, lunatics, paupers, United States 

North Dakota. Citizen, alien who has soldiers and sailors, and persons convicted 

declared intention one year, or civilized of felony excluded. 

Indian who has severed tribal relations Vermont. Citizens must have resided 

two years prior to election ; must have re- in State one year, town or precinct three 

sided in State one year, county six months, months ( if residing in State one year, 

precinct ninety days; United States sol- lona fide resident in precinct at time of 

diers and sailors, persons non compos men- registration may vote); unpardoned con- 

tis, and felons excluded. victs, deserters during Civil War, and ex- 

Ohio. Citizen; must have resided in Confederates excluded. 

State one year, county thirty days, pre- Virginia. Citizen; must have resided 

cinct twenty days; persons convicted of in State one year, town three months, 

felony until pardoned and restored to citi- precinct thirty days; idiots, lunatics, 

zenship, idiots, insane, United States sol- persons convicted of bribery at election, 

diers and sailors excluded. embezzlement of public funds, treason, 

Oregon. Citizen or alien who has de- felony, and petty larceny, duellists and 

dared intention one year; must have re- abettors, unless pardoned by legislature, 

sided in State six months; idiots, insane, excluded. See DISFRANCHISEMENT. 

convicted of felony, United States soldiers Electoral Colleges, THE. The people 

and sailors, and Chinese excluded. do not vote directly for President and 

Pennsylvania. Citizen one month, and Vice-President, but they choose, for each 
if twenty-two years or over must have congressional district in the respective 
paid tax within two years; must have re- States, a representative in an electoral 
sided in State one year, or six months if college, which consists of as many mem- 
after having been a qualified elector or bers as there are congressional districts 
native he shall have removed and return- in each State, besides its two Senators. 
ed ; in precinct two months ; non - tax- The theory of the framers of the Consti- 
payers and persons convicted of some of- tution was that by this means the best 
fence whereby right of suffrage is forfeit- men of the country would be chosen in the 
od excluded. several districts, and they would better 

Rhode Island. Citizen; must have re- express the wishes of the people concern- 
sided in State two years, town six ing a choice of President and Yice-Prcsi- 
months; paupers, lunatics, persons non dent than a vote directly by the people 

203 



ELECTOBAL COMMISSION 

for these officers. The several electors adopted, providing for the investigation of 
chosen in the different States meet at the action of returning boards in South 
their respective State capitals on the first Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. There 
Wednesday in December, and name in was much excitement in Congress and anx- 
their ballots the persons for President and iety among the people. Thoughtful men 
Vice-President. Then each electoral col- saw much trouble at the final counting 
lege makes three lists of the names voted of the votes of the electoral colleges by 
for these offices. These lists must be sent the president of the Senate, according to 
to the president of the Senate by the first the prescription of the Constitution, for 
Wednesday of January. Congress meets already his absolute power in the matter 
in joint session to count the votes on the was questioned. Proctor Knott, of Ken- 
second Wednesday of February. See tucky, offered a resolution for the appoint- 
PKESIDENT, VOTE FOR. ment of a committee of seven members, to 
Electoral Commission. A Republican act in conjunction with a similar commit- 
National Convention assembled at Cincin- teo that might be appointed by the Senate, 
nati, June 16, 1876, and nominated to prepare and report a plan for the crea- 
Ilutherford Birchard Hayes, of Ohio, for tion of a tribunal to count the electoral 
President, and William A. Wheeler, of votes, whose authority no one could ques- 
New York, for Vice-President. On the tion, and whose decision all could accept 
27th a Democratic National Convention as final. The resolution was adopted, 
assembled at St. Louis and nominated The Senate appointed a committee; and on 
Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for Presi- Jan. 18, 1877, the joint committee, con- 
dent, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indi- sisting of fourteen members, reported a 
ana, for Vice-President. A very excited can- bill that provided for the meeting of both 
vass succeeded, and so vehement became Houses in the hall of the House of Repre- 
the lawlessness in some of the Southern sentatives on Feb. 1, 1877, to there count 
States that at times local civil war seemed the votes in accordance with a plan which 
inevitable. The result of the election was the committee proposed. In case of more 
in doubt for some time, each party claim- than one return from a State, all such re- 
ing for its candidate a majority. In the turns, having been made by appointed 
electoral college 185 votes were necessary tellers, should be, upon objections being 
to the success of a candidate. It was de- made, submitted to the judgment and de 
cided after the election that Mr. Tilden cision, as to which was the lawful and true 
had 184. Then ensued a long and bitter electoral vote of the State, of a commis- 
contest in South Carolina, Florida, and sion of fifteen, to be composed of five mem- 
Louisiana over the official returns, each bers from each House, to be appointed 
party charging the other with fraud, viva voce, Jan. 30, with four associate 
There was intense excitement in the Gulf justices of the Supreme Court of the 
region. In order to secure fair play, United States, who should, on Jan. 30, 
President Grant issued an order (Nov. 10, select another of the justices of the Sn- 
1876) to General Sherman to instruct preme Court, the entire commission to be 
military officers in the South to be vigi- presided over b\ r the associate justice long- 
liint, to preserve peace and good order, and est in commission. After much debate, 
see that legal boards of canvassers of the the bill passed both Houses. It became 
votes cast at the election were unmo- a law, by the signature of the Presi- 
lested. He also appointed distinguished dent, Jan. 29, 1877. The next day the 
gentlemen of both political parties to go two Houses each selected five of its 
to Louisiana and Florida to be present at members to serve on the Electoral Com- 
the reception of the returns and the count- mission, the Senate members being George 
ing of the votes. The result was that it F. Edmunds (Vt. ), Oliver P. Morton 
was decided, on the count by returning find.), Frederick T. Frelinghnysen 
boards, that Hayes had a majority of the (N. J. ), Thomas F. Bayard (Del.), and 
electoral votes. The friends of Mr. Tilden Allen G. Thurman (O.), and the House 
were not satisfied. There was a. Demo- members, Henry B. Payne (0.), Eppa 
cratic majority in the House of Repre- Ilunton (Va.), Josiah G. Abbott (Mass.). 
sentative*, On Dec. 4 a resolution \vus Jnmes A. Gnrfield (O. ), and George F. 

204 



ELECTRICITY ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 




Hoar (Mass.). Senator Francis Kernan Faraday pronounced it perfect. Starr 
(N. Y. ) was afterwards substituted for was so excited by his success that he died 
Senator Thurman, who had become ill. that night, and nothing more was done 
Judges Clifford, Miller, Field, and Strong, with the invention. In 1859 PROF. MOSES 
of the Supreme Court, were named in the G. FARMER (q. v.) lighted a parlor at 
bill, and these chose as the fifth member Salem, Mass., by an 
of associate justices Joseph P. Bradley, electric lamp, but the 
The Electoral Commission assembled in cost of producing it, 
the hall of the House of Representatives, by means of a gal- 
Feb. 1, 1877. The legality of returns vanic battery in the 
from several States was questioned, and cellar, was so great 
was passed upon and decided by the com- that the use of it was 
mission. The counting was completed on abandoned. These 
March 2, and the commission made the were the pioneers in 
final decision in all cases. The president our country. Now the 
of the Senate then announced that Hayes generation of electric- 
and Wheeler were elected. The forty- ity by dynamos, mag- 
fourth Congress finally adjourned on Sat- nets, etc., produces 
urday, March 3. March 4, prescribed as brilliant light at less 
the day for the taking of the oath of office cost than by illumi- 
by the President, falling on Sunday, Mr. nating gas. It is used 
Hayes, to prevent any technical objections so extensively in cities 
that might be raised, privately took the for various purposes 
oath of office on that day, and on Monday, that it has created a 
the 5th, he was publicly inaugurated, in new phrase in our 
the presence of a vast multitude of his vocabulary " Indus- 
fellow-citizens, trial Electricity." For AKC LIGHT . 

Electricity. The employment of elec- the provision of light, 

tricity for illumination, and as a mover heat, and motive power, extensive plants 

of machinery, has added an interesting are established in almost every city, 

chapter to the volume of our national town, and village in the country. For 

history; and the name of Edison as one light, two kinds of lamps are used 

of the chief promoters of the use of the the arc and the incandescent. Elec- 

mysterious agent for light- tricity moves sewing-machines, elevators, 

ing, heating, and motive street-railway cars, the machinery of fac- 

power is coextensive with tories, agricultural implements, and min- 

the realm of civilization, ing drills; and, with all its marvellous 

Ever since the discovery of adaptations and achievements towards 

electro-magnetism, thought- the close of the nineteenth century, its 

ful men have contemplated development was then considered still in 

the possibility of producing its infancy. 

a controllable electric il- Electricity, FARMING BY. See FARM- 

hnninator and motor. In ING BY ELECTRICITY. 

1845 John W. Starr, of Electricity in the Nineteenth Cen- 

Cincinnati, filed a caveat in tury. ELIHU THOMSON (q. v.}, the cele- 

the United States Patent brated inventor and electrician, writes as 

Office for a "divisible elec- follows: 
trie light." He went to 

England to complete and The latter half of the nineteenth cen- 

prove the utility of his in- tury must ever remain memorable, not 

vention. There George Pea- only for the great advances in nearly all 

body, the American banker, offered him the useful arts, but for the peculiarly 

all the money he might need, in case his rapid electric progress, and the profound 

experiment should be successful. It effect which it has had upon the lives and 

proved so at an exhibition of it at Man- business of the people. In the preceding 

Chester before scientific men. Professor century we find no evidences of the ap- 

205 




INCANDESCENT 
LAMP. 



ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 



plication of electricity to any useful pur 
pose. Few of the more important prin 
ciples of the science were then known. 
Franklin s invention of the lightning-rod 
was not intended to utilize electric force, 
but to guard life and property from the 
perils of the thunder-storm. Franklin s 
kite experiment confirmed the long-sus 
pected identity of lightning and electric 
sparks. It was not, however, until the 
discovery by Alexander Volta, in 1799, 
of his pile, or battery, that electricity 
could take its place as an agent of prac 
tical value. Volta, when he made this 
great discovery, was following the work 
of Galvani, begun in 1786. But Galvani 
in his experiments mistook the effect for 
the cause, and so missed making the 
unique demonstration that two different 
metals immersed in a solution could set 
up an electric current. Volta brought to 
the notice of the world the first means for 
obtaining a steady flow of electricity. 

The simplest facts of electro-magnetism, 
upon which much of the later electrical 
developments depend, remained entirely 
unknown until the first quarter of the 
nineteenth century. Davy first showed 
the electric arc or " arch " on a small 
scale between pieces of carbon. He also 
laid the foundation for future electro 
chemical work by decomposing by the bat 
tery current potash and soda, and thus 
isolating the alkali metals, potassium and 
sodium, for the first time. A fund was 
soon subscribed by " a few zealous culti 
vators and patrons of science," interested 
in the discovery of Davy, and he had at 
his service no less than 2,000 cells of 
voltaic battery. With the intense cur 
rents obtained from it he again demon 
strated the wonderful and brilliant 
phenomenon of the electric arc, by first 
closing the circuit of the battery through 
Icrininals of hardwood charcoal and then 
separating them for a short distance. A 
ni;i,L r nificent arch of flame was maintained 
between the separated ends, and the light 
from the charcoal pieces was of dazzling 
splendor. Thus was born into the world 
the electric arc light, of which there are 
now many hundreds of thousands burn 
ing nightly in our own country alone. 

As early as 1774 attempts were made 
by Le Sage, of Geneva, to apply frictional 
electricity to telegraphy. Tt was easy 



enough to stop and start a current in -t 
line of wire connecting (wo points, but 
something more than that was requisite. 
A good receiver, or means for recognizing 
the presence or absence of current in the 
wire or circuit, did not exist. The art 
had to wait for the discovery of the effects 
of electric current upon magnets and the 
production of magnetism by such currents. 
Curiously, even in 1802 the fact that a 
wire conveying a current would deflect 
a compass needle was observed by 
Romagnosi, of Trente, but it was after 
wards forgotten, and not until 1819 was 
any real advance made. 

It was then that Oersted, of Copenhagen, 
showed that a magnet tends to set itself 
at right angles to the wire conveying cur 
rent and that the direction of turning 
depends on the direction of the current. 
The study of the magnetic effects of elec 
tric currents by Arago, Ampere, and the 
production of the electro-magnet by Stur 
geon, together with the very valuable 
work of Henry and others, made possible 
the completion of the electric telegraph. 
This was done by Morse and Vail in 
America, and almost simultaneously by 
workers abroad, but, before Morse had 
entered the field, Prof. Joseph Henry 
had exemplified by experiments the work 
ing of electric signalling by electro 
magnets over a short line. It was Henry, 
in fact, who first made a practically use 
ful electro-magnet of soft iron. The his 
tory of the electric telegraph teaches us 
that to no single individual is the in 
vention due. The Morse system had been 
demonstrated in 1837, but not until 1844 
was the first telegraph line built. It con 
nected Baltimore and Washington, and 
the funds for defraying its cost were only 
obtained from Congress after a severe 
struggle. The success of the Morse tele 
graph was soon followed by the establish 
ment of telegraph lines as a means of 
communication between all the large cities 
and populous districts. Scarcely ten 
years elapsed before the possibility of a 
transatlantic telegraph was mooted. The 
cable laid in 1858 was a failure. A few 
words passed, and then the cable broke 
down completely. A renewed effort to 
lay a cable was made in 1806, but disap 
pointment again followed: the cable broke 
in mid-ocean. The great task was suc- 



206 



ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 



cessfully accomplished in the following 
year. Even the lost cable of 1866 was 
found, spliced to a new cable, and com 
pleted soon after as a second working line. 
The delicate instruments for the working 
of these long cables were due to the genius 
of Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kel 
vin. The number of cables joining the 
Eastern and Western hemispheres has 
been increased from time to time, and the 
opening of a new cable is now an ordinary 
occurrence, calling for little or no especial 
note. 

The introduction of the electric tele 
graph was followed by the invention of 
various signalling systems, the most im 
portant being the fire-alarm telegraph, 
automatic clock systems, automatic elec 
tric fire signals, burglar alarms, telegraphs 
which print words and characters, as in 
the stock " ticker," the telautograph, in 
which writing is reproduced at the re 
ceiving end of the line, the duplex, quad- 
ruplex, and multiplex systems of teleg 
raphy, automatic transmitting machines 
and rapid recorders, etc. 

The first example of a working type 
of an arc lamp was that of W. E. Staite, 
in 1847, and his description of the lamp 
and the conditions under which it could 
be worked is a remarkably exact and full 
statement, considering the time of its ap 
pearance. But it was a long time before 
the electric arc acquired any importance 
as a practical illuminant; the expense was 
too great, and the batteries soon became 
exhausted. Michael Faraday, a most 
worthy successor of Davy, made the ex 
ceedingly important observation that a 
wire, if moved in the field of a magnet, 
would yield a current of electricity. 
Simple as the discovery was, its effect has 
been stupendous. The fundamental prin 
ciple of the future dynamo electric ma 
chine was discovered by him. This was in 
1831. Both the electric motor and the 
dynamo generator were now potentially 
present with us. Here, then, was the em 
bryo dynamo. The century closed with 
single dynamo machines of over 5,000 
horse-power capacity, and with single 
power stations in which the total electric 
generation by such machines is 75,000 to 
100,000 horse-power. So perfect is the. 
modern dynamo that out of 1,000 horse 
power expanded in driving it, 950 or more 



may be delivered to the electric line as 
electric energy. The electric motor, now 
so common, is a machine like the dynamo, 
in which the principle of action is simply 
reversed ; electric energy delivered from 
the lines becomes again mechanical motion 
or power. 

The decade between 1860 and 1870 open 
ed a new era in the construction and work 
ing of dynamo machines and motors. 
Gramme, in 1870, first succeeded in pro 
ducing a highly efficient, compact, and 
durable continuous-current dynamo. It 
was in a sense the culmination of many 
years of development, beginning with the 
early attempts immediately following 
Faraday s discovery, already referred to. 
In 1872 Von Hefner Alteneck, in Berlin, 
modified the ring winding of Gramme and 
produced the " drum winding," which 
avoided the necessity for threading wire 
through the centre of the iron ring as in 
the Gramme construction. 

At the Centennial Exhibition, held at 
Philadelphia in 1876, but two exhibits of 
electric-lighting apparatus were to be 
found. Of these one was the Gramme and 
the other the Wallace-Farmer exhibit. The 
Wallace exhibit contained other examples 
reflecting great credit on this American 
pioneer in dynamo work. Some of these 
machines were very similar in construction 
to later forms which went into very ex 
tensive use. The large search-lights oc 
casionally used in night illumination dur 
ing the exhibitions were operated by the 
current from Wallace-Farmer machines. 

The Centennial Exhibition also marks 
the beginning the very birth, it may be 
said of an electric invention destined to 
become, before the close of the century, a 
most potent factor in human affairs. The 
speaking telephone of Alexander Graham 
Bell was there exhibited for the first time 
to the savants, among whom was the dis 
tinguished electrician and scientist Sir 
William Thomson. For the first time in 
the history of the world a structure of 
copper wire and iron spoke to a listening 
car. The instruments were, moreover, the 
acme of simplicity. Within a year many 
a boy had constructed a pair of telephones 
at an expenditure for material of only a 
few pennies. The transmitter was only 
suited for use on short lines, and was soon 
afterwards replaced by various forms of 



207 



ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTUKY 

carbon microphone transmitters, to the idea of incandescent platinum strips or 

production of which many inventors had wires, but without success. The announce- 

turned their attention, notably Edison, ment of his lamp caused a heavy drop 

Hughes, Blake, and Runnings. in gas shares, long before the problem 

Few of those who talk between Boston was really solved by a masterly stroke in 
and Chicago know that in doing so they his carbon filament lamp. Curiously, the 
have for the exclusive use of their voices nearest approach to the carbon filament 
a total of over 1,000,000 Ibs. of copper lamp had been made in 1845, by Starr, 
wire in the single line. There probably an American, who described in a British 
now exist in the United States alone be- patent specification a lamp in which elec- 
tween 75,000 and 100,000 miles of hard- trie current passed through a thin strip 
drawn copper wire for long-distance tele- of carbon kept it heated while surrounded 
phone service, and over 150,000 miles of by a glass bulb in which a vacuum was 
wire in underground conduits. There are maintained. Starr had exhibited his 
upward of 750,000 telephones in the lamps to Faraday, in England, and was 
United States, and, including both over- preparing to construct dynamos to furnish 
head and underground lines, a total of electric current for them in place of bat- 
more than 500,000 miles of wire. teries, but sudden death put an end to his 

The display of electric light during the labors. 

Paris Exposition of 1878 was the first The Edison lamp differed from those 

memorable use of the electric light on a which preceded it in the extremely small 

large scale. The source of light was the section of the carbon strip rendered hot by 

"electric candle" of Paul Jablochkoff, a the current, and in the perfection of the 

Russian engineer. It was a strikingly vacuum in which it was mounted. Edison 

original and simple arc lamp. Instead of first exhibited his lamp in his laboratory 

placing the two carbons point to point, at Menlo Park, in December, 1879; but 

as had been done in nearly all previous before it could be properly utilized an 

lamps, he placed them side by side, with a enormous amount of work had to be done, 

strip of baked kaolin between them. Owing His task was not merely the improvement 

to unforeseen difficulties it was gradually of an art already existing; it was the 

abandoned, after having served a great pur- creation of a new art. The details of all 

pose in directing the attention of the world parts of the system were made more per- 

to the possibilities of the electric arc feet, and in the hands of Edison and others 

in lighting. the incandescent lamps, originally of high 

Inventors in America were not idle, cost, were much cheapened and the quality 
By the close of 1878, Brush, of Cleve- of the production was greatly improved, 
land, had brought out his series system In spite of the fact that it was well 
of arc lights, including special dynamos, known that a good dynamo when reversed 
lamps, etc., and by the middle of 1879 had could be made a source of power, few 
in operation machines each capable of electric motors were in use until a con- 
maintaining sixteen arc lamps on one wire, siderable time after the establishment of 
Weston, of Newark, had also in operation the first lighting stations. Even in 1884. 
circuits of arc lamps, and the Thomson- at the Philadelphia Electrical Exhibition. 
Houston system had just started in com- only a few electric motors were shown, 
mercial work with eight arc lamps in Twenty years ago an electric motor was 
series from a single dynamo. Maxim and a curiosity; fifty years ago crude examples 
Fuller, in New York, were working arc run by batteries were only to be oc- 
lamps from their machines. casionally found in cabinets of scientific 

Almost simultaneously with the begin- apparatus. Machinery Hall, at the Cen- 
ning of the commercial work of arc light- tennial Exhibition of 1876, typified the 
ing, Edison, in a successful effort to mill of the past, never again to be re- 
provide a small electric lamp for general produced, with its huge engine and line? 
distribution in place of gas, brought to of heavy shafting and belts conveying 
public notice his carbon filament incan- power. The wilderness of belts and pul- 
descent lamp. Edison worked for nearly leys is gradually being cleared away, and 
two years on a lamp based upon the old electric distribution of power substituted. 

208 



ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

Moreover, the lighting of the modern mill lines in operation. About 30,000 horses 

or factory is done from the same electric and mules were replaced by electric power 

plant which distributes power. in the single year of 1891. In 1892 the 

The electric motor has already partly Thomson-Houston interests and those of 
revolutionized the distribution of power the Edison General Electric Company 
for stationary machinery, but as applied were merged in the General Electric Corn- 
to railways in place of animal power the pany, an event of unusual importance, as 
revolution is complete. The period which it brought together the two great corn- 
has elapsed since the first introduction of petitors in electric traction at that date, 
electric railways is barely a dozen years. Other electric manufacturers, chief among 
It is true that a few tentative experiments which was the Westinghouse Company, 
in electric traction were made some time also entered the field and became promi- 
in advance of 1888, notably by Siemens, nent factors in railway extension. In a 
in Berlin, in 1879 and 1880, by Stephen D. few years horse traction in the United 
Field, by T. A. Edison, at Menlo Park, by States on tramway lines virtually disap- 
J. C. Henry, by Charles A. Van Depoele, peared. While the United States and 
and others. Farmer, in 1847, tried to pro- Canada have been and still are the theatre 
pel railway cars by electric motors driven of the enormous advance in electric trac- 
by currents from batteries carried on the tion, as in other electric work, many elec- 
cars. These efl orts were, of course, doom- trie car lines have in recent years been 
ed to failure, for economical reasons. The established in Great Britain and on the 
plan survives, however, in the electric continent of Europe. Countries like 
automobile, best adapted to cities, where Japan, Australia, South Africa, and South 
facilities for charging and caring for the America have also in operation many elec- 
batteries can be had. trie trolley lines, and the work is rapidly 

The modern overhead trolley, or under- extending. Most of this work, even in 

running trolley, as it is called, seems to Europe, has been carried out either by 

have been first invented by Van Depoele, importation of equipment from America, 

and used by him in practical electric rail- or by apparatus manufactured there, but 

way work about 1886 and thereafter. The following American practice closely, 

year 1888 may be said to mark the be- In Chicago the application of motor- 

ginning of this work, and in that year cars in trains upon the elevated railway 

Frank J. Sprague put into operation the followed directly upon the practical dem- 

electric line at Richmond, Va., using onstration at the World s Fair of the 

the under-running trolley. The Richmond capabilities of third-rail electric traction 

line was the first large undertaking. It on the Intramural Elevated Railway, and 

had about 13 miles of track, numer- the system is rapidly extending so as to 

ous curves, and grades of from 3 to 10 per include all elevated city roads. A few 

cent. The Richmond installation, kept years will doubtless see the great change 

in operation as it was in spite of all dim- accomplished. 

culties, convinced Mr. Henry M. Whitney The motor-car, or car propelled by its 

and the directors of the West End Street own motors, has also been introduced upon 

Railway, of Boston, of the feasibility of standard steam roads to a limited extent 

equipping the entire railway system of as a supplement to steam traction. The 

Boston electrically. earliest of these installations are the one 

The West End Company, with 200 miles at Nantasket, Mass.. and that between 

of track in and around Boston, began to Hartford and New Britain, in Connec- 

oquip its lines in 1888 with the Thomson- ticut. A number of special high-speed 

Houston plant. The success of this great lines, using similar plans, have gone into 

undertaking left no doubt of the future operation in recent years, 

of electric traction. The difficulties which The three largest and most powerful 

had seriously threatened future success electric locomotives ever put into service 

were gradually removed. are those which are employed to take 

The electric railway progress was so trains through the Baltimore & Ohio 

great in the United States that about Railroad tunnel at Baltimore. They have 

Jan. 1, 1891, there were more than 240 been in service about seven or eight years, 
in. O 209 



ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 

iincl are fully equal in power to the large obtained from residues in sullicient amount 

steam locomotives used on steam roads, to pay well for the process. 

There was opened, in London, in 1900, At Niagara also are works for the 

the Central Underground, equipped with production of the metal aluminum from 

twenty-six electric locomotives for draw- its ores. This metal, which competes in 

ing its trains. The electric and power price with brass, bulk for bulk, was only 

equipment was manufactured in America obtainable before its electric reduction 

to suit the needs of the road. at $25 to $30 per pound. The metal 

The alternating current transformer not sodium is also extracted from soda. A 

only greatly extended the radius of supply large plant at Niagara also uses the elec- 

from a single station, but also enabled trie current for the manufacture of 

the station to be conveniently located chlorine for bleach, and caustic soda, both 

where water and coal could be had without from common salt. Chlorine of potas- 

difficulty. It also permitted the distant sium is also made at Niagara by elec- 

water-powers to become sources of electric trolysis. The field of electro-chemisty 

energy for lighting, power, or for other is, indeed, full of great future pos- 

service. For example, a water-power sibilities. Large furnaces heated by elec- 

located at a distance of 50 to 100 miles tricity, a single one of which will con- 

or more from a city, or from a large man- sume more than 1,000 horse-power, exist 

ufacturing centre where cost of fuel is at Niagara. In these furnaces is manufaet- 

high, may be utilized. ured from coke and sand, by the Aeheson 

A gigantic power-station has lately been process, an abrasive material called ear- 
established at Niagara. Ten water-wheels, borundum, which is almost as hard as 
located in an immense wheel-pit about diamond, but quite low in cost. It is 
200 feet deep, each wheel of a capacity of made into slabs and into wheels for grind- 
5,000 horse-power, drive large vertical ing hard substances. The electric furnace 
shafts, at the upper end of which are furnishes also the means for producing 
located the large two-phase dynamos, each artificial plumbago, or graphite, almost 
of 5,000 horse-power. The electric energy perfectly pure, the raw material being 
from these machines is in part raised in coke powder. 

pressure by huge transformers for trans- A large amount of power from Niagara 

mission to distant points, such as the city is also consumed for the production in 

of Buffalo, and a large portion is delivered special electric arc furnaces of carbide 

to the numerous manufacturing plants of calcium from coke and lime. This is 

located at moderate distances from the the source of acetylene gas, the new il- 

power-station. Besides the supply of luminant, which is generated when water 

energy for lighting, and for motors, in- is brought into contact with the carbide, 

eluding railways, other recent uses of While it is not likely that electricity will 

electricity to which we have not yet al- soon be used for general heating, special 

hided are splendidly exemplified at Niag- instances, such as the warming of electric 

ara. The arts of electro-plating of ears in winter by electric heaters, the oper- 

metals, such as electro-gilding, silver- ation of cooking appliances by electric 

plating, nickel-plating, and copper de- current, the heating of sad-irons and the 

position as in elect rotyping, are now like, give evidence of the possibilities 

practised on a very large scale. Moreover, should there ever be found means for the 

since the introduction of dynamo current, generation of electric energy from fuel 

electrolysis has come to be employed in with such high efliciency as SO per cent, 

huge plants, not only for separating or more. Present methods give, under 

metals from each other, as in refining most favorable conditions, barely 10 per 

them, but in addition for separating cent., 90 per cent, of the energy value of 

them from their ores, for the manufacture the fuel being unavoidably wasted, 

of chemical compounds before unknown, The electric current is used for welding 

and for the cheap production of numer- together the joints of steel car-rails, for 

ous substances of use in the various arts welding teeth in saws, for making many 

on a large scale. Vast quantities of cop- parts of bicycles, and in tool making. An 

per are rofinod. and silver and gold often instance of its peculiar adaptability to 

210 



ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ELECTROCUTION 

unusual conditions is the welding of the velopnients are to come, who eini predict? 

iron bands embedded within the body of The electrical progress has been great 

a rubber vehicle tire for holding the tire very great but after all only a part of 

in place. For this purpose the electric that grander advance in so many other 

weld has been found almost essential. fields. Man still spends his best effort, 

Another branch of electric development and has always done so, in the construc- 
concerns the storage of electricity. The tion and equipment of his engines of 
storage battery is based upon principles destruction, and now exhausts the mines 
discovered by Gaston Plante, and applied, of the world of valuable metals, for ships 
since 1881, by Brush, by Faure, and of war, whose ultimate goal is the bottom 
others. Some of the larger lighting sta- of the sea. Perhaps all this is necessary 
tions employ as reservoirs of electric now, and, if so, well. But if a fraction 
energy large batteries charged by surplus of the vast expenditure entailed were 
dynamo current. This is afterwards turned to the encouragement of advance 
drawn upon when the consumer s load is in the arts and employments of peace, can 
heavy, as dviring the evening. The storage it be doubted that, at the close of the 
battery is, however, a heavy, cumbrous ap- twentieth century, the nineteenth century 
paratus, of limited life, easily destroyed might come to be regarded, in spite of its 
unless guarded with skill. If a form not achievements, as a rather wasteful, semi- 
possessing these faults be ever found, the barbarous transition period? 
field of possible application is almost Electrocution. The popular name of a 
liinitlesr method of inflicting capital punishment 

The wonderful X-rays, and the rich by electricity as ordered by the legislature 
scientific harvest which has followed the of New York in 1888 and am tided in 1892. 
discovery by Rontgen of invisible radiation New York is the only State in the coun- 
from a vacuum tube, was preceded by try where this method of capital punish- 
much investigation of the effects of elec- ment has been sanctioned. The first per- 
tric discharges in vacuum tubes, and Hit- son executed by the new method was 
torf, followed by Crookes, has given special William Kemmler, a convicted murderer, 
study to these effects in very high or on whom the death sentence was thus 
nearly perfect vacua. It was as late as carried out in Auburn Prison, Aug. 0. 
1896 that Rontgen announced his dis- 1890. The apparatus used in the execu- 
covery. Since that time several other tion, as officially described, consisted of a 
sources of invisible radiation have been stationary engine, alternating-current 
discovered, more or less similar in effect dynamo and exciter, a voltmeter with 
to the radiations from a vacuum tube, but extra resistance coil, calibrated from a 
emitted, singular as the fact is, from rare range of from 30 to 2,000 volts, an am- 
substances extracted from certain min- meter for alternating currents from 0.10 
orals. Leaving out, of consideration the to 3 amperes, a Wheatstone-bridge rheostat, 
great value of the X-ray to physicians and bell signals, and a number of switches, 
surgeons, its effect in stimulating scientific The death-chair had an adjustab e head- 
inquiry has almost been incalculable. It rest, binding-straps, and two adjustable 
i? as unlikely that the mystery of the electrodes, one of which was placed on 
material universe will ever be completely the top of the head and the other at the 
solved as it is that we can gain an lower part of the spine. The execution 
adequate conception of infinite space or room contained only the death-chair, the 
time. But we can at least extend the electrodes, and the wires attached to them, 
range of our mental vision of the processes the remainder of the equipment being in 
of nature as we do our real vision into the adjoining room. At the end of seven- 
space depths by the telescope and spectro- teen seconds after the contact was made 
scope. the victim was pronounced dead. The 

The nineteenth century closed with current strength was believed to have been 
many important problems in electrical at least 1,500 volts, although there was no 
science unsolved. What great or far- official record kept of many details, but 
reaching discoveries are yet in store, who in later executions the electromotive press- 
can tell? What valuable practical de- ure varied from 458 to 71G volts, while 

211 



ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH ELIOT 



the ammeter has shown a variation in 
current of from 2 to 7 amperes. After 
the first execution there was rather a 
widespread protest against this method of 
carrying out capital punishment, and the 
constitutionality of the legislative act was 
taken to the Supreme Court of the United 
States, and was there affirmed. 

Electro-magnetic Telegraph. This 
invention, conceived more than a century 
ago, was first brought to perfection as an 
intelligent medium of communication be- 




MOKSK APPARATUS, C1KCLIT AND BATTKRY. 

tween points distant from each other by 
PROF. SAMUEL F. B. MORSE (q. v.) , of New 
York, and was first presented to public 
notice in 1838. In the autumn of 1837 
he filed a caveat at the Patent Office; and 
he gave a private exhibition of its mar 
vellous power in the New York Univer 
sity in January, 1838, when intelligence 
was instantly transmitted by an alphabet 
composed of dots and lines, invented by 
Morse, through a circuit of 10 miles of 
wire, and plainly recorded. Morse ap 
plied to Congress for pecuniary aid to 
enable him to construct an experimental 
line between Washington and Baltimore. 
For four years he waited, for the action 
of the government was tardy, in conse 
quence of doubt and positive opposition. 
At the beginning of March. 1842. Confess 



the first message, furnished him by a 
young lady "What hath God wrought!" 
The first public message was the announce 
ment of the nomination by the Democratic 
National Convention in Baltimore (May. 
1844) of James K. Polk for President of 
the United States. Professor Morse also 
originated submarine telegraphy. He pub 
licly suggested its feasibility in a letter 
to the Secretary of the Treasury in 1813. 
As early as 1842 he laid a submarine cable. 
or insulated wire, in the harbor of New 
York, for which achievement the American 
Institute awarded him a small gold medal. 
In 1858 he participated in the labors and 
honors of laying a cable under the sea be 
tween Europe and America. (See ATLAN 
TIC TELEGRAPH). Monarchs gave him med 
als and orders. Yale College conferred 
upon him the honorary degree of LL.D., 
and in 1S.~>8, at the instance of the Emper 
or of the French, several European govern 
ments combined in the act of giving Pro 
fessor Morse the sum of $80,000 in gold as 
a token of their appreciation. Vast im 
provements have been made since in the 
transmission of messages. For more than 
a quarter of a century the messages were 
each sent over a single wire, only one way 





MORSK KKY. 



appropriated $30,000 for his use; and in 

May, 1844, he transmitted from Washmg- 

. to Baltimore, a distance of 40 miles. 



MOKSK KKGISTKK. 

at a time. Early in 1871. through the in 
ventions of Edison and others, messages 
were sent both ways over the same wire 
at the same instant of time. Very soon 
four messages were sent the same way. 
Now multiplex transmission is a matter 
of every-day business. See VAIL, A. II. 

Eliot, ANDREW, clergyman; born in 
Boston. Mass., Dec. 28, 1718; graduated 
at Harvard College in 1737: ordained 
associate pastor of the New North Church 
in Boston, where he was sole pastor 
after 1750. When the Uritish occupied 



212 



ELIOT 



Boston he did much to ameliorate Eliot, JAKED, educator and clergyman; 
the condition of the people. He also born in Guilford, Conn., Nov. 7,* 1685; 
saved valuable manuscripts, among them son of Joseph and grandson of John 
the second volume of the History of Eliot; graduated at Yale College in 1706, 
Massachusetts Bay, when the house of and from 1709 until his death he was 
Governor Hutchinson was invested by a minister of the first church at Killing- 
mob. He died in Boston, Mass., Sept. worth, Conn. He was a most practical 
13, 1778. and useful man, and did much for the ad- 

Eliot, CHARLES WILLIAM, educator; vancement of agriculture and manufa-ct- 
born in Boston, Mass., March 20, 1834; ures in New England. He strongly 
graduated at Harvard University in urged in essays the introduction into the 
1853; was a tutor in mathematics at colonies of a better breed of sheep. In 
Harvard and a student in chemistry with 1747 he wrote: "A better breed of sheep 
Prof. Josiah P. Cooke, 1854-58; served as is what we want. The English breed of 
Assistant Professor of Mathematics and Cotswold sheep cannot be obtained, or at 
Chemistry, Lawrence Scientific School, least not without great difficulty; for 
Harvard, in 1858-63; when he went wool and live sheep are contraband goods, 
abroad, studied chemistry and investigated which all strangers are prohibited from 
European educational methods. In 1865- carrying out on pain of having the right 
69 he was Professor of Analytical Chem- hand cut off." In 1761 the London So- 
istry, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- oiety for the Encouragement of Arts, 
nology, and in 1869 became president of Manufactures, and Commerce honored him 
Harvard University. He is a Fellow of with its medal, for producing malleable 

iron from American black sand, and ho 
was made a member of the Royal Society 
of London. He was the first to introduce 
the white mulberry into Connecticut, and 
with it silk-worms, and published a. 
treatise on silk-culture. Mr. Eliot was 
also an able physician, and was particu 
larly successful in the treatment of in 
sanity and chronic complaints. He died 
in Killingworth, Conn., April 22, 1763. 

Eliot, JOHN, the Apostle to the Indians ; 
born either in Nasing, Essex, or Widford. 
Hertfordshire, England, presumably in 
1604, as he was baptized in Widford, Aug. 
5, 1604. Educated at Cambridge, he re 
moved to Boston in 1631, and the next 
year was appointed minister at Roxbury. 
Seized with a passionate longing for the 
conversion of the Indians and for improv 
ing their condition, he commenced his 
labors among the twenty tribes within 
the English domain in Massachusetts in 

the American Academy of Arts and October, 1646. He acquired their Ian- 
Sciences, the American Philosophical So- guage through an Indian servant in his 
i-iety, etc. He has given many note- family, made a grammar of it, and trans- 
worthy addresses on educational and lated the Bible into the Indian tongue, 
scientific subjects. He is the author of It is claimed that Eliot was the first 
MitiiiKtl of Qualitative Chemical Analysis Protestant minister who preached to the 
(with Prof. Francis H. Storer) ; Manual Indians in their native tongue. An Ind- 
of Inorganic Chemistry (with the same) ; ian town called Natick was erected on the 
Five American Contributions to Civiliza- Charles River for the "praying Indians" 
tion, and othmr Essays; Educational Re- in 1657, and the first Indian church was 
form, etc. established there in 1660. During King 

213 




CUARLK8 WILLIAM KLIOT. 



ELIOT, JOHN 




JOHN ELIOT. 

Philip s War Eliot s efforts in behalf of 
the praying Indians saved them from de 
struction by the white people. He trav 
elled extensively, visited many tribes, 
planted several churches, and once 
preached before King Philip, who treated 
him with disdain. He persuaded many to 



adopt the customs of civilized life, and 
lived to see twenty-four of them become 
preachers of the Gospel to their own 
tribes. His influence among the Indians 
was unbounded, and his generosity in 
helping the sick and afflicted among them 
was unsparing. Cotton Mather aMirmed, 
" We had a tradition that the country 
could never perish as long as Eliot WHS 
alive." He published many small works 
on religious subjects, several of which 
were in the Indian language. His great 
est work was the translation of the Bible 
into the Indian language (1661-66), and 
was the first Bible ever printed in Amer 
ica. It is much sought after by collectors. 
The language in which it was written has 
perished. He died in Roxbury, Mass., 
Msi> 20, 1690. 

The Brief Narrative. Tins was the 
last of Eliot s publications relating to the 
progress of Christianity among the 
American Indians. Its full title was: 

" A Brief Narrative of the Progress of 
the Gospel amongst the Indians in New Eng 
land in the Year 1670, given in by the Rever 
end MB. JOHX KLLIOT, Minister of the Gospel 
there in a LETTER by. him directed to 1 
Right Worshipfull the COMMISSIONERS under 
his Majesties Great-Seal for Propagation of 
the Gospel amongst the poor blind Natives In 




JOHN ELIOT PREACHING TO THE INDIANS. 

214 



ELIOT ELIZABETH 



in 



those United Colonies. LONDON, Printed which vested in the crown the supremacy 

tor John Allen, formerly living in Little- claimed by the pope; the mass was abol- 

* ished > an T d the litur <F Edward VI - - 

stored. In one session the whole system 

Eliot, JOHN, clergyman; born in Bos- of religion in England was altered by the 

ton, Mass., May 31, 1754; son of -Andrew will of a single young woman. When 

Eliot; graduated at Harvard College in Francis II. of France assumed the arms 

1772; succeeded his father as minister and title of King of England in right 

of the New North Church in November, of his wife, Mary Stuart, Elizabeth sent 

1779; was one of the founders of the an army to Scotland which drove the 

Massachusetts Historical Society. He French out of the kingdom. She sup- 

published a Biographical Dictionary of ported the French Huguenots with money 

Eminent Characters in New England, and troops in their struggle with the 

He died in Boston, Mass., Feb. 14, 1813. Roman Catholics in 1562. In 1563 the 

Eliot, SAMUEL, historian; born in Bos- Parliament, in an address to the Queen, 

ton, Mass., Dec. 22, 1821; graduated entreated her to choose a husband, so as 

at Harvard College in 1839; professor of to secure a Protestant succession to the 

History and Political Science in Trinity crown. She returned an evasive answer. 

College in 1856-04. His publications in- She gave encouragement to several suitors, 

elude Passages from the History of Lib- after she rejected Philip, among them 

erty; History of Liberty (in five parts, Archduke Charles of Austria, the Duke of 

the last of which is entitled the Amer- Anjou, and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leiees- 

ican Nation) ; and a Manual of United ter. The latter remained her favorite un- 

titates History between the Years 1792 til his death in 1588. During the greater 

and 1850. He died in Beverly, Mass., part of Elizabeth s reign, Cecil, Lord Bur- 

Sept. 14, 1898. leigh, was her prime minister. For more 

Elizabeth., QUEEN OF ENGLAND; born in than twenty years from 1564 England was 

Greenwich, Sept. 7, 1533; daughter of at peace with foreign nations, and enjoyed 

Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Under the great prosperity. Because of the opposite 

tuition of Roger Ascham she acquired interests in religion, and possibly because 

much proficiency in classical learning, and of matrimonial affairs, Elizabeth and 

before she was seventeen years of age Philip of Spain were mutually hostile, 

she was mistress of the Latin, French, and and in 1588 the latter sent the " invincible 

Italian languages, and had read several Armada " for the invasion of England. 

works in Greek. By education she was It consisted of over 130 vessels and 30,000 

attached to the Protestant Church, and men. It was defeated and dispersed (Aug. 

was persecuted by her half-sister, Mary, 8), and in a gale more than fifty of the 

who was a Roman Catholic. Elizabeth Spanish ships were wrecked. On the death 

never married. When quite young her of Leicester the Queen showed decided 

father negotiated for her nuptials with partiality for the Earl of Essex. Her 

the son of Francis I. of France, but it treatment and final consent to the execu- 

failed. She flirted awhile with the am- tion, by beheading, of Mary, Queen of 

bitious Lord Seymour. In 1558 she de- Scots, has left a stain on the memory of 

clined an offer of marriage from Eric, Elizabeth. She assisted the Protestant 

King of Sweden, and also from Philip of Henry IV. of France in his struggle with 

Spain. Her sister Mary died Nov. 17, the French Roman Catholics, whom Philip 

1558, when Elizabeth was proclaimed of Spain subsidized. Her reign was vigor- 

Queen of England. With caution she pro- ous, and is regarded as exceedingly bene- 

ceeded to restore the Protestant religion ficial to the British nation. Literature 

tc ascendency in her kingdom. Her re- was fostered, and it was illustrated dur- 

form began by ordering a large part of the ing her reign by such men as Spenser, 

church service to be read in English, and Shakespeare, Sidney, Bacon, and Raleigh. 

forbade the elevation of the host in her Elizabeth was possessed of eminent ability 

presence. Of the Roman Catholic bishops, and courage, but her personal charao- 

only one consented to officiate at her covo- tor was deformed by selfishness, incon- 

nation. In 1559 Parliament passed a bill stancy, deceit, heartlessness, and other un- 

215 



ELIZABETHTOWN CLAIMANTS 




QUEEN KLIZABKTH. 



womanly faults. She signified her will 
on her death-bed that James VI. of Scot- 
land, son of the beheaded Mary, should 
bt> her successor, and he was accordingly 
crowned as such. She diod March 24, 
1003. 

Elizabethtown Claimants. For more 
than a century the dispute between the 
first settlers at Elizabethtown, N. J. (who 
came from Long Island and New Eng- 
land), and, first, the proprietors of New 
Jerscy, and, next, the crown, arose and 
continued concerning the title to the lands 
on which these settlers were seated. The 
dispute occurred in consequence of con- 
flicting claims to eminent domain, caused 
bv a dispute a xmt the original title of 



the soil. The Elizabethtown settlers ob- 
tained their land from the Indians, with 
the consent of Governor Nicolls; but al- 
ready the Duke of York, without the 
knowledge of Nicolls or the settlers, had 
sold the domain of New Jersey to Berke- 
ley and Carteret. The new proprietors ig- 
nored the title of the settlers, and made 
demands as absolute proprietors of the 
soil, which the latter continually resisted 
themselves, and so did their heirs. Fre- 
quont unsuccessful attempts at ejectment 
were made; the settlers resisted by force. 
The Assembly, called upon to interfere, 
usually declined, for that body rather fa- 
vored the Elizabethtown claimants. Final- 
ly. in 1757, Governor Belcher procured an 



ELIZABBTHTOWN EXPEDITION ELKSWATAWA 



act of assembly by which all past differ- Prophet; brother of the famous Tecumseh; 
encea should be buried. It was not ac- born in Piqua, the seat of the Piqua 
ceptable; and in 1751 the British govern- clan of the Shawnees, about 4 miles 
ment ordered a commission of inquiry to north of Springfield, O., early in 1775. He 
determine the law and equity in the case, was a shrewd deceiver of his people by 
The proprietors also began chancery suits means of pretended visions and powers of 
against the heirs of the Elizabethtown set- divination. By harangues lie excited the 
tiers, and these were pending when the superstition of the Indians; and such be- 
Revolution broke out (1775) and settled came his fame as a "medicine-man," or 
the whole matter. prophet, that large numbers of men, wom- 

Elizabethtown, or Elizabeth, as the place en, and children of the forest came long 
is now called, was settled in 1665; was the 
colonial capital from 1755 to 1757, and 
the State capital till 1790, when Trenton 
became the seat of government ; and be 
came a city in 1865. It contains an old 
tavern where Washington stopped on his 
way to New York for his first inaugura 
tion, Gen. Winfield Scott s home, the Bou- 
dinot House, and the old Livingston Man 
sion. The College of New Jersey, now 
Princeton University, chartered in 1746. 
was opened here in May, 1747. 

Elizabethtown Expedition, a military 
movement in the War of 1812-15, in 
which an American force under Major 
Forsyth captured Elizabethtown (near 
Brockville), Canada, Feb. 7, 1813, released 
the American prisoners, seized some of the 
garrison and a quantity of stores, and re- 
turned to the United States without the / 
loss of a man. 

Elk Creek, or HOXEY SPRINGS, a local 
ity in the Indian Territory, where, on July 
17, 1863, Gen. James G. Blunt, with a 
force of Kansas cavalry, artillery, and 
Indian home guards, defeated a Confeder 
ate force under Gen. S. H. Cooper, the distances to see thia oracle of the Great 
latter losing nearly 500 in killed and Spirit, who they believed could work mir- 
wounded. acles. His features were ugly. He had 

Elkhorn, BATTLE OF. See PEA RIDGE, lost one eye in his youth, and, owing to 

Elkins, STEPHEN BENTOX, legislator; dissipation, he appeared much older than 
born in Perry county, Ohio, Sept. 26, his brother Tecumseh. The latter was 
1841 ; graduated at the Missouri Univer- really an able man, and used this brother 
sity in I860; admitted to the bar in 1863; as his tool. The Prophet lost the con- 
i-aptain in the 77th Missouri Regiment fidence of his people by the events of the 
1862-63; removed to New Mexico in battle of Tippecanoe. On the evening be- 
1864, where he engaged in mining; elect- fore the battle the demagogue pre- 
ed member of the Territorial legislature pared for treachery and murder. He 
in 1864; became attorney-general of the brought out a magic bowl, a sacred 
Territory in 1868; United States district torch, a string of holy beans, and his 
attorney in 1870; member of Congress in followers were all required to touch these 
1873-77; Secretary of War in 1891-94; talismans and be made invulnerable, and 
and elected United States Senator from then to take an oath to exterminate 
West Virginia in 1895 and 1901. the pale-faces. When this was aecom- 

Elkswatawa, Indian, known as the plished the Prophet went through a 

217 




ULKSWATAWA, TIIK 1 UOPIIKT. 



ELLERY ELLET 



long series of incantations and mystical revenue at Newport. Mr. Ellery was a 
movements; then, turning to his highly strenuous advocate of the abolition of 
excited band about 700 in number slavery. He died in Newport, Feb. 15, 



he told them that the time to attack 1820. 
the white men had come. " They are 



Ellet, CHARLES, engineer; born in 

in your power," he said, holding up Penn s Manor, Bucks co., Pa., Jan. 1, 
the holy beans as a reminder of their 
oath. " They sleep now, and will never 
awake. The Great Spirit will give light to 
us and darkness to the white men. Their 
bullets shall not harm us; your weapons 
shall be always fatal." Then followed 
war songs and dances, until the Indians, 
wrought up to a perfect frenzy, rushed 
forth to attack Harrison s camp, without 
any leaders. Stealthily they crept through 
the long grass of the prairie in the deep 
gloom, intending to surround their en 
emy s position, kill the sentinels, rush 
into the camp, and massacre all. The re 
sult of the battle of TIITECANOE (q. v.) 
caused the Indians to doubt his inspira 
tion by the Great Spirit. They covered 
him with reproaches, when he cunningly 
told them that his predictions concerning 
the battle had failed because his wife had 

touched the sacred vessels and broken the 1810; planned and built the first wire 
charm. Even Indian superstition and suspension bridge in the United States, 
credulity could not accept that transparent across the Schuylkill at Fairmount ; and 
falsehood for an excuse, and the Prophet planned and constructed the first Bus- 
was deserted by his disappointed followers pension bridge over the Niagara River 
and compelled to seek refuge among the below the Falls, and other notable 
Wyandottes. bridges. When the Civil War broke out 

Ellery, WILLIAM, a signer of the he turned his attention to the const ruc- 




CHARLKS ELLET. 



Declaration of Independence; born in tion of steam "rams " for the Western 

Newport, R. I., Dec. 22, 1727: grad 

uated at Harvard in 1747; became 

a merchant in Newport; and was 

naval officer of Rhode Island in 

1770. He afterwards studied and 

practised law at Newport, and gain 

ed a high reputation. An active 

patriot, he was a member of Con 

gress from 1776 to 1785, excepting 

two years, and was very useful in 

matters pertaining to finance and 

diplomacy. He was especially ser 

viceable as a member of the marine 

committee, and of the board of ad 

miralty. During the occupation of 

Rhode Island by the British he suf 

fered great loss of properly, but 

bore it with quiet cheerfulness as a 

sacrifice for the public good. He was rivers, and a plan proposed by him to 




KLLKT S STERS-WHKBL RAM. 



chief -justice of the Superior Court of the Secretary of War (Mr. Stanton) 
Rhode Island, and in 1790 collector of the adopted, and he soon converted ten or 

218 



ELLET ELLIOTT 



twelve powerful steamers on the Missis 
sippi into " rams," with which he ren 
dered great assistance in the capture of 
Memphis. In the battle there he was 
struck by a musket-ball in the knee, from 
the effects of which he died, in Cairo, 111., 
June 21, 1862. Mr. Ellet proposed to 
General McClellan a pian for cutting off 
the Confederate army at Manassas, which 
the latter rejected, and the engineer wrote 
and published severe strictures on Mc- 
Clellan s mode of conducting the war. 

Ellet, ELIZABETH FRIES, author; born 
in Sodus Point, N. Y., in 1818; was au 
thor of Domestic History of the American 
Revolution; Women of the American Rev 
olution; Pioneer Women of the West; and 
Queens of American Society. She died 
June 3, 1877. 

Ellicott, ANDREW, civil engineer; born 
in Bucks county, Pa., Jan. 24, 1754. His 
father and uncle founded the town of 
Ellicott s Mills (now Ellicott City), Md., 
in 1790. Andrew was much engaged in 
public surveying for many years after 
settling in Baltimore in 1785. In 1789 
he made the first accurate measurement 
of Niagara River from lake to lake, and 
in 1790 he was employed by the United 
States government in laying out the city 
of Washington. In 1792 he was made 
surveyor-general of the United States, and 
in 179G he was a commissioner to de 
termine the southern boundary between 
the territory of the United States and 
Spain, in accordance with a treaty. 
From Sept. 1, 1813, until his death, Aug. 
29, 1820, he was professor of mathematics 
and civil engineering at West Point. 

Elliott, CHARLES, clergyman ; born in 
Creenconway, Ireland, May 16, 1792; be 
came a member of the Wesleyan Church ; 
came to the United States about 1815; 
joined the Ohio Methodist conference in 
1818. He was the author of History of 
the Great Recession from the Methodist 
Episcopal Church ; Southwestern Method 
ism; two publications against slavery, etc. 
He died in Mount Pleasant, la., Jan. 6, 
1869. 

Elliott, CHARLES LORING, painter; 
born in Scipio, N. Y., in December, 1812; 
was the son of an architect, who pre 
pared him for that profession. He be 
came a pupil of Trumbull, in New York, 
and afterwards of Quidor, a painter of 



fancy-pieces. Having acquired the tech 
nicalities of the art, his chief employ 
ment for a time was copying engravings 
in oil, and afterwards he attempted por 
traits. He practised portrait-painting in 
the interior of New York for about ten 
years, when he went to the city (1845), 
where he soon rose to the head of his pro 
fession as a portrait-painter. It is said 
that he painted 700 portraits, many of 
them of distinguished men. His like 
nesses were always remarkable for fidel 
ity, and for beauty and vigor of coloring. 
He died in Albany, Aug. 25, 1868. 

Elliott, CHARLES WYLLYS, author; born 
in Guilford, Conn., May 27. 1817. His pub 
lications relating to the United States in 
clude New England History, from the 
Discovery of the Continent by the North 
men, A. D. 968, to 1776; and The Book 
of American Interiors, prepared from ex 
isting Houses. He died Aug. 23, 1883. 

Elliott, JESSE DUNCAN, naval officer; 
born in Maryland, July 14, 1782; entered 
the United States navy as midshipman in 




JKSSK IH .VA.N KI.MOTT. 

April, 1S04: and rose to master, July 24, 
1813. He was with Barren in the Tripoli- 
tan War, and served on the Lakes with 
Chauncey and Perry in the War of 1812- 
15. He captured two British vessels, De 
troit and Caledonia, at Fort Erie, for 
which exploit ho was presented by Con 
gress with a sword. He was in command 
of the Niagara in Perry s famous combat 
on Lake Erie, to which the Commodore 



219 



ELLIOTT ELLIS 




THE HLL10TT MKOAL. 



went from the Lawrence during the ac- Ellis, GEORGE EDWARD, clergyman; born 
tion. He succeeded Perry in command on in Boston, Mass., Aug. 8, 1814; grad- 
Lake Erie in October, 1813. Elliott was uated at Harvard in 1833; ordained ;i 
with Decatur in the Mediterranean in 1815, Unitarian pastor in 1840; president of the 
and was promoted to captain in March, Massachusetts Historical Society, and au- 
1818. He commanded the West India thor of History of the Battle of Bunker 
squadron (1829-32); took charge of the Hill, and biographies of John Mason, Will- 
navy-yard at Charleston in 1833; and af- iam Penn, Anne Hutchinson, Jared Sparks, 
terwards cruised several years in the Med- Count Rumford, etc. He died in Boston, 
iterranean. On his return he was court- Mass., Dec. 20, 1894. 

martialled, and suspended from command Ellis, HENRY, colonial governor; born 

for four years. A part of the sentence in England in 1721; studied law; appoint- 

was remitted, and in 1844 he was ap- ed lieutenant - governor of Georgia, Aug. 

pointed to the command of the navy-yard 15, 1750; became royal governor, May 17, 

at Philadelphia. For the part which Elli- 1758. He proved himself a wise admin- 

ott took in the battle of Lake Erie Con- istrator, and succeeded in establishing 

gress awarded him the thanks of the na- good-will between the colonists and the 

tion and a gold medal. He died in Creeks. The climate proving bad for hi? 

Philadelphia, Dec. 10, 1845. health, he returned to England in Novem- 

Elliott, JONATHAN, author; born in ber, 1760. He was author of Heat of th< 

Carlisle, England, in 1784; emigrated to Weather in (leoryia, etc. He died Jan. 

New York in 1802; served in the United 21, 1806. 

States army in the War of 1812. Among Ellis, JOHN WILLIS, governor; born in 

his writings are American Diplomatic Rowan county, X. C., Nov. 25, 1820; 

Code; Debate on the Adoption of the Con- graduated at the University of North 

stitution; The Comparative Tariffs, etc. Carolina in 1841, and admitted to the bar 

He died in Washington, D. C., March 12, in 1842. He was governor of North Caro- 

1840. lina in 1858-fil. In the name of his State 

Elliott, SUSANNAH, heroine; born in he occupied Fort Macon. the works at 
South Carolina about 1750; made for Wilmington, and the United States arse- 
Colonel Moultrie s regiment two stand- nal at Fayetteville, Jan. 2, 1861. In 
ards, which she embroidered; and assist- April of the same year he ordered the 
i-d several American officers in escaping seizure of the United States mint at 
hy concealing them in a hidden room in Charlotte. He died in Raleigh, N. C., 
house.. in 1861. 

220 



ELLIS ELMIBA 



Ellis, SETH H., politician; was can- It was then taken to New York, where 
date of the Union Reform party for it lay in state in the City Hall, and, after 
President in 1900, with Samuel T. Nicho- being carried in procession through the 
las, of Pennsylvania, for Vice-President, streets of the city, it was conveyed to his 
They received a popular vote of 5,698. birthplace for burial. He was young and 

Ellison s Mill. See MECHANICSVILLE, handsome, and his death, being the first 
BATTLE OF. of note that had occurred in the opening 

Ellmaker, AMOS, jurist; born in New war, produced a profound sensation 
Holland, Pa., Feb. 2, 1787; admitted to throughout the country, 
the bar in 1808; elected to the State legis- Ellsworth, OLIVER, LL.D., jurist; 
lature in 1812; appointed district judge born in Windsor. Conn., April 29, 1745; 
in 1815 ; attorney-general of the State in 
1816; was candidate for Vice-President on 
the Anti-Masonic ticket in 1832. He 
died in Lancaster, Pa., Nov. 28, 1851. 

Ellsworth, EPHRAIM ELMER, military 
officer; born in Mechanicsville, N. Y., 
April 23, 1837; was first engaged in mer 
cantile business in Troy, N. Y., and as a 
patent solicitor in Chicago he acquired 
a good income. While studying law he 
joined a Zouave corps at Chicago, and 
in July, 1860, visited some of the Eastern 
cities of the Union with them and at 
tracted great attention. On his return he 
organized a Zouave regiment in Chicago; 
and in April, 1861, he organized another 
from the New York Fire Department. 
These were among the earlier troops that 
hastened to Washington. Leading his 




OLIVKK HLL8WORTH. 



Zouaves to Alexandria, Ellsworth was 

shot dead by the proprietor of the Mar- graduated at the College of New Jer- 

shall House, while he was descending the sey in 1766; was admitted to the bar 

stairs with a Confederate flag which he in 1771; practised in Hartford, Conn.; 

and was made State attorney. When the 
Revolutionary War was kindling he took 
the " side of the patriots in the leg 
islature of Connecticut, and was a dele 
gate in Congress from 1777 to 1780. He 
became a member of the State council, 
and in 1784 was appointed a judge of the 
Supreme Court. Judge Ellsworth was one 
of the framers of the national Constitu 
tion, but, being called away before the 
adjournment of the convention, his name 
was not attached to that instrument. He 
was the first United States Senator from 
Connecticut (1789-95), and drew up the 
bill for organizing the Judiciary Depart 
ment. In 1796 he was made chief- justice 
of the Supreme Court of the United States. 
and at the close of 1799 he was one of the 
envoys to France. He died in Windsor, 

had pulled down, May 24, 1861. His body Nov. 26, 1807. 

was taken to Washington, and lay in state Elmira, BATTLE OF. See SULLIVAX, 

in the East Room of the White House. JOHN. 

221 




EPHRAIM ELMER ELLSWORTH. 



EL MOLING DEL KEY 



El Molino del Rey, CAPTURE OF. Al 
most within cannon-shot distance of the 
city of Mexico is Chapultepec, a hill com 
posed of porphyritic rock, and known in 
the Aztec language as "Grasshoppers Hill." 
It rises from the ancient shore of Lake 
Tezcuco, and was the favorite resort of the 
Aztec princes. It was also the site of the 
palace and gardens of Montezuma.. That 



hill was crowned with a strong castle and 
military college, supported by numerous 
outworks, which, with the steepness of the 
ascent to it, seemed to make it impregna 
ble. Only the slope towards the city was 
easily ascended, and that was covered with 
a thick forest. At the foot of the hill 
was a stone building, with thick high 
walls, and towers at the end, known as El 




HATTLK OF KL MOUNU DHL RKY. 

222 



EL MOLING DEL BEY ELY 

Molino del Key" The King s Mill." About the field. Their best leaders had been 
400 yards from this was another massive slain, and 800 men had been made prison- 
stone building, known as Casa de Mata. ers. The strong buildings were blown up. 
The former was used (1847) as a cannon and none of the defences of Mexico out- 
foundry by the Mexicans, and the latter side its gates remained to them, excepting 
was a depository of gunpowder. Both the castle of CIIAPULTEPEC (q. v.) and 
were armed and strongly garrisoned. Gen- its supports. 

eral Scott, at Tacubaya, ascertained that Elwyn, ALFRED LANGDON, philanthro- 
Santa Ana, while negotiations for peace pist; born in Portsmouth, N. H., July 
were going on, had sent church-bells out 9, 1804; graduated at Harvard College 
of the city to be cast into cannon, and he in 1823; studied medicine, but never 
determined to seize both of these strong practised; became known as a philanthro- 
buil dings and deprive the Mexicans of pist. He originated the Pennsylvania 
those sources of strength. He proposed to Agricultural Society and Farm-school, of 
first attack El Molino del Key, which was which he was president in 1850; was also 
commanded by General Leon. The Mex- president of various philanthropic insti- 
ican forces at these defences were about tutions. He was the author of Glossary 
14,000 strong, their left wing resting on of Supposed Americanisms; and Letters 
El Molino del Rey, their centre forming to the Eon. John Langdon, during and 
a connecting line with Casa de Mata. and after the Revolution. He died in Phila- 
supported by a field-battery, and their delphia, Pa., March 15, 1884. 
right wing resting on the latter. To the Ely, ALFRED, lawyer; born in Lyme, 
division of General Worth was intrust- Conn., Feb. 18, 1815; settled in Rochester, 
ed the task of assailing the works N. Y., in 1835; admitted to the bar in 
before them. At three o clock on the 1841 ; member of Congress in 1859-63. 
morning of Sept. 8 (1847) the assaulting He was taken prisoner by the Confederates 
columns moved to the attack, Garland s while visiting the battles-field of Bull Run 
brigade forming the right wing. The bat- in July, 1861, and confined in Libby 
tie began at dawn by Huger s 24-pounder prison for six months; was then ex- 
opening on El Molino del Rey, when Ma- changed for Charles J. Faulkner, the min- 
jor Wright, of the 8th Infantry, fell upon ister to France, who had been arrested 
the centre with 500 picked men. On the for disloyalty. While in Libby prison 
left was the 2d Brigade, commanded by he kept a journal, which was later .pub- 
Colonel Mclntosh, supported by Duncan s lished as the Journal of Alfred Ely, a 
battery. The assault of Major Wright on Prisoner of War in Richmond. He died 
the centre drove back infantry and artil- in Rochester, N. Y., May 18, 1892. 
lery, and the Mexican field-battery was Ely, RICHARD THEODORE, political econ- 
captured. The Mexicans soon rallied and omist; born in Ripley, N. Y., April 13, 
regained their position, and a terrible 1854 ; graduated at Columbia University 
struggle ensued. El Molino del Rey was in 1876; became Professor of Politi- 
soon assailed and carried by Garland s cal Economy in the University of Wis- 
brigade, and at the same time the battle cousin in 1892. Among his works are 
around Casa de Mata was raging fiercely. French and German Socialism; Taxation 
For a moment the Americans reeled, but in American States; Socialism and Social 
soon recovered, when a large column of Reform; The Social Laic of Service; The 
Mexicans was seen filing around the right Labor Movement in America, etc. 
of their intrenchments to fall upon the Ely, WILLIAM G., military officer; born 
Americans who had been driven back, about 1835; joined the National army on 
when Duncan s battery opened upon them the first call for volunteers. On June 
so destructively that the Mexican column 13, 1863, he was captured in the engage- 
was scattered in confusion. Then Sum- ment at Fort Royal Pike. After spend- 
ner s dragoons charged upon them, and ing eight months in Libby prison, he en- 
their rout was complete. The slaughter deavored to make his escape with 108 
had been dreadful. Nearly one-fourth of others through the famous underground 
Worth s corps were either killed or wound- passage dug beneath Twentieth Street, 
ed. The Mexicans had left 1,000 dead on Four days later fifty of the number, in- 

223 



ELZET EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS 

eluding Colonel Ely, were retaken. He tifications, and when they brought their 

was, however, soon afterwards exchanged, women and children with them he issued 

and led his regiment, on June 4, 1801, rations to them and charged them to the 

at the battle of Piedmont; received the service of the men. The President sustain- 

brevet of brigadier-general of volunteers ed General Butler s action in this case and 

in the same year. the example was followed by other com- 

Elzey, ARNOLD, military officer; born in manders. The government ordered strict 
Somerset county, Md., Dec. 18, 1816; accounts to be kept of the labor thus per- 
graduated at the United States Military formed, as it was not yet determined that 
Academy in 1837 ; served with distinction these laborers should be regarded as free, 
through the Florida and Mexican wars. On Aug. 6, 1861, the President signed an 
When the Civil War broke out he resigned act passed by Congress which declared that 
from the National army and entered when any slave was employed in any mili- 
that of the Confederates; was promoted tary or naval service against the govern- 
on the field to the rank of brigadier-gen- ment the person by whom his labor was 
eral by Jefferson Davis for gallant ser- claimed, that is, his owner, should forfeit 
vice, and later attained to that of major- all claims to such labor. The intent at the 
general. He died in Baltimore, Md., Feb. time this bill was passed was that it should 
21, 1871. be in force only tentatively, for few were 

Emancipation Proclamations. For then able to see what proportions the 
many years there has been a fiction that war would assume and what other meas- 
Gen. Benjamin F. Butler issued the first ures would be found necessary to end it. 
proclamation freeing the slaves. That General Fremont, then in command of the 
officer never issued such a proclamation, Western Department of the army, chose 
but he was the first to suggest to the gov- to assume that the confiscation act of 
eminent a partial solution of the very Congress had unlimited scope, and Aug. 
perplexing question as to what was to be 31, 1861, issued a proclamation confis- 
done with the slaves during the Civil War. eating the property and freeing the 
It was held tha-t the Constitution of the slaves of all citizens of Missouri who had 
United States did not give to Congress, or taken, or should take, up arms against 
to the non-slave-holding States, any right the government. This action of Fremont 
to interfere with the institution of slavery, embarrassed President Lincoln greatly. 
This was reaffirmed by Congress in a reso- For whatever may have been his hope that 
lution passed by the House, Feb. 11, 1861, the outcome of the war would be the final 
without a dissenting voice, to reassure the abolition of slavery, he could not fail to 
South that, in spite of the election of Mr. see that to permit the generals of the 
Lincoln, the North had no intention of army to take such a course then in this 
usurping power not granted by the Con- matter was rather premature. He ac- 
stitution. But when, after the outbreak cordingly wrote to General Fremont re- 
of the war, the army began to occupy questing him to modify his proclamation, 
posts in the seceding a-nd slave-holding The general replied with a request that 
States, the negroes came flocking into thv the President himself would make the 
Union lines, large numbers being set free necessary modifications. President Lin- 
by the disorganized condition of affairs coin therefore issued a special order, 
from the usual labor on the farms and Sept. 11, 1861, declaring that the emanci- 
plantations of the South. Then the ques- pation clause of General Fremont s procla- 
tion arose. What can be done with them? mation "be so modified, held, and con- 
General Butler, when they came into his strued as to conform with and not to 
camp at Fort Monroe, detained them and transcend the provisions on the same sub- 
refused to surrender them upon the appli- ject contained in the act of Congress ap- 
cation of their owners on the plea that proved Aug. 6," preceding, 
they were contraband of war, that is, Another instance of the kind occurred 
property which could be used in military at the hands of General Hunter, the fol- 
operations, and therefore, by the laws of lowing year. That officer, being in corn- 
war, subject to seizure. He set the able- mand at Hilton Head, N. C., proclaimed 
bodied men to work upon government for- the States of Georgia. Florida, and South 

224 



EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS 

Carolina, in his department, under mar- tnincd in the act. Finally, in September, 

tial law, and May 9, 18(i2, issued an he issued the following warning procla- 

order in which occurred these words: rnation: 

" Slavery and martial law in a free " PROCLAMATION. 

country are altogether incompatible. The ,, If Abraham Lincoln, President of the 

persons in these States Georgia, Florida, United States of America, and Commanuer- 

and South Carolina heretofore held as in-chief of the Army and Navy thereof, do 

slaves are therefore declared forever hei f bv J"?* 1 * 1 " and dec . 1 * that he ^^f 

as heretofore, the war will be prosecuted for 

free." Though President Lincoln had the object of practically restoring the con- 
been bitterly censured by extremists for stitutional relation between the United 

his action towards General Fremont, and states and eaoh of the States, and the peo- 

,, , , , ,, ,, .,, pie thereof, in which States that relation is 

though he knew that to interfere with 01 . may be suspen ded or disturbed. 

General Hunter would only bring upon That it is my purpose, upon the next 

him even a worse storm of reproaches, meeting of Congress, to again recommend 

he did not shrink from what he believed the ad Ption of a practical measure tender 
ing pecuniary aid to the free acceptance or 

his duty m the matter. He immediately rejection of all slave States, so-called, the 

issued a proclamation sternly revoking people whereof may not then be in rebellion 

General Hunter s order, saving that the against the United States, and which States 

, , , , , , ,j may then have voluntarily adopted, or there- 

government had not had any knowledge afte \. may voluntarlly adopt , immediate or 

of the general s intention to issue an gradual abolishment of slavery within their 

order, and distinctly stating that "neither respective limits ; and that the efforts to 

General Hunter nor any other commander colonize persons of African descent, 

their consent, upon this continent or else- 

or person has been authorized by the gov- where, with the previously obtained consent 

ernment of the United States to make of the governments existing there, will be 

proclamation declaring the slaves of any continued. 

[,, , (l -r , fV 11 n "That on the first day of January, in the 

State free." "I further make known, year of om . Lord one thousand eight nun . 

he continued, " that whether it be com- dred and sixty-three, all persons held as 

petent for me, as commander-in-chief of slaves within any State, or designated part 

the army and navv, to declare the slaves ? f a K state the P eo P e , w * er . e s al ! theu h ^ 

j* in rebellion against the United States, shall 

of any State or States free; and whether, be then; thenceforward, and forever free; 

at any time or in any case, it shall have and the Executive Government of the United 

become a necessity indispensable to the States, including the military and naval 

. , - ,, authority thereof, will recognize and mam- 

the government to exer- tain the freedom of such persons, and will 

cise such supposed power, are questions do no act or acts to repress such persons, 

which, under my responsibility, I reserve or any of them, in any efforts they may 

to myself, and which I cannot feel justi- ^ ^gS^Sfc the first day 

fied in leaving to commanders in the of j anuary aforesaid, by proclamation, des- 

field." Though much displeasure was ex- ignate the States and parts of States, if 

pressed by many at the time concerning an y- ln which the people thereof respectively 

... , , . , shall then be in rebellion against the United 

the position thus taken by the President, gtateB> and the fact that any state> or the 

it was generally admitted later that he people thereof, shall on that day be in good 

was justified in taking it, since it was faith represented in the Congress of thp 

from no lack of sympathy with the cause United States by members chosen theret, 

J . * , 111- at elections wherein a majority of the quali- 

ot emancipation that he withheld his fled voters O f suc h state shall have partic- 

sanction from the premature attempts ipated, shall, in the absence of strong coun- 

to secure it tervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive 

On July 16, 1862, Congress passed an 2^ J^^ 

act for the suppression of slavery, one the United States. 

provision of which declared the absolute " That attention is hereby called to an act 

" freedom of the slaves of rebels " under of Congress entitled 

, . ,. , ,, , additional Article of War, approved March 

certain operations of war therein denned. 13> 18G2 and which act is in the words and 

This gave the President a wide field for figures following : 

the exercise of executive power, but he " Be it enacted I)/ the Senate and House 

j -,v j m A- of Representatives of the United States of 

used it with great prudence. The patient JkJg^J Oongrea, assembled. That here- 

Lincoln hoped the wise men among the after t he following shall be promulgated as 

Confederates might heed the threat con- an additional article of war for the sovern- 

IIT, P 225 



EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS 



uieut of the army of the United States, and have been suspended or disturbed) b com 



shall be obeyed and observed as such : 

" Article . All officers or persons in the 
military or naval service of the United 



pensated for all losses by acts of the United 
States, including the loss of slaves. 

" In witness whereof I have hereunto set 



States are prohibited from employing any my hand and caused the seal of the United 
of the forces under their respective com- States to be affixed. 

Done at the city of Washington, this 



mands for the purpose of returning fugitives 

from service or labor who may have escaped 

from any persons to whom such service or of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and 

labor is claimed to be due ; and any officer sixty-two, and of the Independence of the 

who shall be found guilty by a court martial 

of violating this article shall be dismissed 

from the service. 

" Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That 
this act shall take effect from and after its 
passage. 

"Also, to the ninth and tenth sections d mentioned the President issued the 
of an act entitled An Act to Suppress In- - , , . 
surrection, to Punish Treason and Rebellion, following proclamation: 
to Seize and Confiscate Property of Rebels, 



twenty-second day of September, in the year 



United States the eighty-seventh. 

" ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
" By the President : 

" WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of State." 

This warning was unheeded, and on the 



and for other Purposes," approved July 17, 
1862, and which sections are in the words 
and figures following: 

Sec. 9. And be it further enacted, That 



PROCLAMATION. 



" Whereas, On the 22d day of September, 
in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 

all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was 
engaged in rebellion against the Government issued bv the President of the United ,tates, 
of the United States, or who shall in any 
way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping 
from such persons and taking refuge within 



containing, among other things, the follow 
ing, to wit : 

" That on the first day of January, In 
the year of our Lord one thousand eight 

from such persons, "or deserted by them and hundred and sixty-three, all persons held 
coming under the control of the Government a s slaves within any 



the lines of the army ; and all slaves captured 



of the United States ; and all slaves of such 
persons found on (or) being within any 
place occupied by rebel forces and after 
ward occupied by the forces of the United 
States, shall be deemed captives of war, and 
shall be forever free of their servitude, and 
not again held as slaves. 

" Sec. 10. And be it further enacted, That 



part of a State, the people whereof shall then 
be in rebellion against the United States, 
shall be then, thenceforward, and forever 
free ; and the Executive Government of 
the United States, including the military 
and naval authorities thereof, will recognize 
and maintain the freedom of such persons, 
and will do no act or acts to repress such 



no slave escaping into any State, Territory, persons, or any of them, in any efforts they 

or the District of Columbia, from any other may make for their actual freedom. 
State, shall be delivered up, or in any way That the Executive will, on the first 

impeded or hindered of his liberty, except day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, 

for crime, or some offence against the laws, designate the States and parts of States, 

unless the person claiming said fugitive shall if any, In which the people thereof, respec- 



first make an oath that the person to whom 
the labor or service of such fugitive is alleged 



tlvely, shall then be in rebellion against the 
United States : and the fact that any State. 



to be due is his lawful owner, and has not or the people thereof, shall on that day be 

borne arms against the United States In the in good faith represented In the Congress 

present rebellion, nor in any way given aid of the United States by members chosen 

and comfort thereto ; and no persons en- thereto at elections wherein a majority of the 

gaged In the military or naval service of the qualified voters of such States shall have 

I nited States shall, under any pretence participated, shall, in the absence of strong 

whatever, assume to decide on the validity countervailing testimony, be deemed con- 

of the claim of any person to the service elusive evidence that such State, and the 

or labor of any other person, or surrender people thereof, are not then in rebellion 

up any snoh person to the claimant, on pain against the United States. 



of being dismissed from the service. 



Now, therefore, I. Abraham Lincoln, 



And I do hereby enjoin up >n and order President of the United States, by virtue of 
ull persons engaged in the military and naval the power in me vested as Commander-in- 
service of the United States to observe, obey, chief of the Army and Navy of the United 
and enforce, within their respective spheres States in time of actual armed rebellion 
of service, the act and sections above re- a.srainst the authority and Government of the 
cited. United States, and as a fit and necessary 
" And the Executive will In due time rec- war measure for suppressing said rebellion, 
ommend that all citizens of the United do, on this first day of January, In the year 
States who shall have remained loyal thereto of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and 
throughout the rebellion shall (upon the sixty-three, and In accordance with my pur- 
restoration of the constitutional relation be- pose so to do, publicly proclaimed for the 
tween the United States and their respec- full period of one hundred days from the day 
tive States and people, If that relation shall first above mentioned, order and dr-signate. 

220 



FACSIMILE OF THE PROCLAMATION OF EMANCIPATION. 



JL** jS JO&/\j&t*&**t 



*f*- 




a/ 



(ff tsfa 



3v+*~* 




" That on the first day of January, In the 
year of our Lord one thousand eight nun- 
dred and sixty-three, all persons held as 
slaves within any State or designated part 
of a State, the people whereof shall then be 
in rebellion against the United States, shall 
be then, thenceforward, and forever free ; 
and the Executive Government of the United 
States, including the military and naval 
authority thereof, will recognize and maintain 
the freedom of such persons, and will do 
no act or acts to repress such persons, or 
any of them, in any efforts they may make 
for their actual freedom. 

" That the Executive will, on the first 



day of January aforesaid, by proclamation. 
designate the States and parts of States, If 
any, in which the people thereof, respec- 
tively, shall then be in rebellion against the 
United States ; and the fact that any State, 
or the people thereof, shall on that day be 
in good faith represented in the Congress of 
the United States, by members chosen thereto 
at elections wherein a majority of the quail- 
fled voters of such State shall have partic- 
ipated, shall, in the absence of strong coun- 
tervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive 
evidence that such State, and the people 
thereof, are not then in rebellion against the 
United States." 



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EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS 





as the States aud parts of States wherein 
the people thereof, respectively, are this day 
in rebellion against the United States, the 
following, to wit : 

"Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the 
parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jeffer 
son, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, As 
cension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, La- 
fourche, Ste. Marie, St. Martin, and Orleans, 
including the city of New Orleans), Missis 
sippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Caro 
lina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except 
the forty-eight counties designated as West 
Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley, 
Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, 
I rincess Anne and Norfolk, including the 
cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and 
which excepted parts are, for the present, 
left precisely as if this proclamation were 
not issued. 

" And by virtue of the power and for the 
purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare 
that all persons held as slaves within said 
designated States and parts of States are, 
and henceforward shall be, free: and that the 
Kxecntive Government of the United States, 
including the military and naval authorities 
I hereof, will recognize and maintain the free 
dom of saif 1 ^ersons. 

" And i .jereby enjoin upon the people so 
declared to be free to abstain from all 
violence, unless in necessary self-defence ; and 
I recommend to them that, in all cases when 
allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable 
wages. 

"And I further declare and make known 



that such persons, of suitable condition, will 
be received into the armed service of the 
United States, to garrison forts, positions, 
stations, and other places, and to man ves 
sels of all sorts in said service. 

" And upon this act, sincerely believed to 
be an act of justice, warranted by the Con 
stitution, upon military necessity, I invoke 
the considerate judgment of mankind, and 
the gracious favor of Almighty God. 

" In testimony whereof I have hereunto 
set my name, and caused the seal of the 
United States to be affixed. 

" Done at the City of Washing 
ton, this first day of January, in 
[L.S.] the year of our Lord one thousand 
eight hundred and sixty-three, and 
of the Independence of the United 
States the eighty-seventh. 

" ABRAHAM LINCOLN.* 
" By the President : 

" WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of Slate." 
By the Emancipation Proclamation 
3.003,392 slaves were set free, as follows: 

Arkansas 111. KM 

Alabama 435,18- 

Florida 61,7r>:; 

Georgia 402,23:. 

Mississippi 436,690 

North Carolina 275,081 

South Carolina 402,541 

Texas 180,682 

Virginia (part) . . 

Louisiana (part) 247,734 




The lien with which President Lincoln wrote his Proclamation of Emancipation was p-von to <<>nntor Sumiier 
e President at the request of the former, and by him prcs.-ntcd lo the late Oorgp Mvermore. of Boston 
to. l II-M. of tlie kind called "TbeWuhtngton," in a common ro.tar bolder nil as plin and unostentatious as 
wi tb 1 rcKid nt himielf. 

230 



* 

l.v the 
a 



EMBARGO ACTS 



The institution was not disturbed by the 
proclamation in eight States, which con 
tained 831,780 slaves, distributed as fol 
lows: 

Delaware 1,798 

Kentucky 225,490 

Maryland 87,188 

Missouri 114,465 

Tennessee 275,784 

Louisiana (part) 85,281 

West Virginia 12,761 

Virginia (part) 29,013 

The remainder were emancipated by the 
Thirteenth Amendment to the national 
Constitution, making the whole number 
set free 3,895,172. 

On the preceding pages is given a fac 
simile of the Proclamation of Emancipa 
tion. 

Embargo Acts. The British Orders in 
Council (Nov. 6, 1793) and a reported 
speech of Lord Dorchester (Guy Carleton) 
to a deputation of the Western Indians, 
produced much indignation against the 
British government. Under the stimulus 
of this excitement Congress passed 
(March 26, 1794) a joint resolution lay 
ing an embargo on commerce for thirty 
days. The measure seemed to have chief 
ly in view the obstructing the supply of 
provisions for the British fleet and army 
in the West Indies. It operated quite 
as much against the French. Subse 
quently (April 7) a resolution was intro 
duced to discontinue all commercial inter 
course with Great Britain and her sub 
jects, as far as respected all articles of 
the growth or manufacture of Great 
Britain or Ireland, until the surrender of 
the Western posts and ample compen 
sation should be given for all losses and 
damages growing out of British aggres 
sion on the neutral rights of the Ameri 
cans. It was evident from the course that 
the debate assumed and from the temper 
manifested by the House that the resolu 
tion would be adopted. This measure 
would have led directly to war. To avert 
Ihis calamity, Washington was inclined 
to send a special minister to England. 
The appointment of JOHN JAY (q. v.) fol 
lowed. 

On the receipt of despatches from Minis 
ter Armstrong, at Paris, containing infor 
mation aboiit the new interpretation of 
the Berlin decree and also of the British 



Orders in Council, President Jefferson, 
who had called Congress together earlier 
than usual (Oct. 25, 1807), sent a mes 
sage to that body communicating facts in 
his possession and recommending the pas 
sage of an embargo act " an inhibition 
of the departure of our vessels from the 
ports of the United States." The Senate, 
after a session of four hours, passed a 
bill 22 to 6 laying an embargo on all 
shipping, foreign and domestic, in the 
ports of the United States, with specified 
exceptions and ordering all vessels abroad 
to return home forthwith. This was done 
in secret session. The House, also with 
closed doors, debated the bill three days 
and nights, and it was passed by a vote 
of 82 to 44, and became a law Dec. 22, 
1807. 

Unlimited in its duration and uni 
versal in its application, the embargo 
was an experiment never before tried by 
any nation an attempt to compel two 
belligerent powers to respect the rights 
of neutrals by withholding intercourse 
with all the world. It accomplished noth- 
ir.g, or worse than nothing. It aroused 
against the United States whatever spirit 
of honor and pride existed in both na 
tions. Opposition to the measure, in and 
out of Congress, was violent and incessant, 
and on March 1, 1809, it was repealed. 
At the same time Congress passed a law 
forbidding all commercial intercourse with 
France and England until the Orders in 
Council and the decrees should be re 
pealed. 

Bonaparte s response to the Embargo 
Act of 1807 was issued from Bayonne, 
April 17, 1808. He was there to dethrone 
his Spanish ally to make place for one 
of his own family. His decree authorized 
the seizure and confiscation of all Ameri 
can vessels in France, or which might 
arrive in France. It was craftily an 
swered, when Armstrong remonstrated, 
that, as no American vessels could be 
lawfully abroad after the passage of 
the Embargo Act, those pretending to 
be such must be British vessels in dis 
guise. 

Feeling the pressure of the opposition 
to the embargo at home, Pinckney was 
authorized to propose to the British min 
istry a repeal of the Embargo Act, as to 
Great Britain, on condition of the recall 



231 



EMBARGO ACTS 



of her Orders in Council. Not wishing the least sign of yielding while the slight- 
to encounter a refusal, Pinckney sounded est doubt existed of its unequivocal fail- 
the 



Canning, 
fairs, who 



secretary of 



foreign 



gradually led the 



af- ure, or the smallest link in the confed- 
American eracy against her remained undissolved. 

The disconcerted 
American ambassador, 
evidently piqued at 
the result of his prop 
osition, advised his 
government to perse 
vere in the embargo. 
The embargo was far 
less effectual abroad 
than it was supposed 
it would be, and the 
difficulty of maintain 
ing it strictly at home 
caused its repeal in 
March, 1809. The de 
cided support of the 
embargo given by both 
Houses of Congress 
was supplemented by 
resolutions of the leg 
islatures of Georgia, 

the Carolinas, Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylva 
nia, and New Hampshire. An enforce- 
(Sept. 28, 1808) in writing, unsurpassed ment act was passed (January, 1809), 




EMBARGO. 



minister into making a formal proposi 
tion. To this Canning made a reply 



in diplomatic cunning and partially con 
cealed sarcasm. It also contained sound 
views on the whole subject of the orders 
and decrees. Canning insisted that, as 



and, to make it efficient, the employment 
of twelve additional revenue cutters was 
authorized ; also the fitting out for ser 
vice of all the ships-of-war and gunboats. 



France was the original aggressor, by the This enforcement act was despotic, and 



issuing of the Berlin decree, retaliation 
(the claimed cause of the embargo) 
ought, in the first instance, to have been 
directed against that power alone; and 
England could not consent to buy off a 
hostile procedure, of which she ought 
never to have been made the object, at 
the expense of a concession made, not to 
the United States, upon whom the opera 
tion of the British orders was merely in 
cidental, but to France, against which 
country, in a spirit of just retaliation, 
they had been originally aimed. The Ber 
lin decree had been the beginning of an 
attempt to overthrow the political power 
of Great Britain by destroying her com 
merce, and almost all Europe had been 
compelled to join in that attempt; and 
the American embargo had, in fact, come 
in aid of Napoleon s continental system. 
This attempt, Canning said, was not like- 



would not have been tolerated except as a 
temporary expedient, for the Orders in 
Council were mild in their effects upon 
American trade and commerce compared 
with that of this Embargo Act. It pretty 
effectually suppressed extensive smug 
gling, which was carried on between the 
United States and Canada and at many 
soa-ports, especially in New England. 
But the opposition clamored for its re 
peal. At the opening of 1814 there were 
expectations, speedily realized, of peace 
near; also of a general pacification of 
Europe. These signs were pointed to by 
the opposition as cogent reasons for the 
repeal. These considerations had weight, 
added to which was the necessity for in 
creasing the revenue. Finally, on Jan. 
lit (1S14), the President recommended 
the repeal of the Embargo Act, and it was 
done by Congress on April 14. There 



ly to succeed, yet it was important to the were great rejoicings throughout the coun- 
repntation of Great Britain not to show try, and the demise of the Terrapin was 

2.32 



EMBARGO ACTS 



hailed as a good omen of commercial 
prosperity. The Death of the Embargo 
was celebrated in verses published in the 
Federal Republican newspaper of George 
town, in the District of Columbia. These 
were reproduced in the New York Even 
ing Post, with an illustration designed by 
John Wesley Jarvis, the painter, and 
drawn and engraved on wood by Dr. Alex 
ander Anderson. The picture was re 
drawn and engraved by Dr. Anderson, on 
a reduced scale, in 1864, after a lapse of 
exactly fifty years. The lines which it 
illustrates are as follows: 

TERRAPIN S ADDRESS. 

" Reflect, my friend, as you pass by, 
As you are now, so once was I : 
As / am now, so you may be 
Laid on your back to die like me ! 
I was, indeed, true sailor born ; 
To quit my friend in death I scorn. 
Once Jemmy seemed to be my friend, 
But basely brought me to my end ! 
Of head bereft, and light, and breath, 
I hold Fidelity in death : 
For Sailors Rights I still will tug ; 
And Madison to death I ll hug, 
For his perfidious zeal displayed 
For Sailors Rights and for Free-trade. 
This small atonement I will have - 
I ll lug down Jemmy to the grave. 
Then trade and commerce shall be free, 
And sailors have their liberty. 
Of head bereft, and light, and breath, 
The Terrapin, still true in death, 
Will punish Jemmy s perfidy- 
Leave trade and brother sailors free." 




DKATH OF TKKKAfl.N, OK THE EMBARGO. 

PASSENGER S REPLY. 

* Yes, Terrapin, bereft of breath, 
We see thee faithful still in death. 



Never mind thy head thou lt live with 
out it; 
Spunk will preserve thy life don t doubt 

it. 

Down to the grave, t atone for sin, 
Jemmy must go with Terrapin. 
Bear him but off, and we shall see 
Commerce restored and sailors free! 
Hug, Terrapin, with all thy might 
Now for Free-trade and Sailors Right. 
Stick to him, Terrapin I to thee the nation 
Now eager looks then die for her salva 
tion. 

" FLOREAT RESPUBLICA. 

" BANKS OF GOOSE CREEK, CITY OF WASH 
INGTON, loth April, 1814." 

The continued aggressions of the British 
upon American commerce created a power 
ful war party in the United States in 
1811, and a stirring report of the com 
mittee on foreign relations, submitted to 
Congress in November, intensified that 
feeling. Bills were speedily passed for 
augmenting the army, and other prepara 
tions for war were made soon after the 
opening of the year 1812. The President 
was averse to war, but his party urged 
and threatened him so pertinaciously that 
he consented to declare war against Great 
Britain. As a preliminary measure he 
sent a confidential message to Congress 
(April 1, 1812) recommending the pas 
sage of an act laying an embargo for sixty 
days. A bill was introduced to that effect 
by Mr. Calhoun, of South Carolina, which 
prohibited the sailing of 
any vessel for any foreign 
port, except foreign ships 
with such cargoes as they 
might have on board when 
notified of the act. The 
bill was passed (April 6), 
and was speedily followed 
by a supplementary act 
(April 14) prohibiting ex- 
portations by land, 
whether of goods or specie. 
The latter measure was 
called the land embargo. 
It was vehemently de 
nounced, for it suddenly 
suppressed an active and 
lucrative trade between the 
United States and Canada. 
It was ascertained that the British 
blockading squadron in American water* 
was constantly supplied with provision- 



Stick to t Free-trade and Sailors Rights. 

Hug Jemmy press him-hold him -bite, from American ports by unpatriotic men ; 

233 



EMBRY EMMET 



also that British manufactures were being ing gratuitously. He died in Camden, 
introduced on professedly neutral vessels. N. Y., in August, 1775. 
Such trailic was extensively carried on, Emerson, RALPH WALDO, author; 
especially in New England ports, where loader of the transcendental school of 
magistrates were often leniently disposed New England; born in Boston, May 25, 
towards such violators of law. In a con- 1803; graduated at Harvard in 1821; 
fidential message (Dec. 9, 1813) the Presi- taught school five years, and in 1820 was 
dent recommended the passage of an em- licensed to preach by the Middlesex 
l>argo act to suppress the traffic, and one (Unitarian) Association. In the winter 
passed both Houses on the 17th, to remain of 1833-34, after returning from Europe, 
in force until Jan. 1, 1815, unless the war he began the career of a lecturer arid es- 
should sooner cease. It prohibited, under sayist. Marrying in 1835, he fixed his 
severe penalties, the exportation, or at 
tempt at exportation, by land or water, of 
any goods, produce, specie, or live-stock ; 
and to guard against evasions even the 
coast trade was entirely prohibited. This 
bore heavily on the business of some of 
the New England sea-coast towns. No 
transportation was allowed, even on inland 
waters, without special permission from 
the President. While the act bore so 
heavily on honest traders, it pretty effect 
ually stopped the illicit business of 
" speculators, knaves, and traders, who en 
riched themselves at the expense of the 
community." This act, like all similar 
ones, was called a "terrapin policy"; and 
illustrative of it was a caricature repre 
senting a British vessel in the offing, some 
men embarking goods in a boat on the 

shore, and a stout man carrying a barrel residence at Concord, Mass., and was a 
of flour towards the boat, impeded by contributor to, and finally editor of, The 
being seized by the seat of his pantaloons Dial, a quarterly magazine, and organ of 
by an enormous terrapin, urged on by a the New England transcendentalists. He 
man who cries out, " D n it, how he nicks lived the quiet life of a literary man and 
em." The victim exclaims, " Oh ! this philosopher for more than forty years. 
cursed Ograbme!" the letters of the last He published essays, poems, etc. He died 
word, transposed, spell embargo. This act in Concord. Mass.. April 27. 1882. 
was repealed in April, 1814. Emigrant Aid Company. See TIIAYKI;. 

Embry, JAMES CRAWFORD, clergyman; ELI. 

born of negro parents in Knox county, Emigration. See IMMIGRATION . 
Ind., Nov. 2, 1834; became a minister in Emmet, THOMAS ADDIS, patriot; born 
the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Cork, Ireland, April 24, 1763; grad- 
in 1863; author of Condition and Pros- uated at Trinity College, Dublin: first 
pects of the Colored American. studied medicine, and then law, and was 

Embury, PHILIP, clergyman; born in admitted to the Dublin bar in 1791. He 
Ballygaran, Ireland, Sept. 21, 1729: came became a leader of the Association of Unit- 
to New York in 1760, and at the solicita- ed Irishmen, and was one of a general 
tion of Barbara Heck he began to hold committee whose ultimate object was to 
services in his own house, and later on in secure the freedom of Ireland from British 
a rigginjr-loft. This was the foundation rule. With many of his associates, he was 
of Methodism in the United States. The arrested in 1798, and for more than two 
first Methodist church was built in John years was confined in Fort George, Scot- 
Street in 1768. under the supervision of land. His brother Robert, afterwards 
Embury he himself working on the build- engaged in the same cause, was hanged in 

234 




RALPH WALDO EMKKXIN 



EMMONS EMUCFAU 



Dublin in 1803. Thomas was liberated and 
banished to France after the treaty of 
Amiens, the severest penalties being pro 
nounced against him if he should return 
to Great Britain. His wife was permitted 
to join him, on condition that she should 
never again set foot on British soil. He 
came to the United States in 1804, and be 
came very eminent in his profession in the 
city of New York. He was made attorney- 
general of the State in 1812. A monu 
ment an obelisk was erected to his 
memory in St. Paul s church-yard, New 
York, on Broadway. He died in New 
York, Nov. 14. 182: . 

Emmons, GEORGE FOSTEK, naval officer; 
born in Clarendon, Vt. Aug. 23, 1811; 
entered the navy in 1828; took part in sev 
eral engagements during the Mexican 
War; served through the Civil War, and 
in I860 commanded the Ossipee, which 
carried the United States commissioners 
to Alaska for the purpose of hoisting the 
American Hag over that region. He was 
promoted rear-admiral in 1872; retired in 
1873; author of The Navy of the United 
States from 1775 to 1853. He died in 
Princeton, N. J., July 2, 1884. 

Emory, WILLIAM HELMSLEY, military 
officer; born in Queen Anne s county, 
Mel., Sept. 9, 1811; graduated at West 
Point in 1831. He was appointed lieu 
tenant of the topographical engineers July 
7, 1833; was aide to General Kearny in 
California in 1840-47, and was made lieu 
tenant-colonel. Sept. 30, 1847. He was as 
tronomer to the commission to determine 
the boundary between the United States 
and Mexico. He was serving as captain 
of cavalry in Mexico when the Civil War 
broke out, and brought his command into 
Kansas in good order. In May, 1861, he 
was made lieutenant - colonel of the 6th 
Cavalry; served in the campaign of 1862 
in the Army of the Potomac, and was made 
brigadier-general of volunteers in March 
of that year. He did good service under 
Banks in Louisiana, and under Sheridan 
in the Shenandoah Valley. He was made 
colonel of the 5th Cavalry in the fall of 
1863; in March. 1865, was brevetted brig 
adier-general and major-general of the 
United States army; and in 1876 was re 
tired with the full rank of brigadier- 
general. He died in Washington. D. 0., 
Dor. 1, 1887. 



Emott, JAMES, jurist; born in Pough- 
keepsie, N. Y., March 14, 1771; grad 
uated at Union College in 1800, and began 
the practice of law at Ballston Centre, but 
soon removed to Albany. He represented 
that district in the legislature in 1804. He 
practised law a while in New York City, 
and then returned to Poughkeepsie. He 
was in Congress from 1809 to 1813, and 
was a leader of the Federal party therein. 
He was again in the legislature (1814-17), 
and was speaker of that body. From 1817 
to 1823 he was first judge of Dutchess 
county, and was judge of the second cir 
cuit from 1827 to 1831, when, in compli 
ance with the then law of the State, that 
prohibited the holding of a judicial office 
by a citizen over sixty years of age, he re 
tired from public life with his intellect in 
full vigor. He died in Poughkeepsie, April 
10, 1850. 

Empire State, a popular name given 
to the State of New York, because it is 
the most populous, wealthy, and politi 
cally powerful State in the Union. It 
is sometimes called the " Excelsior State," 
from the motto EXCELSIOR " higher " 
oil its seal and coat-of-arms. The city of 
New York, its commercial metropolis, 
and the largest city in the Union, is some 
times called the " Empire City." 

Emucfau, BATTLE OF. On a bend in 
the Tallapoosa River, in Alabama, was 
a Creek village named Emucfau. Jack 
son, with a considerable force, approaching 
the place (Jan. 21, 1814), saw a well- 
beaten trail and some; prowling Indians, 
and prepared his cant]) that night for an 
attack. At six o clock the next morning 
a party of Creek warriors fell upon him 
with great fury. At dawn a vigorous 
cavalry charge was made upon the foe 
by General Coffee, and they were dis 
persed. Coffee pursued the barbarians 
for 2 miles with much slaughter. Then 
a party was despatched to destroy tin- 
Indian encampment at Emucfau, but it 
was found to be too strongly fortified to 
be taken without artillery. When Coffee 
fell back to guard approaching cannon, 
the Indians, thinking it was a retreat, 
again fell upon Jackson, but, after a 
severe struggle, were repulsed. Jackson 
made no further attempt to destroy the 
encampment at Emucfau. He was aston 
ished at the prowes3 of the Creek wr- 



23* 



ENDICOTT ENGINEERING 

riors. In their retrograde movement Winthrop. Tn 1636 he was sent with 
(Jan. 24), the Tennesseeans were again Captain Underhill, with about ninety 
threatened by the Indians, near Eno- men, on an expedition against Indians 
tochopco Creek. A severe engagement on Block Island and the Pequods. Mr. 
soon ensued; but the Tennesseeans, hav- Endicott was deputy-governor of Massa- 
ing planted a 6-pounder cannon on an chusetts several years, and also govern- 
rminence, poured a storm of grape-shot or, in which office he died, March 15, 
on the Indians, which sent them yelling 1(505. Bold, energetic, sincere, and 
in all directions. The slaughter among bigoted, he was the strongest of the Puri- 
the Indians was heavy, while that among tans, and was severe in the execution of 
the white troops was comparatively laws against those who differed from the 
light. In the two engagements (Enuicfau prevailing theology of the colony. He 
and Enotochopco) , Jackson lost twenty was one of the most persistent persecut- 
killed and seventy-five wounded. ors of the Quakers, and stood by unmoved. 

Endicott, JOHN, colonial governor; as governor, when they were hanged in 
born in Dorchester, England, in 1580; was Boston; and so violent were his feelings 

against the Eoman Catholics, and any 
thing that savored of " popery," that he 
caused the red cross of St. George to be 
cut out of the military standard. He 
opposed long hair on men, and insisted 
that the women should use veils in public 
assemblies. During his several adminis 
trations many were punished for the 
slightest offences, and four Quakers were 
hanged in Boston. 

Endicott, WILLIAM CROWNIXSHIELD, 
jurist; born in Salem, Mass., Nov. 19, 
1827; graduated at Harvard in 1847; ad 
mitted to the bar in 1850; appointed 
judge of the Supreme Court of Massa 
chusetts in 1873; became Secretary of 

JOHN KXUICOTT. ,,, . 1O o^ TJ TI J 

War in 188. >. Judge Endicott was a 
Democrat, and the unsuccessful candidate 

sent by the Massachusetts Company to of his party for governor of Massachu- 
superintend the plantation at Naumkeag: setts in 1884. His daughter. Mary, mar- 
arrived there Sept. (N. S. ), and in ried Joseph Chamberlain, English colo- 
April next year was appointed governor nial secretary. He died in Boston, May 
of the colony, but was succeeded by John 6, 1900. 



ENGINEERING 

Engineering. MR. THOMAS C. CLARKE divided into structural engineering, or 
(q. r.) , Past President of the Society of that of railways, bridges, tunnels, build- 
Civil Engineers, writes as follows on the ings, etc.; also, into hydraulic engincer- 
snbject of engineering, with special refer- ing, which governs the application of wa- 
ence to American engineers and their ter to canals, river improvements, harbors, 
works in the United States. the supply of water to towns and for ir- 

rigation, disposal of sewage, etc. 

Dynamical engineering can be divided 

Engineering is sometimes divided into into mechanical engineering, which cov- 

civil. military, and naval engineering, ers the construction of all prime motors, 

The logical classification is: statical en- Ilie transmission of power, and the use of 

ginccnnir and dynamical. machines and machine tools. Closely al- 

Statical engineering can be again sub- lied is electrical engineering, the art of 

230 




ENGINEERING 

the transformation and transmission of The swivelliiig-truck and equalizing-beam 

energy for traction, lighting, telegraphy, enabled our engines to run safely on tracks 

telephoning, operating machinery, and where the rigid European engines would 

many other uses, such as its electrolytic, soon have been in the ditch, 

application to ores and metals. Our cars were made longer, and by the 

Then we have the combined application use of longitudinal framing much stronger, 
of statical, mechanical, and electrical en- A great economy came from the use of 
gineering to what is now called indus- annealed cast-iron wheels. It was soon 
trial engineering, or the production of seen that longer cars would carry a great- 
articles useful to man. This may be di- er proportion of paying load, and the 
vided into agricultural, mining, metal- more cars that one engine could draw in 
lurgical, and chemical engineering. a train, the less would be the cost. It 

Structural Engineering. This is the was not until the invention by Bessemer 

oldest of all. We have not been able to in 1864 of a steel of quality and cost 

surpass the works of the past in grandeur that made it available for rails that much 

or durability. The pyramids of Egypt heavier cars and locomotives could be 

still stand, and will stand for thousands used. Then came a rapid increase. As 

of years. Roman bridges, aqueducts, and soon as Bessemer rails were made in this 

sewers still perform their duties. Joseph s country, the cost fell from $175 per ton to 

canal still irrigates lower Egypt. The $50, and now to $26. 

great wall of China, running for 1,500 Before that time a wooden car weighed 

miles over mountains and plains, con- 16 tons, and could carry a paying load of 

tains 150,000,000 cubic yards of mate- 15 tons. The 30-ton engines of those days 

rials and is the greatest of artificial could not draw on a level over thirty cars 

works. No modern building compares in weighing 900 tons. 

grandeur with St. Peter s, and the me- The pressed steel car of to-day weighs 

diaeval cathedrals shame our puny imita- no more than the wooden car, but carries 

tions. a paying load of 50 tons. The heaviest 

Railways. The greatest engineering engines have now drawn on a level fifty 
work of the nineteenth century was the steel cars, weighing 3,750 tons. In the 
development of the railway system which one case the paying load of an engine was 
has changed the face of the world. Be- 450 tons; now it is 2,500 tons, 
ginning in 1829 with the locomotive of Steep grades soon developed a better 
George Stophenson, it has extended with brake system, and these heavier trains 
such strides that, after seventy years, have led to the invention of the auto- 
there are 466.000 miles of railways in the matic brake worked from the engine, and 
world, of which 190,000 miles are in the also automatic couplers, saving time and 
United States. Their cost is estimated at many lives. The capacity of our rail- 
$40,000,000.000, of which $10,000,000,000 ways has been greatly increased by the 
belong to the United States. use of electric block-signals. 

The rapidity with which railways are The perfecting of both the railway and 

built in the United States and Canada con- its rolling-stock has led to remarkable 

trasts strongly with what has been done results. 

in other countries. Much has been writ- In 1899 Poor gives the total freight ton- 
ten of the energy of Russia in building nage at 975,789,941 tons, and the freight 
3,000 miles of Siberian railway in five receipts at $922,436,314, or an average 
or six years. In the United States an rate per ton of 95 cents. Had the rates 
average of 6,147 miles was completed ev- of 1867 prevailed, the additional yearly 
cry year during ten successive years, and cost to the public would have been $4,275,- 
in 1887 there were built 12.982 miles. 000,000, or sullicient to replace the 
They were built economically, and at first whole railway system in two and a half 
in not as solid a manner as those of Eu- years. This much can surely be said: 
rope. Steeper gradients, sharper curves, the reduction in cost of operating our 
and lighter rails were used. This ren- railways, and the consequent fall in freight 
dered necessary a different kind of roll- rates, have been potent factors in enabling 
ing-stock suitable to such construction, the United States to send abroad last 

237 



ENGINEERING 



year $1,^56,000,000 worth of exports and 
flood the world with our food and manu 
factured products. 

Bridge Building. In early days the 
building of a bridge was a matter 
of great ceremony, and it was conse 
crated to protect it from evil spirits. Its 
construction was controlled by priests, as 
the title of the Pope of Rome, " Pontifex 
Muximus," indicates. 

Railways changed all this. Instead of 
the picturesque stone bridge, whose long 
line of low arches harmonized with the 
landscape, there came the straight girder 
or high truss, ugly indeed, but quickly 
built, and costing much less. 

Bridge construction has made greater 
progress in the United States than abroad. 
The heavy trains that we have described 
called for stronger bridges. The large 
American rolling-stock is not used in Eng 
land, and but little on the continent of 
Europe, as the width of tunnels and other 
obstacles will not allow of it. It is said 
that there is an average of one bridge for 
every 3 miles of railway in the United 
States, making 63,000 bridges, most of 
which have been replaced by new and 
stronger ones during the last twenty 
years. This demand has brought into ex 
istence many bridge - building companies, 
some of whom make the whole bridge, 
from the ore to the finished product. 

Before the advent of railways, highway 
bridges in America were made of wood, 
and called trusses. The coming of rail 
ways required a stronger type of bridge 
to carry concentrated loads, and the Howe 
truss, with vertical iron rods, was in 
vented, capable of 150-foot spans. 

About 1868 iron bridges began to take 
the place of wooden bridges. One of 
the first long-span bridges was a single- 
track railway bridge of 400 - foot span 
over the Ohio at Cincinnati, which was 
considered to be a great achievement in 
1870. 

The Kinzua viaduct, 310 feet high and 
over half a mile long, belongs to this 
era. It is the type of the numerous high 
viaducts now so common. 

About 1885 a new material was given 
to engineers, having greater strength and 
tenacity than iron, and commercially 
available from Its low cost. This is ba 
sic steel. This new chemical metal, for 



238 



such it is, is 50 per cent, etronger ttia n 
iron, and can be tied in a knot when 
cold. 

The effect of improved devices and the 
use of steel is shown by the weights of the 
400-foot Ohio River iron bridge, built 
in 1870, and a bridge at the same place, 
built in 1886. The bridge of 1870 was of 
iron, with a span of 400 feet. The bridge 
of 1886 was of steel. Its span was 550 
feet. The weights of the two were nearly 
alike. 

The cantilever design, which is a revi 
val of a very ancient type, came into 
use. The great Forth Bridge, in Scot 
land, 1,600-foot span, is of this style, as 
are the 500-foot spans at Poughkeepsie, 
and now a new one is being designed to 
cross the St. Lawrence near Quebec, of 
1,800-foot span. This is probably near 
the economic limit of cantilever con 
struction. 

The suspension bridge can be extended 
much farther, as it carries no dead weight 
of compression members. 

The Niagara Suspension Bridge, of 810- 
foot span, built by Roebling, in 1852, and 
the Brooklyn Bridge, of 1,600 feet, built 
by Roebling and his son, twenty years af 
ter, marked a wonderful advance in bridge 
design. The same lines of construction 
will be followed in the 2.700-foot span, 
designed to cross the North River some 
time in the present century. The only 
radical advance is the use of a better steel 
than could be had in earlier days. 

Steel-arched bridges are now scientifical 
ly designed. Such are the new Niagara 
Bridge, of 840-foot span, and the Alex 
andra Bridge at Paris. 

That which marks more clearly than 
anything else the great advance in Amer 
ican bridge building, during the last 
forty years, is the reconstruction of the 
famous Victoria Bridge, over the St. Law 
rence, above Montreal. This bridge was 
designed by Robert Stephenson, and the 
stone piers are a monument to his engi 
neering skill. For forty winters they 
have resisted the great fields of ice borne 
by a rapid current. Their dimensions 
were so liberal that the new bridge was 
put upon them, although four times as 
wide as the old one. 

The superstructure wa originally made 
of plate-iron tubes, reinforced by tees and 



ENGINEERING 



angles, similar to Stephenson s Menai petition. Mistakee mean ruin, and the 
Straits Bridge. There are twenty - two fittest only survives. 

spans of 240 feet each, and a central one The American system gives the great- 
of 330 feet. est possible rapidity of erection of the 

It was decided to build a new bridge of bridge on its piers. A span of 518 feet, 
open-work construction and of open-hearth weighing 1,000 tons, was erected at Cairo 
steel. This was done, and the comparison on the Mississippi in six days. The parts 
is as follows: Old bridge, 16 feet wide, were not assembled until they were put 
single track, live load of one ton per foot; upon the false works. European engi- 
new bridge, 67 feet wide, two railway iieers have sometimes ordered a bridge to 
tracks and two carriage-ways, live load be riveted together complete in the maker s 
of 5 tons per foot. yard, and then taken apart. 

The old iron tubes weighed 10,000 tons, The adoption of American work in such 
cost $2,713,000, and took two seasons to bridges as the Atbara in South Africa, 
erect. The new truss bridge weighs 22,000 the Gokteik viaduct in Burmah, 320 feet 
tons, has cost $1,400,000, and the time of high, and others, was due to low cost, 
construction was one year. quick delivery and erection, as well as ex- 

The modern high office building is an cellence of material and construction, 
interesting example of the evolution of a Foundations, etc. Bridges must have 
high-viaduct pier. Such a pier of the re- foundations for their piers. Up to the 
quired dimensions, strengthened by more middle of the nineteenth century engi- 
columns strong enough to carry many neers knew no better way of making them 
floors, is the skeleton frame. Enclose the than by laying bare the bed of the river 
sides with brick, stone, or terra-cotta, add by a pumped-out cofferdam, or by driving 
windows, and doors, and elevators, and it piles into the sand, as Julius Caesar did. 
is complete. About the middle of the century, M. 

Fortunately for the stability of these Triger, a French engineer, conceived the 
high buildings, the effect of wind pressures first plan of a pneumatic foundation, 
had been studied in this country in the which led to the present system of corn- 
designs of the Kinzua, Pecos, and other pressing air by pumping it into an in- 
liigh viaducts. verted box, called a caisson, with air locks 

The modern elevated railway of cities on top to enable men and materials to go 
is simply a very long railway viaduct, in and out. After the soft materials were 
Some idea may be gained of the life of removed, and the caisson sunk by its own 
a modern riveted-iron structure from the weight to the proper depth, it was filled 
experience of the Manhattan Elevated with concrete. The limit of depth is that 
Railway of New York. These roads were in which men can work in compressed air 
built in 1878-79 to carry uniform loads without injury, and this is not much 
of 1,600 Ibs. per lineal foot, except Second over 100 feet. 

Avenue, which was made to carry 2,000. The foundations of the Brooklyn and 
The stresses were below 10,000 Ibs. per St. Louis bridges were put down in this 
square inch. manner. 

These viaducts have carried in twenty- In the construction of the Poughkeep- 
two years over 25,000,000 trains, weighing sie bridge over the Hudson in 1887-88. 
over 3,000,000,000 tons, at a maximum it became necessary to go down 135 feet 
speed of 25 miles an hour, and are still below tide-level before hard bottom was 
in good order. reached. Another process was invented 

We have now great bridge companies, to take the place of compressed air. Tim- 
which are so completely equipped with ap- ber caissons were built, having double 
pliances for both shop drawings and con- sides, and the spaces between them filled 
struction that the old joke becomes almost with stone to give weight. Their tops 
true that they can make bridges and sell were left open and the American single- 
them by the mile. bucket dredge was used. This bucket was 

All improvements of design are now pub- lowered and lifted by a very long wire 
lie property. All that the bridge compa- rope worked by the engine, and with it 
nies do is done in the fierce light of com- the soft material was removed. The in- 

239 



ENGINEERING 

tcrnal space was then filled with concrete but the favorite type now is that of sub- 
laid under water by the same bucket, and ways. There are two kinds, those near 
levelled by divers when necessary. the surface, like the District railways of 

While this work was going on, the gov- London, the subways in Paris, Berlin, and 
ernment of New South Wales, in Austra- Boston, and that now building in New 
lia, called for both designs and tenders for York. The South London and Central 
a bridge over an estuary of the sea called London, and other London projects, are 
Hawkesbury. The conditions were the tubes sunk 50 to 80 feet below the sur- 
same as that at Poughkeepsie, except that face and requiring elevators for access, 
the soft mud reached to a depth of ICO The construction of the Boston subway 
feet below tide-level. was difficult on account of the small 

The designs of the engineers of the width of the streets, their great traffic, 
Poughkeepsie bridge were accepted, and and the necessity of underpinning the 
the same method of sinking open caissons foundations of buildings. All of this was 
(in this case made of iron) was carried successfully done without disturbing the 
out with perfect success. traffic for a single day, and reflects great 

The erection of this bridge involved an- credit on the engineer. Owing to the 
other difficult problem. The mud was too great width of New York streets, the 
soft and deep for piles and staging, and problem is simpler in that respect. Al- 
the cantilever system in this site would though many times as long as the Boston 
have increased the cost. subway, it will be built in nearly the 

The solution of the problems presented same time. The design, where in earth, 
at Hawkesbury gave the second introduc- may be compared to that of a steel office 
tion of American engineers to bridge building 20 miles long, laid flat on one of 
building outside of America. The first its sides. 

was in 1786, when an American carpenter The construction of power-houses for 
or shipwright built a bridge over Charles developing energy from coal and from 
River at Boston, 1,470 feet long by 46 falling water requires much engineering 
feet wide. This bridge was of wood sup- ability. The Niagara power-house is in- 
ported on piles. His work gained for tended to develop 100,000 horse -power; 
him such renown that he was called to that at the Sault Ste. Marie as much ; that 
Ireland and built a similar bridge at on the St. Lawrence, at Massena, 70,000 
Belfast. horse-power. These are huge works, re- 

Tunnelling by compressed air is a hori- quiring tunnels, rock-cut chambers, and 
zontal application of compressed-air foun- masonry and concrete in walls and dams, 
dations. The earth is supported by an They cover large extents of territory, 
iron tube, which is added to in rings, The contrast in size of the coal-using 
which are pushed forward by hydraulic power-houses is interesting. The new 
jacks. power-house now building by the Manhat- 

A tunnel is now being made under an tan Elevated Railway, in New York, de- 
arm of the sea between Boston and East velops in the small space of 200 by 400 
Boston, some 1,400 feet long and 65 feet feet 100,000 horse-power, or as much pow- 
below tide. The interior lining of iron er as that utilized at Niagara Falls. 
tubing is not used. The tunnel is built of One of the most useful materials which 
concrete, reinforced by steel rods. Success modern engineers now make use of is con- 
in modern engineering means doing a crete, which can be put into confined 
thing in the most economical way consist- spaces and laid under water. It costs less 
ent with safety. Had the North River than masonry, while as strong. This is 
tunnel, at New York, been designed on the revival of the use of a material used 
equally scientific principles it would prob- by the Romans. The writer was once al- 
ably have been finished, which now seems lowed to climb a ladder and look at the 
problematical. construction of the dome of the Pantheon, 

The construction of rapid - transit rail- at Rome. He found it a monolithic mass 
ways in cities is another branch of engi- of concrete, and hence without thrust. It 
neering. Some of these railways are ele- is a better piece of engineering const rue 
vated, and are merely railway viaducts, tion than the dome of St. Peter s, built 

240 



ENGINEERING 

1,500 years later. The dome of Columbia to dig the sand with rude hoes, and carry 

College Library, in New York, is built of it away in baskets on their heads. They 

concrete. died by thousands for want of water and 

Hydraulic Engineering. This is one of proper food. At last the French engineers 
the oldest branches of engineering, and persuaded the Khedive to let them in- 
was developed before the last century, troduce steam dredging machinery. A 
The irrigation works of Asia, Africa, light railway was laid to supply pro- 
Spain, Italy, the Roman aqueducts, and visions, and a small ditch dug to bring 
the canals of Europe, are examples. Hy- pure water. The number of" men em- 
draulic works cannot be constructed in ployed fell to one-fourth. Machinery did 
ignorance of the laws which govern the the rest. But for this the canal would 
flow of water. The action of water is re- never have been finished, 
lentless, as ruined canals, obstructed The Panama Canal now uses the best 
rivers, and washed-out dams testify. modern machinery, and the Nicaragua 

The removal of sewage, after having Canal, if built, will apply still better 
been done by the Etruscans before the methods, developed on the Chicago drain- 
foundation of Rome, became a lost art age canal, where material was handled at 
during the dirty Dark Ages, when filth a less cost than has ever been done be 
st nd piety were deemed to be connected in fore. 

some mysterious way. It was reserved for The Erie Canal was one of very small 
good John Wesley to point out that cost, but its influence has been surpassed 
"Cleanliness is next to godliness." Now by none. The " winning of the West " was 
sewage works are as common as those hastened many years by the construction 
for water supply. Some of them have of this work in the first quarter of the 
been of great size and cost. Such are the century. Two horses were just able to 
drainage works of London, Paris, Berlin, draw a ton of goods at the speed of 2 
Boston, Chicago, and New Orleans. A miles an hour over the wretched roads 
very difficult work was the drainage of of those days. When the canal was made 
the City of Mexico, which is in a valley these two horses could draw a boat carry- 
surrounded by mountains, and elevated ing 150 tons 4 miles an hour, 
only 4 or 5 feet above a lake having no The Erie Canal was made by engineers, 
outlet. Attempts to drain the lake had but it had to make its own engineers first, 
been made in vain for GOO years. It has as there were none available in this coun- 
lately been accomplished by a tunnel 6 try at that time. These self-taught men, 
miles long through the mountains, and a some of them land surveyors and others 
canal of over 30 miles, the whole work lawyers, showed themselves the equals of 
costing some $20,000,000. the Englishmen Brindley and Smeaton, 

The drainage of Chicago by locks and when they located a water route through 

canal into the Illinois River has cost some the wilderness, having a uniform descent 

$35,000,000, and is well worth its cost. from Lake Erie to the Hudson, and which 

Scientific research has been applied to would have been so built if there had been 

the designing of high masonry and con- enough money. 

crete dams, and we know now that no There should be a waterway from the 

well-designed dam on a good foundation Hudson to Lake Erie large enough for vcs- 

should fail. The dams now building sels able to navigate the lakes and the 

across the Nile by order of the British ocean. A draft of 21 feet can be had at 

government will create the largest arti- a cost estimated at $200,000.000. 

ficial lakes in the world. The deepening of the Chicago drainage 

The Suez Canal is one of the largest hy- canal to the Mississippi River, and the 

draulic works of the last century, and is deepening of the Mississippi itself to the 

a notable instance of the displacement of Gulf of Mexico, is a logical sequence of 

hand labor by the use of machinery. Is- the first project. The Nicaragua Canal 

mail began by impressing a large part of would then form one part of a great line 

the peasant population of Egypt, just as of navigation, by which the products of 

Rameses had done over 3,000 years be- the interior of the continent could reach 

fore. These unfortunate people were set either the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean. 
ITT. Q 241 



ENGINEERING 

The cost would be small compared with ing engines; also steam and water tur- 

the resulting benefits, and some day this bines, wind-mills, and wave-motors, 

navigation will be built by the government It comprises all means of transmitting 

of the United States. power, as by shafting, ropes, pneumatic 

The deepening of the Southwest Pass of pressure, and compressed air. all of which 
the Mississippi River from 6 to 30 feet seem likely to be superseded by electricity, 
by James B. Eads was a great engineer- It covers the construction of machine 
ing achievement. It was the first ap- tools and machinery of all kinds. It en- 
plication of the jetty system on a large ters into all the processes of structural, 
scale. This is merely confining the flow hydraulic, electrical, and industrial engi- 
of a river, and thus increasing its velocity ueering. The special improvements are: 
so that it secures a deeper channel for The almost universal use of rotary motion, 
itself. and of the reduplication of parts. 

The improvement of harbors follows The steam-engine is a machine of re- 

closely the increased size of ocean and lake ciprocating, converted into rotary, motion 

vessels. The approach to New York Har- by the crank. The progress of mechanical 

bor is now being deepened to 40 feet, engineering during the nineteenth century 

a thing impossible to be done without the is measured by the improvements of the 

largest application of steam machinery steam-engine, principally in the direction 

in a suction dredge boat. of saving fuel, by the invention of internal 

The Croton Aqueduct of New York was combustion or gas-engines, the application 
thought by its designers to be on a scale of electrical transmission, and, latest, the 
large enough to last for all time. It is practical development of steam turbines 
now less than sixty years old, and the by Parsons, Westinghouse, Delaval, Cur- 
population of New York will soon be too tis, and others. In these a jet of steam 
large to be supplied by it. It is able impinges upon buckets set upon the cir- 
to supply 250,000.000 to 300,000,000 gal- cumference of a wheel. Their advantages 
Ions daily, and its cost, when the Cornell are that their motion is rotary and not 
dam and Jerome Park reservoir are fin- reciprocal. They can develop speed of 
ished, will be a little over $92,000,000. from 5,000 to 30,000 revolutions per min- 

It is now suggested to store water in ute, while the highest ever attained by a 
the Adirondack Mountains, 203 miles reciprocating engine is not over 1,000. 
away, by dams built at the outlet of ten Their thermodynamic losses are less, hence 
or twelve lakes. This will equalize the they consume less steam and less fuel, 
flow of the Hudson River so as to give Duplication of parts has lowered the 
3,000,000,000 to 4,000,000,000 gallons cost of all products. Clothing is one of 
daily. It is then proposed to pump these. The parts of ready-made garments 
1,000,000,000 gallons daily from the and shoes are now cut into shape in num- 
Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, 60 miles bers at a time, by sharp-edged templates, 
away, to a height sufficient to supply and then fastened together by sewing- 
New York City by gravity through an machines, 
aqueduct. Mechanical engineering is a good exam- 

If this scheme is carried out, the total pie of the survival of the fittest. Millions 

supply will be about 1,300,000,000 gallons of dollars are expended on machinery, 

daily, or enough for a population of from when suddenly a new discovery or in- 

12,000,000 to 13,000,000 persons. By put- vention casts them all into the scrap heap, 

ting in more pumps, filter-beds, and con- to be replaced by those of greater earning 

duits, this supply can be increased 40 capacity. 

per cent., or to 1,800,000,000 gallons daily. Prime motors derive their energy either 
This is a fair example of the scale of the from coal or other combinations of car- 
engineering works of the nineteenth and bon, such as petroleum, or from gravity, 
twentieth centuries. This may come from falling water, and 

Mechanical Engineering. This is em- the old-fashioned water-wheels of the 

ployed in all dynamical engineering. It eighteenth century were superseded in the 

covers the designs of prime motors of all nineteenth by turbines, first invented in 

sorts, steam, gas, and gasoline reciprocal Trance and since greatly perfected. These 

242 



ENGINEERING 



are used in the electrical transmission of 
water-power at Niagara of 5,000 horse 
power, and form a very important part of 
the plant. 

The other gravity motors are wind 
mills and wave-motors. Wind-mills are 
an old invention, but have been greatly 
improved in the United States by the use 
of the self-reefing wheel. The great plains 
of the West are subject to sudden, violent 
gales of wind, and unless the wheel was 
automatically self-reefing it w y ould often 
be destroyed. 

There have been vast numbers of patents 
taken out for wave-motors. One was in 
vented in Chile, South America, which 
furnished a constant power for four 
months, and was utilized in sawing planks. 
The action of waves is more constant on 
1he Pacific coast of America than else 
where, and some auxiliary power, such as 
a gasoline engine, which can be quickly 
started and stopped, must be provided for 
use during calm days. The prime cost 
of such a machine need not exceed that 
of a steam plant, and the cost of operat 
ing is much less than that of any fuel- 
burning engine. The saving of coal is a 
very important problem. In a wider sense, 
we may say that the saving of all the great 
stores which nature has laid up for us 
during the past, and which have remained 
almost untouched until the nineteenth cen 
tury, is the great problem of to-day. 

Petroleum and natural gas may disap 
pear. The ores of gold, silver, and plat 
inum will not last forever. Trees will 
grow, and iron ores seem to be practically 
inexhaustible. Chemistry has added a 
new metal in aluminum, which replaces 
copper for many purposes. One of the 
trrcatest problems of the twentieth cen- 
liiry is to discover some chemical process 
for treating iron, by which oxidation will 
not take place. 

Coal, next to grain, is the most impor- 
iant of nature s gifts; it can be exhaust 
ed, or the cost of mining it become so 
great that it cannot be obtained in the 
countries where it is most needed; water, 
wind, and wave power may take its place 
to a limited extent, and greater use may 
be made of the waste gases coming from 
blast or smelter furnaces, but as nearly 
all energy comes from coal, its use must 
be economized, and the greatest economy 



will come from pulverizing coal and using 
it in the shape of a tine powder. Inven 
tions have been made trying to deliver 
this powder into the fire-box as fast as 
made, for it is as explosive as gunpowder, 
and as dangerous to store or handle. If 
this can be done, there will be a saving of 
coal due to perfect and smokeless combus 
tion, as the admission of air can be en 
tirely regulated, the same blast which 
throws in the powder furnishing oxygen. 
Some investigators have estimated that 
the saving of coal will be as great ;>s 
20 per cent. This means 100,000,000 tons 
of coal annually. 

Another problem of mechanical engi 
neering is to determine whether it will 
be found more economical to transform 
the energy of coal, at the mines, into 
electric current and send it by wire to 
cities and other places where it is wanted. 
or to carry the coal by rail and water, as 
we now do, to such places, and convert it 
there by the steam or gas engine. 

Metallurgy and Mining. All the proc 
esses of metalhirgy and mining employ 
statical, hydraulic, mechanical, and elec 
trical engineering. Coal, without rail 
ways and canals, would be of little use, 
unless electrical engineering came to its 
aid. 

It was estimated by the late Lord Arm 
strong that of the 450,000,000 to 500,000,- 
000 tons of coal annually produced in the 
world, one-third is used for steam produc 
tion, one-third in metallurgical processes, 
and one-third for domestic consumption. 

Next in importance comes the produc 
tion of iron and steel. Steel, on account 
of its great cost and brittleness. was only 
used for too s and special purposes until 
past the middle of the nineteenth cen 
tury. This has been all changed by the 
invention of his steel by Bessemer in 1864, 
and open-hearth steel in the furnace of 
Siemens, perfected some twenty years 
since by Gilchrist & Thomas. 

The United States have taken the lead 
in steel manufacture. In 1873 Great 
Britain made three times as much steel 
as the United States. Now the United 
States makes twice as much as Great 
Britain, or 40 per cent, of all the steel 
made in the world. 

Mr. Carnegie has explained the reason 
why, in epigrammatic phrase: "Three 



243 



ENGINEERING 

Ibs. of steel billets can be sold for 2 Without tracing the steps which have led 
cents." to it, we may say that the common type 

This stimulates rail and water traffic is what is called " the binder," and is a 
and other industries, as he tells us 1 Ib. machine drawn chiefly by animals, and in 
of steel requires 2 Ibs. of ore, ! / Ibs. of some cases by a field locomotive, 
coal, and V, Ib. of limestone. It cuts, rakes, and binds sheaves of 

It is not surprising, therefore, that the grain at one operation. Sometimes 
States bordering on the lakes have created threshing and winnowing machines are 
a traffic of 25,000,000 tons yearly through combined with it, and the grain is deliv- 
the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, while the Suez, ered into bags ready for the market, 
which supplies the wants of half the pop- Different machines are used for cutting 
ulation of the world, has only 7,000,000, and binding corn, and for mowing and 
or less than the tonnage of the little Har- raking hay, but the most important of all 
lem River at New York. is the grain-binder. The extent of then 

Industrial Engineering. This leads us use may be known from the fact 
to our last topic, for which too little 75,000 tons of twine are used by these 
room has been left. Industrial engineering machines annually. 

covers statical, hydraulic, mechanical, and It is estimated that there are in the 
electrical engineering, and adds a new United States 1.500,000 of these machines, 
branch which we may call chemical engi- but as the harvest is earlier in the South, 
neering. This is pre-eminently a child of there are probably not over 1,000,0( 
the nineteenth century, and is the conver- use at one time. As each machine takes 
sion of one thin"- into another by a knowl- the place of sixteen men, this means that 
edge of their chemical constituents. 10,000.000 men are released from farming 

When Dalton first applied mathematics for other pursuits. 

to chemistry and made it quantitative, he It is fair to assume that a large part 
gave the key which led to the discoveries of these 10.000.000 men have gone into 
of Cavendish. (iay-Lussac, Berzelius, Lie- manufacturing, the operating of railways, 
big, and others. This new knowledge was and other pursuits. The use of agricult- 
not locked up, but at once fiven to the ural machinery, therefore, is one explana- 
world, and made use of. Its first appli- tion of why the United Stnt.es produces 
cation on a large scale was made by Na- eight - tenths of the worM s cotton and 
j.oleon in encouraging the manufacture of corn, one-quarter of its wheat, one-third 
sugar from beets. of its meat and iron, two-fifths of its 

The new products wore generally made steel, and one-third of its coal, and a large 
from what were called "waste material." part of the world s manufactured goods. 
We now have the manufacture of soda, Contusion. It is a very interesting 
bleaching powders, aniline dyes, and other question, why was th ; s erroal development 
products of the distillation of coal, also of material prosperity de ayed so late? 
coal-oil from petroleum, acetylene gas, eel- Why did it wait until the nineteenth 
luloid, rubber goods in all their numer- century, and then all at once increase with 
ous varieties, high explosives, cement, arti- such rapid strides? 

ficial manures, artificial ice, beet-sugar, It was not until modern times that the 
and even beer may now be included. reign of law was greatly extended, and 

The value of our mechanical and chem- men were insured the product of their 
ical products is great, but it is surpassed labors. Then came the union of scientists, 
by that of food products. If these did inventors, and engineers, 
not keep pace with the increase of pop- So lone as these three classes worked 
ulation. the theories of Malthus would be separately but little was done. There was 

true but he never *aw a modern reaper. an antagonism between them. Ancient 

The steam-plough was invented n Eng- writers went so far as to say that the in 
land some fifty years since, but the ereat vention of the arch and of the potter s 
use of agricultural machinery dates from wheel were beneath the dignity of a phi- 
our Civil War. when so many men were losopher. 

taken from agriculture. It became neces- One of the first great men to take a dif- 
sary to fill their places with machinery, ferent view was Francis Bacon. Macau- 

244 



ENGINEERING 

lay, in his famous essay, quotes him as dexes of all scientific and engineering 

saying: "Philosophy is the relief of man s articles as fast as they appear is another 

estate, and the endowment of the human modern contrivance. 

race with new powers; increasing their Formerly scientific discoveries were con- 
pleasures and mitigating their sufferings." cealed by cryptograms, printed in a dead 
These noble words seem to anticipate the language, and hidden in the archives of 
famous definition of civil engineering, em- learned societies. Even so late as 1821 
bodied by Telford in the charter of the Oersted published his discovery of the uni- 
British Institution of Civil Engineers: formity of electricity and magnetism in 
Engineering is the art of controlling Latin. 

the great powers of nature for the use and Engineering works could have been de- 
convenience of man. signed and useful inventions made, but 

The seed sown by Bacon was long in they could not have been carried out with- 
producing fruit. Until the laws of nature out combination. Corporate organization 
were better known, there could be no prac- collects the small savings of many into 
tical application of them. Towards the great sums through savings-banks, life 
end of the eighteenth century a great in- insurance companies, etc., and uses this 
tellectual revival took place. In litera- concentrated capital to construct the vast 
ture appeared Voltaire, Rousseau, Kant, works of our days. This could not con- 
Hume, and Goethe. In pure science there tinue unless fair dividends were paid, 
came Laplace, Cavendish, Lavoisier. Lin- Everything now has to be designed so as 
meus, Berzelius, Priestley, Count Rum- to pay. Time, labor, and material must 
ford, James Watt, and Dr. Franklin. The be saved, and he ranks highest who can 
last three were s.mong the earliest to bring best do this. Invention has been encour- 
about a union of pure and applied science, aged by liberal patent laws, which secure 
Franklin immediately applied his discov- to the inventor property in his ideas at 
cry that frictional electricity and light- a moderate cost. 

ning were the same to the protection of . Combination, organization, and scien- 
buildings by lightning-rods. Count Rum- tific discovery, inventive ability, and engi- 
ford (whose experiments on the conver- neering skill are now united, 
sion of power into heat led to the dis- It may be said that we have gathered 
covery of the conservatism of energy) together all the inventions of the nine- 
spent a long life in contriving useful in- teenth century and called them works of 
ventions. engineering. This is not so. Engineering 

James Watt, one of the few men who covers much more than invention. It in- 
have united in themselves knowledge of eludes all works of sufficient size and in- 
abstract science, great inventive faculties, tricacy to require men trained in the 
and rare mechanical skill, changed the knowledge of the physical conditions which 
steam-engine from a worthless rattletrap govern the mechanical application of the 
into the most useful machine ever invent- laws of nature. First comes scientific dis- 
ed by man. To do this he first discovered covery, then invention, and lastly engi- 
the science of thermodynamics, then in- iieering. Faraday and Henry discovered 
vented the necessary appliances, and final- the electrical laws which led to the in 
ly constructed them with his own hands, vention of the dynamo, which was per- 
He was a very exceptional man. At the fected by many minds. Engineering built 
beginning of the nineteenth century there such works as those at Niagara Falls to 
wore few engineers who had received any make it useful. 

scientific education. Now there is in the An ignorant man may invent a safety- 
profession a great army of young men, pin, but he cannot build the Brooklyn 
most of them graduates of technical Bridge. 

schools, good mathematicians, and well The engineer - in - chief commands an 

versed in the art of experimenting. army of experts, as without specialization 

One of the present causes of progress is little can be done. His is the conrprehen- 

that all discoveries are published at once sive design, for which he alone is respon- 

in technical journals and in the daily sible. 

press. The publication of descriptive in- Such is the evolution of engineering, 

245 



ENGINEERS ENGLISH REVOLUTION 

which began as a. craft and has ended as a ticket with Gen. Winfielcl S. Hancock in 
profession. 1880; published an historical and bio- 
Thoughtful persons have asked, will this graphical work on the constitution of 
new civilization last, or will it go the way the law-makers of Indiana ; and bequeath- 
of its predecessors? Surely the answer ed to the Indiana Historical Society, of 
is: all depends on good government, on the which he was president for many years, 
stability of law, order, and justice, pro- the funds to complete and publish his 
tecting the rights of all classes. It will History of Indiana. He died in Indian- 
continue to grow with the growth of good apolis, Ind.. Feb. 7, 18!t(i. 
government, prosper with its prosperity, English Language, a branch from the 
and perish with its decay. Low-German of the Teutonic or Germanic 
Engineers, SOCIETIES OF. American So- branch of the Indo-European family. It 
ciety of Civil Engineers, organized 1852; is closely related to the dialects spoken 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, on the north shores of the German Ocean, 
organized 1871; American Society of Me- especially with the Frisian dialect, 
chanical Engineers, organized 1880; English Revolution, THE. When 
American Institute of Electrical Engi- James II. attempted to establish despot- 
neers, organized 1884. ism in England by destroying the consti- 
English, EARL, naval officer; born in tution in Church and State, he arrayed 
Crosswicks, N. J., Feb. 18, 1824; entered against himself the united Church, the 
the navy Feb. 25, 1840; was actively en- aristocracy, and the intelligent people of 
gaged during the Mexican War on the the realm. He also resolved to make the 
Pacific coast in Mexico and California; Roman Catholic the religious system of 
also served throughout the Civil War. (he kingdom, and sought to destroy all 
In 1868, when the Tycoon of Japan was forms of Protestantism. He prorogued 
defeated by the Mikado s party, he found Parliament, and ruled despotically as an 
refuge on Commander English s ship Iro- autocrat without it. So universal were 
quois. He was promoted rear-admiral in the alarm and indignation caused by his 
1884; retired in 1886. He died in Wash- conduct that there was a general longing 
ington, D. C., July 16, 1893. for relief; and the fires of revolution 
English, THOMAS DUNN, author; born burned intensely in the hearts of the 
in Philadelphia, Pa., June 29, 1819; people before they burst into a flame. The 
graduated at the University of Pennsyl- King s daughter Mary, who had married 
vania in 1839; member of the New Jersey her cousin William, Prince of Orange, wn- 
legislature in 1863-64; and of Congress in heir to the throne of England in the ab- 
1891-95; is the author of American Bal- sence of a male heir. When the people 
lads; Book of Battle Lyrics; Ben Bolt, etc. were ripe for revolution it was announced 
He died in Newark, N. J., April 1, 1902. that James s second wife had given birth 
English, WILLIAM HAYDEN, capitalist; to a son (June 10, 1G88). The hopes of 
born in Lexington, Ind., Aug. 27, 1822; the nation, which were centred on Mary, 
received a collegiate education and studied were grievously disappointed. The opin- 
law; was a Democratic Representative ion was general that the alleged heir 
in Congress in 1852-61 ; and was con- just born was a supposititious one, and 
spicuous there because of his opposition not the child of the Queen. The volcano 
to the policy of his own party in the con- was instantly uncapped, and on June :) 
troversy over the admission of Kansas (1688) leading men of the kingdom sent 
into the Union. He reported what was an invitation to William of Orange to 
known as the " English bill," which invade England and place his wife on 
provided that the question of admission its throne. He went, landed at Torbay 
under the Lecompton constitution be re- (Nov. 5) with 15,000 men, and penetrated 
ferred back to the people of Kansas. His the country. The people flocked to his 
report was adopted, and Kansas voted standard, King James fled to France, and 
against admission under that const.itu- all England was speedily in the hands of 
tion. After his retirement from Congress the welcome invader. 

he engaged in various financial concerns: On Feb. 13, the Convention Parliament 

was candidate for Vice-President on the conferred the crown of England on Will- 

246 



ENTAIL OF ESTATE ENTERPRISE 



iam and Mary as joint sovereigns. Ban 
croft says of the political theory of the 
revolution: "The old idea of a Christian 
monarchy resting on the law of God was 
exploded, and political power sought its 
origin in compact. Absolute monarchy 
was denied to be a form of civil govern 
ment. Nothing, it was held, can bind 
freemen to obey any government save their 
own agreement. Political power is a 
trust, and a breach of the trust dissolves 
the obligation to allegiance. The supreme 
power is the legislature, to whose guar 
dianship it has been sacredly and unalter 
ably delegated. By the fundamental law 
of property no taxes may be levied on the 
people but by its own consent or that of 
its authorized agents. These were the doc 
trines of the revolution, dangerous to 
European institutions and dear to the 
colonies; menacing the Old World with 
convulsive struggles and reforms, and es 
tablishing for America the sanctity of its 
own legislative bodies. Throughout the 
English world the right to representation 
could never again be separated from the 
power of taxation. The theory gave to 
vested rights in England a bulwark 
against the monarch ; it encouraged the 



tates to certain classes of descendants in 
which the legal course of succession of 
some descendants is cut off. The earliest 
English law of entail is found in the 
statute of Westminster in 1285. In the 
United States this law came over with 
the general body of enactments known as 
the " common law of England." South 
Carolina abolished entail in 1773. Vir 
ginia in 1776, Georgia in 1777. Maryland 
in 1782, North Carolina in 1784. In re 
cent years the purposes of entail are ac 
complished by other legal procedure. It 
is believed that Gardiner s Island, N. Y., 
is the only property in the United States 
now held entail by direct descendants of 
the grantee. See GARDINER, LION. 

Enterprise, THE. The Enterprise, four 
teen guns, was an American brig that ac 
quired the reputation of being " lucky." 
She cruised for a long time off the New 
England coast, the terror of British 
provincial privateers, under Capt. John 
ston Blakeley, until he was promoted to 
the command of the new sloop-of-war 
Wasp, when Lieut. William Burrows be 
came her commander. On the morning of 
Sept. 1, 1813, she sailed from Portsmouth, 
N. H., in quest of British cruisers. On 



INTER ENTERPHIZE NAV. 
AMEHI. ET BOXER NAV. 
BHIT. DIE IV SEPT. 
MDCCCXIII. 




THE JTCALL MEDAL. 

colonists to assert their privileges, as pos- the morning of the 5th she discovered a 
sessing a sanctity which tyranny only British brig in a bay near Pemaquid Point, 
could disregard, and which could perish which, observing the Entcr/irisc. bore 
only by destroying allegiance itself." down upon her in menacing attitude. 

Entail of Estate. A disposition of es- Murrows accepted the challenge, cleared 

247 



ENTERPRISE ENVOYS TO FRANCE 




GKAVKS OF BURROWS, BLYTH, AXD WATKKS. 



his ship for action, and, after getting a 
proper distance from land to have ample 
sea-room for conflict, he edged towards 
the stranger, which proved to be the Brit 
ish brig Boxer, fourteen guns, Capt. 
Samuel Blyth. At twenty minutes past 
three o clock in the afternoon the brigs 
closed within half pistol-shot of each 
other and both vessels opened fire at the 
same time. The wind was light, with 
very little sea, and the cannonading was 
destructive. Ten minutes later the Enter 
prise ranged ahead of the Boxer, and, 
taking advantage of her position, she 
steered across the bows of her antagonist, 
and delivered her fire with such precision 
and destructive energy that, at four 
o clock, the British officer in command 
shouted through his trumpet that he had 
surrendered: but his flag being nailed to 
the mast, it could not be lowered until 
the Americans should cease firing. It 
was found that Capt. Blyth had been cut 
nearly in two by an 18-pound cannon-ball. 
Almost at the same moment when Blyth 
fell on the Boxer, Burrows, of the En !>- 
prise, was mortally wounded. So also 
was Midshipman Kervin Waters. Blyth 
was killed instantly; Burrows lived eight 
hours. The latter refused to be carried 
below until the sword of the commander 



of the Boxer 
was delivered to 
him, when he 
grasped it and 
said, " Now I 
am satisfied ; I 
die contented." 
The command of 
the Enterprise 
devolved upon 
Lieut. E. R. Me- 
Call, of South 
Carolina, w h o 
conducted his 
part of the en 
gagement to its 
close with skill. 
He took both 
vessels into 
Portland Har- 
bor on the 
morning of the 
7th. The two 
young com- 
manders were 
buried side by side in a cemetery at Port 
land. Congress presented a gold medal 
to the nearest masculine representative 
of Lieutenant Burrows; and another was 
presented to Lieutenant McCall. 

Envoy. A diplomatic or political rank 
inferior to that of AMBASSADOR (q. v.). 
In the diplomatic service in the United 
States the official designation is envoy 
extraordinary and minister plenipoten 
tiary. The representatives of the United 
States in the countries with which it has 
mutually raised its representative above 
the rank of envoy extraordinary and 
minister plenipotentiary are officially 
known as ambassadors extraordinary 
and plenipotentiary. 

Envoys to France. Monroe was re 
called from France in 1796, and CHARLES 

COTESWORTH PlNCKNEY ( q. V . ) , of South 

Carolina, was appointed to fill his place. 
On his arrival in France, late in the year. 
\\ith the letter of recall and his own cre 
dentials, the Directory refused to receive 
him. Not only so, but, after treating 
him with great discourtesy, the Directory 
peremptorily ordered him to leave France. 
He withdrew to Holland (February, 1707 ). 
and there awaited further orders from 
home. When Mr. Adams took the chair 
of state, the United States had no diplo- 



248 



EPISCOPACY IN AMERICA 

matic agent in France. The " French spirit of the people kept episcopacy at bay, 

party," or Republicans, having failed to for they remembered how much they had 

elect Jefferson President, the DIRECTORY suffered at the hands of the Church of 

(q. v.) determined to punish a people England. On the accession of George III. 

who dared to thwart their plans. In and the administration of the Earl of 

May, 1797, they issued a decree which Bute, among the reforms in the colonies 

was tantamount to a declaration of war contemplated and proposed by the minis- 

against the United States. At about the try was the curtailment or destruction of 

same time President Adams, observing the Puritan and Dissenting influence in 

the perilous relations between the United the provinces, which seemed inimical to 

States and France, called an extraordi- monarchy, and to make the ritual of the 

nary session of Congress to consider the Anglican Church the state mode of wor- 

matter. There had been a reaction among ship. As early as 1748 Dr. Seeker, Arch- 

the people, and many leading Democrats bishop of Canterbury, had proposed the 

favored war with France. A majority of establishment of episcopacy in America, 

the cabinet advised further negotiations, and overtures were made to several erni- 

and John Marshall, a Federalist, and ncnt Puritan divines to accept the leader- 

Elbridge Gerry, a Democrat, were ap- ship, but they all declined it. A royalist 

pointed envoys extraordinary to join churchman in Connecticut, in 1760, in a 

Pinckney and attempt to settle all mat- letter to Dr. Seeker, and to the Earl of 

ters in dispute. They reached France in Halifax, then at the head of the board of 

October (1797), and sought an audience trade and plantations, urged the necessity 

with the Directory. Their request was met of providing two or three bishops for the 

by a haughty refusal, unless the envoys colonies, the support of the Church, and a 

would first agree to pay into the ex- method for repressing the rampant repub- 

hausted French treasury a large sum of licanism of the people. " The rights of 

money, in the form of a loan, by the pur- the clergy and the authority of the King," 

chase of Dutch bonds wrung from that said the Bishop of London, " must stand 

nation by the French, and a bribe to the or fall together." 

amount of $240,000 for the private use of The Anglican Church then had many ad- 

the five members of the Directory. The herents in all the colonies, who naturally 

proposition came semi-officially from Tal- desired its ascendency; but the great mass 

leyrand, one of the most unscrupulous of the people looked upon that Church 

politicians of the age. It was accompanied as an ally of the state in acts of oppres- 

by a covert threat that if the proposition sion, and earnestly opposed it. They well 

was not complied with the envoys might knew that if Parliament could create dio- 

be ordered to leave France in twenty-four ceses and appoint bishops, they would os- 

hours, and the coasts of the United States tablish tithes and crush out dissent as 

be ravaged by French cruisers from San heresy. For years controversy in the 

Domino. They peremptorily refused, colonies on this topic was warm, and some- 

and Pinckney uttered, in substance, the times acrimonious. Essays for and against 

noble words, " Millions for defence, but episcopacy appeared in abundance. The 

not one cent for tribute!" The envoys Bishop of LlandafT, in a sermon preached 

asked for their passports. They were given before the Society for the Propagation of 

to the two Federalists under circumstances the Gospel in Foreign Parts, in which he 

that amounted to their virtual expulsion, advocated the necessity of establishing 

but Gerry, the Democrat, was induced to episcopacy in America, heaped abuse with- 

remain. He, too, was soon treated with out stint upon the colonists. " Upon the 

contempt by Talleyrand and his associates, adventurers themselves," he said, " what 

and he returned home in disgust. reproach could he cast heavier than they 

Episcopacy in America. The Church deserve? who, with their native soil, aban- 

and state in England worked in concert doned their native manners and religion, 

in forging fetters for the English-Ameri- and ere long were found, in many parts, 

can colonists. The Church of England was living without remembrance or knowledge 

c:.rly made a state establishment in the of God, without any divine worship, in 

colony of Virginia, but elsewhere the free dissolute wickedness and the most brutal 

249 



EPISCOPACY IN AMERICA 

piofligacy of manners." He charged them of New York and New Jersey, in 170-!, 
with having become " infidels and barba- even violent efforts were used to make the 
rians " ; and the prelate concluded that the liturgy and ritual of the Church of Eng- 
only remedy for the great evil was to be land the state system of worship, lie 
found in a Church establishment. His denied the right of preachers or school- 
lecommendations were urged with zeal by masters to exercise their functions in the 
churchmen in the colonies. The Dis- province without a bishop s license; and 
seniors were aroused. They observed in when the corporation of New York re- 
the bishop s sermon the old persecuting solved to establish a grammar-school, the 
spirit of the Church, and visions of Laud Bishop of London was requested to send 
and the Star Chamber disturbed them, over a teacher. In violation of his posi- 
Eminent writers in America entered tive instructions, the governor began a 
the lists in opposition to him. Among systematic persecution of all religious de- 
others, William Livingston, whose fa- nominations dissenting from the practices 
mous letter to the bishop, issued in of the Church of England. This conduct 
pamphlet form, refuted the charges reacted disastrously to Trinity Church, 
of that dignitary so completely that which, until the province was rid of Corn- 
they were not repeated. The theo- bury, had a very feeble growth, 
logical controversy ceased when the vital Puritan austerity had extended to a 
question of resistance to the oppressive large class of intelligent free-thinkers 
power of both Church and state was and doubters in New England, and they 
brought to a final issue. The first Eng- felt inclined to turn towards the freer, 
lish "bishop within the domains of the more orderly, and dignified Church of 
American republic was SAMUEL SEABURY England. The rich and polite preferred 
(q. v.), of Connecticut, who was conse- a mode of worship which seemed to bring 
crated by three bishops of the Scottish them into sympathy with the English 
Episcopal Church, Nov. 14, 1784. aristocracy, and there were many who de- 

Efforts were early made by the English lighted in the modest ceremonies of the 
to supplant the Dutch Church as the pre- church. Nor were these influences con- 
vailing religious organization in New York, fined to laymen. There were studious and 
The act of the Assembly procured by Gov- aspiring men among the ministers to 
einor Fletcher, though broad in its scope, whom the idea of apostolic succession 
was destined for that purpose. Under had charms; and they yearned for 
that act Trinity Church was organized, freedom from the obstinate turbulence 
and Fletcher tried to obtain authority to of stiff - necked church - members, who, 
appoint all the ministers, but the Assem- in theory, were the spiritual equals of 
My successfully resisted his designs. In the pastors, whom, to manage, it was nec- 
1(51)5 Rev. John Miller, in a long letter to essary to humor and to suit. These ideas 
the Bishop of London on the condition of found expression in an unexpected qiun- 
religion and morals, drew a gloomy pict- ter. Timothy Cutler, a minister of lean, 
ure of the state of society in the city of injr and great ability, was rector of Yale 
New York, and earnestly recommended as College in 1719. To the surprise and 
a remedy for all these social evils "to alarm of the people of New England, Mi. 
send over a bishop to the province of New Cutler, with the tutor of the college and 
York duly qualified as suffragan " to the two ministers in the neighborhood, took 
Bishop of London, and five or six young occasion, on Commencement Day, 1722, to 
ministers, with Bibles and prayer-books; avow their conversion to Episcopacy. 
to unite New York. New Jersey. Con- Cutler was at once " excused " from all 
necticut, and Rhode Island into one prov- further service in the colege, and provi- 
ince; and the bishop to be appointed gov- sion was made for all future rectors to give 
ernor. at a salary of $7,200, his Majesty satisfactory evidence of "soundness of 
to give him the King s Farm of 30 tbeir faith in opposition to Arminian and 
acres, in New York, as a seat for himself prelatical corruptions." Weaker ones en- 
and his successors. When Sir Edward gaged in the revolt halted, but others per- 
Hyde (afterwards Lord Cornbury) be- sisted. Cutler became rector of a new 
came governor of the combined provinces Episcopal church in Boston, and the dis- 

250 



EPISCOPAL CHURCH ERA OF GOOD 1 EELING 

missed ministers were maintained as Ala.; second vice-president, Rev. \V. T. 

missionaries by the Society for the Propa- McClure, Marshall, Mo.; third vice-presi- 

gation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, dent, Rev. J. M. Barcus, Cleburne, Tex.; 

This secession from the Church resting tieasurer, Mr. 0. W. Patton, Nashville, 

on the SAYBROOK PLATFORM (q. v.) , made Tenn. ; secretary, Mr. G. W. Thomasson, 

the ministers of Massachusetts keen-eyed Nashville, Tenn. 

in the detection of signs of defection. Equal Rights Party. In the city of 

John Checkly (afterwards ordained an New York, in 1835, there arose in the 

Episcopal missionary) published Leslie s ranks of the Democratic party a combina- 

Short and Easy Method with Deists, with tion of men opposed to all banking in- 

au appendix by himself, in which Episco- stitutions and monopolies of every sort, 

pal ordination was insisted upon as neces- A Workingnian s party " had been 

sary to constitute a Christian minister, formed in 1829, but had become defunct, 

The authorities in Boston were offended, and the " Equal Rights party " was its 

Checkly was tried on a charge that the successor. They acted with much caution 

publication tended to bring into con- and secrecy in their opposition to the 

tempt and infamy the ministers of the powerful Democratic party, but never 

1 oly Gospel established by law within rose above the dignity of a faction. They 

his Majesty s province of Massachusetts." made their first decided demonstration at 

For this offence Checkly was found guilty Tammany Hall at the close of October, 

and fined 50. See PROTESTANT EPISCO- 1835, when an event occurred which 

PAL CHURCH. caused them afterwards to be known as 

Episcopal Church, REFORMED. See LOCO-FOCOS (q. v.) , a name applied by the 

REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH. Whigs to the whole Democratic party. 

Epworth League, a religious society The faction soon became formidable, and 

composed of the young members and the regulars endeavored to reconcile the 

friends of the Methodist Episcopal irregulars by nominating their favorite 

Church, founded in May, 1889. Its aim for the Presidency, Richard M. Johnson, 

is to promote intelligent and loyal piety for Vice-President with Martin Van 

among its members. Its constitution Buren. 

provides for religious, intellectual, and Era of Good Feeling, in United States 
social development. In 1900 it numbered history, the period of 1817-23. During 
27.700 chapters, with a membership of these years there was scarcely any antag- 
1.900,000. President, Bishop Isaac W. onism manifested between the political 
Joyce, Minneapolis, Minn.; vice-presi- parties, owing largely to the decline of 
dents: Department of Spiritual Work, the Federal party and to the abandonment 
W. W. Cooper, Chicago, 111.; Department of past issues. The War of 1812 had 
of Mercy and Help, Rev. W. H. Jordan, practically settled every question which 
D.D., Sioux Falls, S. D. ; Department of had disturbed the parties since 1800. The 
Literary Work, Rev. R. J. Cook, D.D., inaugural speech of PRESIDENT JAMES 
Chattanooga. Tenn.; Department of Social MONROE (q. v.) in 1817 was of such a 
Work, F. W. Tunnell, Philadelphia, Pa.; nature as to quiet the Federal minority, 
general secretary, Rev. Joseph F. Berry, It treated the peculiar interests of that 
D.D., 57 Washington Street, Chicago, 111., party with magnanimity; congratulated 
general treasurer, R. S. Copeland, M.D., the country upon its universal "hai- 
Ann Arbor, Mich. The central office is mony," and predicted an increase of this 
located at 57 Washington Street, Chicago, harmony for the future. This good will 
Hi. There is also an Epworth League was further augmented by a visit of 
in the Methodist Episcopal Church, President Monroe to the New England 
South; founded in Memphis, Tenn., in States, which had not seen a President 
1891. It has 5,838 chapters, with a total since the days of Washington. Party feel- 
membership of 306,580. The central ing was forgotten, and all joined in pro- 
office is located at Na&hville, Tenn. The claiming that an " era of good feeling " 
officers are: President, Bishop W. A. had come. In 1824 this era was unhappi- 
Condler, Atlanta, Ga. : first vice-president, ly terminated by the election of JOHN 
Rev. J. W. Newman, D.D., Birmingham, QUINCY ADAMS (q. v.), during whose ad- 

251 



ERICSSON EBIE CANAL 



ministration questions arose which resur- in mechanical science after he settled in 
rected party antagonisms. . ^"ew York. He constructed the Monitor, 

Ericsson, Jonx, engineer; born in which fought the Merrimac, using T. R. 
Wermeland, Sweden, July 31, 1803. He TIMBY S (q. v.) revolving turret, thus 
became an eminent engineer in his own revolutionizing the entire science of naval 
country, and attained the rank of cap- warfare. At the time of his death he was 
tain in the Swedish army. In 1826 he perfecting an engine to be run by solar 
visited England with a view to the in- rays. He died in New York City, March 
troduction of his invention of a flame 8, 1889, and his remains were sent to his 
engine. He engaged actively in mechani- native land in the United States cruiser 
eal pursuits, and made numerous inven- Bnliimorc. 

tions, notably that of artificial draft, Eric the Bed, a Scandinavian navi- 
which is still used in locomotive engines, gator, who emigrated to Ireland about 
He won the prize offered by the Man- 982, after which he discovered Greenland. 
Chester and Liverpool Railway for the where he planted a colony. He sent out 
best locomotive, making one that attained an exploring party under his son Lief, 
the then astonishing speed of 50 miles about 1000, who seems to have discovered 
an hour. He invented the screw propeller the continent of America, and landed 
for navigation, but the British admiralty somewhere on the shores of Massachu- 
being unwilling to believe in its capacity setts or the southern portion of New Eng- 
and success, Ericsson came to the United land. See VINLAND. 

States in 183!), and resided in the city Erie Canal, THE, the greatest work of 
of New York or its immediate vicinity till internal improvement constructed in the 
his death. In 1841 he was engaged in the United States previous to the Pacific 
construction of the United States ship-of- Railway. It connects the waters of the 
war Princeton, to which he applied his Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean 
propeller. She was the first steamship by way of the Hudson River. It was 

contemplated by General Schuyler and 
Elkanah Watson, but was first definitely 
proposed by Gouverneur Morris, at about 
the beginning of the nineteenth century. 
Various writers put forth essays upon the 
subject, among them De Witt Clinton, 
who became its most notable champion. 
The project took such shape that, in 
1810, canal commissioners were appointed, 
with Gouverneur Morris at their head. 
In 1812 Clinton, with others, was appoint 
ed to lay the project before the national 
Congress, and solicit the aid of the 
national government. Fortunately the 
latter declined to extend its patronage 
to the great undertaking. The War of 
1812-15 put the matter at rest for a 
while. That war made the transporta- 
JOHX KKICSSOX. tion of merchandise along our sea -cna>1s 

perilous, and the cominereial intercourse 

ever built with the propelling machinery between seaboard cities was carried on in 
under the water-line and out of reach of a larger degree by wheeled vehicles. For 
shot. In 1840 he received the gold medal this purpose Couestoga wag<>n> were used 
of the Mechanics Institute of New York between New York and Philadelphia, and 
for the best model of a steam fire-engine, when one of these made the journey of 
and constructed the first one seen in the 90 miles in three days, with passengers. 
United States. King Oscar of Sweden it was called "the flying-machine." It 
made him Knight of the Order of Vasa has been estimated that the amount of 
in 1852, He accomplished many things increased expense by this method of trans- 

252 




I 



EBIE CANAL, THE 

portation of merchandise for the coast government would do nothing in the mat- 
region alone would have paid the cost of ter, and the State of New York resolved 
a system of internal navigation from to construct the canal alone. Clinton was 
Maine to Georgia. made governor in 1816, and used all his 
The want of such a system was made official and private influence in favor of 
clear to the public mind, especially to the the enterprise. He saw it begun during 




LOCKS ON THK ERIE CANAL. 

population then gathering in the Western his first administration. The first exca- 

States. Then Mr. Clinton, more vigor- vation was made July 4, 1817, and it was 

ously than ever, pressed upon the public completed and formally opened by him, 

attention the importance of constructing as chief magistrate of the State, in 1825. 

the projected canal. He devoted his won- when a grand aquatic procession from Al- 

derful energies to the subject, and in a bany proceeded to the sea, and the gov- 

memorial of the citizens of New York, ernor poured a keg of the water of Lake 

prepared by him, he produced such a pow- Erie into the Atlantic Ocean. The canal 

erful argument in its favor that not only was constructed at a cost of $7,602.000. 

the people of his native State, but of Untold wealth has been won for the State 

other States, approved it. The national and the city of New York by its opera- 

253 



ERIE 



tions, directly and indirectly. Up to 1904 
tlie canal had cost for construction, en 
largement, and maintenance $52,540,800. 
At the State election in 1903 the people 
sanctioned a legislative bill to expend 
$101.000,000 for the improvement of the 
Erie, Oswego, and Champlain canals. 

Erie, FOKT, a small and weak forti 
fication erected on a plain 12 or 15 feet 
sibove the waters of Lake Erie, at its foot. 
In the summer of 1812, Black Rock, 2 miles 
below Buffalo, was selected as a place for 
a dock-yard for fitting out naval vessels 
for Lake Erie. Lieut. Jesse D. Elliott, 
then only twenty - seven years of age. 
while on duty there, was informed of the 
arrival at Fort Erie, opposite, of two ves 
sels from Detroit, both well manned and 
well armed and laden with valuable car 
goes of peltry. They were the Caledonia, a 
vessel belonging to the Northwestern Fur 
Company, and the John Adams, taken at 
the surrender of Hull, with the name 
changed to Detroit. They arrived on the 
morning of Oct. 8 (1812), and Elliott 
at once conceived a plan for their capture. 
Timely aid offered. The same day a de 
tachment of unarmed seamen arrived from 
Xew York. Elliott turned to the military 
for assistance. Lieutenant-Colonel Scott 
was then at Black Rock, and entered 
warmly into Elliott s plans. General 
Smyth, the commanding officer, favored 
them. Captain Towson, of the artillery, 
was detailed, with fifty men, for the ser 
vice; and sailors under General Winder, 
at Buffalo, were ordered out, well 
armed. Several citizens joined the expe 
dition, and the whole number, rank 
and file, was about 124 men. Two large 
boats were taken to the mouth of Buffalo 
Creek, and in these the expedition em 
barked at midnight. At one o clock in 
the morning (Oct. 9) they left the creek, 
while scores of people watched anxiously 
on the shore for the result. The sharp 
crack of a pistol, the roll of musketry, 
followed by silence, and the moving of 
two dark objects down the river pro 
claimed that the enterprise had been suc 
cessful. Joy was manifested on the 
shores by shouts and the waving of lan 
terns. The vessels and their men had been 
made captives in less than ten minutes. 
The guns at Fort Erie were brought to 
bear upon the vessels. A struggle for 



their possession ensued. The Detroit was 
finally burned, but the Caledonia was 
saved, and afterwards did good service in 
Perry s fleet on Lake Erie. In this brill 
iant affair the Americans lost one killed 
and five wounded. The loss of the Brit 
ish is not known. A shot from Fort Erie 
crossed the river and instantly killed Maj. 
William Howe Cuyler, aide to General 
Hull, of Watertown, N. Y. The Caledonia 
was a rich prize; her cargo was valued at 
$200,000. 

On Aug. 4, 1814, the British, under 
Lieutenant-Colonel Drummond, began a 
siege of Fort Erie, with about 5,000 
men. Drummond perceived the impor 
tance of capturing the American batteries 
at Black Rock and seizing or destroying 
the armed schooners in the lake. A force 
1,200 strong, that went over to Black 
Rock, were repulsed by riflemen, militia, 
and volunteers, under Major Morgan. 
Meanwhile Drummond had opened fire on 
Fort Erie with some 24-pounders. From 
Aug. 7 to Aug. 14 (1814) the cannonade 
and bombardment was almost incessant. 
General Gaines had arrived on the 5th, 
and taken the chief command as Brown s 
lieutenant. On the morning of the 7th 
the British hurled a fearful storm of 
round-shot upon the American works 
from five of their heavy cannon. Day by 
day the siege went steadily on. On the 
1 3th Drummond, having completed the 
mounting of all his heavy ordnance, be 
gan a bombardment, which continued 
through the day, and was renewed on the 
morning of the 14th. When the attack 
ceased that night, very little impression 
had been made on the American works. 
Satisfied that Drummond intended to 
storm the works, Gaines made disposition 
accordingly. At midnight an ominous 
silence prevailed in both camps. It was 
soon broken by a tremendous uproar. At 
two o clock in the morning (Aug. 15) the 
British, 1,500 strong, under Lieutenant- 
Colonel Fischer, made a furious attack 
upon Towson s bat < cry and the abatis, on 
the extreme left, bet \veei! that work and 
the shore. They expected to find the 
Americans slumbering, but were mistaken. 
At a signal, Towson s artillerists sent 
forth such a continuous stream of flame 
from his tall battery that the British 
called it the " Yankee Light - house." 
M 



ERIE, FORT 



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EXPLANATION op THE ABOVK MAP. A, old Fort Erie; a, a, demi-bastions; 6, a ravelin, and c, c, block-housea 
These were all built by the British previous to its capture at the beginning of July, d, d, bastions built by the 
Americans during the siege; e, e, n redoubt built for the security of the demi-bastions, a. a. 

B, the American camp, secured on the right by the line g, the Douglass Battery, f, and Fort Erie; on the left, 
and in front, by the lines/,/ / and batteries on the extreme right and left of them. That on the right, immedi 
ately under the letter L in the words LKVKT, I-I.AIX, is Towson s; h, k, etc.. camp traverses; n, main traverse; o, 
magazine traverse, covering also the headquarters of ener;il Oaines; p, hospital traverse; q. grand parade and 
provost-guard traverse; r. General Brown s headquarters; s, a drain; <, road from Chippewa up the lake. 

C, the encampment of volunteers outside of the intrenchments, who joined the army a few days before the 
sortie. 

n, n, the British works. 1, 2, 3. their first, second, and third battery, v. the route of Porter, wiih the left 
column, to attack the British right flank on the 17th; z, the ravine, and route of Miller s command. 

Mr. Lossing was indebted to the late Chief Engineer Gen. Joseph G. Totten for the manuscript map of which 
this Is a copy. 

255 



ERIE, FORT 



While one assailing column, by the use of 
ladders, was endeavoring to capture the 
battery, the other, failing to penetrate 
the abatis, because Miller and his brave 
men were behind it, attempted to gain the 
rear of the defenders. Both columns 
failed. Five times they made a gallant 



more furious attack, the bastion blew up 
with tremendous force. A column of 
flame, with fragments of timber, earth, 
stones, and the bodies of men, rose to the 
height of nearly 200 feet in the air, and 
fell in a shower of ruins to a great dis 
tance around. This appalling explosion 




Kl IXS OF KOKT ERIK, 1860. 



attack, when, after fearful loss, they aban 
doned the enterprise. Meanwhile another 
British column made a desperate attack 
on the fort, when the exasperated Drum- 
mond ordered his men to " give the Yan 
kees no quarter " if the fort should be 
taken, and had actually stationed some 
Indians near to assist in the execution 
of the savage order. He obtained partial 
possession of the weak fort, and ordered 
his men to attack the garrison with pike 
and bayonet. Most of the officers and 
many of the men received deadly wounds. 
No quarter was given ; but very soon the 
officer who gave the order was killed by 
the side of Lieutenant Macdonough, who 
had asked him for quarter, but \?as shot 
dcud by him. The battle raged furiously 
a while longer. The British held the 
main bastion of the fort in spite of all 
efforts to dislodge them. Finally, just 
as the Americans were about to make a 



was followed by a galling cannonade, 
when the British fled to their intrench- 
ments, leaving on the field 221 killed, 174 
wounded, and 186 prisoners. The loss of 
the Americans was seventy killed, fifty- 
six wounded, and eleven missing. 

After the terrible explosion and the re 
pulse of the British, both parties pre 
pared for a renewed contest. Each was 
strengthened by reinforcements, but the 
struggle was not again begun for a month. 
General Brown had recovered from his 
wound, and was again in command of his 
army. The fort was closely invested by 
the British, but Drummond s force, ly 
ing upon low ground, was greatly weak 
ened by typhoid fever. Hearing of this. 
Brown determined to make a sortie from 
the fort. The time appointed for its ex 
ecution was Sept. 17. He resolved, he 
said, " to storm the batteries, destroy the 
cannon, and roughly handle the brigade 



25(J 



ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON 



on duty, before those in reserve at the 
camp could be brought into action." 
Fortunately for the sallying troops, a 
thick fog obscured their movements as 
they went out, towards noon, in three di 
visions one under General Proctor, an 
other under James Miller (who had been 
brevetted a brigadier-general ) , and a 
third under General Ripley. Porter 
reached a point within a few rods of the 
British right wing, at near three o clock, 
before the movement was suspected by 
his antagonist. An assault was immedi 
ately begun. The startled British on 
that flank fell back, and left the Ameri 
cans masters of the ground. Two bat 
teries were then stormed, and were car 
ried after a close struggle for thirty 
minutes. This triumph was followed by 
the capture of the block-house in the rear 
of the batteries. The garrison were made 
prisoners, cannon and carriages were de 
stroyed, and the magazine blown up. 
Meanwhile, General Miller had carried 
two other batteries and block-houses in 
the rear. Within forty minutes after 
Porter and Miller began the attack, four 



saved, with Buffalo, and stores on the 
Niagara frontier, by this successful sortie. 
In the space of an hour, the hopes of 
Drummond were blasted, the fruits of the 
labor of fifty days were destroyed, and 
his force reduced by at least 1,000 men. 
Public honors were awarded to Brown, 
Porter, and llipley. Congress presented 
each with a gold medal. To the chief 
commander (Brown), of whom it was 
said, " no enterprise which he undertook 
ever failed," the corporation of New York 
gave the freedom of the city in a gold box. 
The governor of New York (D. D. Tomp- 
kins) presented to him an elegant sword. 
The States of New York, Massachusetts, 
South Carolina, and Georgia each gave 
Eipley tokens of their appreciation of his 
services. 

Erie, LAKE, BATTLE ON. Who should 
be masters of Lake Erie was an important 
question to be solved in 1813. The United 
States government did not fulfil its prom 
ise to Hull to provide means for securing 
the naval supremacy on Lake Erie. The 
necessity for such an attainment was so 
obvious before the close of 1812 that the 




i 



MOUTH OP CASCADE CREKK, WHEKB PERRY S FLKET WAS BFILT. 

batteries, two block -houses, and the whole government took vigorous action in the 
line of British intrenchments were in the matter. Isaac Chauncey was in command 
hands of the Americans. Fort Erie was of a little squadron on Lake Ontario late 
in. R 257 



ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON 




I KRRY S BATTI.K FLAG. 



in 1812, and Capt. Oliver Hazard Perry, 
a zealous young naval officer, of Rhode Isl 
and, who was in command of a flotilla of 
gunboats on the Newport station, offered 
his services on the Lakes. Chauncey de 
sired his services, and on Feb. 17 Perry re 
ceived orders from the Secretary of the 
Navy to report to Chauncey with all pos 
sible despatch, and to take with him to 
Sackett s Harbor all of the best men of 
the flotilla at Newport. He sent them for 
ward, in companies of fifty, under Sailing- 
blasters Almy, Champlin, and Taylor. He 
met Chauncey at Albany, and they jour 
neyed together in a sleigh through the 
then wilderness to Sackett s Harbor. In 
March Perry went to Presque Isle (now 
Krie, Pa.) to hasten the construction and 
equipment of a little navy there designed 
to co-operate with General Harrison in at 
tempts to recover Michigan. Four vessels 
were speedily built at Erie, and five others 
were taken to that well-sheltered harbor 
from Black Rock, near Buffalo, where 
HENRY ECKFORD (q. v.) had converted 
merchant-vessels into war-ships. The ves 
sels at Erie were constructed under the 
immediate supervision of Sailing-Master 
Daniel Dobbins, at the mouth of Cascade 
Creek. Early in May (1813) the three 
smaller vessels were launched, and on the 



24th of the same month 
two brigs were put afloat. 
The whole fleet was finished 
on July 10, and consisted 
of the brig Lawrence, twenty 
guns; brig Maya fa. twenty 
guns; brig Caledonia, three 
guns ; schooner Ariel, four 
guns; schooner Scorpion, 
two guns and two swivels; 
sloop Trippe, one gun ; 
schooner Tiyress, one gun ; 
and schooner Porcupine, one 
gun. The command of the 
licet was given to Perry, 
and the Lawrence, so named 
in honor of the slain com 
mander of the Chesapeake, 
was his flag-ship. But men 
and supplies were wanting. 
A British squadron on the 
lake seriously menaced the 
fleet at Erie, and Perry 
pleaded for materials to put 
his vessels in proper order 
to meet danger. " Think of my situa 
tion," he wrote to Chauncey " the enemy 
in sight, the vessels under my command 
more than sufficient and ready to mako 
sail, and yet obliged to bite my fingers 
with vexation for want of men." 

Perry, anxiously waiting for men to 
man his little fleet at Erie, was partial 
ly gratified by the arrival there of 100 
men from Black Rock, under Captain El 
liott, and early in August, 1813, he went 
out on the lake before he was fairly pre 
pared for vigorous combat. On Aug. 17, 
when off Sandusky Bay, he fired a signal- 
gun for General Harrison, according to 
agreement. Harrison was encamped at 
Seneca, and late in the evening of the 
1 Mh he and his suite arrived in boats 
and went on board the flag-ship Lawrence, 
where arrangements were made for the fall 
campaign in that quarter. Harrison had 
about 8,000 militia, regulars and Indians, 
at Camp Seneca, a little more than 20 
miles from the lake. While he was wait 
ing for Harrison to get his army ready 
to be transported to Fort Maiden, Perry 
cruised about the lake. On a bright 
morning, Sept. 10, the sentinel watching 
in the main-top of the Lawrence cried, 
"Sail, ho!" It announced the appear 
ance of the British fleet, clearly seen in 
58 



ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON 



the northwestern horizon. Very soon 
Perry s nine vessels were ready for the 
enemy. At the mast-head of the Lawrence 
was displayed a blue banner, with the 
words of Lawrence, the dying captain, in 
large white letters " DON T GIVE UP THE 



into shreds, her spars battered into splin 
ters, and her guns dismounted. One mast 
remained, and from it streamed the na 
tional flag. The deck was a scene of 
dreadful carnage, and most men would 
have struck their flag. But Perry was 




PUT-IX-BAY SMOKE Of BATTLE SKEN IN THE LISTAXCK. 

SHIP." The two squadrons slowly ap- hopeful in gloom. His other vessels 
proached each other. The British squad- had fought gallantly, excepting the 
ion was commanded by Com. Robert Niagara, Captain Elliott, the stanchest 
H. Barclay, who fought with Nelson at ship in the fleet, which had kept out- 
Trafalgar. His vessels were the ship De- side, and was unhurt. As she drew near 
troit, nineteen guns, and one pivot and the Lawrence, Perry resolved to fly to her, 
two howitzers; ship Queen Charlotte, and, renewing the fight. Avin the victory, 
seventeen, and one howitzer; brig Lady Putting on the uniform of his rank, that 
Prevost, thirteen, and one hoAvitzer; brig he might properly receive Barclay as his 
Hunter, ten; sloop Little Belt, three: prisoner, he took down his broad pen- 
and schooner Chippewa, 
one, and tAvo SAvivels. "^~ 
The battle began at noon, 
at long range, the Scor 
pion, commanded by 
young Sailing - Master 
Stephen Champlin. then 
less than tAventy-four 
years of age, firing the 
first shot on the Ameri 
can side. As the fleets 
drew nearer and nearer, 
hotter and hotter waxed 
the fight. For two hours the Lawrence nant and the banner with the stirring 
bore the brunt of battle, until she lay Avords, entered his boat, and, with four 
upon the waters almost a total wreck stout seamen at the oars, he started on 
her rigg>^ all shot away, her sails cut his perilous voyage, anxiously watched by 

259 




POSITION OF THE TWO SQUADRONS JUST BEFORE THE BATTLE. 



ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON 







PERRY S DESPATCH. 




those he had left on the Lawrence. Perry 
stood upright in his boat, with the pen 
nant and banner partly wrapped about 
him. Barclay, who had been badly 
wounded, informed of Perry s daring, and 
knowing the peril of the British fleet if 
the young commodore should reach the 
decks of the Niagara, ordered big and 



the Niagara in safety. Hoisting his pen 
nant over her, he dashed through the 
British line, and eight minutes afterwards 
the colors of the enemy s flag-ship were 
struck, all but two of the fleet surrender 
ing. These attempted to escape, but were 
pursued and brought back, late in the 
evening, by the Scorpion, whose gallant 



I>TER CLASS. AMEBI 

ET BRIT. DIE X. SEP. 
MDCCCXIH. 




THK PERRY MKD.U.. 

little guns to be brought to bear on the commander (Champlin) had fired the 

little boat that held the hero. The voy- first and last gun in the battle of Lake 

age lasted fifteen minutes. Bullets tra- Erie. Assured of victory, Perry sat down, 

versed the boat, grape-shot falling in the and, resting his naval cap on his knee, 

water near covered the seamen with spray, wrote to Harrison, with a pencil, on the 

and oars were shivered by cannon-balls, back of a letter, the famous despatch: 

but not a man was hurt. Perry reached " We have met the enemy, and they are 

260 



EBNST ERSKINE 

ours two ships, two brigs, one schooner, also offered reparation for the insult and 
and one sloop." The name of Perry was injury in the case of the CHESAPEAKE 
made immortal. His government thanked (q. v.) , and also assured the government 
him, and gave him and Elliott each a of the United States that Great Britain 
gold medal. The legislature of Pennsyl- would immediately send over an envoy 
vania voted him thanks and a gold medal ; extraordinary, vested with power to con- 
and it gave thanks and a silver medal to elude a treaty that should settle all 
each man who was engaged in the battle, points of dispute between the two gov- 
The Americans lost twenty-seven killed ernments. This arrangement was com- 
and ninety-six wounded. The British loss pleted April 18, 1809. The next day the 
was about 200 killed and 600 made prison- Secretary of State received a note from 
ers. At about nine o clock in the evening Erskine, saying he was authorized to de- 
of the day of the battle, the moon shin- clare that his Majesty s Orders in Council 
ing brightly, the two squadrons weighed of January and November, 1807, would 
anchor and sailed into Put-in-Bay, not be withdrawn on June 10 next ensuing, 
far from Sandusky, out of which the On the same day (April 19) the Presi- 
American fleet had sailed that morning, dent issued a proclamation declaring that 
The last survivor of the battle of Lake trade with Great Britain might be re- 
Erie was John Norris, who died at Peters- sumed after June 10. This proclamation 
burg, Va., in January, 1879. gave great joy in the United States. 

Ernst, OSWALD HERBERT, military offi- Partisan strife was hushed, and the Presi- 

cer; born in Cincinnati. 0., June 27, dent was toasted and feasted by leading 

1842; graduated at West Point in Federalists, as a Washingtonian worthy 

1864, and entered the Engineer Corps; of all confidence. In the House of Repre- 

superintendent of West Point in 1893- sentatives, John Randolph, who lauded 

08 ; appointed a brigadier-general of vol- England for her magnanimity, offered 

unteers in May, 1898, and served in (May 3, 1809) a resolution which declared 

the war against Spain. He was sent to " that the promptitude and frankness with 

Porto Rico, and had command of the which the President of the United States 

troops in the action of Coamo. He is has met the overtures of the government 

the author of Practical Military Engi- of Great Britain towards a restoration of 

neering. harmony and freer commercial intercourse 

Erskine, DAVID MONTAGUE, BARON, between the two nations meet the ap- 

diplomatist; born in England in 1776; proval of this House." The joy was of 

soon after 1806 was sent to the United brief duration. Mr. Erskine was soon 

States as British envoy. He was on duty afterwards compelled to communicate to 

in Washington at the time of Madison s the President (July 31) that his govern- 

accession to the Presidency. He found ment had refused to sanction his arrange- 

the new President so exceedingly anxious ment, ostensibly because the minister had 

for peace and good feeling between the exceeded his instructions, and was not 

two countries that he had written to Can- authorized to make any such arrangement, 

ning, the British minister, such letters Mr. Erskine was recalled. The true rea- 

on the subject that he was instructed to son for the rejection by the British au- 

propose to the Americans a reciprocal thorities of the arrangement made by 

repeal of all the prohibitory laws upon Erskine probably was, that, counting upon 

certain conditions. Those conditions were the fatal effects of sectional strife in 

so partial towards Great Britain, requir- the Union, already so rampant in some 

ing the Americans to submit to the rule places, the British government was en- 

of 1756, that they were rejected. Very couraged to believe that the bond of union 

soon, however, arrangements were made would be so weakened that a scheme then 

by which, upon the Orders in Council be- perfecting by the British ministry for 

ing repealed, the President should issue destroying that Union would be successful. 

a proclamation declaring a restoration of England having spurned the olive-branch 

commercial intercourse with Great Brit- so confidingly offered, the President of 

ain, but leaving all restrictive laws as the United States issued another procla- 

France in full force. Mr. Erskine mation (Aug. 9, 1809), declaring the non- 
261 



ERSKINE ESSEX 

intercourse act to be again in full force 1799. On June 26, 1812, under command 

in regard to Great Britain. of Capt. David Porter, she left Sandy 

Erskine, SIR WILLIAM, British soldier ; Hook, N. J., on a cruise, with a flag at her 

born in 1728; entered the English army masthead bearing the significant words, 

in 1743; commanded one of the brigades "FREE-TRADE AND SAILORS RIGHTS." He 

at the battle of Long Island in 1776; and scon captured several English merchant 

was second in command of Tryon s expe- vesels, making trophy bonfires of most of 

dition to Danbury in April, 1777. In the them on the ocean, and their crews his 

next year he took command of the east- prisoners. After cruising southward sev- 

ern district of Long Island. He died eral weeks in disguise, capturing a prize 

March 9, 1795. now and then, he turned northward, and 

Esopus War, THE. There had been a chased a fleet of English transports bear- 
massacre by the Indians of Dutch set- ing 1,000 troops to Halifax, convoyed by 
tiers at Esopus (now Kingston, N. Y.) a frigate and a bomb- vessel. He capt- 
in 1655. The settlers had fled to Man- ured one of the transports, and a few 
hattan for security, but had been per- days afterwards (Aug. 13) fell in with 
suaded by Stuyvesant to return to their the British armed ship Alert, Capt. T. 
farms, where they built a compact village L. P. Langhorne, mounting twenty 18- 
for mutual protection. Unfortunately, pounder carronades and six smaller guns, 
some Indians, who had been helping the The Essex was disguised as a merchant- 
Dutch in their harvests in the summer man. The Alert followed her for some 
of 1658, became noisy in a drunken rout, time, and at length opened fire with three 
and were fired upon by the villagers. This cheers from her people. Porter caused 
outrage caused fearful retaliation. The his ports to be knocked out in an instant, 
Indians desolated the farms, and mur- when his guns responded with terrible 
dered the people in isolated houses. The effect. It was a complete surprise. The 
Dutch put forth their strength to oppose Alert was so badly injured and her people 
the barbarians, and the " Esopus War " were so panic-stricken that the conflict 
continued until 1664 intermittingly. was short. In spite of the efforts of the 
Some Indians, taken prisoners, were sent officers, the men of the Alert ran below 
to Curagoa and sold as slaves. The anger for safety. She was surrendered in a 
of the Esopus Indians was aroused, and, sinking condition. She was the first 
in 1663, the village of Wiltwyck, as the British naval vessel captured in the war. 
Esopus village was called, was almost Nobody was killed on either vessel, 
totally destroyed. Stuyvesant was there When Commodore Bainbridge was 
at the time, holding a conference with the about to sail from Boston with the Con- 
Indians in the open fields, when the de- si Button and Hornet, orders were sent to 
jstructive blow fell. The houses were Captain Porter, of the Essex, then lying 
plundered and burned, and men, hurrying in the Delaware, to cruise in the track 
from the fields to protect their families of the West Indiamen, and at a specified 
and property, were either shot down or time to rendezvous at certain pcrK 
carried away captive. The struggle was when, if he should not fall in with the 
desperate, but the white people were vie- flag-ship of the squadron, ho would bo at 
torious. When the assailants were driven liberty to follow the dictates of his own 
nway, they carried off forty women and judgment. Having failed to find the Con- 
children; and in the heap of ruins which stitution at any appointed rendezvous, 
they left behind them were found the and having provided himself with funds 
charred remains of twenty-one murdered by taking $55,000 from a British pncket, 
villagers. It was the final event of vio- Porter made sail for the Pacific Ocean 
lonce of that war. around Cape Horn. While in these 

Esquemeling, JOHN, author of Bucca- waters. Porter soi/od twelve armed Brit- 

iiicrx nut Iluccancering in America, which ish whale-ships, with an aggregate of 

has boon frequently reprinted. 302 men and 107 guns. Those were what 

Essex, THE, a frigate of 860 tons, ho entered the Pacific Ocean for. He 

rated at thirty-two guns, but actually armed some of them, and at one time he 

carried forty-six; built in Salem, Mass., in had a fleet of nine vessels. He eent 

262 



ESSEX, THE 



paroled prisoners to Rio de Janeiro, and 
cargoes of whale-oil to the United States. 
On Sept. 15, 1813, while among the Gala 
pagos Islands, he fell in with a British 
whaling-vessel armed with twelve guns 
and manned by thirty-nine men. He capt 
ured her, and found her laden with beef, 
pork, bread, wood, and water, articles 
which Porter stood greatly in need of at 
that time. The exploits of the Essex in 
the Pacific produced great excitement in 
the British navy, and the govern ment 
sent out the frigate Phoebe, with one or 
two consorts, to attempt her capture. 
Porter heard of this from an officer who 
was sent into the harbor of Valparaiso, 
Chile, with prizes. He also learned that 
the Chilean authorities were becoming 
more friendly to the English than to the 
Americans. In consequence of this infor 
mation, Porter resolved to go to the 
Marquesas Islands, refit his vessel, and 
return to the United States. He had capt 
ured almost every English whale-ship 
known to be off the coasts of Peru and 
Chile, and had deprived the enemy of 
property to the amount of $2,500,000 
and 360 seamen. He had also released 
tiic American whalers from peril, and in 
spired the Peruvians and Chileans with 
the most profound respect for the Ameri 
can navy. Among the Marquesas Islands 
(at Nooaheevah) Porter became involved 
in hostilities with the warring natives. 



He had allowed his men great indulgence 
in port, and some of them formed strong 
attachments to the native women. They 
were so dissatisfied when he left that 
they became almost mutinous. He had 
kept his men from going on shore for 
three days before he weighed anchor. 
"The girls," says Porter in his Journal, 
" lined the beach from morning until 
night, and every moment importuned me 
to take the taboos off the men, and laugh 
ingly expressed their grief by dipping 
their fingers into the sea and touching 
their eyes, so as to let the salt-water 
trickle down their cheeks." 

When the Essex was thoroughly fitted 
for her long voyage and for encountering 
enemies, she sailed (Dec. 12) with her 
prizes from Nooaheevah Island (which he 
had named Madison), and on Feb. 3, 1814, 
entered the harbor of Valparaiso. One of 
the captured vessels, which he had armed 
and named Essex Junior, cruised off the 
harbor as a scout, to give warning of the 
approach of any ma.n-of-war. Very soon 
two English men-of-war were reported in 
the offing. They sailed into the harbor, 
and proved to be the Phoebe, thirty-six 
guns, Captain Hillyar, and her consort, 
the Cherub, twenty-two guns, Captain 
Tucker. The former mounted thirty long 18- 
pounders, sixteen 32-pounder carronades, 
and one howitzer; also six 3-pounders in 
her tops. Her crew consisted of 320 men 




KSSEX FIOHTIXC PIKKHE AND CHF.kfH. 



263 



ESSEX JUNTA 



and boys. The Cherub mounted eighteen 
32-pounder carronades below, with eight 
24-pounder carronades and two long nines 
above, making a total of twenty - eight 
guns. Her crew numbered 180. The Es 
sex at that time could muster only 225, 
and the Essex Junior only sixty. The Es 
sex had forty 32-pounder carronades and 



were lavished upon him, and several State 
legislatures and the national Congress 
gave him thanks. 

Essex Junta, THE. The course of Pres 
ident John Adams, who was anxious for 
a renomination and election, caused a 
fatal schism in the Federal party. He 
looked to the Southern States as his chief 




THK ESSEX AND VER PRIZES IN MASSACHUSETTS BAY, NOOAHKEVAH. 



six long 12-pounders; and the Essex Junior hope in the coming election; and believing 

had only ten 18-pounder carronades and ten McHenry and Pickering, of his cabinet, to 

short sixes. The British vessels blockaded be unpopular there, he abruptly called 

Porter s ships. At length he determined xipon them to resign. McHenry instantly 

to escape. The sails of his vessels were complied, but Pickering refused, when 

spread for the purpose (March 28, 1814), Adams dismissed him with little ceremony, 

and both vessels started for the open sea, This event produced much excitement, 

when a squall partially disabled the flag- Bitter animosities were engendered, and 

ship, and both took shelter in a bay. There criminations and recriminations ensued, 

they were attacked by the Phoebe and The open war in the Federal party was 

Cherub, and one of the most desperate and waged by a few leaders, several of whom 

sanguinary battles of the war ensued, lived in the maritime county of Essex. 

When at last the Essex was a helpless Mass., the early home of Pickering, and 

wreck and on fire, and his magazine was on that account the irritated President 

threatened when every officer but one was called his assailants and opposers the " Es- 

slain or disabled; when, of the 225 brave sex Junta." He denounced them as slaves 

men who went into the fight on board of to British influence some lured by mo- 

her, only seventy-five effective ones re- narchical proclivities and others by British 

mained Porter hauled down his flag. So gold. A pamphlet from the pen of Hamil- 

ended the long and brilliant cruise of the ton, whom Adams, in conversation, had 

Essex. Her gallant commander wrote to denounced as a " British sympathizer," 

the Secretary of War from Valparaiso, damaged the President s political pros- 

" We have been ufortunate, but not dis- pects materially. The Republicans rejoiced 

graced." He and his companions were sent at the charge of British influence. Adams s 

home in the Eftsrx Junior, which was made course caused a great diminution of the 

a cartel-ship, and Porter was honored as Federal vote, and Jefferson was elected, 

the hero of the Pacific. Municipal honors The opposition chanted: 

264 



ESSEX JUNTA ESTAING 



Storms o er the British faction lower. 
Soon we Republicans shall see 
Columbia s sons from bondage free. 
Lord, how the Federalists will stare 
A JEFFERSON In ADAMS S chair ! 

The Echo. 



"The Federalists are down at last, HARTFORD CONVENTION (q. v.) , and the 

The Monarchists completely cast! designs of that body were known to have 

The Aristocrats are stripped of power , , . ,. 

Storms n pr thf Rritish fnc.tinn lower. 

Established Churches. Unlike for 
eign countries generally, neither the na 
tional nor State governments of the Unit 
ed States recognize officially any form of 
religious worship. There is neither a 

Early in 1809, John Quincy Adams, be- State Church nor an Established Church, 
ing in Washington attending the Supreme Legislation, both national and State, has 
Court, in a confidential interview with steadily opposed any sectarian form. The 
President Jefferson, assured him that a right of a citizen to worship according to 
continuation of the embargo (see EM- the dictates of his own conscience is guar- 
RAKGO ACTS) much longer would certainly anteed by the national Constitution; the 
bo met by forcible resistance in Massa- fullest toleration of forms of religious be- 
chusetts, supported by the legislature, and lief exists everywhere; and no legal dis- 
probably by the judiciary of the State; crimination is anywhere permitted, every 
that if force should be resorted to to quell religious denomination maintaining itself 
that resistance, it would produce a civil without support or hinderance by any 
war, and in that event he had no doubt legal authority. 

the leaders of the Federal party (refer- Estaing, CHARLES HENRY THEODAT, 
ring to those of the old Essex Junta) COUNT D , naval officer; born in Auvergne, 
would secure the co-operation of Great France, in 1729; guillotined in Paris, 
Britain. He declared that the object was, April 28, 1794; was colonel of a French 
and had been for several years, a dissolu 
tion of the Union and the establishment 
cf a separate confederacy. He knew from 
unequivocal evidence, not provable in a 
court of law, that in a case of civil war 
the aid of Great Britain to effect that 
purpose would be as surely resorted to 
as it would be indispensably necessary to 
the design. A rumor of such a design 
was alluded to, at about the same time, 
by De Witt Clinton, in New York, and in 
the Boston Patriot, a new administration 
paper, to which the Adamses, father and 
son, were contributors. Such a plot, if it 
ever existed, was confined to a few Federal 
ist members of Congress, in consequence 
of the purchase of Louisiana. They had 
proposed to have a meeting in Boston, to 
which Hamilton was invited, though it 
was known that he was opposed to the 
scheme. The meeting was prevented by 
Hamilton s sudden and violent death. A 
series of articles signed "Falkland" had regiment in 1748; brigadier-general in 
appeared in New England papers, in which 1756; and served in the French fleet after 
it was argued that if Virginia, finding her- 1757, joining the East India squadron 
self no longer ab e to control the national under Count Lally. Made lieutenant- 
government, should secede and dissolve it, general in 1763 and vice-admiral in 1778. 
the Northern States, though thus deserted, he was sent to America with a strong 
might nevertheless be able to take care naval force to assist the patriots, arriving 
of themselves. There seem to have been in Delaware Bay in July, 1778. As soon 
no more treasonable designs among the as his destination became known in Eng- 
membera of the Essex Junta than in the land, a British fleet, under Admiral 

2G5 




CHARLES HKXRY THKODAT D ESTAI.NG. 



ETCHEMIN INDIANS EULALIA 

Byron, was sent to follow him across the remainder (Passamaquoddies) on the 

Atlantic. It did not arrive at New York western shore of Passamaquoddy Bay 

until late in the season. Byron proceeded and on the Schoodic lakes. These rem- 

to attack the French fleet in Boston Har- nants are mostly Roman Catholics, and 

bor. His vessels were dispersed by a have churches and schools. Their blood 

storm, and D Estaing, his ships perfectly remains pure, for the laws of Maine will 

refitted, sailed (Nov. 1, 1778) for the not allow them to intermarry with the 

West Indies, then, as between England white people, and they are declining in 

and France, the principal seat of war. strength. 

On the same day 5,000 British troops Ethan Allen, FORT, a garrisoned mili- 
sailed from New York for the same des- tary post officially established 2 miles 
tination, escorted by a strong squadron, from Essex Junction and 5 miles from 
The English fleet arrived first, and, join- Burlington, Vt., Sept. 28, 1894, and named 
ing some other vessels already there, pro- in honor of Ethan Allen, the famous 
ceeded to attack the island of St. Lucia, leader of the Green Mountain Boys in the 
D Estaing unsuccessfully tried to relieve Revolutionary War. There are twenty- 
it. Soon afterwards Byron s fleet, from eight buildings of brick and stone, with 
the northeast coast, arrived, when slated roofs, including four cavalry 
D Estaing took refuge at Martinique, stables, four double officers quarters, four 
Byron tried in vain to draw him into single officers quarters, two double bar- 
action, and then started to convoy, a part racks, a hospital, guard-house, bakery, 
of the way, the homeward-bound West workshop, a water-tower 80 feet high 
Indiamen of the mercantile marine. Dur- built of white Vermont marble, and sev- 
ing his absence a detachment from Mar- eral storehouses. The parade-ground 
tinique captured the English island of St. covers 50 acres, and there is an excel- 
Vincent. Being largely reinforced soon lent rifle range of 1,000 yards. More 
afterwards, D Estaing sailed with his than $600,000 was expended in creating 
whole fleet and conquered the island of the post. The land for the site, which 
Grenada. Before the conquest was quite extends over 600 acres, was purchased by 
completed Byron returned, when an in- Dr. W. Seward Webb, Gov. U. A. Wood- 
decisive engagement took place, and the bury, Col. E. C. Smith, and other citizens 
much-damaged British fleet put into St. of Vermont and presented to the govern- 
Christopher s. D Estaing then sailed ment. 

( August, 1770) to escort, part of the way, Etheridge, EMERSON, statesman; born 

the homeward-bound French West India- in Carrituck county, N. C., Sept. 28, 1819; 

men; and, returning, engaged jointly admitted to the bar in 1840; member of 

with the American army in the siege of Congress in 1853-57 and in 1859-61; 

Savannah, but abandoned the contest be- clerk of the national House of Representa- 

fore a promised victory for the allies was tives in 1861-63. He published S/>rrr//r.<? 

won. He returned to Frarce in 1780, and in Congress. He died in 1902. 
in 1783 he commanded the combined fleets Eulalia, INFANTA, fifth child of M-ri-i 

of France and Spain, and was made a Louise Isabella, ex-Queen of Spain, born 

Spanish grandee. He favored the French at Madrid, Feb. 12, 1864; married to 

Revolution, and commanded the National Prince Antoine, son of Prince Antoine 

Guards at Versailles, but falling under d 0rl6ans, Due de Montpensier, March 6, 

the suspicion of the Terrorists, he was be- 1886. At the invitation of the United 

headed. States government she, as a representa- 

Etchemin Indians. This Algonquin tive of the Spanish government, and the 

family, occupying the eastern part of Duke of Veragua, as the lineal descendant 

Maine, lived, at an early period, on the of Christopher Columbus, became guests 

Penobscot River, between the Abenakes of the nation durinrr the Columbian cele- 

proper and the Micmacs. They are now brations and World s Exposition in 18!W. 

represented by the remnants of the Penob- Princess Eulalia arrived in the United 

scots and Passamaquoddies. About one- States May 20, 1893, and left June 25. 

half of them (the Penobscots) lived on During her stay she was entertained in a 

islands in the Penobscot River, and the manner befitting her rank. 

266 



EUBOPE EUTAW SPRINGS 



Europe, PLAN FOR THE PEACE OF. Sec Eustis, WILLIAM, physician ; born in 
PENN, WILLIAM. Cambridge, Mass., June 10, 1753; died 

Eustis, JAMES BIDDLE, diplomatist; in Boston, Feb. 6, 1825; was graduated 
born in New Orleans, La., Aug. 27, 1834; at Harvard in 1772, and studied medicine 
was educated in Brookline, Mass., and under Dr. Joseph Warren. As a surgeon 
in the Harvard Law School ; was ad- he served throughout the Revolutionary 
mitted to the bar in 1856, and practised War, and was a member of the Massa- 
in New Orleans till the beginning of chusetts legislature from 1788 to 1794. 
the Civil War, when he entered the Con- He was in the governor s council two 
federate army; served as judge-advocate years, and was in Congress from 1800 to 
on the staff of General Magruder till 1805, and from 1820 to 1823. Secretary 
1862, and then on the staff of Gen. Joseph of War from 1809 until 1812, he then 
E. Johnston. When the war closed he resigned, for there was much fault found 
entered the State legislature, where he with his administration. In 1815 he was 
seived in each House. In 1876 he was sent as minister to Holland, and was 
elected to the United States Senate to governor of Massachusetts in 1824, dying 
till a vacancy, and after the expiration while in office, Feb. 6, 1825. 
of the term took a trip through Europe. Eutaw Springs, a place in South Caro- 
Returning to the United States, he was lina, near Nelson s Ferry, on the Santce, 
made Professor of Civil Law in the Uni- SO miles northwest of Charleston; the 
versity of Louisiana. In 1884 he was scene of a notable battle in the Revolu- 
again elected to the United States Sea- tionary War. The principal spring, from 
e^ and became a member of the com- which the locality derived its name, frst 

bubbles up from a bed of rock marl, at 
the foot of a hill 20 or 30 feet in height, 
and, after flowing less than 60 yards, 
descends, rushing and foaming, into a 
cavern beneath a high ridge of marl, 
covered with alluvium and forest trees. 
After traversing its subterranean way 
some 30 rods, it reappears on the other 
side, where it is a broader stream, of 
sufficient volume to turn a mill - wheel. 
It flows over a smooth, rocky bed, shaded 
by cypress - trees, about 2 miles, when 
it enters the Santee. It was near this 
spring that a severe battle was fought. 
Sept. 8, 1781. Early in August, General 
Greene, on the High Hills of Santee, v. as 
JA.MKS HIDDI.K KI-STIS. reinforced by North Carolina troops 

under General Sumner; and at the c os^ 

mittee on foreign relations. He was ap- of that month he crossed the Wateree 
pointed minister to France in March, and Congaree and marched against tlio 
1893, and had charge of the negotiations British camp at Orangeburg, command- 
which finally secured the release of John ed by Lieutenant - Colonel Stuart. Raw- 
L. Waller, ex-United States consu 1 in don had left these troops in Stuart s 
Madagascar, who had been convicted of charge and returned to England. Stuart, 
illegally communicating with the Hovas who had been joined by the garrison ot 
during the French campaign, and who had Fort Ninety-six, immediately retreated, 
been sentenced to serve twenty-one years on the approach of Greene, to Eutaw 
in prison. After his return to the Springs, 40 miles eastward, and th<>iv 
United States, in 1897, Mr. Eustis re- encamped. Greene pursued so stealthilv 
entered law practice in New York. He that Stuart was not fully aware that the 
translated Institutes of Justinian, and Americans were after him until they were 
Gnizot s History of the United States, close upon him, at dawn on the morning 
He died in Newport, R. L, Sept. 9, 1899. of Sept. 8, 1781. 

267 





ErTAW 8PRTSG8. 



ETJTAW SPRINGS EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE 

Greene moved in two columns, the ing (Sept. 9) by parties who chased them 
centre of the first composed of North far towards the sea. Although the battle- 
Carolina militia, with a battalion of South field remained with the Americans, neither 
Carolina militia on each flank, commanded party could fairly claim a victory. Dur 
ing the day and the pursuit the 
Americans lost in killed and wounded 
about 550 men; the British loss, 
including prisoners, was fully 800. 
Lieutenant-Colonel Washington was 
severely wounded in the second battle, 
and was made prisoner. For his 
good conduct on that occasion Con 
gress presented to Greene its thanks, 
a gold medal, and a British standard 
taken in the fight. A few days after 
Ilie battle, with a large number of 
s ck soldiers, he retired with his 
troops to the Santee hills and en 
camped. There his militia left him. 
He remained until the middle of 
November, when he marched his 
army into the low country, where he 
might obtain an abundance of food. 
The necessities of Greene s army had 
compelled him to go to the hills. The 
troops were too much exhausted 
to continue active operations. They 
respectively by Marion and Pickens. The were barefooted and half naked. He had 
second consisted of North Carolina regu- no army hospital stores, very little salt, 
lars, led by General Sumner, on the right ; and his ammunition was very low. 
an equal number of Virginians, under Evacuation Day, the anniversary of 
Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell, in the the evacuation of New York City by the 
centre; and Marylanders, commanded by British, Nov. 25, 1783. 
Col. O. H. Williams, on the left. Lee s Evangelical Alliance, THE, an associ- 
Legion covered the right flank, and Lieu- ation of Christians belonging to the 
tenant-Colonel Henderson s troops covered Evangelical Churches. It was estab- 
the left. Washington s cavalry and Kirk- lished Aug. 19-23, 1846, in London by a 
wood s Delaware troops formed a reserve, world s convention of delegates from 
and each line had artillery in front. Christian denominations. Its aim is to 
Skirmishing began at eight o clock in the promote religious liberty, Christian union 
morning, and very soon the conflict be- and co-operation, and it sprang from a 
came general and severe. The British general desire for united efforts among 
wore defeated and driven from the field Protestants. Its purpose is not towards 
with much loss. The victory was com- organic union, nor church confederation, 
p ete, and the winners spread over the but simply towards a free Christian union 
British camp, eating, drinking, and plun- of members from churches who hold 
tiering. Suddenly and unexpectedly the fundamentally the same faith. It claims 
fugitives rallio.l and renewed the battle, no legislative nor official authority that 
and after a terrible conflict of about five could in any way affect the internal work- 
hours, the Americans, who had lost heav- ings of any denomination, but relies sole- 
ily. were compelled to give way. But ly on the moral power of love and truth. 
Stuart, knowing that partisan legions were When it was organized there were 800 
not far away, felt insecure, and that night, Christians present, including Episco- 
after breaking up 1,000 muskets and de- palians. Presbyterians, Independents, 
stroying stores, he retreated towards Methodists, Baptists, Lutherans, Re- 
Charleston, pursued early the next morn- formed, Moravians, etc., from England. 

208 



EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION 



the United States, Germany, France, 
Switzerland, and other countries. At 
that time the following articles were 
adopted : 

" 1. The divine inspiration, authority, 
and sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures. 

" 2. The right and duty of private judg 
ment in the interpretation of the Holy 
Scriptures. 

" 3. The unity of the Godhead, and the 
Trinity of the persons therein. 

" 4. The utter depravity of human 
nature in consequence of the Fall. 

" 5. The incarnation of the Son of God, 
his work of atonement for the sins of 
mankind, and his mediatorial intercession 
and reign. 

" 6. The justification of the sinner by 
faith alone. 

" 7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the 
conversion and sanctification of the sin 
ner. 

" 8. The immortality of the soul, the 
resurrection of the body, the judgment 
of the world by our Lord Jesus Christ, 
with the eternal blessedness of the 
righteous and the eternal punishment 
of the wicked. 

" 9. The divine institution of the Chris 
tian ministry, and the obligation and 
perpetuity of the ordinances of baptism 
and the Lord s Supper." 

In 1867 the American branch of the 
Alliance was founded, and adopted the 
above articles, with the following quali 
fying preamble: 

" Resolved, That in forming an Evan 
gelical Alliance for the United States in 
co-operative union with other branches 
of the Alliance, we have no intention to 
give rise to a new denomination; or to 
effect an amalgamation of churches, ex 
cept in the way of facilitating personal 
Christian intercourse and a mutual good 
understanding; or to interfere in any 
way whatever with the internal affairs of 
the various denominations; but simply 
to bring individual Christians into closer 
fellowship and co-operation, on the basis 
of the spiritual union which already ex 
ists in the vital relations of Christ to the 
members of his body in all ages and 
countries. 

" Resolved, That in the same spirit we 
propose no new creed; but, taking broad, 
historical, and evangelical catholic 



ground, we solemnly reaffirm and profess 
our faith in all the doctrines of the in 
spired Word of God, and in the consensus 
of doctrines as held by all true Christians 
from the beginning. And we do more 
especially affirm our belief in the divine- 
human person and atoning work of our 
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, as the 
only and sufficient source of salvation, as 
the heart and soul of Christianity, and as 
the centre of all true Christian union and 
fellowship. 

" Resolved, That, with this explanation, 
and in the spirit of a just Christian liber 
ality in regard to the minor differences 
of theological schools and religious de 
nominations, we also adopt, as a sum 
mary of the consensus of the various Evan 
gelical Confessions of Faith, the Articles 
and Explanatory Statement set forth and 
agreed on by the Evangelical Alliance at 
its formation in London, 1846, and ap 
proved by the separate European organ 
izations; which articles are as follows, 
etc." 

The Evangelical Alliance since its origin 
has extended its work throughout the 
Protestant world. It has no central au 
thority and appears in active operation 
only from time to time, as it meets in 
general conference. The character of these 
conferences are purely religious, lasting 
from ten to twelve days. The time is 
spent in prayer and praise, in discussions 
of the great religious questions of the 
day, and in brotherly communion. Nine 
international meetings have thus far been 
held. The first occurred in London, 1851; 
the second in Paris, 1855; the third in 
Berlin, 1857; the fourth in Geneva, 1801; 
the fifth in Amsterdam, 1867; the sixth 
in New York, 1873; the seventh in Basel, 
Switzerland, 1879; the eighth in Den 
mark, 1884; and the ninth in Italy, 1891. 
The United States branch held a national 
conference in Chicago, 1893, in connec 
tion with the Columbian World s Expo 
sition. The week of prayer, beginning 
with the first Sunday in each year, and 
now generally observed throughout Prot 
estant Christendom, is one of the most 
important results obtained by the Alli 
ance. 

Evangelical Association, a religious 
organization established in the United 
States in 1800 by the Rev. Jacob Albright. 



209 



EVANS 



This movement was the outcome of a work war in the Crimea in 1854. He died in 
of reform begun in 1790 by Albright, who London, Jan. 2, 1870. 
held that the German churches in the Evans, HUGH DAVEY, author; born in 
eastern part of Pennsylvania were cor- Baltimore, Md., April 26, 1792; began 
rupt. In 1816 the first general confer- the practice of law in Baltimore in 1815; 
ence of the body was held in Union county, and became widely known as a constitu- 
Pa. In doctrine the Evangelical Asso- tional lawyer. His publications include 
ciation is Arminian; in mode of worship Theophilus Americanus (an American 
and form of government it agrees with adaptation, with additions, of Canon 
the Methodist Episcopal Church, of which Wordsworth s Theophilus Anglicanux) 
Albright during his early life was a mem- Essay on the Episcopate of the Protestant 
ber. The ministers, who are itinerant, are Episco)>fil Church in the United Mates, 
divided into deacons and elders; 
the presiding elders and bishops are 
elected for four years, the former 
by individual conferences, the lat 
ter by the general conference, which 
is the highest legislative body in 
the church. In 1900 the Asso 
ciation reported 1,052 ministers, 
1.80C churches, and 118,865 mem 
bers. 

Evans, CLEMENT ANSELM, law 
yer; born in Georgia; graduated at 
the law school of Augusta, Ga. ; was 
in the Georgia Senate in 1859 ; 
served in the Confederate army 
through the Civil War, and was an 
acting major-general in the Army 
of Northern Virginia at the time 
of Lee s surrender. He is the author 
of Military History of Georgia; and 
editor of Confederate Military His 
tory (12 volumes). 

Evans, SIR GEORGE DE LACY, 
military officer; born in Moig, Ire 
land, in 1787; entered the British 
army at the age of twenty years; 
served in the East Indies, and 
early in 1814 came to the United 
States with the rank of brevet-colonel, etc. He died in Baltimore, Md., July Hi, 
He was engaged in the BATTLE OF BLADENS- 1868. 

itURG (q. v.) in August, and led the troops Evans, OLIVER, inventor; born in New- 
that entered Washington, D. C., and de- port, Del., in 1775; was of Welsh descent, 
stroyed the public buildings there. He and was grandson of Evan Evans, D.D., 
was with General Ross in the expedition the first Episcopal minister in Philadel- 
against Baltimore in September, and was phia. Apprenticed to a wheelwright, he 
near that general when he fell. Evans early displayed his inventive genius. At 
was also with Pakenham in the attempt the age of twenty-two years he had in 
to capture New Orleans. He was wounded vented a most useful machine for making 
in the battle that occurred below that card-teeth. In 1786-87 he obtained from 
city. Returning to Europe, he served the legislatures of Maryland and Penn- 
under Wellington. Afterwards he was sylvania the exclusive right to use his 
elected to Parliament, and was subse- improvements in flour-mills. He con- 
quently promoted to lieutenant-general, structed a steam-carriage in 1799, which 
In the latter capacity he served in the led to the invention of the locomotive en- 

270 




SIR GKORGE I)K LACV KTASS. 



EVANS EVARTS 



gine. His steam-engine was the first con 
structed on the high-pressure principle. 
In 1803-4 he made the first steam dredg- 
ing-machine used in America, to which 
he gave the name of " Oracter Amphi- 
bolis," arranged for propulsion either on 
land or water. This is believed to have 
been the first instance in America of the 
application of steam-power to the propel 
ling of a land carriage. Evans foresaw 
and prophesied the near era of railway 
communication and travel. He proposed 
the construction of a railway between 
Philadelphia and New York, but his lim 
ited means would not allow him to con 
vince the sceptics by a successful experi 



ment. He died in New York City, April 
21, 1819. 

Evans, ROBLEY DUNGLISON, naval offi 
cer; born in Virginia; graduated at 
the United States Naval Academy in 
1863; took part in the attack on Fort 
Fisher, where he was severely wounded; 
was in command of the Yorktown in the 
harbor of Valparaiso, Chile, in 1891, dur 
ing a period of strained relations between 
the United States and Chile; commanded 
the battle-ship Iowa and took an active 
part in the destruction of Cervera s fleet; 
was promoted rear-admiral in 1901. He 
is author of A Sailor s Log and many 
magazine articles. 



EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL 



Evarts, WILLIAM MAXWELL, statesman ; 
born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 6, 1818; 
graduated at Yale College in 1837; stud 
ied law, and was admitted to the bar, in 



son in his impeachment before the Senate 
in 1808. President Hayes appointed Mr. 
Evarts Secretary of State in March, 1877, 
and in January, 1885, he was elected 



. . ,, -v viuiunfy, 1000, ne was elected 

the city of *ew York, m 1840, where he United States Senator, holding the seat 

Aill lnri TT i. -i 




WILLIAM MAXWELL EVARTS. 

afterwards resided and practised his pro 
fession. He was one of the ablest and 
most eloquent members of the bar, and 
held a foremost rank in his profession for 
many years. He was the leading counsel 
employed for the defence of President John- 



271 



till 1891. He died in New York City, 
Feb. 28, 1901. 

Bimetallism In 1881, after the conclu 
sion of his term of service in the cabinet, 
he went to Paris as delegate of the United 
States to the International Monetary Con 
ference. He there made the following plea 
for the employment of both gold and sil 
ver in the money of the world: 

The question now put to us is as is 
obvious everywhere in the progress of this 
conference the question now put to us is, 
: Why is it that in your wealth, your 
strength, your manifold and flexible ener 
gies and opportunities in the conflicts and 
competitions of the system of nations rep 
resented here, why is it that you feel con 
cern for mischiefs which carry no special 
suffering or menace to you or anxiety as 
to the methods of their cure, when you are 
so free-handed as to the methods and re 
sorts at your choice? Why should these 
evils that have grown out of a short-sight 
ed and uncircumspect policy, as you (the 
United States) think; why should you so 
persistently call upon all the nations to 
unite, and put yourselves, as it were, on 
the same footing of danger and solicitude 
with them?" The answer on our part is 
.simple and honest. It needs no ingenuity 



EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL 

to frame it, and it asks no special courtesy us, and that we, so far as money is con- 

or confidence on your part to believe it. cerned, should not be obstructed in selling 

It is our interest in the commerce of the cur raw products to the skilled nations 

world, and we consider no question of the cf Europe, or the products of our industry 

money of the world alien from that inter- to the consumers in less developed nations, 

est. Why should we not feel an interest. Besides thi