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EDITION

HARPER S ENCYCLOPEDIA

of
UNITED STATES HISTORY

FROM 458 A.D. TO 1905
BASED UPON THE PLAN OF

BENSON JOHN LOSSINQ, LL.D.

SOMETIME EDITOR OF "THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL RECORD" AND AUTHOR OF
"THE PICTORIAL FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION " "THE PICTORIAL FIELD-
BOOK OF THE WAR OF l8l2 " ETC., ETC., ETC.

WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS COVERING EVERY PHASE OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND
DEVELOPMENT BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING

JOHN FISKE.

THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN

WM. R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D.

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY Of CHICAGO

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT HARVARD

JOHN B. MOORE.

PROF. OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AT COLUMBIA

JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D.

PROF. OF LITERATURE AT UNIV. OF CALIFORNIA

WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D.

U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY UNIV. OF TORONTO

MOSES COIT TYLER, LL.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT CORNELL

EDWARD G. BOURNE, Ph.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT YALE

R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.

PROF. OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA

ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.

CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (Retired)

ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC.
WITH A PREFACE ON THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY

WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

AUTHOR OF

"A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE" ETC., ETC.

WITH ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, PORTRAITS, MAPS, PLANS, &c.

COMPLETE IN TEN VOLUMES
VOL. Ill

HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK = 1905 - LONDON

LIST OF PLATES

PRESIDENT MILLARD FILLMORE Frontispiece

FAC-SIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL DRAFT OF THE DECLA
RATION OF INDEPENDENCE Facing page 40

READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE,

CITY HALL SQUARE, NEW YORK CITY . . . . "38

INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA ..... 48

PONTIAC S ATTACK ON FORT DETROIT " 108

ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY "112

ADMIRAL DAVID G. FARRAGUT "318

THE BATTLE OF FREDERICKSBURG VOLUNTEERS

CROSSING THE RIVER " 430

HARPER S ENCYCLOPEDIA

UNITED STATES HISTORY

Dablon, CLAUDE, Jesuit missionary;
born in Dieppe, France, in 1618; began a
mission to the Onondaga Indians in New
York in 1655, and six years afterwards he
accompanied Druillettes in an overland
journey to the Hudson Bay region. In
1668 he went with Marquette to Lake
Superior, and in 1670 was appointed su
perior of the missions of the Upper Lakes.
He prepared the Relations concerning New
France for 1671-72, and also a narrative
of Marquette s journey, published in John
Cilmary Shea s Discovery and Explora
tion of the Mississippi Valley (1853). He
died in Quebec, Canada, Sept. 20, 1697.

Dabney, RICHARD HEATH, educator;
born in Memphis, Tenn., March 29,
I860; graduated at the University of Vir
ginia in 1881; Professor of History in the
University of Virginia in 1897. He is the
author of John Randolph; The Causes of
thi- French Revolution, etc.

Dabney, ROBERT LEWIS, clergyman;
born in Louisa county, Va., March 5,
1S:&gt;0; graduated at the University of Vir
ginia in 1842; ordained a Presbyterian
minister in 1847: and became Professor
&lt;&gt;f Church History in Union Seminary, Vir
ginia, in 1853. When the Civil War broke
out he entered the Confederate army as
chaplain, and later became chief of staff to
Ccn. Thomas J. Jackson. His publica
tions include Life of T. J. Jackson, and
Defence of Virginia and the South. He
died in Victoria, Texas, Jan. 3, 1898.

Dabney, WALTER DAVID, lawyer; born
in Albemarle county, Va., in 1853; grad-
TII. A

uated at the law department of the Uni
versity of Virginia in 1875; appointed
legal secretary of the United States in
ter-State commerce commission in 1890,
and, later, solicitor of the State Depart
ment. In 1895 he became Professor of
Common and Statute Law in the Univer
sity of Virginia. He died in Charlottes-
ville, Va., March 12, 1899.

Dabney s Mills, Va. See HATCHER S
RUN.

Dacres, JAMES RICHARD, naval officer;
born in Suffolk, England, Aug. 22, 1788;

JA.MKS Hie IIAK1) OAL KBg.

DADE DAHLGREN

son of Vice- Admiral Dacres, who was a
commander in the battle with Arnold on
Lake Champlain in 1776. The son en
tered the royal navy in 1796, and, being
placed in command of the frigate Guer-
riere in 1811, was sent to fight the Amer
icans. He proudly boasted that he would
" send the Constitution to Davy Jones s
locker " when he should be so fortunate
as to meet her. She had escaped him in
her famous retreat, but willingly met and
fought the Ouerriere afterwards. Dacres
was then captain. He attained the rank
of flag-officer in 1838, and in 1845 was
vice-admiral and commander - in - chief of
the fleet at the Cape of Good Hope. He
was presented with a gratuity from the
" Patriotic Fund " at Lloyd s, in con
sideration of his wound. He was mar
ried, in 1810, to Arabella Boyd, who
died in 1828. He died in Hampshire,
England, Dec. 4, 1853. See CONSTITUTION
(frigate).

Dade, FRANCIS LANGHORN, military
officer ; born in Virginia ; entered the army
as third lieutenant in 1813. During the
war with the Seminole Indians, while on
the march to Fort King, he, with almost
the entire detachment, was destroyed by
a treacherous attack of the Indians, Dec.
28, 1835. A monument at West Point was
erected to the memory of Major Dade and
the men in his command, and Fort Dade,
35 miles from Tampa, Fla., is named in
his honor.

Daggett, NAPHTALI, clergyman; born
in Attleboro, Mass., Sept. 8, 1727; grad
uated at Yale College in 1748; ordain-
od pastor of a Presbyterian church at
Smithtown, Long Island, in 1751 ; and
in 1755 was chosen professor of divinity
at. Yale, which place he held until his
death, in New Haven, Conn., Nov. 25,
1780. In 1766, on the resignation of
President Clap, he was chosen presi
dent of the college pro tempore and
officiated in that capacity more than a
year. He was an active patriot when
the War of the Revolution broke out ; and
when the British attacked New Haven, in
1770, he took part in the resistance made
by the citizens and surrounding militia.
Dr. Daggett was made a prisoner, and the
severe treatment to which he was sub
jected so shattered his constitution that
he never recovered his health. After the

famous DARK DAY (&lt;/. r.), in 1780, he-
published an account of it.

Dahlgren, JOHN ADOLPH, naval officer;
born in Philadelphia, Nov. 13, 1809; en
tered the navy in 1826, and was made rear-
admiral in 1863. He was the inventor of

JOHN ADOU H DAHLGRE.V.

the Dahlgren gun, which he perfected at
the navy-yard at Washington, and in 1862
he was made chief of the bureau of ord
nance. In July, 1863, he took command
of the South Atlantic squadron, and, with
the land forces of General Gillmore, capt
ured Morris Island and Fort Wagner,
and reduced Fort Sumter to a heap of
ruins. He conducted a successful ex
pedition up the St. John s River, in
Florida, in 1864, and co-operated with
General Sherman in the capture of Savan
nah. After the evacuation of Charleston
he moved his vessels up to that city.
Admiral Dahlgren. besides being the in
ventor of a cannon, introduced into the
navy the highly esteemed light boat-
howitzer. He was author of several
works on ordnance, which became text
books. He died in Washington, D. C.,
July 12, 1870.

Dahlgren, MADELEINE VINTON, author;
born in Gallipolis, O., about 1835; widow
of Rear-Admiral John A. Dahlgren. She
established and was the vice-president for
several years of the Literary Society of
\\;ishington; was opposed to woman suf
frage, against which she published a
weekly paper for two years, and also sent

DAHLGREN DAIQUIRI

a petition bearing many signatures to Con
gress, requesting that women should not be
given the elective franchise. Popes Pius
IX. and Leo XIII. several times thanked
her for the various services she had ren
dered to the Roman Catholic Church. Her
publications include Thoughts on Female
Suffrage; Memoirs of John A. Dahlgren,
etc. She died in Washington, D. C., May
28, 1898.

Dahlgren, Uuuc, artillery officer; born
in Bucks county, Pa., in 1842; son of
Rear-Admiral Dahlgren. At the outbreak
of the Civil War he became aide first to
his father and later to General Sigel, and
was Sigel s chief of artillery at the second
battle of Bull Run. He distinguished
himself in an attack on Fredericksburg
and at the battle of Chancellorsville, and
on the retreat of the Confederates from
Gettysburg he led the charge into Hagers-
town. He lost his life in a raid under
taken for the purpose of releasing Na-

Huguenot faith in Ki8:t, and removed to
New York to work among the French
under the Reformed Church. In 1688 the
French erected their first church in
Marketfield Street, between Broad and
Whitehall streets; in 1692 Daille narrowly
escaped imprisonment because he had de
nounced the violent measures of JACOB
LEISLER (q. v.) ; and in 1696 he became
pastor of the School Street Church in
Boston. He died in Boston, Mass., May
21, 1715.

Daiquiri, a sea-coast town in the
province of Santiago, about 15 miles east
of Santiago, Cuba. It was here that the
American army of invasion disembarked
after the declaration of war against Spain
in 1898. After GEN. WILLIAM RUFTJS
SHAFTER (q. T. ), commander of the expe
dition, had accepted the offer of the services
of the Cuban troops under General Garcia,
he furnished them with rations and am
munition. A number of sharp-shooters,

DAIQUIRI, WHERE THE AMERICAN ARMY OP INVASION DISKMHAHKKD.

tional prisoners at Libby prison and Belle machine - guns, and mountain artillery
Isle, near King and Queen s Court-house, were landed to aid the Cubans in clear-
Va., March 4, 1864. ing the hills, after Avhich 6,000 men were

Daille , PIERRE, clergyman ; born in put ashore on June 22. The landing was
France in 1649; banished because of his difficult on account of the defective trans-

DAKOTA DALE

port facilities, but still the Spaniards
could offer no serious opposition, as they
were held in check by the Cubans and the
shells of the American warships, and also
by the feint of Admiral Sampson to bom
bard Juragua. On June 23, 6,000 more
troops were landed, and a division under
Maj.-Gen. HENRY W. LAWTON (q. v.)
marched to SIBONEY (q. v.) in order to give
place to the division of Maj.-Gen. JACOB
F. KENT (q. v.) While General Shafter
conducted the disembarkation, Maj.-Gen.
Joseph Wheeler directed the operations
ashore. The only losses sustained in this
landing were one killed and four wounded.

Dakota, originally formed a part of
Minnesota Territory. It was a portion
of the great Louisiana purchase in 1803.
The Nebraska Territory was formed in
1854, and comprised a part of what be
came Dakota. The latter Territory was
organized by act of Congress, approved
March 2, 1861, and included the present
States of Montana and Washington. In
1863 a part of the Territory was included
in Idaho, of which the northeastern part
was organized as Montana in 1864, and
the southern part was transferred to
Dakota. In 1868 a large area was taken
from Dakota to form Wyoming Territory.
The first permanent settlements of Euro
peans in Dakota were made in 1859, in
what were then Clay, Union, and Yank-
ton counties. The first legislature con
vened March 17, 1862. Emigration was
limited until 1866, when settlers began to
flock in, and population rapidly increased.
In 1889, two States were created out
of the Territory of Dakota, and ad
mitted to the Union as NORTH DAKOTA
and SOUTH DAKOTA ( qq. v. ) .

Dakota Indians. See Sioux IND
IANS.

Dale, RICHARD, naval officer; born
near Norfolk, Va., Nov. 6, 1756; went
to sea at twelve years of age, and at
nineteen commanded a merchant ves
sel. He was first a lieutenant in the
Virginia navy, and entered the Con
tinental navy, as midshipman, in 1776.
He was captured in 1777, and confined
in Mill Prison, England, from which
he escaped, but was recaptured in Lon
don and taken back. The next year
he escaped, reached France, joined
Paul Jones, and soon became lieu

tenant of the Bon Hommc Ricluird, receiv
ing a wound in the famous battle with the
Serapis. He continued to do good service

K1CI1AKI) DALK.

to the end of the war, and in 1794 was
made captain. He commanded the squad
ron ordered to the Mediterranean in 1801,
and in April, 1802, returning home, he
resigned his commission. He spent the
latter years of his life in ease in Phila
delphia, where he died, Feb. 24, 1826.
The remains of Commodore Dale were
buried in Christ Church-yard, Philadel
phia, and over the grave is a white marble
slab with a long inscription.

DALE S MONUMKNT.

DALEDALY

Dale, SAMUEL, pioneer; born in Rock- He was appointed secretary of state ot
bridge county, Va., in 1772. His parents Pennsylvania in 1701, and was engaged a?
emigrated to Georgia in, 1783. In 1793, paymaster of a force to quell the WHISKEY
after the death of his parents, he enlist- INSURRECTION (q. v.}. In 1801 he was ap
ed in the United States army as a scout, pointed United States attorney for the
and subsequently became well known as Eastern Department of Pennsylvania, and
Big Sam." In 1831 he supervised the re- he held that place until called to the cabi-
moval of the Choctaw Indians to the Ind- net of Madison as Secretary of the Treas-
ian Territory. He died in Lauderdale ury in October, 1814. In 1815 he also
county, Miss., May 24, 1841. performed the duties of the War Office,

Dale, SIR THOMAS, colonial governor; and was earnest in his efforts to re-
was a distinguished soldier in the Low establish a national bank. He resigned
Countries, and was knighted by King in November, 1810, and resumed the prac-
James in 1606. Appointed chief magis- tice of law. He died in Trenton, N. J.,
trate of Virginia, he administered the gov- Jan. 16, 1817.

eminent on the basis of martial law; Dallas, GEOROE MIFFLIN, statesman;
planted new settlements on the James, born in Philadelphia, July 10, 1792; a
towards the Falls (now Richmond) ; and son of the preceding; graduated at the
introduced salutary changes in the land College of New Jersey in 1810, and ad-
laws of the colony. He conquered the Ap- mitted to the bar in 1813. He went
pomattox Indians. In 1611 Sir Thomas with Mr. Gallatin to Russia as private
Gates succeeded him, but he resumed the secretary, and returned in 1814, when
office in 1614. In 1616 he returned to he assisted his father in the Treasury
England; went to Holland; and in 1619 Department. In 1828 he was mayor of
v/as made commander of the East India Philadelphia ; United States Senator from
fleet, when, near Bantam, he fought the 1832 to 1833, and declined a re-election.
Dutch. He died near Bantam, East Indies, He was ambassador to Russia from
early in 1620. 1837 to 1839, and Vice-President of the

Dall, WILLIAM HEALEY, naturalist; United States from 1845 to 1849. From
born in Boston, Mass., Aug. 21, 1845; took 1856 to 1861 he was American minister
part in the international telegraph ex- in London. Mr. Dallas .was an able
pcdition to Alaska in 1865-68; appointed lawyer and statesman. He died in Phila-
assistant in the United States coast sur- delphia, Dec. 31, 1864.
vey of Alaska in 1871, where he spent Dallas-Clarendon Treaty, a convention
several years in various kinds of work, negotiated in 1856 for the adjustment of
which included the geography, natural his- difficulties between the United States and
tory, geology, etc., of Alaska and adjacent Great Britain arising under the CLAY-
islands. Among his books are A laska and TON-BULWER TREATY (q. r.}. It was re-
its Resources; Tribes of the Extreme joe-ted by the Senate.

"Northwest; Scientific Results of the Ex- Dalton, a city in Georgia, strongly
ploration of Alaska, etc. fortified by the Confederates under Gen.

Dallas, a city in Georgia, where, dur- Joseph E. Johnston, who checked the ad-
ing the Atlanta campaign, Sherman s ad- vance of General Sherman until forced to
vance under General Hooker was tempo- evacuate by a flank movement by General
rnrily checked, May 25, 1864. Three days McPherson, May 12, 1864.
later Hardee attacked McPherson on the Daly, CHARLES PATRICK, jurist; born
right, with great loss. The Confederates in New York City, Oct. 31, 1816; ad-
retired May 29. mitted to the bar in 1839; elected to the

Dallas, ALEXANDER JAMES, statesman; New York Assembly in 1843; became jus-
born in the island of Jamaica, June 21, tice in 1844, and chief- justice of the
1759; leu noine in 1783, settled in Phila- Court of Common Pleas in 1871; presi-
delphia, and was admitted to the bar. dent of the American Geographical So-
l!c soon became a practitioner in the Su- ciety for more than forty years. Among
preme Court of the United States. He his writings are History of Natural-
wrote for the newspapers, and at one time ization ; First Settlement of Jews in
was the editor of the ( oluinhimi Mn&lt;in?inr North America; What We Know of Map*

DALZELL DANA

and Map-Making before the Time of Mer-
cator, etc. He died on Long Island,
N. Y., Sept. 19, 1899.

Dalzell, JAMES, military officer; was in
early life a companion of Israel Putnam.
He marched to the relief of the garrison
of Detroit with 260 men in 1763; and on
July 30, the day after his arrival, he led
a sally against the Indians, in which they
were badly defeated. During the struggle
Dalzell was killed. The rivulet which \v;is
the scene of this defeat is known to this
day as " Bloody Run."

Dalzell, ROBERT M., inventor; born
near Belfast, Ireland, in 1793; was driven
into exile with his family by the Irish
Rebellion of 1798, and came to New York.
In 1826 he settled in Rochester, N. Y.,
where he became a millwright. Later ho
invented and introduced the elevator sys
tem for handling and storing grain. He
died in Rochester, N. Y., Jan. 22, 187- !.

Dames of the Revolution, a patriotic
organization established in the United
States in 1896. The qualifications for
membership are that applicants be above
the age of eighteen years, of good moral
standing, and descended in their own
right from a military, naval, or marine
officer, or official, who aided in founding
American independence during the Revo
lutionary War. Local chapters may be
formed when authorized by the board
of managers of the society. The presi
dent in 1900 was Mrs. Edward Paulet
Steers, and the secretary and historian
Miss Mary A. Phillips. The headquarters
were at 64 Madison Avenue, New York.

Dana, CHARLES ANDERSON, journalist;
born in Hinsdale, N. H., Aug. 8, 1819;
was for a time a student in Harvard
College; joined the BROOK FARM ASSOCIA
TION (q. v.) in 1842; and, after two years
of editorial work in Boston, became at
tached to the staff of the New York
Tribune in 1847. In 1848 he went to
Europe as correspondent for several
American newspapers, dealing particu
larly with the numerous foreign revolu
tions. Soon after his return to New
York he became managing editor of the
Tribune, and held the place till 1S62.
when he was appointed assistant Secre
tary of War. In 1866 he organized the
stock company which bought the old New
York Sun, of which he became editor-

in-chief, continuing so till his death. In
addition to his work as a journalist, in
conjunction with the late George Ripley,
he planned and edited the New American

CIIAKLKS ANDERSON DANA.

Cyclopedia (16 vols., 1857-63), which
they thoroughly revised and reissued
under the title of the American Cyclopaedia
(1873-76). In 1883, in association with
Rossiter Johnson, he edited Fifty Perfect
Poems, and subsequently, in association
with Gen. James H. Wilson, he wrote the
Life of Ulysses 8. Grant. In 1897 his
Reminiscences of the Civil War and East
ern Journeys were published posthumous
ly; he was also the compiler of House
hold Book of Poetry. He died on Long
Island, N. Y., Oct. 17, 1897.

Dana, FRANCIS, jurist; born in Charles-
town, Mass., June 13, 1743; son of Rich
ard Dana; graduated at Harvard in
1762. He was admitted to the bar in
1707; was an active patriot; a delegate
to the Provincial Congress in 1774; went
lo Kngland in 177o with confidential let
ters to Franklin; was a member of the
executive council from 1776 to 1780;
member of the Continental Congress from
1776 to 1778, and again in 1784; member
of the board of war, Nov. 17, 1777; and
was at the head of a committee charged
with the entire reorganization of the
army. When Mr. Adams went on an em
bassy to negotiate a treaty of peace and
commerce with Great Britain, Mr. Dana
\\ns secretary of the legation. At Paris,

DANA

early in 1781, he received the appointment
from Congress of minister to Russia,
clothed with power to make the accession
of the United States to the " armed neu
trality." He resided two years at St. Pe
tersburg, and returned to Berlin in 1783.
He was again in Congress in the spring of
1784, and the next year was made a justice
of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts.
In 1791 he was appointed chief-justice of
Massachusetts, which position he held
fifteen years, keeping aloof from political
life, except in 1792 and 1806, when he was
Presidential elector. He retired from the
bench and public life in 1806, and died in
Cambridge, Mass., April 25, 1811.

Dana, JAMES DWIGHT, mineralogist;
born in Utica, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1813;
graduated at Yale College in 1833; went
to the Mediterranean in the Delaware as
teacher of mathematics in the United
States navy, and was mineralogist and
geologist of Wilkes s exploring expedi
tion, 1838-42 (see WILKES, CHARLES).
For thirteen years afterwards Mr. Dana
was engaged in preparing the reports of
this expedition and other scientific labors.
These reports were published by the gov
ernment, with atlases of drawings made by

JAMKS DWKJHT DA.NA.

Mr. Dana. He was elected to the chair of
Silliman Professor of Natural History
and Geology in Yale College in 1850,
entered on his duties in 1855, a place he

held till 1890, and was for many years
associated with his brother-in-law, Ben
jamin Silliman, Jr., in editing and pub
lishing the American Journal of Science
and Art, founded by the elder Silliman in
1819. Professor Dana contributed much
to scientific journals, and was a member
of many learned societies at home and
abroad. In 1872 the Wollaston gold
medal, in charge of the London Geologi
cal Society, was conferred upon him. He
died in New Haven, April 14, 1895.

Dana, NAPOLEON JACKSON TECUMSEH,
military officer; born in Fort Sullivan,
Eastport, Me., April 10, 1822; gradu
ated at West Point in 1842; served in the
war with Mexico; resigned in 1855; and
in October. 1861, became colonel of the 1st
Minnesota Volunteers. He was in the bat
tle at BALL S BLUFF (q. v.) ; was made
brigadier-general early in 1862; was ac
tive throughout the whole campaign on
the Peninsula, participating in all the
battles; and at Antietam commanded a
brigade, and was wounded. A few weeks
later he was promoted to major-general
of volunteers; was with the Army of the
Gulf in 1863; commanded the 13th Army
Corps a while; and had charge of the
district of Vicksburg and west Tennes
see in 1864. From December, 1864, to
May, 1865, he was in command of the
Department of the Mississippi. He re
signed in 1865, and was reappointed to
the army with the rank of captain, and re
tired in 1894.

Dana, RICHARD, jurist; born in Cam
bridge, Mass., July 7, 1699; graduated
at Harvard in 1718; and was a leader of
the bar in the Revolutionary period. He
was a member of the Sons of Liberty, and
also a member of the committee to in
vestigate the incidents of the Boston
massacre in 1770. He died May 17, 1772.

Dana, RICHARD HENRY, poet and essay
ist; born in Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 15,
1787; son of Francis Dana; chose the
profession of law, but his tastes led him
into literary pursuits. In 1814 he and
others founded the North American Re
view, of which he was sole conductor for
a while. He closed his connection with
it in 1820. It was while Dana was editor
of the Review that Bryant s Thanatopxifi
was published in its pages, the author
being then unknown. In 1821 the first

DANA DANENHOWER

volume of The Idle Man was published.
It was unprofitable, and Mr. Dana
dropped it. In it he published stories
and essays from his own pen. In the
same year he contributed to the New
York Review (then under the care of Mr.
Bryant) his first poem of much preten
sion. The Dying Kai cn. In 1827 his most
celebrated poetical production, The Bucca
neer, was published, with some minor
poems. After 1833 Mr. Dana wrote but
little. He died in Boston, Feb. 2, 1879.

Dana, RICHARD HENRY, 2d, lawyer;
born in Cambridge, Mass.. Aug. 1, 1815;
graduated at Harvard University in 1837;
admitted to the bar in 1840; author of
7 fro Years Before the Mast and many ar
ticles on legal subjects; reviser of Whea-
ton s International Law; nominated min
ister to Great Britain in 1876, but not
confirmed by the Senate; United States
counsel at the Halifax conference. He
died in Rome, Italy, Jan. 7, 1882.

Danbury, DESTRUCTION OF. Governor
Tryon was one of the most malignant foes
of the American patriots during the Revo
lutionary War. He delighted, apparently,
in conspicuously cruel acts; and when any
thing of that nature was to be done he
was employed to do it by the more re
spectable British officers. He was chosen
to lead a marauding expedition into Con
necticut from New York in the spring of
1777. At the head of 2,000 men, he left
that city (April 23), and landed at
Compo, between Norwalk and Fairfield
two days later. They pushed on towards
Danbury, an inland town, where the
Americans had gathered a large quantity
of provisions for the army. The maraud
ers reached the town unmolested (April
2.V) by some militia that had retired, and.
not contented with destroying a large
quantity of stores gathered there, they
laid eighteen houses in the village in
ashes and cruelly treated some of the
inhabitants. General Silliman, of the
Connecticut militia, was at his home in
Fairfield when the enemy landed. He im
mediately sent out expresses to alarm the
country and call the militia to the field.
The call was nobly responded to. Hear
ing of this gathering from a Tory scout,
Tryon made a hasty retreat by way of
Ridgefield, near which place he was con
fronted by the militia under Generals

Wooster, Arnold, and Silliman. A sharp
skirmish ensued, in which Wooster was
killed, and Arnold had a narrow escape
from capture, after his horse had been
shot under him. For his gallantry on that
occasion the Congress presented him with
a horse richly caparisoned. Tryon spent
the night in the neighborhood for his
troops to rest, and early the next morn
ing he hurried to his ships, terribly smit
ten on the way by the gathering militia,
and at the landing by cannon-shot direct
ed by Lieutenant-Colonel Oswald. They
escaped capture only through the gal
lant services of some marines led by Gen
eral Erskine. About sunset the fleet de
parted, the British having lost about 300
men, including prisoners, during the in
vasion. The Americans lost about 100
men. The private losses of property at
Danbury amounted to about $80,000.
Danbury is now a city widely known for
its extensive manufactures of hats, and
has an assessed property valuation ex
ceeding $11,500,000. The population in
1800 was 16,552; in 1900, 1(5.537.

Dane, NATHAN, jurist; born at Ips
wich, Mass., Dec. 27, 1752; graduated
at Harvard in 1778. An able lawyer
and an influential member of Congress
(1785-88), he was the framer of the cele
brated ordinance of 1787. He was a
member of the Massachusetts legislature
several years, and was engaged to revise
the laws of the State (1799), and revise
and publish the charters (1811) which
had been granted therein. Mr. Dane was
a member of the Hartford Convention (see
HARTFORD) in 1814. His work entitled .1
(if/irral Abridgment (i&lt;1 IHt/i\t of .\mrr-
ii nn l.mr. in 9 large volumes (1823-29),
is a monument of his learning and in
dustry. He founded iho Dane professor
ship of law in Harvard University. He
died in Beverly, Feb. 15, 1835.

Danenhower, Joiix Wn.so.v, explorer:
born in Chicago, 111., Sept. 30, 1849:
graduated at the United States Naval
Academy in 1870; served on the Yantl&lt;ili&lt;i
during Gen. U. S. Grant s visit to Egypt
and the Levant; and was promoted lieu
tenant in 1879. He joined the Aretir
steamer Jeanette as second in command
in 1878. The vessel sailed from San
i Yancisco on July 8, 1879. through Her
ing Straits into the Arctic Ocean, where

DANFOBTH DANISH WEST INDIES

it was held in the ice-pack for twenty-two Daniel, WILLIAM, prohibitionist; born
months. From the place where the in Somerset county, Md., Jan. 24, 1826;
steamer was caught the crew travelled graduated at Dickinson College in 1848 ;
south for ninety-five days over the ice, admitted to the bar in 1851 ; elected
drawing three boats with them. They to the Maryland legislature in 1853,
then embarked, but were separated by a and to the State Senate in 1857; was
storm. Lievitenant Danenhower s boat an ardent supporter of temperance meas-
reached the Lena delta, where the Tun- ures, and in 1884 joined the National
guses saved the crew, Sept. 17, 1881. Prohibition party, which nominated him
After making an unsuccessful search for for Vice-President of the United States
the other boats he left ENGINEER GEORGE with William St. John for President. The
\V. MELVILLE (q. v.) to continue the Prohibition ticket received about 150,000
search for LIEUT. GEORGE W. DE LONG votes.

(q. v.), and Avith his crew made a journey Daniels, WILLIAM HAVEN, author; born
of 6,000 miles to Orenburg. He arrived in in Franklin, Mass., May 18, 1836; edu-
the United States in June, 1882. He pub- cated at Wesleyan University; Professor
lished The Narrative of the Jeannette. of Rhetoric there in 1868-69. He then
He died in Annapolis, Md., April 20, 1887. devoted himself to religious work, chiefly

Danforth, THOMAS, colonial governor ; in the capacity of an evangelist. His pub-
born in Suffolk, England, in 1622; set- lications include The Illustrated History
tied in Nc\v Knglaml in 1634: in 1679 was of Methodism in the United States; A
elected president of the province of Maine ; Short History of the People called
and was also a judge of the Superior Methodist, etc.

Court, in which capacity he strongly con- Danish West Indies, a group of
demned the action of the court in the islands lying east by southeast of Porto
witchcraft excitement of 1692. He died Rico, and consisting of St. Croix, St.
in Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 5, 1(599. Thomas, and St. John. St. Croix is the

Dangers from Slavery. See PARKER, largest, being about 20 miles long and 5
THEODORE. miles wide, with an area of 110 square

Daniel, JOHN MONCURE, editor; born in miles. It is generally flat, well watered,
Sin fiord county, Va., Oct. 24, 1825; in and fertile. Two-fifths of the surface is
1853 was appointed minister to Italy, in sugar plantations, and the principal
Garibaldi requested Daniel to annex Nice crops are sugar, cotton, coffee, indigo,
to, the United States, but Daniel declined and rum. The climate is unhealthful at
on the ground that such action would be all seasons, and hurricanes and earth-
contrary to the Monroe doctrine. When quakes occur frequently. The population
the Civil War broke out Daniel hastened is about 18,000. St. Thomas is about
home and entered the Confederate army, 17 miles long by 4 miles wide. Its sur-
but resigned and resumed the editorship face is rugged and elevated, reaching its
of the Richmond E.ra miner, in which he greatest height towards the centre. The
attacked Jefferson Davis. He died in soil is sandy, and mostly uncultivated.
Richmond, Va.. March 30, 1865. Charlotte Amalie, which is the principal

Daniel, JOHN WARWICK, legislator; town and the seat of government for the
born in Lynchburg, Va., Sept. 5, 1842; Danish West Indies, has an excellent
served through the Civil War in the Con- harbor and large trade. The population
federate army: member of Congress in of the island is about 14,000. St. John
1885-8" and of the United States Senate has an area of 42 square miles. The
in 1887-1905; author of Attachments chief exports are cattle and bay-rum,
under the Code of Virginia, etc. and the population is about 1,000. Ne-

Daniel, PETER VIVIAN, statesman; born gotiations with Denmark for the cession
in Stafford county, Va., April 24, 1784; of the islands to the United States began
graduated at Princeton in 1805; appoint- in 1898, after the close of the war with
ed judge of the United States Circuit Spain ; but owing to political changes in
Court in 1836; and to the United States the Danish government, no definite re-
Supreme Court in 1841. He died in Rich- suits were then attained. In December,
mond, Va., June 30, 1860. 1900, Congress became favorable to the

DANITES DABIEN SHIP CANAL

bill of Senator Lodge, advising the pur- for the ships to return to England for
chase of the islands, and negotiations to supplies, and, to hasten them, White went
that end were reopened. On Dec. 29, with them, leaving behind eighty - nine
1900, the United States offered to pay men, seventeen women, and two children.
$3,240,000 for the islands; but the Danish Among the women was his married daugli-
Upper House rejected the treaty to sell, ter, Eleanor Dare, who had given birth
Oct. 22, 1902. to a daughter, in August, 1587, to whom
Daaites, an alleged secret - order so- they gave the name of Virginia. On his
ciety of the Mormons, accused of various way home, White touched at Ireland,
crimes in the interest of Mormonism. where he left some potatoes which he took
These are denied by the Mormons. " Dan from Virginia the first of that kind over
shall be a serpent by the way, an adder seen in Europe. He started back with two
in the path," Gen. xlix. 17. The members ships laden with supplies; but instead
were also known as the Destroying An- of going directly to Virginia, he pur-
gels. See MORMONS. sued Spanish ships in search of plunder.
Darby, WILLIAM, geographer; born in His vessels were so battered that he was
Pennsylvania in 1775; served under Gen- obliged to return to England, and Span-
eral Jackson in Louisiana ; and was one ish war - vessels in British waters pre-
of the surveyors of the boundary between vented his sailing for America again until
Canada and the United States. Among 1590. He found Roanoke a desolation,
his works are Geographical Description of and no trace of the colony was ever
Louisiana; Geography and History of found. It is believed that they became
Florida; View of the United States; Lect- mingled with the natives, for long years
ures on the Discovery of America; etc. afterwards families of the Hatteras tribe
He died in Washington, D. C., Oct. 9, 1854. exhibited unmistakable specimens of blood
Darbytown Road, Va., the place of mixed with that of Europeans. It is sup-
three fights during the Richmond and posed the friendly " Lord of Roanoke "
Petersburg campaigns. The first, July 29, had saved their lives.

1864, between Hancock s corps under Darien Ship Canal, one of the great
Gregg and Kautz and the Confederates; interoceanic canal projects which have
the second, Oct. 7, when Kautz was de- attracted the attention of interested na-
feated; and the third, Oct. 13, when the tions for many years, and, most particu-
Nationals under Butler were defeated, larly, the United States. In 1849 an
General Lee claimed to have captured Irish adventurer published a book in
1,000 Nationals. which he said he had crossed and re-
Dare, VIRGINIA, the first child of Eng- crossed the Isthmus of Darien, and that
lish parents born in the New World. In in the construction of a canal there
1587 John White went to Roanoke Island only "3 or 4 miles of deep rock cut-
as governor of an agricultural colony sent ting" would be required. Believing this,
out by Sir Walter Raleigh. He was ac- an English company was formed for the
companied by his son - in - law, William purpose, with a capital of $75,000.000,
Dare, and his young wife. It was in- and an engineer was sent to survey a
tended to plant the colony on the main- route, who reported that the distance be-
land, but White went no farther than tween "tidal effects" was only 30 miles.
Roanoke. The new colonists determined to and the summit level only 150 feet. The
cultivate the friendship of the Indians, governments of England. France, the
Manteo (the chief who accompanied United States, and New Granada joined,
Amidas and Barlow to England), living late in 1853, in an exploration of the best
with his mother and relatives on Croatan route for a canal. It was soon ascer-
Island. invited the colonists to settle on tained that the English engineer had
his domain. White persuaded him to re- never crossed the isthmus at all. The
ceive the rites of Christian baptism, and summit level to which he directed the
bestowed upon him the title of baron, expedition was 1.000 feet above tide-
as Lord of Roanoke the first and last water, instead of 150 feet. The expedi-
peerage ever created on the soil of the tion effected nothing.

American republic. It became necessary In 18.14 Lieut. Isaac Strain led an

DARK AND BLOODY GROUND DARLEY

American expedition for the same purpose, open air. Birds became silent and went
They followed the route pointed out by to rest; barn-yard fowls went to roost,
the English engineer, and, after intense and cattle sought their accustomed even-
suirering, returned and reported the pro- ing resorts. Houses were lighted with
posed route wholly impracticable. The candles, and nearly all out-of-door work
success of the Suez Canal revived the was suspended. The obscuration began
project, and in 1870 two expeditions were at ten o clock in the morning and con
sent out by the United States govern- tinned until night. The cause of the
ment one under Commander T. O. Sel- darkness has never been revealed. The
fridge, of the United States navy, to the air was unclouded.

Isthmus of Darien; and the other, under Darke, WILLIAM, military officer; born
Captain Shufeldt, of the navy, to the in Philadelphia county, Pa., in 1736;
Isthmus of Tehuan tepee. Three routes served under Braddock in 1755, and was
were surveyed across the narrow part with him at his defeat; entered the patriot
of the Isthmus of Darien by Self ridge, army at the outbreak of the Revolution as
and he reported all three as having ob- a captain; was captured at the battle of
stacles that made the construction of a Germantown; subsequently was promoted
canal impracticable. He reported a colonel ; and commanded the Hampshire
route by the Atrato and Napipi rivers as and Berkeley regiments at the capture of
perfectly feasible. It would include 150 Cornwallis in 1791. He served as lieuten-
miles of river navigation and a canal less ant-colonel under General St. Clair, and
than 40 miles in extent. It would call was wounded in the battle with the Miami
for 3 miles of rock cutting 125 feet Indians, Nov. 4, 1791. He died in Jeffer-
deep, and a tunnel of 5 miles, with a roof son county, Va., Nov. 2G, 1801.
sufficiently high to admit the tallest- Darley, FELIX OCTAVIUS CARE, de-
masted ships. Selfridge estimated the en- signer and painter; born in Philadel-
tire cost at $124,000,000. The whole mat- phia June 23, 1822; evinced a taste for
ter was referred in 1872 to a commission drawing at an early age, and while a lad
to continue investigations. A French in a mercantile house spent his leisure
company undertook the construction of a time in sketching. For some of these
canal between Aspinwall and Panama in he was offered a handsome sum, and this
1881, under the direction of Ferdinand induced him to choose art as a life pur-
de Lesseps. After expending many mill- suit. He spent several years in Phila-
ions, the project was temporarily aban- delphia, always living by his pencil, and
doned in 1800. See CLAYTON - BULWER in 1848 he went to New York, where he
TREATY: NICARAGUA SHIP CANAL; PAN- made admirable illustrations for some of
AMA CANAL. Irving s humorous works. Among these

Dark and Bloody Ground. Two sec- were The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and
tions of the United States have received Rip Van Winkle. These works procured
this appellation. First it was applied for him the reputation, at home and
to Kentucky, the great battle-field be- abroad, as a leader in the art of outline
tween the Northern and Southern Indians, illustrations. He illustrated a great many
and afterwards to the portion of that books and made numerous admirable de-
State wherein Daniel Boone and his com- signs for bank-notes. For Cooper s works
panions were compelled to carry on a he made 500 illustrations. More than
warfare with the savages. It was also sixty of them were engraved on steel,
applied to the Valley of the Mohawk, in He executed four large works ordered by
New York, and its vicinity, known as Prince Napoleon while in this country.
Tryon county, wherein the Six Nations These were: Emigrants Attacked by
and their Tory allies made fearful forays Indians on the Prairies; The Village
during the Revolution. Blacksmith; The Unwilling Laborer, and

Dark Day. On May 12, 1780, a re- The Repose. He illustrated several of

mark-able darkness overspread all New Dickens s works, and during the Civil

England, varying in intensity at different War delineated many characteristic

places. In some sections persons could scenes. Some of the more elaborate pict-

not read common printed matter in the ures on the United States government

DARLING DARTMOOR PRISON

bonds were made by him; and also the what she had overheard. Through this

beautiful design of the certificate of stock timely information Washington was pre-

given as evidence of subscription for the pared and the British expedition provc d

Centennial Exhibition in 1876. Among to be a failure.

his later works in book illustrations Dartmoor Prison, a notable place of
were 500 beautiful designs for Lossing s detention in Devonshire, England. At the
Our Country. Mr. Darley went to Europe close of the War of 1812-15 prisoners
near the close of the war, studied models held by both parties were released as soon
in Rome, and returned with a portfolio as proper arrangements for their enlarge-
full of personal sketches. He died in nient could be made. At the conclusion
Claymont, Del., March 27, 1888. of peace there were about C,000 Anieri-

Darling, HENRY, clergyman; born in tan captives confined in Dartmoor Prison,

Reading, Pa., Dec. 27, 1823; graduated including 2,500 American seamen im-

at Amherst College in 1842; ordained to pressed by British cruisers, who had re-

the ministry of the Presbyterian Church fused to fight in the British navy against

in 1847; published Slavery and the War their countrymen, and were there when

(1863), etc. He died in Clinton, N. Y., the war began. Some had been captives

April 20, 1891. ten or eleven years. The prison was situ-

Darlington, WILLIAM, scientist; born ated on Dart Moor, a desolate region in
of Quaker parents in Birmingham, Pa., Devonshire, where it had been con-
April 28, 1782; studied medicine, Ian- structed for the confinement of PYench
guages, and botany, and went to Calcutta prisoners of war. It comprised about 30
as surgeon of a ship. Returning in 1807, acres, enclosed within double walls, with
he practised medicine at West Chester seven distinct prison - houses, with en-
with success; was a Madisonian in poli- closures. The place, at the time in ques-
tics, and when the war broke out in 1812 tion, was in charge of Capt. T. G. Short-
he assisted in raising a corps for the ser- land, with a military guard. He was
vice in his neighborhood. He was chosen accused of cruelty towards the captives,
major of a volunteer regiment, but did It was nearly three months after the
not see any active service. He was a mem- treaty of peace was signed before they
ber of Congress from 1815 to 1817 and were permitted to know the fact. From
from 1819 to 1823. In his town he that time they were in daily expectation
founded an academy, an athen;eum, and a of release. Delay caused uneasiness and
society of natural history. Dr. Darling- impatience, and symptoms of a deter-
ton was an eminent botanist, and a new mination to escape soon appeared. On
and remarkable variety of the pitcher April 4 the prisoners demanded bread
plant, found in California in 1853, was Instead of hard biscuit, and refused
named, in his honor. Darlingtonica Call- to receive the latter. On the 6th,
jornia. He wrote and published works so reluctantly did the prisoners obey
on botany, medicine, biography, and his orders to retire to their quarters, that
tnry. Dr. Darlington was a member of when some of them, with the appearance
about forty learned societies in America of mutinous intentions, not only refused
and Europe. He died in West Chester, to retire, but passed beyond the prescribed
Pa., April 23, 1863. limits of their confinement, they were fired

Darrah, LYDIA, heroine; place and date upon by order of Captain Shortland, for

of birth unknown; lived in Philadelphia the purpose of intimidating all. The fir-

in 1777. One of the rooms in her house ing was followed up by the soldiers, \\ith-

was used by the British officers, who out excuse. Five prisoners were killed and

planned to surprise Washington s army, thirty-three were wounded. This act was

She overheard their plans, and early in regarded by the Americans as a wanton

the morning of Dec. 3 left her home, massacre, and when the British author!

ostensibly for the purpose of purchasing ties pronounced it " justifiable " the

flour, but in reality to give warning to hottest indignation was excited through -

Washington. After a walk of several out the republic. The last survivor of the

miles in the snow she met one of Wash- Dartmoor prisoners was Lewis P. Clover,

ington s officers , to whom she revealed who died in Brooklyn. Long Island. X. Y..

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE

DARTMOOR HKl.sOS.

in February, 1870, at the age of eighty-
nine years.

Dartmouth College, one of the highest
institutions of learning in the English-
American colonies; chartered in 1769. It
grew out of an earlier school established
by Rev. Dr. Wheelock at Lebanon, Conn.,
designed for the education of Indian chil
dren, he being encouraged by his success
in educating a young Mohegan, Samson
Occom, who became a remarkable preacher.
Pupils from the Delaware tribe were re
ceived, and the school soon attracted pub
lic attention. James Moor, a farmer, gave
two acres of land and a house for the use
of the school, and from that time it was
known as Moor s Indian Charity School.
Occom accompanied Rev. N. Whittaker to
England to raise funds for the increase of
the usefulness of the school, and about
$50,000 were subscribed. A board of trus
tees was organized, of which Lord Dart
mouth, one of the subscribers, was elected
president. The children of the New Eng
land Indians came to the school in large
numbers, and Dr. Wheelock resolved to
transfer it to a place nearer the heart of
the Indian population in that region. He
selected Hanover, on the Connecticut

River, in the western part of New Hamp
shire, and grants of about 44,000 acres of
land were made. Governor Wentworth
gave it a charter ( 176!)) , under the title of
Dartmouth College, so named in honor of
Lord Dartmouth. The institution was re
moved, with the pupils, to Hanover, in
1770, where President Wheelock and all
others \lived in log cabins, for it was an
almost untrodden wilderness. Dr. Whee
lock held the presidency until his death, in
1779 (see WHEELOCK, ELEAZAR-), and was
succeeded by his son, John, who was sent
to Europe to procure funds for the sup
port of the college. He obtained consider
able sums, and philosophical implements.
In 1816 a religious controversy led to a
conflict with the legislature, and the latter
created a new corporation, called Dart
mouth University, in which the property
of the old corporation was vested. A law
suit ensued, carried on for the college by
Daniel Webster, which resulted (1819),
finally, in the establishment of the in
violability of chartered rights and the
restoration .of the old charter. Wheelock
was raised to the presidency in 1817, by
the new board, but died a few months
afterwards. He was succeeded bv William

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE DECISION DAVENANT

Allen. At the close of 1900 the college the constitution, are "social, literary, Ins-
reported sixty-one professors and instruct- torical, monumental, benevolent, and hon
ors, 741 students, 85,000 volumes in the orable in every degree." In 1900 there
library, 9,000 graduates, and $2,300,000 in were 400 chapters in the United States,
productive funds. Rev. William J. Tucker, North and South, with about 8,000 mem-
D.D., LL.D., was president. bers. The president was Mrs. Kate Cabell

Dartmouth College Decision. By an Currie, Dallas, Tex.; recording secretary,
act of the legislature of New Hampshire Mrs. John P. Hickman, Nashville, Tenn.
in 1816, the name of Dartmouth College Daughters of the King, THE, a re-
was changed to Dartmouth University, the ligious society of the Protestant Episco-
management was changed, and the State un- pal Church, founded in New York City,
dertookto control the affairs of the college. Easter evening, 1885. It is often con-
Daniel Webster was retained to oppose the fused with the KING S DAUGHTERS (q. v.),
action of the State, and the case was ulti- a society from which it differs in many
mately carried up to the United States Su- lespects. Its chief purposes are to aid
preme Court, the decision of which estab- rectors in their parish work and to ex-
lished the inviolability of private trusts. tend Christianity among young women.

Daston, SARAH, an alleged witch; born In 1900 the president of the council was

about 1613. When eighty years old she Mrs. E. A. Bradley; secretary, Miss

was imprisoned in Salem as a witch, and Elizabeth L. Ryerson. The office of the

although the practice of punishing sup- council is in the Church Missions House,

posed witches was meeting with public dis- 281 Fourth Avenue, New York City,
approbation the superstitious party clam- Daughters of the Revolution, an

ored for her conviction. She was tried organization established in New York

in Charlestown, Mass., in February, 1693, City, Aug. 20, 1891. Any woman is

and was acquitted. Later her persecutor, eligible for membership who is a lineal

Minister Parris, was driven out of Salem, descendant of a military, naval, or marine

Daughters of Liberty, a society of officer, or of a soldier or marine or sailor

women founded in Boston in 1769, pledg- in actual service under the authority of

ing themselves to refrain from buying any State or colony or of the Continental

English goods. Congress, or of the Congress of any of the

Daughters of the American Revolu- colonies or States, or of a signer of the

tion, a society organized in Washington, Declaration of Independence, or of a mem-

D. C., Oct. 11, 1890. All women above ber of the Continental Congress, or of any

eighteen years of age who are descended colonial or State Congress, and of any

from patriots, soldiers, sailors, or civil other recognized official who supported

officers who supported the cause of inde- the cause of American independence,

pendence, are eligible to membership. In State societies exist in a large number of

1900 there were 492 State chapters in States. In 1900 the president-general

fourteen States and Territories, in the was Mrs. Henry Sanger Snow; recording

District of Columbia, and in Hawaii, with secretary-general, Mrs. L. D. Gallison.

a total membership of about 27,000. The The office of the general society is at 156

president-general was Mrs. Daniel Man- Fifth Avenue, New York,
ning; recording secretary - general, Mrs. Davenant, SIR WILLIAM, dramatist and

Albert Ackers, Nashville, Tenn. The poet; born in Oxford, England, in 1605;

membership was reported as 35,092 in son of an innkeeper, at whose house

February, 1901. Shakespeare often stopped while on his

Daughters of the Confederacy, an journeys between Stratford and London,

organization established in Nashville, and who noticed the boy. Young Davenant

Tenn., Sept. 10, 1894. Its membership left college without a degree. Showing

consists of the widows, wives, mothers, much literary talent, he was encouraged

sisters, and lineal female descendants of in writing plays by persons of distinction,

the men who served in the Confederate and on the death of Ben Jonson in 1637

army and navy, or who were connected he was made poet-laureate. He adhered

in any way with the Confederate cause, to the royal cause during the civil war

The objects of the society, as declared in in F.n-jland, and escaped to France, where

DAVENPORT DAVIDSON

he became a. KOIIIMM Catholic. After the spiritual retreats for the laity. In I80&lt;i

death of his King he projected (1651) a lie accepted a professorship in the College

colony of French people in Virginia, the of St. Mary s; in 1810 went West and

only American province that adhered to founded the St. Thomas Theological

royalty, and, with a vessel filled with Seminary in Bardstown, Ky. ; and in 1823

French men, women, and children, he secured a charter from the Kentucky

sailed for Virginia. The ship was capt- legislature raising the institution he had

ured by a parliamentary cruiser, and the founded to the grade of a university. He

passengers were landed in England, where died in Bardstown, Ky., in 1841.
the life of Sir William was spared, it is be- Davidson, GEORGE, astronomer ; born in

Heved, by the intervention of John Milton, Nottingham, England, May 9, 1825 ; came

the poet, who was Cromwell s Latin secre- to the United States in 1832; gradu-

tary. Sir William had a strong personal ated at the Central High School, Phila-

resemblance to Shakespeare, and it was delphia, in 1845; engaged in geodetic field

currently believed that he was a natural and astronomical work in the Eastern

son of the great dramatist. This idea Sir States in 1845-50, and then went to San

William encouraged. He died in April, 1668. Francisco, and became eminent in the

Davenport, HENRY KALLOCK, naval coast survey of the Pacific; retiring after

officer; born in Savannah, Ga., Dec. 10, fifty years of active service in June, 1895.

1820; joined the navy in 1838; command- He then became Professor of Geography in

ed the steamer Hetzel in 1861-64; took the University of California. Of his

part in the engagements on James River numerous publications, The Coast Pilot

and off Roanoke Island ; and was promoted of California, Oregon, and Washington;

captain in 1868. He died in Franzensbad, and The Coast Pilot of Alaska- are uni-

Bohemia, Aug. 18, 1872. versally known and esteemed.

Davenport, JOHN, colonist; born in Davidson, JOHN WYNN, military

Coventry, England, in 1597. Educated at officer; born in Fairfax county, Va., Aug.

Oxford, he entered the ministry of the Es- 18, 1824; graduated at West Point in

tablished Church. He finally became a 1845, entering the dragoons. Accompany-

Non-conformist, was persecuted, and re- ing Kearny to California in 1846, he

tired to Holland, where he engaged in was in the principal battles of the war

secular teaching in a private school. He with Mexico. He was also active in

returned to London and came to America New Mexico, afterwards, against the Ind-

in June, 1637, where he was received with ians. In 1861 he was made major of

great respect. The next year he assisted cavalry, and early in 1862 brigadier-

in founding the New Haven colony, and general of volunteers, commanding a bri-

was one of the chosen " seven pillars * gade in the Army of the Potomac. After

(see NEW HAVEN). He concealed Goffe serving in the campaign on the Peninsula,

and Whalley, two T)f the "regicides," in he was transferred (August, 1862) to the

his house, and by his preaching induced Department of the Mississippi, and co-

the people to protect them from the King s operated with General Steele in the capt-

commissioners sent over to arrest them ure of Little Rock, Ark. He was brevet-

(see RKGICIDES). In 1668 he was or- ted major-general of volunteers in March,

dained minister of the first church in 1865; promoted to lieutenant-colonel,

Boston, and left New Haven. He was the 10th Cavalry, in 1866; was Professor of

author of several controversial pamphlets, Military Science in Kansas Agricultural

and of A Discourse about Civil Govern- College in 1868-71; promoted to colonel,

mcnt in a New Plantation. He died in 2d Cavalry, in 1879. He died in St. Paul,

Boston, March 15, 1670. Minn., June 26, 1881.

David, JEAN BAPTIST, clergyman; born Davidson, WILLIAM, military officer;

in France, in 1761; educated at the born in Lancaster county, Pa., in 1746;

Diocesan Seminary of Nantes; became a was appointed major in one of the North

priest in 1785; came to the United States Carolina regiments at the outbreak of

in 1792; and was superintendent of mis- the Revolution; took part in the battles

sions in lower Maryland. He was the of Brandywine, Germantown, and Mon-

first priest in America to establish mouth; commissioned brigadier-general;

DAVIE DAVIS

and was at Cowan s Ford, N. (. ., Feb. 1, and able supporter. In 17!)!) lie was
1781, when the British army under Corn- ernor of North Carolina, but was soon
wallis forced a passage. During the fight afterwards sent as one of the envoys to
General Davidson was killed. the French Directory. Very soon after

Davie, WILLIAM RICHARDSON, military his return he withdrew from public life,
officer; born near Whitehaven, England, In March, 1813, he was appointed a ma-
June 20, 1756; came to America in 1764 jor-general, but declined the service on
with his father, and settled in South account of bodily infirmities. He died in
Carolina with his uncle, who educated Camden, S. C., Nov. 8, 1820.
him at the College of New Jersey (where Davis, ANDREW JACKSON, spiritualist;

born in Blooming Grove, Orange co., N. Y.,
Aug. 11, 1826. While a shoemaker s ap
prentice in Poughkeepsie, early in 1843,
remarkable clairvoyant powers w r ere de
veloped in him by the manipulation of
mesmeric influences by William Leving-
ston. He was quite uneducated, yet while
under the influence of mesmerism or ani
mal magnetism he would discourse fluent
ly and in proper language on medical,
psychological, and general scientific sub
jects. While in a magnetic or trance
state he made medical diagnoses and gave
prescriptions. In March, 1844, he fell
into a trance state without any previous
manipulations, during which he con
versed for sixteen hours, as he alleged,
with invisible beings, and received inti
mations and instructions concerning the
position he was afterwards to occupy as
a teacher from the interior state. In
1845, while in this state, he dictated to
Rev. William Fishbough his first and
most considerable work, The P nudities of

he graduated in 1776), and adopted him Mature, her Divine Revelations, and a
as his heir. He prepared himself for Voice to Mankind, which embraces a wide
the law as a profession, but became an ac- range of subjects. He afterwards pub-
tive soldier in the Revolution in a troop of lished several works, all of which ho
dragoons. When he was in command of claimed to have been the production of his
the troop he annexed it to Pulaski s mind under divine illumination and the
Legion. He fought at Stono, Hanging influence of disembodied spirits. Among
Rock, and Rocky Mount; and at the head his most considerable works are Tin*
of a legionary corps, with the rank of Great Harmonia, in 4 volumes: Tin-
major, he opposed the advance of Corn- Penetralia; Hixtorji initJ Philoso)&gt;lii/ of
wallis into North Carolina. After the Evil; The Jfarliinfrcr of Health; Rfclltir
overthrow of the American army at Cam- Kcit to the Rummer Land; and Mental
den he saved the remnant of it; and he Diseases cud Disorders of tlic lira in. Mr.
was a most efficient commissary under Davis may be considered as the pioneer
General Greene in the Southern Depart- of modern spiritualism.
ment. He rose to great eminence as a Davis, CHARLES HENRY, naval officer:
lawyer after the war, and was a delegate born in Boston. Jan. 16. 1807: entered
to the convention that framed the na- the naval service as midshipman in 1823:
tional Constitution, but sickness at home was one of the chief organizers of the ex-
compelled him to leave before the work pedition against Port Royal, S. C.. in
ivas accomplished. In the convention of 1861, in which he bore a conspicuous part.
North Carolina he was its most earnest For his services during the Civil War he

WILLIAM RICHARDSON DAVIE.

DAVIS

received the thanks of Congress and pro
motion to the rank of rear-admiral. In
1865 he became superintendent of the
Xaval Observatory at Washington. He
was a recognized authority on tidal ac
tions and published several works on that
subject. He died in Washington, D. C.,
Feb. 18, 1877.

Davis, CTJSIIMAN KELLOGG, statesman;
born in Henderson, N. Y., June 16, 1838;

CUSH.MA.N KKLLUGli DAVIS.

graduated at the University of Michi
gan in 1857; studied law and began prac
tice in Waukesha, Wis. During the Civil
War he served three years in the Union
army. In 1805 he removed to St. Paul,
Minn. He was a member of the Minne
sota legislature in 1867; United States
district attorney for Minnesota in 1868-
73; governor of Minnesota in 1874-75;
and elected to the United States Senate
in 1887, 1893, and 1899. For several years
he was chairman of the Senate committee
on foreign relations, and was a member
of the commission to negotiate peace with
Spain after the war of 1898. He pub
lished The Law in Shakespeare. He died
in St. Paul, Nov. 27, 1900.

Davis, DAVID, jurist; born in Cecil
county. Md., March 9, 1815; graduated
at Kenyon College, 0., 1832; admitted
to the bar of Illinois in 1835; elected
to the State legislature in 1834; and
appointed a justice of the Supreme Court
of the United States in 1862. He resign
ed this post to take his seat in the United
States Senate on March 4, 1877, having
been elected to succeed JOHN A. LOGAN
in. B 17

(q. v.) . In 1872 he was nominated for
President by the Labor Reform party, but
declined to run after the regular Demo
cratic and Republican nominations had
been made. He resigned in 1883 and re
tired to Bloomington, 111., where he died
June 26, 1886.

Davis, GEORGE WHITEFIELD, military
officer; born in Thompson, Conn., July 26,
1839; entered the Union army as quarter
master s sergeant in the llth Connecticut
Infantry, Nov. 27, 1861 ; became first lieu
tenant April 5, 1862; and was mustered
out of the service, April 20, 1866. On
Jan. 22, 1867, he was appointed captain
in the 14th United States Infantry. At
the beginning of the war with Spain he
was commissioned brigadier-general of vol
unteers; and on Oct. 19, 1899, he was
promoted to colonel of the 23d United
States Infantry; and on the reorganiza
tion of the regular army, in February,
1901, he was appointed one of the new
brigadier - generals. He was for several
years a member of the board on Public
W r ar Records; commanded a division in
the early part of the war with Spain; in
May, 1899, was appointed governor-general
of Porto Rico; and in 1904 governor of the
American zone of the Panama Canal ces
sion.

Davis, HENRY GASSAWAY, legislator ;
born in Baltimore, Md., Nov. 16, 1823; re
ceived a country-school education; was an
employee of the Baltimore & Ohio Rail
road Company for fourteen vears; after-

BRIO. -OEN. UKOKUK WHITKFIKLU DAVIS,

DAVIS

ward engaged in banking and coal-mining
in Piedmont, \V. Ya. ; and was president
of the Piedmont National Bank. In 1805
ho was elected to the House of Delegates
of West Virginia ; was a member of the
national Democratic conventions in 1868
and 1872; State Senator in 1867-G9; and
a United States Senator in 1871-83. He
also served on the Inter-continental Rail
way Commission, as chairman of the
American delegation to the Pan-American
Congress, and was the Democratic candi
date for Vice-President in 1!&gt;04.

Davis, HKNISY WIXTKR. legislator: born
in Annapolis. Md.. Aug. Ifi. 1S17: gradu
ated at Kenvon College in 1837: elected

to Congress as a Whig in 1854, and at
the dissolution of that party joined the
American or Know -Nothing party, and
was re-elected to Congress in 1858. In
18151 he announced himself in favor of an
unconditional Union while a candidate
for re-election. He was overwhelmingly
defeated, but in 1863 was re-elected. Al
though representing a slave State, Senator
Davis was a strong antislavery advo
cate. He died in Baltimore. Md.. Dec. 30,
1 805.

Davis, ISAAC, patriot: born in 1745:
took part in the fight with the British
soldiery at Concord bridge, April 1!). 1775.
and war, killed bv the first vollev.

DAVIS, JEFFEBSON

Davis, JEFFERSON, statesman ; born in
Christian county, Ky., June 3, 1808;
graduated at West Point in 1828; served
as lieutenant in the BLACK HAWK WAR
(q. v.) in 1831-32, and resigned in 1835
to become a cotton-planter in Mississippi.
He was a member of Congress in 1845-40,
and served as colonel of a Mississippi regi
ment in the war with Mexico. He was
United States Senator from 1847 to 1851,
and from 1857 to 1861. He was called to
the cabinet of President Pierce as Secre
tary of War in 1853, and remained four
years. He resigned his seat in the Senate
in January, 1861, and was chosen pro
visional President of the Southern Con
federacy in February. In November, 1861,
he was elected permanent President for six
years. Early in April, 1865, he and his
associates in the government fled from
Richmond, first to Danville, Va., and then
towards the Gulf of Mexico. He was ar
rested in Georgia, taken to Fort Monroe,
and confined on a charge of treason for
about two years, when he was released on
bail, Horace Greeley s name heading the
list of bondsmen for $100,000. He was
never tried. He published The Rise and
Fall of the Confederate Government
H881). He died in New Orleans, La.,
Dec. 6, 1889.

Mr. Davis was at his home, not far
from Vicksburg, when apprised of his
election as President of the Confederacy
formed at Montgomery, February, 1861.
He hastened to that city, and his journey

was a continuous ovation. He made
twenty-five speeches on the way. Mem
bers of the convention and the authorities
of Montgomery met him eight miles from
the city. He arrived at the Alabama
capital at eight o clock at night. Can
non thundered a welcome, and the shouts
of a multitude greeted him. Formally re
ceived at the railway station, he made a
speech, in which he briefly reviewed the
position of the South, and said the time
for compromises had passed. " We are
now determined," he said, " to maintain
our position, and make all who oppose us
smell Southern powder and feel Southern
steel. . . . We will maintain our rights
and our government at all hazards.
We ask nothing we want nothing and
we will have no complications. If the
other States join our Confederacy, they
can freely come in on our terms. Our
separation from the Union is complete,
and no compromise, no reconstruction.
can now be entertained." The inaugural
ceremonies took place at noon, Feb. 18. on
a platform erected in front of the portico
of the State-house. Davis and the Vice-
president elect, ALEXANDER H. STKIMIK.NS
(q. v.), with Rev. Dr. Marly, rode in
an open barouche from the Exchange
Hotel to the capitol, followed by a multi
tude of State officials and citizens. The
oath of office was administered to Davis
by Howell Cobb, president of the Con
gress, at the close of his inaugural ad
dress. In the evening President Davis held

DAVIS, JEFFERSON

JK, I KKSiiN I)A\ I

a levee at Estelle Hall, and the city was
brilliantly lighted up by bonfires and
illuminations. President Davis chose for
his constitutional advisers a cabinet com
prising Robert Tooinbs, of Georgia. Sec
retary of State: Charles G. Memmingcr.
of South Carolina. Secretary of the
Treasury; Le Roy Pope Walker, of Ala
bama, Secretary of War: Stephen 1!.
Mallory, of Florida, Secretary of the
Navy, and John H. Reagan, of Texas,
Postmaster-General. Afterwards. Judah
P. Benjamin was made Attorney-General.
Two days after President Lincoln s call

for troops, President Davis issued a procla
mation, in the preamble of which he said
the President of the United States had
"announced the intention of invading the
Confederacy with an armed force for the
purpose of eaptur ; iv.r its fortresses, and
thereby subverting its independence, and
subjecting the free people thereof to the
dominion of a foreign power." He said
it w:-s the d ltv of his government to re
pel this threatened invasion, and "defend
the rights and liberties of the peop e by
all the means which the laws of nations
and usages of civilized warfare placed at

DAVIS, JEFFERSON

its dispni-al." He invited the people of family and property, riding rapidly 18
the Confederacy to engage in privateering, miles. They were near h winsville, south
and he exhorted those who had " felt the of Macon, Ga. The tents were pitched at
wrongs of the past " from those whose night, and the wearied ones retired to
enmity was " more implacable, because rest, intending to resume their flight in
unprovoked," to exert themselves in pre- the morning. General Wilson, at Macon,
serving order and maintaining the author- hearing of Davis s Might towards the Gulf,
ity of the Confederate laws. This procla- had sent out Michigan and Wisconsin
mation was met by President Lincoln by cavalry, whose vigilance was quickened
a public notice that he should imme- by the offered reward of $100,000 for the
diately order a blockade of all the South- arrest of the fugitive. Simultaneously,
ern ports claimed as belonging to the Con- from opposite points, these two parties
federacy; and also that if any person, approached the camp of Davis and his lit-
under the pretended authority of such tie party just at dawn. May 11, 18(55.
States, or under any other pretence, Mistaking each other for foes, they ex-
should molest a vessel of the United changed shots with such precision that.
States, or the person or cargo on board two men were killed and several wounded
of her, such person would be held amen- before the error was discovered. The
able to the laws of the United States for sleepers were aroused. The camp was
the prevention and punishment of piracy, surrounded, and Davis, while attempting
With this opposing proclamation the to escape in disguise, was captured and
great Civil War was actively begun. conveyed to General Wilson s head-

In April, 1805, Mr. Davis s wife and quarters. Davis had slept in a wrapper,
children, and his wife s sister, had and when aroused hastily pulled on his
accompanied him from Danville to boots and went to the tent-door. He ob-
Washington, Ga., where, for prudential served the National cavalry. Then you
reasons, the father separated from the are captured?" exclaimed his wife. In
others. He soon learned that some Con- an instant she fastened the wrapper
federate soldiers, believing that the treas- around him before he was aware, and

then, bidding him
adieu, urged him.
to go to a spring
near by, where his
horse and arms
were. He complied,
and as he was
leaving the tent-
door, followed by
a servant with a
water - bucket, his
sister-in-law Hung
a shawl over his
head. It was in
this disguise that
he was captured.
Such is (lie story
as told by C. K. L.
Stuart, of Davis s
staff. The Confed
erate President
was taken to Fort
Monroe by way of

ure that was carried away from Rich Savannah and the sea. lleagan. who was
mond was with Mrs. Davis, had formed captured with Davis, and Alexander H.
a plot to seize all her trunks in search Stephens were sent to Fort Warren, in
of it. TTe hastened to the rescue of hi&lt;?

JKKKKKSON DAVIS S IIOMK IN RICHMOND.

DAVIS, JEITERSON

Inaugural Address. The following is sorted the right which the Declaration of

the text of the inaugural address, deliv- Independence of 1776 defined to be in-

ered at Montgomery, Ala., Feb. 18, 1861: alienable. Of the time and occasion of

its exercise they as sovereigns were the

Gentlemen of the Congress of the Con- final judges, each for himself. The im-
federate States of America, Friends, and partial, enlightened verdict of mankind
Fellow-Citizens, Called to the difficult will vindicate the rectitude of our con-
and responsible station of chief executive duct; and He who knows the hearts of
of the provisional government which you men will judge of the sincerity with which
have instituted, I approach the discharge we labored to preserve the government of
of the duties assigned me with an humble our fathers in its spirit,
distrust of my abilities, but with a sus- The right solemnly proclaimed at the
taining confidence in the wisdom of those birth of the States, and which has been
who are to guide and aid me in the ad- affirmed and reaffirmed in the bills of
ministration of public affairs, and an rights of the States subsequently ad-
abiding faith in the virtue and patriotism m it ted into the Union of 1789, undeniably
of the people. Looking forward to the recognizes in the people the power to re-
speedy establishment of a permanent gov- sume the authority delegated for the pur-
ernment to take the place of this, and poses of government. Thus the sovereign
which by its greater moral and physical States here represented proceeded to
power will be better able to combat with form this Confederacy, and it is by the
the many difficulties which arise from the abuse of language that their act has been
conflicting interests of separate nations, denominated revolution. They formed a
I enter upon the duties of the office to new alliance, but within each State its
which I have been chosen with the hope government has remained. The rights of
that the beginning of our career as a person and property have not been dis-
confederacy may not be obstructed by turbed. The agent through whom they
hostile opposition to our enjoyment of communicated with foreign nations is
the separate existence and independence changed, but this does not necessarily in-
which we have asserted, and which, with terrupt their international relations.
the blessing of Providence, we intend to Sustained by the consciousness that the
maintain. transition from the former Union to the

Our present condition, achieved in a present Confederacy has not proceeded
manner unprecedented in the history of from a disregard on our part of our just
nations, illustrates the American idea obligations or any failure to perform
that governments rest upon the consent every constitutional duty, moved by no
of the governed, and that it is the right interest or passion to invade the rights
of the people, to alter and abolish govern- of others, anxious to cultivate peace and
ments whenever they become destructive commerce with all nations, if we may not
to the ends for which they were estab- hope to avoid war. we may at least ex-
lished. The declared compact of the pect that posterity will acquit us of hav-
Union from which we have withdrawn ing needlessly engaged in it. Doubly
was to establish justice, insure domestic justified by the absence of wrong on our
tranquillity, provide for the common de- part, and by wanton aggression on the
fence, promote the general welfare, and part of others, there can be no cause to
secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves doubt the courage and patriotism of the
and our posterity; and when, in the judg- people of the Confederate States will be
ment of the sovereign States now com- found equal to any measures of defence
posing this Confederacy, it has been per- which soon their security may require,
verted from the purposes for which it was An agricultural people, whose chief in-
ordained, and ceased to answer the ends terest is the export of a commodity re-
for which it was established, a peaceful quired in every manufacturing country,
appeal to the ballot-box declared that, as our true policy is peace, and the freest
far as they were concerned, the govern- trade which our necessities will permit,
ment created by that compact should Ft is alike our interest, and that of all
to exist. In this they merely as- those to whom we would sell and from

DAVIS, JEFFEBSON

whom we would buy. that there should
be the fewest practicable restrictions upon
the interchange of commodities. There
can be but little rivalry between ours
and any manufacturing or navigating
community, such as the Northeastern
States of the American Union. It must
follow, therefore, that mutual interest
\\ould invite good-will and kind offices.
Jf, however, passion or lust of dominion
should cloud the judgment or inflame the
ambition of those States, we must pre
pare to meet the emergency and maintain
by the final arbitrament of the sword
the position which we have assumed
among the nations of the earth.

We have entered upon a career of inde
pendence, and it must be inflexibly pur
sued through many years of controversy
with our late associates of the Northern
States. We have vainly endeavored to
secure tranquillity and obtain respect for
the rights to which we are entitled. As
a necessity, not a choice, we have re
sorted to the remedy of separation, and
henceforth our energies must be directed
to the conduct of our own affairs, and the
perpetuity of the Confederacy which we
have formed. If a just perception of mu
tual interest shall permit us peaceably to
pursue our separate political career, my
most earnest desire will have been ful
filled. But if this be denied us. and the
integrity of our territory and jurisdiction
be assailed, it will but remain for us
with firm resolve to appeal to arms and
invoke the blessing of Providence on a just
cause.

As a consequence of our new condition,
and with a view to meet anticipated
v. ants, it will be necessary to provide a
speedy and efficient organization of the.
branches of the executive department hav
ing special charge of foreign intercourse,
finance, military affairs, and postal ser
vice. For purposes of defcnee 1he Con
federate States may. under the ordinary
circumstances, rely mainly upon their
militia: but it is deemed aihisable in the
present condition of atl airs that there
should be a well-instructed, disciplined
army, more numerous than would usually
be required on a peace establishment. I
also suggest that, for the protection of
our harbors and commerce on the high
seas, a navy adapted to those objects will

be required. These necessities have, doubt
less, engaged the attention of Congress.

\\ ith a constitution differing only from
that of our fathers in so far as it is ex
planatory of their well-known intent,
freed from sectional conflicts, which have
interfered with the pursuit of the general
welfare, it is not unreasonable to ex
pect that the States from which we have
recently parted may seek to unite their
fortunes to ours, under the government
which we have instituted. For this your
constitution makes adequate provision,
but beyond this, if I mistake not, the judg
ment and will of the people are. that
union with the States from which they
have separated is neither practicable nor
desirable. To increase the power, de
velop the resources, and promote the hap
piness of the Confederacy, it is requisite
there should be so much homogeneity that
the welfare of every portion would be tin-
aim of the whole. Where this does not
exist, antagonisms are engendered which
must and should result in separation.

Actuated solely by a desire to preserve
our own rights, and to promote our own
welfare, the separation of the Confeder
ate States has been marked by no ag
gression upon others, and followed by no
domestic convulsion. Our industrial pur
suits have received no check, the cultiva
tion of our fields progresses as hereto
fore, and even should we be involved in
war, there would be no considerable dimi
nution in the production of the staples
which have constituted our exports, in
which the commercial world has an in
terest scarcely less than onr own. This
common interest of producer and con
sumer can only be intercepted by an ex
terior force which should obstruct its
transmission to foreign markets, a course
of conduct which would be detrimental to
manufacturing and commercial inten-t -
abroad.

Should reason guide the action of the
government from which we have sepa
rated, a policy so detrimental to the civ
ilized world, the Northern States included,
could not be dictated by even a stronger
desire to inflict injury upon us; hut if it
be otherwise, a terrible responsibility will
rest upon it. and the suffering of millions
will bear testimony to the folly and wick
edness of our aggressors. In the mean

DAVIS

time there will remain to us, besides the
ordinary remedies before suggested, the
well-known resources for retaliation upon
the commerce of an enemy.

Experience in public stations of a
subordinate grade to this which your kind
ness had conferred has taught me that
care and toil and disappointments are the
price of official elevation. You will see
many errors to forgive, many deficiencies
to tolerate, but you shall not find in me
either want of zeal or fidelity to the
cause that is to me the highest in hope
and of most enduring affection. Your
generosity has bestowed upon me an un
deserved distinction, one which I neither
sought nor desired. Upon the continu
ance of that sentiment, and upon your
wisdom and patriotism, I rely to direct
and support me in the performance of the
duties required at my hands.

We have changed the constituent parts
but not the system of our government.
The Constitution formed by our fathers
is that of these Confederate States. In
their exposition of it, and in the judicial
construction it has received, we have a
light which reveals its true meaning. Tlm-
instructed as to the just interpretation
of that instrument, and ever remembering
that all offices are but trusts held for the
people, and that delegated powers are
to be strictly construed, I will hope by
due diligence in the performance of my
duties, though I may disappoint your ex
pectation, yet to retain, when retiring,
something of the good-will and confidence
which will welcome my entrance into
office.

It is joyous in the midst of perilous
times to look around upon a people united
in heart, when one purpose of high resolve
animates and actuates the whole, where
the sacrifices to be made are not weighed
in the balance, against honor, right, lib
erty, and equality. Obstacles may re
tard, but they cannot long prevent the
progress of a movement sanctioned by
its justice and sustained by a virtuous
people. Reverently let us invoke tie God
of our fathers to guide and protect us
in our efforts to perpetuate the princi
ples which by His blessing they were able
to vindicate, establish, and transmit to
their posterity: and with a continuance
of His favor, ever gratefully acknowl

edged, we may hopefully look forward to
success, to peace, to prosperity.

Davis, JEFFERSON C., military officer;
born in Clarke county, Ind., March 2,
1828; served in the war with Mexico;
was made lieutenant in 18.52; and was
one of the garrison of Fort Sumter dur
ing the bombardment in April, 1861. The
same year he was made captain, and be
came colonel of an Indiana regiment of
volunteers. In December he was pro
moted to brigadier-general of volunteers,
and commanded a division in the battle
of Pea Ridge early in 1862. He partici-

JEFFKRSOX C. DAVIS.

pa ted in the battle of Corinth in 1802:
commanded a division in the battles ot
Stone River, Murfreesboro, and Chicka-
mauga in 1862-63; and in 1864 com
manded the 14th Army Corps in the At
lanta campaign and in the March through
Georgia and the Carolinas. He was
brevetted major-general in 1865, and the
next year was commissioned colonel ot
the 23d Infantry. He was afterwards on
the Pacific coast; commanded troops in
Alaska: and also commanded the forces
that subdued the Modocs, after the murder
of GKN. EDWARD R. S. CANBY (q. -v.) , in
1873. He died in Chicago, 111.. Nov. 30,
1879.

Davis, Joiix. jurist: born in Plymouth.
Mass., Jan. 25, 1761 ; graduated at Har
vard College in 1781 ; admitted to the
bar and began practice at Plymouth in
1786. He was the last surviving inemlxT

DAVIS DAWES

of the convention that adopted the federal active in other engagements. He was pro-
Constitution; comptroller of the United moted rear-admiral, and retired in No-
States Treasury in 1795-96 j and eminent vember, 1886. He died in Washington,
for his knowledge of the history of New March 12, 1889.

England. In 1813 he made an address Davis, JOHN W., statesman; born in
on the Landing of the Pilgrims before the Cumberland county, Pa., July 17, 17!)!&gt;;
Massachusetts Historical Society, over graduated at the Baltimore Medical Col-
which he presided in 1818-43. His pub- lege in 1821; settled in Carlisle, Ind..
lications include an edition of Morton s in 1823; member of Congress in 1835-37,
New England Memorial, with many im- 1839-41, and 1843-47; speaker of the
portant notes; Eulogy on George Wash- House of Representatives during his la&gt;t
ington; and An Attempt to Explain the term; United States commissioner to
Inscription on Dighton Rock. He died in China in 1848-50; and governor of Ore-
Boston, Mass., Jan. 14, 1847. gon in 1853-54. He was president of the

Davis, Joiix, statesman ; born in North- convention in 1852 which nominat"d
boro, Mass., Jan. 13, 1787; graduated at Franklin Pierce for President. He died
Yale in 1812; admitted to the bar in 1815; in Carlisle, Ind., Aug. 22, 1859.
member of Congress in 1824-34, dur- Davis, NOAH, jurist; born in Haver
ing which time he opposed Henry Clay; hill, N. H., Sept. 10, 1818; justice of the
and was elected to the United States Sen- New York Supreme Court, 1857 ; member
ate in 1835, and resigned in 1841 to be- of Congress, 1869-70; United States dis-
come governor of Massachusetts. He was trict attorney, 1870; again elected to the
a strong antagonist of Jackson and Van New York Supreme Court, 1872. He pre-
Huren, and was re-elected to the United sided at the trial of Stokes for the murder
States Senate in 1845, but declined to of Jim Fiske and at the trial of William
serve. He protested strongly against the M. Tweed. He retired in 1887, and died
war with Mexico, and was in favor of the in New York City, March 20, 1902.
exclusion of slavery in the United States Davis, RICHARD HARDING, author; born
Territories. lie died in Worcester, Mass, in Philadelphia, Pa., April 18, 18(i4; son
April 19, 1854. of Rebecca Harding Davis; educated at

Davis, JOHX CHANDLER BANCROFT, Lehigh University and Johns Hopkins

statesman; born in Worcester, Mass., Dec. University. In 1888 he joined the stall

29, 1822; graduated at Harvard in 1840; of the New York Evening Sun. In 1890

appointed secretary of the United States he became the managing editor of Ilar-

legation in London in 1849; and assistant per s Weekly. His publications include

Secretary of State in 1869, which post Our English Cousins; About I aris: The

he resigned in 1871 to represent the Rulers of the Mediterranean; Three

United States at the Geneva court of Gringos in Vencziu la &lt;un1 Central Ainer-

:u bitration on the Alabama claims. He ica; Cuba in War Time; Cuban and

was appointed United States minister to Porto Rican Campaigns, etc.
Germany in 1874, judge of the United Davis, VAIUXA ANXE JEFFERSOX,

States court of claims in 1878, and re- author; second daughter of Jefferson

porter of the United States Supreme Court Davis; born in Richmond, Va., June 27,

in 1883. He is the author of The Case 1864; known popularly in the South as

&gt;f the T nitrd Stales laid before the Tri- "the Daughter of the Confederacy." Her

Imnal of Arbitration at Geneva; Treaties childhood was mostly spent abroad, and

of the I ni I d States, with Notes, etc. for several years she devoled herself to

Davis, Jonx T.I.K. naval officer; born in literature. Her works include An Irish

Carlisle, Ind., Sept. 3, 1825; joined the Knight of the Nineteenth Century;

navy in 1841; served with the Gulf block- Sketch of the Life of Robert Emmet ; The

"ading squadron in 1861 as executive offi- Veiled Doctor: Foreign Education for

cer of the Water Witch; and on Oct. 12 American GirJn; and A Romance of Sum-

of that year took part in the action with mcr SV.9. She died at Narraganset Pier.

the Confederate ram Manassas, and in R. I., Sept. 18, 1898.

that with the fleet near Pilot Town. Dur- Dawes, HEXIIY L.M-IIENS, statesman;

the remainder of the war he was born in Cummington, Mass., Oct. 30, 181fi;

DA WES DAYTON

graduated at Yale in 183!) ; admitted to 1870: studied law and was admitted to
the bar in 1842; served in the State leg- the bar in 1872; began practice at Can-
islature in 1848-50, and in the State ton, 0.; served as judge in the court of
Senate in 18,50-52; member of Congress common pleas in 1886-90; appointed
in 1857-73, and of the United States Sen- judge of the United States district court
ate in 1875-93; and then became chairman for the northern district of Ohio in 1889,
of the commission of the five civilized but resigned before taking office on ac-
tnbes. IK: was author of m.iny tariff
measures, and to him was due the intro
duction of the Weather Bulletin in 1869.
Me died in Pittsfield, Mass., Feb. 5, 1903.

Dawes, WILLIAM, patriot. On April 18,
1775, he accompanied Paul Revere, riding
through Roxbury, while- Revere went by
way of Charlestown. On the following
day, when Adams and Hancock received
the message from Warren, Revere, Dawes,
and Samuel Prescott rode forward, arous
ing the inhabitants. They were surprised
by a number of British at Lincoln, and
both Dawes and Revere were captured,
Prescott making good his escape to Con
cord.

Dawson, HKXHY BARTON, author; born
in Lincolnshire. England, June 8, 1821;
came to New York with his parents in
18.34. He was the author of Battles of the
I nil &lt; &lt;1. Kliites Ini S ea and Land; Recol-

WILI.IAM KUFUS PAY.

lections of the Jersey Prison-ship; \\est-
clien/cr County in Hie Ifcrolulion; etc. For
many years he was editor of the Histori- count of ill health. In March, 1397, lie

cnl Magazine. He died in 1889.

was made assistant Secretary of State,

Day. The Washington Prime Meridian and on April 26, 1898, succeeded John
Conference adopted a resolution declaring Sherman as head of the department,
the universal day to be the mean solar While in the State Department he had
day, beginning, for all the world, at the charge, under the President, of the deli-
moment of mean midnight of the initial cate diplomatic correspondence preced-
meridian, coinciding with the civil day, ing and during the war with Spain, and
and that meridian be counted from zero of the negotiation of the protocol of
up to 24 hours, Oct. 21, 1884. See STAND- peace. After the latter had been ac-
AUD TIME, cepted Judge Day was appointed chief
Day, or Daye, STEPHEN, the first of the United States peace commission, his
printer in the English-American colonies; place as Secretary of State being filled
born in London in 1611; went to Massa- by John Hay, American ambassador to
chusetts in 1638, and was employed to Great Britain. Judge Day was appointed
manage the printing-press sent out by judge of the United States Circuit Court
Rev. Mr. Clover. He began printing at for the sixth judicial circuit, Feb. 25, 1899.
Cambridge in March, 1639. He was not and an associate justice of the United
a skilful workman, and was succeeded in States Supreme Court in February, 1903.
the management, about 1648, by Samuel Dayton, ELIAS. military officer; born
Green, who employed Day as a journey- in Elizabethtown, N". J., in July, 1737;
man. He died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. fought with the Jersey Blues under Wolfe
22, 1668. at Quebec; was member of the coin-
Day, WUYLIAM RuFi S, statesman: born mittee of safety at the beginning of the
in Ravenna. O.. April 17, 1849: grad- Revolution, and became colonel of the 3d
uated at the Vniversitv of Michigan in New Jersey Regiment. He served in New

DAYTON DEANE

York and New Jersey; fought in several asylums have since been established, num-

battles, the last at Yorktown, and in bering thirty-six in 1870, and a national

January, 1783. was made a brigadier-gen- deaf mute college was established at

oral. He was a member of Congress in Washington in 1804. In 1870 there were

1787-88, and was afterwards in the New about 4,400 pupils in these institutions.

Jersey legislature. He died in Elizabeth- At the close of the school year is .is

town, July 17, 1807. the total number of schools for deaf

Dayton, JONATHAN, statesman; born in mutes reporting to the United States
Klizabethtown, N. J., Oct. 10, 1760; son of bureau of education was 105, with 1,100
Elias; graduated at the College of New instructors and 10,878 pupils. There were
Jersey in 1776: entered the army as pay- fifty-one State public schools, which had
master of his father s regiment in August; 045 instructors in the departments of ar-
aided in storming a redoubt at Yorktown, ticulation, aural development, and in-
which was taken by Lafayette; and served dustrial branches, and 9,832 pupils, about
faithfully until the close of the war. He one-third of whom were taught by the coin-
was a member of the convention that bined system and the others by the manual
framed the national Constitution in 1787, method. The above institutions had
and was a representative in Congress from grounds and buildings valued at $11,175,-
1791 to 1799. He was speaker in 1795, 933 and libraries containing 94,209 vol-
and was made United States Senator in umes. The total expenditure for support
1799. He held the seat until 1805. He was $2,208,704. There were also 483
served in both branches of his State legis- pupils with eighty-one instructors en-
lature. Suspected of complicity in Burr s rolled in private schools for the deaf, and
conspiracy, he was arrested, but was never 563 pupils with seventy-four instructors
prosecuted. He died in Klizabethtown, in various public day schools for the deaf.
Oct. 9, 1824. Dean, JOHN WARD, historian; born in

Dayton, WILLIAM LEWIS, statesman; Wiscasset, Me., March 13, 1815; became
born in Baskingridge, N. J., Feb. 17, 1807; librarian of the New England Historical
graduated at Princeton College in 1825; Genealogical Society, and edited ft vol-
studied at the famous law school in umes of its Register. He has also writ-
Litchfield, Conn., and was admitted to ten Memoir of \athaniel Ward; Micharl
the bar in 1830; became associate judge Wigglesworth; Story of the Embarkation
of the Supreme Court of New Jersey in of Cromwell and his Friends for \cic
1838, and entered the United States Senate England, etc. He died Jan. 22, 1902.
in 1842. In 1856 he was the candidate of Deane, CHARLES, historian; born in
the newly formed Republican party for Biddeford, Me.. Nov. 10, 1813; became a
Yice-President. From 1857 to 1801 he member of the chief historical societies
was attorney-general of New Jersey, and of the country: author of Some Notices
in the latter year was appointed minister of Samuel Gorton; First Plymouth Pat-
to France, where he remained till his cnt ; Bibliography of Governor Hutchin-
death, Dec. 1. 1804. son s Publications; Wing field s Discourse

Deaf Mutes, EDUCATION OF. As early of I irginia : Smith s True Relation; and

as 1793 Dr. W. Thornton published an editor of Bradford s History of Pli/moiilli

essay in Philadelphia on Teaching the. Plantation, etc. He died in Cambridge.

Ihnnb to X/KV/A-, but no attempt was made Ma--.. Nov. 13. 1889.

to establish a school for the purpose -here Deane, JAMES, missionary to the Six
until 1811, when the efTort was unsuccess- Nations: born in Groton, Conn., Aug.
ful. A school for the instruction of the 20, 1748: graduated at Dartmouth Col-
silent that proved successful was opened in lege in 1773. From the age of twelve
Hartford, Conn., by REV. THOMAS H. GAL- years he was with a missionary in the
LAUDET (q. r.) in 1817. and was chartered Oneida tril&gt;e of Indians, and mastered
under the name of the "Ne\v England their language. After his graduation he
Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb." Con- went as a missionary to the Caughnawa-
gress granted for its support a township gas and St. Francis tribes for two years;
of land in Alabama, the proceeds of which and when the Revolution broke out, Con
formed a fund of about $340,000. Other press employed him to conciliate the

DEANE

tribes along the northern frontier. He
was made Indian agent and interpreter
at Fort Stanwix with the rank of major.
He was many years a judge in Oneida
county, and twice a member of the New
York Assembly. Mr. Deane wrote an Ind
ian mythology. He died in Westmore
land, N. Y., Sept. 10, 1823.

Deane, SILAS, diplomatist: born in
Groton, Conn., Dec. 24, 1737: graduated
at Yale College in 1758; became a
merchant in Wethersfield, Conn. ; and
was a delegate to the first Continental

SILAS DEANE.

Congress. He was very active in Con
gress, in 1775, in fitting out a naval
force for the colonies, and in the spring
of 177(i was sent to France as a secret
political and financial agent, with au
thority to operate in Holland and else
where. He was to ascertain the feeling
of the French government towards the re
volted colonies and Great Britain, and
to obtain military supplies. Mr. Deane
went in tl\o character of a Bermuda mer
chant : and, the better to cover his de
signs, he did not take any considerable
sum of money or bills of exchange with
him for his support. The secret com
mittee was to send them after him by
way of London, to arrive in Paris nearly
as soon as himself, lest a capture should
betray his secret. On his arrival in Paris
he sought an interview with the Count de
Vergenncs, the minister for foreign affairs,
but no notice was taken of him. He re
peated his application in vain. His re
mittances were all captured or lost. He
soon expended the cash he took with him.

and was in great distress. His landlady
became importunate, and he was threat
ened with ejectment into the street. He
again repeated his application for an in
terview with Vergennes, but was denied.

Which way to turn he knew not. lie
walked in the fields in the suburbs in de
spair. There he met a citizen to whom
he revealed his distressed condition. The
citizen invited him to make his house his
home until remittances should arrive.
Losing hope of either funds or an inter
view with the minister, he resolved to
return to America, and was actually pack
ing his wardrobe when two letters reached
him, announcing the Declaration of Inde
pendence by Congress and the action of
Arnold with the British fleet on Lake
Champlain. Two hours later he received
a card from Vergennes, requesting his
company immediately. Deane, indignant
sit the treatment he had received, refused
to go. The next morning, as he was ris
ing from his bed, an under-secretary
called, inviting him to breakfast with the
count. He again refused; but, on the
secretary s pressing him to go, he con
sented, and was received very cordially
by Vergennes. A long conversation on
American affairs took place, when Deane
acquainted the minister with the nature
of his mission. So began the diplomatic
relations between France and the United
States which resulted in the negotiation
of a treaty of amity and alliance between
the two nations.

To him were intrusted the receipts and
expenditures of money by the commission
ers to Europe. Dr. Franklin had de
served confidence in his ability and
honesty. The jealous, querulous ARTHUR
LEE ((/. v.), who became associated with
him and Franklin, soon made trouble. He
wrote letters to his brother in Congress
(Richard Henry Lee), in which he made
many insinuations against the probity of
both his colleagues. Ralph Izard. com
missioner to the Tuscan Court, offended
because he was not consulted about the
treaty with France, had written home
similar letters: and William Carmichael.
a secretary of the commissioners, who had
returned to America, insinuated in Con
gress that Deane had appropriated the
public money to his own use. Deane was
recalled, by order of Congress, Nov. 21,

DEANE DEARBORN

1777: arrived at Philadelphia Aug. 10,
1778; and on the 13th reported to Con
gress. In that body he found false re
ports operating against him ; and finally,
exasperated by the treatment which he re
ceived at their hands, he engaged in a
controversy with influential members.
Out of this affair sprang two violent par
ties, Robert Morris and other members of
Congress who were commercial experts
taking the side of Deane, and Richard
Henry Lee. then chairman of the com
mittee on foreign affairs, being against
him.

Deane published in the Philadelphia
Gazette an " Address to the People of
the United States," in which he referred
to the brothers Lee with much severity,
and claimed for himself the credit of ob
taining supplies from France through
Beaumarchais. THOMAS PAINE (q. v.) ,
then secretary of the committee on for
eign affairs, replied to Deane (Jan. 2,
177H), availing himself of public docu
ments in his charge. In that reply he
declared that the arrangement had been
made by Arthur Lee, in London, and re
vealed the secret that the supplies,
though nominally furnished by a com
mercial house, really came from the
French government. This statement
called out loud complaints from the
French minister (Gerard), for it exposed
the duplicity of his government, and to
soothe the feelings of their allies, Con
gress, by resolution, expressly denied that
any gratuity had been received from the
French Court previous to the treaty of
alliance. This resolution gave Beau
marchais a valid claim upon Congress for
payment for supplies which he, under the
firm name of Hortales & Co., had sent
to America (see BEAUMARCIIAIS, PIERRE
ATJGUSTIN). Paine s indiscretion cost
him his place. He was compelled to re
sign his secret aryshi p. The discussion
among the diplomatic agents soon led to
the recall of all of them excepting Dr.
Franklin, who remained sole minister at
the French Court. Deane, who was un
doubtedly an able, honest man. preferred
claims for services and private expen
ditures abroad, but, under the malign in
fluence of the I.ees. lie was treated with
neglect and fairly driven into poverty
and exile, ami died in Deal, Kngland.

Aug. 23, 1789. In 1842 Deane s long-
disputed claim was adjusted by Congress.
a large sum being paid over to his heirs

Dearborn, FORT. See CHICAGO.

Dearborn, HENRY, military officer;
born in Northampton, N. H., Feb. 23,
1751; became a physician, and employed
his leisure time in the study of military
science. At the head of sixty volunteers
he hastened to Cambridge on the day after
the affair at Lexington, a distance of (i."&gt;
miles. He was appointed a captain in
Stark s regiment, participated in the bat
tle of Bunker Hill, and in September fol
lowing (1775) accompanied Arnold in his
expedition to Quebec. He participated in
the siege of Quebec, and was made
prisoner, but was paroled in May. 1776,
when he became major of Scammel s New
Hampshire regiment. He was in the bat
tles of Stillwater and Saratoga in the
fall of 1777, and led the troops in
those engagements in the latter as
lieutenant-colonel. He was in the bat
tle of Monmouth, was in Sulli
van s campaign against the Indians in
1779, and in 1781 was attached to Wash
ington s staff as deputy quartermaster-
general, with the rank of colonel. In
that capacity he served in the siege of
Yorktown. In 1784 he settled in Maine,
and became general of militia. He was
marshal of Maine, by the appointment of
Washington, in 1789, member of Congress
from 1793 to 1797, and was Secretary of
War under Jefferson from 1801 to 1809.
From 1809 till 1812 he was collector of
the port of Boston, when he was appointed
senior major-general in the United States
army, and commancler-in-chief of the
Northern Department. On Sept. 1, 1812,
General Bloomfield had collected about
8,000 men regulars, volunteers, and mili
tia at Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain.
besides some small advanced parties at
Chazy and Champlain. On the arrival
of General Dearborn, he assumed direct
command of all the troops, and on Nov.
1(5 he moved towards the Canada line
with 3,000 regulars and 2,000 militia.
He moved on to the La Colle, a small
tributary of the Sorel. where he was met
by a considerable force of mixed British
and Canadian troops and Indians, under
Lieutenant-Colonel De Salaberry, an ac
tive British commander. Just, at dawn,
28

BEARING DEBTS

on the morning of the 20th, Col. Zebulon Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen u
M. Pike crossed the La Colle and sur- 1880-93; president of the American Rail-
rounded a block-house. Some New York way Union in 1893-97; and in June of
militia approaching were mistaken, in the the latter year was made chairman of the
dim light, for British soldiers. Pike s men national council of the Social Democracy
opened fire upon them, and for nearly of America. When president of the Amer-
half an hour a sharp conflict was main- ican Railway Union he conducted a strike
tained. When they discovered their mis- on the Great Northern Railway, and in
take, they found De Salaberry approach- 1894 directed another on the Western rail
ing with an overwhelming force. These roads, for which he was charged with con-
were fiercely attacked, but the Americans spiracy, but was acquitted, and subse-
were soon forced to retreat so precipi- quently, in 1895, served a sentence of six
tately that they left five of their number months imprisonment for contempt of
dead and five wounded on the field. The court in violating its injunction. In 189(5
army, disheartened, returned to Platts- he lectured on The Relations of ike Church
burg. Dearborn was superseded July 6, to Labor, and in 1900 and 1904 was the
1813, in consequence of being charged with candidate of the Social Democratic Na-
political intrigue. He asked in vain for tional party for President,
a court of inquiry. In 1822-24 he was Debt, NATIONAL. The tables on pages
the American minister in Portugal. He 30 and 31 show the amount and details of
died in Roxbury, near Boston, Juno 6, the public debt of the United States on
1829. July 1, 1902, according to the official re-

Dearing, JAMES, soldier ; born in Camp- port of the Secretary of the Treasury,

bell county, Va., April 25, 1840; gradu- See ASSUMPTION; NATIONAL DEBT.
ated at Hanover Academy; became a Debtors. In the United States even as

cadet at West Point, but at the outbreak late as 1829 it was estimated that there

of the Civil War resigned to join the Con- were 3,000 debtors in prison in Massa-

federate army, in which he gained the chusetts; 10,000 in New York; 7,000 in

rank of brigadier-general. He took part Pennsylvania ; and a like proportion in

in the principal engagements between the the other States. Imprisonment for debt

Army of the Potomac and the Army of was abolished in the United States by an

Northern Virginia, and was mortally act of Congress in 1833, though not fully

wounded in an encounter with Brig.-Gen. enforced until 1839. Kentucky abolished

Theodore Read, of the National army. The the law in 1821 ; Ohio in 1828 ; Maryland

two generals met on opposite sides of the in 1830; New York in 1831; Connecticut

Appomattox in April, 1805, and in a pis- in 1837: Alabama in 1848.
tol fight Read was shot dead and Dearing In 1828 there were 1,088 debtors im-

was so severely wounded that he died soon prisoned in Philadelphia ; the sum total

afterwards in Lynchburg, Va. of their debts was only $25.409. and the

Death Penalty. See LIVINGSTON, ED- expense of keeping them $302.070. which

WARD. was paid by the city, and the total amount

Deatonsville, Va. See SAILOR S CREEK, recovered from prisoners by this process

De Bow, JAMES DUNWOODY BROWNSON, was only $295.

journalist; born in Charleston, S. C., Debts, BRITISH. When the Revolution
July 10, 1820; became editor of the South- broke out many American citizens owed
ern Quarlcrly Review in 1844, but with- money to British creditors. These debts
drew the next year and established De were generally repudiated, but the treaty
Itoir s Commercial Review in New Orleans, of 1783 provided for their payment. Some
which was successful until the Civil War. of the State governments permitted tin-
After the war it was resumed in New payment of such debts into the State
York City, subsequently in Nashville, Treasuries, and then refused to entertain
Tenn. He died in Elizabeth, N. J., Feb. suits on the part of the creditors. The
22, 1867. United States Supreme Court, in the case

Debs, EUGENE VICTOR, labor leader; of Ware vs. Hylton, decided that such

born in Terre Haute, Ind., Nov. 5, 1855; debts should be paid, but payinents were

frand secretary and treasurer of the evaded in various way,

DEBT, NATIONAL

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63 5

DECATUB

Decatur, STEPHEN, naval officer : born The Philadelphia had chased a, Tripolitan
ill Sinnepuxent, Md., Jan. 5, 1779; died ship into the harbor in front of that town.
near Washington, D. C., March 22, 1820; and struck upon a rock not laid down on
entered the United States navy as a the charts. Fast bound, she was captured
midshipman April 30, 1798, and rose to by the Tripolitans, and Captain Bain-
bridge and his officers were made
prisoners of war, and the crew
were made slaves.

Decatur caught a Tripolitan
ketch laden with maidens, whom
the Bashaw was sending to the
Sultan at Constantinople as a
present.

The captured ketch was taken
into the United States service and
renamed the Intrepid. In her
Decatur and seventy - four brave
young men sailed for Tripoli, ac
companied by the Siren, under
Lieutenant (afterwards Commo
dore ) Stewart.

On a bright moonlit evening
they sailed boldly into the harbor,
warped alongside the Philadelphia,
sprang on board, and after a fierce
struggle all the Tripolitans were
killed or driven into the sea, the
Philadelphia was set on fire, and
the Intrepid was towed out of the
harbor by the boats of the XiVoi.
The Bashaw was greatly alarm
ed by this display of American
energy and boldness, and acted
with more caution in the future.

Decatur commanded a division
of gunboats in the attack on Trip
oli, Aug. 3, 1804. In this action
Decatur commanded a gunboat,
which he laid alongside of a large
Tripolitan war-ship, which he
captured after a brief struggle.
Immediately boarding another ves
sel, Decatur had a desperate per
sonal struggle with the command
er. The fight was brief but deadly.

^XgBBl^B^*"^ Decatur slew his antagonist.

and the vessel was captured." The
Americans withdrew, but four
days later renewed the conflict.
which was indecisive, but on Aug.
24 and 28, and Sept. 3, Prehlc re-

captain in 1804. His first notable ex- peated the attack, and on the night of
ploit was the destruction of the Phila- Sept. 4 the Intrepid, under Captain Bom-
delphia in the harbor of Tripoli, in the ers as a fire-ship, was lost in the att
Preble Expedition, for which Congress with all on board,
gave him thanks, a sword, and promotion. In command of the frigate

/;?

iW] :

fr ,

STKPIIKN UKI ATl H

DECATUR, STEPHEN

States, Decatur
captured the
frigate Mace
donian, Oct. 25.

1812, for which
Congress gave
him a gold med
al. The Mace
donian was a
ne\v ship, rated
at thirty - six,
but carrying
forty-nine guns.
She was badly
cut in the fight,
and Decatur
thought best to
order his prize
to Newport,
while he return
ed in the United
States to New
London. Both
vessels sailed

into New York harbor on New Year s Day,

1813. The Corporation gave Decatur the
" freedom of the city," and requested his
portrait for the picture-gallery in the City
Hall, where it still hangs. In January, 1815,
after a running fight, the President, his flag
ship, was captured by a British squadron ;

ALGIERS IN 1812.

and a few months later he was sent to the
Mediterranean, and compelled the govern
ment of Algiers to relinquish its barbarous
conduct towards other powers and to pay
for American property destroyed (see AL
GIERS). He was appointed a navy com
missioner in November, 1815, and made

his residence in the
fine mansion of Kal-
orama, about a mile
from Georgetown,
built by Joel Bar
low. Decatur had
opposed the rein
statement of Barren
to his former posi
tion in the navy, and
a duel was the con
sequence. They
fought at the famous
duelling-ground near
Bladensburg, when
Decatur was mortal
ly wounded, and was
taken to Washing
ton. Gen. Solomon
Van Rensselaer
wrote to his wife
from that city, on
March 20, 1820, as

KALORAMA.

follows : " I
only time,

have
after

in.

DECATUB DECLABATION OF COLONIAL BIGHTS

writing to several, to say that an affair to Philadelphia and reinterred, with ap-
of honor took place this morning between propriate ceremonies, in St. Peter s ceme-
Commodores Decatur and Barren, in which tery. Over them a beautiful monument,
both fell at the first fire. The ball en- delineated in the accompanying engraving,
tered Decatur s body two inches above the was erected.

hip and lodged against the opposite side. Decimal System. In 1782, Gouverneur
I just came from his house. He yet lives, Morris, assistant fiscal agent of the Conti-
but will never see another sun. Barren s nental Congress, reported a decimal cur-
wound is severe, but not dangerous. The rency system, designed to harmonize the

moneys of the States. He ascer-

^^g^^^BB^^^^ tained that the 1,440th part of a

Spanish dollar was a common di
visor for the various currencies.
With this as a unit he proposed
the following table of moneys: 10
units to be equal to 1 penny, 10
pence to 1 bill, 10 bills 1 dollar
(about 75 cents of the present
currency), 10 dollars 1 crown. In
1784, Mr. Jefferson, as chairman
of a committee of Congress, pro
posed to strike four coins upon the
basis of the Spanish dollar, as fol
lows: A gold piece worth 10 dol
lars, a dollar in silver, a 10th of
a dollar in silver, a 100th of a
dollar in copper. Congress adopt
ed his proposition, hence the cent,
dime, dollar, and eagle of the Unit
ed States currency. See METRIC
SYSTEM.

Declaration of Colonial Bights,
In the first Continental Congress
(1774) a committee of two from
each colony framed and reported,
in the form of a series of ten re
solves, a declaration of the rights
of the colonies: 1. Their natural
ball struck the upper part of his hip and rights; 2. That from their ancestry they
turned to the rear. He is ruined in pub- were entitled to all the rights, liberties,
lie estimation. The excitement is very and immunities of free and natural-born
great." Decatur died March 22, and his subjects of England; 3. That by the emi-
remains were taken from the house in gration to America by their ancestors they
Washington to Kalorama by the following never lost any of those rights, and that
officers: Commodores Tingey, Macdonough, their descendants were entitled to the
Rodgers, and Porter, Captains Cassin, Bal- exercise of those rights; 4. That the foun-
lard, and Chauncey, Generals Brown and dation of all free governments is in the
Jesup, and Lieutenant McPherson. The riht of the people to participate in their
funeral was attended by nearly all the legislative council; and as the American
public functionaries in Washington, Amer- colonists could not exercise such right in
ican and foreign, and a great number of the British Parliament, they were entitled
citizens. While the procession was mov- to a free and exclusive power of legisla-
ing minute-guns were fired at the navy- tion in their several provincial legislat-
yard. His remains were deposited in Joel ures, where the right of representation
Barlow s vault at Kalorama, where they could alone be preserved. (They conceded
remained until 1840. when they were taken the right of Parliament to regulate ex-

DECATUR S MONUMENT.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

ternaj commerce, hut denied its right to
tax them in any way, without their con
sent, for raising an internal or external
revenue.) 5. That they were entitled to
the common law of England, and more
especially the great privilege of being
tried by their peers of the vicinage ac
cording to the course of law; 6. That they
were entitled to the benefit of English
statutes at the time of the emigration of
their ancestors ; 7. That they were en
titled to all the immunities and privi
leges conferred upon them by royal char
ters or secured to them by provincial laws ;
8. That they had a right peaceably to as
semble, state their grievances, and peti
tion the King without interference of
ministers; 9. That the keeping of a stand
ing army in any colony, without the con
sent of the legislature, was unlawful ; 10.

That the exercise of legislative power in
several colonies by a council appointed
during pleasure by the crown was uncon
stitutional, dangerous, and destructive to
the freedom of American legislation. The
report of the committee designated the
various acts of Parliament which were
infringements and violations of the rights
of the colonists, and declared that the re
peal of them was essentially necessary in
order to restore harmony between Great
Britain and the American colonies. The
acts enumerated were eleven in number
namely, Sugar act, stamp act, two quar
tering acts, tea act, act suspending the
New York legislature, two acts for the
trial in Great Britain of offences commit
ted in America, Boston Port bill, the act
for regulating [subverting] the govern
ment of Massachusetts, and the Quebec act.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

Declaration of Independence. It was
very important to have Lee s resolution
for independence, offered June 7, 1776,
prefaced by a preamble that should clear
ly declare the causes which impelled the
representatives of the people to adopt it.
To avoid loss of time, a committee was
appointed (June 11) to prepare such
declaration. The committee was composed
of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benja
min Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Rob
ert R. Livingston. Mr. Lee having been
called home before the appointment of the
committee, Mr. Jefferson was put in his
place. He was requested by the com
mittee, after discussing the topics, to
make a draft of a declaration of inde
pendence. It was discussed in committee,
amended very slightly, and finally report
ed. Debates upon it were long and ani
mated. There was some opposition to
voting for independence at all, and it was
considerably amended. It was evident
from the beginning that a majority of the
colonies would vote for independence (the
vote in Congress vas by colonies), but it
was important that the vote should be
unanimous.

The declaration was warmly debated on
the day (July 2) when the resolution was
passed, and also on the 3d. Meanwhile
news came of the arrival of a large Brit

ish armament, under the brothers Howe,
at Sandy Hook. Immediate and united
action was essential. McKean, one of the
two representatives of Delaware present,
burning with a desire to have the vote
of his colony recorded in the affirmative,
sent an express after the third delegate,
Caesar Rodney. He was 80 miles from
Philadelphia. Ten minutes after receiving
McKean s message Rodney was in the sad
dle, and, riding all night, he reached the
floor of Congress (July 4) just in time
to secure the vote of Delaware in favor
of independence. All three of the delegates
from Delaware voted for the declaration.
The vote of Pennsylvania was also secured,
a majority of its seven delegates being in
favor of the measure; and on the 4th of
July, 1770, the Declaration of Indepen
dence was adopted by the unanimous vote
of the Congress. Ree WTXTTTKOP, R. C.

On Thursday, July 4, 1770, agreeable
to the order of the day, Congress resolved
itself into a committee of the whole to
consider the declaration, President John
Hancock in the chair. The secretary,
Benjamin Harrison, reported that the
committee had agreed upon a declaration,
which was read and adopted as follows:

When, in the course of human events,
it becomes necessary for one people to

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

dissolve the ]&gt;olitical bands which have experience hath shown that mankind are
connected them with another, and to as- more disposed to sull er, while evils are
sume among the powers of the earth the sufferable, than to right themselves by
separate and equal station to which the abolishing the forms to which they are

accustomed. But when a
long train of abuses and
usurpations, pursuing in
variably the same object,
evinces a design to reduce
them under absolute des
potism, it is their right, it
is their duty, to throw off
such government and to
provide new guards for
their future security. Such
has been the patient suf-
r ferance of these colonies;
and such is now the ne
cessity which constrains
them to alter their formal
s\ &gt;\cm of government. The
history of the present King
of Great Britain is a his
tory of repeated injuries
and usurpations, all hav
ing in direct object the es
tablishment of an abso
lute tyranny over these
States. To prove this,
let facts be submitted to a
candid world.

laws of nature and of nature s God en- He has refused his assent to laws the
title them, a decent respect for the opin- most wholesome and necessary for the
ions of mankind requires that they should public good.

declare the causes which impel them to He has forbidden his governors to pass
the separation. laws of immediate and pressing impor-

We hold these truths to be self-evident: tance, unless suspended in their opera-
that all men are created equal ; that they tions till his assent should be obtained ;
are endowed by their Creator with cer- and, when so suspended, he has utterly
tain inalienable rights; that among these neglected to attend to them,
are life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap- He has refused to pass other laws for
piness; that, to secure these rights, the accommodation of large districts of
governments are instituted among men, people, unless those people would ^rel in-
deriving their just powene from the con- quish the right of representation in the
sent of the governed; that whenever any legislature a right inestimable to them,
form of government becomes destructive and formidable to tyrants only,
of these ends, it is the right of the people He has called together legislative bodies
to alter or to abolish it, and to institute at phu-es unusual, uncomfortable, and dis-
a new government, laying its foundation tant from the depository of their public
on such principles, and orguni/.ing its records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing
powers in such form, as to them shall them into compliance with his measures,
seem most likely to effect their safety and He has dissolved representative houses
happiness. Prudence, indeed, will die- repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firm-
tate that governments long established ness, his invasions on the rights of
should not be changed for light and people.

transient causes; and, accordingly, all He has refused, for a long time after

HOUSE IX WHICH JEFFERSON WROTE THK DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

such dissolutions, to cause others to be
elected; whereby the legislative powers,
incapable of annihilation, have returned
to the people at large for their exercise;
the State remaining, in the mean time,
exposed to all the danger of invasion from
without and convulsions within.

He has endeavored to prevent the popu
lation of these States; for that purpose

He has made judges dependent on his
will alone for the tenure of their offices
and the amount and payment of their
salaries.

He has erected a multitude of new of
fices, and sent hither swarms of officers,
to harass our people and eat out their
substance.

He has kept among us, in time of peace,

IXUKI KXIlKXOB HALL, PHILADELPHIA.

obstructing the laws for naturalization of standing armies, without the consent of
foreigners, refusing to pass others to en- our legislatures.

courage their migration hither, and rais
ing the conditions of new appropriations
of lands.

He has obstructed the administration of
justice, by refusing his assent to laws for
establishing judiciary powers.

He has affected to render the military
independent of and superior to the civil
power.

He has combined with others to subject
us to a jurisdiction foreign to our consti
tution and unacknowledged by our laws;

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

GARDKN HOUSE I-V WHICH . EFFERSOX AND OTHKRS CKLEIiRATED
THE PASSAGE OP THE DECLARATION.

For abolishing the free system
of English law in a neighboring
province, establishing therein an ar
bitrary government, and enlarging
its boundaries so as to render it at
once an example and fit instru
ment for introducing the same ab
solute rule into these colonies:

For taking away our charters,
abolishing our most valuable laws,
and altering fundamentally the
forms of our government:

For suspending our own legislat
ures, and declaring themselves in
vested with power to legislate for
us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated government here
by declaring us out of his protec
tion, and waging war against us.

He has plundered our seas, rav
aged our coasts, burned our towns,
and destroyed the lives of our peo
ple.

giving his assent to their acts of pre- He is at this time transporting large
tended legislation, armies cf foreign mercenaries, to com-

For quartering large bodies of armed plete the works of death, desolation, and
troops among
us:

For protect
ing them, by a
mock trial, from
punishment for
any murders
which they
should commit
on the inhabi
tants of these
States:

For cutting
off our trade
with all parts
of the world:

For imposing
taxes on us
without our
consent:

For depriving
us, in many
cases, of the
benefits of trial
by jury:

For trans
porting us be
yond seas, to be
tried for pre
tended offences: TABLK AND CHAIR TSKD AT THR SIGNING OF THK DKn.AR^rioN OF ixmcPKM&gt;Kjrc*.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

tyranny, already begun, with circum- Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis-

stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely solved; and that, as free and independent

paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and States, they have full power to levy war,

totally unworthy the head of a civilized conclude peace, contract alliances, estab-

nation. lish commerce, and to do all other acts and

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, things which independent states may of

taken captive on the high seas, to bear right do. And for the support of this

arms against their country, to become the declaration, with a firm reliance on the

executioners of their friends and breth- protection of Divine Providence, we mu-

ren, or to fall themselves by their hands, tually pledge to each other our lives, our

He has excited domestic insurrections fortunes, and our sacred honor,
among us, and has endeavored to bring Signed by order and in behalf of the

on the inhabitants of our frontiers the Congress.

merciless Indian savages, whose known JQHN HANCOCKj Pres ident.

rule of warfare is an undistinguished de- Atteated CHARLES THOMPSON, Secretary,
struction of all ages, sexes, and condi
tions. Jfeio Hampshire.

In every stage of these oppressions we JQSIAH BARTLETT, WILLIAM WIIIPPLE,
have petitioned for redress in the most MATTHEW THORNTON.

humble terms; our petitions have been

answered only by repeated injury. A Massachusetts Bay.

prince whose character is thus marked SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS,

by every act which may define a tyrant, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY.

is unfit to be ruler of a free people.

VT , ,. . ,. Rhode Island, Etc.

JNor have we been wanting in attention

to our British brethren. We have warned STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY.

them, from time to time, of attempts Connecticut

made by their legislatures to extend an R SHERMAN SAMUE rj HUNTINGTON,

unwarrantable jurisdiction over us We WmuAM WlLLIAMSj OLIVER WOLCOTT.

have reminded them of the circumstances

of our emigration and settlement here. New York.

We have appealed to their native justice WILLIAM FLOYD, PHILIP LIVINGSTON,

and magnanimity, and we have conjured FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS.

them, by the ties of our common kindred,

to disavow these usurpations, which would New Jersey.

inevitably interrupt our connections and RICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON,

correspondence. They, too, have been FRANCIS HOPKINSON, JOHN HART,

deaf to the voice of justice and consan- ABRAHAM CLARK.

guinity. We must therefore acquiesce in ,, , ~ 7 .

J . . , , North Carolina.

the necessity which denounces our separa-

tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest WILLIAM HOOPER, JOSEPH HEWES,

of mankind, enemies in war in peace,

friends. Georgia.

We therefore, the representatives of BuTTQN QWINNETT, LyMAN HALL,

the United States of America, m general GEQRGE WALTQX&gt;

Congress assembled, appealing to the bu-

preme Judge of the world for the recti- Pennsylvania.

tude of our intentions, do, in the name ROBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH,

and by the authority of the good people BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN MORTON,

of these colonies, solemnly publish and GEORGE CLYMER, JAMES SMITH,

declare that these united colonies are, GEORGE TAYLOR, WILLIAM PACA,

and of good right ought to be, free and GEORGE Ross,

independent States; that they are ab
solved from all allegiance to the British Delaware.

crown, and that all political connection CAESAR RODNEY, GEORGE READ,

between them and the states of Great THOMAS ~

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

Maryland. for such an act, he characterized it as

SAMUEL CHASE, JAMES WILSOTT, made up of " glittering and sounding gen-

THOMAS STONE, eralities of natural right." What the

CHARLES CARROLL OF CARROLLTON. great advocate then so unhesitatingly sug-

Virginia gested, many a thoughtful American since

... then has at least suspected that our
GEORGE \VYTHE, RICHARD HENRY LEE. ,

THOMAS IFFFFRSOV p proclamation, as a piece of political

literature, cannot stand the test of modern

BENJAMIN HARRISON , .

THOMAS NELSON, JR., analysis; that it belongs to the immense

FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, dass / ^P"* productions; that it

is, in tact, a stately patch-work of sweep-
CARTER BRAXTON.

ing propositions of somewhat doubtful

South Carolina. validity; that it has long imposed upon
EDWARD RUTLEDGE, mankind by the well-known effectiveness
THOMAS HEYWARD, JR., of verbal glitter and sound; that, at the
THOMAS LYNCH, JR., best, it is an example of florid political
ARTHUR MIDOLETON. declamation belonging to the sophomoric
Declaration of Independence in the period of our national life, a period which,
Light of Modern Criticism, THE. As a as we flatter ourselves, we have now out-
student, critic, and compiler of American grown.

history PROF. MOSES C. TYLER (q. v.) held Nevertheless, it is to be noted that what-

an established position among the most ever authority the Declaration of Inde-

eminent scholars. In 18(57 he was appoint- pendence has acquired in the world, has

ed to the chair of English Literature at been due to no lack of criticism, either at

the University of Michigan, which he the time of its first appearance, or since

occupied until 1881, when he was called then; a fact which seems to tell in favor

to the University of Cornell as Professor of its essential worth and strength. From

of American History. On the subject of the date of its original publication down

criticisms on the Declaration of Indepen- to the present moment, it has been at-

dence he writes: tacked again and again, either in anger

or in contempt, by friends as well as by

It can hardly be doubted that some enemies of the American Revolution, by
hinderance to the right estimate of the liberals in politics as well as by conser-
Declaration of Independence is occa- vatives. It has been censured for its sub-
sioned by either of two opposite condi- stance, it has been censured for its form,
tions of mind, both of which are often to for its misstatements of fact, for its fal-
be met with among us: on the one hand, lacies in reasoning, for its audacious novel-
a condition of hereditary, uncritical awe ties and paradoxes, for its total lack of all
, ind worship of the American Revolution, novelty, for its repetition of old and
and of that state paper as its absolutely threadbare statements, even for its down-
perfect and glorious expression; on the right plagiarisms; finally for its grandiose
other hand, a later condition of cultivated and vaporing style.

distrust of the Declaration as a piece of One of the earliest and ablest of its

writing lifted up into inordinate renown assailants was Thomas Hutchinson, the

by the passionate and heroic circumstances last civil governor of the colony of Massa-

of its origin, and ever since then extolled chusetts, who, being stranded in London

beyond reason by the blind energy of by the political storm which had blown

patriotic enthusiasm. Turning from the him thither, published there, in the

former state of mind, which obviously autumn of 1776, his Strictures Upon the

calls for no further comment, we may Declaration of the Congress at Phila-

note, as a partial illustration of the latter, &lt;l&lt;\i&gt;hia. wherein, with an unsurpassed

that American confidence in the supreme knowledge of the origin of the contro-

intellectual merit of this all-famous docu- vrrsy. and with an unsurpassed acumen

ment received a serious wound from the in the discussion of it, he traverses the

hand of Rufns Choate, when, with a cour- entire document, paragraph by pani

age greater than would now be required graph, for the purpose of showing that

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DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

its allegations in support of American Philip II. to the people of the Nether-
independence are " false and frivolous." lands.

A better-written, and, upon the whole, This temperate criticism from an able
a more plausible and a more powerful, and a liberal English statesman of the
arraignment of the great declaration was nineteenth century may be said to touch
the celebrated pamphlet by Sir John the very core of the problem as to the his-
Dalrymple, The Rights of Great Britain toric justice of our great indictment of
Asserted against the Claims of America,: the last King of America: and there is
Being an Answer to the Declaration of deep significance in the fact that this is
the General Congress a pamphlet scat- the very criticism upon the document,
tered broadcast over the world at such a which, as John Adams tells us, he himself
rate that at least eight editions of it had in mind when it was first submitted
were published during the last three or to him in committee, and even when,
four months of the year 1770. Here, shortly afterwards, he advocated its adop-
again, the manifesto of Congress is sub- tion by Congress. After mentioning cer-
jocted to a searching examination, in tain things in it with which he was de-
order to prove that "the facts are either lighted, he adds:

wilfully or ignorantly misrepresented, " There were other expressions which I

and the arguments deduced from premises would not have inserted if I had drawn it

that have no foundation in truth." It is up particularly that which called the

doubtful if any disinterested student of King tyrant. I thought this too personal :

history, any competent judge of reason- for I never believed George to be a tyrant

ing, will now deny to this pamphlet the in disposition and in nature. I always be-

praise of making out a very strong case lieved him to be deceived by his courtiers

against the historical accuracy and the on both sides of the Atlantic, and in his

logical soundness of many parts of the official capacity only cruel. I thought the

Declaration of Independence. expression too passionate, and too much

Undoubtedly, the force of such cen- like scolding, for so grave and solemn a
sures is for us much broken by the fact document; but, as Franklin and Sherman
that they proceeded from men who were were to inspect it afterwards, I thought it
themselves partisans in the Revolutionary would not become me to strike it out. I
controversy, and bitterly hostile to the consented to report it."
whole movement which the declaration A more minute and more poignant criti-
was intended to justify. Such is not the cism of the Declaration of Independence
case, however, with the leading modern has been made in recent years by still
English critics of the same document, another English writer of liberal ten-
who, while blaming in severe terms the dencies, who, however, in his capacity as
policy of the British government towards critic, seems here to labor under the dis-
the thirteen colonies, have also found advantage of having transferred to the
much to abate from the confidence due to document which he undertakes to judge
this official announcement of the reasons much of the extreme dislike which he has
for our secession from the empire. For for the man who wrote it, whom, indeed,
example, Earl Russell, after frankly he regards as a sophist, as a demagogue.
saying that the great disruption pro- as quite capable of inveracity in speech,
claimed by the Declaration of Indepen- and as bearing some resemblance to Robes-
dence was a result which Great Britain pierre "in his feline nature, his malig-
had " used every means most fitted to nant egotism, and his intense suspicions-
bring about," such as "vacillation in ness, as well as in his bloody-minded, yet
council, harshness in language, feebleness possibly sincere, philanthropy." In the
in execution, disregard of American sym- opinion of Prof. Goldwin Smith, our great
pathies and affections," also pointed out national manifesto is written " in a high-
that "the truth of this memorable decla- ly rhetorical strain": "it opens with
ration" was "warped" by "one singular sweeping aphorisms about the natural

( l ( ,f ec t" namely, its exclusive and ex- rights of man. at which political science

eessive arraignment of Ccorge 111. "as now smiles, and which . . . might seem

c and despotic tyrant." much like strange when framed for slave-hold in."

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

communities by a publicist who himself
held slaves"; while, in its specifications
of fact, it " is not more scrupulously
truthful than are the general utterances "
of the statesman who was its scribe. Its
charges that the several offensive acts of
the King, besides " evincing a design to
reduce the colonists under absolute
despotism," " all had as their direct object
the establishment of an absolute tyranny,"
are simply " propositions which history
cannot accept." Moreover, the declara
tion " blinks the fact that many of the
acts, styled steps of usurpation, were
measures of repression, which, however
unwise or excessive, had been provoked by
popular outrage." " No government could
allow its officers to be assaulted and their
houses sacked, its loyal lieges to be tarred
and feathered, or the property of mer
chants sailing under its flag to be thrown
by lawless hands into the sea." Even
" the preposterous violence and the mani
fest insincerity of the suppressed clause "
against slavery and the slave-trade " are
enough to create suspicion as to the spirit
in which the whole document was framed."

Finally, as has been already intimated,
not even among Americans themselves has
the Declaration of Independence been per
mitted to pass on into the enjoyment of
its superb renown without much critical
disparagement at the hands of statesmen
and historians. No doubt Calhoun had
its preamble in mind when he declared
that " nothing can be more unfounded
and false " than " the prevalent opinion
that all men are born free and equal " ;
for " it rests upon the assumption of a
fact which is contrary to universal ob
servation." Of course, all Americans
who have shared to any extent in Cal-
houn s doctrines respecting human society
could hardly fail to agree with him in re
garding as fallacious and worthless those
general propositions in the declaration
which seem to constitute its logical start
ing-point, as well as its ultimate defence.

Perhaps, however, the most frequent
form of disparagement to which Jeffer
son s great state paper has been subjected
among us is that which would minimize
his merit in composing it, by denying to
it the merit of originality. For example,
Richard Henry Lee sneered at it as a
thing " copied from Locke s Treatise on

Government" The author of a life of
Jefferson, published in the year of Jeffer
son s retirement from the Presidency, sug
gests that the credit of having composed
the Declaration of Independence " has
been perhaps more generally, than truly,
given by the public " to that great man.
Charles Campbell, the historian of Vir
ginia, intimates that some expressions in
the document were taken without ac
knowledgment from Aphra Behn s tragi
comedy, The Widow-Ranter, or the His
tory of Bacon in Virginia. John Stock
ton Littell describes the Declaration of
Independence as " that enduring monu
ment at once of patriotism, and of genius
and skill in the art of appropriation "
asserting that " for the sentiments and
much of the language " of it, Jefferson
was indebted to Chief-Justice Drayton s
charge to the grand jury of Charleston,
delivered in April, 177G, as well as to the
Declaration of Independence said to have
been adopted by some citizens of Mecklen
burg county, N. C., in May, 1775. Even
the latest and most critical editor of the
writings of Jefferson calls attention to
the fact that a glance at the Declaration
of "Rights, as adopted by Virginia on June
12, 1770, "would seem to indicate the
source from which Jefferson derived a
most important and popular part " of his
famous production. By no one, however,
has the charge of a lack of originality
been pressed with so much decisiveness
as by John Adams, who took evident
pleasure in speaking of it as a document
in which were merely " recapitulated "
previous and well-known statements of
American rights and wrongs, and who,
as late as in the year 1822, deliberately
wrote :

" There is not an idea in it but what
had been hackneyed in Congress for two
years before. The substance of it is con
tained in the declaration of rights and the
violation of those rights, in the journals
of Congress, in 1774. Indeed, the essence
of it is contained in a pamphlet, voted
and printed by the town of Boston, before
the first Congress met, composed by
James Otis, as I suppose, in one of his
lucid intervals, and pruned and polished
by Samuel Adams."

Perhaps nowhere in our literature
v.-ould it be possible to find a criticism

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

brought forward by a really able man opinions as to men and as to events in all

against any piece of writing less appli- that ugly quarrel, their notions of justice,

cable to the case, and of less force and of civic dignity, of human rights; finally,

value, than is this particular criticism by their memories of wrongs which seemed

John Adams and others, as to the lack of to them intolerable, especially of wrongs

originality in the Declaration of Tnde- inflicted upon them during those twelve

pendence. Indeed, for such a paper as years by the hands of insolent and brutal

Jefferson was commissioned to write, the men, in the name of the King, and by his

one quality which it could not properly apparent command?

have had, the one quality which would Moreover as the nature of the task laid
have been fatal to its acceptance either upon him made it necessary that he should
by the American Congress or by the thus state, as the reasons for their in-
American people is originality. They tended act, those very considerations both
were then at the culmination of a tre- as to fact and as to opinion which had
mendous controversy over alleged griev- actually operated upon their minds, so
ances of the most serious kind a con- did it require him to do so, to some ex-
troversy that had been steadily raging tent, in the very language which the
for at least twelve years. In the course people themselves, in their more formal
of that long dispute, every phase of it, and deliberate utterances, had all along
whether as abstract right or constitu- been using. In the development of po-
tional privilege or personal procedure, had litical life in England and America, there
been presented in almost every conceiv- had already been created a vast literature
able form of speech. At last, they had of constitutional progress a literature
resolved, in view of all this experience, no common to both portions of the English
longer to prosecute the controversy as race, pervaded by its own stately tra-
riembers of the empire; they had resolved ditions, and reverberating certain great
to revolt, and, casting off forever their phrases which formed, as one may say,
ancient fealty to the British crown, to almost the vernacular of English justice,
separate from the empire, and to estab- and of English aspiration for a free,
lish themselves as a new nation among manly, and orderly political life. In this
the nations of the earth. In this emer- vernacular the Declaration of Indepen-
gency, as it happened, Jefferson w r as called dence was written. The phraseology thus
upon to put into form a suitable state- characteristic of it is the very phrase-
ment of the chief considerations which ology of the champions of constitutional
prompted them to this great act of revolu- expansion, of civic dignity and progress,
tion, and which, as they believed, justified within the English race ever since Magna
it. What, then, was Jefferson to do? Was Charta; of the great state papers of Eng-
he to regard himself as a mere literary lish freedom in the seventeenth century,
essayist, set to produce before the world particularly the Petition of Right in 10-20.
a sort of prize dissertation a calm, ana- and the Bill of Rights in 1780; of the
lytic, judicial treatise on history and poli- great English charters for colonization in
tics with a particular application to Anglo- America; of the great English exponents
American affairs one essential merit of of legal and political progress Sir Kd-
which would be its originality as a con- ward Coke, John Milton, Sir Philip Sid-
tribution to historical and political lit- ney, John Locke; finally, of the great
erature? Was he not, rather, to regard American exponents of political liberty,
himself as, for the time being, the very and of the chief representative bodies,
mouthpiece and prophet of the people whether local or general, which had con-
whom he represented, and as such required vened in America from the time of the
to bring together and to set in order, in Stamp Act Congress until that of the
their name, not what was new, but what Congress which resolved upon our in-
was old; to gather up into his own soul, dependence. To say, therefore, that the
as much as possible, whatever was then official declaration of that resolve is ;i
also in their souls, their very thoughts and paper made up of the very opinions, he-
passions, their ideas of constitutional liefs, unbeliefs, the very sentiments, prej-
law, their interpretations of fact, their udices, passions, even the errors in judg-

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

ment and the personal misconstructions Livingston, and, best of all, but for his
if they were such which then actually own opposition to the measure, John
impelled the American people to that Dickinson; but had any one of these other
mighty act, and that all these are ex- men written the Declaration of Indepen-
pressed in the very phrases which they uence, while it would have contained, doubt-
had been accustomed to use, is to pay less, nearly the same topics and nearly
to that state paper the highest tribute as the same great formulas of political state-
to its fitness for the purpose for which it ment, it would yet have been a wholly dif.
was framed. ferent composition from this of Jeffer-

Of much of this, also, Jefferson him- son s. No one at all familiar with his

self seems to have been conscious; and other writings, as well as with the writ-

perhaps never does he rise before us with ings of his chief contemporaries, could

more dignity, with more truth, than when, ever have a moment s doubt, even if the

late in his lifetime, hurt by the captious fact were not already notorious, that this

and jangling words of disparagement then document was by Jefferson. He put into

recently put into writing by his old com- it something that was his own, and that

rude, to the effect that the Declaration no one else could have put there. He put

of Independence " contained no new ideas, himself into it his o\vn genius, his own

that it is a commonplace compilation, its moral force, his faith in God, his faith in

sentences hackneyed in Congress for two ideas, his love of innovation, his passion

years before, and its essence contained in for progress, his invincible enthusiasm,

Otis s pamphlet," Jefferson quietly re- his intolerance of prescription, of injus-

marked that perhaps these statements tice, of cruelty; his sympathy, his clarity

might " all be true : of that I am not of vision, his affluence of diction, his

to be the judge. . . . Whether I had power to fling out great phrases which

gathered my ideas from reading or re- will long fire and cheer the souls of men

flection, I do not know. I only know that struggling against political unrighteous-

I turned to neither book nor pamphlet ness.

while writing it. I did not consider it And herein lies its essential original-

as any part of my charge to invent new ity, perhaps the most precious, and, in-

ideas altogether and to offer no senti- deed, almost the only, originality ever

ment which had ever been expressed be- attaching to any great literary product

fore." that is representative of its time. He

Before passing from this phase of the made for himself no improper claim,

subject, however, it should be added that, therefore, when he directed that upon the

while the Declaration of Independence granite obelisk at his grave should be

lacks originality in the sense just indi- carved the words: "Here was buried

cated, in another and perhaps in a higher Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declara-

sense, it possesses originality it is in- tion of Independence."

dividualized by the character and by the If the Declaration of Independence is

genius of its author. Jefferson gathered now to be fairly judged by us, it must

up the thoughts and emotions and even be judged with reference to what it was

the characteristic phrases of the people intended to be namely, an impassioned

for whom he wrote, and these he per- manifesto of one party, and that the

fectly incorporated with what was al- weaker party, in a violent race-quarrel ;

ready in his mind, and then to the music of a party resolved, at last, upon the

of his own keen, rich, passionate, and en- extremity of revolution, and already

kindling style, he mustered them into that menaced by the inconceivable disaster of

stately triumphant procession wherein, as being defeated in the very act of armed

some of us still think, they will go march- rebellion against the mightiest military

ing on to the world s end. power on earth. This manifesto, then, is

There were then in Congress several not to be censured because, being avow-
other men who could have written the edly a statement of its own side of the
Declaration of Independence, and written quarrel, it does not also contain a mod-
it well notably Franklin, either of the crate and judicial statement of the op-
two Adamses, Richard Henry Lee, William posite side; or because, being necessarily

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

partisan in method, it is likewise both fact, when he should make his first at-

partisan and vehement in tone; or be- tempt to gain all power over his people,

cause it bristles with accusations against by assuming the single power to take

the enemy so fierce and so unqualified their property without their consent,

as now to seem in some respects over- Hence it was, as Edmund Burke pointed

drawn ; or because it resounds with cer- out in the House of Commons only a

tain great aphorisms about the natural few weeks before the American Revolution

rights of man, at which, indeed, political entered upon its military phase, that:

science cannot now smile, except to its " The great contests for freedom . . .

own discomfiture and shame aphorisms were from the earliest times chiefly upon

which are likely to abide in this world as the question of taxing. Most of the con-

the chief source and inspiration of heroic tests in the ancient commonwealths turned

enterprises among men for self-deliver- primarily on the right of election of mag-

ance from oppression. istrates, or on the balance among the sev-

Taking into account, therefore, as we eral orders of the state. The question
are bound to do, the circumstances of its of money was not with them so immediate,
origin, and especially its purpose as a But in England it was otherwise. On
solemn and piercing appeal to mankind on this point of taxes the ablest pens and
behalf of a small and weak nation against most eloquent tongues have been ex-
the alleged injustice and cruelty of a ercised, the greatest spirits have acted
great and powerful one, it still remains and suffered. . . . They took infinite pains
our duty to inquire whether, as has been to inculcate, as a fundamental principle,
asserted in our time, history must set that in all monarchies the people must in
aside either of the two central charges efl ect, themselves, mediately or immediate-
embodied in the Declaration of Inde- Iy ; possess the power of granting their own
pendence. money, or no shadow of liberty could sub-

The first of these charges affirms that sist. The colonies draw from you, as

the several acts complained of by the with their life-blood, these ideas and prin-

colonists evinced " a design to reduce ciples. Their love of liberty, as with you,

them under absolute despotism," and had fixed and attached on this specific point

as their " direct object the establishment of taxing. Liberty might be safe or might

of an absolute tyranny " over the Ameri- be endangered in twenty other particulars

can people. Was this, indeed, a ground- without their being much pleased or

less charge, in the sense intended by alarmed. Here they felt its pulse, and as

the words "despotism" and "tyranny" they found that beat, they thought them

that is, in the sense commonly given selves sick or sound."

to those words in the usage of the Eng- Accordingly, the meaning which the
lish - speaking race? According to that English race on both sides of the Atlantic
usage, it was not an Oriental despotism were accustomed to attach to the words
that was meant, nor a Greek tyranny, nor " tyranny " and " despotism," was a mean-
a Roman, nor a Spanish. The sort of ing to some degree ideal ; it was a meaning
despot, the sort of tyrant, whom the drawn from the extraordinary political
English people, ever since the time of sagacity with which that race is endow-
King John, and especially during the ed. from their extraordinary sensitive-
period of the Stuarts, had been accus- ness as to the use of the taxing-power
tomed to look for and to guard against, in government, from their instinctive per-
was the sort of tyrant or despot that could eeption of the commanding place of the
be evolved out of the conditions of Eng- taxing-power among all the other forms
lish political life. Furthermore, he was of power in the state, from their perfect
not by them expected to appear among assurance that he who holds the purse
them at the outset in the fully developed with the power to fill it and to empty it,
sl ape of a Philip or an Alva in the holds the key of the situation can main-
Netherlands. They were able to recog- tain an army of his own, can rule without
n\ze him, they were prepared to resist consulting Parliament, can silence criti-
him, in the earliest and most incipient cism, can crush opposition, can strip his
of his being at tho moment, in subjects of every vestige of political life;

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

in other words, he can make slaves of ly succeeded himself determining what

them, he can make a despot and a tyrant should be the policy of each administra-

of himself. Therefore, the system which tion, what opinions his ministers should

in the end might develop into results so advocate in Parliament, and what meas-

palpably tyrannic and despotic, they vires Parliament itself should adopt. Says

bluntly called a tyranny and a despotism Sir Erskine May:

in the beginning. To say, therefore, that " The King desired to undertake per-
the Declaration of Independence did the sonally the chief administration of public
same, is to say that it spoke good Eng- affairs, to direct the policy of his minis-
lish. Of course, history will be ready to ters, and himself to distribute the patron-
set aside the charge thus made in language age of the crown. He was ambitious not
not at all liable to be misunderstood, just only to reign, but to govern." " Strong
so soon as history is ready to set aside the as were the ministers, the King was re-
common opinion that the several acts of solved to wrest all power from their
the British government, from 1764 to hands, and to exercise it himself." " But
1776, for laying and enforcing taxation in what was this in effect but to assert that
America., did evince a somewhat particu- the King should be his own minister? . . .
lar and systematic design to take away The King s tactics were fraught with dan-
some portion of the property of the Amer- ger, as well to the crown itself as to the
ican people without their consent. constitutional liberties of the people."

The second of the two great charges Already, prior to the year 1778, accord-
contained in the Declaration of Indepen- ing to Lecky, the King had " laboriously
dence, while intimating that some share built up " in England a " system of per-
in the blame is due to the British Par- sonal government"; and it was because
liament and to the British people, yet he was unwilling to have this system dis-
fastens upon the King himself as the one turbed that he then refused, " in defiance
person chiefly responsible for the scheme of the most earnest representations of his
of American tyranny therein set forth, own minister and of the most eminent
and culminates in the frank description politicians of every party ... to send
of him as " a prince whose character is for the greatest of living statesmen at the
thus marked by every act which may de- moment when the empire appeared to be
fine a tyrant." Is this accusation of in the very agonies of dissolution. . . .
George III. now to be set aside as unhis- Either Chatham or Eockingham would
toric? Was that King, or was he not, have insisted that the policy of the coun-
chieny responsible for the American policy try should be directed by its responsible
of the British government between the ministers and not dictated by an irrespon-
years 1764 and 1776? If he was so, then sible sovereign."

the historic soundness of the most im- This refusal of the King to pursue the
portant portion of the Declaration of In- course which was called for by the con-
dependence is vindicated. stitution, and which would have taken the

Fortunately, this question can be an- control of the policy of the government
swered without hesitation, and in a few out of his hands, was, according to the
words; and for these few words, an same great historian, an act "the most
American writer of to-day, conscious of criminal in the whole reign of George III.
his own basis of nationality, will rightly ... as criminal as any of those acts
prefer to cite such words as have been which led Charles I. to the scaffold."
uttered upon the subject by the ablest Even so early as the year 1768, accord-
English historians of our time. Upon ing to John Richard Green, " George
their statements alone it must be con- III. had at last reached his aim. . . .
eluded that George III. ascended his In the early days of the ministry "
throne with the fixed purpose of resum- (which began in that year) " his in-
ing to the crown many of those powers fluence was felt to be predominant. In
which, by the constitution of England, did its later and more disastrous days it was
not then belong to it, and that in this supreme; for Lord North, who became the
purpose, at least during the first twenty- head of the ministry on Grafton s retire-
five years of his reign, he substantial- ment in 1770, was the mere mouthpiece

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, CRITICISMS ON THE

of the King. Not only did lie direct the
minister. a careful observer tells us, in
all important matters of foreign and do
mestic policy, but he instructed him as
to the management of debates in Parlia
ment, suggested what motions should be
made or opposed, and how measures should
be carried. He reserved for himself all
the patronage, he arranged the whole cast
of the administration, settled the relative
place and pretensions of ministers of
state, law officers, and members of the
household, nominated and promoted Die
English and Scotch judges, appointed and
translated bishops and deans, and dis
pensed other preferments in the Church.
He disposed of military governments,
regiments, and commissions, and himself
ordered the marching of troops. He gave
and refused titles, honors, and pensions.
All this immense patronage was steadily
used for the creation of a party in both
Houses of Parliament attached to the King
himself. . . . George was, in fact, sole
minister during the fifteen years which fol
lowed; and the shame of the darkest hour
of English history lies wholly at his
door."

Surely, until these tremendous verdicts
of English history shall be set aside, there
need be no anxiety in any quarter as to
the historic soundness of the two great
accusations which together make up the
principal portion of the Declaration of
Independence. In the presence of these
verdicts also, even the passion, the in
tensity of language, in which those ac
cusations are uttered, seem to find a per
fect justification. Indeed, in the light of
the most recent and most unprejudiced
expert testimony, the whole document,
both in its substance and in its form,
seems to have been the logical response of
a nation of brave men to the great words
of tre greatest of English statesmen, as
spoken in the House of Commons precise
ly ten years before:

" This kingdom has no right to lay a
tax on the colonies. Sir. I rejoice that
America has resisted. Three millions of
people, so dead to all the feelings of lib
erty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves,
would have been fit instruments to make
slaves of the rest."

Thus, ever since its first announcement
to the world, and down almost to the

present moment, has the Declaration of
Independence been tested by criticism of
every possible kind by criticism intended
and expected to be destructive. Apparent
ly, however, all this criticism has failed
to accomplish its object.

It is proper for us to remember, also,
that what we call criticism is not the
only valid test of the genuineness and
worth of any piece of writing of great
practical interest to mankind: there is,
in addition, the test of actual use and ser
vice, in direct contact with the common
sense and the moral sense of large masses
of men, under various conditions, and for
a long period. Probably no writing which
is not essentially sound and true has ever
survived this test.

Neither from this test has the great
Declaration any need to shrink. As to
the immediate use for which it was sent
forth that of rallying and uniting the
friends of the Revolution, and bracing
them for their great task its effective
ness was so great and so obvious that it
lias never been denied. During the
century and a quarter since the Revolu
tion, its influence on the political char
acter and the political conduct of the
American people has been great beyond
calculation. For example, after we had
achieved our own national deliverance,
and had advanced into that enormous and
somewhat corrupting material prosperity
which followed the adoption of the Con
stitution and the development of the cot
ton interest and the expansion of the re
public into a. transcontinental power, we
fell under an appalling temptation the
temptation to forget, or to repudiate, or
to refuse to apply to the case of our
human brethren in bondage, the principles
which we had once proclaimed as the
basis of every rightful government. The
prodigious service rendered to us in this
awful moral emergency by the Declara
tion of Independence was, that its public
repetition, at least once every year, in the
hearing of vast throngs of the American
people in every portion of the republic,
kept constantly before our minds, in a
form of almost religious sanctity, those
fe\v great ideas as to the dignity of
human nature, and the sacredness of per
sonality, and the indestructible rights of
man as mere man, with which we had so

Ill

INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN THE CENTENNIAL YEAR.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

gloriously identified the beginnings of our
national existence. It did at last become
very hard for us to listen each year to the
preamble of the Declaration and still to
remain the owners and users and
catchers of slaves; still harder, to accept
the doctrine that the righteousness and
prosperity of slavery was to be accepted
as the dominant policy of the nation. The
logic of Calhoun was as flawless as usual,
when he concluded that the chief ob
struction in the way of his system was
the preamble of the Declaration of In
dependence. Had it not been for the in
violable sacredness given by it to those
sweeping aphorisms about the natural
rights of man. it may be doubted whether
Calhoun might not have won over an im
mense majority of the American people
to the support of his compact and plaus
ible scheme for making slavery the basis
of the republic. It was the preamble of
the Declaration of Independence which
elected Lincoln, which sent forth the
Emancipation Proclamation, which gave
victory to Grant, which ratified the Thir
teenth Amendment.

We shall not here attempt to delineate
the influence of this state paper upon
mankind in general. Of course, the
emergence of the American Republic as an
imposing world-power is a phenomenon
which has now for many years attracted
the attention of the human race. Surely,
no slight effect must have resulted from
the fact that, among all civilized peoples,
the one American document best known
is the Declaration of Independence and
that thus the spectacle of so vast and
beneficent a political success has been
everywhere associated with the assertion
of the natural rights of man. " The doc
trines it contained," says Buckle, "were
not merely welcomed by a majority of the
French nation, but even the government
itself was unable to withstand the gen
eral feeling." " Its effect in hastening
the approach of the French Revolu
tion . . . was indeed most remark
able." Elsewhere, also, in many lands,
among many peoples, it has been cited
again and again as an inspiration to po
litical courage, as a model for political
conduct; and if. as the brilliant historian
just alluded to has affirmed, " that noble
Declaration . . . ought to be hung

up in the nursery of every king, and
blazoned on the porch of every royal pal
ace," it is because it has become the
classic statement of political truths which
must at last abolish kings altogether, or
else teach them to identify their existence
with the dignity and happiness of human
nature.

Declaration of Independence, DUTCH.
The following is the text of the declara
tion of the States General of the United
Provinces, setting forth that Philip II.
had forfeited his right of sovereignty over
the said provinces, promulgated at The
Hague, July 26, 1581:
The States General of the United Prov
inces of the Low Countries, to all whom
it may concern, do by these Presents
send greeting:

As tis apparent to all that a prince is
constituted by God to be ruler of a people,
to defend them from oppression and vio
lence as the shepherd his sheep; and
whereas God did not create the people
slaves to their prince, to obey his com
mands, whether right or wrong, but
rather the prince for the sake of the sub
jects (without which he could be no
prince), to govern them according to
equity, to love and support them as a
father his children or a shepherd his flock.
and even at the hazard of life to defend
and preserve them. And when he does not
behave thus, but, on the contrary, op
presses them, seeking opportunities to
infringe their ancient customs and privi
leges, exacting from them slavish compli
ance, then he is no longer a prince, but a
tyrant, and the subjects are to consider
him in no other view. And particularly
when this is done deliberately, unauthor
ized by the States, they may not on\v
disallow his authority, but legally pro
ceed to the choice of another prince for
their defence. This is the only method
left for subjects whose humble petitions
and remonstrances could never soften their
prince or dissuade him from his tyran
nical proceedings; and this is what the
law of nature dictates for the defence of
liberty, which we ought to transmit to
posterity, even at the hazard of our lives.
And this we have seen done frequently in
several countries upon the like occasion,
whereof there are notorious instances, and
more justifiable in our land, which has

III. D.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

been always governed according to their .prince s creatures at devotion; and by
ancient privileges, which are expressed h. the addition of the said canons he would
the oath taken by the prince at his ad- have introduced the Spanish inquisition,
mission to the government; for most of which has been always as dreadful and
the provinces receive their prince upon detested in these provinces as the worst
certain conditions, which he swears to of slavery, as is well known, in so much
maintain, which, if the prince violates, he that his imperial majesty, having once
is no longer sovereign. Xow thus it was before proposed it to these States, and
with the King of Spain after the demise upon whose remonstrances did desist, and
of the Emperor, his father, Charles the entirely gave it up, hereby giving proof of
Fifth, of glorious memory (of whom he the great affection he had for his sub-
received all these provinces), forgetting jects. But, notwithstanding the many
the services done by the subjects of these remonstrances made to the King both by
countries, both to his father and himself, the provinces and particular towns, in
by whose valor he got so glorious and writing as well as by some principal lords
memorable victories over his enemies that by word of mouth; and, namely, by the
his name and power became famous and Baron of Montigny and Earl of Egmont,
dreaded over all the world, forgetting also vho with the approbation of the Duchess
the advice of his said imperial majesty, of Parma, then governess of the Low
made to him before to the contrary, did Countries, by the advice of the council of
rather hearken to the counsel of those State were sent several times to Spain
Spaniards about him, who had conceived a upon this affair. And, although the King
secret hatred to this land and to its lib- had by fair words given them grounds to
erty, because they could not enjoy posts of hope that their request should be coin-
honor and high employments here under plied with, yet by his letters he ordered
the States as in Naples, Sicily, Milan, and the contrary, soon after expressly com-
the Indies, and other countries under the manding, upon pain of his displeasure, to
King s dominion. Thus allured by the admit the new bishops immediately, and
riches of the said provinces, wherewith put them in possession of their bishop-
many of them were well acquainted, the lies and incorporated abbeys, to hold
said counsellors, I say, or the principal of the court of the inquisition in the places
them, frequently remonstrated to the King where it had been before, to obey and
that it was more for his majesty s reputa- follow the decrees and ordinances of the
tion and grandeur to subdue the Low Conn- Council of Trent, which in many articles
tries a second time, and to make himself are destructive of the privileges of the
absolute (by which they mean to tyran- country. This being come to the knowl-
nize at pleasure), than to govern accord- edge of the people gave just occasion to
ing to the restrictions he had accepted, great uneasiness and clamor among them,
and at his admission sworn to observe, and lessened that good affection they had
From that time forward the King of always borne toward the King and his
Spain, following these evil counsellors, predecessors. And, especially, seeing that
sought by all means possible to re- he did not only seek to tyrannize over
duce this country (stripping them of their their persons and estates, but also over
ancient privileges) to slavery, under their consciences, for which they bo-
the government of Spaniards having first, lieved themselves accountable to God only,
under the mask of religion, endeavored to Upon this occasion the chief of the nobil-
settle new bishops in the largest and ity in compassion to the poor people, in
principal cities, endowing and incorporat- the year 1566, exhibited a certain re-
ing them with the richest abbeys, assign- monstrance in form of a petition, humbly
ing to each bishop nine canons to assist praying, in order to appease them and
him as counsellors, three whereof should prevent public disturbances, that it would
superintend the inquisition. By this in- please his majesty (by shewing that
corporation the said bishops (who might clemency due from a good prince to his
be strangers as well as natives) would people) to soften the said points, ami
have had the first place and vote in the especially with regard to tVp rigorous
assembly of the States, and always the inquisition, and capital punishments for

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

matters of religion. And to inform the as OIK- of its greatest enemies, uceoni-
King of tli is affair in a more solemn man- panied with counsellors too like himself,
ner, and to represent to him how neces- And, although he came in without the
sary it was for the peace and prosperity least opposition, and was received by the
of the public to remove the aforesaid in- poor subjects with all marks of honor
novations, and moderate the severity of and respects, as expecting no less from
his declarations published concerning di- him than tenderness and clemency, which
vine worship, the Marquis de Berghen, t lie King had often hypocritically promised
and the aforesaid Baron of Montigny had in his letters, and that himself intended
been sent, at the request of the said to come in person to give orders to their
lady regent, council of state, and of the general satisfaction, having since the de-
States General as ambassadors to Spain, parture of the Duke of Alva equipped a
where the King, instead of giving them fleet to carry him from Spain, and an-
audience, and redress the grievances they other in Zealand to come to meet him at
had complained of (which for want of a the great expense of the country, the bet-
timely remedy did always appear in their tei to deceive his subjects, and allure
evil consequences among the common them into the toils, nevertheless the said
people), did, by the advice of Spanish duke, immediately after his arrival
council, declare all those who were con- (though a stranger, and no way related
cerned in preparing the said remonstrance to the royal family), declared that he had
to be rebels, and guilty of high treason, a captain-general s commission, and soon
and to be punished with death, and con- after that of governor of these provinces,
fiscation of their estates; and, what s contrary to all its ancient customs and
more (thinking himself well assured of privileges; and, the more to manifest his
reducing these countries under absolute designs, he immediately garrisons the
tyranny by the army of the Duke of principal towns and castles, and caused
Alva), did soon after imprison and put fortresses and citadels to be built in the
to death the said lords the ambassadors, great cities to awe them into subjection,
and confiscated their estates, contrary to and very courteously sent for the chief
the law of nations, which has been always nobility in the King s name, under pre-
religiously observed even among the most tence of taking their advice, and to em-
tyrannic and barbarous princes. And, al- ploy them in the service of their country,
though the said disturbances, which And those who believed his letters were
in the year 1566 happened on the seized and carried out of Brabant, con-
fcre-mentioned occasion, were now ap- trary to law, where they were imprisoned
peased by the governess and her and prosecuted as criminals before him
ministers, and many friends to lib- who had no right, nor could be a eom-
erty were either banished or sub- potent judge; and at last he, without
dued, in so much that the King had not bearing their defence al large, sentenced
any shew of reason to use arms and vio- them to death, which was public y and
lonces, ami further oppress this country, ignominiously executed. The others, bet-
yet for these causes and reasons, long ter acquainted with Spanish hypocrisy, re
time before sought by the council of siding in foreign countries, were declared
Spain (as appears by intercepted letters outlawries, and had their estates confis-
from the Spanish ambassador, Alana, then cated, so that the poor subjects could
in France, writ to the Duchess of Parma), make no use of their fortresses nor be as-
to annul all the privileges of this coun- sisted by their pnnces in defence of their
try, and govern it tyrannically at pleasure liberty against the violence of the pope;
as in the Indies; and in their new con- besides a great number of other gentle-
quests he has. at the instigation of the men and substantial citi/ens. some of
council of Spain (shewing the little re- whom were executed, ami others banished
gtvrd he had for his people, so contrary to that their estates mi _rht be confiscated,
the duty which a good prince owes to his plaguing the other honest inhabitants, not
subjects), sent the Duke of Alva with a only by the injuries done to their wives,
powerful army to oppress this land, who children, and estates by the Spanish sol-
for hi* inhumane cruellies is looked irton diers lodged in their hovios. as

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

by diverse contributions, which they were
forced to pay toward building citadels aiui
new fortifications of towns even to their
own ruin, besides the taxes of the hun
dredth, twentieth and ten the penny, to
pay both the foreign and those raised in
the country, to be employed against their
fellow-citizens and against those who at
the hazard of their lives defended their
liberties. In order to impoverish the sub
jects, and to incapacitate them to hinder
his design, and that he might with more
ease execute the instructions received in
Spain, to treat these countries as new
conquests, he began to alter the course of
justice after the Spanish mode, directly
contrary to our privileges; and, imagin
ing at last he had nothing more to fear,
he endeavored by main force to settle a
tax called the tenth penny on merchandise
and manufactory, to the total ruin of
these countries, the prosperity of which
depends upon a flourishing trade, notwith
standing frequent remonstrances, not by
a single province only, but by all of them
united, which he had effected, had it not
been for the Prince of Orange with diverse
gentlemen and other inhabitants, who had
followed this prince in his exile, most
of whoin were in his pay. and banished by
the Duke of Alva with others who
espoused the liberty of their country.
Soon after the provinces of Holland and
Zealand for the most part revolted, put
ting themselves under the protection of
the Prince of Orange, against which
provinces the said duke during his gov
ernment, and the great commander (whom
the King sent to these countries, not to
heal the evil, but to pursue the same tyran
nical courses by more secret and cautious
methods) who succeeded him, forced the
provinces, who by garrisons and citadels
were already reduced under the Spanish
yoke, both with their lives and fortunes
to conquer them, shewing no more mercy
to those they employ to assist them than
if they had been enemies, permitting the
Spaniards, under pretence of mutiny, to
enter the city of Antwerp forcibly, in the
sight of the great commander, and In I .ve
there at discretion for the space of six
weeks at the expense of the inhabitants,
and obliging them (to be free from
Spanish violence) to furnish the sum of
four hundred thousand florins for the

payment of the troops. After which
the said troops, made more insolent
by the connivance of their command
ers, proceeded to open violence, endeavor
ing first to surprise the city of Brus
sels, the prince s usual residence, to
be the magazine of their plunder; but,
not succeeding in that, they took by force
the town of Alost, and after that surprised
and forced Maestricht. and soon after the
said city of Antwerp, which they plundered
and burnt, and massacred the inhabitants
in a most barbarous manner, to the irrep
arable loss not only of the citizens, but to
all nations who had any effects there. And
notwithstanding the said Spaniards had
been, by the council of state (upon which
the King, after the decease of the great
commander, had conferred the government
of the country) in the presence of Jeron-
imo de Rhoda, declared enemies to the
States, by reason of their outrageous vio
lences, nevertheless the said Rhoda, upon
his own authority (or as it is imagined)
by virtue of certain private instructions
which he might possibly have received
from Spain, undertook to head the
Spaniards and their accomplices, and to
use the King s name (in defiance of the
said council) and authority, to counterfeit
the great seal, and act openly as governor
and lieutenant - general, which gave oc
casion to the States at the same time to
agree with the aforesaid Prince of Orange,
in conjunction with the provinces of Hol
land and Zealand, which agreement was
approved by the said council of state (as
the only legal governors of the country ) ,
to declare war unanimously against the
Spaniards as their common enemy, to
drive them out of the country; at the
same time, like good subjects, making use
of all proper applications, humbly peti
tioning the King to have compassion on ac
count of the calamities already suffered,
and of the greater expected hourly, unless
his majesty would withdraw his troops,
and exemplarily punish the authors of the
plundering and burning of our principal
cities as some small satisfaction to the
distressed inhabitants, and to deter others
from committing the like violences.
Nevertheless, the King would have us be
lieve that all this was tnuisacted without
his knowledge, and that he intended tc
punish the authors, and that for the future

DECLABATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

we might expect all tenderness and clem
ency, and as a gracious prince would give
all necessary orders to procure the public
peace. And yet he not only neglected to
do us justice in punishing the offenders;
that, on the contrary, it is plain all was
done by orders concerted in the council
of Spain; for soon after the letters were
intercepted directed to Ehoda and other
captains, who were the authors of all our
miseries, under the King s own hand, in
which he not only approves of their pro
ceedings, but even praises and promises
them rewards, and particularly to the said
Rhoda as having done him singular ser
vices, which he performed to him and to
all the rest who were ministers of his
tyranny, upon his return to Spain. And,
the more to blind his subjects, he sent
at the same time Don John, his natural
brother, as of his blood, to govern
these countries, who under pretence
of approving the treaty of Ghent con
firming the promise made to the
States of driving out the Spaniards,
of punishing the authors of the dis
turbances, of settling the public peace, and
of re-establishing their ancient liberties,
endeavored to divide the said estates in
order to enslave one after another, which
was soon after discovered by the provi
dence of God, who is an enemy to all
tyranny, by certain intercepted letters, from
which it appeared that he was charged by
the King to follow the instructions of
Rhoda; and, the better to conceal this
fraud, they were forbidden to see one an
other, but that he should converse friendly
with the principal lord of the country,
that, gaining them over to his party, he
might by their assistance reduce Holland
and Zealand, after which the other prov
inces would be easily subdued. Whereupon
Don John, notwithstanding his solemn
promise and oath, in the presence of all
the aforesaid States, to observe the pacifi
cation of Ghent, and other articles stipu
lated between him and the States of all
the provinces, on the contrary sought, by
all possible promises made to the colonels
already at his devotion, to gain the Ger
man troops, who were then garrisoned in
the principal fortresses and the cities,
that by their assistance he might master
them, as he had gained many of them al
ready, and held them attached to his in

terest in order, by their assistance, to
force those who would not join with him
in making war against the Prince of
Orange, and the provinces of Holland and
Zealand, more cruel and bloody than any
war before. But, as no disguises can long
conceal our intentions, this project was
discovered before it could be executed ;
and he, unable to perform his promises,
and instead of that peace so much boasted
of at his arrival a new war kindled, not
yet extinguished. All these considera
tions give us more than sufficient reason
to renounce the King of Spain, and seek
some other powerful and more gracious
prince to take us under his protection ;
and. more especially, as these countries
have been for these twenty years aban
doned to disturbance and oppression by
their King, during which time the in
habitants were not treated as subjects,
but enemies, enslaved forcibly by their
own governors.

Having also, after the decease of Don
John, sufficiently declared by the Baron
de Selles that he would not allow the
pacification of Ghent, the which Don John
had in his majesty s name sworn to main
tain, but daily proposing new terms of
agreement less advantageous. Notwith
standing these discouragements we used
all possible means, by petitions in writing,
and the good offices of the greatest princes
in Christendom, to be reconciled to our
King, having lastly maintained for a long
time our deputies at the Congress of
Cologne, hoping that the intercession of
his imperial majesty and of the electors
would procure an honorable and lasting
peace, and some degree of liberty, particu
larly relating to religion (which chiefly
concerns God and our own consciences),
at last we found by experience that noth
ing would be obtained of the King by
prayers and treaties, which latter he
made use of to divide and weaken the
provinces, that he might the easier exe
cute his plan rigorously, by subduing
them one by one, which afterwards plain
ly appeared by certain proclamations and
proscriptions published by the King s
orders, by virtue of which we and all offi
cers and inhabitants of the United Prov
inces with all our friends are declared
rebels, and MS such, to have forfeited our
lives and estates. Thus, by rendering us

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, DUTCH

odious to all, he might interrupt our
commerce, likewise reducing us to despair,
offering a great sum to any that would
assassinate the Prince of Orange. So,
having no hope of reconciliation, and find
ing no other remedy, we have, agreeable
to the law of nature in our own defence,
and for maintaining the rights, privi
leges, and liberties of our countrymen,
wives, and children, and latest posterity
from being enslaved by the Spaniards,
been constrained to renounce allegiance
to the King of Spain, and pursue such
methods as appear to us most likely
to secure our ancient liberties and privi
leges. Know all men by these pres
ents that, being reduced to the last ex
tremity, as above mentioned, we have
unanimously and deliberately declared,
and do by these presents declare, that he
King of Spain has forfeited, ipso jure, all
hereditary rights to the sovereignty of
those countries, and are determined from
henceforward not to acknowledge his
sovereignty or jurisdiction, nor any act
of his relating to the domains of the Low
( ountries, nor make iise of his name as
prince, nor suffer others to do it. In con
sequence whereof we also declare all offi
cers, judges, lords, gentlemen, vassals, and
all other the inhabitants of this country
of what condition or quality soever, to
be henceforth discharged from all oaths
and obligations whatsoever made to the
King of Spain as sovereign of those
countries. And whereas, upon the motives
already mentioned, the greater part of
the United Provinces have, by common
consent of their members, submitted to
the government and sovereignty of the il
lustrious Prince and Duke of Anjou, upon
certain conditions stipulated with his
highness, and w r hereas the most serene
Archduke Matthias has resigned the gov
ernment of these countries with our ap
probation, we command and order all
justiciaries, officers, and all whom it may
concern, not to make use of the name,
titles, great or privy seal of the King of
Spain from henceforward: but in lieu of
:ln in, as long as his highness the Duke
of Anjou is absent upon urgent affairs re
lating to the welfare of these countries,
having so agreed with his highness or
otherwise, they shall provisionally use
I lie name aiu title of the president and

council of the province. And, until such
a president and counsellors shall be nomi
nated, assembled, and act in that capac
ity, they shall act in our name, except
that in Holland and Zealand where they
shall use the name of the Prince of
Orange, and of the States of the said
provinces till the aforesaid council shall
legally sit, and then shall conform to the
directions of that council agreeable to the
contract made with his highness. And,
instead of the King s seal aforesaid, they
shall make use of our great seal, contre-
seal, and signet, in affairs relating to the
public, according as the said council shall
from time to time be authorized. And in
affairs concerning the administration of
justice, and transactions peculiar to each
province, the provincial council and other
councils of that country shall use respec
tively the name, title, and seal of the said
province, where the case is to be tried,
and no other, on pain of having all let
ters, documents, and despatches annulled.
And, for the better and effectual perform
ance hereof, we have ordered and com
manded, and do hereby order and com
mand, that all the seals of the King of
Spain which are in these United Prov
inces shall immediately, upon the publi
cation of these presents, be delivered to
the estate of each province respectively,
or to such persons as by the said estates
shall be authorized and appointed, upon
peril of discretionary punishment.

Moreover, we order and command that
from henceforth no money coined shall be
stamped with the name, title, or arms of
the King of Spain in any of these United
Provinces, but that all new gold and silver
pieces, with their halves and quarters,
shall only bear such impressions as the
States shall direct. We order likewise and
command the president and other lords of
the privy council, and all other chancel
lors, presidents, and lords of the provin
cial council, and all presidents, account
ant-general, and to others in all the
chambers of accounts respectively in these
said countries, and likewise to all other
judges and officers, us we hold them dis
charged from henceforth of their oath
made to the King of Spain, pursuant to
the tenor of their commission, that they
shall take a new oath to the States of
that country on whose jurisdiction they
54

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

depend, or to commissaries appointed by
them, to be true to us against the King
of Spain and all his adherents, according
to the formula of words prepared by the
States General for that purpose. And
we shall give to the said counsellors,
justiciaries, and officers employed in these
provinces, who have contracted in our
name with his highness the Serenisme,
Duke of Anjou, an act to continue them
in their respective offices, instead of new
commissions, a clause annulling the for
mer provisionally till the arrival of his
highness. Moreover io all such counsel
lors, accomptants. justiciaries, and officers
in these provinces, who have not contract
ed with his highness aforesaid, we shall
grant new commissions under our hands
and seals, unless any of the said officers
are accused and convicted of having acted
under their former commissions against
the liberties and privileges of this coun
try or of other the like maladministra
tion. We further command the president
and members of the privy council, chan
cellor of the Duchy of Brabant, also the
chancellor of the Duchy of Gueldres, and
county of Zutphen, to the president and
members of the council of Holland, to the
receivers of great officers of Beooster-
scheldt and Bewesterscheldt in Zealand, to
the president and council of Frise, and to
the Escoulet of Mechelen, to the president
and members of the council of Utrecht,
and to all other justiciaries and officers
whom it may concern, to the lieutenants
all and every of them, to cause this our
ordinance to be published and proclaimed
throughout their respective jurisdictions,
in the usual places appointed for that pur
pose, that none may plead ignorance. And
to cause our said ordinance to be observed
inviolably, punishing the offenders im
partially and without delay ; for so tis
found expedient for the public good. And,
for better maintaining all and every arti
cle hereof, we give to all and every of
you, by express command, full power and
authority. In witness wherof we have
hereunto set our hands and seals, dated
in our assembly at the Hague, the six and
twentieth day of July, 1581, indorsed by
the orders of the States General, and
signed J. DE ASSEUERS.

Declaration of Independence, MECK
LENBURG, a document alleged to have

comprised a number of resolutions
adopted at a meeting of the citizens of
Mecklenburg county, N. C., in May, 1775,
thus antedating by more than a year that
which is now universally recognized as
the American Declaration of Indepen
dence. The Mecklenburg Declaration has
been a subject of historical controversy
from the time that it was first made pub
lic, and this controversy has given birth
to a literature which sharply questions
the authenticity of the declaration. The
circumstances alleged under which this
declaration was made known are, in brief,
as follows: In the spring of 1775, Col.
Adam Alexander called upon the people of
Mecklenburg county to appoint delegates
to a convention to devise ways and means
to assist their brethi en in Boston. The
delegates met in Charlotte on May 19, al
most immediately after the receipt of
news of the battle of Lexington. Colonel
Alexander was elected chairman, and John
McKnitt Alexander clerk of the conven
tion. After a free and full discussion of
the various objects for which the conven
tion had been called, it was unanimously
ordained :

1. Resolved, that whosoever directly or
indirectly abetted, or in any way, form,
or manner, countenanced the unchartered
and dangerous invasions of our rights, as
claimed by Great Britain, is an enemy
to this country, to American, and to the
inherent and inalienable rights of man.

2. Resolved, that we, the citizens of
Mecklenburg county, do hereby dissolve
the political bands which have connected
us to the mother - country, and hereby
absolve ourselves from allegiance to the
British crown, and abjure all political
connection, contract, or association with
that nation, who have wantonly trampled
on our rights and liberties, and in
humanly shed the innocent blood of
American patriots at Lexington.

3. Resolved, that we do hereby declare
ourselves a free and independent people;
are, and of right ought to be, a sovereign
and self-governing association, under the
control of no power other than that of
our God and the general government of
the Congress ; to the maintenance of
v.-hieh independence we solemnly pledge
to each other our mutual co-operation,

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, MECKLENBURG

our lives, our fortunes, and *ur most the crown of Great Britain never can be

sacred honor. considered as holding rights, privileges,

4. Resolved, that, as we acknowledge immunities, or authority therein,
the existence and control of no law or f&gt;. Resolved, that it is also further de-
legal officer, civil or military, within this creed that all, each, and every military
county, we do hereby ordain and adopt, officer in this county is hereby rein-
as a rule of life, all, each, and every of stated to his former command and au-
our former laws; wherein, nevertheless, thority, he acting conformably to these

I/ &lt;^

Jleftfy ^tnunS-

C^ Js&lt;3)

{/}. ?*j- e/jTr&7*&&amp;lt;rtt / ^-&gt;

ADTCKiKArilrt OK TIIK MKMBKK.S OF THK MECKLESBl KO COMMITTEK.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE DECLARATION OF RIGHTS

regulations, and that every member pres- mere day of the month on the ground that
ent of this delegation shall henceforth be this discrepancy was explainable by the
a civil officer viz., a justice of the peace use of the old style and the new style of
in the character of a " committee-man," to calendars; but they ignored the facts that
issue process, hear and determine all the two sets of resolutions were dissimi-
matter of controversy, according to said lar, that the latter were comparatively
adopted laws, and to preserve peace, and mild, and that the former contained ex-
union, and harmony in said county, and pressions almost identical with the ac-
to use every exertion to spread the love cepted Declaration of Independence of
of country and fire of freedom through- 1776. It is to be further stated that an
out America, until a more general and attempt was made to reconcile these dis
organized government be established in crcpancios and similarities on the ground
this province. that as the book alleged to have contained

These resolutions were supplemented by the original text had been destroyed by
a number of minor provisions to insure fire, some one, years afterwards, had pre-
the safety of the citizens, and at 2 A.M. pared from recollection the draft of the
on May 20, the resolutions were unani- resolutions which were published in the
raously adopted. A few days afterwards Raleigh Register. The fact has been es-
Capt. James Jack, of Charlotte, was ap- tablished by acceptable evidence that the
pointed messenger to convey a draft of the document taken to Philadelphia by Cap-
resolutions to the Congress then in session tain Jack contained the twenty resolutions
in Philadelphia, and on the return of of May 31, and not the declaration of
Captain Jack, the Charlotte convention May 20. The foregoing are the principal
was informed that their proceedings had facts touching this historical controversy;
been individually approved by the mem- and while Bancroft accepts the declaration
bers of Congress, but that it was deemed as an authentic document, equally emi-
premature to lay them before the House, nent historians have agreed that it was

On April 30, 1818, a copy of the alleged not entitled to the standing of a verified

Declaration of Independence was first document.

made public in the Raleigh Register, and Declaration of Paris. See CUBA: Me-

following the text was a certificate Kinlcy s Message.

signed " James MeKnitt," tending to show Declaration of Rights by Virginia,
that the text was a true copy of the papers George Mason drafted for Virginia a
left in his hands by John Matthew Alex- declaration of rights, and on May 27, 1776,
ander, deceased; and that the original Archibald Carey presented it to the Vir-
book was burned in April, 1800. When ginia convention. On June 12 it was
the Raleigh Register published this state- adopted. It declared that all men are
mont there was a general demand for the by nature equally free, and are invested
proof concerning such an important event, with inalienable rights namely, the en-
that had been allowed to slumber for joyment of life, liberty, property, and the
more than forty years. All the questions pursuit of happiness and safety; that all
involved were investigated by a committee power is vested in. and consequently de-
of the North Carolina legislature in 1831, rivod from, the people; that government
and its report so far satisfied the people is, or ought to be, instituted for the com-
of that State that May 20 was made a mon benefit and security of the people.
State holiday. In 1838, Peter Force, a nation, or community, and that when gov-
well-known scholar, announced the dis- eminent shall fail to perform its required
covery of another set of resolutions, en- functions, a majority of the people have
dorsed as having been adopted by the peo- an inalienable right to reform or abolish
pie of Mecklenburg county on May 31, or it; that, public services not being de-
eleven days after the resolutions above scendible, the office of magistrate, legis-
quoted. The last set of resolutions num- lator, or judge ought not to be hereditary;
bered twenty, and made no declaration that the legislative and executive powers
of independence. Some parties who de- of the state should be distinct from the
fended the resolutions of May 20 claimed judicature, and that the members of the
that there should be no question as to the first two should, at fixed periods, return

DECLABATOBY ACT DEEBFIELD

unto the body from which they were and vehemently declared that " taxation
originally taken, and the vacancies be sup- and representation are inseparable." The
plied by frequent elections; that elections declaratory act became a law, but it was
ought to be free; that all men having a distasteful to thinking Americans, for it
permanent interest in and attachment to involved the kernel of royal prerogative,
the country have the right of suffrage, which the colonists rejected. But it was
and cannot be taxed or deprived of their overlooked. Pitt had the honor of the
property for public uses without their own repeal. The London merchants lauded
consent or that of their representatives him as a benefactor, and there was a
freely elected, nor bound by any law to burst of gratitude towards him in Amer-
which they have not, in like manner, as- ica. New York voted a statue to Pitt and
sented; that there ought to be no arbi- the King; Virginia voted a statue to tli; 1
trary power for suspending laws, for re- monarch; Maryland passed a similar vote,
quiring excessive bail, or for granting of and ordered a portrait of Lord Camden:
general warrants; that no man ought to and the authorities of Boston ordered full-
be deprived of liberty except by the law length portraits of Barr and Conway,
of the land or the judgment of his peers, friends of the Americans, for Faneuil Hall,
holding sacred the ancient trial by jury; Decoration Day. See MEMORIAL DAY.
that the freedom of the press is one of De Costa, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, clergy -
the greatest bulwarks of liberty, and can man; born in Charlestown, Mass., July
never be restrained but by despotic gov- 10, 1831; graduated at the Concord
crnments; that a well-regulated militia, Biblical Institute in 1856; was a chaplain
composed of the body of the people, trained in the National army in 18G1-G3; and is
to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe the author of The Pre-Columbian Dis-
defence of a free state; that standing covery of America by the Northmen; The
nrinies in times of peace should be avoided Northmen in Maine, etc.
as dangerous to liberty, and in all cases Deep Bottom, VA. In Grant s Virginia
the military should be under strict subor- campaign in 1864 this place, then held by
dination to the civil power; that the General Foster, was attacked by a part of
people have a right to uniform govern- Lee s army without success, June 21. A
ment; that no free government can be counter attack by the Nationals was order-
preserved but by a firm adherence to jus- ed July 2(5 and 27, which was partly suc-
tice, moderation, temperance, frugality, cessful. The Confederates retired to Cha-
and virtue, and by frequent recurrences to pin s Bluff, which they continued to hold,
fundamental principles: and that religion Deerfield, a town on the west bank of
can be directed only by reason and con- the Connecticut River. in Franklin
viction, not by force or violence; there- county, Mass.; notable as having been
fore all men are equally entitled to the twice the victim of a foray by French and
free exercise of it according to the die- Indians. During King Philip s War a
tates of conscience. The unanimous voice terrible slaughter occurred a mile from the
of the convention approved of this dec- town, Sept. 18 (O. S.), 167"). The Ind-
laration. i&lt;ins had burned Deerfield and murdered
Declaratory Act, THE. Pitt concluded some of the inhabitants. The survivors
his speech in the British House of Com- fled, leaving about 3,000 bushels of wheat
mons against the Stamp Act by a propo- in stacks in the field. Capt. Thomas Lo-
sition for its absolute and immediate re- throp, commanding part of a force at Had-
peal, at the same time recommending an ley. was sent with eighty men to secure
act, to accompany the repeal, declaring, this grain. As they approached Deerfield
in the most unqualified terms, the sov- they fell into an Indian ambush, and the
ereign authority of Great Britain over her captain and seventy-six men were slain.
colonies. This was intended as a salve In 1704, a party of French and Indians,
for the national honor, necessary, as Pitt under Maj. Hertel de Rouville, who had
knew, to secure the repeal of the act. But travelled on snow-shoes from Canada, ap-
Lord Camden, who was the principal sup- proached Deerfield. The chief object of
porter of the repeal bill in the Upper the expedition was to procure a little bell
House, was opposed to the declaratory act, hung over the meeting-house in that vil-

DEERHOUND DELAFIELD

lage. It had been bought in France for
the church in the Indian village of
Caughnawaga, 10 miles above Montreal.
The vessel that bore it to America was
captured by a New England privateer and
taken into Boston Harbor. The bell was
sold to the Deerfield congregation. Father
Nicolas, the priest at Caughnawaga, per
suaded the Indians to accompany him,
under De Rouville, to get the bell. When
the invaders approached Deerfield, the
snow lay 4 feet deep in that region, and
was covered by a hard crust that bore the
men. Upon drifts that lay by the pali
sades they w r ere able to crawl over these
defences in the gloom of night, while the
inhabitants were slumbering. The first
intimation the villagers had of danger was
the bursting in of the doors before the
dawn (March 1, 1704), and the terrible
sound of the war-whoop. The people were
dragged from their beds and murdered,
without regard to age or sex, or carried
into captivity. The village was set on
firo. and every building, excepting the
chapel and one dwelling-house, was laid in
ashes. Forty-seven of the inhabitants
were killed, and 120 were captives on their
way through the wilderness towards
Canada an hour after sunrise. Under the
direction of Father Nicolas, the bell was
carried away, and finally found its des
tined place in the belfry of the church
at Caughnawaga, where it still hangs.
Among the victims of this foray were
REV. Jonx WILLIAMS (q. v.), pastor of
the church at Deerfield, and his family,
who were carried into captivity, except
ing two children, who were murdered.

Deerhound, the name of an English
yacht, which, while conveying arms to the
Carlists, was seized by the Spanish gov
ernment vessel Buenaventura, off Biarritz,
and captain and crew imprisoned, Aug. 13,
1873; and released about Sept. 18. This
yacht rescued Captain Semmes and part
of his crew from the Alabama, after her
destruction by the Kearsarae, June 10,
18G4.

Defective Classes. In no country on
earth has there been such a general and
liberal provision by national and local
authorities, societies, and individuals for
the education of defective youth as in the
United Stales. For details of this grand
work, see BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE:

DEAF MUTES, EDUCATION OF THE; FEEBLE
MINDED, EDUCATION OF THE; and REFORM
SCHOOLS.

De Forest, JOHN WILLIAM, military
officer; born in Humphreysville (now
Seymour), Conn., March 31, 1826; entered
the National army as captain at the be
ginning of the Civil War ; served con
tinuously till January, 18G5; and was ad
jutant-general of the Veteran Reserve
Corps in 1865-68. His publications in
clude The History of the Indians of Con
necticut, from the Earliest-known Period
to 1850, etc.

De Grasse, COUNT. See GRASSE-TILLY,
FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL, COUNT DE.

De Haas, JOHN PHILIP, military offi
cer; born in Holland about 1735; was de
scended from an ancient -family in north
ern France; came to America in 1750;
was an ensign in the French and Indian
War; participated in a sharp conflict
with Indians near Pittsburg; and was
colonel of the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment
in 1776. He served in the American
army in Canada, and afterwards at Ticon-
deroga. He led his regiment from Lake
Champlain to New York, and partici
pated in the battle on Long Island in
August, 1776. In February, 1777, he was
promoted to brigadier-general. General
De Haas was a good disciplinarian, and
served in various capacities during the
entire war with credit to himself and
benefit to his adopted country. The lat
ter years of his life were passed in Phila
delphia, where he died June 3, 1786.

De Haven, EDWIN J., explorer; born
in Philadelphia in 1819; entered the navy
as midshipman, rose to lieutenant in 1841,
and resigned in 1857. He was with
Wilkes in his great exploring expedition
in 1838-42, and commanded the first ex
ploring expedition fitted out at New York
to search for Sir John Franklin in the
Arctic seas. The expedition consisted of
the Advance. 140 tons, and the Rescue, 90
tons. Dr. Kane, who accompanied the ex
pedition, published a full account of it.
After his return Lieutenant De Havon
was employed on coast survey duty and
in the Naval Observatory. He died in
Philadelphia Oct. 2, 1865.

De Kalb, JOHANN, BARON. See KALB,
JOIIANN, BARON DE.

Delafield, RICHARD, military engineer;

DELAGOA BAY DE LANCEY

born in New York City, Sept. 1, 1798; Portuguese engineers certified was the bor-
graduated at the United States Mili- der of the Transvaal. In 1889 the Portu-
tary Academy in 1818, and entered the guese government served notice on Colonel
corps of engineers; was engaged in build- McMurdo that the real frontier was 6
ing the defences of Hampton Roads, the miles further inland, and that if the road
fortifications in the district of the Mis- was not built to that point within four
sissippi, and those within the vicinity months it would be seized by Portugal,
of Delaware River and Bay in 1819-38; Before McMurdo s side of the contro-
superintendent of West Point in 1838-45 versy could be heard, Portugal confiscated
and in 1856-G1; and became chief of en- the entire property (June, 1889). The
gineers in 1864. At the close of the Civil United States, in behalf of the McMurdo
War he was brevetted major-general, U. interests, united with England to compel
S. A., " for faithful, meritorious, and dis- Portugal to make proper reparation, and
tinguished services in the engineer depart- Portugal consented to have the dispute
ment during the rebellion." He was re- settled by arbitration. The tribunal was
tired in 18G6. He died in Washington, organized in Berne, Switzerland, in 1890,
D. C., Nov. 5, 1873. but it was not till March 29, 1900, that a
Delagoa Bay, a large bay, the estuary conclusion was reached. The total award
of several rivers, on the southeast coast to the claimants was $3,202,800, with in-
of Africa, situated between lat. 25 40 terest from 1889, and by a compromise
and 26 20 S. It extends GO miles from the fieirs of Colonel McMurdo were award-
north to south, and 20 miles from east to ed $500,000 towards the close of 1900.
west. It was discovered by the Portu- De Lancey, EDWARD FLOYD, historian;
guese in 1498, and for nearly 400 years born at Mamaroneck, N. Y., April 3,
was in dispute between England and Por- 1821; graduated at Hobart College in
tugal, the Boers also putting in a claim 1813; is a member and officer of many
to it in 1835. It is the only seaport avail- historical organizations, and the author
able for the Transvaal, but it is not in of biographies of James De Lancey, James
that territory. The contention between W. Beekman, William Allen; Document -
England and Portugal was referred to ary History of New York; Capture of Fort
President Thiers, and settled by President Washington, and many other historical
MacMahou, his successor, in 1875, in works. ^

favor of Portugal. By an agreement Eng- De Lancey, ETIEXXE ( STEPHEN ) ; mer-
land received the right of pre-emption, chant; born in Caen, France, Oct. 24,
It was understood in the early part of the 1GG3; fled to Holland on the revocation
war between the British and the Boers of the Edict of Nantes; and went thence
(1899-1900) that Great Britain had to England and became a British subject,
either purchased the bay and its imme- He landed in New York, June 7, 1G8G;
diate surroundings outright or had nego- became a merchant and amassed a large
tiated an arrangement with Portugal by fortune; and was at all times a public-
which the bay could not be used for any spirited citizen. In 1700 he built the De
purpose host ile to British interest. In Lancey house, which subsequently became
1883 Col. Edward McMurdo, a civil engi- known as the "Queen s Head" and
neer of Kentucky, received from the King " Fraunce s Tavern." In the large room,
of Portugal an extremely liberal conces- originally Mrs. De Lancoy s drawing-room,
sion for the construction of a railroad Washington bade farewell to the officers
from Lorenzo Marques to the Transvaal of the Army of the Revolution. He died
frontier, a distance of 57 miles. This in New York City, Nov. 18, 1741.
concession also included the grant of large De Lancey, JAMKS. jurist; born in
tracts of land along the projected route, New^York City, Nov. -27. 1703; eldest son
the territory upon which much of the of Eticnne De Lancey: graduated at
town of Lorenzo Marques now stands, an the University of Cambridge, England,
island in Delagoa Bay, and certain com- and soon after his return to New York
inercial privileges along the shore. By (1729) was made a justice of the Su-
the aid of British capital the road -was preme Court of that province, and chief-
completed in November, 1887, to what the justice in 1733. For two years, as lieu-

DE LANCEY DELAWARE

tenant-governor, he was acting governor
(1753-55), after the death of Governor
Osborn. Judge De Lancey was for many
years the most influential man in the
politics and legislation of the colony, and
was one of the founders of King s Col
lege (now Columbia University). He
wrote a Review of the Military Opera
tions from, 1753 to 1156. He died in New
York City, July 30, 1760.

De Lancey, OLIVER, military officer;
born in New York City, Sept. 16, 1708;
brother of Judge De Lancey; for many
years a member of the Assembly and
Council, also a colonel of the pro
vincial troops, and when the Revolution
broke out he organized and equipped,
chiefly at his own expense, a corps of
loyalists. In 1777 he was appointed a
brigadier-general in the royal service. His
military operations were chiefly in the
region of New York City. At the evacua
tion of that city in 1783 he went to Eng
land. He died in Beverley, England,
Nov. 27, 1785.

De Lancey, OLIVER, military officer;
born in New York City in 1752; edu
cated abroad; entered the British army
in 17G6, and rose to major in 1773; was
with the British army in Boston during
the siege in 1775-76, and accompanied it
to Nova Scotia. He returned with it to
Staten Island in June, and commanded the
British cavalry when the army invaded
Long Island in August, which formed the
advance of the right column. To him Gen
eral Woodhull surrendered under promise
of protection, but it was not afforded, and
the patriot was murdered. He was active
under Sir Henry Clinton throughout the
war. In 1781 he succeeded Major Andr6 as
adjutant -general, and on his return to
England undertook the arrangement of the
claims of the loyalists for compensation
for losses in America. He was also at the
head of a commission for settling all
army accounts during the war. Because
of defalcations in his public accounts, he
was removed from office. He was elected
to Parliament in 1796; was promoted to
lieutenant-general in 1801, and to general
in 1812. He died in Edinburgh. Scotland,
Sept. 3, 1822.

Delano, COLUMBUS, statesman ; born in
Shoreham, Vt., June 5, 1809; settled in
Mount Vernon, O., in 1817; admitted

to the bar in 1831, and became prominent
as a criminal lawyer. He was a member
of Congress in 1844-04 and 1866-68; was
appointed United States commissioner of
internal revenue in 1869, and later by
reorganizing the bureau increased the re
ceipts in eight months more than 100 per
cent.; and was Secretary of the Depart
ment of the Interior in 1870-75. He died
in Mount Vernon, O., Oct. 23, 1896.

Delaware, the first of the thirteen
original States that ratified the federal
Constitution ; takes its name from Lord
De la Warr (Delaware), who entered the
bay of that name in 1610, when he was
governor of Virginia. It had been dis
covered by Hudson in 1609. In 1629
Samuel Godyn, a director of the Dutch
West India Company, bought of the Ind
ians a tract of land near the mouth of
the Delaware; and the next year De
Vries, with twenty colonists from Hol
land, settled near the site of Lewes. The
colony was destroyed by the natives three
years afterwards, and the Indians had
sole possession of that district until 1638,
when a colony of Swedes and Finns

STATE SEAL OF DELAWARE.

landed on Cape Henlopen, and purchased
the lands along the bay and river as far
north as the falls at Trenton (see NEW
SWEDEN). They built Fort Christiana
near the site of Wilmington. Their settle
ments were mostly planted within the
present limits of Pennsylvania. The
Swedes were conquered by the Dutch of

DELAWARE

O1,L) SWKIlISH CIII KCII. WILMINGTOK. DKI.AW AKK.

New Netherland in 1G55, and from
that time until 1664, when New Nether-
land was conquered by the English,
the territory was claimed by the
Dutch, and controlled by them. Then
Lord Baltimore, proprietor of Maryland,
claimed all the territory on the west side
of Delaware Bay, and even to lat. 40 ;
and settlers from Maryland attempted to
drive away the settlers from the present
State of Delaware. Wlien William Pc-nn
obtained a grant of Pennsylvania, he was
very desirous of owning the land on Dela
ware Bay to the sea, and procured from
the Duke of York a release of all his title

and claim to New Castle and 12 miles
around it, and to the land between that
tract and the sea: and in the presence of
all the settlers he produced his deeds
(October, 1682), and formally accepted
the surrender of the territory. Lord Bal
timore pressed his claim, but in 1685 the
Lords of Trade and Plantations made a
decision in Penn s favor. A compromise
afterwards adjusted all conflicting claims.
The tracts which now constitute the State
of Delaware, Penn called " The Terri
tories," or " Three Lower Counties on the
Delaware." They were governed as a
part of Pennsylvania for about twenty

DELAWARE

years afterwards, and each county had
six delegates in the legislature. Then
Penn allowed them a separate legislature;
but the colony was under the governor of
1 ennsylvania until 1776, when the in
habitants declared it an independent
State. A constitution was adopted by a
convention of the people of the three
counties New Castle, Kent, and Sussex
Sept. 20, 1776. A State government
Mas organized, and John McKinley was
elected its first governor. In 1792 a sec
ond constitution was framed and adopted.
Although Delaware was a slave State, it
refused to secede at the outbreak of the
Civil War; and, though it assumed a
sort of neutrality, it furnished several
regiments of volunteers for the Union
army. In all the wars Delaware patri
otically furnished its share of men and
money for the public defence. In 1902
the State had an assessed property valua
tion of $69,351.696; and in 1904 had
assets of $635,250, in excess of all lia
bilities. The population in 1890 was
168,493; in 1900. 184,735.

When Howe entered Philadelphia (Sep
tember, 1777) the Americans still held
control of the Delaware River below that
city. On Mud Island, near the confluence
of the Schuylkill and Delaware, was
built Fort Mimin. On the New Jersey
shore, opposite, at Red Bank, was Fort
Mercer, a strong redoubt, well furnished
with heavy artillery. At Billingsport, on
the same shore, 3 miles lower down, were
extensive but unfinished works designed
lo guard some obstructions in the river
there. Other formidable obstructions
were placed in the river below forts
Mimin and Mercer, in the form of
ckcvaux-dc-frise sunken crates of stones,
with heavy spears of iron-pointed timber,
to receive and pierce the bows of vessels.
Besides these, there were floating batteries.
See MERCER, FORT; MIFFLIN, FORT; UNIT
ED STATES DELAWARE, in vol. ix.

GOVERNORS OF DELAWARE.

UNDKR THK SWKDKS.

GOVERNORS OF DELAWARE Continual.

ENGLISH COLONIAL.

From 1664 up to 1682, under the government of New
York; aud from 1683 up to 1773, uuder the proprietary
government of Pennsylvania.

STATE.

Name.

Pate.

John McKmlev

1776 to 1777

Caesar Rodnev

1778 " 1781

John Dickinson

1782 " 1783

John Cook

1783

Nicholas Van Dyke

1784 to 1786

Thomas Collins

1786 " 1789

Joshua Clayton

1789 " 1796

Gunning Bedford

1796 " 1797

Daniel Rodgers

1797 1T98

Richard Bassetl

1798 1801

James Sykes

1801 180

David Hall

1802 1805

Nathaniel Mitchell

1805 1808

George Truitt

1808 " 1811

Joseph Hazlett

1811 " 1814

Daniel Rodney

1814 " 1817

John Clark

1817 " 1820

Jacob Stout

1820 " 1821

John Collins

1821 " 1822

Caleb Rodney

1822 " 1823

Joseph Hazlett

1823 " 1824

Samuel Pavnter

1824 " 1827

Charles Po lk

1827 " 1830

David Hazzard....

1830 1833

Caleb P. Bennett

1833 1836

Charles Polk

1836 1837

Cornelius P. Comegys

1837 1840

William B. Cooper

1840 1844

Thomas Stockton

1844 " 1846

Joseph Maul

1846

William Temple

1846

William Thorp

1847 to 1851

William H. Ross

1851 " 1855

Peter F. Causey ..

1855 " 1859

William Burton

1859 " 1863

William Cannon

1863 " 1867

Grove Saulsbury

1867 " 1871

James Ponder

1871 " 1875

John P. Cochrau

1875 " 1879

John W. Hull

1879 " 1883

Charles C. Stockley

1883 1887

Benjamin T. Biggs

1887 " 1891

Robert J. Reynolds

1891 " 1895

Joshua H. Marvil

1895

William T. Watson

1895 to 1897

Ebe VV. Tuunell

1897 " 1901

John Hunn

1901 " 1905

Preston Lea

1905 " 1909

UNITED STATES SENATORS

Name.

Date.

Peter Minuit

1638 to KilO

Peter Hollender

1640 " ll)4

Johan Printz

1643 " 1652

Johan Pappegoia

1653 " 1654

Johan C. Rising..

1654 " 1655

UNDKR THE BOTCH.

Peter stuvves-ant I 1656 to 1664

Name.

No. of Congress

Date.

Richard Bassett

Island 2d

1789 to 1793

George Read

1st " 2d

1789 17113

Henrv I/atimer

3d to 6th

1793 1.S01

3d " 5th

1793 1798

1798

William Hill Wells

5th to 8th

1799 to 1805

Samuel White

7th llth

1801 1809

James A. Bayard

8th 12th

1805 1813

llth 16th

1810 &lt; 1821

William Hill Wells

13th 14th

1813 1817

Nicholas Van Dvke

15th 19th

1817 1827

Cfesar A. Rodney

17th

1821 1823

18th to 19th

1824 1827

Daniel Rodnov . ...

19th

1826

Henry M Ridgely

19th to 20th

1827 to 1829

Louis MrT,ane

20th " 21st

1827 " 1829

Jolin M Clavtou

21st 23d

182!) " 1835

21st 2:ld

1830 " IHHti

24th 28th

1836 " 184.-&gt;

Thomas Clayton

24th 29th

1837 " 1847

John H. Clayton . .

29th 30th

1845 " 1849

C.3

DELAWARE DELAWARE INDIANS

UNITED STATES SENATORS Continued.

Name.

No. of Congress.

Date.

30th to 31st

1849 to 1H51

1 resley Spruaure

30th " 32d

1847 " 1853

James A. Bayard

32d " 3Hth

1851 " 18G4

Joliu M. Clayton
Joseph P. Comegvs

33d " 34th
34th

1853 " 1856
185C

Martin Bates

35th

1858

Willanl Saulsburv

3Gth to 41st

1859 to 1871

George Head Kiddle

38th " 4Uth

18C4 " 1867

James A. Bayard

40lh

1807 " 1869

Thomas Francis Bayard. .
Eli Saulsbury

41st to 48th
4 (1 " 00th

18G9 " 1885
1871 " 1889

George Gray

4!. til " 5Gth

1885 " 1S99

Anthony Higgins

51st " C4th

.) " 1895

Richard R. Kenney

54th " Of.th

1897 " 1901

Lewis H. Ball

. r )8th 1

1903 " 1905

James F. Allee

58th to 50th

1903 " 1907

Delaware, or Delawarr, THOMAS WEST,
3n LORD; appointed governor of Virginia
in 1609. He built two forts at the mouth
of the James River, which he named
Henry and Charles, in honor of the King s
sons. In 1611 he sailed for the West
Indies, hut was driven hack by a storm
and landed at the mouth of the Delaware
River, whence he sailed for England. In
1618 he embarked for Virginia and died
on the voyage.

Delaware Indians, an important fam
ily of the Algonquian nation, also called
Lenni-Lcnapes, or " men." When the
Europeans found them, they were dwell

ing in detached bands, under separate
sachems on the Delaware River. The
Dutch traded with them as early as 1613,
and held friendly relations with them;
but in 1632 the Dutch settlement of Swan-
endael was destroyed by them. The
Swedes found them peaceful when they
settled on the Delaware. This family
claim to have come from the west with
the Minquas. to whom they became vas
sals. They also claimed to be the source
of all the Algonquians, and were styled
" grandfathers." The Dclawares com
prised three powerful families (Turtle,
Turkey, and Wolf), and were known as
Minscys, or Munsees, and Delawares
proper. The former occupied the northern
part of New Jersey and a portion of Penn
sylvania, and the latter inhabited lower
New Jersey, the banks of the Delaware
below Trenton, and the whole valley of
the Schuylkill. After the conquest of
New Netherland, the English kept up
trade with the Delawares, and William
Penn and his followers bought large tracts
of land from them. They were parties
on the Indian side to the famous treaty
with Penn. At that time the Indians
within the limits of his domain were
estimated at 6,000 in number. The FIVE

WILLIAM PENS PURCHASING LAND FROM THE DELAWARE INDIANS.

DELAWARE INDIANS DELMAR

NATIONS (&lt;/. r.) conquered the Delawares, of a treaty in 1787, a small hand of DeUi-
ajid called them "women" in contempt; wares returned to the Muskingum, the
and when, at the middle of the eighteenth remainder being hostile. These fought
century, the latter, dissatisfied with the Wayne, and were parties to the treaty at
interpretation of a treaty, refused to Greenville in 1795. The scattered tribes
leave their land, the Five Nations in Ohio refused to join Tecumseh in the
haughtily ordered them to go. War of 1812, and in 1818 they ceded all

Commingling with warlike tribes, the their lands to the United States, and set-
Delawares became warlike themselves, and tied on the White River, in Illinois, to
developed great energy on the war-path, the number of 1,800, leaving a small
They fought the Cherokees, and in 1773 remnant behind. They finally settled in
some of them went over the mountains Kansas, where missions were established
and settled in Ohio. As early as 1741 among them, and they rapidly increased
the Moravians had begun missionary work in the arts of civilized life. In the Civil
among them on the Lehigh, near Bethle- War, the Delawares furnished 170 soldiers
hem and Nazareth, and a little church for the National army. Having acquired
was soon filled with Indian converts. At land from the Cherokees in the Indian
the beginning of the French and Indian Territory, they now occupy the Coowees-
War the Delawares were opposed to the coowee and Delaware districts; numbered
English, excepting a portion who were led 754 in 1900.

by the Moravians; but in treaties held Delaware River, WASHINGTON S PAS-
at Easton, Pa., at different times, from SAGE OF THE. At the close of November,
1750 until 1761, they made peace with the 177G, the British occupied New Jersey,
English, and redeemed themselves from and only the Delaware River shut off Corn-
their vassalage to the Six NATIONS (q. v.}. wallis from Philadelphia. On Dec. 2,
They settled on the Susquehanna, the Washington, with a considerable force,
Christian Indians apart. Then another crossed the river, securing every boat so
emigration over the mountains occurred, that the British were unable to follow
and they planted a settlement at Mus- him. Determined to surprise the Hessians,
kingum, 0. These joined Pontiac, and under Colonel Rahl, at Trenton, Washing-
besieged Fort Pitt and other frontier ton recrossed the river a few miles above
posts, but were defeated in August, 17G3, Trenton on Dec. 25, with 2,400 men and
by Colonel Bouquet, and their great chief, twenty pieces of artillery. Owing to the
Teedyuscung, was killed. Their towns darkness and the floating ice it was 4
were ravaged, and the Moravian converts, A.M. on the 26th before the entire force
who were innocent, fled for refuge to had crossed. General Knox, the constant
Philadelphia. These returned to the Siis- companion of Washington throughout the
quehanna in 1764, and the Ohio portion war, had crossed the river before it became
made peace at Muskingum the same choked with ice, and during the night
year, and at Fort Pitt in 1765. The that Washington and his party recrossed
remainder in Pennsylvania emigrated to it, Knox stood on the opposite shore, and
Ohio, and in 1786 not a Delaware was indicated where a landing could be safely
left east of the Alleghany Mountains, made. See TKENTON. BATTLE OF.
Moravian missionaries went with their Delfthaven, the port of Holland from
flocks, and the Christian Indians increased, which the Pilgrim fathers sailed in tho
The pagans kept upon the war-path until K^cedircll. July 22, 1620, for Southamp-
tlicy wore severely smitten in a drawn ton. They embarked on the Mayflower at
battle at Point Pleasant, in 1774. Plymouth.

The Delawares joined the English when Delmar, ALEXANDER, political econo-
the Revolutionary War broke out, but mist : born in New York, Aug. 9, 1836 :
made peace with the Americans in 1778, edited Daily Ann rlcmi Times; Hunt s
\\licn a massacre of ninety of the Chris- Merchants M&lt;i&lt;r;ine; Financial Chron-
tian Indians in Ohio by the Americans icle, etc., and published Gold Money and
aroused the fury of the tribe. Being Paper Money; Treatise on Taxation; The
almost powerless, they fled to the Huron National Banking System; History of
Piiver and Canada. Under the provisions Money and the Monetary System, etc.
HI. E 65

DE LONG DEMOCRACY IN NEW NETHEBLAND

De Long, GEORGE WASHINGTON, ex- port, Melville with his party started im-
plorer; born in New York City, Aug. 22, mediately on a search for De Long and
1844; graduated at the United States his companions, and on March 23, 1882.
Naval Academy in 1805, and promoted found their remains, together with the
ensign in 18G6; master in 1868; lieuten- records of the expedition and De Long s
ant in 1869; and lieutenant-commander, diary written up to Oct. 30 previous. The
Nov. 1, 1879. He was with Capt. Daniel United States government had the remains
L. Braine on the Juniata, when he was of De Long and his companions brought
ordered, in 1873, to search for the miss- home and they were interred with appro-
ing Arctic steamer Polaris and her crew, priate honors on Feb. 22, 1884. See The
On Jury 8, 1879, he was given command of Voyage of the Jcannette, by Mrs. De
the Jeannettc, which had been fitted out Long; and In the Lena Delta, by George
by JAMES GORDON BENNETT, JR. (q. v.) , W. Melville.

for a three years exploration trip via Deming, WILLIAM, gun-founder; born
Bering Strait. By an act of Congress the in 1736; during the Revolution construct-
vessel was placed under the authority of ed the first wrought-iron cannon ever made
the government. After touching at Ouna- in America, one of which was captured
laska, St. Michael s and St. Lawrence by the British at the battle of Brandy-
Bay, the Jeannette sailed to Cape Serdze wine, and is kept as a curiosity at the
Kamen, Siberia, in search of Professor Tower of London. He died in Mifflin, Pa.,
Nordenskjold, the Swedish explorer. Sail- Dec. 19, 1830.

ing northward the vessel was caught in Democracy in New Netherland.
the pack-ice, Sept. 5, 1879, off Herald Isl- Gov. WILLIAM KIEFT (q. v.) had resolved
and, and, after drifting 600 miles to the to chasten the Raritan Indians for a grave
northwest in a devious course, was crushed offence. He called upon the people to
by the ice, June 13, 1881. Thus Lieuten- shoulder their muskets for a fight. They
ant-Commander De Long and his crew knew his avarice and greed, and withal his
were adrift in the Arctic Sea 150 miles cowardice, and boldly charged these things
from the New Siberian Islands and more upon him. " It is all well for you," they
than 300 miles from the nearest point of said, " who have not slept out of the fort
the mainland of Asia. With his party he a single night since you came, to endanger
started southward, and on July 28, 1881, our lives and our homes in undefended
arrived at Bennett Island, and on Aug. 20 places," and they refused to obey. This
at Thaddeus Island, from which place they attitude of the people transformed the
travelled in boats. De Long, with four- governor. He invited (Aug. 23, 1641) the
teen others out of his crew of thirty- heads of families of New Amsterdam to
three, reached the main mouth of the meet him in consultation on public af-
Lena River, Sept. 17, having travelled fairs. They assembled at the fort, and
about 2,800 miles, and landing on the promptly chose twelve citizens to represent
mainland about 500 miles from their ship. them. So appeared the first popular as-
With his men he proceeded as fast as he sembly, and so was chosen the first rep-
could until Oct. 9, when it became im- resentative congress in New Netherland.
possible to travel farther owing to the It was a spontaneous outgrowth of the
debility of the men. The party had sepa- innate spirit of democracy that animated
rated into three branches, one command- the people. The twelve were the vigorous
ed by De Long, the second by Lieutenant seeds of that representative democracy
C liipp. and the third by CHIEF EXCI.VEER which bore fruit in all the colonies more
GEORGE W. MELVILLE (q. v.). All of De than a century later. Again, when the
Long s party, excepting two, perished; colony was threatened with destruction by
Chipp s boat was lost in a gale, with the Indians, Kieft summoned the people
eight men; but Melville, with nine others, into council (September, 1643), who
succeeded in reaching a small village on chose eight men as the popular represen-
the Lena. The two survivors of the De tatives to act with the governor in pub-
Long party, who had been sent by that lie affairs. Again when Gov. PETER
officer in search of relief, met the Melville STTJYVESANT (q. v.} found the finances of
party on Oct. 29. On hearing their re- the colony of New Netherland in such a

DEMOCBACY IN NEW NETHERLAND

wretched condition that taxation was was to form and adopt a remonstrance
necessary, he dared not tax the people against the tyrannous rule of the govern-
without their consent, for fear of offend- or. It was drawn by Baxter, signed by
ing the States-General, so he called a all the delegates present, and sent to the
convention of citizens, and directed them governor, with a demand that he should
to choose eighteen of their best men, of give a " categorical answer." In it the
whom he might select nine as represen- grievances of the people were stated
tatives of the tax-payers, and who should under six heads. Stuyvesant met this
form a co-ordinate branch of the local severe document with his usual pluck,
government. He tried to hedge them He denied the right of some of the dele-
around with restrictions, but the nine gates to seats in the convention. He de-
proved to be more potent in promoting nounced the whole thing as the wicked
popular liberty than had Kieft s twelve, work of Englishmen, and doubted whether
They nourished the prolific seed of George Baxter knew what he was about,
democracy, which burst into vigorous life He wanted to know whether there was
in the time of JACOB LEISLEE ( q. v.). no one among the Dutch in New Nether-
Stuyvesant tried to stifle its growth. The land " sagacious and expert enough to
more it was opposed, the more vigorous draw up a remonstrance to the Director-
it grew. General and his council," and severely
Late in the autumn of 1653 a conven- reprimanded the new city government of
tion of nineteen delegates, who represented New Amsterdam (New York) for " seiz-
eight villages or communities, assembled ing this dangerous opportunity for con-
at the town-hall in New Amsterdam, os- spiring with the English [with whom
tensibly to take measures to secure them- Holland was then at war], who were ever
selves from the depredations of the bar- hatching mischief, but never performing
barians around them and sea-rovers. The their promises, and who might to-morrow
governor tried in vain to control their ally themselves with the North" mean-
action ; they paid A r ery little attention to ing Sweden and Denmark. The conven-
his wishes or his commands. He stormed tion was not to he intimidated by bluster,
and threatened, but prudently yielded to They informed Stuyvesant, by the mouth
the demands of the people that he should of Beeckman, that unless he answered
issue a call for another convention, and their complaints, they would appeal to
give legal sanction for the election of dele- the States-General. At this the governor
gates thereto. These met in New Am- took fire, and, seizing his cane, ordered
sterdam on Dec. 10, 1653. Of the eight Beeckman to leave his presence. The
districts represented, four were Dutch and plucky ambassador coolly folded his arms,
four English. Of the nineteen delegates, and silently defied the magistrate,
ten were of Dutch and nine were of Eng- When Stuyvesant s anger had abated, he
lish nativity. This was the first really asked Beeckman s pardon for his rude-
representative assembly in the great State ness. He was not so complaisant with the
of New York chosen by the people. The convention. He ordered them to dis-
names of the delegates were as follows: perse on pain of his "high displeasure."
From New Amsterdam, Van Hattem, The convention executed their threat by
Kregier, and Van de Grist; from sending an advocate to Holland to lay
Breucklen (Brooklyn), Lubbertsen, Van their grievances before the States-Gen
der Beeck, and Beeckman; from Flushing, eral.

Hicks and Flake; from Newtown, Coe and It has been observed how the first germ

Hazard; from Heemstede (Hempstead), of democracy or republicanism appeared

Washburn and Somers; from Amersfoort in New Amsterdam, and was checked in

(Flatlands), Wolfertsen, Strycker, and its visible growth by the heel of power.

Swartwout; from Midwont (Flatbush), It grew, nevertheless. It was stimulated

Elbertsen and Spicer; and from Graves- by the kind acts of Gov. THOMAS DONGAN

end, Baxter and Hubbard. Baxter was (q. v.) ; and when the English revolution

at that time the English secretary of of 1688 had developed the strength of

the colony, and he led the English the people s will, and their just aspira-

dolegates. The object of this convention tions were formulated in the Bill of

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES

Rights, it sprang up into a vigorous
fruit-bearing plant. It* power was mani
fested in the choice and administration
of Leisler as ruler until a royal governor
was appointed, and his death caused the
line of separation between democracy and
aristocracy republicanism and monarchy
" Leislerians " and " Anti-Leislerians "
to be distinctly drawn. During the
exciting period of Leisler s rule, the
aristocratic or royalist party were led by
NICHOLAS BAYARD ( q. v. ) , a wealthy and
influential citizen, who was warmly sec
onded by ROREET LIVINGSTON (q. v.).
These two men were chiefly instrumental
in bringing Leisler to the scaffold and
treating his family and friends in a
shameful manner. This conduct was con
tinued until the Earl of Bellomont suc
ceeded Fletcher as governor, when the
Anti-Leislerians " were reduced to a
minority, and kept quiet for a while.
After the death of Bellomont (March 5,
1701), John Nanfan, his lieutenant, ruled
for a while. Nanfan favored the demo
cratic party. As soon as it was known
that LORD CORNBTJRY (q. v.) , a thorough
aristocrat and royalist, had been appointed
governor, Bayard and his party heaped
abuse not only upon the dead Bellomont,
but upon Nanfan. The latter saw that
Bayard was on the verge of a pit which
he had digged himself, and he pushed him

into it. Bayard had procured an act, in
1091, aimed at Leisler and his supporters,
providing that any person who should in
any manner endeavor to disturb the gov
ernment of the colony should be deemed
" rebels and traitors unto their majesties,"
and should incur the pains and penalties
of the laws of England for such offence.
Bayard was arrested on a charge of
treason, tried, convicted, and received the
horrid sentence then imposed by the Eng
lish law upon traitors to be hanged, quar
tered, etc. Bayard applied for a reprieve
until his Majesty s pleasure should be
known. It was granted, and in the mean
time Cornbury arrived, when all was re
versed. Bayard was released and rein
stated. The democrats were placed under
the lash of the aristocrats, which Bayard
and Livingston used without mercy by the
hand of the wretched ruler to whom they
offered libations of flattery. The chief-
justice who tried Bayard, and the advocate
who opposed him, were compelled to fly to
England. From that time onward there
was a continuous conflict by the democ
racy of New York with the aristocracy
as represented by the royal governors and
their official parasites. It fought bravely,
and won many victories, the greatest of
which was in a fierce battle for the free
dom of the press, in the case of JOHX
PETER ZENGER (q. v.).

DEMOCRACY

Democracy in the "United States,
CHARACTER OF.* Prof. Woodrow Wilson
of Princeton University (Professor of
Jurisprudence and Politics), the well-
known author, critic, and lecturer, writes
as follows:

Everything apprises us of the fact that
we are not the same nation now that
we were when the government was form
ed. In looking back to that time, the im-
pres3ion is inevitable that we started with
sundry wrong ideas about ourselves. We
deemed ourselves rank democrats, whereas
we were in fact only progressive English-

advocacy, the Federalist, and note the
perverse tendency of its writers to refer
to Greece and Rome for precedents that
Greece and Rome which haunted all our
earlier and even some of our more mature
years. Recall, too, that familiar story of
Daniel Webster which tells of his coming
homo exhausted from an interview with
the first President-elect Harrison, whose
Secretary of State he was to be, and ex
plaining that he had been obliged in the
course of the conference, which concerned
the inaugural address about to be deliver
ed, to kill nine Roman consuls whom it
had been the intention of the good con-

men. Turn the leaves of that sage man- queror of Tippecanoe publicly to take mto
ual of constitutional interpretation and
* By courtesy of Messrs. Charles Scribner s

Sons.

office with him. The truth is that we long
imagined ourselves related in some un
explained way to all ancient republicans.

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

Strangely enough, too, we at the same sympathy also, though little justification,

time accepted the quite incompatible for such as caught a generous elevation

theory that we were related also to the of spirit from the speculative enthusiasm

French philosophical radicals. We claim- of Rousseau.

ed kinship with democrats everywhere For us who stand in the dusty matter-

with all democrats. We can now scarcely of-fact Avorld of to-day, there is a touch

realize the atmosphere of such thoughts, of pathos in recollections of the ardor for

We are no longer wont to refer to the democratic liberty that filled the air

ancients or to the French for sanction of of Europe and America a century ago

what we do. We have had abundant ex- with such quickening influences. We

perience of our own by which to reckon, may sometimes catch ourselves regretting

" Hardly any fact in history," says Mr. that the inoculations of experience have

Bagehot, writing about the middle of the closed our systems against the infections

century, " is so incredible as that forty of hopeful revolution.
and a few years ago England was ruled

bv Mr Perceval It seems almost the Bliss was Jt in that dawn to be alive

But to be young was very heaven ! O times

same as being ruled by the Record news- in which the meagre, stale, forbidding

paper." (Mr. Bagehot would now prob- ways

ably say the Standard newspaper.) "He f custom law and statute took at once

The attraction of a country in romance !

had the same poorness of thought, the When Reas on seemed the most to assert

same petty conservatism, the same dark her rights,

and narrow superstition." " The mere fact When most intent on making of herself

of such a premier being endured shows ^^^^^oiSg Torwa^ Tn^er

how deeply the whole national spirit and name !

interest was absorbed in the contest with Not favored spots alone, but the whole

Napoleon, how little we understood the

, , , ,, The beauty wore of promise, that which

sort of man who should regulate its con- sets

duct in the crisis of Europe, as Sydney (As at some moment might not be unfelt

Smith said, he safely brought the cu- Among the bowers of paradise itself)

rates salaries improvement bill to a hear- 1 "* r S6 ab Ve the F Se fu "

ing ; and it still more shows the horror

of all innovation which the recent events Such was the inspiration which not

of French history had impressed on our Wordsworth alone, but Coleridge also,

wealthy and comfortable classes. They and many another generous spirit whom

were afraid of catching revolution, as old we love, caught in that day of hope.

women of catching cold. Sir Archibald It is common to say, in explanation of

Alison to this day holds that revolution our regret that the dawn and youth of

is an infectious disease, beginning no one democracy s day are past, that our prin-

knows how, and going on no one knows ciples are cooler now and more circum-

where. There is but one rule of escape, spect, with the coolness and circum-

explains the great historian: Stay still; spection of advanced years. It seems to

don t move; do what you have been ac- some that our enthusiasms have become

customed to do; and consult your grand- tamer and more decorous because our

mother on everything. sinews have hardened ; that as experience

Almost equally incredible to us is the has grown idealism has declined. But to

ardor of revolution that filled the world in speak thus is to speak with the old self-

those first days of our national life the deception as to the character of our

fact that one of the rulers of the world s politics. If we are suffering disappoint-

mind in that generation was Rousseau, ment, it is the disappointment of an

the apostle of all that is fanciful, unreal, awakening: we were dreaming. For we

and misleading in politics. To be ruled never had any business hearkening to

by him was like taking an account of life Rousseau or consorting with Europe in

from Mr. Rider Haggard. And yet there revolutionary sentiment. The government

is still much sympathy in this timid world which we founded one hundred years ago

for the dull people who felt safe in the was no type of an experiment in ad-

hands of Mr. Perceval, and, happily, much vanced democracy, as we allowed Europe

DEMOCBACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OP

and even ourselves to suppose; it was freedom of thought and the diffusion of
simply an adaptation of English consti- enlightenment among the people. Steam
tutional government. If we suffered Eu- and electricity have co-operated with sys-
rope to study our institutions as instances tematic popular education to accomplish
in point touching experimentation in this diffusion. The progress of popular
politics, she was the more deceived. If education and the progress of democracy
we began the first century of our national have been inseparable. The publication
existence under a similar impression our- of their great encyclopaedia by Diderot
selves, there is the greater reason why and his associates in France in the last
we should start out upon a new century century, was the sure sign of the change
of national life with more accurate con- that was setting in. Learning was turn-
ceptions. ing its face away from the studious few
To this end it is important that the towards the curious many. The intellect-
following, among other things, should be ual movement of the modern time was
kept prominently in mind: emerging from the narrow courses of

1. That there are certain influences scholastic thought, and beginning to
astir in this country which make for spread itself abroad over the extended, if
democracy the world over, and that these shallow, levels of the common mind. The
influences owe their origin in part to the serious forces of democracy will be found,
radical thought of the last century; but upon analysis, to reside, not in the dis-
that it was not such forces that made us turbing doctrines of eloquent revolution-
democratic, nor are we responsible for ary writers, not in the turbulent discon-
them. tent of the pauperized and oppressed, so

2. That, so far from owing our gov- much as in the educational forces of the
ernments to these general influences, we last 150 years, which have elevated the
began, not by carrying out any theory, masses in many countries to a plane of
but by simply carrying out a history understanding and of orderly, intelligent
inventing nothing, only establishing a purpose more nearly on a level with the
specialized species of English govern- average man of the classes that have
ment; that we founded, not democracy, hitherto been permitted to govern. The
but constitutional government in America, movements towards democracy which

3. That the government which we thus have mastered all the other political ten-
set up in a perfectly normal manner dencies of our day are not older than the
has nevertheless changed greatly under middle of the last century ; and that is just
our hands, by reason both of growth and the age of the now ascendant movement
of the operation of the general democratic towards systematic popular education,
forces the European, or rather world- Yet organized popular education is only
wide, democratic forces of which I have one of the quickening influences that have
spoken. been producing the general enlighten-

4. That two things, the great size to ment which is everywhere becoming the
which our governmental organism has promise of general liberty. Rather, it is
attained, and, still more, this recent ex- only part of a great whole, vastly larger
posure of its character and purposes to than itself. Schools are but separated
the common democratic forces of the age seed-beds, in which the staple thoughts
of steam and electricity, have created new of the steady and stay-at-home people are
problems of organization, which it be- prepared and nursed. Not much of the
hooves us to meet in the old spirit, but world, moreover, goes to school in the
with new measures. school-house. But through the mighty

influences of commerce and the press the
world itself has become a school. The

First, then, for the forces which are air is alive with the multitudinous voices

bringing in democratic temper and method of information. Steady trade-winds of

the world over. It is matter of familiar intercommunication have sprung up which

knowledge what these forces are, but it carry the seeds of education and enlight-

\vill be profitable to our thought to pass enment, wheresoever planted, to every

them once more in review. They are quarter of the globe. No scrap of

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

thought can escape being borne away without stirring from home, by merely

from its place of birth by these all- spelling out the print that covers every

absorbing currents. No idea can be kept piece of paper about him. If men are

exclusively at home, but is taken up thrown, for any reason, into the swift

by the trader, the reporter, the traveller, and easy currents of travel, they find

the missionary, the explorer, and is given themselves brought daily face to face with

to all the world in the newspapers, the persons native of every clime, with prac-

uovel, the memoir, the poem, the treatise, tices suggestive of whole histories, with

till every community may know, not only a thousand things which challenge

itself, but all the world as well, for the curiosity, inevitably provoking inquiries

small price of learning to read and keep- such as enlarge knowledge of life and

ing its ears open. All the world, so shake the mind imperatively loose from

far as its news and its most insistent old preconceptions.

thoughts are concerned, is fast being made These are the forces which have estab-

every man s neighbor. lished the drift towards democracy.

Carlyle unquestionably touched one of When all sources of information are
the obvious truths concerning modern accessible to all men alike, when the
democracy when he declared it to be the world s thought and the world s news are
result of printing. In the newspaper scattered broadcast where the poorest
press a whole population is made critic may find them, the non-democratic forms
of all human affairs ; democracy is " virtu- of government must find life a desperate
ally extant," and " democracy virtually venture. Exclusive privilege needs pri-
extant will insist on becoming palpably vacy, but cannot have it. King^nip of
extant." Looked at in the large, the the elder patterns needs sanctity, but can
newspaper press is a type of democracy, find it nowhere obtainable in a world of
bringing all men without distinction un- news items and satisfied curiosity. The
der comment made by any man without many will no longer receive submissively
distinction ; every topic is reduced to a the thought of a ruling few, but insist
common standard of news; everything upon having opinions of their own. The
is noted and argued about by everybody, reaches of public opinion have been in-
Nothing could give surer promise of finitely extended; the number of voices
popular power than the activity and that must be heeded in legislation and
alertness of thought which are made in executive policy has been infinitely
through such agencies to accompany the multiplied. Modern influences have in-
training of the public schools. The ac- clined every man to clear his throat for
tivity may often be misdirected or un- a word in the world s debates. They have
wholesome, may sometimes be only fever- popularized everything they have touched,
ish and mischievous, a grievous product In the newspapers, it is true, there is
of narrow information and hasty con- very little concert between the writers;
elusion ; but it is none the less a stirring little but piecemeal opinion is created by
and potent activity. It at least marks their comment and argument; there is
the initial stages of effective thought. It no common voice amid their counsellings.
makes men conscious of the existence and But the aggregate voice thunders with
interest of affairs lying outside the dull tremendous volume; and that aggregate
round of their own daily lives. It gives voice is " public opinion." Popular edu-
them nations, instead of neighborhoods, cation and cheap printing and travel
to look upon and think about. They vastly thicken the ranks of thinkers every-
catch glimpses of the international con- where that their influence is felt, and by
nections of their trades, of the universal rousing the multitude to take knowledge
application of law, of the endless variety of the affairs of government prepare the
of life, of diversities of race, of a world time when the multitude will, so far as
teeming with men like themselves, and possible, take charge of the affairs of
yet full of strange customs, puzzled by government the time when, to repeat
dim omens, stained by crime, ringing with Carlyle s phrase, democracy will become
voices familiar and unfamiliar. palpably extant.

And all this a man can nowadays get But, mighty as such forces are, demo-

DEMOCBACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

cratic as they are, no one can fail to per- ment of the men to whom we owe the
ceive that they are inadequate to produce establishment of our institutions in the
of themselves such a government as ours. United States, we are at once made aware
There is little in them of constructive that there is no communion between their
efficacy. They could not of themselves democracy and the radical thought and
build any government at all. They are restless spirit called by that name in
critical, analytical, questioning, quizzing Europe. There is almost nothing in corn-
forces; not architectural, not powers that mon between popular outbreaks such as
devise and build. The influences of pop- took place in France at her great Revolu-
ular education, of the press, of travel, tion and the establishment of a government
of commerce, of the innumerable agen- like our own. Our memories of the year
cies which nowadays send knowledge and 1789 are as far as possible removed from
thought in quick pulsations through every the memories which Europe retains of
part and member of society, do not neces- that pregnant year. We manifested 100
sarily mould men for effective endeavor, years ago what Europe lost, namely, self-
They may only confuse and paralyze the command, self-possession. Democracy in
mind with their myriad stinging lashes of Europe, outside of closeted Switzerland,
excitement. They may only strengthen has acted always in rebellion, as a de-
the impression that " the world s a stage," structive force: it can scarcely be said
and that no one need do more than sit to have had, even yet, any period of
and look on through his ready glass, the organic development. It has built such
newspaper. They overwhelm one with im- temporary governments as it has had op
pressions, but do they give stalwartness portunity to erect on the old foundations
to his manhood? Do they make his hand and out of the discredited materials of
any steadier on the plough, or his pur- centralized rule, elevating the people s
pose any clearer with reference to the representatives for a season to the throne,
duties of the moment? They stream light but securing almost as little as ever of
about him. it may be, but do they clear that every-day local self-government which
his vision? Is he better able to see be- lies so near to the heart of liberty. Democ-
cause they give him countless things to racy in America, on the other hand, and
look at? Is he better able to judge be- in the English colonies has had, almost
cause they fill him with a delusive sense from the first, a truly organic growth,
of knowing everything? Activity of mind There was nothing revolutionary in its
is not necessarily strength of mind. It movements : it had not to overthrow other
may manifest itself in mere dumb show; polities; it had only to organize itself.
it may run into jigs as well as into stren- It had not to create, but only to expand,
nous work at noble tasks. A man s farm self-government. It did not need to
does not yield its fruits the more abun- spread propaganda: it needed nothing but
dantly in their season because he reads to methodize its ways of living,
the world s news in the papers. A mer- In brief, we were doing nothing essen-
chant s shipments do not multiply because tially new a century ago. Our strength
he studies history. Banking is none the and our facility alike inhered in our tra-
less hazardous to the banker s capital and ditions; those traditions made our char-
taxing to his powers because the best acter and shaped our institutions. Lib-
writing of the best essayists is to be erty is not something that can be created
bought cheap. by a document; neither is it something
jy which, when created, can be laid away in

a document, a completed work. It is an

Very different were the forces behind organic principle a principle of life, re-
us. Nothing establishes the republican newing and being renewed. Democratic
state save trained capacity for self-gov- institutions are never done : they are like
ernment, practical aptitude for public af- living tissue, always a-making. It is a
fairs, habitual soberness and temperate- strenuous thing, this of living the life of
ness of united action. When we look a free people ; and our success in it de-
back to the moderate sagacity and stead- pends upon training, not upon clever
fast, self-contained habit in self-govern- invention.

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

Our democracy, plainly, was not a body through long heredity. It is poison to the

of doctrine; it was a stage of develop- infant, but tonic to the man. Monarchies

ment. Our democratic state was not a may be made, but democracies must grow,
piece of developed theory, but a piece of It is a deeply significant fact, therefore,

developed habit. It was not created by again and again to be called to mind, that

mere aspirations or by new faith; it was only in the United States, in a few other

built up by slow custom. Its process was governments begotten of the English race,

experience, its basis old wont, its meaning and in Switzerland, where old Teutonic

national organic oneness and effective life, habit has had the same persistency as in

It came, like manhood, as the fruit of England, have examples yet been furnish-

youth. An immature people could not have ed of successful democracy of the modern

had it, and the maturity to which it type. England herself is close upon

was vouchsafed was the maturity of free- democracy. Her backwardness in entering

dom and self-control. Such government upon its full practice is no less instruc-

as ours is a form of conduct, and its only tive as to the conditions prerequisite to

stable foundation is character. A par- democracy than is the forwardness of ber

ticular form of government may no more offspring. She sent out to all her colonies

be adopted than a particular type of which escaped the luckless beginning of

character may be adopted: both institu- being made penal settlements, compara-

tions and character must be developed tively small, homogeneous populations of

by conscious effort and through trans- pioneers, with strong instincts of self-

mitted aptitudes. government, and with no social materials

Governments such as ours are founded out of which to build government other-
upon discussion, and government by dis- wise than democratically. She, herself.
cussion conies as late in political as scien- meanwhile, retained masses of population
tine thought in intellectual development, never habituated to participation in gov-
It is a habit of state life created by long- ernment, untaught in political principle
established circumstance, and is possible either by the teachers of the hustings or of
for a nation only in the adult age of its the school-house. She has had to approach
political life. The people who success- democracy, therefore, by slow and cau-
fully maintain such a government must tious extensions of the franchise to those
have gone through a period of political prepared for it; while her better colonies,
training which shall have prepared them born into democracy, have had to receive
by gradual steps of acquired privilege all comers within their pale. She has
for assuming the entire control of their been paring down exclusive privileges and
affairs. Long and slowly widening ex- levelling classes; the colonies have from
perience in local self-direction must have the first been asylums of civil equality,
prepared them for national self-direction. They have assimilated new while she has
They must have acquired adult self-re- prepared old populations,
liance, self-knowledge, and self-control, Erroneous as it is to represent govern-
adult soberness and deliberateness of ment as only a commonplace sort of busi-
judgment, adult sagacity in self-govern- ness, little elevated in method above mer-
ment, adult vigilance of thought and chandising, and to be regulated by count-
quickness of insight. When practised, not ing-house principles, the favor easily won
by small communities, but by wide na- for such views among our own people is
tions, democracy, far from being a crude very significant. It means self-reliance in
form of government, is possible only government. It gives voice to the emi-
among peoples of the highest and steadi- nently modern democratic feeling that
est political habit. It is the heritage of government is no hidden cult, to be left
races purged alike of hasty barbaric pas- to a few specially prepared individuals,
sions and of patient servility to rulers, but a common, every-day concern of life,
and schooled in temperate common counsel, even if the biggest such concern. It is
It is an institution of political noonday, this self-confidence, in many cases mis-
not of the half-light of political dawn, taken, no doubt, which is gradually
It can never be made to sit easily or safely spreading among other peoples, less justi-
on first generations, but strengthens fied in it than are our own.

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

One cannot help marvelling that facts by neighbors, by peoples not only homo-
so obvious as these should have escaped geneous, but characterized within by the
the perception of some of the sagest existence among their members of a quick
thinkers and most thorough historical sympathy and easy neighborly knowl-
scholars of our day. Yet so it is. Sir edge of each other. Not foreseeing steam
Henry Maine, even, the great interpreter and electricity or the diffusion of news
to Englishmen of the historical forces and knowledge which we have witnessed,
operative in law and social institutions, our fathers were right in thinking it im-
has utterly failed, in his plausible work possible for the government which they
on Popular Government, to distinguish had founded to spread without strain or
the democracy, or rather the popular break over the whole of the continent,
government, of the English race, which Were not California now as near neighbor
is bred by slow circumstance and founded to the Atlantic States as Massachusetts
upon habit, from the democracy of other then was to New York, national self-gov-
peoples, which is bred by discontent and ernment on our present scale would as-
founded upon revolution. He has missed suredly hardly be possible, or conceivable
that most obvious teaching of events, that even. Modern science, scarcely less than
successful democracy differs from unsuc- our pliancy and steadiness in political
cessful in being a product of history habit, may be said to have created the
a product of forces not suddenly become United States of to-day,
operative, but slowly working upon whole Upon some aspects of this growth it is
peoples for generations together. The very pleasant to dwell, and very profit-
level of democracy is the level of every- able. It is significant of a strength which
day habit, the level of common national it is inspiring to contemplate. The ad-
experiences, and lies far below the eleva- vantages of bigness accompanied by
tions of ecstasy to which the revolutionist abounding life are many and invaluable,
climbs. It is impossible among us to hatch in a
jjj corner any plot which will affect more

than a corner. With life everywhere

While there can be no doubt about the throughout the continent, it is impossi-

derivation of our government from habit ble to seize illicit power over the whole

rather than from doctrine, from English people by seizing any central offices. To

experience rather than from European hold Washington would be as useless to

thought; while it is evident that our in- a usurper as to hold Duluth. Self-gov-

stitutions were originally but products of ernment cannot be usurped,
a long, unbroken, unperverted constitu- A French writer has said that the au-

tional history; and certain that we shall tocratic ascendency of Andrew Jackson

preserve our institutions in their integrity illustrated anew the long - credited ten-

and efficiency only so long as we keep dency of democracies to give themselves

true in our practice to the traditions from over to one hero. The country is older

which our first strength was derived, now than it was when Andrew Jackson

there is, nevertheless, little doubt that delighted in his power, and few can be-

the forces peculiar to the new civilization licve that it would again approve or ap-

of our day, and not only these, but also plaud childish arrogance and ignorant

the restless forces of European democratic arbitrariness like his; but even in his

thought and anarchic turbulence brought case, striking and ominous as it was, it

to us in such alarming volume by immi- must not be overlooked that he was suf-

gration, have deeply affected and may fered only to strain the Constitution, not

deeply modify the forms and habits of to break it. He held his office by order-

our politics. ly election; he exercised its functions

All vital governments and by vital within the letter of the law; he could
governments I mean those which have silence not one word of hostile criticism :
life in their outlying members as well and, his second term expired, he passed
as life in their heads all systems in into private life as harmlessly as did
which self-government lives and retains James Monroe. A nation that can quiet-
its self-possession, must be governments ly reabsorb a vast victorious army is no

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

more safely free and healthy than is a
nation that could reabsorb such a Presi
dent as Andrew Jackson, sending him
into seclusion at the Hermitage to live
without power, and die almost forgotten.

A huge, stalwart body politic like
ours, with quick life in every individual
town and county, is apt, too, to have
the strength of variety of judgment.
Thoughts which in one quarter kindle en
thusiasm may in another meet coolness
or arouse antagonism. Events which are
fuel to the passions of one section may
be but as a passing wind to another sec
tion. No single moment of indiscretion,
surely, can easily betray the whole coun
try at once. There will be entire popula
tions still cool, self-possessed, unaffect
ed. Generous emotions sometimes sweep
whole peoples, but, happily, evil passions,
sinister views, base purposes, do not and
cannot. Sedition cannot surge through
the hearts of a wakeful nation as patriot
ism can. In such organisms poisons dif
fuse themselves slowly; only healthful
life has unbroken course. The sweep of
agitations set afoot for purposes unfamil
iar or uncongenial to the customary pop
ular thought is broken by a thousand ob-
ftacles. It may be easy to reawaken old
enthusiasms, but it must be infinitely
hard to create new ones, and impossible
to surprise a whole people into unpre
meditated action.

It is well to give full weight to these
great advantages of our big and strenu
ous and yet familiar way of conducting
affairs; but it is imperative at the same
time to make very plain the influences
which are pointing towards changes in
our politics changes which threaten loss
of organic wholeness and soundness. The
union of strength with bigness depends
upon the maintenance of character, and
it is just the character of the nation
which is being most deeply affected and
modified by the enormous immigration
which, year after year, pours into the
country from Europe. Our own tem
perate blood, schooled to self-possession
and to the measured conduct of self-gov
ernment, is receiving a constant infusion
and yearly experiencing a partial corrup
tion of foreign blood. Our own equable
habits have been crossed with the fever
ing humors of the restless Old World.

We are unquestionably facing an ever-in
creasing difficulty of self-command with
ever-deteriorating materials, possibly with
degenerating fibre. We have so far suc
ceeded in retaining

" Some sense of duty, something of a faith,
Some reverence for the laws ourselves have

made,
Some patient force to change them when

we will,
Some civic manhood firm against the

crowd ;"

But we must reckon our power to con
tinue to do so with a people made up of
" minds cast in every mould of race
minds inheriting every bias of environ
ment, warped by the diverse histories of
a score of different nations, warmed or
chilled, closed or expanded, by almost
every climate on the globe."

What was true of our early circum
stances is not true of our present. We
are not now simply carrying out under
normal conditions the principles and
habits of English constitutional history.
Our iasks of construction are not done.
We have not simply to conduct, but also
to preserve and freshly adjust our gov
ernment. Europe has sent her habits
to \is, and she has sent also her politi
cal philosophy, a philosophy which has
never been purged by the cold bath of
practical politics. The communion which
we did not have at first with her heated
and mistaken ambitions, with her radi
cal, speculative habit in politics, with her
readiness to experiment in forms of gov
ernment, we may possibly have to enter
into now that we are receiving her popu
lations. Not only printing and steam
and electricity have gotten hold of us to
expand our English civilization, but also
those general, and yet to us alien, forces
of democracy of which mention has al
ready been made; and these are apt to
tell disastrously upon our Saxon habits in
government.

It is thus that we are brought to our
fourth and last point. We have noted
( 1 ) the general forces of democracy which
have been sapping old forms of govern
ment in all parts of the world; (2) the
error of supposing ourselves indebted to
those forces for the creation of our gov-

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

eminent, or in any way connected with ards, not policies. Questions of govern-
them in our origins; and (3) the effect ment are infinitely complex questions, and
they have nevertheless had upon us as no multitude can of themselves form clear-
parts of the general influences of the age, cut, comprehensive, consistent conclusions
as well as by reason of our vast immigra- touching them. Yet without such conclu-
tion from Europe. What, now, are the sions, without single and prompt purposes,
new problems which have been prepared government cannot be carried on. Neither
for our solution by reason of our growth legislation nor administration can be done
and of the effects of immigration? They at the ballot-box. The people can only
may require as much political capac- accept the governing act of representa-
ity for their proper solution as any that tives. But the size of the modern de-
eonfronted the architects of our govern- mocracy necessitates the exercise of per-
ment. suasive power by dominant minds in the

These problems are chiefly problems of shaping of popular judgments in a very

organization and leadership. Were the different way from that in which it was

nation homogeneous, were it composed exercised in former times. " It is said

simply of later generations of the same by eminent censors of the press," said Mr.

stock by which our institutions were Bright on one occasion in the House of

planted, few adjustments of the old ma- Commons, " that this debate will yield

chinery of our politics would, perhaps, about thirty hours of talk, and will end

be necessary to meet the exigencies of in no result. I have observed that all

growth. Biit every added element of va- great questions in this country require

riety, particularly every added element thirty hours of talk many times repeat-

of foreign variety, complicates even the ed before they are settled. There is much

simpler questions of politics. The dan- shower and much sunshine between the

gers attending that variety which is hete- sowing of the seed and the reaping of the

rogencity in so vast an organism as ours harvest, but the harvest is generally reap-

are, of course, the dangers of disintegra- ed after all." So it must be in all self-

tion nothing less; and it is unwise to governing nations of to-day. They are

think these dangers remote and merely not a single audience within sound of an

contingent because they are not as yet orator s voice, but a thousand audiences,

very menacing. We are conscious of one- Their actions do not spring from a single

ness as a nation, of vitality, of strength, thrill of feeling, but from slow conolu-

of progress; but are we often conscious of sions following upon much talk. The talk

common thought in the concrete things of must gradually percolate through the

national policy? Does not our legislation whole mass. It cannot be sent straight

wear the features of a vast conglomerate? through them so that they are electrified

Are we conscious of any national leader- as the pulse is stirred by the call of a

ship? Are we not, rather, dimly aware trumpet. A score of platforms in every

of being pulled in a score of directions neighborhood must ring with the insistent

l&gt;y a score of crossing influences, a multi- voice of controversy: and for a few Vmn-

tude of contending forces? dreds who hear what is said by the public

This vast and miscellaneous democracy speakers, many thousands must read of
of ours must be led; its giant faculties the matter in the newspapers, discuss it
must be schooled and directed. Leader- interjectionally at the breakfast - table,
ship cannot belong to the multitude; desultorily in the street-cars, laconically
inasses of men cannot be self - directed, on the streets, dogmatically at dinner ;
neither can groups of communities. We all this with a certain advantage, of
speak of the sovereignty of the people, course. Through so many stages of con-
but that sovereignty, we know very well, sideration passion cannot possibly hold
is of a peculiar sort; quite unlike the out. It gets chilled by over-exposure. It
sovereignty of a king or of a small, easily finds the modern popular state organized
concerting group of confident men. It for giving and hearing counsel in such a
is judicial merely, not creative. It passes way that those who give it must be care-
judgment or gives sanction, but it can- ful that it is such counsel as will wear
not direct or suggest. It furnishes stand- well. Those who hear it handle and ex-

7fi

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, CHARACTER OF

ainine it enough to test its wearing quali- body to be persuaded, it must know its

ties to the utmost. All this, however, persuaders; in order to be effective, it

when looked at from another point of must always have choice of men who are

view, but illustrates an infinite difficulty impersonated policies. Just because none

of achieving energy and organization, but the finest mental batteries, with pure

There is a certain peril almost of disinte- metals and unadulterated acids, can send

gration attending such phenomena. a current through so huge and yet so rare

Every one now knows familiarly enough a medium as democratic opinion, it is the
how we accomplished the wide aggre- more necessary to look to the excellence
gations of self-government characteristic of these instrumentalities. There is no per-
of the modern time, how we have articu- manent place in democratic leadership
lated governments as vast and yet as except for him who " hath clean hands
whole as continents like our own. The and a pure heart." If other men come
instrumentality has been representation, temporarily into power among us, it is
of which the ancient world knew nothing, because we cut our leadership up into
and lacking which it always lacked nation- so many small parts, and do not subject
al integration. Because of representation any one man to the purifying influences
and the railroads to carry representatives of centred responsibility. Never before
to distant capitals, we have been able to was consistent leadership so necessary;
rear colossal structures like the govern- never before was it necessary to concert
ment of the United States as easily as the measures over areas so vast, to adjust
ancients gave political organization to a laws to so many interests, to make a corn-
city; and our great building is as stout pact and intelligible unit out of so many
as was their little one. fractions, to maintain a central and domi-

But not until recently have we been nant force where there are so many

able to see the full effects of thus send- forces.

ing men to legislate for us at capitals dis- It is a noteworthy fact that the admira-
tant the breadth of a continent. It makes tion for our institutions which has during
the leaders of our politics, many of them, the past few years so suddenly grown to
mere names to our consciousness instead large proportions among publicists abroad
of real persons whom we have seen and is almost all of it directed to the restraints
heard, and whom we know. We have to we have effected upon the action of gov-
accept rumors concerning them, we have ernment. Sir Henry Maine thought our
to know them through the variously col- federal Constitution an admirable reser-
ored accounts of others ; we can seldom voir, in which the mighty waters of de
test our impressions of their sincerity by mocracy are held at rest, kept back from
standing with them face to face. Here free destructive course. Lord Rosebery
certainly the ancient pocket republics had has wondering praise for the security of
much the advantage of us: in them citi- our Senate against usurpation of its func-
xens and leaders were always neighbors; tions by the House of Representatives,
they stood constantly in each other s pres- Mr. Goldwin Smith supposes the saving
ence. Every Athenian knew Themisto- act of organization for a democracy to
cles s manner, and gait, and address, and be the drafting and adoption of a written
felt directly the just influence of Aris- constitution. Thus it is always the static,
tides. No Athenian of a later period need- never the dynamic, forces of our govern
ed to be told of the vanities and fop- ment which are praised. The greater part
peries of Alcibiades, any more than the of our foreign admirers find our success
elder generation needed to have described to consist in the achievement of stable
to them the personality of Pericles. safeguards against hasty or retrogressive

Our separation from our leaders is the action : we are asked to believe that we

greater peril, because democratic govern- have succeeded because we have taken Sir

ment more than any other needs organiza- Archibald Alison s advice, and have resist-

tion in order to escape disintegration: and ed the infection of revolution by staying

it can have organization only by full quite still.

knowledge of its leaders and full confi- But, after all, progress is motion, gov-

dence in them. Just because it is a vast ernment is action. The waters of demoe-

DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES DEMOCRATIC PARTY

racy are useless in their reservoirs unless We shall not again have a true national

they may be used to drive the wheels of life until we compact it by such legisla-

policy and administration. Though we tive leadership as other nations have. But

be the most law-abiding and law-directed once thus compacted and embodied, our

nation in the world, law has not yet nationality is safe.

attained to such efficacy among us as to Democratic Clubs. The opposition

frame, or adjust, or administer itself, party to Washington formed many clubs

It may restrain, but it cannot lead us; or societies to express sympathy with

and I believe that unless we concentrate France and the principles of the French

legislative leadership leadership, that is, Revolution in 1793 and 1794. They

in progressive policy unless we give leave passed out of existence about the end of

to our nationality and practice to it by the 18th century. See GENEST, EDMOXD

such concentration, we shall sooner or later CHARLES: DEMOCRATIC SOCIETIES.

suffer something like national paralysis in Democratic Party. For the origin and

the face of emergencies. We have no one early development of the party, see the

in Congress who stands for the nation, article REPUBLICAN PARTY. Its main

Each man stands but for his part of the tenets were strict construction of the

nation ; and so management and combina- Constitution and opposition to extension

tion, which may be effected in the dark, of the federal powers. Jefferson, Madi-

are given the place that should be held son, and Monroe were members of the then

by centred and responsible leadership, dominant party, and under the last-named

which would of necessity work in the President party lines for a short time

focus of the national gaze. disappeared in the so-called " era of

What is the valuable element in mon- good feeling." Soon afterwards the

archy which causes men constantly to turn Democrats came under the leadership of

to it as to an ideal form of government, Jackson, and were opposed to the Na-

could it but be kept pure and wise? It tional Republicans and Whigs. Jackson s

is its cohesion, its readiness and power to successor, Van Buren, was a Democrat. A

act, its abounding loyalty to certain con- Whig interval (1841-45) ensued. Then

crete things, to certain visible persons, its followed the Democratic administration

concerted organization, its perfect model of Polk, succeeded (1849-53) by another

of progressive order. Democracy abounds Whig administration. Pierce and Bu-

with vitality; but how shall it combine chanan were the last Presidents elected

with its other elements of life and by the party for a long period. In the

strength this power of the governments general confusion caused by the increas-

that know their own minds and their own ing prominence of slavery the Democrats

aims? We have not yet reached the age at first profited, while the Whigs disap-

when government may be made imper- peared. In the Civil War many " war

sonal. Democrats " acted temporarily with the

The only way in which we can preserve Republicans. McClellan, though defeated,
our nationality in its integrity and its received a large popular vote in 18G4.
old-time originative force in the face of Seymour in 18G8, Greeley in 1872 were de-
growth and imported change is by concen- feated. In 1876 the Democrats came near
trating it; by putting leaders forward, success (see ELECTORAL COMMISSION;
vested with abundant authority in the HAYES, RUTHERFORD BURCHARD; TILDEN,
conception and execution of policy. There SAMUEL JONES). The House was now
is plenty of the old vitality in our na- frequently Democratic, but the Presidency
tional character to tell, if we will but was again taken by their competitors in
give it leave. Give it leave, and it will 1880. In 1884 they succeeded in a close
the more impress and mould those who campaign. The two wings of the party,
come to us from abroad. I believe that revenue reform and protectionist, long re-
we have not made enough of leadership. fused to work together. Under the leader-

. . ship of Morrison, Carlisle, and Cleveland,

" A people is but the attempt of many V -

To rise to the completer life of one ; tanff reform became the dominating issue.

And those who live as models for the mass Defeated in 1888, the Democrats gained

Arc singly of more value than they all." a sweeping victory in 1890, and in 1892

DEMOCRATIC SOCIETIES

regained control of all departments, only
to lose all again in 1896, when the party
allowed itself to be diverted from its orig
inal principles by the Populists and sil
ver men. In 1900 the same elements con
trolled it, with the addition of the Anti-
Expansionists. In both 1896 and 1900 it
lost its national ticket. See BRYAN,
WILLIAM JENNINGS.

Democratic Societies. In imitation of
the Jacobin clubs in Paris, members of

tificate of every member, in which he was
commended to the good offices of every
similar society in the Union. The in
formed and thoughtful citizens saw scarce
ly any resemblance between French and
American democracy. The former as
sumed the aspect of violence in every
form, while the latter was calm, just, and
peaceful. A pamphlet was published in
1796 in which the difference is delineated
by an engraving called The Contrast. It

THE CONTRAST.

the Republican party, at about the time
when Genet arrived from France, formed
secret associations, which they called
" Democratic societies." Their ideas and
feelings were almost wholly French, and
a large proportion of their membership
consisted of French people. They were
disloyal to the government of the United
States, and sought to control the politics
of the Union. They seem to have been
inspired with the fanaticism which at that
time controlled France. They vigorously
denounced and opposed Washington s
proclamation of neutrality. The societies
existed in various States, and first intro
duced the word " Democrat " into Ameri
can politics. Many of the Republican par
ty would not adopt the word, preferring
the old name, until the combined oppo
sition became known as the Democratic
Republican party. The Democratic so
cieties flourished for a while with great
vigor. Their members were pledged to
secrecy. Each society had a distinct seal
of its own, which was attached to the cor-

was soon after that these societies began
to dwindle in numbers and soon disap
peared.

The certificate of membership in these
societies read as follows: "To all other
societies established on principles of
LIBERTY,
EQUALITY,
UNION, PA
TRIOTIC VIR
TUE, AND PER
SEVERANCE: We.
the members of
the Republican
Society of
Baltimore, cer
tify and declare
to all Repub
lican or Demo
cratic societies,
and to all Re- SEAL.
publicans in
dividually, that citizen hath been

admitted, and now is a member of our
society, and that, from his known zeal

DE MONTS

to promote Republican principles and the full powers to settle and rule in a region
rights of humanity, we have granted extending over six degrees of latitude,
him this our certificate (which he has from Cape May to Quebec. The domain
signed in the margin), and do recommend was named Cadi6 in the charter (see

ACADIA ) . Vested with the
monopoly of the fur-trade in
the region of the river and
gulf of St. Lawrence, they at
tempted to make a settlement
on the former. Making ar
rangements with Champlain
as chief navigator, De Monts
sailed from France in March,
1604, with four ships, well
manned, accompanied by his
bosom friend, the Baron de
Poutrincourt, and Pont-
Greve as his lieutenants; and
finding the St. Lawrence ice
bound, on his arrival early in
April, he determined to make
a settlement farther to the
southward. The ships also
bore a goodly company of
Protestant and Roman Cath
olic emigrants, with soldiers,
artisans, and convicts. There
wore several Jesuits in the
company. Passing around
Cape Breton and the penin
sula of Nova Scotia into the
Bay of Fundy, they anchored
in a fine harbor on the north
ern shore of that peninsula
early in May. Poutrincourt
was charmed with the coun
try, and was allowed to re
main with a part of the com
pany, while De Monts, with
the remainder, seventy in
number, went to Passama-

DK MONTS. quoddy Bay, and on an isl

and near the mouth of the

him to all Republicans, that they may re- St. Croix, built a fort, and there spent a
ceive him with fraternity, which we offer terribly severe winter, that killed half of
to all those who may come to us with them.

similar credentials. In witness where
of, etc. Alexander McKinn, president;

In the spring they returned to Poutrin-
court s settlement, which he had named

George Sears, secretary." The seal of the Port Royal now Annapolis, N. S. Early

Baltimore Society, which issued the the next autumn De Monts and Poutrin-

above certificate, is composed of a figure court returned to France, leaving Cham-

of Liberty, with pileus, Phrygian cap, and plain and Pont-Greve 1 to make further ex-

fasces, with the name of the society.

De Monts, SIEUR (PIERRE DE GAST),
was a wealthy Huguenot, who was com
missioned viceroy of New France, with

plorations. There was a struggle for rule
and existence at Port Royal for a few
years. Poutrincourt returned to France
for recruits for his colony. Jesuit

DENISON DENNISON

priests who accompanied him on his re- lications include History of the 1st Rhode

turn to Acadia (Nova Scotia) claimed Island Cavalry; Westerly and Its Wit-

the right to supreme rule by virtue of nesses for 250 Years; History of the 3d

their holy office. Poutrincourt resisted Rhode Island Heavy Artillery, etc. He

their claim stoutly, saying, "It is my part died in Providence, R. I., Aug. 16, 1901.
to rule you on earth; it is your part to Dennie, JOSEPH, journalist; born in

guide me to heaven." When he finally Boston, Aug. 30, 1768; graduated at

left Port Royal (1612) in charge of his Harvard in 1790; became a lawyer; but

son, the Jesuit priests made the same abandoned his profession for the pursuit

claim on the fiery young Poutrincourt, of literature. He contributed articles to

who threatened them with corporal pun- various newspapers, while yet practising

ishment, when they withdrew to Mount law, over the signature of " Farrago." In

Desert Island and set up a cross in token 1795 he became connected with a Boston

of sovereignty. They were there in 1613, weekly newspaper called The Tablet. It

when Samuel Argall, a freebooter of the survived only three months, when Dennie

seas, went, under the sanction of the gov- became the editor of the Farmer s Weekly

ernor of Virginia, to drive the French Museum, at Walpole, N. H., which ac-

from Acadia as intruders on the soil of quired an extensive circulation. To it he

a powerful English company. The Jesuits contributed a series of attractive essays

at Mount Desert, it is said, thirsting for under the title of The Lay Preacher. These

vengeance, piloted Argall to Port Royal, gave their author a high reputation and

He plundered and burned the town, drove were extensively copied into the news-

the inhabitants to the woods, and broke papers of the country. He went to Phil-

up the settlement. Unable to contend adelphia in 1799, where he was confiden-

with the English company, De Monts tial secretary to Timothy Pickering, then

abandoned Acadia and proposed to plant Secretary of State. In that place he re-

a colony on the St. Lawrence River, under mained for a few months, and after edit-

the direction of Champlain and Pont- ing for a short time the United States

Greve. But his monopoly was partially Gazette, he commenced, in conjunction

revoked in 1608. Under the auspices of with Asbury Dickens, the Portfolio, at

a company of merchants at Dieppe and first a weekly, but afterwards a&gt; monthly

St. Malo, settlements were begun at periodical, which acquired a high reputa-

Quebec and Montreal. Soon afterwards tion. In that publication he adopted the

the fortune of De Monts was so much re- literary name of " Oliver Oldschool." The

duced that he could not pursue his scheme Portfolio became the recognized leader in

of colonization, and it was abandoned. periodical literature, and was enriched by

Denison, DAXIEL, military officer; born the contributions of some of the foremost
in England in 1613; settled in New Eng- writers in the country. Mr. Dennie con-
land about 1G31 ; was commissioner to tinned hit, connection with it until his
arrange the differences with D Aulny, the death, Jan. 7, 1812.

French commander at Penobscot, in 1646 Dermison, WILIJAM ; war governor;

and 1653; and later was major-general of born in Cincinnati, O-, Nov. 23, 1815; was

the colonial forces for ten years. He was educated at the Miami University, and

made commander-in-chief of the Massa- graduated in 1835. Admitted to the bar

chusetts troops in 1675, but owing to ill- in 1840, he became an eminent practi-

ness during that year was not able to tioner. In 1848-50 he was a member of

lead his forces in the Indian War. He the Ohio legislature; and he took an

published Irenicon, or Salve for New Eng- active part in financial and railroad mat-

land s Sore. He died in Ipswich, Mass., ters. Mr. Dennison was one of the

Sept. 20, 1682. founders of the Republican party in 1856.

Denison, FREDERIC, clergyman : born in In 1860 he was chosen governor of Ohio,

Stonington, Conn., Sept. 28, 1819: grad- which office he held two years, during

natod at Brown College in 1847: or- which time he performed most important

dained to the Baptist ministry: chaplain official service in putting troops into the

of the 3d Rhode Island Heavy Artillery field for the Union army. From October,

for three years in the Civil War. His pub- 1864, to July, 1866, he was Postmaster-
ITT. F Rl

DE NONVILLE DENTISTRY

ing from the west. Thence he pene
trated to Ontario county, where he was
attacked by a party of Senecas in ambush,
but he repulsed his assailants. The next
day two old Seneca prisoners, after hav
ing been confessed by the Jesuit priests,
were cooked and eaten by the savages and
the French. Withdrawing to a point in
Monroe county, De Nonville proceeded to
take possession of the whole Seneca
country (July, 1687) in the name of
King Louis, with pompous ceremonies.
After destroying all the stored corn (more
than 1,000,000 bushels), the growing
crops, cabins, and a vast number of swine
belonging to the natives whose country
WILLUM DEXMSOX. he had invaded, De Nonville returned to

Irondequoit Bay and thence to Montreal.

General, when he withdrew from the cab- An act of gross treachery committed by
inet of President Johnson. He died in him before he undertook the expedition,
Columbus, O., June 15, 1882. in seizing deputies from those nations and

De Nonville, MARQUIS, military officer ; sending them to France, gave the death-
after reaching the rank of colonel in the blow to Jesuit missions among the Five
French army was appointed (1685) gov- Nations. Lamberville, a faithful mis-
ernor of Canada, with instructions to sionary, barely escaped with his life,
" humble the pride of the Iroquois," who through the generosity of the Ononda-
were the friends of the English and had gas.

rejected overtures from the French. He Dent, FREDERICK TRACY, military offi-
took post at Fort Frontenac, on the site cer; born in White Haven, Mo., Dec. 17,
of Kingston, Canada, and there prepared 1820; graduated at the United States
for an expedition against a portion of the Military Academy in 1843; served in the
Five Nations. He declared to his war with Mexico with marked distinction;
sovereign that the Indians sustained and later was prominent in frontier duty,
themselves only by the aid of the English, In 1863-64 he commanded a regiment in
who were " the chief promoters of the in- New York City to suppress riots ; in the
solence and arrogance of the Iroquois." latter year he became a staff officer to
He tried to induce them to meet him in General Grant; and in 1865 was command-
council, to seduce them from the influence ant of Eichmond and of the garrison at
of the English, and a few went to Fronte- Washington. After the war he received
i&gt;ac; but when Dongan heard of the de- the brevets of brigadier-general in the
signs of the French he invited representa- regular and volunteer armies; retired in
tives of the Five Nations to a council in 1883. He died in Denver, Col., Dec. 24,
New York City. They came, and Dongan 1892.

told them the King of England would be Dent, JOHN HERBERT, naval officer;
their "loving father," and conjured them born in Maryland in 1782; entered the
not to listen to the persuasions of the navy in 1798; served on the frigate (Jon-
French. Finally, in May, 1687, De Non- stellation in 1799 when she captured the
ville was joined by 800 French regulars French vessels Insurgente and La Ven-
from France, and soon afterwards he, cjeance. He had command of the Nautilus
assembling more than 2,000 French regu- and Scourge in Treble s squadron during
lars, Canadians, and Indians, proceed- the war with Tripoli, and took part in
ed. at their head, to attack the Sene- the assault on the city of Tripoli in
cas. He coasted along the southern shores 1804; and was promoted captain in 1811.
of Lake Ontario to Irondequoit Bay, in He died in St. Bartholomew s parish, Md.,
Monroe county, where he landed and was July 31, 1823.

joined by some French and Indians com- Dentistry, SCHOOLS OP. The develop-

DENTON DEPENDENT CHILDREN

ment of the science of dentistry in the
United States is well attested by the num
ber of institutions giving instruction
therein. For the most part these schools
are departments of the universities and
large colleges which are authorized to
grant degrees and diplomas. At the end
of the school year 1898 there were fifty
such departments or schools, having 961
professors and instructors, 6,774 students,
and graduating classes aggregating 1,849

students. In the ten years then ending
the number of schools had exactly doubled,
and the number of students showed an in
crease of 327 per cent.

Denton, DANIEL, author; in 1670 he
published in London A Brief Description
of New York, which in 1845 was repub-
lished with notes in New York. It is be
lieved that this was the first printed Eng
lish history of New York and New Jer
sey.

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

Dependent Children, CARE OF. Henri- and the reduction to mechanical routine

etta Christian Wright, an American lady of all the ordinary offices of life, the child

who has taken an active interest in had become dulled in faculty, unthinking,

philanthropic work, and has been specially and dependent. In the institution, he had

interested in the condition of poor chil- been, during the formative period of his

dren deprived of their natural protectors, life, a " number," and he " ate, drank,

and whose education and training, there- studied, marched, played and slept in

fore, have to be assumed by the com- companies, platoons, and regiments." A

munity, writes as follows: visitor to one institution found a class of

boys between eleven and thirteen years of

The history of the state care of children age who had never brushed their own hair,

the world over has been that of the work- the matron having found it easier to stand

house or almshouse. In France, indeed, them in rows and perform this service for

boarding-out seems to have been applied them than to teach each individual boy

widely as early as 1450, when an ordi- how to do jt for himself. Hundreds of

nance was passed regulating the salaries girls in their teens left the institution

of the nurses and agents employed in car- yearly who had never made a fire, placed

ing for pauper children in country homes, a tea-kettle to boil, or performed any of

Fosterage existed even earlier in England, the minor household duties so necessary

where, in the reign of Edward III., an to their training as domestic servants. It

act was passed forbidding English chil- was, in fact, discovered that the child,

dren from being cared for by Irish foster who, at great expense to the state, had

parents, as it had been found that such been fed and taught for a long period of

care denationalized the children. Statis- years, was less capable of earning his

tics attest the evils of the workhouse and living than the youth who had grown up

the almshouse, where the children were half naked and half starved " in his

herded with adult paupers, unfitting them parents cottage in the peat bogs of Ire-

for anything but lives of pauperism and land,

lowest crime. The pauper child, helpless and hopeless.

The efforts of private individuals at last had made an appeal to nature, and nature
rescued the workhouse waifs, and placed had avenged him. In place of the promise
them in institutions set apart for the care of youth and the ideals which wore to
of children alone. Here the child was guarantee the security of the state, she
made cleanly in habit, and amenable to returned, for value received, the institu-
discipline, while ophthalmia, scrofula, and tionalizod youth, a drag upon society, and,
other diseases inherent in institution life in the end, an added burden to the tax-
showed some signs of abatement. But payer. Grave as were these defects, there
when the child left the institution, it was was added the still graver one that in-
found that he still lacked in the great es- stitutions increased juvenile pauperism,
sential to success capacity. From the sys- Wherever a new institution arose, there
tem of constant espionage and guidance, sprang up, as if from the ground, him-

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

dreds of applicants for admission. The sent themselves and their wards at the
idle and vicious parents eagerly took ad- annual meetings of the society, the so-
vantage of the means thus oll ered for the ciety paying the travelling expenses. It
support of their children during the non- was found that the cost under the board-
wage-earning period; and, with every ing-out system was one-third per capita
new gift of a costly edifice, the state of that expended in institutions, while
found itself putting a premium upon the the rate of mortality was under 1 per
poverty it was vainly endeavoring to cent. In 1859, thirty-one years after the
stamp out. establishment of the society, the death

In the mean time a remedy for the evil rate of the children in a single work-
had already arisen. In 1828, an educa- house in Cork was 80 per cent, in one
tion inquiry commission, reporting upon year, while nearly all the survivors were
the condition of the Protestant charter afflicted with scrofula. These horrors
schools of Ireland, found so discredit- were exceeded by the revelations of the
able a state of things that the schools Dublin workhouse, which so excited popu-
were abolished, no provision being made, lar indignation that an act was passed
meanwhile, for the orphans of that faith, in 1862 authorizing the boarding-out of
Not long afterwards, three Protestant workhouse children.

Irish workingmen, considering it their That the problem of the state care of
duty to care for the children of a com- children was solved by the incorporation
rade who had just died, started a sub- of the Protestant Orphan Society of Ire-
scription of a penny a week, and, with land is proved by the subsequent history
the sum of threepence as capital, founded of dependent child-life in nearly every
a refuge for the children among some re- civilized quarter of the globe. In places
spectable laboring people of their own widely separated by geographical limits,
f a ith. as well as by the differences of race and

On the ruins of the charter schools creed, the state care of children is evolv-
arose, from the act of these workingmen, ing from institutionalism to the natural
the Protestant Orphan Society of Ireland, conditions of home life. England, Ire-
which has been the parent of the modern land, Russia, Italy, Scotland, Germany,
system of boarding - out the dependent Switzerland, and other European coun-
children of the state. The methods of tries have their several modifications of
this society have been sustained, in the the boarding-out system, attributable to
main, by succeeding organizations. The the varying conditions of social life, but
orphans were placed, as far as possible, conforming in the main to the leading
in the families of small farmers, or features of the original plan. And al-
laborers, whose station in life corre- though no one of these countries is yet
sponded to their own. In every case, the freed entirely from the bane of institu-
children were given into the charge of tionalism, yet year by year fosterage
the mother of the family, who was made is becoming more popular, as its benefi-
directly responsible for their care. A cent effects become more and more widely
certificate of character was required from known. In Belgium, so thoroughly rec-
the parish priest and the nearest magis- ognized is the value of home training
trate, attesting to her " morality and for future citizens, that &lt;ill boys under
sobriety, to the suitability of her house the care of the state arc boarded out.
and family, and the possession of one or though the girls are in many cases still
more cows," while it was also stipulated retained in institutions. In some of the
that she receive no children from the departments of France, the system of
foundling hospital or any other chari- fosterage has arrived at the precision
table institution. The homes were visited of a military organization. Here the
by inspectors, whose reports contained child, who would otherwise be placed
the history of every child while under the in a foundling or orphan asylum, is en-
care of "the society. The Protestant rolled at birth as an enfant de la patrie,
clergyman of each district was also a and, whenever possible, is placed at once
regular correspondent of the society, and in a foster-home in the country. There
the foster-mothers were required to pre- his physical and moral welfare and his

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

education are watched over by the agent waifs, known as " street children," who

de surveillance, in whose quarterly reports had no homes, who begged and stole their

is recorded the history of the child until food, who slept in the streets, assisted

his twelfth year. He is then eligible for professional criminals in their nefarious

apprenticeship, and he receives from the practices, and in time were graduated into

state a certain sum of money for an out- the ranks of the adult criminal. This

fit. But, in nearly all cases, the affec- menace to society, undreamed of by the

tion between the child and its foster- more orderly class, was made officially

parents has become by this time so strong public by the report of the superintendent

that he is either adopted legally or re- of police, and out of the exigency arose, in

tained in the family as an apprentice, 1853, the New York Children s Aid So-

the money that he earns being placed in ciety, whose president, Charles Loring

the savings-bank, in order that he may Brace, grasped with the intuition of genius

have a little capital to begin the world the true solution of the problem of child-

with on reaching his majority. saving. When Mr. Brace asked the chief

Australia has, perhaps, the most perfect of police to confer with him in regard to
system of boarding-out yet evolved. As means for saving these children, the chief
early as 1852 the first legislature of replied that the attempt would be use-
South Australia decreed that no public less. Nevertheless Mr. Brace began his
money should be given to denominational work; and, knowing that this wreckage
schools, whether educational or charitable, of civilization could be saved only by a
Twenty-five years ago the state began return to nature, he at once began
boarding-out its dependent children; the placing the wards of the society in
saving to the government, as well as the homes in the East and West. In
rapid decrease in the juvenile pauper class, 1854 the first company of forty-six
at once made the new departure accept- children left the office of the society,
able, though the law compelling children the greater number to find homes in
to attend school throughout the entire Michigan and Iowa. Within the sec-
year increased the expense of fosterage in ond year the society had placed nearly
Australia beyond that in European coun- 800 children in homes in the Eastern and
tries. Western States. The society has contin-

The American poorhouse, from the first ued its work on the same lines, and

fell into line with the English workhouse through its efforts thousands of men and

in its influence as a breeder of crime and women have been saved from lives of

pauperism. The poorhouse child came pauperism and crime. The reports of the

either from the directly vicious class, or society, which has always kept in touch

from those " waterlogged " families with with its wards, show how fully the faith

whom pauperism was hereditary, and, as a of its founders has been justified, and how

rule, he left his early home but to return they builded even better than they knew,

to it in later life. The enactment of each From out this army of waifs, rescued from

new law to mitigate the evils of the alms- the gutter and the prison, there have

house only made the idle and vicious come the editor, the judge, the bank presi-

parent more eager to accept the advan- dent, the governor, while thousands of

tages thus offered to his offspring, and simpler careers attest the beneficence of

pauperism increased out of all proportion this noble charity. There is small reason

to the growth of the country. to doubt that, if the guardianship of the

Outside the almshouse there was a con- entire dependent children of the State had

dition even worse. All over the country, been given over to the Children s Aid So-

and especially in cities, there arose a class ciety, the question of juvenile pauperism

of children who anticipated in character and crime would long since have been

the adult tramp of to-day. These were solved. But this was not to be. and alms-

in many cases runaways, to whom the houses and institutions still retained the

restraints of the almshouse were irksome, greater number of children committed to

and they also formed the larger proper- their care. The evil was greatly aug-

tion of juvenile criminals. In 1848 there mented by the passage of the now cele-

were, in New York City alone, 30,000 such bratod "children s law" in 1875, which

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OP

contained a clause providing that all chil- before the passage of the " children s
dren committed to institutions should be law," showed that only 8 per cent, of the
placed in those controlled by persons of total had been in institutions over five
the same religious faith as the parents of years. An equally striking fact is that,
the children. Mrs. Charles Russell Low- since the passage of the " children s
ell says : " The direct effect of this pro- law," the number of children placed in
vision is found in the establishment of families by institutions has greatly de-
nine Roman Catholic and two Hebrew in- creased. In 1875, out of 14,773 children
stitutions to receive committed children, in institutions, there were 823 placed in
all except three having between 300 and families. In 1884, out of 33,558 children
1,300 inmates each." in institutions, there were only 1,370
Within twenty years after this law placed in families. While the population
passed the number of inmates in the of the State of New York increased but
twenty-seven institutions benefited direct- 38 per cent, during the first seventeen
ly by it increased from 9,000 to 16,000. years after the passage of the law, the
In 1889, of the 20,384 children cared for number of children in institutions in-
in the city institutions, only 1,776 were creased 96 per cent.

orphans and 4,987 half-orphans. The re- In New York City a report of 1894
maining 13,621 had been committed by shows the distribution of its 15,331 de-
magistrates, many on the request of par- pendent children as follows: 1,975 in
ents, or had been brought by parents Hebrew institutions, 2,789 in Protestant
voluntarily to the institution. In Kings institutions, 10,567 in Roman Catholic
county alone, five years after the passage institutions. This did not include the
of the " children s law," the number of blind, deaf, feeble-minded, and delinquent
dependent children increased from 300 to children who are cared for in special in-
1,479, most of the commitments being stitutions.

made by parents anxious to be relieved As opposed to its institutions, the State
of the care of their children until the has, in several of its counties, adopted to
wage-earning period was reached. An- some degree the more natural method of
other objectionable feature arose from the child-saving, with marked results. Alarmed
greater length of time that children have at the increasing expense of its juvenile
been retained in institutions since the institutions, Erie county in 1879 began
passage of the law. With a direct per to take measures for boarding-out its de-
capita income from the State, the institu- pendent children, and through the me-
tions have not been able to withstand the diumship of the newspapers the agent
temptation to keep their charges as long placed the needs of the county before the
as possible. The reports of the comp- people. He also interested clergymen and
troller s office for October, 1894, showed editors in the project. Advertising cards,
that 1,935 children in institutions had with pictures of the children, were sent
been inmates over five years; fifty-five of out, and this vigorous canvass resulted in
these were in Protestant institutions, 2G8 speedy applications for the children, who
in Hebrew institutions, and 1,612 in Roman were sent to good country homes by the
Catholic institutions. The same year show- score. The agent always impressed upon
ed an average of 567 children in institu- the foster-parents the fact that the child
tions between thirteen and fourteen years was still the ward of the county, which
of age, 444 between fourteen and fifteen, expected them to co-operate with it in
and 247 between fifteen and sixteen years training him to a life of usefulness. The
of age. One institution in 1892 had wards chief opposition came from the institu-
twenty-two years old, and was " caring tions, which in many cases refused to let
for" 129 youths over seventeen years of the children go. But the board of super-
age. In 1894 it was found that 23 per visors met this obstacle by reducing the
cent, of the dependent children of New per capita price of board, and by passing
York City had been in institutions at pub- a resolution declaring that, if any child
lie cost over periods ranging from five was refused to the county s agent, the
to fourteen years. A report of the State superintendent of the poor would at once
board of charities for 1873, three years stop payment for his board. This opened

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

the doors of the institutions, and Erie as fast as the general population. When

county, which in 1879 was paying $48,000 New York City had a population of

yearly for the support of its dependent 1,750,000, it supported over 15,000 chil-

children, had by 1892 decreased its ex- dren in institutions, or one dependent child

penses two-thirds, though the population to every 117 of population. The number of

had increased one-third. Monroe, West- dependent children in Philadelphia in

Chester, and Orange counties also placed 1894 was one to every 1,979 of its popula-

out their children to some extent. tion. This difference arises from the fact

When the revised constitution went into that Philadelphia had ceased to be an
effect there were 15,000 children, or more, institutionalized city, and boarded or
in institutions in New York City, costing placed out nearly all its dependent chil-
the city over $1,500,000 yearly. The in- dren, the Philadelphia Children s Aid So-
stitutions throughout the State received ciety being the agent employed. Nearly
about $2,500,000 yearly for the support of every county poor-board also takes advan-
their charges. The revised constitution tage of its aid to place its dependent
gave the State board of charities juris- children, as far as possible, in its care,
diction over all the charities in the State, During the thirteen years of its exist-
whether public or private, and a law was ence the Children s Aid Society had re-
enacted by the legislature putting the ceived about 6,004 children from the vari-
placing-out of children into the hands of ous almshouses, poor-boards, and courts,
this board. Under this law, during the and placed them in homes in the country,
years 1896 and 1897, 1,500 children were It has the names of over 700 families
placed in homes in the rural communities, whose respectability and fitness are
The number of children in institutions vouched for, the society s agents having
was further decreased by the action of the visited and ascertained by personal in-
State Charities Aid Association in ap- vestigation their status in the commu-
pointing examiners to investigate the nity. Most of these families are at a dis-
status of the children already in institu- tance of at least 100 miles from any large
tions, or for whom application had been city, it being deemed best, in case of de-
made. The official report of the examin- linquent children especially, to bring
ers for 1896 and 1897 shows that, out of them up amid strictly rural surroundings.
26,561 investigations, 7,303 cases were dis- The attitude of the society towards its
approved, though the children in many charges is that " its duty to the child is
cases had been in the institutions for not one of mere support, but one of
years. preparation for life," and that the sole

Boys of twelve, thirteen, fifteen, six- question arising in the mind of the ob-
teen, and seventeen years of age were server of city-institution life should be,
found, whose families were amply able " Is the precise thing which I am looking
to provide for them, but who had been at the very best thing that can be pro-
supported by the State for periods rang- vided, in order that the child may have
ing from six to nine years. One girl of the same reliance which makes the coun-
sixteen was found who had spent twelve try boy, on the whole, the best wage-
years of her life in institutions, being left earner that the city ever sees?"
at the critical age without home ties or The society possesses thousands of rec-
interests, and with an utter lack of train- ords attesting the happiness and well
ing in ordinary domestic affairs. The being of its wards, and the unwritten
monthly reports from the comptroller s records obtained through personal visits
office show a pecuniary saving from the from its agents are more satisfactory
decrease of dependent children, while the still. The agent finds the little sickly
moral gains through the return of these two-year-old, whom she left a few months
children to the normal ways of life is, before hardly expecting to see it alive
of course, incalculable. Hitherto ihe again, well nourished and radiant with
State of New York has paid two-fifths of returning vitality, surrounded by toys,
nil the money spent in the United States dressed in clean clothing, the care and
for the care of dependent children, while the pet of the whole family. One baby,
child pauperism has increased three times left at the age of eleven months unable

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

to hold up its head or sit alone, had been has no dependent children, technically
restored to perfect health. The foster- speaking, in institutions supported by the
mother here had expressed a preference State. Largely affected by the problem
for a "real smart baby," one that she of immigration, and under the strain pro-
could show off to her neighbors. But, as duced by great centres of population en-
she bent over this tiny sufferer, his little, gaged in mill and factory work, and so
thin face made its undeniable appeal, and removed from the more healthful in-
she said, as she cried over him, that fluences of smaller village and country
"somebody would have to keep him, and life, this State has yet so successfully
she calculated she could do it as well solved the problem of juvenile pauperism
as any one else." The agent carries away that, out of a population of 2,500,000, it
innumerable mental pictures of these has only 2,852 wards to support. The
little waifs who have found home and State has a nursery at Roxbury, where
health in the beautiful hill country of destitute infants are cared for while re-
Pennsylvania. She sees the children on quiring medical or surgical treatment,
the benches of the village school, or shar- and where children boarded out are
ing the innocent pleasures of childhood in brought for treatment when necessary,
wood and meadow. She finds them in the The nursery is a temporary home only in
barn or field with the foster-father, pick- the strictest sense of the word, boarding-
ing up useful knowledge, learning ways out being the end in view. There is also
of industry and honest living, and, above a temporary boarding-place at Arlington,
all, sharing the interest of the family as and a home for wayward boys. The
if he were to the manor born. Very State has two industrial schools, the Ly-
often these boarded-out children step man School for Boys, and the State In-
into a place left vacant by death, and dustrial School for Girls. There are
often they bring to a childless home the also two reform schools. With these
first knowledge of the privileges and bless- exceptions, the dependent children of
ings that come with children. The so- Massachusetts are placed or boarded
ciety has innumerable photographs show- out.

ing the children in their comfortable In 1889 California paid $231,215 for

homes, studying in the cosey sitting- the support of 36,000 children in

rooms, playing games with the farmer s asylums, while Michigan, with double the

older boys, or with the farmer himself, population of California, paid only $35,-

and sharing, in fact, in all the simple and 000 for the support of 230 children. In

sweet scenes of family life. 1893, California, still working under the

A most careful method of supervision old system, paid $250,000 for the support

is enforced by the society, not only of 40,000 children in institutions, while

through frequent visits of its agents, but Minnesota, with a population about equal

through numerous reports made by the to California, supported only 169 depend-

physicians, school - teachers, and other ent children in its State public schools,

reliable and interested persons. Ques- the remainder being placed or boarded

tion blanks are sent for these reports, out.

which are filed and make a full record of There are, in all, perhaps eight or nine
the child s history while under the care States in the Union in which boarding-
of the society. As far as possible, the out and placing-out are carried on in
children are boarded in families of the greater or loss degree, these systems af-
same religion as that of their parents, fecting about three-tenths of the depend-
In order not to create a class distinction, ent children in the country. The remain-
the society does not allow the boarded-out ing seven-tenths, numbering more than
children of a village or farming district 70,000, are still in institutions,
ever to exceed 2 or 3 per cent, of the The United States is an institutional-
child population. ized land, and the great republic, which

Massachusetts, with a population to boasts of freedom and equality, still re-

the square mile exceeding that of Xew gards her dependent children as aliens

York, and in which the artificial condi- and brands them with the stigma of

tions of living are practically the same, pauperism.

DEPENDENT CHILDREN, CARE OF

The evolutionist sees the earliest mani- posited in the letter-boxes were delivered?
festation of altruism in that primary in- Would the community rest contented in
stinct, found even in the lowest forms the satisfaction that a large majority of
of plant life, to protect the young in its citizens were not unjustly thrown into
the seed and bud the instinct of mother- prison? Would a father be satisfied to
hood. Upon this eternal principle of life know that five of his six children were
the problem of child-saving must rest, not actually suffering from hunger and
There is no one so morally fit to rear an cold?" And this is the principle upon
unfortunate child as the mother of a re- which child-savers must act. The insti-
spectable family, whose experience with tution may save the child up to a certain
her own brood has taught her the needs point. But we want him saved for all
and demands of childhood. Nowhere else time. Only the abandonment of the cost-
is so abundantly manifested that trust in ly institutions the expensive buildings
the " larger hope," as in the patience that might with profit in New York City be
waits upon motherhood. To this patience turned into public schools and an ac-
and this hope the State may well com- ceptance of the method which experience
mit the welfare of its most unfortunate has so far shown to be the best, can solve
class. For, although the institution life the question of pauperism in the United
of to-day is not accompanied by all the States with success.

horrors that once disfigured it, yet sore The boarding-out system is another ex-
eyes, diseased bodies, and a high death ample of the truth of the adage that
rate still prevail. According to the official " mercy is twice blessed." The love and
report of 1897 the death rate at the In- care of the foster-parents are in large
fants Asylum on Randall s Island was, measure repaid by their charges, who yield
for foundlings, 80 per cent.; for other them in old age that affectionate pro-
children without their mothers, 59 per tection which is the privilege of children,
cent.; children with their mothers, 13 per When at service, they save their wages
cent. Out of 366 children under six and deny themselves little luxuries, that
months of age, admitted without their they may help their foster-parents. They
mothers in 1896, only twelve lived, the come back to their former homes to be
remainder dying between five and six married; and, in case of a family, if
weeks after admission to the asylum. In- either parent dies, the survivor brings the
stitutionalism is an artificial system, with children to the foster-mother to be cared
the stigma of failure attaching to it. in- for. Joy and sorrow are shared together,
asmuch as its presence always indicates and, when attacked by fatal sickness, it
an increase of the very evil it was origi- is to the foster-home that the child re-
nally meant to combat. Without admit- turns to die.

ting as truth the statement, made by some Nature, the wise teacher, has sealed her
experts, that all institution-bred children approval of fosterage by forging that
turn out either knaves or fools, sufficient mysterious tie which binds parent and
testimony may be found to force home child, which no absence may sunder and
the startling argument that, of the 100,- which remains unbroken even in death.
000 children eared for by the State to- Boarding-out has paid in every sense. Out
day, there is grave danger that the seven- of the class in which pauperism was
tenths who are in institutions will carry hereditary sometimes three or four gen-
through life the brand of a system which orations of the same family being paupers
has handicapped them in the race for it has created a respectable working
success. class, at a cost in dollars and cents far be-

Mr. Homer Folks, secretary of the State low the cost of institution life. Over the

Charities Aid Association of New York, neglected and despised paiiper child it has

in speaking of child-saving, says: "Would extended the ajgis of the State, making

the directors of a bank be satisfied with the least of these little ones understand

knowing that most of its funds were not that, though deprived of love and home by

stolon? Would the working of the pos- fate, he has still a mother-land whose care

tal department be considered satisfactory will guard him lovingly and whose honor

if simply a majority of the letters de- must be his sacred ideal.

DEPEW, CHATJNCEY MITCHELL

Depew, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL, capital- the following oration at the centennial of

ist; born in Peekskill, N. Y., April 23, Washington s inauguration as first Presi-

1834; graduated at Yale University in dent of the United States, in New York

1856; studied law and was admitted to City:

the bar in 1858; member of New York
Assembly in 1801-62; secretary of state

We celebrate to-day the centenary of

of New York in 1863. He became attorney our nationality. One hundred years ago
for the New York and Harlem River Rail- the United States began their existence,
road in 1866, and for the New York Cen- The powers of government were assumed

by the people of the republic, and 1 lies-
became the sole source of authority. The
solemn ceremonial of the first inaugura
tion, the reverent oath of Washington, the
acclaim of the multitude greeting their
President, marked the most unique event
of modern times in the development of free
institutions. The occasion was not an
accident, but a result. It was the culmina
tion of the working out by mighty forces
through many centuries of the problem of
self-government. It was not the triumph
of a system, the application of a theory,
or the reduction to practice of the ab
stractions of philosophy. The time, the
country, the heredity and environment of
the people, the folly of its enemies, and
the noble courage of its friends, gave to
liberty, after ages of defeat, of trial, of
experiment, of partial success and sub
stantial gains, this immortal victory.
Henceforth it had a refuge and recruiting
station. The oppressed found free homes
in this favored land, and invisible armies
marched from it by mail and telegraph,

tral and Hudson River Railroad in 1869. by speech and song, by precept and ex-
He was second vice-president of the last ample, to regenerate the world,
mentioned road in 1885-98, and also presi- Puritans in New England, Dutchmen in
dent of the West Shore Railroad until
1898,

CHAUSCET MITCHELL DEPEW.

the West Shore Railroad
when he became chairman of

New York, Catholics in Maryland, Hugue-
the nots in South Carolina, had felt the fires

board of directors of the New York Cen- of persecution and were wedded to re-
tral and Hudson River, the Lake Shore ligious liberty. They had been purified
and Michigan Southern, the Michigan in the furnace, and in high debate and on
Central, and the New York, Chicago, and bloody battle-fields had learned to sacri-
St. Louis railroads. In 1885 he refused to fice all material interests and to peril
be a candidate for the United States Sen- their lives for human rights. The prin-
ate, and also declined the office of United ciples of constitutional government had
States Secretary of State, offered by Presi- been impressed upon them by hundreds of
dent Benjamin Harrison. In 1888 he was years of struggle, and for each principle
a prominent candidate for the Presidential they could point to the grave of an an-
nomination in the National Republican cestor whose death attested the feroc its-
Convention, and in 1899 was elected of the fight and the value of the conces-
United States Senator from New York, sion wrung from arbitrary power. They
He is widely known as an orator and knew the limitations of authority, they
after-dinner speaker. could pledge their lives and fortunes to
Washington Centennial Oration. On resist encroachments upon their rights,
April 30, 1889, Senator Dfpew delivered but it required the lesson of Indian massa.-

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

cres, the invasion of the armies of France
from Canada, the tyranny of the British
crown, the seven years war of Revolu
tion, and the five years of chaos of the
Confederation to evolve the idea upon
which rest the power and permanency of
the republic, that liberty and union are
one and inseparable.

The traditions and experience of the
colonists had made them alert to discover
and quick to resist any peril to their lib
erties. Above all things, they feared and
distrusted power. The town-meetings
and the colonial legislature gave them
confidence in themselves, and courage to
check the royal governors. Their inter-

upon the field of Runnymede, which
wrested from King John Magna Charta,
that great charter of liberty, to which
Hallam, in the nineteenth century, bears
witness " that all which had been since
obtained is little more than as confirma
tion or commentary." There were the
grandchildren of the statesmen who had
summoned Charles before Parliament and
compelled his assent to the Petition of
Rights, which transferred power from the
crown to the commons, and gave repre
sentative government to the English-
speaking race. And there were those who
had sprung from the iron soldiers who
had fought and charged with Cromwell at

ests, hopes, and affections were in their Naseby and Dunbar and Marston Moor.

several commonwealths, and each blow by
the British ministry at their freedom,

Among its members were Huguenots,
whose fathers had followed the white

each attack upon their rights as English- plume of Henry of Navarre and in an age

men, weakened their love for the mother
land, and intensified their hostility to
the crown. But the same causes which

of bigotry, intolerance, and the deification
of absolutism had secured the great edict
of religious liberty from French despot-

broke down their allegiance to the central ism; and who had become a people with-

government increased their confidence in
their respective colonies, and their faith
in liberty was largely dependent upon the
maintenance of the sovereignty of their
several States. The farmers shot at Lex
ington echoed round the world, the spirit
which it awakened from its slumbers
could do and dare and die, but it had not

out a country, rather than surrender their
convictions and forswear their consciences.
In this Congress were those whose ances
tors were the countrymen of William of
Orange, the Beggars of the Sea, who had
survived the cruelties of Alva, and broken
the proud yoke of Philip of Spain, and
who had two centuries before made a

yet discovered the secret of the perma- declaration of independence and formed
nence and progress of free institutions, a federal union which were models of

freedom and strength.
These men were not

Patrick Henry thundered in the Virginia
convention ; James Otis spoke with trump-

revolutionists,

et tongue and fervid eloquence for united They were the heirs and the guardians of

action in Massachusetts; Hamilton, Jay,
and Clinton pledged New York to respond
with men and money for the common
cause; but their vision only saw a league

the priceless treasures of mankind. The
British King and his ministers were the
revolutionists. They were reactionaries,
seeking arbitrarily to turn back the hands

of independent colonies. The veil was not upon the dial of time. A year of doubt
yet drawn from before the vista of popu- and debate, the baptism of blood upon bat
tle-fields, where soldiers from every colony
fought, under a common standard, and

The Continental Congress partially consolidated the Continental army, grad-
grasped, but completely expressed, the ually lifted the soul and understanding of
central idea of the American republic, this immortal Congress to the sublime
fully

lation and power, of empire and liberty,
which would open with national union.

More fully than any other body which
ever assembled did it represent the victo-

declaration: "We, therefore, the repre
sentatives of the United States of Amer-

ries won from arbitrary power for human ica, in general Congress assembled, a-ppeal-

rights. In the New World it was the con
servator of liberties secured through cen-

ing to the Supreme Judge of the World
for the rectitude of our intentions, do,

turies of struggle in the Old. Among the in the name and by the authority of the

delegates were the descendants of the men
who had stood in that brilliant array

good people of these colonies, solemnly
publish and declare that these united

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

colonies are, and of right ought to be, tives and powers wrested from crown and

free and independent States." parliament. It condensed Magna Charta,

To this declaration John Hancock, pro- the Petition of Rights, the great body of
scribed and threatened with death, affixed English liberties embodied in the common
a signature which stood for a century like law and accumulated in the decisions of
the pointers to the north star in the fir- the courts, the statutes of the realm, and
mament of freedom; and Charles Carroll, an undisputed though unwritten constitu-
taunted that among many Carrolls, he, tion; but this original principle and &lt;ly-
the richest man in America, might escape, namic force of the people s power sprung
added description and identification with from these old seeds planted in the virgin
of Carrollton." Benjamin Harrison, a soil of the New World,
delegate from Virginia, the ancestor of More clearly than any statesman of the
the distinguished statesman and soldier period did Thomas Jefferson grasp and
who to-day so worthily fills the chair of divine the possibilities of popular govern-
Washington, voiced the unalterable de- ment. He caught and crystallized the
termination and defiance of the Congress, spirit of free institutions. His philosophi-
He seized John Hancock, upon whose head cal mind was singularly free from the
a price was set, in his arms, a-nd placing power of precedents or the chains of prcju-
him in the Presidential chair, said: "We dice. He had an unquestioning and abid-
\vill show Mother Britain how little we ing faith in the people, which was ac-
care for her by making our President a cepted by but few of his compatriots.
Massachusetts man, whom she has excluded Upon his famous axiom, of the equality
from pardon by public proclamation"; of all men before the law, he constructed
and when they were signing the declara- his system. It was the trip-hammer es-
tion, and the slender Elbridge Gerry ut- sential for the emergency to break the
torn! the grim pleasantry, " We must hang links binding the colonies to imperial au-
together or surely we will hang separate- thority, and to pulverize the privileges
ly," the portly Harrison responded with of caste. It inspired him to write the
a more daring humor, " It will be all over Declaration of Independence, and per-
with me in a moment, but you will be suaded him to doubt the wisdom of
kicking in the air half an hour after I the powers concentrated in the Con-
am gone." Thus flashed athwart the stitution. In his passionate love of
great charter, which was to be for the liberty he became intensely jealous of au-
signers a death-warrant or a diploma of thority. He destroyed the substance
immortality, as with firm hand, high pur- of royal prerogative, but never emerged
pose and undaunted resolution, they sub- from its shadow. He would have the
scribed their names, this mockery of fear States as the guardians of popular rights,
and the penalties of treason. and the barriers against centralization,

The grand central idea of the Declara- and he saw in the growing power of the
tion of Independence was the sovereignty nation ever - increasing encroachments
of the people. It relied for original power, upon the rights of the people. For the
not upon States or colonies, or their citi- success of the pure democracy which must
zens as such, but recognized as the au- precede presidents and cabinets and con-
thority for nationality the revolutionary gresses, it was, perhaps, providential that
rights of the people of the United States, its apostle never believed a great people
It stated with marvellous clearness the could grant and still reiain, could give
encroachments upon liberties which and at will reclaim, could delegate and
threatened their suppression and justified yet firmly hold the authority which ulti-
revolt, but it was inspired by the very mately created the power of their re-
genius of freedom, and the prophetic pos- public and enlarged the scope of their
sibilities of united commonwealths cover- own liberty.

ing the continent in one harmonious re- Where this master-mind halted, all
public, when it made the people of the stood still. The necessity for a permanent
thirteen colonies all Americans and de- union was apparent, but each State must
volved upon them to administer by them- have hold upon the bowstring which en-
selves, and for themselves, the preroga- circled its throat. It was admitted that

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

union gave the machinery required sue- temporary strength to the Confederation,
cessfully to fight the common enemy, but peace developed this fatal weakness. It
yet there was fear that it might become derived no authority from the people, and
a Frankenstein and destroy its creators, could not appeal to them. Anarchy
Thus patriotism and fear, difficulties of threatened its existence at home, and con-
communication between distant com- tempt met its representatives abroad,
munities, and the intense growth of " Can you fulfil or enforce the obliga-
provincial pride and interests, led this tions of the treaty on your part if we
Congress to frame the Articles of Con- sign one with you?" was the sneer of the
federation, happily termed the League of courts of the Old World to our ambassa-
Friendship. The result was not a govern- dors. Some States gave a half-hearted
ment, but a ghost. By this scheme the support to its demands; others defied
American people were ignored and the them. The loss of public credit was
Declaration of Independence reversed. The speedily followed by universal bankruptcy.
States, by their legislatures, elected dele- The wildest fantasies assumed the force
gates to Congress, and the delegate rep- of serious measures for the relief of the
resented the sovereignty of his common- general distress. States passed exclusive
wealth. All the States had an equal and hostile laws against each other, and
voice without regard to their size or popu- riot and disorder threatened the disin-
lation. It required the vote of nine States tegration of society. " Our stock is stolen,
to pass any bill, and five could block the our houses are plundered, our farms are
wheels of government. Congress had none raided," cried a delegate in the Massa-
of the powers essential to sovereignty. It chusetts Convention ; " despotism is better
could neither levy taxes nor impose duties than anarchy!" To raise $4,000,000 a
nor collect excise. For the support of year was beyond the resources of the gov-
the army and navy, for the purposes of eminent, and $300,000 was the limit of the
war, for the preservation of its own func- loan it could secure from the money-lend-
tions, it could only call upon the States, ers of Europe. Even Washington ex-
but it possessed no power to enforce its claimed in despair : " I see one head
demands. It had no president or executive gradually changing into thirteen; I see
authority, no supreme court with gen- one army gradually branching into thir-
eral jurisdiction, and no national power, teen ; which, instead of looking up to Con-
Each of the thirteen States had seaports gress as the supreme controlling power,
and levied discriminating duties against are considering themselves as depending
the others, and could also tax and thus on their respective States." And later,
prohibit interstate commerce across its w j hen independence had been won, the
territory. Had the Confederation been a impotency of the government wrung from
union instead of a league, it could have him the exclamation: "After gloriously
raised and equipped three times the num- and successfully contending against the
ber of men contributed by reluctant States, usurpation of Great Britain, we may fall
and conquered independence without for- a prey to our own folly and disputes."
eign assistance. This paralyzed govern- But even through this Cimmerian dark-
ment, without strength, because it could ness shot a flame which illuminated the
not enforce its decrees ; without credit, coming century and kept bright the beacon
because it could pledge nothing for the fires of liberty. The architects of constitu-
payment of its debts ; without respect, tional freedom formed their institutions
because without inherent authority; with wisdom which forecasted the future,
would, by its feeble life and early death, They may not have understood at first the
have added another to the historic trag- whole truth, but, for that which they
edies which have in many lands marked knew, they had the martyrs spirit and the
the suppression of freedom, had it not crusaders enthusiasm. Though the Con-
been saved by the intelligent, inherited, federation was a government of checks
and invincible understanding of liberty without balances, and of purpose without
by the people, and the genius and pa- power, the statesmen who guided it
triotism of their leaders. demonstrated often the resistless force of
But while the perils of war had given great souls animated by the purest pa-

DEPEW, CHATJNCEY MITCHELL

triotism, and united in judgment and
effort to promote the common good, by
lofty appeals and high reasoning, to ele
vate the masses above local greed and
apparent self-interest to their own broad
plane.

The most significant triumph of these
moral and intellectual forces was that
which secured the assent of the States to
the limitation of their boundaries, to the
grant of the wilderness beyond them to
the general government, and to the in
sertion in the ordinance erecting the
Northwest Territories, of the immortal
proviso prohibiting " slavery or invol
untary servitude " within all that broad
domain. The States carved out of this
splendid concession were not sovereign
ties which had successfully rebelled, but
they were the children of the Union, born
of the covenant and thrilled with its life
and liberty. They became the bulwarks
of nationality and the buttresses of free
dom. Their preponderating strength first
checked and then broke the slave power,
their fervid loyalty halted and held at
bay the spirit of State rights and seces
sion for generations; and when the crisis
came, it was with their overwhelming as
sistance that the nation killed and buried
its enemy. The corner-stone of the edifice
whose centenary we are celebrating was
the ordinance of 1787. It was constructed
by the feeblest of Congresses, but few en
actments of ancient or modern times have
had more far-reaching or beneficial in
fluence. It is one of the sublimest para
doxes of history that this weak confed
eration of States should have welded the
chain against which, after seventy-four
years of fretful efforts for release, its
own spirit frantically dashed and died.

The government of the republic by a
Congress of States, a diplomatic con
vention of the ambassadors of petty com
monwealths, after seven years trial was
falling asunder. Threatened with civil
war among its members, insurrection and
lawlessness rife within the States, foreign
commerce ruined and internal trade para
lyzed, its currency worthless, its mer
chants bankrupt, its farms mortgaged, its
markets closed, its labor unemployed, it
was like a helpless wreck upon the ocean,
tossed about by the tides and ready to be
engulfed by the storm. Washington gave

the warning and called for action. It was
a voice accustomed to command, but now
entreating. The veterans of the war and
the statesmen of the Revolution stepped
to the front. The patriotism which had
been misled, but had never faltered, rose
above its interests of States and the
jealousies of jarring confederates to find
the basis for union. " It is clear to
me as A B C," said Washington, " that
an extension of federal powers would
make us one of the most happy, wealthy,
respectable, and powerful nations that
ever inhabited the terrestrial globe. With
out them we should soon be everything
which is the direct reverse. I predict the
worst consequences from a half-starved,
limping government, always moving upon
crutches, and tottering at every step."
The response of the country was the con
vention of 1787, at Philadelphia. The
Declaration of Independence was but the
vestibule of the temple which this illustri
ous assembly erected. With no successful
precedents to guide, it auspiciously
worked out the problem of constitutional
government, and of imperial power and
home rule, supplementing each other in
promoting the grandeur of the nation and
preserving the liberty of the individual.

The deliberations of great councils have
vitally affected, at different periods, the
history of the world and the fate of em
pires, but this congress builded, upon
popular sovereignty, institutions broad
enough to embrace the continent, and
elastic enough to fit all conditions of race
and traditions. The experience of a hun
dred years has demonstrated for us the
perfection of the work, for defence against
foreign foes and for self-preservation
against domestic insurrections, for limit
less expansion in population and material
development, and for steady growth in
intellectual freedom and force. Its con
tinuing influence upon the welfare and
destiny of the human race can only be
measured by the capacity of man to culti
vate and enjoy the boundless opportuni
ties of liberty and law. The eloquent
characterization of Mr. Gladstone con
denses its merits: "The American Consti
tution is the most wonderful work ever
struck off at a given time by the brain
and purpose of man."

The statesmen who composed this great

DEPEW, CHATJNCEY MITCHELL

senate were equal to their trust. Their lender the advantage of their position,

conclusions were the result of calm de- and the smaller States saw the danger to

bate and wise concession. Their character their existence. Roman conquest and as-

and abilities were so pure and great as similation had strewn the shores of time

to command the confidence of the country with the wrecks of empires, and plunged

for the reversal of the policy of the in- civilization into the perils and horrors of

dependence of the State of the power of the dark ages. The government of Crom-

the general government, which had well was the isolated power of the might-

hitherto been the invariable practice and iest man of his age, without popular au-

almost universal opinion, and for the thority to fill his place or the hereditary

adoption of the idea of the nation and its principle to protect his successor. The

supremacy. past furnished no light for our State

Towering in majesty and influence builders, the present was full of doubt
above them all stood Washington, their and despair. The future, the experiment
President. Beside him was the vener- of self-government, the perpetuity and
able Franklin, who, though eighty-one development of freedom, almost the
years of age, brought to the deliberations destiny of mankind, was in their hands,
of the convention the unimpaired vigor At this crisis the courage and confi-
and resources of the wisest brain, the dence needed to originate a system
most hopeful philosophy, and the largest weakened. The temporizing spirit of
experience of the times. Oliver Ells- compromise seized the convention with
worth, afterwards chief-justice of the the alluring proposition of not proceed-
United States, and the profoundest juror ing faster than the people could be edu-
in the country ; Robert Morris, the won- cated to follow. The cry, " Let us not
derful financier of the Revolution, and waste our labor upon conclusions which
Gouverneur Morris, the most versatile will not be adopted, but amend and ad-
genius of his period; Roger Sherman, one journ," was assuming startling unanim-
of the most eminent of the signers of ity. But the supreme force and majestic
the Declaration of Independence ; and sense of Washington brought the assem-
John Rutledge, Rufus King, Elbridge blage to the lofty plane of its duty and
Gerry, Edmund Randolph, and the Pinck- opportunity. He said : " It is too prob-
neys, were leaders of unequalled patriot- able that no plan we propose will be
ism, courage, ability, and learning; while adopted. Perhaps another dreadful con-
Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, flict is to be sustained. If, to please the
as original thinkers and constructive people, we offer what we ourselves dis-
statesmen, rank among the immortal few approve, how can we afterwards defend
whose opinions have for ages guided our work? Let us raise a standard to
ministers of state, and determined the which the wise and honest can repair:
destinies of nations. the event is in the hands of God." " 1

This great convention keenly felt, and am the state," said Louis XIV., but his

with devout and serene intelligence met, line ended in the grave of absolutism.

its tremendous responsibilities. It had " Forty centuries look down upon you,"

the moral support of the few whose aspi- was Napoleon s address to his army in

rations for liberty had been inspired or the shadow of the Pyramids, but his

renewed by the triumph of the American soldiers saw only the dream of Eastern

Revolution, and the active hostility of empire vanish in blood. Statesmen and

every government in the world. parliamentary leaders have sunk into

There were no examples to follow, and oblivion or led their party to defeat by

the experience of its members led part of surrendering their convictions to the

them to lean towards absolute central- passing passions of the hour; but Wash-

i/ation as the only refuge from the an- ington in this immortal speech struck

archy of the confederation, while the rest the keynote of representative obligation,

clung to the sovereignty of the States, for and propounded the fundamental prin-

fear that the concentration of power ciple of the purity and perpetuity of

would end in the absorption of liberty, constitutional government.

The large States did not want to sur- Freed from the limitations of its en-
it ;

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

vironment, and the question of the adop- and yet enlarge its scope and broaden its

tion of its work, the convention erected powers, and to make the name of an

its government upon the eternal foun- American citizen a title of honor through-

dations cf the power of the people. It dis- out the world, came complete from this

missed the delusive theory of a compact great convention to the people for adop-

between independent States, and derived tion. As Hancock rose from his seat in

national power from the people of the the old Congress, eleven years before, to

United States. It broke up the ma- sign the Declaration of Independence,

chinery of the Confederation and put in Franklin saw emblazoned on the back of

practical operation the glittering gener- the President s chair the sun partly above

alities of the Declaration of Independence, the horizon, but it seemed setting in a

From chaos came order, from insecurity blood-red sky. During the seven years of

came safety, from disintegration and civil the Confederation he had gathered no

war came law and liberty, with the prin- hope from the glittering emblem, but now,

ciple proclaimed in the preamble of the as with clear vision he beheld fixed upon

great charter: "We, the people of the eternal foundations the enduring struct-

United States, in order to form a more ure of constitutional liberty, pointing to

perfect union, establish justice, insure the sign, he forgot his eighty-two years,

domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- and with the enthusiasm of youth elec-

mon defence, promote the general welfare, trifled the convention with the declara-

and secure the blessings of liberty to our- tion: "Now I know that it is the rising

selves and our posterity, do ordain and sun."

establish this Constitution for the United The pride of the States and the am-

States." With a wisdom inspired of God, bition of their leaders, sectional jealousies,

to work out upon this continent the lib- and the overwhelming distrust of central-

erty of man, they solved the problem of ized power, were all arrayed against the

the ages by blending and yet preserving adoption of the Constitution. North

local self-government with national au- Carolina and Khode Island refused to join

thority, and the rights of the States with the Union until long after Washington s

the majesty and power of the republic, inauguration. For months New York was

The government of the States, under the debatable ground. Her territory, extend-

Articles of Confederation, became bank- ing from the sea to the lakes, made her

rupt because it could not raise $4,000,000; the keystone of the arch. Had Arnold s

the government of the Union, under the treason in the Revolution not been foiled

Constitution of the United States, raised by the capture of Andre 1 , England would

$6,000,000.000, its credit growing firmer have held New York and subjugated the

as its power and resources were demon- colonies, and in this crisis, unless Now

strated. The Congress of the Confed- York assented, a hostile and powerful

eration fled from a regiment which it commonwealth dividing the States made

could not pay; the Congress of the Union the Union impossible.

reviewed the comrades of 1,000,000 of Success was due to confidence in Wash-
its victorious soldiers, saluting, as they ington and the genius of Alexander Ham-
marched, the flag of the nation, whose ilton. Jefferson was the inspiration of
supremacy they had sustained. The independence, but Hamilton was the in-
promises of the confederacy were the scoff carnation of the Constitution. In no age
of its States ; the pledge of the republic or country has there appeared a more
was the honor of its people. precocious or amazing intelligence than
The Constitution, which was to be Hamilton. At seventeen he annihilated
straightened by the strains of a century, the president of his college upon the ques-
to be a mighty conqueror without a sub- tion of the rights of the colonies in a series
ject province, to triumphantly survive of anonymous articles which were credited
the greatest of civil wars without the con- to the ablest men in the country; at
fiscation of an estate or the execution of forty-seven, when he died, his briefs had
a political offender, to create and grant become the law of the land, and his
home rule and State sovereignty to fiscal system was, and after 100 years re-
twenty-nine additional commonwealths, mains, the rule and policy of our govern-

Ofi

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

inent. He gave life to the corpse of na
tional credit, and the strength for self-
possession and aggressive power to the
federal union. Both as an expounder of
the principles and an administrator of
the affairs of government he stands su
preme and unrivalled in American his
tory. His eloquence was so magnetic, his
language so clear and his reasoning so
irresistible, that he swayed with equal
ease popular assemblies, grave senates,
and learned judges. He captured the peo
ple of the whole country for the Constitu
tion by his papers in The Federalist, and
conquered the hostile majority in the New
York convention by the splendor of his
oratory.

But the multitudes whom no arguments
could convince, who saw in the executive
power and centralized force of the Con
stitution, under another name, the dread
ed usurpation of king and ministry, were
satisfied only with the assurance, " Wash
ington will be President." . " Good," cried
John Lamb, the able leader of the Sons
of Liberty, as he dropped his opposition,
" for to no other mortal would I trust
authority so enormous." " Washington
will be President " was the battle-cry of
the Constitution. It quieted alarm and
gave confidence to the timid and courage
to the weak. The country responded with
enthusiastic unanimity, but the chief with
the greatest reluctance. In the supreme
moment of victory, when the world ex
pected him to follow the precedents of the
past and perpetuate the power a grateful
country would willingly have left in his
hands, he had resigned and retired to
Mount Vernon to enjoy in private sta
tion his well-earned rest. The convention
created by his exertions to prevent, as he
said, " the decline of our federal dignity
into insignificant and wretched fragments
of empire," had called him to preside over
its deliberations. Its work made possible
the realization of his hope that " we
might survive as an independent repub
lic," and again he sought the seclusion of
his home. But, after the triumph of the
war and the formation of the Constitu
tion, came the third and final crisis: the
initial movements of government which
were to teach the infant State the steadier
steps of empire.

He alone could stay assault and in

spire confidence while the great and com
plicated machinery of organized govern
ment was put in order and set in motion.
Doubt existed nowhere except in his mod
est and unambitious heart. " My move
ments to the chair of government," he
said, " will be accompanied by feelings
not unlike those of a culprit who is going
to the place of his execution. So unwill
ing am I, in the evening of life, nearly
consumed in public cares, to quit a peace
ful abode for an ocean of difficulties, with
out that competency of political skill,
abilities, and inclination, which are neces
sary to manage the helm." His whole
life had been spent in repeated sacrifices
for his country s welfare, and he did not
hesitate now, though there is an under
tone of inexpressible sadness in this entry
in his diary on the night of his departure:
" About 10 o clock I bade adieu to Mount
Vernon, to private life, and to domestic
felicity, and with a mind oppressed with
more anxious and painful sensations than
I have words to express, set out for New
York with the best disposition to render
service to my country in obedience to its
call, but with less hope of answering its
expectations."

No conqueror was ever accorded such a
triumph, no ruler ever accorded such a
welcome. In this memorable march of
six days to the capital, it was the pride
of States to accompany him with the
masses of their people to their borders,
that the citizens of the next common
wealth might escort him through its terri
tory. It was the glory of cities to re
ceive him with every civic honor at their
gates, and entertain him as the savior of
their liberties. He rode under triumphal
arches from which children lowered laurel
wreaths upon his brow. The roadways
were strewn with flowers, and as they
were crushed beneath his horse s hoofs,
their sweet incense wafted to heaven the
ever-ascending prayers of his loving
countrymen for his life and safety. The
swelling anthem of gratitude and rever
ence greeted and followed him along the
country - side and through the crowded
streets : " Long live George Washington !
Long live the father of his people!"

His entry into New York was worthy
the city and State. He was met by the
chief officers of the retiring government

ill.

DEPEW, CHATTNCEY MITCHELL

of the country, by the governor of the and of hope from the generous assistance

commonwealth, and the whole population, of France, and peace had come and inde-

This superb harbor was alive with fleets pendence triumphed. As the last soldier

and flags, and the ships of other na- of the invading enemy embarks, Wash-

tions, with salutes from their guns and ington, at the head of the patriotic host,

the cheers of their crews, added to the enters the city, receives the welcome and

joyous acclaim. But as the captains who gratitude of its people, and in the tavern

had asked the privilege, bending proudly which faces us across the way, in silence

to their oars, rowed the President s barge more eloquent than speech, and with

swiftly through these inspiring scenes, tears which choke the words, he bids

Washington s mind and heart were full farewell forever to his companions in

of reminiscence and foreboding.

arms. Such were the crowding memories

He had visited New York thirty-three of the past suggested to Washington in
years before, also in the month of April, 1789 by his approach to New York. But
in the full perfection of his early man- the future had none of the splendor of
hood, fresh from Braddock s bloody field, precedent and brilliance of promise which
and wearing the only laurels of the battle,
bearing the prophetic blessing of the ven
erable President Davies, of Princeton Col
lege, as " that heroic youth Colonel Wash

have since attended the inauguration of
our Presidents. An untried scheme,
adopted mainly because its administra
tion was to be confided to him, was to

ington, whom I cannot but hope Provi- be put in practice. He knew that he was
dence has hitherto preserved in so signal to be met at every step of constitutional
a manner for some important service to progress by factions temporarily hushed
the country." It was a fair daughter of into unanimity by the terrific force of
our State whose smiles allured him here, the tidal wave which was bearing him to
and whose coy confession that her heart the President s seat, but fiercely hostile
was another s recorded his only failure upon questions affecting every power of
and saddened his departure. Twenty years nationality and the existence of the
passed, and he stood before the New York federal government.
Congress, on this very spot, the unani
mously chosen commander-in-chief of the on great occasions he not only rose to the
Continental army, urging the people to full ideal of the event, he became him-
more vigorous measures, and made pain- self the event. One hundred years ago to-
fully aware of the increased despera- day, the procession of foreign ambassa-
tion of the strusrsle, from the aid

Washington was never dramatic, but

dors, of statesmen and generals, of civic
domestic societies and military companies, which

struggle, from

to be given to the enemy by

sympathizers, when he knew that the escorted him, marched from Franklin

same local military company which es- Square to Pearl street, through Pearl to

corted him was to perform the like ser- Broad, and up Broad to this spot, but

vice for the British Governor Tryon on the people saw only Washington. As he

his landing on the morrow. Returning
tor the defence of the city the next sum-

stood upon the steps of the old govern
ment building here, the thought must

mer, he executed the retreat from Long have occurred to him that it was a cradle

Island, which secured from Frederick the of liberty, and, as such, giving a bright

Great the opinion that a great com- omen for the future. In these halls in

mander had appeared, and at Harlem 1735, in the trial of John Zenger, had

Heights he won the first American vie- been established, for the first time in its

tory of the Revolution, which gave that history, the liberty of the press. Hero

confidence to our raw recruits against the the New York Assembly, in 1704. m;i&lt;lc

famous veterans of Europe which carried the protest against the Stamp Act, and

our army triumphantly through the war. proposed the general conference, which

Six years more of untold sufferings, was the beginning of united colonial ac-

of freezing and starving camps, of tion. In this old State-house, in 17&lt;r&gt;.
the snow by

marches over

snow by barefooted the Stamp Act Congress, the first and the
attack and splendid father of American congresses, assembled

soldiers to heroic

victory, of despair with an unpaid army, and presented to the English government

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

that vigorous protest which caused the with responding acclaim all over the

repeal of the act and checked the first land : " Long live George Washington,

step towards the usurpation which lost the President of the United States!"

American colonies to the British Empire. The simple and imposing ceremony over,

Within these walls the Congress of the the inaugural read, the blessing of God

Confederation had commissioned its am- prayerfully petitioned in old St. Paul s,

bassadors abroad, and in ineffectual efforts the festivities passed, and Washington

at government had created the necessity stood alone. No one else could take

for the concentration of federal authority, the helm of state, and enthusiast and

now to be consummated. doubter alike trusted only him. The

The first Congress of the United States teachings and habits of the past had edu-
gathered in this ancient temple of liberty, cated the people to faith in the indepen-
greeted Washington, and accompanied him dence of their States, and for the supreme
to the balcony. The famous men visible authority of the new government there
about him were Chancellor Livingston, stood against the precedent of a century
Vice-President John Adams, Alexander and the passions of the hour little besides
Hamilton, Governor Clinton, Roger Sher- the arguments of Hamilton, Madison, and
man, Richard Henry Lee, General Knox, Jay in The Federalist, and the judgment
and Baron Steuben. But we believe that of Washington. With the first attempt
among the invisible host above him, at to exercise national power began the duel
this supreme moment of the culmination to the death between State sovereignty,
in permanent triumph of the thousands claiming the right to nullify federal laws
of years of struggle for self-government, or to secede from the Union, and the
were the spirits of the soldiers of the power of the republic to command the re-
Revolution who had died that their coun- sources of the country, to enforce its au-
try might enjoy this blessed day, and thority, and protect its life. It was the
with them were the barons of Runny- beginning of the sixty years war for the
mede, and William the Silent, and Sidney, Constitution and the nation. It seared
and Russell, and Cromwell, and Hampden, consciences, degraded politics, destroyed
and the heroes and martyrs of liberty of parties, ruined statesmen, and retarded
every race and age. the advance and development of the conn-

As he came forward, the multitude in try; it sacrificed thousands of precious
the streets, in the windows, and on the lives and squandered thousands of
roofs sent up such a rapturous shout that millions of money; it desolated the fair-
Washington sat down overcome with emo- est portion of the land, and carried mourn-
tion. As he slowly rose and his tall and ing into every home, North and South;
majestic form again appeared, the people, but it. ended at Appomattox in the abso-
deeply affected, in awed silence viewed the lute triumph of the republic,
scene. The chancellor solemnly read to Posterity owes to Washington s ad-
him the oath of office, and Washington, ministration the policy and measures, the
repeating, said: "I do solemnly swear force and direction, which made possible
that I will faithfully execute the office of this glorious result. In giving the organ-
President of the United States, and will, ization of the Department of State and
to the best of my ability, preserve, pro- foreign relations to Jefferson, the Treas-
tect, and defend the Constitution of the ury to Hamilton, and the Supreme Court
United States." Then he reverently bent to Jay, he selected for his cabinet and
low and kissed the Bible, uttering with called to his assistance the ablest and
profound emotion: "So help me, God." most eminent men of his time. Hamil-
The chancellor waved his robes and shout- ton s marvellous versatility and genius
ed: "It is done; long live George Wash- designed the armory and the weapons for
ington, President of the United States!" the promotion of national power and
" Long live George Washington, our first greatness, but Washington s steady sup-
President!" was the answering cheer of port carried them through. Parties
the people, and from the belfries rang the crystallized, and party passions were in-
bells, and from forts and ships thundered tense, debates were intemperate, and the
the cannon, echoing and repeating the cry Union openly threatened and secretly

DEPEW, CHATTNCEY MITCHELL

plotted against, as the firm pressure of the Deity and believed liberty impossible
this mighty personality funded the debt without law. He spoke to the sober judg-
and established credit, assumed the State ment of the nation, and made clear the
debts incurred in the War of the Revo- danger. He saved the infant government
lution and superseded the local by the from ruin, and expelled the French minis-
national obligation, imposed duties upon ter who had appealed from him to the
imports and excise upon spirits, and ere- people. The whole land, seeing safety only
ated revenue and resources, organized a in his continuance in office, joined Jeffer-
national banking system for public needs son in urging him to accept a second term,
and private business, and called out an " North and South," pleaded the Secre-
army to put down by force of arms resist- tary, " will hang together while they have
ance to the federal laws imposing un- you to hang to."

popular taxes. Upon the plan marked No man ever stood for so much to his
out by the Constitution, this great ar- country and to mankind as George Wash-
chitect, with unfailing faith and unfalter- ington. Hamilton, Jefferson and Adams,
ing courage, builded the republic. He Madison and Jay, each represented some
gave to the government the principles of of the elements which formed the Union,
action and sources of power which carried Washington embodied them all. They
it successfully through the wars with fell, at times, under popular disapprov-
Great Britain in 1812 and Mexico in 1848, al, were burned in effigy, were stoned,
which enabled Jackson to defeat nullifica- but he, with unerring judgment, was
tion, and recruited and equipped millions always the leader of the people. Milton
of men for Lincoln, and justified and said of Cromwell, "that war made him
sustained his proclamation of emancipa- great, peace greater." The superiority
tion. f Washington s character and genius
The French Revolution was the bloody were more conspicuous in the formation
reality of France and the nightmare of the of our government and in putting it
civilized world. The tyranny of centuries on indestructible foundations than in
culminated in frightful reprisals and reck- leading armies to victory and conquering
less revenges. As parties rose to power the independence of his country. The
and passed to the guillotine, the frenzy of Union in any event," is the central
the revolt against all authority reached thought of his farewell address, and all
every country and captured the imagina- the years of his grand life were devoted
tions and enthusiasm of millions in every to its formation and preservation. He
land, who believed they saw that the mad- fought as a youth with Braddock and in
ness of anarchy, the overturning of all the capture of Fort Duquesne for the pro-
institutions, the confiscation and distribu- tection of the whole country. As com-
tion of property, would end in a millenni- mander-in-chief of the Continental army,
urn for the masses and the universal his commission was from the Congress
brotherhood of man. Enthusiasm for of the united colonies. He inspired
France, our late ally, and the terrible the movement for the republic, was the
commercial and industrial distress occa- president and dominant spirit of the con-
sioned by the failure of the government vention which framed its Constitution,
under the Articles of Confederation, and its President for eight years, and
aroused an almost unanimous cry for guided its course until satisfied that, mov-
the young republic, not yet sure of its ing safely along the broad highway of
own existence, to plunge into the vor- time, it would be surely ascending towards
tex. The ablest and purest statesmen of the first place among the nations of the
the time bent to the storm, but Washing- world, the asylum of the oppressed, the
ton was unmoved. He stood like the rock- home of the free.

ribbed coast of a continent between the Do his countrymen exaggerate his vir-

surging billows of fanaticism and the child tues? Listen to Gui/ot, the historian of

of his love. Order is Heaven s first law, civilization: "Washington did the two

and the mind of Washington was order, greatest things which in politics it is

The Revolution defied God and derided permitted to man to attempt. He main-

the law Washington devoutly reverenced tained by peace the independence of his

100

DEPEW, CHATTNCEY MITCHELL

country which he conquered by war. He clouds overhead and no convulsions under
founded a free government in the name our feet. We reverently return thanks
of the principles of order and by re- to Almighty God for the past, and with
establishing their sway." Hear Lord confident and hopeful promise march upon
Erskine, the most famous of English ad- sure ground towards the future. The sim-
vocates: "You are the only being for pie facts of these 100 years paralyze the
whom I have an awful reverence." Re- imagination, and we contemplate the vast
member the tribute of Charles James Fox, accumulations of the century with awe
the greatest parliamentary orator who and pride. Our population has grown
ever swayed the British House of Com- from 4,000,000 to 65,000,000. Its centre,
mons: "Illustrious man, before whom all moving westward 500 miles since 1789, is
borrowed greatness sinks into insig- eloquent with the founding of cities and
nificance." Contemplate the character the birth of States. New settlements,
of Lord Brougham, pre-eminent for two clearing the forests and subduing the
generations in every department of hu- prairies, and adding 4,000,000 to the few
man activity and thought, and then im- thousands of farms which were the sup
press upon the memories of your children port of Washington s republic, create one
his deliberate judgment : " Until time of the great granaries of the world, and
shall be no more will a test of the prog- open exhaustless reservoirs of national
ress which our race has made in wisdom wealth.

and virtue be derived from the venera- The infant industries, which the first
tion paid to the immortal name of Wash- act of our first administration sought to
ington." encourage, now give remunerative employ-
Chatham, who, with Clive, conquered ment to more people than inhabited the re-
an empire in the East, died broken- public at the beginning of Washington s
hearted at the loss of the empire in the Presidency. The grand total of their
West, by follies which even his power annual output of $7,000,000,000 in value
and eloquence could not prevent. Pitt places the United States first among the
saw the vast creations of his diplomacy manufacturing countries of the earth,
shattered at Austerlitz, and fell murmur- One-half the total mileage of all the rail
ing: "My country! how I leave my roads, and one-quarter of all the telegraph
country!" Napoleon caused a noble lines of the world within our borders,
tribute to Washington to be read at the testify to the volume, variety, and value
head of his armies, but, unable to rise of an internal commerce which makes
to Washington s greatness, witnessed the these States, if need be, independent
vast structure erected by conquest and and self-supporting. These 100 years of
cemented by blood, to minister to his own development under favoring political con-
ambition and pride, crumble into frag- ditions have brought the sum of our na-
ments, and, an exile and a prisoner, he tional wealth to a figure which has passed
breathed his last babbling of battle-fields the results of 1,000 years for the mother-
and carnage. Washington, with his finger land herself, otherwise the richest of mod-
upon his pulse, felt the presence of death, ern empires.

and, calmly reviewing the past and fore- During this generation, a civil war of

casting the future, answered to the sum- unequalled magnitude caused the expendi-

mons of the grim messenger, " It is well," ture and loss of $8,000,000,000, and kill-

and, as his mighty soul ascended to God, ed 600,000, and permanently disabled over

the land was deluged with tears and the 1,000,000 young men, and yet the impetu-

world united in his eulogy. Blot out from ous progress of the North and the mar-

the page of history the names of all the vellous industrial development of the new

great actors of his time in the drama of and free South have obliterated the evi-

nations, and preserve the name of Wash- deuces of destruction, and made the war

ington, and the century would be re- a memory, and have stimulated pro-

nowned. duction until our annual surplus nearly

We stand to-day upon the dividing line equals that of England, France, and Ger-

between the first and second century of many combined. The teeming millions of

constitutional government. There are no Asia till the patient soil and work the

101

DEPEW, CHAUNCEY MITCHELL

shuttle and loom as their fathers have
done for ages ; modern Europe has felt the
influence and received the benefit of the in
calculable multiplication of force by in
ventive genius since the Napoleonic wars;
and yet, only 269 years after the little
band of Pilgrims landed on Plymouth
Rock, our people, numbering less than
one-fifteenth of the inhabitants of the
globe, do one-third of its mining, one-
fourth of its manufacturing, one-fifth of
its agriculture, and own one-sixth of its
wealth.

This realism of material prosperity,
surpassing the wildest creations of the ro
mancers who have astonished and delighted
mankind, would be full of dangers for
the present and menace for the future, if
the virtue, intelligence, and independence
of the people were not equal to the wise
regulation of its uses and the stern pre
vention of its abuses. But following the
growth and power of the great factors,
whose aggregation of capital made possible
the tremendous pace of the settlement
of our national domain, the building of
our great cities and the opening of the
lines of communications which have
united our country and created our re
sources, have come national and State
legislation and supervision. Twenty mill
ions, a vast majority of our people of in
telligent age, acknowledging the author
ity of their several churches, 12,000,000
of children in the common schools, 345
universities and colleges for the higher
education of men and 200 for women, 450
institutions of learning for science, law,
medicine, and theology, are the despair of
the scoffer and the demagogue, and the
firm support of civilization and liberty.

Steam and electricity have changed the
commerce not only, they have revolution
ised also the governments of the world.
They have given to the press its power,
and brought all races and nationalities
into touch and sympathy. They have test
ed and are trying the strength of all sys
tems to stand the strain and conform to
the conditions which follow the germinat
ing influences of American democracy. At
the time of the inauguration of Washing
ton, seven royal families ruled as many
kingdoms in Italy, but six of them have
seen their thrones overturned and their

rope. Most of the kings, princes, dukes,
and margraves of Germany, who reigned
despotically, and sold their soldiers for
foreign service, have passed into history,
and their heirs have neither prerogatives
nor domain. Spain has gone through
many violent changes, and the permanency
of her present government seems to depend
upon the feeble life of an infant prince.
1 Yaiu c. our ancient friend, with repeated
and bloody revolution, has tried the gov
ernment of Bourbon and convention, of di
rectory and consulate, of empire and citi
zen king, of hereditary sovereign and re
public, of empire, and again republic. The
llapsbnrg and Hohenzollern, after convul
sions which have rocked the foundations
of their thrones, have been compelled to
concede constitutions to their people and
to divide with them the arbitrary power
wielded so autocratically and brilliantly
by Maria Theresa and Frederick the Great.
The royal will of George III. could crowd
the American colonies into rebellion, and
wage war upon them until they were lost
to his kingdom, but the authority of the
crown has devolved upon ministers who
hold office subject to the approval of
the representatives of the people, and
the equal powers of the House of Lords
have been vested in the Commons, leaving
to the peers only the shadow of their an
cient privileges. But to-day the American
people, after all the dazzling developments
of the century, are still happily living un
der the government of Washington. The
Constitution during all that period has
been amended only upon the lines laid
down in the original instrument, and in
conformity with the recorded opinions of
the Fathers. The first great addition was
the incorporation of a bill of rights, and
the last the embedding into the Constitu
tion of the immortal principle of the
Declaration of Independence of the
equality of all men before the law. No
crisis has been too perilous for its powers,
no revolution too rapid for its adaptation,
and no expansion beyond its easy grasp
and administration. It has assimilated
diverse nationalities with warring tradi
tions, customs, conditions, and languages,
imbued them with its spirit, and won their
pas-ionate loyalty and love.

The flower of the vouth of the nations

rnuntries disappear from the map of Eu- of continental Kurope are conscripted from

^ i s\ r\

DEPEW DERMER

productive industries and drilling in
camps. Vast armies stand in battle array
along the frontiers, and a kaiser s whim
or a minister s mistake may precipitate
the most destructive war of modern times.
Both monarchical and republican govern
ments are seeking safety in the repression
and suppression of opposition and criti
cism. The volcanic forces of democratic
aspiration and socialistic revolt are rapid
ly increasing and threaten peace and se
curity. We turn from these gathering
storms to the British Isles and find their
people in the throes of a political crisis in
volving the form and substance of their
government, and their statesmen far from
confident that the enfranchised and un
prepared masses will wisely use their
power.

But for us no army exhausts our re
sources nor consumes our youth. Our
navy must needs increase in order that the
protecting flag may follow the expanding
commerce which is successfully to compete
in all the markets of the world. The sun
of our destiny is still rising, and its rays
illumine vast territories as yet unoccu
pied and undeveloped, and which are to
be the happy homes of millions of people.
The questions which affect the powers of
government and the expansion or limita
tion of the authority of the federal Con
stitution are so completely settled, and so
unanimously approved, that our political
divisions produce only the healthy antag
onism of parties, which is necessary for
the preservation of liberty. Our insti
tutions furnish the full equipment of
shield and spear for the battles of freedom,
and absolute protection against every dan
ger which threatens the welfare of the peo
ple will always be found in the intelli
gence which appreciates their vahie, and
the courage and morality with which
their powers are exercised. The spirit of
\Vashington fills the executive office.
Presidents may not rise to the full meas
ure of his greatness, but they must not
fall below his standard of public duty
and obligation. His life and character,
conscientiously studied and thoroughly
understood by coming generations, will
bo for them a liberal education for pri
vate life and public station, for citizen
ship and patriotism, for love and devotion
to union and liberty. With their inspir-

103

ing past and splendid present, the people
of these United States, heirs of 100 years
marvellously rich in all which adds to
the glory and greatness of a nation, with
an abiding trust in the stability and elas
ticity of their Constitution, and an
abounding faith in themselves, hail the
coming century with hope and joy.

De Peyster, ABRAHAM, jurist; born in
New Amsterdam (New York), July 8,
1658; eldest son of Johannes De Peyster,
a noted merchant of his day. Between 1691
and 1695 he was mayor of the city of
New York; was first assistant justice and
then chief-justice of New York, and was
one of the King s council under Governor
Hyde (afterwards Lord Cornbury), and
as its president was acting-governor for
a time in 1701. Judge De Peyster was
colonel of the forces in New York and
treasurer of that province and New
Jersey. He was a personal friend and
correspondent of William Penn. Having
amassed considerable wealth, he built a
fine mansion, which stood, until 1856, in
Pearl street. It was used by Washington
as his headquarters for a while in 1776.
He died in New York City Aug. 10, 1728.

De Peyster, JOHANNES, founder of the
De Peyster family; born in Haarlem, Hol
land, about 1600; emigrated to America
on account of religious persecution, and
died in New Amsterdam (now New York
City) about 1685.

De Peyster, JOHN WATTS, military his
torian; born in New York City, March
9, 1821; elected colonel New York militia
in 1845; appointed adjutant-general New
York, 1855; is author of The Dutch at
the North Pole; The Dutch in Maine;
Decisive Conflicts of the Late Civil War;
Personal and Military History of Gen.
Philip Kearny, etc.

Dermer, THOMAS, an active friend of
colonization schemes, and a man of pru
dence and industry, was employed by the
Plymouth Company after his return from
Newfoundland, in 1618, to bring about, if
possible, reconciliation with the Indians
of New England, and to make further ex
plorations. He sailed from Plymouth with
two vessels (one a small, open pinnace)
in February, 1619, touched at Mohesran
Island, and then visited the coast. Der
mer was accompanied from England by
Squanto; also by Samoset, a native of

DERNE EXPEDITION DE SMET

Sagadahock, whom John Mason, governor the siege of LOUISBURQ (q. v.) , and was
of Newfoundland, had lately sent home, aide-de-camp to Wolfe when he fell at
he having been one of Hunt s captives. Quebec, that general dying in Desbarres s
Dermer succeeded, m a degree, and pro- arms. He was active in the retaking of
ceeded to explore the coast to Virginia. Newfoundland in 1762, and for ten years
He sent home his ship from Mohegan Isl- afterwards he was employed in a coast
and, laden with fish and furs, and, leav- survey of Nova Scotia. He prepared
Squanto at Saco, sailed southward, charts of the North American coasts in
Near Cape Cod he was captured by Ind- 1775 for Earl Howe, and in 1777 he pub-
dians, but ransomed himself by a gift of lished The Atlantic Neptune, in two large
some hatchets. Passing Martin s (Mar- folios. He was made governor of Cape
tha s) Vineyard, he navigated Long Isl- Breton, with the military command of
and Sound by the help of an Indian pilot, Prince Edward s Island, in 1784 and in
the first Englishman who had sailed upon 1804, being then about eighty-two years
these waters, and passed out to sea at of age, he was made lieutenant-governor
Sandy Hook. The current was so swift of Prince Edward s Island. He died in
that he did not stop at Manhattan; but Halifax, N. S., Oct. 24, 1824.
on his return from Virginia (1620) he Deseret, PROPOSED STATE OF. See MOR-
touched there and held a conference with MONS.

some Dutch traders " on Hudson s River," Desert Land Act, passed March 3,
warning them that they were on English 1877, allowing settlers 640 acres for pur-
territory. Dermer sent a journal of his poses of irrigation and improvement
proceedings to Gorges, and thus, no doubt,. De Smet, PETER JOHN, missionary;
hastened the procurement of the new char- born in Termonde, Belgium, Dec. 31, 1801 ;
ter for the PLYMOUTH COMPANY (q. v.). studied in the Episcopal seminary of
Derne Expedition. See TRIPOLI, WAR Mechlin. With five other students he

sailed from Amsterdam in 1821 for the

Derry, JOSEPH T., author; born in Mil- United States, and entered the Jesuit
ledgeville, Ga., Dec. 13, 1841; graduated school at Whitemarsh, Md. In 1828 he
at Emory College in 1860; enlisted in the went to St. Louis and aided in founding
Oglethorpe Infantry in January, 1861, the University of St. Louis, where he
and with his company joined the Confed- later became a professor. In 1838 he
erate army, March 18, 1861; served founded a mission among the Pottawat-
throughout the war, participating in the tomie Indians on Sugar Creek. In July,
West Virginia, the Tennessee, and the 1840, he went to the Peter Valley in the
Atlanta campaigns, being taken prisoner Rocky Mountains, where he met about
t the battle of Kenesaw Mountain, June 1,600 Flathead Indians. By the help of
27, 1864. Among his works are a School an interpreter he translated the Command-
History of the United States; History of ments, the Lord s Prayer, and the Creed
Georgia; and the volume on Georgia in into their language, and these within two
the Confederate Military History of which weeks time the Flatheads learned. Dur-
Gen. Clement A. Evans is editor. ing his journey back to St. Louis he was

De Russy, FORT (La.), captured March several times surrounded by the Black -
14, 1864, by Gen. A. J. Smith with 10,000 feet Indians, who, when they saw his cru-
Nationals. Gen. Dick Taylor surrendered cifix and black gown, showed him the
with about 10,000 men. See RED RIVER greatest respect. On Sept. 24, 1841, with
EXPEDITION. a party of other missionaries, he reached

Desbarres, JOSEPH FREDERICK WAL- Bitter Root River, where the mission of
LET, military officer; born in England, of St. Mary s was begun. After spending
French ancestry, in 1722; educated for about a year in learning the Blackfeet
the army at the Royal Military College language and in endeavoring to make St.
at Woolwich, and, as lieutenant, came to Mary s a permanent mission, he went to
America in 1756, and, raising 300 recruits Europe to solicit aid. After arousing
in Pennsylvania and Maryland, formed great enthusiasm in Belgium and France
them into a corps of field-artillery. He he sailed from Antwerp in December,
distinguished himself as an engineer in 1843, with five Jesuits and six sisters,

104

DE SOTO

and in August, 1844, arrived at Fort Van
couver, and planted a central mission on
the Willamette River. In 1845 he under
took a series of missions among the Sin-
poils, Zingomenes, Okenaganes, Koote-
nays, and Flatbows. He made several
trips to Europe for aid. Father De Smet
wrote The Oregon Missions and Travels
Over the Rocky Mountains; Western Mis
sions and Missionaries; New Indian
Sketches, etc. He died in St. Louis, Mo.,
in May, 1872.

De Soto, FERNANDO, discoverer; born
in Xeres, Estremadura, Spain, about 1496,
of a noble but impoverished family. Da-
vila, governor of Darien, was his kind
patron, through whose generosity he re
ceived a good education, and who took
him to Central America, where he en
gaged in exploring the coast of the Pacific
Ocean hundreds of miles in search of a
supposed strait connecting the two oceans.
When Pizarro went to Peru, De Soto ac
companied him, and was his chief lieu
tenant in achieving the conquest of that
country. Brave and judicious, De Soto
was the chief hero in the battle that re
sulted in the capture of Cuzco, the capital

FERNANDO DE 9OTO.

of the Incas, and the destruction of their
empire. Soon after that event he re
turned to Spain with large wealth, and
was received by King Charles V. with
great consideration. He married Isabella

Bobadilla, a scion of one of the most re
nowned of the Castilian families, and his
influence at Court was thereby strength
ened. Longing to rival Cortez and Pi
zarro in the brilliancy of his deeds, and
believing Florida to be richer in the pre
cious metals than Mexico or Peru, De Soto
offered to conquer it at his own expense.
Permission was readily given him by his
King, who commissioned him governor of
Cuba, from which island he would set out
on his conquering expedition. Elegant in
deportment, winning in all his ways, an
expert horseman, rich and influential, and
then thirty-seven years of age, hundreds
of young men, the flower of the Spanish
and Portuguese nobility, flocked to his
standard, the wealthier ones dressed in
suits of gorgeous armor and followed by
trains of servants. With these and his
beautiful young wife and other noble
ladies De Soto sailed from Spain early in
April, 1538, with seven large and three
small vessels, the San Christoval, of 800
tons, being his flag-ship.

Amply supplied and full of joy in the
anticipation of entering an earthly para
dise, gayety and feasting, music and
dancing prevailed on board the flag-ship
during that sunny voyage, in which richly
dressed ladies, with handsome pages to do
their bidding, were conspicuous, especially
on warm moonlit nights within the tropic
of Cancer. At near the close of May the
fleet entered Cuban waters. De Soto occu
pied a whole year preparing for the expe
dition, and at the middle of May, 1539, he
sailed from Cuba with nine vessels, bearing
1,000 followers, and cattle, horses, mules,
and swine, the first of the latter seen on
the American continent. He left public af
fairs in Cuba in the hands of his wife and
the lieutenant-governor. The voyage to
Florida was pleasant, and the armament
landed on the shores of Tampa Bay on
May 25, near where Narvaez had first
anchored. Instead of treating the natives
kindly and winning their friendship,
De Soto unwisely sent armed men to
capture some of them, in order to learn
something about the country he was to
conquer. The savages, cruelly treated by
Narvaez, and fearing the same usage by
De Soto, were cautious. They were also
wily, expert with the bow, revengeful, and
fiercely hostile. With cavaliers clad in

105

DE SOTO, FERNANDO

DE SOTO DISCOVERING THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

-j glided across the
] river, and with kind
words welcomed the
. Spaniards and of-
fered them her
services. Presents
were exchanged. A
magnificent string of
pearls was hung
upon her neck. This
she drew over her
head and hung it
around the neck of
De Soto as a token
of her regard. Then
she invited him and
his followers to cross
over to her village.
In canoes and on
log-rafts they pass
ed the stream, and,
encamping in the
shadows of mul
berry-trees, they
soon received a
bountiful supply of

steel and riding 113 horses, with many venison and wild turkeys. There they en-
footmen armed with arquebuses, cross- joyed the young queen s hospitality until
bows, swords, shields, and lances, and a May, and when they departed De Soto
single cannon, and supplied with savage requited the kindness of the royal maiden
bloodhounds from Cuba, and handcuffs, with foul treachery. He carried her away
iron neck-collars, and chains for the cap- a prisoner, and kept her near his person
tives, De Soto began his march in June, as a hostage for the good behavior of her
1539. He was accompanied by mechanics, people towards the Spaniards. She finally
priests, inferior clergy, and monks in escaped, and returned home a bitter
sacerdotal robes bearing images of the enemy of the perfidious white people.
Virgin, holy relics, and sacramental bread De Soto crossed the beautiful country
and wine, wherewith to make Christians of the Cherokees (see CHEROKEE INDIANS),
of the captured pagans. and penetrated the fertile Coosa region,

At the very outset the expedition met where the Spaniards practised the most
with determined opposition from the dusky cruel treachery towards the friendly
inhabitants, but De Soto pressed forward natives. De Soto was rewarded in kind
Inwards the interior of the fancied land not long afterwards, and in a terrible
of gold. He wintered east of the Flint battle with the Mobilians, on the site of
River, near Tallahassee, on the borders of Mobile, the expedition was nearly ruined.
Georgia, and in March, 1540, broke up his Turning northward with the remnant of
encampment and marched northward, hav- his forces, he fought his way through the
ing been told that gold would be found in Chickasaw country (see CIIICKASAW IND-
that direction. He reached the Savannah TANS), and reached the upper waters of
River, at Silver Bluff. On the opposite the Yazoo River late in December, where
side of the stream, in (present) Barmvell he wintered, in great distress. Moving
county, lived an Indian queen, young, beau- westward in the spring, lie discovered the
tiful, and a maiden, who ruled over a largo Mississippi River, in all its grandeur, in
extent of country. In a richly wrought May, 1541. It was near the Lower Clma-
e;mop, filled with shawls and skins and saw Bluff, in Tunica county, Miss. Cross-
other things for presents, the dusky cacica ing the mighty stream, De Soto went west-

106

DE SOTO DE TROBBIAND

ward in his yet fruitless search for gold,
and spent a year in the country towards
the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains.
Returning to the Mississippi in May,
1542, he died of a fever on its banks on
the 21st.

As he had declared to the Indians, who
were sun-worshippers, that he was a son of
the sun, and that Christians could not die,
it was thought wise to conceal his death
from the pagans. He was secretly buried
in the gateway of the Spanish camp. The
Indians knew he was sick. He was not to
be seen, and they saw a new-made grave.
They looked upon it and pondered. Mos-
coso ordered the body to be taken up at
the dead of night. He was wrapped in
mantles in which sand had been sewed up,
taken in a boat to the middle of the great
river, and there dropped to the bottom in
19 fathoms of water. Herrera says it
was sunk in a hollow live-oak log. When
the Indian chief asked Moscoso for De
Soto, that leader replied, " He has ascend
ed to heaven, but will return soon."

Before his death De Soto had conferred
the leadership of the expedition upon
Moscoso, his lieutenant, who, with the
wretched remnant of the expedition,

made their way to Mexico, where the ele
gant Castilian ladies at the court of the
viceroy were enraptured by the beauty of
the dusky Mobilian girls. The news of
De Soto s death cast a gloom over Havana,
and poor Dona Isabella, wife of the great
leader, who had so long waited for his
return, died of a broken heart.

Despard, JOHN, military officer; born
in 1745; joined the British army in 1760;
came to America in 1773; was present
at the capture of Fort Montgomery and
of Charleston; and was with Cornwallis
in the campaign which culminated in the
surrender at Yorktown. He was promoted
colonel in 1705, and major-general in
1798. He died in Oswestry, England,
Sept. 3, 1829.

D Estaing, COUNT. See ESTAING,
CHARLES HECTOR, COUNT D .

Destroying Angels. See DANITES.

De Trobriand, PHILIPPE REGIS, mili
tary officer; born in Chateau des Ro-
chettes, Prance, June 4, 1816; came to the
United States in 1841; joined the Nation
al army as colonel of the 55th New York
Regiment in August, 1861 ; took part in
the engagements at Fredericksburg, Chan-
cellorsville, Gettysburg, etc.; was present

THE BURIAL OP DE SOTO.

wandered another year in the region west
of the Mississippi ; and returning to that
river in May, 1543, they built rude ves
sels, and, with a number of beautiful Ala
bama girls whom they had carried away
cuptive after the battle at Maubila, they

as the commander of a division at Lee s
surrender; received the brevet of major-
general of volunteers in April, 1865. He
joined the regular army in 18(10; received
the brevet of brigadier-general in l!Sti7;
retired in 1879. He published Quatre ans

107

DETROIT

dv campagnes a I wmee du Potomac. He
died in Bayport, L. I., July 7, 1897.

Detroit, a city, port of entry, metropolis
of Michigan, and county seat of Wayne
county; on the Detroit River, 7 miles
from Lake St. Clair, and about 18 miles
from Lake Erie. It is noted for the
variety and extent of its manufactures
and for its large traffic on the Great
Lakes. For the defence of the harbor and

Foreign commerce and interstate trade
are facilitated by an excellent harbor, ex
tensive dry-docks, and important steam
boat and railroad connections. According
to the census of 1000 the city had 2,847
manufacturing establishments, employing
$71,751,193 capital and 45,707 wage-
earners; paying $18,718,081 for wages and
$52,349,347 for materials used; and hav
ing a combined output valued at $100,-

LANDING OF CADILLAC.

city the federal government is construct
ing Fort Wayne, a short distance below
the city, which is designed to be the
strongest American fortification on the
northern frontier. The value of tin-
foreign trade of the city in merchandise
during the fiscal year ending June 30,
1904, was: Imports, $4,467,154; exports.
$23,698,435, both a considerable increase
over the returns of the previous year.
The principal shipments arc grains, moat,
wool, iron and copper ores, and lumber.

108

892,838. The principal manufactures were:
Foundry and machine-shop products, $8,-
943,311; druggists preparations, $4,915.-
913; smoking and chewing tobacco and
snuff, $3.74(i,045: iron and steel, $3,198,-
881; packed meat, s::. 107,430; cigars and
cigarettes. *2.790.2&lt;i8 : malt liquors, $2,-
f&gt;9. J. lilt;! : and steam -heal ing apparatus. $2.-
104.0(H&gt;. In 1903 the assessed property
valuations were: Real estate, $190, 197,-
060; personal, $81,671,860 total, $271.-
808,920; and the tax rate was $16.57 per

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o
~

DETROIT

$1,000. The city owned property free were forced to make a precipitate retreat
from all encumbrance estimated in 1902 in the darkness, leaving twenty of their
at $25,427,139. The net general city debt, comrades killed and forty-two wounded
Jan. 1, 1904, was $3,037,938; net special on the border of the brook, which has
debt, $291,276 total net debt, $3,929,214, ever since been called Bloody Run. Dal-
besides a water debt of about $1,000,000. zell was slain while trying to carry off
The population in 1890 was 205,876; in some of the wounded, and his scalp be-
1900, 285,704. came an Indian s trophy. Pontiac con-
Detroit was first settled by Antoine Ca- tinned the siege of Detroit until the ar-
dillac, July 24, 1701, with fifty soldiers rival of Colonel Bradstreet in May, 1764.
and fifty artisans and traders. Three In January, 1774, the British Parlia-
years later the first white child, a daugh- ment included Detroit and its dependent
ter of Cadillac, was baptized in the place, territory with Canada, and the first civil
which was called by the French "La Ville government was instituted June 22, 1774,
d Etroit." The French surrendered Detroit with GENERAL HENRY HAMILTON (q. v.) as
to the English, under Maj. Robert Rodgers, governor. Governor Hamilton, a, human
Nov. 29, 17GO. tiger, delighting in blood, instigated the
The tragedy of Pontiac s War opened Indians to murder the defenceless set-
in Detroit. Under pretext of holding a lers on the border. He organized an ex-
friendly council with Major Gladwin, com- pedition in 1779 to capture Vincennes,
mander of the fort, the wily chief entered but GENERAL GEORGE ROGERS CLARK (q. v.)
it in May, 1763, with about 300 warriors, attacked him on the way on March 5,
each carrying a knife, tomahawk, and and forced him to an unconditional sur-
short gun under his blanket. When Pon- render. Hamilton was sent to Virginia,
tiac should rise and present the green side put into irons by Thomas Jefferson, and
of a belt, the massacre of the garrison escaped hanging only through the inter-
was to begin. Gladwin was warned of cession of Washington, but was finally
the plot the day before by a friendly Ind- paroled. The British troops were allowed
ian, and the calamity was averted by to return to Detroit.

the appointment of another day for the In 1782 Detroit had a permanent popu-
council. When the Indians retired, the lation of 2,190, of whom 178 were slaves,
gates of the fort were closed upon them, but the withdrawal of the British gar-
and, knowing the reason, Pontiac began rison and the exodus of the English set-
a siege that lasted a year. tiers to found Amherstburg reduced the
General Amherst hastily collected a inhabitants to about 500, most of whom
small body in the East for the relief of were of French descent. During the forty-
Detroit and reinforcement of Fort Ni- five years after the close of the war
agara, and sent them under the command Detroit grew slowly, in 1828 having a
of Captain Dalzell, one of his aides. Dal- population of 1,517 only. The opening of
zell left reinforcements at Niagara, and the Erie Canal in 1825 sent a tide of emi-
proceeded to Detroit with the remainder ^ration westward, and Detroit began its
of his troops and provisions in a vessel marvellous growth. Beginning with 2,222
that arrived on the evening of July 30. inhabitants in 1830, it has on an average
They succeeded in entering the fort with doubled each decade.

provisions. Pontiac had already sum- The city was the scene of disastrous

moned Gladwin to surrender ; now Dal- operations in the early part of the War

zell proposed to make a sortie and attack of 1812-15. In August, 1812, General

the besieging Indians. Gladwin thought Brock, governor of Upper Canada, with

it would be imprudent, but Dalzell per- a few regulars and 300 militia, hastened

sisted, and before daylight on the morn- to Amherstburg, arriving there on the

ing of July 31 he sallied out with 240 night of Aug. 13, and on the following

chosen men to attack the Indians, who lay morning held a conference with Tecumseh

about a mile up the river. Pontiac was and 1,000 Indians, telling them he had come

on the alert, and, at a small stream on to assist in driving the Americans from

the northern verge of Detroit, the Eng- their rightful hunting-grounds north of the

lish, furiously assailed by the Indians, Ohio. The Indians were pleased, and, at

109

DETROIT

a subsequent interview with Tecumseh
and the other chiefs, they assured him
that the Indians would give him all
their strength in the undertaking. Then
Brock marched from Maiden to Sandwich,
which the Americans had deserted, and a
battery was planted opposite Detroit,
which commanded the fort there. The
American artillerists begged permission
to open fire upon it, and Captain Snelling
asked the privilege of going over in the
night to capture the British works. Hull
would not allow any demonstrations
against the enemy, and the latter pre
pared for assault without any molesta
tion. Hull was much deceived by letters
intended to be intercepted, showing
preparations for large and immediate re
inforcements to Brock s army; and he
had also been deceived into the belief
that a large portion of the followers of
the latter, who were only militia, were
regulars. The militia had been dressed
in scarlet uniforms, and were paraded so
as to show treble their real number. Hull
was hemmed in on every side; his pro
visions were scarce, and he saw no chance
of receiving any from Ohio. He knew

that if the Indians were exasperated
and the fort should be taken there
would be a general massacre of the
garrison and the inhabitants, and his
kindness of heart and growing caution,
incident to old age, made him really
timid and fearful. When Brock s prepa
rations for attack were completed (on the
15th), he sent a summons to Hull for an
unconditional surrender of the post. In
that demand was a covert threat of let
ting loose the bloodthirsty Indians in
case of resistance. Hull s whole effective
force at that time did not exceed 1,000
men. The fort was thronged with trem
bling women and children and decrepit
old men of the village and surrounding
country, who had fled to it for protection
from the Indians. He kept the flag that
bore the summons waiting fully two hours,
for his innate bravery and patriotism bade
him refuse and fight, while his fear of
dreadful consequences to his army and the
people bade him surrender. His troops
were confident in their ability to success
fully confront the enemy, and he finally
refused compliance with the demand. Ac
tive preparations were then made for de-

A BUSINESS STREET IN DETROIT IN 1899.

110

DETROIT DE VRIES

fence. The British opened a cannonade English after the conquest of Canada, in
and bombardment from their battery, 1760. It was quadrangular in form, with
which was kept up until near midnight, bastions and barracks, and covered about
The firing was returned with spirit; but two acres of ground. The embankments
Hull would listen to no suggestion for were nearly 20 feet high, with a deep
the erection of a battery at Spring Wells ditch, and were surrounded with a double
to oppose the enemy if they should at- row of pickets. The fort did not corn-
tempt to cross the river. Early on the mand the river. The tow n, also, was sur-
morning of the 16th they crossed and rounded by pickets 14 feet in height, with
landed unmolested; and as they moved loop-holes to shoot through,
towards the fort, in single column, Te- De Vaca. See CABEZA DE VACA.
cumseh and his Indians, 700 strong, who Devens, CHARLES, jurist; born in
had crossed 2 miles below during the Charlestown, Mass., April 4, 1820; grad-
rnght, took position in the woods on their uated at Harvard University in 1838;
left as flankers, while the right was pro- studied at the Cambridge Law School, and
tected by the guns of the Queen Charlotte, practised the profession of law several
in the river. They had approached to a years. In 1848 he was a State Senator,
point within 500 yards of the American and from 1849 to 1853 was United States
line, when Hull sent a peremptory order marshal for Massachusetts. He was en-
for the soldiers to retreat within the al- gaged in his profession at Worcester,
ready overcrowded fort. The infuriated Mass., when the Civil War began, and
soldiers reluctantly obeyed; and while was one of the earliest Union volunteers,
the enemy were preparing to storm the becoming major of a rifle battalion April
fort, Hull, without consulting any of his 16, 1861, and colonel of the 15th Massa-
ofncers, hoisted a white flag, and a capitu- chusetts Regiment in July following. Be-
lation for a surrender was soon agreed fore the arrival of Colonel Baker, he com-
upon. The surrender took place at noon, manded at BALL S BLUFF ( q. v . ) , and again
Aug. 16, 1812. The fort, garrison, army, after that officer s death. In April, 1862,
and the Territory of Michigan were in- te was made brigadier-general; served on
eluded in the terms of surrender. The the Peninsula; was wounded at Fair
spoils of victory for the British were Oaks; was in the battles of Soutli Moun-
2,500 stand of arms, twenty-five iron and tain and Antietam; and commanded a
eight brass pieces of ordnance, forty bar- division in the llth Army Corps at
rels of gunpowder, a. stand of colors, a Chancellorsville. In the Richmond cam-
great quantity of military stores, and the paign of 1864-65 he was continually en-
armed brig John Adams. One of the gaged, and in December, 1864, he was in
brass cannon bore the following inscrip- temporary command of the 24th Army
tion: "Taken at Saratoga on the 17th Corps. In April, 1865, he was brevetted
of October, 1777." General Hull and his major-general of volunteers, and in 1867
fellow-captives were sent first to Fort was appointed a justice of the Superior
George and then to Montreal, where they Court of Massachusetts. He was United
arrived Sept. 6, when they were paroled, States Attorney - General in 1877-81, and
and returned to their homes. Hull was justice of the Massachusetts Supreme
tried for treason and cowardice, and sen- Court from 1881 till his death, in Boston,
tenced to be shot, but \vas pardoned by Jan. 7, 1891.

the President. His character has since De Vries, DAVID PIETERSSEN, colonist,

been fully vindicated. See HULL, WILL- In December, 1630, he sent out a number

IAM. of emigrants from Holland who establisli-

Detroit, FORT. The old French village ed a settlement called Swanendal, near the

of Detroit contained 160 houses in 1812, mouth of the Delaware River, where they

and about 800 souls. It stretched along began the cultivation of grain and to-

the river at a convenient distance from bacco. Two years later when De Vries

the water, and the present Jefferson Ave- arrived at the head of a second party he

nue was the principal street. On the high found that all the first settlers had been

ground in the rear, about 250 yards from massacred by the Indians. In April, 1634,

the river, stood Fort Detroit, built by the he concluded that his enterprise was un-

111

DEWEY

successful, and the expedition returned to
Holland. He is the author of Voyages from
Holland to America, from 1632 till 164. f .
Dewey, GEORGE, naval officer; born in
Montpelier, Vt., Dec. 26, 1837; gradu
ated at the United States Naval Academy
in 1858; and served on the frigate Wa-
bash in the Mediterranean squadron until
the beginning of the Civil War, when he
was assigned to the steam sloop Missis
sippi of the West Gulf squadron. On
April 19, 1861, he was commissioned lieu
tenant, and was with Admiral Farragut
when the latter s squadron forced the
passage of forts St. Philip and Jackson
in April, 1862. He also took part in the
attack on Fort St. Philip and the subse
quent battles with gunboats and iron
clads which gave Farragut control of New
Orleans. In the smoke of the battle the
Mississippi ran aground within range of
the shore batteries. When it was seen

in 1884 to captain; and in 1896 to com
modore. He was appointed to command
the Asiatic squadron in January, 1898, an
assignment then considered but little
short of exile. About March of the same
year, when it became evident that war
would be declared between the United
States and Spain, Commodore Dewey, act
ing on orders from Washington, began to
mobilize his vessels in the harbor of
Hong-Kong. After the declaration of
war he received orders to capture or de
stroy the Spanish fleet known to be in
Philippine waters. It was then supposed
that the harbor of Manila, where the Span
ish fleet was most likely to rendezvous,
was mined with explosives and supplied
with search-lights, and that the forts of
CAVITE (q. v.) had been put in readiness
for an attack. Taking all chances, the
United States squadron sailed boldly into
the bay on the night of April 30. Dewey s

BIRTHPLACE OF ADMIRAL DEWEY.

that the ship could not be saved, the offi- squadron comprised the flagship Olympia,

cers and men set her afire and escaped in a first-rate steel-protected cruiser; the

the boats. Later, Dewey served in the Boston, the Haiti more, and the Raleigh,

North Atlantic blockading squadron, and second-rate steel-protected cruisers; the

still later with the European squadron. Concord and J clrcl, steel gunboats; the

In 1872 he was promoted to commander; McCulloch, revenue-cutter; and two new

112

ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY

DEWEY, GEOBGE

TRIUMPHAL AKCH ERECTED IS NEW YORK CITY TO CELKBRATK DKWEY S RETURN.

Iy purchased supply ships. The Spanish
squadron consisted of the Reina Christina,
steel cruiser; the Castilia, wooden cruiser;
the Don Antonio de Ulloa, iron cruiser;
the Don Juan de Austria, iron cruiser ; the
Isla de Cuba, steel protected cruiser; the
Isla dc Luzon, steel protected cruiser;
the Isla de Mindanao, auxiliary cruis-
er; the gunboats General Lezo, El Cano,
and Marques del Duero, and two
torpedo - boats. Early on Sunday morn-
ing, May 1, Dewey attacked the Spanish
squadron, under command of Admiral
Montojo. Two engagements were fought;
during the interval between them the
American ships drew off to the east side
of the bay, that the men might rest and
have breakfast. The fight lasted two
hours, and resulted in the destruction of
the Spanish squadron, by fire and sinking,
without the loss of an American ship or
man. Immediately after the receipt of
Dewey s brief message of victory, the Pres-
ident promoted him to rear-admiral, and
Congress voted him the thanks of the coun-
try and a sword. Subsequently, the grade
of admiral was revived, and the President
conferred it on him. Holding the bay of
Manila and the Cavite works, he had
III. H

the chief city* of the Philippines at his
mercy, but made no attempt to occupy
that city. There ensued a period of mas-
terful diplomacy, which won for the victor
high commendation. Between the im-
minent dangers of foreign complications
and the operations of the native insur-
gents under AGUIXALDO (q. v.), he
acquitted himself with rare judgment.
After the occupation of MANILA (q. v.)
by the American troops, he was granted
leave to return home, whenever and how-
ever it should suit his convenience; and,
sailing in his battle-scarred flag-ship, he
reached New York on Sept. 20, 1899, and
was given the grandest reception ever
accorded a public officer, the demonstra-
tions comprising a naval parade up the
river to General Grant s tomb, on the 29th,
and a land parade on the following day.
Subsequently, he established his residence
in Washington, D. C., in a dwelling pre-
sented to him by popular subscription.

Dewey, MELVIL, librarian; born in
Adams Centre, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1851;
graduated at Amherst in 1874; edited the
Library Journal in 1876-81; became di-
rector of the New York State Library in
1888; is author of Decimal Classification

DE WITT DICKINSON

and Relative Index; Library School Rules, It is of him that the story is told that

etc. he sent a lot of warming-pans to the West

De Witt, SIMEON, surveyor; born in Indies, which he disposed of at a large

Ulster county, N. Y., Dec. 26, 1756; profit to the sugar manufacturers for use

graduated at Queen s (now Rutgers) Col- as skimmers. He died in Newburyport,

lege in 1776; joined the army under Mass., Oct. 26, 1806.

Gates; and was made assistant geog- De Zeng, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, BARON,
rapher to the army in 1778, and chief military officer; born in Dresden, Saxony,
geographer in 1780. He was surveyor- in 1756; came to America in 1780 as cap-
general of New York fifty years (1784- tain in one of the Hessian regiments; and
1834). In 1796 he declined the appoint- at the end of the Revolutionary War mar-
ment of surveyor-general of the United ried an American lady and settled in Red
States. He was regent, vice-chancellor, Hook. N. Y. He was naturalized in 1789,
and chancellor of the State of New York, and became intimate with Chancellor
member of many learned societies, and Livingston, Governor Clinton, General
author of Elements of Perspective (1835). Schuyler, and others, and was greatly in-
He died in Ithaca, N. Y., Dec. 3, 1834. terested in the opening of canals and in

Dexter, HENRY MARTYN, clergyman; the navigation of the interior waters and

born in Plympton, Mass., Aug. 13, 1821; lakes. He died in Clyde, N. Y., April 26,

graduated at Yale in 1840; became pas- 1838.

tor of the Congregational Church in Diamond State. A name applied to

Manchester in 1844; removed to Boston the State of Delaware because of its

as pastor of the Berkeley Street Church small size, its wealth, and its importance.

in 1849. He is the author of Congregation- Diaz del Castillo, BERNAL, military

alism of the Last 300 Years; As to Roger officer; born in Medina del Campo, Spain,

William* and his Banishment from the about 1498 ; came to America as an ad-

Massachusetts Colony; History of Old venturer in 1514, joining the expedition

Plymouth Colony; and the editor of of Cordova in 1517, and of Grijalva in

Church s Eastern Expeditions; Entertain- 1518. He served Cortez faithfully and

ing Passages Relating to Philip s War. He valiantly. During his adventurous career

died in New Bedford, Mass., Nov. 13, 1890. he was engaged in 119 battles and skir-

Dexter, SAMUEL, jurist; born in Bos- mishes, and was wounded several times. Tie
ton, May 14, 1761 ; graduated at Har- wrote a history of the conquest of New
vard in 1781; studied law at Worces- Spain, which he completed in 1568, in
ter, and became a State legislator, in tended to correct the misstatements of
which place he was distinguished for in- Gomara s Chronicle of New Spain, in
tellectual ability and oratory. President which nearly all the glory of its conquest
Adams appointed him, successively, Sec- was given to Cortez. Diaz was a rough,
retary of War (1800) and of the Treas- unlettered soldier, and his history has
ury ( 1801 ) , and for a while he had charge been pronounced a " collection of fables."
of the State Department. On the acces- He died in Guatemala, about 1593.
sion of Jefferson (1801) he resumed the Dickerson, MAHLON, statesman; born
practice of law. He declined foreign em- in Hanover, N. J., April 17, 1770; grad-
bassies offered by Adams and Madison, uated at Princeton in 1789; practised law
Mr. Dexter was a Federalist until the in Philadelphia, where he became recorder
War of 1812, when, being in favor of that of the city court. He returned to New
measure, he separated himself from his Jersey, was elected a member of the leg-
party. He was the first president of the islature in 1814, governor of the State
first temperance society formed in Massa- in 1815, and United States Senator in
clmsetts. He died in Athens, N. Y., May 1816. He was Secretary of the Navy un-
4 1816. dcr Presidents Jackson and Van Buren.

Dexter, TIMOTHY, merchant; born in He died in Succasunna, N. J., Oct. 5,

Maiden, Mass., Jan. 22. 1743. Inordinate 1853.

vanity and extraordinary shrewdness were Dickinson, ANNA ELIZABETH, reformer ;

combined in him with almost imbecility born in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 28, 1842;

in all matters excepting those of trade, made her first appearance among public

114

DICKINSON

JOHN DICKINSON.

speakers in 1857, and spoke frequently on May of that year. He was successively
temperance and slavery. During the Civil president of the States of Delaware and
War she was employed by Republican com- Pennsylvania (1781-85), and a member
mittees to make addresses, and after its of the convention that framed the na-
conclusion she lectured on reconstruction tional Constitution (1787). Letters from
and on woman s work and wages. She his pen, over the signature of " Fabius."
was an ardent advocate for woman s suf
frage.

Dickinson, CHARLES WESLEY, inventor;
born in Springfield, N. J., Nov. 23, 1823;
became a machinist, and gave his attention
to fine machinery. He perfected the bank
note engraving lathe, first used by the
national government in 1862; and invent
ed a pantograph tracer, improved type
setting and type - distributing machines,
etc. He died in Belleville, N. J., July 2,
1900.

Dickinson, DON M., lawyer; born in
Port Ontario, N. Y., Jan. 17, 1846; set
tled in Michigan in 1848; graduated at
the Law Department of the University of
Michigan in 1806; began practice in
Detroit; member of the Democratic
National Committee in 1884-85 ; served as
Postmaster-General of the United States
in 1888-89. He was appointed senior
counsel for the United States before the
Bering Sea Claims Commission in 1896.

Dickinson, JOHN, publicist; born in advocating the adoption of the national
Maryland, Nov. 13, 1732; son of Chief- Constitution, appeared in 1788; and an
Justice Samuel D. Dickinson ; studied law other series, over the same signature, or
in Philadelphia and at the Temple in Lon- our relations with France, appeared in
don, and practised his profession in Phila- 1797. Mr. Dickinson assisted in framinp
delphia. In the Pennsylvania Assembly, the constitution of Delaware in 1792. Hi?
to which he was elected in 1764, he showed monument is DICKINSON COLLEGE (q. v.)
great legislative ability, and was a ready at Carlisle, Pa., which he founded and
and vehement debater. At the same time, liberally endowed. He died in Wilmington
he wrote much on the subject of Brlt sh Del., Feb. 14, 1808.

infringement on the liberties of the colo- Dickinson, PHILEMON, military officer,
nies. The most noted of these writings born in Croisedore, Md., April 5, 1739.
were papers (twelve in number) entitled settled near Trenton, N. J. In July, 1775
Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer, etc., he entered the patriot army; in October
published in the Pennsylvania Chronicle in of the same year was promoted brigadier
1767. Mr. Dickinson was a member of general; in 1776 was a de egate to the Pro
the first Continental Congress, and wrote vincial Congress of New Jersey; in 1777
several of the state papers put forth by was promoted major-general of the Ne\\
that body. Considering the resolution of Jersey troops; in October of that year
independence unwise, he voted against it marched against the British on Staten Tsl
and the Declaration, and did not sign the and, for which he received the thanks ot
latter document. This made him rmpopu- Washington; and served with marked dis
lar. In 1777 he was made a bri&lt;jad ; er-fr e n- tinction during the remainder of the Revo
eral of the Pennsylvania militia. He was lutionary War. In 1784 he served on the
elected a representative in Congress from commission to choose a site for the city
Delaware in 1779, and wrote the Address of Washington. He died near Trenton.
to the States put forth by that body in N. J., Feb. 4, 1809.

115

DICKINSON COLLEGE DINWIDDIE

Dickinson College, a co-educational
institution in Carlisle, Pa. ; under the con
trol of the Methodist Episcopal Church;
organized in 1783; reported at the end of
1900, thirty professors and instructors,
480 students, 45,000 volumes in the
library, 3,951 graduates, and $375,000 in
productive funds; president, George E.
Reed, S.T.D., LL.D.

Dickson, JOHN, statesman; born in
Keene, N. H., in 1783; graduated at
Middlebury College in 1808 ; practised law
in Rochester, N. Y., in 1813-25; member
of Congress in 1831-35. He is credited
with having delivered " the first important
anti-slavery speech ever made in Con
gress." He published Remarks on the Pres
entation of Several Petitions for the
Abolition of Slavery and the Slave-trade
in the District of Cohunbia. He died in
West Bloomfield, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1852.

Dieskau, LUDWIG AUGUST, BARON, mili
tary officer; born in Saxony in 1701; was
lieutenant-colonel of cavalry under Mar
shal Saxe, and was made brigadier-gen
eral of infantry in 1748, and commander
of Brest. In 1755 he was sent to Canada
with the rank of major-general ; and in an
attack upon the fortified encampment of
Gen. William Johnson at the head of Lake
George (Sept. 8, 1755) he was so severely
wounded that he died in Surenne, near
Paris, Sept. 8, 1757.

Digges, EDWARD, colonial governor;
born in England in 1620; came to Ameri
ca and introduced the silk-worm into Vir
ginia ; became governor of that colony in
1655, but before the close of the year
resigned and became the bearer of a letter
from the Virginia Assembly to Cromwell.
He died in Virginia, March 15, 1675.

Dimick, JUSTIN, military officer; born
in Hartford county, Conn., Aug. 5, 1800;
graduated at the United States Mili
tary Academy in 1819; served in the war
with Mexico, and greatly distinguished
himself at Contreras and Churubusco. In
1861-63 he commanded the depot of
prisoners at Fort Warren, Mass. He was
retired in 1863; received the brevet of
brigadier-general, U. S. A., in 1865. He
died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 13, 1871.

Dingley, NELSON, legislator; born in
Durham, Me., Feb. 15, 1832; gradu
ated at Dartmouth College in 1855;
studied law in Auburn nnd WTS admitted

to the bar there in 1856; and in the last
mentioned year became editor and pro
prietor of the Lewiston Journal, a con
nection he retained till his death. From
1861 till 1873 he was a member of the
State legislature, and in 1873 and 1875
was elected governor of Maine. In 1881
he was elected to Congress to fill the va
cancy caused by the election of William
P. Frye to the United States Senate, and
by re-elections held the seat till his death.

XKLSOX D1NI1I.KY.

From the opening of his congressional
career he was conspicuous as an advocate
of high tariff. In 1890 he aided in the
formulation of the McKinley tariff bill ; in
1894 was a strong opponent of the Wilson
bill; and in 1897, as chairman of the
committee on ways and means, he brought
forward the tariff bill which was adopted
under his name. President McKinley
tendered him the post of Secretary of the
Treasury, but he declined it. In 1898 he
became a member of the Joint High Com
mission to negotiate a settlement of ex
isting differences between the United
States and Canada. He died in Washing
ton, D. C., Jan. 13, 1899.

Dinwiddie, ROIJERT, colonial governor;
born in Scotland about 1690. While act
ing as clerk to a collector of customs in
the West Indies he discovered and ex
posed enormous frauds practised by his
principal, and was rewarded with the

DINWIDDIE, BOBEBT

office of surveyor of the customs, and withdraw his troops from the disputed
afterwards with that of lieutenant-govern- territory. Dinwiddie immediately pre-
or of Virginia. He arrived in the colony pared for an expedition against the
in 1752. He was rapacious, and unscrupu- French, and asked the other colonies to
lous in the accumulation of wealth, co-operate with Virginia. This was the
Owing to his exaction of enormous fees first call for a general colonial union
authorized by the board of trade for the against the common enemy. All hesi-
issue of patents for lands, he gained the tated excepting North Carolina. The
ill-will of the people of Virginia, and legislature of that province promptly voted
when he called for money to enable him 400 men, who were soon on the march
to oppose the encroachments of the for Winchester, the place of rendezvous;
French, the House of Burgesses paid no but they eventually proved of little worth,
attention to his expressed wishes. Din- for, doubtful of being paid for their ser-
widdie, unmindful of this conduct, en- vices, a great part of them were dis-
listed a captain s command, and sent them banded before they reached the Shenan-
to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio doah Valley. Some volunteers from
(now Pittsburg), and called on neighbor- South Carolina and New York hastened
ing colonies for aid in the work. He sent to the gathering - place. Virginia respond-
George Washington to the French com- ed to the call to arms by organizing
mander on a mission of " observation, a regiment of 600 men, of which Joshua
Washington proved himself to be a zeal- Fry was appointed colonel and Major
ous officer; and Dinwiddie, discovering his Washington lieutenant-colonel. The Vir-
capacity, made him adjutant-general of a ginians assembled at Alexandria, on
military district. the Potomac, whence Lieutenant - Colonel

The revelations made to Washington Washington, with the advance, marched
at Fort Le Boeuf, the evident preparations (April 2, 1754) at their head for the
of the French to make a concerted move- Ohio. Meanwhile Captain Trent had re-
nient to secure the occupation of the Ohio cruited a company among the traders west
region, and the tenor of St. Pierre s an- of the mountains, and had begun the erec-
swer to Dinwiddie s letter, convinced the tion of a fort at the forks of the Ohio.

They were attacked (April 18) by a party
of French and Indians, who expelled Trent
and his men, completed the fort, and
named it Duquesne, in honor of the cap
tain - general of Canada. News of this
event reached Washington at Will s
Creek (now Cumberland). He pushed
forward with 150 men to a point on the
Monongahela less than 40 miles from Fort
Duquesne. There he was informed that
a strong force of French and Indians was
marching to intercept him. He wisely fell
back to the Great Meadows, where he
erected a stockade, and called it Fort Ne
cessity. Before it was completed, a few
of his troops attacked an advanced party
of the enemy under Jumonville in the
night, and the commander and several of
hi? men were killed. Some of his capt
ured men were sent to Governor Dinwid
die. Reinforced, Washington marched for

latter of the necessity of quick and ener- Fort Duquesne again, but was driven back
c-tic countervailing measures. St. Pierre to Fort Necessity, which he was obliged
declared that he was acting under the in- to surrender on July 3. See NECESSITY,
st ructions of his superior, the Marquis FORT.

Duquesne, at Montreal, and refused to Dinwiddie was the first to suggest to

117

DINWIDDIE COURT-HOUSEDIPLOMATIC SERVICE

the British board of trade the taxing of
the colonies (1754) for funds to carry on
the war with the French and Indians;
and he was one of the five colonial gov
ernors who memorialized Parliament
(1755) in favor of the measure. He had
much clashing and vexation with the
House of Burgesses; and worn out with
trouble and age, he left Virginia under
a cloud caused by a charge made by his
enemies that he had appropriated to his
own use 20,000 transmitted to him for
compensation to the Virginians fc&gt;r money
expended by them in the public service.
He died in Clifton, England, Aug. 1, 1770.

Dinwiddie Court-house, ACTIONS AT.
In March, 1865, the National force under
General Sheridan crossed the Appomat-
tox River from Bermuda Hundred, passed
to the rear of the army before Peters
burg, and early on the morning of the 29th
marched down the Jerusalem plank-road,
and turning westward pushed on by way
of Reams s Station to Dinwiddie Court
house, where he halted for the night at
5 P.M. Sheridan expected to cut loose
from the rest of the army on the 30th
to make a raid on the South Side and Dan
ville railroads, but General Grant sud
denly changed his plans. General Lee,
seeing that his only line of communication
might be cut off at any hour, and feeling
the necessity of maintaining his ex
tended line of works covering Peters
burg and Richmond, concentrated a force
of about 15,000 men, and hastened to place
them in front of the 5th and 2d Corps of
the National army. He then sought to
strike a heavy blow on the extreme west
of Grant s lines, then held by Sheridan,
which he supposed was a weak point.
Sheridan captured the works at Five
Forks, and so gained the key to the whole
region that Lee was striving to protect.
In the struggle to regain this point strong
parts of both armies were soon facing each
other at Dinwiddie Court - house. Here
Sheridan won the day after a severe en
gagement, the Confederates being unable
to make any rally, and the fighting ceased
with darkness. During the night the Con
federates retired.

Diocese, originally a division of de
partments or districts under the civil
government of the Roman Empire, sub
sequently restricted to the territory under

the supervision of a bishop. In the United
States dioceses of the Protestant Episco
pal Church bear the name of the State,
part of the State, or Territory under the
bishop s jurisdiction ; in the Roman
Catholic Church they take the name of
the city containing the bishop s cathedral.
Diplomatic Service. The following is
a table of the chiefs of the United States
embassies and legations in foreign coun
tries on Jan. 1, 1901:

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

William P. Lord, Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary, Buenos
Ayres.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Addison C. Harris, Envoy Extraordi
nary and Minister Plenipotentiary, Vienna.

BELGIUM.

Lawrence Townsend, Envoy Extraor
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Brussels.

BOLIVIA.

George H. Bridgman, Envoy Extraor
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, La
Paz.

BRAZIL.

Charles Page Bryan, Envoy Extraor
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, Rio
de Janeiro.

CHILE.

Henry L. Wilson, Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary, Santiago.

CHINA.

Edwin H. Conger, Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary, Peking.

COLOMBIA.

Charles Burdett Hart, Envoy Extraor
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Bogota.

COSTA RICA.

William L. Merry, Envoy Extraor
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, San

DENMARK.

Lnurits S. Swenson, Envoy Extraor
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Copenhagen.
18

DIPLOMATIC SERVICE

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. NETHERLANDS.

William F. Powell, ChargS d Affaires, Stanford Newel. Envoy Extraordinary
Port au Prince. and Minister Plenipotentiary, The Hague.

ECUADOR. NICARAGUA AND SALVADOR.

Archibald J. Sampson, Envoy Extraor- William L. Merry, Envoy Extraordinary
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, and Minister Plenipotentiary, San Jose.
Quito. (See Costa Rica.)

EGYPT.

PARAGUAY AND URUGUAY.
John G. Long, Agent and Consul-Gen
eral Cairo. William R. Finch, Envoy Extraordi-
TTWvnE nary and Minister Plenipotentiary,

Jc KAA L/lL. _ . _

Montevideo.
Horace Porter, Ambassador Extraor- PERSIA.

dinary and Plenipotentiary, Paris.

Herbert W. Bowen, Minister Resident

GERMAN EMPIRE. a nd Consul-General, Teheran.

Andrew D. White, Ambassador Ex- PERU

traordinary and Plenipotentiary, Berlin.

Irving B. Dudley, Envoy Extraordinary

GREAT BRITAIN. and Minister Plenipotentiary, Lima.

Joseph H. Choate, Ambassador Extraor- PORTTTPAT

dinary and Plenipotentiary, London.

John N. Irwin, Envoy Extraordinary
GREECE, RUMANIA, AND SERVIA. and Minister Plenipotentiary, Lisbon.

Arthur S. Hardy, Envoy Extraordinary P

and Minister Plenipotentiary, Athens.

Charlemagne Tower, Ambassador EX-
GUATEMALA AND HONDURAS. traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
W. Godfrey Hunter, Envoy Extraor- St. Petersburg,
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, SIAM.

Guatemala City. ^.

Hamilton King, Minister Resident and

HAITI. Consul-General, Bangkok.

William F. Powell, Envoy Extraor-
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, Port

au Prince. Bellamy Storer, Envoy Extraordinary

ITALY an&lt; ^ Minister Plenipotentiary, Madrid.

Ambassador Extraor- SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

dinary and Plenipotentiary, Rome. William W. Thomas, Jr., Envoy Ex-

JAPAN traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,

Stockholm.

Alfred E. Buck, Envoy Extraordinary

j -\f i -m A- rr&gt; i SWITZERLAND.

and Minister Plenipotentiary, lokio.

John G. A. Leishman, Envoy Extraor-

KOREA. dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,

Horace N. Allen, Minister Resident Berne,
and Consul-General, Seoul. TURKEY.

LIBERIA Oscar S. Straus, Envoy Extraordinary

and Minister Plenipotentiary, Constanti-
Owen L. W. Smith, Minister Resident ,

and Consul-General, Monrovia. VENEZUELA.

MEXICO. Francis B. Loomis, Envoy Extraordi-

Powell Clayton, Ambassador Extraor- nary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
dinary and Plenipotentiary, Mexico. cas.

119

DIPLOMATIC SEBVICE

The following is a table of the chiefs
of the foreign embassies and legations in
the United States on Jan. 1, 1901:

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

Dr. Eduardo Wilde, Envoy Extraordi
nary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Mr. Ladislaus Hengelmuller von Hen-
gervar, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary.

BELGIUM.

Count G. de Lichtervelde, Envoy Ex
traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

BOLIVIA.

Senor Don Fernando E. Guachalla,
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni
potentiary.

BRAZIL.

Mr. J. F. de Assis-Brasil, Envoy Ex
traordinary and Minister Plenipoten
tiary.

CHILE.
Senor Don Carlos Morla Vicuna, Envoy

GERMANY.

Herr von Holleben, Ambassador Ex
traordinary and Plenipotentiary.

GREAT BRITAIN.

The Right Honorable Lord Pauncefote,
of Preston, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., Ambassador
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.

GUATEMALA.

Senor Don Antonio Lazo Arriaga, Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten
tiary.

HAITI.

Mr. J. N. Lger, Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary.

ITALY.

Baron de Fava, Ambassador Extraor
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

JAPAN.

Mr. Kogoro Takahira, Envoy Extraor
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

KOREA.
Mr. Chin Pom Ye, Envoy Extraordinary

Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten- a nd Minister Plenipotentiary,
tiary.

CHINA. MEXICO.

Mr. Wu Ting-Fang, Envoy Extraordi- Senor Don Manuel de Azpiroz, Am
bassador Extraordinary and Plenipoten
tiary.

NETHERLANDS.

nary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

COLOMBIA.

Senor Dr. Luis Cuervo Marqucz,
Charge d Affaires.

COSTA RICA.
Sefior Don Joaquin Bernardo Calvo,

Baron W. A. F. Gevers, Envoy Extraor
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

NICARAGUA.
Senor Don Luis F. Corea, Envoy Ex-

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
potentiary.

DENMARK.
Mr. Constantin Brun, Envoy Extraor

dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC.
Senor Don Emilio C. Joubert, Charge

PERU.

Mr. Manuel Alvarez Calderon, Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten
tiary.

PORTUGAL.

Viscount de Santo-Thyrso, Envoy Ex
traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

RUSSIA.

d Affaires.

ECUADOR.
Senor Don Luis Felipe Carbo, Envoy

Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten-

.- dmary and Plenipotentiary.

FRANCE.

M. Jules Cambon, Ambassador Extraor
dinary and Plenipotentiary.

Extraor-

120

SALVADOR.

Senor Don Rafael Zaldivar, Envoy Ex
traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.

DIRECTORY DISCIPLES OF CHRIST

SIAM. tourneur, and Carnot. The latter organ-

Phya Prashiddhi, Envoy Extraordinary iiced the armies with great skill.

and Minister Plenipotentiary, accredited Disbanding of the Union Armies,

both to the United States and Great See ARMY, DISBANDING OF THE UNION

Britain. ARMIES.

SPAIN. Disbrowe, SAMUEL, magistrate; born

in Cambridgeshire, England, Nov. 30,

Duke de Arcos, Envoy Extraordinary 1P1A

,,,.., J 1019; came to America in 1639; and

and Minister Plenipotentiary. , , , ,, T ,. .. .. .,

bought from the Indians the site of Guil-

SWEDEN AND NORWAY, ford, Conn. The constitution of this set
tlement in the writing of Disbrowe is still

Mr. A. Grip, Envoy Extraordinary and , r j-

Tir--j.-r.i- a.- preserved and provides for judiciary, ex-

Mmister Plenipotentiary. &lt;- j i i A-

ecutive, and legislative departments, etc.

SWITZERLAND. He returned to England in 1650, and died

in Cambridgeshire, Dec. 10, 1690.

Mr. J. B. Pioda, Envoy Extraordinary Disciples of Christ a re i igious body

and Minister Plenipotentiary. founded in Washington, Pa., 1811, by

TRY Thomas Campbell, a minister who had

left the Presbyterian Church in Ire-

Ali Ferrouh Bey, Envoy Extraordinary ]and and came to the United States in

and Minister Plenipotentiary. 1807 He deplored the divided state of

Uruguay ^ c Church and the evils which arose there
from. He held that the only remedy for

Senor Dr. Don Juan Cuestas, Minis- this wag a complete resto ration of primi-

** tive apostolic Christianity. This view met

with some approval, a new sect was

Senor Don Augusto F. Pulido, Charge formed, and the first church was organized
d Affaires ad interim. on May 4, 1811. In addition to the funda-
See CONSULAR SERVICE. mental truths which the Disciples of
Directory, FRENCH, the name given to Christ hold in common with all Chris-
the government of the French Republic, tian bodies the following may be cited as
established by a constitution in August, some of their more particular principles:
1795, framed by the moderate republican 1. The Church of Christ is intentionally
party after the fall of Robespierre and the and constitutionally one; and all divisions
end of the Reign of Terror. The executive which obstruct this unity are contrary to
directory consisted of five persons, who the will of God, and should be ended. 2.
promulgated the laws, appointed the min- As schisms sprang from a departure from
isters, and had the management of mili- the New Testament Christianity, the rem-
tary and naval affairs. They decided ques- edy for them is to be found in the restora
tions by a majority vote, and presided, by tion of the Gospel in its purity. 3. In
turns, three months each, the presiding order to accomplish this restoration all
member having the signature and the seal, human formulation of doctrine as authori-
During their terms of office none of them tative bases for church membership must
could have a personal command, or absent be surrendered, and the Bible received
himself for more than five days from the alone as the basis of all faith and prac-
place where the council held its sessions tice; the exchange of all party names for
without its permission. The legislative scriptural names, and the restoration of
power, under the constitution, was vested the ordinances as they were originally.
in two assemblies, the Council of Five The polity of the Disciples is congrega-
Hundred and the Council of the Ancients, tional ; the local churches have elders and
the former having the exclusive right of deacons. They have no general body for
preparing laws for the consideration legislative purposes, but combine in dis-
of the latter. The judicial authority was trict arid national organizations for mis-
committod to elective judges. The first sionary work. In 1900 they reported 6,528
directors chosen (Nov. 1, 1795) were MM. ministers, 10,528 churches, and 1,149,982
Barras, Revelliere-Lepeaux, Rewbell, Le- communicants.

121

DISCOVERIES OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY DISMAL SWAMP

Discoveries of the Nineteenth Cen
tury. Alfred Russell Wallace, in his book,
The Wonderful Century, makes a compari
son between the great inventions and dis
coveries of the nineteenth century and
those of the entire previous historical pe
riod, which is as follows:

OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

1. Railways.

2. Steamships.

3. Electric telegraphs.

4. The telephone.

5. Lucifer matches.

6. Gas illumination.

7. Electric lighting.

8. Photography.

9. The phonograph.

10. Rontgen rays.

11. Spectrum- analysis.

12. Anaesthetics.

13. Antiseptic surgery.

14. Conservation of energy.

15. Molecular theory of gases.

16. Velocity of light directly measured,

and earth s rotation experimental
ly shown.

17. The uses of dust.

18. Chemistry, definite proportions.

19. Meteors and the meteoritic theory.

20. The Glacial Epoch.

21. The antiquity of man.

22. Organic evolution established.

23. Cell theory and embryology.

24. Germ theory of disease, and the

function of the leucocytes.

OF ALL PRECEDING AGES.

1. The mariner s compass.

2. The steam-engine.

3. The telescope.

4. The barometer and thermometer.

5. Printing.

6. Arabic numerals.

7. Alphabetical writing.

8. Modern chemistry founded.

9. Electric science founded.

10. Gravitation established.

11. Kepler s laws.

12. The differential calculus.

13. The circulation of the blood.

14. Light proved to have finite ve

locity.

15. The development of geometry.
Disfranchisement. Several of the

Southern States have revised, and others

contemplate the revision, of their consti
tutions with a view to disfranchise illit
erate negroes.

Louisiana. There is an educational
qualification, which, however, does not ap
ply to men or to the sons or grandsons of
men who were qualified to vote in 1867,
nor to foreigners naturalized before Jan.
1, 1898.

Mississippi. An educational qualifica
tion and a poll tax of $2, which may be
further increased by a county poll tax
of $1.

North Carolina. An educational quali
fication and a poll tax are necessary, with
the exception that the educational qualifi
cation shall not apply to any one who
was entitled to vote under the laws of any
State in the United States on Jan. 1, 1867.
South Carolina. On Jan. 1, 1896, a
new constitution went into effect by which
voters could be enrolled up to Jan. 1,
1898, provided they could read or could
explain to the satisfaction of the register
ing officer such parts of the Constitution
of the United States as might be read
to them, but after Jan. 1, 1898, only
those able to read and write any re
quired part of the Constitution, or who
could prove themselves tax-payers on
property worth not less than $300, could
be enrolled as voters.

Maryland. A new law was passed
March 20, 1901, practically making an
educational qualification to read and write
necessary for enrolment as a voter.
Sec also ELECTIVE FRANCHISE.
Dismal Swamp, a morass in southern
Virginia, extending into North Carolina.
It was formerly 40 miles long and 25
miles wide, but has become somewhat re
duced in area by drainage of its border.
It is densely timbered with cypress, juni
per, cedar, pine, etc. Lake Drummond,
near its centre, covers about 6 square
miles. This swamp rises towards its
centre, which is considerably higher than
its margin. The canal, constructed
through the swamp to connect Chesapeake
Bay with Albcmarle Sound, has large his
toric interests. The company organized
to build the canal received a joint charter
from the legislative assemblies of Vir
ginia and North Carolina on Dec. 1, 1787.
The canal was opened to navigation in
1822; was wholly finished in 1828; and

122

DISOSW AY DISUNION

was built with the assistance of the na
tional government and the State of Vir
ginia at a cost of $1,800,000. Originally
it was 32 feet wide and 4 feet deep. Sub
sequently the width was increased to 40
feet and the depth to 6 feet, and the de
caying wooden locks were replaced with
stone ones. This canal was for many
years the principal means of communi
cation between the North and the South,
and was a very profitable venture. After
the Civil War its usefulness departed.
Early in 1899, the canal, as entirely re
constructed, was reopened to navigation.
It now extends from the village of Deep
Creek, Va., to South Mills, N. C., a dis
tance of 22 miles. The present canal is
one of the most important links in the
chain of inland waterways along the coast
from New York to Florida, and, as the
dangers of Cape Hatteras are avoided by
it, it has a large value both in peace and
war. Thomas Moore the poet, while at
Norfolk, put into verse an Indian legend,
under the title of The Lake of the Dismal
Swamp.

Disosway, GABRIEL POILLON, anti
quary; born in New York City, Dec. 6,
1799; graduated at Columbia College in
1819; author of The Earliest Churches of
New York and its Vicinity. He died on
Staten Island, N. Y., July 9, 1868.

District of Columbia, the Federal Dis
trict and seat of government of the United
States. In 1791 the District was erected
into two counties, as divided by the Poto
mac, and was placed under the jurisdic
tion of a circuit court, composed of a
chief-justice and two assessors ; the judg
ment of this court to be final in criminal
cases, but in civil cases, where the amount
in dispute exceeded $100 in value, a writ
of error to lie in the Supreme Court of
the United States. This arrangement was
afterwards modified. Instead of provid
ing a homogeneous code of laws for the
District, those of Maryland and Virginia
were continued. A bill to abolish slavery
in the District was passed by the Congress
(April 11, 1862), and became a law by
the signature of the President, April 16.
It provided for the payment, out of the
treasury of the United States, of an aver
age of $.300 lo the master or mistress of
each slave thus emancipated. Thus eman
cipation began at the national capital. In

connection with this event was a curious
proceeding. A free negro of the District,
who had bought and paid for his slave
wife, she and her children being, by the
slave code, his lawful slaves, claimed and
received compensation for her and her
half-dozen children. In 1871, the District
was organized as a Territory with a ter
ritorial form of government. So extrava
gant, however, were the expenditures made
for public improvements by the officials of
the Territory, that in 1874 Congress re
pealed the act creating the Territory, and
invested the executive powers of the munic
ipality in three commissioners two civil
ians and a United States engineer officer
appointed by the President. All legisla
tive powers were assumed by Congress.
The law provided was the common law of
England, modified by acts of Congress.
There is a supreme court of six justices,
with other tribunals and officials. The
expenses of the municipality are defrayed
one-half by revenues from taxes levied on
private property, and one-half by con
gressional appropriations. The citizens
have no right to vote on national or local
questions.

In 1900 the city of WASHINGTON" (q. v.)
was co-extensive with the District of Co
lumbia, the former corporations of George
town and Washington having been abol
ished, and the public affairs of the district
placed under the management of three
commissioners. The total funded debt was
$15,091,300, and the assessed valuation
$191,049,744. The population in 1890 was
230,392; in 1900, 278,718. See UNITED
STATES DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, in .vol. ix.

Disunion, EARLY THREATS OF. In
angry debates in Congress on the subject
of the fisheries, in 1779, threats of dis
union were made by deputies of the
North and the South. It was shown that
the prosperity of New England depended
on the fisheries; but in this the Southern
States had no common interest. Indeed,
in all the States the doctrine of State
supremacy was so universally prevalent
that the deputies in Congress, instead of
willingly legislating for the whole, legis
lated for their respective States. When
appeals had been made in Congress for a
favorable consideration of New England
in relation to the fisheries without effect,
Samuel Adams said that " it would be-

123

DIVORCE LAWS

come more and more necessary for the
two empires [meaning the Northern and
Southern States divided by Mason and
Dixon s line] to separate." When the
North offered a preliminary resolution
that the country, even if deserted by
France and Spain, would continue the war
for the sake of the fisheries, four States
drew up a protest, declaring peremptorily
that if the resolution should be adopted
they would withdraw from the confedera
tion. These sectional interests continu
ally stood in the way of a perfect union
of the struggling colonists. The inflexible
tenacity with which each State asserted
its title to complete sovereignty often
menaced the Union with destruction, and
independence became, in the minds of
some, an idle dream. When, in August,
1781, envoys from Vermont were in Phila
delphia, entreating for the admission of
their State into the Union, the measure
was opposed by the Southern delegates,
because it would " destroy the balance of
power " between the two sections of the
confederacy, and give the preponderance
to the North. The purchase of Louisiana
was deprecated and violently opposed by
the Federalist leaders, because it would
strengthen the Southern political influ
ence then controlling the national govern

ment. They professed to regard the meas
ure as inimical to the Northern and East
ern sections of the Union. The Southern
politicians had made them familiar with
the prescription of disunion as a remedy
for incurable political evils, and they re
solved to try its efficacy in the case in
question. All through the years 1803 and
1804 desires for and fears of a dissolu
tion of the Union were freely expressed in
what were free-labor States in 18G1. East
of the Alleghanies, early in 1804, a select
convention of Federalists, to be held in
Boston, was contemplated, in the ensuing
autumn, to consider the question of dis
union. Alexander Hamilton was invited
to attend it, but his emphatic condemna
tion of the whole plan, only a short time
before his death, seems to have discon
certed the leaders and dissipated the
.-cheme. The Rev. Jedidiah Morse, then
very influential in the Church and in poli
tics in New England, advocated the sever
ance of the Eastern States from the Union,
so as to get rid of the evils of the slave
system; and, later, Josiah Quincy, in a
debate in the House of Representatives,
expressed his opinion that it might be
come necessary to divide the Union as a
cure of evils that seemed to be already
chronic.

DIVOBCE LAWS

Divorce Laws. Excepting in South part of husband; conviction of felony.

Carolina, which has no divorce laws, a Residence required, six months; either

violation of the marriage vow is cause party may marry again,

for divorce in all the States and Ter- Arkansas. Permanent or incurable m-

ritories Other legal causes are shown sanity; wilful desertion one year; convic-

below :

tion of felony or other infamous crime;
cruel treatment as to endanger life; per-

Alabama. Voluntary abandonment for sonal indignities such as to render con-
two years; habitual drunkenness after dition intolerable; habitual drunkenness
marriage and incapacity; imprisonment one year. Residence required, one year;
in penitentiary for two years on a sen- either party may marry again,
tence of seven years or more. In making California. Habitual drunkenness, neg-
decree chancellor may decide whether de- lect, or wilful desertion one year; ex-
fendant may marry again or not. Resi- tr erne cruelty; conviction of felony. Resi
dence of one year in State required; but dence required, one year; either may re-
if the application is made on ground ot marry.

desertion, three years residence is re- Colorado. Habitual drunkenness; wil-

quired. fnl desertion or failure on part of lius-

Arizona. Excesses or cruel treatment; band to provide for wife, either conlinned

habitual intemperance; abandomuent for for one year; conviction of felony: cx-

t j x months; wilful neglect to provide on treme cruelty, causing either mental or

124

DIVOBCE LAWS

physical suffering. Residence required, dence required, six months; either may

one year; neither can remarry within remarry.

one year. Illinois. Extreme and repeated cruel-

Connecticut. Habitual intemperance; ty; conviction of felony or other infamous

intolerable cruelty; sentence to imprison- crime; attempt by either party on life

ment for life; fraudulent contract; wil- of other; wilful desertion two years,

ful desertion and total neglect of duty Residence required, one year; no statute

for three years; absent and unheard of as to remarrying.

seven years; any infamous crime involv- Indiana. Habitual drunkenness; cruel

ing violation of conjugal duty, and pun- and inhuman treatment; abandonment

ishable by imprisonment in State prison, two years; failure on part of husband to

Residence required, three years: either support wife for two years. Residence

may remarry. required, two years; either may marry

Delaware. Married under age; force or again, except as limited in decree,
fraud in procuring marriage; extreme Kansas. Fraudulent contract; convic-
cruelty; habitual drunkenness; convic- tion of and imprisonment for felony;
tion of felony; desertion three years; wil- habitual drunkenness; extreme cruelty;
ful failure of husband to provide three gross neglect of duty; abandonment one
years. No statute as to residence; either year. Residence required, one year; par-
may remarry, but party guilty of infi- ties may remarry at once, unless appeal
delity must not marry party with whom is taken, and then thirty days after final
crime was committed. judgment on the appeal.

District of Columbia. Wilful desertion Kentucky. Uniting with religious so-

for two years; habitual drunkenness; ciety which forbids marriage of husband

cruelty and abuse endangering life or and wife; abandonment one year; living

health ; insane at marriage. Divorces apart without cohabitation five years ;

from bed and board may be granted for condemnation for felony; force, duress or

cruelty and reasonable apprehension of fraud in procuring marriage. Wife may

physical harm. Residence required, two obtain divorce for husband s neglect to

years; no statutory provision as to re- provide, and habitually treating her in

marrying. such cruel and inhuman manner as to de-

Florida. Wilful, obstinate, and contin- stroy her peace and happiness ; cruel beat-

ned desertion one year; habitual intern- ing or injury indicating outrageous temper

perance for one year; extreme cruelty; and endangering her life; confirmed hab-

habitual indulgence in violent temper, its of intoxication. Residence required,

A person who has been a resident of Flor- one year; either may remarry,

ida for two years, and whose husband Louisiana. Desertion for five years,

or wife has procured a divorce in any having been summoned to return within

other State or country, may obtain a one year of filing claim; attempt on life

divorce. Residence required, two years; of other; fugitive from justice; habitual

either may marry again. intemperance to excess; condemnation to

Georgia. Habitual drunkenness; cruel ignominious punishment; cruel treat-
treatment; wilful desertion three years; ment or outrages of such nature as to
mental incapacity at time of marriage; render living together insupportable. No
conviction of crime involving moral turpi- divorce, except for infidelity, shall be
tude under which party has been sen- granted, except decree of separation pre-
tenced to imprisonment for two years or viously had and parties lived apart one
longer; force, menaces, threats, duress, year. No statute as to previous resi-
and fraud in procuring marriage. In pro- dence; woman cannot marry for ten
curing divorce, concurrent verdict of two months after marriage is dissolved ; on
juries at different terms of court are divorce for infidelity guilty party shall
necessary. Applicant must reside in State: not marry person with whom crime was
no statute as to marrying again. committed.

Idaho. Conviction of felony; extreme Maine. Sentence to imprisonment for

cruelty ; habitual intemperance ; wilful life ; desertion for three years ; failure

desertion and neglect one year. Resi- of husband to provide for wife; cruel and

125

DIVORCE LAWS

abusive treatment; gross and confirmed drunkenness one year; desertion one year,

habits of intoxication. Residence re- husband deserting wife and leaving State

quired, oile year; either may remarry. without intention of returning. Resi-

Maryland. Abandonment three years; dence required, one year,
any cause which would render marriage Xcbraska. Extreme cruelty; utter de
void a6 initio. Residence required, two sertion two years; sentenced to imprison-
years; in cases of divorce for infidelity, ment for life or for three years or more;
court may decree that guilty party shall habitual drunkenness; wilful desertion for
not marry during life of other. five years. Divorce from bed and board

Massachusetts. Sentence to hard labor or from bonds of matrimony may be

for five years or longer; where either granted for extreme cruelty by personal

party has joined religious society that violence or other means, utter desertion

professes to believe relation of husband two years, or failure of husband to pro-

and wife unlawful, and has continued vide. Previous residence, six months ;

with such society three years, refusing neither can remarry within time allowed

for that time to cohabit; husband cruelly for appeal, nor before final judgment if

and wantonly refusing to provide; gross appeal is taken.

and confirmed habits of intoxication with Nevada. Neglect of husband to pro-
liquors, by opium or other drugs; cruel vide for one year; extreme cruelty; wilful
and abusive treatment; utter desertion desertion one year; conviction of felony
three years. Residence required, three or infamous crime; habitual gross drunk-
years where parties have resided together enness. Residence required, six months;
in State, otherwise five years; guilty either may remarry,
party cannot marry for two years. New Hampshire. Conviction of crime

Michigan. Imprisonment for life or and imprisonment for one year; extreme
three years or more; where either has cruelty; where either party has treated
obtained divorce in another State; neglect other as to injure health or endanger
by husband to provide; habitual drunken- reason; habitual drunkenness three years;
ness; desertion for two years. Resi- absent and unheard of three years; deser-
dence required, one year; court may or- tion for three years with refusal to co
der that guilty party shall not marry for habit; desertion for three years with re-
term not exceeding two years. fusal to support; where either party has

Minnesota. Wilful desertion, one year; joined society professing to believe rela-

sentence to State prison; cruel and in- tion of husband and wife unlawful, and

human treatment; habitual drunkenness refusal to cohabit with other for six

one year. Residence required, one year; months; where wife has resided out of

either party may marry again. State ten years without husband s con-

Mississippi. Insanity or idiocy at time sent, without returning to claim her mari-

of marriage unknown to other; habitual tal rights; where wife of alien has resided

cruel and inhuman treatment ; habitual in State three years, and .her husband has

drunkenness; wilful desertion two years; left United States with intention of be-

sentenced to penitentiary. Residence re- coming citizen of another country, not

quired, one year; court may decree that having made suitable provision for her

guilty party shaJl not remarry. support. One or the other must be resi-

Missouri. Conviction of crime or felony dent of State one year, unless both were
prior to marriage unknown to other; con- domiciled in State when action was com-
viction of felony or infamous crime; ab- menced, or defendant was served with pro-
sent without cause one year ; habitual cess in State, the plaintiff being domiciled
drunkenness one year; husband guilty of therein; either c;m remarry,
such conduct as to constitute him a va- New Jersey. Extreme cruelty; wilful,
grant; cruel or barbarous treatment as to continued and obstinate desertion for
endanger life; indignities as to render two years. Residence required, three
condition intolerable. Residence required, years; no statutory provision as to re-
one year; either may remarry. marriage.

Montana. Extreme cruelty; conviction New Mexico. Neglect of husband to

of felony or infamous crime; habitual provide; habitual drunkenness; cruel or

120

DIVORCE XAWS

inhuman treatment; abandonment. Resi- viction of felony; personal indignities or

deuce required, one year. cruel and inhuman treatment rendering

New York. Absolute divorce granted life burdensome. Residence required, one
only for adultery. Residence required, year; neither can marry until expira-
one year. When woman under age of six- tion of time for appeal, and in case of ap-
teen is married without consent of parent peal, until after judgment on the appeal,
or guardian, when consent was obtained Pennsylvania. Conviction of felony
by fraud, force or duress, or where either and sentence for two years or longer; wil-
party was insane or idiot, marriage may ful and malicious desertion for two years,
be annulled. In such cases either party or \vhere husband by cruelty and abuse
may remarry, but in cases of absolute di- has endangered his wife s life, or offered
vorce guilty party shall not marry during such indignities to her person as to render
life of other, with the following excep- her condition intolerable and her life
tions: He may be permitted by court to burdensome, and thereby forced her to
remarry upon proving that the other party withdraw from his home and family;
has remarried, that five years have elapsed where wife, by cruel and barbarous treat-
since divorce was granted, and that his ment, renders husband s condition intoler-
conduct has been uniformly good. If the able; fraud, force or coercion in procuring
guilty party marries in another State in marriage. Residence required, one year;
accordance with law r s of that State, the either may remarry,
marriage will be held good in New York. Rhode Island. Where marriage was

North Carolina. Divorce may be void or voidable by law; where either
granted to wife if husband is indicted for party is for crime deemed civilly dead, or
felony, and flees from the State and does from absence or other circumstances pre-
not return for one year; to the husband sumed to be dead; wilful desertion for
if wife refuses relations with him for one five years or for a shorter time, in discre-
year. Divorces from bed and board may tion of court; extreme cruelty; continued
be granted for habitual drunkenness, drunkenness; neglect or refusal of hus-
abandonment, cruel or barbarous treat- band to provide, or for any other gross
ment endangering life, indignities to per- misbehavior or wickedness in either party
son as to render condition intolerable, repugnant to or in violation of the mar-
maliciously turning other out - of - doors, riage covenant, and where parties have
Residence required, two years; on abso- lived apart for ten years. Residence re-
lute divorce either may remarry. quired, one year; no statute as to re-

North Dakota. Conviction of felony; marrying.

extreme cruelty, wilful desertion, wilful Tennessee. Habitual drunkenness; wil-
neglect and habitual intemperance, each ful or malicious desertion for two years;
continued for one year. Residence re- attempting life of other; conviction of in
quired, ninety days; guilty party cannot famous crime; conviction and sentence to
marry during life of other. South Dakota penitentiary for felony; refusal of wife to
same. move into this State, and wilfully absent-

Ohio. Imprisonment in penitentiary; ing herself from husband for two years,
gross neglect of duty; extreme cruelty; Divorces from bed and board may be
habitual drunkenness for three years; granted for cruel and inhuman treatment
fraudulent contract; divorce procured by to wife, indignities to her person render-
either in another State. Residence re- ing her condition intolerable, and forcing
quired, one year; either may remarry. her to withdraw, abandoning her or turn-

OWahoma. Habitual intemperance; ex- ing her out-of-doors, and refusing or neg-
treme cruelty; abandonment one year; lecting to provide for her. Residence re-
fraudulent contract; gross neglect of quired, two years; on absolute divorce
duty ; conviction of felony and imprison- either may remarry, but on divorce for in-
ment. Residence required, ninety days; fidelity guilty one shall not marry party
decree does not become absolute till six with whom crime was committed during
months after its date. life of other.

Oregon. Wilful desertion one year; Texas. Desertion for three years; ex-
habitual, gross drunkenness one year; con- cesses; conviction of felony and imprison-

127

DIVORCE LAWS

merit in State prison; cruel treatment or ual drunkenness for one year; imprison-

outrages, if of nature to render living to- ment for life or for three years or more;

gether insupportable. Residence required, cruel and inhuman treatment by personal

six months; either may remarry. violence; where parties have voluntarily

Utah. Conviction of felony; habitual lived apart five years. Residence re-
drunkenness; wilful neglect to provide for quired, one year; either may remarry,
wife; wilful desertion more than one Wyoming. Conviction of felony or in-
year; cruel treatment as to cause bodily famous crime prior to marriage unknown
injuries or mental distress. Residence re- to other; conviction and sentence for f el-
quired, one year; either may remarry. ony; wilful desertion one year; neglect of

Vermont. Sentence to hard labor in husband to provide for one year; habitual
State prison for life or for three years or drunkenness; such indignities as to ren-
more; fraud or force in procuring mar- der condition intolerable. Residence re-
riage, or either under age of consent; hus- quired, six months; no statute as to re-
band grossly, wantonly, and cruelly neg- marrying.

lecting to provide; wilful desertion three Divorce Laws, UNIFORM. Upon the
years, or absence seven years unheard of; question of the desirability of a uniform
intolerable severity. Petitioner must re- divorce law in the United States, ELIZA-
side in the State at least one year ; guilty BETH CADY STANTON (q. v.) , the well-
party shall not marry again for the term known advocate of woman s suffrage,
of three years. writes as follows:

Virginia. Wilful desertion five years;

fugitive from justice two years; convic- There has been much discussion of late in
tion of infamous offence prior to mar- regard to the necessity for an entire re-
riage unknown to other ; sentenced to vision of the laws on divorce. For this pur-
confinement in penitentiary. Divorces pose, the State proposes a committee of
from bed and board may be granted for learned judges, the Church another of dis-
cruelty, reasonable apprehension of bodily" tinguished bishops, to frame a national
harm, abandonment or desertion. Resi- law which shall be endorsed by both Church
dence required, one year; court may de- and State. Though women are as deeply
cree that guilty party may not remarry interested as men in this question, there
without the consent of court. is no suggestion that women shall be

Washington. Abandonment one year; represented on either committee. Hence,

habitual drunkenness or neglect or re- the importance of some expressions of

fusal to provide; consent to marriage ob- their opinions before any changes are

tained by force or fraud; cruel treatment made. As judges and bishops are pro-

or personal indignities rendering life bur- verbially conservative, their tendency

densome; chronic mania or dementia of would be to make the laws in the free

either party for ten years; imprisonment States more restrictive than they now

in penitentiary or any other cause deemed are, and thus render it more difficult for

sufficient by the court. Residence re- wives to escape from unhappy marriages,

quired, one year; neither party can marry The States which have liberal divorce

until time for repeal has elapsed, or if laws are to women what Canada was to

appeal is taken, not until after final judg- the slaves before the emancipation. The

ment. applicants for divorce are chiefly women,

West Virginia. Wilful desertion three as Naquet s bill, which passed the

years; husband notoriously immoral; wife Chamber of Deputies of France, abun-

immoral before marriage unknown to hus- dantly proves. In the first year there were

band; imprisonment in penitentiary. 3,000 applications, the greater number

Divorces from bed and board may be being women.

granted for habitual drunkenness, aban- Unhappy husbands have many ways of
donment, desertion, cruel and inhuman mitigating their miseries which are not
treatment, or reasonable apprehension of open to wives, who are financial depend-
bodily harm. Residence required, one ants and burdened with children. Hus-
year; no statute as to remarriage. bands can leave the country and invest

Wisconsin. Neglect to provide ; habit- their property in foreign lands. Laws

128

DIVORCE LAWS, UNIFORM

affect only those who respect and obey necessary that a private act of Par-

them. Laws made to restrain unprin- liament should be passed in order that a

cipled men fall with crushing weight on divorce could be obtained. In 1857, the

women. A young woman with property State took action looking towards the

of her own can now easily free herself granting of divorces by the courts with-

from an unworthy husband by spending out the interposition of Parliament, but

a year in a free State, and in due time this action has not been sanctioned by

she can marry again. the Church of England. Hence has arisen

Because an inexperienced girl has a peculiar state of affairs in England,

made a mistake partly, in many cases, which has led to considerable confusion,

through the bad counsel of her advisers The Church forbids the marriage of either

shall she be denied the right to marry party, except of the innocent parties in

again? We can trace the icy fingers of cases where the cause is adultery. But as

the canon law in all our most sacred the State permits the marriage of divorced

relations. Through the evil influences of parties, the ministers of the Church of

that law, the Church holds the key to England were put in an awkward position,

the situation, and is determined to keep As ministers of the Church, they were

it. At a triennial Episcopal convention forbidden to marry these persons, but as

held in Washington, D. C., bishops, with the Church is allied to the State, and to

closed doors, discussed the question of a certain extent subject to it, a number

marriage and divorce ad libitum, a large of them believed it their civil duty to per-

majority of the bishops being in favor of form such marriages, and they performed

the most restrictive canons; and, though them in violation of the canonical law.

an auxiliary convention was held at the The agitation over this question has at-

same time, composed of 1,500 women, tracted a great deal of attention during

members of the Episcopal Church, they the last few years, and is looked upon as

had no part in the discussion, covering being one of the most powerful causes

a dozen or more canon laws. which may lead to the disestablishment of

A recent writer on this subject says: the Church of England.

Marriage should be regarded as a&gt; civil

"There is no doubt that the sentiment in contract, entirely under the jurisdiction

the Episcopal Church, at least among the of tfae gtate _ The Ieg3

clergy, is strongly in favor of the Church
setting its face firmly against divorce. An Church has in our temporal affairs, the
evidence of this is the circulation of a peti- better.

tlon to the convention requesting that

adopt some stringent rule for this purpose, , . , .

which has already received the signatures of can have an ? J ustlce
about 2,000 of the clergy. The proposition to

Lord Brougham says: "Before woman

,, , ,.

the laws of En g
land, there must be a total reconstruction

and finds
Church."

many supporters in the Low

adopt a stringent canon received the undivid- of the whole marriage system; for any at-
ed support of 3igh Church ministers, tempt to amend it wou]d prove ugelesg .

The great charter, in establishing the su
premacy of law over prerogative, provided
The question of marriage and divorce, only for justice between man and man;
and the attitude the Church should take for woman nothing was left but common
towards divorced persons who wish to law, accumulations and modifications of
marry again, has been up before many original Gothic and Roman heathenism,
general conventions. Ihe attitude of the which no amount of filtration through ec-
Episcopal Church has always been strongly clesiastical courts could change into
against divorce, and particularly against Christian laws. They are declared un-
the marriage of divorced persons. The worthy of a Christian people by great

marriage
Catholic Church

divorced persons.

takes a still narrower jurists; still, they remain unchanged."

ground, positively declining to recognize There is a demand just now for an

such an institution as divorce.

amendment to the United States Consti-

As early as the year 1009, it was en- tution that shall make the laws of mar-
acted by the Church authorities of Eng- riage and divorce the same in all the
land that a Christian should never marry States of the Union. As the suggestion
a divorced woman. Down to 1857, it was eomos umrormly from those who con-
in. I 12 .)

DIVORCE LAWS, UNIFORM

aider the present divorce laws too liberal, wholly to the civil rather than to the
we may infer that the proposed national canon law, to the jurisdiction of the sev-
law is to place the whole question on the eral States rather than to the nation,
narrowest basis, rendering null and void As many of our leading ecclesiastics and
the laws that have been passed in a statesmen are discussing this question, it
broader spirit, according to the needs and is surprising that women, who are equally
experiences of certain sections of the sever- happy or miserable in these relations,
eign people. And here let us bear in mind manifest so little interest in the pending
that the widest possible law would not proposition, and especially as it is not
make divorce obligatory on any one, while to their interest to have an amend-
a restricted law, on the contrary, would ment to the national Constitution estab-
compel many, who married, perhaps, un- lishing a uniform law. In making any
der more liberal laws, to remain in uncon- contract, the parties are supposed to have
genial relations. an equal knowledge of the situation, and

We are still in the experimental stage an equal voice in the agreement. This
on this question; we are not qualified to has never been the case with the contract
make a law that would work satisfactorily of marriage. Women are, and always
over so vast an area as our boundaries now have been, totally ignorant of the pro-
embrace. I see no evidence in what has visions of the canon and civil laws, which
been published on this question, of late, men have made and administered, and
by statesmen, ecclesiasts, lawyers, and then, to impress woman s religious nat-
judges, that any of them have thought ure with the sacredness of this one-sided
sufficiently on the subject to prepare a contract, they claim that all these heter-
well-digested code, or a comprehensive ogenoous relations called marriage are
amendment of the national Constitution, made by God, appealing to that passage
Some view marriage as a civil contract, of Scripture, " What God hath joined
though not governed by the laws of other together, let no man put asunder."
contracts; some view it as a religious or- Now, let us substitute the natural laws
dinance a sacrament; some think it a for God. When two beings contract, the
relation to be regulated by the State, State has the right to ask the question,
others by the Church, and still others Are the parties of proper age, and have
think it should be left wholly to the indi- they sufficient judgment to make so im-
vidual. With this divergence of opinion portant a contract? And the State should
among our leading minds, it is quite evi- have the power to dissolve the contract
dent that we are not prepared for a na- if any incongruities arise, or any deception
tional law. has been practised, just as it has the

Local self-government more readily per- power to cancel the purchase of a horse,
mits of experiments on mooted questions, if he is found to be blind in one eye, balks
which are the outcome of the needs and when he should go, or has a beautiful
convictions of the community. The false tail, skilfully adjusted, which was
smaller the area over which legislation the chief attraction to the purchaser,
extends, the more pliable are the laws. We must remember that the reading
By leaving the States free to experiment of the marriage service does not signify
in their local affairs we can judge of the that God hath joined the couple together,
working of different laws under varying That is not so. Only those marriages that
circumstances, and thus learn their com- are harmonious, where the parties are
parative merits. The progress education really companions for each other, are in
has made in America is due to the fact the highest sense made by God. But
that we have left our system of public in- what shall we say of that large class of
struction in the hands of local author- men and women who marry for wealth,
ities. How different would be the solu- position, mere sensual gratification, with-
tion of the great educational question of out any real attraction or religious sense
manual labor in tho schools, if the matter of loyalty towards each other. You might
had to be settled at Washington! as well talk of the same code of regula-

From these considerations, our wisest tions for honest, law-abiding citizens, and
course seems to be to leave these questions for criminals in our State prisons, as for

130

DIX

these t\vo classes. The former are a law latures to aid the unfortunate, and was in
to themselves ; they need no iron chains strumental in bringing about the founda-
to hold them together. The other class, tion of several State asylums for the in-
having no respect for law whatever, will sane. At the breaking out of the Civil War
defy all constitutional provisions. The she was appointed superintendent of hos-
time has come when the logic of facts pital nurses, and after the close of the
is more conclusive than the deductions war she resumed her efforts in behalf of
of theology. the insane. She died in Trenton, N. J.,

It is a principle of the common law of July 19, 1887.

England that marriage is a civil contract, Dix, JOHN ADAMS, military officer;
and the same law has been acknowl- born in Boscawen, N. H., July 24, 1798.
edged by statutes in several of our After he left the academy at Exeter, N. H.,
American States; and in the absence of he completed his studies in a French
expressed statute to the contrary, the college at Montreal. He entered the army-
common law of England is deemed the as a cadet in 1812, when the war with
common law of our country.

Questions involved in marriage and
divorce should be, in the churches, mat
ters of doctrinal teaching and discipline
only; and, after having discussed for
centuries the question as to what the
Bible teaches concerning divorce, without
arriving at any settled conclusion, they
should agree somewhat among themselves
before they attempt to dictate State legis
lation on the subject. It simplifies this
question to eliminate the pretensions of
the Church and the Bible as to its reg
ulation. As the Bible sanctions divorce
and polygamy, in the practice of the
chosen people, and is full of contradic
tions, and the canon law has been pliable
in the hands of ecclesiastics, enforced or
set aside at the behests of kings and

nobles, it would simplify the discussion England began. While his father, Lieu-
to confine it wholly to the civil law, re- tenant-Colonel Dix, was at Fort McHenry,
garding divorce as a State question. Baltimore, young Dix pursued his studies

Dix, DOROTHEA LYNDE, philanthropist; at St. Mary s College. In the spring of
born in Worcester, Mass., about 1794. 1813 he was appointed an ensign in the
After her father s death she supported her- army, and was soon promoted to third
self by teaching a school for young girls lieutenant, and made adjutant of an in-
in Boston. Becoming interested in the dependent battalion of nine companies,
welfare of the convicts in the State prison He was commissioned a captain in 1825,
at Charlestown, her philanthropic spirit and having continued in the army sixteen
expanded and embraced all of the unfort- years, in 1828 he left the military service,
unate and suffering classes. Having in- His father had been mortally hurt at
herited from a relative property sufficient Chrysler s Field, and the care of extri-
to render her independent, she went to eating the paternal estate from difficulties,
Europe for her health. Returning to Bos- for the benefit of his mother and her nine
ton in 1837, she devoted her life to the children, had devolved upon him. He had
investigation and alleviation of the con- studied law while in the army. After
dition of paupers, lunatics, and prisoners, visiting Europe for his health, Captain
encouraged by her friend and pastor, Dr. Dix settled as a lawyer in Cooperstown,
Channing. In this work she visited every N. Y. He became warmly engaged in
State in the Union east of the Rocky politics, and in 1830 Governor Throop ap-
Mountains. endeavoring to persuade legis- pointed him adjutant-general of the State.

131

JOHN ADAMS DIX.

132

DIX, JOHN A.

In 1833 he was elected secretary of state was handed over to the authorities of

of New York, which office made him a Louisiana. As Secretary Dix s order was

member of the Board of Regents of the flashed over the land it thrilled every heart

University and conferred upon him other with hope that the temporizing policy of

important positions. Chiefly through his the administration had ended. The loyal

exertions public libraries were introduced people rejoiced, and a small medal was

into the school districts of the State and struck by private hands commemorative

the school laws systematized. In 1842 of the event, on one side of which was

he was a member of the New York As- the Union flag, and around it the words,

sembly, and from 1845 to 1849 of the " THE FLAG OF OUR UNION, 1863 "; on the

United States Senate. In the discussion of other, in two circles, the last clause of

the question of the annexation of Texas and Dix s famous order. After the war the

of slavery he expressed the views of the authorship of the famous order was

small Free Soil party whose candidate for claimed for different persons, and it was

governor he was in 1848. In 1859 he was asserted that General Dix was only the

appointed postmaster of New York City; medium for its official communication.

and when in January, 1861, Buchanan s In reply to an inquiry addressed to Gen-

cabinet was dissolved, he was called to the eral Dix at the close of August, 1873,

post of Secretary of the Treasury. In that he responded as follows from his country

capacity he issued a famous order under residence:
the following circumstances : He found

the department in a wretched condition, SEAFIELD, WEST HAVEN, N. Y , Sep*. 21, 1873.

and proceeded with energy in the adminis- JJ - ^^^S^^^^

tration of it. Hearing of the tendency suggestion from any one, and it was sent off

in the slave-labor States to seize United three days before it was communicated to the

States property within their borders, he President or cabinet. Mr. Stanton s letter to

. , , , . , Mr. Bonner, of the Ledger, stating that it

sent a special agent of his department was wholly mine&gt; was pub ii she d in the New

(Hemphill Jones) to secure for service York Times last October or late in Septem-

revenue cutters at Mobile and New Or- Der to silence forever the misrepresentations

leans He found the Leini* rv&lt;?&lt;? in the ln re S ard to lt - After writing it (about seven

o clock in the evening), I gave it to Mr.

hands of the Confederates at Mobile. The Hardy, a clerk in the Treasury Department,

Robert McClelland, at New Orleans, was to copy. The copy was signed by me, and

in command of Capt. J. G. Ereshwood, of seQ t to tne telegraph office the same evening,

T , . and the original was kept, like all other

the navy. Jones gave the captain an origina] despatches. It is now, as you state,

order from Dix to sail to the North, in possession of my son, Rev. Dr. Dix, No.
Breshwood absolutely refused to obey the
order. This fact Jones made known, by
telegraph, to Dix, and added that the col-
lector at New Orleans (Hatch) sustained
the rebellious captain. Dix instantly tele-
graphed back his famous order, of which

2 ^ West Twenty-fifth street, New York. It

Very truly yours,

JOHN A. Dix.

General Dix was appointed major-gen-
of volunteers May 16, 1861; com
mander at Baltimore, and then at Fort
Monroe and on the Virginia peninsula ;
and in September, 1862, he was placed in
command of the 7th Army Corps. He was
also chosen president of the Pacific Rail
way Company. In 1866 he was appointed
minister to France, which post he filled
until 1869. , He was elected governor of
the State of New York in 1872, and re-
t j re( j to pr i v ate life at the end of the
term of two years, at which time he per-

a fac-simile is given on the opposite page, formed rare service for the good name of
The Confederates in New Orleans had pos- the State of New York. General Dix was
session of the telegraph, and did not allow a fine classical scholar, and translated
this despatch to pass, and the McClelland several passages from Catullus, Virgil, and

133

THB DIX MEDAL.

DIXIE DODGE

others into polished English verse. He Docks, artificial basins for the re
made a most conscientious and beautiful ception of vessels for safety, for repairing,
translation of the Dies Irce. He died in and for commercial traffic. Those for the
New York City, April 21, 1879. safety of vessels are known as wet-docks;

Dixie, a supposed imaginary land of those for repairing only, as dry -docks;
luxurious enjoyment somewhere in the and those for commercial traffic, as basins
Southern States, and during the Civil War or docks. Wet and dry docks are float-
it became a collective designation for the ing or stationary, according to construc-
slave-labor States. " Dixie " songs and tion. Basins or docks are constructed over
" Dixie " music prevailed all over those large areas, comprising docks for loading
States and in the Confederate army. It and unloading vessels, and convenient
had no such significance. It is a simple waterways for the movement of vessels.
refrain that originated among negro emi- The most notable dry-docks in the United
grants to the South from Manhattan, or States are at Boston, Mass.; Portland,
New York, island about 1800. A man Me.; Norfolk, Va. ; Savannah, Ga. ; Mare
named Dixy owned a large tract of land Island, Cal. ; Detroit, Mich.; and Puget
on that island and many slaves. They Sound, Wash. The costliest of these are
became unprofitable, and the growth of at the navy-yards. In 1901 one of the
the abolition sentiment made Dixy s largest dry-docks in the world was under
slaves uncertain property. He sent quite construction at Newport News. At New
a large number of them to Southern York City, as well as all the large ports,
planters and sold them. The heavier there are numerous floating dry-docks for
burdens imposed upon them there, and the repair of the merchant marine. The
the memories of their birthplace and its most notable basins or docks for corn-
comforts on Manhattan, made them sigh mercial traffic are in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
for Dixy s. It became with them synon- where over 4,000 vessels are annually un-
ymous with an earthly paradise, and the loaded. The chief of these is the Atlantic
exiles sang a simple refrain in a pathetic Docks, covering an area of 40 acres,
manner about the joys of Dixy s. Ad- an d capable of accommodating 500 ves-
ditions to it elevated it into the dignity sels at one time. South of this artificial
of a song, and it was chanted by the construction are the Erie and Brooklyn
negroes all over the South, which, in the basins, similar in design and purpose, and
Civil War, was called the " Land of still further south are two other docks
Dixie." f the repair character.

Dixon, WILLIAM HEPWORTH, author; Dodge, GREXVILLE MELLEN, military
born in Yorkshire, England, June 30, officer; born in Danvers, Mass., April 12,
1821; was mostly self-educated. He visit- 1831; educated at Partridge s Mili-
ed the United States in 1866 and 1874. tary Academy, Norwich, Conn., and be-
His treatment of the United States in his came a railroad surveyor and engineer
published works has been considered un- in Illinois, Iowa, and the Rocky Moun-
fair and incorrect in this country. His tains. He was sent to Washington in
books relating to the United States in- 1861 to procure arms and equipments for
elude White Conquest (containing in- Iowa volunteers, and became colonel of
formation of the Indians, negroes, and the 4th Iowa Regiment in July. He corn-
Chinese in America) ; Life of William manded a brigade on the extreme right at
Penn; and New America. He died in Lon- the battle of Pea Ridge, and was wounded,
don, Dec. 27, 1879. 1 or his services there he was made

Dobbin, JAMES COCIIBANE, statesman; brigadier - general. He was appointed to
born in Fayetteville, N. C., in 1814; grad- the command of the District of the
uated at the University of North Caro- Mississippi in June, 1862. He was with
lina in 1832; elected to Congress in 1845; Sherman in his Georgia campaign, and
and in 1848 to the State legislature, of was promoted to major-general. He final-
which he became speaker in 1850. In ly commanded the 16th Corps in that
1853 President Pierce appointed him campaign, and in December, 1864, he
Secretary of the Navy. He died in succeeded Rosecrans in command of the
Fayetteville, Aug. 4, 1857. Department of Missouri. In 1867-69 he

134

DODGE DONALDSON

SANFORD BALLARD DOLE.

was a member of Congress from Iowa,
and subsequently was engaged in railroad
business.

Dodge, HENRY, military officer; born
in Vincennes, Ind., Oct. 12, 1782; com
manded a company of volunteers in the
War of 1812-15, and rose to the rank of
lieutenant-colonel of mounted infantry
in 1814. He fought the Indians from
1832 to 1834, when he made peace on the
frontiers, and in 1835 commanded an ex
pedition to the Rocky Mountains. He
was governor of Wisconsin and superin
tendent of Indian affairs from 1836 to
1841 ; a delegate in Congress from 1841
to 1845 ; and United States Senator from
1849 to 1857. He died in Burlington,
la., June 19, 1867.

Dodge, RICHARD IRVING, military offi
cer; born in Huntsville, N. C., May 19, the annexation of Hawaii to the United
1827; graduated at the United States States, was governor of the Territory of
Military Academy in 1848; served Hawaii in 1900-03; then became United
through the Civil War; was commissioned states district judge for Hawaii,
colonel of the llth Infantry June 26, Dollar. Stamped Spanish dollars
1882; retired May 19, 1891. His pub- (value 4s. 9d.) were issued from the
lications include The Black Hills; The British mint in March, 1797, but called
Plain of the Great West; Our Wild Ind- in in October following. The dollar is the
ians, etc. He died in Sackett s Harbor, unit of the United States money. It is
June 18, 1895. coined in silver, formerly also in gold, and

Dodge, THEODORE AYRAULT, military i s worth 4s. ly+d. English money. See
officer; born in Springfield, Mass., May COINAGE.

28, 1842; graduated at London Uni- Dominion of Canada. See CANADA.
versity in 1861; enlisted in the National Donaldson, EDWARD, naval officer; born
army in 1861; promoted first lieutenant in Baltimore, Md., Nov. 17, 1816; joined
Feb. 13, 1862; brevetted colonel in 1866; the navy in 1835; during the Civil War
retired in 1870. He is the author of he took part in the capture of New
Bird s-Eye View of the Civil War; Cam- Orleans, the passage of Vicksburg, the
paign of Chancellorsville ; Great Cap- battle of Mobile Bay, etc.; was promoted
tains, etc. rear-admiral Sept. 21, 1876, and retired

Dole, SANFORD BALLAKD, statesman; a few days later. He died in Baltimore,
born in Honolulu, Hawaii, April 23, Md., May 15, 1889.

1844; son of American missionaries; edu- Donaldson, JAMES LOWRY, military of-
cated at Oahu College, Hawaii, and ficer; born in Baltimore, Md., March 7,
Williams College, Williamstown, Mass.; 1814; graduated at the United States
was admitted to the bar in Boston, and Military Academy in 1836; served in the
returned to Honolulu to practise. He war with Mexico and through the Civil
was a member of the Hawaii legislature War; was promoted colonel and brevetted
in 1884 and 1886; became active in the major-general of volunteers; resigned in
reform movement of 1887 ; was judge of January, 1874. He was a personal friend
the Supreme Court of Hawaii in 1887-93; of Gen. G. H. Thomas, to whom he made
was chosen chief of the provisional gov- known a plan to establish cemeteries for
ernment in 1893, and in the following the scattered remains of soldiers who had
year was elected president under the con- been killed in battle. It was this sugges-
stitution of the newly formed republic tion which led to the institution of Deco-
for the period of seven years. He was ration, or Memorial, Day. He died in Bal-
an active promoter of the movement for timore, Md., Nov. 4, 1885.

135

DONELSON DONELSON, FORT

Donelson, ANDREW JACKSON, states
man: born in Nashville, Tenn., Aug. 25,
1800; graduated at West Point in 1820;
resigned from the army in 1822; appoint
ed minister to the republic of Texas in
1844; minister to Prussia in 1846; and
to the Federal Government of Germany
in 1848. He abandoned the Democratic
party, joined the American party, and was
its candidate for Vice-President on the
ticket with Millard Fillmore in 1856. He
died in Memphis, Tenn., June 26, 1871.

Donelson, FORT, a notable fortification
on the Cumberland River in Tennessee,
63 miles northwest of Nashville. After
the capture of FORT HENRY (q. v. ), there
was no hinderance to the river navy going
up the Tennessee to the fertile cotton
regions of the heart of the Confederacy.
Foote sent Lieut.-Com. S. L. Phelps, with
three vessels, to reconnoitre the borders

ated on the high left bank of the Cum
berland River, at Dover, the capital of
Stewart county, Tenn. It was formed
chiefly of outlying intrench ments, cover
ing about 100 acres, upon hills furrowed
by ravines. At Fort Henry, General
Grant reorganized his army in three di
visions, under Generals McClernand,
Smith, and Lew. Wallace. Commodore
Foote returned to Cairo to take his mor
tar-boats up the Cumberland River to
assist in the attack. On the morning of
Feb. 12, 1862, the divisions of McCler
nand and Smith marched for Fort Donel
son, leaving Wallace with a brigade to
hold the vanquished forts on the Ten
nessee. On the same evening Fort
Donelson was invested.

Grant resolved to wait for the arrival
of the flotilla bearing troops that would
complete Wallace s division before making

FOKT DONKI.SOX.

of that river. They penetrated to Flor- the attack. General Pillow was in com-

ence, Ala., seizing Confederate vessels and mand of the fort; but, on the morning

destroying Confederate property, and dis- of the 13th, General Floyd arrived from

covered the weakness of the Confederacy Virginia with some troops and superseded

in all that region, for Unionism was him. They were assisted by GEN. SIMON

everywhere prevalent, but suppressed by B. BUCKNER (q. v.), a better soldier than

the mailed hand of the Confederate lead- either. All day (Feb. 13) there was skir-

ers. Phelps s report caused an immediate mishing, and at night the weather became

against Fort Donelson, situ- extremely cold, while a violent rain-storm

136

DONELSON, FORT

was falling. The National troops, biv- Oglesby s brigade received the first shock,
ouacking without tents, suffered intense- but stood firm until their ammunition
ly. They dared not light camp-fires, for began to fail, when they gave way under
they would expose them to the guns of the tremendous pressure, excepting the ex-
their foes. They were without sufficient treme left, held by COL. JOHN A. LOGAN
food and clothing. Perceiving the perils (q. v.) , with his Illinois regiment. Imi-
of his situation, Grant had sent for Wai- tating their commander, they stood as
lace to bring over his troops. He arrived firmly as a wall, and prevented a panic
about noon on the 14th. The transports and a. rout. The light batteries of Tay-
had arrived, and Wallace s division was lor, McAllister, and Dresser, shifting posi-
completed and posted between those of tions and sending volleys of grape and
McClernand and Smith, by which the canister, made the Confederate line recoil
thorough investment of the fort was com- again and again. At eight o clock Mc-
pleted. At three o clock that afternoon demand s division was so hard pressed
the bombardment of the fort was begun that he sent to Wallace for help. Wallace,
by the Carondelet, Captain Walke, and. being assigned to a special duty, could
she was soon joined by three others ar- not comply without orders, for which he
mored gunboats in the front line. A sec- sent. Grant was away, in consultation
end line was formed of unarmored boats, with Commodore Foote, who had arrived.
The former were exposed to a tremendous Again McClernand sent for help, say-
pounding by missiles from the shore-bat- ing his flank was turned. Wallace took
teries; and they were compelled to retire, the responsibility. Then Buckner ap-
after receiving 140 shots and having fifty- peared. The battle raged fiercely. McCler-
four men killed and wounded. Foote re- nand s line was falling back, in good
turned to Cairo to repair damages and to order, and calling for ammunition. Wai-
bring up a sufficient naval force to assist lace took the responsibility of order-
in carrying on the siege. Grant resolved ing some up. Then he thrust his brigade
to wait for the return of Foote and the (Colonel Thayer commanding) between
arrival of reinforcements. But he was the retiring troops and the advancing
not allowed to wait. Confederates, flushed with hope, and
On the night of the 14th the Confeder- formed a new line of battle across the
ate leaders held a council of war and it road. Back of this was a reserve. In this
was concluded to make a sortie early the position they awaited an attack, while
next morning, to rout or destroy the in- McClernand s troops supplied themselves
vading forces, or to cut through them and with ammunition from wagons which Wai-
escape to the open country in the direc- lace had ordered up. Just then the com-
tion of Nashville. This was attempted bined forces of Pillow and Buckner fell
at five o clock (Feb. 15). The troops en- upon them and were repulsed by a bat-
gaged in it were about 10,000 in number, tery and the 1st Nebraska. The Confed-
commanded by Generals Pillow and Bush- erates, after a severe struggle, retired to
rod R. Johnson. They advanced from their works in confusion. This was the
Dover Mississippians, Tennesseeans, and last sally from the fort. " God bless you!"
Virginians accompanied by Forrest s wrote Grant s aide the next day to Wai-
cavalry. The main body was directed to lace. " you did save the day on the right."
attack McClernand s division, who occu- It was now noon. Grant was in the
pied the heights that reached to the river, field, and after consultation with McCler-
.Buckner was directed to strike Wallace s r.and and Wallace, he ordered the former
division, in the centre, at the same time, to retake the hill he had lost. This was
so that it might not be in a. condition to soon bravely done, and the troops biv-
help McClernand. These movements were ouacked on the field of victory that cold
not suspected by the Nationals, and so winter night. Meanwhile, General Smith
quick and vigorous was Pillow s attack had been smiting the Confederates so vig-
that Grant s right wing was seriously orously on their right that, when night
menaced within twenty minutes after the came on, they were imprisoned within
sortie of the Confederates was known. The their trenches, unable to escape. Find-
attack was quick, furious, and heavy, ing themselves closely held by Grant, the

137

DONGAN

question, How shall we escape? was a duke s domain, and he took measures to
paramount one in the minds of Floyd protect the territory from encroach-
and Pillow. At midnight the three Con- ments. Dongan managed the relations
federate commanders held a private coun- between the English, French, and Indians
cil, when it was concluded that the gar- with dexterity. He was not deceived by
rison must surrender. " / cannot sur- the false professions of the French rulers
render," said Floyd; "you know my po- or the wiles of the Jesuit priests; and
sition with the Federals; it won t do, when DE NONVILLE (q. v.) invaded the
it won t do." Pillow said, "I will not country of the Five Nations (1686) he
surrender myself nor my command; I showed himself as bold as this leader in
will die first." " Then," said Buckner, defence of the rights of Englishmen,
coolly, " the surrender will devolve on Dongan sympathized with the people of
me." Then Floyd said, " General, if his province in their aspirations for lib-
you are put in command, will you allow erty, which his predecessor (Andros) had
me to take out, by the river, my brigade ?" denied ; and he was instrumental in the
" If you will move before I surrender," formation of the first General Assembly
Buckner replied. Floyd offered to sur- of New York, and in obtaining a popular
render the command, first, to Pillow, who form of government. When the King vio-
replied, " I will not accept it I will never lated his promises while he was duke,
surrender." Buckner said, like a true Dongan was grieved, and protested; and
soldier, " I will accept it, and share the when the monarch ordered him to intro-
fate of my command." Within an hour duce French priests among the Five Na-
after the conference Floyd fled up the tions, the enlightened governor resisted
river with a part of his command, and Pil- the measure as dangerous to English
low sneaked away in the darkness and power on the continent. His firmness in
finally reached his home in Tennessee, defence of the rights of the people and
The Confederates never gave him employ- the safety of the English colonies in
ment again. The next morning, the fort America against what he could not but
and 13,500 men were surrendered, and the regard as the treachery of the King
spoils of victory were 3,000 horses, forty- finally offended his sovereign, and he was
eight field-pieces, seventeen heavy guns, dismissed from office in the spring of
20,000 muskets, and a large quantity of 1688, when Andros took his place, bear-
military stores. During the siege the ing a vice-regal commission to rule all
Confederates lost 237 killed and 1,000 New England besides. Dongan remained
wounded ; the National loss was estimated in the province until persecuted by Leisler
at 446 killed, 1,755 wounded, and 152 in 1690, when he withdrew to Boston. He
made prisoners. died in London, England, Dec. 14, 1715.

Dongan, THOMAS, colonial governor; On May 24, 1901, eight loose sheets of
born in Castletown, county Kildare, Ire- parchment, containing the engrossed acts
land, in 1634; a younger son of an Irish passed during 1687-88, and bearing the
baronet; was a colonel in the royal army, signature of Thomas Dongan as governor
and served under the French King. In of the province of New York, were re-
1(&gt;78 he was appointed lieutenant-governor stored to the State of New York by the
of Tangier, Africa, whence he was re- Commonwealth of Massachusetts. This in-
called in 1680. The relations between teresting historical find was accounted
England and France were then delicate, for on the presumption that the docu-
and Dongan being a Roman Catholic, like ments had formed a part of the archives
the proprietor of New York, he was of Massachusetts since the time of Sir Ed-
chosen by Duke James governor of that mund Andros, and the fact that they
province (1683), as it was thought his related to the province of New York had
experience in France might make it easier been entirely overlooked,
to keep up friendly relations with the The dates and titles of the Dongan
French on the borders. Dongan caused acts are:

a company of merchants in New York to March 17, 1686-87. An Act to Prevent

be formed for the management of the Frauds and Abuses in the County of Suf-

fisheries at Pemaquid, a part of the folk.

138

DONGAN CHARTER DORCHESTER HEIGHTS

June 17, 1687. An Act for Raising %d. and from Concord, April 19, 1775, by the

per Pound on All Real Estates. rebels." He died near Bristol, England,

Aug. 20, 1687. A Bill for Raising Id. in March, 1821.

per Pound on All Persons, Estates, etc. Donnelly, IGNATIUS, author; born in

Sept. 2, 1687. An Act for Raising y 2 d. Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 3, 1831; removed
per Pound on All Persons, Estates, etc. to Minnesota in 1856; elected lieutenant-
Sept. 2, 1687. An Act for Regulating governor of the State in 1859 and 1861;
the Collection of His Majesty s Excise. Representative in Congress, 1863-69;

Sept. 27, 1687. An Act for Naturaliz- president of the State Farmers Alliance

ing Daniel Duchemin. of Minnesota for several years; nominee of

Oct. 11, 1687. A Bill to Prevent Frauds the Anti - Fusion People s party for Vice-
in His Majesty s Excise by Ordinary Keep- President of the United States in 1900.
ers. He was the author of Atlantis, the Antedi-

May 17, 1688. An Act for Raising luvian World; The Great Cryptogram, in

2,555 6s. on or before the First Day of which he undertook to prove by a word

November, 1688. See NEW YORK. cipher that Francis Bacon was the author

Dongan Charter, THE. See NEW YORK of Shakespeare s plays; The American

CITY. People s Money, etc. He died in Min-

Doniphan, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, mill- neapolis, Minn., Jan. 2, 1901.

tary officer; born in Kentucky, July 9, Donnohue, DILLIARD C., lawyer; born

1808; graduated at Augusta College in in Montgomery county, Ky., Nov. 20, 1814;

1826; admitted to the bar in 1830. In was appointed a special commissioner to

addition to his legal studies he was in- Haiti in 1863 to investigate the practica-

terested in military matters and became bility of colonizing the slaves of the South

brigadier-general in the Missouri State in that republic after their freedom. Both

militia. In 1838 he compelled the MOR- President Lincoln and Secretary Seward

MONS (q. v.) , under Joseph Smith, to give favored this plan, but the report of Mr.

up their leaders for trial, lay down their Donnohue showed that it would not be

arms, and leave the State. In 1846 he feasible. He died in Greencastle, Ind.,

entered the United States service as colo- April 2, 1898.

nel of the 1st Missouri Regiment; in De- Donop, CARL EMIL KURT VON, mili-

cember of that year he defeated a superior tary officer; born in Germany, in 1740;

force of Mexicans at BRACETI KIVER ( q. was in command of a detachment of mer-

v.) ; two days later he occupied El Paso, cenary Hessian troops during the early

In February, 1847, with less than 1,000 part of the Revolutionary War. On Oct.

men, after a march of over 200 miles 22, 1777, while leading a charge against

through a sterile country, he met a force Fort Mercer, at Red Bank, N. J., he

of 4,000 Mexicans at the pass of Sacra- was mortally wounded, and died on the

mento. He attacked with such vigor that 25th.

the Mexicans were soon overpowered, hav- Doolittle, AMOS, engraver; born in

ing lost over 800 in killed and wounded, Cheshire, Conn., in 1754; was self-edu-

Doniphan s own loss being one man killed, cated ; served an apprenticeship with a

eleven wounded. He subsequently marched silversmith; and established himself as

700 miles through a hostile country until an engraver on copper in 1775. While a

he reached Saltillo. He died in Richmond, volunteer in the camp at Cambridge

Mo., Aug. 8, 1887. (1775) he visited the scene of the skir-

Donkin, ROBERT, military officer; born mish at Lexington and made a drawing
March 19, 1727; joined the British army and engraving of the affair, which fur-
in 1746; served through the Revolution- nishes the historian with the only correct
ary War, first as aide-de-camp to General representation of the buildings around
Gage, and then as major of the 44th the " Green " at that time. He after-
Regiment. He published Military Col- wards made other historical prints of the
lections and Remarks, "published for the time. He died in New Haven, Conn.,
benefit of the children and widows of the Jan. 31, 1832.

valiant soldiers inhumanly and wantonly Dorchester Heights, an elevation south

butchered when peacefully marching to of Boston, which, on March 4, 1776, \v;i-

139

DORNIN DOUBLEDAY

occupied by the Americans, who threw of the Territories of Iowa and Wisconsin,
up strong intrenchments during the night. He aided in founding Madison, Wis., which
This movement had much to do with city was made the capital of the State
the evacuation of Boston by the British through his efforts. He held a scat in
on March 17 following. Congress in 1836-41 and 1840-53;

Dornin, THOMAS ALOYSIUS, naval of- governor of Wisconsin in 1841-44; and
ficer; born in Ireland about 1800; entered was appointed governor of Utah in 1864.
the United States navy in 1815; prevented He died in Salt Lake City, Ut., June 13,
William Walker s expedition from invad- 1865.

ing Mexico in 1851; later sailed to Ma- Doubleday, ARNER, military officer;
zatlan and secured the release of forty born in Ballston Spa, N. Y., June 26,
Americans there held as prisoners; after- 1819; graduated at West Point in 1842;
wards captured two slavers with more
than 1,400 slaves, and took them to Li
beria; was promoted commodore and re
tired during the Civil War. He died in
Norfolk, Va., April 22, 1874.

Dorr, THOMAS WILSON, politician;
born in Providence, R. I., Nov. 5, 1805;
graduated at Harvard in 1823; stud
ied law with Chancellor Kent; and be
gan its practice in 1827. He is chiefly
conspicuous in American history as the
chosen governor of what was called the
" Suffrage party," and attempted to take
the place of what was deemed to be
the legal State government (see RHODE
ISLAND). He was tried for and convicted
of high treason, and sentenced to im
prisonment for life in 1842, but was par
doned in 1847; and in 1853 the legislat
ure restored to him his civil rights and
ordered the record of his sentence to be

expunged. He lived to see his party tri- served in the artillery in the war with
umph. He died in Providence, Dec. 27, Mexico; rose to captain in 1855; and
1854. served against the Seminole Indians

Dorr s Eebellion. See DORR, THOMAS in 1856-58. Captain Doubleday was an
WILSON; RHODE ISLAND. efficient officer in Fort Sumter v. ith Major

Dorsey, STEPHEN WALLACE, politician; Anderson during the siege. lie fired the
born in Benson, Vt., Feb. 28, 1842; re- first gun (April 12, 1861) upon the Con
ceived a common - school education : re- federates from that fort. On May 14 he
moved to Obcrlin, O. ; served in the Civil was promoted to major, and on Feb. 3,
War in the National army; was elected 1862, to brigadier-general of volunteers,
president of the Arkansas Central Rail- In Hooker s corps, at the battle of Antie-
way; removed to Arkansas: chosen chair- tarn, he commanded a division; and when
man of the Republican State Committee; Reynolds fell at Gettysburg, Doubleday
was United States Senator in 1873-79; took command of his corps. He had been
was twice tried for complicity in the STAR made major-general in November, 1862,
ROUTE FRAUDS (q. r.) , the second trial and had been conspicuously engaged in
resulting in a verdict of not guilty. the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancel-

Doty, JAMES DTTANE, governor; born in lorsville. He was brevetted brigadier-gen-
Salem, N. Y., in 1799; studied law and eral and major-general of the United Slates
settled in Detroit; member of the Michi- army in March, 1865; was commissioned
gan legislature in 1834, and there intro- colonel of the 35th Infantry in September,
duced the bill which provided for the 1867: and was retired in December, 1873.
division of Michigan and the establishment He died in Mendham, N. J., Jan. 26, 1893.

140

AHXKB nOCBLRDAY.

DOUGHFACES DOUGLAS

General Doubleday was author of Reminis
cences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in
1860-61 ; Chan cellar sville and Gettysburg,
and other military works.

Doughfaces. During the great debate
on the slavery question in 1820, elicited
by proceedings in relation to the admis
sion of Missouri as a free-labor or slave-
labor State, eighteen Northern men were
induced to vote for a sort of compromise,
by which the striking out t .o prohibition
of slavery from the Missouri bill was car
ried by 90 to 87. John Randolph, who
denounced the compromise as a " dirty
bargain," also denounced these eighteen
Northern representatives as " dough

faces " plastic in the hands of expert
demagogues. The epithet was at once
adopted into the political vocabulary of
the republic, wherein it remains.

Douglas, SIR CHARLES, naval officer;
born in Scotland; joined the British navy;
was placed in command of the fleet sent
to the Gulf of St. Lawrence at the begin
ning of the Revolutionary War. Early
in 1776 he relieved Quebec, then under
siege by the Americans, after a difficult
voyage through the drifting ice of the
river. He introduced locks in lieu of
matches for firing guns on board ships;
and was promoted rear-admiral in 1787.
He died in 1789.

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

Douglas, STEPHEN ARNOLD, statesman;
born in Brandon, Vt., April 23, 1813;
learned the business of cabinet-making;
studied law; became an auctioneer s clerk
in Jacksonville, 111. ; and taught school
until admitted to the bar, when he soon
became an active politician. Because of
his small stature and power of intellect
and speech he was called " The Little
Giant." He was attorney-general of Illi
nois in 1835; was in the legislature;
chosen secretary of state in 1840; judge
in 1841; and was in Congress in 1843-47.
He was a vigorous promoter of the war
with Mexico, and was United States Sena
tor from 1847 to 1861. He advanced and
supported the doctrine of popular sov
ereignty in relation to slavery in the Terri
tories, and was the author of the Kansas-
Nebraska bill (see KANSAS) ; and in
1856 was a rival of Buchanan for the
nomination for the Presidency. He took
sides in favor of freedom in Kansas, and
so became involved in controversy with
President Buchanan. He was a candidate
of the Democratic party in 1860 for Presi
dent of the United States, but was de
feated by Abraham Lincoln. He died in
Chicago, 111., June 3, 1861. See KANSAS.

The Douglas-Lincoln Debate. In open
ing this famous debate, in Ottawa, 111.,
on Aug. 21, 1858, Mr. Douglas spoke as
follows :

Ladies and Gentlemen, I appear before
you to-day for the purpose of discussing

the leading political topics which now agi
tate the public mind. By an arrangement
between Mr. Lincoln and myself, we are
present here to-day for the purpose of hav
ing a joint discussion, as the representa
tives of the two great political parties of
the State and Union, upon the principles
in issue between those parties; and this
vast concourse of people shows the deep
feeling which pervades the public mind in
regard to the questions dividing us.

Prior to 1854, this country was divided
into two great political parties, known as
the Whig and Democratic parties. Both
were national and patriotic, advocating
principles that were universal in their
application. An old-line Whig could pro
claim his principles in Louisiana and
Massachusetts alike. Whig principles
had no boundary sectional line: they were
not limited by the Ohio River, nor by the
Potomac, nor by the line of the free and
slave States, but applied and were pro
claimed wherever the Constitution ruled
or the American flag waved over the
American soil. So it was and so it is
with the great Democratic party, which,
from the days of Jefferson until this
period, has proven itself to be the historic
party of this nation. While the Whig
and Democratic parties differed in regard
to a bank, the tariff, distribution, the
?pecie circular, and the sub-treasury, they
agreed on the great slavery question which
now agitates the Union. I say that the
Whig party and the Democratic party
II

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ABNOLD

STEPHEN ARNOLD DOUGLAS.

agreed on the slavery question, while they
differed on those matters of expediency to
which I have referred. The Whig party
and the Democratic party jointly adopted
the compromise measures of 1850 as the
basis of a proper and just solution of the
slavery question in all its forms. Clay
was the great leader, with Webster on
his right and Cass on his left, and sus
tained by the patriots in the Whig and
Democratic ranks who had devised and
enacted the compromise measures of
1850.

In 1851 the Whig party and the Demo
cratic party united in Illinois in adopting
resolutions endorsing and approving the
principles of the compromise measures
of 1850 as the proper adjustment of that
question. In 1852, when the Whig party
assembled in convention at Baltimore for
the purpose of nominating a candidate for

142

the Presidency, the first thing it did was
to declare the compromise measures of
1850, in substance and in principle, a suit
able adjustment of that question. [Here
the speaker was interrupted by loud and
long-continued applause.] My friends,
silence will be more acceptable to me in
the discussion of these questions than
applause. I desire to address myself to
your judgment, your understanding, and
your consciences, and not to your passions
or your enthusiasm. When the Demo
cratic convention assembled in Baltimore
in the same year, for the purpose of nom
inating a Democratic candidate for the
Presidency, it also adopted the com
promise measures of 1850 as the basis of
Democratic action. Thus you see that up
to 1853-54 the Whig party and the Demo
cratic party both stood on the same plat
form with regard to the slavery question.

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

That platform was the right of the peo- was then about to become vacant, and
pie of each State and each Territory to that Trumbull should have my seat when
decide their local and domestic institu- my term expired. Lincoln went to work
tions for themselves, subject only to the to abolitionize the Old Whig party all
federal Constitution. over the State, pretending that he was

During the session of Congress of 1853- then as good a Whig as ever; and Trum-
54 I introduced into the Senate of the bull went to work in his part of the State
United States a bill to organize the Ter- preaching abolitionism in its milder and
ritories of Kansas and Nebraska on that lighter form, and trying to abolitionize
principle which had been adopted in the the Democratic party, and bring old
compromise measures of 1850, approved by Democrats handcuffed and bound hand
the Whig party and the Democratic party and foot into the abolition camp. In pur-
iu Illinois in 1851, and endorsed by the suance of the arrangement the parties met
Whig party and the Democratic party at Springfield in October, 1854, and pro-
in national convention in 1852. In order claimed their new platform. Lincoln
that there might be no misunderstand- was to bring into the abolition camp the
ing in relation to the principle involved old-line Whigs, and transfer them over to
in the Kansas and Nebraska bill, I put Giddings, Chase, Fred Douglass, and Par-
forth the true intent and meaning of the
act in these words : " It is the true in
tent and meaning of this act not to legis
late slavery into any State or Territory,
or to exclude it therefrom, but to leave
the people thereof perfectly free to form
and regulate their domestic institutions
in their own way, subject only to the fed
eral Constitution." Thus you see that up
to 1854, when the Kansas and Nebraska
bill was brought into Congress for the
purpose of carrying out the principles
which both parties had up to that time en
dorsed and approved, there had been no
division in this country in regard to that
principle except the opposition of the abo
litionists. In the House of Representa
tives of the Illinois legislature, upon a
resolution asserting that principle, every
Whig and every Democrat in the House
voted in the affirmative, and only four
men voted against it, and those four were
old-line abolitionists.

In 1854 Mr. Abraham Lincoln and Mr.
Lyman Trumbull entered into an arrange
ment, one with the other, and each with
his respective friends, to dissolve the old
Whig party on the one hand, and to dis
solve the old Democratic party on the
other, and to connect the members of
both into an abolition party, under the
name and disguise of a Republican party.
The terms of that arrangement between
Lincoln and Trumbull have been pub
lished by Lincoln s special friend, James
H. Matheny, Esq. ; and they were that
Lincoln should have General Shields s
place in the United States Senate, which

143

MOXUMK.N T TO STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS.

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

son Lovejoy, who were ready to receive sitions; and yet I venture to say that

them and christen them in their new you cannot get Mr. Lincoln to come out

faith. They laid down on that occasion and say that he is now in favor of each one

a platform for their new Republican party, of them. That these propositions, one and

which was thus to be constructed. I have all, constitute the platform of the Black

the resolutions of the State convention Republican party of this day, I have no

then held, which was the first mass State doubt; and, when you were not aware for

convention ever held in Illinois by the what purpose I was reading them, your

Black Republican party; and I now hold Black Republicans cheered them as good

them in my hands and will read a part Black Republican doctrines. My object

of them, and cause the others to be in reading these resolutions was to put

printed. Here are the most important the question to Abraham Lincoln this day,

and material resolutions of this abolition whether he now stands and will stand by

platform: each article in that creed, and carry it

out.

"1. Resolved, That we believe this truth j a es i re to know whether Mr. Lincoln
to be self-evident, that, when parties become , i. j-j -IQKA t~
subversive of the ends for which they are to da y stands as he dld m 1854 m favor
established, or incapable of restoring the of the unconditional repeal of the fugitive-
government to the true principles of the Con- slave law. I desire him to answer whether
stitution it is the right and duty of the peo- hft gtands pledged to-day, as he did in
pie to dissolve the political bands by which . ... ,
they may have been connected therewith, and 18 o 4 &gt; against the admission of any more
to organize new parties upon such principles slave States into the Union, even if the
and with such views as the circumstances people want them. I want to know
e 6xigencieS f the Datl n may ^ whether he stands pledged against the ad-
2. Resolved, That the times imperatively mission of a new State into the Union
demand the reorganization of parties, and, with such a constitution as the people of
repudiating all previous party attachments, that gtate gee fit to make j want
names, and predilections, we unite ourselves , , ,
together in defence of the liberty and Con- to know whether he stands to-day pledged
stitution of the country, and will hereafter to the abolition of slavery in the District
co-operate as the Republican party, pledged o f Columbia. I desire him to answer

P^es : ^3S"? t lS&*!t *%* whether he stands pledged to the pro-

government back to the control of first prin- lubition of the slave-trade between the

ciples ; to restore Nebraska and Kansas to different States. I desire to know whether

the position of free Territories ; that as the hc gtandg pledged to pro hibit slavery in

Constitution of the United States vests in the ,, ., , .. . , . TT ., , O i

States, and not in Congress, the power to all the Territories of the United

legislate for the extradition of fugitives from north as well as south of the Missouri

labor, to repeal and entirely abrogate the Compromise line. I desire him to answer

fugitive-slave law; to restrict slavery to h th he j opposed to the acquisition
those States in which it exists ; to prohibit

the admission of any more slave States into of any more territory unless slavery is

the Union ; to abolish slavery in the District prohibited therein. I want his answer

of Columbia ; to exclude slavery from all the to tnese ques tions. Your affirmative

Territories over which the general govern- . S , ... , .... , ,

ment has exclusive jurisdiction ; and to resist cheers in favor of this abolition plal-

che acquirement of any more Territories un- form are not satisfactory. I ask Abraham

less the practice of slavery therein forever Lincoln to answer these questions, in

shall have been prohibited. d that h j t t him down to ]mvor

" 3. Resolved, That in furtherance of these

principles we will use such constitutional and Egypt, I may put the same questions to

lawful means as shall seem best adapted to him. My principles are the same every-

their accomplishment, and that we will sup- where . I can proclaim them alike in the

port no man for office, under the general or South thp Fist and the West

State government, who is not positively and Kast - a

fully committed to the support of these prin- My principles will apply wherever the Con-

oiples, and whose personal character and con- stitution prevails and the American flag

duet is not a guarantee that he is reliable, v;avps j desire to knQW whether Mr .

and who shall not have abjured old party . . .,11. i

allegiance and ties. Lincoln s principles will bear transplant
ing from Ottawa to Jonesboro? I put

Now, gentlemen, your Black Republi- these questions to him to-day distinctly,

cans have cheered every one of those propo- and ask an answer. I have a right to an

144

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

answer; for I quote from the platform of brated proviso, and the abolition tornado
the Republican party, made by himself swept over the country, Lincoln again
and others at the time that party was turned up as a member of Congress from
formed, and the bargain made by Lincoln the Sangamon district. I was then in the
to dissolve and kill the Old Whig party, Senate of the United States, and was
and transfer its members, bound hand and glad to welcome my old friend and corn-
foot, to the abolition party, under the panion. While in Congress, he distin-
direction of Giddings and Fred Douglass, guished himself by his opposition to the
In the remarks I have made on this plat- Mexican War, taking the side of the corn-
form, and the position of Mr. Lincoln mon enemy against his own country ;
upon it, I mean nothing personally dis- and, when he returned home, he found
respectful or unkind to that gentleman, that the indignation of the people fol-
I have known him for nearly twenty-live lowed him everywhere, and he was again
years. There were many points of sym- submerged, or obliged to retire into pri-
pathy between us when we first got ac- vate life, forgotten by his former friends,
quainted. We were both comparatively He came up again in 1854, just in time
boys, and both struggling with poverty to make this abolition or Black Repub-
in a strange land. I was a school-teacher lican platform, in company with Gid-
in the town of Winchester, and he a dings, Lovejoy, Chase, and Fred Doug-
flourishing grocery-keeper in the town lass, for the Republican party to stand
of Salem. He was more successful upon. Trumbull, too, was one of our own
in his occupation than I was in mine, contemporaries. He was born and raised
and hence more fortunate in this world s in old Connecticut, was bred a Federalist,
goods. but, removing to Georgia, turned nulli-
Lincoln is one of those peculiar men fier when nullification was popular, and.
who perform with admirable skill ev- as soon as he disposed of his clocks and
erything which they undertake. I made wound up his business, migrated to Illi-
as good a school-teacher as I could, nois, turned politician and lawyer here,
and, when a cabinet-maker, I made a and made his appearance in 1841 as a
good bedstead and tables, although my member of the legislature. He became
old boss said I succeeded better with noted as the author of the scheme to re-,
bureaus and secretaries than with any- pudiate a large portion of the State debt
thing else! but I believe that Lincoln of Illinois, which, if successful, would
was always more successful in business have brought infamy and disgrace upon
than I, for his business enabled him to the fair escutcheon of our glorious State,
get into the legislature. I met him The odium attached to that measure con-
there, however, and had sympathy with signed him to oblivion for a time. I
him, because of the uphill struggle we helped to do it. I walked into a public
both had in life. He was then just as meeting in the hall of the House of Repre-
good at telling an anecdote as now. sentatives, and replied to his repudiating
He could beat any of the boys wrestling speeches, and resolutions were carried
or running a foot-race, in pitching over his head denouncing repudiation,
quoits or tossing a copper; could ruin and asserting the moral and legal obliga-
more liquor than all the boys of the town tion of Illinois to pay every dollar of the
together ; and the dignity and impartial- debt she owed and every bond that bore
ity with which he presided at a horse- her seal. TrumbulPs malignity has fol-
race or fist-fight excited the admiration lowed me since I thus defeated his infa-
and won the praise of everybody that was mous scheme.

present and participated. I sympathized These two men, having formed this
with him because he was struggling with combination to abolitionize the Old Whig
difficulties, and so was I. Mr. Lincoln party and the old Democratic party, and
served with me in the legislature in 1836, put themselves into the Senate of the
when we both retired: and he subsided or United States, in pursuance of their bar-
became submerged, and he was lost sight gain, are now carrying out that arrange-
of as a public man for some years. In ment. Matheny states that Trumbull
1846, when Wilmot introduced his cele- broke faith; that the bargain was that
Til. K 145

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

Lincoln should be the Senator in Shields s
place, and Trumbull was to wait for
mine; and the story goes that Trumbull
cheated Lincoln, having control of four
or five abolitionized Democrats who were
holding over in the Senate. He would
not let them vote for Lincoln, which
obliged the rest of the abolitionists to
support him in order to secure an aboli
tion Senator. There are a number of
authorities for the truth of this besides
Matheny, and I suppose that even Mr.
Lincoln will not deny.

Mr. Lincoln demands that he shall have
the place intended for Trumbull, as Trum
bull cheated him and got his; and Trum
bull is stumping the State, traducing me
for the purpose of securing the position
for Lincoln, in order to quiet him. It
was in consequence of this arrangement
that the Republican convention was im
panelled to instruct for Lincoln and no
body else; and it w r as on this account
that they passed resolutions that he was
their first, their last, and their only
choice. Archy Williams was nowhere,
Browning was nobody, Wentworth was
not to be considered; they had no man
in the Republican party for the place ex
cept Lincoln, for the reason that he de
manded that they should carry out the ar
rangement.

Having formed this new party for the
benefit of deserters from Whiggery and
deserters from Democracy, and having
laid down the abolition platform which I
have read, Lincoln now takes his stand
and proclaims his abolition doctrines.
Let me read a part of them. In his
speech at Springfield to the convention
which nominated him for the Senate he
said:

" In my opinion, it will not cease until a
crisis shall have been reached and passed.
A house divided against itself cannot
stand. I believe this government cannot en
dure permanently half slave and half free.
I do not expect the Union to be dissolved I
do not expect the house to fall but I do
expect it will cease to be divided. It will be
come all one thing or all the other. Either
the opponents of slavery will arrest the fur
ther spread of it, and place it where the
public mind shall rest in the belief that it
is in the course of ultimate extinction, or its
advocates will push it forward till it shall
become alike lawful in all the States old as
well as new, North as well as South."
[" Good, " Good," and cheers.]

146

I am delighted to hear you Black Re
publicans say, " Good." I have no doubt
that doctrine expresses your sentiments;
and I will prove to you now, if you will
listen to me, that it is revolutionary and
destructive of the existence of this gov
ernment. Mr. Lincoln, in the extract
from which I have read, says that this
government cannot endure permanently in
the same condition in which it was made
by its framers divided into free and slave
States. He says that it has existed for
about seventy years thus divided, and yet
he tells you that it cannot endure per
manently on the same principles and in
the same relative condition in which our
fathers made it. Why can it not exist
divided into free and slave States? Wash
ington, Jefferson, Franklin, Madison,
Hamilton, Jay, and the great men of that
day made this government divided into
free States and slave States, and left each
State perfectly free to do as it pleased on
the subject of slavery. Why can it not
exist on the same principles on which
our fathers made it? They knew when
they framed the Constitution that in a
country as wide and broad as this, with
such a variety of climate, production, and
interest, the people necessarily required
different laws and institutions in different
localities. They knew that the laws and
regulations which would suit the granite
hills of Xew Hampshire would be un-
suited to the rice plantations of South
Carolina; and they therefore provided
that each State should retain its own
legislature and its own sovereignty, with
the full and complete power to do as it
pleased within its own limits, in all that
was local and not national. One of the
reserved rights of the States was the
right to regulate the relations between
master and servant, on the slavery ques
tion. At the time the Constitution was
framed there were thirteen States in the
Union, twelve of which were slave-hold
ing States, and one a free State. Sup
pose this doctrine of uniformity preached
by Mr. Lincoln, that the States should all
be free or all be slave, had prevailed; and
what would have been the result? Of
course, the twelve slave-holding States
would have overruled the one free State;
and slavery would have been fastened by
a constitutional provision on every inch

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

of the American republic, instead of being of schools and churches, reads from the

left, as our fathers wisely left it, to each
State to decide for itself. Here I assert
that uniformity in the local laws and
institutions of the different States is
neither possible nor desirable. If uniform
ity had been adopted when the govern
ment was established, it must inevitably
have bet-n the unformity of slavery every
where, or else the uniformity of negro
citizenship and negro equality every
where.

We are told by Lincoln that he is utter
ly opposed to the Dred Scott decision,
and will not submit to it, for the reason
that he says it deprives the negro of the
rights and privileges of citizenship. That
is the first and main reason which he as
signs for his warfare on the Supreme
Court of the United States and its deci
sion. I ask you, Are you in favor of
conferring upon the negro the rights and
privileges of citizenship? Do you desire
to strike out of our State constitution that
clause which keeps slaves and free negroes
out of the State, and allow the free ne
groes to flow in, and cover your prairies
with black settlements? Do you desire
to turn this beautiful State into a free
negro colony, in order that, when Missouri
abolishes slavery, she can send 100,000
emancipated slaves into Illinois, to be
come citizens and voters, on an equality
with yourselves? If you desire negro citi
zenship, if you desire to allow them to
come into the State and settle with the
white man, if you desire them to vote on
an equality with yourselves, and to make
them eligible to office, to serve on juries,
and to adjudge your rights, then support
Mr. Lincoln and the Black Republican
party, who are in favor of the citizenship
of the negro. For one, I am opposed to
negro citizenship in any and every form.
I believe this government was made on
the white basis. I believe it was made
by white men, for the benefit of white
men and their posterity forever: and I
am in favor of confining citizenship to
white men, men of European birth
and descent, instead of conferring it
upon negroes, Indians, and other inferior
races.

Mr. Lincoln, following the example and
lead of all the little abolition orators who
go around and lecture in the basements

Declaration of Independence that all men
were created equal, and then asks how
can you deprive a negro of that equality
which God and the Declaration of Inde
pendence award to him ? He and they
maintain that negro equality is guaranteed
by the laws of God, and that it is assert
ed in the Declaration of Independence. If
they think so, of course they have a right
to say so, and so vote. I do not question
Mr. Lincoln s conscientious belief that the
negro was made his equal, and hence is
his brother: but, for my own part, I do
not regard the negro as my equal, and
positively deny that he is my brother or
any kin to me whatever. Lincoln has evi
dently learned by heart Parson Lovejoy s
catechism. He can repeat it as well as
Farnsworth, and he is worthy of a medal
from Father Giddings and Fred Douglass
for his abolitionism. He holds that the
negro was born his equal and yours, and
that he was endowed with equality by the
Almighty, and that no human law can de
prive him of these rights which were
guaranteed to him by the Supreme Ruler
of the universe. Now I do not believe that
the Almighty ever intended the negro to
be the equal of the white man. If he did,
he has been a long time demonstrating the
fat. For thousands of years the negro
has been a race upon the earth ; and dur
ing all that time, in all latitudes and
climates, wherever he has wandered or
been taken, he has been inferior to the
race which he has there met. He belongs
to an inferior race, and must always oc
cupy an inferior position. I do not hold
that, because the negro is our inferior,
therefore he ought to be a slave. By no
moans can such a conclusion be drawn
from what I have said. On the contrary,
I hold that humanity and Christianity
both require that the negro shall have and
enjoy every right, every privilege, and
every immunity consistent with the safety
of the society in which he lives. On that
point, I presume, there can be no diversity
of opinion. You and I are bound to ex
tend to our inferior and dependent beings
every right, every privilege, every facility,
and immunity consistent with the pub
lic good. The question then arises,
What rights and privileges are con
sistent with the public good? This

14?

DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD

is a question which each State and
each Territory must decide for it-
self. Illinois has decided it for
herself. We have provided that the negro
shall not be a slave; and we have also
provided that he shall not be a citizen, but
protect him in his civil rights, in his life,
his person, and his property, only depriv-
ing him of all political rights whatsoever,
and refusing to put him on an equality
with the white man. That policy of Illi-
nois is satisfactory to the Democratic
party and to me, and, if it were to the
Republicans, there would then be no ques-
tion upon the subject; but the Republi-
cans say that he ought to made a citi-
zen, and, when he becomes a citizen, he
becomes your equal, with all your rights
and privileges. They assert the Dred
Scott decision to be monstrous because it
denies that the negro is or can be a citi-
zen under the Constitution.

Now I hold that Illinois had a right
to abolish and prohibit slavery as she did,
and I hold that Kentucky has the same
riht to continue and protect slavery that
Illinois had to abolish it. I hold that New
York had as much right to abolish slavery
as Virginia had to continue it, and that
each and every State of this Union is a
sovereign power, with the right to do as
it pleases upon this question of slavery
and upon all its domestic institutions,
Slavery is not the only question which
comes up in this controversy. There is a
far more important one to you; and that
is, What shall be done with the free negro?
We have settled the slavery question as
far as we are concerned: we have prohibit-
ed it in Illinois forever, and, in doing so,
I think we have done wisely, and there
is no man in the State who would be
more strenuous in his opposition to the
introduction of slavery than I would; but,
when we settled it for ourselves, we ex-
hausted all our power over that subject,
We have done our whole duty, and can
do no more. We must leave each and
every other State to decide for itself the
same question. In relation to the policy
to be pursued towards the free negroes,
we have said that they shall not vote;
while Maine, on the other hand, has said
that they shall vote. Maine is a sovereign
State, and has the power to regulate the
qualifications of voters within her 1 mits.

I would never consent to confer the right
of voting and of citizenship upon a negro,
but still I am not going to quarrel with
Maine for differing from me in opinion.
Let Maine take care of her own negroes,
and fix the qualifications of her own voters
to suit herself, without interfering with
Illinois; and Illinois will not interfere
with Maine. So with the State of New
York. She allows the negro to vote pro-
vided he owns two hundred and fifty dol-
lars worth of property, but not otherwise.
While would not make any distinc-
tion whatever between a negro who
held property and one who did not, yet,
if the sovereign State of New York
chooses to make that distinction, it is
her business, and not mine; and I will
not quarrel with her for it. She can do as
she pleases on this question if she minds
her own business, and we will do the
same thing. Now, my friends, if we will
only act conscientiously and rigidly
"pon this great principle of popular
sovereignty, which guarantees to each
State and Territory the right to do as
it pleases on all things local and domes-
tic, instead of Congress interfering, we
will continue at peace one with another.
Why should Illinois be at war with Mis-
souri, or Kentucky with Ohio, or Vir-
ginia with New York, merely because
their institutions differ? Our fathers
intended that our institutions should
differ. They knew that the North and
the South, having different climates, pro-
ductions, and interests, required different
institutions. This doctrine of Mr. Lin-
coin, of uniformity among the institu-
tions of the different States, is a new
doctrine, never dreamed of by Washing-
ton, Madison, or the framers of this
government. Mr. Lincoln and the Re-
publican party set themselves up as
wiser than these men who made this gov-
ernment, which has nourished for seventy
years under the principle of popular
sovereignty, recognizing the right of each
State to do as it pleased. Under that
principle, we have grown from a na-
tion of 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 to a nation
of about 30,000,000 people. We have
crossed the Alleghany Mountains and
filled up the whole Northwest, turning
the prairie into a garden, and building
up churches and schools, thus spreading
48

DOUGLAS DOW

civilization and Christianity where before
there was nothing but savage barbarism.
Under that principle we have become,
from a feeble nation, the most powerful
on the face of the earth; and, if we only
adhere to that principle, we can go for
ward increasing in territory, in power,
in strength, and in glory until the re
public of America shall be the north star
that shall guide the friends of freedom
throughout the civilized world. And
why can we not adhere to the great prin
ciple of self-government upon which our
institutions were originally based? I
believe that this new doctrine preached
by Mr. Lincoln and his party will dis
solve the Union if it succeeds. They are
trying to array all the Northern States
in one body against the South, to excite
a sectional war between the free States
and the slave States, in order that the
one or the other may be driven to the
wall.

For Mr. Lincoln s reply, see LINCOLN,
ABRAHAM.

Douglas, WILLIAM, military officer;
born in Plainfield, Conn., Jan. 17, 1742;
served in the French and Indian War,
and was present at the surrender of Quebec.
He recruited a company at the beginning
of the Revolutionary War and accom
panied Montgomery in the expedition
against Canada. He participated in the
unfortunate campaign which ended in the
fall of New York, and greatly distinguished
himself in the engagements on Long Island
and Harlem Plains. He died in North-
ford, Conn., May 28, 1777.

Douglass, FREDERICK, diplomatist;
born in Tuckahoe, Talbot co., Md., in Feb
ruary, 1817; was a mulatto, the son of a
slave mother: lived in Baltimore after he
was ten years of age, and secretly taught
himself to read and write. Endowed with
great natural moral and intellectual abil
ity, he fled from slavery at the age of
twenty-one years, and, going to New Bed
ford, married, and supported himself by
day-labor on the wharves and in work
shops. In 1841 he spoke at an anti-slavery
convention at Xantucket, and soon after
wards was made the agent of the Massa
chusetts Anti - slavery Society. He lect
ured extensively in New England, and.
going to Great Britain, spoke in nearly
all the large towns in that country on

the subject of slavery. On his return, in
1847, he began the publication, at Roches
ter, N. Y., of the North Star (afterwards
Frederick Douglass s Paper). In 1870 he

FREDERICK DOUGLASS.

became editor of the National Era at
Washington City; in 1871 was appointed
assistant secretary of the commission to
Santo Domingo; then became one of the
Territorial Council of the District of Co
lumbia; in 1876-81 was United States
marshal for the District; in 1881-86 was
recorder of deeds there; and in 1889-91
was United States minister to Haiti. He
was author of Narrative of My Experi
ences in Slavery (1844); My Bondage
and My Freedom (1855); and Life and
Times of Frederick Douglass (1881). He
died near Washington, D. C., Feb. 20,
1895.

Dow, LORENZO, clergyman; born in
Coventry, Conn., Oct. 16, 1777; was
ordained in the Methodist ministry; went
as a missionary to Ireland in 1799 and
1805; introduced camp-meetings into Eng
land; and through a discussion which re
sulted from these the Primitive Methodist
Church was organized. On account of his
eccentricities he was nicknamed " Crazy
Dow." He died in Georgetown, D. C.,
Feb. 2, 1834.

Dow, NEAL, reformer; born in Port
land, Me., March 20, 1804. From the
time he was a boy he was noted for his
zeal in the temperance cause, and was
one of Hie founders of the Prohibition
party. In 1851 he drafted the famous

149

DO WIE DRAKE

prohibitory law of Maine, and was elected Drake, SIB FRANCIS, navigator ; born

mayor of Portland in 1851 and 1854. In near Tavistock, Devonshire, England, be-

the Civil War he was commissioned colonel tween 1539 and 1546. Becoming a seaman

of the 13th Maine Volunteers; was pro- in early youth, he was owner and master

moted to brigadier -general ; and was a of a ship at the age of eighteen years,

prisoner of war at Mobile and in Libby After making commercial voyages to

prison. In 1880 he was the candidate of Guinea, Africa, he sold her, and invested

the Prohibition party for President, and the proceeds in an expedition to Mexico,

in 1894 temperance organizations through- under Captain Hawkins, in 1567. The

out the world observed his ninetieth birth- fleet was nearly destroyed in an attack

day. He died in Portland, Me., Oct. 2, 1897. by the Spaniards at San Juan de Ulloa

Dowie, JOHN ALEXANDER, adventurer; (near Vera Cruz), and Drake returned to
born in Scotland. At one time a pastor England stripped of all his property. The
in Australia, he afterwards went to Chi- Spanish government refused to indemnify
cago, 111., and became a " healer," real- him for his losses, and he sought revenge
estate operator, newspaper proprietor, and and found it. Queen Elizabeth gave him
manufacturer. He founded a lace-making a commission in the royal navy, and in
industry near Waukegan, 111. The place 1572 he sailed from Plymouth with two
was called " Zion " and his followers ships for the avowed purpose of plunder-
" Zionites." He announced that he was ing the Spaniards. He did so successfully
the Prophet Elijah returned to earth, and on the coasts of South America, and re-
surrounded himself with armed guards turned in 1573 with greater wealth than
under a pretence that his life was in he ever possessed before. Drake was wel-
danger. In 1904 he proclaimed himself First corned as a hero; he soon won the title
Apostle of the Christian Catholic Church, honorably by circumnavigating the globe.

Downie, GEORGE, naval officer ; born in He had seen from a mountain on Darien
Ross, Ireland ; at an early age entered the the waters of the Pacific Ocean, and re-
British navy; in 1812 was given command solved to explore them. Under the patron-
of the squadron on the Lakes and com- age of the Queen, he sailed from Plymouth
manded the British fleet at the battle of in December, 1577; passed through the
Plattsburg, in which he was killed, Sept. Strait of Magellan into the Pacific Ocean;
11, 1814. pillaged the Spanish settlements on the

Draft Riots. See CONSCRIPTION; NEW coasts of Peru and Chile, and a Spanish

YORK (city). galleon laden with gold and silver bullion;

Dragoons, an old name for cavalry. and, pushing northward, discovered the bay

Drainsville, SKIRMISH AT. The loyal of San Francisco, took possession of Cali-

people of the country became impatient fornia in the name of his Queen, and

because the Army of the Potomac, fully named the country New Albion, or New

200,000 strong at the end of 1861, was England.

seemingly kept at bay by 60,000 Con- He had sailed northward as high, prob-
federates. There was a sense of relief ably, as latitude 46, or near the boundary
when, on Dec. 20, Gen. E. 0. C. Ord had between Oregon and the British posses-
a sharp skirmish with a Confederate sions, and possibly he went farther north,
force near Drainsville, led by Gen. J. E. B. for he encountered very cold weather in
Stuart. Ord had gone out to capture June, and turned back. Drake entered a
Confederate foragers, and to gather for- fine bay and landed his stores, prepara-
age from the farms of Confederates. He tory to repairing his ship; and he re-
was attacked by Stuart, who had come up mained on the coast fully a month,
from Centreville. A severe fight occurred, hospitably treated by the natives. Late
and the Confederates were beaten and in June he was visited by the king of the
fled. The Nationals lost seven killed and country and his official attendants. The
sixty - three wounded; the Confederates former was dressed in rabbit-skins a
lost forty-three killed and 143 wounded, peculiar mark of distinction. His officers
The Nationals returned to camp with six- were clad in feathers, and his other fol-
taen wagon-loads of hay and twenty-two lowers were almost naked. Drake received
of corn. them cordially. The sceptre-bearer and

150

DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS

another officer made speeches, after which country to the English by the king and
the natives indulged in a wild dance, in people. On the same plate were engraved

the portrait and arms of the Queen and
the navigator. Then he sailed for the
Molucca Islands. It is believed that Sir
Francis Drake entered the " Golden Gate "

which the women joined. Then Drake
was asked to sit down, when the king and
his people desired him to become the
king and governor of the country." Then

SIR FRANCIS DRAKK.

the king, singing with all the rest, set a
crown upon Drake s head, and saluted him
as Hioh, or sovereign. Drake accepted the
honor in the name of Queen Elizabeth.
After taking possession of the country he
erected a wooden post, placed upon it a
copper plate, with an inscription, on which
was asserted the right of Queen Elizabeth
and her successors to the kingdom, with
the time of his arrival there, and a state
ment of the voluntary resignation of the

of San Erancisco Bay, and that near its
shores the ceremony of his coronation took
place.

Fearing encounters with the Spaniards
on his return with his treasure-laden ves
sels, Drake sought a northeast passage to
England. Met by severe cold, he turned
back, crossed the Pacific to the Spice Isl
ands, thence over the Indian Ocean, and,
doubling the Cape of Good Hope, reached
England in November, 1580. The delighted

151

DRAKE

Queen knighted Drake, who afterwards
plundered Spanish towns on the Atlantic
coasts of America; and, returning, took
a distressed English colony from Roanoke
Island and carried them to England. In
command of a fleet of thirty vessels, in
1587, he destroyed 100 Spanish vessels in
the harbor of Cadiz; and from a captured
vessel in the East India trade the English
learned the immense value of that trade
and how to carry it on. As vice-admiral,
Drake materially assisted in defeating the
Spanish Armada in 1588; and the next
year he ravaged the coasts of the Spanish
peninsula. After various other exploits
of a similar kind, he accompanied Haw
kins to the West Indies in 1595. Haw
kins died at Porto Rico, and Drake, in
supreme command, gained victory after

raphy; Life of Gen. Henry Knox ; The
Town of Roxbury; Indian History for
Young Folks, etc. He edited Schoolcraft s
History of the Indians. He died in Wash
ington, D. C., Feb. 22, 1885.

Drake, JOSEPH RODMAN. See HALLECK,
FITZ-GREENE.

Drake, SAMUEL ADAMS, historian; born
in Boston, Mass., Dec. 20, 1833; adopted
journalism as a profession, but at the be
ginning of the Civil War entered the
Xational service and rose to the rank
of colonel of United States volunteers in
1863. He is the author of A T oofcs and Cor
ners of the New England Coast; The Mak
ing of New England; Old Landmarks of
Boston; History of Middlesex County, etc.

Drake, SAMUEL GARDNER, antiquarian;
born in Pittsfield, N. H., Oct. 11, 1798; re-

PART OF MAP OP DRAKE S VOYAGES, PCBMSHED AT CLOSE OP SIXTEENTH CENTURY.

victory over the Spaniards. He died near ceived a common-school education, and

Puerto Bello, Dec. 27, 1595, and was taught in a district school for several

buried at sea. years. Settling in Boston, he there estab-

Drake, FRANCIS SAMUEL, biographer : lished the first antiquarian book-store in

born in Xortlnvood. X. II., Feb. -2-2. 1S-JS; !),&lt; Cnifcd States, in 1828. He was one

Bon of Samuel Gardner Drake. He is the of the founders of the New England His-

author of Dictionary of American Biog- torical Genealogical Society of which he

152

DRAMA DRAPER

JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER.

was at one time president, and in 1847 to the United States in 1833, and con-
began the publication of the New England tinued his medical and chemical studies
Genealogical Register, continuing it many in the University of Pennsylvania, where
years as editor and publisher, making
large contributions of biography to its
pages. Mr. Drake resided in London
about two years (1858-60). He prepared
many valuable books on biographical and
historical subjects. His Book of the Ind
ians is a standard work on Indian history
and biography. He prepared an excellent
illustrated History of Boston, and his
illustrative annotations of very old Amer
ican books and pamphlets are of exceed
ing value. He died in Boston, June 14,
1875.

Drama, EARLY AMERICAN. As early
as 1733, there appears to have been a
sort of theatrical performance in the city
of New York. In October of that year,
George Talbot, a merchant, published a
notice in Bradford s Gazette, directing in
quiries to be made at his store " next
door to the Play-house." In 1750 some

young Englishmen and Americans got up he took the degree of M.D. He became
a coffee-house representation of Otway s ( 1830-39) Professor of Chemistry, Natural
Orphans in Boston. The pressure for en- Philosophy, and Physiology in Hampden-
trance to the novelty was so great that Sidney College, Virginia. From 1839 Dr.
a disturbance arose, which gave the au- Draper was connected, as professor, with
thorities reason for taking measures for the University of the City of New York,
the suppression of such performances. At and aided in establishing the University
the next session of the legislature a law Medical College, of which he was appoint-
was made prohibiting theatrical enter- ed (1841) Professor of Chemistry. In 1850
tainments, because, as it was expressed physiology was added to the chair of
in the preamble, they tended not only " to chemistry. From that year he was the
discourage industry and frugality, but president of the medical faculty of the in-
likewise greatly to increase immoral- stitution, and in 1874 he was also presi-
ity, impiety, and a contempt for religion." dent of the scientific department of the
Regular theatrical performances were in- university. Dr. Draper was one of the
troduced into America soon afterwards, most patient, careful, and acute of scien-
when, in 1752, a company of actors from tine investigators. His industry in ex-
London, led by William and Lewis Hal- perimental researches was marvellous, and
lam, played (a part of them) the Beaux his publications on scientific subjects are
Stratagem at Annapolis. Soon afterwards voluminous. He contributed much to
the whole brought out the play of the other departments of learning. His His-
Merchant of Venice at Williamsburg, Va. tcry of the Intellectual Development of
The same company afterwards played at Europe appeared in 1862; his Thoughts
Philadelphia, Perth Amboy, New York, on the Future Civil Policy of America, in
and Newport. The laws excluded them 1865; and his History of the American
from Connecticut and Massachusetts. Civil War, in 3 volumes, appeared be-

Dramatic Art. See JEFFERSON, Jo- tween 1867 and 1870. To Dr. Draper are
SEPII. due many fundamental facts concerning

Draper, JOHN WILLIAM, scientist; born the phenomena of the spectrum of Jight
in St. Helen s, near Liverpool, England, and heat. Among his later productions
May 5, 1811; was educated in scientific were reports of experimental examinations
studies at the University of London ; came of the distribution of heat and of cherni-

153

DRAPER DRAYTON

cal force in the spectrum. Dr. Draper s in American history. "In order to
researches materially aided in perfecting stimulate your exertions in favor of your
Daguerre s great discovery. In 1870 the civil liberties, which protect your relig-
Eumford gold medal was bestowed upon icus rights," he said, " instead of dis-
Dr. Draper by the American Academy of coursing to you on the laws of other
Sciences. He died Jan. 4, 1882. states and comparing them to our own,

Draper, LYMAN COPELAND, historian; allow me to tell you what your civil lib-
born in Evans, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1815. In erties are, and to charge you, which I do
1833 he gathered information regarding in the most solemn manner, to hold them
the Creek chief Weatherford, and from dearer than your lives a lesson and
that time onward he was an indefatigable charge at all times proper from a judge,
student, devoting his life to the collection but particularly so at this crisis, \vlu n
of materials bearing upon the history of America is in one general and grievous
the Western States and biographies of commotion touching this truly important
the leading men of the country. In 1853 point." The judge then discoursed on
he was appointed secretary of the Wis- the origin of the colony, the nat-
consin State Historical Society and was ure of the constitution, and their
connected with the library of the society, civil rights under it, and concluded by
with a few short intervals, till his death, saying that some might think his charge
He published the Collections of the State inconsistent with his duty to the King
Historical Society (10 volumes); The who had just placed him on the bench;
Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence,
etc. He died in Madison, Wis., Aug. 26,
1891.

Drayton, PERCIVAL, naval officer; born
in South Carolina, Aug. 25, 1812; entered
the navy as a midshipman in 1827; was
promoted lieutenant in 1838; took part in
the Paraguay expedition in 1858; com
manded the monitor Passaic in the bom
bardment of Fort McAllister, and Far-
ragut s flag - ship, the Hartford, in the
battle of Mobile Bay, Aug. 5, 1864; and
afterwards became chief of the bureau of
navigation. He died in Washington, D. C.,
Aug. 4, 1865.

Drayton, WILLIAM HENRY, statesman;
born in Drayton Hall, S. C., in Septem
ber, 1742; educated in England, and on WILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON.
his return he became a political writer.

In 1771 he was appointed privy coun- " but, for my part," he said, " in my
cillor for the province of South Carolina, judicial character I know no master but
but he soon espoused the cause of the the law. I am a servant, not to the King,
patriots, and protested against the pro- but to the constitution ; and, in my esti-
ceedings of his colleagues. In 1774 he rnation, I shall best discharge my duty
addressed a pamphlet to the Continental as a good servant to the King and a trusty
Congress, in which he stated the griev- officer under the constitution when I
ances of the Americans, and drew up a boldly declare the laws to the people and
bill of rights, and substantially marked instruct them in their civil rights." This
out the line of conduct adopted by the charge, scattered broadcast bv the press,
Congress. He was appointed a judge in had a powerful influence in the colonies,
1774, but was suspended from the office and, with other patriotic acts, cost Judge
when he became a member of the com- Drayton his office. In 1775 he was presi-
mittee of safety at Charleston. The first dent of the Provincial Congress of South
charge to the grand jury at Camden, S. C., Carolina. In 1776 he became chief-jus-
in 1774, by Judge Drayton is conspicuous tice of the State; and his published charge

154

DRED SCOTT CASE DRUMMOND

to a grand jury in April, that year, dis- "all men are created equal"; that the
played great wisdom and energy, and was patriots of the Revolution and their pro-
widely circulated and admired. Mr. Dray- genitors " for more than a century be-
ton was chosen president, or governor, of fore " regarded the negro race as so far
South Carolina in 1777, and in 1778-79 inferior that they had no rights which
was a member of the Continental Congress, the white man was bound to respect, and
He wrote a history of the Revolution to that they were never spoken of except as
the end of the year 1778, which was pub- property. He also declared that the
lished by his son in 1821. He died in framers of the national Constitution
Philadelphia, Sept. 3, 1779. held the same views. The chief-justice

Dred Scott Case, THE. At about the went further in his extra-judicial decla-
time that Mr. Buchanan became Presi- rations, saying that the MISSOURI
dent-elect of the republic, a case of much COMPROMISE (q. v.) and all other acts
moment was adjudicated by the Supreme restricting slavery were unconstitu-
Court of the United States. A negro tional, and that neither Congress nor
named Dred Scott had been the slave of local legislatures had any authority for
a United States army officer living in restricting the spread over the whole
Missouri. He was taken by his master Union of the institution of slavery. The
to a military post in Illinois, to which dominant party assumed that the de-
the latter had been ordered in the year cision was final; that slavery was a na-
1834. There Scott married the female tional institution, having the right to
slave of another officer, with the consent exist anywhere in the Union, and that
of their respective masters. They had the boast of a Georgia politician that
two children born in that free-labor Ter- ho should yet " count his slaves on
ritory. The mother was bought by the Bunker Hill " might be legally carried
master of Scott, and parents and chil- out. President Buchanan, who had been
dren were taken by that officer back to informed of this decision before its
Missouri and there sold. Scott sued for promulgation, foreshadowed his course in
his freedom on the plea of his involun- the matter in his inaugural address
tary residence in a free-labor Territory (March 4, 1857), in which he spoke of
and State for several years. The case the measure as one which would " speed-
was tried in the Circuit Court of St. ily and finally " settle the slavery ques-
Louis, and the decision was in Scott s t ; on. The decision was promulgated
favor. The Supreme Court of the State March 6, 18.57.

reversed the decision, and the case was Drewry s, or Drury s, Bluff. See
carried to the Supreme Court of the Unit- RODGERS, JOHN.

ed States, CHIEF-JUSTICE ROGER B. Drum, RICHARD COULTER, military oili-
TANEY (q. v.) presiding. The chief-jus- cer; born in Pennsylvania, May 28, 182.) ;
tice and a majority of the court were joined the army in 1846, and served in the
friends of the slave system, and theii de- Mexican War, being present at the siege
cision, which, for prudential reasons, was of Vera Cruz and the actions of Chapul-
withheld until after the Presidential elec- tepee and Mexico City. He was com
tion in 1856, was against Scott. The missioned colonel and assistant adju-
chief-justice declared that any person tant-general, Feb. 22, 1869; promoted
" whose ancestors were imported into this brigadier-general and adjutant-general,
country and held as slaves" had no right June 15, 1880; and retired May 28, 1889.
to sue in a court in the United States; Drummond, SIR GEOKGE GORDON, mili-
in other words, he denied the right of tary officer; born in Quebec in 1771; en-
citizenship to any person who had been tered the British army in 1789; served in
a slave or was a descendant of a slave. Holland and Egypt; and in 1811 was
The chief-justice, with the sanction of a made lieutenant-general. In 1813 he was
majority of the court, further declared second in command to Sir George Prevost :
that the framers and supporters of the planned the capture of Fort Niagara in
Declaration of American Independence December of that year; took the villages
did not include the negro race in our of Black Rock and Buffalo; captured Os-
country in the great proclamation that wego in May, 1814; and was in chief com-

155

DRUMMOND DUANE

mand of the British forces at the battle In 1783-84 he was a member of the coun-
of LUNDY S LANE (q. v.) in July. In Au- cil and State Senator, and in 1788 was a
gust he was repulsed at Fort Erie, with member of the convention of New York
heavy loss, and was severely wounded. He that adopted the national Constitution,
succeeded Prevost in 1814, and returned From 1789 to 1794 he was United States
to England in 1816. The next year he re- district judge. He died in Duanesburg,
ccived the grand cross of the Bath. He N. Y., Feb. 1, 1707.
died in London, Oct. 10, 1854. Late in May, 1775, Judge Duane moved

Drummond, WILLIAM, colonial gov- in Congress, in committee of the whole,
ernor ; born in Scotland ; was appointed the " opening of negotiations in order to
governor of the Albemarle county colony accommodate the unhappy disputes sub-
by Sir William Berkeley, governor of Vir- sisting between Great Britain and the col-
ginia, and joint proprietary of Carolina, onies, and that this be made a part of the
During the Bacon rebellion (see BACON, [second] petition to the King" prepared
NATHANIEL), when Berkeley retreated to by John Jay. It was a dangerous pro-
Accomac, Drummond proposed that
Berkeley should be deposed. This prop
osition met with the favor of the lead
ing planters, who met at Williamsburg
and agreed to support Bacon against
the government. The death of Bacon
left the rebellion without a competent
leader. Sir William Berkeley wreaked
his vengeance on thirty-three of the
principal offenders. When Drummond
was brought before him Berkeley ex
claimed: " I am more glad to see you
than any man in Virginia. You shall
be hanged in half an hour." He died
Jan. 20, 1077.

Drury s Bluff, BATTLE AT. See
RODGERS, JOHN.

Dry Tortugas, a group of several
small, barren islands, about 40 miles
west of the Florida Keys. They served
as a place of imprisonment during the
Civil War.

Dryden, JOHN FAIKFIELD, states
man; born near Farmington, Maine,
Aug. 7, 1839; educated at Yale Uni
versity; removed to New Jersey, 1871;
established the Prudential Insurance
Company in 1875; elected to the Unit
ed States Senate from Xcw Jersey to
fill vacancy caused by the death of
General Se\vell in 1001.

Duane, .IAMKS, jurist: born in New po.-al at that time, as it was calculated
York City, Feb. 0, 1733. In 1759 he to cool the ardor of resistance which the.i
married a daughter of Col. Robert Liv- animated the people. Duane was a stanch
ingston. He was a member of the first patriot, but was anxious for peace, if it
Continental Congress (1774) ; of the could be procured with honor and for the
Provincial Convention of New York in good of his country. His proposition was
1770-77: also in Congress, 1780-82. considered by Congress at the same time
He returned to New York City in 1783, when a proposition for a similar purpose
after tin- evacuation, and was the first which had come from Lord North was
mayor of lhat city after the Revolution, before that body. The timid portion of

156

DUANE DU CHAILLTT

PAUL BELLONI DF CHAILLU.

Congress prevailed, and it was resolved sion of Idaho to the Union in 1890; and

to address another petition to his Majesty, was its first Senator, serving from 1891

but at the same time to put the colonies to 1897; and was re-elected in 1901.

into a state of defence. Duane s motion Dubois, WILLIAM EDWARD B., educator;

was carried, but against a most deter- born in Great Barrington, Mass., Feb. 23,

mined and unyielding opposition, and it

rather retarded the prospect of a peaceful

solution. It had no practical significance,

unless it was intended to accept the

proposition of Lord North as the basis for

an agreement.

Duane, JAMES CHATHAM, military offi
cer; born in Schenectady, N. Y., June 30,
1824; graduated at the United States
Military Academy in 1848, and served
with the corps of engineers till 1854.
He rendered excellent work during the
Civil War, notably in the building of a
bridge 2,000 feet long over the Chicka-
hominy River. He was brevetted brig
adier-general in 1865; promoted brig
adier-general and chief of engineers, U. S.
A., in 1886; retired June 30, 1888. From
his retirement till his death, Nov. 8, 1897,
he was president of the New York
Aqueduct Commission.

Duane, WILLIAM, statesman ; born in
Devonshire, England, March 18, 1747; re- 1868, of negro descent; was graduated at
moved to New York in 1768; member of Harvard University in 1890; and became
the New York provincial congress; dele- professor of economics and history in At-
gate to the Continental Congress, 1777-78; lanta University in 1896. He wrote Tine
secretary of the treasury board, 1789; Suppression of the Slave Trade, etc.
Assistant Secretary of the Treasury under Du Chaillu, PAUL BELLONI, explorer;
Hamilton. He died in New York City, born in New Orleans, La., July 31, 1838.
May 7, 1799. He is best known by the results of two

Duane, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, jurist; exploring trips to west Africa, during
born in Rhinebeck, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1780; which he discovered and examined consid-
entered the United States navy in 1798; erabie territory almost unknown previous-
admitted to the bar in 1802; member of ly, and added sixty species of birds and
the State Assembly; judge of the New twenty of mammals to the zoology of
York Supreme Court, 1822-29; president Africa. His accounts of the gorillas and
of Columbia College, 1829-42. He wrote pygmies excited a large interest among
The Life of Lord Sterling, The Steamboat scientists, and for a time many of his as-
Con troversy, etc. He died in New York sertions were sharply contradicted as be-
City, May 30, 1858. ing impossible; but subsequent explo-

Duane, WILLIAM JOHN, lawyer; born rations by others confirmed all that he
in Ireland in 1780; was Secretary of the had claimed. His publications include
United States Treasury in 1833, but was Explorations and Adventures in Equa-
opposed to General Jackson s action in the torial Africa; A Journey to Ashango
matter of the United States Bank, and Land; Stories of the Gorilla Country;
was therefore removed from office. He Wild Life Under the Equator; My Apingi
died in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 27, 1865. Kingdom; The Country of the Dwarfs;

Dubois, FRED T., legislator; born in The Land of the Midnight Sun; The
Crawford county, 111., May 27, 1851; re- Viking Age; Ivar, the Viking; The
moved to Idaho in 1880; was a member of People of tJ&gt;n Great African Forest; etc.
Congress in 1887-91; secured the admis- Ho died in St. Petersburg, April 29, 1903.

157

DUCHE DUDLEY

Duche, JACOB, clergyman ; born in
Philadelphia, in 1737; educated at the
University of Pennsylvania; and became
an eloquent Episcopalian. A descendant
of a Huguenot, he naturally loved free
dom. He was invited by the Con
tinental Congress of 1774 to open
their proceedings with prayer. In 1775 he
became rector of Christ Church, and
espoused the patriot cause. Of a timid
nature, Duche", when the British took pos
session of Philadelphia ( 1777) , alarmed by
the gloomy outlook, forsook the Amer
icans, and, in a letter to Washington,
urged him to do likewise. This letter
was transmitted to Congress, and Duche"
fled to England, where he became a popu
lar preacher. His estate was confiscated,
and he was banished as a traitor. In 1790
Duche" returned to Philadelphia, where he
died Jan. 3, 1798.

First Prayer in Congress. The follow
ing is the text of Dr. Duche"s first prayer
in Congress:

Lord, our Heavenly Father, high and
mighty King of kings and Lord of lords,
Who dost from Thy throne behold all the
dwellers of the earth, and reignest with
power supreme and uncontrollable over
the kingdoms, empires, and governments,
look down in mercy, we beseech Thee, on
these American States, who have fled to
Thee from the rod of the oppressor and
thrown themselves on Thy gracious pro
tection. Desiring to be henceforth only
dependent on Thee, to Thee have they ap
pealed for the righteousness of their
cause: to Thee do they now look up for
that countenance and support which
Thou alone canst give. Take them, there
fore, Heavenly Father, under Thy nurtur
ing care: give them wisdom in council
and valor in the field. Defeat *,he
malicious designs of our adversaries,
convince them of the unrighteousness of
their cause; and, if they still persist in
their sanguinary purpose, oh ! let the voice
of Thy unerring justice, sounding in their
hearts, constrain them to drop the
weapons of war in their unnerved hands
in the day of battle. Be Thou present, O
Cod of wisdom, and direct the councils of
this honorable assembly; enable them
to settle things on the best and surest
foundation, that the scene of blood may

158

be speedily closed; that order, harmony,
and peace may be restored, and truth and
justice, religion and piety prevail and
flourish among the people. Preserve the
health of their bodies and the vigor of
their minds; shower down on them and
the millions they represent such temporal
blessings as Thou seest expedient for them
in this world, and crown them with ever
lasting glory in the world to come. All
this we ask in the name and through the
merits of Jesus Christ, Thy Son, our
Saviour. Amen.

Duchesne, PHILIPPA ROSE, missionary;
born in France in 1769; came to America
in 1818 and engaged in religious work
among the Indians of Louisiana. In 1820
she founded in Barriens, on the Bois-
Brule, the first permanent home of the
sisterhood of the Sacred Heart in America,
and lived to see the order established in
all the large cities of the United States.
She died in St. Charles, La., in 1852.

Ducking-stool. The English colonies
in America continued for a long time the
manners and customs of their native land ;
among others, that of the use of the duck
ing-stool for the punishment of inveterate
scolding women. Bishop Meade, in Old
Churches, Ministers, and Families in Vir
ginia, says, " If a woman was convicted
of slander, her husband was made to pay
five hundred-weight of tobacco"; but the
law proving insufficient, the penalty was
changed to ducking. Places for ducking
were prepared at court-houses. An in
stance is mentioned of a woman who was
ordered to be ducked three times from a
vessel lying in the James River. The
woman was tied to a chair at the longer
end of a lever, controlled at the shorter
end by men with a rope. The stool being
planted firmly, the woman was raised on
the lever, and then lowered so as to be
plunged under the water.

Dudley, DEAN, genealogist ; born in
Kingsfield, Me., May 23, 1823; admitted
to the bar in 1854. Among his works are
genealogies of the Dudley and Swift
families; Officers of Our Union Army and
\&lt;i r ?/, etc.

Dudley, JOSEPH, colonial governor ;
born in Roxbury, Mass., July 23, 1047;
graduated at Harvard in 1G65; pre
pared for the ministry, but, preferring
politics, became a representative in th"

DUDLEY DUG SPRINGS

general court and a magistrate. From
1677 to 1681 he was one of the commis
sioners for the united colonies of New Eng
land. He was in the battle with the Nar-
raganseta in 1675, and was one of the com
missioners who dictated the terms of a
treaty with that tribe. In September, 1685,
King James commissioned him president
of New England, and in 1687 he was made
chief-justice of the Supreme Court. Dud
ley was sent to England with Andros
in 1689, and the next year was made
chief-justice of New York. He went to
England in 1693, and was deputy govern
or of the Isle of Wight. He entered
Parliament in 1701, and from 1702 to
1715 he was captain-general and governor
of Massachusetts. Then he retired to his
quiet home at Roxbury, where he died,
April 2, 1720.

The disputes between the royal govern
ors and the people, which continued
about seventy years, were begun in Mas
sachusetts with Dudley. In his first
speech he demanded a " fit and convenient
house " for the governor, and a settled
and stated salary for him. The House,
in their answer the next day, observed
that they would proceed to the considera
tion of these propositions " with all con
venient speed." They resolved to present,
out of the public treasury, the sum of
500, and said, " as to settling a salary
for the governor, it is altogether new to
us, nor can we think it agreeable to our
present constitution, but we shall be
ready to do, according to our ability,
what may be proper on our part for the
support of the government." The govern
or sent for the speaker and the repre
sentatives to come to his chamber, when
he declared his disappointment because
of their procedure, and expressed a hope
that they would think better of the mat
ter.

Dudley, THOMAS, colonial governor;
born in Northampton, England, in 1576;
was an officer of Queen Elizabeth, serving
in Holland ; and afterwards he became a
Puritan, and retrieved the fortunes of
the Earl of Lincoln by a faithful care of
his estate as his steward. He came to
T5oston in 1030, as deputy governor, with
his son-in-law, Simon Bradstreet, and
held the office ton years. He was ap
pointed major-general of the colony in

1644. He died in Roxbury, Mass., July
31, 1653.

Duelling. See BLADENSBURG DUEL
LING FIELD.

Duer, WILLIAM, statesman; born in
Devonshire, England, March 18, 1747;
in 1767 was aide to Lord Clive in India;
came to America, and in 1768 purchased
a tract of land in Washington county,
N. Y. ; became colonel of the militia,
judge of the county court, member of the
New York Provincial Congress, a-nd of
the committee of safety. He was one of
the committee that drafted the first consti
tution of the State of New York (1777),
and was a delegate in Congress in 1777-
78; and he was secretary of the Treasury
Board until the reorganization of the
finance department under the national
Constitution. He was assistant Secre
tary of the Treasury under Hamilton
until 1790. Colonel Duer married (1779)
Catharine, daughter of Lord Stirling.
He died in New York City, May 7, 1799.

Duffield, WILLIAM WARD, military
officer; born in Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 19,
1823; graduated at Columbia College
in 1842; served with gallantry in the war
with Mexico. In 1861 he was made
colonel of the 9th Michigan Infantry; in
1862 he captured the Confederate force at
Lebanon, and was made commander of all
the troops in Kentucky. He was brevetted
major-general of volunteers in 1863, and
was compelled by his wounds to resign
from the army before the close of the
war. He published School of Brigade and
Evolutions of the Line.

Dug Springs, BATTLE AT. General
Lyon was 80 miles from Springfield when
he heard of the perils of Sigel after the
fight at Carthage. He pushed on to the
relief of the latter, and on July 13, 1861,
he and Sigel joined their forces, when
the general took the chief command. The
combined armies numbered, at that time,
about 6,000 men, horse and foot, with
eighteen pieces of artillery. There Lyon
remained in a defensive attitude for some
time, waiting for reinforcements which had
been called for, but which did not come.
The Confederates had been largely rein
forced; and at the c ] ose of Jify
Lyon was informed that they w&lt;-ic
marching upon Springfield in I \v&lt;&gt; ci.
limns 20,000 under the respective

; ~

DU LHUT DUNLAP

commands of Generals Price, McCul-
loch, Pearce, McBride, and Rains.
Lyon went out to meet them with
about 6,000 men, foot and horse, and
eighteen cannon, leaving a small force
to guard Springfield. At Dug Springs,
19 miles southwest of Springfield, in a
broken, oblong valley, they encountered
a large Confederate force under Gen
eral Rains. While the National vanguard
of infantry and cavalry, under Steele and
Stanley, were leading, they were unex
pectedly attacked by Confederate infan
try, who suddenly emerged from the
woods. A sudden charge of twenty-five of
Stanley s horsemen scattered the Confed
erates in every direction. The charge was
fearful, and the slaughter was dreadful.
" Are these men or devils, they fight so ?"
asked some of the wounded. Confederate
cavalry now appeared emerging from the
woods, when some of Lyon s cannon, man
aged by Captain Totten, threw shells that
frightened the horses, and the Confeder
ates were scattered. They then withdrew,
leaving the valley in the possession of the
Nationals. Lyon s loss was eight men
killed and thirty wounded; that of Rains
was about forty killed and as many
wounded.

Du Lhut, or Duluth, DANIEL GREY-
SOLON, explorer; born in Lyons, France;
carried on a traffic in furs under the pro
tection of Count Frontenac; explored the
upper Mississippi in 1678-80, at which
time he joined Father Hennepin and his
companions. He took part in the cam
paign against the Seneca Indians in 1687
and brought with him a large number of
Indians from the upper lakes. In 1695 he
was placed in command of Fort Frontenac
and in 1697 was promoted to the command
of a company of infantry. He died near
Lake Superior in 1709. The city of
Duluth was named after him.

Dummer, FORT. In the war against
the Nor ridge wock Indians (1723) repeated
attempts were made to engage the as
sistance of the Mohawks, but they were
unsuccessful, and Massachusetts was ad
vised, with justice, to make peace by re
storing to the Indians their lands. The
attacks of the barbarians extended all
along the northern frontier as far west
as the Connecticut River. To cover the
towns in that vallev Fort Dummer was

erected on the site of what is now Brattle-
boro, in Vermont, the oldest English set
tlement in that State.

Dummer, JEKEMIAH, patriot; born in
Boston, Mass., in 1680; was graduated at
Harvard in 1699; went to England as
agent of Massachusetts in 1710, and re
mained in London till 1721. He published
a defence of the New England charters,
in which he claimed that the colonists
through redeeming the wilderness did not
derive their rights from the crown but
by purchase or conquest from the natives.
He died in Plaistow, England, May 19,
1739.

Dunkards, or GERMAN BAPTISTS, a
body of Christians who trace their origin
back to Alexander Mack, one of a small
number of Pietists who had migrated to
the province of Witgenstein, Germany, to
escape persecution. In 1708 he became
their minister, and after they were bap
tized in the Eder by being thrice im
mersed, a church was formed. In 1719
Mr. Mack and all his followers came by
way of Holland to America and settled
in and around Philadelphia. From this
beginning the Dunkards have spread
through the Eastern, Northern, and West
ern States. Their doctrine is similar to
that of the Evangelical Churches. They
endeavor to follow closely the teachings
of the Bible. They dress plainly, refrain
from taking active part in politics, affirm
instead of taking an oath, settle their
quarrels among themselves without going
to law, do not join secret societies, etc.
They hold that every believer should be
immersed face forward, being dipped at
the mention of each name of the Trinity.
The Dunkards now consist of three bodies
the Conservative, Old Order, and Pro
gressive. In 1900 they reported 2,993
ministers, 1,123 churches, and 111,287
members, the strongest branch being
the Conservatives, who had 2,612 minis
ters, 850 churches, and 95,000 members.

Dunlap, JOHN, printer; born in
Strabane, Ireland, in 1747; learned the
printing trade from his uncle, who was in
business in Philadelphia, and at the age of
eighteen began the publication of the
Pennsylvania Packet. This was made a
daily paper in 1784, and was the first
daily issued in the United States. The
title was afterwards changed to the North-

HiO

DUNLAP DUNMORE

American and United States Gazette. As
printer to Congress Mr. Dunlap printed
the Declaration of Independence. He died
in Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 27, 1812.

Dunlap, WILLIAM, painter, dramatist,
and historian ; born in Perth Amboy,
N. J., Feb. 19, 1766. His father, being a
loyalist, went to New York City in 1777,
where William began to paint. He made
a portrait of Washington at Rocky Hill,
N. J., in 1783. The next year he went to
England and received instructions from
Benjamin West. He became an actor
for a short time, and in 1796 was one of
the managers of the John Street Theatre,
New York. He took the Park Theatre in
1798. From 1814 to 1816 he was pay
master-general of the New York State
militia. He began a series of paintings
in 1816. In 1833 he published a History
of the American Theatres, and in 1834 a
History of the Arts of Design. His His
tory of New Netherland and the State of
Neic York was published in 1840. Mr.
Dunlap was one of the founders of the
National Academy of Design. He died in
New York City, Sept. 28, 1839.

Dun.in.ore, JOHN MURRAY, EARL OF,
royal governor ; born in Scotland in
1732; was descended In the feminine line
from the house of Stuart. He was
made governor of New York in January,
1770, and of Virginia, July, 1771, arriv
ing there early in 1772. When the Vir
ginia Assembly recommended a committee
of correspondence (March, 1773), he im-

SKAL OP LOKU DUNMORK.

mediately dissolved it, and in May, 1774,
he again dissolved the Assembly because
it had passed a resolution making the 1st
of June a day of fasting and prayer. This

was the same day which had been ap
pointed by the Massachusetts legislature
for the same purpose.

In 1775, finding the people of his
colony committed to the cause of free
dom, he engaged in a conspiracy to bring
the Indians in hostile array against
the Virginia frontier. He employed Dr.
John Connelly, whom he had commis
sioned in 1774 to Jead a movement for
sustaining the claims of Virginia to the
whole district of Pennsylvania west of

LORD DUNMOKK S SIGNATURE.

the Alleghany Mountains. He was a na
tive of Pennsylvania, and lived at Pitts-
burg; and it is believed that he suggested
to Dunmore the plan of combining the
Western Indians against the colonists.
He visited General Gage at Boston early
in the autumn of 1775, and immediately
after his return to Williamsburg he left
Dunmore and departed for the Ohio coun
try, with two companions. They were
stopped near Hagerstown as suspicious
persons, sent back to Frederick, and there
an examination of Connelly s papers re
vealed the whole nefarious plot. He bore
Dunmore s commission of colonel, and was
directed to raise a regiment in the west
ern country and Canada, the rendezvous
to be at Detroit, where hostilities against
the white people might be more easily
fomented among the Indians. Thence he
was to march in the spring, enter Vir
ginia with a motley force, and meet Dun-
more at Alexandria, on the Potomac, who
would be there with a military and naval
force. The arrest of Connelly frustrated
the design. He was put in jail and his
papers were sent to the Continental Con
gress. He was kept a prisoner until
about the end of the war.

What is known historically as " Dun
more s War " was a campaign against
the Ohio Indians undertaken by Lord
Dunmore in 1774.

in. L

161

DUNMORE, JOHN MURRAY, EARL OF

The cold-blooded murder of the family an insurrection among the slaves. Final-
of LOGAN (q. v.), an eminent Mingo chief, ly, late in April, he caused marines to
and other atrocities, had caused fearful come secretly at night from the Fowey,
retaliation on the part of the barbarians, a sloop-of-vvar in the York River, and carry
While Pennsylvanians and the agents of to her the powder in the old magazine at
the Six Nations were making efforts for Williamsburg. The movement was dis-
peace, Governor Dunmore, bent on war, covered. The minute-men assembled at
called for volunteers, and 400 of these dawn, and were with difficulty restrained
were gathered on the banks of the Ohio, a from seizing the governor. The assembled
little below Wheeling. This force marched people sent a respectful remonstrance to
against and destroyed (Aug. 7, 1774) a Dunmore, complaining of the act as spe-
Shawnee town on the Muskingum. They cially cruel at that time, when a servile
were followed by Dunmore, with 1,500 Vir- insurrection was apprehended. The gov-
ginians, who pressed forward against an ernor replied evasively, and the people de-
Indian village on the Scioto, while Col. manded the return of the powder. When
Andrew Lewis, with 1,200 men, encoun- Patrick Henry heard of the act, he gath-
tered a force of Indians at Point Pleasant, ered a corps of volunteers and marched
at the mouth of the Great Kanawha towards the capital. The frightened gov-
Eiver (Oct. 10), where a bloody battle en
sued. The Indians were led by Logan,
Cornstalk, and other braves. The Vir
ginians were victorious, but lost seventy
men killed and wounded. Dunmore was
charged with inciting the Indian war and
arranging the campaign so as to carry out
his political plans. It was charged that
he arranged the expedition so as to have
the force under Lewis annihilated by the
Indians, and thereby weaken the physical

strength and break down the spirits of RBMAINS OP LORD
the Virginians, for they were defying royal

power. His efforts afterwards to incite ernor sent a deputation to meet him. One
a servile insurrection in Virginia for the of them was the receiver-general of the
same purpose show that he was capable province. They met 16 miles from Will-
of exercising almost any means to accom- iamsburg, where the matter was com-
plish his ends. The Indians in the Ohio promised by the receiver-general paying
country, alarmed at the approach of Dun- the full value of the powder. Henry sent
more, had hastened to make peace. Logan the money to the public treasury and re-
refused to attend the conference for the turned home.

purpose, but sent a speech which became In November, 1775, Lord Dunmore pro-
famous in history. Dunmore s officers in ceeded in the w r ar-ship Fowey to Norfolk,
that expedition, having heard of the move- where he proclaimed freedom to all slaves
ments in New England, and of the Con- who should join the royal standard, which
tinental Congress, held a meeting at Fort he had unfurled, and take up arms against
Gower (mouth of the Hockhocking River ), the "rebels." He declared martial law
and after complimenting the governor and throughout Virginia, and made Norfolk
declaring their allegiance to the King, re- the rendezvous for a British fleet. He sent
solved to maintain the rights of the colo- marauding parties on the shores of the
riists by every means in their power. Elizabeth and James rivers to distress the

The bold movement in the Virginia Whig inhabitants. Being repelled with

convention (March, 1775) excited the spirit, he resolved to strike a severe blow

official wralh of Governor Dunmore, who that should produce terror. He began to

stormed in proclamations: and to frighten lay waste the country around. The peo-

the Virginians (or. probably, with a more pie were aroused and the militia were

mischievous intent), he caused a rumor rapidly gathering for the defence of the

to be circulated that ho intended to excite inhabitants, when Dunmore, becoming

162

DUNMOBE S WAR DUPONT

THE OLD MACAZINE AT WILLIAMSISURG.

alarmed, constructed batteries at Norfolk, the preparation of his system of military
armed the Tories and negroes, and fortified tactics for the use of the United States
a passage over the Elizabeth River, known troops. From 1781 to 1783 he was secre-
as the Great Bridge, a point where he ex- tary to Robert R. Livingston, then at the
pected the militiamen to march to
attack him. Being repulsed in a
battle there (Dec. 9, 1775), Dun-
more abandoned his intrenchments
at Norfolk and repaired to his
ships, when, menaced by famine
for the people would not furnish
supplies and annoyed by shots
from some of the houses, he can
nonaded the town (Jan. 1, 1776)
and sent sailors and marines
ashore to set it on fire. The
greater portion of the compact
part of the city was burned while
the cannonade was kept up. The
part of the city which escaped was
presently burned by the Virgin
ians to prevent it from becoming

a shelter to the enemy. Thus perished, a head of the foreign office of the govern-
prey to civil war, the largest and richest ment; and then studying law, was ad-
of the rising towns of Virginia. After mitted to practice in 1785, becoming emi-
committing other depredations on the Vir- nent in the profession on questions of civil
ginia coast, he landed on Gwyn s Isl- and international law. He finally devoted
and, in Chesapeake Bay, with 500 men, himself to literature and science, and
black and white, cast up some intrench- made many valuable researches into the
ments, and built a stockade fort. Virginia language and literature of the North
militia, under Gen. Andrew Lewis, at- American Indians. In 1819 he published
tacked and drove him from the island, a Memoir on the Structure of the Indian
In this engagement Dunmore was wounded. Languages. When seventy-eight years of
Burning several of his vessels that were age (1838) he published a Dissertation on
aground, Dunmore sailed away with the the Chinese Language; also a translation
remainder, with a large amount of booty, of a Description of New Sweden. In 1835
among which were about 1,000 slaves, the French Institute awarded him a prize
After more plundering on the coast the for a disquisition on the Indian languages
vessels were dispersed, some to the West of North America. Mr. Duponceau opened
Indies, some to the Bermudas and St. a law academy in Philadelphia in 1821,
Augustine, and Dunmore himself pro- and wrote several essays on the subject of
ceeded to join the naval force at New law. He died in Philadelphia, April 2,
York, and soon afterwards went to Eng- 1844.

land. In 1786 Dunmore was made gov- Du Pont, ELEUTHERE IRE*NEE, scientist;
ernor of Bermuda. He died in Ramsgate, born in Paris, France, June 24, 1771; son
England, in May, 1809. of Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours;

Dunmore s War. See CRESAP, Mi- emigrated to the United States in 1799;
CIIAEL; DUNMORE, JOHN MURRAY, EARL bought a tract of land near Wilmington,
OF; LOGAN. Del., where he established the powder

Duponceau, PETER STEPHEN, philolo- works, which have since been maintain-
gist; born in the Isle of Rhe, France, ed by the Dupont (modern form) family.
June 3, 1760; went to Paris in 1775, where He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 31,
he became acquainted with Baron Steu- 1834.

ben, and accompanied him to America as Dupont, SAMUEL FRANCIS, naval officer ;
his secretary. He was brevetted a captain born in Bergen Point, N. J., Sept. 27.
(February, 1778), and assisted Steuben in 1803; entered the United States navy as

103

DUPORTAIL DUQUESNE

midshipman at twelve years of age, and America. He died at sea in 1802, when
became commander, Oct. 28, 1842. He returning to France.

saw much active service on the California Dupratz, ANTOINE SIMON LE PAGE, ex-
coast during the war with Mexico, clear- plorer; born in Tourcoing, France, in
ing the Gulf of California of Mexican ves- 1689; settled on the Mississippi River
sels. He was promoted to captain in among the Natchez Indians in 1720. For
1855; and in October, 1861, he pro- eight years he explored the regions water-
ceeded, in command of the South Atlantic ed by the Missouri and Arkansas rivers,
squadron, to capture Port Royal Island, He published a History of Louisiana, or of
on the South Carolina coast, to secure the Western Parts of Virginia and Caro-
a central harbor and depot of supplies on Una. He died in Paris, France, in 1775.
the Southern shores. In July Commodore Duquesne, FORT, a fortification erected
Dupont was made a rear-admiral, and in by the French on the site of the city of
April, 1863, he commanded the fleet which Pittsburg, Pa., in 1754. While Captain
made an unsuccessful effort to capture Trent and his company were building this
Charleston. Admiral Dupont assisted in fort, Captain Contrecoeur, with 1,000
organizing the naval school at Annapolis, Frenchmen and eighteen cannon, went
and was the author of a highly com- down the Alleghany River in sixty bateaux

and 300 canoes, took possession of the un
finished fortification, and named it Fort
Duquesne, in compliment to the captain-
general of Canada. Lieutenant-Colonel
Washington, with a small force, hurried
from Cumberland to recapture it, but
was made a prisoner, with about 400 men,
at Fort Necessity. In 1755 an expedition
for the capture of Fort Duquesne, com
manded by GEN. EDWARD BRADDOCK
(q. v.), marched from Will s Creek (Cum
berland) on June 10, about 2,000 strong,
British and provincials. On the banks
of the Monongahela Braddock was de
feated and killed on July 9, and the ex
pedition was ruined.

Washington was a lieutenant-colonel
under Braddock in the expedition against
Fort Duquesne, in 1755, and in that of
1758. In the former he was chiefly in-
mended report on the use of floating bat- strumental in savin- a portion of the
teries for coast defence. He died in Phila- British and provincial troops from utter
delphia, June 23, 18G5. destruction. At the battle near the Mo-

Duportail, Louis LEBEGUE, CHEVALIER, nongahela, where Braddock was killed, ev-
military officer; born in France in 1736; cry officer but Washington was slam or
came to America in the early part of the wounded; and he, alone, led the surviv-
IN volutionary War, and was appointed ors on a safe retreat. He was not injured
brigadier-general in the Continental army during the battle. To his mother
in November, 1777, and major-general, wrote: "I luckily escaped unhurt,
November 1781. He was directing engi- though I had four bullets through my
neer at the sie^e of Yorktown in the fall coat, and two horses shot under me.
of 1781 Returning to France, he was To his brother he wrote:
named marechal-de-camp ; and in Novem- powerful dispensation of Providence,
her 1790 was made minister of war. In have been protected beyond all
December, 1701. ho resigned; and when probability or expectation. Death was
engaged in military service in Lorraine, levelling my companions on every side,
he received a warning of the designs of An Indian chief, who, fifteen years after-
the Jacobins, and sought safety in wards, travelled a long way to see Wash-

164

SAMUEL FRANCIS DCHONT.

DUQUESNE DURAND

CAPTCHE OF KOKT UU^UKSXE.

ington when he
was in Ohio, said
he had singled him
out for death, and
directed his fellows
to do the same.
He fired more than
a dozen fair shots
at him, but could
not hit him. " We
felt," said the
chief, " that some
Manitou guarded
your life, and that
you could not be
killed."

The expedition of
1758 was com-
manded by Gen.
John Forbes, who
had about 9,000
men at his dis
posal at Fort
Cumberland and
Raystown. These
included Virginia

troops under Colonel Washington, the Forbes intended to propose an abandon-
Eoyal Americans from South Carolina, ment of the enterprise, when three
and an auxiliary force of Cherokee Ind- prisoners gave information of the ex-
ians. Sickness and perversity of will trenie weakness of the French garrison,
and judgment on the part of Forbes Washington was immediately sent for-
caused delays almost fatal to the expedi- ward, and the whole army prepared to
tion. He was induced, by the advice of follow. When the Virginians were within
some Pennsylvania land speculators, to a day s march of the fort, they were dis
use the army in constructing a military covered by some Indians, who so alarmed
road farther north than the one made by the garrison by an exaggerated account
Braddock. Washington, who knew the of the number of the approaching troops
country well, strongly advised against that the guardians of Fort Duquesnc, re-
this measure, but he was unheeded, and duced to 500, set it on fire (Nov. 24), and
so slow was the progress of the troops fled down the Ohio in boats with such
towards their destination, that in Sep- haste and confusion that they left every-
tember, when it was known that there thing behind them. The Virginians took
were not more than 800 men at Duquesne, possession the next day, and the name
Forbes, with 0,000 troops, was yet oast of the fortress was changed to Fort Pitt,
of the Alleghany Mountains. Major in honor of the great English statesman.
Grant, with a scouting-party of Colonel Durand, ASIIER BROWN, painter and en-
Bouquet s advance corps, was attacked graver; born in Jefferson, N. J., Aug. 21,
(Sept. 21), defeated, and made a pris- 179(5. His paternal ancestors were Hugue-
oner. Still Forbes went creeping on. nots. His father was a watch-maker, and
wasting precious time, and exhausting the in his shop he learned engraving. In 1812
patience and respect of Washington and he became an apprentice to Peter Mave-
other energetic officers; and when Bou- rick, an engraver on copper-plate, and be-
quet joined the army it was 50 miles came his partner in 1817. Mr. Durand s
from Fort Duquesne. The winter was ap- first large work was his engraving on
preaching, the troops were discontented, copper of Trumbull s Drclanttion of In-
and a council of war was called, to which dependence. He was engaged upon it a

165

DURANT DUSTIN

year, and it gave him a great reputation. Dustin, HANNAH, heroine; born about
His engravings of Musidora and Ariadne 1660; married Thomas Dustin, of Haver-
place him among the first line-engravers of hill, Mass., Dec. 3, 1677. When, in the
his time. In 1835 he abandoned that art spring of 1697, the French and Indians
for painting. Mr. Durand was one of the devastated the New England frontier set-
first officers of the National Academy of tlements, Haverhill, within 30 miles of
Design, and was its president for several Boston, suffered severely, forty of its in-
years. He died in South Orange, N. J., habitants being killed or carried into cap-
Sept. 17, 1886. tivity. Among the latter were a part of

Durant, HENRY TOWLE, philanthropist; the family of Thomas Dustin, who was in

born in Hanover, N. H., Feb. 20, 1822; the field when the savages first appeared,

graduated at Harvard College in 1841; Mounting his horse, he hastened to his

admitted to the bar in 1846; and be- house to bear away his wife, eight chil-

came connected with Rufus Choate and dren, and nurse to a place of safety. His

other celebrated lawyers in practice in youngest child was only a week old. He

Boston. Later he devoted himself to the ordered his other children to fly. While

promotion of education, and through his he was lifting his wife and her babe from

efforts Wellesley College was founded at the bed the Indians attacked his house,

a cost of $1,000,000. It was opened in "Leave me," cried the mother, "and fly

1875, was maintained by him at an ex- to the protection of the other children."

pense of $50,000 a year until his death. Remounting his horse he soon overtook the

and afterwards was aided by his widow, precious flock, and placing himself be-

He died in Wellesley, Mass., Oct. 3, 1881. tween them and the pursuing Indians, he

Durell, EDWARD HENRY, jurist ; born in defended them so valiantly with his gun

Portsmouth, N. H., July 14, 1810; gradu- that he pressed back the foe. Meanwhile

ated at Harvard in 1831; removed to New the savages had entered the house, ordered

Orleans in 1836. He held many offices the feeble mother to rise and follow them,

under the State government; resisted se- killed the infant, and set fire to the dwell-

cession in 1861 ; president of the Louisiana ing- Half dressed, she was compelled to

constitutional convention in 1864. Among g with her captors through melting snow

his publications are History of Seventeen in their hasty retreat, accompanied by

Years from I860 to 1877 ; Essay on the her nurse. They walked 12 miles the first

History of France; etc. He died in Scho- C ia 7 without shoes, and were compelled to

harie, N. Y., March 29, 1887. li fi on the wet ground at night, with no

Durrie, DANIEL STEELE, antiquarian; covering but the cold gray sky. This was

born in Albany, N. Y., Jan. 2, 1819; repeated day after day, until they reached

appointed librarian of the State Historical an island in the Merrimac 6 miles above

Society of Wisconsin in 1858; published Concord, N. H., the home of the leader of

genealogies of the Steele and Holt the savages, who claimed Mrs. Dustin and

families; also a Bibliographica Genea- her nurse as his captives. They were

logica Americana; History of Madison, lodged with his family, which consisted

Wis.; History of Missouri; and the Wis- of two men, three women, seven children.

consin Biographical Dictionary. and a captive English boy, who had been

Duryee, ABRAM, military officer; born with them more than a year. They were

in New York City, April 29, 1815; joined told that they would soon start for an

Ihe State militia in 1833; became colonel Indian village where they would be com-

of the 27th Regiment, now the 7th, in pelled to "run the gantlet"; that is, be

1849; commanded his regiment during the stripped naked, and run for their lives be-

Astor Place riots. In April, 1861, he tween two files of Indian men, women,

raised a regiment known as " Duryee s and children, who would have the privilege

Zouaves," which took part in the battle of of scoffing at them, beating them, and

Big Bethel. In 1861 he was promoted to wounding them with hatchets,

brigadier-general, and served with the The two women resolved not to endure

Army of the Potomac until 1863, when he the indignity. Mrs. Dustin planned a

resigned. He died in New York City, means of escape, and leagued the nurse

Sept. 27, 1890. and the English boy with her in the exe-

166

DUSTIN DUTCH GAP CANAL

cution of it. Believing in the faithful
ness of the lad and the timidity of the
women, the Indians did not keep watch
at night. Through inquiries made by the
lad, Mrs. Dustin learned how to kill a
man instantly, and to take off his scalp.
Before daylight one morning, when the
whole family were asleep, Mrs. Dustin
and her companions instantly killed ten
of the slumberers, she killing her captor,
and the boy despatching the man who
told him how to do it. A squaw and a
child fled to the woods and escaped. After
scuttling all the boats but one, they fled
in it down the river, with provisions from
the wigwam. Mrs. Dustin remembered
they had not scalped the victims, so, re
turning, they scalped the slain savages,
and bore their trophies away in a bag, as
evidence of the truth of the story they
might relate to their friends. At Haver-
hill they were received as persons risen
from the dead. Mrs. Dustin found her hus
band and children safe. Soon afterwards
she bore to the governor, at Boston, the
gun, tomahawk, and ten scalps, and the
general court gave these two women $250

shire erected a commemorative monu
ment in 1874. On it are inscribed the
names of Hannah Dustin, Mary Neff, and
Samuel Leonardson, the latter the Eng
lish lad.

Dutch Gap Canal. There is a sharp
bend in the James River between the
Appomattox and Richmond, where the
stream, after flowing several miles, ap
proaches itself within 500 yards. To
flank Confederate works and to shorten
the passage of the river 6 or 7 miles,
General Butler set a large force of
colored troops at work, in the summer of
1864, in cutting a canal for the passage
of vessels across this peninsula. This
canal was completed, with the exception
of blowing out the bulkhead, at the close
of December, 18(54. It \vas 500 yards in
length, 60 feet in width at top, and 65
below the surface of the bluff. It was
excavated 15 feet below high- water mark.
On New Year s Day, 1865, a mine of
12,000 Ibs. of gunpowder was exploded
under the bulkhead, and the water
rushed through, but not in sufficient
depth for practical purposes, for the mass

PING FKOM THK INDIANS.

each, as a reward for their heroism. They of the bulkhead (left to keep out the
received other tokens of regard. The water) fell back into the opening after
island where the scene occurred is called the explosion. The canal was then swept
Dustin s Island. On its highest point by Confederate cannon, and could not be
citizens of Massachusetts and New Hamp- dredged. As a military operation, it was

167

DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY

a failure. It was excavated in 140 days, of America or the West Indies between
and has since been made navigable. Newfoundland and the Strait of Magellan,
While a greater part of the National except with the permission of the corn-
naval force on the James River was on pany. It was vested with sovereign
the expedition against FOKT FISHER powers, to be exercised in the name of the
( q. v. ) , the Confederates sent down from States-General, and to report to that body,
the shelter of Fort Darling, on Drewry s from time to time, all its transactions.
Bluff, a squadron of vessels for the pur- The government of the company was
pose of breaking the obstructions at the vested in five separate chambers of mana-
lower end of the Dutch Gap Canal, and gers, the principal one at Amsterdam, and
destroying the pontoon bridges below, so the other four in as many separate cities,
as to separate the National troops lying General executive powers were intrusted
on both sides of the James. The squad- to a board of nineteen delegates, called the
ron moved silently under cover of dark- College of Nineteen, in which one dele-
ness, but was observed and fired upon gate represented the States-General, by
when passing Fort Brady. The vessels whom the company was guaranteed pro-
responded, and dismounted a 100-pounder tection, and received assistance to the
Parrott gun in the fort. The Fredericks- amount of $380,000.

burg broke the obstructions at Dutch Gap The company was organized on June
and passed through, but two other 21, 1623; and with such a charter,
iron-clads and an unarmored gunboat such powers, and such privileges, it be-
grounded. At dawn the gunboat Drewry gan the settlement and development of
had been abandoned, and a shell from a New Netherland. The English claimed
National battery exploded her magazine, the domain, and the Dutch hastened to ac-
when she was blown to a wreck. So hot quire eminent domain, according to the
was the fire from the shore that the voy- policy of England, by planting permanent
age of the Confederate vessels was settlements there; and the same year
checked, and all but the ruined Drewry (1623) they sent over thirty families,
fled up the river. chiefly Walloons, to Manhattan. The
Dutch West India Company. The management of New Netherland was in-
Dutch East India Company was a great trusted to the Amsterdam chamber. Their
monopoly, the profits of the trade of which traffic was successful. In 1624 the ex-
were enormous. Their ships whitened the ports from Amsterdam, in two ships, were
Indian seas, and in one year the share- worth almost $10,000, and the returns
holders received in dividends the amount from New Netherland were considerably
of three-fourths of their invested capital, more. The company established a trad-
It was believed that trade with the West- ing-post, called Fort Orange, on the site
ern Continent might be made equally of Albany, and traffic was extended east-
profitable, and as early as 1607 William ward to the Connecticut River, and even
Ussellinx suggested a similar association to Narraganset Bay; northward to the
to trade in the West Indies. The States- Mohawk Valley, and southward and west-
General of Holland were asked to incor- ward to the Delaware River and beyond,
porate such an association. The govern- To induce private capitalists to engage in
ment, then engaged in negotiations for a the settlement of the country, the corn-
truce with Spain, refused; but when that pany gave lands and special privileges to
truce expired, in 1621, a charter was such as would guarantee settlement and
granted to a company of merchants which cultivation. These became troublesome
gave the association almost regal powers landholders, and in 1638 the rights of the
to " colonize, govern, and protect " New company, it was claimed, were interfered
Netherland for the term of twenty-four with by a settlement of Swedes on the
years. It was ordained that during that Delaware. In 1640 the company establish-
time none of the inhabitants of the United ed the doctrines and rituals of the Re-
Provinces (the Dutch Republic) should be formed Church in the United Provinces
permitted to sail thence to the coasts of as the only theological formula to be al-
Africa between the tropic of Cancer and lowed in public worship in New Nether-
the Cape of Good Hope; nor to the coasts land. The spirit of popular freedom,

168

DUTTON DWIGHT

which the Dutch brought with them from lication of Arcturus: a Journal of Books
Holland, asserted its rights under the and Opinions, in connection with Cor-
tyranny of WILLIAM KIEFT ( q. v. ) , and a nelius Matthews, which was continued
sort of popular assembly was organized at about a year and a half. He contributed
New Amsterdam. Its affairs in New to the early numbers of the New York
Netherland were necessarily under the di- Review. In 1847, in connection with his
rect management of a director-general brother George, he commenced the Liter-
or governor, whose powers, as in the ary World, a periodical which continued
case of Kieft and Stuyvesant, were (with an interval of a year and five
sometimes so arbitrarily exercised that months) until the close of 1853. In
much popular discontent was mani- 1856 the brothers completed the Cyclo-
fested, and their dealings with their pcedia of American Literature, in 2 vol-
neighbors were not always satis- limes, a work of great research and value,
factory to the company and the States- To this Evert added a supplement in 1865.
General; yet, on the whole, when we His other important works are, Wit and
consider the spirit of the age, the colony, Wisdom of Sidney Smith; National Por-
which, before it was taken possession of trait-Gallery of Eminent Americans; His-
by the English in 1664, was of a mixed tory of the War for the Union; History
population, was managed wisely and well ; of the World from the Earliest Period
and the Dutch West India Company was to the Present Time; and Portrait - Gal-
one of the most important instruments in If-ry of Eminent Men and Women of
planting the good seed from which our Europe and America (2 volumes). Mr.
nation has sprung. Duyckinck s latest important literary

Button, CLARENCE EDWARD, military labor was in the preparation, in connection
officer; born in Wallingford, Conn., May with WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT (q. v.), of.
15, 1841 ; graduated at Yale College a new and thoroughly annotated edition
in 1860; served in the National army in of Shakespeare s writings. Evert died in
1862-64 and took part in several impor- New York City, Aug. 13, 1878. His
tant engagements; was appointed a second brother, GEORGE LONG, was born in New
lieutenant of ordnance, U. S. A., Jan. 20, York City, Oct. 17, 1823; graduated
1864; and was promoted major May 1, at the University of the City of New
1890. After the close of the Civil War York in 1843. Besides his assistance in
he was assigned to duty with the United the conduct of the Literary World and
States Geological Survey. His publi- the preparation of the Cyclopaedia of
cations include Geology of the High American Literature, he published biog-
Plateaus of Utah; Hawaiian Volcanoes; raphies of George Herbert ( 1858), Bishop
The Charleston Earthquake of 1886; Ter- Thomas Ken (1859), Jeremy Taylor
tiary History of the Grand Canon Dis- (1860), and Bishop La timer (1861). He
trict; Mount Taylor and the Zuni died in New York City March 30, 1863.
Plateau, etc. Dwight, THEODORE, journalist; born

Duval, GABRIEL, statesman; born in in Northampton, Mass., Dec. 15, 1764;
Prince George county, Md., Dec. 6, 1752; was a grandson of the eminent theologian
was a member of Congress, 1794-96, when Jonathan Edwards; became eminent as a
he resigned upon his appointment as judge lawyer and political writer; was for
of the Supreme Court of Maryland. In many years in the Senate of Connecticut;
1811 he was appointed to the United and in 1806-7 was in Congress, where
States Supreme Court and served until he became a prominent advocate for the
1836, when he resigned. He died in Prince suppression of the slave-trade. During
George county, March 6, 1844. the War of 1812-15 he edited the Mirror,

Duyckinck, EVERT AUGUSTUS, author; at Hartford, the leading Federal news-
born in New York City, Nov. 23, 1816; paper in Connecticut; and was secretary
graduated at Columbia College in 1835. of the HARTFORD CONVENTION (q. v.) in
His father was a successful publisher, 1814, the proceedings of which he pub
and Evert early showed a love for lished in 1833. He published the Albany
books and a taste for literary pursuits. Daily Advertiser in 1815. and was the
In December, 1840, he commenced the pub- founder, in 1817, of the New York Daily

169

DWIGHT DYER

Advertiser, with which he was connected
until the great fire in 1835, when he re
tired, with his family, to Hartford. Mr.
Ihvight was one of the founders of the
American Bible Society. He was one of
the writers of the poetical essays of the
" Echo " in the Hartford Mercury. He
was also the author of a Dictionary of
Roots and Derivations. He died in New
York City, July 12, 1846.

Dwight, THEODORE, author; born in
Hartford, Conn., March 3, 1796; grad
uated at Yale College in 1814; set
tled in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1833. In as
sociation with George White it is said
that he induced about 9,000 people to
leave the East and settle in Kansas. He
was the author of a New Gazetteer of the
United States (with William Darby) ;
History of Connecticut; The Kansas War:
or the Exploits of Chivalry in the Nine
teenth Century; Autobiography of General
Garibaldi, etc. He died in Brooklyn, N.
Y., Oct. 16, 1806.

Dwight, THEODORE WILLIAM, educator
and jurist; born in Catskill, N. Y., July
18, 1822; graduated at Hamilton College
in 1840; appointed Professor of Municipal
Law in Columbia in 1858; Professor of
Constitutional Law in Cornell in 1868,
and lecturer on constitutional law in Am-
herst in 1869; appointed a judge of the

Dwight, TIMOTHY; born in Norwich,
Conn., Nov. 16, 1828; graduated at Yale
in 1849; tutored at Yale 1851-55; Profes-

THKODORK WILLIAM DWIGHT.

commission of appeals in January, 1874.
Professor Dwight was the most distin
guished teacher of law in the United
States. He died in Clinton, N. Y., June
28, 1892.

TIMOTHY DWIGHT.

sor of Sacred Literature and New Testa
ment Greek at Yale, 1858-86; president
of Yale University, 1886-99, when he re
signed the office.

Dwight, TIMOTHY, educator; born in
Northampton, Mass., May 14, 1752;
graduated at Yale College in 1769, and
was a tutor there from 1771 to 1777. when
he became an army chaplain, and served
until October, 1778. In 1781 and 1786
was a member of the Connecticut legis
lature. In 1783 he was a settled minister
at Greenfield and principal of an academy
there; and from 1795 until his death was
president of Yale College. He published
Trurcls in New England and New Tori:,
in 4 volumes. He died in New Haven,
Conn., Jan. 11, 1817.

Dyer, DAVID PATTERSON, lawyer; born
in Henry county, Va., Feb. 12. 1838; re
moved to Missouri in 1841; educated at
St. Charles College; admitted to the bar
in 1859, and practised till 1875. He was
a member of Congress in 1869-71; ap
pointed United States attorney in 187."):
removed to St. Louis; prosecuted tin-
great "Whisky Ring in 1875-76; was
defeated for governor of Missouri in 1880:
delegate-at-large to the National Republi
can Convention in 1888 and 1900; and be
came United Slates attorney for the east
ern district of Missouri in 1902.

Dyer, ELIPIIALET, jurist; born in

170

DYER

Windham, Conn., Sept. 28, 1721; grad
uated at Yale College in 1740; became
a lawyer; and was a member of the
Connecticut legislature from 1745 to 17(12.
He commanded a regiment in the French
and Indian War; was made a member
of the council in 1762; and, as an active
member of the Susquehanna Company,
went to England as its agent in 1763.
Mr. Dyer was a member of the Stamp Act
Congress in 1765, and was a member of
the first Continental Congress in 1774.
He remained in that body during the en
tire war excepting in 1779. He was judge
of the Supreme Court of Connecticut in
1766, and was chief -justice from 1789 to
1793. He died in Windham, May 13,
1807. Judge Dyer is alluded to in the
famous doggerel poem entitled Lawyers
and Bullfrogs, the introduction to which
avers that at Old Windham, in Connecti
cut, after a long drought, a frog-pond be
came almost dry, and a terrible battle was
fought one night by the frogs to decide
which should keep possession of the re
maining water. Many " thousands were
defunct in the morning." There was an
uncommon silence for hours before the
battle commenced, when, as if by a pre
concerted agreement, every frog on one
side of the ditch raised the w&r-cry,
"Colonel Dyer! Colonel Dyer!" and at
the same instant, from the opposite side,
resounded the adverse shout of " Elderkin
too ! Elderkin too !" Owing to some pecu
liarity in the state of the atmosphere, the
sounds seemed to be overhead, and the
people of Windham were greatly fright
ened. The poot says:

" This terrible night the parson did fright

His people almost in despair ;
For poor Windham souls among the bean
poles
He made a most wonderful prayer.

Lawyer Lucifer called up his crew ;
Dyer and Elderkin, you must come, too :
Old Colonel Dyer you know well enough,
He had an old negro, his name was Cuff."

Dyer, MARY, Quaker martyr; was the
wife of a leading citizen of Rhode Island.
Having embraced the doctrines and dis
cipline of the Friends, or Quakers, she
became an enthusiast, and went to Boston,
whence some of her sect had been banished,
to give her " testimony to the truth." In
that colony the death penalty menaced
those who should return after banish
ment. Mary was sent away and returned,
and was released while going to the gal
lows with Marmaduke Stevenson with a
rope around her neck. She unwillingly
returned to her family in Rhode Island;
but she went back to Boston again for the
purpose of offering up her life to the
cause she advocated, and she was hanged
in 1660. Mary had once been whipped on
her bare back through the streets of Bos
ton, tied behind a cart.

Dyer, OLIVER, author; born in Porter,
N. Y., April 26, 1824; was educated at
the Genesee Wesleyan Seminary, Lima.
N. Y. ; taught school ; and later lectured
on and taught the Isaac Pitman system of
phonography. In 1848 he became a re
porter in the United States Senate; later
studied law and practised for a short time,
abandoning it to devote himself to jour
nalism; and was on the staff of the
Tribune, Sun, and Ledger of New York,
lie was ordained in the Swedenborgian
Church in 1876, and had charge of a
church in Mount Vernon. He was au
thor of The Wickedest Alan in New
York; Great Senators of the United
States Forty fears Ago; Life of An
drew Jackson; and Sketch of Henry W.
Crrady.

E Pluribus Unum. Its earliest oc- tion of the mouth of the Mississippi by
currence is in a Latin poem called More- jetties. He was authorized to undertake
turn, which is ascribed to Virgil. It was it (and was very successful), for which
suggested as the motto for the SEAT, OF the government paid him $5,125,000. At
THE UNITED STATES ((/. v.) by the com- the time of his death, in Nassau, N. P.,
mittee of the Great Seal, consisting of March 8, 1887, he was engaged in the pro-
Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and motion of a project he had conceived of
Thomas Jefferson, on Aug. 10, 1776. constructing a ship railway across the

Eads, JAMES BUCHANAN, engineer; Isthmus of Tehuantepec, between the At-
born in Lawrenceburg, Ind., May 23, 1820. lantic and Pacific oceans. In 1881 he re
in 1861 he was employed by the national ceived the Albeit medal from the British
government to construct gunboats suit- Society of Arts, the first American to be
able for use in Western rivers. In the thus honored.

space of sixty-five days he constructed The jetty system consists simply of a
seven iron-clad gunboats. In 1862 he built dike or embankment projecting into the
six more; also heavy mortar-boats. At water, whose purpose is to narrow the

channel so that the natural action of the
water will keep it clear of sediment or
other obstruction. The Mississippi River
is. at its mouth, 40 feet deep and 1%
miles wide, and carries every minute
72,000,000 feet of water to the Gulf,
which holds in solution nearly 20 per
cent, of mud and sand. The river has
three channels to the sea the Southwest
Pass, the Passe 1 Outre, and the South
Pass the first carrying out about 50
per cent, of its water, the second 40 per
cent., and the third 10 per cent. There
is a bar at the mouth of each pass, and
each has a channel through which large
vessels may pass. This channel is about
1,200 feet wide and 50 feet deep in the
large passes, and 600 feet wide and 35
feet deep in the small one. The swift
and concentrated current keeps the chan
nel open, but the bar is continually
spreading outward, and as it thus
spreads the water excavates a channel
through it, though not of a uniform depth
or width. Thus, a frequent dredging of
the beginning of July, 1874, he completed the channel was necessary to prevent the
the magnificent iron railroad bridge across continual grounding of vessels upon it.
the Mississippi at St. Louis. Then he Captain Eads was the first to suggest
pressed upon the attention of the govern- that this laborious and expensive dredg-
ment his plan for improving the naviga- ing process might be done away with by

172

JAMES Bl CIUXAN KA1&gt;S.

EADS EAGLE

the use of jetties. He reasoned that if in the Gulf. Five and a half million cubic

the banks of the passage through the bar yards of earth had been removed, mainly

could be extended, not gradually, but by the action of the strong current

immediately, into the deep water of the created by the jetty. In the construc-

POItT EADS. SOUTH PASS OF THE MISSIS.-ll Pl KlVtK.

Gulf some 2 miles or more, it Avould
produce force enough to excavate a
channel the whole length of the bar.
This project he undertook to carry out
at his own expense, agreeing not to re
ceive compensation for the work until it
was completed; and the trutli of his rea
soning was proved by the results. In
the winter of 1874-75 he laid his plan be
fore Congress, and in March, 1875, a bill
was passed empowering him to put it
into execution. The work was begun in
June, 1875. The jetties were laid out
parallel with the current of the river,
and at right angles with the Gulf cur
rent, extending with a slight curve 2%
miles out from the mouth of the river.
Piles were first driven in to mark the
path of the jetties ; then willows fastened
together in enormous mattresses were
sunk, and these filled in with stones and
gravel. This work was done on the
South Pass, the narrowest of the three
channels of the Mississippi delta. Cap
tain Eads wished to try his experiment
on the Southwest Pass, the deepest and
widest channel, but Congress would not
permit him to do so. The work of mak
ing the South Pass jetties was completed
July 9, 1879. A channel 30 feet deep,
with a minimum width of 45 feet, had
been made from the river to deep water

tion of this important improvement the
following amount of material had been
used: Willow, 592,000 cubic yards; stone,
100,000 cubic yards; gravel, 10,000 cubic
yards; concrete, 9,000 tons; piling and
lumber, 12,000,000 feet. Captain Eads s
plan has been proved to be very success
ful, for the banks of the jetty continue
firm, and the channel is kept clear by
the movement of the concentrated current
between them.

Eagan, CHARLES PATRICK, military offi
cer ; born in Ireland in January, 1841 ;
served through the Civil War in the 1st
Washington Territory Infantry; was com
missioned 2d lieutenant 9th United States
Infantry in 1866; and became brigadier-
general and commissary-general May 3,

1898. During the American-Spanish War
he was in charge of the commissary de
partment of the army, and in January,

1899, was tried by court-martial for criti
cising General Miles during an investiga
tion into the character of supplies furnish
ed to the army during the war; was sus
pended from rank and duty for six years
on Feb. 9 ; and was restored and imme
diately retired Dec. 6, 1900.

Eagle, the standard of the Persian and

the Roman; also adopted by Charlemagne

with a second head as the standard of the

holy Roman empire of Germany. The

EAGLE EARLE

eagle was the standard of France during England; China - Collecting in America;
the empire, as it is now of Austria. Rus- Customs and Fashions in Old New Eng-
sia, and Prussia. The great seal of the land; Life of Margaret Winthrop; Diary
United States (see SEAL OF THE UNITED of a Boston School -Girl; Costume of
STATES) bears a shield on the breast of Colonial Times; Colonial Dames and
the eagle. The $10 gold coin of the Good-wives; Old Narragansett ; Colonial
United States is also called an eagle. It Days in Old New York; Curious Punish-
\vas first coined in 1794. No eagles were ments of Bygone Days; Home Life in
coined between 1805 and 1837. The $20 Colonial Days; Child Life in Colonial
gold coin is popularly known as the double Days; Coach and Tavern Days; and was
eagle. part author of Early Prose and Verse;

Eagle, HENRY, naval officer; born in Historic New York; Chap Book Essays;
New York City, April 7, 1801; entered the Old-Time Gardens, Sundials, and Roses of
navy in 1818; and had command of the Yesterday; etc.

l)omb-vessel JEtna and also a part of the Earle, PLINY, inventor; born in Leices-
(rulf fleet during the Mexican War. At ter, Mass., Dec. 17, 1762; became connect-
the beginning of the Civil War he carried ed with Edward Snow in 1785 in the man-
important messages from Brooklyn to ufacture of machine and hand cards for
Washington. While in command of the carding wool and cotton. Mr. Earle had
Monticello he was engaged in the first first made them by hand, but afterwards
naval engagement of the war, silencing the by a machine of his own invention,
guns of Sewell s Point battery, Va., May OLIVER EVANS (q. v.) had already invent-
19, 1861. He was promoted commodore in ed a machine for making card-teeth, which
1862; retired in January, 1863. He died produced 300 a minute. In 1784 Mr. Crit-
in November, 1882. tenden, of New Haven, Conn., invented a

Eagle, JAMES PHILLIP, clergyman ; born machine which produced 86,000 card-
in Maury county, Tenn., Aug. 10, 1837; teeth, cut and bent, in an hour. These
acquired a country-school and a collegiate card-teeth were put up in bags and dis-
education; served in the Confederate tributed among families, in which the
army in the Civil War, and attained the women and children stuck them in the
rank of colonel. After the war he became leather. Leicester was the chief seat of
a Baptist minister and cotton-planter; this industry, and to that place SAMUEL
was a member of the Arkansas legislature SLATER (q. v.) , of Rhode Island, went
for four years; and of the constitutional for card clothing for the machines in his
convention in 1874; one of the commis- cotton-mill. Hearing that Pliny Earle
sioners to adjust the debt of the Brook- was an expert card-maker, he went to him
Baxter war over the governorship in 1874; and told him what he wanted. Mr. Earle
and was governor of Arkansas in 1889-93. invented a machine for pricking the holes

Eames, WILBERFORCE, librarian; born in the leather a tedious process by hand
in Newark, N. J., Oct. 12, 1855; appointed and it worked admirably. A few years
assistant in the Lenox Library, 1885; li- afterwards Eleazer Smith (see WH ITTE-
brarian in 1893. He is the author of MORE, AMOS) made a great improvement
many bibliographical books, among them by inventing a machine that not only
an account of the early New England cat- pricked the holes, but set the teeth more
echisms, a comparative edition of the va- expertly than human fingers could do.
rious texts of Columbiis s letter announc- About 1843 William B. Earle, son of
ing the discovery of America, and editor Pliny, improved Smith s invention, and
of several volumes of Sabin s Dictionary the machine thus produced for making
of Books relating to America, besides card clothing proved the best ever made,
many articles on bibliographical subjects. By Mr. Earle s first invention the labor of

Earle, ALICE MORSE, author; born in a man for fifteen hours could be perform-
Worcester, Mass.. April 27, 1853. She ed in fifteen minutes. Mr. Earle possessed
has written extensively on the manner and extensive attainments in science and liter-
customs of the colonial periods in New ature. He died in Leicester, Nov. 19, 1832.
England and New York. Among her publi- Earle, THOMAS, statesman ; born in Lei-
cntions are Tin- Xiihl,ntli in Puritan New cestor, Mass., April 21, 1796; removed to

17-f

EARLY EARTHQUAKES

Philadelphia in 1817; he edited succes
sively The Columbian Observer, Standard,
Pennsylvanian, and Mechanics Free Press
and Reform Advocate. He was a member
of the Pennsylvania constitution conven
tion of 1837, and is believed to have draft
ed the new constitution. He died in Phila
delphia, July 14, 1849.

Early, JUBAL ANDERSON, military offi
cer; born in Franklin county, Va., Nov.
3, 1816; graduated from West Point in
1837, and served in the Florida war the
same year. In 1838 he resigned his com
mission and studied law. In 1847 he

JUBAL A. EARLY.

served as a major-general of volunteers
during the war with Mexico. He was ap
pointed colonel in the Confederate ser
vice at the outbreak of the Civil War. He
was one of the ablest and most successful
of the Confederate generals, but was de
feated at Winchester, Fisher s Hill, and
Cedar Creek. At Gettysburg he com
manded a division of Lee s army, and the
second at Cedar Creek, where Sheridan
arrived in time to rally his men after his
famous ride. In 1888 he published a book
giving the history of the last year of the
Civil War, dviring which time he was in
command of the army of the Shenandoah.
He died in Lynch burg, Va., March 2, 1894.
Earthquakes. On June 1, 1638, be
tween the hours of 3 and 4 P.M., the
weather clear and warm, and the wind
westerly, all New England was violently
shaken by an internal convulsion of the
earth. It oame on with a noise like con-

175

tinned thunder, and the shock lasted about
four minutes. The earth shook with such
violence that in some places the people
could not stand upright without difficulty,
and many movable articles in the houses
were thrown down. The earth was unquiet
for twenty days afterwards. On Jan. 26,
1663, a heavy shock of earthquake was
felt in New England and in New York,
and was particularly severe in Canada,
where it was recorded that "the doors
opened and shut of themselves with a
fearful clattering. The bells rang with
out being touched. The walls were
split asunder. The floors separated and
fell down. The fields put on the appear
ance of precipices, and the mountains
seemed to be moving out of their places."
Small rivers were dried up; some moun
tains appeared to be much broken and
moved, and half-way between Quebec and
Tadousac two mountains were shaken
down, and formed a point of land extend
ing some distance into the St. Lawrence.
On Oct. 29, 1727, there was a severe
earthquake in New England, lasting about
two minutes. Its course seemed to be
from the Delaware River, in the south
west, to the Kennebec, in the northeast,
a distance of about 700 miles. It oc
curred at about twenty minutes before
eleven o clock in the morning, and the
sky was serene. Pewter and china were
cast from their shelves, and stone walls
and chimney-tops were shaken down. In
some places doors were burst open, and
people could hardly keep their feet.
There had been an interval of fifty-five
years since the last earthquake in New
England. On the same day the island of
Martinique, in the West Indies, was
threatened with total destruction by an
earthquake which lasted eleven hours.
On Nov. 18, 1755, an earthquake shock
was felt from Chesapeake Bay along the
coast of Halifax. Nova Scotia, about 800
miles : and in the interior it seems to
have extended, from northwest to south
east, more than 1,000 miles. In Boston
100 chimneys were levelled with the roofs
of the houses, and 1,500 shattered. The
vane on the public market was thrown to
the earth. At New Haven, Conn., the
ground moved like waves of the sea; the
houses shook and cracked, and many
chimneys were thrown down. It oc-

EARTHQUAKES EAST INDIA COMPANY

A RESULT OK THE KAKTH(jCAKK IX CHARLK8TON. AUGUST 31, 1886.

curred at four o clock in the morning, 2.000 houses were overthrown; and half
and lasted four and a half minutes. At of the island of Madeira, 660 miles south-
the same time there was a great tidal- west from Portugal, became a waste,
wave in the West Indies. In April, the The last earthquake of consequence was
same year, Quito, in South America, was on Aug. 31, 1886, when a large part of
destroyed by an earthquake; and eighteen the city of Charleston, S. C., was de-
days before the earthquake in North stroyed, with many lives.
America there was an awful and exten- East India Company, THE. At the
fiive one in southern Europe that extend- close of 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a
ed into Africa. The earth was violently charter to a company of London mer-
shaken for 5,000 miles even to Scotland, chants for the monopoly of the trade over
In eight minutes the city of Lisbon, with a vast expanse of land and sea in the re-
50,000 inhabitants, was swallowed up. gion of the East Indies, for fifteen years.
Other cities in Portugal and Spain were The charter was renewed from time to
partially destroyed. One half of Fez, in time. The first squadron of the company
northern Africa, was destroyed, and more ffive vessels) sailed from Torbay (Feb.
than 12,000 Arabs perished. In the islan . 15, 1601) and began to make footholds,
of Mitylene, in the Grecian Archipelago, speedily, on the islands and continental

176

EASTMAN EASTPORT

shores of the East, establishing factories
in many places, and at length obtaining
a grant (1698) from a native prince of
Calcutta and two adjoining villages, with
the privilege of erecting fortifications.
This was the first step towards the ac
quirement by the company, under the
auspices of the British government, of
vast territorial possessions, with a popu
lation of 200,000,000, over which, in 1877,
Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress.
The company had ruled supreme in India,
with some restrictions, until 1858, when
the government of that Oriental empire
was vested in the Queen of England.
Though the company was not abolished,
it was shorn of all its political power, as
it had been of its trade monopoly. The
East India Company first introduced tea
into England, in the reign of Charles
II.

Eastman, HARVEY GRIDLEY, educator;
born in Marshall, Oneida co., N. Y., Oct.
16, 1832: after attending the common
schools of his neighborhood, completed his
education at the State Normal School at
Albany; and at the age of twenty-three
opened a commercial school at Oswego,
N. Y., having been a teacher in a similar
school kept by his uncle in Rochester. In
that school he first conceived the plan of a
commercial or business college. On Nov. 3,
1859, Mr. Eastman opened a business col
lege in Poughkeepsie, with a single pupil.
In 1865 there were more than 1,700 stu
dents in the college. It was the first insti-
tiition in which actual business was
taught. Mr. Eastman was a very liberal
and enterprising citizen, foremost in every
judicious measure which promised to bene
fit the community in which he lived. He
was twice elected mayor of the city, and
held that office at the time of his death,
in Denver, Col., July 13, 1878. On the
day of his funeral the city was draped in
mourning and nearly all places of busi
ness were closed, for he was eminently re
spected as a citizen and as a public officer.

Easton, JAMES, military officer; born in
Hartford, Conn. : became a builder, and
settled in Pittsfield, Mass., in 1763. Ac
tive in business and strong in intellect, he
became a leader in public affairs there,
and was chosen to a seat in the Massa
chusetts Assembly in 1774. He was also
colonel in the militia, and held the posi-

III. M 17

tion of leader of the minute-men of that
town. When the expedition to assail
Ticonderoga was organized in western
Massachusetts, Colonel Easton joined
Allen and Arnold in accomplishing the
undertaking, and it was he who bore the
first tidings of success to the Provincial
Congress of Massachusetts. He died in
Pittsfield, Mass.

Easton, JOHN, colonial governor; son
of Nicholas; was governor of Rhode Island
in 1690-95. He was the author of a Nar
rative of the Causes which led to Philip s
Indian War.

Easton, LANGDON CHEVES, military offi
cer; born in St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 10, 1814;
graduated at the United States Mili
tary Academy in 1838; and served in the
Florida, Mexican, and Civil wars. In
December, 1863, he was appointed chief
quartermaster of the Army of the Cumber
land; and in May, 1864, was assigned the
same post in the army under General
Sherman. He received the brevet of ma
jor-general in March, 1865; retired in Jan
uary, 1881. He died in New York City,
April 29, 1884.

Easton, NICHOLAS, colonial governor;
born in 1593; came to America in 1634,
and settled in Ipswich, Mass. In 163S
he removed to Rhode Island and erected
the first house in Newport ; was govern
or of Rhode Island and Providence in
1650-52. He died in Newport, R. I., Aug.
15, 1675.

Eastport, CAPTURE OF. Early in July.
1814, Sir Thomas M. Hardy sailed secretly
from Halifax with a squadron, consisting
of the Ramillics (the flag-ship), sloop
Martin, brig Borer, the Bream, the bomb-
ship Terror, and several transports, with
troops under Col. Thomas Pilkington. The
squadron entered Passamaquoddy Bay on
the llth, and anchored off Fort Sullivan,
at Eastport, Me., then in command of Maj.
Perley Putnam with a garrison of fifty
men, having six pieces of artillery. Hardy
demanded an instant surrender, giving
Putnam only five minutes to consider.
The latter promptly refused, but at the
importunity of the alarmed inhabitants,
who were indisposed to resist, he surren
dered the post on condition that, while the
British should take possession of all
public property, private property should
be respected. This was agreed to, and

EATON

1,000 armed men, with women and chil- the United States Bureau of Education,

dren, a battalion of artillery, and fifty or with circulars and bulletins for sixteen

sixty pieces of cannon were landed on the years, addresses, and numerous magazine

main, when formal possession was taken articles.

of the fort, the town of Eastport, and all Eaton, JOHN HENRY, statesman; born
the islands and villages in and around in Tennessee in 1787 ; was United States
Passamaquoddy Bay. Several vessels laden Senator from Tennessee in 1818-29; re-
with goods valued at $300,000, ready to be signed to become Secretary of War under
smuggled into the United States, were President Jackson ; appointed governor
seized. Sixty cannon were mounted, and of Florida Territory in 1834; resigned to
civil rule was established under British become United States minister to Spain
officials. The British held quiet posses- in 1836. He published a Life of Andrew
sion of that region until the close of the Jackson, who was his colleague in the
war. Senate for two years. He died in Wash-
Eaton, DOP.MAN BRIDG At AN, lawyer; born ington, D. C., Nov. 17, 1856. See EATON,
in Hardwick, Vt., June 27, 1823; grad- MARGARET L. O NEILL.
uated at the University of Vermont in Eaton, MARGARET L. O NEILL, daughter
1848; was active in promoting civil ser- of William O Neill, an Irish hotel-keep-
vice reform, and was a member of the er in Washington; born in 1796, and after
United States Civil Service Commission the death of her first husband, John B.
for many years. He was the author of Timberlake, she married John Henry
Civil Service in Great Britain; The In- Eaton, United States Senator from Ten-
dependent Movement in Neiv York, etc.; nessee. Upon the appointment of her
and editor of the 7th edition of Kent s husband to the office of Secretary of War,
Commentaries. He died in New York Mrs. Eaton was not recognized socially
City, Dec. 23, 1900. by the wives of the other members of the
Eaton, JOHN, educator ; born in Sut- cabinet. President Jackson interfered, and
ton, N. H., Dec. 5, 1829; was graduated demanded that Mrs. Eaton should receive
at Dartmouth College in 1854; applied the usual social courtesies. In consequence
himself to educational pursuits till 1859, of these social quarrels, a disruption of the
when he entered Andover Theological cabinet took place in 1831. After Mr.
Seminary, and in 1862, after his ordi- Eaton s death his widow married an Ital-
nation, was appointed chaplain of the ian. She died in Washington, Nov. 8,
27th Ohio Volunteer Infantry. In No- 1879.

vember of the same year he was made Eaton, THEOPHILTJS, colonial governor ;
superintendent of freedmen, and later born in Stony Stratford, England, in
was given supervision of all military 1591 ; was bred a merchant, and was for
posts from Cairo to Natchez and Fort some years the English representative at
Smith. In October, 1863, he became the Court of Denmark. Afterwards he was
colonel of the 63d United States Colored a distinguished London merchant, and ac-
Infantry, and in March, 1865, was companied Mr. Davenport to New Eng-
brevetted brigadier-general. He was editor land in 1637. With him he assisted in
of the Memphis Post in 1866-67, and founding the New Haven colony, and was
State superintendent of public instruc- chosen its first chief magistrate. Mr.
tion in Tennessee in 1867-69. From 1871 Eaton filled the chair of that office con-
to 1886 he was commissioner of the United tinuously until his death, Jan. 7, 1658.
States Bureau of Education, and then be- Eaton, WILLIAM, military officer ; born
came president of Marietta College, O., in Woodstock, Conn., Feb. 23, 1764; grad-
where he remained until 1891; was presi- uated at Dartmouth College in 1790; en-
dent of the Sheldon Jackson College of tered the Continental army at the age
Salt Lake City in 1895-98, when he was of sixteen ; and was discharged in 1783.
appointed inspector of public education In 1797 he was appointed American con-
in Porto Rico. He is author of History sul at Tunis, and arrived there in 1799.
of Thetford Academy; Mormons of To- He acted with so much boldness and tact
day; The Freedman in the War (re- that he secured for his country the free-
port) ; Schools of Tennessee; reports of dom of its commerce from attacks by

178

EBEN-EZER ECONOCHACA

Tunisian cruisers. He returned to the Choctaw Indians, arrived near Econocha-

United States in 1803; was appointed ca, or Holy Ground, a village built bv

naval agent of the United States for the \Veathersford upon a bluff on the left

Barbary States, and accompanied the bank of the Alabama, just below Powell e

American fleet to the Mediterranean in Ferry, Lowndes co., in an obscure place,

1804. He assisted Hamet Caramelli, the as a " city of refuge " for the wounded

rightful ruler of Tripoli, in an attempt to and dispersed in battle, fugitives from

recover his throne, usurped by his brother, their homes, and women and children.

Soon afterwards Eaton returned to the No path or trail led to it. It had been

United States, and passed the remainder of dedicated to this humane purpose by

his life at Brimfield. For his services to Tecmnseh and the Prophet a few months

American commerce the State of Massa- before, and the Cherokees had been assured

chusetts gave him 10,000 acres of land, bj them that, like Auttose, no white man

The King of Denmark gave him a gold could tread upon the ground and live,

box in acknowledgment of his services to There the Indian priests performed their

commerce in general and for the release incantations, and in the square in the

of Danish captives at Tunis. Burr tried centre of the town the most dreadful

to enlist General Eaton in his conspiracy, cruelties had already been perpetrated,

and the latter testified against him on White prisoners and Creeks friendly to

his trial. He died in Brimfield, Mass., them had been there tortured and roasted.

June 1, 1811. See TRIPOLI, WAK WITH. On the morning of Dec. 23 Claiborne ap-

Eben-Ezer or Amana Community, peared before the town. At that moment

A communistic society originating in Ger- a number of friendly half-bloods of both

many at the beginning of the eighteenth sexes were in the square, surrounded by

century. They removed to America in pine-wood, ready to be lighted to consume

1843 and settled near Buffalo, N. Y., but them, and the prophets were busy in their

removed to Iowa in 1855. mummery. The troops advanced in three

Eckford, HENRY, naval constructor; columns. The town was almost surround-
born in Irvine, Scotland, March 12, 1775; ed by swamps and deep ravines, and the
learned his profession with an uncle at Indians, regarding the place as holy, and
Quebec, began business for himself in New having property there of great value,
York in 1796, and soon took the lead in though partially surprised, prepared to
his profession. During the War of 1812- fight desperately. They had conveyed
15 he constructed ships-of-war on the their women and children to a place of
Lakes with great expedition and skill ; safety deep in the forest. By a simul-
and soon after the war he built the steam- taneous movement, Claiborne s three col-
ship Robert Fulton, in which, in 1822, umns closed upon the town at the same
he made the first successful trip in a craft moment. So unexpected was the attack
of that kind to New Orleans and Havana, that the dismayed Indians broke and fled
Made naval constructor at Brooklyn in before tlie whole of the troops could got
"820, six ships-of-the-line were built after into action. Weathersford was there. TliP
his models. Interference of the board of Indians fled in droves along the bank of
naval commissioners caused him to leave the river, and by swimming and the use
the service of the government, but he of canoes they escaped to the other side
afterwards made ships-of-war for Euro- and joined their families in the forest,
pean powers and for the independent Weathersford, when he found himself de-
states of South America. In 1831 he serted by his warriors, fled swiftly on a
built a war-vessel for the Sultan of Tur- horse to a bluff on the river between two
key, and, going to Constantinople, organ- ravines, hotly pursued, when his horse made
ized a navy-yard there, and there he died, a mighty bound from it, and the horse
Nov. 12, 1832. and rider disappeared under the water for

Econochaca, BATTLE AT. Marching a moment, when both arose, Weathersford

from Fort Deposit, in Butler county, Ala. grasping the mane of his charger with one

(December, 1813), General Claiborne, hand and his rifle with the other. He

pushing through the wilderness nearly escaped in safety. Econochaca was plun-

30 miles with horse and foot and friendly dered by the Choctaws and laid in ashes.

179

EDDIS EDGAR

Fully 200 houses were destroyed, and office many of the tea-party disguised
thirty Indians killed. The Tennesseeana themselves, and were there regaled with
lost one killed and six wounded. punch after the exploit at the wharf was

Eddis, WILLIAM, royalist; born in Eng- performed. He began, with Mr. &lt; ill, i
land about 1745; came to America in 1769, 1755, the publication of the Boston Gazette
and settled in Annapolis, Md. He was and Country Journal, which became a
surveyor of customs till the troubles be- very popular newspaper, and did em.
tween the colonies and the home govern- service in the cause of popular liberty,
ment became so strong that it was unsafe Adams, Hancock, Otis, Qumcy, Warren
for rovalists to remain in the country. On and other leading spirits were cpnstani
June ll 1776, he was ordered, with others, contributors to its columns, while Mr.
by the patriot " Committee of Observa- Edes himself wielded a caustic pen.
tion," to leave the country before Aug. 1. was in Watertown during the siege of
His time, however, was extended, and he Boston, from which place he issued the
continued in office till April, 1777, when Gazette, the " mouth-piece of the VA Ings
he returned to England. He was the au- It was discontinued in 1798, after a 1
thor of Letters from America. sustained by Edes, of forty years. He

Eddy, RICHARD, author; born in Provi- died in Boston, Dec. ]

dence, R. I, June 21, 1828; removed to Edes, HENRY HERBERT ""toTian; ; born
Clinton N Y., in 1848; studied theology in Charlcstown, Mass, March 29, .
there and was ordained to the ministry of is a member of many historical societies
the Unitarian Church. In 1861-63 he was and the author of History of the Harvard
chaplain of the 60th New York Regiment; Church in Charleston; Historical Sketch
in 1878 was elected president of the Uni- of Charlestown; editor of
tarian Historical Society; and became edi- Genealogies and Estates of Charlestown ;
tor of the Vniversalist Quarterly. His Foote s Annals of King s Chapel Boston
publications include a History of the 60th etc.; and a contributor to the Memorial
Regiment, ~Kew YorJs State Volunteers; History of Boston.

Universalism in America, a History; Alco- Edes, PETER patriot; born in Boston
hoi in History. and three sermons on Lin- Mass, Dec 17 1756 ; educat ed at
coin entitled The Martyr to Liberty. Boston Latin School. Shortly aftei the

Eden CHARLES, colonial governor; battle of Bunker Hill he was impriF
born in England in 1673; appointed gov- oned by Ceneral Gage, who charged him
ernor of North Carolina, July 13, 1713. with having fire-arms concealed in his
Durin" his administration he arrested house. He spent 107 days in a room of
the pfrate Edward Teach, usually called the Boston jail. He was the publisher
" Black-Beard." He died in North Caro- of an edition of the Fifth of March Ora
lina March 17 1722. tions ; also an oration on Washington.

Eden Sm ROBERT, royal governor; born In 1837 the diary of his imprisonment,
in Durham, England. Succeeding Gov- containing a list of the prisoners capt-
ernor Sharpe as royal governor of Mary- ured at Bunker Hill, was published
land in 1708, he was more moderate in Bangor, and a letter about the " Boston
his administration than his predecessors, tea-party," addressed to his grandson, ap-
He complied with the orders of Congress pears in the Proceedings of the Massu-
to abdicate the government. He went to chusetts Historical Society. He died in
England and at the close of the war re- Bangor, Me., March 30, 1840.
turned to recover his estate in Maryland. Edgar, HENRY CORNELIUS, clergyman;
He had married a sister of Lord Balti- born in Rahway, N. J, April 11,
more and was created a baronet, Oct. 19, graduated at Princeton College in 1831 ;
1776. He died in Annapolis, Md, Sept. 2, became a merchant; was licensed
1786 preach by the Presbyterian Church in

Edes, BEX.MMIN, journalist; born in 1845. During the Civil War he spoke
Charlestown. Mass, Oct. 14, 1732: was forcibly against slavery. His published
captain of the Ancient and Honorable Ar- orations and sermons include Three Lect-
tillery Company in 1760, and one of the tires on Slavery; Four DtmowMl OceOr
Boston Sons of Liberty. In his printing- atoned ly the Death of Lincoln ; An Ex-

190

EDGREN EDISON

position of the Last Nine Wars; Chris
tianity our Nation s Wisest Policy; A
Discourse Occasioned by the Death of
President Garfield, etc. He died in Easton,
Pa., Dec. 23, 1884.

Edgren, AUGUST HJALMAR, author:
born in Wermland, Sweden, Oct. 18,
1840; graduated at the University of Up-
sola ; came to the United States, arid
joined the National army in January,
1802; was promoted first lieutenant and
assigned to the Engineer Corps in Au
gust, 1863. Soon after he returned to
Sweden. His publications include The Lit
erature of America ; The Public Schools
and Colleges of the United States; Amer
ican Antiquities, etc.

Edict of Nantes, THE, an edict pro
mulgated by Henry IV. of France, which
gave toleration to the Protestants in
feuds, civil and religious, and ended the
religious wars of the country. It was
published April 13, 1598, and was con
firmed by Louis XIII. in 1G10, after the
murder of his father; also by Louis XIV.
in 1052: but it was revoked by him, Oct.
22, 1085. It was a great state blunder,
for it deprived France of 500,000 of her
best citizens, who fled into Germany, Eng
land, and America, and gave those coun
tries the riches that flow from industry,
skill, and sobriety. They took with them
to England the art of silk-weaving, and
eo gave France an important rival in that
branch of industry.

Edison, THOMAS ALVA, electrician ;
born in Milan, O., Feb. 11, 1847. He was
taught by his mother till he was twelve
years old, when he began work as a news
paper boy, obtaining an exclusive contract
for the sale of newspapers on the Detroit
division of the Grand Trunk Railway. He
continued at this work for five years.
Meanwhile he bought a small printing
outfit, which he carried on the train, and
by which he printed a small weekly paper,
called The Grand Trunk Herald. Its sub
scription list showed 450 names. When
the Civil War broke out the enormous in
crease in newspaper traffic confined his
whole attention to that branch of his busi
ness. He conceived and carried out the
idea of having largo bulletin-boards set
up at every station along the line of the
railroad, on which he caused to be chalked
by telegraph operators and station agents

the news headings of his papers. The re
lations which he thus formed with tele
graph operators awakened a desire to
learn telegraphy. Not content with the
opportunities offered by the railway tele
graph, he, with a neighbor who had simi
lar inclinations, built a line a mile long
through a wood which separated their
homes. Edison made the instruments, but
having no way of getting a battery felt
at a loss as to how he should proceed. He
soon thought of a novel expedient, but
its application proved a total failure.
Having noticed that electric sparks were
generated by rubbing a cat s back, he fas
tened a wire to a cat s leg, and rubbing
its fur briskly, watched for an effect upon
the instrument, but none followed. While
engaged in commercial telegraphy in Cin
cinnati in 1867, he conceived the idea of
transmitting two messages over one wire
at the same time, totally ignorant that
this had been attempted by electricians
many years before. He continued to make
experiments in every branch of telegraphy,
attending to his office duties at night and
experimenting in the daytime. In 1869
he retired from the operator s table, and,
leaving Boston, where he was then em-

THOMAS ALVA KDISO.V.

ployed, wont to New York with original
apparatus for duplex and printing teleg
raphy, the latter being the basis of nearly
all the subsequent Gold and Stock Ex
change telegraph reporting instruments.
Fn New York he soon formed an alliance

181

GKOKGK FRANKLIN EDMUNDS.

EDMONDS EDUCATION

with electricians and manufacturers, and, elusion of twenty-five years of uninter-
after a few years of varied experience with rupted service. In 1897 he was chosen
partners in the laboratory and in the shop, chairman of the monetary commission
he removed to Menlo Park, N. J., in 1876,
where he established himself on an inde
pendent footing, with everything which
could contribute to or facilitate invention
and research. In 1886 Mr. Edison bought
property in Llewellyn Park, Orange, N.
J., and later removed there from Menlo
Park. His inventions are many and
varied. His contributions to the develop
ment of telegraphy are represented by
sixty patents and caveats assigned to the
Gold and Stock Telegraph Company of
New York, and fifty to the Automatic
Telegraphy Company. His inventions in
clude the incandescent electric light, the
carbon telegraph transmitter, the micro-
tasimeter for the detection of small
changes in the temperature; the mega
phone, to magnify sound ; the phonograph,
the patent of which he sold for $1,000,000 ;
the aerophone; the kinetoscope, etc. On
Sept. 27, 1889, he was made a Chevalier
of the Legion of Honor by the French gov
ernment, appointed by the Indianapolis monetary
Edmonds, JOHN WORTH, lawyer; born conference, which reported to Congress a
in Hudson, N. Y., March 13, 1799; grad- scheme of currency reform,
uated at Union College in 1816; ad- Education. Popular education made
mitted to the bar in 1810; elected to the rapid progress in the United States dur-
New York Assembly in 1831, and the New ing the nineteenth century. In 1776 there
York Senate in 1832; became a circuit were seven colleges in the English-
judge in 1845, and was appointed to the American colonies, and the common
Court of Appeals in 1852. He was the schools were few and very inferior. At
author of Spiritualism; Letters and the end of the school year, 1898-99, the
Tracts on Spiritualism, besides a number population of the country was estimated
of law books. He died in New York Cily, at 76,000,000, of which 20y 2 per cent.
April 5, 1874. was enrolled in the public elementary
Edmunds, GEORGE FRANKLIN, states- and high schools, or 15,138,715; and the
man; born in Richmond, Vt., Feb. 1, total in all schools, elementary, second-
1S28; took an early and active part in ary, and higher, both public and private,
Vermont politics, serving several terms in was 16,738,362. Of the total enrolment,
both houses of the legislature; was 10,389,407 were in average daily attend-
speaker of the House of Representatives ance in the public schools. There was a
and president pro ton. of the Senate. In total of 415,660 teachers (males, 131,71)3;
1866 he entered the United States Senate females, 283,867), to whom $128,662.880
as a Republican, and till 1891 was one was paid in salaries. All public-school
of the foremost men in Congress. Towards property had a value of $524,689,255. The
the close of his senatorial career he was receipts of the school-year were $194.-
the author of the acts of 1882 and 1887 998,237; the expenditures, exclusive of
for the suppression of polygamy and the payments on bonded debts, $197,281,603.
regulation of affairs in Utah, and of the The expenditure per capita of population
anti-trust law (1890). In 1886 he framed was $2.67, and the average daily expendi-
tho act for counting the electoral vote, ture per pupil, 13.3 cents. These figures
Ho resigned his seat in 1891 at the con- exclude statistics of the education of the

182

EDUCATION

blind, the deaf, and other defective
classes, which are treated separately in
this work, and also SECONDARY SCHOOLS
(? *)

Education, AMERICAN PUBLIC. See
HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT.

Education, CHAUTAUQUA SYSTEM OF.
See CHAUTAUQUA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION.

Education, ELEMENTARY. WILLIAM
TORREY HARRIS (q. v.), the U. S. Com-

the country has been considered to be the
weakest part of the entire system, al
though it is conceded on all hands that
the teachers in secondary schools are, on
the average, much superior in profes
sional and general culture to the teachers
in elementary schools, if not to those in
colleges. The reason for this defect in
secondary schools has been found in the
course of study. A majority of the pub-

missioner of Education since 1889, one of lie high schools and a larger majority of

the highest authorities on the subject of
education, writes as follows:

At the meeting in 1892 the National
Educational Association appointed a com-

the private academies dilute their sec
ondary course of study by continuing ele
mentary studies beyond their proper limit.
Arithmetic, descriptive geography, gram
mar, history of one s native country, lit-

mittee of ten persons to consider and re- erature written in the colloquial vocabu-

port upon the subjects of study and the lary, are each and all very nourishing to

methods of instruction in secondary the mind when first begun, but their edu-
schools, including public high

schools,

private academies, and schools preparing
students for college. President Eliot, of
Harvard, was appointed chairman, with
nine associates, four of whom were presi
dents of colleges, one a professor in a col
lege, two principals of public high
schools, and one head master of a pre
paratory school. This committee of ten,
as it is generally called, had author
ity to select the members of special con-

cative value is soon exhausted. The
mind needs for its continuous develop
ment more advanced branches, such as
algebra and geometry, physical geogra
phy, a foreign language, general history.
But for these the secondary school often
substitutes other branches that involve no
new methods nor more complex ideas,
and the pupil stops in the elementary
stage of growth.

The influence of the report of the com-

ferences and to arrange meetings for the mittee of ten has been to impel secondary
discussion of the principal subjects taught schools towards the choice of well-bal-
in preparatory schools. The subjects rep- anced courses of study containing subjects
resented were Latin, Greek, English, other which belong essentially to secondary edu-
modern languages, mathematics, natural
philosophy (including physics, astronomy,
and chemistry), natural history (and

biology, including botany, zoology, and
physiology), history (including also civil
government and political economy),
geography (including physical geography,
geology, and meteorology). The National

cation, like algebra, Latin, or physics ; and
at the same time either to discontinue
elementary branches, or to apply to the
study of these a superior method, by which
their principles are traced into higher
branches and explained.

The success of the report of the com
mittee of ten has been such as to arouse

Educational Association appropriated the eager interest in a similar inquiry into

sum of $2,500 towards defraying the ex
penses of the conferences.

The report was completed and pub
lished in the spring of 1894. Thirty
thousand copies were distributed by the
national bureau of education, and since
then edition after edition has been print
ed and sold by the National Educational
Association through an agent.

No educational document before pub-

the work of the elementary schools. Al
ready, in February, 1893, a committee
had been appointed by the department of
superintendence in the National Educa
tional Association. It was made to con
sist of fifteen members instead of ten,
and has been known as the committee of
fifteen.

The report of this committee of fif
teen was submitted to the department

Halted in this country has been more of superintendents at the meeting in 18!).l.
widely read or has excited more helpful It is the object of this paper to indicate
discussion. The secondary instruction of briefly the points that give it importance.

183

EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY

If one were to summarize concisely the who, in most cases, controls the licensing
history of educational progress in the of teachers in rural districts.
United States for the nineteenth century With the advent of the professional
as regards the elementary schools, he teacher and the expert supervisor, there
would say that there has been a change has arrived an era of experiment and agi-
from the ungraded school in the sparsely tation for reforms.

settled district to the graded school of The general trend of school reforms may
the city and large village. The ungraded be characterized as in the direction of se-
school held a short session of three or curing the interest of the pupil. All the
four months, was taught by a makeshift new devices have in view the awakening
teacher, had mostly individual instruc- of the pupil s inner spring of action. He
tion, with thirty or forty recitations to is to be interested and made to act along
be heard and five minutes or less of the lines of rational culture through his own
teacher s time per day for each. impulse. The older methods looked less

The graded school has classified its to interesting the pupil than to disciplin-
pupils according to the degree of advance- ing the will in rational forms. Make
ment and assigns two classes to a teacher, the pupil familiar with self-sacrifice,
Instead of five minutes for a recitation, make it a second nature to follow the be-
there are twenty or thirty minutes, and hest of duty and heroically stifle selfish
the teacher has an opportunity to go be- desires "this was their motto, expressed
hind the words of the book and by discus- or implied. It was an education ad-
sion and questioning probe the lesson, find dressed primarily to the will. The new
what the pupil really understands and education is addressed to the feelings and
can explain in his own words. Each mem- desires. Its motto is: "Develop the
ber of the class learns more from the an- pupil through his desires and interests."
swers of his fellow-pupils and from the Goethe preached this doctrine in his Wil-
cross-questioning of the teacher than he helm Meister. Froebel founded the
could learn from a lesson of equal length kindergarten system on it. Colonel
with a tutor entirely devoted to himself. Parker s Quincy school experiment was,

The graded school continues for ten and his Cook County Normal School is,
months instead of three, and employs or a centre for the promulgation of this
may employ a professional educated teach- idea. Those who advocate an extension
er. This is the most important item of of the system of elective studies in the
progress to be mentioned in the history colleges and its introduction even into
of our education. Normal schools, 200 secondary and elementary schools justify
in number, have been created in the va- it by the principle of interest,
rious States, and it is estimated that the It is noteworthy that this word " in-
cities, large and small, have an average terest " is the watchword of the disciples
of 50 per cent, of professionally trained of the Herbartian system of pedagogy.
teachers, while the ungraded schools in Herbart, in his psychology, substituted
the rural districts are taught by persons desire for will. He recognizes intellect
who leave their regular vocations and re- and feeling and desire (Begicrdc). De-
sort to teaching for a small portion of the sire is, of course, a species of feeling
year. for feeling includes sensations and desires,

The urban and suburban population, the former allied to the intellect and the
counting in the large villages, is at pres- latter to the will. But sensation is not
cnt about 50 per cent, of the population yet intellect, nor is desire will ; both are
of the whole country. only feeling.

One improveinont leads to another, and I have described and illustrated this
where the graded school has been estab- general trend of school reform in order
lished with its professionally trained to show its strength and its weakness,
teachers it has been followed by the ap- and to indicate the province marked out
pointment of experts as superintendents, for a report that should treat of the
until over 800 cities and towns in the branches of study and the methods of in
nation have such supervision. The fifty struction in the elementary school and
Stnto* have each a State superintendent, suggest improvement.

184

EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY

While the old education in its exclusive
devotion to will-training has slighted the
intellect and the heart (or feelings), the
new education moves likewise towards an
extreme as bad, or worse. It slights di
rect will-culture and tends to exaggerate
impulse and inclination or interest. An
educational psychology that degrades will
to desire must perforce construct an
elaborate system for the purpose of de
veloping moral interests and desires.
This, however, does not quite succeed until
the old doctrine of self-sacrifice for the
sake of the good is reached.

" Our wills are ours, to make them thine."

The philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita
holds that the goal of culture is to anni
hilate all interest and attain absolute in
difference this is adopted by Buddhism
in the doctrine of Nirvana. Indian re
nunciation reaches the denial of selfhood,
while the Christian doctrine of renunci
ation reaches only to the denial of selfish
ness and the adoption of altruistic in
terests.

However this may be, the pedagogic im
pulse to create devices for awakening the
interest of the pupil becomes sometimes
a craze for novelty. Change at any price
and change of any kind is clamored for.
It is a trite saying that change is not
progress. It is more apt to be movement
in a circle or even retrogression. An
amusing example was lately furnished in
educational circles. A superintendent of
rural schools defended their want of classi
fication as an advantage. It was " individ-
xial instruction," and, as such, an improve
ment over that of the graded school of
the cities. His reactionary movement re
ceived the support of some of the advo
cates of educational reform on the ground
that it was a new departure. This hap
pened at a time when one-half of the
school children in the United States are
still taught, or rather allowed to memo
rize their text-books, by this method.

The sub-committees on training of
teachers and on organization of city
school systems have brought forward, in
their respective reports, the latest de
vised measures for the perfection of nor
mal schools and the procurement of ex-
nert supervisors for city school systems.
The import mice of the recommendations

regarding schools for the training of
teachers is seen when one recalls to mind
the fact that the entire upward movement
of the elementary schools has been in
itiated and sustained by the employment
of professionally trained teachers, and
that the increase of urban population has
made it possible. In the normal school
the candidate is taught the history of
education, the approved methods of in
struction, and the grounds of each
branch of study as they are to be found
in the sciences that it presupposes.

The method of eliminating politics
from the control of a city school system is
discussed in Judge Draper s frank and
persuasive style, and a plan in essential
particulars similar to that adopted in
the city of Cleveland is recommended for
trial in all large cities. A small school-
board of five or ten members is appointed
by the mayor, which, in turn, elects a
school-director (but this officer may also
be appointed by the mayor), who takes
charge of the business side of the manage
ment of schools. For the professional
side of the work a superintendent is ap
pointed by the school-director, with the
approval of two-thirds or three-fourths
of the school-board. The terms of office
suggested are, respectively, for the mem
bers of the school-board appointed by the
mayor, five years ; for the school-director,
five years; for the superintendent, five
to ten years. The superintendent ap
points all teachers from an eligible list
of candidates whose qualifications are de
fined by the school-board.

This plan of government is based on
the idea of the importance of personal
responsibility at all points in the ad
ministration. Only an actual trial can
determine its strength or weakness. All
plans, as Judge Draper well says, pre
suppose a public spirit and a moral sense
on the part of the people; they presuppose
a sincere desire for good schools and a fair
knowledge of what good schools are and of
the best means of creating them. Where
the whole people possesses political power,
the intelligent and virtuous citizens must
exert a continual influence or else tho
demagogues will come into office. For the
natural representative of the weakling
classes is the demagogue. Whether the
citizen is weak in intellect, or thrift, 01

J85

EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY

morals, it is all the same ; he will vote peal to experimental psychology in dealing

for the demagogue as ruler.

with the question of the time devoted to

The report on the correlation of studies the several branches. For example, it
is an attempt to reconcile the old and the often discusses the danger of too much

new in education by discovering what in
the course of study is or should be perma
nent and what in the nature of things is
transient. It admits the claims of the new
education, as to making the appeal to the
child s interest paramount, so far as this
relates to the methods of instruction, but
it finds a limit to this in the matters to
be taught. It discusses the educational
value of the five principal factors of the
course of study in order to determine

thoroughness of drill in teaching and the
use of processes that become mechanical
after some time. The rapid addition of
numbers, the study of the geometrical
solids, the identification of the colors of
the spectrum, the reading of insipid pieces
written in the colloquial vocabulary, the
memorizing of localities and dates; all
these things may be continued so long un
der the plea of " thoroughness " as to para
lyze the mind, or fix it in some stage of ar-

clearly where the proposed new branches rested growth.

of study belong and what they add to the
old curriculum. These five components of
a course of study are: (1) Grammar, as a
study of the structure of language; (2)
Literature, as a study of the art form of

The committee have been at much pains
to point out the importance of leaving a
branch of study when it has been studied
long enough to exhaust its educational
value. It is shown in the case of arithme-

language literature as furnishing a reve- tic that it ought to be replaced by algebra
lation of human nature in all its types; two years earlier than is the
(3) Mathematics, as furnishing the laws the public schools at present.

of matter in movement and rest the laws
grounded in the nature of space and time ;
(4) Geography, as a compend of natural
and social science unfolding later, in
secondary and higher education, into
geology, botany, zoology, meteorology on
the one hand, and into anthropology and

custom in
The arith
metical method should not be used to solve
the class of problems that are more easily
solved by algebra. So, too, it is contended
that English grammar should be discon
tinued at the close of the seventh year,
and French, German, or Latin preferably
the last substituted for it. The edu-

sociology, economics and politics on the cative value of a study on its psychological
other; (5) History, as showing the origin side is greatest at the beginning. The
and growth of institutions, especially of first six months in the study of algebra

the state. It appears that these five
branches cover the two worlds of man and
nature, and that all theoretical studies fall
within these lines. This is the correlation
of study. Each essential branch has some
educational value that another does not
possess. Each branch also serves the func
tion of correlating the child to his environ
ment namely, to the two worlds of
nature and human society.

Hitherto, we are told in this report,
the course of study has been justified on
psychological grounds " literature culti
vates the memory and the imagination " ;
" arithmetic the reason," etc. But each
branch has in some measure a claim on
all the faculties. Arithmetic cultivates
the memory of quantity, the imagination
of successions, and the reason in a peculiar

or Latin it is claimed that even the first
four weeks are more valuable than the
same length of time later on. For the
first lessons make one acquainted with a
new method of viewing things.

In recommending the introduction of
Latin and algebra into the seventh and
eighth years of the elementary school
course, the committee are in accord with
the committee of ten, who urged the
earlier commencement of the secondary
course of study.

The committee urge strongly the subor
dination of elocution and grammar in the
reading exercises to the study of the con
tents of the literary work of art, holding
that the best lesson learned at school is
the mastery of a poetic gem or a selection
from a great prose writer. It is contend-

figure of the syllogism different from the cd that the selections found in the school
three figures iised in qualitative reasoning, readers often possess more literary unity

The report, however, makes frequent ap- than

186

the whole works from which they

EDUCATIONAL LAND GRANTS EDWARDS

were taken, as in the case of Byron s Bat- called Fort Lyman after their commander.
tie of Waterloo from Childe Harold. The A garrison of 2,500 men under the Earl of
importance of studying the unity of a London, and later under General Webb,
work of art is dwelt upon in different made several expeditions against Canada,
parts of the report, and the old method After Munro s defeat at FORT WILLIAM
of parsing works of art censured. HENRY (q. v.) the remnant of the Amer-

An example of the Herbartian correla- ican army fled to Fort Edward. During
tion is found in the method recommended Burgoyne s advance in July, 1777, General
for teaching geography namely, that the Schuyler sought shelter here. See HUB-
industrial and commercial idea should be BARDTOX, BATTLE OF: McCREA, JANE.
the centre from which the pupil moves Edward VII., ALBERT EDWARD, King
out in two directions from the supply of of Great Britain and Emperor of India;
his needs for food, clothing, shelter, and born in Buckingham Palace, Nov. 9,
culture he moves out on the side of nat- 1841; eldest son of Queen Victoria and
ure to the "elements of difference," that Ihe Prince Consort; created Prince of
is to say, to the differences of climate, soil, Wales and Earl of Chester a month after
productions, and races of men, explaining his birth ; educated by private tutors,
finally by geology, astronomy, and meteor- at Christ Church, Oxford, and at Cam-
ology how these differences arose. On the bridge. In 1860, under the guidance of
other hand, he moves towards the study the Duke of Newcastle, he visited the
of man, in his sociology, history, and United States, where he received an en-
economics, discovering what means the thusiastic welcome. President Buchanan
race has invented to overcome those " ele- and his official family extended to him
ments of difference " and supply the mani- a grand entertainment at the national
fold wants of man wherever he lives by capital, and the cities which he visited
making him participant in the produc- vied with one another in paying him
tions of all climes through the world com- high honors. The courtesies so generous-
merce. ly extended to him laid the foundation

Likewise in the study of general his- for the strong friendship which he always
tory the committee suggest that the old afterwards manifested for Americans,
method of beginning with the earliest ages After this trip he travelled in Germany,
be discontinued and that a regressive Italy, and the Holy Land. In 1863 he
method be adopted, proceeding from married the Princess Alexandra, daughter
United States history back to English of Christian IX., King of Denmark, and
history, and thence to Rome, Greece, and after his marriage he made prolonged
Judea, and the other sources of our civili- tours in many foreign countries, most
Cation. notably in Egypt and Greece in 1869, and

In contrast to this genuine correlation in British India in 1875-76. He has al-
the report describes an example of what ways been exceedingly fond of out-door
it calls "artificial correlation" where sports and athletics in general, and has
Robinson Crusoe or some literary work of kept himself in close touch with his peo-
art is made the centre of study for a con- pie. On the death of Queen Victoria,
siderable period of time, and geography, Jan. 22, 1901, he succeeded to the throne,
arithmetic, and other branches taught in- and was formally proclaimed king and
cidentally in connection with it. emperor at St. James s Palace, London,

Educational Land Grants. The United on the 24th.

States has granted nearly 100,000,000 Edward, FORT, a defensive work built
acres to the individual States for educa- by the New England troops in 1755 on the
tional endowments, or the erection of east bank of the Hudson River, 45 miles
schools and colleges. In many instances north of Albany.

these grants were mismanaged, but in Edwards, JONATHAN, theologian; born
others they have proved of great service, in East Windsor, Conn., Oct. 5, 1703;

Edward, FORT, on the Hudson River, graduated at Yale College in 1720, having
forty-five miles north of Albany; built by begun to study Latin when he was six
the 6,000 New England troops in the years of age. He is said to have reasoned
French and Indian war in 1755; originally out for himself his doctrine of free-will

187

EDWARDS EGBERT

JONATHAN KDWAKDS.

before he left college, at the age of seven- fice until its organization as a State in
teen. He began preaching to a Presby- 1818. From 1818 till 1824 he was United
terian congregation before he was twenty States Senator, and from 1826 to 1830
years old. and became assistant to hia governor of the State. He did much, by
grandfather, Rev. Mr. Stoddard, minister promptness and activity, to restrain Indian
at Northampton, MasH.., whom he sue- hostilities in the Illinois region during the
ceeded as pastor. He was dismissed in War of 1812. He died in Belleville, 111.,
1750, because he insisted upon a purer July 20, 1833. See A. B. PLOT.
and higher standard ot admission to the Edwards, OLIVER, military officer; born

in Springfield, Mass., Jan. 30, 1835; was
commissioned first lieutenant in the 10th
Massachusetts Volunteers at the outbreak
of the Civil War, and was promoted brig
adier-general, May 19, 1865, for " con
spicuous gallantry." He received the
surrender of Petersburg, Va., and com
manded Forts Hamilton and Lafayette, in
New York Harbor, during the draft riots
of 1863. He was mustered out of the
army in 1866.

Edwards, PIERREPONT, jurist; born in
Northampton, Mass., April 8, 1750; the
youngest son of Jonathan Edwards, Sr. :
graduated at the College of New Jersey
in 1768. His youth was spent among
the Stockbridge Indians, where his father
was missionary, and he acquired the
language perfectly. He became an emi
nent lawyer; espoused the cause of the

communion-table. Then he began his patriots, and fought for liberty in the
missionary work (1751) among the Stock- army of the Revolution. He was a mcm-
bridge Indians, and prepared his greatest her of the Congress of the Confederation
work, on The Freedom of the Will, which in 1787-88, and in the Connecticut con-
was published in 1751. He was inaugu- vention warmly advocated the adoption of
rated president of the College of NJ\V the national Constitution. He was judge
Jersey, in Princeton, Feb. 16, 1758, and of the United States District Court in
died of small-pox, March 22, 1758. He Connecticut at the time of his father s
married Sarah Pierrepont, of New Haven, death. Mr. Edwards was the founder of
in 1727, and they became the grand- the "Toleration party" in Connecticut.
parents of Aaron Burr. which made him exceedingly unpopular

Edwards, NIXIAX, jurist; born in with the Calvinists. He died in Bridge-
Montgomery county. Md.. in March, 1775. port. Conn., April 5, 1826.
William Wirt directed his early educa- Egbert, HARKY C., military officer ; born
tion, which was finished at Dickinson Col- in Pennsylvania, Jan. 3, 1830; joined the
lege, and in 181!) he settled in the Green 12th United States Infantry, Sept. 23.
River district of Kentucky. Before he 1861; served with distinction in the ac-
was twenty-one he became a member of tions of Gaincs s Mills, Malvcrn Hill, Cedar
the Kentucky legislature; was admitted Mountain, Gettysburg, etc. He was taken
to the bar in Kentucky in 1798, and to prisoner at Cedar Mountain and at Get-
that of Tennessee the next year, and rose tysburg, and was seriously wounded at
very rapidly in his profession. He passed Bethesda Church. When the war with
through the oftices of circuit judge and Spain broke out he was lieutenant-colonel
judge^of appeals to the bench of chief-jus- of the 6th United States Infantry, which
lice of Kentucky in 1808. The next year he commanded in the Santiago campaign
he was appointed the first governor of the until he was shot through the body at
Territory of Illinois, and retained that of- HI Canoy, July 1, 1898. He was pro-

188

EQGLESTON EL CANEY

moted colonel of the 22d Infantry, and
before his wound was completely healed
sailed for the Philippine Islands. He ar
rived at Manila with his command, March
4, 1899, and while leading a charge
against Malinta he received a wound,
from which he died March 26 following.

Eggleston, EDWARD, author; born in
Vevay, Ind., Dec. 10, 1837; was mainly
self-educated; later became a minister
in the Methodist Episcopal Church. His
publications of a historical character in
clude History of the United States and
Its People; Household History of the
United States and Its People; A First
Rook of American History; and The Be
ginners of a Nation. He died at Lake
George, N. Y., Sept. 3, 1902.

Eggleston, GEORGE CARY, author; born
in Vevay, Ind., Nov. 26, 1839; brother of
Edward Eggleston; began the practice of
law in Virginia; served in the Confed
erate army during the Civil War, and
then removed to the West. His publica
tions include Red Eagle and the War
with the Creek Indians; Strange Stories
from History; an edition of Haydn s Dic
tionary of Dates; and compilations of
American War Ballads and Southern Sol
dier Stories.

Eggleston, JOSEPH, military officer;
born in Amelia county, Va., Nov. 24, 1754;
was graduated at William and Mary Col
lege in 1776; joined the cavalry of the
American army; became captain, and ac
quired the reputation of being an officer
of great efficiency. In 1781 he displayed
remarkable bravery in the action of Guil-

ford Court-house and in the siege of Au
gusta; later in the same year he won the
first success in the battle of Eutaw by a
well-directed blow against the vanguard
of the British column. He held a seat
in Congress in 1798-1801. He died in
Amelia county, Va., Feb. 13, 1811.

Egle, WILLIAM HENRY, librarian; born
in Harrisburg, Pa., Sept. 17, 1830; grad
uated at the University of Pennsylvania
in 1859; is the author of History of
Pennsylvania; Pennsylvania in the Rev
olution; Pennsylvania Genealogies; His
torical, Biographical, and Genealogical
Notes and Queries; Some Pennsylvania
Women in the Revolution, etc.

Elbert, SAMUEL, military officer; born
in Prince William parish, S. C., in 1743;
was made captain of a grenadier company
in 1774; joined the Revolutionary army
in 1776. He led an expedition into East
Florida in April, 1778, and took Fort
Oglethorpe; afterwards displayed great
bravery in the assault on Savannah in
December, 1778. He was captured by the
British in the engagement at Brier Creek,
March 3,1779; afterwards was exchanged
and re-entered the American army; was
brevetted brigadier-general, Nov. 3, 1783;
became governor of Georgia in 1785. He
died in Savannah, Ga., Nov. 2, 1788.

El Caney, an elevated suburban vil
lage 3 miles northeast of Santiago, in the
province of Santiago, Cuba. It was here,
on July 1, 1898, that the American army
of liberation met its first serious oppo
sition. After the landing of the troops
at DAIQUIRI (q. v.) on June 20-22, a

SfAXHH EARTHWORKS AND INTKKNCHMK.XTS AT IL CAN1T.

189

ELDORADO ELECTION BILL

forward movement began, and by the 27th
the whole army, 16,000 strong, had
reached points within 3 miles of Santiago.
General Shafter, in consultation with the
other generals, determined on an envelop
ing movement to prevent a junction of
the forces under General Pando and those
under General Linares in Santiago. In
accordance with this plan the division of
General Lawton moved out on June 30,
into positions previously determined. By

BLOCK-HOUSE AT EL CANKY.

daylight on July 1, Capt. Allyn K. Cap-
ron s light battery reached a commanding
hill, 2,400 yards from the village. The
brigade of Maj.-Gen. Adna E. Chaffee was
assigned a position east of El Caney that
he might be prepared to attack after the
first bombardment, and Brig.-Gen. Will
iam Ludlow went around to the west with
his brigade for the purpose of preventing
a retreat of the Spaniards into Santiago.
As soon as the battery opened fire upon
the stone block-house and church in the
centre of the village, and also the
trenches where the Spanish infantry was
situated, General Chaff ee s brigade, com
posed of the 7th, 12th, and 17th Infantry,
moved to attack in the front, keeping up
a constant but careful fire, as the men

had only 100 rounds of ammunition each.
In the rear, General Ludlow moved his
troops forward, and from the south came
the reserves of Brig.-Gen. Evan Miles.
Thus the village was the centre of a con
centrated fire and was nearly encircled
with the lines steadily closing in. So
stubborn, however, was the defence that
reinforcements under Maj.-Gen. John C.
Bates were ordered up to strengthen the
line, which had been considerably weak
ened in the desperate assaults. After the
enemy had left their intrenchments, the
fire was concentrated upon the brick fort,
from which the Spaniards poured a gall
ing musketry fire into the American lines.
The fort could not long withstand the
attack, and rents were soon torn in its
thick walls. At this juncture the com
mands under Chaffee, Bates, and Miles
made a charge, and captured the work,
but not until all the men defending it
were killed or wounded. After its capt
ure the smaller block-houses ceased fight
ing, with the exception of one which was
soon destroyed by a few shots of Cap-
ron s battery. The brave defence of El
Caney was directed by Brig.-Gen. Vera de
Rey (who died fighting), with 520 men, of
whom scarcely a fifth remained alive at the
end of the action. See SAN JUAN HILL.

Eldorado, the fabled country in Amer
ica containing numerous kingdoms, the
cities of which were filled with gold.

Eldridge, HAMILTON N., military offi
cer; born in South Williamstown, Mass.,
Aug. 23, 1831; graduated at Williams
College in 1856; and engaged in law
practice in 1857. He recruited the 127th
Illinois Regiment in July, 1862; was pro
moted colonel; and was brevetted briga
dier-general of volunteers in recognition of
his bravery at Vicksburg. He died in Chi
cago, 111., Nov. 27, 1882.

ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL

Election Bill, FEDERAL. During the cussion which it aroused, both in and out

discussion on the Federal Election Bill, of Congress, is a long bill. Yet if any one

the HON. THOMAS BRACKETT REED, Speak- will take the trouble to compare it with

er of the House of Representatives (q. v.) , the general election laws of most, if not all,

wrote as follows: of the States, he will find that in its class

it is more conspicuous for brevity than

The national election bill of 1890, as was for length. The truth is that no election

pointed out several times during the dis- law which attempts to provide accurately

100

ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL

for all the different stages of an election
can be otherwise than long. At the same
time, although it takes many paragraphs
in a bill to state exactly how each act,
great and small, having relation to an
election shall be performed, it is perfectly
easy to put into very few woKls the pur
pose of an election law and the methods
by which it proposes to accomplish that
purpose.

The first object of the national elec
tion law was to secure entire publicity
in regard to every act connected with the
election of members of Congress. To ef
fect this it provides for the appointment
of United States officers, selected from the
two leading political parties, to watch
over and report upon naturalization,
registration, the conduct of the election,
the count of the ballots, and the certifi
cation of the members. These officers
have no power whatever to interfere with
local officers or existing methods. Their
only duty is to protect the honest voter,
secure evidence to punish wrong-doers,
and make public every fact in connection
with the election. The State systems,
whether they provide for the secret and
official ballot or otherwise, are all care
fully protected under this law against
any interference from United States offi
cers. Moreover, if the officers of the
United States at any election precinct
exercise their powers improperly, the
local officers are there to report their
conduct. Thus is obtained a double as
surance of publicity from two sets of men,
among whom both the leading political
parties are represented, without any in
terference with local officers or local sys
tems.

At only one point does the United
States take what may be called control
of any essential step in the election of
Representatives. Where an entire con
gressional district is placed under the
law, a United States board of canvassers
appointed for the district receives the
supervisors returns, and on those returns
issues a certificate for the candidate who
appears to be elected. If that certificate
agrees with the certificate of the State
officers, the name of the candidate who
holds them both is, of course, placed upon
the roll of members of the House. If the
two certificates disagree, then the certifi

cate of the United States board is prima
facie evidence and places the name of the
holder upon the roll of Representatives;
but in this case any candidate may appeal
from the decision of the board of can
vassers to the circuit court of the United
States, which has power to set aside the
certificate of the canvassers and virtually
decide whose name shall be placed on the
roll of the House. A candidate who is
not willing to have his cause tried by a
court of high jurisdiction must be hard
to please, when we consider that the only
other known method is that of a com
mittee of Congress made up of party
representatives.

Thus it will be seen that the whole pur
pose of this bill may be summed up in
one word " publicity." It proceeds on
the sound American theory that all that
is necessary, in the long run, to secure
good government and to cure evils of any
kind in the body politic is that the people
should be correctly informed and should
know all the facts. It proposes, therefore,
by making public all the facts relating to
elections, to protect the voters and to
render easy the punishment of fraud. If
wrong exists, it will disclose and punish
it. If all is fair and honest, it proves that
all is well, restores public confidence, and
removes suspicion. There is absolutely
nothing in this bill except provisions to
secure the greatest amount of publicity
in regard to elections, and to protect
the ballot-box by making sure the pun
ishment of those who commit crimes
against the suffrage. It interferes with
no man s rights; it changes no local
system; it disturbs no local officers; but
it gives publicity to every step and detail
of the election, and publicity is the best,
as it is the greatest, safeguard that we
can have in this country for good govern
ment and honest voting. No wrong can
long continue when the people see and
understand it, and nothing that is right
and honest need fear the light. The
Southern Democrats declare that the en
forcement of this or any similar law will
cause social disturbances and revolution
ary outbreaks. As the negroes now dis
franchised certainly will not revolt be
cause they receive a vote, it is clear, there
fore, that this means that the men who
now rule in those States will make social

101

ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL

disturbances and revolution in resistance
to a law of the United States. It is also
not a little amusing to observe that small
portion of the newspaper press which has
virtue generally in its peculiar keeping,
raving in mad excitement merely because
it is proposed to make public everything
which affects the election of the repre
sentatives of the people in Congress. There
must be something very interesting in the
methods by which these guardians of vir
tue hope to gain and hold political power
when they are so agitated at the mere
thought of having the darkness which now
overhangs the places where they win their
victories dispersed.

So much for the purpose of the bill.
A word now as to some of the objections
which have been raised against it. The
most common is that which is summed up
in the phrase " force bill." There is noth
ing very novel in this epithet, for it can
hardly be called an argument, or the sug
gestion of one. It proceeds on the old
doctrine of giving a dog a bad name a
siiying which is valuable, but perhaps a
trifle musty. There was a bill introduced
many years ago to which that description
was applied not without effect; and the
persons opposed to the new measure, whose
strongest intellectual quality is not orig
inality, brought out the old name with
out much regard to its appropriateness.
The trouble with this is that the old bill
and the new one are totally unlike, and
that what applies to one has no applica
tion to the other except that they both
aim to protect American voters in their
rights. There is no question of force in
the new bill. One able editor referred to
it as " bristling with bayonets in every
line"; but as there is absolutely no allu
sion to anything or anybody remotely con
nected with bayonets, it is to be feared
that the able editor in question had not
read the bill. So anxious, indeed, are the
opponents of the measure on this point
that, not finding any bayonets in the bill,
they themselves have put them in rather
than not have them in at all. One news
paper took a clause from the revised
statutes of the United States relating to
United States troops and printed it as a
part of the election bill, although the
bill contains no such clause, but merely
re-enacts a law which has been on the

statute-books for twenty years, and which
would have remained and been in force,
whether re-enacted or not, so long as it
was not repealed.

The President of the United States has
from the beginning of the government had
power to use the army and navy in sup
port of the laws of the United States, and
this general power was explicitly con
ferred many years ago in that portion of
the revised statutes which now comes
under the title " civil rights." The new
election bill neither adds to nor detracts
from that power, and as the liberties of
the country have been safe under it for
at least twenty years, it is not to be ap
prehended that they will now be in danger.
The fact is that the talk about this being
a " force bill " and having bayonets in
every line is mere talk designed to
frighten the unwary, for the bill is really
an " anti-force " bill, intended to stop the
exercise of illegal force by those who use
it at the polls North or South ; and it is
exactly this which the opponents of the
bill dread. The United States have power
to enforce all the laws which they make,
whether they are laws regulating elections
or for other purposes. That power the
United States must continue to hold and
to exercise when needful, and the na
tional election law neither affects nor
extends it in any way.

The objection next in popularity is that
the measure is sectional, and not national.
That this should be thought a valuable
and important shibboleth only shows how
men come to believe that there is real
meaning in a phrase if they only shout it
often enough and loudly enough. Repeti
tion and reiteration are, no doubt, pleas
ant political exercises, but they do no*
alter facts. In the first place, if we look
a little below the surface, it will be found
that no more damaging confession could
be made than this very outcry. The law
when applied can have but one of two
results. It will either disclose the exist
ence of fraud, violence, or corruption in
a district, or show that the election is
fair and honest. If the latter proves to
be the case, no one can or would object
to any law which demonstrates it. If, on
the other hand, fraud is disclosed, then
the necessity of this legislation is proved.
The election law is designed to meet and

ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL

overcome fraud, force, or corruption, as abridgment of those liberties with the
the case may be, in elections anywhere and ballot-box of which the performances in
everywhere, and if it is sectional, it can Hudson county, N. J., have afforded the
only be so because fraudulent elections are most recent illustration. The South
sectional. Those who rave against the bill shouts loudest, but it is merely because
as sectional that is, as directed against the ruling statesmen there think they have
the South, for Southern and sectional ap- most to lose by fair elections. What
pear to have become synonymous terms chiefly troubles the opponents of the bill
admit by so doing that they have a North and South is, not that it is sec-
monopoly of impure elections. If it were tional, but that it will check, if not stop,
otherwise, the law, even when applied, cheating at the polls everywhere,
would not touch them except to exhibit Another objection of a sordid kind

their virtues in a strong light.

In the sense, however, in which

brought forward against the bill is that
the it will cost money. If this or any other

charge of sectionalism is intended there measure will tend to keep the ballot-box

is no truth in it. Why, it has been asked, pure, it is of little consequence how much

did not the Republicans accept the amend- it costs. The people of the United States

ment of Mr. Lehlbach, of New Jersey, and can afford to pay for any system which

make the measure really national? The protects the vote and makes the verdict

Lehlbach amendment, if adopted, would of the ballot-box so honest as to command
have made the bill universally compulsory,
but would not have made it one whit more

national than it now is.

universal confidence ; but it is, of course,
for the interest of the enemies of the law
The clause on to make the expense seem as startling as

which the accusation of sectionalism rests possible. They talk about $10,000,000 be-
is that which makes the application of the ing the least probable expenditure. As-
bill optional ; but to make a measure op- suming, as they do, that the law will be
tional is not to make it sectional. If put in operation everywhere, this sum is
everybody and every part of the country at least twice too large. Careful and lib-
have the option, the bill is as broadly na- eral estimates put the cost, supposing the
tional as if every provision in it were law were to be applied in every district,
compulsory. No one would think of call- at less than $5,000,000; but as there is
ing the local-option liquor laws, which are no probability that the law will be asked
not uncommon in the States, special and for in a third of the districts, the cost
not general legislation; and it is equally would not reach a third of the sum ac-
absurd to call an election law containing tually necessary for all districts. Admit-
the local-option principle sectional. A ting, however, that $5,000,000 or $6,000,-
law which may be applied anywhere on 000 would be expended, no better expendi-
the fulfilment of a simple and easily-ful- ture of money could be made than one
filled condition is as national and general which would protect the ballot, give pub-
as a law which must be applied every- licity to the conduct of elections, and

where, whether asked for or not.

demonstrate to all men their fairness and

Moreover, the origin of the legislation honesty. The States of the North have

of which this is a mere continuance is the not hesitated to take upon themselves the

best proof of its national character. The burden of the expense of their own elec-

original supervisors law, of which this tions under the secret and official ballot,

is an extension, was designed especially and the wisdom of this policy is beyond

to meet the notorious frauds in the city question. It is difficult to see why the

of New York, and the new bill aims quite policy which is sound for the States is

as much to cure frauds in the great cities not sound for the United States.
of the North as in any part of the coun- It is also objected that the penal clauses

try. It is, indeed, the knowledge of this are very severe. This is perfectly true,

fact which sharpens the anguish of the They are very severe; nnd if any crime is

Northern Democrats at what they pa- more deserving of severe punishment or

thetieally call an invasion of State rights, more dangerous to the public weal than

It is not the peril of State rights which a crime against the ballot, it has not yet

afflicts them, but the thought of an been made generally known in this coun-
in. N 103

ELECTION BILL, FEDERAL

try. The penal clauses of the law are
intentionally severe, and the penalties are
purposely made heavy. The penalties
against murder, highway robbery, and
burglary are also heavy and severe, but in
every case it is easy to avoid them. Do
not be a murderer, a burglar, or a high-
wayman ; do not commit crimes against
the ballot, and the penalties for these
offences will be to you as if they never
existed.

The last objection here to be touched,
and the only one remaining which has
been zealously pushed, is that the enforce-
ment of this law will endanger Northern
property and affect Northern business in
the South. It is not easy to see why honest
elections, whether State or national, should
affect injuriously either property or busi-
ness. If honest elections are hostile to
property and business, then the American
system of free government is indeed in
danger; and no more infamous reflection
could be made upon the people of America
than to say that they cannot be trusted to
express their will by their votes, but
must have their votes suppressed in the
interests of order and virtue. No one,
however, really believes in anything of
the sort. This is simply a revival of the
old cry of the Northern " doughface "
against the agitation of the slavery ques-
tion in the days before the war. It was
base and ignoble then, but at that dark
period there was at least a real danger
of war and bloodshed behind the issue,
Now it is not only as utterly ignoble and
base as before, but it is false and ludi-
crous besides. Property and business in
the Southern States, as elsewhere, de-
pend almost wholly for protection on
State laws and municipal ordinances;
and neither this nor any other national
law, even if it could be conceived to be
injurious to business interests, could
touch either State or municipal govern-
iiients. The proposition, without any
disguise, really is that fair elections of
Congressmen would endanger business
and property in the Southern States; and
Ihe mere statement of the proposition
is its complete confutation, for, even if
Congress had the power or the desire to
interfere in local legislation, the election
of fifteen or twenty Republicans in the
South would not affect the composition

of the House materially, and as Congress
has no such power, the cry, of course, ia
wholly without meaning. So keen, how-
ever, is the sympathy of the Northern
Democrats with this view of the subject,
that definite threats of war against the
national government have been heard.

But there is, unfortunately, a much
more serious side to this phase of the
question. Legislation is proposed which
the South does not like, and, thereupon,
headed by the gallant Governor Gordon,
Southern leaders and Southern news-
papers begin to threaten and bluster as
if we were back in the days of South
Carolinian nullification. It is the old
game of attempting to bully the North
and West by threats. The North and
West are to be boycotted for daring to
protect citizens in their constitutional
rights, and even more dreadful things are
to follow. It has been generally believed
that the war settled the proposition that
this country is a nation, and that the
nation s laws lawfully enacted are su-
preme. Yet here we have again the old
slavery spirit threatening to boycott
Northern business, trying to bully the
Northern people, raising the old sectional
cry, and murmuring menaces of defiance
and resistance if a certain law which can
injure no honest man is enacted. The
war was not wholly in vain, and it is
time that this vaporing was stopped.
The laws of the United States will be
obeyed; election laws, as well as every
other, will be enforced; and the sensible
way is to discuss the question properly
and have the people pass upon it, and
to throw aside these threats of boycott
and nullification as unworthy the use or
notice of intelligent men.

The difficulty, however, with all these
objections, both for those who make them
and those who reply to them, is that they
are utterly unreal. They are but Ili c
beating of gongs and drums, without any
greater significance than mere noise can
possess. The national election bill is a
moderate measure. It is not a force bill;
it does not interfere in any way with
local elections or local government. It
does not involve extravagant expendi-
ture, nor is it sectional in its scope. It
does not seek to put the negro or any
other class of citizens in control anv-

ELECTION BILL ELECTIONS

where, but aims merely to secure to
every man who ought to vote the right
to vote and to have his vote hon
estly counted. No one knows these
facts to be true better than the opponents
of the bill ; but their difficulty is that they
cannot bring forward their real and hon
est objection, and so they resort to much
shrieking and many epithets. They be
lieve, whether rightly or wrongly, that
fair elections mean the loss of the na
tional House at least nine times out of
ten to the party to which they belong.
They believe that fair elections mean the
rise of a Republican party in every South
ern State, led by and in good part com
posed of white men, native to the ground,
whose votes are now suppressed under the
pretence of maintaining race supremacy as
against the negro. They believe that the
law threatens the disappearance of the
race issue on which they found their power
and the fall of the narrow oligarchy which
for so many years has ruled with iron
hand in the Southern States and in the
national conventions of the Democratic
party.

The real objection to the bill, in other
words, comes from the fact that one of
the two great parties believes that free
elections imperil their power. They know
that by this bill the United States officers,
taken from both parties, are appointed by
the courts, the body furthest removed
from politics. They know that these United
States officers will be held in check by
local officers and be utterly unable to in
terfere with the proper conduct of the
election. But they know also that the
result will be publicity, and they believe
that in consequence of publicity many dis
tricts will be lost to them. This law is as
fair to one party as another; but if one
party is cheating that party will suffer,
and where the cry against the law is loud
est it is the best evidence of its necessity,
and proves that those who resist it profit
by the wrong-doing which it seeks to cure.

The Constitution of the United States
promises equal representation to the peo
ple, and it makes the negro a citizen.
Equality of representation has been de
stroyed by the system in the South which
makes one vote there overweigh five or
six votes in the North, and the negro has
been depr ? *ed of the rights the nation

gave. No people can afford to stand quiet
and see its charter of government made a
dead-letter; and no wrong can endure and
not be either cured or expiated. Fair elec
tions North and South are vital to the
republic. If we fail to secure them, or if
we permit any citizen, no matter how
humble, to be wronged, we shall atone
for it to the last jot and tittle. No
great moral question of right and
wrong can ever be settled finally except
in one way, and the longer the day
of reckoning is postponed the larger
will be the debt and the heavier its pay
ment.

Elections, FEDERAL CONTROL OF. When
the question of the federal control of
elections was under discussion, the Hon.
Henry Cabot Lodge, U. S. Senator from
Massachusetts, wrote:

No form of government can be based on
systematic injustice: least of all a repub
lic. All governments partake of the im
perfections of human nature, and fall far
short not only of the ideals dreamed of by
good men, but even of the intentions of
ordinary men. Nevertheless, if perfection
be unattainable, it is still the duty of
every nation to live up to the principles
of simple justice, and at least follow the
lights it can clearly see.

Whatever may have been the intentions
of our forefathers, the steady growth of
our government has been towards a
democracy of manhood. One by one the
barriers which kept from the suffrage the
poor and the unlearned have been swept
away, and, in the long run, no majority
has been great enough, no interest has
been strong enough, to stand up against
that general public opinion which con
tinually grows in the direction of larger
liberty. That public opinion has never
known a refluent wave. What democracy
has gained it has always kept. If you
suppose that the progress of democracy
among white men has been pleasant for
those gentlemen who were at ease in their
possessions, you have not read history.
It is not an agreeable thing in any day
or generation to distribute power which
any set of men have always had exclu
sively to themselves among those who nev
er had it before. It lessens one and exalts
the other.

195

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF

We of the North have by no means late the laws relating to close time de-
reached the perfection of self -government, barred from complaining of murder else-
Our apportionments of congressional dis- where when its own families suffer by it?
tricts are by no means utterly fair; but Must we ourselves reach absolute perfec-
there is a limitation to injustice beyond tion before we ask others to treat us de-
which no party does to go, except in In- cently? Is robbery by violence to be tol-
diana, where 4,000 majority in the State erated and approved until we have utterly
gives Republicans but three out of thir- abolished petty larceny? The difference
teen Congressmen. Our voters are not between the nation of highest and the
entirely free from undue influence, but nation of lowest civilization is only in
there is a point beyond which no employer degree.

dares to go ; and the votes in manufact- But, after all, have we any right to

uring districts show how sturdy is the complain of bad actions in the South ?

defiance of most workingmen to even a Why should not the citizens of each State

dictation which is only inferred. Many be allowed to manage their own affairs?

a man seems to vote against his own and If you have any confidence in a repub-

his employer s interest to show that he lican form of government, why not show

is in every way his own master. But it? Let them wrestle with their problem

whichever way he votes, his vote gets alone. It is theirs; let them manage it.

counted, and his will, whether it be feeble If it were founded on fact, this would be

or sturdy, gets expressed. a powerful appeal to one who believes as

It often happens that when debate does the writer of this article, in democ-
springs up about the condition of affairs racy which is to say, in government by
in other parts of the Union, when in- all the people; who believes that no com-
timidation with shot-guns and mobs, when munity can permanently dethrone justice;
systematic falsifications of returns, are who believes that all the laws of this uni-
made subjects of comment, the errors and verse are working towards larger liberty,
shortcomings in the North are dragged greater equality, and truer fraternity,
in as a justification for all that has hap- But so far as federal elections are con-
pened of illegal action elsewhere. This cerned, this appeal is founded on no fact
kind of answer is so common, and so re- whatever. When he goes to elect a mem-
minds one of the beam and the mote of ber of Congress, the man from Missis-
Scripture, that it is worth analyzing, sippi or the man from Maine does not go
It is founded on the axiom of geometry to the polls as a citizen of Mississippi or
that things which are equal to the same of Maine, but as one of the people of the
thing are equal to each other. This is United States. All meet on common
undoubtedly true, if you are sure of the ground. They are citizens of one great
first equality. All things are not equal republic one and indivisible. Each one
because they have the same names, votes for the government of himself and
When an employer intimates to some of of the other. The member from Missis-
his workmen that he cares most for men sippi whom the one elects and the mem-
who look after his interests, and that his ber from Maine whom the other sends to
interests arc with such and such a party, Washington must unite in making the
that employer is guilty of intimidation, laws which govern both. The member
When the interesting collection of gentle- from Mississippi has the same right to de-
men in a Southern district go forth to fire mand that the member from Maine shall
guns all night, in order, as the mem- be elected according to the law of the
ber from that district phrased it in open land as he has to demand the same thing
House, "to let the niggers know there is of a colleague from his own State,
going to be a fair election the next The object of assembling the Congress
day," they also are guilty of intimidation, together is to declare the will of the peo-
Nevertheless. there is a difference; espe- pie of the United States. How can that
cially if there be an honest eye to see it. will be declared if there be more than
Murder and catching fish out of season twenty men returned to the House who
are both crimes; but there are odds in never were elected, whose very presence
crimes. Is a community where men vio- is a violation of the Constitution of the

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OP

United States and of the law of the land! press his negro and have him also? Among

Still less will the will of the people be all his remedies, he has never proposed

declared if those twenty men shift the to surrender the representation which he

control of the House from one party to owes to the very negro whose vote he re-

the other. All free countries are gov- fuses. The negro is human enough to be

erned by parties. They can never be gov- represented, but not human enough to

erned any other way. If, then, fraud have his vote counted,

changes the very principles on which a Suppose it were a fact that negro domi-

country be governed, how can it be justi- nation and barbarism would follow from

fied? honest voting in the Southern State elec-

The attempted justification is this: tions; suppose it were a fact that disre-
We in the South, inasmuch as you have gard of law and complete violation of the
conferred the right of suffrage on the rights secured to the negro by the Con-
negro, and inasmuch as he is in the ma- stitution were absolutely necessary to pre-
jority in many of our States, are in grave serve the civilization of the South ; what
danger of being overwhelmed by mere has that to do with federal elections?
ignorant numbers. We white people who Violation of law and disregard of statutes
pay the taxes will never permit these bar- are not needed to save the United States.
barians to rule over us. When we Evidently, then, the question of race
thought it necessary to prevent their supremacy and of good government in the
domination, we swarmed around their South has nothing whatever to do with
cabins by night ; we terrorized them ; we that other question which concerns our
showed them by examples that to be a whole people, whether the Republican
politician was dangerous that it led to party of the United States shall receive
death even. Those things have in great and have counted the votes which belong
measure passed away now, and we simply to it by virtue of the Constitution of the
falsify the count; we stuff the ballot- country. If you tell us that these are
boxes. That makes less trouble and is ignorant votes and ought not to be
just as effectual. Finding that their counted, we answer and the answer is
votes do not count, the negroes have lately conclusive that ignorance is everywhere,
ceased to vote. Whether clothed in the and that the Democratic party never
fervid eloquence of the late Mr. Grady or failed to vote its ignorance to the utter-
in the strange language of the governor most verge of the law. Why should they,
of South Carolina, which will be quoted of all partisans, claim that only scholars
further on, this is the justification. should vote? Is the high and honorable

But this justification does not in the esteem in which the chief officers of the
least touch the subject of federal elec- greatest Democratic city the city of New
tions. Every Southern man knows that York are now held among men an ex-
there is no possibility of negro domination ample of what intelligence will do for a
in the United States. No federal taxes community? If a man thinks the same
will ever be imposed by the negro. No thing of the republic that I do, must
federal control is within his power. If there be an inquest held over his intelli-
all this wrong at the ballot-box be needed gence before I can have his vote counted
to preserve a proper local State govern- with mine in the government of the
ment, to keep the Caucasian supreme in United States?

the State, not a living soul can dare to Or, to put it more directly, in the Ian-
say that the same wrong, or any other, guage of ex-Governor Bullock, of Georgia,
is necessary for Caucasian supremacy in which is quoted in the Atlanta Constitu-
the United States. In fact, transferred to tion, " It is now generally admitted with
the broader arena, the struggle is between us that there is no more danger to the
the proud Caucasian and the Caucasian body politic from an ignorant and vicious
who is not so proud. If it be a race ques- black voter than from an illiterate and
tion, is there any reason why the white vicious white voter."

man in the South should have two votes This system of false counting is not in
to my one? Is he alone of mortals to eat dulged in with impunity. Its baleful in-
h!s &lt;&gt;kp n&lt;l hnvp it too? Is he to sup- fluence has nowhere more clearly shown

107

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF

itself than in its effects upon the sense of seat and cannot find his supervisor, he
justice of Southern men. Where else on has no remedy. Even among the most
earth would you get such a declaration intelligent and alert politicians it is easy
as came from John P. Finley, of Green- to see what a vast chance there is for mis-
ville, Miss., for twelve years treasurer of behavior, and it needs no specification to
his county a declaration made in the show how it works in South Carolina
presence of his fellow-citizens that he did among that part of the population which
not consider ballot-box stuffing a crime, has just struggled to manhood. But in
but a necessity; that in a case of race order that the work of government by the
supremacy a man who stuffed a ballot- minority may be complete, the law decrees
box would not forfeit either his social or that there shall be eight different ballot-
business standing; and that ballot-box boxes, so that those who can read can
stuffing, so far as he knew, was looked know where to put their tickets and those
upon by the best element in the South as who cannot read can exercise their ingenu-
a choice between necessary evils? You ity. The law also provides that the officials,
would search far before you would find who alone are present with the voter,
the parallel of what Watt K. Johnson shall read to him the inscriptions on the
said in the same case (Hill vs. Catchings). ballot-boxes; but as the governor provides
" I would stuff a ballot-box," said he, " if that all the officials shall be of one party,
required to do it, to put a good Republi- it is easy to see how valuable this provi-
can in office, as I would a Democrat, as sion is. In order that the negro shall
my object is to have a good honest gov- have no advantage from the position of
ernment." the boxes becoming known, the boxes are
" Good honest government " by ballot- shuffled from time to time, and if a ballot
box stuffing! Think of the moral condi- gets into a wrong box it cannot be count-
tion of a community where a man would ed. In the Miller and Elliott case, Mr.
dare openly to make such an avowal. In Elliott s counsel, unable to deny the shift-
saying this there is no purpose to speak ing of ballot-boxes, justifies it on the
unkindly, but only to point out the inevi- ground that there is no law against it,
table effect upon public morals of con- and on the further ground that it is in
tinued violation of law. No community the spirit of the law; which last defence
can encourage systematic disregard of is true.

law, even for purposes deemed justifiable, With this preliminary statement the
without injury to all other laws and to reader can enter into the grim humor of
its own moral sense. It only needs to the reply of the governor of South Caro-
have the fence broken down in one place lina, himself a candidate for re-election,
to have the bad cattle range through the when the Republicans asked that among
whole garden. the judges of election should be some Re-
While this state of things exists in Mis- publicans. It would seem not unreason-
sissippi, a glance at South Carolina will able that one of the groat parties^ to the
irive even more food for reflection. In political contest should have a " sworn
that State, by law there was but one reg- official " to see that the voter was correct-
istration at the home of the voter (at the ly told which box to put his vote into, and
polling precinct), which took place in to see that the voto was rightly counted.
1882. Since that time all additions to the The governor, however, rose above party,
list have been made at the county seats, rejected the Repub ioan request, put none
Whenever a man moves not merely from but Democrats on guard, and in his reply
county to county, not merely from town used, among other similar things, the fol-
to town, not only from precinct to pre- lowing words:

cinct, but whenever he removes from house ., To the eterna , honol . of mir state and

to house in the same precinct, he t n( &gt; Democratic party, it can now be said

must have a new certificate from the that our elections are the freest and fairest

supervisor of registration, who, nomi- * ^"Sf^.^^ffi^

nally at least, has his office at the county ( . om1 jtj,, n . ran. under her just and equal

M at Without this changed certificate, he laws. Impartially administered, as they are.

is disfranchised. If he travels to the county be by any perversion or intimidation barred

198

to-day between us and their rule is a flimsy
statute the eight-box law which depends
for its effectiveness upon the unity of the
white people."

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF

at the polls from the free and full exercise which it did after waiting for the death

of his suffrage. There Is not only perfect o f t v Pm itpstint
freedom in voting, but the amplest protection

afforded the voter." " an J man replies, as sometimes peo

ple do, " You are assuming that the

These words were in his letter of Sept. colored man will vote your ticket, and

29, 1888. On July 30 preceding, just that is not so," the plain answer is: "It

two months before, that same governor is either so or not so. If it is so, then

said, in a public speech, which you will we are deprived of a vote which belongs

find in the Charleston News and Courier to us under the Constitution of the

of the 31st, the following: United States. If it be not so, and the

negro is voting the Democratic ticket

^nn^n baVe "^ th ? ^ , f *%*** from choice &gt; where is vour race is sue?

400,000 over a majority of 600,000. No T * u 1.

army at Austerlitz or Waterloo or Gettys- both . whlte man and negro are agreed

burg could ever be wielded like that mass of n white supremacy, why do you send

600,000 people. The only thing which stands so much Southern eloquence North to

touch our Caucasian hparts?"

inis state of things cannot be good for
this nation, either North or South. Re
member that this is not a question of

Of course, the utterance of July 30 was outcries and epithets, of reproaches and

for the home market, and the letter of hysterics. It is a plain question of jus-

September for export. But when you tice and fair-dealing. Both sections of

consider that both these statements were this country can afford to be fair and

made to the same community, by the open with each other. If you say that

governor of the State, you can form you have a right of local self-government

some idea of the effect which this system which we have no business to interfere

of action at the polls has had on the with, and that, unless you are allowed

morale of the people. to go on in your own way, you fear

This course of utterly riding over the disaster most foul, the next thing for

will of the voter has been carried to such all of us to do is to find some plan

excess as was never dreamed at the out- which will give us the votes of the whole

set, even by those who planned the first people of the United States, and leave

great wrongs. When South Carolina, by you your local self-government.
a gerrymander which remains up to date To put this whole matter in a nutshell,

the greatest spectacle that has ever been the Republican party alleges that it is

put upon a map, and which to this day deprived by all manner of devices differ-

almost defies belief, put 31,000 colored ing in different States, but having one

people in one district with only 6,000 common purpose of votes which under

whites, the framers of the act meant at the Constitution of the land that party

least that that district should have the is entitled to. To this the parties offend-

representative of its choice. But, en- ing reply that the suppression of votes

couraged by the success of the Southern and voters is necessary to prevent the

plan elsewhere, even that district has threatened destruction of local self-gov-

been taken away. It is well known that ernment by the numerical superiority of

in the South itself this was regarded as race ignorance in very many States. We

an outrage, but the voice of those so re- have a right, say they, to prevent, by vio-

garding it has fallen into the silence of lence or by fraud, if need be, the control

consent. of the ignorant in our own States.

In Alabama the 4th district was so Suppose all that to be so; suppose that

made that 27,000 colored men were all you are doing is needful for your pres-

packed in with 6,000 whites, and at every ervation, and that you must keep on at

election the Democratic candidate is re- all costs: how does that give you the

turned. So flagrant was one of the in- right to govern us by your methods?

stances that the Forty-eighth Congress, If you have the right of local self-govern-

Democratic by ninety-five majority, was ment, have we not the right of national

obliged to disgorge the sitting member, self-government? If you of the States

109

ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF

are willing to take all hazards to save over, the exercise of this supervisory

yourselves from ignorant negro domina- power is to be called into being by

tion, are you going to blame us of the petition, thus singling out by their own

United States if we refuse to submit to signatures those persons who are respon-

fraudulent domination ? You think negro sible for the claim that the elections need

domination unbearable. We think fraudu- supervision, and who thereby become ob-

lent domination a crime. noxious to the very violence which they

But we need not quarrel. There must are striving to avoid.

be some remedy consistent with the Con- In some States, like North Carolina
stitution, which was intended to provide and Virginia, a supervisor law would be
for this very local government, and for very helpful; but there are States and
this very federal government. Each was communities with regard to which it is
to be respected within its sphere, and each said that it would be assuming a terrible
was to subsist side by side with the other, responsibility to enact it. Against such
So far as the election of members of Con- a law the South urges sectionalism and its
gress was concerned, the Constitution pro- interference with local self-government;
vides for the very condition in which we for no supervision which does not examine
find ourselves. In the first instance, the all the boxes and count all the votes is
legislature of the State may make the worth the trouble of enacting. It is true
regulations for the election of members, that in New York City, under the able and
but Congress may make or alter them in thorough management of the chief super-
accordance with its own will. It may visor, great results have been accom-
alter them by providing for federal super- plished by this law, and elections are held
vision, or it may make such new regula- so satisfactory to both parties that there
tions as will assume the entire election have been no contested elections from that
from registration to certification. city in my remembrance. Whether in

We have, then, two kinds of remedy other regions, among a different people, in
the alteration of State regulations and the sparsely settled places, this could be so
making of new ones of our own. As to well done is the point at issue.
the first method, so far as it was ex- In what we call theory, no really valid
hibited in the proposed Senate bill for su- objection can be urged against federal
pervision, the Senator from Alabama, Mr. supervision, for an honest count can hurt
Pugh, when the bill was presented in the no one. Even if all the boxes are sub-
Senate, rose and declared: jected to the supervision of a second set

of men, the result in New York proves

" If the bill becomes a law its execution that when once esta bli s hed it is a solid
will Insure the shedding of blood and the . . , , .

destruction of the peace and good order safeguard satisfactory to honest people,

of this country. Its passage will be resisted So easily does the system now move, and

by every pariiamentary method, and every so f ree j s jt f rom friction, that it is doubt-

rnK Stat" ** ^ Constltutl n f the ful if a tenth of the readers of this article

even remember that the system is fully

This declaration, made at a time when established. Many contests, however,

de-bate is not usual on a bill, will attract were necessary to thus establish it in New

attention to the objections which are urged York City. But this is a practical world,

against the supervisor law. Some of where all unnecessary difficulties ought to

them are worth reproducing in order that be avoided, and where the middle way is

people may carefully consider all parts often the best because it is the middle

of a question which must have a settle- way.

ment, and can never have any final settle- In this case the middle course is ap-

ment which is not right. The supervisor parently but only apparently the most

law is the subject of objection, among radical. Let the country at once assume

other things, because, while it leaves the at least the count and return of its own

elections in the hands of the States, it elections. It may be that this could be

proposes to set watchers over the State done in a way that would leave the States

officials, and to use a kind of dual control which object to supervision free from all

liable to all manner of friction, More- interference from their neighbors, as it

200

ELECTIVE FRANCHISE

would certainly leave us free from false ton in cities and towns and in voting pre-

counting and false returns. They could cincts having 250 voters or more.

then govern their own people in their own In Texas cities of 10,000 or over may

way, free from federal supervision in require registration. In Rhode Island

congressional elections, and the United non-taxpayers are required to register be-

States could govern itself free from all fore Dec. 31, each year. Registration is

fear of those practices deemed indispen- prohibited by constitutional provision in

sable to local government. All we ask is Arkansas and West Virginia.

that in national matters the majority The qualifications for voting in each

of the voters in this country may rule. State and the classes excluded from suf-

Why should any Southern man object to frage are as follows:

this? Alabama. Citizen or alien who has de-

Elective Franchise. During the Colo- clared intention; must have resided in

nial period the people elected their repre- State one year, county three months, town

sentatives in the assemblies or legislatures or precinct thirty days; persons convicted

by ballot or, as in Virginia, by a viva voce of crime punishable by imprisonment,

vote. The governors of Rhode Island idiots or insane excluded from suffrage,

and Connecticut were the only ones elected Arkansas. Citizen or alien who has

by the people, with the exception of Massa- declared intention ; must have resided in

chusetts from 1620 to 1691. The CONSTI- State one year, county six months, pre-

TTJTION OF THE UNITED STATES ( q. v.) pre- cinct thirty days ; persons convicted of

scribes the methods of electing the Presi- felony, until pardoned, failing to pay poll

dent, Vice-president, and members of each tax, idiots or insane excluded.

House of Congress. Local elections are California. Citizen by nativity, nat-

regulated by State laws. In all the uralization or treaty of Queretaro; must

States except Wyoming and Colorado have resided in State one year, county

(where women are entitled to full suf- ninety days, precinct thirty days; Chinese,

frage) the right to vote at general elec- insane, embezzlers of public moneys, con-

tions is restricted to males twenty-one victed of infamous crime excluded,

years of age or over. Colorado. Citizen or alien who has

The registration of voters is required in declared intention four months previous

the following States and Territories: to offering to vote; must have resided in

Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, State six months, county ninety days,

Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, town or precinct ten days; persons under

Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, guardianship, in prison, insane or idiots

Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Mon- excluded.

tana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jer- Connecticut. Citizen who can read

sey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Penn- constitution or statutes; must have re-

sylvania, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, sided in State one year, town six months;

Virginia and Wyoming. In some counties persons convicted of felony or theft ex-

in Georgia registration is required by eluded.

local law. In Kentucky registration is Delaware. Citizen and paying county
required in cities; in Kansas in cities of tax after age of twenty-two; must have
the first and second class; in Nebraska resided in State one year, county one
and Iowa in cities of 2,500 population month, precinct fifteen days; idiots, in-
and over; in North Dakota in cities of sane, paupers, felons excluded,
over 3,000; in Ohio in some cities; in Florida. Citizen or alien who has de-
Maine in towns of 500 or more voters; in clared intention and paid capitation tax
South Dakota in cities and towns of over two years ; must have resided in State one
1,000 voters and in counties where regis- year, county six months; persons under
tration has been adopted by popular vote; guardianship, insane, convicted of felony
in Tennessee in all counties of 50,000 or or any infamous crime excluded,
more inhabitants; in New York in all Georgia. Citizen who has paid all his
cities and villages of over 5,000 popula- taxes since 1877; must have resided in
tion: in Missouri in cities of 100,000; in State one year, county six months; idiots.
Wisconsin in some cities. In Washing- insane, convicted of crime punishable by

201

ELECTIVE FRANCHISE

imprisonment until pardoned, tax delin- Massachusetts. Citizen who can read

qiients excluded. constitution in English, and write; must

Idaho. Citizen; must have resided in have resided in State one year, town six

State six months, county thirty days; Chi- months; paupers (except United States

nese, Indians, Mormons, felons, insane, soldiers and sailors honorably discharged)

convicted of treason or election bribery and persons under guardianship excluded,

excluded. Michigan-. Citizen or inhabitant who

Illinois. Citizen ; must have resided has declared intention under United States

in State one year, county ninety days, laws two years and six months before elec-

town or precinct thirty days; persons con- tion and lived in State two and a half

victed of crime punishable in penitentiary years; must have resided in State six

until pardoned and restored to rights ex- months, town or county twenty days;

eluded. Indians, duellists, and accessories ex-

Indiana. Citizen or alien who has de- eluded.

clared intention and resided one year in Minnesota. Citizen or alien who has

United States and six months in State; declared intention and civilized Indians;

must have resided in State six months, must have resided in United States one

town sixty days, precinct thirty days; year prior to election, State four months,

persons convicted of crime and disfran- town or precinct ten days; persons con-

chised by judgment of court excluded. victed of treason or felony unless pardon-

lowa. Citizen; must have resided in ed ; under guardianship or insane excluded.

State six months, county sixty days; idiots, Mississippi. Citizen who can read or

insane, convicted of infamous crime, non- understand constitution after Jan. 1,

resident United States soldiers and ma- 1892; must have resided in State two

rines excluded. years, town or precinct one year (except

Kansas. Citizen or alien who has de- clergymen, who are qualified after six
clared intention; must have resided in months in precinct); insane, idiots, Ind-
State six months, town or precinct thirty ians not taxed, felons, persons who have
days; idiots, insane, convicts, rebels not not paid taxes excluded,
restored to citizenship, persons under Missouri. Citizen or alien who has de-
guardianship, public embezzlers, bribed, clared intention not less than one year nor
excluded. more than five before offering to vote ;

Kentucky. Citizen; must have resided must have resided in State one year, town

in State one year, county six months, town sixty days; United States soldiers and

or precinct sixty days ; idiots, insane, marines, paupers, criminals convicted once

persons convicted of treason, felony, or until pardoned, felons and violators of

bribery at election excluded. suffrage laws convicted a second time

Louisiana. Citizen or alien who has de- excluded.

clared intention; must have resided in Montana. Citizen; must have resided
State one year, county six months, pre- iii State one year, county thirty days;
cinct thirty days; idiots, insane, persons Indians, felons, and soldiers excluded,
convicted of treason, embezzlement of pub- Nebraska. Citizen or alien who has de-
lie funds, or any crime punishable by im- clared intention thirty days prior to elec-
prisonment in penitentiary excluded. tion ; must have resided in State six

Maine. Citizen ; must have resided in months, county forty days, town or pre-

town three months; paupers, persons un- cinct ten days; idiots, insane, convicted

der guardianship. Indians not taxed, and of treason or felony unless pardoned, sol-

in 1893 all new voters who cannot read diers and sailors excluded,

constitution or write their own names in Nevada. Citizen; must have resided in

English excluded. State six months, town or precinct thirty

Maryland. Citizen; must have resided days; idiots, insane, convicted of treason
in State one year, county six months ; per- or felony, unamnestied Confederates who
sons over twenty-one years convicted of bore arms against the United States ex-
larceny or other infamous crime unless eluded.

pardoned, under guardianship as lunatic- New Hampshire. Inhabitants, native or

or non compos mentis excluded. naturalized; must have resided in town

202

ELECTIVE FRANCHISE ELECTORAL COLLEGES

six months; paupers (except United compos mentis, convicted of bribery or in
states soldiers and sailors honorably dis- famous crime until restored to right to
charged ) , persons excused from paying vote, under guardianship excluded,
taxes at their own request excluded. South Carolina. Citizen; must have

New Jersey. Citizen ; must have re- resided in State one year, town sixty days ;

sided in State one year, county five persons convicted of treason, murder, or

months; idiots, insane, paupers, persons other infamous crime, duelling, paupers,

convicted of crimes (unless pardoned) insane, and idiots excluded,

which exclude them from being witnesses South Dakota. Citizen or alien who

excluded. has declared intention ; must have resided

New York. Citizen ninety days previ- in United States one year. State six

cus to election; must have resided in months, county thirty days, precinct ten

State one year, county four months, town days; persons under guardianship, idiots,

or precinct thirty days; persons convicted insane, convicted of treason or felony un-

of bribery or any infamous crime, unless less pardoned excluded,

sentenced to reformatory or pardoned, bet- Tennessee. Citizen; must have resided

tors on result of any election at which in State one year, county six months, and

they offer to vote, bribers and bribed for be resident of precinct or district; persons

votes excluded. convicted of bribery or other infamous of-

North Carolina. Citizen; must have fence excluded.

resided in State one year, county ninety Texas. Citizen; must have resided in

days; persons convicted of felony or other State one year, town six months, and be

infamous crime, idiots, and lunatics ex- actual resident of precinct or district;

eluded. idiots, lunatics, paupers, United States

North Dakota. Citizen, alien who has soldiers and sailors, and persons convicted

declared intention one year, or civilized of felony excluded.

Indian who has severed tribal relations Vermont. Citizens must have resided

two years prior to election ; must have re- in State one year, town or precinct three

sided in State one year, county six months, months ( if residing in State one year,

precinct ninety days; United States sol- lona fide resident in precinct at time of

diers and sailors, persons non compos men- registration may vote); unpardoned con-

tis, and felons excluded. victs, deserters during Civil War, and ex-

Ohio. Citizen; must have resided in Confederates excluded.

State one year, county thirty days, pre- Virginia. Citizen; must have resided

cinct twenty days; persons convicted of in State one year, town three months,

felony until pardoned and restored to citi- precinct thirty days; idiots, lunatics,

zenship, idiots, insane, United States sol- persons convicted of bribery at election,

diers and sailors excluded. embezzlement of public funds, treason,

Oregon. Citizen or alien who has de- felony, and petty larceny, duellists and

dared intention one year; must have re- abettors, unless pardoned by legislature,

sided in State six months; idiots, insane, excluded. See DISFRANCHISEMENT.

convicted of felony, United States soldiers Electoral Colleges, THE. The people

and sailors, and Chinese excluded. do not vote directly for President and

Pennsylvania. Citizen one month, and Vice-President, but they choose, for each
if twenty-two years or over must have congressional district in the respective
paid tax within two years; must have re- States, a representative in an electoral
sided in State one year, or six months if college, which consists of as many mem-
after having been a qualified elector or bers as there are congressional districts
native he shall have removed and return- in each State, besides its two Senators.
ed ; in precinct two months ; non - tax- The theory of the framers of the Consti-
payers and persons convicted of some of- tution was that by this means the best
fence whereby right of suffrage is forfeit- men of the country would be chosen in the
od excluded. several districts, and they would better

Rhode Island. Citizen; must have re- express the wishes of the people concern-
sided in State two years, town six ing a choice of President and Yice-Prcsi-
months; paupers, lunatics, persons non dent than a vote directly by the people

203

ELECTOBAL COMMISSION

for these officers. The several electors adopted, providing for the investigation of
chosen in the different States meet at the action of returning boards in South
their respective State capitals on the first Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. There
Wednesday in December, and name in was much excitement in Congress and anx-
their ballots the persons for President and iety among the people. Thoughtful men
Vice-President. Then each electoral col- saw much trouble at the final counting
lege makes three lists of the names voted of the votes of the electoral colleges by
for these offices. These lists must be sent the president of the Senate, according to
to the president of the Senate by the first the prescription of the Constitution, for
Wednesday of January. Congress meets already his absolute power in the matter
in joint session to count the votes on the was questioned. Proctor Knott, of Ken-
second Wednesday of February. See tucky, offered a resolution for the appoint-
PKESIDENT, VOTE FOR. ment of a committee of seven members, to
Electoral Commission. A Republican act in conjunction with a similar commit-
National Convention assembled at Cincin- teo that might be appointed by the Senate,
nati, June 16, 1876, and nominated to prepare and report a plan for the crea-
Ilutherford Birchard Hayes, of Ohio, for tion of a tribunal to count the electoral
President, and William A. Wheeler, of votes, whose authority no one could ques-
New York, for Vice-President. On the tion, and whose decision all could accept
27th a Democratic National Convention as final. The resolution was adopted,
assembled at St. Louis and nominated The Senate appointed a committee; and on
Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for Presi- Jan. 18, 1877, the joint committee, con-
dent, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indi- sisting of fourteen members, reported a
ana, for Vice-President. A very excited can- bill that provided for the meeting of both
vass succeeded, and so vehement became Houses in the hall of the House of Repre-
the lawlessness in some of the Southern sentatives on Feb. 1, 1877, to there count
States that at times local civil war seemed the votes in accordance with a plan which
inevitable. The result of the election was the committee proposed. In case of more
in doubt for some time, each party claim- than one return from a State, all such re-
ing for its candidate a majority. In the turns, having been made by appointed
electoral college 185 votes were necessary tellers, should be, upon objections being
to the success of a candidate. It was de- made, submitted to the judgment and de
cided after the election that Mr. Tilden cision, as to which was the lawful and true
had 184. Then ensued a long and bitter electoral vote of the State, of a commis-
contest in South Carolina, Florida, and sion of fifteen, to be composed of five mem-
Louisiana over the official returns, each bers from each House, to be appointed
party charging the other with fraud, viva voce, Jan. 30, with four associate
There was intense excitement in the Gulf justices of the Supreme Court of the
region. In order to secure fair play, United States, who should, on Jan. 30,
President Grant issued an order (Nov. 10, select another of the justices of the Sn-
1876) to General Sherman to instruct preme Court, the entire commission to be
military officers in the South to be vigi- presided over b\ r the associate justice long-
liint, to preserve peace and good order, and est in commission. After much debate,
see that legal boards of canvassers of the the bill passed both Houses. It became
votes cast at the election were unmo- a law, by the signature of the Presi-
lested. He also appointed distinguished dent, Jan. 29, 1877. The next day the
gentlemen of both political parties to go two Houses each selected five of its
to Louisiana and Florida to be present at members to serve on the Electoral Com-
the reception of the returns and the count- mission, the Senate members being George
ing of the votes. The result was that it F. Edmunds (Vt. ), Oliver P. Morton
was decided, on the count by returning find.), Frederick T. Frelinghnysen
boards, that Hayes had a majority of the (N. J. ), Thomas F. Bayard (Del.), and
electoral votes. The friends of Mr. Tilden Allen G. Thurman (O.), and the House
were not satisfied. There was a. Demo- members, Henry B. Payne (0.), Eppa
cratic majority in the House of Repre- Ilunton (Va.), Josiah G. Abbott (Mass.).
sentative*, On Dec. 4 a resolution \vus Jnmes A. Gnrfield (O. ), and George F.

204

ELECTRICITY ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Hoar (Mass.). Senator Francis Kernan Faraday pronounced it perfect. Starr
(N. Y. ) was afterwards substituted for was so excited by his success that he died
Senator Thurman, who had become ill. that night, and nothing more was done
Judges Clifford, Miller, Field, and Strong, with the invention. In 1859 PROF. MOSES
of the Supreme Court, were named in the G. FARMER (q. v.) lighted a parlor at
bill, and these chose as the fifth member Salem, Mass., by an
of associate justices Joseph P. Bradley, electric lamp, but the
The Electoral Commission assembled in cost of producing it,
the hall of the House of Representatives, by means of a gal-
Feb. 1, 1877. The legality of returns vanic battery in the
from several States was questioned, and cellar, was so great
was passed upon and decided by the com- that the use of it was
mission. The counting was completed on abandoned. These
March 2, and the commission made the were the pioneers in
final decision in all cases. The president our country. Now the
of the Senate then announced that Hayes generation of electric-
and Wheeler were elected. The forty- ity by dynamos, mag-
fourth Congress finally adjourned on Sat- nets, etc., produces
urday, March 3. March 4, prescribed as brilliant light at less
the day for the taking of the oath of office cost than by illumi-
by the President, falling on Sunday, Mr. nating gas. It is used
Hayes, to prevent any technical objections so extensively in cities
that might be raised, privately took the for various purposes
oath of office on that day, and on Monday, that it has created a
the 5th, he was publicly inaugurated, in new phrase in our
the presence of a vast multitude of his vocabulary " Indus-
fellow-citizens, trial Electricity." For AKC LIGHT .

Electricity. The employment of elec- the provision of light,

tricity for illumination, and as a mover heat, and motive power, extensive plants

of machinery, has added an interesting are established in almost every city,

chapter to the volume of our national town, and village in the country. For

history; and the name of Edison as one light, two kinds of lamps are used

of the chief promoters of the use of the the arc and the incandescent. Elec-

mysterious agent for light- tricity moves sewing-machines, elevators,

ing, heating, and motive street-railway cars, the machinery of fac-

power is coextensive with tories, agricultural implements, and min-

the realm of civilization, ing drills; and, with all its marvellous

Ever since the discovery of adaptations and achievements towards

electro-magnetism, thought- the close of the nineteenth century, its

ful men have contemplated development was then considered still in

the possibility of producing its infancy.

a controllable electric il- Electricity, FARMING BY. See FARM-

hnninator and motor. In ING BY ELECTRICITY.

1845 John W. Starr, of Electricity in the Nineteenth Cen-

Cincinnati, filed a caveat in tury. ELIHU THOMSON (q. v.}, the cele-

the United States Patent brated inventor and electrician, writes as

Office for a "divisible elec- follows:
trie light." He went to

England to complete and The latter half of the nineteenth cen-

prove the utility of his in- tury must ever remain memorable, not

vention. There George Pea- only for the great advances in nearly all

body, the American banker, offered him the useful arts, but for the peculiarly

all the money he might need, in case his rapid electric progress, and the profound

experiment should be successful. It effect which it has had upon the lives and

proved so at an exhibition of it at Man- business of the people. In the preceding

Chester before scientific men. Professor century we find no evidences of the ap-

205

INCANDESCENT
LAMP.

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

plication of electricity to any useful pur
pose. Few of the more important prin
ciples of the science were then known.
Franklin s invention of the lightning-rod
was not intended to utilize electric force,
but to guard life and property from the
perils of the thunder-storm. Franklin s
kite experiment confirmed the long-sus
pected identity of lightning and electric
sparks. It was not, however, until the
discovery by Alexander Volta, in 1799,
of his pile, or battery, that electricity
could take its place as an agent of prac
tical value. Volta, when he made this
great discovery, was following the work
of Galvani, begun in 1786. But Galvani
in his experiments mistook the effect for
the cause, and so missed making the
unique demonstration that two different
metals immersed in a solution could set
up an electric current. Volta brought to
the notice of the world the first means for
obtaining a steady flow of electricity.

The simplest facts of electro-magnetism,
upon which much of the later electrical
developments depend, remained entirely
unknown until the first quarter of the
nineteenth century. Davy first showed
the electric arc or " arch " on a small
scale between pieces of carbon. He also
laid the foundation for future electro
chemical work by decomposing by the bat
tery current potash and soda, and thus
isolating the alkali metals, potassium and
sodium, for the first time. A fund was
soon subscribed by " a few zealous culti
vators and patrons of science," interested
in the discovery of Davy, and he had at
his service no less than 2,000 cells of
voltaic battery. With the intense cur
rents obtained from it he again demon
strated the wonderful and brilliant
phenomenon of the electric arc, by first
closing the circuit of the battery through
Icrininals of hardwood charcoal and then
separating them for a short distance. A
ni;i,L r nificent arch of flame was maintained
between the separated ends, and the light
from the charcoal pieces was of dazzling
splendor. Thus was born into the world
the electric arc light, of which there are
now many hundreds of thousands burn
ing nightly in our own country alone.

As early as 1774 attempts were made
by Le Sage, of Geneva, to apply frictional
electricity to telegraphy. Tt was easy

enough to stop and start a current in -t
line of wire connecting (wo points, but
something more than that was requisite.
A good receiver, or means for recognizing
the presence or absence of current in the
wire or circuit, did not exist. The art
had to wait for the discovery of the effects
of electric current upon magnets and the
production of magnetism by such currents.
Curiously, even in 1802 the fact that a
wire conveying a current would deflect
a compass needle was observed by
Romagnosi, of Trente, but it was after
wards forgotten, and not until 1819 was
any real advance made.

It was then that Oersted, of Copenhagen,
showed that a magnet tends to set itself
at right angles to the wire conveying cur
rent and that the direction of turning
depends on the direction of the current.
The study of the magnetic effects of elec
tric currents by Arago, Ampere, and the
production of the electro-magnet by Stur
geon, together with the very valuable
work of Henry and others, made possible
the completion of the electric telegraph.
This was done by Morse and Vail in
America, and almost simultaneously by
workers abroad, but, before Morse had
entered the field, Prof. Joseph Henry
had exemplified by experiments the work
ing of electric signalling by electro
magnets over a short line. It was Henry,
in fact, who first made a practically use
ful electro-magnet of soft iron. The his
tory of the electric telegraph teaches us
that to no single individual is the in
vention due. The Morse system had been
demonstrated in 1837, but not until 1844
was the first telegraph line built. It con
nected Baltimore and Washington, and
the funds for defraying its cost were only
obtained from Congress after a severe
struggle. The success of the Morse tele
graph was soon followed by the establish
ment of telegraph lines as a means of
communication between all the large cities
and populous districts. Scarcely ten
years elapsed before the possibility of a
transatlantic telegraph was mooted. The
cable laid in 1858 was a failure. A few
words passed, and then the cable broke
down completely. A renewed effort to
lay a cable was made in 1806, but disap
pointment again followed: the cable broke
in mid-ocean. The great task was suc-

206

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

cessfully accomplished in the following
year. Even the lost cable of 1866 was
found, spliced to a new cable, and com
pleted soon after as a second working line.
The delicate instruments for the working
of these long cables were due to the genius
of Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kel
vin. The number of cables joining the
Eastern and Western hemispheres has
been increased from time to time, and the
opening of a new cable is now an ordinary
occurrence, calling for little or no especial
note.

The introduction of the electric tele
graph was followed by the invention of
various signalling systems, the most im
portant being the fire-alarm telegraph,
automatic clock systems, automatic elec
tric fire signals, burglar alarms, telegraphs
which print words and characters, as in
the stock " ticker," the telautograph, in
which writing is reproduced at the re
ceiving end of the line, the duplex, quad-
ruplex, and multiplex systems of teleg
raphy, automatic transmitting machines
and rapid recorders, etc.

The first example of a working type
of an arc lamp was that of W. E. Staite,
in 1847, and his description of the lamp
and the conditions under which it could
be worked is a remarkably exact and full
statement, considering the time of its ap
pearance. But it was a long time before
the electric arc acquired any importance
as a practical illuminant; the expense was
too great, and the batteries soon became
exhausted. Michael Faraday, a most
worthy successor of Davy, made the ex
ceedingly important observation that a
wire, if moved in the field of a magnet,
would yield a current of electricity.
Simple as the discovery was, its effect has
been stupendous. The fundamental prin
ciple of the future dynamo electric ma
chine was discovered by him. This was in
1831. Both the electric motor and the
dynamo generator were now potentially
present with us. Here, then, was the em
bryo dynamo. The century closed with
single dynamo machines of over 5,000
horse-power capacity, and with single
power stations in which the total electric
generation by such machines is 75,000 to
100,000 horse-power. So perfect is the.
modern dynamo that out of 1,000 horse
power expanded in driving it, 950 or more

may be delivered to the electric line as
electric energy. The electric motor, now
so common, is a machine like the dynamo,
in which the principle of action is simply
reversed ; electric energy delivered from
the lines becomes again mechanical motion
or power.

The decade between 1860 and 1870 open
ed a new era in the construction and work
ing of dynamo machines and motors.
Gramme, in 1870, first succeeded in pro
ducing a highly efficient, compact, and
durable continuous-current dynamo. It
was in a sense the culmination of many
years of development, beginning with the
early attempts immediately following
Faraday s discovery, already referred to.
In 1872 Von Hefner Alteneck, in Berlin,
modified the ring winding of Gramme and
produced the " drum winding," which
avoided the necessity for threading wire
through the centre of the iron ring as in
the Gramme construction.

At the Centennial Exhibition, held at
Philadelphia in 1876, but two exhibits of
electric-lighting apparatus were to be
found. Of these one was the Gramme and
the other the Wallace-Farmer exhibit. The
Wallace exhibit contained other examples
reflecting great credit on this American
pioneer in dynamo work. Some of these
machines were very similar in construction
to later forms which went into very ex
tensive use. The large search-lights oc
casionally used in night illumination dur
ing the exhibitions were operated by the
current from Wallace-Farmer machines.

The Centennial Exhibition also marks
the beginning the very birth, it may be
said of an electric invention destined to
become, before the close of the century, a
most potent factor in human affairs. The
speaking telephone of Alexander Graham
Bell was there exhibited for the first time
to the savants, among whom was the dis
tinguished electrician and scientist Sir
William Thomson. For the first time in
the history of the world a structure of
copper wire and iron spoke to a listening
car. The instruments were, moreover, the
acme of simplicity. Within a year many
a boy had constructed a pair of telephones
at an expenditure for material of only a
few pennies. The transmitter was only
suited for use on short lines, and was soon
afterwards replaced by various forms of

207

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTUKY

carbon microphone transmitters, to the idea of incandescent platinum strips or

production of which many inventors had wires, but without success. The announce-

turned their attention, notably Edison, ment of his lamp caused a heavy drop

Hughes, Blake, and Runnings. in gas shares, long before the problem

Few of those who talk between Boston was really solved by a masterly stroke in
and Chicago know that in doing so they his carbon filament lamp. Curiously, the
have for the exclusive use of their voices nearest approach to the carbon filament
a total of over 1,000,000 Ibs. of copper lamp had been made in 1845, by Starr,
wire in the single line. There probably an American, who described in a British
now exist in the United States alone be- patent specification a lamp in which elec-
tween 75,000 and 100,000 miles of hard- trie current passed through a thin strip
drawn copper wire for long-distance tele- of carbon kept it heated while surrounded
phone service, and over 150,000 miles of by a glass bulb in which a vacuum was
wire in underground conduits. There are maintained. Starr had exhibited his
upward of 750,000 telephones in the lamps to Faraday, in England, and was
United States, and, including both over- preparing to construct dynamos to furnish
head and underground lines, a total of electric current for them in place of bat-
more than 500,000 miles of wire. teries, but sudden death put an end to his

The display of electric light during the labors.

Paris Exposition of 1878 was the first The Edison lamp differed from those

memorable use of the electric light on a which preceded it in the extremely small

large scale. The source of light was the section of the carbon strip rendered hot by

"electric candle" of Paul Jablochkoff, a the current, and in the perfection of the

Russian engineer. It was a strikingly vacuum in which it was mounted. Edison

original and simple arc lamp. Instead of first exhibited his lamp in his laboratory

placing the two carbons point to point, at Menlo Park, in December, 1879; but

as had been done in nearly all previous before it could be properly utilized an

lamps, he placed them side by side, with a enormous amount of work had to be done,

strip of baked kaolin between them. Owing His task was not merely the improvement

to unforeseen difficulties it was gradually of an art already existing; it was the

abandoned, after having served a great pur- creation of a new art. The details of all

pose in directing the attention of the world parts of the system were made more per-

to the possibilities of the electric arc feet, and in the hands of Edison and others

in lighting. the incandescent lamps, originally of high

Inventors in America were not idle, cost, were much cheapened and the quality
By the close of 1878, Brush, of Cleve- of the production was greatly improved,
land, had brought out his series system In spite of the fact that it was well
of arc lights, including special dynamos, known that a good dynamo when reversed
lamps, etc., and by the middle of 1879 had could be made a source of power, few
in operation machines each capable of electric motors were in use until a con-
maintaining sixteen arc lamps on one wire, siderable time after the establishment of
Weston, of Newark, had also in operation the first lighting stations. Even in 1884.
circuits of arc lamps, and the Thomson- at the Philadelphia Electrical Exhibition.
Houston system had just started in com- only a few electric motors were shown,
mercial work with eight arc lamps in Twenty years ago an electric motor was
series from a single dynamo. Maxim and a curiosity; fifty years ago crude examples
Fuller, in New York, were working arc run by batteries were only to be oc-
lamps from their machines. casionally found in cabinets of scientific

Almost simultaneously with the begin- apparatus. Machinery Hall, at the Cen-
ning of the commercial work of arc light- tennial Exhibition of 1876, typified the
ing, Edison, in a successful effort to mill of the past, never again to be re-
provide a small electric lamp for general produced, with its huge engine and line?
distribution in place of gas, brought to of heavy shafting and belts conveying
public notice his carbon filament incan- power. The wilderness of belts and pul-
descent lamp. Edison worked for nearly leys is gradually being cleared away, and
two years on a lamp based upon the old electric distribution of power substituted.

208

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Moreover, the lighting of the modern mill lines in operation. About 30,000 horses

or factory is done from the same electric and mules were replaced by electric power

plant which distributes power. in the single year of 1891. In 1892 the

The electric motor has already partly Thomson-Houston interests and those of
revolutionized the distribution of power the Edison General Electric Company
for stationary machinery, but as applied were merged in the General Electric Corn-
to railways in place of animal power the pany, an event of unusual importance, as
revolution is complete. The period which it brought together the two great corn-
has elapsed since the first introduction of petitors in electric traction at that date,
electric railways is barely a dozen years. Other electric manufacturers, chief among
It is true that a few tentative experiments which was the Westinghouse Company,
in electric traction were made some time also entered the field and became promi-
in advance of 1888, notably by Siemens, nent factors in railway extension. In a
in Berlin, in 1879 and 1880, by Stephen D. few years horse traction in the United
Field, by T. A. Edison, at Menlo Park, by States on tramway lines virtually disap-
J. C. Henry, by Charles A. Van Depoele, peared. While the United States and
and others. Farmer, in 1847, tried to pro- Canada have been and still are the theatre
pel railway cars by electric motors driven of the enormous advance in electric trac-
by currents from batteries carried on the tion, as in other electric work, many elec-
cars. These efl orts were, of course, doom- trie car lines have in recent years been
ed to failure, for economical reasons. The established in Great Britain and on the
plan survives, however, in the electric continent of Europe. Countries like
automobile, best adapted to cities, where Japan, Australia, South Africa, and South
facilities for charging and caring for the America have also in operation many elec-
batteries can be had. trie trolley lines, and the work is rapidly

The modern overhead trolley, or under- extending. Most of this work, even in

running trolley, as it is called, seems to Europe, has been carried out either by

have been first invented by Van Depoele, importation of equipment from America,

and used by him in practical electric rail- or by apparatus manufactured there, but

way work about 1886 and thereafter. The following American practice closely,

year 1888 may be said to mark the be- In Chicago the application of motor-

ginning of this work, and in that year cars in trains upon the elevated railway

Frank J. Sprague put into operation the followed directly upon the practical dem-

electric line at Richmond, Va., using onstration at the World s Fair of the

the under-running trolley. The Richmond capabilities of third-rail electric traction

line was the first large undertaking. It on the Intramural Elevated Railway, and

had about 13 miles of track, numer- the system is rapidly extending so as to

ous curves, and grades of from 3 to 10 per include all elevated city roads. A few

cent. The Richmond installation, kept years will doubtless see the great change

in operation as it was in spite of all dim- accomplished.

culties, convinced Mr. Henry M. Whitney The motor-car, or car propelled by its

and the directors of the West End Street own motors, has also been introduced upon

Railway, of Boston, of the feasibility of standard steam roads to a limited extent

equipping the entire railway system of as a supplement to steam traction. The

Boston electrically. earliest of these installations are the one

The West End Company, with 200 miles at Nantasket, Mass.. and that between

of track in and around Boston, began to Hartford and New Britain, in Connec-

oquip its lines in 1888 with the Thomson- ticut. A number of special high-speed

Houston plant. The success of this great lines, using similar plans, have gone into

undertaking left no doubt of the future operation in recent years,

of electric traction. The difficulties which The three largest and most powerful

had seriously threatened future success electric locomotives ever put into service

were gradually removed. are those which are employed to take

The electric railway progress was so trains through the Baltimore & Ohio

great in the United States that about Railroad tunnel at Baltimore. They have

Jan. 1, 1891, there were more than 240 been in service about seven or eight years,
in. O 209

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

iincl are fully equal in power to the large obtained from residues in sullicient amount

steam locomotives used on steam roads, to pay well for the process.

There was opened, in London, in 1900, At Niagara also are works for the

the Central Underground, equipped with production of the metal aluminum from

twenty-six electric locomotives for draw- its ores. This metal, which competes in

ing its trains. The electric and power price with brass, bulk for bulk, was only

equipment was manufactured in America obtainable before its electric reduction

to suit the needs of the road. at $25 to $30 per pound. The metal

The alternating current transformer not sodium is also extracted from soda. A

only greatly extended the radius of supply large plant at Niagara also uses the elec-

from a single station, but also enabled trie current for the manufacture of

the station to be conveniently located chlorine for bleach, and caustic soda, both

where water and coal could be had without from common salt. Chlorine of potas-

difficulty. It also permitted the distant sium is also made at Niagara by elec-

water-powers to become sources of electric trolysis. The field of electro-chemisty

energy for lighting, power, or for other is, indeed, full of great future pos-

service. For example, a water-power sibilities. Large furnaces heated by elec-

located at a distance of 50 to 100 miles tricity, a single one of which will con-

or more from a city, or from a large man- sume more than 1,000 horse-power, exist

ufacturing centre where cost of fuel is at Niagara. In these furnaces is manufaet-

high, may be utilized. ured from coke and sand, by the Aeheson

A gigantic power-station has lately been process, an abrasive material called ear-
established at Niagara. Ten water-wheels, borundum, which is almost as hard as
located in an immense wheel-pit about diamond, but quite low in cost. It is
200 feet deep, each wheel of a capacity of made into slabs and into wheels for grind-
5,000 horse-power, drive large vertical ing hard substances. The electric furnace
shafts, at the upper end of which are furnishes also the means for producing
located the large two-phase dynamos, each artificial plumbago, or graphite, almost
of 5,000 horse-power. The electric energy perfectly pure, the raw material being
from these machines is in part raised in coke powder.

pressure by huge transformers for trans- A large amount of power from Niagara

mission to distant points, such as the city is also consumed for the production in

of Buffalo, and a large portion is delivered special electric arc furnaces of carbide

to the numerous manufacturing plants of calcium from coke and lime. This is

located at moderate distances from the the source of acetylene gas, the new il-

power-station. Besides the supply of luminant, which is generated when water

energy for lighting, and for motors, in- is brought into contact with the carbide,

eluding railways, other recent uses of While it is not likely that electricity will

electricity to which we have not yet al- soon be used for general heating, special

hided are splendidly exemplified at Niag- instances, such as the warming of electric

ara. The arts of electro-plating of ears in winter by electric heaters, the oper-

metals, such as electro-gilding, silver- ation of cooking appliances by electric

plating, nickel-plating, and copper de- current, the heating of sad-irons and the

position as in elect rotyping, are now like, give evidence of the possibilities

practised on a very large scale. Moreover, should there ever be found means for the

since the introduction of dynamo current, generation of electric energy from fuel

electrolysis has come to be employed in with such high efliciency as SO per cent,

huge plants, not only for separating or more. Present methods give, under

metals from each other, as in refining most favorable conditions, barely 10 per

them, but in addition for separating cent., 90 per cent, of the energy value of

them from their ores, for the manufacture the fuel being unavoidably wasted,

of chemical compounds before unknown, The electric current is used for welding

and for the cheap production of numer- together the joints of steel car-rails, for

ous substances of use in the various arts welding teeth in saws, for making many

on a large scale. Vast quantities of cop- parts of bicycles, and in tool making. An

per are rofinod. and silver and gold often instance of its peculiar adaptability to

210

ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ELECTROCUTION

unusual conditions is the welding of the velopnients are to come, who eini predict?

iron bands embedded within the body of The electrical progress has been great

a rubber vehicle tire for holding the tire very great but after all only a part of

in place. For this purpose the electric that grander advance in so many other

weld has been found almost essential. fields. Man still spends his best effort,

Another branch of electric development and has always done so, in the construc-
concerns the storage of electricity. The tion and equipment of his engines of
storage battery is based upon principles destruction, and now exhausts the mines
discovered by Gaston Plante, and applied, of the world of valuable metals, for ships
since 1881, by Brush, by Faure, and of war, whose ultimate goal is the bottom
others. Some of the larger lighting sta- of the sea. Perhaps all this is necessary
tions employ as reservoirs of electric now, and, if so, well. But if a fraction
energy large batteries charged by surplus of the vast expenditure entailed were
dynamo current. This is afterwards turned to the encouragement of advance
drawn upon when the consumer s load is in the arts and employments of peace, can
heavy, as dviring the evening. The storage it be doubted that, at the close of the
battery is, however, a heavy, cumbrous ap- twentieth century, the nineteenth century
paratus, of limited life, easily destroyed might come to be regarded, in spite of its
unless guarded with skill. If a form not achievements, as a rather wasteful, semi-
possessing these faults be ever found, the barbarous transition period?
field of possible application is almost Electrocution. The popular name of a
liinitlesr method of inflicting capital punishment

The wonderful X-rays, and the rich by electricity as ordered by the legislature
scientific harvest which has followed the of New York in 1888 and am tided in 1892.
discovery by Rontgen of invisible radiation New York is the only State in the coun-
from a vacuum tube, was preceded by try where this method of capital punish-
much investigation of the effects of elec- ment has been sanctioned. The first per-
tric discharges in vacuum tubes, and Hit- son executed by the new method was
torf, followed by Crookes, has given special William Kemmler, a convicted murderer,
study to these effects in very high or on whom the death sentence was thus
nearly perfect vacua. It was as late as carried out in Auburn Prison, Aug. 0.
1896 that Rontgen announced his dis- 1890. The apparatus used in the execu-
covery. Since that time several other tion, as officially described, consisted of a
sources of invisible radiation have been stationary engine, alternating-current
discovered, more or less similar in effect dynamo and exciter, a voltmeter with
to the radiations from a vacuum tube, but extra resistance coil, calibrated from a
emitted, singular as the fact is, from rare range of from 30 to 2,000 volts, an am-
substances extracted from certain min- meter for alternating currents from 0.10
orals. Leaving out, of consideration the to 3 amperes, a Wheatstone-bridge rheostat,
great value of the X-ray to physicians and bell signals, and a number of switches,
surgeons, its effect in stimulating scientific The death-chair had an adjustab e head-
inquiry has almost been incalculable. It rest, binding-straps, and two adjustable
i? as unlikely that the mystery of the electrodes, one of which was placed on
material universe will ever be completely the top of the head and the other at the
solved as it is that we can gain an lower part of the spine. The execution
adequate conception of infinite space or room contained only the death-chair, the
time. But we can at least extend the electrodes, and the wires attached to them,
range of our mental vision of the processes the remainder of the equipment being in
of nature as we do our real vision into the adjoining room. At the end of seven-
space depths by the telescope and spectro- teen seconds after the contact was made
scope. the victim was pronounced dead. The

The nineteenth century closed with current strength was believed to have been
many important problems in electrical at least 1,500 volts, although there was no
science unsolved. What great or far- official record kept of many details, but
reaching discoveries are yet in store, who in later executions the electromotive press-
can tell? What valuable practical de- ure varied from 458 to 71G volts, while

211

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH ELIOT

the ammeter has shown a variation in
current of from 2 to 7 amperes. After
the first execution there was rather a
widespread protest against this method of
carrying out capital punishment, and the
constitutionality of the legislative act was
taken to the Supreme Court of the United
States, and was there affirmed.

Electro-magnetic Telegraph. This
invention, conceived more than a century
ago, was first brought to perfection as an
intelligent medium of communication be-

MOKSK APPARATUS, C1KCLIT AND BATTKRY.

tween points distant from each other by
PROF. SAMUEL F. B. MORSE (q. v.) , of New
York, and was first presented to public
notice in 1838. In the autumn of 1837
he filed a caveat at the Patent Office; and
he gave a private exhibition of its mar
vellous power in the New York Univer
sity in January, 1838, when intelligence
was instantly transmitted by an alphabet
composed of dots and lines, invented by
Morse, through a circuit of 10 miles of
wire, and plainly recorded. Morse ap
plied to Congress for pecuniary aid to
enable him to construct an experimental
line between Washington and Baltimore.
For four years he waited, for the action
of the government was tardy, in conse
quence of doubt and positive opposition.
At the beginning of March. 1842. Confess

the first message, furnished him by a
young lady "What hath God wrought!"
The first public message was the announce
ment of the nomination by the Democratic
National Convention in Baltimore (May.
1844) of James K. Polk for President of
the United States. Professor Morse also
originated submarine telegraphy. He pub
licly suggested its feasibility in a letter
to the Secretary of the Treasury in 1813.
As early as 1842 he laid a submarine cable.
or insulated wire, in the harbor of New
York, for which achievement the American
Institute awarded him a small gold medal.
In 1858 he participated in the labors and
honors of laying a cable under the sea be
tween Europe and America. (See ATLAN
TIC TELEGRAPH). Monarchs gave him med
als and orders. Yale College conferred
upon him the honorary degree of LL.D.,
and in 1S.~&gt;8, at the instance of the Emper
or of the French, several European govern
ments combined in the act of giving Pro
fessor Morse the sum of $80,000 in gold as
a token of their appreciation. Vast im
provements have been made since in the
transmission of messages. For more than
a quarter of a century the messages were
each sent over a single wire, only one way

MORSK KKY.

appropriated $30,000 for his use; and in

May, 1844, he transmitted from Washmg-

. to Baltimore, a distance of 40 miles.

MOKSK KKGISTKK.

at a time. Early in 1871. through the in
ventions of Edison and others, messages
were sent both ways over the same wire
at the same instant of time. Very soon
four messages were sent the same way.
Now multiplex transmission is a matter
of every-day business. See VAIL, A. II.

Eliot, ANDREW, clergyman; born in
Boston. Mass., Dec. 28, 1718; graduated
at Harvard College in 1737: ordained
associate pastor of the New North Church
in Boston, where he was sole pastor
after 1750. When the Uritish occupied

212

ELIOT

Boston he did much to ameliorate Eliot, JAKED, educator and clergyman;
the condition of the people. He also born in Guilford, Conn., Nov. 7,* 1685;
saved valuable manuscripts, among them son of Joseph and grandson of John
the second volume of the History of Eliot; graduated at Yale College in 1706,
Massachusetts Bay, when the house of and from 1709 until his death he was
Governor Hutchinson was invested by a minister of the first church at Killing-
mob. He died in Boston, Mass., Sept. worth, Conn. He was a most practical
13, 1778. and useful man, and did much for the ad-

Eliot, CHARLES WILLIAM, educator; vancement of agriculture and manufa-ct-
born in Boston, Mass., March 20, 1834; ures in New England. He strongly
graduated at Harvard University in urged in essays the introduction into the
1853; was a tutor in mathematics at colonies of a better breed of sheep. In
Harvard and a student in chemistry with 1747 he wrote: "A better breed of sheep
Prof. Josiah P. Cooke, 1854-58; served as is what we want. The English breed of
Assistant Professor of Mathematics and Cotswold sheep cannot be obtained, or at
Chemistry, Lawrence Scientific School, least not without great difficulty; for
Harvard, in 1858-63; when he went wool and live sheep are contraband goods,
abroad, studied chemistry and investigated which all strangers are prohibited from
European educational methods. In 1865- carrying out on pain of having the right
69 he was Professor of Analytical Chem- hand cut off." In 1761 the London So-
istry, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- oiety for the Encouragement of Arts,
nology, and in 1869 became president of Manufactures, and Commerce honored him
Harvard University. He is a Fellow of with its medal, for producing malleable

iron from American black sand, and ho
was made a member of the Royal Society
of London. He was the first to introduce
the white mulberry into Connecticut, and
with it silk-worms, and published a.
treatise on silk-culture. Mr. Eliot was
also an able physician, and was particu
larly successful in the treatment of in
sanity and chronic complaints. He died
in Killingworth, Conn., April 22, 1763.

Eliot, JOHN, the Apostle to the Indians ;
born either in Nasing, Essex, or Widford.
Hertfordshire, England, presumably in
1604, as he was baptized in Widford, Aug.
5, 1604. Educated at Cambridge, he re
moved to Boston in 1631, and the next
year was appointed minister at Roxbury.
Seized with a passionate longing for the
conversion of the Indians and for improv
ing their condition, he commenced his
labors among the twenty tribes within
the English domain in Massachusetts in

the American Academy of Arts and October, 1646. He acquired their Ian-
Sciences, the American Philosophical So- guage through an Indian servant in his
i-iety, etc. He has given many note- family, made a grammar of it, and trans-
worthy addresses on educational and lated the Bible into the Indian tongue,
scientific subjects. He is the author of It is claimed that Eliot was the first
MitiiiKtl of Qualitative Chemical Analysis Protestant minister who preached to the
(with Prof. Francis H. Storer) ; Manual Indians in their native tongue. An Ind-
of Inorganic Chemistry (with the same) ; ian town called Natick was erected on the
Five American Contributions to Civiliza- Charles River for the "praying Indians"
tion, and othmr Essays; Educational Re- in 1657, and the first Indian church was
form, etc. established there in 1660. During King

213

CUARLK8 WILLIAM KLIOT.

ELIOT, JOHN

JOHN ELIOT.

Philip s War Eliot s efforts in behalf of
the praying Indians saved them from de
struction by the white people. He trav
elled extensively, visited many tribes,
planted several churches, and once
preached before King Philip, who treated
him with disdain. He persuaded many to

adopt the customs of civilized life, and
lived to see twenty-four of them become
preachers of the Gospel to their own
tribes. His influence among the Indians
was unbounded, and his generosity in
helping the sick and afflicted among them
was unsparing. Cotton Mather aMirmed,
" We had a tradition that the country
could never perish as long as Eliot WHS
alive." He published many small works
on religious subjects, several of which
were in the Indian language. His great
est work was the translation of the Bible
into the Indian language (1661-66), and
was the first Bible ever printed in Amer
ica. It is much sought after by collectors.
The language in which it was written has
perished. He died in Roxbury, Mass.,
Msi&gt; 20, 1690.

The Brief Narrative. Tins was the
last of Eliot s publications relating to the
progress of Christianity among the
American Indians. Its full title was:

" A Brief Narrative of the Progress of
the Gospel amongst the Indians in New Eng
land in the Year 1670, given in by the Rever
end MB. JOHX KLLIOT, Minister of the Gospel
there in a LETTER by. him directed to 1
Right Worshipfull the COMMISSIONERS under
his Majesties Great-Seal for Propagation of
the Gospel amongst the poor blind Natives In

JOHN ELIOT PREACHING TO THE INDIANS.

214

ELIOT ELIZABETH

those United Colonies. LONDON, Printed which vested in the crown the supremacy

tor John Allen, formerly living in Little- claimed by the pope; the mass was abol-

* ished &gt; an T d the litur &lt;F Edward VI - -

stored. In one session the whole system

Eliot, JOHN, clergyman; born in Bos- of religion in England was altered by the

ton, Mass., May 31, 1754; son of -Andrew will of a single young woman. When

Eliot; graduated at Harvard College in Francis II. of France assumed the arms

1772; succeeded his father as minister and title of King of England in right

of the New North Church in November, of his wife, Mary Stuart, Elizabeth sent

1779; was one of the founders of the an army to Scotland which drove the

Massachusetts Historical Society. He French out of the kingdom. She sup-

published a Biographical Dictionary of ported the French Huguenots with money

Eminent Characters in New England, and troops in their struggle with the

He died in Boston, Mass., Feb. 14, 1813. Roman Catholics in 1562. In 1563 the

Eliot, SAMUEL, historian; born in Bos- Parliament, in an address to the Queen,

ton, Mass., Dec. 22, 1821; graduated entreated her to choose a husband, so as

at Harvard College in 1839; professor of to secure a Protestant succession to the

History and Political Science in Trinity crown. She returned an evasive answer.

College in 1856-04. His publications in- She gave encouragement to several suitors,

elude Passages from the History of Lib- after she rejected Philip, among them

erty; History of Liberty (in five parts, Archduke Charles of Austria, the Duke of

the last of which is entitled the Amer- Anjou, and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leiees-

ican Nation) ; and a Manual of United ter. The latter remained her favorite un-

titates History between the Years 1792 til his death in 1588. During the greater

and 1850. He died in Beverly, Mass., part of Elizabeth s reign, Cecil, Lord Bur-

Sept. 14, 1898. leigh, was her prime minister. For more

Elizabeth., QUEEN OF ENGLAND; born in than twenty years from 1564 England was

Greenwich, Sept. 7, 1533; daughter of at peace with foreign nations, and enjoyed

Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. Under the great prosperity. Because of the opposite

tuition of Roger Ascham she acquired interests in religion, and possibly because

much proficiency in classical learning, and of matrimonial affairs, Elizabeth and

before she was seventeen years of age Philip of Spain were mutually hostile,

she was mistress of the Latin, French, and and in 1588 the latter sent the " invincible

Italian languages, and had read several Armada " for the invasion of England.

works in Greek. By education she was It consisted of over 130 vessels and 30,000

attached to the Protestant Church, and men. It was defeated and dispersed (Aug.

was persecuted by her half-sister, Mary, 8), and in a gale more than fifty of the

who was a Roman Catholic. Elizabeth Spanish ships were wrecked. On the death

never married. When quite young her of Leicester the Queen showed decided

father negotiated for her nuptials with partiality for the Earl of Essex. Her

the son of Francis I. of France, but it treatment and final consent to the execu-

failed. She flirted awhile with the am- tion, by beheading, of Mary, Queen of

bitious Lord Seymour. In 1558 she de- Scots, has left a stain on the memory of

clined an offer of marriage from Eric, Elizabeth. She assisted the Protestant

King of Sweden, and also from Philip of Henry IV. of France in his struggle with

Spain. Her sister Mary died Nov. 17, the French Roman Catholics, whom Philip

1558, when Elizabeth was proclaimed of Spain subsidized. Her reign was vigor-

Queen of England. With caution she pro- ous, and is regarded as exceedingly bene-

ceeded to restore the Protestant religion ficial to the British nation. Literature

tc ascendency in her kingdom. Her re- was fostered, and it was illustrated dur-

form began by ordering a large part of the ing her reign by such men as Spenser,

church service to be read in English, and Shakespeare, Sidney, Bacon, and Raleigh.

forbade the elevation of the host in her Elizabeth was possessed of eminent ability

presence. Of the Roman Catholic bishops, and courage, but her personal charao-

only one consented to officiate at her covo- tor was deformed by selfishness, incon-

nation. In 1559 Parliament passed a bill stancy, deceit, heartlessness, and other un-

215

ELIZABETHTOWN CLAIMANTS

QUEEN KLIZABKTH.

womanly faults. She signified her will
on her death-bed that James VI. of Scot-
land, son of the beheaded Mary, should
bt&gt; her successor, and he was accordingly
crowned as such. She diod March 24,
1003.

Elizabethtown Claimants. For more
than a century the dispute between the
first settlers at Elizabethtown, N. J. (who
came from Long Island and New Eng-
land), and, first, the proprietors of New
Jerscy, and, next, the crown, arose and
continued concerning the title to the lands
on which these settlers were seated. The
dispute occurred in consequence of con-
flicting claims to eminent domain, caused
bv a dispute a xmt the original title of

the soil. The Elizabethtown settlers ob-
tained their land from the Indians, with
the consent of Governor Nicolls; but al-
ready the Duke of York, without the
knowledge of Nicolls or the settlers, had
sold the domain of New Jersey to Berke-
ley and Carteret. The new proprietors ig-
nored the title of the settlers, and made
demands as absolute proprietors of the
soil, which the latter continually resisted
themselves, and so did their heirs. Fre-
quont unsuccessful attempts at ejectment
were made; the settlers resisted by force.
The Assembly, called upon to interfere,
usually declined, for that body rather fa-
vored the Elizabethtown claimants. Final-
ly. in 1757, Governor Belcher procured an

ELIZABBTHTOWN EXPEDITION ELKSWATAWA

act of assembly by which all past differ- Prophet; brother of the famous Tecumseh;
encea should be buried. It was not ac- born in Piqua, the seat of the Piqua
ceptable; and in 1751 the British govern- clan of the Shawnees, about 4 miles
ment ordered a commission of inquiry to north of Springfield, O., early in 1775. He
determine the law and equity in the case, was a shrewd deceiver of his people by
The proprietors also began chancery suits means of pretended visions and powers of
against the heirs of the Elizabethtown set- divination. By harangues lie excited the
tiers, and these were pending when the superstition of the Indians; and such be-
Revolution broke out (1775) and settled came his fame as a "medicine-man," or
the whole matter. prophet, that large numbers of men, wom-

Elizabethtown, or Elizabeth, as the place en, and children of the forest came long
is now called, was settled in 1665; was the
colonial capital from 1755 to 1757, and
the State capital till 1790, when Trenton
became the seat of government ; and be
came a city in 1865. It contains an old
tavern where Washington stopped on his
way to New York for his first inaugura
tion, Gen. Winfield Scott s home, the Bou-
dinot House, and the old Livingston Man
sion. The College of New Jersey, now
Princeton University, chartered in 1746.
was opened here in May, 1747.

Elizabethtown Expedition, a military
movement in the War of 1812-15, in
which an American force under Major
Forsyth captured Elizabethtown (near
Brockville), Canada, Feb. 7, 1813, released
the American prisoners, seized some of the
garrison and a quantity of stores, and re-
turned to the United States without the /
loss of a man.

Elk Creek, or HOXEY SPRINGS, a local
ity in the Indian Territory, where, on July
17, 1863, Gen. James G. Blunt, with a
force of Kansas cavalry, artillery, and
Indian home guards, defeated a Confeder
ate force under Gen. S. H. Cooper, the distances to see thia oracle of the Great
latter losing nearly 500 in killed and Spirit, who they believed could work mir-
wounded. acles. His features were ugly. He had

Elkhorn, BATTLE OF. See PEA RIDGE, lost one eye in his youth, and, owing to

Elkins, STEPHEN BENTOX, legislator; dissipation, he appeared much older than
born in Perry county, Ohio, Sept. 26, his brother Tecumseh. The latter was
1841 ; graduated at the Missouri Univer- really an able man, and used this brother
sity in I860; admitted to the bar in 1863; as his tool. The Prophet lost the con-
i-aptain in the 77th Missouri Regiment fidence of his people by the events of the
1862-63; removed to New Mexico in battle of Tippecanoe. On the evening be-
1864, where he engaged in mining; elect- fore the battle the demagogue pre-
ed member of the Territorial legislature pared for treachery and murder. He
in 1864; became attorney-general of the brought out a magic bowl, a sacred
Territory in 1868; United States district torch, a string of holy beans, and his
attorney in 1870; member of Congress in followers were all required to touch these
1873-77; Secretary of War in 1891-94; talismans and be made invulnerable, and
and elected United States Senator from then to take an oath to exterminate
West Virginia in 1895 and 1901. the pale-faces. When this was aecom-

Elkswatawa, Indian, known as the plished the Prophet went through a

217

ULKSWATAWA, TIIK 1 UOPIIKT.

ELLERY ELLET

long series of incantations and mystical revenue at Newport. Mr. Ellery was a
movements; then, turning to his highly strenuous advocate of the abolition of
excited band about 700 in number slavery. He died in Newport, Feb. 15,

he told them that the time to attack 1820.
the white men had come. " They are

Ellet, CHARLES, engineer; born in

in your power," he said, holding up Penn s Manor, Bucks co., Pa., Jan. 1,
the holy beans as a reminder of their
oath. " They sleep now, and will never
awake. The Great Spirit will give light to
us and darkness to the white men. Their
bullets shall not harm us; your weapons
shall be always fatal." Then followed
war songs and dances, until the Indians,
wrought up to a perfect frenzy, rushed
forth to attack Harrison s camp, without
any leaders. Stealthily they crept through
the long grass of the prairie in the deep
gloom, intending to surround their en
emy s position, kill the sentinels, rush
into the camp, and massacre all. The re
sult of the battle of TIITECANOE (q. v.)
caused the Indians to doubt his inspira
tion by the Great Spirit. They covered
him with reproaches, when he cunningly
told them that his predictions concerning
the battle had failed because his wife had

touched the sacred vessels and broken the 1810; planned and built the first wire
charm. Even Indian superstition and suspension bridge in the United States,
credulity could not accept that transparent across the Schuylkill at Fairmount ; and
falsehood for an excuse, and the Prophet planned and constructed the first Bus-
was deserted by his disappointed followers pension bridge over the Niagara River
and compelled to seek refuge among the below the Falls, and other notable
Wyandottes. bridges. When the Civil War broke out

Ellery, WILLIAM, a signer of the he turned his attention to the const ruc-

CHARLKS ELLET.

Declaration of Independence; born in tion of steam "rams " for the Western

Newport, R. I., Dec. 22, 1727: grad

uated at Harvard in 1747; became

a merchant in Newport; and was

naval officer of Rhode Island in

1770. He afterwards studied and

practised law at Newport, and gain

ed a high reputation. An active

patriot, he was a member of Con

gress from 1776 to 1785, excepting

two years, and was very useful in

matters pertaining to finance and

diplomacy. He was especially ser

viceable as a member of the marine

committee, and of the board of ad

miralty. During the occupation of

Rhode Island by the British he suf

fered great loss of properly, but

bore it with quiet cheerfulness as a

sacrifice for the public good. He was rivers, and a plan proposed by him to

KLLKT S STERS-WHKBL RAM.

chief -justice of the Superior Court of the Secretary of War (Mr. Stanton)
Rhode Island, and in 1790 collector of the adopted, and he soon converted ten or

218

ELLET ELLIOTT

twelve powerful steamers on the Missis
sippi into " rams," with which he ren
dered great assistance in the capture of
Memphis. In the battle there he was
struck by a musket-ball in the knee, from
the effects of which he died, in Cairo, 111.,
June 21, 1862. Mr. Ellet proposed to
General McClellan a pian for cutting off
the Confederate army at Manassas, which
the latter rejected, and the engineer wrote
and published severe strictures on Mc-
Clellan s mode of conducting the war.

Ellet, ELIZABETH FRIES, author; born
in Sodus Point, N. Y., in 1818; was au
thor of Domestic History of the American
Revolution; Women of the American Rev
olution; Pioneer Women of the West; and
Queens of American Society. She died
June 3, 1877.

Ellicott, ANDREW, civil engineer; born
in Bucks county, Pa., Jan. 24, 1754. His
father and uncle founded the town of
Ellicott s Mills (now Ellicott City), Md.,
in 1790. Andrew was much engaged in
public surveying for many years after
settling in Baltimore in 1785. In 1789
he made the first accurate measurement
of Niagara River from lake to lake, and
in 1790 he was employed by the United
States government in laying out the city
of Washington. In 1792 he was made
surveyor-general of the United States, and
in 179G he was a commissioner to de
termine the southern boundary between
the territory of the United States and
Spain, in accordance with a treaty.
From Sept. 1, 1813, until his death, Aug.
29, 1820, he was professor of mathematics
and civil engineering at West Point.

Elliott, CHARLES, clergyman ; born in
Creenconway, Ireland, May 16, 1792; be
came a member of the Wesleyan Church ;
came to the United States about 1815;
joined the Ohio Methodist conference in
1818. He was the author of History of
the Great Recession from the Methodist
Episcopal Church ; Southwestern Method
ism; two publications against slavery, etc.
He died in Mount Pleasant, la., Jan. 6,
1869.

Elliott, CHARLES LORING, painter;
born in Scipio, N. Y., in December, 1812;
was the son of an architect, who pre
pared him for that profession. He be
came a pupil of Trumbull, in New York,
and afterwards of Quidor, a painter of

fancy-pieces. Having acquired the tech
nicalities of the art, his chief employ
ment for a time was copying engravings
in oil, and afterwards he attempted por
traits. He practised portrait-painting in
the interior of New York for about ten
years, when he went to the city (1845),
where he soon rose to the head of his pro
fession as a portrait-painter. It is said
that he painted 700 portraits, many of
them of distinguished men. His like
nesses were always remarkable for fidel
ity, and for beauty and vigor of coloring.
He died in Albany, Aug. 25, 1868.

Elliott, CHARLES WYLLYS, author; born
in Guilford, Conn., May 27. 1817. His pub
lications relating to the United States in
clude New England History, from the
Discovery of the Continent by the North
men, A. D. 968, to 1776; and The Book
of American Interiors, prepared from ex
isting Houses. He died Aug. 23, 1883.

Elliott, JESSE DUNCAN, naval officer;
born in Maryland, July 14, 1782; entered
the United States navy as midshipman in

JKSSK IH .VA.N KI.MOTT.

April, 1S04: and rose to master, July 24,
1813. He was with Barren in the Tripoli-
tan War, and served on the Lakes with
Chauncey and Perry in the War of 1812-
15. He captured two British vessels, De
troit and Caledonia, at Fort Erie, for
which exploit ho was presented by Con
gress with a sword. He was in command
of the Niagara in Perry s famous combat
on Lake Erie, to which the Commodore

219

ELLIOTT ELLIS

THE HLL10TT MKOAL.

went from the Lawrence during the ac- Ellis, GEORGE EDWARD, clergyman; born
tion. He succeeded Perry in command on in Boston, Mass., Aug. 8, 1814; grad-
Lake Erie in October, 1813. Elliott was uated at Harvard in 1833; ordained ;i
with Decatur in the Mediterranean in 1815, Unitarian pastor in 1840; president of the
and was promoted to captain in March, Massachusetts Historical Society, and au-
1818. He commanded the West India thor of History of the Battle of Bunker
squadron (1829-32); took charge of the Hill, and biographies of John Mason, Will-
navy-yard at Charleston in 1833; and af- iam Penn, Anne Hutchinson, Jared Sparks,
terwards cruised several years in the Med- Count Rumford, etc. He died in Boston,
iterranean. On his return he was court- Mass., Dec. 20, 1894.

martialled, and suspended from command Ellis, HENRY, colonial governor; born

for four years. A part of the sentence in England in 1721; studied law; appoint-

was remitted, and in 1844 he was ap- ed lieutenant - governor of Georgia, Aug.

pointed to the command of the navy-yard 15, 1750; became royal governor, May 17,

at Philadelphia. For the part which Elli- 1758. He proved himself a wise admin-

ott took in the battle of Lake Erie Con- istrator, and succeeded in establishing

gress awarded him the thanks of the na- good-will between the colonists and the

tion and a gold medal. He died in Creeks. The climate proving bad for hi?

Philadelphia, Dec. 10, 1845. health, he returned to England in Novem-

Elliott, JONATHAN, author; born in ber, 1760. He was author of Heat of th&lt;

Carlisle, England, in 1784; emigrated to Weather in (leoryia, etc. He died Jan.

New York in 1802; served in the United 21, 1806.

States army in the War of 1812. Among Ellis, JOHN WILLIS, governor; born in

his writings are American Diplomatic Rowan county, X. C., Nov. 25, 1820;

Code; Debate on the Adoption of the Con- graduated at the University of North

stitution; The Comparative Tariffs, etc. Carolina in 1841, and admitted to the bar

He died in Washington, D. C., March 12, in 1842. He was governor of North Caro-

1840. lina in 1858-fil. In the name of his State

Elliott, SUSANNAH, heroine; born in he occupied Fort Macon. the works at
South Carolina about 1750; made for Wilmington, and the United States arse-
Colonel Moultrie s regiment two stand- nal at Fayetteville, Jan. 2, 1861. In
ards, which she embroidered; and assist- April of the same year he ordered the
i-d several American officers in escaping seizure of the United States mint at
hy concealing them in a hidden room in Charlotte. He died in Raleigh, N. C.,
house.. in 1861.

220

ELLIS ELMIBA

Ellis, SETH H., politician; was can- It was then taken to New York, where
date of the Union Reform party for it lay in state in the City Hall, and, after
President in 1900, with Samuel T. Nicho- being carried in procession through the
las, of Pennsylvania, for Vice-President, streets of the city, it was conveyed to his
They received a popular vote of 5,698. birthplace for burial. He was young and

Ellison s Mill. See MECHANICSVILLE, handsome, and his death, being the first
BATTLE OF. of note that had occurred in the opening

Ellmaker, AMOS, jurist; born in New war, produced a profound sensation
Holland, Pa., Feb. 2, 1787; admitted to throughout the country,
the bar in 1808; elected to the State legis- Ellsworth, OLIVER, LL.D., jurist;
lature in 1812; appointed district judge born in Windsor. Conn., April 29, 1745;
in 1815 ; attorney-general of the State in
1816; was candidate for Vice-President on
the Anti-Masonic ticket in 1832. He
died in Lancaster, Pa., Nov. 28, 1851.

Ellsworth, EPHRAIM ELMER, military
officer; born in Mechanicsville, N. Y.,
April 23, 1837; was first engaged in mer
cantile business in Troy, N. Y., and as a
patent solicitor in Chicago he acquired
a good income. While studying law he
joined a Zouave corps at Chicago, and
in July, 1860, visited some of the Eastern
cities of the Union with them and at
tracted great attention. On his return he
organized a Zouave regiment in Chicago;
and in April, 1861, he organized another
from the New York Fire Department.
These were among the earlier troops that
hastened to Washington. Leading his

OLIVKK HLL8WORTH.

Zouaves to Alexandria, Ellsworth was

shot dead by the proprietor of the Mar- graduated at the College of New Jer-

shall House, while he was descending the sey in 1766; was admitted to the bar

stairs with a Confederate flag which he in 1771; practised in Hartford, Conn.;

and was made State attorney. When the
Revolutionary War was kindling he took
the " side of the patriots in the leg
islature of Connecticut, and was a dele
gate in Congress from 1777 to 1780. He
became a member of the State council,
and in 1784 was appointed a judge of the
Supreme Court. Judge Ellsworth was one
of the framers of the national Constitu
tion, but, being called away before the
adjournment of the convention, his name
was not attached to that instrument. He
was the first United States Senator from
Connecticut (1789-95), and drew up the
bill for organizing the Judiciary Depart
ment. In 1796 he was made chief- justice
of the Supreme Court of the United States.
and at the close of 1799 he was one of the
envoys to France. He died in Windsor,

had pulled down, May 24, 1861. His body Nov. 26, 1807.

was taken to Washington, and lay in state Elmira, BATTLE OF. See SULLIVAX,

in the East Room of the White House. JOHN.

221

EPHRAIM ELMER ELLSWORTH.

EL MOLING DEL KEY

El Molino del Rey, CAPTURE OF. Al
most within cannon-shot distance of the
city of Mexico is Chapultepec, a hill com
posed of porphyritic rock, and known in
the Aztec language as "Grasshoppers Hill."
It rises from the ancient shore of Lake
Tezcuco, and was the favorite resort of the
Aztec princes. It was also the site of the
palace and gardens of Montezuma.. That

hill was crowned with a strong castle and
military college, supported by numerous
outworks, which, with the steepness of the
ascent to it, seemed to make it impregna
ble. Only the slope towards the city was
easily ascended, and that was covered with
a thick forest. At the foot of the hill
was a stone building, with thick high
walls, and towers at the end, known as El

HATTLK OF KL MOUNU DHL RKY.

222

EL MOLING DEL BEY ELY

Molino del Key" The King s Mill." About the field. Their best leaders had been
400 yards from this was another massive slain, and 800 men had been made prison-
stone building, known as Casa de Mata. ers. The strong buildings were blown up.
The former was used (1847) as a cannon and none of the defences of Mexico out-
foundry by the Mexicans, and the latter side its gates remained to them, excepting
was a depository of gunpowder. Both the castle of CIIAPULTEPEC (q. v.) and
were armed and strongly garrisoned. Gen- its supports.

eral Scott, at Tacubaya, ascertained that Elwyn, ALFRED LANGDON, philanthro-
Santa Ana, while negotiations for peace pist; born in Portsmouth, N. H., July
were going on, had sent church-bells out 9, 1804; graduated at Harvard College
of the city to be cast into cannon, and he in 1823; studied medicine, but never
determined to seize both of these strong practised; became known as a philanthro-
buil dings and deprive the Mexicans of pist. He originated the Pennsylvania
those sources of strength. He proposed to Agricultural Society and Farm-school, of
first attack El Molino del Key, which was which he was president in 1850; was also
commanded by General Leon. The Mex- president of various philanthropic insti-
ican forces at these defences were about tutions. He was the author of Glossary
14,000 strong, their left wing resting on of Supposed Americanisms; and Letters
El Molino del Rey, their centre forming to the Eon. John Langdon, during and
a connecting line with Casa de Mata. and after the Revolution. He died in Phila-
supported by a field-battery, and their delphia, Pa., March 15, 1884.
right wing resting on the latter. To the Ely, ALFRED, lawyer; born in Lyme,
division of General Worth was intrust- Conn., Feb. 18, 1815; settled in Rochester,
ed the task of assailing the works N. Y., in 1835; admitted to the bar in
before them. At three o clock on the 1841 ; member of Congress in 1859-63.
morning of Sept. 8 (1847) the assaulting He was taken prisoner by the Confederates
columns moved to the attack, Garland s while visiting the battles-field of Bull Run
brigade forming the right wing. The bat- in July, 1861, and confined in Libby
tie began at dawn by Huger s 24-pounder prison for six months; was then ex-
opening on El Molino del Rey, when Ma- changed for Charles J. Faulkner, the min-
jor Wright, of the 8th Infantry, fell upon ister to France, who had been arrested
the centre with 500 picked men. On the for disloyalty. While in Libby prison
left was the 2d Brigade, commanded by he kept a journal, which was later .pub-
Colonel Mclntosh, supported by Duncan s lished as the Journal of Alfred Ely, a
battery. The assault of Major Wright on Prisoner of War in Richmond. He died
the centre drove back infantry and artil- in Rochester, N. Y., May 18, 1892.
lery, and the Mexican field-battery was Ely, RICHARD THEODORE, political econ-
captured. The Mexicans soon rallied and omist; born in Ripley, N. Y., April 13,
regained their position, and a terrible 1854 ; graduated at Columbia University
struggle ensued. El Molino del Rey was in 1876; became Professor of Politi-
soon assailed and carried by Garland s cal Economy in the University of Wis-
brigade, and at the same time the battle cousin in 1892. Among his works are
around Casa de Mata was raging fiercely. French and German Socialism; Taxation
For a moment the Americans reeled, but in American States; Socialism and Social
soon recovered, when a large column of Reform; The Social Laic of Service; The
Mexicans was seen filing around the right Labor Movement in America, etc.
of their intrenchments to fall upon the Ely, WILLIAM G., military officer; born
Americans who had been driven back, about 1835; joined the National army on
when Duncan s battery opened upon them the first call for volunteers. On June
so destructively that the Mexican column 13, 1863, he was captured in the engage-
was scattered in confusion. Then Sum- ment at Fort Royal Pike. After spend-
ner s dragoons charged upon them, and ing eight months in Libby prison, he en-
their rout was complete. The slaughter deavored to make his escape with 108
had been dreadful. Nearly one-fourth of others through the famous underground
Worth s corps were either killed or wound- passage dug beneath Twentieth Street,
ed. The Mexicans had left 1,000 dead on Four days later fifty of the number, in-

223

ELZET EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS

eluding Colonel Ely, were retaken. He tifications, and when they brought their

was, however, soon afterwards exchanged, women and children with them he issued

and led his regiment, on June 4, 1801, rations to them and charged them to the

at the battle of Piedmont; received the service of the men. The President sustain-

brevet of brigadier-general of volunteers ed General Butler s action in this case and

in the same year. the example was followed by other com-

Elzey, ARNOLD, military officer; born in manders. The government ordered strict
Somerset county, Md., Dec. 18, 1816; accounts to be kept of the labor thus per-
graduated at the United States Military formed, as it was not yet determined that
Academy in 1837 ; served with distinction these laborers should be regarded as free,
through the Florida and Mexican wars. On Aug. 6, 1861, the President signed an
When the Civil War broke out he resigned act passed by Congress which declared that
from the National army and entered when any slave was employed in any mili-
that of the Confederates; was promoted tary or naval service against the govern-
on the field to the rank of brigadier-gen- ment the person by whom his labor was
eral by Jefferson Davis for gallant ser- claimed, that is, his owner, should forfeit
vice, and later attained to that of major- all claims to such labor. The intent at the
general. He died in Baltimore, Md., Feb. time this bill was passed was that it should
21, 1871. be in force only tentatively, for few were

Emancipation Proclamations. For then able to see what proportions the
many years there has been a fiction that war would assume and what other meas-
Gen. Benjamin F. Butler issued the first ures would be found necessary to end it.
proclamation freeing the slaves. That General Fremont, then in command of the
officer never issued such a proclamation, Western Department of the army, chose
but he was the first to suggest to the gov- to assume that the confiscation act of
eminent a partial solution of the very Congress had unlimited scope, and Aug.
perplexing question as to what was to be 31, 1861, issued a proclamation confis-
done with the slaves during the Civil War. eating the property and freeing the
It was held tha-t the Constitution of the slaves of all citizens of Missouri who had
United States did not give to Congress, or taken, or should take, up arms against
to the non-slave-holding States, any right the government. This action of Fremont
to interfere with the institution of slavery, embarrassed President Lincoln greatly.
This was reaffirmed by Congress in a reso- For whatever may have been his hope that
lution passed by the House, Feb. 11, 1861, the outcome of the war would be the final
without a dissenting voice, to reassure the abolition of slavery, he could not fail to
South that, in spite of the election of Mr. see that to permit the generals of the
Lincoln, the North had no intention of army to take such a course then in this
usurping power not granted by the Con- matter was rather premature. He ac-
stitution. But when, after the outbreak cordingly wrote to General Fremont re-
of the war, the army began to occupy questing him to modify his proclamation,
posts in the seceding a-nd slave-holding The general replied with a request that
States, the negroes came flocking into thv the President himself would make the
Union lines, large numbers being set free necessary modifications. President Lin-
by the disorganized condition of affairs coin therefore issued a special order,
from the usual labor on the farms and Sept. 11, 1861, declaring that the emanci-
plantations of the South. Then the ques- pation clause of General Fremont s procla-
tion arose. What can be done with them? mation "be so modified, held, and con-
General Butler, when they came into his strued as to conform with and not to
camp at Fort Monroe, detained them and transcend the provisions on the same sub-
refused to surrender them upon the appli- ject contained in the act of Congress ap-
cation of their owners on the plea that proved Aug. 6," preceding,
they were contraband of war, that is, Another instance of the kind occurred
property which could be used in military at the hands of General Hunter, the fol-
operations, and therefore, by the laws of lowing year. That officer, being in corn-
war, subject to seizure. He set the able- mand at Hilton Head, N. C., proclaimed
bodied men to work upon government for- the States of Georgia. Florida, and South

224

EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS

Carolina, in his department, under mar- tnincd in the act. Finally, in September,

tial law, and May 9, 18(i2, issued an he issued the following warning procla-

order in which occurred these words: rnation:

" Slavery and martial law in a free " PROCLAMATION.

country are altogether incompatible. The ,, If Abraham Lincoln, President of the

persons in these States Georgia, Florida, United States of America, and Commanuer-

and South Carolina heretofore held as in-chief of the Army and Navy thereof, do

slaves are therefore declared forever hei f bv J"?* 1 * 1 " and dec . 1 * that he ^^f

as heretofore, the war will be prosecuted for

free." Though President Lincoln had the object of practically restoring the con-
been bitterly censured by extremists for stitutional relation between the United

his action towards General Fremont, and states and eaoh of the States, and the peo-

,, , , , ,, ,, .,, pie thereof, in which States that relation is

though he knew that to interfere with 01 . may be suspen ded or disturbed.

General Hunter would only bring upon That it is my purpose, upon the next

him even a worse storm of reproaches, meeting of Congress, to again recommend

he did not shrink from what he believed the ad Ption of a practical measure tender
ing pecuniary aid to the free acceptance or

his duty m the matter. He immediately rejection of all slave States, so-called, the

issued a proclamation sternly revoking people whereof may not then be in rebellion

General Hunter s order, saving that the against the United States, and which States

, , , , , , ,j may then have voluntarily adopted, or there-

government had not had any knowledge afte \. may voluntarlly adopt , immediate or

of the general s intention to issue an gradual abolishment of slavery within their

order, and distinctly stating that "neither respective limits ; and that the efforts to

General Hunter nor any other commander colonize persons of African descent,

their consent, upon this continent or else-

or person has been authorized by the gov- where, with the previously obtained consent

ernment of the United States to make of the governments existing there, will be

proclamation declaring the slaves of any continued.

[,, , (l -r , fV 11 n "That on the first day of January, in the

State free." "I further make known, year of om . Lord one thousand eight nun .

he continued, " that whether it be com- dred and sixty-three, all persons held as

petent for me, as commander-in-chief of slaves within any State, or designated part

the army and navv, to declare the slaves ? f a K state the P eo P e , w * er . e s al ! theu h ^

j* in rebellion against the United States, shall

of any State or States free; and whether, be then; thenceforward, and forever free;

at any time or in any case, it shall have and the Executive Government of the United

become a necessity indispensable to the States, including the military and naval

. , - ,, authority thereof, will recognize and mam-

the government to exer- tain the freedom of such persons, and will

cise such supposed power, are questions do no act or acts to repress such persons,

which, under my responsibility, I reserve or any of them, in any efforts they may

to myself, and which I cannot feel justi- ^ ^gS^Sfc the first day

fied in leaving to commanders in the of j anuary aforesaid, by proclamation, des-

field." Though much displeasure was ex- ignate the States and parts of States, if

pressed by many at the time concerning an y- ln which the people thereof respectively

... , , . , shall then be in rebellion against the United

the position thus taken by the President, gtateB&gt; and the fact that any state&gt; or the

it was generally admitted later that he people thereof, shall on that day be in good

was justified in taking it, since it was faith represented in the Congress of thp

from no lack of sympathy with the cause United States by members chosen theret,

J . * , 111- at elections wherein a majority of the quali-

ot emancipation that he withheld his fled voters O f suc h state shall have partic-

sanction from the premature attempts ipated, shall, in the absence of strong coun-

to secure it tervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive

On July 16, 1862, Congress passed an 2^ J^^

act for the suppression of slavery, one the United States.

provision of which declared the absolute " That attention is hereby called to an act

" freedom of the slaves of rebels " under of Congress entitled

, . ,. , ,, , additional Article of War, approved March

certain operations of war therein denned. 13&gt; 18G2 and which act is in the words and

This gave the President a wide field for figures following :

the exercise of executive power, but he " Be it enacted I)/ the Senate and House

j -,v j m A- of Representatives of the United States of

used it with great prudence. The patient JkJg^J Oongrea, assembled. That here-

Lincoln hoped the wise men among the after t he following shall be promulgated as

Confederates might heed the threat con- an additional article of war for the sovern-

IIT, P 225

EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS

uieut of the army of the United States, and have been suspended or disturbed) b com

shall be obeyed and observed as such :

" Article . All officers or persons in the
military or naval service of the United

pensated for all losses by acts of the United
States, including the loss of slaves.

" In witness whereof I have hereunto set

States are prohibited from employing any my hand and caused the seal of the United
of the forces under their respective com- States to be affixed.

Done at the city of Washington, this

mands for the purpose of returning fugitives

from service or labor who may have escaped

from any persons to whom such service or of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and

labor is claimed to be due ; and any officer sixty-two, and of the Independence of the

who shall be found guilty by a court martial

of violating this article shall be dismissed

from the service.

" Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That
this act shall take effect from and after its
passage.

"Also, to the ninth and tenth sections d mentioned the President issued the
of an act entitled An Act to Suppress In- - , , .
surrection, to Punish Treason and Rebellion, following proclamation:
to Seize and Confiscate Property of Rebels,

twenty-second day of September, in the year

United States the eighty-seventh.

" ABRAHAM LINCOLN.
" By the President :

" WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of State."

This warning was unheeded, and on the

and for other Purposes," approved July 17,
1862, and which sections are in the words
and figures following:

Sec. 9. And be it further enacted, That

PROCLAMATION.

" Whereas, On the 22d day of September,
in the year of our Lord one thousand eight

all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was
engaged in rebellion against the Government issued bv the President of the United ,tates,
of the United States, or who shall in any
way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping
from such persons and taking refuge within

containing, among other things, the follow
ing, to wit :

" That on the first day of January, In
the year of our Lord one thousand eight

from such persons, "or deserted by them and hundred and sixty-three, all persons held
coming under the control of the Government a s slaves within any

the lines of the army ; and all slaves captured

of the United States ; and all slaves of such
persons found on (or) being within any
place occupied by rebel forces and after
ward occupied by the forces of the United
States, shall be deemed captives of war, and
shall be forever free of their servitude, and
not again held as slaves.

" Sec. 10. And be it further enacted, That

part of a State, the people whereof shall then
be in rebellion against the United States,
shall be then, thenceforward, and forever
free ; and the Executive Government of
the United States, including the military
and naval authorities thereof, will recognize
and maintain the freedom of such persons,
and will do no act or acts to repress such

no slave escaping into any State, Territory, persons, or any of them, in any efforts they

or the District of Columbia, from any other may make for their actual freedom.
State, shall be delivered up, or in any way That the Executive will, on the first

impeded or hindered of his liberty, except day of January aforesaid, by proclamation,

for crime, or some offence against the laws, designate the States and parts of States,

unless the person claiming said fugitive shall if any, In which the people thereof, respec-

first make an oath that the person to whom
the labor or service of such fugitive is alleged

tlvely, shall then be in rebellion against the
United States : and the fact that any State.

to be due is his lawful owner, and has not or the people thereof, shall on that day be

borne arms against the United States In the in good faith represented In the Congress

present rebellion, nor in any way given aid of the United States by members chosen

and comfort thereto ; and no persons en- thereto at elections wherein a majority of the

gaged In the military or naval service of the qualified voters of such States shall have

I nited States shall, under any pretence participated, shall, in the absence of strong

whatever, assume to decide on the validity countervailing testimony, be deemed con-

of the claim of any person to the service elusive evidence that such State, and the

or labor of any other person, or surrender people thereof, are not then in rebellion

up any snoh person to the claimant, on pain against the United States.

of being dismissed from the service.

Now, therefore, I. Abraham Lincoln,

And I do hereby enjoin up &gt;n and order President of the United States, by virtue of
ull persons engaged in the military and naval the power in me vested as Commander-in-
service of the United States to observe, obey, chief of the Army and Navy of the United
and enforce, within their respective spheres States in time of actual armed rebellion
of service, the act and sections above re- a.srainst the authority and Government of the
cited. United States, and as a fit and necessary
" And the Executive will In due time rec- war measure for suppressing said rebellion,
ommend that all citizens of the United do, on this first day of January, In the year
States who shall have remained loyal thereto of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and
throughout the rebellion shall (upon the sixty-three, and In accordance with my pur-
restoration of the constitutional relation be- pose so to do, publicly proclaimed for the
tween the United States and their respec- full period of one hundred days from the day
tive States and people, If that relation shall first above mentioned, order and dr-signate.

220

FACSIMILE OF THE PROCLAMATION OF EMANCIPATION.

JL** jS JO&/\j&t*&**t

*f*-

(ff tsfa

3v+*~*

" That on the first day of January, In the
year of our Lord one thousand eight nun-
dred and sixty-three, all persons held as
slaves within any State or designated part
of a State, the people whereof shall then be
in rebellion against the United States, shall
be then, thenceforward, and forever free ;
and the Executive Government of the United
States, including the military and naval
authority thereof, will recognize and maintain
the freedom of such persons, and will do
no act or acts to repress such persons, or
any of them, in any efforts they may make
for their actual freedom.

" That the Executive will, on the first

day of January aforesaid, by proclamation.
designate the States and parts of States, If
any, in which the people thereof, respec-
tively, shall then be in rebellion against the
United States ; and the fact that any State,
or the people thereof, shall on that day be
in good faith represented in the Congress of
the United States, by members chosen thereto
at elections wherein a majority of the quail-
fled voters of such State shall have partic-
ipated, shall, in the absence of strong coun-
tervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive
evidence that such State, and the people
thereof, are not then in rebellion against the
United States."

~u a*

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227

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228

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V*M~CA*n~*

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4UL/+/1&.

EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS

as the States aud parts of States wherein
the people thereof, respectively, are this day
in rebellion against the United States, the
following, to wit :

"Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the
parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jeffer
son, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, As
cension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, La-
fourche, Ste. Marie, St. Martin, and Orleans,
including the city of New Orleans), Missis
sippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Caro
lina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except
the forty-eight counties designated as West
Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley,
Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York,
I rincess Anne and Norfolk, including the
cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and
which excepted parts are, for the present,
left precisely as if this proclamation were
not issued.

" And by virtue of the power and for the
purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare
that all persons held as slaves within said
designated States and parts of States are,
and henceforward shall be, free: and that the
Kxecntive Government of the United States,
including the military and naval authorities
I hereof, will recognize and maintain the free
dom of saif 1 ^ersons.

" And i .jereby enjoin upon the people so
declared to be free to abstain from all
violence, unless in necessary self-defence ; and
I recommend to them that, in all cases when
allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable
wages.

"And I further declare and make known

that such persons, of suitable condition, will
be received into the armed service of the
United States, to garrison forts, positions,
stations, and other places, and to man ves
sels of all sorts in said service.

" And upon this act, sincerely believed to
be an act of justice, warranted by the Con
stitution, upon military necessity, I invoke
the considerate judgment of mankind, and
the gracious favor of Almighty God.

" In testimony whereof I have hereunto
set my name, and caused the seal of the
United States to be affixed.

" Done at the City of Washing
ton, this first day of January, in
[L.S.] the year of our Lord one thousand
eight hundred and sixty-three, and
of the Independence of the United
States the eighty-seventh.

" ABRAHAM LINCOLN.*
" By the President :

" WILLIAM H. SEWARD, Secretary of Slate."
By the Emancipation Proclamation
3.003,392 slaves were set free, as follows:

Arkansas 111. KM

Alabama 435,18-

Florida 61,7r&gt;:;

Georgia 402,23:.

Mississippi 436,690

North Carolina 275,081

South Carolina 402,541

Texas 180,682

Virginia (part) . .

Louisiana (part) 247,734

The lien with which President Lincoln wrote his Proclamation of Emancipation was p-von to &lt;&lt;&gt;nntor Sumiier
e President at the request of the former, and by him prcs.-ntcd lo the late Oorgp Mvermore. of Boston
to. l II-M. of tlie kind called "TbeWuhtngton," in a common ro.tar bolder nil as plin and unostentatious as
wi tb 1 rcKid nt himielf.

230

l.v the
a

EMBARGO ACTS

The institution was not disturbed by the
proclamation in eight States, which con
tained 831,780 slaves, distributed as fol
lows:

Delaware 1,798

Kentucky 225,490

Maryland 87,188

Missouri 114,465

Tennessee 275,784

Louisiana (part) 85,281

West Virginia 12,761

Virginia (part) 29,013

The remainder were emancipated by the
Thirteenth Amendment to the national
Constitution, making the whole number
set free 3,895,172.

On the preceding pages is given a fac
simile of the Proclamation of Emancipa
tion.

Embargo Acts. The British Orders in
Council (Nov. 6, 1793) and a reported
speech of Lord Dorchester (Guy Carleton)
to a deputation of the Western Indians,
produced much indignation against the
British government. Under the stimulus
of this excitement Congress passed
(March 26, 1794) a joint resolution lay
ing an embargo on commerce for thirty
days. The measure seemed to have chief
ly in view the obstructing the supply of
provisions for the British fleet and army
in the West Indies. It operated quite
as much against the French. Subse
quently (April 7) a resolution was intro
duced to discontinue all commercial inter
course with Great Britain and her sub
jects, as far as respected all articles of
the growth or manufacture of Great
Britain or Ireland, until the surrender of
the Western posts and ample compen
sation should be given for all losses and
damages growing out of British aggres
sion on the neutral rights of the Ameri
cans. It was evident from the course that
the debate assumed and from the temper
manifested by the House that the resolu
tion would be adopted. This measure
would have led directly to war. To avert
Ihis calamity, Washington was inclined
to send a special minister to England.
The appointment of JOHN JAY (q. v.) fol
lowed.

On the receipt of despatches from Minis
ter Armstrong, at Paris, containing infor
mation aboiit the new interpretation of
the Berlin decree and also of the British

Orders in Council, President Jefferson,
who had called Congress together earlier
than usual (Oct. 25, 1807), sent a mes
sage to that body communicating facts in
his possession and recommending the pas
sage of an embargo act " an inhibition
of the departure of our vessels from the
ports of the United States." The Senate,
after a session of four hours, passed a
bill 22 to 6 laying an embargo on all
shipping, foreign and domestic, in the
ports of the United States, with specified
exceptions and ordering all vessels abroad
to return home forthwith. This was done
in secret session. The House, also with
closed doors, debated the bill three days
and nights, and it was passed by a vote
of 82 to 44, and became a law Dec. 22,
1807.

Unlimited in its duration and uni
versal in its application, the embargo
was an experiment never before tried by
any nation an attempt to compel two
belligerent powers to respect the rights
of neutrals by withholding intercourse
with all the world. It accomplished noth-
ir.g, or worse than nothing. It aroused
against the United States whatever spirit
of honor and pride existed in both na
tions. Opposition to the measure, in and
out of Congress, was violent and incessant,
and on March 1, 1809, it was repealed.
At the same time Congress passed a law
forbidding all commercial intercourse with
France and England until the Orders in
Council and the decrees should be re
pealed.

Bonaparte s response to the Embargo
Act of 1807 was issued from Bayonne,
April 17, 1808. He was there to dethrone
his Spanish ally to make place for one
of his own family. His decree authorized
the seizure and confiscation of all Ameri
can vessels in France, or which might
arrive in France. It was craftily an
swered, when Armstrong remonstrated,
that, as no American vessels could be
lawfully abroad after the passage of
the Embargo Act, those pretending to
be such must be British vessels in dis
guise.

Feeling the pressure of the opposition
to the embargo at home, Pinckney was
authorized to propose to the British min
istry a repeal of the Embargo Act, as to
Great Britain, on condition of the recall

231

EMBARGO ACTS

of her Orders in Council. Not wishing the least sign of yielding while the slight-
to encounter a refusal, Pinckney sounded est doubt existed of its unequivocal fail-
the

Canning,
fairs, who

secretary of

foreign

gradually led the

af- ure, or the smallest link in the confed-
American eracy against her remained undissolved.

The disconcerted
American ambassador,
evidently piqued at
the result of his prop
osition, advised his
government to perse
vere in the embargo.
The embargo was far
less effectual abroad
than it was supposed
it would be, and the
difficulty of maintain
ing it strictly at home
caused its repeal in
March, 1809. The de
cided support of the
embargo given by both
Houses of Congress
was supplemented by
resolutions of the leg
islatures of Georgia,

the Carolinas, Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylva
nia, and New Hampshire. An enforce-
(Sept. 28, 1808) in writing, unsurpassed ment act was passed (January, 1809),

EMBARGO.

minister into making a formal proposi
tion. To this Canning made a reply

in diplomatic cunning and partially con
cealed sarcasm. It also contained sound
views on the whole subject of the orders
and decrees. Canning insisted that, as

and, to make it efficient, the employment
of twelve additional revenue cutters was
authorized ; also the fitting out for ser
vice of all the ships-of-war and gunboats.

France was the original aggressor, by the This enforcement act was despotic, and

issuing of the Berlin decree, retaliation
(the claimed cause of the embargo)
ought, in the first instance, to have been
directed against that power alone; and
England could not consent to buy off a
hostile procedure, of which she ought
never to have been made the object, at
the expense of a concession made, not to
the United States, upon whom the opera
tion of the British orders was merely in
cidental, but to France, against which
country, in a spirit of just retaliation,
they had been originally aimed. The Ber
lin decree had been the beginning of an
attempt to overthrow the political power
of Great Britain by destroying her com
merce, and almost all Europe had been
compelled to join in that attempt; and
the American embargo had, in fact, come
in aid of Napoleon s continental system.
This attempt, Canning said, was not like-

would not have been tolerated except as a
temporary expedient, for the Orders in
Council were mild in their effects upon
American trade and commerce compared
with that of this Embargo Act. It pretty
effectually suppressed extensive smug
gling, which was carried on between the
United States and Canada and at many
soa-ports, especially in New England.
But the opposition clamored for its re
peal. At the opening of 1814 there were
expectations, speedily realized, of peace
near; also of a general pacification of
Europe. These signs were pointed to by
the opposition as cogent reasons for the
repeal. These considerations had weight,
added to which was the necessity for in
creasing the revenue. Finally, on Jan.
lit (1S14), the President recommended
the repeal of the Embargo Act, and it was
done by Congress on April 14. There

ly to succeed, yet it was important to the were great rejoicings throughout the coun-
repntation of Great Britain not to show try, and the demise of the Terrapin was

2.32

EMBARGO ACTS

hailed as a good omen of commercial
prosperity. The Death of the Embargo
was celebrated in verses published in the
Federal Republican newspaper of George
town, in the District of Columbia. These
were reproduced in the New York Even
ing Post, with an illustration designed by
John Wesley Jarvis, the painter, and
drawn and engraved on wood by Dr. Alex
ander Anderson. The picture was re
drawn and engraved by Dr. Anderson, on
a reduced scale, in 1864, after a lapse of
exactly fifty years. The lines which it
illustrates are as follows:

TERRAPIN S ADDRESS.

" Reflect, my friend, as you pass by,
As you are now, so once was I :
As / am now, so you may be
Laid on your back to die like me !
I was, indeed, true sailor born ;
To quit my friend in death I scorn.
Once Jemmy seemed to be my friend,
But basely brought me to my end !
Of head bereft, and light, and breath,
I hold Fidelity in death :
For Sailors Rights I still will tug ;
And Madison to death I ll hug,
For his perfidious zeal displayed
For Sailors Rights and for Free-trade.
This small atonement I will have -
I ll lug down Jemmy to the grave.
Then trade and commerce shall be free,
And sailors have their liberty.
Of head bereft, and light, and breath,
The Terrapin, still true in death,
Will punish Jemmy s perfidy-
Leave trade and brother sailors free."

DKATH OF TKKKAfl.N, OK THE EMBARGO.

PASSENGER S REPLY.

* Yes, Terrapin, bereft of breath,
We see thee faithful still in death.

Never mind thy head thou lt live with
out it;
Spunk will preserve thy life don t doubt

it.

Down to the grave, t atone for sin,
Jemmy must go with Terrapin.
Bear him but off, and we shall see
Commerce restored and sailors free!
Hug, Terrapin, with all thy might
Now for Free-trade and Sailors Right.
Stick to him, Terrapin I to thee the nation
Now eager looks then die for her salva
tion.

" FLOREAT RESPUBLICA.

" BANKS OF GOOSE CREEK, CITY OF WASH
INGTON, loth April, 1814."

The continued aggressions of the British
upon American commerce created a power
ful war party in the United States in
1811, and a stirring report of the com
mittee on foreign relations, submitted to
Congress in November, intensified that
feeling. Bills were speedily passed for
augmenting the army, and other prepara
tions for war were made soon after the
opening of the year 1812. The President
was averse to war, but his party urged
and threatened him so pertinaciously that
he consented to declare war against Great
Britain. As a preliminary measure he
sent a confidential message to Congress
(April 1, 1812) recommending the pas
sage of an act laying an embargo for sixty
days. A bill was introduced to that effect
by Mr. Calhoun, of South Carolina, which
prohibited the sailing of
any vessel for any foreign
port, except foreign ships
with such cargoes as they
might have on board when
notified of the act. The
bill was passed (April 6),
and was speedily followed
by a supplementary act
(April 14) prohibiting ex-
portations by land,
whether of goods or specie.
The latter measure was
called the land embargo.
It was vehemently de
nounced, for it suddenly
suppressed an active and
lucrative trade between the
United States and Canada.
It was ascertained that the British
blockading squadron in American water*
was constantly supplied with provision-

Stick to t Free-trade and Sailors Rights.

Hug Jemmy press him-hold him -bite, from American ports by unpatriotic men ;

233

EMBRY EMMET

also that British manufactures were being ing gratuitously. He died in Camden,
introduced on professedly neutral vessels. N. Y., in August, 1775.
Such trailic was extensively carried on, Emerson, RALPH WALDO, author;
especially in New England ports, where loader of the transcendental school of
magistrates were often leniently disposed New England; born in Boston, May 25,
towards such violators of law. In a con- 1803; graduated at Harvard in 1821;
fidential message (Dec. 9, 1813) the Presi- taught school five years, and in 1820 was
dent recommended the passage of an em- licensed to preach by the Middlesex
l&gt;argo act to suppress the traffic, and one (Unitarian) Association. In the winter
passed both Houses on the 17th, to remain of 1833-34, after returning from Europe,
in force until Jan. 1, 1815, unless the war he began the career of a lecturer arid es-
should sooner cease. It prohibited, under sayist. Marrying in 1835, he fixed his
severe penalties, the exportation, or at
tempt at exportation, by land or water, of
any goods, produce, specie, or live-stock ;
and to guard against evasions even the
coast trade was entirely prohibited. This
bore heavily on the business of some of
the New England sea-coast towns. No
transportation was allowed, even on inland
waters, without special permission from
the President. While the act bore so
heavily on honest traders, it pretty effect
ually stopped the illicit business of
" speculators, knaves, and traders, who en
riched themselves at the expense of the
community." This act, like all similar
ones, was called a "terrapin policy"; and
illustrative of it was a caricature repre
senting a British vessel in the offing, some
men embarking goods in a boat on the

shore, and a stout man carrying a barrel residence at Concord, Mass., and was a
of flour towards the boat, impeded by contributor to, and finally editor of, The
being seized by the seat of his pantaloons Dial, a quarterly magazine, and organ of
by an enormous terrapin, urged on by a the New England transcendentalists. He
man who cries out, " D n it, how he nicks lived the quiet life of a literary man and
em." The victim exclaims, " Oh ! this philosopher for more than forty years.
cursed Ograbme!" the letters of the last He published essays, poems, etc. He died
word, transposed, spell embargo. This act in Concord. Mass.. April 27. 1882.
was repealed in April, 1814. Emigrant Aid Company. See TIIAYKI;.

Embry, JAMES CRAWFORD, clergyman; ELI.

born of negro parents in Knox county, Emigration. See IMMIGRATION .
Ind., Nov. 2, 1834; became a minister in Emmet, THOMAS ADDIS, patriot; born
the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Cork, Ireland, April 24, 1763; grad-
in 1863; author of Condition and Pros- uated at Trinity College, Dublin: first
pects of the Colored American. studied medicine, and then law, and was

Embury, PHILIP, clergyman; born in admitted to the Dublin bar in 1791. He
Ballygaran, Ireland, Sept. 21, 1729: came became a leader of the Association of Unit-
to New York in 1760, and at the solicita- ed Irishmen, and was one of a general
tion of Barbara Heck he began to hold committee whose ultimate object was to
services in his own house, and later on in secure the freedom of Ireland from British
a rigginjr-loft. This was the foundation rule. With many of his associates, he was
of Methodism in the United States. The arrested in 1798, and for more than two
first Methodist church was built in John years was confined in Fort George, Scot-
Street in 1768. under the supervision of land. His brother Robert, afterwards
Embury he himself working on the build- engaged in the same cause, was hanged in

234

RALPH WALDO EMKKXIN

EMMONS EMUCFAU

Dublin in 1803. Thomas was liberated and
banished to France after the treaty of
Amiens, the severest penalties being pro
nounced against him if he should return
to Great Britain. His wife was permitted
to join him, on condition that she should
never again set foot on British soil. He
came to the United States in 1804, and be
came very eminent in his profession in the
city of New York. He was made attorney-
general of the State in 1812. A monu
ment an obelisk was erected to his
memory in St. Paul s church-yard, New
York, on Broadway. He died in New
York, Nov. 14. 182: .

Emmons, GEORGE FOSTEK, naval officer;
born in Clarendon, Vt. Aug. 23, 1811;
entered the navy in 1828; took part in sev
eral engagements during the Mexican
War; served through the Civil War, and
in I860 commanded the Ossipee, which
carried the United States commissioners
to Alaska for the purpose of hoisting the
American Hag over that region. He was
promoted rear-admiral in 1872; retired in
1873; author of The Navy of the United
States from 1775 to 1853. He died in
Princeton, N. J., July 2, 1884.

Emory, WILLIAM HELMSLEY, military
officer; born in Queen Anne s county,
Mel., Sept. 9, 1811; graduated at West
Point in 1831. He was appointed lieu
tenant of the topographical engineers July
7, 1833; was aide to General Kearny in
California in 1840-47, and was made lieu
tenant-colonel. Sept. 30, 1847. He was as
tronomer to the commission to determine
the boundary between the United States
and Mexico. He was serving as captain
of cavalry in Mexico when the Civil War
broke out, and brought his command into
Kansas in good order. In May, 1861, he
was made lieutenant - colonel of the 6th
Cavalry; served in the campaign of 1862
in the Army of the Potomac, and was made
brigadier-general of volunteers in March
of that year. He did good service under
Banks in Louisiana, and under Sheridan
in the Shenandoah Valley. He was made
colonel of the 5th Cavalry in the fall of
1863; in March. 1865, was brevetted brig
adier-general and major-general of the
United States army; and in 1876 was re
tired with the full rank of brigadier-
general. He died in Washington. D. 0.,
Dor. 1, 1887.

Emott, JAMES, jurist; born in Pough-
keepsie, N. Y., March 14, 1771; grad
uated at Union College in 1800, and began
the practice of law at Ballston Centre, but
soon removed to Albany. He represented
that district in the legislature in 1804. He
practised law a while in New York City,
and then returned to Poughkeepsie. He
was in Congress from 1809 to 1813, and
was a leader of the Federal party therein.
He was again in the legislature (1814-17),
and was speaker of that body. From 1817
to 1823 he was first judge of Dutchess
county, and was judge of the second cir
cuit from 1827 to 1831, when, in compli
ance with the then law of the State, that
prohibited the holding of a judicial office
by a citizen over sixty years of age, he re
tired from public life with his intellect in
full vigor. He died in Poughkeepsie, April
10, 1850.

Empire State, a popular name given
to the State of New York, because it is
the most populous, wealthy, and politi
cally powerful State in the Union. It
is sometimes called the " Excelsior State,"
from the motto EXCELSIOR " higher "
oil its seal and coat-of-arms. The city of
New York, its commercial metropolis,
and the largest city in the Union, is some
times called the " Empire City."

Emucfau, BATTLE OF. On a bend in
the Tallapoosa River, in Alabama, was
a Creek village named Emucfau. Jack
son, with a considerable force, approaching
the place (Jan. 21, 1814), saw a well-
beaten trail and some; prowling Indians,
and prepared his cant]) that night for an
attack. At six o clock the next morning
a party of Creek warriors fell upon him
with great fury. At dawn a vigorous
cavalry charge was made upon the foe
by General Coffee, and they were dis
persed. Coffee pursued the barbarians
for 2 miles with much slaughter. Then
a party was despatched to destroy tin-
Indian encampment at Emucfau, but it
was found to be too strongly fortified to
be taken without artillery. When Coffee
fell back to guard approaching cannon,
the Indians, thinking it was a retreat,
again fell upon Jackson, but, after a
severe struggle, were repulsed. Jackson
made no further attempt to destroy the
encampment at Emucfau. He was aston
ished at the prowes3 of the Creek wr-

23*

ENDICOTT ENGINEERING

riors. In their retrograde movement Winthrop. Tn 1636 he was sent with
(Jan. 24), the Tennesseeans were again Captain Underhill, with about ninety
threatened by the Indians, near Eno- men, on an expedition against Indians
tochopco Creek. A severe engagement on Block Island and the Pequods. Mr.
soon ensued; but the Tennesseeans, hav- Endicott was deputy-governor of Massa-
ing planted a 6-pounder cannon on an chusetts several years, and also govern-
rminence, poured a storm of grape-shot or, in which office he died, March 15,
on the Indians, which sent them yelling 1(505. Bold, energetic, sincere, and
in all directions. The slaughter among bigoted, he was the strongest of the Puri-
the Indians was heavy, while that among tans, and was severe in the execution of
the white troops was comparatively laws against those who differed from the
light. In the two engagements (Enuicfau prevailing theology of the colony. He
and Enotochopco) , Jackson lost twenty was one of the most persistent persecut-
killed and seventy-five wounded. ors of the Quakers, and stood by unmoved.

Endicott, JOHN, colonial governor; as governor, when they were hanged in
born in Dorchester, England, in 1580; was Boston; and so violent were his feelings

against the Eoman Catholics, and any
thing that savored of " popery," that he
caused the red cross of St. George to be
cut out of the military standard. He
opposed long hair on men, and insisted
that the women should use veils in public
assemblies. During his several adminis
trations many were punished for the
slightest offences, and four Quakers were
hanged in Boston.

Endicott, WILLIAM CROWNIXSHIELD,
jurist; born in Salem, Mass., Nov. 19,
1827; graduated at Harvard in 1847; ad
mitted to the bar in 1850; appointed
judge of the Supreme Court of Massa
chusetts in 1873; became Secretary of

JOHN KXUICOTT. ,,, . 1O o^ TJ TI J

War in 188. &gt;. Judge Endicott was a
Democrat, and the unsuccessful candidate

sent by the Massachusetts Company to of his party for governor of Massachu-
superintend the plantation at Naumkeag: setts in 1884. His daughter. Mary, mar-
arrived there Sept. (N. S. ), and in ried Joseph Chamberlain, English colo-
April next year was appointed governor nial secretary. He died in Boston, May
of the colony, but was succeeded by John 6, 1900.

ENGINEERING

Engineering. MR. THOMAS C. CLARKE divided into structural engineering, or
(q. r.) , Past President of the Society of that of railways, bridges, tunnels, build-
Civil Engineers, writes as follows on the ings, etc.; also, into hydraulic engincer-
snbject of engineering, with special refer- ing, which governs the application of wa-
ence to American engineers and their ter to canals, river improvements, harbors,
works in the United States. the supply of water to towns and for ir-

rigation, disposal of sewage, etc.

Dynamical engineering can be divided

Engineering is sometimes divided into into mechanical engineering, which cov-

civil. military, and naval engineering, ers the construction of all prime motors,

The logical classification is: statical en- Ilie transmission of power, and the use of

ginccnnir and dynamical. machines and machine tools. Closely al-

Statical engineering can be again sub- lied is electrical engineering, the art of

230

ENGINEERING

the transformation and transmission of The swivelliiig-truck and equalizing-beam

energy for traction, lighting, telegraphy, enabled our engines to run safely on tracks

telephoning, operating machinery, and where the rigid European engines would

many other uses, such as its electrolytic, soon have been in the ditch,

application to ores and metals. Our cars were made longer, and by the

Then we have the combined application use of longitudinal framing much stronger,
of statical, mechanical, and electrical en- A great economy came from the use of
gineering to what is now called indus- annealed cast-iron wheels. It was soon
trial engineering, or the production of seen that longer cars would carry a great-
articles useful to man. This may be di- er proportion of paying load, and the
vided into agricultural, mining, metal- more cars that one engine could draw in
lurgical, and chemical engineering. a train, the less would be the cost. It

Structural Engineering. This is the was not until the invention by Bessemer

oldest of all. We have not been able to in 1864 of a steel of quality and cost

surpass the works of the past in grandeur that made it available for rails that much

or durability. The pyramids of Egypt heavier cars and locomotives could be

still stand, and will stand for thousands used. Then came a rapid increase. As

of years. Roman bridges, aqueducts, and soon as Bessemer rails were made in this

sewers still perform their duties. Joseph s country, the cost fell from $175 per ton to

canal still irrigates lower Egypt. The $50, and now to $26.

great wall of China, running for 1,500 Before that time a wooden car weighed

miles over mountains and plains, con- 16 tons, and could carry a paying load of

tains 150,000,000 cubic yards of mate- 15 tons. The 30-ton engines of those days

rials and is the greatest of artificial could not draw on a level over thirty cars

works. No modern building compares in weighing 900 tons.

grandeur with St. Peter s, and the me- The pressed steel car of to-day weighs

diaeval cathedrals shame our puny imita- no more than the wooden car, but carries

tions. a paying load of 50 tons. The heaviest

Railways. The greatest engineering engines have now drawn on a level fifty
work of the nineteenth century was the steel cars, weighing 3,750 tons. In the
development of the railway system which one case the paying load of an engine was
has changed the face of the world. Be- 450 tons; now it is 2,500 tons,
ginning in 1829 with the locomotive of Steep grades soon developed a better
George Stophenson, it has extended with brake system, and these heavier trains
such strides that, after seventy years, have led to the invention of the auto-
there are 466.000 miles of railways in the matic brake worked from the engine, and
world, of which 190,000 miles are in the also automatic couplers, saving time and
United States. Their cost is estimated at many lives. The capacity of our rail-
$40,000,000.000, of which $10,000,000,000 ways has been greatly increased by the
belong to the United States. use of electric block-signals.

The rapidity with which railways are The perfecting of both the railway and

built in the United States and Canada con- its rolling-stock has led to remarkable

trasts strongly with what has been done results.

in other countries. Much has been writ- In 1899 Poor gives the total freight ton-
ten of the energy of Russia in building nage at 975,789,941 tons, and the freight
3,000 miles of Siberian railway in five receipts at $922,436,314, or an average
or six years. In the United States an rate per ton of 95 cents. Had the rates
average of 6,147 miles was completed ev- of 1867 prevailed, the additional yearly
cry year during ten successive years, and cost to the public would have been $4,275,-
in 1887 there were built 12.982 miles. 000,000, or sullicient to replace the
They were built economically, and at first whole railway system in two and a half
in not as solid a manner as those of Eu- years. This much can surely be said:
rope. Steeper gradients, sharper curves, the reduction in cost of operating our
and lighter rails were used. This ren- railways, and the consequent fall in freight
dered necessary a different kind of roll- rates, have been potent factors in enabling
ing-stock suitable to such construction, the United States to send abroad last

237

ENGINEERING

year $1,^56,000,000 worth of exports and
flood the world with our food and manu
factured products.

Bridge Building. In early days the
building of a bridge was a matter
of great ceremony, and it was conse
crated to protect it from evil spirits. Its
construction was controlled by priests, as
the title of the Pope of Rome, " Pontifex
Muximus," indicates.

Railways changed all this. Instead of
the picturesque stone bridge, whose long
line of low arches harmonized with the
landscape, there came the straight girder
or high truss, ugly indeed, but quickly
built, and costing much less.

Bridge construction has made greater
progress in the United States than abroad.
The heavy trains that we have described
called for stronger bridges. The large
American rolling-stock is not used in Eng
land, and but little on the continent of
Europe, as the width of tunnels and other
obstacles will not allow of it. It is said
that there is an average of one bridge for
every 3 miles of railway in the United
States, making 63,000 bridges, most of
which have been replaced by new and
stronger ones during the last twenty
years. This demand has brought into ex
istence many bridge - building companies,
some of whom make the whole bridge,
from the ore to the finished product.

Before the advent of railways, highway
bridges in America were made of wood,
and called trusses. The coming of rail
ways required a stronger type of bridge
to carry concentrated loads, and the Howe
truss, with vertical iron rods, was in
vented, capable of 150-foot spans.

About 1868 iron bridges began to take
the place of wooden bridges. One of
the first long-span bridges was a single-
track railway bridge of 400 - foot span
over the Ohio at Cincinnati, which was
considered to be a great achievement in
1870.

The Kinzua viaduct, 310 feet high and
over half a mile long, belongs to this
era. It is the type of the numerous high
viaducts now so common.

About 1885 a new material was given
to engineers, having greater strength and
tenacity than iron, and commercially
available from Its low cost. This is ba
sic steel. This new chemical metal, for

238

such it is, is 50 per cent, etronger ttia n
iron, and can be tied in a knot when
cold.

The effect of improved devices and the
use of steel is shown by the weights of the
400-foot Ohio River iron bridge, built
in 1870, and a bridge at the same place,
built in 1886. The bridge of 1870 was of
iron, with a span of 400 feet. The bridge
of 1886 was of steel. Its span was 550
feet. The weights of the two were nearly
alike.

The cantilever design, which is a revi
val of a very ancient type, came into
use. The great Forth Bridge, in Scot
land, 1,600-foot span, is of this style, as
are the 500-foot spans at Poughkeepsie,
and now a new one is being designed to
cross the St. Lawrence near Quebec, of
1,800-foot span. This is probably near
the economic limit of cantilever con
struction.

The suspension bridge can be extended
much farther, as it carries no dead weight
of compression members.

The Niagara Suspension Bridge, of 810-
foot span, built by Roebling, in 1852, and
the Brooklyn Bridge, of 1,600 feet, built
by Roebling and his son, twenty years af
ter, marked a wonderful advance in bridge
design. The same lines of construction
will be followed in the 2.700-foot span,
designed to cross the North River some
time in the present century. The only
radical advance is the use of a better steel
than could be had in earlier days.

Steel-arched bridges are now scientifical
ly designed. Such are the new Niagara
Bridge, of 840-foot span, and the Alex
andra Bridge at Paris.

That which marks more clearly than
anything else the great advance in Amer
ican bridge building, during the last
forty years, is the reconstruction of the
famous Victoria Bridge, over the St. Law
rence, above Montreal. This bridge was
designed by Robert Stephenson, and the
stone piers are a monument to his engi
neering skill. For forty winters they
have resisted the great fields of ice borne
by a rapid current. Their dimensions
were so liberal that the new bridge was
put upon them, although four times as
wide as the old one.

The superstructure wa originally made
of plate-iron tubes, reinforced by tees and

ENGINEERING

angles, similar to Stephenson s Menai petition. Mistakee mean ruin, and the
Straits Bridge. There are twenty - two fittest only survives.

spans of 240 feet each, and a central one The American system gives the great-
of 330 feet. est possible rapidity of erection of the

It was decided to build a new bridge of bridge on its piers. A span of 518 feet,
open-work construction and of open-hearth weighing 1,000 tons, was erected at Cairo
steel. This was done, and the comparison on the Mississippi in six days. The parts
is as follows: Old bridge, 16 feet wide, were not assembled until they were put
single track, live load of one ton per foot; upon the false works. European engi-
new bridge, 67 feet wide, two railway iieers have sometimes ordered a bridge to
tracks and two carriage-ways, live load be riveted together complete in the maker s
of 5 tons per foot. yard, and then taken apart.

The old iron tubes weighed 10,000 tons, The adoption of American work in such
cost $2,713,000, and took two seasons to bridges as the Atbara in South Africa,
erect. The new truss bridge weighs 22,000 the Gokteik viaduct in Burmah, 320 feet
tons, has cost $1,400,000, and the time of high, and others, was due to low cost,
construction was one year. quick delivery and erection, as well as ex-

The modern high office building is an cellence of material and construction,
interesting example of the evolution of a Foundations, etc. Bridges must have
high-viaduct pier. Such a pier of the re- foundations for their piers. Up to the
quired dimensions, strengthened by more middle of the nineteenth century engi-
columns strong enough to carry many neers knew no better way of making them
floors, is the skeleton frame. Enclose the than by laying bare the bed of the river
sides with brick, stone, or terra-cotta, add by a pumped-out cofferdam, or by driving
windows, and doors, and elevators, and it piles into the sand, as Julius Caesar did.
is complete. About the middle of the century, M.

Fortunately for the stability of these Triger, a French engineer, conceived the
high buildings, the effect of wind pressures first plan of a pneumatic foundation,
had been studied in this country in the which led to the present system of corn-
designs of the Kinzua, Pecos, and other pressing air by pumping it into an in-
liigh viaducts. verted box, called a caisson, with air locks

The modern elevated railway of cities on top to enable men and materials to go
is simply a very long railway viaduct, in and out. After the soft materials were
Some idea may be gained of the life of removed, and the caisson sunk by its own
a modern riveted-iron structure from the weight to the proper depth, it was filled
experience of the Manhattan Elevated with concrete. The limit of depth is that
Railway of New York. These roads were in which men can work in compressed air
built in 1878-79 to carry uniform loads without injury, and this is not much
of 1,600 Ibs. per lineal foot, except Second over 100 feet.

Avenue, which was made to carry 2,000. The foundations of the Brooklyn and
The stresses were below 10,000 Ibs. per St. Louis bridges were put down in this
square inch. manner.

These viaducts have carried in twenty- In the construction of the Poughkeep-
two years over 25,000,000 trains, weighing sie bridge over the Hudson in 1887-88.
over 3,000,000,000 tons, at a maximum it became necessary to go down 135 feet
speed of 25 miles an hour, and are still below tide-level before hard bottom was
in good order. reached. Another process was invented

We have now great bridge companies, to take the place of compressed air. Tim-
which are so completely equipped with ap- ber caissons were built, having double
pliances for both shop drawings and con- sides, and the spaces between them filled
struction that the old joke becomes almost with stone to give weight. Their tops
true that they can make bridges and sell were left open and the American single-
them by the mile. bucket dredge was used. This bucket was

All improvements of design are now pub- lowered and lifted by a very long wire
lie property. All that the bridge compa- rope worked by the engine, and with it
nies do is done in the fierce light of com- the soft material was removed. The in-

239

ENGINEERING

tcrnal space was then filled with concrete but the favorite type now is that of sub-
laid under water by the same bucket, and ways. There are two kinds, those near
levelled by divers when necessary. the surface, like the District railways of

While this work was going on, the gov- London, the subways in Paris, Berlin, and
ernment of New South Wales, in Austra- Boston, and that now building in New
lia, called for both designs and tenders for York. The South London and Central
a bridge over an estuary of the sea called London, and other London projects, are
Hawkesbury. The conditions were the tubes sunk 50 to 80 feet below the sur-
same as that at Poughkeepsie, except that face and requiring elevators for access,
the soft mud reached to a depth of ICO The construction of the Boston subway
feet below tide-level. was difficult on account of the small

The designs of the engineers of the width of the streets, their great traffic,
Poughkeepsie bridge were accepted, and and the necessity of underpinning the
the same method of sinking open caissons foundations of buildings. All of this was
(in this case made of iron) was carried successfully done without disturbing the
out with perfect success. traffic for a single day, and reflects great

The erection of this bridge involved an- credit on the engineer. Owing to the
other difficult problem. The mud was too great width of New York streets, the
soft and deep for piles and staging, and problem is simpler in that respect. Al-
the cantilever system in this site would though many times as long as the Boston
have increased the cost. subway, it will be built in nearly the

The solution of the problems presented same time. The design, where in earth,
at Hawkesbury gave the second introduc- may be compared to that of a steel office
tion of American engineers to bridge building 20 miles long, laid flat on one of
building outside of America. The first its sides.

was in 1786, when an American carpenter The construction of power-houses for
or shipwright built a bridge over Charles developing energy from coal and from
River at Boston, 1,470 feet long by 46 falling water requires much engineering
feet wide. This bridge was of wood sup- ability. The Niagara power-house is in-
ported on piles. His work gained for tended to develop 100,000 horse -power;
him such renown that he was called to that at the Sault Ste. Marie as much ; that
Ireland and built a similar bridge at on the St. Lawrence, at Massena, 70,000
Belfast. horse-power. These are huge works, re-

Tunnelling by compressed air is a hori- quiring tunnels, rock-cut chambers, and
zontal application of compressed-air foun- masonry and concrete in walls and dams,
dations. The earth is supported by an They cover large extents of territory,
iron tube, which is added to in rings, The contrast in size of the coal-using
which are pushed forward by hydraulic power-houses is interesting. The new
jacks. power-house now building by the Manhat-

A tunnel is now being made under an tan Elevated Railway, in New York, de-
arm of the sea between Boston and East velops in the small space of 200 by 400
Boston, some 1,400 feet long and 65 feet feet 100,000 horse-power, or as much pow-
below tide. The interior lining of iron er as that utilized at Niagara Falls.
tubing is not used. The tunnel is built of One of the most useful materials which
concrete, reinforced by steel rods. Success modern engineers now make use of is con-
in modern engineering means doing a crete, which can be put into confined
thing in the most economical way consist- spaces and laid under water. It costs less
ent with safety. Had the North River than masonry, while as strong. This is
tunnel, at New York, been designed on the revival of the use of a material used
equally scientific principles it would prob- by the Romans. The writer was once al-
ably have been finished, which now seems lowed to climb a ladder and look at the
problematical. construction of the dome of the Pantheon,

The construction of rapid - transit rail- at Rome. He found it a monolithic mass
ways in cities is another branch of engi- of concrete, and hence without thrust. It
neering. Some of these railways are ele- is a better piece of engineering const rue
vated, and are merely railway viaducts, tion than the dome of St. Peter s, built

240

ENGINEERING

1,500 years later. The dome of Columbia to dig the sand with rude hoes, and carry

College Library, in New York, is built of it away in baskets on their heads. They

concrete. died by thousands for want of water and

Hydraulic Engineering. This is one of proper food. At last the French engineers
the oldest branches of engineering, and persuaded the Khedive to let them in-
was developed before the last century, troduce steam dredging machinery. A
The irrigation works of Asia, Africa, light railway was laid to supply pro-
Spain, Italy, the Roman aqueducts, and visions, and a small ditch dug to bring
the canals of Europe, are examples. Hy- pure water. The number of" men em-
draulic works cannot be constructed in ployed fell to one-fourth. Machinery did
ignorance of the laws which govern the the rest. But for this the canal would
flow of water. The action of water is re- never have been finished,
lentless, as ruined canals, obstructed The Panama Canal now uses the best
rivers, and washed-out dams testify. modern machinery, and the Nicaragua

The removal of sewage, after having Canal, if built, will apply still better
been done by the Etruscans before the methods, developed on the Chicago drain-
foundation of Rome, became a lost art age canal, where material was handled at
during the dirty Dark Ages, when filth a less cost than has ever been done be
st nd piety were deemed to be connected in fore.

some mysterious way. It was reserved for The Erie Canal was one of very small
good John Wesley to point out that cost, but its influence has been surpassed
"Cleanliness is next to godliness." Now by none. The " winning of the West " was
sewage works are as common as those hastened many years by the construction
for water supply. Some of them have of this work in the first quarter of the
been of great size and cost. Such are the century. Two horses were just able to
drainage works of London, Paris, Berlin, draw a ton of goods at the speed of 2
Boston, Chicago, and New Orleans. A miles an hour over the wretched roads
very difficult work was the drainage of of those days. When the canal was made
the City of Mexico, which is in a valley these two horses could draw a boat carry-
surrounded by mountains, and elevated ing 150 tons 4 miles an hour,
only 4 or 5 feet above a lake having no The Erie Canal was made by engineers,
outlet. Attempts to drain the lake had but it had to make its own engineers first,
been made in vain for GOO years. It has as there were none available in this coun-
lately been accomplished by a tunnel 6 try at that time. These self-taught men,
miles long through the mountains, and a some of them land surveyors and others
canal of over 30 miles, the whole work lawyers, showed themselves the equals of
costing some $20,000,000. the Englishmen Brindley and Smeaton,

The drainage of Chicago by locks and when they located a water route through

canal into the Illinois River has cost some the wilderness, having a uniform descent

$35,000,000, and is well worth its cost. from Lake Erie to the Hudson, and which

Scientific research has been applied to would have been so built if there had been

the designing of high masonry and con- enough money.

crete dams, and we know now that no There should be a waterway from the

well-designed dam on a good foundation Hudson to Lake Erie large enough for vcs-

should fail. The dams now building sels able to navigate the lakes and the

across the Nile by order of the British ocean. A draft of 21 feet can be had at

government will create the largest arti- a cost estimated at $200,000.000.

ficial lakes in the world. The deepening of the Chicago drainage

The Suez Canal is one of the largest hy- canal to the Mississippi River, and the

draulic works of the last century, and is deepening of the Mississippi itself to the

a notable instance of the displacement of Gulf of Mexico, is a logical sequence of

hand labor by the use of machinery. Is- the first project. The Nicaragua Canal

mail began by impressing a large part of would then form one part of a great line

the peasant population of Egypt, just as of navigation, by which the products of

Rameses had done over 3,000 years be- the interior of the continent could reach

fore. These unfortunate people were set either the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean.
ITT. Q 241

ENGINEERING

The cost would be small compared with ing engines; also steam and water tur-

the resulting benefits, and some day this bines, wind-mills, and wave-motors,

navigation will be built by the government It comprises all means of transmitting

of the United States. power, as by shafting, ropes, pneumatic

The deepening of the Southwest Pass of pressure, and compressed air. all of which
the Mississippi River from 6 to 30 feet seem likely to be superseded by electricity,
by James B. Eads was a great engineer- It covers the construction of machine
ing achievement. It was the first ap- tools and machinery of all kinds. It en-
plication of the jetty system on a large ters into all the processes of structural,
scale. This is merely confining the flow hydraulic, electrical, and industrial engi-
of a river, and thus increasing its velocity ueering. The special improvements are:
so that it secures a deeper channel for The almost universal use of rotary motion,
itself. and of the reduplication of parts.

The improvement of harbors follows The steam-engine is a machine of re-

closely the increased size of ocean and lake ciprocating, converted into rotary, motion

vessels. The approach to New York Har- by the crank. The progress of mechanical

bor is now being deepened to 40 feet, engineering during the nineteenth century

a thing impossible to be done without the is measured by the improvements of the

largest application of steam machinery steam-engine, principally in the direction

in a suction dredge boat. of saving fuel, by the invention of internal

The Croton Aqueduct of New York was combustion or gas-engines, the application
thought by its designers to be on a scale of electrical transmission, and, latest, the
large enough to last for all time. It is practical development of steam turbines
now less than sixty years old, and the by Parsons, Westinghouse, Delaval, Cur-
population of New York will soon be too tis, and others. In these a jet of steam
large to be supplied by it. It is able impinges upon buckets set upon the cir-
to supply 250,000.000 to 300,000,000 gal- cumference of a wheel. Their advantages
Ions daily, and its cost, when the Cornell are that their motion is rotary and not
dam and Jerome Park reservoir are fin- reciprocal. They can develop speed of
ished, will be a little over $92,000,000. from 5,000 to 30,000 revolutions per min-

It is now suggested to store water in ute, while the highest ever attained by a
the Adirondack Mountains, 203 miles reciprocating engine is not over 1,000.
away, by dams built at the outlet of ten Their thermodynamic losses are less, hence
or twelve lakes. This will equalize the they consume less steam and less fuel,
flow of the Hudson River so as to give Duplication of parts has lowered the
3,000,000,000 to 4,000,000,000 gallons cost of all products. Clothing is one of
daily. It is then proposed to pump these. The parts of ready-made garments
1,000,000,000 gallons daily from the and shoes are now cut into shape in num-
Hudson River at Poughkeepsie, 60 miles bers at a time, by sharp-edged templates,
away, to a height sufficient to supply and then fastened together by sewing-
New York City by gravity through an machines,
aqueduct. Mechanical engineering is a good exam-

If this scheme is carried out, the total pie of the survival of the fittest. Millions

supply will be about 1,300,000,000 gallons of dollars are expended on machinery,

daily, or enough for a population of from when suddenly a new discovery or in-

12,000,000 to 13,000,000 persons. By put- vention casts them all into the scrap heap,

ting in more pumps, filter-beds, and con- to be replaced by those of greater earning

duits, this supply can be increased 40 capacity.

per cent., or to 1,800,000,000 gallons daily. Prime motors derive their energy either
This is a fair example of the scale of the from coal or other combinations of car-
engineering works of the nineteenth and bon, such as petroleum, or from gravity,
twentieth centuries. This may come from falling water, and

Mechanical Engineering. This is em- the old-fashioned water-wheels of the

ployed in all dynamical engineering. It eighteenth century were superseded in the

covers the designs of prime motors of all nineteenth by turbines, first invented in

sorts, steam, gas, and gasoline reciprocal Trance and since greatly perfected. These

242

ENGINEERING

are used in the electrical transmission of
water-power at Niagara of 5,000 horse
power, and form a very important part of
the plant.

The other gravity motors are wind
mills and wave-motors. Wind-mills are
an old invention, but have been greatly
improved in the United States by the use
of the self-reefing wheel. The great plains
of the West are subject to sudden, violent
gales of wind, and unless the wheel was
automatically self-reefing it w y ould often
be destroyed.

There have been vast numbers of patents
taken out for wave-motors. One was in
vented in Chile, South America, which
furnished a constant power for four
months, and was utilized in sawing planks.
The action of waves is more constant on
1he Pacific coast of America than else
where, and some auxiliary power, such as
a gasoline engine, which can be quickly
started and stopped, must be provided for
use during calm days. The prime cost
of such a machine need not exceed that
of a steam plant, and the cost of operat
ing is much less than that of any fuel-
burning engine. The saving of coal is a
very important problem. In a wider sense,
we may say that the saving of all the great
stores which nature has laid up for us
during the past, and which have remained
almost untouched until the nineteenth cen
tury, is the great problem of to-day.

Petroleum and natural gas may disap
pear. The ores of gold, silver, and plat
inum will not last forever. Trees will
grow, and iron ores seem to be practically
inexhaustible. Chemistry has added a
new metal in aluminum, which replaces
copper for many purposes. One of the
trrcatest problems of the twentieth cen-
liiry is to discover some chemical process
for treating iron, by which oxidation will
not take place.

Coal, next to grain, is the most impor-
iant of nature s gifts; it can be exhaust
ed, or the cost of mining it become so
great that it cannot be obtained in the
countries where it is most needed; water,
wind, and wave power may take its place
to a limited extent, and greater use may
be made of the waste gases coming from
blast or smelter furnaces, but as nearly
all energy comes from coal, its use must
be economized, and the greatest economy

will come from pulverizing coal and using
it in the shape of a tine powder. Inven
tions have been made trying to deliver
this powder into the fire-box as fast as
made, for it is as explosive as gunpowder,
and as dangerous to store or handle. If
this can be done, there will be a saving of
coal due to perfect and smokeless combus
tion, as the admission of air can be en
tirely regulated, the same blast which
throws in the powder furnishing oxygen.
Some investigators have estimated that
the saving of coal will be as great ;&gt;s
20 per cent. This means 100,000,000 tons
of coal annually.

Another problem of mechanical engi
neering is to determine whether it will
be found more economical to transform
the energy of coal, at the mines, into
electric current and send it by wire to
cities and other places where it is wanted.
or to carry the coal by rail and water, as
we now do, to such places, and convert it
there by the steam or gas engine.

Metallurgy and Mining. All the proc
esses of metalhirgy and mining employ
statical, hydraulic, mechanical, and elec
trical engineering. Coal, without rail
ways and canals, would be of little use,
unless electrical engineering came to its
aid.

It was estimated by the late Lord Arm
strong that of the 450,000,000 to 500,000,-
000 tons of coal annually produced in the
world, one-third is used for steam produc
tion, one-third in metallurgical processes,
and one-third for domestic consumption.

Next in importance comes the produc
tion of iron and steel. Steel, on account
of its great cost and brittleness. was only
used for too s and special purposes until
past the middle of the nineteenth cen
tury. This has been all changed by the
invention of his steel by Bessemer in 1864,
and open-hearth steel in the furnace of
Siemens, perfected some twenty years
since by Gilchrist & Thomas.

The United States have taken the lead
in steel manufacture. In 1873 Great
Britain made three times as much steel
as the United States. Now the United
States makes twice as much as Great
Britain, or 40 per cent, of all the steel
made in the world.

Mr. Carnegie has explained the reason
why, in epigrammatic phrase: "Three

243

ENGINEERING

Ibs. of steel billets can be sold for 2 Without tracing the steps which have led
cents." to it, we may say that the common type

This stimulates rail and water traffic is what is called " the binder," and is a
and other industries, as he tells us 1 Ib. machine drawn chiefly by animals, and in
of steel requires 2 Ibs. of ore, ! / Ibs. of some cases by a field locomotive,
coal, and V, Ib. of limestone. It cuts, rakes, and binds sheaves of

It is not surprising, therefore, that the grain at one operation. Sometimes
States bordering on the lakes have created threshing and winnowing machines are
a traffic of 25,000,000 tons yearly through combined with it, and the grain is deliv-
the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, while the Suez, ered into bags ready for the market,
which supplies the wants of half the pop- Different machines are used for cutting
ulation of the world, has only 7,000,000, and binding corn, and for mowing and
or less than the tonnage of the little Har- raking hay, but the most important of all
lem River at New York. is the grain-binder. The extent of then

Industrial Engineering. This leads us use may be known from the fact
to our last topic, for which too little 75,000 tons of twine are used by these
room has been left. Industrial engineering machines annually.

covers statical, hydraulic, mechanical, and It is estimated that there are in the
electrical engineering, and adds a new United States 1.500,000 of these machines,
branch which we may call chemical engi- but as the harvest is earlier in the South,
neering. This is pre-eminently a child of there are probably not over 1,000,0(
the nineteenth century, and is the conver- use at one time. As each machine takes
sion of one thin"- into another by a knowl- the place of sixteen men, this means that
edge of their chemical constituents. 10,000.000 men are released from farming

When Dalton first applied mathematics for other pursuits.

to chemistry and made it quantitative, he It is fair to assume that a large part
gave the key which led to the discoveries of these 10.000.000 men have gone into
of Cavendish. (iay-Lussac, Berzelius, Lie- manufacturing, the operating of railways,
big, and others. This new knowledge was and other pursuits. The use of agricult-
not locked up, but at once fiven to the ural machinery, therefore, is one explana-
world, and made use of. Its first appli- tion of why the United Stnt.es produces
cation on a large scale was made by Na- eight - tenths of the worM s cotton and
j.oleon in encouraging the manufacture of corn, one-quarter of its wheat, one-third
sugar from beets. of its meat and iron, two-fifths of its

The new products wore generally made steel, and one-third of its coal, and a large
from what were called "waste material." part of the world s manufactured goods.
We now have the manufacture of soda, Contusion. It is a very interesting
bleaching powders, aniline dyes, and other question, why was th ; s erroal development
products of the distillation of coal, also of material prosperity de ayed so late?
coal-oil from petroleum, acetylene gas, eel- Why did it wait until the nineteenth
luloid, rubber goods in all their numer- century, and then all at once increase with
ous varieties, high explosives, cement, arti- such rapid strides?

ficial manures, artificial ice, beet-sugar, It was not until modern times that the
and even beer may now be included. reign of law was greatly extended, and

The value of our mechanical and chem- men were insured the product of their
ical products is great, but it is surpassed labors. Then came the union of scientists,
by that of food products. If these did inventors, and engineers,
not keep pace with the increase of pop- So lone as these three classes worked
ulation. the theories of Malthus would be separately but little was done. There was

true but he never *aw a modern reaper. an antagonism between them. Ancient

The steam-plough was invented n Eng- writers went so far as to say that the in
land some fifty years since, but the ereat vention of the arch and of the potter s
use of agricultural machinery dates from wheel were beneath the dignity of a phi-
our Civil War. when so many men were losopher.

taken from agriculture. It became neces- One of the first great men to take a dif-
sary to fill their places with machinery, ferent view was Francis Bacon. Macau-

244

ENGINEERING

lay, in his famous essay, quotes him as dexes of all scientific and engineering

saying: "Philosophy is the relief of man s articles as fast as they appear is another

estate, and the endowment of the human modern contrivance.

race with new powers; increasing their Formerly scientific discoveries were con-
pleasures and mitigating their sufferings." cealed by cryptograms, printed in a dead
These noble words seem to anticipate the language, and hidden in the archives of
famous definition of civil engineering, em- learned societies. Even so late as 1821
bodied by Telford in the charter of the Oersted published his discovery of the uni-
British Institution of Civil Engineers: formity of electricity and magnetism in
Engineering is the art of controlling Latin.

the great powers of nature for the use and Engineering works could have been de-
convenience of man. signed and useful inventions made, but

The seed sown by Bacon was long in they could not have been carried out with-
producing fruit. Until the laws of nature out combination. Corporate organization
were better known, there could be no prac- collects the small savings of many into
tical application of them. Towards the great sums through savings-banks, life
end of the eighteenth century a great in- insurance companies, etc., and uses this
tellectual revival took place. In litera- concentrated capital to construct the vast
ture appeared Voltaire, Rousseau, Kant, works of our days. This could not con-
Hume, and Goethe. In pure science there tinue unless fair dividends were paid,
came Laplace, Cavendish, Lavoisier. Lin- Everything now has to be designed so as
meus, Berzelius, Priestley, Count Rum- to pay. Time, labor, and material must
ford, James Watt, and Dr. Franklin. The be saved, and he ranks highest who can
last three were s.mong the earliest to bring best do this. Invention has been encour-
about a union of pure and applied science, aged by liberal patent laws, which secure
Franklin immediately applied his discov- to the inventor property in his ideas at
cry that frictional electricity and light- a moderate cost.

ning were the same to the protection of . Combination, organization, and scien-
buildings by lightning-rods. Count Rum- tific discovery, inventive ability, and engi-
ford (whose experiments on the conver- neering skill are now united,
sion of power into heat led to the dis- It may be said that we have gathered
covery of the conservatism of energy) together all the inventions of the nine-
spent a long life in contriving useful in- teenth century and called them works of
ventions. engineering. This is not so. Engineering

James Watt, one of the few men who covers much more than invention. It in-
have united in themselves knowledge of eludes all works of sufficient size and in-
abstract science, great inventive faculties, tricacy to require men trained in the
and rare mechanical skill, changed the knowledge of the physical conditions which
steam-engine from a worthless rattletrap govern the mechanical application of the
into the most useful machine ever invent- laws of nature. First comes scientific dis-
ed by man. To do this he first discovered covery, then invention, and lastly engi-
the science of thermodynamics, then in- iieering. Faraday and Henry discovered
vented the necessary appliances, and final- the electrical laws which led to the in
ly constructed them with his own hands, vention of the dynamo, which was per-
He was a very exceptional man. At the fected by many minds. Engineering built
beginning of the nineteenth century there such works as those at Niagara Falls to
wore few engineers who had received any make it useful.

scientific education. Now there is in the An ignorant man may invent a safety-
profession a great army of young men, pin, but he cannot build the Brooklyn
most of them graduates of technical Bridge.

schools, good mathematicians, and well The engineer - in - chief commands an

versed in the art of experimenting. army of experts, as without specialization

One of the present causes of progress is little can be done. His is the conrprehen-

that all discoveries are published at once sive design, for which he alone is respon-

in technical journals and in the daily sible.

press. The publication of descriptive in- Such is the evolution of engineering,

245

ENGINEERS ENGLISH REVOLUTION

which began as a. craft and has ended as a ticket with Gen. Winfielcl S. Hancock in
profession. 1880; published an historical and bio-
Thoughtful persons have asked, will this graphical work on the constitution of
new civilization last, or will it go the way the law-makers of Indiana ; and bequeath-
of its predecessors? Surely the answer ed to the Indiana Historical Society, of
is: all depends on good government, on the which he was president for many years,
stability of law, order, and justice, pro- the funds to complete and publish his
tecting the rights of all classes. It will History of Indiana. He died in Indian-
continue to grow with the growth of good apolis, Ind.. Feb. 7, 18!t(i.
government, prosper with its prosperity, English Language, a branch from the
and perish with its decay. Low-German of the Teutonic or Germanic
Engineers, SOCIETIES OF. American So- branch of the Indo-European family. It
ciety of Civil Engineers, organized 1852; is closely related to the dialects spoken
American Institute of Mining Engineers, on the north shores of the German Ocean,
organized 1871; American Society of Me- especially with the Frisian dialect,
chanical Engineers, organized 1880; English Revolution, THE. When
American Institute of Electrical Engi- James II. attempted to establish despot-
neers, organized 1884. ism in England by destroying the consti-
English, EARL, naval officer; born in tution in Church and State, he arrayed
Crosswicks, N. J., Feb. 18, 1824; entered against himself the united Church, the
the navy Feb. 25, 1840; was actively en- aristocracy, and the intelligent people of
gaged during the Mexican War on the the realm. He also resolved to make the
Pacific coast in Mexico and California; Roman Catholic the religious system of
also served throughout the Civil War. (he kingdom, and sought to destroy all
In 1868, when the Tycoon of Japan was forms of Protestantism. He prorogued
defeated by the Mikado s party, he found Parliament, and ruled despotically as an
refuge on Commander English s ship Iro- autocrat without it. So universal were
quois. He was promoted rear-admiral in the alarm and indignation caused by his
1884; retired in 1886. He died in Wash- conduct that there was a general longing
ington, D. C., July 16, 1893. for relief; and the fires of revolution
English, THOMAS DUNN, author; born burned intensely in the hearts of the
in Philadelphia, Pa., June 29, 1819; people before they burst into a flame. The
graduated at the University of Pennsyl- King s daughter Mary, who had married
vania in 1839; member of the New Jersey her cousin William, Prince of Orange, wn-
legislature in 1863-64; and of Congress in heir to the throne of England in the ab-
1891-95; is the author of American Bal- sence of a male heir. When the people
lads; Book of Battle Lyrics; Ben Bolt, etc. were ripe for revolution it was announced
He died in Newark, N. J., April 1, 1902. that James s second wife had given birth
English, WILLIAM HAYDEN, capitalist; to a son (June 10, 1G88). The hopes of
born in Lexington, Ind., Aug. 27, 1822; the nation, which were centred on Mary,
received a collegiate education and studied were grievously disappointed. The opin-
law; was a Democratic Representative ion was general that the alleged heir
in Congress in 1852-61 ; and was con- just born was a supposititious one, and
spicuous there because of his opposition not the child of the Queen. The volcano
to the policy of his own party in the con- was instantly uncapped, and on June :)
troversy over the admission of Kansas (1688) leading men of the kingdom sent
into the Union. He reported what was an invitation to William of Orange to
known as the " English bill," which invade England and place his wife on
provided that the question of admission its throne. He went, landed at Torbay
under the Lecompton constitution be re- (Nov. 5) with 15,000 men, and penetrated
ferred back to the people of Kansas. His the country. The people flocked to his
report was adopted, and Kansas voted standard, King James fled to France, and
against admission under that const.itu- all England was speedily in the hands of
tion. After his retirement from Congress the welcome invader.

he engaged in various financial concerns: On Feb. 13, the Convention Parliament

was candidate for Vice-President on the conferred the crown of England on Will-

246

ENTAIL OF ESTATE ENTERPRISE

iam and Mary as joint sovereigns. Ban
croft says of the political theory of the
revolution: "The old idea of a Christian
monarchy resting on the law of God was
exploded, and political power sought its
origin in compact. Absolute monarchy
was denied to be a form of civil govern
ment. Nothing, it was held, can bind
freemen to obey any government save their
own agreement. Political power is a
trust, and a breach of the trust dissolves
the obligation to allegiance. The supreme
power is the legislature, to whose guar
dianship it has been sacredly and unalter
ably delegated. By the fundamental law
of property no taxes may be levied on the
people but by its own consent or that of
its authorized agents. These were the doc
trines of the revolution, dangerous to
European institutions and dear to the
colonies; menacing the Old World with
convulsive struggles and reforms, and es
tablishing for America the sanctity of its
own legislative bodies. Throughout the
English world the right to representation
could never again be separated from the
power of taxation. The theory gave to
vested rights in England a bulwark
against the monarch ; it encouraged the

tates to certain classes of descendants in
which the legal course of succession of
some descendants is cut off. The earliest
English law of entail is found in the
statute of Westminster in 1285. In the
United States this law came over with
the general body of enactments known as
the " common law of England." South
Carolina abolished entail in 1773. Vir
ginia in 1776, Georgia in 1777. Maryland
in 1782, North Carolina in 1784. In re
cent years the purposes of entail are ac
complished by other legal procedure. It
is believed that Gardiner s Island, N. Y.,
is the only property in the United States
now held entail by direct descendants of
the grantee. See GARDINER, LION.

Enterprise, THE. The Enterprise, four
teen guns, was an American brig that ac
quired the reputation of being " lucky."
She cruised for a long time off the New
England coast, the terror of British
provincial privateers, under Capt. John
ston Blakeley, until he was promoted to
the command of the new sloop-of-war
Wasp, when Lieut. William Burrows be
came her commander. On the morning of
Sept. 1, 1813, she sailed from Portsmouth,
N. H., in quest of British cruisers. On

INTER ENTERPHIZE NAV.
AMEHI. ET BOXER NAV.
BHIT. DIE IV SEPT.
MDCCCXIII.

THE JTCALL MEDAL.

colonists to assert their privileges, as pos- the morning of the 5th she discovered a
sessing a sanctity which tyranny only British brig in a bay near Pemaquid Point,
could disregard, and which could perish which, observing the Entcr/irisc. bore
only by destroying allegiance itself." down upon her in menacing attitude.

Entail of Estate. A disposition of es- Murrows accepted the challenge, cleared

247

ENTERPRISE ENVOYS TO FRANCE

GKAVKS OF BURROWS, BLYTH, AXD WATKKS.

his ship for action, and, after getting a
proper distance from land to have ample
sea-room for conflict, he edged towards
the stranger, which proved to be the Brit
ish brig Boxer, fourteen guns, Capt.
Samuel Blyth. At twenty minutes past
three o clock in the afternoon the brigs
closed within half pistol-shot of each
other and both vessels opened fire at the
same time. The wind was light, with
very little sea, and the cannonading was
destructive. Ten minutes later the Enter
prise ranged ahead of the Boxer, and,
taking advantage of her position, she
steered across the bows of her antagonist,
and delivered her fire with such precision
and destructive energy that, at four
o clock, the British officer in command
shouted through his trumpet that he had
surrendered: but his flag being nailed to
the mast, it could not be lowered until
the Americans should cease firing. It
was found that Capt. Blyth had been cut
nearly in two by an 18-pound cannon-ball.
Almost at the same moment when Blyth
fell on the Boxer, Burrows, of the En !&gt;-
prise, was mortally wounded. So also
was Midshipman Kervin Waters. Blyth
was killed instantly; Burrows lived eight
hours. The latter refused to be carried
below until the sword of the commander

of the Boxer
was delivered to
him, when he
grasped it and
said, " Now I
am satisfied ; I
die contented."
The command of
the Enterprise
devolved upon
Lieut. E. R. Me-
Call, of South
Carolina, w h o
conducted his
part of the en
gagement to its
close with skill.
He took both
vessels into
Portland Har-
bor on the
morning of the
7th. The two
young com-
manders were
buried side by side in a cemetery at Port
land. Congress presented a gold medal
to the nearest masculine representative
of Lieutenant Burrows; and another was
presented to Lieutenant McCall.

Envoy. A diplomatic or political rank
inferior to that of AMBASSADOR (q. v.).
In the diplomatic service in the United
States the official designation is envoy
extraordinary and minister plenipoten
tiary. The representatives of the United
States in the countries with which it has
mutually raised its representative above
the rank of envoy extraordinary and
minister plenipotentiary are officially
known as ambassadors extraordinary
and plenipotentiary.

Envoys to France. Monroe was re
called from France in 1796, and CHARLES

COTESWORTH PlNCKNEY ( q. V . ) , of South

Carolina, was appointed to fill his place.
On his arrival in France, late in the year.
\\ith the letter of recall and his own cre
dentials, the Directory refused to receive
him. Not only so, but, after treating
him with great discourtesy, the Directory
peremptorily ordered him to leave France.
He withdrew to Holland (February, 1707 ).
and there awaited further orders from
home. When Mr. Adams took the chair
of state, the United States had no diplo-

248

EPISCOPACY IN AMERICA

matic agent in France. The " French spirit of the people kept episcopacy at bay,

party," or Republicans, having failed to for they remembered how much they had

elect Jefferson President, the DIRECTORY suffered at the hands of the Church of

(q. v.) determined to punish a people England. On the accession of George III.

who dared to thwart their plans. In and the administration of the Earl of

May, 1797, they issued a decree which Bute, among the reforms in the colonies

was tantamount to a declaration of war contemplated and proposed by the minis-

against the United States. At about the try was the curtailment or destruction of

same time President Adams, observing the Puritan and Dissenting influence in

the perilous relations between the United the provinces, which seemed inimical to

States and France, called an extraordi- monarchy, and to make the ritual of the

nary session of Congress to consider the Anglican Church the state mode of wor-

matter. There had been a reaction among ship. As early as 1748 Dr. Seeker, Arch-

the people, and many leading Democrats bishop of Canterbury, had proposed the

favored war with France. A majority of establishment of episcopacy in America,

the cabinet advised further negotiations, and overtures were made to several erni-

and John Marshall, a Federalist, and ncnt Puritan divines to accept the leader-

Elbridge Gerry, a Democrat, were ap- ship, but they all declined it. A royalist

pointed envoys extraordinary to join churchman in Connecticut, in 1760, in a

Pinckney and attempt to settle all mat- letter to Dr. Seeker, and to the Earl of

ters in dispute. They reached France in Halifax, then at the head of the board of

October (1797), and sought an audience trade and plantations, urged the necessity

with the Directory. Their request was met of providing two or three bishops for the

by a haughty refusal, unless the envoys colonies, the support of the Church, and a

would first agree to pay into the ex- method for repressing the rampant repub-

hausted French treasury a large sum of licanism of the people. " The rights of

money, in the form of a loan, by the pur- the clergy and the authority of the King,"

chase of Dutch bonds wrung from that said the Bishop of London, " must stand

nation by the French, and a bribe to the or fall together."

amount of $240,000 for the private use of The Anglican Church then had many ad-

the five members of the Directory. The herents in all the colonies, who naturally

proposition came semi-officially from Tal- desired its ascendency; but the great mass

leyrand, one of the most unscrupulous of the people looked upon that Church

politicians of the age. It was accompanied as an ally of the state in acts of oppres-

by a covert threat that if the proposition sion, and earnestly opposed it. They well

was not complied with the envoys might knew that if Parliament could create dio-

be ordered to leave France in twenty-four ceses and appoint bishops, they would os-

hours, and the coasts of the United States tablish tithes and crush out dissent as

be ravaged by French cruisers from San heresy. For years controversy in the

Domino. They peremptorily refused, colonies on this topic was warm, and some-

and Pinckney uttered, in substance, the times acrimonious. Essays for and against

noble words, " Millions for defence, but episcopacy appeared in abundance. The

not one cent for tribute!" The envoys Bishop of LlandafT, in a sermon preached

asked for their passports. They were given before the Society for the Propagation of

to the two Federalists under circumstances the Gospel in Foreign Parts, in which he

that amounted to their virtual expulsion, advocated the necessity of establishing

but Gerry, the Democrat, was induced to episcopacy in America, heaped abuse with-

remain. He, too, was soon treated with out stint upon the colonists. " Upon the

contempt by Talleyrand and his associates, adventurers themselves," he said, " what

and he returned home in disgust. reproach could he cast heavier than they

Episcopacy in America. The Church deserve? who, with their native soil, aban-

and state in England worked in concert doned their native manners and religion,

in forging fetters for the English-Ameri- and ere long were found, in many parts,

can colonists. The Church of England was living without remembrance or knowledge

c:.rly made a state establishment in the of God, without any divine worship, in

colony of Virginia, but elsewhere the free dissolute wickedness and the most brutal

249

EPISCOPACY IN AMERICA

piofligacy of manners." He charged them of New York and New Jersey, in 170-!,
with having become " infidels and barba- even violent efforts were used to make the
rians " ; and the prelate concluded that the liturgy and ritual of the Church of Eng-
only remedy for the great evil was to be land the state system of worship, lie
found in a Church establishment. His denied the right of preachers or school-
lecommendations were urged with zeal by masters to exercise their functions in the
churchmen in the colonies. The Dis- province without a bishop s license; and
seniors were aroused. They observed in when the corporation of New York re-
the bishop s sermon the old persecuting solved to establish a grammar-school, the
spirit of the Church, and visions of Laud Bishop of London was requested to send
and the Star Chamber disturbed them, over a teacher. In violation of his posi-
Eminent writers in America entered tive instructions, the governor began a
the lists in opposition to him. Among systematic persecution of all religious de-
others, William Livingston, whose fa- nominations dissenting from the practices
mous letter to the bishop, issued in of the Church of England. This conduct
pamphlet form, refuted the charges reacted disastrously to Trinity Church,
of that dignitary so completely that which, until the province was rid of Corn-
they were not repeated. The theo- bury, had a very feeble growth,
logical controversy ceased when the vital Puritan austerity had extended to a
question of resistance to the oppressive large class of intelligent free-thinkers
power of both Church and state was and doubters in New England, and they
brought to a final issue. The first Eng- felt inclined to turn towards the freer,
lish "bishop within the domains of the more orderly, and dignified Church of
American republic was SAMUEL SEABURY England. The rich and polite preferred
(q. v.), of Connecticut, who was conse- a mode of worship which seemed to bring
crated by three bishops of the Scottish them into sympathy with the English
Episcopal Church, Nov. 14, 1784. aristocracy, and there were many who de-

Efforts were early made by the English lighted in the modest ceremonies of the
to supplant the Dutch Church as the pre- church. Nor were these influences con-
vailing religious organization in New York, fined to laymen. There were studious and
The act of the Assembly procured by Gov- aspiring men among the ministers to
einor Fletcher, though broad in its scope, whom the idea of apostolic succession
was destined for that purpose. Under had charms; and they yearned for
that act Trinity Church was organized, freedom from the obstinate turbulence
and Fletcher tried to obtain authority to of stiff - necked church - members, who,
appoint all the ministers, but the Assem- in theory, were the spiritual equals of
My successfully resisted his designs. In the pastors, whom, to manage, it was nec-
1(51)5 Rev. John Miller, in a long letter to essary to humor and to suit. These ideas
the Bishop of London on the condition of found expression in an unexpected qiun-
religion and morals, drew a gloomy pict- ter. Timothy Cutler, a minister of lean,
ure of the state of society in the city of injr and great ability, was rector of Yale
New York, and earnestly recommended as College in 1719. To the surprise and
a remedy for all these social evils "to alarm of the people of New England, Mi.
send over a bishop to the province of New Cutler, with the tutor of the college and
York duly qualified as suffragan " to the two ministers in the neighborhood, took
Bishop of London, and five or six young occasion, on Commencement Day, 1722, to
ministers, with Bibles and prayer-books; avow their conversion to Episcopacy.
to unite New York. New Jersey. Con- Cutler was at once " excused " from all
necticut, and Rhode Island into one prov- further service in the colege, and provi-
ince; and the bishop to be appointed gov- sion was made for all future rectors to give
ernor. at a salary of $7,200, his Majesty satisfactory evidence of "soundness of
to give him the King s Farm of 30 tbeir faith in opposition to Arminian and
acres, in New York, as a seat for himself prelatical corruptions." Weaker ones en-
and his successors. When Sir Edward gaged in the revolt halted, but others per-
Hyde (afterwards Lord Cornbury) be- sisted. Cutler became rector of a new
came governor of the combined provinces Episcopal church in Boston, and the dis-

250

EPISCOPAL CHURCH ERA OF GOOD 1 EELING

missed ministers were maintained as Ala.; second vice-president, Rev. \V. T.

missionaries by the Society for the Propa- McClure, Marshall, Mo.; third vice-presi-

gation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, dent, Rev. J. M. Barcus, Cleburne, Tex.;

This secession from the Church resting tieasurer, Mr. 0. W. Patton, Nashville,

on the SAYBROOK PLATFORM (q. v.) , made Tenn. ; secretary, Mr. G. W. Thomasson,

the ministers of Massachusetts keen-eyed Nashville, Tenn.

in the detection of signs of defection. Equal Rights Party. In the city of

John Checkly (afterwards ordained an New York, in 1835, there arose in the

Episcopal missionary) published Leslie s ranks of the Democratic party a combina-

Short and Easy Method with Deists, with tion of men opposed to all banking in-

au appendix by himself, in which Episco- stitutions and monopolies of every sort,

pal ordination was insisted upon as neces- A Workingnian s party " had been

sary to constitute a Christian minister, formed in 1829, but had become defunct,

The authorities in Boston were offended, and the " Equal Rights party " was its

Checkly was tried on a charge that the successor. They acted with much caution

publication tended to bring into con- and secrecy in their opposition to the

tempt and infamy the ministers of the powerful Democratic party, but never

1 oly Gospel established by law within rose above the dignity of a faction. They

his Majesty s province of Massachusetts." made their first decided demonstration at

For this offence Checkly was found guilty Tammany Hall at the close of October,

and fined 50. See PROTESTANT EPISCO- 1835, when an event occurred which

PAL CHURCH. caused them afterwards to be known as

Episcopal Church, REFORMED. See LOCO-FOCOS (q. v.) , a name applied by the

REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH. Whigs to the whole Democratic party.

Epworth League, a religious society The faction soon became formidable, and

composed of the young members and the regulars endeavored to reconcile the

friends of the Methodist Episcopal irregulars by nominating their favorite

Church, founded in May, 1889. Its aim for the Presidency, Richard M. Johnson,

is to promote intelligent and loyal piety for Vice-President with Martin Van

among its members. Its constitution Buren.

provides for religious, intellectual, and Era of Good Feeling, in United States
social development. In 1900 it numbered history, the period of 1817-23. During
27.700 chapters, with a membership of these years there was scarcely any antag-
1.900,000. President, Bishop Isaac W. onism manifested between the political
Joyce, Minneapolis, Minn.; vice-presi- parties, owing largely to the decline of
dents: Department of Spiritual Work, the Federal party and to the abandonment
W. W. Cooper, Chicago, 111.; Department of past issues. The War of 1812 had
of Mercy and Help, Rev. W. H. Jordan, practically settled every question which
D.D., Sioux Falls, S. D. ; Department of had disturbed the parties since 1800. The
Literary Work, Rev. R. J. Cook, D.D., inaugural speech of PRESIDENT JAMES
Chattanooga. Tenn.; Department of Social MONROE (q. v.) in 1817 was of such a
Work, F. W. Tunnell, Philadelphia, Pa.; nature as to quiet the Federal minority,
general secretary, Rev. Joseph F. Berry, It treated the peculiar interests of that
D.D., 57 Washington Street, Chicago, 111., party with magnanimity; congratulated
general treasurer, R. S. Copeland, M.D., the country upon its universal "hai-
Ann Arbor, Mich. The central office is mony," and predicted an increase of this
located at 57 Washington Street, Chicago, harmony for the future. This good will
Hi. There is also an Epworth League was further augmented by a visit of
in the Methodist Episcopal Church, President Monroe to the New England
South; founded in Memphis, Tenn., in States, which had not seen a President
1891. It has 5,838 chapters, with a total since the days of Washington. Party feel-
membership of 306,580. The central ing was forgotten, and all joined in pro-
office is located at Na&hville, Tenn. The claiming that an " era of good feeling "
officers are: President, Bishop W. A. had come. In 1824 this era was unhappi-
Condler, Atlanta, Ga. : first vice-president, ly terminated by the election of JOHN
Rev. J. W. Newman, D.D., Birmingham, QUINCY ADAMS (q. v.), during whose ad-

251

ERICSSON EBIE CANAL

ministration questions arose which resur- in mechanical science after he settled in
rected party antagonisms. . ^"ew York. He constructed the Monitor,

Ericsson, Jonx, engineer; born in which fought the Merrimac, using T. R.
Wermeland, Sweden, July 31, 1803. He TIMBY S (q. v.) revolving turret, thus
became an eminent engineer in his own revolutionizing the entire science of naval
country, and attained the rank of cap- warfare. At the time of his death he was
tain in the Swedish army. In 1826 he perfecting an engine to be run by solar
visited England with a view to the in- rays. He died in New York City, March
troduction of his invention of a flame 8, 1889, and his remains were sent to his
engine. He engaged actively in mechani- native land in the United States cruiser
eal pursuits, and made numerous inven- Bnliimorc.

tions, notably that of artificial draft, Eric the Bed, a Scandinavian navi-
which is still used in locomotive engines, gator, who emigrated to Ireland about
He won the prize offered by the Man- 982, after which he discovered Greenland.
Chester and Liverpool Railway for the where he planted a colony. He sent out
best locomotive, making one that attained an exploring party under his son Lief,
the then astonishing speed of 50 miles about 1000, who seems to have discovered
an hour. He invented the screw propeller the continent of America, and landed
for navigation, but the British admiralty somewhere on the shores of Massachu-
being unwilling to believe in its capacity setts or the southern portion of New Eng-
and success, Ericsson came to the United land. See VINLAND.

States in 183!), and resided in the city Erie Canal, THE, the greatest work of
of New York or its immediate vicinity till internal improvement constructed in the
his death. In 1841 he was engaged in the United States previous to the Pacific
construction of the United States ship-of- Railway. It connects the waters of the
war Princeton, to which he applied his Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean
propeller. She was the first steamship by way of the Hudson River. It was

contemplated by General Schuyler and
Elkanah Watson, but was first definitely
proposed by Gouverneur Morris, at about
the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Various writers put forth essays upon the
subject, among them De Witt Clinton,
who became its most notable champion.
The project took such shape that, in
1810, canal commissioners were appointed,
with Gouverneur Morris at their head.
In 1812 Clinton, with others, was appoint
ed to lay the project before the national
Congress, and solicit the aid of the
national government. Fortunately the
latter declined to extend its patronage
to the great undertaking. The War of
1812-15 put the matter at rest for a
while. That war made the transporta-
JOHX KKICSSOX. tion of merchandise along our sea -cna&gt;1s

perilous, and the cominereial intercourse

ever built with the propelling machinery between seaboard cities was carried on in
under the water-line and out of reach of a larger degree by wheeled vehicles. For
shot. In 1840 he received the gold medal this purpose Couestoga wag&lt;&gt;n&gt; were used
of the Mechanics Institute of New York between New York and Philadelphia, and
for the best model of a steam fire-engine, when one of these made the journey of
and constructed the first one seen in the 90 miles in three days, with passengers.
United States. King Oscar of Sweden it was called "the flying-machine." It
made him Knight of the Order of Vasa has been estimated that the amount of
in 1852, He accomplished many things increased expense by this method of trans-

252

EBIE CANAL, THE

portation of merchandise for the coast government would do nothing in the mat-
region alone would have paid the cost of ter, and the State of New York resolved
a system of internal navigation from to construct the canal alone. Clinton was
Maine to Georgia. made governor in 1816, and used all his
The want of such a system was made official and private influence in favor of
clear to the public mind, especially to the the enterprise. He saw it begun during

LOCKS ON THK ERIE CANAL.

population then gathering in the Western his first administration. The first exca-

States. Then Mr. Clinton, more vigor- vation was made July 4, 1817, and it was

ously than ever, pressed upon the public completed and formally opened by him,

attention the importance of constructing as chief magistrate of the State, in 1825.

the projected canal. He devoted his won- when a grand aquatic procession from Al-

derful energies to the subject, and in a bany proceeded to the sea, and the gov-

memorial of the citizens of New York, ernor poured a keg of the water of Lake

prepared by him, he produced such a pow- Erie into the Atlantic Ocean. The canal

erful argument in its favor that not only was constructed at a cost of $7,602.000.

the people of his native State, but of Untold wealth has been won for the State

other States, approved it. The national and the city of New York by its opera-

253

ERIE

tions, directly and indirectly. Up to 1904
tlie canal had cost for construction, en
largement, and maintenance $52,540,800.
At the State election in 1903 the people
sanctioned a legislative bill to expend
$101.000,000 for the improvement of the
Erie, Oswego, and Champlain canals.

Erie, FOKT, a small and weak forti
fication erected on a plain 12 or 15 feet
sibove the waters of Lake Erie, at its foot.
In the summer of 1812, Black Rock, 2 miles
below Buffalo, was selected as a place for
a dock-yard for fitting out naval vessels
for Lake Erie. Lieut. Jesse D. Elliott,
then only twenty - seven years of age.
while on duty there, was informed of the
arrival at Fort Erie, opposite, of two ves
sels from Detroit, both well manned and
well armed and laden with valuable car
goes of peltry. They were the Caledonia, a
vessel belonging to the Northwestern Fur
Company, and the John Adams, taken at
the surrender of Hull, with the name
changed to Detroit. They arrived on the
morning of Oct. 8 (1812), and Elliott
at once conceived a plan for their capture.
Timely aid offered. The same day a de
tachment of unarmed seamen arrived from
Xew York. Elliott turned to the military
for assistance. Lieutenant-Colonel Scott
was then at Black Rock, and entered
warmly into Elliott s plans. General
Smyth, the commanding officer, favored
them. Captain Towson, of the artillery,
was detailed, with fifty men, for the ser
vice; and sailors under General Winder,
at Buffalo, were ordered out, well
armed. Several citizens joined the expe
dition, and the whole number, rank
and file, was about 124 men. Two large
boats were taken to the mouth of Buffalo
Creek, and in these the expedition em
barked at midnight. At one o clock in
the morning (Oct. 9) they left the creek,
while scores of people watched anxiously
on the shore for the result. The sharp
crack of a pistol, the roll of musketry,
followed by silence, and the moving of
two dark objects down the river pro
claimed that the enterprise had been suc
cessful. Joy was manifested on the
shores by shouts and the waving of lan
terns. The vessels and their men had been
made captives in less than ten minutes.
The guns at Fort Erie were brought to
bear upon the vessels. A struggle for

their possession ensued. The Detroit was
finally burned, but the Caledonia was
saved, and afterwards did good service in
Perry s fleet on Lake Erie. In this brill
iant affair the Americans lost one killed
and five wounded. The loss of the Brit
ish is not known. A shot from Fort Erie
crossed the river and instantly killed Maj.
William Howe Cuyler, aide to General
Hull, of Watertown, N. Y. The Caledonia
was a rich prize; her cargo was valued at
$200,000.

On Aug. 4, 1814, the British, under
Lieutenant-Colonel Drummond, began a
siege of Fort Erie, with about 5,000
men. Drummond perceived the impor
tance of capturing the American batteries
at Black Rock and seizing or destroying
the armed schooners in the lake. A force
1,200 strong, that went over to Black
Rock, were repulsed by riflemen, militia,
and volunteers, under Major Morgan.
Meanwhile Drummond had opened fire on
Fort Erie with some 24-pounders. From
Aug. 7 to Aug. 14 (1814) the cannonade
and bombardment was almost incessant.
General Gaines had arrived on the 5th,
and taken the chief command as Brown s
lieutenant. On the morning of the 7th
the British hurled a fearful storm of
round-shot upon the American works
from five of their heavy cannon. Day by
day the siege went steadily on. On the
1 3th Drummond, having completed the
mounting of all his heavy ordnance, be
gan a bombardment, which continued
through the day, and was renewed on the
morning of the 14th. When the attack
ceased that night, very little impression
had been made on the American works.
Satisfied that Drummond intended to
storm the works, Gaines made disposition
accordingly. At midnight an ominous
silence prevailed in both camps. It was
soon broken by a tremendous uproar. At
two o clock in the morning (Aug. 15) the
British, 1,500 strong, under Lieutenant-
Colonel Fischer, made a furious attack
upon Towson s bat &lt; cry and the abatis, on
the extreme left, bet \veei! that work and
the shore. They expected to find the
Americans slumbering, but were mistaken.
At a signal, Towson s artillerists sent
forth such a continuous stream of flame
from his tall battery that the British
called it the " Yankee Light - house."
M

ERIE, FORT

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EXPLANATION op THE ABOVK MAP. A, old Fort Erie; a, a, demi-bastions; 6, a ravelin, and c, c, block-housea
These were all built by the British previous to its capture at the beginning of July, d, d, bastions built by the
Americans during the siege; e, e, n redoubt built for the security of the demi-bastions, a. a.

B, the American camp, secured on the right by the line g, the Douglass Battery, f, and Fort Erie; on the left,
and in front, by the lines/,/ / and batteries on the extreme right and left of them. That on the right, immedi
ately under the letter L in the words LKVKT, I-I.AIX, is Towson s; h, k, etc.. camp traverses; n, main traverse; o,
magazine traverse, covering also the headquarters of ener;il Oaines; p, hospital traverse; q. grand parade and
provost-guard traverse; r. General Brown s headquarters; s, a drain; &lt;, road from Chippewa up the lake.

C, the encampment of volunteers outside of the intrenchments, who joined the army a few days before the
sortie.

n, n, the British works. 1, 2, 3. their first, second, and third battery, v. the route of Porter, wiih the left
column, to attack the British right flank on the 17th; z, the ravine, and route of Miller s command.

Mr. Lossing was indebted to the late Chief Engineer Gen. Joseph G. Totten for the manuscript map of which
this Is a copy.

255

ERIE, FORT

While one assailing column, by the use of
ladders, was endeavoring to capture the
battery, the other, failing to penetrate
the abatis, because Miller and his brave
men were behind it, attempted to gain the
rear of the defenders. Both columns
failed. Five times they made a gallant

more furious attack, the bastion blew up
with tremendous force. A column of
flame, with fragments of timber, earth,
stones, and the bodies of men, rose to the
height of nearly 200 feet in the air, and
fell in a shower of ruins to a great dis
tance around. This appalling explosion

Kl IXS OF KOKT ERIK, 1860.

attack, when, after fearful loss, they aban
doned the enterprise. Meanwhile another
British column made a desperate attack
on the fort, when the exasperated Drum-
mond ordered his men to " give the Yan
kees no quarter " if the fort should be
taken, and had actually stationed some
Indians near to assist in the execution
of the savage order. He obtained partial
possession of the weak fort, and ordered
his men to attack the garrison with pike
and bayonet. Most of the officers and
many of the men received deadly wounds.
No quarter was given ; but very soon the
officer who gave the order was killed by
the side of Lieutenant Macdonough, who
had asked him for quarter, but \?as shot
dcud by him. The battle raged furiously
a while longer. The British held the
main bastion of the fort in spite of all
efforts to dislodge them. Finally, just
as the Americans were about to make a

was followed by a galling cannonade,
when the British fled to their intrench-
ments, leaving on the field 221 killed, 174
wounded, and 186 prisoners. The loss of
the Americans was seventy killed, fifty-
six wounded, and eleven missing.

After the terrible explosion and the re
pulse of the British, both parties pre
pared for a renewed contest. Each was
strengthened by reinforcements, but the
struggle was not again begun for a month.
General Brown had recovered from his
wound, and was again in command of his
army. The fort was closely invested by
the British, but Drummond s force, ly
ing upon low ground, was greatly weak
ened by typhoid fever. Hearing of this.
Brown determined to make a sortie from
the fort. The time appointed for its ex
ecution was Sept. 17. He resolved, he
said, " to storm the batteries, destroy the
cannon, and roughly handle the brigade

25(J

ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON

on duty, before those in reserve at the
camp could be brought into action."
Fortunately for the sallying troops, a
thick fog obscured their movements as
they went out, towards noon, in three di
visions one under General Proctor, an
other under James Miller (who had been
brevetted a brigadier-general ) , and a
third under General Ripley. Porter
reached a point within a few rods of the
British right wing, at near three o clock,
before the movement was suspected by
his antagonist. An assault was immedi
ately begun. The startled British on
that flank fell back, and left the Ameri
cans masters of the ground. Two bat
teries were then stormed, and were car
ried after a close struggle for thirty
minutes. This triumph was followed by
the capture of the block-house in the rear
of the batteries. The garrison were made
prisoners, cannon and carriages were de
stroyed, and the magazine blown up.
Meanwhile, General Miller had carried
two other batteries and block-houses in
the rear. Within forty minutes after
Porter and Miller began the attack, four

saved, with Buffalo, and stores on the
Niagara frontier, by this successful sortie.
In the space of an hour, the hopes of
Drummond were blasted, the fruits of the
labor of fifty days were destroyed, and
his force reduced by at least 1,000 men.
Public honors were awarded to Brown,
Porter, and llipley. Congress presented
each with a gold medal. To the chief
commander (Brown), of whom it was
said, " no enterprise which he undertook
ever failed," the corporation of New York
gave the freedom of the city in a gold box.
The governor of New York (D. D. Tomp-
kins) presented to him an elegant sword.
The States of New York, Massachusetts,
South Carolina, and Georgia each gave
Eipley tokens of their appreciation of his
services.

Erie, LAKE, BATTLE ON. Who should
be masters of Lake Erie was an important
question to be solved in 1813. The United
States government did not fulfil its prom
ise to Hull to provide means for securing
the naval supremacy on Lake Erie. The
necessity for such an attainment was so
obvious before the close of 1812 that the

MOUTH OP CASCADE CREKK, WHEKB PERRY S FLKET WAS BFILT.

batteries, two block -houses, and the whole government took vigorous action in the
line of British intrenchments were in the matter. Isaac Chauncey was in command
hands of the Americans. Fort Erie was of a little squadron on Lake Ontario late
in. R 257

ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON

I KRRY S BATTI.K FLAG.

in 1812, and Capt. Oliver Hazard Perry,
a zealous young naval officer, of Rhode Isl
and, who was in command of a flotilla of
gunboats on the Newport station, offered
his services on the Lakes. Chauncey de
sired his services, and on Feb. 17 Perry re
ceived orders from the Secretary of the
Navy to report to Chauncey with all pos
sible despatch, and to take with him to
Sackett s Harbor all of the best men of
the flotilla at Newport. He sent them for
ward, in companies of fifty, under Sailing-
blasters Almy, Champlin, and Taylor. He
met Chauncey at Albany, and they jour
neyed together in a sleigh through the
then wilderness to Sackett s Harbor. In
March Perry went to Presque Isle (now
Krie, Pa.) to hasten the construction and
equipment of a little navy there designed
to co-operate with General Harrison in at
tempts to recover Michigan. Four vessels
were speedily built at Erie, and five others
were taken to that well-sheltered harbor
from Black Rock, near Buffalo, where
HENRY ECKFORD (q. v.) had converted
merchant-vessels into war-ships. The ves
sels at Erie were constructed under the
immediate supervision of Sailing-Master
Daniel Dobbins, at the mouth of Cascade
Creek. Early in May (1813) the three
smaller vessels were launched, and on the

24th of the same month
two brigs were put afloat.
The whole fleet was finished
on July 10, and consisted
of the brig Lawrence, twenty
guns; brig Maya fa. twenty
guns; brig Caledonia, three
guns ; schooner Ariel, four
guns; schooner Scorpion,
two guns and two swivels;
sloop Trippe, one gun ;
schooner Tiyress, one gun ;
and schooner Porcupine, one
gun. The command of the
licet was given to Perry,
and the Lawrence, so named
in honor of the slain com
mander of the Chesapeake,
was his flag-ship. But men
and supplies were wanting.
A British squadron on the
lake seriously menaced the
fleet at Erie, and Perry
pleaded for materials to put
his vessels in proper order
to meet danger. " Think of my situa
tion," he wrote to Chauncey " the enemy
in sight, the vessels under my command
more than sufficient and ready to mako
sail, and yet obliged to bite my fingers
with vexation for want of men."

Perry, anxiously waiting for men to
man his little fleet at Erie, was partial
ly gratified by the arrival there of 100
men from Black Rock, under Captain El
liott, and early in August, 1813, he went
out on the lake before he was fairly pre
pared for vigorous combat. On Aug. 17,
when off Sandusky Bay, he fired a signal-
gun for General Harrison, according to
agreement. Harrison was encamped at
Seneca, and late in the evening of the
1 Mh he and his suite arrived in boats
and went on board the flag-ship Lawrence,
where arrangements were made for the fall
campaign in that quarter. Harrison had
about 8,000 militia, regulars and Indians,
at Camp Seneca, a little more than 20
miles from the lake. While he was wait
ing for Harrison to get his army ready
to be transported to Fort Maiden, Perry
cruised about the lake. On a bright
morning, Sept. 10, the sentinel watching
in the main-top of the Lawrence cried,
"Sail, ho!" It announced the appear
ance of the British fleet, clearly seen in
58

ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON

the northwestern horizon. Very soon
Perry s nine vessels were ready for the
enemy. At the mast-head of the Lawrence
was displayed a blue banner, with the
words of Lawrence, the dying captain, in
large white letters " DON T GIVE UP THE

into shreds, her spars battered into splin
ters, and her guns dismounted. One mast
remained, and from it streamed the na
tional flag. The deck was a scene of
dreadful carnage, and most men would
have struck their flag. But Perry was

PUT-IX-BAY SMOKE Of BATTLE SKEN IN THE LISTAXCK.

SHIP." The two squadrons slowly ap- hopeful in gloom. His other vessels
proached each other. The British squad- had fought gallantly, excepting the
ion was commanded by Com. Robert Niagara, Captain Elliott, the stanchest
H. Barclay, who fought with Nelson at ship in the fleet, which had kept out-
Trafalgar. His vessels were the ship De- side, and was unhurt. As she drew near
troit, nineteen guns, and one pivot and the Lawrence, Perry resolved to fly to her,
two howitzers; ship Queen Charlotte, and, renewing the fight. Avin the victory,
seventeen, and one howitzer; brig Lady Putting on the uniform of his rank, that
Prevost, thirteen, and one hoAvitzer; brig he might properly receive Barclay as his
Hunter, ten; sloop Little Belt, three: prisoner, he took down his broad pen-
and schooner Chippewa,
one, and tAvo SAvivels. "^~
The battle began at noon,
at long range, the Scor
pion, commanded by
young Sailing - Master
Stephen Champlin. then
less than tAventy-four
years of age, firing the
first shot on the Ameri
can side. As the fleets
drew nearer and nearer,
hotter and hotter waxed
the fight. For two hours the Lawrence nant and the banner with the stirring
bore the brunt of battle, until she lay Avords, entered his boat, and, with four
upon the waters almost a total wreck stout seamen at the oars, he started on
her rigg&gt;^ all shot away, her sails cut his perilous voyage, anxiously watched by

259

POSITION OF THE TWO SQUADRONS JUST BEFORE THE BATTLE.

ERIE, LAKE, BATTLE ON

PERRY S DESPATCH.

those he had left on the Lawrence. Perry
stood upright in his boat, with the pen
nant and banner partly wrapped about
him. Barclay, who had been badly
wounded, informed of Perry s daring, and
knowing the peril of the British fleet if
the young commodore should reach the
decks of the Niagara, ordered big and

the Niagara in safety. Hoisting his pen
nant over her, he dashed through the
British line, and eight minutes afterwards
the colors of the enemy s flag-ship were
struck, all but two of the fleet surrender
ing. These attempted to escape, but were
pursued and brought back, late in the
evening, by the Scorpion, whose gallant

I&gt;TER CLASS. AMEBI

ET BRIT. DIE X. SEP.
MDCCCXIH.

THK PERRY MKD.U..

little guns to be brought to bear on the commander (Champlin) had fired the

little boat that held the hero. The voy- first and last gun in the battle of Lake

age lasted fifteen minutes. Bullets tra- Erie. Assured of victory, Perry sat down,

versed the boat, grape-shot falling in the and, resting his naval cap on his knee,

water near covered the seamen with spray, wrote to Harrison, with a pencil, on the

and oars were shivered by cannon-balls, back of a letter, the famous despatch:

but not a man was hurt. Perry reached " We have met the enemy, and they are

260

EBNST ERSKINE

ours two ships, two brigs, one schooner, also offered reparation for the insult and
and one sloop." The name of Perry was injury in the case of the CHESAPEAKE
made immortal. His government thanked (q. v.) , and also assured the government
him, and gave him and Elliott each a of the United States that Great Britain
gold medal. The legislature of Pennsyl- would immediately send over an envoy
vania voted him thanks and a gold medal ; extraordinary, vested with power to con-
and it gave thanks and a silver medal to elude a treaty that should settle all
each man who was engaged in the battle, points of dispute between the two gov-
The Americans lost twenty-seven killed ernments. This arrangement was com-
and ninety-six wounded. The British loss pleted April 18, 1809. The next day the
was about 200 killed and 600 made prison- Secretary of State received a note from
ers. At about nine o clock in the evening Erskine, saying he was authorized to de-
of the day of the battle, the moon shin- clare that his Majesty s Orders in Council
ing brightly, the two squadrons weighed of January and November, 1807, would
anchor and sailed into Put-in-Bay, not be withdrawn on June 10 next ensuing,
far from Sandusky, out of which the On the same day (April 19) the Presi-
American fleet had sailed that morning, dent issued a proclamation declaring that
The last survivor of the battle of Lake trade with Great Britain might be re-
Erie was John Norris, who died at Peters- sumed after June 10. This proclamation
burg, Va., in January, 1879. gave great joy in the United States.

Ernst, OSWALD HERBERT, military offi- Partisan strife was hushed, and the Presi-

cer; born in Cincinnati. 0., June 27, dent was toasted and feasted by leading

1842; graduated at West Point in Federalists, as a Washingtonian worthy

1864, and entered the Engineer Corps; of all confidence. In the House of Repre-

superintendent of West Point in 1893- sentatives, John Randolph, who lauded

08 ; appointed a brigadier-general of vol- England for her magnanimity, offered

unteers in May, 1898, and served in (May 3, 1809) a resolution which declared

the war against Spain. He was sent to " that the promptitude and frankness with

Porto Rico, and had command of the which the President of the United States

troops in the action of Coamo. He is has met the overtures of the government

the author of Practical Military Engi- of Great Britain towards a restoration of

neering. harmony and freer commercial intercourse

Erskine, DAVID MONTAGUE, BARON, between the two nations meet the ap-

diplomatist; born in England in 1776; proval of this House." The joy was of

soon after 1806 was sent to the United brief duration. Mr. Erskine was soon

States as British envoy. He was on duty afterwards compelled to communicate to

in Washington at the time of Madison s the President (July 31) that his govern-

accession to the Presidency. He found ment had refused to sanction his arrange-

the new President so exceedingly anxious ment, ostensibly because the minister had

for peace and good feeling between the exceeded his instructions, and was not

two countries that he had written to Can- authorized to make any such arrangement,

ning, the British minister, such letters Mr. Erskine was recalled. The true rea-

on the subject that he was instructed to son for the rejection by the British au-

propose to the Americans a reciprocal thorities of the arrangement made by

repeal of all the prohibitory laws upon Erskine probably was, that, counting upon

certain conditions. Those conditions were the fatal effects of sectional strife in

so partial towards Great Britain, requir- the Union, already so rampant in some

ing the Americans to submit to the rule places, the British government was en-

of 1756, that they were rejected. Very couraged to believe that the bond of union

soon, however, arrangements were made would be so weakened that a scheme then

by which, upon the Orders in Council be- perfecting by the British ministry for

ing repealed, the President should issue destroying that Union would be successful.

a proclamation declaring a restoration of England having spurned the olive-branch

commercial intercourse with Great Brit- so confidingly offered, the President of

ain, but leaving all restrictive laws as the United States issued another procla-

France in full force. Mr. Erskine mation (Aug. 9, 1809), declaring the non-
261

ERSKINE ESSEX

intercourse act to be again in full force 1799. On June 26, 1812, under command

in regard to Great Britain. of Capt. David Porter, she left Sandy

Erskine, SIR WILLIAM, British soldier ; Hook, N. J., on a cruise, with a flag at her

born in 1728; entered the English army masthead bearing the significant words,

in 1743; commanded one of the brigades "FREE-TRADE AND SAILORS RIGHTS." He

at the battle of Long Island in 1776; and scon captured several English merchant

was second in command of Tryon s expe- vesels, making trophy bonfires of most of

dition to Danbury in April, 1777. In the them on the ocean, and their crews his

next year he took command of the east- prisoners. After cruising southward sev-

ern district of Long Island. He died eral weeks in disguise, capturing a prize

March 9, 1795. now and then, he turned northward, and

Esopus War, THE. There had been a chased a fleet of English transports bear-
massacre by the Indians of Dutch set- ing 1,000 troops to Halifax, convoyed by
tiers at Esopus (now Kingston, N. Y.) a frigate and a bomb- vessel. He capt-
in 1655. The settlers had fled to Man- ured one of the transports, and a few
hattan for security, but had been per- days afterwards (Aug. 13) fell in with
suaded by Stuyvesant to return to their the British armed ship Alert, Capt. T.
farms, where they built a compact village L. P. Langhorne, mounting twenty 18-
for mutual protection. Unfortunately, pounder carronades and six smaller guns,
some Indians, who had been helping the The Essex was disguised as a merchant-
Dutch in their harvests in the summer man. The Alert followed her for some
of 1658, became noisy in a drunken rout, time, and at length opened fire with three
and were fired upon by the villagers. This cheers from her people. Porter caused
outrage caused fearful retaliation. The his ports to be knocked out in an instant,
Indians desolated the farms, and mur- when his guns responded with terrible
dered the people in isolated houses. The effect. It was a complete surprise. The
Dutch put forth their strength to oppose Alert was so badly injured and her people
the barbarians, and the " Esopus War " were so panic-stricken that the conflict
continued until 1664 intermittingly. was short. In spite of the efforts of the
Some Indians, taken prisoners, were sent officers, the men of the Alert ran below
to Curagoa and sold as slaves. The anger for safety. She was surrendered in a
of the Esopus Indians was aroused, and, sinking condition. She was the first
in 1663, the village of Wiltwyck, as the British naval vessel captured in the war.
Esopus village was called, was almost Nobody was killed on either vessel,
totally destroyed. Stuyvesant was there When Commodore Bainbridge was
at the time, holding a conference with the about to sail from Boston with the Con-
Indians in the open fields, when the de- si Button and Hornet, orders were sent to
jstructive blow fell. The houses were Captain Porter, of the Essex, then lying
plundered and burned, and men, hurrying in the Delaware, to cruise in the track
from the fields to protect their families of the West Indiamen, and at a specified
and property, were either shot down or time to rendezvous at certain pcrK
carried away captive. The struggle was when, if he should not fall in with the
desperate, but the white people were vie- flag-ship of the squadron, ho would bo at
torious. When the assailants were driven liberty to follow the dictates of his own
nway, they carried off forty women and judgment. Having failed to find the Con-
children; and in the heap of ruins which stitution at any appointed rendezvous,
they left behind them were found the and having provided himself with funds
charred remains of twenty-one murdered by taking $55,000 from a British pncket,
villagers. It was the final event of vio- Porter made sail for the Pacific Ocean
lonce of that war. around Cape Horn. While in these

Esquemeling, JOHN, author of Bucca- waters. Porter soi/od twelve armed Brit-

iiicrx nut Iluccancering in America, which ish whale-ships, with an aggregate of

has boon frequently reprinted. 302 men and 107 guns. Those were what

Essex, THE, a frigate of 860 tons, ho entered the Pacific Ocean for. He

rated at thirty-two guns, but actually armed some of them, and at one time he

carried forty-six; built in Salem, Mass., in had a fleet of nine vessels. He eent

262

ESSEX, THE

paroled prisoners to Rio de Janeiro, and
cargoes of whale-oil to the United States.
On Sept. 15, 1813, while among the Gala
pagos Islands, he fell in with a British
whaling-vessel armed with twelve guns
and manned by thirty-nine men. He capt
ured her, and found her laden with beef,
pork, bread, wood, and water, articles
which Porter stood greatly in need of at
that time. The exploits of the Essex in
the Pacific produced great excitement in
the British navy, and the govern ment
sent out the frigate Phoebe, with one or
two consorts, to attempt her capture.
Porter heard of this from an officer who
was sent into the harbor of Valparaiso,
Chile, with prizes. He also learned that
the Chilean authorities were becoming
more friendly to the English than to the
Americans. In consequence of this infor
mation, Porter resolved to go to the
Marquesas Islands, refit his vessel, and
return to the United States. He had capt
ured almost every English whale-ship
known to be off the coasts of Peru and
Chile, and had deprived the enemy of
property to the amount of $2,500,000
and 360 seamen. He had also released
tiic American whalers from peril, and in
spired the Peruvians and Chileans with
the most profound respect for the Ameri
can navy. Among the Marquesas Islands
(at Nooaheevah) Porter became involved
in hostilities with the warring natives.

He had allowed his men great indulgence
in port, and some of them formed strong
attachments to the native women. They
were so dissatisfied when he left that
they became almost mutinous. He had
kept his men from going on shore for
three days before he weighed anchor.
"The girls," says Porter in his Journal,
" lined the beach from morning until
night, and every moment importuned me
to take the taboos off the men, and laugh
ingly expressed their grief by dipping
their fingers into the sea and touching
their eyes, so as to let the salt-water
trickle down their cheeks."

When the Essex was thoroughly fitted
for her long voyage and for encountering
enemies, she sailed (Dec. 12) with her
prizes from Nooaheevah Island (which he
had named Madison), and on Feb. 3, 1814,
entered the harbor of Valparaiso. One of
the captured vessels, which he had armed
and named Essex Junior, cruised off the
harbor as a scout, to give warning of the
approach of any ma.n-of-war. Very soon
two English men-of-war were reported in
the offing. They sailed into the harbor,
and proved to be the Phoebe, thirty-six
guns, Captain Hillyar, and her consort,
the Cherub, twenty-two guns, Captain
Tucker. The former mounted thirty long 18-
pounders, sixteen 32-pounder carronades,
and one howitzer; also six 3-pounders in
her tops. Her crew consisted of 320 men

KSSEX FIOHTIXC PIKKHE AND CHF.kfH.

263

ESSEX JUNTA

and boys. The Cherub mounted eighteen
32-pounder carronades below, with eight
24-pounder carronades and two long nines
above, making a total of twenty - eight
guns. Her crew numbered 180. The Es
sex at that time could muster only 225,
and the Essex Junior only sixty. The Es
sex had forty 32-pounder carronades and

were lavished upon him, and several State
legislatures and the national Congress
gave him thanks.

Essex Junta, THE. The course of Pres
ident John Adams, who was anxious for
a renomination and election, caused a
fatal schism in the Federal party. He
looked to the Southern States as his chief

THK ESSEX AND VER PRIZES IN MASSACHUSETTS BAY, NOOAHKEVAH.

six long 12-pounders; and the Essex Junior hope in the coming election; and believing

had only ten 18-pounder carronades and ten McHenry and Pickering, of his cabinet, to

short sixes. The British vessels blockaded be unpopular there, he abruptly called

Porter s ships. At length he determined xipon them to resign. McHenry instantly

to escape. The sails of his vessels were complied, but Pickering refused, when

spread for the purpose (March 28, 1814), Adams dismissed him with little ceremony,

and both vessels started for the open sea, This event produced much excitement,

when a squall partially disabled the flag- Bitter animosities were engendered, and

ship, and both took shelter in a bay. There criminations and recriminations ensued,

they were attacked by the Phoebe and The open war in the Federal party was

Cherub, and one of the most desperate and waged by a few leaders, several of whom

sanguinary battles of the war ensued, lived in the maritime county of Essex.

When at last the Essex was a helpless Mass., the early home of Pickering, and

wreck and on fire, and his magazine was on that account the irritated President

threatened when every officer but one was called his assailants and opposers the " Es-

slain or disabled; when, of the 225 brave sex Junta." He denounced them as slaves

men who went into the fight on board of to British influence some lured by mo-

her, only seventy-five effective ones re- narchical proclivities and others by British

mained Porter hauled down his flag. So gold. A pamphlet from the pen of Hamil-

ended the long and brilliant cruise of the ton, whom Adams, in conversation, had

Essex. Her gallant commander wrote to denounced as a " British sympathizer,"

the Secretary of War from Valparaiso, damaged the President s political pros-

" We have been ufortunate, but not dis- pects materially. The Republicans rejoiced

graced." He and his companions were sent at the charge of British influence. Adams s

home in the Eftsrx Junior, which was made course caused a great diminution of the

a cartel-ship, and Porter was honored as Federal vote, and Jefferson was elected,

the hero of the Pacific. Municipal honors The opposition chanted:

264

ESSEX JUNTA ESTAING

Storms o er the British faction lower.
Soon we Republicans shall see
Columbia s sons from bondage free.
Lord, how the Federalists will stare
A JEFFERSON In ADAMS S chair !

The Echo.

"The Federalists are down at last, HARTFORD CONVENTION (q. v.) , and the

The Monarchists completely cast! designs of that body were known to have

The Aristocrats are stripped of power , , . ,.

Storms n pr thf Rritish fnc.tinn lower.

Established Churches. Unlike for
eign countries generally, neither the na
tional nor State governments of the Unit
ed States recognize officially any form of
religious worship. There is neither a

Early in 1809, John Quincy Adams, be- State Church nor an Established Church,
ing in Washington attending the Supreme Legislation, both national and State, has
Court, in a confidential interview with steadily opposed any sectarian form. The
President Jefferson, assured him that a right of a citizen to worship according to
continuation of the embargo (see EM- the dictates of his own conscience is guar-
RAKGO ACTS) much longer would certainly anteed by the national Constitution; the
bo met by forcible resistance in Massa- fullest toleration of forms of religious be-
chusetts, supported by the legislature, and lief exists everywhere; and no legal dis-
probably by the judiciary of the State; crimination is anywhere permitted, every
that if force should be resorted to to quell religious denomination maintaining itself
that resistance, it would produce a civil without support or hinderance by any
war, and in that event he had no doubt legal authority.

the leaders of the Federal party (refer- Estaing, CHARLES HENRY THEODAT,
ring to those of the old Essex Junta) COUNT D , naval officer; born in Auvergne,
would secure the co-operation of Great France, in 1729; guillotined in Paris,
Britain. He declared that the object was, April 28, 1794; was colonel of a French
and had been for several years, a dissolu
tion of the Union and the establishment
cf a separate confederacy. He knew from
unequivocal evidence, not provable in a
court of law, that in a case of civil war
the aid of Great Britain to effect that
purpose would be as surely resorted to
as it would be indispensably necessary to
the design. A rumor of such a design
was alluded to, at about the same time,
by De Witt Clinton, in New York, and in
the Boston Patriot, a new administration
paper, to which the Adamses, father and
son, were contributors. Such a plot, if it
ever existed, was confined to a few Federal
ist members of Congress, in consequence
of the purchase of Louisiana. They had
proposed to have a meeting in Boston, to
which Hamilton was invited, though it
was known that he was opposed to the
scheme. The meeting was prevented by
Hamilton s sudden and violent death. A
series of articles signed "Falkland" had regiment in 1748; brigadier-general in
appeared in New England papers, in which 1756; and served in the French fleet after
it was argued that if Virginia, finding her- 1757, joining the East India squadron
self no longer ab e to control the national under Count Lally. Made lieutenant-
government, should secede and dissolve it, general in 1763 and vice-admiral in 1778.
the Northern States, though thus deserted, he was sent to America with a strong
might nevertheless be able to take care naval force to assist the patriots, arriving
of themselves. There seem to have been in Delaware Bay in July, 1778. As soon
no more treasonable designs among the as his destination became known in Eng-
membera of the Essex Junta than in the land, a British fleet, under Admiral

2G5

CHARLES HKXRY THKODAT D ESTAI.NG.

ETCHEMIN INDIANS EULALIA

Byron, was sent to follow him across the remainder (Passamaquoddies) on the

Atlantic. It did not arrive at New York western shore of Passamaquoddy Bay

until late in the season. Byron proceeded and on the Schoodic lakes. These rem-

to attack the French fleet in Boston Har- nants are mostly Roman Catholics, and

bor. His vessels were dispersed by a have churches and schools. Their blood

storm, and D Estaing, his ships perfectly remains pure, for the laws of Maine will

refitted, sailed (Nov. 1, 1778) for the not allow them to intermarry with the

West Indies, then, as between England white people, and they are declining in

and France, the principal seat of war. strength.

On the same day 5,000 British troops Ethan Allen, FORT, a garrisoned mili-
sailed from New York for the same des- tary post officially established 2 miles
tination, escorted by a strong squadron, from Essex Junction and 5 miles from
The English fleet arrived first, and, join- Burlington, Vt., Sept. 28, 1894, and named
ing some other vessels already there, pro- in honor of Ethan Allen, the famous
ceeded to attack the island of St. Lucia, leader of the Green Mountain Boys in the
D Estaing unsuccessfully tried to relieve Revolutionary War. There are twenty-
it. Soon afterwards Byron s fleet, from eight buildings of brick and stone, with
the northeast coast, arrived, when slated roofs, including four cavalry
D Estaing took refuge at Martinique, stables, four double officers quarters, four
Byron tried in vain to draw him into single officers quarters, two double bar-
action, and then started to convoy, a part racks, a hospital, guard-house, bakery,
of the way, the homeward-bound West workshop, a water-tower 80 feet high
Indiamen of the mercantile marine. Dur- built of white Vermont marble, and sev-
ing his absence a detachment from Mar- eral storehouses. The parade-ground
tinique captured the English island of St. covers 50 acres, and there is an excel-
Vincent. Being largely reinforced soon lent rifle range of 1,000 yards. More
afterwards, D Estaing sailed with his than $600,000 was expended in creating
whole fleet and conquered the island of the post. The land for the site, which
Grenada. Before the conquest was quite extends over 600 acres, was purchased by
completed Byron returned, when an in- Dr. W. Seward Webb, Gov. U. A. Wood-
decisive engagement took place, and the bury, Col. E. C. Smith, and other citizens
much-damaged British fleet put into St. of Vermont and presented to the govern-
Christopher s. D Estaing then sailed ment.

( August, 1770) to escort, part of the way, Etheridge, EMERSON, statesman; born

the homeward-bound French West India- in Carrituck county, N. C., Sept. 28, 1819;

men; and, returning, engaged jointly admitted to the bar in 1840; member of

with the American army in the siege of Congress in 1853-57 and in 1859-61;

Savannah, but abandoned the contest be- clerk of the national House of Representa-

fore a promised victory for the allies was tives in 1861-63. He published S/&gt;rrr//r.&lt;?

won. He returned to Frarce in 1780, and in Congress. He died in 1902.
in 1783 he commanded the combined fleets Eulalia, INFANTA, fifth child of M-ri-i

of France and Spain, and was made a Louise Isabella, ex-Queen of Spain, born

Spanish grandee. He favored the French at Madrid, Feb. 12, 1864; married to

Revolution, and commanded the National Prince Antoine, son of Prince Antoine

Guards at Versailles, but falling under d 0rl6ans, Due de Montpensier, March 6,

the suspicion of the Terrorists, he was be- 1886. At the invitation of the United

headed. States government she, as a representa-

Etchemin Indians. This Algonquin tive of the Spanish government, and the

family, occupying the eastern part of Duke of Veragua, as the lineal descendant

Maine, lived, at an early period, on the of Christopher Columbus, became guests

Penobscot River, between the Abenakes of the nation durinrr the Columbian cele-

proper and the Micmacs. They are now brations and World s Exposition in 18!W.

represented by the remnants of the Penob- Princess Eulalia arrived in the United

scots and Passamaquoddies. About one- States May 20, 1893, and left June 25.

half of them (the Penobscots) lived on During her stay she was entertained in a

islands in the Penobscot River, and the manner befitting her rank.

266

EUBOPE EUTAW SPRINGS

Europe, PLAN FOR THE PEACE OF. Sec Eustis, WILLIAM, physician ; born in
PENN, WILLIAM. Cambridge, Mass., June 10, 1753; died

Eustis, JAMES BIDDLE, diplomatist; in Boston, Feb. 6, 1825; was graduated
born in New Orleans, La., Aug. 27, 1834; at Harvard in 1772, and studied medicine
was educated in Brookline, Mass., and under Dr. Joseph Warren. As a surgeon
in the Harvard Law School ; was ad- he served throughout the Revolutionary
mitted to the bar in 1856, and practised War, and was a member of the Massa-
in New Orleans till the beginning of chusetts legislature from 1788 to 1794.
the Civil War, when he entered the Con- He was in the governor s council two
federate army; served as judge-advocate years, and was in Congress from 1800 to
on the staff of General Magruder till 1805, and from 1820 to 1823. Secretary
1862, and then on the staff of Gen. Joseph of War from 1809 until 1812, he then
E. Johnston. When the war closed he resigned, for there was much fault found
entered the State legislature, where he with his administration. In 1815 he was
seived in each House. In 1876 he was sent as minister to Holland, and was
elected to the United States Senate to governor of Massachusetts in 1824, dying
till a vacancy, and after the expiration while in office, Feb. 6, 1825.
of the term took a trip through Europe. Eutaw Springs, a place in South Caro-
Returning to the United States, he was lina, near Nelson s Ferry, on the Santce,
made Professor of Civil Law in the Uni- SO miles northwest of Charleston; the
versity of Louisiana. In 1884 he was scene of a notable battle in the Revolu-
again elected to the United States Sea- tionary War. The principal spring, from
e^ and became a member of the com- which the locality derived its name, frst

bubbles up from a bed of rock marl, at
the foot of a hill 20 or 30 feet in height,
and, after flowing less than 60 yards,
descends, rushing and foaming, into a
cavern beneath a high ridge of marl,
covered with alluvium and forest trees.
After traversing its subterranean way
some 30 rods, it reappears on the other
side, where it is a broader stream, of
sufficient volume to turn a mill - wheel.
It flows over a smooth, rocky bed, shaded
by cypress - trees, about 2 miles, when
it enters the Santee. It was near this
spring that a severe battle was fought.
Sept. 8, 1781. Early in August, General
Greene, on the High Hills of Santee, v. as
JA.MKS HIDDI.K KI-STIS. reinforced by North Carolina troops

under General Sumner; and at the c os^

mittee on foreign relations. He was ap- of that month he crossed the Wateree
pointed minister to France in March, and Congaree and marched against tlio
1893, and had charge of the negotiations British camp at Orangeburg, command-
which finally secured the release of John ed by Lieutenant - Colonel Stuart. Raw-
L. Waller, ex-United States consu 1 in don had left these troops in Stuart s
Madagascar, who had been convicted of charge and returned to England. Stuart,
illegally communicating with the Hovas who had been joined by the garrison ot
during the French campaign, and who had Fort Ninety-six, immediately retreated,
been sentenced to serve twenty-one years on the approach of Greene, to Eutaw
in prison. After his return to the Springs, 40 miles eastward, and th&lt;&gt;iv
United States, in 1897, Mr. Eustis re- encamped. Greene pursued so stealthilv
entered law practice in New York. He that Stuart was not fully aware that the
translated Institutes of Justinian, and Americans were after him until they were
Gnizot s History of the United States, close upon him, at dawn on the morning
He died in Newport, R. L, Sept. 9, 1899. of Sept. 8, 1781.

267

ErTAW 8PRTSG8.

ETJTAW SPRINGS EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE

Greene moved in two columns, the ing (Sept. 9) by parties who chased them
centre of the first composed of North far towards the sea. Although the battle-
Carolina militia, with a battalion of South field remained with the Americans, neither
Carolina militia on each flank, commanded party could fairly claim a victory. Dur
ing the day and the pursuit the
Americans lost in killed and wounded
about 550 men; the British loss,
including prisoners, was fully 800.
Lieutenant-Colonel Washington was
severely wounded in the second battle,
and was made prisoner. For his
good conduct on that occasion Con
gress presented to Greene its thanks,
a gold medal, and a British standard
taken in the fight. A few days after
Ilie battle, with a large number of
s ck soldiers, he retired with his
troops to the Santee hills and en
camped. There his militia left him.
He remained until the middle of
November, when he marched his
army into the low country, where he
might obtain an abundance of food.
The necessities of Greene s army had
compelled him to go to the hills. The
troops were too much exhausted
to continue active operations. They
respectively by Marion and Pickens. The were barefooted and half naked. He had
second consisted of North Carolina regu- no army hospital stores, very little salt,
lars, led by General Sumner, on the right ; and his ammunition was very low.
an equal number of Virginians, under Evacuation Day, the anniversary of
Lieutenant-Colonel Campbell, in the the evacuation of New York City by the
centre; and Marylanders, commanded by British, Nov. 25, 1783.
Col. O. H. Williams, on the left. Lee s Evangelical Alliance, THE, an associ-
Legion covered the right flank, and Lieu- ation of Christians belonging to the
tenant-Colonel Henderson s troops covered Evangelical Churches. It was estab-
the left. Washington s cavalry and Kirk- lished Aug. 19-23, 1846, in London by a
wood s Delaware troops formed a reserve, world s convention of delegates from
and each line had artillery in front. Christian denominations. Its aim is to
Skirmishing began at eight o clock in the promote religious liberty, Christian union
morning, and very soon the conflict be- and co-operation, and it sprang from a
came general and severe. The British general desire for united efforts among
wore defeated and driven from the field Protestants. Its purpose is not towards
with much loss. The victory was com- organic union, nor church confederation,
p ete, and the winners spread over the but simply towards a free Christian union
British camp, eating, drinking, and plun- of members from churches who hold
tiering. Suddenly and unexpectedly the fundamentally the same faith. It claims
fugitives rallio.l and renewed the battle, no legislative nor official authority that
and after a terrible conflict of about five could in any way affect the internal work-
hours, the Americans, who had lost heav- ings of any denomination, but relies sole-
ily. were compelled to give way. But ly on the moral power of love and truth.
Stuart, knowing that partisan legions were When it was organized there were 800
not far away, felt insecure, and that night, Christians present, including Episco-
after breaking up 1,000 muskets and de- palians. Presbyterians, Independents,
stroying stores, he retreated towards Methodists, Baptists, Lutherans, Re-
Charleston, pursued early the next morn- formed, Moravians, etc., from England.

208

EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION

the United States, Germany, France,
Switzerland, and other countries. At
that time the following articles were
adopted :

" 1. The divine inspiration, authority,
and sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures.

" 2. The right and duty of private judg
ment in the interpretation of the Holy
Scriptures.

" 3. The unity of the Godhead, and the
Trinity of the persons therein.

" 4. The utter depravity of human
nature in consequence of the Fall.

" 5. The incarnation of the Son of God,
his work of atonement for the sins of
mankind, and his mediatorial intercession
and reign.

" 6. The justification of the sinner by
faith alone.

" 7. The work of the Holy Spirit in the
conversion and sanctification of the sin
ner.

" 8. The immortality of the soul, the
resurrection of the body, the judgment
of the world by our Lord Jesus Christ,
with the eternal blessedness of the
righteous and the eternal punishment
of the wicked.

" 9. The divine institution of the Chris
tian ministry, and the obligation and
perpetuity of the ordinances of baptism
and the Lord s Supper."

In 1867 the American branch of the
Alliance was founded, and adopted the
above articles, with the following quali
fying preamble:

" Resolved, That in forming an Evan
gelical Alliance for the United States in
co-operative union with other branches
of the Alliance, we have no intention to
give rise to a new denomination; or to
effect an amalgamation of churches, ex
cept in the way of facilitating personal
Christian intercourse and a mutual good
understanding; or to interfere in any
way whatever with the internal affairs of
the various denominations; but simply
to bring individual Christians into closer
fellowship and co-operation, on the basis
of the spiritual union which already ex
ists in the vital relations of Christ to the
members of his body in all ages and
countries.

" Resolved, That in the same spirit we
propose no new creed; but, taking broad,
historical, and evangelical catholic

ground, we solemnly reaffirm and profess
our faith in all the doctrines of the in
spired Word of God, and in the consensus
of doctrines as held by all true Christians
from the beginning. And we do more
especially affirm our belief in the divine-
human person and atoning work of our
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, as the
only and sufficient source of salvation, as
the heart and soul of Christianity, and as
the centre of all true Christian union and
fellowship.

" Resolved, That, with this explanation,
and in the spirit of a just Christian liber
ality in regard to the minor differences
of theological schools and religious de
nominations, we also adopt, as a sum
mary of the consensus of the various Evan
gelical Confessions of Faith, the Articles
and Explanatory Statement set forth and
agreed on by the Evangelical Alliance at
its formation in London, 1846, and ap
proved by the separate European organ
izations; which articles are as follows,
etc."

The Evangelical Alliance since its origin
has extended its work throughout the
Protestant world. It has no central au
thority and appears in active operation
only from time to time, as it meets in
general conference. The character of these
conferences are purely religious, lasting
from ten to twelve days. The time is
spent in prayer and praise, in discussions
of the great religious questions of the
day, and in brotherly communion. Nine
international meetings have thus far been
held. The first occurred in London, 1851;
the second in Paris, 1855; the third in
Berlin, 1857; the fourth in Geneva, 1801;
the fifth in Amsterdam, 1867; the sixth
in New York, 1873; the seventh in Basel,
Switzerland, 1879; the eighth in Den
mark, 1884; and the ninth in Italy, 1891.
The United States branch held a national
conference in Chicago, 1893, in connec
tion with the Columbian World s Expo
sition. The week of prayer, beginning
with the first Sunday in each year, and
now generally observed throughout Prot
estant Christendom, is one of the most
important results obtained by the Alli
ance.

Evangelical Association, a religious
organization established in the United
States in 1800 by the Rev. Jacob Albright.

209

EVANS

This movement was the outcome of a work war in the Crimea in 1854. He died in
of reform begun in 1790 by Albright, who London, Jan. 2, 1870.
held that the German churches in the Evans, HUGH DAVEY, author; born in
eastern part of Pennsylvania were cor- Baltimore, Md., April 26, 1792; began
rupt. In 1816 the first general confer- the practice of law in Baltimore in 1815;
ence of the body was held in Union county, and became widely known as a constitu-
Pa. In doctrine the Evangelical Asso- tional lawyer. His publications include
ciation is Arminian; in mode of worship Theophilus Americanus (an American
and form of government it agrees with adaptation, with additions, of Canon
the Methodist Episcopal Church, of which Wordsworth s Theophilus Anglicanux)
Albright during his early life was a mem- Essay on the Episcopate of the Protestant
ber. The ministers, who are itinerant, are Episco)&gt;fil Church in the United Mates,
divided into deacons and elders;
the presiding elders and bishops are
elected for four years, the former
by individual conferences, the lat
ter by the general conference, which
is the highest legislative body in
the church. In 1900 the Asso
ciation reported 1,052 ministers,
1.80C churches, and 118,865 mem
bers.

Evans, CLEMENT ANSELM, law
yer; born in Georgia; graduated at
the law school of Augusta, Ga. ; was
in the Georgia Senate in 1859 ;
served in the Confederate army
through the Civil War, and was an
acting major-general in the Army
of Northern Virginia at the time
of Lee s surrender. He is the author
of Military History of Georgia; and
editor of Confederate Military His
tory (12 volumes).

Evans, SIR GEORGE DE LACY,
military officer; born in Moig, Ire
land, in 1787; entered the British
army at the age of twenty years;
served in the East Indies, and
early in 1814 came to the United
States with the rank of brevet-colonel, etc. He died in Baltimore, Md., July Hi,
He was engaged in the BATTLE OF BLADENS- 1868.

itURG (q. v.) in August, and led the troops Evans, OLIVER, inventor; born in New-
that entered Washington, D. C., and de- port, Del., in 1775; was of Welsh descent,
stroyed the public buildings there. He and was grandson of Evan Evans, D.D.,
was with General Ross in the expedition the first Episcopal minister in Philadel-
against Baltimore in September, and was phia. Apprenticed to a wheelwright, he
near that general when he fell. Evans early displayed his inventive genius. At
was also with Pakenham in the attempt the age of twenty-two years he had in
to capture New Orleans. He was wounded vented a most useful machine for making
in the battle that occurred below that card-teeth. In 1786-87 he obtained from
city. Returning to Europe, he served the legislatures of Maryland and Penn-
under Wellington. Afterwards he was sylvania the exclusive right to use his
elected to Parliament, and was subse- improvements in flour-mills. He con-
quently promoted to lieutenant-general, structed a steam-carriage in 1799, which
In the latter capacity he served in the led to the invention of the locomotive en-

270

SIR GKORGE I)K LACV KTASS.

EVANS EVARTS

gine. His steam-engine was the first con
structed on the high-pressure principle.
In 1803-4 he made the first steam dredg-
ing-machine used in America, to which
he gave the name of " Oracter Amphi-
bolis," arranged for propulsion either on
land or water. This is believed to have
been the first instance in America of the
application of steam-power to the propel
ling of a land carriage. Evans foresaw
and prophesied the near era of railway
communication and travel. He proposed
the construction of a railway between
Philadelphia and New York, but his lim
ited means would not allow him to con
vince the sceptics by a successful experi

ment. He died in New York City, April
21, 1819.

Evans, ROBLEY DUNGLISON, naval offi
cer; born in Virginia; graduated at
the United States Naval Academy in
1863; took part in the attack on Fort
Fisher, where he was severely wounded;
was in command of the Yorktown in the
harbor of Valparaiso, Chile, in 1891, dur
ing a period of strained relations between
the United States and Chile; commanded
the battle-ship Iowa and took an active
part in the destruction of Cervera s fleet;
was promoted rear-admiral in 1901. He
is author of A Sailor s Log and many
magazine articles.

EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

Evarts, WILLIAM MAXWELL, statesman ;
born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 6, 1818;
graduated at Yale College in 1837; stud
ied law, and was admitted to the bar, in

son in his impeachment before the Senate
in 1808. President Hayes appointed Mr.
Evarts Secretary of State in March, 1877,
and in January, 1885, he was elected

. . ,, -v viuiunfy, 1000, ne was elected

the city of *ew York, m 1840, where he United States Senator, holding the seat

Aill lnri TT i. -i

WILLIAM MAXWELL EVARTS.

afterwards resided and practised his pro
fession. He was one of the ablest and
most eloquent members of the bar, and
held a foremost rank in his profession for
many years. He was the leading counsel
employed for the defence of President John-

271

till 1891. He died in New York City,
Feb. 28, 1901.

Bimetallism In 1881, after the conclu
sion of his term of service in the cabinet,
he went to Paris as delegate of the United
States to the International Monetary Con
ference. He there made the following plea
for the employment of both gold and sil
ver in the money of the world:

The question now put to us is as is
obvious everywhere in the progress of this
conference the question now put to us is,
: Why is it that in your wealth, your
strength, your manifold and flexible ener
gies and opportunities in the conflicts and
competitions of the system of nations rep
resented here, why is it that you feel con
cern for mischiefs which carry no special
suffering or menace to you or anxiety as
to the methods of their cure, when you are
so free-handed as to the methods and re
sorts at your choice? Why should these
evils that have grown out of a short-sight
ed and uncircumspect policy, as you (the
United States) think; why should you so
persistently call upon all the nations to
unite, and put yourselves, as it were, on
the same footing of danger and solicitude
with them?" The answer on our part is
.simple and honest. It needs no ingenuity

EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

to frame it, and it asks no special courtesy us, and that we, so far as money is con-

or confidence on your part to believe it. cerned, should not be obstructed in selling

It is our interest in the commerce of the cur raw products to the skilled nations

world, and we consider no question of the cf Europe, or the products of our industry

money of the world alien from that inter- to the consumers in less developed nations,

est. Why should we not feel an interest. Besides this equilibrium of selfishness,

and an urgent interest, in the commerce which makes the general good our good,

of the world? We are seated on a conti- we are free from any bias in the matter

nc-nt, so to speak, of our own, as distin- of the production of the precious metals,

guished from Asia and Europe. We are trivial as that is in comparison with the

nearer to Europe and to Asia than either immense and fervid march of commerce,

is to the other, and if there is to be a great We produce the two metals equally. Out

battle between the Eastern and Western of the same prolific silver mines even, the

commerce and a public and solemn war de- same ore gives us 55 per cent, of silver

clared between the silver of the East and and 45 of gold. How could you imagine a

the gold of the West, who so likely to nation in regard to its production of the

make the profit of the interchange between precious metals more indifferent as to

those moneys, and necessarily, therefore, which is made the master of the world?

of the interchange between the commodi- It is a bad tyranny that we resist. It

ties that those moneys master? is the possession of freedom and of power

But there is another striking position in the commerce of the world by the

of our country, not geographical. It is service of both these metals, in place

that we more than all other nations, of the mastery of either, that we advo-

perhaps first of all nations, in the cate.

history of the development of commerce, It is hardly necessary to recapitulate

that our nation holds, in either hand, the the principal duties of money, but they

great products of staples, of raw material, have always been of a nature that pre-

and the great, the manifold, the varied sented itself in a double aspect. From

products of skilled industry, which we the time that money needed to be used

have developed and organized, and in in any considerable volume, and for any

which we contest with Europe the markets considerable debts among the advancing

of the world. We propose to furnish the nations of the world, there never has

products of our agriculture, which feed in been a time in which the money for man s

so great share the laborers of Europe and use did not present itself in reference to

the machinery of Europe, as inexorable in its service and duties in two aspects. One

its demands as the laborers ; and we pro- is to deal with the petty transactions of

pose also to deal with the world at large every - day and neighborhood use, where

in the skilled products of industry in the smallness of transactions required

every form applied to those raw ma- money susceptible of easy division ; the

terials, and prosecuted under the ad- other for a transfer in larger transactions

vantages of their home production. We required money to be used in the mass

contemplate no possibility of taking place and with a collective force, money that

with the less civilized or poorer nations, was capable of easy multiplication and of

to sit at the feet of the more civilized and easy management in aggregate values,

richer nations. We have no desire to place But, besides that, there soon came to be a

ourselves, on the side of skilled industry, use of money between the distant parts

in the position of a superior nation to in- of one country and between distant coun-

ftriors, though they may depend on us tries, and so an opportunity for disparity

for this supply. We occupy, quite as much in the treatment of money in these op-

as in our geographical position, in this posing aspects, with no longer a common

aspect towards the different forms of sovereignty that could adjust them one

wealth, production, and industry, an en- to the other. In the progress, so rapid,

tirely catholic and free position, having BO vast, so wide, of the interchange of the

no interest but the great interest that all products and industries of the world, there

nations, as far as money is concerned, came to intrude itself more and more

should not be embarrassed in trading with necessarily and familiarly, the elements

272

EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

of distance in space and remoteness of
dates of beginning and closing transac
tions. These developments of commerce
alone embarrassed both of these moneys
in the discharge of their double duty,
were there no exposure to discord between
themselves. But long ago this ceased to
be the limit of the trouble. The actual
service of intrinsic money in the transac
tion of the petty traffic and the great com
merce of the world, in providing for its
own transfer from place to place, within
a nation, or from country to country,
across the boundaries or across the seas,
made it impossible for the volume of both
the metals that the bounty of nature
could yield to the urgent labor of man to
perform the task. Every form and device
of secondary money, of representative
money, which the wit of man could com
pass, and which could maintain its verity
as money by its relation to the intrinsic
money of the world, was brought in to re
lieve the precious metals from the burden
under which, unaided, they must have
succumbed. All these forms, whether the
bills of exchange to run between country
and country, or of notes or checks at home,
or of paper money all are but forms of
credit. While, then, they relieve intrinsic
money from the intolerable burden of
actually carrying the transactions of the
world, they burdened it, so to speak, with
moral obligations which it must discharge.
All this vast expanse of credit in the de
veloped commerce of the world rests
finally upon the intrinsic money of the
world, and if you would have fixity, unity,
and permanence in the credit operations
of the world there must be fixity, unity,
and permanence in all the intrinsic money
of the world upon which that credit rests.
This credit is. almost without a figure, a
vast globe, and this service of the precious
metals to sustain it is that of an Atlas,
upon whom the whole fabric rests. The
strength of both arms, nerved by a united
impulse of heart and will, is indispen
sable ; neither can be spared. Consequently,
if there should be any considerable failure
in their force, or any waste of it by an
tagonism between the metals making up
the intrinsic money of the world, the
credit of the world is deprived of what
nature in supplying the two precious
metals and human wisdom in regulating

III. s

273

them, together, are competent to supply
for its maintenance.

Now, there are but two logical methods
in which this disorder between gold and
silver, this depreciation of their general
and combined functions, this struggle be
tween them, can be put an end to. One
is to admit, as the intrinsic money of the
world, only one metallic basis, and to
drive out, extirpate, as a barbarism, as
an anachronism, as a robber and a fraud,
the other metal, that, grown old in the
service and feeble in its strength, is no
more a help, but a hinderance and a mar
plot. That is a task that might be pro
posed to the voluntary action of nations,
and, if the monometallic proposition be
the true one, that is the logical course
to which the nations we represent ought
to resort, unless they take the only other
logical alternative that is, to make one
money out of the two metals, to have no
tw T o standards or kinds of money, but one
money, adapted in its multiples and di
visions to the united functions of the two
precious metals.

I have said that these two are the
only logical methods. There is another
method, and that is, in despair of mak
ing one money out of the two metals,
to make two moneys out of them. This
project is not to discard either from
the sei vice of mankind, but to separate
them and so mark them as that they
shall not occupy the same regions, but
divide the world between them. For
the working of this scheme it is proposed
that in some fashion a partition shall
be made among nations, or sets of na
tions, and a struggle for the metals be
set on foot to reach an equilibrium or
alternating triumph, or undergo such
fluctuations or vicissitudes, or enjoy
such a degree of permanence as fortune,
out of the chaos, may offer to mankind.
This scheme might well be defined as
harmonious discord and organized dis
order. But this is nothing but a con
clusion that although there is an in
tolerable evil, it is not within the
compass of human wisdom, or human
strength, or human courage, to attempt
to remedy. This conclusion would leave
things to take care of themselves. This
notion found expression in the sentiments
declared by some of the powers at tho

EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

conference of 1878. The hopeful expec- speech for saying that w&lt;&gt; cannot by

tation that was then indulged, that human will, by the power or the polity of

things would take care of themselves, has nations, redress the mischief, but that

not been realized. Experience since has we must leave the question to work itself

shown an aggravation of the mischief, a cut in discord, in dishonor, in disorder,

continued and widening extension of its in disaster.

pressure, and produced another appeal This brings us fairly to consider how
to the wisdom and courage of the nations great the task is which is proposed for
to redress it, under which this conference reason and for law to accomplish. How
has been convened. much is there wanting in the proper! its
Hut there is, confessedly, a great dif- of these two metals, how much is missing
ficulty in arranging this partition of from the already existing state of feel-
money among the nations. I will not ing, of habit, of the wishes and the
enlarge upon that difficulty; it has al- wisdom of the world at large, and in the
ready been sufficiently pointed out. It is common - sense of mankind as exhibited
inherent and ineradicable. Its terms can- in history or shown to-day, that stands
not be expressed by its champions. Some- in the way of the common use of the two
times it is spoken of as a division be- precious metals to provide the common
tween the Asiatic and European nations; necessity of one money for the commerce
sometimes as a division between the rich of the world? The quarrel with nature
nations and the poor nations; sometimes seems to be with its perverse division of
as a division between the civilized and the necessary functions of money between
the less civilized nations. There seems the two precious metals. In their regret
to have been an easy confidence that these that nature has furnished us silver and
groups could be satisfactorily arranged gold, with the excellent properties of each,
for a reasonable equality in this battle instead of one abundant, yet not redun-
of the precious metals. But I have been dant, metal that would have served all
puzzled to know, and no one has dis- purposes, the monometallists strive to cor-
tinctly stated, where the United States rect this perversity of nature by using
were to be arrayed. No one has ventured only the not abundant gold and discard*
to determine whether they were to be ing the not redundant silver. Well, I do
counted as a rich nation or as a poor na- not know but one might imagine a metal,
tion; whether as an Asiatic or a Euro- a single metal, that would combine all
pean nation; whether as a civilized the advantages which these two metals
nation or an uncivilized nation. Yet, I in concert have hitherto offered to man-
think it would be no vain assumption kind. It may be within the range of im-
on the part of the United States to feel agination to conceive of a metal that
that any settlement of the money ques- would grow small in bulk when you
tions of the world that leaves us out, wanted it to aggregate values, and grow
and our interest in them, and our wisdom large when you wanted to divide it into
about them, will not be the decree of an minute values. Yet, as I think, the mere
ecumenical council, or establish articles statement, to the common apprehension
of faith that can be enforced against the of mankind, describes what we should
whole world. The notion seems to be call a perpetual miracl*, and not an order
that the nations that sit above the salt of nature. Now, if such a metal is a
are to be served with gold, and those mere figment of the imagination, if no
that sit below the salt are to be served such metal with these incompatible quali-
\\ith silver. But who is to keep us in ties is found in rerum natura, how are
cur seats? Who is to guard against an we going to dispense in our actual money
interruption of the feast by a struggle with that fundamental, inexorable re-
on the part of those who sit below the quirement of intrinsic money, a physical
salt to be served with gold, or of those capability of multiplication and of di-
above the salt to be served with silver? vision to serve these opposite uses? Why
This project purports to have neither not then accept the reason, accept the
wisdom nor courage, neither reason nor duty of treating these two metals in
force, behind it. It is a mere fashion of which combined nature has done the ut-

274

EVARTS. WILLIAM MAXWELL

most for this special need of man, by sup
plying the uonsriifiiiH of positive law, that
single nexus between them, that fixity of
ratio by which they two shall be one
money at all times and everywhere ; by
which silver, when its multiplication be
comes burdensome and unmanageable,
loses itself in the greater value of gold;
and gold, when its division becomes too
minute and trivial, breaks into pieces of
silver. What nature, then, by every pos
sible concurrence of utility has joined to
gether let no man put asunder. It is a
foolish speculation whether in rerum
natura a metal might have been contrived
combining these two opposing qualities.
Let us accept the pious philosophy of the
French bishop, as to the great gift of the
strawberry " Doubtless God Almighty
might have made a better fruit than the
strawberry, but, doubtless, He has not."
This brings us to the essential idea
which lies at the bottom of this effort at
unity of money for the nations, the ca
pacity of law to deal with the simple task
of establishing a fixed ratio between the
metals, so that their multiplication and
division should make but a single scale.
This, Mr. Pirmez would have us under
stand, would prove an ineffectual struggle
of positive law against the law of nature.
It is thus he denounces the attempt at a
practical nr .nifi between these metals by
reason, which could not be supplied by
the physical properties of matter. To MIC
it seems to require no more than law and
reason and the wit of man can readily
supply, and have constantly supplied, in
innumerable instances, and it should not
be wanting here. The reason of man must
either, in this instance, take the full
bounties of nature and Providence, or
must reject them, as the gross and igno
rant neglect all the other faculties that
are accorded to human effort and to
human progress by the beneficence of God.
Bring this matter to the narrowest limits.
Here is a gap to be filled. Shall we sup
ply it? Will you insist upon what is
called one standard and have two moneys,
or will you insist upon two standards with
the result of one money? But one money
is the object. All question of standards,
one or two, is but a form and mode by
which we may reach what we desire, one
money. I insist, and challenge a refu

tation, that at bottom the theory of a
gold standard is the theory of two
moneys. It is the theory of discord be
tween the metals. It is the theory of us
ing one to buy the other, and robbing the
exchange of commodities of what it re
quires to the utmost, the double strength,
the double service of the two metals to
buy and sell, not one another, but the com
modities of the world.

But it is said that this pretence that
law can regulate the metals in their
uses as money involves a fundamental
error in this, that money is itself
a commodity and that law cannot regu
late the ratio of the two metals as money
any more than apportion values between
other commodities. Well, silver and gold
as they come from the mine no doubt are
commodities. There might be imagined
a metal that, besides having all the quali
ties which make it useful to men for
money, might also miss all the qualities
that would make it useful for anything
else. You might have a metal suitable
in all physical properties of gold and sil
ver that was neither splendid for orna
ment, nor malleable, nor ductile for use:
you might have a gold that did not glitter
to the eyes, and a silver that would not
serve to the use. In such case the confu
sion between gold and silver money, and
gold and silver in their marketable uses,
would be avoided. But, as matter of
fact, besides the good qualities which be
nign nature has infused into these metals
for our service as money, they have, aa
well, the properties which make them
valuable in vulgar use. These latter uses,
no doubt, in the infancy of mankind,
directed attention to the recondite proper
ties which fitted them for the institution
of money, which later ages were fully to
understand.

Although, then, the precious metals, in
their qualities as metals, may remain
commodities, whenever the act of the law.
finding in their properties the necessary
aptitudes, decrees their consecration to
the public service as money, it decrees
that they shall never after, in that qual
ity of money, be commodities. In the
very conception of money it is distin
guished from all exchangeable, barterable
commodities in this, that the law has set
it apart, by the imprint of coinage, to be

275

EVAETS, WILLIAM MAXWELL

the servant of the state and of the world only diminishes the force and volume of
in its use as money, and to abstain from money, but adds to the weight and vol-
all commixture, as a commodity, with the ume of exchangeable commodities,
other commodities of the world. Wher- as little a condition of health, and may
ever and howsoever this ideal of money lead to as great calamities, as
fails to be real, it is because the law is fevered blood should burn the tissues of
either inefficient, within its jurisdiction, the vital channels through which it circu-
\vhich is its disgrace, or because its juris- lates, or as if the coats of the
diction is limited territorially, and be- should turn to digesting themselves,
cause its vigor fails beyond the boun- To me it seems certain that the nations
daries In the latter case, I agree, silver must contemplate either the employment
or gold, in the shape of the coinage of one of the two metals as intrinsic money
country or another, may become mer- of the world upon a fixed, efficient con-
chandise to be bought and sold, in other cord and co-operation between them, or
countries, as a mere money metal. Mani- their surrender to perpetual struggle
festly these exposures to demonetization, aggravating itself at every triumph of
beyond the boundaries, because the legal one over the other, and finally ending
force, which has made the metal money, in that calamity which overtakes sooner
stops with the boundaries, is the main or later, those who care not
cause of the mischiefs in the monetary the bounties of nature according to the
system of the world which need redress, gift and responsibility of reason.
Ihe cause understood, the cure is obvi- see nothing valuable in the treatment of
ous. It is to carry, by some form of con- this subject which would leave the broken
sensus among governments, the legal re- leash which so long held these metals t
lations between the two metals, in their be repaired by chance, or the contest
employment as money, beyond the boun- be kept up at the expense of that unity,
daries of separate systems of coinage, concord, common advantage, and genera
These le-ml relations between the metals pi ogress among nations which is the ideal
once fixed, no important evasions of it and the hope, the pride and the enjoyment
would be possible, and no serious dis- of the age in which we live,
turbance of it could arise from diversi- Mr. 1 irmez, however would have us un
ties of coinage. It is for this result and derstand that this simple law of fixing the
by this means that we are striving. ratio between the metals, to be observed

But law, it is said, is inadequate in its among concurring nations, although tins
strength, in its capabilities, in its vigi- consensus should include all the nations
lancer in its authority, to accomplish so most engaged in the interchanges of the
great, so benign a result. It was accom- world, would be powerless because i
plished up to the year 1870 by even the be opposed to the law of nature. The law
informal concurrence among the nations of nature, no doubt, has made two metals
which till then subsisted. The spirit of but, according to the best inspection of
the present age has led to manifold inter- them by science and common-sense
national applications of positive law on law of nature has made them as
other subjects than money, while there is verse as possible compatibly With their
no subject to which its application is so best use as money. I agree that there may
important, or, within limits, so easy as be foolish laws. There may be laws
money For want of this consensus, the letically wise, but which, by the lawgiver
ncc-cs sary conception of money, the in- not computing the difficulties to be over-
stitution of money, the consecration of come, or the repugnances that wil
money, is defeated, pro tanto, when any their execution, are umv.se for the time
portion of the money loses its prerogative and the circumstances to which they are
and incommunicable function of buying applied. I believe, as Mr. Firmez does,
and sellin^ all, and becomes purchasable that an ill-matched struggle between arb
or vendible. Whenever any portion of trary decree and the firm principles of hu-
the money which should be used as the man nature will result in the overthrow
solvent for the exchange of commodities of the law. But that doctrine, at bottom,
turns into a commodity, it thereby not if you are to apply it without regard to

270

EVERETT

the very law and without measuring the tionary consensus of mankind made and

actual repugnance and resistance it has maintained an equilibrium between the

to meet, is simply impugning civilization metals among the nations up to 1870.

for having fought with nature as it has With more vigorous aid from positive law,

done from the beginning. We had some that " written reason," which, Mr. Pirmez

j-ears ago a revenue law in the United says, is all the law there ever is or can

States, called forth by the exigencies of be, I cannot but anticipate the suppression

war expenditure, by which we undertook of the discord and struggle between the

to exact a tax of $2 a gallon on whiskey, moneys of the world which now trouble

yet whiskey was sold all over the United commerce.

States, tax paid, at $1.60 a gallon. This Everett, ALEXANDER HILL, diplomatist;
was a case of miscalculation of how far born in Boston, March 19, 1792; grad-
authority could go against a natural ap- uated at Harvard in 1806; studied law
petite and a national taste. When we re- with John Q. Adams ; and in 1809
duced the tax to 60 cents on the gallon, accompanied him to St. Petersburg as
the law triumphed over this opposition of attache to the American legation, to which
appetite and cupidity and produced an im- he became secretary in 1815. He became
mense revenue to the treasury. It is the charge d affaires at Brussels in 1818 ; in
old puzzle, how to reconcile the law of nat- 1825-29 was minister to Spain; and from
ure, that abhorred a vacuum, with its 1845 until his death was American corn-
ceasing to operate beyond 33 feet in missioner in China. His publications in-
height. This was solved by the wise ac- elude Europe, or a General Survey of
commodation between philosophy and fact, the Political Situation of the Principal
that nature abhorred a vacuum, to be sure, Powers, icith Conjectures on their Future
but only abhorred it to a certain extent. Prospects (1821); New Ideas on Popu-
As I have said, the informal, the uncon- lation (1822); America, etc. (1827). He
scious, the merely historical and tradi- died in Canton, China, June 29, 1847.

EVERETT, EDWARD

Everett, EDWARD, statesman; born in the United States in 1860 by the Consti-

Dorchester, Mass., April 11, 1794; brother tutional Union party. Mr. Everett was a

of the preceding; graduated at Har- rare scholar and finished orator, and was

vard in 1811; and was ordained pastor one of the early editors of the North

of the Brattle Street (Boston) Unitarian American Review. He died in Boston,

Church in February, 1814. He was Jan. 15, 1865.

chosen Professor of Greek in Harvard Oration at Gettysburg. The following

University in 1815, and took the chair on is his oration at the dedication of the

his return from Europe in 181!). Mr. Ev- National Cemetery, on the Gettysburg

erett was in Congress from 1825 to 1835; battle-field, on Nov. 19, 1863:
governor of Massachusetts from 1836 to

1840; minister to England from 1841 to Standing beneath this serene sky, over-

1845; president of Harvard from 1846 looking these broad fields now reposing

to 1849 ; and succeeded Daniel Web- from the labors of the waning year, the

ster as Secretary of State in November, mighty Alleghanies dimly towering be-

1852. He was in the United States Sen- fore us, the graves of our brethren be-

ate from March, 1853, until May, 1854, neath our feet, it is with hesitation that

when he retired to private life on account 1 raise my poor voice to break the elo-

of feeble health. He took great interest quent silence of God and nature. But

in the efforts of the women of the United the duty to which you have called me

States to raise money to purchase Mount must be performed ; grant me, I pray

Vernon. He wrote and spoke much, and you, your indulgence and your sympathy,
by his efforts procured a large amount of It was appointed by law in Athens

money, and the estate was purchased. He that the obsequies of the citizens who fell

was nominated for the Vice-Presidency of in battle should be performed at the pub-

277

EVERETT, EDWARD

KDWAKD KVKKKTT

lie expense, and in the most honorable recognized, but not. therefore, unhonored.

manner. Their bones were carefully dead, and of those whose remains could

gathered up from the funeral pyre where rot be recovered. On the fourth day

their bodies were consumed, and brought the mournful procession was formed:

home to the city. There, for three days mothers, wives, sisters, daughters, led

before the interment, they lay in state, the way, and to them it was permitted,

beneath tents of honor, to receive the by the simplicity of ancient manners, to

votive offerings of friends and relatives utter aloud their lamentations for

flowers, weapons, precious ornaments, beloved and the lost; the male relatives

painted vases, wonders of art, which, ami friends of the deceased followed;

after 2000 years, adorn the museums of citizens and Btrangen closed the train,

modern Europe the last tributes of sur- Thus marshalled, they moved to the place

viving affection. Ten coffins of funeral of interment in that famous Ceramieu&gt;,

eypreM received the honorable deposit, the most beautiful suburb of Athens

one for each of the tribes of the city, which had been adorned by Cimon,

and an eleventh in memory of the un- son of Miltiades, with walks and foun-

278

EVERETT, EDWARD

tains and columns whose groves were
filled with altars, shrines, and temples
whose gardens were kept forever green
by the streams from the neighboring
hills, and shaded with the trees sacred
to Minerva and coeval with the founda
tions of the city whose circuit enclosed

" the olive grove of Academe,
. . . Plato s retirement, where the Attic bird
Trilled his thick-warbled note the summer
long,"

whose pathways gleamed with the monu
ments of the illustrious dead, the work of
the most consummate masters that ever
gave life to marble. There, beneath the
overarching plane - trees, upon a lofty
stage erected for the purpose, it was or
dained that a funeral oration should be
pronounced by some citizen of Athens,
in the presence of the assembled multi
tude.

Such were the tokens of respect re
quired to be paid at Athens to the mem
ory of those who had fallen in the cause
of their country. For those alone who
fell at Marathon a peculiar honor was
reserved. As the battle fought upon that
immortal field was distinguished from
all others in Grecian history for its influ
ence over the fortunes of Hellas as it
depended upon the event of that day
whether Greece should live, a glory and
a light to all coming time, or should ex
pire, like the meteor of a moment so
the honors awarded to its martyr-heroes
were such as were bestowed by Athens on
no other occasion. They alone, of all
her sons, were entombed upon the spot
which they had rendered famous. Their
names were inscribed upon ten pillars
erected upon the monumental tumulus
which covered their ashes (where, after
(500 years, they were read by the traveller
Pausanias) . and although the columns,
beneath the hand of time and barbaric
violence, have long since disappeared, the
venerable mound still marks the spot
where they fought and fell

" That battle-field where Persia s victim-horde
First bowed beneath the brunt of Hellas
sword."

And shall I, fellow-citizens, who. after
an interval of twenty-three centuries, a
youthful pilgrim from the world unknown
to ancient Greece, have wandered over

that illustrious plain, ready to put off
the shoes from my feet, as one that stands
on holy ground who have gazed with re
spectful emotion on the mound which still
protects the dust of those who rolled back
the tide of Persian invasion, and rescued
the land of popular liberty, of letters,
and of arts, from the ruthless foe stand
unmoved over the graves of our dear
brethren, who so lately, on three of these
all important days which decided a na
tion s history days on whose issue it de
pended whether this august republican
Union, founded by some of the wisest
statesmen that ever lived, cemented with
the blood of some of the purest patriots
that ever died, should perish or endure
rolled back the tide of an invasion, not
less unprovoked, not less ruthless, than
that which came to plant the dark banner
of Asiatic despotism and slavery on the
free soil of Greece? Heaven forbid! And
could I prove so insensible to every
prompting of patriotic duty and affec
tion, not only would you, fellow-citizens,
gathered many of you from distant States.
who have come to take part in these pious
offices of gratitude you respected fathers,
brethren, matrons, sisters, who surround
rne cry out for shame, but the forms of
brave and patriotic men who fill these
honored graves would heave with indigna
tion beneath the sod.

\Ve have assembled, friends, fellow-citi
zens, at the invitation of the executive
of the central State of Pennsylvania,
seconded by the governors of seventeen
other loyal States of the Union, to pay
the last tribute of respect to the brave
men who, in the hard-fought battles of the
first, second, and third days of July last,
laid down their lives for the country on
these hillsides and the plains before us.
and whose remains have been gathered
into the cemetery which we consecrate this
day. As my eye ranges over the fields
whose sods were so lately moistened by the
blood of gallant and loyal men, I feel,
as nevor before, how truly it was said of
old that it is sweet and becoming to die
for one s country. I feel, as never be
fore, how justly from the dawn of his
tory to the present time men have paid
the homage of their gratitude and ad
miration to the memory of those who
noblv sacrificed their lives that their

279

EVEEETT, EDWARD

fellow-men may live in safety and in thousands must be encountered by the

honor. And if this tribute were ever due, firm breasts and valiant arms of other

to whom could it be more justly paid thousands, as well organized and as skil-

tlian to those whose last resting-place we fully led. It is no reproach, therefore, to

this day commend to the blessing of the unarmed population of the country

Heaven and of men? to say that we owe it to the brave men

For consider, my friends, what would who sleep in their beds of honor before

have been the consequences to the country, us, and to their gallant surviving as-

to yourselves, and to all you hold dear, scciates, not merely that your fertile

if those who sleep beneath our feet, and fields, my friends of Pennsylvania and

their gallant comrades who survive to Maryland, were redeemed from the pres-

serve their country on other fields of dan- ence of the invader, but that your beauti-

ger, had failed in their duty on those ful capitals were not given up to the

memorable days. Consider what, at this threatened plunder, perhaps laid in

moment, wouM be the condition of the ashes, Washington seized by the enemy,

United States if that noble Army of the and a blow struck at the heart of the

Potomac, instead of gallantly and for nation.

the second time beating back the tide of Who that hears me has forgotten the

invasion from Maryland and Pennsylva- thrill of joy that ran through the country

nia had been itself driven from these well- on the 4th of July auspicious day for

contested heights, thrown back in con- the glorious tidings, and rendered still

fusion on Baltimore, or trampled down, more so by the simultaneous fall of Vicks-

discomfited, scattered to the four winds, burg when the telegraph flashed through

What, in that sad event, would have been the land the assurance from the Presi-

the fate of the Monumental City, of Har- dent of the United States that the Army

risburg, of Philadelphia, of Washington, of the Potomac, under General Meade,

the capital of the Union, each and every had again smitten the invader? Sure I

one of which would have lain at the am that with the ascriptions of praise

mercy of the enemy, accordingly as it that rose to Heaven from twenty million

might have pleased him, spurred by of freemen, with the acknowledgments

passion, flushed with victory, and confident that breathed from patriotic lips through-

of continued success, to direct his course? out the length and breadth of America,

For this we must bear in mind it is to the surviving officers and men who had
one of the great lessons of the war, indeed rendered the country this inestimable
of every war that it is impossible for a service, there beat in every loyal bosom
people without military organization, in- a throb of tender and sorrowful gratitude
habiting the cities, towns, and villages of to the martyrs who had fallen on the
an open country, including, of course, the sternly contested field,
natural proportion of non-combatants of Let a nation s fervent thanks make
every sex and of every age, to withstand some amends for the toils and sufferings
the inroads of a veteran army. What of those who survive. Would that tin-
defence can be made by the inhabitants heartfelt tribute could penetrate these
of villages mostly built of wood, of cities honored graves!

unprotected by walls, nay, by a popula- In order that we may comprehend, to

tion of men, however high-toned and reso- their full extent, our obligations to the

lute, whose aged parents demand their martyrs and surviving heroes of the Army

care, whose wives and children are clus- of the Potomac, let us contemplate for a

tering about them, against the charge of few moments the train of events which

the war-horse whose neck is clothed with culminated in the battles of the first days

thunder against flying artillery and bat- of July. Of this stupendous rebellion,

teries of rifled cannon planted on every planned, as its originators boast, more than

commanding eminence against the onset thirty vt-ars ago, matured and prepared

of trained veterans led by skilful chiefs? for during an entire generation, finally

No, my friends, army must be met by commenced because for the first time

army, battery by battery, squadron by since the adoption of the Constitution,

squadron; and the shock of organized an election of President had been effected

280

EVERETT, EDWARD

without the votes of the South (which re- In pursuance of this original plan of
tained, however, the control of the two the leaders of the rebellion, the capture
ether branches of the government), the of Washington has been continually had
occupation of the national capital, with in view, not merely for the sake of its
the seizure of the public archives and of public buildings, as the capital of the Con-
thc treaties with foreign powers, was an fcderacy, but as the necessary preliminary
essential feature. This was, in substance, to the absorption of the border States, and
within my personal knowledge, admitted, for the moral effect in the eyes of Europe
in the winter of 1860-61, by one of the of possessing the metropolis of the Union,
most influential leaders of the rebellion; I allude to these facts, not perhaps
and it was fondly thought that this ob- enough borne in mind, as a sufficient refu-
ject could be effected by a bold and sudden tation of the pretence, on the part of
movement on the 4th of March, 1861. There the rebels, that the war is one of self-
is abundant proof, also, that a darker defence, waged for the right of self-gov-
project was contemplated, if not by the ernment. It is in reality a war originally
responsible chiefs of the rebellion, yet levied by ambitious men in the cotton-
by nameless ruffians, willing to play a growing States, for the purpose of draw-
subsidiary and murderous part in the ing the slave-holding border States into
treasonable drama. It was accordingly the vortex of the conspiracy, first by sym-
maintained by the rebel emissaries in pathy which in the case of southeastern
England, in the circles to which they found Virginia, North Carolina, part of Ten-
access, that the new American minister nessee, and Arkansas, succeeded and
ought not, when he arrived, to be received then by force, and for the purpose of
as the envoy of the United States, inas- subjugation, Maryland, western Virginia,
much as before that time Washington Kentucky, eastern Tennessee, Missouri ;
would be captured, and the capital of the and it is a most extraordinary fact, con-
nation and the archives and muniments sidering the clamors of the rebel chiefs
of the government would be in the pos- on the subject of invasion, that not
session of the Confederates. In full ac- a soldier of the United States has entered
cordance also with this threat, it was the States last named, except to defend
declared by the rebel Secretary of War, their Union-loving inhabitants from the
at Montgomery, in the presence of his armies and guerillas of the rebels,
chief and of his colleagues, and of In conformity with these designs on the
5,000 hearers, while the tidings of the as- city of Washington, and notwithstanding
sault on Sumter were travelling over the the disastrous results of the invasion of
wires on that fatal 12th of April, 1861, 1862, it was determined by the rebel
that before the end of May " the flag government last summer to resume the
which then flaunted the breeze," as he offensive in that direction. Unable to
expressed it, " would float over the dome force the passage of the Rappahannock,
of the Capitol at Washington." where General Hooker, notwithstanding
At the time this threat was made the the reverse at Chancellorsville, in May,
rebellion was confined to the cotton-grow- was strongly posted, the Confederate gen-
ing States, and it was well understood by eral resorted to strategy. He had two
them that the only hope of drawing any objects in view. The first was by a rapid
of the other slave-holding States into the movement northward, and by manoeuvring
conspiracy was in bringing about a con- with a portion of his army on the east
flict of arms, and " firing the heart of the side of the Blue Ridge, to tempt Hooker
South " by the effusion of blood. This was from his base of operations, thus leading
declared by the Charleston press to be the him to uncover the approaches to Wash-
object for which Sumter was to be assault- ington, to throw it open to a raid by
ed ; and the emissaries sent from Rich- Stuart s cavalry, and to enable Lee him-
mond, to urge on the unhallowed work, self to cross the Potomac in the neighbor-
gave the promise, that, with the first drop hood of Poolesville and thus fall upon the
of blood that should be shed, Virginia capital. This plan of operations was
would place herself by the side of South wholly frustrated. The design of the
Carolina. rebel general was promptly discovered

281

EVERETT, EDWARD

by General Hooker, and, moving with
great rapidity from Fredericksburg, he pre
served unbroken the inner line, and sta
tioned the various corps of his army at
all the points protecting the approach to
Washington, from Centerville up to Lees-
burg. From this vantage ground the
rebel general in vain attempted to draw
him. In the mean time, by the vigorous
operation of Pleasonton s cavalry, the
cavalry of Stuart, though greatly superior
in numbers, was so crippled as to be dis
abled from performing the part assigned
it in the campaign. In this manner Gen
eral Lee s first object, namely, the defeat
of Hooker s army on the south of the Poto
mac, and a direct march on Washington,
was baffled.

The second part of the Confederate plan,
which is supposed to have been under
taken in opposition to the views of Gen
eral Lee, was to turn the demonstration
northward into a real invasion of Mary
land and Pennsylvania, in the hope that,
in this way, General Hooker would be
drawn to a distance from the capital, and
that some opportunity would occur of
taking him at a disadvantage, and, after
defeating his army, of making a descent
upon Baltimore and Washington. This
part of General Lee s plan, which was sub
stantially the repetition of that of 18G2,
was not less signally defeated, with what
honor to the arms of the Union the heights
on which we are this day assembled will
forever attest.

Much time had been uselessly con
sumed by the rebel general in his un
availing attempts to outmanoeuvre Gen
eral Hooker. Although General Lee broke
up from Fredericksburg on June 3, it was
not till the 24th that the main body of
his army entered Maryland. Instead of
crossing the Potomac, as he had intended,
east of the Blue Ridge, he was compelled
to do it at Sheppardstown and Williams-
port, thus materially deranging his entire
plan of campaign north of the river.
Stuart, who had been sent with his cav
alry to the east of the Blue Ridge to
guard the passes of the mountains, to
mask the movements of Lee, and to harass
the Union general in crossing the river,
having been very severely handled by
Pleasonton at Beverly Ford, Aldie, and
Upperville, instead of being able to retard

282

General Hooker s advance, was driven
himself away from his connection with
the army of Lee, and was cut off for a
fortnight from all communications with
it a circumstance to which General Lee
in his report alludes more than once with
evident displeasure. Let us now rapidly
glance at the incidents of the eventful
campaign :

A detachment from Ewell s coi]&gt;,-.
under Jenkins, had penetrated on June l.~&gt;
as far as Chambersburg. This movement
was intended at first merely as a demon
stration, and as a marauding expedition
for supplies. It had, however, the salu
tary effect of alarming the country; and
vigorous preparations were made not only
by the general government, but here in
Pennsylvania and in the sister States, to
repel the inroad. After two days passed
at Chambersburg, Jenkins, anxious for
his communications with Ewell, fell back
with his plunder to Hagerstown. Here
he remained for several days, and then,
having swept the recesses of the Cumber
land Valley, came down upon the eastern
flank of the South Mountain, and pushed
his marauding parties as far as Waynes-
boro. On the 22d the remainder of Ewell s
corps crossed the river and moved up the
valley. They were followed on the 24th
by Longstreet and Hill, who crossed at
Williamsport and Sheppardstown and,
pushing up the valley, encamped at
Chambersburg on the 27th. In this way
the whole rebel army, estimated at 00.-
000 infantry, upward of 10,000 cavalry,
and 4,000 or 5,000 artillery, making a
total of 105,000 of all arms, was concen
trated in Pennsylvania.

Up to this time no report of Hooker s
movements had been received by General
Lee, who, having been deprived of his
cavalry, had no means of obtaining in
formation. Rightly judging, however,
that no time would be lost by the Union
army in the pursuit, in order to detain
it on the eastern side of the mountains in
Maryiand and Pennsylvania, and thus
preserving his communications by the way
of Williamsport, he had, before his own
arrival at Chambersburg, directed Ewell
to send detachments from his corps to
Carlisle and York. The latter detach
ment, under Early, passed through this
place on June 26. You need not, fellow*

EVERETT, EDWARD

citizens of Gettysburg, that I should re- of so large a force on the eve of a gen-
call to you those moments of alarm and eial battle the various corps necessarily
distress, precursors as they were of the moving on lines somewhat divergent, and
more trying scenes which were so soon to all in ignorance of the enemy s intended
follow. j.oint of concentration and that not an

As soon as General Hooker perceived hour s hesitation should ensue in the ad-
that the advance of the Confederates into vance of any portion of the entire army,
the Cumberland Valley was not a mere Having assumed the chief command on
feint to draw him away from Washing- the 28th, General Meade directed his left
ton, he moved rapidly in pursuit. At- wing, under Reynolds, upon Emmetts-
tempts, as we have seen, were made to burg, and his right upon New Windsor,
harass and retard his passage across the leaving General French, with 11,000 men,
Potomac. These attempts were not only to protect the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-
altogether unsuccessful, but were so un- road, and convoy the public property
skilfully made as to place the entire from Harper s Ferry to Washington.
Federal army between the cavalry of Buford s cavalry was then at this place,
Stuart and the army of Lee. While the and Kilpatrick s at Hanover, where he
latter was massed in the Cumberland encountered and defeated the rear of
Valley, Stuart was east of the mountains, Stuart s cavalry, who was roving the
with Hooker s army between, and Gregg s country in search of the main army of
cavalry in close pursuit. Stuart was, Lee. On the rebel side, Hill had reached
accordingly, compelled to force a march Fayetteville, on the Cashtown road, on
northward, which was destitute of stra- the 28th, and was followed on the same
tegical character, and which deprived his road by Longstreet, on the 20th. The
chief of all means of obtaining intelli- eastern side of the mountain, as seen
gonce. from Gettysburg, was lighted up at night

Not a moment had been lost by General by the camp-fires of the enemy s advance.

Hooker in the pursuit of Lee. The day and the country swamped with his forag-

after the rebel army entered Maryland, inf.- parties. It was now too evident to

Hie Union army crossed the Potomac, at be questioned that the thunder-cloud, so

Edward s Ferry, and by the 28th of June long gathering in blackness, would soon

lay between Harper s Ferry and Fred- burst on some part of the devoted vicinity

crick. The force of the enemy on that day of Gettysburg.

was partly at Chambersburg, and partly June 30 was a day of important

moving on 1h&lt;&gt; Cashtown road in the di- preparations. At half-past eleven o clock

rection of Gettysburg, while the detach- i;i the morning General Buford passed

ments from Ewell s corps, of which men- through Gettysburg upon a reconnois-

tion has been made, had reached the sance in force, with his cavalry, upon

Susquehanna. opposite Harrisburg and the Chambersburg road. The information

Columbia. That a great battle must obtained by him was immediately com-

soon be fought no one could doubt; but municated to General Reynolds, who was,

in the apparent, and perhaps real, absence in consequence, directed to occupy Gettys-

cf plan on the part of Lee, it was im- burg. That gallant officer accordingly,

possible to foretell the precise scene of with the 1st Corps, marched from Em-

the encounter. Wherever fought, conse- mettsburg to within 6 or 7 miles of this

qnences the most momentous hung upon place, and encamped on the right bank

the result. of Marsh s Creek. Our right wing,

In this critical and anxious state of meantime, was moved to Manchester. On

affairs, General Hooker was relieved, and the same day the corps of Hill and Lonc:-

General Meade was summoned to the street were pushed still farther forward

chief command of the army. It appears on the Chmnbersburg road, and distributed

lo my unmilitary judgment to reflect the in the vicinity of Marsh s Creek, while a

highest credit upon him, upon his prede- reconnoissance WPS made by the Confeder-

cessor, and upon the corps commanders of ate General Petigru up to a very short

the Army of the Potomac, that a change distance from this place. Thus at night

could take place in the chief command fall on June 30 the greater part of the

283

EVEBETT, EDWARD

rebel force was concentrated in the im- The command of the 1st Corps devolved
mediate vicinity of two corps of the on General Doubleday, and that of the
Union army, the former refreshed by two field on General Howard, who arrived at
days passed in comparative repose and 11.30 with Schurz s and Barlow s divisions
deliberate preparations for the encounter, of the llth Corps, the latter of whom
the latter separated by a march of one or received a severe wound. Thus strength-
two days from their supporting corps, and ened, the advantage of the battle was for
doubtful at what precise point they were some time on our side. The attacks of
to expect an attack. the rebels were vigorously repulsed by

And now the momentous day, a day to Wadsworth s division of the 1st Corps,
be forever remembered in the annals of and a large number of prisoners, includ-
the country, arrived. Early in the morn- ing General Archer, were captured. At
ing of July 1 the conflict began. I need length, however, the continued reinforce-
not say that it would be impossible for rnent of the Confederates from the main
me to comprise, within the limits of the body in the neighborhood, and by the di-
liour, such a narrative as would do any- visions of Rhodes and Early, coming down
thing like full justice to the all-important by separate lines from Heidlersberg and
events of these three great days, or to the taking post on our extreme right, turned
merit of the brave officers and men of the fortunes on the day. Our army, after
every rank, of every arm of the service, contesting the ground for five hours, was
and of every loyal State, who bore their obliged to yield to the enemy, whose force
part in the tremendous struggle alike outnumbered them two to one; and to\v-
those who nobly sacrificed their lives for ards the close of the afternoon General
their country, and those who survive, Howard deemed it prudent to withdraw
many of them scarred with honorable the two corps to the heights where we are
wounds, the objects of our admiration and now assembled. The greater part of the
gratitude. The astonishingly minute, ac- 1st Corps passed through the outskirts
curate, and graphic accounts contained in of the town, and reached the hill without
the journals of the day, prepared from serious loss or molestation. The llth
personal observation by reporters who Corps and portions of the 1st. not being
witnessed the scenes and often shared the aware that the enemy had already en-
perils which they describe, and the highly tered the town from the north, attempted
valuable " notes " of Professor Jacobs, of to force their way through Washington
the university in this place, to which I and Baltimore streets, which, in the crowd
am greatly indebted, will abundantly and confusion of the scene, they did, with
supply the deficiency of my necessarily a heavy loss in prisoners,
too condensed statement. General Howard was not unprepared

General Reynolds, on arriving at Get- for this turn in the fortunes of the day.
lysburg in the morning of the 1st, found He had in the course of the morning
Uuford with his cavalry warmly engaged caused Cemetery Hill to be occupied by
with the enemy, whom he held most gal- General Steinwehr with the 2d Division
lantly in check. Hastening himself to the of the llth Corps. About the time
front, General Reynolds directed his men of the withdrawal of our troops to the
to be moved over the fields from the Em- hill General Hancock arrived, having been
mettsburg road, in front of McMillan s sent by General Meade, on hearing of the
and Dr. Schumucker s under cover of the death of Reynolds, to assume the coin-
Seminary Ridge. Without a moment s mand of the field until he himself could
hesitation, he attacked the enemy, at the reach the front. In conjunction with
-nine time sending orders to the llth General Howard, General Hancock 5m-
Corps (General Howard s) to advance as mediately proceeded to post troops and
promptly as possible. General Reynolds to repel an attack on our right flank,
immediately found himself engaged with This attack was feebly made and prompt-
a force which greatly outnumbered his ly repulsed. At nightfall our troops on
own. and had scarcely made his dispo- the hill, who had so gallantly sustained
sit ions for the action when he fell, mor- themselves during the toil and peril of the
tally &gt;younded ; at the head of his advance, day, were cheered by the arrival of Gen-

284

EVERETT, EDWARD

eral Sloeum with the 12th Corps and of
General Sickles with a part of the 3d.

Such was the fortune of the first day,
commencing with decided success to our
arms, followed by a check, but ending in
the occupation of this all-important po
sition. To you, fellow-citizens of Gettys
burg, I need not attempt to portray the
anxieties of the ensuing night. Witness
ing as you have done with sorrow the
withdrawal of our army through your
streets, with a considerable loss of prison
ers mourning as you did over the brave
men who had fallen, shocked with the
widespread desolation around you, of
which the wanton burning of the Harman
House had given the signal ignorant of
the near approach of General Meade, you
passed the weary hours of the night in
painful expectation.

Long before the dawn of July 2
the new commander-in-chief had reached
the ever - memorable field of service and
glory. Having received intelligence of
the events in progress, and informed by
the reports of Generals Hancock and
Howard of the favorable character of the
position, he determined to give battle to
the enemy at this point. He accordingly
directed the remaining corps of the army
to concentrate at Gettysburg with all pos
sible expedition, and breaking up his head
quarters at Taneytown at 10 P.M., he ar
rived at the front at one o clock in the
morning of July 2. Few were the mo
ments given to sleep during the rapid
watches of that brief midsummer s night,
by officers or men, though half of our
troops were exhausted by the conflict of
the day, and the residue wearied by the
forced marches which had brought them
to the rescue. The full moon, veiled by
thin clouds, shone down that night on a
strangely unwonted scene. The silence
of the graveyard was broken by the heavy
tramp of armed men, by the neigh of the
war-horse, the harsh rattle of the wheels
of artillery hurrying to their stations,
and all the indescribable tumult of prep
aration. The various corps of the army,
as they arrived, were moved to their posi
tions, on the spot where we are as
sembled and the ridges that extend south
east and southwest; batteries were
planted and breastworks thrown up. The
2d and 5th Corps, with the rest of the

3d, had reached the ground by 7 A.M. :
but it was not till two o clock in the
afternoon that Sedgwick arrived with the
6th Corps. He had marched 34 miles since
nine o clock of the evening before. It was
only on his arrival that the Union army
approached an equality of numbers with
that of the rebels, who were posted
upon the opposite and parallel ridge, dis
tant from a mile to a mile and a half,
overlapping our position on either wing,
and probably exceeding by 10,000 the
army of General Meade.

And here I cannot but remark on the
Providential inaction of the rebel army.
Had the contest been renewed by it
at daylight on July 2, with the 1st and
llth Corps exhausted by the battle and
the retreat, the 3d and 12th weary from
their forced march, and the 2d, 5th, and
6th not yet arrived, nothing but a miracle
could have saved the army from a great
disaster. Instead of this, the day dawned,
the sun rose, the cool hours of the morn
ing passed, the forenoon and a consider
able part of the afternoon wore away,
without the slightest aggressive movement
on the part of the enemy. Thus time was
given for half of our forces to arrive and
take their place in the lines, while the
rest of the army enjoyed a much-needed
half-day s repose.

At length, between three and four o clock
in the afternoon, the work of death began.
A signal-gun from the hostile batteries
was followed by a tremendous cannonade
along the rebel lines, a-nd this by a heavy
advance of infantry, brigade after brigade,
commencing on the enemy s right against
the left of our army, and so onward to the
left centre. A forward movement of Gen
eral Sickles, to gain a&gt; commanding posi
tion from which to repel the rebel at
tack, drew upon him a destructive fire
from the enemy s batteries, and a furious
assault from Loiigstreet s and Hill s ad
vancing troops. After a brave resistance
on the part of his corps, he was forced
back, himself falling severely wounded.
This was the critical moment of the sec
ond day, but the 5th and a part of the
6th Corps, with portions of the 1st and
2d, were promptly brought to the support
of the 3d. The struggle was fierce and
murderous, but by sunset our success was
decisive, and the enemy was driven back

285

EVERETT, EDWARD

in confusion. The most important ser
vice was rendered towards the close of the
day, in the memorable advance between
Round Top and Little Round Top, by Gen
eral Crawford s division of the 5th Corps,
consisting of two brigades of the Pennsyl
vania Reserves, of which one company
was from this town and neighborhood.
The rebel force was driven back with
great loss in killed and prisoners. At
eight o clock in the evening a desperate at
tempt was made by the enemy to storm
the position of the llth Corps on Cemetery
Hill; but here, too, after a terrible con
flict, he was repulsed with immense loss.
Ewell, on our extreme right, which had
been weakened by the withdrawal of the
troops sent over to support our left, had
succeeded in gaining a foothold within a
portion of our lines, near Spangler s
Spring. This was the only advantage ob
tained by the rebels to compensate them
for the disasters of the day, and of this,
as we shall see, they were soon deprived.

Such was the result of the second
act of this eventful drama a day hard
fought, and at one moment anxious, but,
with the exception of the slight reverse
just named, crowned with dearly earned
but uniform success to our arms, auspi
cious of a glorious termination of the final
struggle. On these good omens the night
fell.

In the course of the night General Geary
returned to his position on the right, from
which he had hastened the day before to
strengthen the 3d Corps. He immediately
engaged the enemy, and, after a sharp and
decisive action, drove them out of our
lines, recovering the ground which had
been lost on the preceding day. A spirited
contest was kept up all the morning on
this part of the line; but General Geary,
reinforced by Wheaton s brigade of the
(ith Corps, maintained his position, and in
flicted very severe losses on the rebels.

Such was the cheering commencement
of the third day s work, and with it ended
all serious attempts of the enemy on our
right. As on the preceding day, his efforts
were now mainly directed aeainst our
left centre and left wing. From e even
till half - past one o clock all was still, a
solemn pause of preparation, as if both
armies were nerving themselves for the
supreme effort. At length the awful

silence, more terrible than the wildest
tumult of battle, was broken by the roar
of 250 pieces of artillery from the op
posite ridges, joining in a cannonade of
unsurpassed violence the rebel batter
ies along two - thirds of their line pour
ing their fire upon Cemetery Hill and
the centre and left wing of our army.
Having attempted in this way for two
hours, but without success, to shake the
steadiness of our lines, the enemy rallied
his forces for a last grand assault. Their
attack was principally directed against
the position of our 2d Corps. Successive
lines of rebel infantry moved forward
with equal spirit and steadiness from
their cover on the wooded crest of
Seminary Ridge, crossing the intervening
plain, and, supported right and left by
their choicest brigades, charged furiously
up to our batteries. Our own brave troops
of the 2d Corps, supported by Doubleday s
division and Stannard s brigade of the
1st, received the shock with firmness; the
ground on both sides was long and fiercely
contested, and was covered with the killed
and the wounded; the tide of battle flowed
and ebbed across the plain, till, after " a
determined and gallant struggle," as it
is pronounced by General Lee, the rebel
advance, consisting of two - thirds of
Hill s corps and the whole of Long-
street s, including Pickett s division, the
elite of his corps, which had not yet been
under fire, and was now depended upon
to decide the fortune of this last eventful
day, was driven back with prodigious
slaughter, discomfited and broken. While
these events were in progress at our left
centre, the enemy was driven, with con
siderable loss of prisoners, from the strong
position on our extreme left, from which
he was annoying our forces on Little
Round Top. In the terrific assault on our
centre Generals Hancock and Gibbon were
wounded. In the rebel army. Generals
Armistead. Kemper, Petigru, and Trimble
were wounded, the first named mortally.
the latter, also made prisoner; General
Garnett was killed, and 3,500 officers and
men made prisoners.

These were the expiring agonies of the
three days conflict, and with them th
battle ceased. It was fought by the Union
army with courage and skill, from the
first cavalry skirmish on Wednesday morn-
16

EVERETT, EDWARD

ing to the fearful rout of the enemy on Owing to the circumstance just named,
Friday afternoon, by every arm and every the intentions of the enemy were not ap-
rank of the service, by officers and men parent on the 4th. The moment his re-
by cavalry, artillery, and infantry. The treat was discovered, the following morn-
superiority of numbers was with the ing, he was pursued by our cavalry on
enemy, who were led by the ablest com- the Cashtown road and through the
manders in their service ; and if the Union Emmettsburg and Monterey passes, and by
force had the advantage of a strong posi- Sedgwick s corps on the Fairfield road;
tion, the Confederates had the advantages his rear-guard was briskly attacked at
of choosing the time and place, the prestige Fairfield ; a great number of wagons and
of former victories over the Army of the ambulances were captured in the passes
Potomac, and of the success of the first of the mountains; the country swarmed
day. Victory does not always fall to the with his stragglers, and his wounded were
lot of those who deserve it, but that so de- literally emptied from the vehicles con-
cisive a triumph, under circumstances like taining them into the farm-houses on the
these, was gained by our troops I would road. General Lee, in his report, makes
ascribe, under Providence, to that spirit of repeated mention of the Union prisoners
exalted patriotism that animated them and whom he conveyed into Virginia, sorne-
a consciousness that they were fighting in what overstating their number. He
a righteous cause. states also that " such of his wounded as

All hope of defeating our army, and were in a condition to be removed " were
securing what General Lee calls "the forwarded to Williamsport. He does not
valuable results " of such an achieve- mention that the number of his wounded
ment having vanished, he thought only of which were not removed, and left to the
rescuing from destruction the remains of Christian care of the victors, was 7,540, not
his shattered forces. In killed, wounded, one of whom failed of any attention which
and missing he had, as far as can be it was possible under the circumstances
ascertained, suffered a loss of about of the case to afford them; not one of
37,000 men rather more than one-third whom, certainly, has been put upon Libby
of the army with which he is supposed to prison fare, lingering death by starva-
have marched into Pennsylvania. Per- tion. Heaven forbid, however, that we
ceiving that his only safety was in rapid should claim any merit for the exercise of
retreat, he commenced withdrawing his common humanity!

troops at daybreak on the 4th, throwing Under the protection of the mountain
up field-works in front of our left, which, ridge, whose narrow passes are easily
assuming the appearance of a new posi- held, even by a retreating army, General
tion, were intended probably to protect Lee reached Williamsport in safety, and
the rear of his army in their retreat, took up a strong position opposite to that
That day sad celebration of the 4th of place. General Meade necessarily pur-
July for the army of Americans was sued with the main army, by a flank
passed by him in hurrying off his trains, movement, through Middletown, Turner s
By nightfall the main army was in full Pass having been secured by General
retreat on the Cashtown and Fairfield French. Passing through the South
roads, and it moved with such precipita- Mountain, the Union army came up with
tion that, short as the nights were, by day- that of the rebels on the 12th, and found
light the following morning, notwithstand- it securely posted on the heights of
ing the heavy rain, the rear-guard had left Marsh Eun. The position was recon-
its position. The struggle of the last two noitred, and preparation made for an
days resembled in many respects the bat- attack on the 13th. The depth of the
tie of Waterloo; and if, on the evening of river, swollen by the recent rains, au-
the third day, General Meade, like the thorized the expectation that the enemy
Duke of Wellington, had had the assist- would be brought to a general engagement
ance of a powerful auxiliary army to the following day. An advance was ac-
take up the pursuit, the rout of the rebels cordingly made by General Meade on the 1
would have been as complete as that of morning of the 14th; but it was soon
Napoleon. found that the rebels had escaped in the

2S7

EVERETT, EDWARD

night with such haste that EwelFs nature of the case admits, at 23,000.
corps forded the river where the water General Meade also captured three can-
was breast high. The cavalry, which had non and forty-one standards, and 24,978
rendered the most important services small-arms were collected on the battle-
during the three days, and in harassing field.

the enemy s retreat, was now sent in pur- I must leave to others, who can do it
suit, and captured two guns and a large from personal observation, to describe the
number of prisoners. In an action which mournful spectacle presented by these hill-
took place at Falling River, General Peti- sides and plains at the close of the terri-
gru was mortally wounded. General Lie conflict. It was a saying of the Duke
Meade, in further pursuit of the rebels, of Wellington that, next to a defeat, the
crossed the Potomac at Berlin. Thus saddest thing is a victory. The horrors of
again covering the approaches to Wash- the battle-field after the contest is over,
ington, he compelled the enemy to pass the sights and sounds of woe let me
the Blue Ridge at one of tfte upper gaps; throw a pall over the scene, which no
and in about six weeks from the com- words can adequately depict to those who
mencement of the campaign General Lee have not witnessed it, and on which
found himself again on the south side of no one who has a heart in his bosom
the Rappahannock, with the probable loss can bear to dwell. One drop of balm
of about a third part of his army. alone, one drop of heavenly, life - giving

Such, most inadequately recounted, is balm, mingles in this bitter cup of misery,
the history of the ever-memorable three Scarcely had the cannon ceased to roar
days, and of the events immediately pre- when the brethren and sisters of Chris-
coding and following. It has been pre- tian benevolence, ministers of compas-
tended, in order to diminish the magni- sion, angels of pity, hasten to the field
tude of this disaster to the rebel cause, and the hospital to moisten the parched
that it was merely the repulse of an at- tongue, to bind the ghastly wounds, to
tack on a strongly defended position. The soothe the parting agony alike of friend
tremendous losses on both sides are a and foe, and to catch the last whispered
sufficient answer to this misrepresenta- messages of love from dying lips. " Carry
tion, and attest the courage and obstinacy this miniature back to my dear wife, but
with which, in three days, battle was do not take it from my bosom till I am
waged. Few of the great conflicts of gone." " Tell my little sister not to grieve
modern times have cost victors and van- for me; I am willing to die for my coun-
quished so great a sacrifice. On the try." "Oh that my mother were here!"
Union side there fell, in the whole cam- When, since Aaron stood between the liv-
paign, of generals killed, Reynolds, Weed, ing and the dead, were there ever so gra-
and Zook, and wounded, Barlow, Barnes, cious a ministry as this? It has been said
Butterfield, Doubleday, Gibbon, Graham, that it is characteristic of Americans to
Hancock, Sickles, and Warren; while of treat women with a deference not paid to
officers below the rank of general, and them in any other country. I will not ini-
men, there were 2,834 killed, 13,709 dertake to say whether this is so; but I
wounded, and 6,643 missing. On the Con- will say that, since this terrible war has
federate side there were killed on the been waged, the women of the loyal States,
field, or mortally wounded, Generals if never before, have entitled themselves
Armistead, Barksdale, Garnett, Pender, to our highest admiration and gratitude.
Petigru, and Semmes, and wounded, And now, friends, fellow-citizens, as we
Hcth, Hood, Johnson, Kemper, Kimball, stand among these honored graves, the
and Trimble. Of officers below the rank momentous question presents itself, which
of general, and men. there were taken of the two parties to the war is respon-
prisoners, including the wounded. 13,621, sible for all this suffering, for the dread-
a number ascertained officially. Of the ful sacrifice of life the lawful and con-
wounded in a condition to be removed, of stituted government of the United States,
the killed, and of the missing, the enemy or the ambitious men who have rebelled
has made no return. They were esti- against it? I say "rebelled" against it,
mated, from the best data which the ^though Earl Russell, the British secre-

288

EVEBETT, EDWABD

tary of state for foreign affairs, in his re- ministry, had brought his head to the
cent temperate and conciliatory speech in block and involved the country in a
Scotland, seems to intimate that no prej- desolating war for the sake of dismember-
udice ought to attach to that word, in- ing it and establishing a new government
asmuch as our English forefathers re- south of the Trent? What would have
belled against Charles I. and James II., been thought of the Whigs of 1688 if
and our American fathers rebelled against they had themselves composed the cabinet
George III. These certainly are vener- of James II., and been the advisers of the
able precepts, but they prove only that it measures and the promoters of the policy
is just and proper to rebel against op- which drove him into exile? The Puri-
pressive governments. They do not prove tans of 1640 r.nd the Whigs of 1688 re-
that it was just and proper for the son belled against arbitrary power in order to
of James II. to rebel against George I.; establish constitutional liberty. If they
or his grandson, Charles Edward, to rebel had risen against Charles and James be-
against George II. ; nor, as it seems to me, cause those monarchs favored equal rights,
ought these dynastic struggles, little bet- and in order themselves " for the first time
ter than family quarrels, to be compared in the history of the world " to establish
with this monstrous conspiracy against an oligarchy " founded on the corner-
the American Union. These precedents do stone of slavery," they would truly have
not prove that it was just and proper for furnished a precedent for the rebels
the " disappointed great men " of the of the South, but their cause would not
cotton-growing States to rebel against " the have been sustained by the eloquence of
most beneficent government of which his- Pym or of Somers, nor sealed with the
tory gives us any account," as the Vice- blood of Hampden or Russell.
President of the Confederacy, in Novem- I call the war which the Confederates
her, 1860, charged them with doing. They are waging against the Union a " re
do not create a presumption even in favor bellion," because it is one, and in grave
of the disloyal slave-holders of the South, matters it is best to call things by their
who, living under a government of which right names. I speak of it as a crime,
Mr. Jefferson Davis, in the session of because the Constitution of the United
1860-61, said that it was "the best gov- States so regards it, and puts "rebellion"
ernment ever instituted by man, unex- on a par with " invasion." The constitu-
ceptionally administered, and under which tion and law, not only of England, but
the people have been prosperous beyond of every civilized country, regards them
comparison with any other people whose in the same light; or, rather, they con-
career has been recorded in history," re- sider the rebel in arms as far worse than
belled against it because their aspiring the alien enemy. To levy war against
politicians, himself among the rest, were the United States is the constitutional
in danger of losing their monopoly of its definition of treason, and that crime is
offices. What would have been thought by every civilized government regarded as
by an impartial posterity of the Ameri- the highest which citizen or subject can
can rebellion against George III. if the commit. Not content with the sanction
colonists had at all times been more than of human justice, of all the crimes
equally represented in Parliament, and against the law of the land it is singled
James Otis and Patrick Henry and Wash- out for the denunciation of religion. The
ington and Franklin and the Adamses litanies of every church in Christendom
and Hancock and Jefferson, and men of whose ritual embraces that office, as far
their stamp, had for two generations en- as I am aware, from the metropolitan
joyed the confidence of the sovereign and cathedrals of Europe to the humblest mis-
administered the government of the em- sion chapels in the islands of the sea,
pire? What would have been thought of concur with the Church of England in
the rebellion against Charles I. if Crom- imploring the Sovereign of the universe,
well and the men of his school had been by the most awful adjurations which the
the responsible advisers of that prince heart of man can conceive or his tongue
from his accession to the throne, and then, utter, to " deliver us from sedition, privy
on account of a partial change in the conspiracy, and rebellion." And reason
m. T 289

EVEBETT, EDWABD

good; for while a rebellion against
tyranny a rebellion designed, after
prostrating arbitrary power, to establish
free government on the basis of justice
and truth is an enterprise on which
good men and angels may look with com
placency, an unprovoked rebellion of am
bitious men against a beneficial govern
ment, for the purpose the avowed pur
pose of establishing, extending, and per
petuating any form of injustice and
wrong, is an imitation on earth of that
foul revolt of " the infernal serpent "
against which the Supreme Majesty of
heaven sent forth the armed myriads of
His angels, and clothed the right arm of
His Son with the three-bolted thunders of
omnipotence.

Lord Bacon, in the " true marshalling
of the sovereign decrees of honor," assigns
the first place to the conditores impe-
riorum founders of states and common
wealths: and, truly, to build up from
the discordant elements of our nature
the passions, the interests, and the opin
ions of the individual man, the rivalries
of family, clan, and tribe, the influence of
climate and geographical position, the ac
cidents of peace and war accumulated for
ages to build up from these oftentimes
warring elements a well-compacted, pros
perous, and powerful state, if it were to
be accomplished by one effort or in one
generation would require a more than
mortal skill. To contribute in some nota
ble degree to this, the greatest work of
man, by wise and patriotic counsel in
peace and loyal heroism in war, is as high
s human merit can well rise; and far
more than to any of those to whom Bacon
assigns this highest place of honor, whose
names can hardly be repeated without
a wondering smile Romulus, Cyrus,
Caesar, Gothman, Ismael it is due to our
Washington as the founder of the Ameri
can Union. But if to achieve, or help to
achieve, this greatest work of man s wis
dom and virtue gives title to a place
among the chief benefactors, rightful heirs
of the benedictions of mankind, by equal
reason shall the bold, bad men who seek
to undo the noble work ever sores imperi-
orum, destroyers of states, who for base
and selfish ends rebel against beneficent
governments, seek to overturn wise con
stitutions, to lay powerful republican

unions at the foot of foreign thrones, to
bring on civil and foreign war, anarchy
at home, dictation abroad, desolation,
ruin by equal reason, I say yes, a thou
sand-fold stronger shall they inherit the
execrations of the ages.

But to hide the deformity of the crime
under the cloak of that sophistry which
strives to make the worse appear the bet
ter reason, we are told by the leaders of
the rebellion that in our complex system
of government the separate States are
" sovereign," and that the central power
is only an " agency " established by those
sovereigns to manage certain little af
fairs, such, forsooth, as peace, war, army,
navy, finance, territory, and relations
with the native tribes, which they could
not so conveniently administer themselves.
It happens, unfortunately for this theory,
that the federal Constitution (which has
been adopted by the people of every State
of the Union as much as their own State
constitutions have been adopted, and is
declared to be paramount to them) no
where recognizes the States as " sover
eigns " in fact, that by their names it
does not recognize them at all ; while the
authority established by that instrument
is recognized, in its text, not as an
" agency," but as " the government of the
United States." By that Constitution,
moreover, which purports in its preamble
to be ordained and established by " the
people of the United States," it is ex
pressly provided that " the members of
the State legislatures, and all executive
and judicial officers, shall be bound by
oath or affirmation to support the Con
stitution." Now it is a common thing,
under all governments, for an agent to be
bound by oath to be faithful to his sover
eign ; but I never heard before of sover
eigns being bound by oath to be faithful
to their agency.

Certainly I do not deny that the sepa
rate States are clothed with sovereign
powers for the administration of local
affairs; it ia one of the most beautiful
features of our mixed system of govern
ment. But it is equally true that, in
adopting the federal Constitution, the
States abdicated by express renunciation
all the most important functions of na
tional sovereignty, and, by one compre
hensive, self-denying clause, gave up all

290

EVERETT, EDWARD

right to contravene the Constitution of
the United States. Specifically, and by
enumeration, they renounced all the most
important prerogatives of independent
States for peace and for war the right
to keep troops or ships - of - war in time of
peace, or to engage in war unless actu
ally invaded; to enter into compact with
another State or a foreign power; to lay
any duty on tonnage or any impost on ex
ports or imports without the consent of
Congress; to enter into any treaty, alli
ance, or confederation, to grant letters of
marque or reprisal, and to emit bills of
credit; while all these powers and many
others are expressly vested in the general
government. To ascribe to political com
munities, thus limited in their jurisdic
tion, who cannot even establish a post-
office on their own soil, the character of
independent sovereignty, and to reduce a
national organization, clothed with all
the transcendent powers of government,
to the name and condition of an " agency "
of the States, proves nothing but that
the logic of secession is on a par with its
loyalty and patriotism.

Oh, but the " reserved rights " ! And
what of the reserved rights? The Tenth
Amendment of the Constitution, supposed
to provide for " reserved rights," is con
stantly misquoted. By that amendment
" the powers not delegated to the United
States by the Constitution, nor prohibited
by it to the States, are reserved to the
States respectively, or to the people." The
" powers " reserved must of course be such
as could have been, but were not, delegated
to the United States could have been, but
were not, prohibited to the States; but to
speak of the right of an individual State
to secede, as a power that could have been,
though it was not, delegated to the Unit
ed States, is simply nonsense.

But, waiving this obvious absurdity, can
it need a serious argument to prove that
there can be no State right to enter into
a new confederation reserved under a con
stitution which expressly prohibits a State
to " enter into any treaty, alliance, or con
federation," or any " agreement or com
pact with another State or a foreign
power " ? To say that the State may, by
enacting the preliminary farce of secession,
acquire the right to do the prohibited
things to **y. for instance, that though

the States in forming the Constitution
delegated to the United States, and pro
hibited to themselves, the power of declar
ing war, there was by implication reserved
to each State the right of seceding and
then declaring war; that, though they ex
pressly prohibited to the States and dele
gated to the United States the entire
tieaty-making power, they reserved by im
plication (for an express reservation is
not pretended) to the individual States
to Florida, for instance the right to se
cede, and then to make a treaty with
Spain retroceding that Spanish colony, and
thus surrendering to a foreign power the
key to the Gulf of Mexico to maintain
propositions like these, with whatever af
fected seriousness it is done, appears to
me egregious trifling.

Pardon me, my friends, for dwelling on
these wretched sophistries. But it is these
which conducted the armed hosts of re
bellion to your doors on the terrible and
glorious days of July, and which have
brought upon the whole land the scourge
of an aggressive and wicked war a war
which can have no other termination com
patible with the permanent safety and
welfare of the country but the complete
destruction of the military power of the
enemy. I have, on other occasions, at
tempted to show that to yield to his de
mands and acknowledge his independence,
thus resolving the Union at once into two
hostile governments, with a certainty of
further disintegration, would annihilate
the strength and the influence of the coun
try as a member of the family of nations;
afford to foreign powers the opportunity
and the temptation for humiliating and
disastrous interference in our affairs;
wrest from the Middle and Western State?
some of their great natural outlets to the
sea and of their most important lines of
internal communication ; deprive the com
merce and navigation of the country of
two-thirds of our sea-coast and of the
fortresses which protect it ; not only so,
but would enable each individual State
some of them with a white population
equal to a good-sized northern county; or
rather the dominant party in each State,
to cede its territory, its harbors, its fort
resses, the mouths of its rivers, to any
foreign power. It cannot be that the peo
ple of the loyal States that 22,000,000 of

291

EVERETT, EDWARD

ad prosperous freemen-will, for
f ief truce in an

national suicide.

Do not think that I exaggerate

of the leaders of the rebellion. I under
state them. They require of us, not only
all the sacrifices I have named, not only
the cession to them, a foreign and hostile
power, of all the territory of the United
States at present occupied by the rebel
forces, but the abandonment to them
of the vast regions we have rescued from
their &lt;*rasp of Maryland, of a part of
eastern Virginia, and the whole of west
ern Virginia; the sea-coast of North and
South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida;
Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri; Ar
kansas and the larger portion of Mis-
- J ^ -in most

Gadsdens, the Rutledges, and the Cotes-
worth Pinckneys, of the Revolutionary
and constitutional age, to follow the agi
tators of the present day.

Nor must we be deterred from the
vigorous prosecution of the war by the
suggestion continually thrown out by the
rebels, and those who sympathize with
them, that, however it might have been
at an earlier stage, there has been en
gendered by the operations of the war a
slate of exasperation and bitterness
which, independent of all reference to the
original nature of the matters in con
troversy, will forever prevent the restora
tion of the Union and the return of har
mony between the two great sections of
the country. This opinion I take to be
entirely without foundation.

No man can deplore more than I do
the miseries of every kind unavoidably in-

guerillas, there is not a rebel in arms;
in all of which the great majority of the
people are loyal to the Union.

We must give back, too, the helpless
colored population, thousands of whom
are perilling their lives in the ranks of
our armies, to a bondage rendered tenfold
more bitter by the momentary enjoyment
of freedom. Finally, we must surren
der every man in the southern country,
white or black, who has moved a finger
or spoken a word for the restoration of
the Union, to a reign of terror as re
morseless as that of Robespierre, which
has been the chief instrument by which
the rebellion has been organized and sus
tained, and which has already filled the
prisons of the South with noble men,
whose only crime is that they are not
the worst of criminals. The South is
full of such men.

I do not believe there has been a day
since the election of President Lincoln
when, if an ordinance of secession could
have been fairly submitted, after a free
discussion, to the mass of the people in
any single Southern State, a majority of
ballots would have been given in its favor.
No; not in South Carolina. It is not
that the majority of the people,

this spot and call to mind the scenes of
the first days of July without any feeling
A sad foreboding of what would ensue, if
war should breal out between North and
South, has haunted me through life and
led me perhaps too long, to tread ^in the
path of hopeless compromise in the fond
endeavor to conciliate those who were pre-
determined not to be conciliated.

But it is not true as it is pretended by
the rebels and their sympathizers, that
the war has been carried on by the
United States without entire regard to
those temperaments which are enjoyed by
the law of nations, by our modeir v-
ilization. and by the spirit of

recent military history of the leading
European powers, acts of violence and
cruelty in the prosecution of their wars
to which no parallel can be found among
us. In fact, when we consider the pecul
iar bitterness with which civil wars are
almost invariably waged, we must justly
boast of the manner in which the United
States have carried on the contest.

It is, of course, impossible to prevent
tho lawless acts of stragglers and desert
ers, or the occasional unwarrantable pro-
ceedins of subordinates on distant sta-

EVERETT, EDWAED

as in this war, by the government and
commanders of the United States; and
this notwithstanding the provocation given
by the rebel government by assum
ing the responsibility of wretches like
Quantrell, refusing quarter to colored
troops, and scourging and selling into
slavery free colored men from the North
who fell into their hands, by covering the
sea with pirates, refusing a just exchange
of prisoners, while they crowded their
armies with paroled prisoners not ex
changed, and starving prisoners of war to
death.

In the next place, if there are any pres
ent who believe that, in addition to the
effect of the military operations of the
war, the confiscation acts and emanci
pation proclamations have embittered the
rebel beyond the possibility of reconcilia
tion, I would request them to reflect that
the tone of the rebel leaders and rebel
press was just as bitter in the first
months of the war, nay, before a gun was
fired, as it is now. There were speeches
made in Congress, in the very last session
before the outbreak of the rebellion, so
ferocious as to show that their authors
were under the influence of a real frenzy.

At the present day, if there is any dis
crimination made by the Confederate press
in the affected scorn, hatred, and contume
ly with which every shade of opinion and
sentiment in the loyal States is treated,
the bitterest contempt is bestowed upon
those at the North who still speak the
language of compromise, and who con
demn those measures of the administration
which are alleged to have rendered the
return of peace hopeless.

No, my friends, that gracious Provi
dence which overrules all things for the
best, " from seeming evil still educing
good," has so constituted our natures
that the violent excitement of the passions
in one direction is generally followed by
a reaction in an opposite direction, and
the sooner for the violence. If it were
not so, if injuries inflicted and retaliated
of necessity led to new retaliations, with
forever accumulating compound interest
of revenge, then the world, thousands of
years ago, would have been turned into
an earthly hell, and the nations of the
earth would have been resolved into clans
of furies and demons, each forever war-

203

ring with his neighbor. But it is not so;
all history teaches a different lesson.
The Wars of the Roses in England lasted
an entire generation, from the battle of
St. Albans, in 1455, to that of Bosworth
Field, in 1485. Speaking of the former,
Hume says: "This was the first blood
spilt in that fatal quarrel, which was not
finished in less than a course of thirty
years; which was signalized by twelve
pitched battles; which opened a scene of
extraordinary fierceness and cruelty; is
computed to have cost the lives of eighty
princes of the blood; and almost entirely
annihilated the ancient nobility of Eng
land. The strong attachments which, at
that time, men of the same kindred bore
to each other, and the vindictive spirit
which was considered a point of honor,
rendered the great families implacable in
their resentments, and widened every mo
ment of the breach between the parties."
Such was the state of things in England
under which an entire generation grew
up; but when Henry VII., in whom the
titles of the two houses were united, went
up to London after the battle of Bosworth
Field, to mount the throne, he was every
where received with joyous acclamations,
" as one ordained and sent from heaven
to put an end to the dissensions " which
had so long afflicted the country.

The great rebellion in England of the
seventeenth century, after long and angry
premonitions, may be said to have begun
with the calling of the Long Parliament,
in 1040, and to have ended with the re
turn of Charles II., in 1GGO; twenty years
of discord, conflict, and civil war; of con
fiscation, plunder, havoc ; a proud heredi
tary peerage trampled in the dust; a na
tional Church overturned, its clergy
beggared, its most eminent prelate put
to death; a military despotism estab
lished on the ruins of a monarchy which
had subsisted 700 years, and the legiti
mate sovereign brought to the block; the
great families which adhered to the King
proscribed, impoverished, ruined; prison
ers of war a fate worse than starvation
in Libby sold to slavery in the West
Indies; in a word, everything that can
embitter and madden contending factions.
Such was the state of things for twenty
years; and yet, by no gentle transition,
but suddenly, and " when the restoration

EVERETT, EDWARD

of affairs appeared hopeless," the son of troversies in that country at the present

the beheaded sovereign was brought back day, but they grow mainly out of the

to his father s blood-stained throne, with rivalry of the two leading powers. There

such " unexpressible and universal joy " is no country in the world in which the

as led the merry monarch to exclaim, sentiment of national brotherhood is

" He doubted it had been his own fault stronger.

he had been absent so long, for he saw In Italy, on the breaking up of the
nobody who did not protest he had ever Koman Empire, society might be said
wished for his return." " In this won- to be resolved into its original elements
derful manner," says Clarendon, " and into hostile atoms, whose only movement
with this incredible expedition, did God was that of mutual repulsion. Ruthless
put an end to a rebellion that had raged barbarians had destroyed the old organi-
for tAventy years, and had been carried zations, and covered the land with a mer-
on with all the horrible circumstances of ciless feudalism. As the new civilization
murder, devastation, and parricide that grew up, under the wing of the Church,
fire and sword in the hands of the most the noble families and the walled towns
wicked men in the world [it is a royalist fell madly into conflict with each other;
that is speaking] could be instruments the secular feud of pope and emperor
of, almost to the devastation of two king- scourged the land; province against prov-
doms, and the exceeding defacing and de- ince, city against city, street against
forming of the third. ... By these street, waged remorseless war with each
remarkable steps did the merciful hand other from father to son, till Dante was
of God, in this short space of time, not able to fill his imaginary hell with the
only bind up and heal all those wounds, real demons of Italian history. So fero-
but even made the scar as indiscernible cious had the factions become that the
as, in respect of the deepness, was pos- great poet-exile himself, the glory of his
sible, which was a glorious addition to native city and of his native language,
the deliverance." was. by a decree of the municipality, con-
In Germany the wars of the Reforma- demned to be burned alive if found in tho
tion and of Charles V., in the sixteenth city of Florence. But these deadly feuds
century, the Thirty Years War in the and hatreds yielded to political influences,
seventeenth century, the Seven Years as the hostile cities were grouped into
War in the eighteenth century, not to states under stable governments; the lin-
speak of other less celebrated contests, gfring traditions of the ancient animosities
entailed upon that country all the mis- gradually died away, and now Tuscan and
eries of intestine strife for more than Lombard, Sardinian and Neapolitan, as
three centuries. At the close of the last- if to shame the degenerate sons of Amer-
named war which was the shortest of ica, are joining in one cry for a united
all, and waged in the most civilized age Italy.

" an officer," says Archenholz, " rode In France, not to go back to the civil

through seven villages in Hesse, and wars of the League in the sixteenth cen-

found in them but one human being." tury and of the Fronde in the seventeenth :

More than 300 principalities, compre- not to speak of the dreadful scenes

hended in the empire, fermented with the throughout the kingdom which followed

fierce passions of proud and petty states; the revocation of the edict of Nantes; we

at the commencement of this period the have, in the great revolution which com-

castles of robber-counts frowned upon menced at the close of the last century,

every hill-top; a dreadful secret tribunal seen the blood-hounds of civil strife let

whose seat no one knew, whose power loose as rarely before in the history of the

none could escape, froze the hearts of world. The reign of terror established at

men with terror through the land; relig- Paris stretched its bloody Briarean arms

ious hatred mingled its bitter poison in to every city and village in the land; and

the seething caldron of provincial ani- if the most deadly feuds which ever divided

n:osity; but of all these deadly enmities a people had the power to cause permanent

between the states of Germany scarcely alienation and hatred, this surely was the

the memorv remains. There are con- occasion. But far otherwise the fact. In

894

EVERETT, EDWARD

seven years from the fall of Eobespierre, ical features of the country; the mighty

the strong arm of the youthful conqueror rivers that cross the lines of climate, and

brought order out of this chaos of crime thus facilitate the interchange of natural

and woe; Jacobins whose hands were and industrial products, while the won-

scarcely cleansed from the best blood of der-working arm of the engineer has

France met the returning emigrants, levelled the mountain-walls which sepa-

whose estates they had confiscated and rate the East and the West, compelling

whose kindred they had dragged to the your own Alleghanies, my Maryland and

guillotine in the imperial ante-chambers; Pennsylvania friends, to open wide their

and when, after another turn of the wheel- everlasting doors to the chariot-wheels of

of-fortune, Louis XVIII. was restored to traffic and travel these bonds of union

his throne, he took the regicide Fouche, are of perennial force and energy, while

who had voted for his brother s death, to the causes of alienation are factitious

his cabinet and confidence. and transient. The heart of the people,

The people of loyal America will never North and South, is for union. Indica-

ask you, sir, to take to your confidence or tions, too plain to be mistaken, announce

admit again to share in the government the fact, both in the east and the west

the hard-hearted men whose cruel lust of of the States in rebellion. In North

power has brought this desolating war Carolina and Arkansas the fatal charm

upon the land, but there is no personal at length is broken. At Raleigh and Lit-

bitterness felt even against them. They tie Rock the lips of honest and brave men

may live, if they can bear to live after are unsealed, and an independent press is

wantonly causing the death of so many unlimbering its artillery. When its rifled

of their fellow-men; they may live in safe cannon shall begin to roar, the hosts of

obscurity beneath the shelter of the gov- treasonable sophistry, the mad delusions

ernment they have sought to overthrow, of the day, will fly like the rebel army

or they may fly to the protection of the through the passes of yonder moun-

governments of Europe some of them are tain. The weary masses of the people are

already there seeking, happily in vain, to yearning to see the dear old flag again

obtain the aid of foreign power in fur- floating upon their capitols, and they sigh

therance of their own treason. There let for the return of the peace, prosperity,

them stay. The humblest dead soldier and happiness which they enjoyed under

that lies cold and stiff in his grave before a government whose power was felt only

us is an object of envy beneath the clods i" its blessings.

that cover him in comparison with the And now, friends, fellow-citizens of

living man I care not with what trump- Gettysburg and Pennsylvania, and you

ery credentials he may be furnished who from remote States, let me again, as we

is willing to grovel at the foot of a for- part, invoke your benediction on these

eign throne for assistance in compassing honored graves. You feel, though the oc-

the ruin of his country. casion is mournful, that it is good to be

But the hour is coming, and now is, here. You feel that it was greatly au-

when the powers of the leaders of the re- spicious for the cause of the country that

bellion to delude and inflame must cease, the men of the East and the men of the

There is no bitterness on the part of the West, the men of nineteen sister States,

masses. The people of the South are not stood side by side on the perilous ridges

going to wage an eternal war for the of the battle. You now feel it is a new

wretched pretexts by which this rebellion bond of union that they shall lie side

is sought to be justified. The bonds that by side till a clarion, louder than that

unite us as one people, a substantial com- which marshalled them to the combat,

munity of origin, language, belief, and shall awake their slumbers. God bless

law (the four great ties that hold the the Union; it is dearer to us for the blood

societies of men together) ; common na- of the brave men which has been shed in

tional and political interests; a common its defence. The spots on which they

history: a common pride in a glorious stood and fell; these pleasant heights;

ancestry; a common interest in this great the fertile plains beneath them: the thriv-

heritage of blessings; the very geograph- ing village whose streets so lately rang

295

EVEBTSEN EWING

with the strange din of war; the fields
beyond the ridge, where the noble
Reynolds held the advancing foe at bay,
and, while he gave up his own life, as
sured by his forethought and self-sacri
fice the triumph of the two succeeding
days; the little stream which winds
through the hills, on whose banks in after
time the wondering ploughman will turn
up the fearful missiles of modern artil
lery; Seminary Ridge, the Peach Orchard,
Cemetery, Gulp and Wolf Hill, Round
Top, Little Round Top humble names,
henceforward dear and famous, no lapse
of time, no distance of space, shall cause
you to be forgotten. " The whole earth,"
said Pericles, as he stood over the remains
of his fellow-citizens who had fallen in
the first year of the Peloponnesian War,
" the whole earth is the sepulchre of il
lustrious men." All time, he might have
added, is the millennium of their glory.
Surely I would do no injustice to the
other noble achievements of the war,
which have reflected such honor on both
arms of the service, and have entitled
the armies and the navy of the United
States, their officers and men, to the
warmest thanks and the richest rewards
which a grateful people can pay. But
they, I am sure, will join us in saying,
as we bid farewell to the dust of these
martyr heroes, that wheresoever through
out the civilized world the accounts of
this great warfare are read, and down to
the latest period of recorded time, in the
glorious annals of our common country
there will be no brighter page than that
which relates the battles of Gettysburg.

Evertsen, CORNELIS, naval officer; born
in Zealand. In 1073 he was despatched
against the English colonies in America.
He captured or destroyed a large number
of ships from Virginia to Staten Island,
where he arrived on Aug. 7. He demand
ed the surrender of New York City, and
the next day, Aug. 8, he landed 000 men,
to whom the fort was surrendered, the
British garrison being allowed to march
out with the honors of war. He renamed
the city New Orange and reorganized the
government upon the old Dutch lines, and
after proclaiming Captain Colve governor
he sailed for Holland.

Ewell, BF.X.TAMIX STODDERT, educator;
born in Washington, D. C., June 10, 1810;

graduated at the United States Mili
tary Academy in 1832; Professor of
Mathematics at Hampden-Sidney College
in 1840-46 ; professor of the same and act
ing president of William and Mary College
in 1848-54. He opposed secession until
the Civil War opened, when he became a
colonel in the Confederate army. After
the war he used all his influence to
promote reconstruction. He died in James
City, Va., June 21, 1894.

Ewell, RICHARD STODDERT, military
officer; born in Georgetown, D. C., Feb.
8, 1817; graduated at West Point in
1840; served in the Mexican War, and
received the brevet of captain. He joined
the Confederate army in 1861 ; was pro-

RICHARD STODDERT EWELL.

moted to major-general in 1802; and was
conspicuous in the Shenandoah Valley, in
the battles near Richmond, Malvern Hill,
Cedar Mountain, Gettysburg, the Wilder
ness, Spottsylvania Court-house, and dur
ing the siege of Petersburg. In the BATTLE"
OF GROVETOI^ (q. v.} he lost a leg, and
in May, 1863, was made lieutenant-gen
eral. He was engaged in stock-raising in
Spring Hill, Tenn., at the time of his
death, Jan. 25, 1872.

Ewing, HUGH BOYLE, military officer;
born in Lancaster, O., Oct. .31, 1826; son
of Thomas Ewing; studied in the United
States Military Academy: went to Cali
fornia in 1840: returned to Lancaster in
1852; and began the practice of law. In
1861 lie entered the National army aa

206

E WING EXCISE

brigadier-inspector of Ohio volunteers; nia soon after its enactment, and when

promoted brigadier-general Nov. 29, 1862; steps were taken for its enforcement,

brevetted major-general in 1865. His pub- The law was disregarded, indictments

lications include The Grand Ladron: A were found against a number of distillers,

Tale of Early California, etc. and thirty warrants were issued, which

Ewing, JAMES, military officer; born the marshal of the district undertook to

in Lancaster, Pa., Aug. 3, 1736; was serve. He had served twenty-nine of

chosen a brigadier-general of Pennsylvania them, when he and the inspector of the

troops, July 4, 1776. After the war he district were fired upon by some armed

was vice-president of Pennsylvania for men and compelled to fly for their lives,

two years ; then a member of the As- They assailed the inspector s house, and

sembly and State Senator. He died in an appeal to the militia was in vain. A

Hellam, Pa., March 1, 1806. small detachment of soldiers was obtained

Ewing, THOMAS, statesman; born near from the neighboring garrison of Fort
West Liberty, Va., Dec. 28, 1789. While Pitt (Pittsburg). The next morning
still a child his father removed to Ohio, (July 17, 1794) 500 assailants appeared,
where he settled on the Muskingum River. One man was killed, the buildings were
Thomas was educated at the Ohio Uni- burned, and the officers of the law were
versity; admitted to the bar in 1816; and driven out of Pittsburg and compelled to
elected United States Senator from Ohio flee for their lives down the Ohio River,
as a Whig and a follower of Henry Clay in The mob were led by John Holcrof t, who
1831. In 1841 he was appointed Secretary assumed the name of Tom the Tinker,
of the Treasury; in 1849 Secretary of the Leading politician? took part in a pub-
Interior; and in 1850 was again elected lie meeting at Mingo Creek Meeting-house
to the United States Senate, succeeding (July 23), who were disposed to make corn-
Thomas Corwin. During this term he op- mon cause with the rioters. They finally
posed the Fugitive Slave Law bill and also agreed to call a convention of delegates
advocated the abolition of slavery in the from all the townships west of the moun-
District of Columbia. In 1851 he resumed tains, and from the adjoining counties of
law practice in Lancaster, O., where he Maryland and Virginia, to meet in three
died Oct. 26, 1871. weeks at Parkinson s Ferry, on the

Exchange, BILLS OF. See BILLS OF Monongahela. A few days afterwards the

EXCHANGE. mail from Pittsburg to Philadelphia was

Excise, FIRST. The first bill to impose intercepted and robbed. Two leading poli-
a tax on liquors Avas introduced into the ticians Bradford and Marshall con-.
Congress at the beginning of 1791, -on the cerned in this robbery forthwith addressed
recommendation of Alexander Hamilton, a circular letter to the officers of the
then Secretary of the Treasury. As finally militia of the western counties, stating
passed, it imposed upon all imported that letters in the rifled mail revealed im-
spirits a duty varying from 25 to 40 cents portant secrets, which made it necessary
per gallon, according to strength. The for the military to act, and called upon
excise to be collected on domestic spirits the militia to muster, on Aug. 1, at Brad-
varied with their strength from 9 to 25 dock s Field, with arms and accoutre-
cents per gallon on those distilled from ments and provisions for four days. Fully
grain, and from 11 to 30 cents when the 7,000 men appeared at the appointed ren-
material was molasses or other imported dezvous. The leaders in the insurrection
product; thus allowing, especially when were elated. The meeting at Parkinson s
the duty on molasses was taken into ac- Ferry was an armed convention. Colonel
count, a considerable discrimination in Cook, one of the judges of Fayette county,
favor of the exclusively home product, presided, and Albert Gallatin (afterwards
There was much opposition to this law Secretary of the Navy) acted as secretary,
in and out of Congress. The details of Bradford assumed the office of major-
the working of the law for securing a general and reviewed the troops. It was
revenue from this source were very strin- his design to get possession of Fort Pitt
gent, yet very just. The most violent op- and the arms and ammunition therein, but
position appeared in western Pennsylva- finding most of the militia officers uinvill-

297

EXEMPTIONS FROM TAXATION

ing to co-operate, he abandoned the proj
ect. The excise officers were expelled
from the district, and many outrages were
committed. The insurrectionary spirit
spread into the neighboring counties of
Virginia. The reign of terror was ex
tended and complete, when President
Washington, acting with energy, sent
an armed force and quelled the insur
rection.

Exemptions from Taxation. The
property of the United States and of a
State or Territory, county and municipal
ity is exempt from taxation in nearly ev
ery State and Territory. Other properties
that are exempted in local tax laws are
summarized as follows:

Alabama. Household furniture up to
$150, books, maps, charts, etc., except pro
fessional libraries, tools of trade up to
$25, certain farm products, all school and
church property.

Alaska. Same as Oregon.

Arizona. Churches, cemeteries, chari
table institutions, schools, and libraries;
properties of widows and orphans up to
$1,000 for a family, where total assess
ment does not exceed $2,000.

Arkansas. School and church property
in actual use, property used exclusively
for public or charitable purposes.

California. Growing crops, school and
church property.

Colorado. Real estate of schools and
churches in actual use, public libraries.

Connecticut. Household furniture up
to $500, property of honorably discharged

Georgia. Public libraries, church and
school property.

Idaho. Household property up to $200,
tools of trade, growing crops, books, school
property, church property in actual use
and not rented.

Illinois. Church property in actual use,
property of agricultural societies, United
States public buildings, cemeteries, and
certain other public property.

Indiana. Public libraries, school prop
erty (with land not to exceed 320 acres),
church property in actual use.

Iowa. Kitchen furniture and bedding,
public libraries, private libraries up to
$300, tools of trade up to $300, certain
farm products, school property includ
ing residences of teachers and land up
to 640 acres, church property in actual
use.

Kansas. Household furniture up to
$200 for each family, private libraries up
to $50 and all public libraries, sugar man
ufactories, school buildings including land
not to exceed 5 acres, church property
in actual use including land not exceeding
10 acres.

Kentucky. Articles manufactured in
family for family use, public libraries, cer
tain farm products, all church and school
property.

Louisiana. Household furniture up to
$500, public libraries, school and church
property, and until 1899 certain specific
manufacturing property.

Maine. Household furniture up to
$200 for each family, libraries for be-

soldiers and sailors up to $1,000, tools of nevolent or educational institutions, a me-

trade up to $200, school and church prop- chanic s tools necessary for his business,

erty, parsonages up to $500, public li- certain farm products, vessels being con-

braries, private libraries up to $200, cer- structed or repaired, school property,

tain farm products.

Delaware. Household furniture, books,
maps, charts, etc., belonging to churches
or charitable institutions, and all profes
sional books, tools of mechanics or manu
facturers in actual use, stock of manufac
tories on hand and imported merchandise,
products of farms, vessels trading from
ports of the State, all school and church

church property in use and parsonages up
to $6,000 each.

Maryland. Libraries of charitable or
educational institutions, tools of mechan
ics or manufacturers use by hand, all
unsold farm products, school and church
property.

Massachusetts. Household furniture up
to $1,000, all farming tools, mechanics
tools up to $300, public libraries, vessels

property.

Florida. Household property of widows engaged in foreign trade, school property,

with dependent families and cripples un- church property in actual use.
able to perform manual labor up to $400, .V &gt;/,///. Household furniture, public

all public libraries, church and school libraries, private libraries up to $150,

property $200 of personal property besides special

298

EXEMPTIONS FROM TAXATION

exemptions, church property in actual use
and school property.

Minnesota. Each taxpayer entitled to
exemption on $100 personal property se
lected by himself, public libraries, church
and school property.

Mississippi. Household furniture up to
$250, certain farm products, tools of trade,
cemeteries, school and church property, and
until 1900 certain specified manufactories.

Missouri. Cemeteries, church property,
school property including land not to ex
ceed 1 acre in the city and 5 acres in the
country.

Montana. Books of educational institu
tions, school property and church property
in actual use.

Nebraska. Libraries of schools and
charitable institutions, school and church
property in actual use.

Nevada. Household furniture of widows
and orphans, property of educational in
stitutions established by State laws,
church property up to $5,000.

New Hampshire. Certain farm prod
ucts, school and church property.

New Jersey. Household furniture of
firemen, soldiers and sailors up to $500,
libraries of educational institutions, school
and church property.

New Mexico. Public libraries, school
and church property, mines and mining
claims for ten years from date of location,
irrigating ditches, canals and flumes, cem
eteries.

Neio York. Buildings erected for use of
college, incorporated academy or other
seminary of learning; buildings for public
worship, school-houses, real and personal
property of public libraries; a-11 stocks
owned by State, or literary or charitable
institutions; personal estate of incorporate
company not made liable to taxation ; per
sonal property and real estate of clergy
men up to $1,500; also many special ex
emptions.

North Carolina. Each taxpayer en
titled to $25 exemption on personal prop
erty of his own selection, public libraries,
property used exclusively for educational
purposes, church property in actual use.

North Dakota. Books, maps, etc.,
church and school property.

Ohio. Personal property up to $50,
libraries of public institutions, church and
school property, cemeteries.

299

Oregon. Household furniture up to
$300, books, maps, etc., church and school
property.

Pennsylvania. Household furniture,
books, maps, etc., tools of trade, products
of manufactories, all products of farms ex
cept horses and cattle over four years old,
water craft, property of all free schools,
church property in actual use.

Rhode Island. School property and en
dowments, buildings and personal estates
of incorporated charitable institutions,
church buildings in use, and ground not
to exceed 1 acre.

South Carolina. Household furniture
up to $100, all necessary school and church
buildings and grounds not leased.

South Dakota. Household furniture up
to $25; all books, etc., belonging to chari
table, religious, or educational societies,
school property, church buildings in ac
tual use, and parsonages.

Tennessee. Personal property to the
value of $1,000, articles manufactured
from the products of the State in the
hands of the manufacturers, all growing
crops and unsold farm products, school
and church property.

Texas. Household furniture up to
$250, books, maps, etc., school and church
property.

Vermont. Household furniture up to
$500, libraries, tools of mechanics and
farmers, machinery of manufactories, hay
and grain sufficient to winter stock, school
and church property.

Virginia. Public libraries and libra
ries of ministers, all farm products in
hand of producer, church and school prop
erty.

Washington. Each taxable entitled to
$300 exemption from total valuation, free
and school libraries, church property up
to $5,000, public schools, cemeteries, fire
engines.

West Virginia. Public and family
libraries, unsold products of preceding
year of manufactories and farms, colleges,
academies, free schools, church property in
use, parsonages and furniture.

Wisconsin. Kitchen furniture, all li
braries, growing crops, school property
with land not exceeding 40 acres, church
property in actual use.

\V naming. Public libraries, church and
school property.

EXHIBITIONS EXPLOSIVES FOB LABGE GUNS

Exhibitions. See EXPOSITIONS, IN- The naval and military engineers at

DUSTRIAL. Shoeburyness were among the first to con-

Exmouth, EDWARD PELLEW, VISCOUNT, duct experiments, and it was found that
naval officer; born in Dover, England, when sufficient collodion cotton was em-
April 19, 1757; entered the navy at the ployed to make the compound about the
age of thirteen years; first distinguished consistency of soft rubber, it could be fired
himself in the battle on Lake Champlain, with a comparative degree of safety from
in 1776; and rendered great assistance to ordinary guns, providing, of course, that
Bnrgoyne in his invasion of New York, the powder charge used as a propellant
He became a post-captain in 1782. For was not too violent. Large numbers of
the first capture of a vessel of the French rounds were fired under apparently iden-
navy (1792), in the war with France, tical conditions, with the result that per-
Pellew was knighted and employed in haps 99 per cent, passed harmlessly out of
blockading the French coast. For bra- the gun, while about 1 per cent, exploded
very in saving the people of a wrecked in the bore of the gun, completely de-
ship at Plymouth, in 1796, he was made molishing it.

a baronet. Pellew was in Parliament in Another source of clanger, especially

1802, but in 1804 was again in the naval when compressed gun-cotton is employed

service; was promoted to rear-admiral, in rifled cannon, arises from the quick

and made commander-in-chief in the East and violent twist given to the projectile,

Indies, when he annihilated the Dutch which rotates the case or shell, without

naval force there. He was created Baron rotating the bursting charge. This I ob-

Exmouth in 1814; made a full admiral viated by dividing the interior of the shell

of the blue, and allowed a pension of into numerous compartments. Still no one

$10,000 a year. With a fleet of nineteen could be persuaded to use my torpedo-gun,
ships, he brought the Dey of Algiers to The next step was the Zalinski gun.

terms in 1816, and liberated about 1,200 This had been made and tested in the

prisoners. He died in Teignmouth, Jan. United States, when it was found that

23. 1833. large charges of high explosives could be

Expansion. See ACQUISITION OF TER- thrown considerable distances from an air-

RITORY; ANNEXED TERRITORY, STATUS OF. gun. One of these pins was brought to

Expenditures of the United States. England and fired at Shoeburyness. It

See APPROPRIATIONS, CONGRESSIONAL. was said at the time that three shots fired

Explosives for Large Guns. We pre- with the gun firmly locked in a station-
sent some extracts from an article in the ary position landed in the same hole i#
North American Review by Hiram Stevens the mud. The accuracy was admitted to
Maxim, the highest authority on the sub- be remarkable, but the velocities were sc
ject: low. the range so short, and the trajectorj

so high, that it was almost impossible to

The properties of nitro-glycerine were hit the target when the gun was fired from
for many years but imperfectly under- a ship. It was even said that if the gin:
stood. It was said of it that if you wish- were properly aimed from a ship and the
ed it to explode it was impossible to make trigger pulled, the barrel, on account of its
it do so; if you handled it with great care great length, would move sufficiently after
and did not wish it to explode it was al- the trigger was pulled and before the shot
most sure to go off; sometimes it could left the gun, to throw the shot completely
be set on fire, and would burn very off the target. Still, it was believed that
much like a slow fuse, while again the under certain conditions the gun might
least jar would cause the most frightful be useful for fortifications. In any com-
detonation. Evidently such an agent was pressed air-gun of the Zalinski type, it
not suitable for use in fire-arms, and it will be evident that an increase in the
was only after Nobel s discovery that atmospheric pressure is not attended by a
nitro-glycerine could be gelatinized with corresponding increase in the velocity of
collodion cotton (di-nitro-cellulosp) that the projectile, because the higher the press-
engineers began to experiment with a view ure of the air the greater its weight and
of using this high explosive in projectiles, density, so that when the pressures are in-

300

EXPLOSIVES FOB LARGE GUNS

creased, we will say from 2,000 to 3,000
Ibs. per square inch, the actual velocity
cf the projectile is only slightly increased.
It occurred to me at that time that if the
pressure could be increased without in
creasing the weight or density of the air
a great improvement would result. I
therefore constructed a gun in which I
used only 1,000 Ibs. pressure per square
inch. The gun being loaded, in order to
fire the trigger was pulled, which acted
upon a large balance-valve which suddenly
sprang open ; the projectile was then
driven forward. When it had moved
from 2 to 3 calibres, the charge of
gasoline and air was ignited, and while
the projectile was still moving forward,
the fire ran back into the chamber, con
stantly raising the pressure, so that by
the time the projectile had reached the
muzzle of the gun the pressure had
mounted from 1,000 to 6,000 Ibs. per
square inch, and the result was a com
paratively high velocity with a short bar
rel. This gun was fired a great number
of rounds in 1888, and found to be quite
reliable.

The first smokeless powder that I made
in England was made in exactly the same
manner as the French. I had obtained
a quantity of true gun-cotton that is,
tri-nitro-cellulose (known sometimes as
insoluble gun-cotton because it cannot be
dissolved in alcohol and ether like collo
dion cotton, di-nitro-cellulose) . Some of
this powder, when freshly made, produced
fairly good results, quite as good as those
produced by the French powder, but upon
keeping it for a few months the grains
lost their transparency, became quite
opaque and fibrous, and it then burned
with great violence. Investigation showed
that about 1 to 2 per cent, of the solvent
was still in the powder when the first
tests were made, whereas the drying out
of this last trace of solvent had completely
changed the character of the powder. I
then added to this powder about 2 por
cent, of castor oil, with the result that
the castor oil remained after the solvent
had been completely removed, so that the
powder would keep any length of time
indeed, powder made at that time (1889)
is quite good to-day.

But I wished to produce still higher
results. I believed that if the nitro

glycerine and the guu-cotton were in
timately combined an explosive wave
would not pass through the mixture, and
experiments revealed that I was quite cor
rect. All mixtures of from 1 per cent, to
75 per cent, of nitro-glycerine were ex
perimented with, the result being that
from 10 to 15 per cent, was found to be
the best, everything considered.

The greater part of the smokeless pow
ders employed to-day consist of a mix
ture of nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton.
The mixing is brought about by the
agency of acetone, a species of alcohol
which dissolves both gun - cotton and
riitro-glycerine. When a small quantity
of this spirit is present, the mass is of
a semi-plastic consistency, and may be
squirted or spun through a die by press
ure, in the same way that lead pipe is
made. The first powder experimented
with was drawn into threads and called
by the British government " cordite."
This was found to work admirably in
small-bore ammunition, but when it came
to a question of larger guns it was found
advantageous to form the powder into
tubes with one or more holes.

By increasing the number of perfora
tions, it was found that a powder could
be made which, instead of burning slow
er and slower as the projectile moved
forward in the gun, would cause the de
velopment of gas to increase as the pro
jectile moved forward with accelerated
velocity in the bore. This was exactly
what was required, and led to my patent
on progressive smokeless powder.

In the olden time, when guns were not
rifled, and spherical shots were employed
with a powder charge of about one-eighth
of the weight of the projectile, the erosion
caused by the gases passing the projectile
was so small as to be considered a negli
gible quantity in fact, its existence was
practically unknown to the majority of
artillerists at that time, but upon the
introduction of rifled guns with elongated
projectiles and heavy powder charges ero
sion became a serious obstacle, which in
creased as the powder and range of the
gun increased. Large guns made in Eng
land from ten to fifteen years ago, using
black or cocoa powder with projectiles of
3 or 4 calibres, and having a veloc
ity rather less than 2,000 feet per sec-

301

EXPORT EXPOSITION EXPOSITIONS

ond, were destroyed after firing from 300
to 400 rounds. When the velocities were
increased to about 2,200 feet it was found
that the wear was about four times as
great, while some very powerful guns
made in France were completely worn out
after firing sixty rounds. With smoke
less powder, which gives a still higher
velocity to the projectile, the erosion is
still further increased, so that in some
cases I have known guns to be destroyed
after firing only a few rounds.

In order to obviate this trouble we have
provided the projectiles with what might
be termed an obturating band; that is,
just behind the copper driving band we
have placed a semi-plastic gas check. Be
hind it is placed what might be termed a
junk ring, arranged in such a manner
that when the gun is fired the junk ring
moves forward and subjects the gas ring
to a pressure 20 per cent, greater than
the pressure in the gun that is, if the
pressure in the gun amounts to 14 tons
per square inch the pressure on the gas
ring is about 17 tons to the square inch.
This is found to completely stop the pas
sage of gas between the projectile and the
bore of the gun ; so we are now able to fire
large guns many hundreds of rounds with
full charges before any perceptible w r ear
takes place in the barrel. This will en
able our naval authorities to practise
gunnery to almost any extent without the
danger of wearing their guns out, and it
is believed by many that in the near fut
ure no large guns will be fired on ship
board without the employment of the ob
turating gas check.

Export Exposition, NATIONAL, a
unique exposition held in Philadelphia,
Pa., between Sept. 14 and Dec. 2, 1899,
under the auspices of the Philadelphia
Commercial Museum and the Franklin In
stitute. It had the distinction of being
the first national exposition of manufact
ures adapted for export trade that was
ever held. Its aim was to show that the
United States could manufacture any arti
cle which might be needed in any foreign
market. The construction of the build
ings and the preparation of the grounds,
covering 9 acres, cost about $1,000,000.
Nearly 1,000 exhibits, consisting of the
most complete collection of strictly do
mestic manufactures ever brought to

gether and representing more than $500,-
000,000 of invested capital, were shown.
Under a special appropriation by Congress
there was also exhibited a collection of
samples of foreign goods to enable Ameri
can manufacturers to become acquainted
with the style of goods required in for
eign markets. The exposition was hand
somely promoted by the United States
government; representatives of foreign
governments and industrial life were nu
merous in attendance, and the affair was
fruitful in beneficial results. The presi
dent was Peter A. B. Widener, and the
director-general, Dr. William P. Wilson.

Exports. The following table shows
the exports of American merchandise in
decade years:

1790 $19,666,000

1800 31,840,903

1810 42,366,675

1820 51,683,640

1830 58,524,878

1840 111,660,561

1850 134,900,233

1860 356,242,423

1870 455,208,341

1880 823,946,353

1890 845,293,828

1900 1,477,949,666

See COMMERCE.

Exports of the United States. See
COMMERCE.

Expositions, INDUSTRIAL. The first
industrial exposition in the United States
was held in Philadelphia in 1824 under
the auspices of the Franklin Institute.
In 1828 the American Institute in New
York City was chartered, and after this
came the founding of the Massachusetts
Charitable Mechanics Association in Bos
ton, and the Maryland Institute in Bal
timore. These four organizations early
began holding annual expositions, or
fairs," as they were then called, and
have since continued to do so. Numer
ous other mechanics institutes were soon
afterwards organized in various cities, and
these for various periods imitated the ex
position features of the older organiza
tions. The American agricultural " fair "
dates from 1810, when Elkanah Watson
succeeded in gathering, in Pittsfield,
Mass.. an exposition, or " fair," of arti
cles allied to agricultural life. Now near
ly every State and Territory in the coun-
liy has its agricultural society, which

302

EXPOSITIONS EZRA S CHURCH

gives annual expositions of the products For details of the most noteworthy of these
of the farm and dairy, with a variety expositions, see their respective titles,
of other features deemed necessary to pop- Expunging Resolution. President
ularize the undertaking. Some of the most Jackson was censured by the Senate in
noteworthy State agricultural fairs be- June, 1834, but Jan. 1G, 1837, the censure
gan to diminish in interest about the was repealed, and in the Journal of the
time of the first International or World s Senate a black line was drawn around the
Fair held in London in 1851, and to this entry of the original resolution, and the
form of exposition succeeded expositions words " Expunged by order of the Senate,
of special articles possessing features of Jan. 16, 1837," inserted.
State, national, and international combi- Extradition. Treaties on the subject
nations. Among such that have been held of criminals arise from the universal prac-
in the United States, or to which Ameri- tice of nations to surrender criminals only
can artisans have contributed when held under special treaty with the country
in other countries, are the international which claims them. Treaties of this char-
expositions of fishery and fishery meth- acter have been made between the United
ods; life-saving apparatus and methods; Statos and the principal nations of the
forestry products and methods of forest world. The crimes for which extradition
preservation; railroad appliances; elec- is usually granted are forgery, burglary,
trical apparatus; food preparations; and embezzlement, counterfeiting, grand" lar-
wood-working and labor-saving machin- ceny, manslaughter, murder, perjury, rape,
ery. Then, too, in the United States, there and other felonies. In modern states,
have been the special expositions of art particularly in England and the United
associations and leagues in the principal States, political offences have always been
cities, and horse, dog, and sportsmen s excepted from extradition. In the United
shows, the latter a notable feature of the States, persons committing certain crimes
year in New York City. The United in one State and fleeing to another are
States stands alone in maintaining four generally extraditable on application of
permanent expositions: one in the former the governor of the State in which the
Art Palace of the World s Columbian Ex- crime was committed to the governor
position in Chicago, now known as the o f the State wherein the fugitive has
Field Columbian Museum; another in the sought refuge. In the case of States,
former Memorial Hall of the Centennial as we ll as of nations, it is now gener-
Exposition in Philadelphia; and two, a n y be ] d that extradition can be effect-
known as Commercial Museums, in Phil- e d only for the specific crime charged in
adelphia. The following is a list of the the papers accompanying the official de-
principal industrial expositions of the mand.

world, to nearly all of which the United Eyma, Louis XAVIER, author; born in
States has been a large contributor: Lon- Martinique, W. I.. Oct. 16 1816- was sent
don, 1851; Cork, 1852; New York, New b y the French government on several mis-
Hrunswick, Madras, and Dublin, each sions to the United States and the West
1853; Munich, 1854; Paris, 1855; Edin- Indies ; spent a number of years in study-
burgh and Manchester, each 1857; Lon- ing the institutions of America; and pub-
don, 1862; Paris, 1867; Vienna, 1873; i ished a mimber o f books on the subject,
Philadelphia, 1876; Paris, 1878; Atlanta, amon!? them The Women of the New
; l; Louisville, 1883; New Orleans, World The TWQ America . Thr Indians

Atf1 J 1 ??"%* 1 il i^ n I and the ^roes; The America Repub-
Atlanta, 89o; Nashv, le 181), ; Omaha, u ^ InsHtutio ^ ^ Hfi d j pd .

1898: Omaha and Philadelphia, each 1899; Fra71ce March 2 q

l f \f\f\ t ItlllCf, IVlttlLIL ftO

Fabian Policy, a military policy of ing chairman of the United States coin-
avoiding decisive contests and harassing missioners, in 1898; was a delegate from
the enemy by marches, counter-marches, Indiana to the Republican National Con-
ambuscades, and orderly retreats. vention at Philadelphia in 1900, and, as

Fairbank, CALVIX, clergyman; born in chairman of the committee on resolutions
Pike, N. Y., Nov. 3, 1816,; graduated reported the platform; and was re-elected
at Oberlin College in 1844. He was an United States Senator in 1903. In 1904
ardent abolitionist, and during 1837-39 he was chairman of the Committee on Pub-
aided twenty-three slaves to escape by lie Buildings and Grounds, and a member
ferrying them across the Ohio River, of other important committees. The same
Later he freed others, bringing the number year he became the Republican candidate
of those whom he had helped to escape for Vice-President.

up to forty-seven. In 1843 he heard of a Fairbanks, GEORGE R., historian; born
nearly white slave-girl at Lexington who in Watertown, N. Y., July 5. 1820;
was to be sold at auction. He secured her graduated at Union College in 1839; ad-
liberty for $1,485, and took her to Cincin- mitted to the bar in 1842; removed to
nati, where she was educated. In 1844, Florida in 1842; commissioned major in
with Miss D. A. Webster, he opened the the Confederate army in 1862. He is
way for the escape of the Hayden family, the author of History and Antiquities
For this offence he was sentenced to fifteen of St. Augustine; History of Florida ;
years imprisonment, and Miss Webster etc.

to two years. He was pardoned in 1849. Fail-child, CHARLES STERBIXS, lawyer;
Later he was again detected in the viola- born in Cazenovia, N. Y., April 30, 1842;
tion of the Fugitive Slave Law, and sen- graduated at Harvard in 1863; ad-
tenced a second time to fifteen years in mitted to the New York bar in 1865; ap-
prison at Frankfort. In 1864 he was set pointed Secretary of the United States
at liberty. He published How the Way Treasury in 1887; was affiliated with the
was Prepared. He died in Angelica, N. Y., Democratic party, but acted with the
Oct. 12, 1898. Gold Democrats in 1897, taking a promi-

Fairbanks, CHARLES WARREX, lawyer; nent part in the Indianapolis Monetary
born near Unionville Centre, Union county. Conference.

O., May 11. 1852; was graduated at Ohio Fail-child, Lucira, military officer-,
Wesleyan University in 1872; admitted to born in Kent. 0., Dec. 27. 1831; removed
the bar in Columbus, 0., in 1874; and with his father to Wisconsin in 1846.
practised in Indianapolis till 1897, when but returned in 1855. At the beginning
he was elected to the United States Senate, of the Civil War he enlisted, and in Au-
In 1892 he was chairman of the Indiana gust, 1861, was commissioned captain in
State Convention and airain in 1898: was the regular army and major in the volun-
chosen by the Republican caucus in the teers. He took part in the battle of Bull
State Legislature as candidate for United Run, and at Antietam went to the front
States Senate in 1893, but was defeated; from the hospital; he led the charge up
was a deletrate-at-large to the Republican Seminary Hill at the battle of Gettysburg,
convention at St. Louis in 1896: ap- and was badly wounded, losing his left
pointed a member of the United States arm. He was promoted to brigadier-gen-
and British Joint High Commission to eral in 1863, but left the service to serve
settle the differences with Canada, becom- as Secretary of State of Wisconsin. He

304

FAIRFAX

was afterwards elected governor, and
served six consecutive terms. In 1886 he
was elected commander - in - chief of the
Grand Army of the Republic. He died in
Madison, Wis., May 23, 1896.

Fairfax, DOXALD MCNEILL, naval offi
cer; born in Virginia, Aug. 10, 1822; join
ed the navy in 1837; and served with the
Pacific fleet during the war with Mexico.
In 1862-63 he was with Farragut; was
then given command successively of the
Nantucket and the Montauk, with which
he took part in a number of attacks upon
the defences of Charleston Harbor; and in
1864-65 was superintendent of the Naval
Academy. He was promoted rear-admiral
in July, 1880; retired in 1881. He died in
Hagerstown, Md., Jan. 11, 1894.

Fairfax, THOMAS, sixth Baron of Cam
eron; born in England in 1691; edu
cated at Oxford; was a contributor to
Addison s Spectator, and finally, soured
by disappointments, quitted England for
ever, and settled on the vast landed
estate in Virginia which he had inherited
from his mother, daughter of Lord Culpep-
er. He built a lodge in the midst of 10,-
000 acres of land, some of it arable and ex
cellent for grazing, where he resolved to
build a fine mansion and live a sort of

THOMAS FAIRFAX.

hermit lord of a vast domain. He was at
middle age when he came to America. He
never built the great mansion, but lived
a solitary life in the lodge he had built,
which he called Greenway Court. There
Washington first met him and became a
frequent visitor, for Fairfax found him
a bright young man, a good hunter, in

; lss-39w ^spi&gs&n

, ^-_:^^;r^ v/ : ;

" -V-""^"

^:-

~. *"^

k-yj*"vy

III. U

OREEJJWAY COURT.

305

FAIBFAX COURT-HOUSEFAIR OAKS

which sport he himself loved to engage, oners and horses. He lost one man killed,

and useful to him as a surveyor of his four wounded, and one missing. He also

lands. He became very fond of the young lost twelve horses and their equipments,

surveyor, who was a loved companion of About twenty of the Confederates were

Gtorge William Fairfax, a kinsman of killed or wounded.

Lord Fairfax. Many visitors went to Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, BATTI.I:
Greenway Court, and the hospitable owner AI. In May, 1862, Gen. Fit/- John Porter
always treated everybody kindly. There was sent by General McClellan with a
Lord Fairfax lived during the storms of considerable force to keep the way open
the French and Indian War, and of the for McDowell s army to join him, which
i;&lt; volution, taking no part in public af- he persistently demanded, in order to vent-
fnirs, but always a stanch loyalist. When ure on a battle for Richmond. Porter
the news came that his young friend had some sharp skirmishes near Hanover
Washington had captured Cornwallis, he Court-house, and cut all railway connee-
was ninety years of age. He was over- tions with Richmond, excepting that from
come with emotion, and he called to his Fredericksburg. Meanwhile General Mr-
body-servant to carry him to his bed, Clellan telegraphed to the Secretary of
" for I am sure," he said, " it is time for War that Washington was in no danger,
me to die." A ballad gives the sequel is and that it was the duty and policy of
follo\vs- ^ nc g vernmer| t to send him "all the well-
drilled troops available." When these

" Then up rose Joe, all at the word, raids on the Confederate communications

And took his master s arm, had becn effected, Porter rejoined the

AD T d he.o h rd ofGi eenway* farm, mam army on the Chickahominy, and Me-

Then thrice he called on Britain s name, Clellan telegraphed again to the Secre-

And thrice he wept full sore, tary, " I will do all that quick movements

Then sighed, O Lord, thy will be done ! accomplish, but you must send me all

And word spoke never more. J

the troops you can, and leave me full lati-

He died at his lodge, Greenway Court, tude as to choice of commanders." Three

in Frederick county, Va., Dec. 12, 1781. days afterwards General Johnston, per-

The eleventh Lord Fairfax and Baron ceiving McCIellan s apparent timidity, and

of Cameron, John Coutee Fairfax, was the real peril of the National army, then

born in Vaucluse, Va., Sept. 13, 1830; was divided by the Chickahominy, marched

a physician; succeeded his brother in the boldly out of his intrenchments and fell

title in 1869; and died in Northampton, with great vigor upon the National ad-

Md., Sept. 28, 1900. vance, under Gen. Silas Casey, lying upon

Fairfax Court-house, SKIRMISH AT. each side of the road to Williamsburg, half
Rumors prevailing early in May, 1861, a mile beyond a point known as the Severi
that a Confederate force was at Fairfax Pines, and 6 miles from Richmond. Gen-
Court-house, Lieut. C. H. Tompkins, with eral Couch s division was at Seven Pines,
seventy-five cavalry, was sent from Arling- his right resting at Fair Oaks Station,
ton Heights on a scout in that direction. Kearny s division of Heintzelman s corps
He leftlate in the evening of May 31, was near Savage s Station, and Hooker s
and reached the village of Fairfax Court- division of the latter corps was guarding
house at three o clock the next morning, the approaches to the White Oak Swamp,
where Colonel Ewell, late of the United General Longstreet led the Confederate
States army, was stationed with several advance, and fell suddenly upon Casey at
hundred Confederates. Tompkins capt- a little past noon, May 31, when a most
ured the pickets and dashed into the sanguinary battle ensued,
town, driving the Confederates before him. Very soon the Confederates gained a
There they were reinforced, and a severe position on Casey s flanks, when they were
skirmish occurred in the streets. Shots driven back to the woods by a spirited
were fired upon the Union troops from bayonet charge by Pennsylvania, New
windows. Finding himself greatly out- Ycrk, and Maine troops, led by General
numbered by the Confederates, Tompkins ^Jaglee. Out of the woods immediately
retreated, taking with him several pris- the Confederates swarmed in great num-

306

FAIR OAKS FALKLAND ISLANDS

bers, and the battle raged more fiercely
than ever. The Nationals fell back to the
second line, with a loss of six guns and
many men; yet, notwithstanding the over
whelming numbers of the Confederates,
and exposed to sharp enfilading fires,
Casey s men brought off fully three-
fourths of their artillery. Keyes sent
troops to aid Casey, but they could not
withstand the pressure, and the whole
body of Nationals were pushed back to
Fair Oaks Station, on the Richmond and
York Railway. Reinforcements were sent
by Heintzelman and Kearny, but these
were met by fresh Confederates, and the
victory seemed about to be given to the
latter, when General Sumner appeared
with the divisions of Sedgwick and Rich
ardson. Sumner had seen the peril, and,
without waiting for orders from McClel-
lan, had moved rapidly to the scene of
action in time to check the Confederate
advance. The battle continued to rage
fiercely. General Johnston was severely
wounded, and borne from the field; and
early in the evening a bayonet charge by
the Nationals broke the Confederate line
and it fell back in confusion. The fight
ing then ceased for the night, but was re
sumed in the morning, June 1, when Gen-

tionals remained masters of the field of
Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines. The losses
in this battle were about the same on both
sides 7,000 men each. It was nearly
one-half of both combatants, for not more
than 15,000 men on each side were en
gaged. In this battle Gen. 0. O. Howard
lost his right arm. Casey s division, that
withstood the first shock of the battle,
lest one-third of its number.

Falkland Islands, THE. In 1831 the
policy of President Jackson towards for
eign nations was intimated in his instruc
tions to Louis McLane, his first minister
to England, in which he said, " Ask noth
ing but what is right; submit to nothing
that is wrong." In this spirit he dealt
with the lessee of the Falkland Islands,
lying east of Patagonia, South America.
These islands were under the protection
of Buenos Ayres, and had been leased to
Don Louis Vernet, who undertook to com
pel sailing vessels to take out license to
catch seals under his authority. He
captured three American vessels, and
when the news of this and other out
rages reached the United States, the
President, always prompt in the vindi
cation of the rights of his countrymen
against foreign aggressors, sent Captain

eral Hooker and his troops took a con- Duncan, in the ship-of-war Lexington, to
spicuous part in the struggle, which lasted protect American sealers in that region,
several hours. Finally the Confederates, In December, 1831, he broke up Vernet s
loiled, withdrew to Richmond, and the Na- establishment, restored the captured prop-

307

FALLEN TIMBEBS FALLING WATERS

erty to the owners, and sent seven of the
most prominent actors to Buenos Ayres
for trial. The authorities of that repub
lic were indignant at this treatment of
Vernet, as he was under the protection

TURKEY- FOOT S ROCK.

of their flag, but they did not think it
proper to pursue the affair beyond a vigor
ous protest.

Fallen Timbers, BATTLE OF. On the
morning of Aug. 20, 1794, General Wayne,
on his campaign in the Indian wilder
ness, advanced with his whole army from
his camp at Roche de Bout, at the head
of the Maumee Rapids, according to a
plan of march prepared by his young
aide-de-camp, Lieut. William Henry Har
rison. He had proceeded about 5 miles,
v.lien they were smitten with a ter
rible volley of bullets from a concealed
foe, and compelled to fall back. They
were on the borders of a vast prairie, at
a dense wood, in which a tornado had
prostrated many trees, making the move
ments of mounted men very difficult, and
forming an excellent cover for the foe,
who were composed of Canadians and Ind
ians. 2.000 in number, posted on their
lines within supporting distance of each
other. But Wayne s troops fell upon
them with fearful energy, and made them
flee towards the British Fort Miami, be
low, like a herd of frightened deer for

cover. In one hour the victory was com
plete. The fugitives left forty of their
number dead in the pathway of their
flight. By the side of each dead body lay
a musket and bayonet from British armo
ries. Wayne lost in
killed and wounded
133 men; the loss of
his foes was not as
certained. On the
battle-ground, at the
foot of the Maumee
Rapids, is a lime
stone rock, on which
are numerous carv
ings of bird s feet. It
is a stone upon which
Me-sa-sa, or Turkey-
foot, a renowned
chief, leaped when he
saw his line of dusky
warriors giving way,
and by voice and
gesture endeavored to
make them stand
firm. He fell, pierced
by a musket-ball, and
died by the side of
flie rock. Members

of his tribe carved turkeys feet upon the
stone in commemoration of him, and for
many years men, women, and children,
passing there, would linger at the stone,
place dried beef, parched corn, and pease,
or some cheap trinket upon it, and, call
ing upon the name of Me-sa-sa, weep
piteous. y. liiis buttle ended the Indian
War in the v orth\vest.

Falling 1 Waters, SKIRMISH NEAR. Em
barrassing telegraphic despatches were re
ceived by Gen. Robert Patterson, near
Harper s Ferry, late in June. 1801. He
was eager to advance, though Johnston
had a greatly superior force. He made a
reconnoissance on .July 1, and on the 2d,
with the permission of Scott, he put the
whole army across the river at Williains-
port, and pushed on in the direction of
the camp of the Confederates. Near Fall
ing Waters, 5 miles from the ford they
had crossed, the advanced guard, under
Col. John J. Abercrombie, which had ar
rived at 4 A. M., fell in with Johnston s
sidvance. consisting of 3,500 infantry, with
Fendleton s battery of field-artillery, and a
large force of cavalry, under Col. J. E. B.
3

FALMOTJTH FANNING

Stuart, the whole commanded by " Stone- tain Bowie; at the head of ninety men he
wall " Jackson. Abercrombie advanced to defeated a much greater force of Mexicans
attack with musketry. A severe conflict at San Antonio. On March 19, 1836, he
ensued. In less than half an hour, when was attacked by a Mexican force under
Col. George H. Thomas was hastening to General Urrea. He succeeded in driving
support Abercrombie, Jackson fled, and off the Mexicans, but they returned the
was pursued for about five miles, when, next day with a reinforcement of 500 men,
the Confederates being reinforced, the pur- together with artillery. Resistance being
Miit ceased. practically useless, they surrendered upon

Falmouth, TREATIES AT. The Penob- condition that they be treated as prisoners
scot and Xorridgewock Indians sent dele- of war. After being disarmed thev were
gates to a conference in Boston. June 23, sent to Goliad, Tex., where by order of
1749, and there proposed to treat for General Santa Ana all American prison-
peace and friendship with the people of ers, 357 in number, were marched out in
New England. A treaty was soon after- squads under various pretexts, and were
wards made at Falmouth, N. H., between fired upon by the Mexicans. All of the
them and the St. Francis Indians, by prisoners were killed with the exception of
which peace was established. At a confer- twenty-seven, who escaped, and four phy-
ence held at St. George s, in York county, sicians, whose professional services were
Me., Sept. 20, 1753, the treaty at Fal- required by Santa Ana.
mouth was ratified by more than thirty Fanning, DAVID, freebooter; born in
of the Penobscot chiefs; but the next Wake county, N. C., about 1756; was a
year, when hostilities between France and carpenter by trade, and led a vagabond
England began anew, these Eastern Ind- life, sometimes trading with Indians,
ians showed signs of enmity to the Eng- Late in the Revolution he joined the
lish. With 500 men, the governor of Tories, for the purpose of revenue for
Massachusetts, accompanied by Colonel injuries inflicted upon him. He gathered
Mascarene, a commissioner from Nova a small band of desperadoes like himself,
Scotia, Major-General Winslow, com- and laid waste whole settlements and
mander of the forces, held another con- committed fearful atrocities. For these
ference with these Indians at Falmouth. services he received the commission of
There, at the last of June, 1754, former lieutenant from the British commander
treaties were ratified. at Wilmington. So encouraged, he capt-

Famine, COTTON, in England. See COT- ured many leading Whigs, and hanged
TON FAMINE. those against whom he held personal re-

Faneuil, PETER, merchant; born in sentment. At one time he captured a
New Rochelle, N. Y., in 1700; went, with whole court in session, and carried off
his parents, to Boston in 1701; succeeded judges, lawyers, clients, officers, and some
to his father s business; and in 1740 of the citizens. Three weeks later he capt-
off ered to build and present to the city a ured Colonel Alston and thirty men in
public market-house. He died in Boston, his own house, and soon afterwards, dash-
Mass., March 3, 1743. ing into Hillsboro, he captured Governor

Faneuil Hall, the " Cradle of Lib- Burke and his suite, and some of the
erty"; built by Peter Faneuil; completed principal inhabitants. The name of Fan-
in 1742; burned out in 1761; rebuilt in ning became a terror to the country, and
1763; used by the British as a theatre in he was outlawed. At the close of the
1775; and enlarged in 1805. The lower war he fled to New Brunswick, where he
story was used as a market. It was became a member of the legislature.
a meeting-place of the people during the About 1800 he was sentenced to be
disputes with Great Britain which led to hanged for rape, but escaped, and died
the Revolutionary War, hence the name in Digby. Nova Scotia, in 1825.
" Cradle of Liberty." See BOSTON. Fanning, EDMUND, jurist : born on

Fannin, JAMES W., military officer; Long Island. N. Y.. in 1737; gnulu-
born in North Carolina in 1800; took part ated at Yale College in 1757, and settled
in the struggle between Texas and Mexico, as a lawyer in Hillsboro. N. C., where ho
serving as captain; associatec 1 with Ci&gt; L ,- became popular, and was made colonel of

309

FARGO FARMER

Orange county (1763) and clerk of the Fargo, N. D., was named after him. He
Supreme Court (1705). He was also a died in Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 3, 1881. See
member of the legislature, and married PONY EXPRESS.

the daughter of Governor Tryon. He be- Faribault, JOHN BAPTIST, pioneer ; born
came rapacious, and by his exorbitant in Berthier, Quebec, about 1769; entered
legal fees made himself very obnoxious the service of the American Company, of
to the people. Their hatred was increased which John Jacob Astor was president,
by his energetic exertions in suppress- in 1796, and was assigned to the North
ing the Kegulator movement (see REGU- west. After traversing the country he
LATORS). He fled to New York with Gov- located at Des Moines, la., and later on
ernor Tryon to avoid the consequences of removed to Saint Peter, Minn. After ten
popular indignation. He was appointed years service with the American Company
surveyor-general of North Carolina in he went into business on his own accoiuH.
1774. In 1776 he raised and led a force and soon accumulated a fortune, but
called " the King s American Regiment of lost it all in the War of 1812 through the
Foot." After the Revolution he went to fact of his having taken the American side
Nova Scotia, where he became a council- during the contest. The English seized
lor and lieutenant-governor in September, him at Mackinac as a trader and kept him

confined for a short period. He died in
Faribault, Minn, (which city had been
founded by his son Alexander), in 1860.

Farman, ELBERT ELI, jurist; born in
New Haven, Oswego co., N. Y., April 23,
1831; graduated at Amherst College in
1855, and studied in Warsaw, N. Y.,
where he was admitted to the bar in 1858.
He studied in Europe in 1865-67, and on
returning to the United States was made
district attorney of Wyoming county,
N. Y. In March, 1876, he was appointed
United States consul-general at Cairo,
Egypt, and there became a member of the
commission to revise the international
codes. Later President Garfield appoint-
EDMUND PANNING. ed him a judge of the international

court of Egypt. He was also a member

1783, and from 1786 to 1805 was governor of the international committee appointed
of Prince Edward s Island. He rose to the to investigate the claims of citizens of
rank of general in the British army in Alexandria for damages caused by the
1808. Fanning was an able jurist, and bombardment of that city by the British
always regretted his later career in North in 1882. It was principally through his
Carolina. He was greatly influenced by efforts that the obelisk known as " Cleo-
his father-in-law. He died in London, patra s needle," which stands near the
Feb. 28 1818. Metropolitan Art Museum in Central

Fargo, WILLIAM GEORGE, expressman ; Park, New York City, was secured. When
born in Pompey, N. Y., May 20, 1818; be- he left Egypt, Mr. Farman received from
came the Buffalo agent of the Pomeroy the Khedive the decoration of Grand Offi-
Express Company in 1843; established the cer of the Imperial Order of the Med-
first express company west of Buffalo in jidi, an honor rarely bestowed upon a
partnership with Henry Wells and Daniel foreigner.

Dunning in 1844. The line was extended Farmer, JOHN, historian; born in
until it reached San Francisco, Cal. In Chelmsford, Mass., June 12, 1789; became
1868 Mr. Fargo became president of the a school-master, but abandoned this pro-
corporation, which by the time of his death fession to enter trade ; was one of the
had 2,700 offices, over 5,000 employees, and founders and corresponding secretary of
a capital of $18,000,000. The city of the New Hampshire Historical Society.

310

FARMER FARMERS INSTITUTES

Among his works are Belknap s History of
New Hampshire; Genealogical Register of
the First Settlers of New England; His
tories of Billerica and Amherst, etc., and,
in connection with J. B. Moore, the Col
lections of New Hampshire. He died in
Concord, N. H., Aug. 13, 1838.

Farmer, MOSES GERRISH, electrician;
born in Boscawen, N. H., Feb. 9, 1820;
graduated at Dartmouth College in
1844; taught in Elliot, Me., and in Dover,
N. H., for two years. During his leisure
hours while in Dover he invented several
forms of electro-motors, one of which he
used in his experimental workshop to
drive a vertical lathe, and the other was
used on a miniature railway. Both
motors were originally designed to illus
trate his lectures. He demonstrated that
the electrical current could be used for
discharging torpedoes and in submarine
blasting. On his miniature railway he
transported by electricity the first passen
gers ever so carried in the United States.
In 1847 he moved to Framingham, Mass.,
and invented the telegraph fire-alarm. In
1865 he invented a thermo-electric bat
tery and also built the first dynamo
machine. In 1880 he patented an auto
matic electric-light system. Besides these
inventions he brought to light and per
fected many others. He is considered
one of the pioneers in electricity. He
died in Chicago, 111., May 25, 1893.

Farmer, SILAS, historian; born in
Detroit, Mich., June 6, 1839. In 1882 he
was elected historiographer of Detroit, and
in 1884 published a History of Detroit and
Michigan.

Farmers Alliance, a political organ
ization that originated soon after the close
of the Civil War. The main purpose of
this movement was the mutual protection
of farmers against the encroachment of
capital. The first body was organized in
Texas to prevent the wholesale purchase
of public land by private individuals. In
1887 the Farmers Union of Louisiana
united with the Texas organization under
the name of the Farmers Alliance and
Co-operative Union of America. The
movement soon spread into Missouri, Ken
tucky, Tennessee, North and South Caro
lina, Florida, Georgia, and Mississippi.
In 1889 a similar organization, which had
been formed in 1877 in Illinois, and which

had spread into neighboring States, was
amalgamated with the Southern Alliance,
and the name of Farmers Alliance and
Industrial Union was adopted. The found
ers of the alliance held that the party
was formed along political lines because
the parties already existing failed to
undertake to solve the problems covered
by the demands of the alliance. In 1890
the alliance elected several governors,
other State officers, and a few Congress
men. On May 19, 1891, delegates from
the Farmers Alliance, the Knights of
Labor, and several other organizations
met in a national convention in Cincin
nati, adopted a platform, and formed a
new political party under the name of the
People s Party of the United States of
America, which became contracted to
Populist party. Another convention was
held in St. Louis, Feb. 22, 1892, at which
the Farmers Alliance had 246 delegates
out of the 656 present. It was not, how
ever, until 1897 that the alliance dropped
its old name, its interests having been by
that time merged with those of the PEO
PLE S PARTY (q. v.).

Farmers Institutes. The Secretary
of the American Association of Farmers
Institute Managers, Mr. Frederick W.
Taylor, who has been identified with the
prominent horticultural business of the
West for many years, writes as follows:

311

Within recent years the idea has gone
abroad that education may be taken to a
larger constituency than it is possible to
reach by the schools of higher grade
through the ordinary channels. This idea
has received the name of UNIVERSITY EX
TENSION (q. v.) , and in one form or an
other the work has been attempted along
various lines with varying results.

The University Extension idea contem
plates the facilitating the study by the
people of certain higher branches by means
of lectures, which are usually given by
university professors in the same way as
are their class-room lectures. Meetings of
the local centres, as they are sometimes
called, are held as frequently as possible,
perhaps weekly, and a regular amount of
home preparation is expected of those in
attendance. In many cases this work bus
been very successful, making possible the
jicquirement of systematic training by

FARMERS INSTITUTES

those who might otherwise never have which was referred all correspondence on
been able to make any addition to the that subject. The university, soon finding
perhaps slight education which they ac- itself unable to supply all the speakers re
quired in the public schools. quired, would call on the various State

But there has been developed, more or societies to supply speakers on subjects

less directly from University Extension, coming within the scope of their work,

a work among farmers and others en- This is the actual record of the growth

gaged in rural occupations which has out- of institute work in one State, and it is

stripped, in far-reaching effects and in only a type of what is going on in nearly

point of numbers touched, all the other all the States.

forms of extension work. This has taken After the various organizations and so-

to itself the name of " Farmers Insti- cieties in a State for promoting the spread

tutes," and has made itself felt all over of education through this means have

the United States. Nearly every State in united their forces, it has usually been

the Union now has some sort of an ar- only a short time until the expansion has

rangement under which Farmers Insti- been so great as to make it necessary to

tutes are held. ask the legislature for a direct appropria-

A study of the manner of growth in a tion for the Farmers Institutes, and then

single State may serve to indicate pretty the work may be said to be really estab-

clearly what has been the experience in lished. As a rule, the results actually ac-

almost every State in which the institutes complished require only to be brought

have gained a strong foothold. clearly before the lawmakers to secure

Some of the progressive farmers in the needed funds.

certain communities gathered together a One of the first States to reach such

number of their neighbors, about a dozen a financial basis as made the doing of

yea rs ago, with the thought that an in- good work possible was Wisconsin, and

terchange of ideas might be beneficial, that State may be taken as a type of one

and that if some of those who had been form of institute management. There the

successful in certain lines, as in stock- money appropriated by the State is put

growing, for instance, could be persuaded into the hands of the State university,

to describe their methods, their brethren and is expended under the direction of

might adopt such as seemed fitted to their that institution.

special needs, thus making possible more A superintendent is employed, who con-
satisfactory results in that particular ducts all the correspondence, appoints
branch of agriculture. After a few such dates, employs speakers, and in general
gatherings, speakers of training and repu- exercises supervision. Localities desirinp
tation were sought for, who could com- meetings must make their arrangements
mand the confidence of their hearers and with him, agreeing to supply a hall foi
attract to the meetings the most intelli- the gathering and to attend to advertis-
gent and successful farmers. It seemed ing. A conductor is assigned to each meet
natural to turn to the State university ing, who takes entire charge, seeing thai
for trained men to fill this place on the the programme is presented as advertised
programme. and that interest in the proceedings is

Soon, however, the calls became so fre- kept up. Three or four speakers are
qucnt that a loss of time and money usually sent to each institute, local talent
resulted from the fact that the points being called upon to complete the pro-
asking assistance were located in widely gramme. Full discussion is not only per-
separated and distant parts of the State, mitted, but encouraged, the questions and
Then arose the necessity of intrusting the their answers often consuming half the
arrangements for sending out speakers time or even more.

to one person, who should make the ap- Practical demonstrations are given of
pointments in series, so that a speaker go- improved methods wherever possible. For
ing to a distant part of the State might instance, a machine for showing the but-
reach several points in Ihe course of one ter content of milk is used in the pros-
1rip. There was developed a bureau for ence of the audience, and its value ex-
conducting the work of the institutes, to plained and demonstrated by means of

312

FABMERS INSTITUTES

samples of milk brought in, upon request,
by farmers of the vicinity. The necessity
of knowing exactly what is the value of
each individual in the dairy herd is thus
clearly shown. Charts are exhibited and
used as the basis of talks showing the cor
rect types of the different breeds of ani
mals. Under this system a number of
institutes are kept going in various parts
of the State during the greater part of
the winter season.

In Minnesota a different method pre
vails. The institutes are, practically,
schools, the superintendent and his corps
of assistants going in one body, and re
maining at each institute during the entire
session. Under this arrangement a smaller
number of institutes can be held with a
given amount of assistance, but the work
is undoubtedly more thorough.

The work in all the States may be said
to be based on one or the other of these
two plans, or on some modification of them.

If the sessions described, usually of
two or three days duration, represented
all of the institute work, there might be
good ground for the criticism that the
service is insufficient, in that in so short
a time little of lasting benefit could be
accomplished. But the result of a start
in institute work at any point is almost
invariably the organization of a local
body for holding more or less frequent
meetings for regular discussions. Thus
there is a constant exchange of ideas go
ing on between the most progressive per
sons engaged in agricultural and horti
cultural pursuits.

A single illustration may indicate the
good that may come from such meetings
as this movement brings about.

In a certain county in one of the West
ern States there had been long search after
some forage plant which should prove
thoroughly adapted to the needs of the
locality. The country was new, and the
grasses which were common in other parts
of the State did not seem to succeed there,
while the fencing in of the wild pasturage
caused the indigenous grasses to disappear
nipidly. Some of the most progressive
farmers organized an institute, and
knowing of a man who had been success
ful in the growth of a certain species
which was not generally supposed to be
to the conditions prevailing

there, asked him to tell how he had suc
ceeded in getting it to grow and flourish.
The man w r as German, writing and speak
ing English indifferently, but he finally
consented to do his best to explain his
methods, some of which were unusual, the
result of his own experience and pains
taking investigation. Much interest was
manifested in the subject, and a perfect
volley of questions asked and answered,
relating to every detail as to the prepa
ration of the soil, sowing the seed, care
of the crop for the first and subsequent
years, and other similar practical mat
ters. A year later, at the next annual
meeting of the institute, careful inquiry
brought out the fact that at least 1,000
acres of this particular forage plant had
been sown, with almost uniform success,
as a result of the information gained
from this single discussion.

When the desirability of enlarging the
work has become apparent, no force has
been so ready to co-operate in doing so
as the railroads, which have, in most
States, supplied transportation for speak
ers.

There is no occupation in which sharp
competition and improved methods have
made it so necessary to keep abreast or
even ahead of the times as farming.
When it is discovered that certain sec
tions are specially adapted to dairying,
grazing, the growth of certain grain or
fruit crops, or any other specialty, the
sooner accurate and improved practical
methods are introduced the sooner will
v/ealth flow towards that community. The
present condition of the dairy interest in
the State of Wisconsin may be pointed
out as well illustrating this proposition.
No State in the Union to-day has a
higher standing as to the product of its
dairies. As regards the volume of the in
dustry, it is only necessary to state that
a single county has nearly 200 creameries
in successful operation, the important
fact, as regards the subject, being that
no small amount of the credit for the
condition mentioned is frankly admitted
by those most able to judge to be due
to the educational work of the Farmers
Institutes.

In disseminating accurate information
regarding the growth of the sugar beet, us
in many other directions, there is work

313

FARMERS INSTITUTES FARMING BY ELECTRICITY

enough to keep a corps of speakers active- on the various economic subjects relating
ly engaged in every State in the Union to the farm, are given on the estates, in
which is at all adapted to that or any order that the working people themselves
other of the industries that are to take may be reached and taught,
place among the practical and wealth- His Excellency N. A. Hamakoff, Direct-
making efforts of agriculture. And be- or of the Department of Agriculture in
sides the new industries to be introduced, Russia, expressed himself as particularly
there are always the improved methods interested in that line of work, and the
with which the successful farmer must interest in the dissemination of such
constantly familiarize himself. knowledge in other European countries is

The largest amount given by any one well known by those who have made any
State for Farmers Institutes is appro- study of the question. Count Leo Tol-
priated by Wisconsin, the sum being stoi, in the course of a conversation on the
$15,000. Other States give liberally, no- economic questions of the day as related
tably Minnesota, New York, and Ohio, to rural life, showed the deepest interest
while various sums are given by Pennsyl- in this particular method of spreading
vania, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, knowledge among the masses, and said
Nebraska, New Jersey, and a few others, that he thought it an eminently practical
More or less organized wortc has also been way of giving such training as is sorely
done in Missouri, Arizona, California, required to those needing it.
South Dakota, Kansas, Colorado, Florida, The great interest that is everywhere
and, indeed, could the facts all be got to- manifested in the improvement of methods
gether, in almost every State in the Union, in agricultural work, not only in the
The provinces of Ontario and Manitoba United States, but in Europe, should sure-
have done some of the best work on the ly indicate what is necessary to be done
continent, both in volume and in quality, if we are to retain our position at the

In a number of States the funds are not head of agricultural countries. To assist
appropriated in a lump sum, but each in maintaining that place is the mission
county may, by vote, levy a tax for the of the Farmers Institute movement,
purpose of raising a sufficient sum to Farmer s Letters, THE, a series of let-
carry on one or more institutes, a portion ters, the first of which appeared in the
of the amount going towards the payment Pennsylvania Chronicle, Dec. 2, 1767, fol-
of the local expenses, and the rest going lowed by thirteen others in quick succes-
to the central organization, sometimes sion, all of which were written by John
under the control of the State Board of Dickinson, who had formulated a bill of
Agriculture, for the payment of the speak- rights in the Stamp Act Congress. This
ers and other necessary expenses con- series of letters resulted in the circular
nected with the general work of the State, letter of the general court of Massachu-

So far as known the Farmers Institutes setts, sent out Feb. 11, 1768, in which co-
have been kept, in every State, entirely operation was asked in resistance to the
out of politics. One of the fundamental English ministerial measures,
principles always insisted upon is that no Farming by Electricity. George Eth-
question of religion or politics must be elbert Walsh, who has given special atten-
permitted to be discussed on any consid- tion to the practical application of recent
eration. scientific discoveries, writes as follows:

In Europe something is done along the

same lines by means of lectures delivered In the light of the recent discoveries al-

by men sent out by the governments. most anything seems possible, if not prob-

In Russia, through some of the imperial able, in the application of this fluid,

societies, considerable progress has been Electric ploughs have been patented in

made in the way of bringing this sort of Vienna, and electric hay-rakes, reapers,

instruction directly to the people. In St. carts, and threshing machines have been

Petersburg is maintained a great agri- placed upon exhibition in the United

cultural museum, in which lectures are States, and their utility tested favorably,

given during the winter season; and at Experimental farms have been established

other times regular courses of lectures, where nearly all the work has been per

314

FARMING BY ELECTRICITY

formed by means of this powerful agent than those not thus supplied with the arti-

fields ploughed, harrowed, fertilized, and ficial stimulant. Lettuce, spinach, radishes,

rolled, seeds planted and covered with soil, and similar vegetables were brought to

plants fertilized and weeds killed, and maturity in almost half the time ordinarily

crops harvested and threshed. The power required. By applying the arc light direct

has been generated by erecting a large tur- to the plants their growth was so acceler-

bine-wheel on some stream where the cur- ated that many ran to seed before edible

rent could be depended upon to turn it. leaves were formed. Plants placed within

The cost of manufacturing the electricity 5 feet of the lamp died and wilted shortly

has been reduced to a comparatively small after being taken out of the soil,

sum in this way, and the prospects of con- The effect upon flowering plants was

ducting large farms in the future on an almost as startling. The plants were

electric basis seem alluring and attractive, made to shoot up rapidly, and under forced

But the most noticeable application of stimulation the stalks grew up tall, slen-

electricity to farming methods is that of der, and weak. The blooms were hastened

employing the current to stimulate the in their growth, and in the case of the

growth of the plants. While nothing very petunias they produced more flowers than

practical has yet been accomplished in by the old system. Verbenas, on the

this field, the reports of the experiment other hand, were uniformly injured when

farms and stations warrant one in be- placed near the electric lamp. Both the

lieving that something definite may yet leaves and the flowers were hastened in

come out of all the labor and trouble ex- their growth, but they were small and in-

pended. The electric garden may be a significant, while many of the lower

future novelty that will have for its chief clusters died before they had reached their

recommendation a real practical utility, full expansion. The effect of the electric

Many years ago several European scien- light upon colors was even more inter-
tists made experiments with electricity esting than upon the growth of the plants,
upon plant life. Lemstrom in Finland, The colors of the tulips were deepened
Spechneff in southern Russia, and Celi in and made more brilliant, while most of
France, worked independently along the the scarlet, dark red, blue, and pink flow-
same line, applying the electric current to ers were turned to a grayish white. Near-
the seeds and the soil in which the plants ly all of the flowers artificially stimulated
were growing, and to the air immediately into beauty by the electric light soon lost
above the surface of the soil. Spechneff, by their brilliancy and faded much more quick-
applying the electric current to the seeds ly than those raised by nature s methods,
and afterwards to the soil, raised radishes An important part of the experiments
17 inches long and 5y 2 inches in diameter, that have been made along this line is
The colors of flowers were also intensified that the crops that were not injured by
or changed according to the power and the electric lights were nearly twice as
distance of the current, and the maturity large as those not exposed to the influ-
of the plants was greatly hastened. ence of the current. Lemstrom, in try-

The first attempts to experiment along ing to measure the influence of the current
the lines of Lemstrom in the United States upon growing wheat and vegetables, pro-
were made at Cornell University about cured 50 per cent, more grains from a
1890. Agricultural scientists had long small tract of ground that was planted
recognized the valuable part that atmos- with a small network of wires than from a
pberic electricity played in the life of similar plot of soil not thus stimulated,
vegetable growths, but the artificial ap- Experiments have been continued with
plication of it had never before been at- more or less regularity at Cornell since
tempted. In addition to the application these first discoveries, and it ; probable
of electricity to the seeds of the plants, that we will yet be able to attain the
and to the soil, the experimenters at Cor- results long anticipated by agricultural
nell used the arc light at night. The scientists. Some plants have been found
plants receiving the bright electric rays to have such a fondness for the electric
at night, and the sunshine in the day light that they not only grow faster under
time, were found to grow much faster its influence, but incline their heads tow-

315

FABMING BY ELECTBICITY

aids the lamp. Others are injured rath
er than benefited, and they lose all of
their valuable qualities after being ex
posed to the arc light for a few nights.
The question of softening the light of the
lamps to suit the different plants has been
in the course of investigation, and now
globes of " opal " glass are used to reduce
the power of the rays. An amber-colored
i:l&lt;&gt;be is usually employed at Cornell,
for the orange rays are supposed to be
the most favorable to the growth of vege
tation. The various effect of the differ
ent colored rays of light upon the vegeta
tion is strange and interesting to those
experimenting with the electric light.

It is doubted by many whether the arc
light can be made as efficacious as the
electric current supplied through wires
to the soil. Lemstrom obtained his most
wonderful results by this latter method,
and the plants wore injured less by it
than many that have been subjected to
the electric lights.

In 1892 it was reported that a market
gardener named Rawson, living in the
town of Arlington, Mass., had used the
electric lights to profitable advantage. His
attention was called to the effect of elec
tric light upon plants in 188 ). when the
town of Arlington began to light the streets
with electricity. One of the powerful
lights was located near his garden so that
its rays fell directly upon a bed of flowers.
These plants, situated within the circuit
of the light, immediately began to grow
rapidly and vigorously, outstripping all
others in the garden. Satisfying himself
that the cause of this was the electric
light, the gardener had set up in his large
hothouse a lamp of the same kind. After
one or two seasons trial he found that
he could raise more winter lettuce and
radishes in a given space in much shorter
time by using the arc lights, the incan
descent burners not proving so suitable,
while the quality was much superior. His
profits were estimated to have been in
creased 25 to 40 per cent, by introducing
the arc lights into his greenhouse.

This was but another confirmation of
the tests made before that in Europe, and
biter on at Cornell. Now it seems that
the French scientists have been working
regularly and systematically on the ques
tion also, and they have recently ob

tained some results that are promising.
The French electric garden is more suc
cessful than any established in the United
States. An instrument is used to bring
into play the electricity in the air, cheap
ening the process of supplying the current
to the plants. At the present cost of
generating electricity, it is doubtful if its
use could be made more profitable upon
many farms, even though it should great
ly stimulate the growth and quality of
fruits and vegetables. The French instru
ment is supposed to reduce the cost of
generation so that every farmer could
avail himself of it.

The system consists of laying a net
work of wires in the garden where the
plants are growing, and connecting them
with a copper wire that runs to the top
of a pole some 40 or 50 feet high. This
pole is surmounted by a collector, insu
lated by a porcelain knob. The height of
the pole enables the collector to gather
the electricity in the atmosphere from a
wide area, and when transmitted to the
garden through the wires it produces bet
ter results than the electricity generated
from a dynamo. The atmospheric electric
ity is not by any means as strong as that
from a dynamo, but its action is to stimu
late the plants without injuring them.

Gardens that ha\ T e been stimulated by
the atmospheric electricity, gathered and
distributed by the geomagnetifere, have
increased their growth and products 50
per cent. Vineyards have been experi
mented upon, and the grapes produced
have not only been larger in size and quan
tity, but richer in sugar and alcohol. Th"
flowers have attained a richer perfume,
and more brilliant colors. The effect on
the whole has been very satisfactory, and
it is hopefully expected by the French
scientists that the new method of apply
ing atmospheric electricity to plants will
greatly facilitate our plants in their fut
ure growth. Nearly all of the garden
vegetables grew with astonishing rapidity
when stimulated by the electric current,
applied first to the seeds, and subsequent
ly to the soil in which they germinated.

It is difficult to explain the reason why
the electric light or current so marvellous
ly affects the growth of plants, but the
fact that such stimulation does occur can
not be denied. One theorv is that the

316

FABMING BY ELECTRICITY FABQUHAB

electricity helps the plants to take up some of the large farms are eagerly

and assimilate certain valuable salts in watching the development of electric loco-

the earth, and another that it aids them motion, and, as soon as experiments jus-

in appropriating more nitrogen of the air. tify their actions, the steam plough, reap-

Atmospheric electricity supplied natural- er, thresher, and rakes will be supplanted

ly plays an important part in the economy by those run by electricity,

of plant growth, and it has been simply Farms. See AGRICULTURE.

through a desire to test its further effect Farnham, ELIZA WOODSON, philan-

that scientists have been induced to make thropist; born in Rensselaerville, N. Y.,

the experiments. Now, however, it is pos- Nov. 17, 1815; wife of Thomas Jefferson

sible that a practical utility may be Farnham; was matron of the New York

derived from the tests conducted in the State Prison (female department), at Sing

United States and other countries. Sing, in 1844-48, where she proved that

It would be difficult to conceive the the inmates could be controlled by kind-
ultimate effect upon our industrial and ness. Afterwards she was engaged in
economic life if electric gardens could be various philanthropic movements. Her
successfully established by farmers, and publications include California, Indoors
the yield increased 50 per cent. The and Out; Woman and Her Era, etc. She
product of our farms and gardens would died in New York City, Dec. 15, 1864.
thus be doubled, and the world s supply Farnham, THOMAS JEFFERSON, au-
of food-stuff be increased beyond the thor; born in Vermont in 1804; forsook
point of consumption, or the acreage the legal profession in 1839 and went
would rapidly decrease. The profits to across the continent to Oregon and later
the farmers would not by any means be to California, where he was influential in
doubled. The cost of installing an elec- obtaining the release of some American
trie garden would form an item of ex- and English prisoners who had been held
pense that they do not calculate with by the Mexican government. He is the
to-day. The cost of a dynamo or battery author of Travels in Oregon; Travels in
would be beyond their reach, but if the California; A Memoir of the Northwest
electricity of the atmosphere could be col- Boundary Line, etc. He died in California,
lected and distributed in the garden, there in September, 1848.

would be some hope of their securing the Farnurn, JOHN EGBERT, military officer;

current necessary for all purposes. born in New Jersey, April 1, 1824; served

The use of electricity on the future in the war with Mexico; later was coin-
model farm will be far greater than it is mander of the slaver Wanderer, which
to-day, and it is not impossible that the fact he ever after regretted. During the
horse will be crowded out of his legiti- Civil War he served in the National army,
mate work in this field, as he has been participating in the actions at Fredericks-
on the city car-lines. An experimental burg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, etc.;
farm to show the use of this power in and receiving the brevet of brigadier-gen-
cultivating the fields has been established eral of volunteers in recognition of his
in the West. The electricity is generated gallantry. He died in New York City,
by a turbine-wheel, which is turned by May 16, 1870.

the current of a small stream dammed up Farquhar, NORMAN VON HELDREICH,
for the purpose, and the cost of the power naval officer; born in Pottsville, Pa., April
is reduced to a minimum. Sufficient 11, 1840; graduated at the United States
power is generated by the wheel to light Naval Academy in 1859; served through-
the whole place, and to run the threshing out the Civil War, and was present
machines, plough the fields, harvest the at both attacks on Fort Fisher; was pro-
crops, and run motor bicycles or wagons moted rear-admiral, Dec. 25, 1898; ap-
anywhere within the limits of the farm, pointed commander of the North Atlantic
A large Western farm, consisting of thou- Station, Oct. 14, 1899. In 1889 he was in
sands of acres, with a good stream of command of the frigate Trenton; flag-ship
water flowing through it, could probably of the Pacific Station, which had been sud-
be conducted on a cheaper scale to-day denly ordered to SAMOA (&lt;/. v.) . On
than by steam. In fact, the owners of March 16, a terrible hurricane swept

317

FABKAQUT

over the harbor of Apia, where war-ships
of the United States, Great Britain, and
Germany were at anchor. Several Amer
ican and German ships were wrecked at
the beginning of the hurricane. The Brit
ish corvette Calliope succeeded in steam
ing out of danger. As the Calliope pass
ed the Trenton a great shout went up from
over 400 men aboard the American flag
ship, and three cheers were given for the
Calliope. Immediately three cheers for
the Trenton and the American flag were
wafted across the angry waters from the
Calliope. A few moments later the
Trenton herself was wrecked, but Captain
Farquhar succeeded in saving all his crew
of 450 men and officers excepting one.

Farragut, DAVID GLASGOW, naval offi
cer; born near Knoxville, Tenn., July 5,
1801 ; son of George Farragut, who was
a native of Minorca; came to America in
1776; entered the Continental army; was
a bugler, it is supposed, at the age of
seventeen, in the battle of the Cowpens ;
attained the rank of Major; settled in
Tennessee; and was master in the United
States navy, serving under Patterson in
the defence of New Orleans. David en

tered the navy as midshipman when be
tween nine and ten years of age, first
serving under Porter, and was with him
in the terrible fight at Valparaiso. He
was promoted to commander in 1841,
having served faithfully up to that time.
Still persevering in duty, he was placed in
very responsible positions afloat and
ashore, and when the Civil War broke
out he was in command of the Brooklyn,
steam sloop-of-war. He commanded the
naval expedition against New Orleans in
the spring of 1862, having the Hartford
as his flag-ship. Organizing the West
Gulf blockading squadron, on his arrival
in the Gulf of Mexico, by boldness and
skill, with admirable assistants, he went
up to New Orleans triumphantly. He
operated with great vigor on the Missis
sippi River, afterwards, between New
Orleans and Vicksburg; and on July 16,
1862, was placed first on the list of pro
posed admirals. In 1863 he co-operated
in the capture of Port Hudson, and in
August, 1864, defeated the Confederate
forces in Mobile Bay. His exploits in the
Gulf region gave him great fame, and in
December, 1864, he received the thanks

..-Vi*

mi rt

TIIK HARTFUIID, KAKRAOITT 8 FLAG SHIP

318

ADMIRAL DAVID G. FARRAGUT

FARRAR FEATHEB.STONHAT7GH

of Congress, and the rank of vice-admiral tion sent out by Massachusetts in 1765

was created expressly for him. In July, for co-operation. He died March 3, 1768.

1866, he was promoted to admiral. He Fay, JONAS, patriot; born in Hardwick,

visited Europe in 1867-68, and was Mass., Jan. 17, 1737; received a good Eng-

received with the highest honors. He died lish education, and was with a Massachu-

in Portsmouth, N. H., Aug. 14, 1870. See setts regiment at Fort Edward in 1756.

MOBILE, NEW ORLEANS. He settled at Bennington in 1766, and be-

Farrar, TIMOTHY, jurist; born in New came prominent in the disputes between

Ipswich, N. H., March 17, 1788; was as- New York and the New Hampshire grants,

sociated in law practice with Daniel Web- He was the agent of the " grants " sent to

ster in 1813-16; vice-president of the New York in 1772 to inform Governor

New England Historico-Genealogical So- Tryon of the grounds of their complaint,

ciety in 1853-58. His publications in- Mr. Fay was clerk to the convention

elude Report of the Dartmouth College (1774) that resolved to defend Ethan

Case; Review of the Dred Scott Decision; Allen and other leaders who were out-

and Manual of the Constitution of the lawed by the New York Assembly, by force

United States. He died in 1874. if necessary. Being a physician, he was

Fasts, DAYS OF, observed by many made surgeon of the expedition against
nations from remote antiquity: by the Ticonderoga in May, 1775, and was after-
Jews (2 Chron. xx. 3) ; by the Ninevites wards in Colonel Warner s regiment. He
(Jonah iii.). Days of humiliation, fast- was also a member of the convention in
ing, and prayer appointed by the presi- 1777 that declared the independence of
dents of the United States: Wednesday, Vermont, and was the author of the
May 9, 1798, by President John Adams; declaration then adopted, and of the
Thursday, Jan. 12, 1815, by President communication announcing the fact to
Madison; last Thursday of September, Congress. Dr. Fay was secretary of the
1861, by President Lincoln; Thursday, convention that formed the new State con-
April 30, 1863, by President Lincoln; stitution in 1777, and one of the council
first Thursday in August, 1864, by Presi- of safety that first administered the gov-
dent Lincoln; Thursday, June 1, 1865, eminent In 1782 he was judge of the
by President Johnson; Monday, Sept. 26, Supreme Court of the State; agent of the
1881, by President Arthur. State to Congress at different times; and,

Father of Waters. See MISSISSIPPI in conjunction with Ethan Allen, he pub-

RIVER. lished an account of the New York and

Fauntleroy, THOMAS TURNER; born in New Hampshire controversy. He died in

Richmond county, Va., Oct. 6, 1796; Bennington, Vt., March 6, 1818.

served in the War of 1812, and in the Fearing, BENJAMIN DANA, military

Seminole War; and in 1845 was given a officer; born in Harmar, O., Oct. 10, 1837;

command on the frontier of Texas to enlisted in the 2d Ohio Regiment at the

restrain the Indians. He joined the Con- outbreak of the Civil War; took part in

federate army in May, 1861; was com- the battles of Bull Run, Shiloh, Hoover s

missioned brigadier-general by the Vir- Gap, and at Chickamauga, where he was

ginia convention and given command of severely wounded. During Sherman s

Richmond, but the Confederate govern- march to the sea he commanded a brigade

ment refused to ratify his appointment, and was again wounded at Bentonville.

He died in Leesburg, Va., Sept. 12, 1883. General Sherman spoke of him as "the

Fauquier, FRANCIS, colonial governor; bravest man that fought on Shiloh s field."

born in Virginia about 1720. When Din- He died in Harmar, O., Dec. 9, 1881.

widdie was recalled in 1758 Fauquier sue- Featherstonhaugh, GEORGE WILLIAM,

ceeded as lieutenant-governor; and when traveller; born in 1780; made geological

the Assembly in 1764 adopted Patrick surveys in the West for the United States

Henry s resolution declaring that the sole War Department in 1834-35. Owing to

right of taxation was in the colonial his knowledge of North America he was

legislature, he dissolved the Assembly and appointed a commissioner by Great

also refused to summon the House of Britain to determine the northwestern

Burgesses to take action upon the invita- boundary between the United States and

319

FEBIGER FEDERAL CONVENTION

Canada, under the Ashburton-Webster
treaty. His publications include Geologi
cal Report of the Elevated Country be
tween the Missouri and Red Rivers;
Observations on the Ashburton Treaty;
Excursion through the Slave States, etc.
He died in Havre, France, Sept. 28, 1866.

Febiger, CHRISTIAN, military officer;
born on Fiinen Island, Denmark, in 1747;
rendered military service before entering
the American army in April, 1775; was in
the battle of Bunker Hill, where he led a
portion of a regiment of which he was
adjutant; accompanied Arnold to Quebec
a few months afterwards, where he was
made a prisoner; and served with great
fidelity throughout the war He was con
spicuous in the assault on Stony Point
(July, 1779), leading one of the attack
ing columns; also at Yorktown, where he
commanded the 2d Virginia Regiment,
with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. From
1789 till his death, in Philadelphia, Sept.
20, 1796, Colonel Febiger was treasurer
of the State of Pennsylvania.

Febiger, JOHN CARSON, naval officer;
born in Pittsburg, Pa., Feb. 14, 1821; was
a grandson of Col. Christian Febiger, of
the Revolutionary army; was appointed
midshipman in the navy in 1838 ; was pro
moted to rear-admiral, Feb. 4, 1882; and
was retired July 1 of the same year.
During the Civil War he served on the
Western Gulf blockading and North At
lantic squadrons; and after the war served
on the Asiatic squadron and as command
ant of the Washington navy-yard. He
died in Londonderry, Md., Oct. 9, 1898.

Federal City, THE. See WASHINGTON
CITY.

Federal Constitution. See CONSTITU
TION AND GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED

STATES.

Federal Control of Elections. See
ELECTIONS, FEDERAL CONTROL OF.

Federal Convention, THE. The rep
resentatives of twelve States assembled
in convention at Philadelphia in the sum
mer of 1787 to prepare a constitution of
government for the United States of a
national character. George Washington,
a delegate from Virginia, was chosen
president, and William Jackson, secre
tary. The convention was composed of
some of the most illustrious citizens of the
new republic. There was the aged Frank

lin, past eighty-one years of age, who had
sat in a similar convention at ALBANY
(q. v.) in 1754. John Dickinson, of Penn
sylvania; W. S. Johnson, of Connecticut;
and John Rutledge, of South Carolina,
had been members of the STAMP ACT CON
GRESS (q. v.) at New York in 1765.
Washington, Dickinson, and Rutledge had
been members of the Continental Congress
of 1774. From that body also were Roger
Sherman, of Connecticut; William Living
ston, governor of New Jersey ; George Read,
of Delaware, and George Wythe, of Vir
ginia. From among the signers of the Dec
laration of Independence, besides Frank
lin, Read, Wythe, and Sherman, had come
Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, and
Robert Morris, George Clymer, and James
Wilson, of Pennsylvania. Eighteen mem
bers had, at the same time, been dele
gates to the Continental Congress; and
among the whole number there were only
twelve who had not at some time sat in
that body. The officers of the Revolu
tion were represented by Washington,
Mifflin, Hamilton, and C. C. Pinckney.
Of the members who had taken conspicu
ous posts since the Declaration of Inde
pendence, the most prominent were Ham
ilton, Madison, and Edmund Randolph,
then the successor of Patrick Henry as
governor of Virginia. The members who
took the leading part in the debates were
Gerry, Gorham, and King, of Massachu
setts; Johnson, Sherman, and Ellsworth,
of Connecticut; Hamilton and Lansing,
of New York; Paterson, of New Jersey;
Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, and Franklin,
of Pennsylvania; Dickinson, of Delaware;
Martin, of Maryland ; Williamson, of
North Carolina; and Charles Cotesworth
Pinckney and Charles Pinckney, of South
Carolina. Rhode Island refused to elect
delegates to the convention.

The following is a full list of the mem
bers of the national convention: From
New Hampshire John Langdon, John
Pickering, Nicholas Gilman, and Ben
jamin West; Massachusetts Francis
Dana, Elbridge Gerry, Nathaniel Gorham,
Rufus King, and Caleb Strong; Connecti
cut William Samuel Johnson, Roger
Sherman, and Oliver Ellsworth ; New
York Robert Yates, John Lansing, Jr.,
and Alexander Hamilton; New Jersey
David Brearley, William Churchill Hou.%-

320

FEDERAL CONVENTION, THE

III X

8IQNATCRB3 TO TUB CONSTITUTION.

321

FEDERAL CONVENTION, THE

BIONATCRKS TO THE CONSTITUTICR.

322

TEDEBAL CONVENTION, THE

SIONATCRES TO THE CONSTITUTION.

ton, William Paterson, John Neilson, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, and

William Livingston, Abraham Clark, and Benjamin Franklin; Delaware George

Jonathan Dayton; Pennsylvania Thomas Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickin-

Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, son, Richard Bassett, and Jacob Broom;

Jared Ingersoll, Thomas

Fitzsimons, Maryland James McHenry, Daniel of St.
323

FEDERAL ELECTION BILL FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll, John
Francis Mercer, and Luther Martin; Vir
ginia George Washington, Patrick
Henry, Edmund Randolph, John Blair,
James Madison, Jr., George Mason, and
George Wythe. Patrick Henry having de
clined the appointment, George McClure
was nominated to supply his place; North
Carolina Richard Caswell, Alexander
Martin, William Richardson Davie, Rich
ard Dobbs Spaight, and Willie Jones.
Richard Caswell having resigned, William
Blount was appointed a deputy in his
place. Willie Jones having also declined
his appointment, his place was supplied
by Hugh Williamson; South Carolina
John Rutledge, Charles Pinckney, Charles
Cotesworth Pinckney, and Pierce Butler;
Georgia William Few, Abraham Bald
win, William Pierce, George Walton, Will
iam Houston, and Nathaniel Pendleton.
Fac-similes of the signatures of the sign
ers of the Constitution, copied from the
original in the archives of the national
government, are given on preceding pages.
William Jackson was secretary.

A committee was appointed to report
rules of proceeding by the convention.
They copied them chiefly from those of
Congress, and their report was adopted.

Each State was to have one vote; seven
States were to constitute a quorum; all
committees were to be appointed by bal
lot; the doors were to be closed, and an
injunction of secrecy was placed on the de
bates. The members were not even al
lowed to take copies of the entries on the
journal. The injunction of secrecy as to
the proceedings of the convention was
never removed. At the final adjournment
the journal, in accordance with a previous
vote, was intrusted to the custody of
Washington, by whom it was afterwards
deposited in the Department of State. It
was first printed, by order of Congress, in
1818. Robert Yates, one of the members
from New York, took brief notes of the
earlier debates. These were published in
1821, after Mr. Yates s death. Mr. Madi
son took more perfect notes of the whole
convention, which were published in 1840;
and a representation to the legislature of
Maryland, by Luther Martin, furnished
nearly all the material for the history of
the NATIONAL CONSTITUTION (q. v.).

Federal Election Bill. See ELECTION
BILL, FEDERAL.

Federal Government. See CONSTITU
TION AND GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED
STATES.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Federal Government in 1902. The
following is a complete list of the higher
United States federal government officials
in the executive, judiciary, and legislative
departments.

EXECUTIVE.

President Theodore Roosevelt, of New York,

salary $50,000.
V ice-President Vacant, salary $8,000.

THE CABINET.

Arranged in the order of succession for the

Presidency declared by Chapter 4, Acts

of Forty -ninth Congress, first session.
Secretary of State John Hay. of Ohio.
Secretary of Treasury Leslie M. Shaw, of

Iowa.

Secretary of War Ellhu Root, of New York.
Attorney-General Philander C. Knox, of

Pennsylvania.
Postmaster-General Henry C. Payne, of

Wisconsin.
Secretary of Navy William H. Moody, of

Massachusetts.

Secretary of Interior Ethan A. Hitchcock, of

Missouri.
Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson of

Iowa.

The salaries of the cabinet officers are
$8,000 each.

THE DEPARTMENTS.

STATE DEl AUTMENT.

Assistant Secretary -David J. Hill,

New York $4,500

Ncroiu/ Ax.iixtnnt Secretary A. A.

Adee, District of Columbia 4,000

Third Assistant X&lt; -crt -ttn-i/ II. II.

Peirce, Massachusetts 4,000

Chief riei-k\\ m. II. Michael, Ne
braska L ..&lt;I ( I

Chief of Diiilonnitie Hi&lt;rc&lt;ni Sydney

Y. Smith, District of Columbia. . . . 2,100

Chief of Consular Hurt-mi It. S. Chll-

ton. Jr., District of Columbia 2,100

Chief (if Indexes and Arc-hires

Pendleton King, North Carolina. . . . 2,100

Chief of Ilureau of Accounts Thos.

Morrison, New York 2,100

324

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Chief of Bureau of Rolls and Library Assistant Treasurer James F. Mellne,

A. H. Allen, North Carolina $2,100 Ohio $3,600

Chief of Bureau of Foreign Commerce Register of Treasury Judson W.

Frederic Emory, Maryland 2,100 Lyons, Georgia 4,000

Chief of Bureau of Appointments Deputy Register Cyrus F. Adams

R. B. Mosher, Kentucky 2,100 Illinois 2,250

Comptroller of Currency Wm. B.

TEFASI-RY DEPARTMENT. Ridgely, Illinois 5 000

Assistant Secretary-Oliver L. Spaul- Commissioner of Internal Revenue-

dine Michigan 4500 n U Yerkes - Kentucky 6,000

AKMan\ S^-Horace A! Tay - De ^ ^mmission^r of Internal

lor, Wisconsin.. 4,500 ^T" *1""DB, ^ Louis-

Assistant Secretary Milton E. Ailes, 4 Ut

Ohio 4 - Oft Deputy Commissioner of Internal

Chief Ck^fc-Waliace e /Hiils/New aSSHH^rS ^ TlT M ^lgan. 3,600

Yor k 3 ooo So " cttot f Internal Revenue Geo.

Chief of Appointment Division &lt; Chas. ,J? v ThOm f S ^ " 4 500

Lyman, Connecticut 2,750 **", f ^easury- &l. D. O Con-

Chief of Bookkeeping Division Vf. F. r*j*t ? I V o V L" ^

MacLennan, New York 3,500 Ch f .f^* 8ermce ~ John E -

Chief of Public Moneys Division- * llkl * "Unois ... 3 ,500

E. P&gt;. Daskam, Connecticut... 2,500 Su P^\^&lt;lent of Immigration f. V.

Chief of Customs Division- Andrew Powderly, Pennsylva.na. . 4,0 K)

Johnson, Virginia 2,750

Chief of Loans and Currency Division WAR DEPARTMENT

A. T. Huntington, Massachusetts. 2,500

Chief of Stationery and Printing Assistant Secretary W. Cary ganger,

Division G. Simmons, District of New York 4,500

Columbia 2,500 Chief Clerk John C. Scofleld, Georgia 3, oOO

Chief of Mails and Files Division Adjutant-General Maj. - Gen. II. C.

S. M. Gaines, Kentucky 2,500 Corbin 7,500

Chief of Miscellaneous Division Chief Clerk R. P. Thian, New York. . 2, oOO

Lewis Jordan, Indiana 2,500 Commissary-General Brig.-Gen. J. F.

Supervising Inspector-General Steam Weston 5,500

Vessels J. A. Dumont, New York.. 3,500 Chief Clerk W. A. DeCaindry, Mary-

Director of Mint Geo. E. Roberts, land 2.000

Iowa 4,500 Surgeon-General Brig.-Gen. G. M.

Government Actuary Joseph S. Me- Sternberg 5,500

Coy, New Jersey 1,800 Chief Clerk George A. Jones, New

Chief of Bureau of Statistics Oscar York 2,000

P. Austin, District of Columbia. ... 3,000 Judgc-Advocate-General Brig.-Gen.

Superintendent of Life-Saving Service Geo. B. Davis 5,500

S. I. Kimhall, Maine 4,000 Chief Clerk L. W. Call, Kansas! .... 2*000

Xaval Secretary of Light-house Board Inspector-General Brig.-Gen. J. C.

W. Maynard 5,000 Breckinridge 5,500

Supervising Surgeon-General Walter Chief Clerk Otis B. Goodall, New

Wyman, Missouri 4,000 Hampshire 1,400

Chief of Bureau of Engraving and Quartermaster-General Brig -Gen

Printing W. M. Meredith, Illinois. 4,500 M. I. Ludington 5,500

Siit.cn-ising Architect James K. Tay- Chief Ctcrk Henry D. Saxton, Massa-

lor, Pennsylvania 4,500 chusetts 2,000

Superintendent of Coast Survey Otto Paymaster-General Brig.-Gen. Alfred

H. Tittman, Missouri 5,000 E. Bates 5500

Commissioner of Navigation -E. T. Chief Clerk Thomas M. Exley, Massa-

Chamberlain, New York 3,600 chusetts 2000

Comptroller of Treasury Robt. J. Chief of Engineers Brig.-Gen. G L

Tracewell, Indiana 5,500 Gillespie 5500

Auditor for Treasury Wm. E. An- Chief Clerk Phlneas J. Dempsey

drews, Nebraska 4,000 Virginia o ooo

Auditor for War Department F. E. Officer in Charge of Public Buildings

Rittnmnn, Ohio 4,000 T. A. Bingham 451x1

Auditor for Interior Department Chief Clerk E. F. Concklin, New

R. S. Person, South Dakota 4,000 York 2 400

Auditor for Navy Department W. W. Landscape Gardener George H

Brown, Pennsylvania 4,000 Brown, District of Columbia 2000

Auditor for State Department Ernest Chief of Ordnance Brig.-Gen. A R

G. Timrne, Wisconsin 4,000 Buffington 5 500

Auditor for Post-Office Department Chief Clerk John J. Cook, District

Henry A. Castle, Minnesota 4,000 of Columbia "400

Tretuvrer of United States Ellis II. Chief Signal Officer Brig.-Gen. A. W.

Roberts, New York fi.OOO Greely 5,500

325

FEDEBAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

CMcf cicrlfc-George A. Warren, New DEPARTMENT.

York if " ul First Assistant Secretary Thomas

Chief of Records and Pension Office Ryan, Kansas $4,500

Brig.-Gen. F. C. Ainsworth o.oUU Assistant Secretary Frank L. Camp
bell, District of Columbia 4,0t

NAVY DEPARTMENT. Chief Clerk Edward M. Dawson,

Maryland o,0(

A. v sis font Secretary Charles H. Dar- Assistant Attorney - (leneral Willis

ling, Vermont 4 &gt; l van Devanter, Wyoming 5.000

Chief Clerk Benj. F. Peters, I enn- Commissioner of Land Office Binger

sylvania , , ^"t Hermann, Oregon 5,000

Chief of Yards and DocksCivil hngl- Assistant Commissioner William A.

neer M. T. Endicott o. 01 Richards, Wyoming 3.5OO

Chief of Ordnance Capt. Charles ^ Commissioner of Pensions II. Clay

O Neil &l Evans, Tennessee 5,000

Chief of Supplies and Accounts --lay- Firs t Deputy Commissioner of Pen-

master-Gen. Albert S. Kenny M siong Jas L . Davenport, New

Chief of Medicine Sur.-Gen. W. K. Hampshire 3 600

Van Ueypen D 01 - Second Deputy Commissioner of Pen-
Chief of Equipment Capt. R. B. Brad- __ ,s/ons Leverett M. Kelly, Illinois. . 3,600

ford l Commissioner of Education Wm. T.

Chief of Construction - Harris, Massachusetts 3,oOl

structor F. T. Bowles W commissioner of Indian A/fairs Wm.

Chief of Navigation Capt. A. b. ^ ^ A JoneS) Wisconsin 4,OC

Crowninshield f ^ Assistant Commissioner A. Clarke

Engineer-in-Chief George W. Melville. 5,50C Ton ner, Ohio 3,000

Judgc-Advocate-Gcncral Capt. S. C. Commissioner of Patents Frederick I.

Lemly ** Allen, New York 5,000

Inspector of Pay Corps F. C. I *by. 4,41 Assistant Commissioner Edward B.

President of naval Examining Board Moore, Michigan 3,000

Rear-Admiral John C. Watson... b,37o commissioner of Railways James

President of naral Retiring Board Longstreet, Georgia 4,500

Rear-Admiral .1. A. Howell b,d&lt;5 Dircctor O f Geological Survey Cb**.

Chief of Intelligence Office Capt. D. Wolcott, New York 6,000

C, D. Sigsbee 3 &gt; 0( - chief Clerk of Geological Surrey -

Superintendent of \aral Observatory H c. Rizer, Kansas 2,250

Capt. Chas. II. Davis 3,ot Dircctor o f census William R. Mer-

Dircctor of nautical Almanac Prof. riam&gt; Minnesota 7 50C

W. S. Harshman.. Assistant Dircctor of Census- -Fred-

Hydronrai her Lieut-("om. W. H. H. erlck H. Wines, Illinois 4,0(

Southerland 2 60C

Marine Corps Brig.-Gen. Chas. Hey- ^ DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE.

wood 5&gt;5C Solicitor-General-^^ K. Richards,

Ohio ( OC

POST-OFFICE DEPARTME Assistant Attorney-General -James M

Beck,

&gt;,

.000

4,000 * ,. -

Og-J^r ..... .-Jam..^,,,,,,,

son. . "

,000 n 4

326

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Attorney for Pardons Jas. S. Easby-
Smith, Alabama

Disbursing Clerk Henry Rechtin,
Ohio

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Assistant Secretary Joseph H. Brig-
ham, Ohio

Private Secretary to the Secretary
Jasper Wilson, Iowa

Chief Clerk Andrew Geddes, Iowa. .

Appointment Clerk Joseph B. Ben
nett, Wisconsin

Chief of Weather Bureau Willis L.
Moore, Illinois

Chief of Bureau of Animal Industry
D. E. Salmon, North Carolina

Director of Experiment Stations A.
C. True, Connecticut

Chief of Division of Publications
Geo. Wm. Hill, Minnesota

Chief of Division of Accounts F. L.
Evans, Pennsylvania

Chief of Bureau of Soils -Milton
Whitney. Maryland

Statistician John Hyde, Nebraska. . .

Chief of Bureau of Forestry Gifford
I inchot, New York

Entomologist L. O. Howard, New
York

Chemist H. W. Wiley, Indiana

Chief of Division of Biological Suvvey
C. II. Merriam, New York

Special Agent of Road Inquiry M.
Dodge, Ohio

Librarian Josephine A. Clark, Massa
chusetts

Chief of Supply Division Cyrus B.
Lower, Pennsylvania

Bureau of Plant Industry

Chief B. T. Galloway, Missouri. . .
Pathologist and Physiologist Al
bert F. Woods, Nebraska

ZJofi.s Frederick V. Coville, New

York

Pomologist Gustavus B. Brackett,

Iowa

Agrostologist F. Lamson Scvibner,
Tennessee

Civil Service Commissioner John R.
Procter, Kentucky

Civil Service Commissioner W. D.
Foulke, Indiana

Civil Service Commissioner W. A.
Rodenberg, Illinois

Chief Examiner of Civil Service A. R.
Serven

Secretary of Civil Service John T.
Doyle, New York

Commissioner of Labor C. D. Wright,
Massachusetts

Chief Clerk of Labor G. W. W.
Hanger

Government Printer Frank W. Pal
mer, Illinois

Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries
G. M. Bowers

Librarian of Congress Herbert Put
nam, Massachusetts

Assistant Librarian A. R. Spofford,
Ohio . .

$2,400
2,300

4,500

2,250
2,500

2,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,500
2,500

3,000
3,000

3,000

2,500
3,000

2,500
2,500
1,800
2,000
3,000
2,500
2,500
2,500
2,500

3,500
3,500
3,500
3,000
2,000
5,000
2,500

Director of Bureau of American Re
publics Wm. W. Rockhill, District
of Columbia $5,000

Chief Clerk of Bureau of American lie-
publics Williams C. Fox, District
of Columbia

Secretary of Smithsonian Institute
S. P. Langley, District of Colum
bia

Director of Bureau of American Eth
nology J. W. Powell

Secretary of Industrial Commission -

E. Dana Durand

Reciprocity Commissioner John A.

Kasson

Director of National Bureau of Stand
ards S. W. Stratton, Illinois

INTER-STATE COMMERCE COMMISSION.

Chairman Martin A. Knapp, New

York 7,500

Judson C. Clements, Georgia 7,500

James D. Yeomans, Iowa 7,500

Charles A. Prouty, Vermont 7,500

Joseph W. Fifer, Illinois 7,500

Secretary Edward A. Moseley, Massa
chusetts 3,500

Assistant Secretary Martin S.

Decker, New York 3,000

UNITED STATES PENSION AGENTS.

Augusta, Me Selden Connor.

Boston, Mass Augustus J. Hoitt.

Buffalo, N. Y Charles A. Orr.

Chicago, 111 Jonathan Merriam.

Columbus, Ohio Joseph W. Jones.

Concord, N. H Hugh Henry.

Des Moines, Iowa. .. Emery F. Sperry.

Detroit. Mich Oscar A. Janes.

Indianapolis, Ind. ... Jacob D. Leighty.

Knoxville, Tenn John T. Wilder.

Louisville, Ky Leslie Combs.

Milwaukee, Wis Edwin D. Coe.

New York City. N. Y.Michael Kerwin.
Philadelphia, Pa. ... St. Clair A. Mulholland.

Pittsburg, Pa John W. Nesbit.

San Francisco, Cal.. Jesse B. Fuller.

Topeka, Kan Cyrus Leland, Jr.

Washington, D. C.. Sidney L. Willson.

UNITED STATES ASSISTANT TREASURERS.

Sub-Treasuries. Assistant Treasurers.

Baltimore James M. Sloan.

Boston George A. Marden.

Chicago W. P. Williams.

Cincinnati Charles A. Bosworth.

New Orleans Charles J. Bell.

Now York Conrad N. Jordan.

Philadelphia John F. Finney.

St. Louis Barnard G. Farrar.

San Francisco Julius Jacobs.

COLLECTORS OF CUSTOMS.

4,500 Hotilton, Me., Thomas II. Phair.

Banger., Me.. Albert R. Day.
5,000 Bath. Me.. George Moulton, Jr.

Belfast, Me., James S. Harriman.
6,000 Casline, Me.. George M. Warren.

Ellsworth. Me., Henry Whiting.
4,000 Alachias, Me., Frank L. Shaw.

327

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Kennebunk, Me., George E. Cousens.
Eastport, Me., George E. Curran.
Portland, Me., Charles M. Moees.
Saco, Me., William L. Gerrish.
Waldoboro, Me., Frederick W. Wight.
Wiscassot, Me., Daniel H. Moody.
York, Me., Edward H. Banks.
Portsmouth, N. H., Rufus N. Elwell.
Hristol, R. I., Charles D. Eddy.
Newport, R. I., vacant.
Providence, R. I., Ellery H. Wilson.
Burlington, Vt., Olin Merrill.
Newport, Vt., Zophar M. Mansur.
Bridgeport, Conn., Frank J. Naramore.
Hartford, Conn., Ezra B. Bailey.
New Haven, Conn., John W. Mix.
New London, Conn., Thomas O. Thompson.
Stonington, Conn., Charles T. Stanton.
Barnstable, Mass., Thacher T. Ilallet.
Boston, Mass., George H. Lyman.
Edgartown, Mass., Charles H. Marchant.
Fall River, Mass., James Brady.
Gloucester, Mass., William H. Jordan.
Marble-head, Mass., Stuart F. McClearn.
Nantucket, Mass., Obed G. Smith.
New Bedford, Mass., George F. Bartlett.
Newburyport, Mass., Hiram P. Mackintosh.
Plymouth, Mass., Herbert Morlssey.
Salem, Mass., John Daland.
Buffalo, N. Y., Henry W. Brendel.
Cape Vincent, N. Y., William J. Grant.
Plattsburg, N. Y., Walter C. Wltherbee.
Dunkirk, N. Y., John Bourne.
Rochester, N. Y., Henry Harrison.
New York, N. Y., George R. Bidwell.
Niagara Falls, N. Y., James Low.
Ogdensburg, N. Y., Charles A. Kellogg.
Oswego, N. Y., James H. Cooper.
Sag Harbor, N. Y., Peter Dlppel.
Jersey City, N. J., S. D. Dickinson, Asst. Col.
Brldgeton, N. J., George W. McCowan.
Trenton, N. J., Roland Billingham.
Somers Point, N. J.. Walter Fifleld.
Newark, N. J., George L. Smith.
Perth Amboy, N. J., Robert Carson.
Tuckerton, N. J., Samuel P. Bartlett.
Camden, N. J., F. F. Patterson, Asst. Col.
Philadelphia, Pa., C. Wesley Thomas.
Erie, Pa., Benjamin B. Brown.
Wilmington, Del., Robert G. Houston.
Washington, D. C., William B. Todd.
Annapolis, Md., John K. Gladden.
Baltimore, Md., William F. Stone.
Crisfield, Md., James C. Tawes.
Alexandria, Va., Marshall L. King.
Cape Charles City, Va., C. G. Smithers.
Norfolk. Va., Richard G. Banks.
Petersburg, Va., William Mahone.
Tappahannock, Va., Thomas C. Walker.
Newport News, Va., Jesse W. Elliott.
Richmond, Va., Joseph H. Stewart.
Beaufort, N. C., Christopher D. Jones.
Newbern, N. C., Mayer Hahn.
Edenton, N. C., George W. Cobb.
Wilmington, N. C., John C. Dancy.
Beaufort, S. C., Robert Smalls.
Charleston, S. C., Robert M. Wallace.
Georgetown, S. C., Isaiah J. McCattrle.
Brunswick, Ga., Henry T. Dunn.
Savannah. Ga., John IT. Deveaux.
St. Mary s. Oa.. Budd Coffee.
Mobile, Ala., William F. Tibbetts.

Shieldsboro, Miss., Henry C. Turley.
Natchez, Miss., Louis J. Winston.
Vicksburg, Miss., Joseph H. Short.
Apalachicola, Fla., William B. Sheppard.
Cedar Keys, Fla., Samuel P. Anthony.
Fernandina, Fla., John W. Howell.
Jacksonville, Fla., William H. Lucas.
Key West, Fla., George W. Allen.
St. Augustine, Fla., Thomas B. George.
Tampa, Fla., Matthew B. Macfarlane.
Pensacola, Fla., John E. Stillman.
New Orleans, La., Augustus T. Wimberly.
Brasher, La., John A. Thornton.
Brownsville, Tex., Charles H. Maris.
Corpus Christi, Tex., James J. Haynes.
Eagle Pass, Tex., Claremont C. Drake.
El Paso, Tex., vacant.
Galveston, Tex., Frank L. Lee.
Cleveland, O., Charles F. Leach.
Sandusky, O., Edmund H. Zurhorst.
Toledo, O., Joseph C. Bonner.
Detroit, Mich., John T. Rich.
Grand Haven, Mich., George A. Farr.
Marque-tte, Mich., John Quincy Adams.
Port Huron, Mich., Lincoln Avery.
Chicago, 111., William Penn Nixon.
St. Paul, Minn., John Peterson.
Duluth, Minn., Levi M. Willcuts.
Milwaukee, Wis., Charles B. Roberts.
Great Falls, Mont., Charles M. Webster.
San Francisco, Cal.. Frederick S. Stratton.
San Diego, Cal., William W. Bowers.
Los Angeles, Cal., John C. Cline.
Eureka, Cal., Sterling A. Campbell.
Astoria, Ore., John Fox.
Coos Bay, Ore., John Morgan.
Portland, Ore., Isaac L. Patterson.
Yaqulna, Ore., Charles B. Crosno.
Port Townsend, Wash., F. D. Huestis.
Sitka, Alaska, Joseph W. Ivey.
Nogales, Ariz., Frank L. Doan.
Pembina, N. D., Nelson E. Nelson.
Honolulu, H. L, E. R. Stackable.
San Juan, P. R., George W. Whitehead.

THE JUDICIARY.

SUPREME COURT OP THE UNITED STATUS.

Chief- Justice of the United States Melville W. Fuller,
of Illino ; s, born 1833, appointed 1888.

Bm. App.

Associate Justice John M. Harlan. Ky 1833 1877

" " Horace Gray. Mass 1828

" " David J. Brewer, Kan... 1837

" " Henry B. Brown. Mich. .1830 1800

" " George Shiras. Jr. . Pa.. .1832 180-&gt;

" " Edward D. White, La 1845 3894

" " RufusW. Peckham. N. Y.1S37 1*05

" Joseph McKenna, Cal.... 1843 1H98

Reporter J. C. Bancroft Davis. N T . Y. Clerk J. H
McKonney, D. C. Marshal John M. Wright, Ky.

Ttif salary of the Chief-Justice of the United Stales is
$10.500; Associate Justices, $10,000 each ; of the Re
porter. $4.500 ; Marshal, $3,500 ; Clerk of the Supreme
Court, $6,000.

CIRCUIT COURTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
Cir. Judew. App.

1. I,e Baron B Colt. R. I 1884

William I,. 1 utnam. Me 1802

2. William J. Wallace, N. Y 1882

E. Honry T.acombe. N T . Y 1887

Nathaniel Shtpman, Conn 1892

3. Marcus W. Acheson, Pa 1891

George M. Dallas. Pa 1892

George Gray, Del

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

CIRCUIT COURTS OF THE UNITED STATES-Con-

tinued.
Cir. Judges. A pp.

4. Nathan Goff, W. Va. 1892

Charles H. Simonton, 8. C 1893

5. Don A. Pardee, La 1881

A. P. McCormick, Tex 1892

David I). Shelby, Ala 1899

6. Henry F. Severens, Mich 1900

Horace H. Lurton. Tenn 1893

Will lam R. Day, Ohio 1899

7. James G. Jenkins, Wis 1893

Peter S. Grosscup, III 1899

Francis E. Baker. Ind 1901

8. Henry C. Caldwell, Ark 1890

Waller H. Sauborn, Minn 1892

Amos \[. Thayer, Mo 1894

9. William W. Morrow, Cal 1897

William B. Gilbert, Ore 1892

Erskine M. Ross, Cal 1895

Salaries. $(3.000 each. The judges of each circuit and
the justice of the Supreme Court for the circuit consti
tute a Circuit Court of Appeals. The First Circuit con
sists of Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode
Island Second Connecticut, New York, Vermont.
Third Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania. Fourth
Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia,
West Virginia. Fifth Alabama, Florida, Georgia. Lou
isiana, Mississippi. Texas. Sixth Kentucky, Michigan,
Ohio. Tennessee. Seventh III nois, Indiana, Wisconsin.
Eighth Arkansas. Colorado, Indian and Oklahoma Ter
ritories, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota. Missouri, Nebraska,
New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota. Utah, Wyo
ming. Ninth Alaska, Arizona. California, Idaho, Mon
tana, Nevada, Oregon, Washington.

UNITED STATES COURT OP CLAIMS.

Chief-Justice, Charles C. Nott, N. Y. Associate Judges
Lawrence Weldou, III.; Stanton J. Peelle, Ind.; John
Davis, D. C. ; Charles B. Howry, Miss. Salaries, $1,500
each. Chief Clerk Archibald Hopkins, Mass., $3,000.

UNITED STATES COURT OF PRIVATE LAND CLAIM8.

Chi?/ -Justice Joseph R. Reed, Iowa. Justices Wil
bur F. Stone, Col. ; Henry C. Sluss, Kan. ; Frank I. Os-
borne, N. C. ; William W. Murray, Tenn. United States
Attorney Matthew G. Reynolds, Mo.

COURT OF APPH.VLS OF TUB DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

Chief -Justice Richard H. Alvey, Md.. $6.500. Jiu-
tices Martin F. Morris, D. C., $f&gt;,000; Seth Shepard,
Tex., $6,000. Clerk Robert Willett, D. C., $3,000.

DISTRICT COURTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

Districts. Judges.

Ala : N. &. M. . .Thomas G. Jones.

" S. D H. T. Toulmin

Alaska M. C. Brown

A. H. No

J Wickersham

Arizona .... Webster Street. ..

Ark : E. D lacob Trieber

" W. D lohn H. Rogers..

Cal.: N. D John J. De Haven

" S. D olin Wellborn

Colorado Moses Hallett. . . .

Connecticut ....W. K. Townsend.
Delaware Ed. G. Bradford. .

Addresses. S

nes . . Mon t gomery . .
n ...Mobile
Juneau

vilnries.
$.5.000
5,000
3,000

St. Michael. . . .
n .. .Eagle City
it. ...Phoenix
1 Little Rock
rs... Fort Smith
iven.San Francisco,
i Los Angeles. . .
Denver

3,000
3 000
3.000
5,000
5,000
5,000
5,000
5,000

3i)d..New Haven. ..
rd.. .Wilmington. . .

5,000
5,000

District*. Judges.

Fla. : N. D Charles Swayne. .

" S. D James W. Locke.

Ga.: N. D Wra. T. Newman.

" S. D Emory Speer

Hawaii M. S. Estee

Idaho James H. Beatty.

111.: N. D C. C. Kohlsaat.". .

" S. D J. (). Humphrey.

Ind T.:N. D Jos. A. (iill

" C. D....W. H.H. Clayton.

" S. D Hosea Towusend.

" N.C.S.D.John K Thomas. .

Indiana John H. Baker. ..

Iowa: N. D Oliver P. Suiras..

" S. D S. McPherson

Kansas Win. C. Hook

Ky. : W. D Walter Evans

" E. D A. M. J. Coohran.

La. : E. D Charles Parlange .

" W. D Aleck Boarman..

Maine Nathan Webb

Maryland Thomas J. Morris.

Mass Francis C. Lowell.

Mich.: E. D Henry H. Swan..

" W. D Geo. P. Wauty...

Minnesota Wm. Lochren

Miss.: N. & S... Henry C. Niles...

Montana Hiram Knowles. .

Mo. : E. D Elmer B. Adams. .

" W. I) John F. Philips..

Nebraska Wm. H. Munger..

Nevada Thos. P. Hawley. .

New Hatnp Edgar Aldrich...

New Jersey A. Kirkpatrick. ..

.Wm. J. Mills

.Alfred C. Cose...
.John R. Hazel. ..
Geo. B. Adams. . .
.Edw. B.Thomas..
.Thos. K. Purnell. .
. James E. Boyd. . .
.Chas F. Amidon. .

N. C.:

New Mexico.
N. Y.: N. D.

" W. D.

" S. D.
E. D.
E. D.
W. D.

North Dakota

Ohio: N. D A. J. Ricks

" N. D F. J. Wing

" S. D A. C. Thompson..

Oklahoma John H. Burford.

Oregon C. B. Bellinger...

Pa.: E. D J. B. McPherson.

" M. D R. W. Archbald..

" W. 1) Jos. Buffi ngton...

Porto Rico Vacant

Rhode Island. . .A. L. Brown.. . . .
South Carolina. .W. H. Brawlcy. . .
South Dakota. . .John E. Carland. .
Tenn. : K. & M.ciias. D Clark...

" W. D....E. S. Hammond..
Texas : E. D. . . . D. E. Bryant

" W. D. ...Thos. S. Maxey..

" N. I).... Edw. R. Meek....

Utah. J. A. Marshall

Vermont H. H. Wheeler...

Va. : E. D E. Waddill. Jr. . .

" W. D H. C. McDowell..

Washington C. H. Hanford

W. Va. : N. D...J. J. Jackson....

S. D...B. F. Keller

Wis. : E. D W. H. Seaman...

" W. D Romanzo Bunn..

Wyoming John A. Riner...

Addresses. Salaries.

.Pensacola $5,000

.Jacksonville.. 5,000

.Atlanta 5,000

.Macon 5.000

.Honolulu ...... 5,000

.Boise 5,000

.Chicago 5,001)

.Springfield 5,ooo

.Vinita 6,000

.S. McAlester. . 5,ooo

.Ardmore 5,000

.Vinita 5.000

.Indianapolis.. 5,000

.Dubuque 5,000

.Red Oak 5,000

. Leavenworth. . 5,000

.Louisville 5,000

.Maysville 5,000

.New Orleans.. 5,000

.Shreveport 5,000

.Portland 5,000

.Baltimore 5,000

.Boston 5,000

.Detroit 5,000

.Grand Rapids. 5,000
.Minneapolis... 5,000
.Kosciusko .... 5,000

.Helena 5,000

.St. Louis 5,000

.Kansas City.. 5,000

. Omaha 5,000

.Carson City... 5,000

.Littleton 5,000

.Newark 5,000

.Las Vegas 3,000

.Utica 5,000

. Buffalo 5,000

.N. Y. City 5,000

.Brooklyn.... 5,000

.Raleigh 5,000

.Greensboro.... 5,000

.Fargo 5,000

.Cleveland 5,000

.Cincinnati 5.000

.Guthrie 3.000

.Portland 5.000

.Philadelphia.. 5.000

.Scranton 5,000

.Pittsburg 5,000

.San Juan 5.000

.Providence 5,000

.Charleston 5.000

.Sioux Falls... 5.000
.Chattanooga.. 5.000

.Memphis 5.000

.Sherman 5.000

.Austin 5,0&lt;X)

.Fort Worth... 5,000
.Salt Lake City. 5,000
.Brnttleboro ... 5.000

. Richmond 5.000

.Big Stone Gap. 5,000
Seattle 5,000

. Parkersburg .
. Rramwell. . .,
. Sbeboygan. . .
. Madison. ...

5.000
5.000
5,000
5,000

.Cheyenne 5,00o

THE ARM7.

GENERAL OFFICERS OP TUB LINK.

Rank Name - Command. Headquarter*.

Lieutenant-Genoml Nelson A. Miles United States Army Washington D C

Major-General John R Brooke.... Department of the East . . . . . .New York N Y

" " Elwell S. Otis (Department of the Lakes ........Chicago, III

I Department of Dakota St. Paul, Minn.

,, ^""l ?W*,I OBn * Department of California San Francisco, Cnl.

Adna R. Chaffee Division of the Philippines. . Manila P I

Arthur MacArthur Unassisted . . . "

\Vheaton..,..,.... ..Department of North Philippines i ... .M uni \a, i&gt; i

3-iO

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

Rank.
Brigadier-General.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE LINE Continued..

Name. Command. Headquarters.

.James F. Wade Department of South Philippines Cebu, P. I.

. . .JohnC. Bates In the Philippines Manila P. L

.. .George W. Davis u ii

.. .Samuel S. Sumner " " " . ..... . . . . . . " "

.. .Leonard Wood Department of Cuba Havana Cuba

.. .Robert P. Hughes In the Philippines Manila, P. I.

...George M. Randall Department of the Columbia Vancouver Barracks Wash

...William A. Kobbe In the Philippines Manila P I

...Frederick D. Grant " " " :

...Franklin J. Bell " " "

...Jacob H. Smith " " . , , . , . , . . , ,. , . , .

...Frederick Funston " " "

...William H. Bisbee " " "

DEPAKTMKXT.

Washington,

D. C.

..
u

CHIEFS OF STAFF CORPS AND BUREAUS OF THK WAR

Major-General Henry C. Corbin Adjutant General

Brigadier-General.. .M. I. Ludington Quartermaster-General

...Alfred E. Bates Paymaster-General

. . .John F. Weston Commissary-General

.. .George M. Sternberg Surgeon General

...Adolphus W. Greely Chief Signal Officer

...George L. Gillespie Chief of Engineers

...William Crozier Chief of Ordnance

.. .Joseph C. Breckinridge. . . . Inspector-General

.. .George B. Davis Judge-Advocate General

...Frederick C. Ainsworth. . .Chief Record and Pension Officer

THE NAVY.

FLAG OFFICERS.

ADMIRAL.

Name. Duty. Where Stationed.

George Dewey Senior Member General Board Washington, D. C.

RKAR ADMIRALS.

John A. Howell President Naval Retiring Board Washington, D. C.

George C. Remey Commander-in Chief Asiatic Station Flag-ship lirooklyn.

Norman H. Farquhar Chairman Light house Board Washington, D. C.

John C. Watson President Naval Examining Board .... "

Silas Casey Commander- in-Chief Pacitic Station Flag-ship Wisconsin.

Bartlett J. Cromwell Commander in Chief European Station Flag-ship Chicago.

Francis J. Higginson Commander-in-chief North Atlantic Station Flag-ship Kearsnrge.

Frederick Rodgers Senior Squadron Con imander, Asiatic Station Klag-shipJNVu Yo rk.

LouisKempff. Junior Squadron Commander, Asiatic Station Flag-ship Ktntur/,-y.

George W. Sumner Commandant Naval Station, League Island League Island, Pa.

Albert S. Barker Commandant Navy yard. New York New York. N. Y.

Charles S. Cotton Commandant Navy-yard. Norfolk Portsmouth, Va,

Robley D. Evans President Board of Inspection and Survey Washington, D. C.

Silas W. Terry Commandant Navy-yard, Washington " "

Merrill Miller Commandant Navy -yard, Mare Island Mare Island, Cal.

John J. Read Commandant Navy -yard, Portsmouth Portsmouth, N. H.

Henry C. Taylor Member General Board Washington, D. C.

Mortimer L. Johnson Commandant Navy -yard, Boston Boston, Mass.

Edwin M. Shepard Commandant Naval Station, Port Royal Port Royal, S. C.

Frank Wildes Commandant Navy-yard. Pensacola Pensacola, Fla.

Henry Glass Commanding Train ing Ship and Station, San Francisco San Francisco, Cal.

RETIRED LIST.

Rank. Name. Residence. Rank.

Rear-AdmiralThos. 0. Selfridge, Sr. . .Washington, D. C. Rear-Admiral

" George B. Balch Baltimore. M. D. "

" Aaron K.Hughes Washington, D. C.

" John H ("pshur " " "

" Francis A. Roe " " "

" Samuel R. Franklin... " " "

" Stephen B. Luce Newport. R. I. "

" James E. Jouctt Washington, D. C.

Lewis A. Kimberly . . . .W. Newton, Mass.

Bancroft Gherardi East Orange. N. J. "

George E. Belknap. .. . Brookline. Mass.

D. B. Harmony Santa Barbara. Cal.

A. E. K. Benham Washington, I). C.

James A. Greer

Aaron W. Weaver

George Brown Indianapolis, Ind.

John G. Walker Washington. l&gt;. C.

Francis M. Ham.=ay ... "

Oscar F. Rtanton New London. Conn.

Henry Erben New York, N. Y.

L. A. Beardslee Little Falls, N. Y.

330

Xante. Residence.

Thos O. Selfridge,. Jr. ..Washington, I). C.

Joseph N. Miller New York N. Y.

E. O. Matthews Newport. R. I.

Charles S. Norton Brooklyn. N. Y.

Henry L. Hovvison Yonker s. N. Y.

Albert Kautz Amhcrst. Mass.

Winlield S. Srhiey New York, N. Y

William G. Buehier. . . . Philadelphia. Pa.

Henry B. Robeson Walpolc, N. H.

Benjamin V. Day Glasgow, Va.

Alex. H. McCormick. ..Annapolis, Md.

Nicoll Ludlow Oakdale. L. I.

James Entwistle Pnterson, N. J.

Nehemiah M. Dyer Melrose, Mass.

Joseph Trilley. ." San Francisco, Cal

John I.owo Norton. Conn

John Sch oilier Annapolis, Md.

Cipriano Andradc Philadelphia. Pa.

Lewis W Robinson " "

Edwin White Princeton. N. J.

John McGowau Washington, D. C.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

RETIRED LIST Continued.

Rank. Name. Residence.

Rear-Admiral James G. Green Washington, D. C.

James M. Forsyth Philadelphia, Pa.

George E. Ide Now York. N. Y.

George M. Book Brooklyn, N. Y.

Oscar W. Farenholt. . . . Maiden, Mass.

William C. Gibson Brooklyn, N". Y.

Edward T. Strong Albany, N. Y.

Frank Courtis Berkeley, Cal.

COMMODORES.

RETIRED LIST.*

Rank. Name. Residence.

Commodore Albert G. Clary Springfield, Mass.

" S. Nicholson Washington, D. C.

" W. P. McCann New Rochelle, X. Y.

" James H. Gillis Delhi, N. Y.

" E. E. Potter Belvidere, 111.

" R. L. Phythian Annapolis, Md.

" Rush R. Wallace Washington, D. C.

* The grade of Commodore on the active list has been abolished.

NAVAL EXAMINING AND RETIRING BOARDS.

The Naval Examining Board consists of Rear-Admi
ral John C. Watson, President ; Captains Theodore F.
Jewell and Asa Walker, and Commander Charles W. Rae,
members.

The Naval Retiring Board is composed of Rear-Ad
miral John A. Howell, President ; Captains Francis A.
Cook and James H. Sands, and Medical Directors John
C. Wise and W. F. Dixou, members.

NAVAL OBSERVATORY.

Superintendent, Captain Charles H. Davis; Assistants,
Lieutenant -Commander Charles K. Fox and Profess
ors A. N. Skinner. T. J. J. See. Milton L pdegraff, \V. S.
Eichelberger, W. S. Harshman, and Frank B. Littell,
members.

NAUTICAL ALMANAC.
Director Prof. Walter S. Harshman.

BEGINNING AND EXPIRATION OF THE TERMS OF SERVICE OF SENATORS.

CLASS I. SENATORS WHOSE TKRMS OF SERVICE EXPIRE MARCH 3, 1903.

Name.

Residence.

Beginning of present
service.

Allison, William B. (R.)

Dubucjue, la

March
March
April
Oct.
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
March
July
March
June
May
March
March
June
March
March
March
Jan.
March
Dec.
March
March
March
March
March

4, 1873

4, 1897
28. 1897
19, 1900
4, 1897
4, 1897
4, 1891
4, 1891
4, 1897
4, 1897
4, 1885
4, 1873
11, 1901
4, 1897
1, 1897
14, 1897
4, 1897
4, 1897
22, 1893
4, 1S97
4, 1879
4, 1897
24, 189r,

4. ix:&gt;7

5, 1S98
4, 1S97
4, 1885
4, 1897
4, 1879
4, 1897

Clay, Alexander S. (D.)

Marietta, Ga

Deboe, William J. (7; )

Marion, Ky

Dillingham, William P. (7^.)

Montpelier, Vt

Fairbanks Charles W (R )

Indianapolis, Ind

Foraker, Joseph B. (R )

Cincinnati, O

Gallinger Jacob H (R )

Concord, Is H ...

Ilansbrough, Henry C (R ) . . .

Devils Lake, N. D

Harris, William A. (P.)

Ljnwood, Kan

Heitfelcl Henry (D )

Lowiston, Idaho . . . . .

Jones, James K ( D )

Washington, Ark

Jones John P ( / )

Gold Hill Nev

*Kittredge, Alfred B. (R ) ....

Sioux Falls, S. D

McFnery, Samuel D. (D.)

\ew Orleans, La

McLaurin, John L (D )

Bennettsville S C

Mallory, Stephen R. (D.)

Pensacola, Fla

Mason, William F. (R ) . .

Chicago 111

Pen rose, Boies (R.)

Philadelphia, Pa

Perkins, George C. (R.)

Oakland, Cal

Pettns, Edmund W. (D.)
Platt, Orville II. (R.)

Selma, Ala
Meriden, Conn

Platr. Thomas C. (R )

Oswego, N. Y

Pritchard, Jeter C. (R.)
Rawlins, Joseph L. (D. )

Madison, N. C
Salt Lake, Utah

Simon, Joseph (R. )

Portland. Ore

Spooner, John C. (R.)
Teller, Henry M. (8. R.)

Madison, Wis
Central City, Col
Spokane, Wash

Turner, George (F.)

Vest, George G. (D.)

Kansas City, Mo

Wellington, George L. (R )

Piimlwrlanrl Afd

* Appointed to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Hon. James H. Kyle.

CLASS II. SENATORS WHOSE TKRMS OF SERVICE EXPIRE MARCH 3, 1905.

Aldrich, Xelson W. (R.)

Providence, R. I

Oct.

5. 1881

Bard, Thomas R. (R.)

Hueneme Cal

Feb

17 190O

Pate, William B. (D.)

Nashville, Tenn

March

4, 1SS7

Bfvrridge. Albert J. (R )

Indianapolis Ind

March

4 1X99

Burrows. Julius C. (R.)

Ksilamazoo. Mich

Jan.

23. 1X95

Clapp, Moses F. (R.)

St Paul Minn

Jan

23, 1901

331

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

CLASS II SENATORS WHOSE TERMS OF SERVICE EXPIRE MARCH 3, 1905 Continued.

Name.

Clark, Clarence D. (R.) . . .
Cockrell, Francis M. (/&gt;.).
t ulberson, Charles A. (D.)

Daniel, John W. (D.)

Depew, Chauncey M. (li.) .
Dietrich, Charles H. (R.) . .
Foster, Addison G. (If.)...

Gibson, Paris (D. )

Hale, Fugene (It.)

llanna, Marcus A. (R.) . . . . ,
llawley, Joseph R. (R.) . . .

Keaii, John (R.)

Kearns. Thomas (It.)

Lodge, Henry Cabot (ft.).,
McComas, Louis E. (R.) . .
McCumber, Porter J. (.)..
Money, llernando D. (D.) . . .

Proctor, Bedfield (R.)

Quarles, Joseph V. (It.)...

Quay, Matthew S. (R.)

Scott, Nathan B. (R.)

Stewart, William M. (R.) . ,
Taliaferro, James P. (D.) . .

Residence.

Kvanston, Wyo

Warrensburg, Mo...

Dallas, Tex

Lynch burg, Va

New York City

Hastings, Neb

Taconia, Wash

Great Falls, Mont.. . .

Kllsworth, Me

Cleveland, O

Hartford, Conn

Flizabeth. N. J

Salt Lake City, Utah.

Nahant, Mass

Hagerstown, Md

Wahpeton, N. D. . . .

Carrol Iton, Miss

Proctor, Vt

Milwaukee, Wis

Beaver, Pa

Wheeling. W. Va

Virginia City, Nev. .
Jacksonville, Fla

Beginning of present
service.

Feb.

March

Jan.

March

Dec.

Nov.

March

Jan.

Ma rch

March

6, 1895
4, 1873
4, ls&lt;)9
4, 1SS7
4, 1S!)!&gt;

L 8, 1901

4, 1S!I!I

7, 1901
4, 1881

0, 1897
4, 1881
4, 1899

u::. 1901

4, 1893

4, 1899

:, 1899

7, 1897

1, 1891
4, lS!i&lt;)

15. 1901

4, 1899

4, 1887

4, 1899

NOTE. A vacancy exists in Delaware by failure ol the legislature to elect.

CLASS III. SKNATOUS WHO9K TKHM8 OF SKRVICK EXPIRK MARCH 3, 1907.

(Thirty Senntors in this class see note.)

Bacon, Augustus O. (/).)...

Bailey, Joseph W. (D.)

Berry. James H. (D.)

Blackburn. J. C. S. (/).)...
Burnham. Henry E. (/?.)...

I .urton. Joseph R. (R.)

earmark, Fdward W. &lt;/).)..

(Mark. William A. (D.)

Cullom, Shelby M. (/?.)....
Dolliver. Jonathan P. (R.)
Dubois, Frederick T. (D.) . .

Flkins. Stephen B. (ft.)

Foster. Murphy J. (D.)

Fr.vo. ^ illinm P. (R.)

Gamble. Robert J. (It.)....,

Hoar. George F. (/?. ) ,

MrLanrin. Anselm J. (/&gt;.)...

McMillan. James (7O

Martin. Thomas S. (D.)

Millard. Joseph H. (7?.)

Mitchell, John II. (A .)

Morgan. John T. ( D)

Nelson. Knnte (R.)

Patterson, Thomas M. (/).)..

Simmons, F. M. (D.)

Tillman, Benjamin R. (D.) . .
Warren, Francis E. ( /?.)...
Wetmore. George P. (R.) . . . .

Mucon, Ga

Gainesville, Tex

I entonville. Ark

Versailles, Ky

Manchester, N. H

Abilene. Kan

Memphis. Tenn

Butte, Mont

Springfield. Ill

Fort Dodge. Iowa

Blackfoot. Idaho

Klkins. W. Va

Franklin, La

Lewiston, Me

Yankton, S. D

Worcester. Mass

Brandon, Miss

Detroit. Mich

Seottsville. Va

Omaha. Nc b

Portland. Ore

Selma. Ala

Alexandria. Minn

Denver, Col

Raleigh. N C

Trenton, S. C

Cheyenne. Wyo

Newport, R. I

March

Mar&lt;h

March

Aug.

March

Mat-"h

March

4, IS! C.
4, 1901

25, 1885
4, 1901
4, 1901
4. 1901
4, 1901
4, 1901
4, 188:?

25, 1900
4, 1901
4, IS!).-,
4, 1901
8, 1881
4, 1901
4, 1877
4, 1901
4, 1889
4. ISiT,

28, 1901

4. 1901

4, 1S77

4. 1S!ir,

4, 1!&lt;01

4, 1901

4, 1S95

4. 1S9.-,

4. IS! .-,

* Appointed to fill (lie vacancy caused by the death of Hon. John H. Gear.
NOTB. A vacancy exists In Delaware by failure of the legislature to elect, and in New Jersey by death.

883

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1802

LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, SHOWING THE CONGRESSES IN WHICH
THEY HAVE SERVED AND THE BEGINNING OF THEIR PRESENT SERVICE.

Name.

State.

District.

Congresses.

Beginning of pix-sent
service.

Acheson, E. F. (R.)
Adams, Robert, Jr. (K. )

Pennsylvania. . .
do

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
53d, 54th, 55th 56th,
57th

March 4, 1895
March 4, 1893

Arlimurm W P (T) \

Georgia

55th 56th 57th

March 4, 1897

Alovniiflpr T"l S ( Tt )

New York

55th, 56th, 57th

March 4, 1897

\llen A L (R )

.Maine

*56th, 57th

Sept. 4, 1899

Allen H D (D )

Kentucky

56th, 57th

March 4, 1899

Aplin H II (R )

Michigan

*57th

May 1, 1901

P.abcock J W (R )

Wisconsin ...

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,

57th

March 4, 1893

Hall L H (R )

Delaware

(a)

57th

March 4, 1901

Hall T H (D )

Texas

55th, 56th, 57th

March 4, 1897

Jiankhead J H (D )

Alabama

50th, 51st, 52d, 53d,

54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

March 4, 1887

Barney S S (R )

Wisconsin

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.

March 4, 1895

Bartholdt Richard (R )

Missouri

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,

57th

March 4, 1893

Bartlett C L (D )

Georgia

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.

March 4, 1895

Bates A L (R )

Pennsylvania. . . .

57th

March 4, 1901

Beldler J A (R )

Ohio

57th

March 4, 1901

Bell J C. (D )

Colorado

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,

57th

March 4, 1893

Bellamy J D (D )

North Carolina.

56th, 57th

March 4, 1899

Belmont O H P (D )

New York

57th

March 4, 1901

Benton M E (D )

Missouri

55th, 56th 57th

March 4, 1897

Blngham, H. H. (R.) . . .
Bishop R P (R )

Pennsylvania. . . .
Michigan

1
9

46th, 47th, 48th, 49th,
50th, 51st, 52d, 53d,
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th
54th 55th 56th 57th

March 4, 1879
March 4 1895

Blackburn, Spencer (R )

North Carolina. .

57th

March 4 1901

Blakeney, A A (R )

Maryland

57th

March 4 1901

Boreing Vincent (R )

Kentucky

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Boutell H S (R )

Illinois

*55th 56th 57th

June 25 1897

Bowersock J D (R )

Kansas

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Bowie, S. J. (D ) .

Alabama

57th

March 4 1901

Brantley W G (D )

Georgia

55th 56th 57th

March 4 1897

Breazeale, Phanor (D.) .

Louisiana

56th, 57th

March 4 1899

Brick, A. L. (R )

Indiana

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Bristow, Henry (R.) . , .

New York

57th

March 4 1901

Bromwell, J. H (R )

Ohio

53d 54th 55th 56th

57th

Alarch 4 1893

Broussard, R. F. (D )

Louisiana

55th 56th 57th

March 4 1897

Brown, W. E. (R.) . . . .

Wisconsin

57th

March 4 1901

Brownlow, W. P. (R )

Tennessee

55th 56th 57th

March 4 1 9Q7

Brundidge, S., Jr. (D.) .

Arkansas

55th 56th 57th

March 4 1897

Bull, Melville (R.)

Rhode Island. . . .

54th, 55th 56th 57th

March 4 1895

Burgess, G. F. (&gt;.)....

Texas

57th

March 4 1901

Burk, Henry (R.)

Pennsylvania. . . .

57th

March 4 1901

Burke, C. H. (R.)

South Dakota. . .

(a)

56th, 57th

March 4 1899

Burkett, E. J. (R.) ....

Nebraska

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Burleigh, E. O. (/?.)....

Maine

*55th 56th 57th

April 19 1897

Burleson, A. S. (&gt;.)....

Texas

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Burnett, J. L. (D. ) . . . .

Alabama

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Burton, T. E. (R.)

Ohio

51st 54th 55th 56th

57th

March 4 1895

P.ntler, J. J. (D.)

Missouri

57th

March 4 1901

Butler, T. S. (K )

Pennsylvania

55th 561 h ~&gt;7th

March 4 18Q7

( Jilderhead. W. A. (R.) .

Kansas

54th 56th 57th

March 4 1899

C aldwell, B. F. (D.)

Illinois

56th 57th

March 4 1899

randier, E. S., Jr. (&gt;.) .

Mississippi

57th

March 4 1901

Cannon, J. G. (R.)

Illinois

43d 44th 45th 46th

47th, 48th, 49th,
50th, 51st, 53d,
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th

March 4, 1893

* Vacancy.

333

(a) At larga

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES Continued.

Name.

State.

District.

Congresses.

Beginning of present
service.

( apron, A. B. (R.)

Rhode Island. . .

55th, 56th 57th

March 4 1807

Tassel, H. B. (It.)

Pennsylvania. . . .

*57th

March 17 1OH1

Cassingham, J. W. (/).).

Ohio

57th

March 4 1901

Ciark, Champ (D.)

Missouri

53d 55th 5Gth 57th

\Tarph 4 1 ftQ7

Clayton, II. D. (D.)

Alabama

55th 56th 57th

March 4 1807

Corhran, C. F. (D.) ....

Missouri

55th, 56th, 57th

March 4 1897

Council, William (R.) . .

Pennsylvania. . . .

55th, 56th, 57th

March 4, 1897

Conner, J. I . (R.)

Iowa

*5(Jth 57th

Dec 3 1900

C.mrv, J. A. (D.)

Massachusetts. . .

57th

March 4 1001

Coombs, F. L. (R.)

California

57th . .

March 4 1901

Coouey, James (D.) . . .

Missouri

55th 56th 57th

March 4 18 )7

Cooper, II. A. (R.)

Wisconsin

53d 54th 55th 56th

57th

March 4, 1893

Cooper, S. B. (D.)

Texas

53d, 54th 55th 56th

57th

March 4, 1893

Corliss, J. B. (R.)

Michigan

54th 55th 56th 57th

March 4 1895

Cousins, R. G. (R.) . . . .

Iowa

53d 54th 55th 56th

57th

March 4 1893

Cowherd, W. S. (D.) . . .

Missouri

55th, 56th 57th

March 4 1897

Creamer, T. J. (Z&gt;.) . . . .

New York

43d 57th

March 4 1901

Cromer, G. W. (ft.) ....

Indiana

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Crowlev, J. B. (D.) ....

Illinois

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Crumpacker, E. D. (R.)

Indiana

55th, 56th 57th

March 4 1897

Cummings, A. J. (D.) . .

New York

50th *51st 5 9 d 53d

54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

March 4, 1887

Currier, F. D. (ft.) ....

Xew Hampshire.

57th

March 4, 1901

Curtis, Charles (ft.) ....

Kansas

53d 54th 55th 56th

57th

March 4, 1893

Cushman, F. W. (ft.) ...

Washington

(a)

56th, 57th

March 4 1899

Dahle, II. B. (ft.)

Wisconsin

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Dalzell, John (ft.)

Pennsylvania . . . .

50th, 51st, 52d 53d,

54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

March 4, 1887

Darragh, A. B. (ft.) ....

Michigan

57th

March 4 1901

Davev, R. C. (D.)

Louisiana

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.

March 4 1895

Davidson, J. H. (ft.) ...

Wisconsin

55th 56th 57th

March 4 1897

Davis, R. W. (D.)

Florida

55th, 56th 57th

March 4, 1897

Dayton, A. G. (ft.). ...
De Armond, D. A. (D. ).

West Virginia. . .
Missouri

2
6

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
52d, 53d 54th 55th,

March 4, 1895

56th, 57th

March 4, 1891

De Graffenreid, R. C.(D.)

Texas

55th 56th 57th

March 4, 1897

Deemer, Elias (ft.) ....

Pennsylvania. . . .

57th

March 4, 1901

Dick Charles (ft.)

Ohio

*55th 56th 57th

Sept. 10, 1898

Dinsmore HA (D )

Arkansas

53d 54th 55th 56th

57th

March 4, 1893

Douglas W II (ft )

Xew York

57th

March 4, 1901

1 &gt;oii&lt; r herty John (D ) . .

Missouri

56th, 57th ...

March 4, 1899

Dovener, B. B. (ft.)

W T est Virginia. . .

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

March 4, 1893

Draper W II (ft )

New York

57th

March 4, 1901

Driscoll M E (7? )

.... do

56th, 57th

March 4, 18!&gt;!l

Filwards Caldwell (8 )

Montana

()

57th

March 4, 19O1

Fddv F M (ft )

Minnesota

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.

March 4, 1S95

Elliott, William (D.) . ..

Emerson, L. W. (ft.) ...
Esch J J. (7^ )

South Carolina. .

New York
Wisconsin

50th, 51st, 52d, 54th,
r,r,ih. r,6th, 57th
56th, 57th
56th, 57th

March 4, 1X95
March 4, 1X99
March 4, 1899

Evans Alvln (ft )

Pennsylvania. . - .

57th

March 4, limi

Ffcly J J (D )

Illinois

57th

March 4, 1901

Finley D E (/) )

South Carolina..

56th, 57th

March 4, 1899

Fitzgerald, J. J. (7&gt;.) . ..
Fleming W II (7) )

New York

2
10

56th, 57th
r.r.th, 56th, 57th

March 4, 1899
March 4, 1897

Fletcher Loren (ft )

Minnesota

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,

57th

March 4, 1893

Flood IT D (D )

Virginia

57th

March 4, 1901

* Vacancy.

(a) At lar

?e.

384

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES Continued.

Name.

State.

Distric

Congresses.

Beginning of present
service.

Foerderer, It. II. (R.) . .

Pennsylvania. . .

(a)

57th

March 4 1901

Fordney, J. W. (R.) . ..

Michigan

56th, 57th

Mflrf h 4 1 KQQ

Foss, G. E. (R. )

Illinois . .

54th 55th 56th 57th

MA ivVi .1 1 WO^l

Foster, D. J. (R.)

Vermont

57th. . . .

March 4 1901

Foster, G. P. (D.)

Illinois

56th, 57th

Mfl iv h 4 1 &QQ

Fowler, C. N. (R.)

New Jersey

54th 55th 56th 57th

M n rnh 4 1 k&lt;i"^

Fox, A. F. (D.)

Mississippi

55th, 56th, 57th

March 4 1897

Gaines, J. H. (R.)

West Virginia. .

57th. . .

Aiarch 4 1901

Gaines, J. W. (D.)

Tennessee

55th, 56th, 57th

March 4 1897

Gardner, J. J. (R.)

Xew Jersey ....

53d, 54th 55th 56th

57th

March 4 1893

Gardner, Wash. (R.) . . .

Michigan

56th, 57th. .

March 4 1899

Gibson, H. R. (R.)

Tennessee. . . .

54th, 55th 56th 57th

March 4 1895

Gilbert, G. G. (D.)

Kentucky

56th, 57th.

March 4 1899

Gill, J. J. (R.)

Ohio

*56th, 57th

.Tiinp 20 1 8Q&lt;1

Gillet, C. W. (R.)

Xew York

53d 54th 55th 56th

57th

March 4 1893

Gillett, F. H. (D.)

Massachusetts

53d, 54th, 55th 56th

57th

March 4 1893

Glenn, T. L. (P.)

Idaho

()

57th

March 4 1901

Goldfogle, H. M. (D.) . .

Xew York

57th

March 4 1901

Gooch, D. L. (D.)

Kentucky

57th. .

March 4 1901

Gordon, R. B. (D.)

Ohio

56th, 57th

March 4 1899

Graff, J. V. (R.)

Illinois.

54th 55th ^ifith ^Tf-h

March 4 ISQ^

Graham, W. H. (R.)

Pennsylvania. . .

*55th, 56th, 57th

Dec. 4, 1898

Green, H. D. (D.)

*56th 57th

Sprit 18 1 SO&lt;1

Greene, W. S. (R.)

Massachusetts. .

*55th, 56th, 57th.

March 27, 1898

Griffith, F. M. (Z&gt;.)

Indiana

*55th 56th 57th

\pril 93 1897

Griggs, J. M. (D.)

Georgia

55th 56th 57th

ATaivh 4 18&lt;}7

Grosvenor, C. H. (R.) . . .

Ohio

49th 50th 51st 5"d

53d, 54th, 55th,
56th, 57th

March 4, 1885

f Grow, G. A. (R.)

Pennsylvania

(a)

"i ~&gt;C\ ^d 3-lth Q^tVi

Hall, J. K. P. (D.)

36th, 37th, *53d,
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th
56th 57th

Feb. 20, 1894
March 4 1899

Hamilton, E. L. (R.) . . .

Michigan

55th, 56th 57th

March 4 1897

Hanbury, H. A. (R.)

Xew York

57th

March 4 1901

Haskins, Kittredge (R.)

Vermont

57th . .

March 4 1901

Haugen, G. N. (R.) . . . .

owa

56th 57th

March 4 1899

Hay, James (D.)

r irginia

loth 56th 57th

March 4 1897

Heatwole, J. P. (R.) . . .

Minnesota. . . .

54th 55th 56th 57th

Ma -ch 4 1&lt;J&lt;1~;

Hedge, Thomas (R.) . . . .

owa

")6th 57th

March 4 1899

Hemenway, J. A. (/?.)..

ndiana

54th 5-%th ^flth ^7th

Mflivh 4 1RQT

J Henderson, D. B. (R.)

owa

48th 49th 50th 51st

52d, 53d, 54th, 55th,
56th, 57th

March 4, 1883

Henry, E. S. (R.)

Connecticut

54th ^th Plfith ^Tt-h

Matv&gt;h 4 ISQ^l

Henry, Patrick (D.) ....

lississippi

57th. . .

March 4 1901

Henry, R. L. (/&gt;.)

&gt;xas

55th 56th 57th

March 4 1897

Hepburn, \V. P. (R.) . . .

owa

47th 48Hi 41th r i1rl

54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

March 4, 1893

Hildebrant, C. Q. (R.) . .

Ohio

7th

March 4 1 iui

Hill, E. J. (R.)

onnecticut

4th 55th 5nth 57th

March 4 1 JQ-1

Hltt, R. R. (R.)

llinois

47th 4Qth 4QHi

50th, 51st, 52d, 53d,
54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

July 28, 188

ITolliday, E. S. (R.)

ndiana

o~th

March 4, 1901

Hooker, C. E. (D.)

[ississippl . .

4tn, 4otn, 4otn, 47th,
50th, 51st, 52d, 53d,
57th

March 4, 1901

Hopkins, A. J. (R.)

llinois

yen, outn, oist, .&gt;_&lt;!.
53d, 54th, 55th,
56th, 57th .

March 4. 1885

* Vacancy. a At large.

t Speaker of the 37th Congress.

335

t Speaker of the 66th and 57th Congresses.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES_Cot&lt;tnued.

Name.

State

District.

Congresses.

Beginning of present
service.

Howard, W. M. (/).)
llowell B F (K ) ....

Georgia

8
3
4
7

5
21
3
1
10
18
4
1

(a)
11

4
9
21

2
5
11
7
24
5
7
6

3
9

4
3

7
1

7
I
19
6
22
2

2
5

1
7
5

4
8

55th, 56th 57th ....

March 4, 1897
March 4, 1895
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1891
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1895
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1891
March 4, 1899

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1897
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1899
Feb. 8, 1901
March 4, 1895
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1897

March 4, 1897
March 4, 1900

March 4, 1893
Aug. 14, 1897
Dec. 2, 1901

March 4, 1889
July 7, 1901
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1897

Aug. 15, 1894
March 4, 1899

March 4, 1891
March 4, 1897
March 4, 189!)

March 4, 1891

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1893

New Jersey

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
57th

Hughes, J. A. (#.) ....
Hull, J. A. T. (K.)

I I U-in II S ( R \

West Virginia. . .
Iowa

5L d, 53d, 54th, 55th,
56th, 57th

Kentucky . ...

57th

Jack S M (A )

Pennsylvania. . . .
Kansas

56th, 57th

Jackson, A. M. (D.) . . . .
Jackson, W. H. (It.)
Jenkins J J (R )

57th

Maryland . ...

57th

Wisconsin

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
55th, 56th, 57th

Jett T M (D )

Illinois

Johnson, J. T. (D.)
Jones W A (D )

South Carolina. .
Virginia

57th

52d, 53d, 54th, 55th,
56th, 57th

Tonpq W T, ( li \

Washington

56th, 57th

lov r F &lt;it }

Missouri

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

Kahn Julius (It )

California

56th, 57th

Kehnp T N ( D )

Kentucky

57th

Kern F J (D )

Illinois

57th

Ketcham, J. H. (A.)

Kitchin, Claude (D.) . . .
Kitchin, W. W. (Z&gt;.) . . .
Kleberg, Rudolph (D.) . .
Kluttz, T. F (D.)

K"nr&gt;n P T 1 If \

New York

39th, 40th, 41st, 42d,
45th, 46th, 47th,
48th, 49th, 50th,
51st, 52d, 55th,
56th 57th

North Carolina. .
do
Texas

57th

55th, 56th, 57th

North Carolina. .
New York

56th, 57th

*57th

Knox W. S. (R.)

Massachusetts. . .
Ohio

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
57th

K" vlo T Q f 7? \

T nrpv T P ( Tf \

Iowa

51st, 53d, 54th, 55th,
56th, 57th

T mh Tnhn ( D ^

Virginia

55th, 56th, 57th

T nnriia P R ( ff \

Indiana

55th, 56th, 57th

Lanham, S. W. T. (D.) .

Lassiter, F. R. (D.)
Latlmer, A. C. (D.)

Lawrence, G. P. (R.) . . .
Lessler, Montague ( R. ) .
Lester R E (D )

Texas

48th, 49th, 50th, 51st,
52d, 55th, 56th,
57th

Virginia

*56th, 57th

South Carolina. .
Massachusetts. . .

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

*55th, 56th, 57th
*57th

Georgia

51st, 52d, 53d, 54th,
55th, 56th, 57th
*57th

South Carolina. .
Georgia

Tonria IT 1 R ( D \

55th, 56th, 57th

Lewis, R. J. (R.)
Lindsay, G. H. (D.)

T itf-nnor T, N 1 R 1

F ennsylvania. . .

57th

5.1th, 56th, 57th

Little J S (D )

Arkansas

*53d, 54th, 55th,
56th 57th

Littlefleld, C. E. (R.) . . .
Livingston, L. F. (D.) . .

TJovd T T (D )

*56th, 57th

Georgia

52d, 53d, 54th, 551 h.
56th 57th

Missouri

*55th, 56th, 57th. . . .
54th, 56th, 57th

T rmtr P T t ff \

Kansas

Loud E F (R )

California

o Jd. !53d. 54th, 551 li.
56th 57th

Loudenslager, H. C. (R.)

Levering, W. C. (R.) . . .
McAndrews, James (D.)
McCall S W (R )

New Jersey

.VM. 51th, 55th, 561 h.
57th

Massachusetts. . .
Illinois

55th 56th 57th

57th

Massachusetts. . .

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,

57th. .

* Vacancy.

330

(a) At large.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES Continued.

Name.

State.

Distric

Congresses.

Beginning of present
service.

McCleary, J. T. (R.)

McClellan, G. B. (D.) . .
McCulloch, P. D. (D.) . .

McDermott, A. L. (D.) .
McLachlan, James (R.) .
McLain, F. A. (D.)
McRae, T. C. (Z&gt;.)

Minnesota

12
1

7
6
6
3

7
18

1
(a)

(a)
)

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th
57th

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1895

March 4, 1893
Aug. 1, 1900
March 4, 1901
June 1, 1898

March 4, 1885
March 4, 1893

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1899

March 4, 1891
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1895
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1890
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1899
March 7, 1900
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1897
March 4, 3901
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1899
March 12, 1899
vlarch 4. 1!)01

March 4. 1893
March 4. 1897
March 4. 189"
March 4. 1895
March 4, ix&lt;&gt;r&gt;
March 4. IS .C,
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1901

Mar Hi 4. 1893
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1901

March 4. 1889
ATarch 4. 1899
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1897
rarch 4, 1899
Tarch 4, 1901
larch 4, 1901
larch 4, 1901

New York

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th
53d, 54th, 55th, 56th
57th

Arkansas

New Jersey ....
California

*56th, 57th . . .

54th, 57th .

Mississippi

*55th, 56th, 57th

Arkansas

*49th, 50th, 51st, 52d
53d, 54th, 55th
56th, 57th

Maddox, J. W. (D.)
Mahon, T. M. (R.)

Georgia

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th
57th

Pennsylvania. . .
Illinois

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th
57th

Mahoney, W. F. (D.) . . .
Mann, J. R. (R.)

57th

. . . .do

55th, 56th 57th

Marshall, T. F. (R.) ....
Martin, E. W. (R.)

North Dakota . .
South Dakota. .
Virginia

57th

Maynard, H. L. (D.) . . .
Mercer, D. H. (R.) . . . .

57th

Nebraska. .

3
1

15
2

4
8
(a)
9
2
3
10
5
6
5
8
10
7
6
3
(a)

13
14
6
4
7
7
12
6

13
10
28

6
31
9

17
4
4
11

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

Metcalf, V. H. (R.)

California

56th, 57th. . .

Meyer, Adolph (D.) ....
Mickey, J. R. (D.)

Louisiana

52d, 53d, 54th, 55th,
56th, 57th

Illinois

57th

Miers, H. W. (D.)

Indiana

55th, 56th, 57th

Miller, J. M. (R.)

Kansas

56th 57th

Minor, E. S. (/?.)

Wisconsin

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
54th, 56th, 57th

Mondell, F. W. (R.)
Moody, J. M. (R.)

Wyoming

North Carolina. .
Oregon

57th. . . .

Moody, M. A. (R.)

56th 57th

Moon, J. A. (D.)

Tennessee

"55th, 56th 57th

Morgan, Stephen (/?.)..
Morrell, Edward (R.) . . .
Morris, Page (R.)
Mudd, S. E. (R.)

Ohio

56th, 57th. .

Pennsylvania. . . .
Minnesota
Maryland

*56th, 57th

55th, 56th, 57th

51st, 55th, 56th, 57th. .
*53d, 57th
56th, 57th

Mutchler, Howard (D.) .
Xaphen, H. F. (D.) . . . .
Xeedham, J. C. (R.) . . . .
Neville, William (P.) . . .
Xevin, R. M. (R.)
Newlands, F. G. (D.) . ..

Norton, J. A. (D.)

Pennsylvania. . . .
Massachusetts. . .
California

"&gt;6th, 57th. . .

Nebraska

*56th 57th

Ohio

57th

Nevada

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

Ohio

"&gt;5th 56th 57th

Olmsted, M. E. (R.) . . . .
Otey, P. J. (I&gt;.)

Pennsylvania. . . .
Virginia . .

55th, 56th, 57th

-&gt;4th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
14th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
"&gt;4th. 55th, 56th, 57th.
57th

Otjen, Theobold (R.) . ..
Overstreet, Jesse (R.) . .
Padgett, L. P. (D.)
Palmer, II. W. (.)....
Parker, R. W. (R.)

Wisconsin

Indiana

Tennessee

Pennsylvania. . . .
New Jersey

57th

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

Patterson, G. R. (R.) . .
Patterson, M. R. (D. ) . . .
Payne, S. E. (R.)

Pennsylvania. . . .
Tennessee

57th

New York . .

48th, 49th. 51st, 52d,
53d, 54th, 55th,
56th, 57th

Pearre, G. A. (R.)
rvrkins, J. B. (R.)

Maryland

"56th 57th

New York

57th

Pierce, R. A. (D.)

Tennessee

48th, 51st, 52d, 55th,
56th, 57th

Polk, R. K. (D.)

Pennsylvania. . . .
S T orth Carolina. .
Maine.

6th 57th

Pou, E. W. (D.)

57th

Powers, Llewllyn (R.) . .
Powers, S. L. "(R.)

5th, *57th

Massachusetts. . .

57th

* Vacancy.

(a) At larg

337

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES Continued.

Name.

State.

Jistrict.

Congresses.

Jegiuuing of present
service.

Prince G W ( I! )

llinois

10
16
5
5
26

4
6

11
3

8
8
13

7
6

3
&gt;

2
15
3

32
4
G
4
(0)

8
1
5
1
12
25

4
25
27
8
14
12
1
4
22

2
6
9
5
4
r,

9
20
1
2

o
4
11

OOQ

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th
37th

March 4, is .ir,
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1901
April 23, 1899

March 4, 1891
March 4, 19(11
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1S95
March 4, 1S97
March 4, 1899

March 4. 1885
April 21, 1900
March 4, 1.S97
March 4. 1S97
March 4, 1S99

Aug. 3, 1887
March 4, 1S97
March 4, 1X99
March 4, 1X99
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1899

March 4, 1887
March 4, 1X99
March 4, 1X99
March 4, 19ul
March 4, 19O1
March 4, 19ul
March 4, 19O1
June 16, 1899
March 4. 1X95
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1X97
March 4, 1897

March 4, ix .ci
March 4, 1X99
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1x99
March 4, 1897
March 4, I .iol
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1X99
March 4, 1897

March 4, lxx9
March 4, 1x99
March 4, 1897
June 7, ]9iiO
March 4, 1x95
March 4, 1X99
March 4, 1 9(&gt;1
March 4, 1S95
March 4, 19ul
March 4, 1X95
March 4, 1X95
Oct. 17, 1X9X
March 4, 1897

March 4, 1X9:.
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1897

I ugslev. C. A. (/&gt;.)....
Kandell, C. B. (]&gt;.)
Ransdell, J. K. (/&gt;.)
]&gt;. lv &lt;; \v (/. )

."exas

57th

\ew York

48th, 52d, 53d, 54th,
.-).-&gt; th, 56th, 57th
57th

i?oi^ p p f n \

Arkansas

Uocder, W. A. (A .)
Reeves, Walter (If.) . . . .
Rhftfl T Ss ( /&gt; }

Kansas

&gt;6th, 57th

llir.ois

54th, 55th, 5Gth, 57th
55th, 56th, 57th

Kentucky

i M .-.-! \v ir f /&gt; i

7 irgJDia

56th, 57th

Richardson, J. D. (D.) . .

Richardson, Wm. (D. )..
R i VPV 7 V ( /) )

Tennessee
Alabama

49th, 50th, 51st, 52(1.
53d, 54th, 55th.
56th, 57th

*56th, 57th

Virginia

"i5th, 56th, 57th

Robb, Edward (D.) . . . .
Roberts, E. W. (R.)
Robertson, _S. M. (D.) . .

Robinson, J. M. (&gt;.)
Robinson, J. S. (D.)
Rucker, W. W. (D.)
Rumple, J. N. W. (R.) . .
Ruppert, Jacob, Jr. (Z&gt;.)
Russell C A (R )

")5th, 56th, 57th

Massachusetts. . .
Louisiana

"iOth 57th ....

*50th, 51st, 52d, 53d,
54th. 55th. 56th, 57th
55th, 56th, 57th

56th, 57th

"i6th, 57th

57th

56th, 57th

onnecticut

50th, 51st, 52d, 53d,
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th
56th, 57th

r&gt; TTQr TIT TT / 7") \

CalmrTi T *l ( n \

\ew Jersey

56th, 57th

Scarborough, R. B. (D. )

South Carolina. .

57th

QolHxr r P T ( I) \

Illinois

57th

Shackleford, D. W. (D.)
Shafroth J F (8 )

*56th, 57th

Colorado

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
57th

Shallenberger, A. C. (D.)
Shattuc, W. B. (R.)
Shelden, C. D. (R.) . . .

sthprmnn T S (R )

Oh in

55th, 56th, 57th

Xew York

50th, 51st, 53d, 54th,
5.-,th, 56th, 57th...
56th 57th

Sheppard, J. L. (D.)
Showalter, J. B. (R.) . . .
QiHioTT ^ P ( T? \

Texas
Pennsylvania. . .
.do

*55th, 56th. 57th. . . .
53d, 56th, 57th

Tennessee

55th, 56th, 57th

Ohio

57th

Skiles, \\ . W. (h.)
Slayden. J. L. (D.)

55th, 56th. 57th

North Carolina. .
Kentucky
Illinois

56th, 57th

Small, J. 11. (D.)

Smith. D. H. &lt;l&gt;.)

G m 1 *- Vi P \ V ( J? \

5~)th 56th 57th

51st. 52d. r.:5d, 54th,
55th, 56th, 57th...
56th, 57th

Smith, II. C. (/*.).

WmitV* Q \V ( Jf \

55th, 56th, 57th

*56th, 57th

Smitn, W. L. ( ii.)

^TYiitTi \Y A i 7? }

Michigan

54th, 55th. 56th, 57th.
56th, 57th

Snodgrass, C. E. (D.) . .
Snook. J. S. (/).)
Southard, J. II. (R.) . . .
Southwick, G. X. (/?.).-
Sparkman, S. M. (D.) . .
Sperry N D. (R.)

57th

Ohio

54th, 55th. 56th, 57th.
54th, 55th, 57th

Florida

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
54th, 55th. 56th, 57th.
*.v.th, 56th. 57th. . . .
55th. 56th, 57th

Connecticut. . . .

Spight, Thomas (D.) . .

Stark, \\ . lj. (1 &gt;
Stcele, G. W. (R.)

Stephens, J. H. (D.) . .
Stevens, F. C. (R.)
* Vacancy.

47th, 48th, 49th, 50th
54th. 55th. 56th, 57th
55th, 56th, 57th

J55th, 56th, 57th

.tliunesota

(a) At large.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IN 1902

LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OK RKPKESENTATIVES-Cont/^,/.

Name.

State.

District

Congresses.

Beginning of present
service.

Stewart, J. P. (R.)
Stewart, J. K. (R.) . . . .

New Jersey. . . .
New York

5
21
1
1
11
(a)
5

2
9

18
1
1

3
3
11
5
4
17
12
1
7
9
14
15

34
3
30

13
8
6
7
1
10
2

20
5

5
o

6
15
4
3

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
56th 57th

March 4, 1895
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1895
March 4, 1895
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1893

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1895
March 4, 1897

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1897
March 4. 1901
March 4, 1895
March 4, 1887

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1899

March 4, 1891

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1895
March 4, 1901
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1!)()1
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1899

March 4, 1893
March 4, 1899
Aug. 20, 1900
June 5, 1901
March 4, 1899
March 4, 1897
March 4, 1897

March 4, 1899
March 4, 1901

March 4, 1901
Dec. 3, 1900

Storm, Frederick (R.) .
Sulloway, C. A. (A .)..
Sulzer, William (D.) . .
Sutherland, George (R.}
S \vanson, C. A. (D. ) . . . .

Talbert, W. J. (D.)

. ..do

New Hampshire
New York

57th

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
57th . .

Utah

Virginia

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

South Carolina.
Georgia

Ohio
Alabama

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

Tate, P. C. (D.)

Tayler, R. W. (R.)
Taylor, G. W. (D.) . . . .
Tawney, J. A. (R.) . . . .

Thayer, J. R. (D.)

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
55th, 56th 57th

Minnesota

Massachusetts. .
North Carolina.
Iowa

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

56th, 57th

Thomas, C. R. (U.) . . . .
Thomas, Lot (R. )

56th, 57th

56th 57th

Thompson, C. W. (D.) .
Tirrell, C. Q. (R.)

Alabama

57th . .

Massachusetts. .
New York

57th

Tompkins, A. S. (R. ) . . .
Tompkins, Emmett (R.) .
Tongue, T. II. (#.)....
Trimble, South (D.)...
Underwood, O. W. (D.) .
Vandiver, W. D. (D.) . . .
Van Voorhis, H. C. (R.)

Vreeland, E. B. (R.) . . .
Wachter, P. C. (R.) . . . .
Wadsworth, J. W. (/?.).

Wanger, I. P. (R )

56th, 57th

Ohio

57th

Oregon

55th, 56th 57th

Kentucky

57th

Alabama

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
55th, 56th, 57th

Missouri

Ohio

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

Xew York

*56th, 57th....

Maryland

56th, 57th

Xew York

47th, 48th, 52d, 53d,
54th, 55th, 56th, 57th
53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

ennsylvania. . . .
llinois. . . .

Warner, Vespasian (/?.)
Warnock. W. R. (/?.)...
Watson, J. E. (R.)
Weeks, Edgar (If )

54th, 55th, 56th, 57th.
57th

Miio

ndiana

54th, 56th 57th

liehigan

56th, 57th...

Wheeler. C. K. (/).)
White, John B. (D.) . . . .
Wiley, A. A. (D.)

Kentucky

55th, 56th 57th

. . do

57th .

Alabama

57th

Williams, J. R. (D.) ....
Williams, J. S. (D.) . . . .
Wilson, P. E. (D.)

lliuois

51st, 52d, 53d, 56th,
57th

lississippi ... .

53d, 54th, 55th, 56th,
57th

Vew York

56th. 57th

Woods, S. D. (R.) . .

California

*56th, 57th..

Wooten, D. G. (D.) . . . .
Wright, C. P. (R.) . ...

Texas

*57th . . .

Pennsylvania. . . .
do
Indiana

56th, 57th

Young, J. R. (R.)
Zenor, W. T. (D.) . . .

55th, 56th, 57th

"&gt;5th, 56th, 57th

DELEGATES.

Plynn, D. T. (R )

TERRITORIES.

Oklahoma

53d, 54th, 56th, 57th.
&gt;7th

Rodey, B. S. (R.) :
Smith, M. A. (/).)

Vew Mexico
Arizona

50th, 51st. 52d, 53d,
55th, 57th

Wile-ox, R. W. (Ind) . ..

Flawaii

56th, 57th. .

* Vacancy

Senate :

Republicans 54

Democrats 30

All others 3

(a) At large.
CLASSIFICATION.

House of Representatives :

Republicans ,

Democrats ,

All others

Total

(Three vacancies.)

Total

200

152
5

"357

339

FEDERAL HALL FEDERAL UNION

on the northeast corner of Wall and
Nassau streets. This building
had fallen into decay when the
first national Congress was about
to meet there. Desirous of per
manently retaining the seat of
the national government at New
York, and to provide the national
legislature with suitable accom
modations, several wealthy cit
izens advanced to the city treas
ury (then empty) $32,500, with
which the old building was re
modelled and extensively repair
ed. The name " Federal Hall " was
given to it, and the city councils
placed it at the disposal of the

Federal Hall. The Continental Con- Congress. New York retained the nation-
gress, when sitting in New York, had al capitol only a short time, as it was
been accommodated in the old City Hall, removed to Philadelphia in 1790.

KKDKKAL HAM..

FEDERAL UNION, THE

Federal Union, THE. JOHN FISKE
(q. v.), the eminent historian, contributes
the following essay, originally delivered
as a lecture in London, England:

The great history of Thucydides, which
after twenty-three centuries still ranks
(in spite of Mr. Cobden) among our chief
text-books of political wisdom, has often
seemed to me one of the most mournful
books in the world. At no other spot on
the earth s surface, and at no other time in
the career of mankind, has the human in
tellect flowered with such luxuriance as at
Athens during the eighty-five years which
intervened between the victory of Mara
thon and the defeat of Aegospotamos. In
no other like interval of time, and in no
other community of like dimensions, has
so much work been accomplished of which
we can say with truth that it isicrj//ia*&lt;; ati
an eternal possession. It is impossible
to conceive of a day so distant, or an era
of culture so exalted, that the lessons
taught by Athens shall cease to be of
value, or that the writings of her great
thinkers shall cease to be read with fresh
profit and delight. We understand these
things far better to-day than did those
monsters of erudition in the sixteenth
century who studied the classics for pVo-
logical purposes mainly. Indeed, the older

the world grows, the more varied our ex
perience of practical politics, the more
comprehensive our survey of universal
history, the stronger our grasp upon the
comparative method of inquiry, the more
brilliant is the light thrown upon that
brief day of Athenian greatness, and the
more wonderful and admirable does it all
seem. To see this glorious community
overthrown, shorn of half its virtue (to
use the Homeric phrase), and thrust down
into an inferior position in the world, is
a mournful spectacle indeed. And the
book which sets before us, so impartially
yet so eloquently, the innumerable petty
misunderstandings and contemptible jeal
ousies which brought about this direful
result, is one of the most mournful of
books.

We may console ourselves, however, for
the premature overthrow of the power of
Athens, by the reflection that that power
rested upon political conditions which
could not in any case have been perma
nent or even long-enduring. The entire
political system of ancient Greece, based
as it was upon the idea of the sovereign
independence of each single city, was one
which could not fail sooner or later to ex
haust itself through chronic anarchy. The
on y remedy lay either in some kind of
permanent federation, combined with rep-
40

FEDEBAL UNION, THE

rcscntative government; or else in what
we might call " incorporation and assimi
lation," after the Roman fashion. But the
incorporation of one town with another,
though effected with brilliant results in
the early history of Attica, involved such
a disturbance of all the associations which
in the Greek mind clustered about the
conception of a city that it was quite im
practicable on any large or general scale.
Schemes of federal union were put into
operation, though too late to be of avail
against the assaults of Macedonia and
Koine. But as for the principle of repre
sentation, that seems to have been an in
vention of the Teutonic mind; no states
man of antiquity, either in Greece or at
Home, seems to have conceived the idea
of a city sending delegates armed with
plenary powers to represent its interests
in a general legislative assembly. To the
Greek statesmen, no doubt, this too would
have seemed derogatory to the dignity of
the sovereign city.

This feeling with which the ancient
Greek statesmen, and to some extent the
Romans also, regarded the city, has be
come almost incomprehensible to the
modern mind, so far removed are we from
the political cirmcumstances which made
such a feeling possible. Teutonic civiliza
tion, indeed, has never passed through a
stage in which the foremost position has
been held by civic communities. Teutonic
civilization passed directly from the stage
of tribal into that of national organiza
tion, before any Teutonic city had ac
quired sufficient importance to have claim
ed autonomy for itself: and at the time
when Teutonic nationalities were form
ing, moreover, all the cities in Europe had
so long been accustomed to recognize a
master outside of them in the person of
the Roman emperor that the very tradi
tion of civic autonomy, as it existed in
ancient Greece, had become extinct. This
(Inference between the political basis of
Teutonic and of Grscco-Roman civilization
is one of which it would be difficult to ex-
;i iterate the importance; and when thor
oughly understood it goes further, perhaps,
than anything else towards accounting for
the successive failures of the Greek and
Roman political systems, and towards in
spiring us with confidence in the future
stability of the political system which has

been wrought out by the genius of the
English race.

We have seen how the most prim
itive form of political association known
to have existed is that of the clan,
or group of families held together by
ties of descent from a common an
cestor. We saw how the change from a
nomadic to a stationary mode of life, at
tendant upon the adoption of agricultural
pursuits, converted the clan into a mark
or village-community, something like
those which exist to-day in Russia. The
political progress of primitive society
seems to have consisted largely in the
coalescence of these small groups into
larger groups. The first series of com
pound groups resulting from the coales
cence of adjacent marks is that which was
known in nearly all Teutonic lands as the
hundred, in Athens as the ^parpia or
brotherhood, in Rome as the curia. Yet
alongside of the Roman group called the
curia there is a group whose name, the
century, exactly translates the name of
the Teutonic group; and, as Mr. Free
man says, it is difficult to believe that the
Roman century did not at the outset in
some way correspond to the Teutonic
hundred as a stage in political organiza
tion. But both these terms, as we know
them in history, are survivals from some
prehistoric state of things: and whether
they were originally applied to a hun
dred of houses, or of families, or of war
riors, we do not know.* M. Geffroy. in
his interesting essay on the Germania of
Tacitus, suggests that the term canton
may have a similar origin."* The out
lines of these primitive groups are, how
ever, more obscure than those of the more
primitive mark, because in most cases
they have been either crossed and effaced
or at any rate diminished in importance
by the more highly compounded groups
which came next in order of formation.
Next above the hundred, in order of com
position, comes the group known in an
cient Italy as the pagus, in Attica per
haps as the derne, in Germany and at first
in England as the gau or ga, at a later
date in England as the shire. Whatever
its name, this group answers to the tribe

* Freeman, Comparative Politics, US.
** Geffroy, Rome ct les Barbares, 200.

341

FEDEBAL UNION, THE

regarded as settled upon a certain deter- sion or from the expansion and coales-
minate territory. Just as in the earlier cence of primitive village-communities;
nomadic life the aggregation of clans and such as have not arisen in this way,
makes ultimately the tribe, so in the including some of the greatest of Indian
more advanced agricultural life of our cities, have grown up about the intrenched
Aryan ancestors the aggregation of marks camps of the Mogul emperors.* The case
or village-communities makes ultimately has been just the same in modern Europe,
the gau or shire. Properly speaking, the Some famous cities of England and Ger-
name shire is descriptive of division and many such as Chester and Lincoln, Stras-
not of aggregation; but this term came burg and Maintz grew up about the
into use in England after the historic camps of the Roman legions. But in
order of formation had been forgotten, general the Teutonic city has been formed
and when the shire was looked upon as by the expansion and coalescence of
u piece of some larger whole, such as the thickly peopled townships and hundreds,
kingdom of Mercia or Wessex. Histori- In the United States nearly all cities
cally, however, the shire was not made, have come from the growth and expansion
like the departments of modern France, of villages, with such occasional cases of
by the division of the kingdom for admin- coalescence as that of Boston with Rox-
istrative purposes, but the kingdom was bury and Charlestown. Now and then a
made by the union of shires that were city has been laid out as a city ttb initio,
previously autonomous. In the primitive with full consciousness of its purpose, as
process of aggregation, the shire or gau, a man would build a house; and this was
governed by its icitenagemotc or " meet- the case not merely with Martin Chuz-
ing of wise men," and by its chief magis- zlewit s " Eden," but with the city of
trate who was called ealdorman in time of \Vashington, the seat of our federal gov-
peace and heretoga, " army-leader," dux, ernment. But, to go back to the early age
or duke, in time of war, the shire, I say, of England the country which best ex-
in this form, is the largest and most com- hibits the normal development of Teu-
plex political body we find previous to tonic institutions the point which I wish
the formation of kingdoms and nations, especially to emphasize is this: in no case
But in saying this, we have already passed does the city appear as equivalent to the
beyond the point at which we can include dwelling-place of a tribe or of a confedera-
in the same general formula the process tion of tribes. In no case doos citixons]i ; ".
of political development in Teutonic coun- or burghership, appear to rest upon the
tries on the one hand and in Greece and basis of a real or assumed community of
Home on the other. Up as far as the descent from a single real or mythical pro-
formation of the tribe, territorially re- genitor. In the primitive mark, as we have
garded, the parallelism is preserved; but seen, the bond which kept the community
at this point there begins an all-important together and constituted it a political unit
divergence. In the looser and more dif- was the bond of blood-relationship, real or
fused society of the rural Teutons, the assumed; but this was not the case with
tribe is spread over a shire, and the aggre- the city or borough. The city did not
nation of shires makes a kingdom, em- correspond with the tribe, as the mark
bracing cities, towns, and rural districts corresponded with the clan. The aggre.tra-
held together by similar bonds of rela- tion of clans into tribes corresponded with
tionship to the central governing power, the aggregation of marks, not into cities
lint in the society of the old Greeks and but into shires. The multitude of corn-
Italians, the aggregation of tribes, crowd- pound political units, by the further corn
ed together on fortified hill-tops, makes pounding of which a nation was to be
Ihe Ancient City a very different thing, formed, did not consist of cities but of
indeed, from the modern city of later shires. The city was simply a point in
Roman or Teutonic foundation. Let us Ihe shire distinguished by greater density
consider, for a moment, the difference. of population. The relations sustained by
Sir Henry Maine tells us that in Hindu- tho thinly peopled rural townships and
stan nearly all the great towns and cities

have arisen either from the simple expan- * Maine, Village Communities, 118.

342

FEDERAL UNION, THE

hundreds to the general government of who combined in himself the functions of

the shire were co-ordinate with the rela- king, general, and priest. Thus, too, there

tions sustained to the same government was a severance, politically, between city

by those thickly peopled townships and and country such as the Teutonic world

hundreds which upon their coalescence has never known. The rural districts sur-

were known as cities or boroughs. Of rounding a city might be subject to it,

course I am speaking now in a broad and but could neither share its franchise nor

general way, and without reference to such claim a co-ordinate franchise with it.

special privileges or immunities as cities Athens, indeed, at an early period, went

and boroughs frequently obtained by royal so far as to incorporate with itself Eleu-

charter in feudal times. Such special sis and Marathon and the other rural

privileges as for instance the exemption towns of Attica. Tn this one respect

of boroughs from the ordinary sessions of Athens transgressed the bounds of an-

the county court, under Henry I.* were cient civic organization, and no doubt it

in their nature grants from an external gained greatly in power therebv. But

source, and were in nowise inherent in the generally in the Hellenic world the rural

position or mode of origin of the Teutonic population in the neighborhood of a great

city. And they were, moreover, posterior city were mere irepioiKot, or " dwellers in

in date to that embryonic period of na- the vicinity"; the inhabitants of the city

tional growth of which I am now speak- who had moved thither from some other

ing. They do not affect in any way the cor- city, both they and their descendants, were

rectness of my general statement, which mere fikroiKoi, or " dwellers in the

is sufficiently illustrated by the fact that place"; and neither the one class nor the

the oldest shire - motes, or county assem- other could acquire the rights and priv-

blies, were attended by representatives i leges of citizenship. A revolution, in-

from all the townships and hundreds in deed, went on at Athens, from the time of

the shire, whether such townships and Solon to the time of Kleisthenes, which

hundreds formed parts of boroughs or not. essentially modified the old tribal divi-

Very different from this was the em- sions _and admitted to the franchise all
bryonic growth of political society in such families resident from time inime-
ancient Greece and Italy. There the ag- morial as did not belong to the tribes of
gregation of clans into tribes and con- eupadrids by whom the city was founded,
federations of tribes resulted directly, as But this change once accomplished, the
we have seen, in the city. There burgher- civic exclusiveness of Athens remained
ship, with its political and social rights very much what it was before. The popu-
and duties, had its theoretical basis in lar assembly was enlarged, and public
descent from a common ancestor, or from harmony was secured; but Athenian
a small group of closely related common burghership still remained a privilege
ancestors. The group of fellow-citizens which could not be acquired by the native
was associated through its related groups of any other city. Similar revolutions,
of ancestral household-deities, and through with a similarly limited purpose and re-
religious rites performed in common to suit, occurred at Sparta, Elis, and other
which it would have been sacrilege to have Greek cities. At Rome, by a like revolu-
admitted a stranger. Thus the ancient tion, the plebeians of the Capitoline and
city was a religious as well as a political Aventine acquired parallel rights of citi-
bcdy, and in either character it was com- zenship with the patricians of the original
plete in itself and it was sovereign. Thus city on the Palatine; but this revolution,
in ancient Greece and Italy the primitive as we shall presently see, had different re-
clan assembly or township-meeting did not suits, leading ultimately to the overthrow
grow by aggregation into the assembly of of tbe city system throughout the ancient
the shire, but it developed into the co- world.

tnitia or ecclesia of the city. The chief The deep-seated difference between the

magistrate was not the ealdorman of early Teutonic political system based on the shire

English history, but the rex or basilcns and the Graeco-Roman system based on the

city is now, I think, sufficiently apparent.

* Stubbs, Constitutional History, i., C25. Now from this fundamental difference

343

FEDERAL UNION, THE

have come two consequences of enormous who were summoned by Earl Simon to

importance consequences of which it is the famous Parliament of 1265, as well as

hardly too much to say that, taken to- of the two knights from each shire whom

gether, they furnish the key to the whole the King had summoned eleven years be-

history of European civilization as regard- fore. In these four discreet men sent to

ed purely from a political point of view. speak for their township in the old county

The first of these consequences had no assembly, we have the germ of institu-

doubt a very humble origin in the mere tions that have ripened into the House of

difference between the shire and the city Commons and into the legislatures of mod

in territorial extent and in density of ern kingdoms and republics. In the sys-

population. When people live near to- tern of representation thus inaugurated

gether it is easy for them to attend a lay the future possibility of such gigantic

town-meeting, and the assembly by which political aggregates as the United States

public business is transacted is likely to of America.

remain a primary assembly, in the true In the ancient city, on the other hand,

sense of the term. But when people are the extreme compactness of the political

dispersed over a wide tract of country, the structure made representation unneces-

primary assembly inevitably shrinks up sary and prevented it from being thought

into an assembly of such persons as can ot in circumstances where it might have

best afford the time and trouble of at- proved of immense value. In an aristo-

tending it, or who have the strongest in- cratic Greek city, like Sparta, all the

terest in going, or are most likely to be members of the ruling class met together

listened to after they get there. Dis- and voted in the assembly ; in a democratic

tance and difficulty, and in early times city, like Athens, all the free citizens met

danger too, keep many people away. And and voted ; in each case the assembly was

though a shire is not a wide tract of coun- primary and not representative. The only

try for most purposes, and according to exception, in all Greek antiquity, is one

modern ideas, it was nevertheless quite which emphatically proves the rule. The

wide enough in former times to bring Amphictyonic Council, an institution of

about the result I have mentioned. In prehistoric origin, concerned mainly with

the times before the Norman conquest, if religious affairs pertaining to the worship

not before the completed union of Eng- of the Delphic Apollo, furnished a prece-

hind under Edgar, the shire-mote or dent for a representative, and indeed for

county assembly, though in theory still a federal, assembly. Delegates from

a folk-mote or primary assembly, had various Greek tribes and cities attended

shrunk into what was virtually a witen- it. The fact that with such a suggestive

agemote or assembly of the most important precedent before their eyes the Greeks

persons in the county. But the several never once hit upon the device of repre-

townships, in order to keep their fair sentation, even in their attempts at fram-

share of control over county affairs, and ing federal unions, shows how thoroughly

not wishing to leave the matter to chance, their whole political training had operated

sent to the meetings each its representa- 1o exclude such a conception from their

fives in the person of the town-reeve and minds.

four " discreet men." I believe it has The second great consequence of the
not been determined at what precise time Grieco-Roman city system was linked in
this step was taken, but it no doubt long many ways with this absence of the rep-
antedates the Norman conquest. It is resentativc principle. In Greece the
mentioned by Professor Stubbs as being al- formation of political aggregates higher
ready, in the reign of Henry III., a custom and more extensive than the city was.
of immemorial antiquity.* It was one until a late date, rendered impossible,
of the greatest steps ever taken in the The good and had sides of this peculiar
political history of mankind. In these phase of civilization have been often
four discreet men we have the forerun- enough commented on by historians. On
ners of the two burghers from each town the one hand the democratic assembly of

such an imperial city as Athens furnished

* Stubbs, Select Charters, 401. a school of political training superior to

344

PEDEBAL UNION, THE

anything else that the world has ever seen.
It was something like what the New Eng
land town-meeting would be if it were con
tinually required to adjust complicated
questions of international polity, if it were
carried on in the very centre or point of
confluence of all contemporary streams of
culture, and if it were in the habit every
few days of listening to statesmen and
orators like Hamilton or Webster, jurists
like Marshall, generals like Sherman, poets
like Lowell, historians like Parkman.
Nothing in all history has approached the
high-wrought intensity and brilliancy of
the political life of Athens.

On the other hand, the smallness of the
independent city, as a political aggregate,
made it of little or no use in diminishing
the liability to perpetual warfare which is
the curse of all primitive communities.
In a group of independent cities, such as
made up the Hellenic world, the tendency
to warfare is almost as strong, and the
occasions for warfare are almost as fre
quent, as in a congeries of mutually hostile
tribes of barbarians. There is something
almost lurid in the sharpness of contrast
with which the wonderful height of hu
manity attained by Hellas is set off
against the fierce barbarism which charac
terized the relations of its cities to one an
other. It may be laid down as a general
rule that in an early state of society,
where the political aggregations are small,
warfare is universal and cruel. From the
intensity of the jealousies and rivalries
between adjacent self-governing groups of
men, nothing short of chronic warfare can
result, until some principle of union is
evolved by which disputes can be settled
in accordance with general principles ad
mitted by all. Among peoples that have
never risen above the tribal stage of aggre
gation, such as the American Indians, war
is the normal condition of things, and
there is nothing fit to be called peace
there are only truces of brief and uncer
tain duration. Were it not for this there
would be somewhat less to be said in
favor of great states and kingdoms. As
modern life grows more and more compli
cated and interdependent, the great state
subserves innumerable useful purposes;
l&gt;ut in the history of civilization its first
st rvicc, both in order of time and in order
of importance, consists in the diminution

of the quantity of warfare and in the
narrowing of its sphere. For within the
territorial limits of any great and perma
nent state the tendency is for warfare to
become the exception and peace the rule.
In this direction the political careers of
the Greek cities assisted the progress of
civilization but little.

Under the conditions of Graco-Rornan
civic life there were but two practicable
methods of forming a great state and di
minishing the quantity of warfare. The
one method was conquest with incorpora
tion, the other method was federation.
Either one city might conquer all the
others and endow their citizens with its
own franchise, or all the cities might give
up part of their sovereignty to a federal
body which should have power to keep the
peace, and should represent the civilized
world of the time in its relations with out
lying barbaric peoples. Of these two
methods, obviously the latter is much the
more effective, but it presupposes for its
successful adoption a higher general state
of civilization than the former. Neither
method was adopted by the Greeks in their
day of greatness. The Spartan method of
extending its power was conquest without
incorporation: when Sparta conquered an
other Greek city, she sent a harmost to
govern it like a tyrant; in other words she
virtually enslaved the subject city. The
efforts of Athens tended more in the direc
tion of a peaceful federalism. In the great
Delian confederacy which developed into
the maritime empire of Athens, the Aegean
cities were treated as allies rather than
subjects. As regards their local affairs
they were in no way interfered with, and
could they have been represented in some
kind of a federal council at Athens, the
course of Grecian history might have been
wonderfully altered. As it was, they were
all deprived of one essential element of
sovereignty, the power of controlling
their own military forces. Some of them,
ar Chios and Mitylene, furnished troops at
the demand of Athens; others maintained
no troops, but paid a fixed tribute to
.Athens in return for her protection. In
either case they felt shorn of part of their
dignity, though otherwise they had nothing
to complain of ; and during the Pelopon-
ncsian \var Athens had to reckon with
Iheir tendency to revolt as well as with

345

FEDEBAL UNION, THE

Iier Dorian enemies. Such a confederation that which prevailed throughout the Med-
was naturally doomed to speedy over- iterranean world in pre-Christian times,
throw. the more barbarous method of conquest

In the century following the death of with incorporation was more likely to be
Alexander, in the closing age of Hellenic successful on a great scale. This was well
independence, the federal idea appears in illustrated in the history of Rome a civic
a much more advanced stage of elabora- community of the same generic type with
tion, though in a part of Greece which Sparta and Athens, but presenting spe-
had been held of little account in the cific differences of the highest importance,
great days of Athens and Sparta. Be- The beginnings of Rome, unfortunately,
tween the Achaian federation, framed in are prehistoric. I have often thought that
274 B.C., and the United States of Amer- if some beneficent fairy could grant us the
ica, there are some interesting points of power of somewhere raising the veil of
resemblance which have been elaborate- oblivion which enshrouds the earliest ages
ly discussed by Mr. Freeman,, in his His of Aryan dominion in Europe, there is no
tory of Federal Government. About the place from which the historian should be
same time the Aetolian League came into more glad to see it lifted than from Rome
prominence in the north. Both these in the centuries which saw the formation
leagues were instances of true federal gov- of the city, and which preceded the expul-
ernment, and were not mere confedera- sion of the kings. Even the legends,
tions ; that is, the central government acted which were uncritically accepted from the
directly upon all the citizens and not mere- days of Livy to those of our grandfathers,
Iv upon the local governments. Each of are provokingly silent upon the very points
these leagues had for its chief executive as to which we would fain get at least a
officer a general elected for one year, with hint. This much is plain, however, that
powers similar to those of an American in the embryonic stage of the Roman com-
J resident. In each the supreme assembly monwealth some obscure processes ^of
was a primary assembly at which every fusion or commingling went on.
citizen from every city of the league had a tribal population of Rome was more hete-
right to be present, to speak, and to vote; rogeneous than that of the great cities oi
but as a natural consequence these assem- Greece, and its earliest municipal religion
blies shrank into comparatively aristo- seems to have been an assemblage of va-
cratic bodies. In Aetolia, which was a rious tribal religions that had points of
group of mountain cantons similar to contact with other tribal religions through-
Switzerland, the federal union was more out large portions of the Grseco-Ttalic
complete than in Achaia, which was a world. As M. de Coulanges observes,*
group of cities. In Achaia cases occurred Rome was almost the only city of an-
hi which a single city was allowed to deal tiquity which was not kept apart from
separately with foreign poAvers. Here, as other cities by its religion. There was
in earlier Greek history, the instinct of hardly a people in Greece or Italy which
autonomy was too powerful to admit of it was restrained from admitting to par-
complete federation. Yet the career of the ticipation in its municipal rites.
Achaian League was not an inglorious However this may have been, it is cor-
njie. For nearly a century and a half it tain that Rome early succeeded in freeing
gave the Peloponnesos a larger measure itself from that insuperable prejudice
of orderly government than the country which elsewhere prevented the ancient city
had ever known before, without infringing from admitting aliens to a share in its
upon local liberties. It defied successfully franchise. And in this victory over prime-
the threats and assaults of Macedonia, and va l political ideas lay the whole secret of
yielded at last only to the all-conquering Rome s mighty career. The victory WMS
might of Rome. not indeed completed until after the tor-

Thus in so far as Greece contributed rihlo social war of B.C. 90, but it was
anything towards the formation of great begun at least four centxiries earlier with

n.n d pacific political aggregates, she did it the admission of the plebeians. At the

through attempts at federation. But in so

low a state of political development as * La CM Antique, 441,

346

FEDERAL UNION, THE

consummation of the conquest of Italy in tion of the primitive tribal and municipal
B.C. 270 Roman burghership already ex- religions, thus clearing the way for Chris-
tended, in varying degrees of complete- tianity a step which, regarded from a
ness, through the greater part of Etruria purely political point of view, was of im-
and Campania, from the coast to the mense importance for the further consoli-
mountains; while all the rest of Italy was da tion of society in Europe. The third
admitted to privileges for which ancient benefit was the development of the Roman
history had elsewhere furnished no prece- law into a great body of legal precepts
dent. Hence the invasion of Hannibal half and principles leavened throughout with
a century later, even with its stupendous ethical principles of universal applica-
victories of Thrasymene and Cannae, effect- bility, and the gradual substitution of this
ed nothing towards detaching the Italian Roman law for the innumerable local
subjects from their allegiance to Rome; usages of ancient communities. Thus
and herein we have a most instructive arose the idea of a common Christendom,
contrast to the conduct of the communities of a brotherhood of peoples associated both
subject to Athens at several critical mo- by common beliefs regarding the unseen
ments of the Peloponnesian War. With this world and by common principles of action
consolidation of Italy, thus triumphantly in the daily affairs of life. The common
demonstrated, the whole problem of ethical and traditional basis thus estab-
the conquering career of Rome was solved, lished for the future development of the
All that came afterwards was simply a great nationalities of Europe is the most
corollary from this. The concentration of fundamental characteristic distinguishing
all the fighting power of the peninsula into modern from ancient history,
the hands of the ruling city formed a While, however, it secured these benefits
stronger political aggregate than anything for mankind for all time to come, the
the world had as yet seen. It was not Roman political system in itself was one
only proof against the efforts of the great- which could not possibly endure. That ex-
est military genius of antiquity, but when- tension of the franchise which made
ever it was brought into conflict with the Rome s conquests possible, was, after all,
looser organizations of Greece, Africa, and the extension of a franchise which could
Asia, or with the semi-barbarous tribes of only be practically enjoyed within the
Spain and Gaul, the result of the struggle walls of the imperial city itself. From
was virtually predetermined. The univer- first to last the device of representation
sal dominion of Rome was inevitable, so was never thought of, and from first to
soon as the political union of Italy had last the Roman comitia remained a pri-
been accomplished. Among the Romans mary assembly. The result was that, as the
themselves there were those who thorough- burgherhood enlarged, the assembly be-
]y understood this point, as we may see came a huge mob as little fitted for the
from the interesting speech of the Em- transaction of public business as a town-
peror Claudius in favor of admitting Gauls meeting of all the inhabitants of New
to the senate. York would be. The functions which in
The benefits conferred upon the world Athens were performed by the assembly
by the universal dominion of Rome were of were accordingly in Rome performed large-
quite inestimable value. First of these ly by the aristocratic senate; and for the
benefits, and (as it were) the material conflicts consequently arising between the
basis of the others, was the prolonged senatorial and the popular parties it was
peace that was enforced throughout large difficult to find any adequate constitu-
portions of the world where chronic war- tional check. Outside of Italy, moreover,
fare had hitherto prevailed. The pax ro- in the absence of a representative system,
mana has perhaps been sometimes depict- the Roman government was a despotism
ed in exaggerated colors; but as compared which, whether more or less oppressive,
with all that had preceded, and with all could in the nature of things be nothing
that followed, down to the beginning of else than a despotism. But nothing is
the nineteenth century, it deserved the en- more dangerous for a free people than the
comiums it has received. The second bene- attempt to govern a dependent people des-
fit was the mingling and mutual destruc- potically. The bad government kills out

347

FEDERAL UNION, THE

the good government as surely as slave-
labor destroys free-labor, or as a debased
currency drives out a sound currency. The
existence of proconsuls in the provinces,
with great armies at their beck and call,
brought about such results as might have
been predicted, as soon as the growing
anarchy at home furnished a valid excuse
for armed interference. In the case of the
Roman world, however, the result is not
to be deplored, for it simply substituted a
government that was practicable under the
circumstances for one that had become
demonstrably impracticable.

As regards the provinces the change
from senatorial to imperial government at
Rome was a great gain, inasmuch as it
substituted an orderly and responsible
administration for irregular and irrespon
sible extortion. For a long time, too, it
was no part of the imperial policy to
interfere with local customs and privi
leges. But, in the absence of a represent
ative system, the centralizing tendency
inseparable from the position of such a
government proved to be irresistible. And
the strength of this centralizing tendency
was further enhanced by the military char
acter of the government which was neces
sitated by perpetual frontier warfare
against the barbarians. As year after
year went by, the provincial towns and
cities were governed less and less by their
local magistrates, more and more by
prefects responsible to the emperor only.
There were other co-operating causes,
economical and social, for the decline of
the empire; but this change alone, which
was consummated by the time of Dio
cletian, was quite enough to burn out the
candle of Roman strength at both ends.
\Yith the decrease in the power of the local
governments eame an increase in the bur
dens of taxation and conscription that
were laid upon them.* And as "the dis
location of commerce and industry caused
by the barbarian inroads, and the in
creasing demands of the central adminis
tration for the payment of its countless
officials and the maintenance of its troops,
all went together." the load at last became
greater " than human nature could en
dure. By the time of the great im a-

* Arnold. Roman Prorinrinl Ail ministra
tion. L 37.

sions of the fifth century, local political
life had gone far towards extinction
throughout Roman Europe, and the tribal
organization of the Teutons prevailed in
the struggle simply because it had come
to be politically stronger than any or
ganization that was left to oppose it.

We have now seen how the two great
political systems that were founded upon
the ancient city both ended in failure,
though both achieved enormous and last
ing results. And we have seen how large
ly both these political failures were due
to the absence of the principle of repre
sentation from the public life of Greece
and Rome. The chief problem of civiliza
tion, from the political point of view, has
always been how to secure concerted ac
tion among men on a great scale without
sacrificing local independence. The an
cient history of Europe shows that it is
not possible to solve this problem without
the aid of the principle of representation.
Greece, until overcome by external force,
sacredly maintained local self-government,
but in securing permanent concert of ac
tion it was conspicuously unsuccessful.
Rome secured concert of action on a gigan
tic scale, and transformed the thousand
unconnected tribes and cities it conquered
into an organized European world, but
in doing this it went far towards extin
guishing local self-government. The ad
vent of the Teutons upon the scene seems
therefore to have been necessary, if only
to supply the indispensable element with
out which the dilemma of civilization
could not have been surmounted. The tur
bulence of Europe during the Teutonic mi
grations were so great and so long con
tinued that on a superficial view one
might be excused for regarding the good
work of Rome as largely undone. And in
the feudal isolation of effort and apparent
incapacity for combined action which
characterized the different parts of Eu
rope after the downfall of the Carolin-
gian empire, it might well have seemed
that political society had reverted towards
a primitive type of structure. In truth,
however, the retrogradation was much
slighter than appeared on the surface.
Feudalism itself, with its curious net-work
of fealties and obligations running through
the fabric of society in every direction.
was by no means purely disintegrative in

348

FEDEBAL UNION, THE

its tendencies. The mutual relations of
rival baronies were by no means like those
of rival clans or tribes in pre-Roman days.
The central power of Rome, though no
longer exerted politically through cura
tors and prefects, was no less effective in
the potent hands of the clergy and in the
traditions of the imperial jurisprudence
by which the legal ideas of mediaeval so
ciety were so strongly colored. So power
ful, indeed, was this twofold influence of
Rome that in the later Middle Ages, when
the modern nationalities had fairly taken
shape, it was the capacity for local self-
government in spite of all the Teutonic
reinforcements it had had that had suf
fered much more than the capacity for
national consolidation. Among the great
modern nations it was only England
which in its political development had
remained more independent of the Roman
law and the Roman church than even the
Teutonic fatherland itself it was only
England that came out of the mediaeval
crucible with its Teutonic self-government
substantially intact. On the mainland
only two little spots, at the two extremi
ties of the old Teutonic world, had fared
equally well. At the mouth of the Rhine
the little Dutch communities were pre
pared to lead the attack in the terrible
battle for freedom with which the drama
of modern history was ushered in. In the
impregnable mountain fastnesses of upper
Germany the Swiss cantons had bid de
fiance alike to Austrian tyrant and to
Burgundian invader, and had preserved in
its purest form the rustic democracy of
their Aryan forefathers. By a curious
coincidence, both these free peoples, in
their efforts towards national unity, were
led to frame federal unions, and one of
these political achievements is, from the
stand-point of universal history, of very
great significance. The old League of
High Germany, which earned immortal
renown at Morgarten and Sempach, con
sisted of German-speaking cantons only.
But in the fifteenth century the League
won by force of arms a small bit of Ital
ian territory about Lake Lugano, and in
the sixteenth the powerful city of Bern
annexed the Burgundian bishopric of
T.ausanne and rescued the free city of
Geneva from the clutches of the Duke
of Savoy. Other Burgundian possessions

.149

of Savoy were seized by the canton of Frei
burg; and after awhile all these subjects
and allies were admitted on equal terms
into the confederation. The result is that
modern Switzerland is made up of what
might seem to be most discordant and un
manageable elements. Four languages
German, French, Italian, and Rhsetian
are spoken within the limits of the con
federacy; and in point of religion the can
tons are sharply divided as Catholic and
Protestant. Yet in spite of all this,
Switzerland is as thoroughly united in
feeling as any nation in Europe. To the
German-speaking Catholic of Altdorf the
German Catholics of Bavaria are foreign
ers, while the French-speaking Protestants
of Geneva are fellow-countrymen. Deeper
down even than these deep-seated differ
ences of speech and creed lies the feeling
that comes from the common possession of
a political freedom that is greater than
that possessed by surrounding peoples.
Such has been the happy outcome of the
first attempt at federal union made by men
of Teutonic descent. Complete indepen
dence in local affairs, when combined with
adequate representation in the federal
council, has affected such an intense co
hesion of interests throughout the nation
as no centralized government, however
cunningly devised, could ever have secured.
Until the nineteenth century, however,
the federal form of government had given
no clear indication of its capacity for hold
ing together great bodies of men, spread
over vast territorial areas, in orderly and
peaceful relations with one another. The
empire of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius
still remained the greatest known example
of political aggregation; and men who
argued from simple historic precedent
without that power of analyzing prece
dents which the comparative method has
supplied, came not unnaturally to the con
clusions that great political aggregates
have an inherent tendency towards break
ing up, and that great political aggregates
cannot be maintained except by a strongly
centralized administration and at the
sacrifice of local self-government. A cen
tury ago the very idea of a stable federa
tion of forty powerful states, covering a
territory nearly equal in area to the whole
of Europe, carried on by a republican gov
ernment elected by universal suffrage, and

FEDERAL UNION, THE

guaranteeing to every tiniest village its full able to found durable and self-supporting

meed of local independence the very idea colonies. I have now to add that it was

of all this would have been scouted as a only England, among the great nations ot

thoroughly impracticable, Utopian dream. Europe, that could send forth colonists

And such scepticism would have been capable of dealing successfully with the

quite justifiable, for European history did difficult problem of forming such a politi-

not seem to afford any precedents upon
which such a forecast of the future could
be logically based. Between the various
nations of Europe there has certainly
existed an element of political community,
bequeathed by the Roman Empire, mani
fested during the Middle Ages in a com
mon relationship to the Church, and in
modern times in a common adherence to
certain uncodified rules of international

cal aggregate as the United States have
become. For obviously the preservation of
local self-government is essential to the
very idea of a federal union. Without the
town - meeting, or its equivalent in some
form or other, the federal union would
become ipso facto converted into a cen
tralizing imperial government. Should
anything of this sort ever happen should
American towns ever come to be ruled

law, more or less imperfectly defined and by prefects appointed at Washington, and

should American States ever become like
the administrative departments of France,
or even like the counties of England at
the present day then the time will have
come when men may safely predict the
break-up of the American political system

enforced. Between England and Spain,
for example, or between France and
Austria, there has never been such utter
political severance as existed normally
between Greece and Persia, or Rome and
Carthage. But this community of political

the diversity of interests between its parts.
States so unlike one another as Maine
and Louisiana and California cannot be

inheritance in Europe, it is needless to say, by reason of its overgrown dimensions and
falls very far short of the degree of com
munity implied in a federal union; and
so great is the diversity of language and
of creed, and of local historic development held together by the stiff bonds of a cen-
with the deep-seated prejudices attendant tralizing government. The durableness of
thereupon, that the formation of a Eu
ropean federation could hardly be looked
for except as the result of mighty though
quiet and subtle influences operating for
a long time from without. From what

the federal union lies in its flexibility, and
it is this flexibility which makes it the

only kind of government, according to
modern ideas, that is permanently applica
ble to a whole continent. If the United

direction, and in what manner, such an States were to-day a consolidated republic

irresistible though perfectly pacific press
ure is likely to be exerted in the future,
I shall endeavor to show elsewhere.
At present we have to observe that the
experiment of federal union on a grand
scale required as its conditions, first, a
vast extent of unoccupied country which
could be settled without much warfare
by men of the same race and speech, and
secondly, on the part of settlers, a rich

in California
peace of the

like France, recent events
might have disturbed the
country. But in the federal union, if Cali
fornia, as a State sovereign within its own
sphere, adopts a grotesque constitution
that aims at infringing on the rights of
capitalists, the other States are not di
rectly affected. They may disapprove, but
they have neither the right nor the desire
to interfere. Meanwhile the laws of

inheritance of political training such as nature quietly operate to repair
is afforded by long ages of self-government.
The Atlantic coast of North America,
easily accessible to Europe, yet remote
enough to be freed from the political com-

the

blunder. Capital flows away from Cal
ifornia, and the business of the State is
damaged, until presently the ignorant
demagogues lose favor, the silly constitu-

plications of the Old World, furnished the tion becomes a dead-letter, and its formal

repeal begins to be talked of. Not the
smallest ripple of excitement disturbs the
profound peace of the country at large. It

lish self-government that England alone, is in this complete independence that is
among the great nations of Europe, was preserved by every State, in all matters

350

first of these conditions: the history of the
English people through fifty generations
furnished the second. It was through Eng-

FEDERAL UNION, THE

save those in which the federal principle
itself is concerned, that we find the surest
guarantee of the permanence of the Ameri
can political system. Obviously no race of
men, save the race to which habits of self-
government and the skilful use of political
representation had come to be as second
nature, could ever have succeeded in found
ing such a system.

Yet even by men of English race, work
ing without let or hinderanee from any
foreign source, and with the better part
of a continent at their disposal for a field
to work in, so great a political problem
as that of the American Union has not
been solved without much toil and trouble.
The great puzzle of civilization how to
secure permanent concert of action with
out sacrificing independence of action is
a puzzle which has taxed the ingenuity of
Americans as well as of older Aryan peo
ples. In the year 1788 when our federal
union was completed, the problem had al
ready occupied the minds of American
statesmen for a century and a half that
is to say, ever since the English settle
ment of Massachusetts. In 1643 a New
England confederation was formed between
Massachusetts and Connecticut, together
with Plymouth, since merged in Massa
chusetts, and New Haven, since merged
in Connecticut. The confederation was
formed for defence against the French in
Canada, the Dutch on the Hudson River,
and the Indians. But owing simply to the
inequality in the sizes of these colonies
Massachusetts more than outweighing the
other three combined the practical work
ing of this confederacy was never very
successful. In 1754, just before the out
break of the great war which drove the
French from America, a general Congress
of the colonies was held at Albany, and
a comprehensive scheme of union was pro
posed by Benjamin Franklin, but nothing
came of the project at that time. The
commercial rivalry between the colonies,
and their disputes over boundary - lines,
were then quite like the similar phenom
ena with which Europe had so long been
familiar. In 1756 Georgia and South
Carolina actually came to blows over the
navigation of the Savannah River. The
idea that the thirteen colonies could ever
overcome their mutual jealousies so far
as to unite in a single political body was

351

received at that time in England with a
derision like that which a proposal for
a permanent federation of European
states would excite in many minds to
day. It was confidently predicted that if
the common allegiance to the British crown
were once withdrawn, the colonies would
forthwith proceed to destroy themselves
with internecine war. In fact, however,
it was the shaking off of allegiance to the
British crown, and the common trials and
sufferings of the war of independence,
that at last welded the colonies together
and made a federal union possible. As
it was, the union was consummated only
by degrees. By the Articles of Confeder
ation, agreed on by Congress in 1777, but
not adopted by all the States until 1781,
the federal government acted only upon
the several State governments, and not
directly upon individuals; there was no
federal judiciary for the decision of con
stitutional questions arising out of the
relations between the States; and the Con
gress was not provided with any efficient
means of raising a revenue or of enforcing
its legislative decrees. Under such a gov
ernment the difficulty of insuring concert
ed action was so great that, but for the
transcendent personal qualities of Wash
ington, the bungling mismanagement of
the British ministry, and the timely aid
of the French fleet, the war of indepen
dence would most likely have ended in
failure. After the independence of the
colonies was acknowledged, the formation
of a more perfect union was seen to be
the only method of securing peace and
making a nation which should be respect
ed by foreign powers; and so in 1788, after
much discussion, the present Constitution
of the United States was adopted a Con
stitution which satisfied very few people
at the time, and which was from beginning
to end a series of compromises, yet which
has proved in its working a masterpiece
of political wisdom.

The first great compromise answered to
the initial difficulty of securing approxi
mate equality of weight in the federal
councils between States of unequal size.
The simple device by which this difficulty
was at last surmounted has proved effect
ual, although the inequalities between the
States have greatly increased. To-day the
population of New York is more than

FEDERAL UNION, THE

eighty times that of Nevada. In area
the State of Rhode Island is smaller than
Montenegro, while the State of Texas is
larger than the Austrian Empire, with
Bavaria and Wiirtemberg thrown in. Yet
New York and Nevada, Rhode Island and
Texas each send two Senators to Washing
ton, while on the other hand in the lower
House each State has a number of repre
sentatives proportioned to its population.
The upper House of Congress is therefore
a federal, while the lower House is a na
tional body, and the government is brought
into direct contact with the people with
out endangering the equal rights of the
several States.

The second great compromise of the
American Constitution consists in the
series of arrangements by which sover
eignty is divided between the States and
the federal government. In all domestic
legislation and jurisdiction, civil and crim
inal, in all matters relating to tenure of
property, marriage and divorce, the ful
filment of contracts and the punishment
of malefactors, each separate State is as
completely a sovereign state as France
or Great Britain. A concrete illustration
may not be superfluous. If a criminal is
condemned to death in Pennsylvania, the
royal prerogative of pardon resides in the
governor of Pennsylvania: the President
of the United States has no more authori
ty in the case than the Czar of Russia. Nor
in civil cases can an appeal lie from the
State courts to the Supreme Court of the
United States, save where express pro
vision has been made in the Constitution.
Within its own sphere the State is su
preme. The chief attributes of sovereignty
with which the several States have part
ed are the coining of money, the carrying
of mails, the imposition of tariff dues, the
granting of patents and copyrights, the
declaration of war, and the maintenance
of a navy. The regular army is supported
and controlled by the federal government,
but each State maintains its own militia,
which it is bound to use in case of inter
nal disturbance before calling upon the
central government for aid. In time of
war, however, these militias come under
the control of the central government.
Thus every American citizen lives under
two governments, the functions of which
are clearly and intelligibly distinct.

To insure the stability of the federal
union thus formed, the Constitution cre
ated a " system of United States courts
extending throughout the States, empow
ered to define the boundaries of federal
authority, and to enforce its decisions by
federal power." This omnipresent federal
judiciary was undoubtedly the most impor
tant creation of the statesmen who framed
the Constitution. The closely knit rela
tions which it established between the
States contributed powerfully to the
growth of a feeling of national solidarity
throughout the whole country. The United
States to-day cling together with a cohe
rency far greater than the coherency of any
ordinary federation or league. Yet the
primary aspect of the federal Constitu
tion was undoubtedly that of a perma
nent league, in which each State, while
retaining its domestic sovereignty intact,
renounced forever its right to make war
upon its neighbors, and relegated its in
ternational interests to the care of a cen
tral council in which all the States were
alike represented and a central tribunal
endowed with purely judicial functions
of interpretation. It was the first attempt
in the history of the world to apply on
a grand scale to the relations between
States the same legal methods of proced
ure which, as long applied in all civilized
countries to the relations between indi
viduals, have rendered private warfare
obsolete. And it was so far successful
that, during a period of seventy-two years
in which the United States increased four
fold in extent, tenfold in population, and
more than tenfold in wealth and power.
the federal union maintained a state of
peace more profound than the pax ro-
mana.

Forty years ago this unexampled state
of peace was suddenly interrupted by a
tremendous war, which in its results,
however, has served only to bring out
with fresh emphasis the pacific implica
tions of federalism. With the eleven
revolted States at first completely con
quered and then reinstated with full riglil&lt;
and privileges in the federal Union, with
their people accepting in good faith the
results of the contest, with their leaders
not executed as traitors, but admitted
again to seats in Congress and in the
cabinet, and with all this accomplished

352

FEDEKALIST

without any violent constitutional changes Feeble-minded, SCHOOLS FOB THE. At

I think we may fairly claim that the the close of the school year, 1898, the

strength of the pacific implications of number of these schools which reported

federalism has been more strikingly de- to the bureau of education was twenty-

monstrated than if there had been no war nine, which had 259 instructors in the

at all. Certainly the world never beheld regular school department, 180 in the*

such a spectacle before. industrial department, and 610 in earing

Federalist, THE, a series of remarkable for inmates. The total number of pupils
essays in favor of the national Consti- reported was 9,232, and of these 1,749
tution which were written by Alexander were receiving instruction in music and
Hamilton with the assistance of Madison, 943 were taking the kindergarten course.
Jay, and others. Hamilton wrote the There were nineteen State public schools
larger half of these essays, which were for this class of defectives, which report-
probably the determining cause resulting ed 904 instructors in all the branches, and
in the adoption of the Constitution of the 8.866 pupils. The State institutions had
United States. They were subsequently grounds and buildings valued at $4,922,-
published in book form under the above 537, and the expenditures of the year
title - were $1,414,451. There were ten private

Federalists. While the national Con- institutions with 161 instructors in all

stitution was under discussion through- departments and 366 pupils,

out the Union, in 1788, and it was pass- Fellows, JOHN, military officer; born

ing the ordeal of State conventions, its in Pomfret, Conn., in 1733; was in the

advocates were called Federalists, because FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (q. v.) ; was

the effect of the Constitution would be to a member of the Massachusetts Provincial

bind the several States more closely as Congress in 1775; led a company of min-

a so-called confederation. They formed a ute-men to Cambridge after the skirmish

distinct party that year, and held su- at Lexington, and was made brigadier-

preme political power in the republic general of militia in June, 1776. He com-

until the close of the century. The lead- manded a brigade in the battles of Long

ing members of the party were Washing- Island, White Plains, and Bemis s Heights,

ton, Hamilton, Adams, Jay, and many of and was very active in the capture of

the less distinguished patriots of the Revo- Burgoyne, October, 1777. After the war

lution. Their opponents were called Anti- he was high sheriff of Berkshire county.

Federalists. In the contests of the French He died in Sheffield, Mass., Aug. 1, 1808.

Revolution, which had influence upon pub- Felt, JOSEPH BARLOW, historian; born

lie opinion in the United States, the Fed- in Salem, Mass., Dec. 22, 1789; grad-

eralists leaned towards England, and the uated at Dartmouth in 1813, and entered

Anti-Federalists or Republicans towards the ministry. In 1836 he was asked to

France. In the Presidential election of arrange the state papers of Massachu-

1800, the Federalists were defeated and setts, which at that time were in confu-

Jefferson was elected. The party became sion. He was librarian of the Massachu-

unpopular because of its opposition to setts Historical Society in 1842-48, and

the War of 1812; and it fell into fatal president of the New England Historico-

disrepute because of the Hartford Con- Genealogical Society in 1850-53. He was

vention, whose proceedings, done in secret, the author of Annals of Salem ; History of

were supposed to be treasonable. The fpsicich, Essex, and Hamilton; Historical

party had become so weak in 1816 that Account of Massachusetts Currency; Me-

Monroe, the Republican candidate for ntoirs of Roger Conant, Hugh Peters, and

President, received the electoral votes of William S. Shaw; also of The Customs of

all the States but two. At his re-election, New Enc/land. He died in Salem, Mass.,

in 1820, the vote of the States was unani- Sept. 8, 1869.

mous for him. Then the party was dis- Felton, CORNELIUS CONWAY, educator;

banded. See ANTI- FEDERALIST PARTY. born in West Newbury, Mass., Nov. 6,

Feds and Confeds, nicknames used dur- 1807; graduated at Harvard in 1827; ap
ing the Civil War for the Union and Con- pointed Latin tutor there in 1829, and
federate soldiers respectively. Professor of Greek Literature in 1839;
in. z 353

FELTON FENTON

and was president of Harvard from 1860 Civil War, the latter was ever faithful
till his death in Chester, Pa., Feb. 26, to its treaty stipulations. The large num-
1862. He is the author of Life of William bers of Irish soldiers disbanded in 1865
Eaton in Sparks s American Biographies, were greatly excited by the Fenian trou-
and many books on general literature. bles at that time prevalent in Ireland.

Felton, SAMUEL MORSE, engineer; born In October, 1865, at a convention of
in West Newbury, Mass., July 17, 1809; Fenians in New York, the invasion of
graduated at Harvard in 1834; connect- Canada was determined upon. In the
ed with the Fitchburg Railroad until following February another convention
1851, when he became president of the was held, at which there was a strong
Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore sentiment in favor of the invasion. Short-
Railroad. It was he who successfully ly after this, the former head-centre of the
planned the secret passage of Mr. Lincoln organization was displaced from office by
from Harrisburg to Washington, and the election of Col. William R. Roberts,
thereby defeated a deep-laid plot to capt- and this change interfered seriously with
ure the President-elect. When commu- the unanimity of action in the body,
nication through Baltimore was impossi- Early in April an attempt was made to
ble (in April, 1861), he devised a plan for gather arms and men for an advance
transporting troops via Annapolis. He upon New Brunswick, and 500 Fenians
died in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 24, 1889. assembled at Eastport, Me. The United

Fendall, JOSIAS, colonial governor. In States authorities interfered, however;
1655 Governor Stone ordered him to seize aid which was expected from New York
the public stores at Patuxent, but he was and Boston did not arrive; and the men
captured in the fight which followed. Af- disbanded. On May 19, 1,200 stands of
terwards he started another insurrection, arms, which had been sent to Rouse s
and was made governor, July 10, 1656, as Point, were seized by the United States
a reward for his alleged services in behalf government, and on May 30 a similar
of the proprietary government. In Decem- seizure was made at St. Albans. June 1,
ber, 1660, he was deposed, for having op- about 1,500 men crossed into Canada at
posed his patron, and in December, 1661, Buffalo. The Dominion militia had been
was found guilty of treason and sentenced called out, and on June 2 a severe skir-
to be exiled, but later was pardoned mish occurred, in which the Fenians lost
and compelled to pay a small fine. In heavily in prisoners and wounded men,
1681 he was banished for participating in though not many were killed. Attempt-
seditious practices, and a fine of 140 Ibs. ing to get back over the border into this
of tobacco was imposed on him. country, 700 of them were captured by

Fenelon, FRANCOIS DE SALIGNAC DE LA the United States authorities. Other
MOTHE-FENELON, French prelate; born in bands had by this time reached the fron-
Dordogne, France, Aug. 6, 1651; was sent tier, but as a cordon of United States
to Canada while yet inferior in orders, troops, under General Meade, guarded the
and, during his missionary service there, line, they made no attempt to cross,
he so boldly attacked the public authori- Though large sums of money were raised
ties for their shortcomings that Fronte- to aid a further invasion, and consider-
nac had him arrested, while serving in able excitement prevailed, the resolute
the Seminary of St. Sulpice, and put in action of the United States authorities
prison. It is believed that this noted prevented it. No punishment was ac-
aichbishop, orator, and author received corded the actors in this affair beyond a
many hints, while engaged in missionary brief term of imprisonment for such as
work in Canada, which were subsequently were taken.

put into telling form in his noted Fenian Invasion of Canada. See
Aventures de Tclemaque (1699). He died FENIAN BROTHERHOOD.
in Cambria, France, Jan. 7, 1715. Fenton, REUBEN EATON, statesman;

Fenian Brotherhood, THE. Notwith- born in Carroll, Chautauqua co., N. Y.,
standing the unfriendliness and positive July 4, 1819; was educated at Pleasant
enmity of the government of Great Hill and Fredonia academies, in his na-
Britain to the United States during the tive county; and was admitted to the bar

354

FENWICK FERNOW

in 1841. Finding the practice of law un- ing with the Congress, employed Mrs.

congenial, he entered business, and ac- Ferguson to sound Gen. Joseph Reed us

quired a moderate fortune. Meanwhile, to his disposition to aid the royal govern-

he became interested in politics, and in ment in bringing about a reconciliation

1843-51 served as supervisor of Carroll, between it and the revolted colonies. She

In 1852 he was elected to Congress by was patriotic and judicious. Johnstone

the Democrats, and there opposed the instructed her as to what she should say

further extension of slavery. This action to Reed, and she performed the errand

resulted in his defeat, in 1854, for a sec- without losing the esteem of any one.

oml term, and he united with the Re- Her husband never joined her after the

publican party, by whom, in 1856, he war. His estate was confiscated, but the

was elected to Congress, where he re- State of Pennsylvania returned a part

mained till 1864, when he resigned to of it to her in 1781. After the war she

become governor of New York, in which applied herself to literature and philan-

office he served two terms. In 1869-75 thropy. She died in Montgomery county,

he was in the United States Senate, and Pa., Feb. 23, 1801.

in 1878 was chairman of the United Ferguson, PATRICK, military officer;

States commission to the International born in England; son of Judge James

Monetary Conference in Paris. He died Ferguson and a nephew of Lord Elibank;

in Jamestown, N. Y., Aug. 25, 1885. entered the British army at the age of

Fenwick, GEORGE, colonist; came to eighteen, and came to America in the

America in 1636 to take charge of the spring of 1777, serving under Cornwallis,

infant colony of SAYBROOK (q. v.), in Con- first in the North and then in the South,

necticut. He returned to England, and After the siege of Charleston in 1780 he

came back in 1639, and from that time was promoted to major, and was detached

governed Saybrook till December, 1644, by Cornwallis to embody the Tories in

when its jurisdiction and territory were South Carolina. He was killed in the

sold to the Connecticut colony at Hart- battle of KING S MOUNTAIN ( q. v. ) , Oct

ford. Fenwick was one of the judges who 7, 1780.

tried and condemned Charles I. He died Fergusson, ARTHUR W., translator;
in England in 1657. born about 1855; has been for many years
Fenwick, JOHN, Quaker colonist; a connected with the State Department in
founder of the colony of West Jersey; Washington, D. C. ; accompanied the mem-
born in England in 1618; obtained a grant bers of the Pan-American Congress on
of land in the western part of New their trip through the United States dur-
Jersey in 1673; emigrated thither in 1675; ing Secretary Elaine s tenure of office; was
and settled in Salem. His claim was chief translator of the bureau of the
resisted by Governor Andros, of New American republics ; Spanish interpreter
York, and he was arrested and cast into for the American peace commissioners in
jail, where he remained about two years. Paris in 1898; appointed Spanish secre-
Ho subsequently conveyed his claim to tary to the Philippine commission in
\\Vst Jersey to William Penn. He died 1900; and secretary to the chief civil
in England in 1683. executive (Governor Taft) of the Philip-
Ferguson, ELIZABETH, patriot; born in pines, July 10, 1901.

Philadelphia, Pa., in 1739; daughter of Fernow, BERTHOLD, historian; born in
Dr. Gricme. of Graeme Park, near Phila- Prussian Poland, Nov. 28, 1837; came to
delphia ; became famous during the Revo- the United States in 1860; served in the
lution by a futile mission which she good- National army in 1862-64; was New York
naturedly undertook. She was a culti- State archivist in 1876-89; and was also
vated woman, and enjoyed the personal one of the editors and translators of Doc-
friendship of many eminent persons. Her uments Relating to the Colonial History
husband was in the British army, yet of New York; Records of New Amsterdam;
she possessed the esteem and confidence of and New York in the Revolution. He has
both Whigs and Tories. Johnstone, one also published Albany, and its Place in the
of the peace commissioners sent over History of the United States; The Ohio
here in 17 J8, finding they could do noth- Valley in Colonial Days; and contributions

355

AXEL FERSEN.

FEBREBO FEW

to the Narrative and Critical History of Fersen, AXEL, COUNT, military officer;
America. born in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1755; came

Ferrero, EDWARD, military officer; to America on the staff of Rochambeau;
born of Italian parents in Granada, Spain, fought under Lafayette. Returning to
Jan. 18, 1831; was brought to the United France, he became a favorite at court.
States while an infant. His parents
taught dancing, and that became his pro
fession, which he taught at the United
States Military Academy. When the
Civil War broke out he raised a regiment
(Shepard Rifles), and as its colonel ac
companied Burnside in his expedition to
the coast of North Carolina early in 1862.
He commanded a brigade under General
Reno, and served in the Army of Virginia,
under General Pope, in the summer of
1862. He was promoted to brigadier-gen
eral of volunteers in September, and was
in the battles of South Mountain, Antie-
tam, and Fredericksburg. He served in
the siege of Vicksburg (1863), and com
manded a division at the siege of Knox-
ville, in defence of Fort Sanders. In the
operations against Petersburg he led a
division of colored troops, and, Dec. 2,
1864, was brevetted major-general of vol- After the Revolution he returned
unteers. He died in New York City, Dec. Sweden, and in 1801 was made grand
11 1899. marshal of Sweden. On suspicion of corn-

Ferris, BENJAMIN, historian; for many plicity in the death of Prince Christian of
years a resident of Philadelphia, Pa., from Sweden, he was seized by a mob, while
which place he removed to Wilmington, marshalling the funeral procession, and
He is the author of History of the Early tortured to death, June 20, 1810.
Settlements on the Delaware, from Us Fessenden, THOMAS GREEN author;
Discovery to its Colonization under Will- born in Walpole, N. H , Apr
iam Penn. He died in Wilmington, Del., graduated at Dartmouth College m 1796;
in 1867 began the practice of law in Bellows Falls,

Ferro, MERIDIAN OF. A line drawn due Vt., in 1812. His publications include
north and south through the poles, from Democracy Unveiled; Laws of Paten
which longitudes are reckoned, is a me- Xew Inventions, etc. &gt;n,

ridian. Ferro, the most western Canary Mass., Nov. 11, 1837.
isle, known to the ancients and rediscover- Fessenden, WILLIAM PITT legis
ed in 1402. was taken as the prime me- born in Boscawen, N. H., Oct. 1
ridian by the geographers of Columbus s graduated at Bowdom College in
time See COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER. admitted to the bar in 1827; member of

Ferry &lt;)I:KIS SANFOUD, statesman; the Maine legislature two terms; a
born in Bethel, Conn., Aug. 15, 1823; was elected to Congress in 1841
graduated at Yale in 1844; held many Feb. 24, 1854, till his death he
State Offices : colonel of the 5th Connect!- United States Senator, excepting when
cut U S. V., -h.lv. 1801; served through Secretary of the Treasury from July, 1
the war; United States Senator, 1807-75. to March, 1865. He was one of th.
He died in Norwalk, Conn., Nov. 21, 1875. ers of the Republican party in 1856, a

Ferry THOMAS WHITE, statesman; throughout the Civil War did eminent
born in Mackinac, Mich., June 1, 1827; service as chairman of the finance corn-
member of Congress, 1865-71; United mittee of the Senate.
States Spnator. 1871-83. He died

Senator, 1871-83.
Grand Haven, Mich., Oct. 14, iS .Hi.

in land, Me., Sept. 8, 1869.

Few, WILLIAM, jurist; born in Balti-
350

F. F. V. FIELD

more county, Md., June 8, 1748. His an across the Atlantic. In 1854 he obtained
cestors came to America with William f rom the Newfoundland legislature the ex-
Penn. His family went to North Caro- elusive right for fifty years to land cables
lina in 1758, and in 1776 settled in on that island to be continued to the
Georgia, where he assisted in framing the United States. He next formed a cor-
State constitution. He was in the military poration consisting of Peter Cooper, Moses
service, and in 1778 was made State Taylor, Marshall O. Roberts, and Chandler
surveyor-general. In 1780-83 and 1786 White, and known as the New York, New-
he was in Congress, and in 1787 assisted in foundland, and London Telegraph Corn-
framing the national Constitution. He was pany, to procure and lay a cable. After
United States Senator in 1789-93; and a many failures and disappointments a
judge on the bench of Georgia three years, cable was successfully laid across the At-
He died in Fishkill, N. Y., July 16, 1828. lantic in 1866 (see ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH).

F. F. V. A term of Northern invention For his achievement he received a medal
applied to the leading Southern families, from Congress and the thanks of the na-
It is an abbreviation of " First Families tion. In 1867 the Paris Exposition be-
pf Virginia." stowed upon him the grand medal, its

Fiat Money, a colloquial term applied highest honor. He also was the recipient
especially to paper money, issued by a gov- of many other medals and honors. Subse-
ernment, marked as legal tender for a cer
tain value, but without a guarantee that
it will be redeemed by the government for
metallic money or its equivalent. Irre
deemable and inconvertible money are
other terms applied to such issues. In a
particular sense the phrase was applied
to the " greenback " certificates authorized
by the United States government in 1862.
An aggregate of $450,000,000 of such
money was put into circulation between
1862 and 1865, to which Congress gave
the quality of legal tender for all debts.
The first issue of such inconvertible paper
money in this country was made by the
colony of Massachusetts to pay soldiers
in 1690. About twenty years later the oth
er New England colonies and New York
and New Jersey also made use of the expe
dient. Between 1775 and 1779 the Con
tinental Congress authorized the issue of quently he became actively identified with
about $200,000,000 of such scrip, which the construction and management of ele-
the States individually made legal tender, vated railroads in New York City. He
After the Revolution many of the States died in New York, July 12, 1892.
issued paper money on their own account. Field, DAVID DUDLEY, lawyer; born in
See CURRENCY. Haddam, Conn., Feb. 13, 1805; brother of

Field, CYRUS WEST, benefactor; born Cyrus West Field; graduated at Will-
in Stockbridge, Mass., Nov. 30, 1819; was Jams College in 1825; studied law .ind
educated in his native town, and went to was admitted to the bar in 1825 in New
work when fifteen years old. In 1840 he York, where he began practice. In 1836
began the manufacture and sale of paper he went to Europe and studied English
on his own account, and in fifteen years and French court methods, codes, and civil
became so prosperous that he was able laws. Returning to the United States he
to partially retire. About this time he became strongly impressed with the con-
became interested in ocean telegraphy, and viction that New York State needed a
for some time pondered the question codification of its common law. To pro-
whether a cable could not be stretched mote this reform he sought an election to

357

CYRUS WEST FIELD.

FIELD

DAVID DUDLKV FIKLD.

the legislature in 1841, and when he was he prepared The Draft Outlines of &lt;m
defeated sent drafts of three bills to the International Code. Ho died in New York
Assembly, where they were referred to City, April 13, 1894.

the judiciary committee, but no further Field, DAVID DUDLEY, clergyman, son of
action was taken. He was also defeated Timothy Field, a captain in the War of

the Revolution; born in East Guilford,
Conn., May 20, 1781. He wrote histories
of Berkshire and Middlesex counties;
Genealogy of the Braincrd Family, etc.
He died in Stockbridge, Mass., April 15,
1807.

Field, EUGENE, poet; born in St. Louis,
Mo., Sept. 2, 1850; was educated at Will
iams and Knox colleges, and at the Uni
versity of Missouri. He was on the edi
torial staff of several newspapers in Kan
sas City and St. Louis, and on the Denver
Tribune. Later he moved to Chicago, and
in 1883 became a member of the editorial
staff of the Chicago Daily News. His
poems for children are admirable for their
simplicity. His works comprise Love
Songs of Childhood; A Little Book of
Western Verse; The Holy Cross; With
Trumpet and Drum; The Love Affair of
a Bibliomaniac, etc. He died in Chicago,
Nov. 4, 1895.

as a candidate to the Constitutional Con- Field, JAMES GAVEN, lawyer; born in
vention, but kept up his agitation by Walnut, Va., Feb. 24, 1826; went to
issuing a number of articles on The Re- California as paymaster United States
organization of the Judiciary. In Janu- army in 1848; was a secretary of the con-
ary, 1847, prior to the meeting of the vention that framed the first constitu-
Icgislature, he published an essay on tion of California; returned to Virginia
What Shall be Done with the Practice in 1850; county attorney for Culpeper
of the Courts? and followed it by request- county in 1800-05: enlisted in the Con
ing the appointment of a commission to federate army in 1801 : and lost a leg
provide for the abolition of existing plead- at the battle of CEDAR CREEK (q. v.) . He
ings and forms of action at common law, was attorney-general of Virginia in 1877-
and for a uniform course of procedure. In 82; and the candidate of the People s
the following April such a commission party for Vice-President in 1892. He died
was appointed, and later Mr. Field became in 1901.

a member of it. In February, 1848, the Field, RICHARD STOCKTON, statesman :
first instalment of the Code of Civil Pro- born in White Hill, N. ,L, Dec. 31. 180:!:
ccdure was presented to the legislature a grandson of Richard Stockton, one of
and soon adopted. Other reports were the signers of the Declaration of Inde-
made until Jan. 1, 1850, when the last pendence; graduated at Princeton in
codification of civil and criminal laws was 1821. and admitted to the bar in 1825.
submitted. In 1857 the legislature passed In 1862 he was appointed to the United
an act making Mr. Field chairman of the States Senate for the unexpired term of
commission to codify all the laws of the John R. Thompson; and in 1863 became
State not yet so treated. In 1865 this work district judge of the United States Court
was finished, but only the penal code was for the District of New Jersey. For many
adopted. Within a few years twenty-four years Judge Field was president of the
States and Territories adopted his Code of New Jersey Historical Society. He was
Civil Procedure, and eighteen his Code of the author of The Provincial Courts of
Criminal Procedure. Besides these works New Jersey; The Constitution not a Com-

358

FIELD FIELDS

pact between Sovereign States; An Ora- holding this office for more than thirty-
tion on the Life and Character of Abraham four years he resigned in April, 1897.
Lincoln, etc. He died in Princeton, N. J., During his experience in this court he
May 25, 1870. wrote 620 opinions, which, with fifty-

Field, STEPHEN JOHNSON, jurist; born seven in the Circuit Court, and 365 in the
in Haddam, Conn., Nov. 4, 1816; brother Supreme Court of California, made an
of Cyrus West and David Dudley Field; aggregate of 1,042 cases decided by him.
graduated at Williams College, in 1837; He died in Washington, D. C., April 9,
studied law and was admitted to the 1899.

Field, THOMAS W., historian; born in
Onondaga Hill, N. Y., in 1820; was the
author of a History of the Battle of Long
Island; Historic and Antiquarian Scenes
in Brooklyn and Vicinity; An Essay Tow
ards an Indian Bibliography, etc. He was
well known for his extremely valuable col
lection of books on American history, which
was sold at auction shortly after his
death, in Brooklyn, N. Y., Nov. 25, 1881.

Fields, JAMES THOMAS, publisher; born
in Portsmouth, N. H., Dec. 31, 1817; was
educated in his native place; went to
Boston and became a clerk in a book-store
in 1834. Soon after he reached his ma
jority he became a partner in the pub
lishing firm of Ticknor, Reed & Fields, of
which he remained a member till 1870.
After retiring from the publishing busi
ness Mr. Fields became a lecturer on
literary subjects. His published works

bar in 1841. He went to San Francisco include a volume of Poems; A Few Verses
in 1849 and opened a law office, but got for a Few Friends; Yesterdays with Au-
no clients. In 1850 he seized in Yuba- tJiors; Hawthorne; and In and Out of
ville (afterwards Marysville), which in
January of that year had been founded
at Nye s Ranch. He was soon made jus
tice of the peace, and for a time was the
entire government. In the autumn of
1850 he was elected a member of the first
legislature under the State constitution.
As a member of the judiciary committee
he drew up a code for the government of
the State courts, and prepared civil, crim
inal, and mining laws, which were later
generally adopted in the new Western
States. In 1857 he was elected a justice
of the Supreme Court of California, for
the term of six years, but before his term
began a vacancy occurred in the court and
he was appointed for the unexpired term.
In September, 1859, David S. Terry, chief-
justice of the court, resigned and Justice Doors with Charles Dickens. He was ed-
Field took his place. He remained in this itor of the Atlantic Monthly in 1862-70,
office till 1863, when President Lincoln and afterwards (with Edwin P. Whipple)
appointed him an associate justice of the edited the Family Library of English
United States Supreme Court. After Poetry. He died in Boston, April 24, 1881.

359

STKPHEX JOHXSO.V FIKLD.

JAMKS THOMAS FIKLDS.

FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION FILLMORE

Fifteenth Amendment to the Consti
tution. See CONSTITUTION AND GOVERN
MENT OF THE UXITED STATES.

Fifty-four Forty or Fight. 54 40
was the accepted southern limit of Alaska
in the possession of Russia. The forty-
ninth parallel was held by the United
States to be the northern limit of the
United States against which there could
be no claim by England, and, further, that
the territory between 49 and 54 40 on
the Pacific coast was as much the property
of the United States as that of England.
In 1818 a treaty provided for the joint
occupation of the disputed territory by
Great Britain and the United States. In
1844 the watch-word of the Democratic
party was " Fifty-four forty or fight."
Consequently when Polk was elected he
claimed this as the boundary of the United
States, thus shutting out Great Britain
from access to the Pacific Ocean. On June
15, 1846, a compromise was made by which
the northern limit of the United States
was fixed at 49.

Filibuster, originally a freebooter; sub
sequently applied to one who delayed
legislation by dilatory motions or similar
artifices. Narcisco Lopez with an expedi
tion of armed men sailed from New
Orleans, Aug. 3, 1851, and landed near
Havana on the llth. Unable to bring
about a rise of the people he was obliged
to surrender and on Sept. 1, 1851, was
garroted at Havana. Colonel Crittenden,
who was associated with Lopez, was also
captured and with fifty others was shot
at Havana, Aug. 16, 1851. William
Walker led a filibustering expedition into
Lower California in 1853, but was
obliged to retreat and surrendered to the
United States authorities of Santiago. He
was tried under the neutrality laws and

acquitted May 15, 1854. The next year
Walker was invited to Nicaragua by one
of the local factions. He landed on the
Pacific coast of Nicaragua, May 4, 1855,
and defeated the Nicaraguans in a battle
at Virgin Bay, Sept. 1, 1855. Walker
forced his election as President of Nica
ragua, but on May 1, 1857, he surrendered
to the United States sloop-of-war Mary
and was taken to New Orleans. In Novem
ber of that year he again invaded Nica
ragua, but was compelled to surrender to
the United States frigate Wabash. On
Aug. 5, 1860, Walker again landed at
Truxillo, Honduras, but after short suc
cesses was eventually defeated, captured,
tried, and shot Oct. 12, 1860.

For many years prior to the American-
Spanish War quite a number of filibuster
ing expeditions were fitted out in the
United States for the purpose of operating
on Cuba. The United States government
invariably issued official warning against
such hostile actions against Spain, and
in a majority of cases intercepted or other
wise prevented the landing of the parties.
The most notable of these actions was that
of a party which left in the Cuban war
ship Virginius, Oct. 8, 1873, for Cuba.
The vessel, under command of Capt. James
Fry, was captured by a Spanish war
steamer on the 31st, and the officers and
175 volunteers were taken to Santiago,
where in the following month Captain Fry
and 109 of his associates were shot for
piracy. Through the action of the United
States government in organizing a strong
naval force Spain agreed to surrender the
Virginius and the remainder of her crew.
This was done Dec. 16, and while the
Virginius was being convoyed to New-
York it mysteriously sunk off North Car
olina.

FILLMORE, MILLARD

Fillmore, MILLARD, thirteenth Presi
dent of the United States; born in Locke
(now Summerhill), Cayuga co., N. Y.,
June 7, 1800. At the time of his birth
Cayuga county was a wilderness, with few
settlements, the nearest house to that of
the Fillmores being 4 miles distant.
Mr. Fillmore s early education was limit
ed, and at the age of fourteen years he

was apprenticed to a fuller. He became
fond of reading, and at the age of nine
teen years desired to study law. He
made an arrangement with his master to
pay him $30 for the two years of the un-
expired term of his apprenticeship, and
studied law with Walter Wood, who gave
him his board for his services in his ollicc.
In 1821 he went on foot to Buffalo, where

360

FILLMOBE, MILLARD

he arrived, an entire stranger, with the passage of various acts which were

$4 in his pocket. There he continued parts of compromises proposed in the

to study law, paying his expenses by OMNIBUS BILL (q. v.) of Mr. Clay in the

teaching school and assisting in the post- summer of 1850. It was during his

office. In 1823, although he had not com- administration that difficulties with Cuba

pleted the requisite period of study to be occurred, diplomatic communications with

admitted to the bar, he was admitted, Japan were opened, measures were adopted

and began practice at Aurora, Cayuga looking towards the construction of a rail-

co., where his father then resided. In way from the Mississippi to the Pacific

a few years he stood in the rank of the Ocean, and other measures of great public

foremost lawyers in the State. He was interest occurred. Mr. Fillrnore retired

admitted to practice in the highest courts from office March 4, 1853, leaving the coun-

of the State in 1829; and the next year try in a state of peace within and without,

he moved to Buffalo, where he practised and every department of industry flour -

until 1847, when he was chosen comptroll- ishing. In 1852 he was a candidate of

er of the State. Then he retired from the the Whig convention for President of

profession. His political life began in the United States, but did not get the

1828, when he was elected to the legis- nomination. During the spring and sum-

lature by the ANTI-MASONIC PARTY mer of 1854 he made an extensive tour

(q. v.). He served three successive through the Southern and Western

terms, retiring in the spring of 1831. States; and, in the spring of 1855, after

Mr. Fillmore was particularly active in an excursion in New England, he sailed

procuring the passage of a law abolishing for Europe, where he remained until

imprisonment for debt. It was mostly June, 1856. While at Rome he received

drafted by himself, and passed in 1831. the news of his nomination for the Presi-

In 1832 he was elected to Congress as dency by the NATIVE AMERICAN PARTY

an opponent of Jackson s administration, (q. v.). He accepted it, but Maryland

He was re-elected as a Whig in 1836, and alone gave him its electoral vote. The

retained his seat, by successive re-elec- remainder of his life was spent in Buffalo,

tions, until 1842, when he declined a. re- where he indulged his taste for histori-

nomination. His career in Congress was cal studies, and where he died, March 8,

marked by ability, integrity, and indus- 1874.

try. He acted in Congress with Mr. Texas Boundary Controversy. On Aug.

Adams in favor of receiving petitions for 6. 1850, President Fillmore transmitted

the abolition of slavery. He was opposed the following special message to the

to the annexation of Texas, and in favor Congress concerning the claims of Texas

of the abolition of the interstate slave- to territory in dispute:
trade. In September, 1844, Mr. Fillmore

was nominated by the Whigs for gov- WASHINGTON, Aug. 6, 1850.
ernor of the State of New York, but was To the Senate and House of Representa-
defeated by Silas Wright, the Democratic tives, I "herewith transmit to the two
candidate. Elected comptroller of his Houses of Congress a letter from his ex-
State in 1847, Mr. Fillmore filled that re- cellency the governor of Texas, dated on
sponsible office with rare ability and fidel- June 14 last, addressed to the late Prcsi-
ity. In June, 1848, he was nominated dent of the United States, which, not
by the Whig National Convention for the having been answered by him, came into
office of Vice-President of the United my hands on his death ; and I also trans-
States, and was elected, with General Tay- mit a copy of the answer which I have felt
lor for President. He resigned the office it to be my duty to cause to be made to
of comptroller in February following; and that communication.

on the death of the President (July, Congress will perceive that the govern-

1850), Mr. Fillmore was inducted into or of Texas officially states that by au-

that high office. thority of the legislature of that Stale

During his administration the slavery he despatched a special commissioner witli

question was vehemently discussed, and full power and instructions to extend the

was finally set at rest, it was hoped, by civil jurisdiction of the State over the

361

FILLMOBE, MILLABD

unorganized counties of El Paso, Worth,
Presidio, and Santa Fe, situated on its
northwestern limits.

He proceeds to say that the commissioner
had reported to him in an official form
that the military officers employed in the
service of the United States stationed at
Santa Fe" interposed adversely with the
inhabitants to the fulfilment of his ob
ject in favor of the establishment of a
separate State government east of the
Rio Grande, and within the rightful limits
of the State of Texas. These four coun
ties, which Texas thus proposes to estab
lish and organize as being within her
own jurisdiction, extend over the whole
of the territory east of the Rio Grande,
which has heretofore been regarded as an
essential and integral part of the depart
ment of New Mexico, and actually govern
ed and possessed by her people until con
quered and severed from the republic of
Mexico by the American arms.

The legislature of Texas has been called
together by her governor for the pur
pose, as is understood, of maintaining her
claim to the territory east of the Rio
Grande, and of establishing over it her
own jurisdiction and her own laws by
force.

These proceedings of Texas may well
arrest the attention of all branches of
the government of the United States, and
T rejoice that they occur while the Con
gress is yet in session. Tt is, I fear, far
from being impossible that, in consequence
of these proceedings of Texas, a crisis
may be brought on which shall summon
the two Houses of Congress, and still
more emphatically the executive govern
ment, to an immediate readiness for the
performance of their respective duties.

By the Constitution of the United States
the President is constituted commander-
in-chief of the army and navy, and of
the militia of the several States when
called into the actual service of the United
States. The Constitution declares also
that he shall take care that the laws be
faithfully executed, and that ho shall.
from time to time, give to the Congress
information of the state of the Union.

Congress has power by the Constitution
to provide for calling forth the militia
lo execute tho laws of the Union, and suit
able and appropriate acts of Congress have

368

been passed as well for providing for call
ing forth the militia as for placing other
suitable and efficient means in the hands
of the President to enable him to dis
charge the constitutional functions of his
office.

The second section of the act of Feb.
28, 1795, declares that whenever the laws
of the United States shall be opposed or
their execution obstructed in any State
by combinations too powerful to be sup
pressed by the ordinary course of judicial
proceedings or the power vested in mar
shals, the President may call forth the
militia, as far as may be necessary, to
suppress such combinations and to cause
the laws to be duly executed.

By the act of March 3, 1807, it is pro
vided that in all cases of obstruction to
the laws, either of the United States or
any individual State or Territory, where
it is lawful for the President to call
forth the militia for the purpose of caus
ing the laws to be duly executed, it shall
be lawful for him to employ for the same
purposes such part of the land or naval
force of the United States as shall be
judged necessary.

These several enactments are now in
full force, so that if the laws of the
United States are opposed or obstructed
in any State or Territory by combinations
too powerful to be suppressed by the ju
dicial or civil authorities it becomes a case
in which it is the duty of the President
either to call out the militia or to em
ploy the military and naval force of tho
United States, or to do both if in his
judgment the exigency of the occasion
shall so require, for the purpose of sup
pressing such combinations. The constitu
tional duty of the President is plain and
peremptory, and the authority vested in
him by law for its performance clear and
ample.

Texas is a State, authorized to main
tain her own laws so far as they are not
repugnant to the Constitution, laws, and
treaties of the United States; to sup
press insurrections against her authority,
;&lt;nd to punish those who may commit
hvason against the State according to
the forms provided by her constitution
and her own laws.

But all this power is local and confined
entirely within the limits of Texas her-

FILLMOBE, MILLARD

self. She can possibly confer no authority my reasons are given for believing that

which can be lawfully exercised beyond New Mexico is now a Territory of the

her own boundaries. United States, with the same extent and

All this is plain, and hardly needs ar- the same boundaries which belonged to it

gument or elucidation. If Texas militia, while in the actual possession of the re-

therefore, march into any one of the public of Mexico, and before the late war.

other States or into any Territory of the In the early part of that war both Cali-

United States, there to execute or enforce fornia and New Mexico were conquered by

any law of Texas, they become at that the arms of the United States, and were

moment trespassers; they are no longer in the military possession of the United

under the protection of any lawful au- States at the date of the treaty of peace,

thority; and are to be regarded merely By that treaty the title by conquest was

as intruders : and if within such State confirmed and these territories, provinces,

or Territory they obstruct any law of the or departments separated from Mexico

United States, either by power of arms or forever ; and by the same treaty certain

mere power of numbers, constituting such important rights and securities were

a combination as is too powerful to be solemnly guaranteed to the inhabitants

suppressed by the civil authority, the residing therein.

President of the United States has no By the fifth article of the treaty it is

option left to him, but is bound to obey declared that

the solemn injunction of the Constitution " The boundary-line between the two

and exercise the high powers vested in republics shall commence in the Gulf

him by that instrument and by the acts of Mexico 3 leagues from land, opposite

of Congress. the mouth of the Rio Grande, otherwise

Or if any civil posse, armed or unarm- called Rio Bravo del Norte, or opposite the
ed, enter into any Territory of the United mouth of its deepest branch if it should
States, under the protection of the laws have more than one branch emptying di-
thereof, with intent to seize individuals, rectly into the sea; from thence up the
to be carried elsewhere for trial for al- middle of that river, following the deepest
leged offences, and this posse be too pow- channel where it has more than one, to
erful to be resisted by the local civil au- the point where it strikes the southern
thorities, such seizure or attempt to seize boundary of New Mexico, thence west-
is to be prevented or resisted by the au- wardly along the whole southern boun-
thority of the United States. dary of New Mexico (which runs north of

The grave and important question now the town called Paso) to its western ter-
urises whether there be in the Territory mination; thence northward along the
of New Mexico any existing law of the western line of New Mexico until it inter-
United States opposition to which or the sects the first branch of the River Gila
obstruction of which would constitute (or, if it should not intersect any branch
a case calling for the interposition of the of that river, then to the point on the
authority vested in the President. said line nearest to such branch, and

The Constitution of the United States thence in a direct line to the same) , thence

declares that: down the middle of the said branch and

" This Constitution, and the laws of of the said river until it empties into the
the United States which shall be made in Rio Colorado; thence across the Rio
pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, Colorado; following the division line bo
or which shall be made, tinder the au- tween Upper and Lower California, to the
thority of the United States, shall be the Pacific Ocean."
supreme law of the land." The eighth article of the treaty is in

If, therefore, New Mexico be a Terri- the following terms:

tory of the United States, and if any " Mexicans now established in territories

treaty stipulation be in force therein, such previously belonging to Mexico, and which

treaty stipulation is the supreme law of remain for the future within the limit*

Ihe land, and is to be maintained and up- of the United States as defined by the

held accordingly. present treaty, shall be free to continue

In the letter to the governor of Texas where they now reside or to remove at any

363

PILLMOBE, MILLABD

time to the Mexican republic, retaining
the property which they possess in the
said territories, or disposing thereof and
removing the proceeds wherever they
please, without their being subjected on
this account to any contribution, tax, or
charge whatever.

" Those who shall prefer to remain in
the said territories may either retain the
title and rights of Mexican citizens or
acquire those of citizens of the United
States; but they shall be under the
obligation to make their election within
one year from the date of the exchange of
ratifications of this treaty; and those who
shall remain in the said territories after
the expiration of that year without having
declared their intention to retain the char
acter of Mexicans shall be considered to
have elected to become citizens of the
United States.

" In the said territories property of every
kind now belonging to Mexicans not estab
lished there shall be inviolably respected.
The present owners, the heirs of these, and
all Mexicans who may hereafter acquire
said property by contract shall enjoy with
respect to it guarantees equally ample as
if the same belonged to citizens of the
United States."

The ninth article of the treaty is in
these words:

" The Mexicans who, in the territories
aforesaid, shall not preserve the character
of citizens of the Mexican republic, con
formably with what is stipulated in the
preceding article, shall be incorporated
into the Union of the United States and
be admitted at the proper time (to be
judged of by the Congress of the United
States) to the enjoyment of all the rights
of citizens of the United States accord-
ing to the principles of the Constitution,
and in the mean time shall be maintained
and protected in the free enjoyment of
their liberty and property, and secured in
the free exercise of their religion without
restriction."

It is plain, therefore, on the face of
these treaty stipulations that all Mexicans
established in territories north or east of
the line of demarcation already mention
ed come within the protection of the ninth
aiticle. and thai the treaty, being a part
of the supreme law of the land, does ex
tend over all such Mexicans, and assures

364

to them perfect security in the free enjoy
ment of their liberty and property, as
well as in the free exercise of their relig
ion ; and this supreme law of the land, be
ing thus in actual force over this terri
tory, is to be maintained until it shall
ho displaced or superseded by other legal
provisions; and if it be obstructed or re
sisted by combinations too powerful to be
suppressed by the civil authority, the
case is one which comes within the pro
visions of law, and which obliges the Pres
ident to enforce those provisions. Neither
the Constitution nor the laws nor my duty
nor my oath of office leave me any alter
native or any choice in my mode of action.

The executive government of the United
States has no power or authority to deter
mine what was the true line of boundary
between Mexico and the United States be
fore the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, nor
has it any such power now, since the
question has become a question between
the State of Texas and the United States.
So far as this boundary is doubtful,
that doubt can only be removed by some
act of Congress, to which the assent of the
State of Texas may be necessary, or by
some appropriate mode of legal adjudica
tion; but in the mean time, if disturb
ances or collisions arise or should be
threatened, it is absolutely incumbent on
the executiA r e government, however pain
ful the duty, to take care that the laws
be faithfully maintained; and he can re
gard only the actual state of things as it
existed at the date of the treaty, and is
bound to protect all inhabitants who were
then established and who now remain
north and east of the line of demarca
tion in the full enjoyment of their liberty
and property, according to the provisions
of the ninth article of the treaty. In oth
er words, all must be now regarded as New
Mexico which was possessed and occupied
as New Mexico by citizens of Mexico at
the date of the treaty until a definite line
of boundary shall be established by com
petent authority.

This assertion of duty to protect the
people of New Mexico from threatened vio
lence, or from seizure to be carried into
Texas for trial for alleged offences against
Texan laws, does not at all include any
claim of power on the part of the execu
tive to establish any civil or military gov-

FILLMOBB, MILLABD

ernment within that Territory. That prompt mode of proceeding by which
power belongs exclusively to the legisla- the end can be accomplished. If judicial
tive department, and Congress is the sole proceedings were resorted to, such pro-
judge of the time and manner of creating ceedings would necessarily be slow, and

or authorizing any such government.

years would pass by, in all probability,

The duty of the executive extends only before the controversy could be ended,

to the execution of laws and the main- So great a delay in this case is to be

tenance of treaties already in force, and the avoided if possible. Such delay would be

protection of all the people of the United every way inconvenient, and might be the

States in the enjoyment of the rights occasion of disturbances and collisions,

which those treaties and laws guarantee. For the same reason I would, with the

It is exceedingly desirable that no occa- utmost deference to the wisdom of Con-

sion should arise for the exercise of the gress, express a doubt of the expediency

powers thus vested in the President by the of the appointment of commissioners, and

Constitution and the laws. With what- of an examination, estimate, and an award

ever mildness those powers might be ex- of indemnity to be made by them. This

ecuted, or however clear the case of neces- would be but a species of arbitration,
sity, yet consequences might, nevertheless,
follow of which no human sagacity can
foresee either the evils or the end.

Having thus laid before Congress the
communication of his excellency the gov
ernor of Texas and the answer thereto,

sity, yet consequences might, nevertheless, which might last as long as a suit at law.

So far as I am able to comprehend the
case, the general facts are now all known,
and Congress is as capable of deciding
on it justly and properly now as it prob
ably w y ould be after the report of the com-

and having made such observations as I missioners. If the claim of title on the

have thought the occasion called for re- part of Texas appears to Congress to be

specting constitutional obligations which well founded in whole or in part, it is

may arise in the further progress of things in the competency of Congress to offer

and may devolve on me to be performed, I her an indemnity for the surrender of that

hope I shall not be regarded as stepping claim. In a case like this, surrounded as

aside from the line of my duty, notwith- it is by many cogent considerations, all

standing that I am aware that the subject calling for amicable adjustment and im-

is now before both Houses, if I express mediate settlement, the government of the

my deep and earnest conviction of the im- United States would be justified, in my

portance of an immediate decision or ar- opinion, in allowing an indemnity to

rangement or settlement of the question ; &gt;f Texas, not unreasonable or extravagant,

boundary between Texas and the Territory
of New Mexico. All considerations of

but fair, liberal, and awarded in a just
spirit of accommodation.

justice, general expediency, and domestic I think no event would, be hailed with
tranquillity call for this. It seems to be more gratification by the people of the
in its character and by position the first, United States than the amicable adjust
er one of the first, of the questions grow- ment of questions of difficulty which have
ing out of the acquisition of California and now for a long time agitated the country
New Mexico, and now requiring decision, and occupied, to the exclusion of other sub-
No government can be established for jects, the time and attention of Congress.
New Mexico, either State or Territorial, Having thus freely communicated the
until it shall be first ascertained what results of my own reflections on the most
New Mexico is, and what are her limits advisable mode of adjusting the boundary
and boundaries. These cannot be fixed question, I shall nevertheless cheerfully
or known till the line of division be- acquiesce in any other mode which the wis-
tween her and Texas shall be ascertained (loin of Congress may devise. And in con-
and established; and numerous and elusion I repeat my conviction that every
weighty reasons conspire, in my judgment, consideration of the public interest mani-
to show that this divisional line should fests the necessity of a provision by Con-
be established by Congress with the as- gress for the settlement of this boundary
sent of the government of Texas. In the question before the present session be

first place, this seema by far the most brought to a close.

305

The settlement of

FILSON FINANCES

other questions connected with the same
subject within the same period is greatly
to be desired, but the adjustment of this
appears to me to be in the highest degree
important. In the train of such an ad
justment we may well hope that there
will follow a return of harmony and good
will, an increased attachment to the Union,
and the general satisfaction of the coun
try. MlLLAKD FlLLMORE.

Filson, JOHN, pioneer; born in Chester
county, Pa., in 1747; purchased a one-
third interest in the site of Cincinnati,
which he called Losantiville. While ex
ploring the country in the neighborhood of
Losantiville he disappeared and it is sup
posed was killed by hostile Indians, about
1788. He was the author of The Dis
covery, Settlement, and Present State of
Kentucky; A Topographical Description
of the Western Territory of North Ameri
ca; Diary of a- Journey from Philadelphia
to Vincenncs, Ind., in 1785, etc.

Finances, UNITED STATES. Financial
topics were uppermost in interest during
the years immediately succeeding 1890.
The demand for the free and unlimited
coinage of silver increased in the South
ern and Western portions of the country.
Between 1891 and 1892 the expenditures
increased and the receipts decreased. Part
of the silver was coined, and the rest ac
cumulated in the treasury vaults. The
silver question, and, with it, the whole
financial problem, was suddenly brought
prominently to the front in 1893. On
June 26 of that year the British govern
ment closed the Indian mints to the free
coinage of silver. As this important sil
ver market was thus barred, the effect
was to accelerate the fall in the price ot
that metal. At this date the value of
the silver dollar was about 60 cents, and
it fell below that point. The ratio of
gold to silver, which in 1873 was 15+,
was in 1880 20, and in 1893 25y 2 . The
amount of gold in the country was greatly
decreased during the same period. The
gold reserve in the treasury, which had
been above the $100,000,000 limit, fell in
August, 1893, to $96,000,000; stood Sept.
30 at $93,000.000, and Jan. 13, 1894, had
fallen to $74.000,000. Many business
failures occurred during the summer.
The iron trade was depressed, various
cotton and woollen mills closed in New

England and the Middle States, and
stocks suffered. Within the first eight
months of the year, 560 State and private
banks and 155 national banks (mostly
of small dimensions) failed. The groat
majority of these bank failures were in
the region west of the Mississippi River.
This section, especially the States inti
mately connected with the mining and
smelting of silver, felt the " hard times "
keenly. The general closing of silver-
mines in Colorado was attended with
much suffering, and considerable bitter
ness was displayed. At least 15,000
miners became idle, and many men out of
work came eastward, in some cases taking
forcible possession of freight-trains.

Meanwhile in the East in midsummer
an extraordinary stringency of money
was developed. At one time in New York
the premium on $1,000 in small bills
reached $25; many business establish
ments were hard pressed to meet the pay
ments of their employees; checks and clear
ing-house certificates played for a short
time a remarkable part. The premium on
currency disappeared, however, in Septem
ber, although money continued to be
scarce. One of the features of the com
mercial trouble of 1893 was the number
ot large railroad systems forced into the
hands of receivers. In this number were
included the Erie; Reading; Northern
Pacific; Atchison, Topeka. and Santa F;
and New York and New England.

As the forced purchase of silver was
generally recognized as one cause of the
disturbances, attention was called to the
repeal of the silver purchase act of 1890,
and President Cleveland summoned a spe
cial session of the Fifty-third Congress to
consider the matter. Congress assembled
Aug. 7 ; on Aug. 28 the House passed the
Wilson bill, which went 1&lt;&gt; the Senate: in
the form of the Voorhees repeal bill the
measure passed the Senate by a vote of
43 to 32, Oct. 30 ; nearly all the " repeal
ers " were from the }- .^&gt;\ and North. On
Nov. 1 it passed the House by a vote of
193 to 94, and was promptly signed by
the President. After passing this act,
which repealed the purchasing clause of
what was known as the Sherman bill of
1890, Congress adjourned.

The actual condition of the national
treasury on Jan. 12, 1894, was ihus s&lt; t

3&lt;&gt;6

FINANCES, UNITED STATES

forth in a letter of Secretary Carlisle:
Assets Gold, $74,108,149; silver dollars
and bullion, $8,092,287; fractional silver
coin, $12,133,903; United States notes,
$5,031,327; treasury notes of 1890, $2,-
476,000; national bank notes, $14,026,735;
minor coin, $988,625; deposits in banks,
$15,470,863; total cash assets, $132,327,-
889. Liabilities Bank-note 5 per cent,
fund, $7,198,219; outstanding checks and
drafts, $5,653,917; disbursing officers
balances, $28,176,149; post-office depart
ment account, $3,897,741; undistributed
assets of failed national banks, $1,927,727;
District of Columbia account, $142,613;
total agency account, $46,996,366; gold
reserve, $74,108,149; net balance, $11,-
223,374. Total liabilities, $132,327,889.
The average monthly deficiency in the
last half of 1893 was shown to be about
$7,000,000. The estimated falling-off in
revenue with other causes swelled the ex
pected deficiency to a formidable amount.
To meet the rapid fall in the gold reserve,
Secretary Carlisle, on Jan. 17, 1894, is
sued a circular, offering for public sub
scription an issue of $50,000,000 of bonds,
" redeemable in coin at the pleasure of
the government after ten years .
and bearing interest ... at the rate
of 5 per cent." The minimum premium
was fixed at 117.223, thus making the is-
sue equivalent to a 3 per cent. bond. The JSj.Tr Te L^ y^r Td^ jSn? 30,
Secretary issued the call by virtue of an 1900, were :
act of 1875; but his authority was chal- Internal revenue $295,327,926.76

lenged by the House judiciary committee s * f ms 233,164,871.16

T ai " 9 ISCM Profits on coinage, bullion de
posits, etc 9,992,374.09

In spite of this issue of bonds the District of Columbia 4,008,722.27

treasury reserve soon fell below the mark Fees consular, letters pat-

again, and on Nov. 13 of the same year a ^ S*JSf\Z*. tSMJUM

second issue of $50,000,000 worth of bonds Tax on national banks ]U998!554. oo

was made. They were all given to a syn- Navy pension, navy hospi-

dicate of bankers at a bid of 117.077. So tal cl thing, and deposit

rapid was the drain on the treasury, Sales^oVlndian lands . .

however, that on Feb. 8, 1895, the govern- Payment of Interest by Pa-

ment signed a contract with the Belmont- ciflc railways 1,173,466.43

Morgan syndicate of New York to provide Mtacellaneotu 997,375,68

for the treasury 3,500,000 ounces of Sa ^ .Vf I T?!^ . P T 779,522.78

standard gold coin, amounting to $62,- Customs fees, fines, penalties,

315,000. Payment was made to the syn- etc 675,706.95

dicate in 4 per cent bonds. The syndi- S^r^veying public

cate was also pledged to help retain all the lands 273,247.19

gold in the treasury. The business de- Sales of ordnance material. 257,265.56

pression still continued, however, and on Soldiers Home - permanent

Jan. 6, 1896. the government advertised Ta ^ sea, skins "and rent

a sale of $100,000,000 in bonds. It was of seal islands 225,676.47

367

at first planned to sell the entire issue to
the Belmont-Morgan syndicate, but the
proposition caused such a popular outcry
that the public was allowed to bid for the
bonds, and the $100,000,000 was sub
scribed more than five times over. The
treasury received over $6,000,000 more
than if the sale had been made to the
syndicate. This successful sale seemed to
restore the confidence of the nation, and
the gold reserve in the treasury soon
passed the $100,000,000 limit.

In striking contrast with the special re
port of Secretary Carlisle in 1894 was the
annual report of Secretary Gage for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1900. In com
paring these reports it should be borne in
mind that a period of remarkable pros
perity set in soon after the Presidential
election in 1896; that the war with Spain
placed on the national treasury an unex
pected burden; that the revenues of the
government were increased by a special
bill (1898) to meet the extraordinary dis
bursements; and that the foreign trade
of the country advanced to an unprece
dented volume. The main features of the
treasury report for June 30, 1900, were as
follows:

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES.

FINANCES FINE ARTS

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES. Con
tinued.

License fees, Territory of

Alaska $157,234.94

Trust funds, Department

of State 152,794.56

Depredations on public

lands 76,307.58

Spanish indemnity 57,000.00

Sales of lands and build
ings 3,842,737.68

Part payment Central Pa
cific Railroad indebtedness. 3,338,016.49

Dividend received for ac
count of Kansas Pacific
Railway 821,897.70

Postal service 102,354,579.29

Gold $107,937,110.00

Silver dollars 18,244,984.00

Subsidiary silver 12,876,849.15

Minor 2,243,017.21

Total receipts $669,595,431.18

The expenditures for the same period

were :

Civil establishment, includ
ing foreign intercourse,
public buildings, collect
ing the revenues, District
of Columbia, and other
miscellaneous expenses . . . $98,542,411.37

Military establishment, in
cluding rivers and har
bors, forts, arsenals, sea-
coast defences, and ex
penses of the war with
Spain and in the Philip
pines

Naval establishment, includ
ing construction of new
vessels, machinery, arma
ment, equipment, improve
ment at navy-yards, and
expenses of the war with
Spain and in the Philip
pines

Indian service

Pensions

Interest on the public debt. .

Deficiency in postal revenues.

Postal service

134,774,767.78

55,953,077.72
10,175,106.76

140,877,316.02

40,160,333.27

7,230,778.79

102,354,579.29

Total expenditure $590,068,371.00

Showing a surplus of $79,527,060.18

Other receipts of the Treasury, including
amounts received from the Pacific railways
from subscription to the 3 per cent, bonds
authorized in June, 1898, and other bonds,
were $115,410. The total amount of securi
ties redeemed under the operations of the
sinking fund were $56,544,556. The most
important Items in the redemptions were the
bonds purchased to the amount of $19,300,-
650, and the premium in converted bonds
amounting in all to $30,773,552. Total re
ceipts for the fiscal year exceeded those of
the preceding year by $58,613,426, while
expenditures showed a decrease of $117,-
358,388.

The coinage executed during the fiscal
year was :

Total $141,301,960.36

The revenues of the government for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, were thus
estimated upon the basis of existing laws :

Customs $245,000,000.00

Internal revenue 300,000,000.00

Miscellaneous sources 35,000,000.00

Postal service 107,773,253.92

Total estimated revenues. $687,773,253.92

The expenditures for the same period were
estimated as follows :

Civil establishment $115,000,000.00

Military establishment 140,000,000.00

Naval establishment 60,000,000.00

Indian service 11,000,000.00

Pensions 142,000,000.00

Interest on the public debt. . 32,000,000.00

Postal service 107,773,253.92

Total estimated expendi
tures. . $607,773,253.92

Or a surplus of $80,000,000.00

Secretary Gage further estimated that,
upon the basis of existing laws, the revenues
of the government for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1902, would be :

From customs $225,000,000.00

From internal revenue 310,000,000.00

From miscellaneous sources. 35,000,000.00
From postal service 116,633,042.00

Total estimated revenues. $716,633,042.00

The estimates of appropriations required
for the same period, as submitted by the
several executive departments and oflBces,
were $690,374,804.24, showing an estimated
surplus of $26,258,237.76.

For further details of national finances
see BANKS, NATIONAL; CIRCULATION;
COMMERCE; CURRENCY; DEBT, NATIONAL.

Fine Arts, THE. The earlier settlers
in our country were compelled to battle
with privations of every kind, and for
long years were struggling to overcome
the wilderness and to procure food and
clothing. This condition did not admit
of the cultivation of aesthetic- tastes. Their
architecture was at first little superior in
form to the log-hut, and painting and
pculpture were strangers to most of the
inhabitants. Music, for use in public wor
ship only, was cultivated to the extent of
the ability of the common singing-master,
and only occasionally poetry was at
tempted. Engraving was wholly unknown
before the middle of the eighteenth cen-

3G8

FINE ARTS, THE

tury. At about that time Horace Walpole
wrote, " As our disputes and politics have
travelled to America, it is probable that
poetry and painting, too, will revive
amidst those extensive tracts, as they in
crease in opulence and empire, and where
the stores of nature are so various, so
magnificent, and so new." That was writ
ten fourteen years before the Declaration
of Independence. Little could he compre
hend the value of freedom, such the Amer
icans were then about to struggle for, in
the development of every department of
the fine arts, of which Dean Berkeley had
a prophetic glimpse when he wrote:

" There shall be sung another Golden Age,

The rise of empires and of arts,
The good and great, inspiring epic rage,
The wisest heads and noblest hearts."

The first painter who found his way to
America professionally was John Watson,
a Scotchman, who was born in 1685. He
began the practice of his art at Perth Am-
boy, then the capital of New Jersey, in
1715, where he purchased land and built
houses. He died at an old age. JOHN
NMYBEBT (q. y.) came with Dean Berkeley
in 1728, and began portrait-painting in
Newport, R. I. Nathan Smybert, " an
amiable youth," began the practice of
painting, but died young in 1757. During
John Smybert s time there were Black
burn in Boston and Williams of Philadel
phia who painted poi traits These were
all Englishmen. The first American
painter was BENJAMIN WEST (q. v.) , who
spent a greater part of his life in Eng
land, where he attained to a high reputa
tion. JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY (q. v.)
was his contemporary, and painted por
traits as early as 1760. At the same
time U oollaston had established himself,
and painted the portraits of Mrs. Custis
(afterwards Mrs. Washington) and her
husband, about 1756. He was an Eng
lishman. At the period of the Revolu
tion, Charles Wilson Peale, who had
learned the art from Hesselius, a portrait-
painter, was the only American, if we ex
cept young Trumbull, who might be called
a good artist, for Copley had gone to Eng
land. So it was that the fine art of paint
ing was introduced.

At that time there were no professional
architects in the country. Plans for

ITT. 2 A

churches, other than the ordinary build
ings, were procured from abroad. The
" meeting-house " of that day was only
the shell of a dwelling-house, with very
little decoration, and with a small bell-
tower rising a few feet above the roof.
The dwelling-houses were extremely plain,
generally. When a fine one was to be
built, plans, and even materials some
times, were procured from Europe. But
from the beginning of the nineteenth
century there have been many highly ac
complished American architects, who have
carried the people through the various
styles the Greek, Gothic, and Mansard
of architecture.

Sculpture waited long for a practitioner
in America, and very little of the sculp
tor s art was known in this country.
Now the increasing demand for statuary
promises a brilliant future for the sculp
tor. Among the earlier of American
sculptors were HORATIO GREENOUGH (q.
v.) and HIRAM POWERS (q. v.) . They may
be said to have introduced the art. Green-
ough was the first American who produced
a marble group, The Chanting Cherubs,
for J. Fenimore Cooper. For many years
there was a prudish feeling that made
nude figures an abomination. So sensi
tive were the ladies of Philadelphia con
cerning the antique figures displayed at
the exhibitions of the Academy of Fine
Arts, that one day in the week was set
apart for the visits of the gentler sex.
The multiplication of art schools, art
museums, and art exhibitions has quite
generally dissipated prudery. Crawford
gave to American sculpture a fame that
widened that of Greenough and Powers.

Music has had a habitation here, first
in the form of psalm-singing, from the
earliest settlements. Now its excellent
professors and practitioners are legion in
number. The graphic art in our country
is only a little more than a century old.
Nathaniel Hurd, of Boston, engraved on
copper portraits and caricatures as early
as 1762. Paul Revere, also, engraved at
the period of the Revolution. He en
graved the plates for the Continental
money. Amos Doolittle was one of the
earliest of our better engravers on copper.
DR. ALEXANDER ANDERSON (q. v.) was the
first man who engraved on wood in this
country an art now brought to the high-

300

FINE ARTS, THE

est perfection here. The earliest and host the said scholars shall or may learn the
engraver on steel was ASHER B. DURAND art of painting; and further, my will and
(q. v.), who became one of the first line- mind is that two grinders, the one for oil-
engravers in the world, but abandoned the colors and the other for water-colors, and
profession for the art of painting. The also oil and gum-waters, shall be fur-
art of lithography was introduced into nished, from time to time, at the cost
the United States in 1821, by Messrs, and charges of the said college." Mr.
Unmet and Poolittle, and steadily gained Palmer purchased a picturesque island
favor as a cheap method of producing in the Susquehanna, opposite Havre dp
pictures. It is now extensively employed Grace, Md., which was originally called
in producing chromo-lithographic pict- Palmer s Island. There he expected the
uies. Photography, the child of the university and school of fine arts to be
daguerreotype, was first produced in Eng- established. The family of Edward
land by Mr. Talbot, and was introduced Palmer had been identified with War-
here chiefly by the labors in science of wickshire from the time of William the
Dr. J. W. Draper, of New York. Indeed, Conqueror. During the later years of his
the discovery of the process of making life Palmer resided in London, and his
pictures by employing sunlight as the collection of rarities and ancient Greek
artist was the result of the previous ex- and Roman coins was well known among
periments and writings concerning the literary men. This school of fine arts
chemical action of light by Dr. Draper, in America was projected years before
The American Academy of Fine Arts was Dean Berkeley projected his college in the
incorporated in 1808, and the first public Bermudas (see BERKELEY, GEORGE) and
exhibition of works of art followed. At the brought JOHN SMYBERT (q. v.) with him
suggestion of PROF. SAMUEL F. B. MORSE to cultivate art therein.
(q. v.) younger painters associated, and In 1791 Archibald Robertson, a Scotch-
in 1826 organized the National Academy man and a portrait-painter, established a
of the Arts of Design in the United States, seminary in the city of New York which
In 1622 Edward Palmer, a native of he called the Columbian Academy of
Gloucestershire, England, obtained from Painting. He succeeded well, and his
the London Company a grant of land in pupils did honor to the institution. In
Virginia, and from the Plymouth Com- 1801 Robert R. Livingston, then Ameri-
pany a tract in New England. Mr. can minister in France, proposed the es-
Palmer died late in 1624. Just before his tablishment of an academy of fine arts in
death he made provision in his will for New York. He wrote to friends, suggest-
the establishment, conditionally, of a ing the raising of funds by subscription
" university " in Virginia, with which was for the purpose of purchasing copies of
to be connected a school of fine arts. His antique statuary and paintings for the
will, dated Nov. 22 (O. S.), 1624, pro- instruction of young artists. An associa-
vided for the descent of his lands in Vir- tion for the purpose was formed late in
ginia and New England to his sons and 1802, but it was not incorporated until
nephews, saying: "But if all issue fails, 1808. Meanwhile Mr. Livingston had ob-
tlien all said land is to remain for the tained fine plaster copies of ancient
founding and maintenance of a university statues and sent them over. In the board
and such schools in Virginia as shall of managers were distinguished citizens,
there be erected, and the university shall but there was only one artist Colonel
be called Academia Virginiensis Oxon- Trumbull. It bore the corporate title of
iensis. " After providing for scholar- Academy of Fine Arts. It had a feeble
ships in the university for the male de- existence, though it numbered among it-;
srrndants of his grandfather, Mr. Palm- honorary members King George IV. of
er s will provided " that the scholars of England, and the Emperor Napoleon, who
the said university, for the avoiding of contributed liberally to its establishment,
idleness, shall have two painters, the one De Witt Clinton was its president in 18 Hi.
for oil-colors and the other for water-col- when its first public exhibition was
ors, who shall be admitted fellows of the opened. In 1805 seventy gentlemen,
same college, to the end and intent that mostly lawyers, met in Independence Hall,

370

FINLEY FIRES

Philadelphia, for the purpose of consider
ing the subject of founding an academy of
fine arts in that city. They formed an
association for the purpose, and estab
lished the Philadelphia Academy of
Fine Arts, with George Clymer as presi
dent. Their first exhibition was held in
1806, when more than fifty casts of antique
statues in the Louvre were displayed, and
two paintings by Benjamin West. By pur
chases and gifts the collection of the acad
emy was unsurpassed in this country in
1845, when the building and most of its
contents were destroyed by fire. The as-

came a Methodist minister in 1809; was
a missionary among the Wyandotte Ind
ians in 1821-27. His publications include
History of the Wyandotte Mission;
Sketches of Western Methodism; Personal
Reminiscences Illustrative of Indian Life,
etc. He died in Cincinnati, O., Sept. 6, 1856.
Fire-arms, a term originally applied to
cannon; afterwards to cannon requiring
two men to carry it; and now to what are
known as rifies and small arms. The fol
lowing table gives details of the rifles
used by the principal nations of the world
in 1901:

RIFLES USED BY THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS.

NATION.

Gun.

Weight.

Calibre

No. of
Rounds.

Pounds.

Ounces.

Inch.

Austria

Mannlicher

9
8
9
9
9
9
9
8
9
10
8
8
9
9
8
9

14
9

8
4
4

4
13
13
8
8
9
8

0.315
0.301
0.433
0.315
0.303
0.315
0.315
0.256
0.315
0.315
0.30
0.276
030
0.296
0.301
0.30
0.236

5
5
5
5
8
8
5
5
8
8
5
5
5
12
5
5
5

Belgium

Mauser

China

Lee

Denmark

Krag-Jorgenseu

England

Lee-Metford

France

Lebel. ..

Germany

Mannlicher

Italy

Japan

Mimita.

Portugal 1 Krnnatarhplr

Russia

Motizin

Spain

Man per

Sweden and Norway.

Krag-Jorgensen

Switzerland

Schmidt

Turkey

Mauser . . .

United States army

Krag-Jorgensen

" navy

Lee

sociation now has a superb building on
Broad Street, which was first opened to
the public in April, 1876. Unwise man
agement and alleged injustice to the
younger artists who were studying in the
New York Academy caused great dissat
isfaction, and in the autumn of 1825 they
held a meeting and organized a Society
for Improvement in Drawing. This move
ment was made at the instigation of
Samuel F. B. Morse, who was made presi
dent of the association. At a meeting
of the association in January, 1826, Mr.
Morse submitted a plan for the forma
tion of what was called a National Acad
emy of Design in the United States. The
proposition was adopted, and the new
academy was organized on Jan. 15, with
Mr. Morse as president, and fourteen as
sociate officers. The academy then found
ed flourished from the beginning, and is
now one of the most cherished institu
tions of New York City.

Finley, JAMES BRADLEY, clergyman;
born in North Carolina, July 1, 1781; be-

Fires, GREAT. The following is a list
of the most notable fires in the United

States:

Theatre at Richmond, Va. ; the
governor and many leading
citizens perished Dec. 26, 1811

New York City, 600 ware
houses, etc. ; loss, $20,000,-
000 Dec. 16, 1835

Washington, D. C., destroying
general post-office and pat
ent-office, with 10,000 valu
able models, drawings, etc.. Dec. 15, 1836

Charleston. S. C., 1,158 build
ings, covering 145 acres. .. .April 27, 1838

New York City, 46 buildings ;

loss, $10,000,000 Sept. 6, 1830

PIttsburg, I a., 1.000 buildings;

loss about $6.000,000 April 10, 1845

New York City, 1,300 dwell
ings destroyed June 28, 1845

New York City, 3Oi_&gt; stores and
dwellings. 4 lives, and $(;,-
000,000 of property July 1!), 1845

Albany, N. Y.. 600 buildings,
besides steamboats, piers,
etc. ; 24 acres burned over ;
loss, $3,000,000 Sept. 9, 184S

St. Louis, Mo., 15 blocks of
houses and 23 steamboats ;
loss estimated at $3,000,000. May 17, 1S49

FIBST REPUBLIC IN AMEBICA FISH

San Francisco, Cal., nearly
U.500 buildings burned ; loss
about $3,500,000 May 3-5, 1851

San Francisco, Cal., 500 build
ings ; loss, $3,000,000 June 22, 1851

Congressional Library, Wash
ington, D. C., 35,000 volumes. Dec. 24, 1851

Syracuse, N. Y., 12 acres of
ground burned over ; loss,
$1,000,000 Nov. 8, 1856

New York Crystal Palace de
stroyed Oct. 5, 1858

Portland, Me., nearly destroy
ed ; 10,000 people homeless ;
loss, $15,000,000 July 4, 1866

Great Chicago fire, burning
over about 3% square miles,
destroying 17,450 buildings,
killing 200 persons ; loss over
$200,000,000 Oct. 8-9, 1871

Great fire in Boston ; over 800
buildings burned ; loss, $80,-
000,000 Nov. 9, 1872

Brooklyn (N. Y.) Theatre burn
ed ; 295 lives lost Dec. 5, 1876

Jacksonville, Fla. ; 148 blocks

burned over ; loss, $10.000.00()May 3, 1901

Chicago, 111. ; Iroquois Theatre ;

573 lives lost Dec. 30, 1903

Baltimore, Md. ; area of 12 by
9 city blocks In business sec
tion burned over ; insurance

loss, $30,500,000 Feb. 7-8, 1904

New York ; steamboat General
Slocum. bearing Sunday-
school excursion, burned ; 958

lives lost June 15, 1904

First Bepublic in America, 1718-1709.
See NEW ORLEANS.

Fish, HAMILTON, statesman; son of
Col. Nicholas Fish; born in New York

City, Aug. 3, 1808; graduated at Co
lumbia College in 1827; admitted to the
bar in 1830; and was elected to Congress
in 1842. In 1848 he was chosen governor

HAMILTON FI8U.

NICHOLAS FISH.

of the State of New York, and in 1851
became a member of the United States
Senate, acting with the Republican party
after its formation in 1850. He was a
firm supporter of the government during
the Civil War, and in March, 1809, was
called to the cabinet of President Grant
as Secretary of State, and remained in
that post eight years, during which time
he assisted materially in settling various
disputes with Great Britain, of which
the "Alabama claims" controversy was
the most important. He was president-
general of the Society of the Cincinnati,
and for many years president of the New
York Historical Society. He died in New
York City, Sept. 7, 183.

Fish, NICHOLAS, military officer; born
in New York City, Aujr. 28. 1758; studied
law in the office of .John Morin Scott, and
was on his stafl as aide in tin- spring of
1770. In June he was made brigade-
major, and in November major of the 2d
New York Regiment. Major Fish was in
the battles at Saratoga in 1777; was di
vision inspector in 1778; and commanded
a corps of light infantry in the battle of
Monmouth. He served in Sullivan s ex-
372

FISH DAM FORD FISHER, FORT

pedition in 1779; under Lafayette, in Vir
ginia, in 1781; and was at the sur
render of Cornwallis, behaving gallantly
during the siege. For many years after
1786, Fish, who had become lieutenant-
colonel during the war, Avas adjutant-
general of the State of New York, and
was appointed supervisor of the United
States revenue in 1794. In 1797 he be
came president of the New York State
Cincinnati Society. He died in New
York City, June 20, 1833.

Fish Dam Ford, S. C., BATTLE AT. An
engagement between the Americans under
General Sumter, and the British under Gen
eral Wemyss, which was fought Nov. 12,
1780, and resulted in an American victory.

Fisher, FORT, an extensive earthwork on
a point of sandy land between the Cape
Fear River at its mouth and the ocean,

The powder-ship was the Louisiana, a pro
peller of 295 tons, having an iron hull.
She was disguised as a blockade-runner.
To have the powder above the water-line,
a light deck was built for the purpose.
On this was first placed a row of barrels
of powder, standing on end, the upper
one open. The remainder of the pow
der was in canvas bags, holding about
60 Ibs. each, the whole being stored
as represented in the engraving, in which
the form of the vessel is also delineated.
The whole weight of the powder was 215
tons. To communicate fire to the whole
mass simultaneously, four separate threads
of the Gomez fuse were woven through it,
passing through each separate barrel and
bag. At the stern and under the cabin
was a heap of pine wood (H) and other
combustibles, which were to be fired by

THE POWDKR-SHIP.

the land-face occupying the whole width
of the cape known as Federal Point, and
armed with twenty heavy guns. All
along the land-front (1864) was a stock
ade, and on the sea-front were the wrecks
of several blockade-runners. It was late
in 1864 when an attempt was made to
close the port of Wilmington against Eng
lish blockade-runners by capturing this
fort and its dependencies. The expedition
sent against the fort consisted of a power
ful fleet under Admiral Porter and a land
force under the immediate command of
Gen. Godfrey Weitzel, of the Army of the
James, accompanied by Gen. B. F. Butler
as commander of that army. The whole
force was gathered in Hampton Roads
early in December. The troops consisted
of General Ames s division of the 24th
Army Corps and General Paine s division
of the 25th (colored) Corps. The war-
vessels were wooden ships, iron-clads,
monitors, gunboats, and a powder-ship,
destined to be blown up abreast of the
fort with a hope of destructive effect.

373

the crew when they should leave the ves
sel. Three devices were used for com
municating tire to the fuses, namely
clock-work by which a percussion-cap was
exploded ; short spermaceti candles, which
burned down and ignited the fuses at the
same time; and a slow match that
worked in time with the candles and the
clock-Avork. The powder-vessel followed
a blockade-runner and was anchored with
in 300 yards of the fort, according to the
report of Commander Rhind. When the
combustibles were fired and the apparatus
for igniting the fuses were put in mo
tion, the crew escaped in a swift little
steamer employed for the purpose. The
explosion took place in one hour and fifty-
two minutes after the crew left. Notwith
standing the concussion of the explosion
broke window-glasses in a vessel 12 miles
distant, and the whole fleet, at that dis
tance, felt it, and it was al?o felt on land
at Beaufort and Newbern, from 60 to 80
miles distant, there was no perceptible
effect upon the fort.

FISHER, FORT

LANDING TROOI S AT FOKT FISI1KR.

The appointed rendezvous of the ex- the command of GEN. ALFRED H. TERRY
pcdition was 25 miles off the coast, fac- (q. v.) , with the addition of a brigade of
ing Fort Fisher, so as not to be discov- 1,400 men. Lieutenant-Colonel Comstock,
ered by the Confederates until ready for of General Grant s staff, who accompanied
action. There was a delay in the arrival the first expedition, was made the chief-
of the war vessels, and the transports, engineer of this. The expedition left
coaled and watered for only ten days, Hampton Roads, Jan. 6, 1865, and rendez-
were compelled to run up to Beaufort voused off Beaufort, N. C., where Porter
Harbor, N. C., for both, the fleet remain- was taking in supplies of coal and ammu-
ing off Fort Fisher. The transports re- nition. They were all detained by rough
turned on Christmas evening; the next weather, and did not appear off Fort
morning the war vessels opened a bom- Fisher until the evening of the 12th. The
bardment, and at 3 P.M. the troops be- navy, taught by experience, took a posi-
gan their debarkation two miles above tion where it could better affect the land
the fort. Only a part of the troops front of the fort than before. Under
had been landed when the surf ran too cover of the fire of the fleet, 8,000 troops
high to permit more to go ashore. These were landed (Jan. 13). Terry wisely pro-
marched down to attack the fort. Not a vided against an attack in the rear by
gun had been dismounted, and, as they casting up intrenclnnents across the
were ready to rake the narrow peninsula peninsula and securing the free use of
on which the troops stood the moment Masonboro Inlet, where, if necessary,
the fleet should withhold its fire, pru- troops and supplies might be landed in
dence seemed to require the troops to with- still water. On the evening of the 14th
draw. They did so, and were ordered to the light guns were landed, and before
the James River to assist in the siege morning were in battery. Wisely planned
of PETERSBURG (q. v.) , and the expedition by Terry, a grand assault was made on
of the land force against Fort Fisher was the morning of the 15th.
temporarily abandoned. It was resumed The war-ships opened the battle on the
ten davs afterwards. The war vessels had Nth. They kept up a bombardment all
remained off Fort Fisher. The same day, severely damaging the guns of the
troops led by Weitzel, were placed under fort and silencing most of them. The

374

FISHER

iron-clads fired slowly throughout the ed by General Terry as over 2,000 prison-
night, worrying and fatiguing the garri- ers, 169 pieces of artillery, over 2,000
son, and at eight o clock in the morning small-arms, and commissary stores. The
(Jan. 15) the entire naval force moved port of Wilmington was then effectively
up to the attack. Meanwhile, 1,400 ma- closed to blockade-runners,
lines and 600 sailors, armed with re- Fisher, JOSHUA FRANCIS, author; born
volvers, cutlasses, and carbines, were sent in Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 17, 1807; grad-
from the ships to aid the troops in the uated at Harvard College in 1825; studied
assault. Ames s division led in the as- law but never practised. His publications
sault, which began at half-past three include An Account of the Early Poets and
P.M. The advance carried shovels and dug Poetry of Pennsylvania; Private Life and
rifle-pits for shelter. A heavy storm of Domestic Habits of William Penn; The
musketry and cannon opened upon the Degradation of our Representative System
assailants. The fleet had effectually de- and Its Reform; Reform of Municipal
stroyed the palisades on the land front. Elections; and Nomination of Candidates.
Sailors and marines assailed the north- He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 21, 1873.
east bastion, and with
this assault began the
fierce struggle. The gar
rison used the huge tra
verses that had shielded
their cannon as breast
works, and over these
the combatants fired in
each other s faces. The
struggle was desperate
and continued until nine
o clock, when the Na
tionals, fighting their
way into the fort, gain
ed full possession of it.
All the other works
near it were rendered un
tenable; and during the
night (Jan. 16-17) the
Confederates blew up
Fort Caswell, on the
right bank of Cape Fear
River. They abandoned
the other works and fled
towards Wilmington.
The National loss in this
last attack was 681 men,
of whom eighty-eight
were killed. On the
morning succeeding the
victory, when the Nation
als were pouring into
the fort, its principal
magazine exploded, kill
ing 200 men and wound
ing 100. The fleet lost
about 300 men during
the action and by the ex
plosion. The loss of the

Confederates was report- MAP OF FOKT FISHER AND VICINITY.

375

FISHER FISHER S HILL

Fisher, REDWOOD S., statistician; born
in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1782. Edited a
New York daily newspaper. He wrote The
Progress of the United States of America
from the Earliest Periods, Geographical,
Statistical, and Historical, and was editor
of a Gazetteer of the United States. He
died in Philadelphia, Pa., May 17,
1856.

Fisher, SYDNEY GEORGE, author; born
in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 11, 1856; grad
uated at Trinity College in 1879; is the

have just sent the enemy whirling through
Winchester, and are after them to-mor
row." He kept his word, and appeared in
front of Fisher s Hill on the 22d. There
Early was strongly intrenched. Sheridan
sent Crook s corps to gain the left and
rear of the position, and advanced to the
attack of the left and front, with Wright s
and Emory s corps. The assault began at
four o clock. The Confederate line was
soon broken, and the entire force retreat
ed in disorder up the valley, leaving be-

SHEHIDAX S CAVALRY AT KI&gt;III;I: S HILL.

author of The Making of Pennsylvania; hind them sixteen guns and over 1,000

The True Benjamin Franklin; The Evo- men as prisoners. Early s army was saved

lution of the Constitution of the United from total destruction by the holding in

Slates, etc. check of Torbcrt s cavalry in the Luray

Fisher s Hill, ACTION AT. When Valley, and the detention of Wilson s cav-

driven from Winchester (see WINCHESTER, airy, who fought at Front Royal the day

BATTLE OF) Early did not halt until he before (Sept. 21). Sheridan chased Early

reached Fisher s Hill, beyond Strasburg. to POUT REPUBLIC (q. v.) , where he de-

and 20 miles from the battle-field. It was st roved the Confederate train of seventy-

etrongly fortified, and was considered the five wagons. Thence his cavalry pursued

most impregnable position in the valley, as far as Staunton, where the remnant of

In his despatch to the Secretary of War Early s urmy sought and found shelter in

(Sept. 19, 1864) Sheridan wrote: "We the passes of the Blue Ridge. The Na-

376

FISHERIES

tional cavalry destroyed a vast amount Americans had almost alone enjoyed these
of supplies at Staunton, passed on to fisheries, and deemed that they had gained
Waynesboro, and laid waste the Virginia a right to them by exclusive and imme-
Central Railway. Then
Sheridan s whole army
went down the Shenandoah
Valley, making his march
a track of desolation. He
had been instructed to leave
nothing " to invite the
enemy to return." He
placed his forces behind
Cedar Creek, halfway be
tween Strasburg and Mid-
dletown. Early s cavalry
had rallied, under Rosser,
and hung upon Sheridan s
rear as he moved down the
valley. Torbert and his
cavalry turned upon them
(Oct. 9) and charged the
Confederates, who fled, leav
ing behind them 300 prison
ers, a dozen guns, and
nearly fifty wagons. They
were chased 26 miles. Three
days later Early attempted
to surprise Sheridan, while
resting at Fisher s Hill,
when the Confederates were
severely chastised.

Fisheries, THE. The in
terruption of the fisheries
formed one of the elements
of the Revolutionary War
and promised to be a mark
ed consideration in any
treaty of peace with Great
Britain. Public law on the
subject had not been set
tled. By the treaty of
Utrecht France had agreed
not to fish within 30
leagues of the coast of
Nova Scotia; and by that of Paris not morial usage. New England, at the begin-
to fish within 15 leagues of Cape Breton, ning of the war, had, by act of Parlia-
Vergennes, in a. letter to Luzerne, the ment, been debarred from fishing on the
French minister at Philadelphia, had said : banks of Newfoundland, and they claimed
" The fishing on the high seas is as free that, in any treaty of peace, these fish-
as the sea itself, but the coast fisheries cries ought to be considered as a perpetual
belong, of right, to the proprietors of the joint property. Indeed, New England had
coast; therefore, the fisheries on the coasts planned, and furnished the forces for, the
of Newfoundland, of Nova Scotia, and of first reduction of Cape Breton, and had
Canada belong exclusively to the English, rendered conspicuous assistance in the
and the Americans have no pretension acquisition of Nova Scotia and Canada by
whatever to share in them." But the the English. The Congress, on March 23,

377

FISHERS^
HILL

PLAN OF ACTION AT FISHER S HILL.

FISHEBIES FISHING BOUNTIES

1779, in committee of the whole, agreed
that the right to fish on the coasts of
Nova Scotia, the banks of Newfoundland,
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and the
straits of Labrador and Belle Isle, should
in no case be given up. In the final treaty
of peace (1783) the fishery question was
satisfactorily settled.

In the summer of 1845 some ill-feeling
was engendered between the United States
and Great Britain concerning the fisher
ies on the coasts of British America in the
Kast. American fishermen were charged
with a violation of the treaty of 1818
with Great Britain, which stipulated that
they should not cast their lines or nets in
the bays of the British provinces, except
at the distance of 3 miles or more
from shore. Now the British Government
claimed the right to draw a line from
headland to headland of these bays, and
to exclude the Americans from the waters
within that line. It had been the common
practice, without interference, before, for
American fishermen to catch cod within
large bays, where they could easily carry
on their vocation at a greater distance
than 3 miles from the shore; now this
new interpretation would exclude them
from all bays. The British government
sent an armed naval force to sustain this
claim, and American vessels were threat
ened with seizure if they did not comply.
The government of the United States, re
garding the assumption as illegal, sent two
war steamers, Princeton and Fulton, to
the coast of Nova Scotia to protect the
rights of American fishermen. For a
time war between the two governments
seemed inevitable, but the dispute was
amicably settled by mutual concessions in
October, 1853. See ALASKA; ANGLO-
AMERICAN COMMISSION; BERING SEA
QUESTION; HALIFAX FISHING AWARD.

The fisheries industries of the United
Slates in 1900 were chiefly carried on in
three sections known as tlio Xew England,
the Pacific coast, and the Great Lakes
fisheries. The United States government
for several years has been liberally pro
moting the fishery industry, and several of
ihe States, having large capital invested
therein, have been rendering independent
assistance, both the national and State
governments maintaining large hatcher
ies. The report of the commissioner of

fish and fisheries for the fiscal year end
ing June 30, 1900, but principally cover
ing the calendar year 1899, shows that the
national government distributed 1,164,-
336,754 fish, an increase, principally of
shad, cod, flat-fish, white-fish, and lake
trout, of about 100,000,000 over the pre
vious year. The stocking of suitable
streams with various species of trout was
continued, special attention being paid to
the distribution of brook, rainbow, and
black-spotted trout. The amount of capi
tal invested in the fisheries of the Ncw
England States was $19,637,036. There
were 35,445 persons employed in the in
dustry and 1,427 vessels, valued with their
equipment at $4,224,339. The total prod
uct, chiefly in cod, cusk, haddock, and
pollock, aggregated 393,355,570 Ibs., valued
at $9,672,702. The oyster fisheries of
Rhode Island and Connecticut yielded
catches valued at $1,910,684. The lobster
fisheries yielded $1,276,900. On the Great
Lakes 3,728 persons and 104 vessels were
engaged, representing an investment of
82,719,600, and in the calendar year 1899
the catches amounted to 58,393,000 Ibs.,
valued at $1,150,890. About 15,000,000
lake-trout eggs were collected on the
spawning grounds of Lake Michigan, and
more than 12,000,000 on those of Lake
Superior, and at the Lake Erie station
more than 337,838,000 white-fish eggs
were hatched and the fry liberated, a gain
of 2,000,000 over the previous year. For
the Pacific coast fisheries more than
10,000,000 sockeye and blueback salmon
fry were hatched and planted in Baker
Lake, Washington, and in Skagit River.
During the calendar year 1900 the yield
of salmon was 2.843,132 cases, valued at
$2.348,142. The American fur-seal herd
in the waters of Alaska continued to de
crease in numbers through the mainte
nance of pelagic sealing.

Fishing Bounties. In 1792 an act of
Congress re-established the old system of
bounties to which the American fisherman
had been accustomed under the British
government. All vessels employed for the
term of four months, at least, in each
year, on the Newfoundland banks, and
other cod-fisheries, were entitled to a
bounty varying from $1 to $2.50 per ton,
according to their sixe, three-eighths to
go to the owners and five-eighths to the

378

FISHING CREEK FITCH

JOHN FISKK.

fishermen. The national benefit of the tion as instructor, lecturer, assistant
fisheries as a nursery for seamen in case librarian, and overseer. He has also been
of war was urged as the chief argu- Professor of American History in Wash-
ment in favor of the bounties. That ington University, St. Louis, and is a well-
benefit was very conspicuous when the known lecturer on historical themes,
war with Great Britain occurred in He was the son of Edmund Brewster
1812-15. Green, of Smyrna, Del., and Mary Fiske

Fishing Creek, ACTION AT. When Bound, of Middletown, Conn. In 1852
General Gates was approaching Camden
in 1780 he sent General Sumter with a
detachment to intercept a convoy of stores
passing from Ninety-six to Rawdon s
camp at Camden. Sumter was successful.
He captured forty-four wagons loaded with
clothing and made a number of prisoners.
On hearing of the defeat of Gates, Sumter
continued his march up the Catawba
River and encamped (Aug. 18) near the
mouth of Fishing Creek. There he was
surprised by Tarleton, and his troops were
routed with great slaughter. More than
fifty were killed and 300 were made
prisoners. Tarleton recaptured the Brit
ish prisoners and all the wagons and their
contents. Sumter escaped, and in such
haste that he rode into Charlotte, N. C.,
without hat or saddle.

Fisk, CLINTON BOWEN, lawyer; born
in Griggsville, N. Y., Dec. 8, 1828; re
moved with his parents to Michigan while his father died and three years later
a child, where he became a successful his mother married Edwin W. Stoughton,
merchant; removed to St. Louis in 1859. of New York. The same year the boy,
In 1861 he was commissioned colonel of whose name was Edmund Fiske Green,
the 33d Missouri Regiment; in 1862 was assumed the name of John Fiske, which
promoted brigadier-general; and in 1865 was that of his maternal grandfather,
was brevetted major-general. He was Professor Fiske s works fall under two
deeply interested in educational and tern- heads: philosophical, including the Cosmic
pevance reform; Avas a founder of Fisk Philosophy; Idea of God, etc.; and his-
University, Nashville, Tenn.; and was torical, including The Critical Period of
the Prohibition candidate for governor American History; Civil Government in
of New Jersey in 1886, and for Presi- the United States; The War of Independ-
dent of the United States in 1888. ence; The American Revolution; The Bc-
He died in New York City, July 9, ginnings of New England; The Discovery

of America; Old Virginia and her Neigh-

Fiske, AMOS KIDDER. author; born in bars. His three essays, The Federal Union
Whitefield, N. H., May 12, 1842; gradu- (q. v.) ; The Town-Meeting; and Manifest
ated at Harvard in 1866; admitted to the Destiny, were published in one volume
bar in New York in 1868; and engaged in under the title of American Political Ideas
journalism. He is the author of Story from the Stand-point of Universal History.
of the Philippines; The West Indies, With James Grant Wilson he edited Ap-
i l (i - plcion s Cyclopaedia of American Biog-

Fiske, JOHN, historian; born in Hart- raphy. He died at Gloucester, Mass.,
ford, Conn., March 31, 1842; graduated July 4, 1901.

at Harvard in 1863 and at its Law Fitch, JOHN, inventor; born in East
School in 1865, but never practised: has Windsor, Conn., Jan. 21, 1743; was an
since been identified with that institu- armorer in the military service during the

379

FITCH FIVE FORKS

Revolution, and at Trenton, N. J., manu- as governor of the colony. He died in
factured sleeve-buttons. For a while, Norwalk, in July, 1777.
near the close of the war, he was a sur- Five Forks, BATTLE OF. Sheridan had
veyor in Virginia, during which time he crossed the Appomattox from Bermuda
prepared, engraved on copper, and printed Hundred, and, passing in the rear of the
on a press of his own manufacture, a map anny before Petersburg, on the morning
of the Northwest country. He construct- of March 29, 1865, had halted at Din
ed a steamboat in 1786, and a year widdie Court-house. A forward move-
later built another propelled by six ment of the National army had just
paddles on each side. A company was begun. Warren and Humphreys, with
f&lt;r.iied (1788) in Philadelphia, which their corps, had moved at an early hour
caused a steam-packet to ply on the Dela- that morning against the flanks of the
ware River, and it ran for about two Confederates, and they bivouacked in
years when the company failed. In 1793 front of the works of their antagonists,
he unsuccessfully tried his steam naviga- only 6 miles from Dinwiddie Court-house,
tion projects in France. Discouraged, he Warren had lost 300 men in a fight on
went to the Western country again, where the way. On the next day (March 30),

Sheridan sent a party
of cavalry to the Five
Forks, but the Confed
erate works there were
too strongly armed and
manned to be ridden
over, and the Nation
als were driven back
to the Court - house.
There was some severe
fighting that day, with
out a decisive result.
Sheridan was engaged in
the struggle, but at mid
night he \vas satisfied
that Lee was withdraw
ing his troops, and felt
quite at ease. It was
known at headquarters
that his troops had be&lt;&gt;7i
driven back from Five

he died in Bardstown, Ky., July 2, 1798, Forks, and that it was uncertain
leaving behind him a history of his ad- whether he could hold his position,
ventures in the steamboat enterprise, in a Warren was sent to his aid with a
sealed envelope, directed to " My children portion of his corps. Ranking Warren,
and future generations," from which Sheridan became commander of the whole
Thompson Westcott, of Philadelphia, pre- force. Leaving Warren half-way between
pared a biography of Fiteh, published in Dinwiddie Court-house and Five Forks,
1807. See STEAM NAVIGATION. Sheridan pressed boldly on towards the

Fitch, THOMAS, colonial governor; latter place, with cavalry alone, and
born in Norwalk, Conn., in June, 1699; drove the Confederates into their works
graduated at Yale in 1721; elected gov- and enveloped them with his ovenvhelm-
ernor of Connecticut in 1754; and was ing number of horsemen. He then or-
in office twelve years. In 1765 he took dered Warren forward to a position on
the oath as prescribed in the Stamp Act, his right, so as to be fully on the Con-
although his action was opposed to the federate left. He drove some Confed-
scntiment of almost the entire community, crates towards Petersburg, and returned
In 1766 he retired to private life in conse- before Warren was prepared to charge,
quence of the election of William Pitkin In the afternoon of March 31 War-

380

KMYH S STKA.MHOAT.

FIVE FORKS, BATTLE OF

MOVEMENT TOWARDS FIVE FORKS.

ren moved to the attack. Ayres charged
upon the Confederate right, carried a
portion of the line, and captured more
than 1,000 men and several battle-flags.
Merritt charged the front, and Griffin fell
upon the left with such force that he car
ried the intrenchments and seized 1,500
men. Crawford, meanwhile, had come for
ward, cut off their retreat in the direc

tion of Lee s lines, struck them in the
rear, and captured four guns. Hard
pressed, the Confederates fought gallantly
and with great fortitude. At length the
cavalry charged over the works simul
taneously with the turning of their flanks
by Ayres and Griffin, and, bearing down
upon the Confederates with great fury,
caused a large portion of them to throw

BATTLK OF KIVK FORKS.

381

FIVE NATIONS FLAG

down their arms, while the remainder the opposite side is the motto Appeal
made a disorderly flight westward, pur- to Heaven. The Culpeper men, who
sued many miles by Merritt and McKen- marched with Patrick Henry towards
zie. The Confederates lost a large number
of men, killed and wounded, and over
5,000 were made prisoners. The Nation
als lost about 1,000, of whom 634 were
killed and wounded.

Five Nations, THE, the five Algonquian
Indian nations Mohawks, Oneidas, Onon-
dagas, Cayugas, and Senecas who orig
inally formed the IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY
(q. v.). The Five Nations were joined
by the Tuscaroras, from North Carolina,
in 1713, and then the confederacy was
called the Six NATIONS (q. v.).

Flag, NATIONAL. Every colony had
its peculiar ensign, and the army and navy
of the united colonies, at first, displayed
various flags, some colonial, others regi
mental, and others, like the flag at Fort
Sullivan, Charleston Harbor, a blue field
with a silver crescent, for special oc
casions. The American flag used at the
battle on Bunker (Breed s) Hill, was
called the "New England flag." It was
a blue ground, with the red cross of St.
George in a corner, quartering a white
field, and in the upper dexter quartering
was the figure of a pine-tree. The New
Englanders had also a "pine-tree flag" as

well as a "pine-tree shilling." The en- THE PINE-TREE FLAG.

graving below is a reduced copy of

a vignette on a map of Boston, pub- Williamsburg to demand instant restora-
lished in Paris in 1776. The London tion of powder to the old magazine, or
Chronicle, an anti-ministerial paper, in its payment for it by Governor Dunmore,
issue for January, 1776, gives the follow- bore a flag with a rattlesnake upon it,
ing description of the flag of an American coiled ready to strike, with Patrick
cruiser that had been captured: " In the Henry s words and the words "Don t

tread on me." It is believed that the
first American flag bearing thirteen red
and white stripes was a Union flag pre
sented to the Philadelphia Light Horse by
Capt. Abraham Markoe, a Dane, probably
early in 1775. A "Union flag" is men
tioned as having been displayed at a gath
ering of Whigs at Savannah in June, 1775,
probably thirteen stripes. The earliest
naval flags exhibited thirteen alternate
red and white stripes, some with a pine-
tree upon them, and others with a rattle-

THK NKW KXOI.ASI&gt; FLA. snake stretched across the field of stripes,

and beneath it the words, either implor-

Admiralty Office is the flag of a provincial ingly or as a warning, " Don t tread on
privateer. The field is white bunting; on me." The new Union flag raised at Carn-
the middle is a green pine-tree, and upon bridge, Jan. 1, 1776, was composed of tliii 1 -

3S2

FLAG, NATIONAL

teen alternate red and white stripes, with
the English union in one corner.

Finally, the necessity of a national
flag was felt, especially for the marine
service, and the Continental Congress
adopted the following resolution, June 14,
1777: "Resolved, that the flag of the
United States be thirteen stripes, alter
nate red and white; that the union be
thirteen stars, white, on a blue field, repre
senting a new constellation." There was
a dilatoriness in displaying this flag. The
resolution was not officially promulgated
over the signature of the secretary of the
Congress until Sept. 3, though it was
previously printed in the newspapers. This
was more than a year after the colonies
had been declared free and independent.
Probably the first display of the national
flag at a military post was at Fort Schuy-
ler, on the site of the present city of Rome,
N. Y. The fort was besieged early in Au
gust, 1777. The gar
rison were without a
flag, so they made
one according to the
prescription of Con
gress by cutting up
sheets to form the
white stripes, bits of
scarlet cloth for the

red stripes, and the blue ground for the
stars was composed of portions of a cloth
cloak belonging to Capt. Abraham Swart-
wout, of Dutchess county, N. Y. This flag
was unfurled over the fort on Aug. 3,
1777. Paul Jones was appointed to the
Ranger on June 14, 1777, and he claimed
that he was the first to display the stars
find stripes on a naval vessel. The Ranger
tailed from Portsmouth, N. H., on Nov.

I, 1777. It is probable that the na
tional flag was first unfurled in battle
on the banks of the Brandywine, Sept.

II, 1777, the first battle after its adop
tion.

It first appeared over a foreign strong
hold, June 28, 1778, when Captain Rath-
bone, of the American sloop-of-war Provi
dence, with his crew and some escaped
prisoners, captured Fort Nassau, New
Providence, Bahama Islands. The captors
were menaced by the people, when the
stars and stripes were nailed to the flag
staff in defiance. John Singleton Copley,
the American-born painter, in London,

claimed to be the first to display the stars
and stripes in Great Britain. On the day
when George III. acknowledged the inde
pendence of the United States, Dec. 5,
782, he painted the flag of the United
States in the background of a portrait of
Elkanah Watson. To Captain Mooers, of
the whaling-ship Bedford, of Nantucket,
is doubtless due the honor of first dis-

THE CULPEPER FLAG.

THE NATIONAL FLAG.

playing the national flag in a port of
Great Britain. He arrived in the Downs,
with it flying at the fore, Feb. 3, 1783.
That flag was first carried to the East
Indian seas in the Enterprise (an Albany-
built vessel), Capt. Stewart Dean, in 1785.
When Vermont and Kentucky were added
to the union of States the flag was altered.
By an act of Congress (Jan. 13, 1794) the
number of the stripes and stars in the
flag was increased from thirteen to fifteen.
The act went into effect May 1, 1795.
From that time until 1818, when there
were twenty States, the number of the
stars and stripes remained the same. A
committee appointed to revise the stand
13

FLAGO FLETCHER

ard invited Capt. Samuel C. Reid, the in Montana, on a reservation comprising

brave defender of the privateer Armstrong, nearly 1,500,000 acres, and numbered

to devise a new flag. He retained the 1,998.

original thirteen stripes, but added a star Fleet, THOMAS, printer; born in Eng-

for every State. That has been the device land, Sept. 8, 1685; became a printer in

of the flag of the United States ever since. Bristol, England, but emigrated to Boston,

In 1901 the field of the flag contained Mass., in 1712, where he established a

forty-five stars. printing-office. He married Elizabeth

Flagg, WILSON, naturalist; born in Goose, June 8, 1715. In 1719 he conceived
Beverly, Mass., Nov. 5, 1805; was edu- the idea of publishing the songs which
cated at Phillips Andover Academy; en- his mother-in-law had been singing to his
tered Harvard in 1823 and three months infant son. The book was issued under
later left that college to study medicine, the title of Songs for the Nursery; or,
which he never practised. When a young Mother Ooose s Melodies for Children.
man he lectured on natural science, and Printed by T. Fleet, at his Printing-House,
made a pedestrian tour from Tennessee Pudding Lane, 1119. Price, two coppers.
to Virginia and then home. Later he be- In connection with his printing-office he
came interested in political discussions established the Weekly Rehearsal, which
and contributed articles to the Boston was afterwards changed in title to Boston
Weekly Magazine and the Boston Post. Evening Post. He continued as pro-
He was employed in the Boston custom- prietor and editor of this paper until his
house from 1844 to 1848, and removed to death, July 21, 1758.

Cambridge, Mass., in 1856. Among his Fleetwood, BATTLE AT. See BRANDY

publications are Studies in the Field and STATION.

Forest; Woods and By-Ways in New Eng- Fleming, THOMAS, military officer;

land, etc. He died in Cambridge, Mass., born in Botetourt county, Va., in 1727;

May 6, 1884. took part in the great battle of Point

Flanagan, WEBSTER, politician; born Pleasant in 1774 between 1,000 Indians,

in Claverport, Ky., Jan. 9, 1832; removed under Cornstalk, and 400 whites, under

to Texas in 1844; held many State offices. Gen. Andrew Lewis. During the fight

He was in the Confederate army as Colonel Fleming was severely wounded, one

brigadier-general. Mr. Flanagan was one ball passing through his breast and anoth-

of the historic 304 " Grant Guard " at the er through his arm. At the outbreak of

Chicago convention in 1880, who voted for the Revolutionary War he was made colo-

Grant s renomination from the first to the nel of the 9th Virginia Regiment, but in

last ballot. He denounced civil-service re- consequence of disease and wounds, died

form, and became famous by his question, in camp in August, 1776.
" What are we here for?" Fletcher, BENJAMIN, colonial governor;

Flanders, HENRY, lawyer; born in was a soldier of fortune; received the ap-

Plainfield, N. H., Feb. 13, 182G; prac- pointment of governor of New York from

tised law in Philadelphia since 1850. He William and Mary in 1692, and arrived

is the author of Lives of the Chief-Jus- at New York City on Aug. 29 of that

tices of the United States; Memoirs of year; later in the year was also connnis-

Cumberland ; Exposition of the United sioned to assume the government of Penn-

titates Constitution, etc. sylvania and the annexed territories; and

Flathead Indians, a division of the made his first visit to Philadelphia in

CIIOCTAW (q. v.) tribe; named because of April, 1693. Fletcher was a colonel in

their habit of compressing the heads of the British army. Possessed of violent

their male infants; also the name of a passions, he was weak in judgment,

branch of the Salishan stock. The former greedy, dishonest, and cowardly. He fell

division were engaged on both sides in the naturally into the hands of the aristo-

French and Indian contests ending in 1763. cratic party, and his council was com-

The second branch lived in British Colum- posed of the enemies of Leisler. The reck-

bia, Montana, Washington, and Oregon, lessness of his administration, his avarice,

In 1900 five branches of the Choctaw di- his evident prostitution of his office to

vision were located at the Flathead agency personal gain, disgusted all parties. He

384

FLETCHER FLEUR-JT

continually quarrelled with the popular
Assembly, and his whole administration
was unsatisfactory. The Quaker-governed
Assembly of Pennsylvania thwarted his
schemes for obtaining money for making
war on the French; and he was fort
unately led by Col. Peter Schuyler in all
his military undertakings. The Assembly
of Connecticut denied his right to control
their militia; and late in the autumn of
1693 he went to Hartford with Colonel
Bayard and others from New York, and
in the presence of the train-bands of that
city, commanded by Captain Wadsworth,
he directed (so says tradition) his com
mission to be read. Bayard began to read,
when Wadsworth ordered the drums to be
beaten. "Silence!" said Fletcher, angrily.
When the reading was again begun,
"Drum! drum!" cried Wadsworth. "Si
lence!" again shouted Fletcher, and
threatened the captain with punishment.
Wadsworth stepped in front of the gov
ernor, and, with his hand on the hilt of
his sword, he said: "If my drummers are
again interrupted, I ll make sunlight shine
through you. We deny and defy your
authority." The cowed governor sullenly
folded the paper, and with his retinue re
turned to New York.

With a pretended zeal for the cause of
religion, Fletcher procured the passage of
an act by the Assembly for building
churches in various places, and under it
the English Church and preaching in Eng-

was erected. During Fletcher s adminis
tration, pirates infested American waters;
and he was accused not only of winking
at violations of the navigation laws, but
of favoring the pirates, for private gain.
They sometimes found welcome in the
harbor of New York, instead of being
seized and punished. When Bellomont,
after the treaty of Ryswick, came over
as governor of Massachusetts, he was
commissioned to investigate the conduct
of Fletcher and to succeed him as gov
ernor, and he sent him to England under
arrest. The colony felt a relief when he
was gone, for his career had been marked
by misrule and profligacy.

Fletcher, WILLIAM ISAAC, librarian;
born in Burlington, Vt., April 28, 1844;
became librarian of Amherst College; is
the author of Public Libraries in Amer
ica, and joint editor of Poole s Index to
Periodical Literature, and editor of the
A. L. A. Index to General Literature.

Fleury, Louis, CHEVALIER AND VIS
COUNT DE, military officer; born in
Limoges, France, about 1740; was edu
cated for an engineer, and, coming to
America, received a captain s commission
from Washington. For his good conduct
in the campaign of 1777, Congress gave
him a horse and commission of lieutenant-
colonel, Nov. 26, 1777; and in the winter
of 1778 he was inspector under Steuben.
He was adjutant-general of Lee s division
in June, 1779, and was so distinguished

MEDAL AWARDED TO LIEUTENANT-COLONKL I)E FI.EI RY.

lish were introduced into New York, at the assault on Stony Point, July, 1779,

Trinity Church was organized under the that Congress

act, and its present church edifice stands silver medal.

upon the ground where the first structure France soon after the affair at Stony

gave him thanks and a
De Fleury returned to

in. 2 B

385

FLINT FLOATING BATTEBIES

Point, before the medal was struck; and sign was the pine-tree flag. Colonel Reed,

it was probably never in his possession, writing to Colonel Moylan, on Oct. 20,

for it seems to have been lost, probably 1775, said: "Please to fix some particu-

while Congress was in session at Prince- lar color for a flag and a signal, by which

ton. In April, 185!), a boy found it while our vessels may know each other. What

digging in a garden at Princeton. De do you think of a flag with a white ground,

Fleury, on his return to France, joined a tree in the middle, and the motto An

the French troops under Rochambeau Appeal to Heaven? This is the flag of

sent to America in 1780. Subsequently our floating batteries." When the War of

he became a field marshal of France, and 1812-15 broke out, the subject of harbor

was executed in Paris, in 1794. defences occupied much of the attention

Flint, HE.NRY MARTYN, author; born in of citizens of the American coast towns,

Philadelphia, Pa., March 24, 1820; studied especially in the city of New York,

law and settled in Chicago, where he edited Among the scientific men of the day, John

the Times in 1855-61. He was the author Stevens and Robert Fulton appear con-

of a Life of Stephen A. Douglas; The spicuous in proposing plans for that pur*

History and Statistics of the Railroads of pose. Earlier than this (in 1807), Abra-

the United States; and Mexico under Max- ham Bloodgood, of Albany, suggested the

imilian. He died in Camden, N. J., Dec. construction of a floating revolving bat-

12, 1808. tery not unlike, in its essential character,

Flint, TIMOTHY, clergyman; born in the revolving turret built by Captain

Reading, Mass., July 11, 1780; grad- Ericsson in the winter of 1861-62. In

uated at Harvard in 1880; became minis- March, 1814, Thomas Gregg, of Pennsylva-

ter of the Congregational Church at Lu- nia, obtained a patent for a proposed iron-

nenburg, Mass., in 1802, but resigned in clad steam vessel-of-war, resembling in

1814. He went West as a missionary, but figure the gunboats and rams used during

was obliged to give up in consequence of the Civil War.

ill health. He then devoted himself to lit- At about the same time a plan of a
erature, and edited the West
ern Review in Cincinnati,
and, for a short time, the
Knickerbocker Magazine in
New York. Among his publi
cations are Recollections of
Ten Years Passed in the Val
ley of the Mississippi; Biog- ^
raphy and History of the
Western States in the Missis
sippi Valley (2 volumes) ;
Indian Wars of the West;

Memoir of Daniel Boone, etc. He died in floating battery submitted by Robert Ful-

Salem, Mass., Aug. 16, 1840. ton was approved by naval officers. It

Floating Batteries. The first Ameri- was in the form of a steamship of pecul-

can floating battery was seen in the iar construction, that might move at the

Charles River, at Boston, in October, 1775. rate of 4 miles an hour, and furnished, in

Washington had ordered the construction addition to its regular armament, with

of two, to assist in the siege of the New submarine guns. Her construction was

England capital. They were armed and ordered by Congress, and she was built at

manned, and on Oct. 20 opened fire on the the ship-yard of Adam and Noah Brown,.

town, producing much consternation, at Corlear s Hook, New York, under the

They appear to have been made of strong supervision of Fulton. She was launched

planks, pierced near the water-line for Oct. 29, 1814. Her machir-ery was tested

oars, and further up were port-holes for in May following, and on July 4, 1815,

musketry and the admission of light. A she made a trial-trip of 53 miles to the

heavy gun was placed in each end, and ocean and back, going at the rate of 6

upon the top were four swivels. The en- miles an hour. This vessel was called

386

THE FIRST AMERICAN KI.OATIXC BATTKRY.

Ou s IKON-CLAD VESSEL IN 1814.

FLOATING BATTERIES

I- niton the First. She measured 145 feet is 300 feet; breadth, 200 feet; thickness of
on deck and 55 feet breadth of beam: drew her sides, 13 feet, of alternate oak plank
only S feet of water; mounted thirty 32- and cork-wood; carries forty-four guns,
pounder carronades, and two columbiade of four of which are 100-pounders; can dis-
100 Ibs. each. She was to
be commanded by Captain
Porter. It was a struct
ure resting upon two
boats on keels, separated
from end to end by a
channel 15 feet wide and
00 feet long. One boat
contained the boiler for
generating steam, which
was made of copper. The
machinery occupied the
other boat. The water-
wheel (A) revolved in the
space between them. The
main or gun deck sup
ported the armament, and
was protected by a parapet 4 feet 10 inches charge 100 gallons of boiling water in a
thick, of solid timber, pierced by embras- few minutes, and by mechanism bran-
ures - dishes 300 cutlasses with the utmost regu-

Th rough twenty-five port-holes were as larity over her gunwales; works, also, an
many 32-pounders, intended to fire red- equal number of pikes of great length,
hot shot, which could be heated with great darting them from her sides with prodi-
safety and convenience. Her upper or gious force, and withdrawing them every
spar deck, upon which many hundred men quarter of a minute."

might parade, was encompassed with a The Confederates of South Carolina con-
bulwark for safety. She was rigged with structed a floating battery in Charleston
two stout masts, each of which supported harbor in the winter of 1861. It was a
a large lateen-yard and sails. She had curious monster, made of heavy pine
two bowsprits and jibs, and four rud- timber, filled in with palmetto-logs, and
ders, one at each extremity of each boat, covered with a double layer of railroad
so that she might be iron. It appeared like an immense shed,
steered with either 25 feet in width, and, with its appendage,
end foremost. Her about 100 feet in length. It mounted in
machinery was cal- its front (which sloped inwards from its
culated for an addi- iron-clad roof) four enormous siege-guns,
tional engine, which The powder magazine was in the rear, be-
might discharge .in low the water-line, and at its extremity
immense volume of was a platform covered with sand-bags,
water which it was to protect its men and balance the heavy
intended to throw guns. Attached to it was a floating hos-
upon the decks and pital. It was intended to tow this
through the port- monster to a position so as to bring its
holes of an enemy, guns to bear on Fort Sumter.
and thereby deluge Stevens s floating battery was a more
her armament and formidable structure. This battery had
ammunition. The most extravagant been in process of construction by
stories concerning this monster of the Messrs. Stevens, of Hoboken, N. J., for
deep went forth at about the time of her several years before the Civil War It
being launched. In a treatise on steam was intended solely for harbor defence
vessels, published in Scotland soon after- Already there had been about $1000000
wards, the author said: "Her length spent upon it, chiefly by the United States

387

!t-~--,V

SKfTION OP THE

FLOATING BATTERY

FIT.TON.

FLOATING BATTERIES

FLOATING HvTIKUY Fl I.TON THK FIRST.

War ended. The
following is a
portion of the
specification:
" The boat is
framed on an
angle of about
eighteen degrees
all round the ves
sel, where the top
timbers elevate
the balls, and
the lower ones
direct them un
der her. The
top deck, which
glances the ball,
may be hung on
a mass of hinges
near the ports.
Said deck is sup
ported by knees
and cross-timbers
on the lower
sides, so that it
may be sprung
with powder, if
required (when

government, and yet it was not com- boarded by the enemy) , to a perpendicular,
pleted. Until just before the war it had when the said deck will be checked by
been shut in from the public eye. It was stays, while the power of powder will be
to be 700 feet in length, covered with exhausted in the open air, and then fall or
iron plates, so as to be proof against shot spring to the centre of the deck again,
and shell of every kind. It was to be The aforesaid deck will run up and down
moved by steam-engines of sufficient with the angle, which may be coppered or
strength to give it a momentum that laid with iron. The gun - deck may be
would cause it, as a " ram," to cut in bored at pleasure, to give room, if re-
two any ship-of-war then known when it quired, as the men and guns are under
j-hould strike her at the waist. It was said deck. The power is applied between
intended for a battery of sixteen heavy her keels, where there is a concave formed
rifled cannon in bomb-proof casemates, to receive them from the bow to the stern,
and two heavy columbiads for throwing except a small distance in each end, form-
sliells. The latter were
to be on deck, fore and
aft. The smoke-stack
was to be constructed
in sliding sections, like
a telescope, for obvi
ous purposes ; and the
vessel was so con
structed that it might
be sunk to the level of
the water. Its burden
was rated at 0,000
tons. It was not com-

n eted when the Civil FLOATING BATTERY AT CHARLESTON.

388

FLORIDA

ing an eddy. The power may be reversed sold at auction in 1880. See STEVENS,

to propel her either way. Said power is JOHN.

connected to upright levers, to make hori- Floods. See INUNDATIONS.

zontal strokes alternately." This proj- Flores, the westernmost island of the

ect was abandoned, and the battery was Azores; discovered in 1439.

FLORIDA

Florida, the twenty-seventh State ad- in Florida, where they were soon rein-
mitted into the Union; received its name forced by several hundred Huguenots with
from its discoverer in 1512 (see PONCE DE their families. They erected a fort which
LEON). It was visited by Vasquez, anoth- they named Fort Carolina. Philip Melen-
er Spaniard, in 1520. It is believed by dez with 2,500 men reached the coast of
some that Verrazani saw its coasts in Florida on St. Augustine s day, and mareh-
1524; and the same year a Spaniard named ed against the Huguenot settlement.
De Geray visited it. Its conquest was un- Ribault s vessels were wrecked, and Melen-
dertaken by Narvaez, in 1528, and by De dez attacked the fort, captured it and
Soto in 1539. PAMPHILIO NARVAEZ, massacred 900 men, women, and children.
CAREZA DE VACA ( q. v.) , with several Upon the ruins of the fort Melendez rear-
hundred young men from rich and noble ed a cross with this inscription: "Not
families of Spain landed at Tampa Bay, as to Frenchmen, but as Lutherans."

When the news of the massacre reached
France, Dominic de Gourges determined
to avenge the same, and with 150 men sail
ed for Florida, captured the fort on the St.
John s River, and hanged the entire gar-
rison havim ? affixed this inscription above.

them: " Not RS t0 S P aniards but as
murderers." Being too weak to attack

St. Augustine, Gourges returned to
France.

The city of St. Augustine was founded
in 1565, and was captured by Sir Francis
Drake in 1586. The domain of Florida,
in those times, extended indefinitely west
ward, and included Louisiana. La Salle
visited the western portion in 1682, and
in 1696 Pensacola was settled by Span
iards.

At the beginning of the eighteenth
April 14, 1528, taking possession of the century the English in the Carolinas at-
country for the King of Spain. In August tacked the Spaniards at St. Augustine;
they had reached St. Mark s at Appopodree and, subsequently, the Georgians, under
Bay, but the ships they expected had not Oglethorpe, made war upon them. By
yet arrived. They made boats by Septem- the treaty of Paris, in 1763, Florida was
ber 2, on which they embarked and sailed exchanged by the Spaniards, with Great
along shore to the Mississippi. All the Britain, for Cuba, which had then re-
company excepting Cabeza de Vaca and cently been conquered by England. Soon
three others perished. In 1549, Louis Can- afterwards, they divided the territory
cella endeavored to establish a mission in into east and west Florida, the Ap-
Florida but was driven away by the Ind- palachicola River being the boundary
ians, who killed most of the priests, line. Natives of Greece, Italy, and Mi-
Twenty-six Huguenots under John Ribault norca wore induced to settle there, at a
had made a settlement at Port Royal, but place called New Smyrna, about 60 miles
removed to the mouth of St. John s River south of St. Augustine, to the number of

389

STATE SEAL OF FLORIDA.

FLORIDA

1,500, where they engaged in the cultiva
tion of indigo and the sugar-cane; but,
becoming dissatisfied with their employ
ers, they removed to St. Augustine. Dur
ing the Revolutionary War the trade of
the Southern colonies was seriously in
terfered with by pirates fitted out in
Florida, and the British incited the Ind
ians in that region to make war on the
Americans. The Spaniards invaded west
Florida, and captured the garrison at
Baton Rouge, in 1779; and in May, 1781,
they seized Pensacola. By the treaty of
1783, Florida was retroceded to Spain, and
the western boundary was defined, when a
greater part of the inhabitants emigrated
to the United States. When, in 1803,
Louisiana was ceded to the United States
by France, it was declared to be ceded
with the same extent that it had in the
hands of Spain, and as it had been ceded
by Spain to France. This gave the

United States a claim to the country west
of the Perdido River, and the government
took possession of it in 1811. Some irri
tation ensued. In the war with Great
Britain (1812), the Spanish authorities
at Pensacola favored the English. An
expedition against the Americans having
been fitted out there, General Jackson
captured that town. Again, in 1818, it
was captured by Jackson, but subsequent
ly returned to Spain.

Florida was purchased from Spain
by the United States in 1819, and was
surrendered to the latter in July,
1821. Emigration then began to ilow
into the Territory, in spite of many
obstacles. In 1835 a distressing warfare
broke out between the fierce SKMI-
NOLE INDIANS (q. v. ), who inhabited some
of the better portions of Florida, and
the government of the United States,
and continued until 1842, when the Tnd-

SC E.NE OF TUB MfRDBR OF THK HCOl K.NOTB BY MSt.KM K/

300

FLORIDA

EARLY INDIAN LIFE IN FLORIDA. (From an old print.)

ians were subdued, though not thoroughly
conquered.

Florida was admitted into the Union
as a State on March 8, 1845. Inhabitants
of the State joined in the war against
the government, a secession ordinance
having been passed Jan. 10, 1801, by a
convention assembled on the 3d. Forts
and arsenals and the navy-yard at Pensa-
cola were seized by the Confederates.
The State authorities continued hostili
ties until the close of the war. On July
13, 18G5, William Marvin was appointed
provisional governor of the State, and on
Oct. 28 a State convention, held at Talla
hassee, repealed the ordinance of seces
sion. The civil authority was transferred
by the national government to the pro
visional State officers in January, 18(56,
and, under the reorganization measures
of Congress, Florida was made a part
of the 3d Military District, in 1807. A
new constitution was ratified by the peo
ple in May, 1868, and, after the adoption

391

of the Fourteenth Amendment to the na
tional Constitution, on June 14, Florida
was recognized as a reorganized State of
the Union. The government was trans
ferred to the State officers on July 4. In
1899 the assessed (full cash value) valu
ation of taxable property was $93,527,353,
and in 1900 the total bonded debt was
$1,275,000, of which all excepting
$322,500 was held in various State
funds. The population in 1890 was
391,422; in 1900, 528,542.

Don Tristan de Luna sailed from Vera
Cruz, Mexico, Aug. 14, 1559, with 1,500
soldiers, many zealous friars who wished
to convert the heathen, and many women
and children, families of the soldiers. He
landed near the site of Pensacola, and a
week afterwards a terrible storm de
stroyed all his vessels and strewed the
shores with their fragments. He sent an
exploring party into the interior. They
1 ravelled forty days through a barren and
almost uninhabited country, and found a

FLORIDA

deserted Indian village, but not a trace resist it. He penetrated Florida with a
of the wealth with which it was supposed small force and captured some outposts
Florida abounded. Constructing a vessel early in 1740; and in May he marched
sufficient to bear messengers to the viceroy towards St. Augustine with 600 regular
of Mexico, De Luna sent them to ask for troops, 400 Carolina militia, and a large
aid to return. Two vessels were sent body of friendly Indians. With these he
by the viceroy, and, two years after stood before St. Augustine in June, after
his departure, De Luna returned to capturing two forts, and demanded the
Mexico, instant surrender of the post. It was re-

When Oglethorpe returned to Georgia fused, and Oglethorpe determined to
from England (1736) he discovered a hos- starve the garrison by a close investment,
tile feeling among the Spaniards at St. The town was surrendered, and a small
Augustine. They had tried to incite the squadron blockaded the harbor. Swift-
Indians against the new settlements, and sailing galleys ran the weak blockade and
also to procure the assassination of Ogle- supplied the fort. Oglethorpe had no can-
thorpe. The latter, not fairly prepared non and could not breach the walls. In
to resist an invasion, sent a messenger to the heats of summer malaria invaded his
St. Augustine to invite the Spanish com- camp, the siege was raised, and he re-
mandant to a friendly conference. He ex- turned to Savannah. Hostilities were
plored some of the coast islands and pre- then suspen 1 for about two years,
pared for fortification. His messenger did In the sumi, .jr of 1776 a citizen of
not return, and he proceeded to secure Georgia visited General Charles Lee at
possession of the country so far as its Charleston and persuaded him that St.
defined boundary permitted him. His Augustine could easily be taken. The
hostile preparations made the Spaniards man was a stranger, but, without further

inquiry, Lee an
nounced to the Con
tinental troops
under his command
that he had planned
for them a safe,
sure, and remunera
tive expedition, of
which the very large
booty would be all
i heir own. Calling
it a secret, he let
everybody know its
destination. With
out adequate prep
aration, without a
(i dd-pieoe or a medi
cine-chest, he hastily
marched off the Vir
ginia and North
Carolina troops, in
the second week in
August, to the ma
larious regions of

1(1-1X8 OF AN OLD SPANISH FORT IN FLORIDA. Georgia. By his

order, Howe, of

vigilant, and even threaten war; and North Carolina, and Moultrie, of South
when, in 1739, there was war between Eng- Carolina, soon followed. About 460 men
land and Spain, he determined to strike from South Carolina were sent to Savannah
the Spaniards at St. Augustine a heavy by water, with two field-pieces: and on
blow before they were fully prepared to the 18th, Lee, after reviewing the collected

392

FLORIDA

XX KAKLY VIEW OP ST. AfGl STIXE, FLORIDA.

troops, sent the Virginians and a portion itia, with whom they skirmished. In one
of the South Carolinians to Sunbury. of these General Scriven, who commanded
The fever made sad havoc among them, the Americans, was mortally wounded.
and fourteen or fifteen men were buried At near Ogeechee Ferry the invaders were
daily. Then Lee
sought to shift
from himself to
Moultrie the fur
ther conduct of
the expedition, for
he saw it must be
disastrous. Moul
trie warned him
that no available
resources which
would render suc
cess possible had
been provided, and
the wretched ex
pedition was then
abandoned. For
tunately for his
reputation Lee was
ordered North
early in Septem
ber and joined Washington on Harlem repulsed by General Elbert with 200 Con-
Heights. See LEE, CHARLES. tinental soldiers. Hearing of the repulse

Tory refugees from Georgia acquired at Sunbury, they also retreated,
considerable influence over the Creek Ind- Galvez, the Spanish governor of New
ians, and from east Florida, especially Orleans, took measures in 1779 to estab-
from St. Augustine, made predatory ex- lish the claim of Spain to the territory
cursions among their former neighbors, east of the Mississippi. He invaded west
Gen. Robert Howe, commanding the South- Florida with 1,400 men, Spanish regulars,
ern Department, in 1778, was ordered from American volunteers, and colored people.
Charleston to Savannah to protect the He took Fort Bute, at Pass Manshac
Georgians and attack St. Augustine. A (September, 1779) , and then went against
considerable body of troops led by Howe, Baton Rouge, where the British had 400
and accompanied by General Houstoun, of regulars and 100 militia. The post speed-
Georgia, penetrated as far as the St. ily surrendered, as did also Fort Pan-
Mary s River, where sickness, loss of mure, recently built at Natchez. A few
draught-horses, and disputes about com- months later he captured Mobile, leaving
mu.nd checked the expedition and caused Pensacola the only port of west Florida
it to be abandoned. The refugees in Flor- in possession of the British. On May 9,
ida retaliated by an invasion in their turn, in the following year, Don Galvez took

In the summer of that year two bodies possession of Pensacola, capturing or driv-
of armed men. composed of regulars and ing away the British there, and soon af-
refugees, made a rapid incursion into terwards completed the conquest of the
Georgia from east Florida one in boats whole of west Florida,
through the inland navigation, the other The success of Napoleon s arms in
overland by way of the Altamaha River. Spain and the impending peril to the
The first party advanced to Sunbury and Spanish monarchy gave occasion for revo-
summoned the fort to surrender. Colonel lutionary movements in the Spanish prov-
Mclntosh, its commander, replied, " Come ince of west Florida bordering on the
and take it." The enterprise was aban- Mississippi early in 1810. That region
doned. The other corps pushed on towards undoubtedly belonged to the United States
Savannah, but was met by about 100 mil- as a part of Louisiana bought from the

393

FLORIDA

French, but Spain had refused to relin- session of Congress in 1810-11, to secure
quish it. The inhabitants were mostly that province should it be offered to the
of British or American birth. Early in United States, stirred up an insurrection
the autumn of 1810 they seized the fort there. AMELIA ISLAND (q. v.), lying a
at Baton Rouge, met in convention, and little below the dividing line between
proclaimed themselves independent, adopt- Georgia and Florida, was chosen for a
ing a single star for their flag, as the base of operations. The fine harbor of its
Texans did in 1836. There were some con- capital, Fernandina, was a place of great
flicts between the revolutionists and ad- resort for smugglers during the days of
herents of the Spanish connection, and the embargo, and, as neutral ground,
an attack upon the insurgents seemed im- might be made a dangerous place. The
minent from the Spanish garrison at Mo- possession of the island and harbor was
bile. Through Holmes, governor of the therefore important to the Americans, and
Mississippi Territory, the revolutionists a sought-for pretext for seizing it was
applied to the United States for recogni- soon found. The Florida insurgents
tion and aid. They claimed all the un- planted the standard of revolt, March,
located lands in the domain, pardon for 1812, on the bluff opposite the town of St.
all deserters from the United States army Mary, on the border line. Some United
(of whom there \vere many among them), States gunboats under Commodore Camp-
and an immediate loan of $100,000. bell were in the St. Mary s River, and
Instead of complying with these require- Mathews had some United States troops
ments, the President issued a proclama- at his command near. The insurgents,
tion for taking possession of the east bank 220 in number, sent a flag ot truce, March
of the Mississippi, an act which had been 17, to Fernandina, demanding the sur-
delayed because of conciliatory views tow- render of the town and island. About
ards Spain. Claiborne, governor of the the same time the American gunboats ap-
Or eans Territory, then in Washington, peared there. The authorities bowed in
was sent in haste to take .possession, submission, and General Mathews, assum-
authorized, in case of resistance, to call ing the character of a protector, took
upon the regular troops stationed on the possession of the place in the name of the
Mississippi, and upon the militia of the United States. At the same time the coin-
two adjoining Territories. It was not modore assured the Spanish governor that
necessary. Soon after this movement at 1he gunboats were there only for aid and
Baton Rouge a man named Kemper, who protection to a large portion of the popu-
purported to act under the Florida in- lation, who thought proper to declare
surgents, approached Mobile, with some themselves independent,
followers, to attempt the capture of the On the 19th the town was formally
garrison. He was repulsed; but the given up to the United States authorities;
alarmed Spanish governor wrote to the a custom-house was established ; the float-
American authorities that if he were not ;ng property in the harbor was considered
speedily reinforced he should be disposed under the protection of the United States
to treat for the transfer of the entire flag, and smuggling ceased. The insur-
province. Congress passed an act author- gent band, swelled to 800 by rcinforce-
izing the President to take possession of ments from Georgia, and accompanied by
both east and west Florida to prevent troops furnished by General Mathews, be-
its falling into the hands of another for- sieged the Spanish garrison at St. Augns-
eign power. Thus it might be held sub- tine, for it was feared the British might
ject to future peaceful negotiations with help the Spaniards in recovering what
Spain. Florida, it will be remembered, they had lost in the territory. The United
was divided into two provinces, east and States government would not countenance
west. The boundary-line was the Perdido this kind of filibustering, and Mathews
River, east of Mobile Bay. The Georgians was superseded as commissioner. April 10,
coveted east Florida, and in the spring of 1812, by Governor Mitchell, of Georgia.
1812 Brig.-Gen. George Mai hews, of the Mitchell, professing to believe Congress
Georgia militia, who had been appointed would sanction Malhews s proceedings,
:i commissioner, under an act. of a secret made no change in policy. The House of

394

FLORIDA

Representatives did actually pass a bill,
in secret session, June 21, authorizing the
President to take possession of east Flor
ida. The Senate rejected it, for it would
have been unwise to quarrel with Spain at
the moment when war was about to be de
clared against Great Britain.

Jackson s invasion of Florida and his
capture of Pensacola caused much politi
cal debate in and out of Congress. By
some he was much censured, by others
praised. The United States government

the affairs of a foreign nation, must take
the consequences. Secretary Adams and
the Spanish minister, Don Onis, had been
in correspondence for some time concern
ing the settlement of the Florida question
and the western boundary of the United
States next to the Spanish possessions.
Finally, pending discussion in Congress on
Jackson s vigorous proceedings in Florida,
the Spanish minister, under new instruc
tions from horho, signed a treaty, Feb.
22, 1819, for the cession of Florida, on the

IN A FLORIDA SW.AMP.

upheld him, and the Secretary of State,
John Q. Adams, made an able plea of
justification, on the ground of the well-
known interference of the Spanish au
thorities in Florida in American affairs,
and the giving of shelter to British sub
jects inciting the Indians to make war.
It was thought the British govern
ment would take notice of the summary
execution of Arbnthnot and Ambrister
(see SKMINOLK WAR) : but it took the
ground that British subjects, meddling in

305

extinction of the various American claims
for spoliation, for the satisfaction of
which the United States agreed to pay to
the claimants $5,000,000. The Louisiana
boundary, as fixed by the treaty, was a
compromise between the respective offers
heretofore made, though leaning a good
dtal towards the American side. It was
agreed that the Sabine to lat. 33 N.,
thence a north meridian line to the Red
lliver. the course of that river to long.
100 W., thence north by that meridian to

FLORIDA

the Arkansas River to its head and to vote of 62 against 7. In its preamble
lat. 42 N., and along that degree to the it was declared that " all hopes of pre-
Pacific Ocean, should be the boundary be- serving the Union upon terms consistent
tween the possessions of the United States with the safety and honor of the slave-
and Spain. The Florida treaty was im- holding States " had been " fully dissi-
mediately ratified by the United States pated." It was further declared that by
Senate, and, in expectation of a speedy the ordinance Florida had Avithdrawn
ratification by Spain, an act was passed from the Union and become " a sovereign
to authorize the President to take pos- and independent nation." On the follow-
session of the newly ceded territory. But ing day the ordinance was signed, while
there was great delay in the Spanish rati- bells rang and cannon thundered to sig-
fication. It did not take place until early I ify the popular joy. The news was re
in 1821. The ratified treaty was received ceived by the Florida representatives in
by the President in February. Congress at Washington; but, notwith-

Before the Florida ordinance of se- standing the State had withdrawn from
cession was passed Florida troops seized, the Union, they remained in their seats,
Jan. 6, 1861, the Chattahoochee arsenal, for reasons given in a letter to Joseph
with 500,000 rounds of musket cartridges, Finnegan, written by Senator David L.
300,000 rifle cartridges, and 50,000 Ibs. Yulee from his desk in the Senate cham-
of gunpowder. They also took possession ber. " It seemed to be the opinion," he
of Fort Marion, at St. Augustine, formerly said, " that if we left here, force, loan,
the Castle of St. Mark, which was built and volunteer bills might be passed,
by the Spaniards more than 100 years which would put Mr. Lincoln in imme-
before. It contained an arsenal. On the diate condition for hostilities; whereas,
15th they seized the United States coast by remaining in our places until, the 4th
survey schooner F. W. Dana, and appro- of March, it is thought wo can keep the
priated it to their own use. The Chat- hands of Mr. Buchanan tied, and disable
tahoochee arsenal was in charge of the the Republicans from effecting any legis-
courageous Sergeant Powell and three lation which will strengthen the hands
men. He said, " Five minutes ago I was of the incoming administration." Sen-
in command of this arsenal, but in conse- ators from other States wrote similar
quence of the weakness of my command, letters under their official franks. The
I am obliged to surrender. ... If I convention was addressed by L. W.
had force equal to, or half the strength of Spratt, of South Carolina, an eminent
yours, I ll be d d if you would have advocate for reopening the African slave-
entered that gate until you had passed trade. Delegates were appointed to a
over my dead body. You see that I have general convention to assemble at Mont-
but three men. I now consider myself a gomery, Ala., and other measures were
prisoner of war. Take my sword, Captain taken to secure the sovereignty of Flor-
Jones." ida. The legislature authorized the

Anxious to establish an independent emission of treasury notes to the amount
empire on the borders of the Gulf of of $500,000, and defined the crime of
Mexico. Florida politicians met in con- treason against the State to be, in one
vention early in January, 1861, at Talla- form, the holding of office under the na-
hassee, the State capital. Colonel Petit tional government in case of actual col-
was chosen chairman of the convention, lision between the State and government
and Bishop Rutledge invoked the blessing troops, punishable with death. The gov-
of the Almighty upon the acts they were ernor of the State (Perry) had previously
about to perform. The members num- made arrangements to seize the United
bered sixty-nine, and about one-third of States forts, navy-yard, and other govern-
them were " Co-operationists " (see Mis- rnont property in Florida.
STSSIPPI). The legislature of Florida. In the early part of the Civil War the
fully prepared to co-operate with the con- national military and naval forces under
vention. had con veiled at the same place (feneral Wright and Commodore Duponl
on the 5th. On the 10th the convention made easy conquests on the coa-t &lt;&gt;l
adopted an ordinance of secession, by a Florida. In February. lS( ,i&gt;. they capt-

396

FLOWERFLOYD

ured Fort Clinch, on Amelia Island, which
the Confederates had seized, and drove the
Confederates from Fernandina. Other
posts were speedily abandoned, and a flotil
la of gunboats, under Lieut. T. H. Stevens,
went up the St. John s River, and capt
ured Jacksonville, March 11. St. Au
gustine was taken possession of about the
same time by Commander C. R. P. Rogers,
and the alarmed Confederates abandoned
Pensacola and the fortifications opposite
Fort Pickens. Before the middle of April
the whole Atlantic coast from Cape Hat-
teras to Perdido Bay, west of Fort Pickens
(excepting Charleston and its vicinity),
had been abandoned by the Confederates.
See UNITED STATES, FLORIDA, vol. ix.

TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS.

Name.

Term.

Andrew Jackson

1821 t

1822
1834
1836
1839
1841
1844

o 1822
1834
1836
1839
1841
1844
1845

William r Duval

John H. Katon

Richard K. Call

Robert R. Reid

Richard K Call . . .

John Brand)

STATE GOVERNORS.

Name.

William I). Moseley...

Thomas Brown

James E. (iroome

Madison S. Perry

John Milton

William Marvin

David S. Walker

Harrison Reed

Ossian B. Hart

Marcellus L. Stearns. .

George F. Drew

William D Bloxham..

Edward A Perry

Francis P. Fleming...

Henry L. Mitchell

William D. Bloxham. .
William S. Jennings. .
Napoleon B. Broward.

Term.

1845 to
1S49 "
1853 "
1857 "
1861 "
1S05 "
1866 "
1808 "
1872 "
1874
1877
1881
1885
1889
181)3
1897
1901
1905 "

1849
1853
1857
1861
lHi ,5
18C,(i
18118
1,7 2
1874
1877
1881
1885
18S9
1893
1K97
1901
1905
1909

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

Name.

No. of Congress.

Date.

James D. Westcott, Jr
David L. Yulee

29th to 30th
29th " 31st

1845 to 1849
1845 " 1851

31st " 33d

1849 " 1855

Stephen R Mallorv

32d " 3(ith

1S51 " 1801

David I,. Yulee...

34th " 36th

1855 " 1861

[37th, 38th, and 39th Congresses, seats vacant.]

Thomas W. Osborn

40tli to 42d

1808 to 1873

Adonijah S Welch

40th

1858 "

Abij.-th Gilbert

41st to 43d

1869 " 1H75

Simon B Conover

43d 45th

1ST:! " 1879

Charles W. Jones
Wilkinson Call

44th 49th
46th 54th

1*75 " 1887
1ST .) 1897

Samuel 1 aseo

50th 5(1(11

1887 1899

Stephen R Mallorv

51th

1897 "

James P. Taliaferro.

50th

1899 "

Flower, FRANK ABIAL, author; born in
Cottage, N. Y., May 11, 1854; removed to
Wisconsin. His publications include Old

Abe, the Wisconsin War K&lt;i&lt;/li- ; Life of
Matthew H. Carpenter; and a History of
the Republican Party.

Flower, GEORGE, colonist; born in Hert
fordshire, England, about 1780; came to
the United States with Morris Birkbeck
in 1817; and established an English col
ony in Albion, 111. He was the author
of a History of the English Settlement
in Edwards County, Illinois, founded in
1811 and 1818 by Morris Birkbeck and
George Flower. He died in Grayville, 111.,
Jan 15, 1862.

Flower, ROSWELL PETTIBONE, banker
and philanthropist; born in Jefferson
county, N. Y., Aug. 7, 1835 ; removed to
New York City in 1869, where he was
very successful in business. Elected to
Congress, 1881; re-elected, 1888 and 1890;
elected governor of New York in 1891.
He died suddenly in Eastport, N. Y., May
12, 1899.

Floyd, JOHN, statesman; born in Jef
ferson county, Va., in 1770; member of
Congress in 1817-29; governor of Vir
ginia in 1829-34; received the electoral
vote of South Carolina in the Presiden
tial election of 1832. He died in Sweet
Springs, Va., Aug. 16, 1837.

Floyd, JOHN BUCHANAN, statesman ;
born in Blacksburg, Va., June 1, 1807 ;
was admitted to the bar in 1828 ; practised
law in Helena, Ark.; and in 1839 settled
in Washington county, in his native State.
He served in the Virginia legislature sev
eral terms, and was governor of the State
in 1850-53. His father, John, had been
governor of Virginia. In 1857 President
Buchanan appointed him Secretary of
War. As early as Dec. 29, 1859, accord
ing to the report of a Congressional com
mittee, he had ordered the transfer of
65,000 percussion muskets, 40,000 muskets
altered to percussion, and 10,000 percus
sion rifles from the armories at Spring
field, Mass., and the arsenals at Water-
vliet, N. Y., and Watertown, Mass.. to the
arsenals at Fayetteville, N. C., Charles
ton, S. C., Augusta, Ga., Mount Vernon,
Ala., and Baton Rouge, La., and these
were distributed in the spring of 1860,
before the meeting of the Democratic Con
vention at Charleston. Eleven days after
the issuing of the above order, Jan. 9,
1860, Jefferson Davis introduced into the
national Senate a bill " to authorize the

307

FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN

sale of public arms to the several States act of Congress (1825), Floyd sold to the
and Teiritories, and to regulate the ap- States and individuals in the South over
pointment of superintendents of the na- 31,000 muskets, altered from flint to per-
tional armories." Davis reported the (Mission, for $2. 50 each. On Nov. 24, 1X00,
bill from the military committee of the he sold 10,000 muskets to G. 13. Lamar, of
Senate, and, in calling it up on Feb. 21, Georgia; and on the 16th lie had sold
said: "I should like the Senate to take 5,000 to Virginia. The Mobile Advertiser
up a little bill which 1 hope will excite said, "During the past year 135,430
no discussion. It is the bill to authorize muskets have been quietly transferred
Ihe States to purchase arms from the from the Northern arsenal at Spring
field alone to those of the Southern
States. We are much obliged to Sec
retary Floyd for the foresight he has
thus displayed in disarming the North
and equipping the South for this emer
gency. There is no telling the quan
tity of arms and munitions which were
sent South from other arsenals. There
is no doubt but that every man in the
South who can carry a gun can now ho
supplied from private or public sources."
A Virginia historian of the war (Pollard)
said, " It was safely estimated that the
South entered upon the war with 150,000
small-arms of the most approved modern
pattern and the best in the world." Only
a few days before Floyd left his office as
Secretary of War and fled to Virginia he
attempted to supply the Southerners with
heavy ordnance also. On Dec. 20, 1800,
he ordered forty eohvmbiads and four 32-
pounders to be sent from the arsenal at
Pittsburg to an unfinished fort on Ship
Island, in the Gulf of Mexico; and seven
ty-one columbiads and seven 32-pounders

national armories. There are a number of to be sent from the same arsenal to an
volunteer companies wanting to purchase embryo fort at Galveston, Tex., which
arms, but the States have not a sufficient would not be ready for armament in five
supply." Senator Fessenden, of Maine, years. When Quartermaster Taliaferro
asked, Feb. 23, for an explanation of the (a Virginian) was about to send off these
reasons for such action. Davis replied heavy guns, an immense public meeting
that the Secretary of War had recom- of citizens, called by the mayor, was held.
mended an increase of appropriations for and the guns were retained. When Floyd
arming the militia, and as " the militia fled from Washington his successor, Jo-
of the States were not militia of the seph Holt, of Kentucky, countermanded
United States," he thought it best for the the order.

volunteer companies of States to have Indicted by the grand jury of the Dis
arms that were uniform in ca*e of war. trict of Columbia as being privy to the
Fessenden oll ored an ainendment, March abstracting of $870,000 in bonds from the
20, that would deprive it of mischief, but Department of the Interior, at the close
it was lost, and the bill was passed by of 1800 he fled to Virginia, when he was
a strict party vote twenty-nine Demo- commissioned a general in the Confederate
crats against eighteen Republicans. It army. In that capacity he was driven
was smothered in the House of Represent- from West Virginia by General Rosecrans.
atives. The night before the surrender of Four

By a stretch of authority under an old DONELSON (q. v.) he stole away in the

398

JOHN BUCHANAN FLOYD.

FLOYD FOOD ADULTERATION

darkness, and, being censured by the Con- and in 1880 became chief -justice. In No-
federate government, he never served in vember of the latter year he was re-elected
the army afterwards. He died near Ab- to the Court of Appeals, but resigned in
ingdon, Va., Aug. 26, 1863. 1881 to accept the office of Secretary of

Floyd, WILLIAM, signer of the Declara- the United States Treasury. In 1882 he
tion of Independence ; born in Brookhaven, was the Republican candidate for governor
Suffolk county, N. Y., Dec. 17, 1734; took of New York, but was defeated by Grover
an early and vigorous part in the Revolu- Cleveland. He died in Geneva, N. Y.,
tion; was a member of the New York Sept. 4, 1884.

committee of correspondence; and a Folger, PETER, pioneer; born in Eng-
member of the first Continental Congress land in 1617; emigrated to America with
in 1774, and until 1777. He was again a his father in 1635; settled in Martha s
member after October, 1778. He was a Vineyard in 1641; became a Baptist
State Senator in 1777. During the occu- minister and was one of the commissioners
pation of Long Island by the British, for to lay out Nantucket. In his poem en-
nearly seven years, his family were in titled A Looking-glass of the Times; or,
exile. He held the commission of briga- The Former Spirit of New England Re-
dier-general, and commanded the Suffolk vived in this Generation, he pleaded for
county militia in repelling an invasion of liberty of conscience and toleration of all
Long Island by the British. General sects. He died in Nantucket, Mass., in
Floyd was a member of the first national 1690.

Congress, and as Presidential elector gave Folk, JOSEPH WINGATE, lawyer; born in
his vote for Jefferson in 1801. He died Brownsville, Tenn., Oct. 28, 1869; son of
in Weston, Oneida co., N. Y., Aug. 4, 1821. Judge Henry B. Folk; was graduated at
Folger, CHARLES JAMES, jurist; born Vanderbilt University; admitted to the
in Nantucket, Mass., April 16, 1818; bar in 1890; practised in Brownsville till
graduated at Geneva (now Hobart) Col- 1892; removed to St. Louis; was conspicu-
lege in 1836; studied law in Canandaigua, ous in the settlement of the great street-
N. Y.; was admitted to the bar in Albany car strike in 1900; became district attor-
in 1839; and returned to Geneva to prac- ney; made himself widely known by his
tise in 1840. He was judge of the Court successful prosecution of bribery cases
of Common Pleas in Ontario county in against members of the municipal assem-
1843-46; county judge in 1852-56; State bly in 1902-03; and was the Democratic
Senator in 1861-69; in 1869-70 was candidate for governor of Missouri in

1904.

Folsom, GEORGE, historian ; born in
Kennebunk, Me., May 23, 1802; gradu
ated at Harvard in 1822; practised
law in Massachusetts until 1837, when he
removed to New York, where he became an
active member of the Historical Society.
He was charge d affaires at The Hague in
1850-54. He was the author of Sketches
of Saco and Biddeford; Dutch Annals of
New York; Address on the Discovery of
Maine. He died in Rome, Italy, March 27,
1869.

Food Adulteration. The United
States of America, the greatest food-
producing country in the world, is suf
fering from the adulteration of food prod
ucts to an extent which it is difficult
to comprehend. There is hardly an article
United States assistant treasurer in New of food that has not been adulterated
York City; in 1871 was elected associate flour, butter, cheese, tea and coffee,
judge of the New York Court of Appeals; syrups, spices of all kinds, extracts, bak-

399

CHARLKS JAMKS FOLGER.

ADULTERATION S-OOTE

ing powders; and yet, notwithstanding
this great adulteration of food, every
manufacturer will testify that he is per
fectly willing to stop the adulteration if
his competitors will stop, so that he can
honestly compete with them.

This was especially true in the case
of flour, and investigation in Congress
showed that very dangerous and abso
lutely insoluble substances were being
used to adulterate flour, and it became
very well known that this fact impaired
the credit of American flour in foreign
countries. The adulteration became so
extensive that the manufacturers who
would not use adulteration appealed to
Congress for protection, and the law as
applied to oleomargarine and filled cheese
was made applicable to mixed flour. At
the present time it is believed that the
mixing of flour has practically stopped in
the United States. This not only assists
the honest manufacturer of flour, but it
protects the consumer, and at the same
time gives us a reputation for manu
facturing honest goods, and its influence
has already been felt in our export trade
to all the countries that buy our flour.

The committee on manufactures of the
United States Senate has had presented
to it letters that come from at least
twelve or fifteen of the large cities of
the world, all of the same tenor and gen
eral effect as the following:

" LONDON, October 12, 1899.
" DEAR SIRS, Replying to yours of the 16th
ultimo, with regard to the pure food law
now in operation in your country, since this
act was passed by Congress it has certainly
restored confidence on this side, and in my
opinion will materially assist your export
trade.

"Yours faithfully,

"W. M. MEESON,
" Per JOHN STANMORE.
" The Modern Miller, St. Louis."

It is a well-known fact that our moat
products have had a greater demand and
better sale since the government under
took their inspection, and it is safe to say
that nothing will more encourage our
export trade than for the government of
the United States to have some standard
fixed, to which the food products of the
United States must rise before they can
be sold to our own people or our
customers abroad.

It is believed by those who have given
the matter careful attention that then we
will encourage the honest manufacturer
and protect him from dishonest competi
tion, we shall protect the consumer, who
will know in each instance what he is
buying; we shall, by establishing a repu
tation for a high standard of food prod
ucts, increase the demand for our goods
all over the world, and also, what is more
important to all, we shall raise the stand
ard of the purity of goods that go into
the human stomach, and, by the use of
better foods, make a better citizen. " The
destiny of the nations depends upon how
they feed themselves."

Foote, ANDREW HULL, naval officer;
born in New Haven, Conn., Sept. 12, 1806;
entered the navy as midshipman in 1822;
was flag-lieutenant of the Mediterranean

400

A.NDKEW Hl LL FOOTE.

squadron in 1833; and in 1838, as first
lieutenant of the ship John Adams, under
Commodore Read, he circumnavigated the
globe, and took part in an attack on the
pirates of Sumatra. He was one of the
first to introduce (1841) the principle of
total abstinence from intoxicating drinks
into the United States navy: and on the
&lt; unil)i;r!inid (1843-4;")) he delivered, on
Sundays, extemporary sermons to his
crew. He successfully engaged in the sup
pression of the slave-trade on the coast of
Africa in 1849-52. In command of the
China station in 1856, when the Chinese
and English were at war, Foote exerted

FOOTE FORBES

himself to protect American property, ative in Congress in 1819-21, 1823-25,
and was fired upon by the Celestials. His and 1833-34; and was United States Sena-
demand for an apology was refused, and tor in 1827-33. He resigned his seat in
he stormed and captured four Chinese Congress in his last term on being elected
forts, composed of granite walls 7 feet governor of Connecticut. ]n 1844 he wag
thick and mounting 176 guns, with a loss a Presidential elector on the Clay and
of forty men. The Chinese garrison of Frelinghuysen ticket. In 1829 he intro-
5,000 men lost 400 of their number killed duced a resolution in the Senate which was
and wounded. In the summer of 1861 the occasion of the great debate between
Foote was made captain, and in September Robert Young Hayne, of South Carolina,
was appointed flag-officer of a flotilla of and Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts,
gunboats fitted out chiefly at Cairo, and The resolution, which seemed a simple af-
commanded the naval expedition against fair to elicit such a notable debate, was
FORTS HENRY and DONELSON (qq. v.) on as follows:

the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, "Resolved, that the committee on pub-
early in 1862, in co-operation with Gen- lie lands be instructed to inquire and re-
eral Grant. In the attack pn the latter he port the quantity of the public lands re-
was severely wounded in the ankle by a maining unsold within each State and
fragment of a shell. Though suffering, Territory, and whether it be expedient to
he commanded the naval attack on ISLAND Hmit, for a certain period, the sales of the
NUMBER TEN (q. v.}. After its reduction public lands to such lands only as have
he returned to his home at New Haven, heretofore been offered for sale, and are
He was promoted to rear-admiral in July, now subject to entry at the minimum
1862; and in May, 1863, was ordered to price. And, also, whether the office of
take command of the South Atlantic surveyor-general, and some of the land
squadron, but died while preparing in offices, may not be abolished without detri-
New York to leave for Charleston, June ment to the public interest; or whether it

be expedient to adopt measures to hasten

Foote, HENRY STUART, statesman; born the sales, and extend more rapidly the
in Fauquier county, Va., Sept. 2O, 1800 ; surveys of the public lands." For the de-
graduated at Washington College in bate in full see HAYNE, ROBERT YOUNG,
1819, and admitted to the bar in 1822; and WEBSTER, DANIEL. Senator Foote
removed to Mississippi in 1826, where he died in Cheshire, Dec. 15, 1846.
entered into active politics while prac- Foote, WILLIAM HENRY, clergyman;
tising his profession. In 1847 he was born in Colchester, Conn., Dec. 20, 1794;
elected to the United States Senate, and in graduated at Yale College in 1816; and
1852 was elected governor of the State, became chaplain in the Confederate
his opponent being Jefferson Davis. Mr. army. He was author of Sketches, His-
Foote was a strong opponent of secession torical and Biographical, of the Presly-
at the Southern Convention held at Knox- terian Church in Virginia; and Sketches in
ville, Tenn., in May, 1859, but when seces- North Carolina. He died in Romney, W.
sion was an assured fact he accepted an Va., Nov. 18, 1869.

election to the Confederate Congress, Foraker, JOSEPH BENSON, statesman;
where he was active in his opposition to born near Rainsboro, O., July 5, 1846;
most of President Davis s measures. He graduated at Cornell in 1869 and admitted
wrote Texas and the Texans (2 volumes) ; to the bar the same year. He enlisted in
The War of the Rebellion, or Scylla and the 89th Ohio Regiment on July 14, 1862;
Charybdis; Personal Reminiscences, etc. was made sergeant August, 1862; received
In his day he was a noted duellist. He the commission of first lieutenant March
died in Nashville, Tenn., May 20, 1880. 14, 1864; elected governor of Ohio in 1885
Foote, SAMUEL AUGUSTUS, legislator; and 1887, and United States Senator for
born in Cheshire, Conn., Nov. 8, 1780; the term 1897-1903. In 1900 he was chair-
graduated at Yale College in 1797; en- man of the committee on Pacific islands
gaged in mercantile business in New and Porto Rico, and a member of the
Haven; was for several years a member committee on foreign relations.
of the State legislature; was a Represent- Forbes, JOHN, military officer; born in
Hi. 2 c 401

FORCE FOREIGN AFFAIRS

Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1710; was a physi- National Calendar, an annual volume of
eian. but, preferring military life, entered national statistics, which was published
the British arniv. and was lieutenant- from 1820 to 18.36. He died in Washing-
colonel of the Scots Greys in 1745. He ton, D. C., Jan. 23, 1868.
was acting quartermaster-general under Force Bill, THE. See Ku-KLUX KLAN.
the Duke of Cumberland; and late in 1757 Ford, PAUL LEICESTKU, author; born in
he came to America, with the rank of Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1865; has published
brigadier-general. He commanded the The True George Waxhinaton; The Many-
troops, 8,000 in number, against Fort Du- Sided Franklin, etc.; and has edited the
quesne, which he named Pittsburg. He writings of Christopher Columbus, Thomas
died in Philadelphia, March 11, 1759. See Jefferson, and John Dickinson; Bibli-
BOUQUET; DUQUESNE, FORT. oiira/iliij of Works Written by and Re-
Force, MANNING FERGUSON, author; lating to Alexander Hamilton, and Essays
born in Washington, D. C., Dec. 17, on the Constitution of the United Stat&lt;&lt;s.
1824; graduated at Harvard in 1845; ap- He was killed by his brother Malcolm in
pointed major of the 20th Ohio Regiment New York City, May 8, 1902.
in 18G1; took part in the battles at Fort Foreign Affairs. On Sept. 18, 1775,
Donelson and Shiloh, and in the siege at the Continental Congress appointed
Vicksburg. He was with Sherman in the Messrs. Welling, Franklin, Livingston,
Atlanta campaign and became a brevet Alsop, Deane, Dickinson, Langdon, Mc-
major-general of volunteers. In 1889 he Kean, and Ward a "secret committee"
became commandant of the Ohio Soldiers to contract for the importation from
and Sailors Home. Among his publica- Europe of ammunition, small-arms, and
tions are From Fort Henry to Corinth; cannon, and for such a purpose Silas
The Mound- Builders; Prehistoric Man; Deane was soon sent to France. By a
The Vicksburg Campaign; Marching resolution of the Congress, April 17, 1777,
Across Carolina; etc. He died near San- the name of this committee was changed
duskv. 0.. May 8, 1899. to " committee of foreign affairs," whose
Force, PETER, editor; born at Passaic functions were like those of the present
Falls, N. J., Nov. 26, 1790; learned the Secretary of State (see CABINET, PKESI-
printer s trade in New York City, and DENT S). Foreign intercourse was first
was president of the New York Typo- established by law in 1790. President
graphical Society in 1812. In November, Washington, in his message, Jan. 8,
1815, he settled in Washington, D. C., be- 1790, suggested to Congress the propriety
came a newspaper editor and publisher; of providing for the employment and com-
and was mayor 1836-40. He was major- pensation of persons for carrying on in-
general of the militia of the District of tercourse with foreign nations. The
Columbia in 1860, and was president of House appointed a committee, Jan. 15,
the National Institute. In 1833 he made to prepare a bill to that effect, which
a contract with the United States gov- was presented on the 21st. It passed the
ernment for the preparation and publi- House on March 30. The two Houses
cation of a documentary history of the could not agree upon the provisions of
American colonies covering the entire the bill, and a committee of conference
period of the Revolution. He prepared was appointed; and finally the original
and published 9 volumes, folio, and had bill, greatly modified, was passed. June
the tenth prepared, when Congress re- 25. 1790. The act fixed the salary of
fused to make further appropriations for ministers at foreign courts at $9,000 a
the work, and it has never been brought year, and churn* * d affaires at $4,5&lt;tn.
out. He had gathered an immense col- To the first ministers sent to Europe the
lection of books, manuscripts, maps, and Continental Congress guaranteed the pay-
plans; and in 1867 his entire collection ment of their expenses, with an additional
was purchased by the government for compensation for their time and trouble.
$100,000, and was transferred to the li- These allowances had been fixed at first
brary of Congress. His great work is en- at $11.111 annually. After the peace the
vitle d Anxriran Archives. Mr. Force s Continental Congress had reduced the
first publication in Washington was the salary to $9,000, in consequence of which

402

FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS AND THE UNITED STATES

Franklin insisted upon his recall, the sum France that they were to act together in
being insufficient. When the bill of 1790 regard to American affairs. They had
went before the Senate that body was only even gone so far as to apprise other Euro-
willing to vote a general sum for the ex- pean governments of this understanding,
penses of foreign intercourse, and to leave with the expectation that they would con-
the compensation of the respective minis- cur with them and follow their example,
ters to the discretion of the President, whatever it might be. Thus, at the very
urging that the difference in expenses at outset of the Civil War, these two power-
the various courts called for discrimi- ful governments had entered into a corn-
nation in the sums allowed. To this the bination for arraying Europe on the side
House would not agree, and for a while of the Confederates, and giving them mor-
both Houses insisted upon compliance al if not material aid in their efforts to
with their respective views. Hence the destroy the republic. The proclamation of
delay in the passage of the bill. The act Queen Victoria, made with unseemly haste
also made allowance for " outfits," which before the minister of the new administra-
had been insisted upon by Jefferson when tion, CHARLES F. ADAMS (q. v.), could
he was appointed to succeed Franklin. reach England, was followed by corre-
^ Foreign Governments and the United spending unfriendly action in the British
States. From the time when the South Parliament. And in addition to affected
Carolina ordinance of secession was passed indifference to the fate of the American
there was observed in most of the Euro- nation, British legislators, orators, pub-
pean courts an unfriendliness of spirit tow- Heists, and journalists were lavish of
ards the national government and a causeless abuse, not only of the govern-
willingness to give its enemies encourage- ment, but of the people of the free-labor
ment in their revolutionary measures. States who were loyal to the government.
The public journals in their interest were This abuse was often expressed in phrases
equally unfriendly in their utterances, so unmanly and ungenerous, and even
When, early in February, the Confederate coarse and vulgar at times, that high-
States government was organized, Europe minded Englishmen blushed for shame,
seemed prepared to accept the hopeless The Emperor of the French was more
dismemberment of the republic as an ac- cautious and astute; but he followed
complished fact. This belief was strength- Queen Victoria apparently in according
ened by the despatches of most of the for- belligerent rights to the Confederates by a
t-ign ministers at Washington to their re- decree (June 11, 1861), and, at the same
spective governments, who announced, time, entered into political combinations
early in February, the practical dissolu- for the propagation of imperialism in
tion of the Union; and some affected to be North America, with a belief that the days
amazed at the folly of Congress in legis- of the great republic were numbered and
lating concerning the tariff and other na- its power to enforce the MOXROE Doo
tional measures when the nation was hope- TRINE (q. v.) had vanished. The Queen
lessly expiring. The Queen of England, of Spain also hastened to proclaim the
in her speech from the throne, expressed neutrality of her government, and to com-
a " heartfelt wish " that the difference bine with France in replanting the seeds
that distracted our country " might be of monarchical institutions in the west-
susceptible of a satisfactory adjustment." ern hemisphere, now that the republic
For these humane expressions she was re- was apparently expiring. The King of
proved; and, finally, yielding to the im- Portugal also recognized the Confederates
portunities of her ministers, some of whom as belligerents.

earnestly desired the downfall of the But the more enlightened and wise mon-
American republic, she issued (May 13, arch of Russia, who was about to strike
1861) a proclamation of neutrality, by off the shackles of almost 40,000,000 slaves
which a Confederate government, as ex- in his own dominions, instructed his
isting, was acknowledged, and belligerent minister (July 29, 1861) to say to the
rights were accorded to the Confederates. imperial representative at Washington:
Already an understanding existed be- " In every event the American nation may
tween the governments of England and count upon the most cordial sympathy on

40.3

FORESTERS FORNEY

the part of our august master during the
important crisis which it is passing
through at present." The Russian Em-
peror kept his word; and the powers of
\v( stern Europe, regarding him as a pro-
nounced ally of the American Republic,
acted with more circumspection. The
attitude of foreign governments en-
couraged the Confederates to believe that
recognition and aid would surely be fur-
nished; and the government of England,
by a negative policy, did give them all
the aid and encouragement it prudently
could until it was seen that the Confed-
erate cause was hopeless, when Lord
John Russell addressed the head of the
Confederacy in insulting terms. That as-
tute publicist, Count Gasparin, of France,
writing in 18G2, when considering the un-
precedented precipitancy with which lead-
ing European powers recognized the Con-
federates as belligerents, said: "Instead
of asking on which side were justice and
liberty, we hastened to ask on which side
were our interests; then, too, on which
side were the best chances of success."
He said England had a legal right to be
neutral, but had no moral right to with-
hold her sympathies from a nation
"struggling for its existence and uni-
versal justice against rebels intent on
crimes against humanity."

Foresters, ANCIENT ORDER OF, a
fraternal organization founded in 1745;
established in the United States in 1836.
The American branch is composed of 3
high courts and 397 subordinate courts,
and has 38,089 members. Total member-
ship throughout the world 912,669, as
stated by the Foresters Directory, Dec.
31, 1899. The surplus funds of the society
amounted to $33,124,695, and its assets
aggregated over $76,000,000. Benefits
disbursed since 1836, $111,250,000; bene-
fits disbursed last fiscal year, $5,000,000.

Foresters, INDEPENDENT ORDER OF, a
fraternal organization founded in 1874;
high courts, 43; subordinate courts,
4,000; members, 170,000; benefits dis-
bursed since organization, $8,853.190:
benefits disbursed last fiscal year, $1,-
430,200.

Foresters of America, a fraternal
organization, not in affiliation with the
above, with jurisdiction limited to the
United States. Founded 1864, reorgan-

ized 1889; grand courts, 20; sub-courts.
1,475; members, 175,569; benefits dis-
burscd since organization, $7,~&gt;00,000 ;
benefits disbursed last fiscal year, $907,-
973.

Forestry. For many years the cutting
of valuable timber in various parts of the
United States has been carried to such an
extent that there has been quite a change
in climatic conditions in various sections
and the denudation of the virgin fore-t&gt;
has been seriously threatened. For the
purpose of checking the indiscriminate
cutting of valuable timber and to provide
a future supply of the principal woods re-
quired in the manufacturing industries the
national government has established a
bureau of forestry under the direction of
the Department of Agriculture, and more
recently Cornell University has been en-
abled to create a school of forestry for
the promotion of the science of forest cult-
ure. The Cornell school has had placed
at its disposal for study large tracts of
forest-land belonging to the State of New
York and to private individuals. As a
means of educating the rising generation
into a love for tree preservation, almost
every State in the country now has its
ARBOR DAY (q. v.),one day set apart in
each year for the planting of young trees
an d for class-room instruction in the value
of tree culture. In 1901 official reports
showed that the standing timber in the
United States covered an area of 1,094,496
square miles, and contained a supply of
2,300,000,000,000 feet. Timber was then
being cut at the rate of 40,000,000,000
feet a year, and it was estimated that if
that average was continued the supply
would be exhausted in about sixty
years.

Forney, JOHN WEISS, journalist; born
in Lancaster, Pa., Sept. 30, 1817; pur-
chased the Lancaster Intelligencer in is: ,7
and three years later the Journal, which
papers he amalgamated under the name of
the Intelligencer and Journal. He sub-
sequently became part owner of the Pcnn-
niilniniti and Washington Union. He was
clerk of the national House of Represent-
atives in 1S."&gt;1 -.I.") ; started the /Vr.s-.s, an
independent Democratic journal, in Phila-
delphia, in 1857, and upon his re-election
a clerk of the House of Representatives in
1859 he started the ^nixlai/ Mornimj

404

FORBEST

Chronicle in Washington. Among his pub- torvals till 1871, when ill-health com-
lications are Anecdotes of Public Men (2 pelled him to retire permanently. He was
volumes) ; Forty Years of American Jour- a man of literary culture and accumu-
nalism; A Centennial Commissioner in lated a large library rich in Shakespeari-
Europe, etc. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., ana, which was destroyed by fire on
Dec. 9, 1881. Jan. 15, 1873. He left his Philadelphia

Forrest, EDWIN, actor ; born in Phila- home and a considerable portion of his
delphia, Pa., March !), 1806. While still large fortune for the establishment of
a boy he began performing female and an asylum for aged and indigent act-
juvenile parts, being especially remem- ors. He died in Philadelphia, Dec. 12,
bered as Young Norval in Home s play of 1872.

Douglas. His first appearance on the Forrest, NATHAN BEDFORD, military
professional stage was on Nov. 27, 1820, officer; born in Bedford county, Tenn.,
at the Walnut Street Theatre, Philadel- July 13, 1821; joined the Tennessee
phia, in the title r6le of Douglas. Af- Mounted Rifles in June, 1861; and, in
tcr a long professional tour in the West, July following, raised and equipped a
during which he undertook several Shake- regiment of cavalry. By 1863 he had be-
spearian characters, he filled engagements come a famous Confederate chief; and
in Albany and Philadelphia, and then ap- early in 1804 the sphere of his duties was
peared as Othello at the Park Theatre, enlarged, and their importance increased.
New York, in 1826. He met with remark- He was acknowledged to be the most
able success, owing to his superb form and skilful and daring Confederate leader in
presence and his natural genius. Not be- the West. He made an extensive raid in
ing satisfied with merely local fame, he Tennessee and Kentucky, with about 5,000
played in all the large cities in the Unit- mounted men, in March and April, 1864.
ed States. His chief characters were He had been skirmishing with Gen. W.
Othello, Macbeth, Hamlet, Richard III., S. Smith in northern Mississippi, and,
Metamora and Spartacus, the last of sweeping rapidly across the Tennessee
which he made exceedingly effective by
his immense energy. In 1835 he went to
England and the Continent, and played
with much acceptance, making many warm
friends, among them WILLIAM C. MAC-
READY (q. v.). In 1837 he again visited
Europe and while there married Catha
rine, a daughter of John Sinclair, the
widely known ballad-singer. After 1845
Mr. Forrest spent two more years in Eng
land, during which his friendship with
Mr. Macready was broken. He had aoled
with great success in Virginius and other
parts, but when he attempted to personate
Macbeth he was hissed by the audience.
This hissing was attributed to profession
al jealousy on the part of Macready. A
lc-w weeks after, when Macready appeared
as Hamlet in Edinburgh, Forrest hissed NATHAN BEDFORD FORRKST.

him from a box in which he stood. On

May 10, 1849, when Macready appeared River into western Tennessee, rested a
as Macbeth in the Astor Place Theatre, in while at Jackson, and then (March 23)
New York, the friends of Forrest inter- piished on towards Kentucky. A part of
rupted the performance. The result was his force captured Union City the next
the Astor Place riot, in which twenty-two day, with the National garrison of 450
men were killed and thirty-six wounded, men. Forrest then pushed on to Paducah,
In 1858 Mr. Forrest announced his retire- on the Ohio River, with 3,000 men, and
ment from the stage, but appeared at in- demanded the surrender of Fort Anderson

405

FOBBEST, NATHAN BEDFOBD

there, in which the little garrison of 700
men, under Colonel Hicks, had taken
refuge. It was refused; and, after assail
ing the works furiously, and plundering
and burning the town until midnight, he
ceased the assault. Hearing of reinforce
ments for Hicks approaching, he retreated
( March 27 ) , with a loss of 300 men killed
and wounded. The National loss was
sixty killed and wounded. Forrest was
chagrined by this failure, and proceeded
to attack Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi,
which he captured in April. Hearing of
the march of General Sturgis from Mem
phis to intercept him, Forrest escaped
from Tennessee into Mississippi. A few
weeks later, troops sent out from
Memphis to hunt up and capture him
were defeated by him in a severe engage
ment at Gun Town (June 10), on the
Mobile and Ohio Railway, and were driven
back with great loss. On the 14th he
was defeated near Tupelo, Miss. Not
long afterwards, when Smith was in Mis
sissippi with 10,000 men, the bold raider
flanked him, and dashed into Memphis in
broad daylight, at the head of 3,000
cavalry, in search of National officers,
and escaped again into Mississippi. He
died in Memphis, Tenn., Oct. 29, 1877.

His invasion of Tennessee, in 1864, was
a remarkable performance. For several
weeks he had been in northern Alabama,
to prevent troops from the Mississippi
joining Sherman. He crossed the Ten

nessee River, near Waterloo (Sept. 25,
1864), with a force of light cavalry, about
7,000 strong, and invested Athens. The
post was surrendered about half an hour
before sufficient reinforcements arrived
to hold it. These, with the garrison, after
a sharp conflict, became prisoners. For
rest then pushed on northward to Pulaski,
in Tennessee, destroying the railway; but
General Rousseau, at Pulaski, repulsed
Forrest after brisk skirmishing several
hours, when the raider made eastward,
and struck the railway between Tulla-
homa and Decherd. He was confronted
and menaced by National forces under
Rousseau, Steedman, and Morgan, and
withdrew before he had done much
damage. At Fayetteville he divided his
forces, giving 4,000 to Buford, his second
in command. Buford attacked Athens
( Oct. 2-3 ) , which General Granger had
regarrisoned with the 73d Indiana Regi
ment, and was repulsed. Forrest had
pushed on to Columbia, on the Duck
River, with 3,000 men, but did not attack,
for he met Rousseau, with 4,000 men,
coming down from Nashville. At the
same time, Gen. C. C. Washburne was
moving up the Tennessee on steamers,
with 4,000 troops, 3,000 of them cavalry,
to assist in capturing the invaders. Sev
eral other leaders of the National troops,
under the command of General Thomas,
who had then arrived at Nashville, joined
in the hunt for Forrest. He saw his peril,

MAI OK SOEXE OF SOMK OF FORREST S OPERATIONS.

406

FORSYTH FORTIFICATIONS

and, paroling his prisoners (1,000), he Fort Washington See CINCINNATI.

destroyed 5 miles of the railway south Fortifications. When the question of

from the Duck River, and escaped over taking measures for the defence of the

the Tennessee (Oct. 6), at Bainbridge, colonies was proposed in Congress, a dis-

with very little loss. cussion arose that was long and earnest,

Forsyth, JAMES W., military officer; for many members yet hoped for recon-

born in Ohio in 1835; graduated at West ciliation. On the very day that a British

Point in 1856; promoted first lieutenant reinforcement at Boston, with Howe, Clin-

in 1801 and brigadier-general in 18G5. He ton, and Burgoyne, entered that harbor,

served in the Maryland, Richmond, and Duane, of New York, moved, in the com-

Shenandoah campaigns. He wrote Report mittee of the whole, the opening a nego-

of an Expedition up the Yellowstone River tiation, in order to accommodate the un-

in 1875. happy disputes existing between Great

Forsyth, JOHN, diplomatist; born in Britain and the colonies, and that this be

Fredericksburg, Va., Oct. 22, 1780; grad- made a part of the petition to the King,

uated at the College of New Jersey in But more determined spirits prevailed,

1799. His parents removed to Georgia and a compromise was reached late in May

when he was quite young, and there he ( 25th ) , when directions were given to

studied law, and was admitted to its prac- the Provincial Congress at New York to

tice about 1801. He was attorney-gen- preserve the communications between that

eral of the State in 1808 ; member of Con- city and the country by fortifying posts

gress from 1813 to 1818, and from 1823 at the upper end of Manhattan Island,

to 1827; United States Senator, and near King s Bridge, and on each side of

governor of Georgia from 1827 to 1829. the Hudson River, on the Highlands.

Mr. Forsyth was United States min- They were also directed to establish a

ister to Spain in 1819-22, and nego- fort at Lake George and sustain the posi-

tiated the treaty that gave Florida to tion at Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain,

the United States. He opposed NULLIFI- which the " GREEN MOUNTAIN BOYS "

CATION (q. v.) in South Carolina, favored (q. v.) and others had seized a fortnight

Clay s compromise act of 1833, and was before.

United States Secretary of State from The first bill for the fortification of

1835 till his death, which occurred Oct. American harbors was reported in Con-

21, 1841. gress, March 4, 1794, by a committee of

Forsyth, JOHN, clergyman ; born In one from each State, while the bill for

Nowburg, N. Y., in 1810; graduated at the . construction of a navy was under

Rutgers in 1829; studied theology in Edin- consideration. The act authorized the

burgh University: ordained in 1834; Pro- President to commence fortifications at

fessor of Biblical Literature in Newburg, Portland, Portsmouth, Gloucester, Salem,

1836; of Latin in Princeton in 1847-53; Boston, Newport, New London, New York,

later again in Newburg, and occupied the Philadelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, Al-

Chair of English Literature in Rut- exandria, Norfolk, Ocracoke Inlet, Cape

gers in 1800-63. From 1871 to 1881 he Fear River, Georgetown, Charleston, Sa-

was chaplain of West Point. Among his vannah, and St. Mary s. Annapolis was

works are Lives of the EarJi/ dnrcruors of added by a subsequent act. For this pur-

\ ir York; and History of the Public pose only $136,000 were appropriated.

Kfl ooU of Netcburg. He died in New- The President was authorized to purchase

burg, Oct. 17, 1886. 200 cannon for the armament of the new

Fort FORTS. Special articles will be fortifications, and to provide 150 extra

found on the various forts under their gun-carriages, with 250 tons of cannon

respective names. For instance: FORT balls, for which purpose $96.000 were

CLINTON, see CLINTON; FORT SUMTER, see appropriated. Another act appropriated

STMTKR, etc. $81,000 for the establishment of arsenals

Fort Leaven-worth War College. See and armories in addition to those at

LEAVEN WORTH, FORT. Springfield and Carlisle, and $340,000 for

Fort Montgomery. See CLINTON, the purchase of arms and stores. The

FORT. exportation of arms was prohibited for

407

FORTS CLINTON AND MONTGOMERY FOSTER

one year, and all arms imported during bar of Pennsylvania in 1806; elected to

the next two years were to come in free Congress in 1822; appointed first comp-

of duty. troller of the United States Treasury in

In recent years the national government 1841; Secretary of the United States

lias been giving a larger degree of atten- Treasury in 1841; elected judge of the

tion to the question of coast defences, and district court of Alleghany county, Pa.,

a board of ordnance and fortification in 1851. He died in Pittsburg, Nov. 24,

has in charge the erection of new works, 1852.

the strengthening of old ones, and the Forwood, WILLIAM STUMP, physician;
provision of the most approved ordnance born in Harford county, Md., Jan. 27,
for the protection of the principal coast 1830; graduated at the University of
cities of the country. The plans under Pennsylvania in 1854; began the practice
which the board has been working will of medicine in Darlington, Md. He was
require many years time, even with un- the author of The History of the Passage
usually liberal appropriations by Con- of General Lafayette with his Army
gress, to complete. After the United through Harford County in 1781; The
States declared war against Spain in 1898 History of Harford County; and An fits-
one of the first works of importance was torical and Descriptive Narrative of the
the preparation of the principal harbors Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.
of the Atlantic coast to be able to sue- Foster, CHARLES, financier; born in
cessfully resist any hostile naval attacks. Seneca county, O., April 12, 1828; was
1 or the adequate defence of the coast not first elected to Congress as a Republican
only were the existing fortifications at in 1870; elected governor of Ohio in
once put on a war footing and supplied 1879 and 1881 ; was appointed Secretary
with the latest style of ordnance, but the of the United States Treasury in Febru-
harbors of the cities that were likely to ary, 1891. He was concerned in a number
invite attack were reinforced by the most of financial enterprises in which he ac-
complete system of mines and torpedoes, quired a large fortune, but in 1893 was
In this work the navy also bore an im- obliged to make an assignment of his vast
portant share, as the exceptionally swift interests for the benefit of his creditors,
cruisers Columbia and Minneapolis were He died in Springfield, O., Jan. 9, 1904.
kept constantly patrolling at sea for many Foster, JOHN GRAY, military officer;
weeks, while a special fleet of smaller born in Whitefield, N. H., May 27, 1823;
vessels aided them in keeping watch nearer graduated at West Point in 1846, en-
shore for the two Spanish fleets that were tering the engineer corps. He served in
expected to menace the coast from Maine the war with Mexico and was brevetted
to Florida. Similar precautions were captain for meritorious services. For two
taken also at San Francisco. For a list years (1855-57) he was Professor of En-
of the forts of the United States see MILI- gineering at West Point; promoted to
TARY POSTS. captain in July, 1860; major in March,

Forts Clinton and Montgomery. See 1863; and lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He

CLINTOX, FORT. was one of the garrison of Fort Sumter

Forty, FORT, a protective work erected during the siege, and was made brigadier-
by the Connecticut settlers in Wyoming general of volunteers in October, 1861.
Valley, Pa., in 1769. It was the rendcx- He took a leading part in the capture of
vous of the Americans when the valley Eoanoke Island, early in 1862, and of
was invaded by Tories and Indians on Newborn, N. C. ; was promoted to major-
June 3, 1778, and was surrendered on the general of volunteers, and became com-
following day. See WYOMING, MASSACRE mander of the Department of North Car-
OF. olina, and defended that region with skill.

"Forty-five." See "NINETY-TWO AND In July, 1863, he was made commander of

FORTY-FIVE." the Department of Virginia and North

Forward, WALTER, statesman; born in Carolina, with his headquarters at Fort

( onnecticut in 1786; removed to Pittsburg, Monroe. He was afterwards in command

where he was editor of the Tree of Lib- of the Department of Ohio, of which he

.&lt; rhj, a Democratic paper; admitted to the was relieved on account of wounds in

408

POSTER FOUNDERS AND PATRIOTS OF AMERICA

January, 1864. He afterwards commanded for governor in 1892 and was elected; and

the Departments of South Carolina and was re-elected in 1890. In 1900 he was

Florida. He was brevetted major-general unanimously elected to the United States

in the regular army for services during Senate as a Democrat.

the Civil War in 1865. He died in Foster, KOGEK, lawyer; born in Wor-
Nashua, N. H., Sept. 2, 1874. cester, Mass., in 1857; was graduated at

Foster, JOHN WATSON, diplomatist; Yale College in 1878, and at the law school
born in Pike county, Ind., March 2, 1836; of Columbia University in 1880; and ad-
graduated at the Indiana State Uni- mitted to the New York bar in the same
versity in 1855; studied at Harvard Law year. Among his publications are A
School, and was admitted to the bar in Treatise on the Federal Judiciary Acts of
Evansville, Ind. During the Civil War 1875 and 1887; A Treatise on Federal
he served in the Union army, reaching the Practice; Commentaries on the Constitu-
rank of colonel of volunteers. After the tion; A Treatise on the Income Tax of
war he was in turn editor of the Evans- l&9 t; etc.

ville Daily Journal and postmaster of that Foster, WILLIAM EATON, historian;
city in 1869-73. He was minister to Mex- born in Brattleboro, Vt., June 2, 1851; be-
ico in 1873-80, and to Russia in 1880-81. came librarian of Providence Public Li-
On his return to the United States he en- brary. He is the author of The Literature
gaged in the practice of international law of the Civil Service Reform Movement ;
in Washington, representing foreign lega- Town Government in Rhode Island; Ste-
tions before arbitration boards, commis- phen Hopkins, a Rhode Island Statesman;
sions, etc. In 1883-85 he was minister to etc.

Spain; and in 1891 was a special commis- Fouchet, JEAN ANTOINE JOSEPH,
sioner to negotiate reciprocity treaties BARON, diplomatist; born in St. Quentin,
with Spain, Germany, Brazil, and the France, in 1763; was a law student at
West Indies. He was appointed United Paris when the Eevolution broke out, and
States Secretary of State in 1892 and published a pamphlet in defence of its
served till 1893, when lie became the agent principles. Soon afterwards he was ap-
for the United States before the Bering pointed a member of the executive council
Sea arbitration tribunal at Paris. In of the revolutionary government, and was
1895, on the invitation of the Emperor of French ambassador to the United States
China, he participated in the peace nego- in 1794-95. Here his behavior was less
tiations with Japan; in 1897 he was a offensive than that of "Citizen" Gend.
special United States commissioner to but it was not satisfactory, and he was
Great Britain and Russia, and in 1898 succeeded by Adet, a more prudent man.
was a member of the ANGLO-AMERICAN After he left the United States, the French
COMMISSION (q. v.) . He is the author of Directory appointed him a commissioner
A Century of American Diplomacy, a to Santo Domingo, which he declined,
brief review of the foreign relations of Under Bonaparte he was prefect of Var,
the United States from 1776 to 1876. See and in 1805 he was the same of Ain. He
BERING SEA ARBITRATION. remained in Italy until the French evac-

Foster, MURPHY JAMES, lawyer; born uated it in 1814. On Napoleon s return
in Franklin, La., Jan. 12, 1849; was from Elba Fouchet was made prefect of
graduated at Cumberland University, the Gironde. The date of his death is not
Lebanon, Tenn., in 1870, and at the law known.

school of Tulane University, New Orleans, Founders and Patriots of America,
in 1871; and practised in his native town. ORDER OF. a patriotic organization incor-
He was elected a member of the State porated March 18. 1896. The object of
Senate in 1879, was returned for three the order is " to bring together and a ssoci-
consecutive terms of four years each, and ate congenial men whose ancestors
was president pro tern, in 1880-90. He struggled together for life and liberty,
was the leader in the long and successful home and happiness, in the land when it
fi.^ht against the Louisiana Lottery Com- was a new and unknown country, and
pany, while in the State Senate; was whose line of descent from them comes
nominated by the Anti-lottery Convention through patriots who sustained the colo-

409

FOUNTAIN OF YOUTH FOWLTOWN

nies in the struggle for independence in he was joint partner with Gamaliel

the Revolutionary War; to teach reverent Rogers in publishing the Independent

regard for the names and history, char- Advertiser. They had published the

acter and perseverance, deeds and hero- American Magazine from 1743 to 1746,

ism, of the founders of this country and and were the first in America to print

their patriotic descendants; to inculcate the New Testament. Mr. Fowle settled

patriotism; to discover, collect, and pre- in Portsmouth, N. H.; and there, in Octo-

&gt;.T\e records, documents, manuscripts, ber, 1756, began the publication of the

monuments, and history relating to the A eip Hami&gt;nlnrc Gazette. He died in

first colonists and their ancestors and Portsmouth, N. H., in June, 1787.

their descendants; and to commemorate Fowler, SAMUEL PAGE, antiquarian;

and celebrate events in the history of the born in Danvers, Mass., April 22, 1800;

colonies of the republic." The officers in aided in founding the Essex Institute.

1900 were: Governor-general, Stewart L. He was the author of articles in the His-

Woodford, New York; deputy governor- torical Collections of the Essex Institute;

general, Samuel Emlen Meigs, Philadel- Life and Character of the Rev. Samuel

phia; secretary-general, Charles Mather Parris, of Salem Village, and his Connec-

Glazier, Hartford, Conn.; treasurer-gen- tion with the Witchcraft Delusion of

eral, Samuel Victor Constant, New York; 1692, etc.

attorney - general, William Raymond Fowler, WILLIAM CHAUNCEY, author;

Weeks, New York ; registrar-general, Will- born in Killingworth, Conn., Sept. 1,

iam Anderson Mitchell, New York; and 1793; graduated at Yale in 181C; be-

chaplain-general, Rev. Daniel Frederick came pastor of the Congregational Church

Warren, Jersey City, N. J. in Greenfield, Mass., in 1825. He publish-

Fountain of Youth, a fabled fountain, ed many school-books and also The Sec-

the discovery of which was one of the ob- tional Controversy, or Passages in the

jects of the exploration of Florida in Political History of the United States;

1512 by PONCE DE LEON (q. v.) . The History of Durham; Local Law in Massa-

water of this fountain was supposed to chusetts and Connect lent ; genealogical

constitute an elixir, the drinking of which works on the Fowler and Chauncey fami-

would greatly prolong human life. lies, etc. He died in Durham, Conn., Jan.

Four Mile Strip, a strip of land 4 15 1881.

miles wide on each side of the Niag- Fowler, WILLIAM WORTIIINGTON, au-

ara River, extending from Lake Erie thor; born in Middlebury, Vt., June 24,

to Lake Ontario, which was ceded to 1833; graduated at Amherst College in

the British government in 1764 by a 1854; admitted to the bar in 1857; and

council of Indians representing Iroquois, began practice in New York City. His

Ottawas, Ojibways, Wyandottes, and publications include Ten Years in Wall

others. Street; Life and Adventures of Benjamin

Fourier, CHARLES, socialist; born in F. Moneypemni: Women on the American

Bensangon, France, April 7, 1772; devised Frontier; Twenty Years of Inside Life in

a social system known as Fouriorism. He Wall Street; etc. He died in 1881.

died in Paris, Oct. 10, 1837. See BROOK Fowltown, BATTLE OF, an engagement

FARM ASSOCIATION. in 1817 fought by National troops under

Fourteenth Amendment to the Con- Gen. E. P. Gainos and hostile Creek Ind-

stitution. See CONSTITUTION AND Gov- ians during the Seminole War in Florida.

ERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. The Indians had committed depredations

Fourth of July, the American natal on the frontier settlements of Georgia and

day, so designated because of the DECLA- Alabama. General Gaines followed them

IJATION OF T.N DEPEN DKxcK (q. v.) on July up, and on the refusal of the inhabitants

4, 1776; also popularly known as Inde- of Fowltown to surrender the ringleaders

pendence Day. Roe ADAMS. JOHN. he look and destroyed the Indian village,

Fowle, DANIEL, printer: born in for which the Indians soon afterwards re-

Charlestown. Mass.. in 1715: learned the tnlialed by capturing a boat conveying

art of printing, and began business in supplies for Fort Scott up the Apalachico-

Boston in 1740. where, trom 1748 to 1750. la River, and killing thirty-four men and

410

FOX

a number of women. This event led Gen- Taken before Cromwell, in London, that
eral Jackson to take the field in person ruler not only released him, but declared
against the Indians early in January, his doctrines were salutary, and he after-
1818. wards protected him from persecution;

Fox, GEORGE, founder of the Society of but after the Restoration he and his fol-
Friends, or Quakers; born in Dray- lowers were dreadfully persecuted by the
ton, Leicestershire, England, in July, Stuarts. He married the widow of a
1024. His father, a Presbyterian, was Welsh judge in 1069, and in 1672 he came
too poor to give his son an education be- to America, and preached in Maryland,
yond reading and writing. The son, who Long Island, and New Jersey, visiting

Friends wherever they were seated. Fox
afterwards visited Holland and parts of
Germany. His writings upon the subject
of his peculiar doctrine that the " light
of Christ within is given by God as a gift
of salvation " occupied, when first pub
lished, 3 folio volumes. He died in Lon
don, Jan. 13, 1691.

When the founder of the Society of
Friends visited New England in 1672, being
more discreet than others of his sect, he
went only to Rhode Island, avoiding Con
necticut and Massachusetts. Roger Will
iams, who denied the pretensions to spir
itual enlightenment, challenged Fox to
disputation. Before the challenge was re
ceived, Fox had departed, but three of
his disciples at Newport accepted it.
Williams went there in an open boat,
30 miles from Providence, and, though
over seventy years of age, rowed the vessel
himself. There was a three days dis
putation, which at times was a tumultu
ous quarrel. Williams published an ac-

was grave and contemplative in tempera- count of it, with the title of George Fox
ment, was apprenticfd to a shoemaker, Digged out of his Burrowes; to which
and made the Scriptures his constant Fox replied in a pamphlet entitled, A
study. The doctrines he afterwards New England Firebrand Quenched.
taught were gradually fashioned in his Neither was sparing in sharp epithets.
mind, and believing himself to be called to Fox, GUSTAVTJS VASA, naval officer;
disseminate them, he abandoned his trade born in Saugus, Mass., June 13, 1821; ap-
at the age of nineteen, and began his pointed to the United States navy Jan.
spiritual work, leading a wandering life 12, 1838; resigned with the rank of lieu-
for some years, living in the woods, and tenant July 10, 1856; was sent to Fort
practising rigid self-denial. He first ap- Sumter for the purpose of opening commu-
peared as a preacher at Manchester, in nication with Major Anderson. Before the
1048, and he was imprisoned as a dis- expedition reached Charleston the Confed-
turber of the peace. Then he travelled erates had opened fire on Fort Sumter and
over England, meeting the same fate forced Major Anderson to surrender. He
everywhere, but gaining many followers, was subsequently appointed assistant Sec-
He warmly advocated all the Christian retary of the Navy, and held this post
virtues, simplicity in worship, and in man- until the end of the war. He planned op-
ner of living. Brought before a justice orations of the navy, including the capt-
at Derby, in 1650, he told the magistrate ure of New Orleans. He was sent by the
to " quake before the Lord," and there- United States government on the monitor
after he and his sect were called Quakers. Miantonoinoh to convey the cr-ngratula-

411

GEORGK POX.

FOX INDIANS FRANCE

tions of the United States Congress to their dominions, were to stand as one
Alexander II. on his escape from assassi- state towards foreign powers. This treaty
nation. This was the longest voyage that secured to the American colonies, in ad-
had ever been made by a monitor. His vance, the aid of Charles III. of Spain,
visit to Russia materially aided the ac- A special convention was concluded the
quisition of Alaska by the United States same day between France and Spain, by
government. He died in New York City, which the latter agreed to declare war
Oct. 29, 1883. against England unless peace between

Fox Indians, a tribe of Algonquian France and England should be concluded
Indians first found by the whites in Wis- before May, 1762. Choiseul covenanted
consin. They were driven south of the with Spain that Portugal should be com-
Wisconsin River by the Ojibwas and the pelled, and Savoy, Holland, and Denmark
French, and there incorporated with the should be invited, to join in a federative
Sac Indians. In 1900 there were 521 union " for the common advantage of all
Sac and Fox of Mississippi at the Fox maritime powers." Pitt proposed to de-
agency in Oklahoma; 77 Sac and Fox of clare war against Spain, but was out-
Missouri at the Pottawatomie agency in voted, and resigned (Oct. 5, 1761).
Kansas, and 388 of the Sac and Fox of The French government was pleased
Mississippi at the Sac and Fox agency in when the breach between Great Britain
Iowa. and her colonies began, and sought to

France, EARLY RELATIONS WITH. The widen it. England had stripped France
serious quarrel between the English and of her possessions in America, and France
French colonists in America, which was sought to dismember the British Empire,
begun in 1754 and continued by collisions and cause it a greater loss, by the achieve-
of armed men, was taken up by the home ment of the independence of the colonies,
governments in 1755. The French had Arthur Lee, of Virginia, being in. London
offered to treat for reconciliation, but the soon after the breaking out of hostilities,
terms were not acceptable to the English ; made such representations to the French
and when the offer was refused, the ambassador there that the Count de Ver-
French fitted out privateers and threat- gennes, the French minister of foreign
ened to invade England with a fleet and affairs, sent PIERRE AUGTJSTIX CARON DE
army collected at Brest. To confront BEAUMARCTIAIS (q. v.) , a well-known po-
this menace, a body of German troops litical intriguer and courtier, to concert
were introduced into England; and, to measures with Lee for sending to the
induce the colonies to make fresh efforts Americans arms and military stores to the
against the French in America, the Par- amount of $200,0(fl&gt;. An open breach
liament voted a reimbursement of $775,000 with the English was not then desirable,
to those involved on account of Dieskau s and the French minister, to cover up the
invasion. Provision was also made for transaction, gave it a mercantile feature,
enlisting a royal American regiment, by having Beaumarchais transmit the sup-
composed of four battalions of 1,000 men plies under the fictitious firm-name of
each. All hopes of reconciliation being Rodrique Hortales & Co. Before the mat-
past, England formally declared war ter was completed, SILAS DEANE (q. v.) ,
against France (May, 18, 1756), to which sent by the committee of secret corre-
tlie latter shortly after responded. spondence, arrived in Paris (May, 1776),

On Aug. 15, 1761, Choiseul, the able in the disguise of a private merchant. He
French minister, brought about, by treaty, was received kindly by Vergennes, and in-
a firm alliance between France and troduced to Beaumarchais. It was agreed
Spain, a family compact that eventually that Hortales & Co. should send the sup-
proved beneficial to the English- American plies by way of the West Indies, and that
colonies. It was designed to unite all the Congress should pay for them in tobacco
branches of the House of Bourbon as a and other American products. When the
counterpoise to the maritime ascendency arrangement was completed. Beaumarchais
of England. It was agreed that at the despatched vessels from lime to time,
conclusion of the then existing war with valuable cargoes, including 200 can-
France and Spain, in the whole extent of non and mortars, and a supply of small

412

FRANCE, EARLY RELATIONS WITH

arms from the French arsenals ; also, stores as a present from the Court of
4,000 tents, and clothing for 30,000 men. France." Then Beaumarchais claimed pay-
Deane was suspected of some secret con- mt-nt from the Congress for every arti-
nection with the French government, and cle he had forwarded. This claim caused
was closely watched by British agents; a lawsuit that lasted about fifty years.
and the French Court would trust none of It was settled in 1835, by the payment by
its secrets to the Congress, for its most the United States government to the heirs
private deliberations (the sessions were of Beaumarchais of over $200,000.
always private) leaked out, and became On May 4, 1778, the Continental Con-
known to the British ministry. The busi- gress unanimously ratified the treaties
ness was done by the secret committee, with France, and expressed their grate-
Soon after the Declaration of Iridepen- ful acknowledgments to its King for his
dence, a plan of treaties with foreign na- " magnanimous and disinterested con-
tions had been reported by a committee duct." This treaty and this ratification
and accepted by Congress, and Franklin, " buried the hatchet " that had so long
Deane, and Jefferson were appointed been active between the French and the
(Sept. 28, 1776) commissioners to the English colonies in America. The latter
Court of France. Jefferson declined the regarded all Frenchmen as their friends,
appointment, and Arthur Lee was substi- and proclaimed Louis XVI. the " pro-
tuted. They were directed to live in a tec-tor of the rights of mankind."
style " to support the dignity of their pub- On the evening of April 12, 1779, the
lie character," and provision was made representatives of France and Spain
for their maintenance. Franklin arrived signed a convention for an invasion of
at Paris, and was joined by Deane and Lee England, in which the Americans were
in December. The commissioners were considered and concerned. By its terms
courteously received by Vergennes, pri- France bound herself to undertake the
va tely, but without any recognition of their invasion of Great Britain and Ireland;
diplomatic character. France was secret- and, if the British could be driven from
ly strengthening her navy, and preparing Newfoundland, the fisheries were to be
for the inevitable war which her aid to shared with Spain. France promised to
the revolted colonies would produce. The use every effort to recover for Spain
commissioners received from the French Minorca, Pensacola, and Mobile, the Bay
government a quarterly allowance of $400,- of Honduras, and the coast of Cam-
000, to be repaid by the Congress, with peachy; and the two courts agreed not to
which they purchased arms and supplies grant peace nor truce, nor suspension of
for troops, and fitted out armed vessels hostilities, until Gibraltar should be re-
a business chiefly performed by Deane, stored to Spain. Spain was left free to
who had been a merchant, and managed exact from the United States, as the
the transactions with Beaumarchais. Out price of her friendship, a renunciation
of these transactions grew much embar- of every part of the basin of the St.
nissnient, chiefly on account of the mis- Lawrence and the Lakes, of the naviga-
representations of Arthur Lee, which led tion of the Mississippi, and of all the
Congress to believe that the supplies for- territory between that river and the Alle-
\varded by Beaumarchais were gratui- ghany Mountains. This modification of
ties of the French monarch. This belief the treaty of France with the United
prevailed until the close oi 1778, when States gave the latter the right to make
Franklin, on inquiry of Vergennes about peace whenever Great Britain should rec-
the matter, was informed that the King ognize their independence. . So these two
had furnished nothing; he simply per- Bourbon dynasties plotted to exclude the
mitted Beaumarchais to be provided with Americans from a region essential to
articles from the arsenals upon condition them as members of an independent re-
of replacing them. The matter becoming a public. But a new power appeared in
public question, the startled Congress, un- the West to frustrate their designs,
willing to compromise the French Court, which was prefigured by an expedition
declared (January, 1779) that they " had under a hardy son of Virginia. See
never received any species of military CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS.

413

FRANCE, EARLY RELATIONS WITH

In 17!)7 the consul-general of the "Address to the President, signed by
United States in France complained of 5.000 citizens, was presented to Adams;
the condemnation of American vessels and this was followed by an address by the
unjustly. Merlin, the French minister of young men of the city, who went in a&gt; body
justice, made a reply in which he openly to deliver it, many of them wearing black
avowed the intention to humble the cockades, the same which were worn in
Americans and compel Congress to con- the American army during the Revolution,
form to the wishes of France by depre- This was done in the way of defiance to
dations upon American commerce. " Let the tricolored cockades. From this cir-
your government," wrote this minister of cumstance was derived the term, so fa-
justice (who was also a speculator in miliar to politicians of that period, of
privateers), "return to a sense of what "Black Cockade Federalists." It became,
is due to itself and its true friends, be- in time, a term of reproach, and the wear-
come just and grateful, and let it break ers were exposed to personal attacks.
the incomprehensible treaty which it has In July, 1798, the American Congress
concluded with our most implacable declared the treaties made between the
enemies, and then the French Republic United States and France (Feb. G, 1778)
will cease to take advantage of this at an end, and authorized American ves-
treaty, which favors England at its ex- sels of war to capture French cruisers. A
pense, and no appeals will then, I can marine corps was organized, and thirty
assure you, be made to any tribunal cruisers were provided for. The frigates
against injustice." United States, Constitution, and Constel-

In March, 1798, President Adams, in a lation, already built, were soon made
special message, asked Congress to make ready for sea under such commanders as
provision for the war with France that Dale, Barry, Decatur the elder, Truxton,
seemed impending. It was promptly com- Nicholson, and Phillips. Decatur soon
plied with. A provisional army of 20,000 captured a French corsair (April, 1798).
regular soldiers was voted, and provision So many American armed vessels in West
was made for the employment of volun- India waters, in the summer and autumn
teers as well as militia. Provision was of 1798, astonished the British and French
also made for a national navy, and the aiithorities there. At the close of that
office of Secretary of the Navy was ere- year the American navy consisted of
ated (see NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES), twenty-three vessels, with a total of 446
and the incumbent was made a member of guns. It was much strengthened during
the cabinet. Party spirit disappeared in the year 1799 by the launching and put-
the national legislature in a degree, and ting into commission several new ships,
a war spirit everywhere prevailed. There and victories over the French on the ocean
were a few members of Congress who were gained. In February, 1799, Coin-
made the honor of the nation subservient modore Truxton, in the Constellation,
to their partisanship. They opposed a captured the French frigate L liiftunjcnte;
war with France on any account; and so and in February. 1800, he gained a victory
unpopular did they become that some of over the French frigate La Vengeance.
the most obnoxious, particularly from The convention at Paris brought about
Virginia, sought personal safety in flight, peace between the two nations, and the
under the pretext of needed attention to navy of the United States was called to
private affairs. another field of action.

Ever since Minister Adet s proclamation While war with France scorned inovi-
the Democrats, or friends of the French, table, and was actually occurring on the
had worn the tricolored cockade. When, ocean, a change in the government of
in the spring of 1798, President Adams that country occurred, which averted
took strong ground against France, a de- from the United States the calamity of
cided war spirit was aroused throughout war. For a long time the quarrels of po-
the country; addresses poured in on the litical factions had distracted France.
President; and everywhere were seen evi- THE DIRECTORY (q. v. ) had become very
dences of a reflex of opinion which sus- unpopular, and the excitable people were
tained the President. In Philadelphia, an ripe for another revolution. Napoleon

414

FRANCE, EARLY RELATIONS WITH

CAPTURE OF LA VENGEANCE BY CONSTELLATION.

Bonaparte was then at the head of an
army in the East. His brothers informed
him of the state of affairs at home, and
lie suddenly appeared in Paris with a few
followers, where he was hailed as the good
genius of the republic. With his brother
Lucien, then president of the Council of
Five Hundred, and the Abbe Sieyes, one of
the Directory, and of great influence in
the Council of the Ancients, he conspired
for the overthrow of the government and
the establishment of a new one. Sieves
induced the Council of the Ancients to
place Bonaparte in command of the mili
tary of Paris, Nov. 9, 1799. Then Sieves
and two other members of the Directory

resigned, leaving France without an execu
tive authority, and Bonaparte with its
strong arm, the military, firmly in his
grasp. The Council of the Ancients, de
ceived by a trick, assembled at St. Cloud
the next day. Bonaparte appeared before
them to justify his conduct. Perceiving
their enmity, he threatened them with ar
rest by the military if they should decide
against him. Meanwhile Lucien had read
the letters of resignation of the three
directors to the Council of Five Hun
dred. A scene of terrible excitement oc
curred. There were shouts of " No Crom
well! no dictator! the constitution for
ever!" Bonaparte entered that chamber

415

PRANCE, EARLY RELATIONS WITH

with four grenadiers, and attempted to
speak, but was interrupted by cries and
execrations. The members seemed about
to offer personal violence to the bold sol
dier, when a body of troops rushed in and
bore him off. A motion was made for his
outlawry, which Lucien refused to put,
and left the chair. He went out and ad
dressed the soldiers. At the conclusion
of his speech, Murat entered with a body
of armed men, and ordered the council
to disperse. The members replied with
defiant shouts and execrations. The
drums were ordered to be beaten; the
soldiers levelled their muskets, when all
but about fifty of the Council escaped by
the windows. These, with the Ancients,
passed a decree making Sieyes, Bona
parte, and Ducros provisional consuls.
In December, Bonaparte was made first
consul, or supreme ruler, for life. New
American envoys had just reached Paris
at this crisis, and very soon Bonaparte
concluded an amicable settlement of all
difficulties between the two nations.
Peace was established ; the envoys re-

and paused; and, through letters to
Pinchon (August and September, 1798),
information was conveyed to the United
States government that the Directory
were ready to receive advances from the
former for entering into negotiations.
Anxious for peace, President Adams,
without consulting his cabinet or the na
tional dignity, nominated to the Senate
William Vans Murray (then United
States diplomatic agent at The Hague)
as minister plenipotentiary to France.
This was a concession to the Directory
which neither Congress nor the people
approved, and the Senate refused to
ratify the nomination. This advance,
after unatoned insults from the Directory,
seemed like cowardly cringing before a
half-relenting tyrant. After a while the
President consdfcted to the appointment
of three envoys extraordinary, of which
Murray should be one, to settle all dis
putes between the tw o^ governments.
Oliver Ellsworth and William R. Da vie
were chosen to join Murray. The latter
did not proceed to Europe until assur-

MKDAI, AWARDED BY CONUKESS IN COMMEMORATION OF THK CAHTTRE OF LA VEXGEAXfK IIV TIIK COXSTKU.ATION.

turned home; and the provisional army ances were received from France of their
of the United States which had been or- courteous reception. These were received
ganized was disbanded. from Talleyrand (November, 1799), and
Circumstances humbled the pride of the the two envoys sailed for France. The
French Directory, and the wily Talley- some month the Directory, which had lie-
rand began to think of reconciliation with come unpopular, was overthrown, and 1 la
the United States. He saw the unity of government of France remodelled, with
the people with Washington as leader. Napoleon Bonaparte as first consul, or

410

FRANCE FRANKING PRIVILEGE

supreme ruler, of the nation. The en- 1814 they published the American Medi-
voys were cordially received by Talley- cal and Philosophical Register. He oc-
rand, in the name of the first consul, cupied the chair of materia medica in
and all difficulties between the two na- the College of Physicians and Surgeons,
tions were speedily adjusted. A conven- and, visiting Europe, was a pupil of the
tion was signed at Paris (Sept. 30, 1800) celebrated Abernethy. After filling vari-
by the three envoys and three French cus professorships until 1826, he devoted
commissioners which was satisfactory to himself to the practice of his profession
both parties. The convention also made and to literary pursuits. Dr. Francis
a decision contrary to the doctrine avowed was probably the author of more biog-
and practised by the English government, raphies and memoirs than any American
that " free ships make free goods." This of his time, and was active, as one of
affirmed the doctrine of Frederick the the founders, in the promotion of the
Great, enunciated fifty years before, and objects of the New York Historical So-
denied that of England in her famous ciety and of other institutions. He was

" rule of 1756."

the first president of the New York

France, THREATENING ATTITUDE OF. See Academy of Medicine, and was a member

ADAMS, JOHN. of numerous scientific and literary so-

Franchere, GABRIEL, pioneer r born in cieties. He died in New York City, Feb.

Montreal, Canada, Nov. 3, 1786; was con- 8, 1861.

nected with the American fur company Francis, JOSEPH, inventor ; born in
organized by John- %cob Astor, and did Boston, Mass., March 12, 1801; invented
much to develop the fur trade in the a number of life-boats, life-cars, and surf-
Rocky Mountains and the northern Pa- boats, which came into general use. In
cific coast. He published a History of the 1850, when the British ship Ayrshire was
Astor Expeditions, in French, which was wrecked off New Jersey, 200 persons were
the first work containing detailed accounts saved by means of his life-car. He died
of the Northwest Territory. When he in Cooperstown, N. Y., May 10, 1893.
died, in St. Paul, Minn., in 1856, he was Francis, TURBUTT, soldier; born in
the last survivor of the Astor expedition. Maryland in 1740; a son of the noted

Franchise. See ELECTION BILL, FED- Tench Francis ; was a colonel in the Brit-

EBAL; ELECTIVE FRANCHISE; SUFFRAGE. i- s h army previous to the Revolutionary

Francis, COXVERS, clergyman; born in War, but resigned to fight on the side of

West Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 9. 1785; the Americans. He died in 1797.

graduated at Harvard in 1815: became Frankfort Land Company. See

pastor of the Unitarian Church in Water- PASTORIUS, F. D.

town. Mass., in 1819. Among his writings Franking Privilege, THE, was a privi-

are Historical Sketch of Watcrtown; Life lege of sending and receiving letters post

of John Eliot in Sparks s American Biog- free given to members of the British Par-

raphies; Memoirs of Rev. John Allyn, Dr. liament and of the Congress of the United

Gamaliel Bradford, Judge Davis, etc. He States, and to certain public functiona-

died in Cambridge, Mass., April 7, 1863. ries. This privilege was abused, and it

Francis, DAVID ROWLAXD, merchant; was abolished in Great Britain in 1840.
bom in Richmond. Ky., Oct. 1, 1850: Congress bestowed upon Washington, on
graduated at Washington University, St. his retirement from the office of President
Louis, in 1870; governor of Missouri in of the republic, the privilege of free post-
1889-93; appointed Secretary of the In- age for the remainder of his life. This
terior in 1806; president Louisiana Pur- privilege lias been extended to all subse-
ch.ics" Fvnosition Commission in 1904. quent Presidents, and also to their wid-

Francis, JOHN WAKEFIELD, physician: ows. The franking privilege was abolished
born in New York City, Nov. 17, 1789; in the United States in 1873, and each of
graduated at Columbia College in 1809: the executive departments was supplied
began business life as a printer, but with a special set of postage-stamps for
commenced the study of medicine, in its official communications. This plan
1810, under Dr. Hosack, and was his also was abolished, and now official coin-
partner until 1820. From 1810 until munications are sent by the departments
in. 2 n 417

FRANKLAND FRANKLIN

in unstamped " penalty " envelopes, and
Senators and Representatives are per
mitted to have mail packages forwarded
simply bearing their name or frank. Let-
In s of soldiers and sailors in active ser
vice or inconvenient stations are forward
ed free of postage, when properly marked.
Frankland. In 1784, North Carolina
ceded her western lands to the United
States. The people of east Tennessee,
piqued at being thus disposed of, and feel
ing the burdens of State taxation, alleg
ing that no provision was made for their
defence or the administration of justice,
assembled in convention at Jonesboro, to
take measures for organizing a new and
independent State. The North Carolina
Assembly, willing to compromise, repealed
the act of cession the same year, made
the Tennessee counties a separate military
district, with John Sevier as brigadier-
general, and also a separate judicial dis
trict, with proper officers. But ambitious
men urged the people forward, and at a
second convention, at the same place, Deo.
14, 1784, they resolved to form an inde
pendent State, under the name of Frank-
land. A provisional government was
formed; Sevier was chosen governor
(March, 1785) ; the machinery of an in
dependent State was put in motion, and
the governor of North Carolina (Martin)
was informed that the counties of Sulli
van, Washington, and Greene were no
longer a part of the State of North Caro
lina. Martin issued a proclamation, ex
horting all engaged in the movement to

re-turn to their duty; and the Assembly
passed an act of oblivion as to all who
should submit. But the provisional con
stitution of Frankland, based upon that
of North Carolina, was adopted (Novem
ber, 1785) as a permanent one, and the
new State entered upon an independent
career. Very soon rivalries and jealousies
appeared. Parties arose and divided the
people, and at length a third party, favor
ing adherence to North Carolina, led by
Colonel Tipton, showed much and increas
ing strength. The new State sent William
Cocke as a delegate to the Congress, but
he was not received, while the North Caro
lina party sent a delegate to the legislat
ure of that State. Party spirit ran high.
Frankland had two sets of officers, and
civil war was threatened. Collisions be
came frequent. The inhabitants of south
western Virginia sympathized with the
revolutionists, and were inclined to secede
from their own State. Finally an armed
collision between men under Tipton and
Sevier took place. The latter were de
feated, and finally arrested, and taken to
prison in irons. Frankland had received
its death-blow. The Assembly of North
Carolina passed an act of oblivion, and
offered pardon for all offenders in Frank-
land in 1788, and the trouble ceased. Vir
ginia, alarmed by the movement, hastened
to pass a law subjecting to the penalties
or treason any person who should attempt
to erect a new State in any part of her
territory without previous permission of
her Assembly. See SEVIER ; TENNESSEE.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

Franklin, BENJAMIN, statesman; born printing material. He was deceived, and
in Boston, Jan. 17, 1706. His father was remained there eighteen months, working
from England ; his mother was a daughter as a journeyman printer in London. He
of Peter Folger, the Quaker poet of Nan- returned to Philadelphia late in 1726, and
tucket. He learned the art of printing in 1729 established himself there as a
with his brother; but they disagreeing, printer. He started the Pcruisi/lrania Ga-
Benjamin left Boston when seventeen zctte, and married Deborah Read, a young
years of age, sought employment in New woman whose husband had absconded.
York, but, not succeeding, went to Phila- For many years he published an almanac
delphia, and there found it. He soon at- under the assumed name of Richard
tracted the attention of Governor Keith Raunders. It became widely known as
as a very bright lad, who, making him a Poor Richard s Almanac, as it con-
promise "of the government printing, in- tained many wise and useful maxims,
duced young Franklin, at the age of mostly from the ancients. Franklin was
eighteen, to go to England and purchase soon marked as a wise, prudent, and saga-

418

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

eious man, full of well-directed public peal of the Stamp Act. He tried to avert
spirit. He was the chief founder of the the calamity of a rupture between Great
Philadelphia Library in 1731. He became Britain and her colonies; but, failing in
clerk of the Provincial Assembly in 1736, this, he returned to America in 1775, after
and postmaster of Philadelphia the next which he was constantly employed at
year. He was the founder of the Uni- borne and abroad in the service of his
versity of Pennsylvania and the Philo- countrymen struggling for political in-
sophical Society of Philadelphia in 1744, dependence.

and was elected a member of the Provin- In Congress, he advocated, helped to
cial Assembly in 1750. In 1753 he was prepare and signed the Declaration of
appointed deputy post
master for the Eng
lish-American colonies;
and in 1754 he was a
delegate to the Colonial
Congress of Albany, in
which he prepared a
plan of union for the
colonies, which was the
basis of the Articles of
Confederation (see
CONFEDERATION, ARTI
CLES OF) adopted by
Congress more than
twenty years after
wards.

Franklin had begun
his investigations and
experiments in elec
tricity, by which ho
demonstrated its iden
tity with lightning as
early as 1740. The
publication of his ac
count of these experi
ments procured for him
membership in the
Royal Society, the Cop
ley gold medal, and the
degree of LL.D. from
Oxford and Edinburgh
in 1702. Harvard and
Yale colleges had pre
viously conferred upon
him the degree of Mas
ter of Arts. Franklin was for many years Independence; and in the fall of 1776 he
a member of the Assembly and advocated was sent as ambassador to France, as
the rights of the people in opposition to the colleague of Silas Deane and Arthur
the claims of the proprietaries; and in Lee. To him was chiefly due the success-
1704 he was sent to England as agent of ful negotiation of the treaty of alliance
the colonial legislature, in which capacity with France, and he continued to repre-
he afterwards acted for several other colo- sent his country there until 1785, when
nies. His representation to the British he returned home. While he was in
ministry, in 1765-06, of the temper of the France, and residing at Passy in 1777, a
Americans on the subject of taxation by medallion likeness of him was made
Parliament did much in effecting the re- in the red clay of that region. The

419

BKX.IA.MIX Fl:.\.\KI.:X.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

for the defence of the prov
ince in 1744; and was colo
nel of a regiment, and built
i cuts for the defence of the
frontiers in 1755. He was
the inventor of the FRANK
LIN STOVE (q. v.), which in
modified forms is still in use.
He was also the inventor of
the lightning-rod. Franklin
left two children, a son, Will
iam, and a daughter. He
died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
April 17, 1790.

In 1752 the Pennsylvania
Assembly, yielding to the
urgency of public affairs in
the midst of war, voted a
levy of $500,000 without in
sisting upon their claim to
tax the proprietary estates.
They protested that they did
it through compulsion; and
they sent Franklin to Eng
land as their agent to urge
their complaint against the
proprietaries. This was his
first mission abroad.

At the beginning of the
French and Indian War
(1754) the colonists, as well
as the royal governors, saw
the necessity of a colonial
union in order to present a
solid front of British sub
jects to the French. Dr.
Franklin labored earnestly
to this end, and in 1755 he

engraving of it given is about half went to Boston to confer with Governor
the size of the original. He took an Shirley on the subject. At the govern-
important part in the negotiation of the or s house they discussed the subject
treaties of peace. In 1786 he was elected long and earnestly. Shirley was favor-
governor of Pennsylvania, and served one able to union, but he desired it to be
term; and he was a leading member in effected by the fiat of the British govern-
the convention, in 1787, that framed the ment and by the spontaneous act of the
national Constitution. His last public colonists. Franklin, on the contrary, ani-
act was the signing of a memorial to Con- mated by a love of popular liberty, would
gress on the subject of slavery by the not consent to that method of forming a
Abolition Society of Pennsylvania, of colonial union. He knew the true source
which he was the founder and president, of power was lodged with the peopV. and
Dr. Franklin performed extraordinary that a good government should be formed
lubors of usefulness for his fellow-men, by the people for the people; and he left
In addition to scientific and literary in- Shirley in disappointment. Shirley not
stitutions, he was the founder of the first only condemned the idea of a popular
fire-company in Philadelphia in 1738; or- colonial government, but assured Franklin
eanized a volunteer military association that he should immediately propose a plan

420

FRANKLIN AS AS APPRENTICE.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

of union to the ministry and Parliament, the removal of Governor Hutchinson and

and alsc &gt;a tax on the colonies. Chief - Justice Oliver from office. They

In February 1, 6b, Dr. Franklin was ex- were charged with conspiracy against the

ammed before the House of Commons rela- colony, as appeared by certafn letters

tive to the STAMP ACT (q. .). At that which had been published. A rumor

examination he fairly illustrated the found utterance in the newspapers that

spirit which animated the colonies. When the letters had been dishonestlv obtained

asked, Do you think the people of through John Temple, who had been per

Ameriea would submit to the stamp mitted to examine the papers of the de-

7 A XT W6re moderated? " he an - ceased Mr. Whately, to whom the letters
swered No, never, unless compelled by were addressed. That permission had
force of arms." To the question, What been given by William Whatelv. brother
was the temper of America towards Great and executor of the deceased." Whatelv
Britain before the year 1763?" he replied, never made a suggestion that Temple had

The best in the world. They submitted taken the letters away, but he published
willingly to the government of the crown, such an evasive card that it seemed no
and paid, in their courts, obedience to the to relieve Temple from the implication
acts of Parliament. Numerous as the peo
ple are in the old provinces, they cost you
nothing, in forts, citadels, garrisons, or
armies, to keep them in subjection. They
were governed by this country at the ex
pense only of a little pen, ink, and paper ;
they were led by a thread. They had not
only a respect but an affection for Great
Britain, for its laws, its customs, and
manners, and even a fondness for its fash
ions that greatly increased the commerce.
Natives of Britain were always treated
with peculiar regard. To be an Old Eng
land man was of itself a character of
some respect, and gave a kind of rank
among us." It was asked, " What is their
temper now?" and Franklin replied, "Oh,
very much altered." He declared that all
laws of Parliament had been held valid by
the Americans, excepting such as laid in
ternal taxes; and that its authority was
never disputed in levying duties to regu
late commerce. When asked, " Can you
name any act of Assembly or public act of
your government that made such distinc
tion?" Franklin replied, "I do not know
that there was any; I think there never
was occasion to make such an act till now
that you have attempted to tax us; that
has occasioned acts of Assembly declaring
the distinction, on which, I think, every
Assembly on the continent, and every mem
ber of every Assembly, have been unani
mous." This examination was one of the
causes which led to a speedy repeal of the
Stamp Act. The , atter c h a n enged Whately to mortal

Late in 1773 Dr. Franklin presented to combat. They fought, but were unhurt.
Lord Dartmouth, to be laid before the Another duel was likely to ensue, when
King, a petition from Massachusetts for Dr. Franklin, to prevent bloodshed, pub-

421

THE FRAXKLIX MKPAI.UOX.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

licly said: "I alone am the person who word, and, as commissioner for negoti-
obtained and transmitted to Boston the ating peace almost ten years afterwards,
letters in question." This frank and he performed the act that permitted him
courageous avowal drew upon him the to wear the garments again,
wrath of the ministry. He was summoned Franklin, in England in 1774, was a
before the privy council (Jan. 8, 1774) perfect enigma to the British ministry,
to consider the petition. He appeared with They were perplexed with doubts of the
counsel. A crowd was present not less intentions of the defiant colonists. They
than thirty-five peers. Wedderburn, the believed Franklin possessed the coveted
solicitor-general (of whom the King said, secret, and tried in vain to draw it from
at his death. " He has not left a greater him. He was an expert chess-player, and
knave behind him in my kingdom"), well known as such. Lord Howe (after
wards admiral on our coast) was inti
mate with leading ministers. His sister-
in-law, Mrs. Howe, was also an expert
chess-player, and an adroit diplomatist.
She sent Franklin an invitation to her
house to play chess, with the hope that
in the freedom of social conversation she
might obtain the secret. He went; was
charmed with the lady s mind and man
ners ; played a few games ; and accepted
an invitation to repeat the visit and the
amusement. On his second visit, after
playing a short time, they entered into
conversation, when Mrs. Howe put ques
tions adroitly to the sage, calculated to
elicit the information she desired. He
answered without reserve and with appar
ent frankness. He was introduced to her
bi other, Lord Howe, and talked freely
w r ith him on the subject of the great dis
pute; but, having early perceived the de
signs of the diplomatists, his usual cau
tion had never allowed him to betray a
single secret worth preserving. At the

abused Franklin most shamefully with un- end of several interviews, enlivened by
just and coarse invectives, while not an chess-playing, his questioners were no
emotion was manifested in the face of the wiser than at the beginning,
abused statesman. The ill-bred lords of While the Continental Congress was in
that day seconded Wedderburn s abuse by session in the fall of 1774, much anxiety
derisive laughter, instead of treating was felt in political circles in England
Franklin with decency. At the end of concerning the result. The ministry, in
the solictor s ribald speech the petition particular, were anxious to know, and
was dismissed as "groundless, scandal- Franklin was solicited by persons high in
ous, and vexatious." " I have never been authority to promulgate the extent of
so sensible of the power of a good con- the demands of his countrymen,
science," Franklin said to Dr. Priestley, urgent were these requests that, without
with whom he breakfasted the next morn- waiting to receive a record of the ]&gt;ro-
iri"-. When he went home from the conn- ccedings of the Congress, he prepared a
if he laid aside the suit of clothes he paper entitled Hint* for Conversation
wore, making a vow that he would never //"" tin- Xul&gt;j&lt;-&lt;-t ,,f Terms I In, I nun/
put them on again until he should sign prolxibli/ ,,,-&lt;,&lt;lin-&lt;- n tlitnil&gt;l-- Union be-
the degradation of England by a dismern- tween Itntain &lt;nnl tin- Colonies, in
l.erment of the British Empire and the in- seventeen propositions. The substance of
dependence of America. He kept his the whole was that the colonies should

422

FRA\ KMN S PKKSS.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

be reinstated in the position which they our people. Look upon your hands;

held, in relation to the imperial govern- they are stained with the blood of your

inent, before the obnoxious acts then relations! You and I were long friends;

complained of became laws, by a repeal, you are now my enemy, and I am yours.

and by a destruction of the whole brood B. FRANKLIN."

of enactments in reference to America Late in the autumn of 1776 Dr. Frank-
hatched since the accession of George III. lin was sent as a diplomatic agent to
In a word, he proposed that English sub- France in the ship Reprisal. The passage
jects in America should enjoy all the es- occupied thirty days, during which that
scntial rights and privileges claimed as vessel had been chased by British cruisers
the birthright of subjects in England, and had taken two British brigantines
Nothing came of the Hints. as prizes. He landed at Nantes on Dec.

After the attack by Wedderburne 7. Europe was surprised, for no notice
when before the privy council, and his had been given of his coming. His fame
dismissal from the oifice of postmaster- was world-wide. The courts were filled
general for the colonies, Franklin was with conjectures. The story was spread
subjected to the danger of arrest, and pos- in England that he was a fugitive for
sibly a trial, for treason; for the minis- safety. Burke said, "I never will believe
try, angry because he had exposed Hutch- that he is going to conclude a long life,
inson s letters, made serious threats, which has brightened every hour it has
Conscious of rectitude, he neither left continued, with so foul and dishonorable
England then nor swerved a line from a flight." On the Continent it was right-
his course of duty. When, in February, ly concluded that he was on an important
1776, Lord North endeavored to find out mission. To the French people he spoke
from him what the Americans wanted, frankly, saying that twenty successful
" We desire nothing," said Franklin, campaigns could not subdue the Ameri-
but what is necessary to our security cans; that their decision for independence
and well-being." After stating that some was irrevocable; and that they would be
of the obnoxious acts would probably be forever independent States. On the morn-
repealed, Lord North said the Massachu- ing of Dec. 28, Franklin, with the other
sotts acts must be continued, both "as commissioners (Silas Deane and Arthur
real amendments" of the constitution of Lee), waited upon Vergennes, the French
that province, and "as a standing ex- minister for foreign affairs, when he pre-
ample of the power of Parliament." eented the plan of Congress for a treaty.
Franklin replied: "While Parliament Vergennes spoke of the attachment of the
claims the right of altering American French nation to the American cause; re-
constitutions at pleasure, there can be no quested a paper from Franklin on the con-
agreement, for we are rendered unsafe dition of America; and that, in future, in-
in every privilege." North answered: tercourse with the sage might be in secret,
" An agreement is necessary for Amer- without the intervention of a third per-
ica; it is so easy for Britain to burn all son. Personal friendship between these
your seaport towns." Franklin coolly an- two distinguished men became strong and
swered: "My little property consists in abiding. He told Franklin that as Spain
houses in those towns; you may make and France were in perfect accord he
bonfires of them whenever you please; might communicate freely with the Span-
the fear of losing them will never alter ish minister, the Count de Aranda. With
my resolution to resist to the last the him the commissioners held secret but bar-
claim of Parliament." ren interviews as Aranda would only

Mr. Strahan, of London, had been a promise the freedom of Spanish ports to

sort of go-between through whom Dr. American vessels.

Franklin had communicated with Lord Vindication of the Colonies. On June,

North. On July 5, 1776, Franklin wrote 15, 1775, Franklin issued the following

to him: "You are a member of Parlia- address to the public:
inent, and one of that majority which has

doomed my country to destruction. You Forasmuch as the enemies of America in

have begun to burn our towns and murder the Parliament of Great Britain, to ren-

423

FBANKLIN, BENJAMIN

FRANKLIN* ON HIS WAT TO FRANCE.

der us odious to the nation, and give an nies were settled at the expense of Britain,

ill impression of us in the minds of other it is a known fact that none of the twelve

European powers, having represented us as united colonies were settled, or even dis-

unjust and ungrateful in the highest de- covered, at the expense of England,

gree; asserting, on every occasion, that Henry VII., indeed, granted si commission

the colonies were settled at the expense to Sebastian Cabot, a Venetian, and his

of Britain; that they were, at the expense sons to sail into western seas for the dis-

of the same, protected in their infancy: oovery of new countries: but it was to be

that they now ungratefully and unjustly " suis corum proitriis fni&gt; iiitihn\ &lt;t eee-

refuse to contribute to their own protec- pensis," at their own cost and charge*.

tion, and the common defence of the na- They discovered, but soon slighted and

tion; that they intend an abolition of the neglected these northern territories:

navigation acts; and that they are fraud- which were, after more than a hundred

ulent in their commercial dealings, and years dereliction, purchased of the natives,

propose to cheat their creditors in Brit- and settled at the charge and by the labor

ain, by avoiding the payment of their of private men and bodies of men, our an-

just debts; cestors, who came over hither for that pur-

And as by frequent repetitions these pose. But our adversaries have never

groundless assertions and malicious cal- been able to produce any record that ever

umnies may, if not contradicted and the Parliament or government of England

refuted, obtain further credit, and be was at the smallest expense on these ac-

injurious throughout Europe to the repu- counts ; on the contrary, there exists on

tation and interest of the Confederate colo- the journals of Parliament a solemn

nies, it seems proper and necessary to declaration in 1642 (only twenty-two

examine them in our own just vindication, years after the first settlement of the

With regard to the first, that the colo- Massachusetts colony, when, if such ex-

424

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

pense had ever been incurred, some of the lected by the English government; which
members must have known and remem- either thought us not worth its care, or.
bered it), "that these colonies had been having no good will to some of us, on ac-
planted and established icithout any ex- count of our different sentiments in relig-
l C,nse to the state." ion and politics, was indifferent what be-
New York is the only colony in the came of us.

founding of which England can pretend On the other hand, the colonies have
to have been at any expense, and that was not been wanting to do what they could
only the charge of a small armament to in every war for annoying the enemies of
take it from the Dutch, who planted it. Britain. They formerly assisted her in
But to retain this colony at the peace, an- the conquest of Xova Scotia. In the war
other at that time fully as valuable, before last they took Louisburg, and put
planted by private countrymen of ours, it into her hands. She made her peace
was given up by the crown to the Dutch with that strong fortress by restoring it
ir exchange viz., Surinam, now a wealthy to France, greatly to their detriment. In
sugar colony in Guiana, and which, but the last war, it is true, Britain sent a
for that cession, might still have remained fleet and army, who acted with an equal
in our possession. Of late, indeed, Brit- army of ours, in the reduction of Canada,
ain has been at some expense in planting and perhaps thereby did more for us,
two colonies, Georgia and Nova Scotia, than we in our preceding wars had done
but those are not in our confederacy; and for her. Let it be remembered, however,
Ihe expense she has been at in their name that she rejected the plan we formed ir.
has chiefly been in grants of sums un- the Congress at Albany, in 1754, for our
necessarily large, by way of salaries to own defence, by a union of the colonies;
officers sent from England, and in jobs to a union she was jealous of, and there-
friends, whereby dependants might be pro- fore chose to send her own forces; other-
vided for ; those excessive grants not wise her aid to protect us was not wanted,
being requisite to the welfare and good ^nd from our first settlement to that
government of the colonies, which good time, her military operations in our favor
government (as experience in many in- were small, compared with the advantages
stances of other colonies has taught us) she drew from her exclusive commerce
may be much more frugally, and full as with us. We are, however, willing to
effectually, provided for and supported. give full weight to this obligation; and,
With regard to the second assertion, as we are daily growing stronger, and our
that these colonies were protected in their assistance to her becomes of more im-
infant state by England, it is a notorious portance, we should with pleasure em-
fact, that, in none of the many wars with brace the first opportunity of showing our
the Indian natives, sustained by our in- gratitude by returning the favor in kind,
fant settlements for a century after our But, when Britain values herself as af-
arrival, were ever any troops or forces fording us protection, we desire it may
of any kind sent from England to assist be considered that we have followed hor
us; nor were any forts built at her ex- in all her wars, and joined with her at
pense, to secure our seaports from for- our own expense against all she thought
eign invaders; nor any ships of war sent fit to quarrel with. This she has required
to protect our trade till many years after of us; and would never permit us to
our first settlement, when our commerce keep peace with any power she declared
became an object of revenue, or of advan- her enemy; though by separate treaties
tage to British merchants; and then it we might have done it. Under such cir-
was thought necessary to have a frigate cumstances, when at her instance we
in some of our ports, during peace, to give made nations our enemies, we submit it
woi&lt;jht to the authority of custom-house to the common-sense of mankind, whether
officers, who were to restrain that com- her protection of us in those wars was
merce for the benefit of England. Our not our just due, and to be claimed of
own arms, with our poverty, and the care right, instead of being received as a favor?
of a kind Providence, were all this time And whether, when all the parts exert
our only protection; while we were neg- themselves to do the utmost in tlieir oom

425

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN

mon defence, and in annoying the common
enemy, it is not as well the parts that
protect the whole, as the whole that pro
tects the parts? The protection then has
been proportionately mutual. And when
ever the time shall come that our abilities
may as far exceed hers as hers have ex
ceeded ours, we hope we shall be reason-

FKANKI/IN IN FKUMCK SOCIKTY.

able enough to rest satisfied with her pro
portionable exertions, and not think we
do too much for a part of the empire, when
that part docs as much as it can for the
whole.

To charge against us that ice refuse
to contribute to our oirn i,rntn-t!oii, ap-
pctrs from the above 1o )&gt;&lt; groundless;

42G

but we further declare it to be absolutely
false; for it is well known, that we ever
held it as our duty to grant aids to the
crown, upon requisition, towards carry
ing on its wars ; which duty we have
cheerfully complied with, to the utmost
of our abilities, insomuch that prudent
and grateful acknowledgments thereof by

King and Parlia
ment appear on
the records. But,
as Britain has
enjoyed a most
gainful monopoly
of our commerce;
the same, with
our maintaining
the dignity of the
King s represent
ative in each col
ony, and all our
own separate
establishments of
government, civil
and military : has
ever hitherto
been deemed an
equivalent for
such aids as
might otherwise
be expected from
us in time of
peace. And we
hereby declare
that on a recon
ciliation with
Britain, we shall
not only continue
to grant aids in
time of war, as
a f oresaid ; but
whenever she
shall think fit
to abolish her
monopoly, and
give us the same
privileges of
trade as Scotland

received at the union, and allow us a free
commerce with the rest of the world; we
shall willingly agree (and we doubt not it
will be ratified by our constituents) to give
and pay into the sinking fund 100,000
sterling per annum for the term of 100
years, which duly, faithfully, and invi
olably applied to that purpose, i&lt; demon-

FBANKLIN

strably more than sufficient to extinguish its capital, the fine city of Dresden! An

all her present national debt; since it will example we hope no provocation will in-

in that time amount, at legal British in- duce us to imitate,

terest, to more than 230,000,000. Franklin, SAMUEL RHOADS, naval offi-

But if Britain does not think fit to ac- cer; born in York, Pa., Aug. 25, 1825;

cept this proposition, we, in order to re- was appointed midshipman Feb. 18, 1841 ;

move her groundless jealousies, that we was promoted to passed midshipman, Aug.

aim at independence and an abolition of 10, 1847; master, April 18, 1855; lieuten-

the navigation act (which hath in truth ant, Sept. 4, 1855; lieutenant-commander,

never been our intention), and to avoid Sept. 26, 1866: captain, Aug. 13, 187:2:

all future disputes about the right of commodore, Dec. 15, 1880; and rear-ad-

making that and other acts for regulating miral, Jan. 24, 1885; and was retired in

our commerce, do hereby declare ourselves 1887. Most of his forty-six years of ser-

ready and willing to enter into a covenant vice was spent at sea. During both the

with Britain, that she shall fully possess, Mexican and Civil wars he was active in

enjoy, and exercise the right, for 100 the most important operations. He was

years to come; the same being bona fide president of the international marine

used for the common benefit; and, in case Conference; is a member of the Washing-

of such agreement, that every Assembly ton National Monument Association ; and

be advised by us to confirm it solemnly is author of Memories of a Rear -Admiral.

by laws of their own, which, once made, Franklin, WILLIAM, royal governor :

cannot be repealed without the assent of born in Philadelphia in 1729, only son of

the crown. Benjamin Franklin. It is not known who

The last charge, that ive are dishonest his mother was. About a year after his

traders, and aim at defrauding our credit- birth Franklin was married, took his child

ors in Britain, is sufficiently and authen- into his own house, and brought him up as

tically refuted by the solemn declaration? his son. He held a captain s commission

of the British merchants to Parliament in the French War (1744-48). From 1754

(both at the time of the Stamp Act and to 1756 he was comptroller of the colonial

in the last session), who bore ample tea- post-office, and clerk to the Provincial

timony to the general good faith and fair Assembly. He went to London with his

dealing of the Americans, and declared father in 1757, and was adriiitted to the

their confidence in our integrity; for bar in 1758. In 1762 he was appointed

which we refer to their petitions on the governor of the province of New Jersey,

journals of the House of Commons. And remaining loyal to the crown when the

we presume we may safely call on the Revolution broke out, and in Juimavy,

body of the British tradesmen, who have 1776, a guard was put over him at his

had experience of both, to say, whether residence at Perth Amboy. He gave his

they have not received much more punct- parole that he would not leave the prov-

ual payment from us, than they generally ince. In June (1776) he called a meeting

have from the members of their own two of the legislature of New Jersey, for which

Houses of Parliament. offence, defiance of public opinion, he was

On the whole of the above it appears arrested and sent to Connecticut, where

that the charge of ingratitude towards the for more than two years he was strictly

mother - country, brought with so much guarded, when, in November, 1778, he

confidence against the colonies, is totally was exchanged. He remained in New

without foundation; and that there is York, and was active as president of the

much more reason for retorting that Board of Associated Loyalists until 178:2.

charge OTI Britain, who, not only never when he sailed for England, where he was

contributes any aid, nor affords, by an allowed by the government $9,000 and a

exclusive commerce, any advantages to pension of $4.000 a year. His father

Saxony, her mother - country ; but no willed him hinds in Nova Scotia and for-

longer since than in the last war, without gave him all his debts, nothing more. In

the least provocation, subsidized the King his will. Dr. Franklin observed concerning

of Prussia while he ravaged that motlicr- this son, from whom he was estranged:

fi/, and carried fire and sword into "The part he acted against me in the

427

FRANKLIN

late war, which is of public notoriety,
will account for my leaving him no more
of an estate he endeavored to deprive me
of." He died in England Nov. 17, 1813.

Franklin, WILLIAM BUEL, military of
ficer; born in York, Pa., Feb. 27, 1823,
graduated at West Point in 1843. In the

WILLIAM BUKL FRANKLIN.

engineer service, he was actively engaged
when the war with Mexico broke out. He
served on the staff of General Taylor at
the battle of Buena Vista, and was bre-
vetted first lieutenant. Serving as Profess
or of Natural and Experimental Philos
ophy at West Point for four years, he
occupied the same chair, and that of Civil
Engineering, in the New York City Free
Academy, in 1852. In May, 1861, he was
appointed colonel of the 12th Infantry,
and in July was assigned the command
of a brigade in Heintzelman s division.

He was in the hottest of the fight at Bull
Run; was promoted brigadier-general of
volunteers in September, and appointed
to the command of a division of the Army
of the Potomac. Franklin did excellent
service in the campaign of the Virginia
Peninsula, and on July 4, 1862, was pro
moted to major - general. He served un
der McClelland in Maryland, and un
der Burnside at Fredericksburg, and in
1863 was assigned to the Department
of the Gulf, under Banks. In March,

1865, he was brevetted major-general in
the regular army, and, resigning in March,

1866, engaged in manufacturing and en
gineering. In 1889 he was United States
commissioner-general for the Paris Ex
position.

Franklin, BATTLE OF. General -Thomas
had sent General Schofield southward to
confront Hood s invasion of Tennessee in
1864, and he took post south of Duck
River, hoping to fight the invaders there.
But two divisions under A. J. Smith, com
ing from Missouri, had not arrived, and
Schofield fell back, first to Columbia, and
then to Franklin, not far below Nashville,
General Stanley saving his train from
seizure by Forrest after a sharp fight with
the guerilla chief. At Franklin, Schofield
disposed his troops in a curved line south
and west of the town, his flanks resting
on the Harpeth River. He cast up a line
of light intrenchments along his entire
front. His cavalry, with Wood s division,
were posted on the north bank of the river,
and Fort Granger, on a bluff, commanded
the gently rolling plain over which Hood
must advance in a direct attack. Sclio-
field had about 18,000 men. At four

HATTLK FIKI.II &lt;&gt;! KKANKI.IN

128

FRANKLIN FRANKLIN STOVE

-^t%cu|jg/; /i

ward and ordered Opdyke
to advance with his brigade.
Swiftly they charged the Con
federate columns and drove
them back. Conrad, close by,
gave assistance. The works
and the guns were recovered ;
300 prisoners and ten battle-
flags were captured ; and the
Union line was restored, and
not again broken, though Hood
hurled strong bodies of men
against it. The struggle con
tinued until long after dark;
it was almost midnight when
the last shot was fired. The
advantage was with the Na
tionals. The result was disas
trous to Hood. His men were
dispirited, and he lost 6,253
soldiers, of whom 1,750 were
killed and 702 made prisoners.
Schofield s loss was 2,326, of
whom 180 were killed and
1,104 missing. The Nationals
withdrew from Franklin a lit
tle after midnight, and fell
back to Nashville.

Franklin Stove. The first
iron fireplace for heating
rooms was invented by Dr. Ben
jamin Franklin about 1740, and

o clock on the afternoon of Nov. 30, 1864, is known as the " Franklin Stove" to this
Hood advanced to the attack with all his day. It is an open fireplace constructed
force. A greater part of his cavalry, of iron, and portable, so that it may be
under Forrest, was on his right, and the used in any room with a chimney. It
remainder were on his left. The Confed- was made for the purpose of better
crates fell fiercely upon Schofield s centre, warming and for sav-
composed of the divisions of Ruger and ing fuel. He refused
Cox, about 10,000 strong. Their sudden the offer of a patent
appearance was almost a surprise. Scho- for it by the governor
field was at Fort Granger, and the battle, of Pennsylvania, as he
on the part of the Nationals, was con- held that, as we profit
ducted by General Stanley. By a furious by the inventions of
charge Hood hurled back the Union ad- others, so we should
vance vn utter confusion upon the main freely give what we THK FRANKLIN STOVE.
line, when that, too, began to crumble, may for the comfort
A strong position on a hill was carried by of our fellow-men. He gave his models
the Confederates, where they seized eight to Robert Grace, one of his early friends
guns. They forced their way within the in London, who had an iron-foundry, and
second line and planted a Confederate flag he made much money by casting these
upon the intrenchments. stoves. They were in general use in all

All now seemed lost to the Nationals, the rural districts of the country for
who, as their antagonists were preparing many years, or until anthracite coal began
io follow up their victory, seemed about to take the place of wood aa fuel and
to break and fly, when Stanley rode for- required a different kind of stove.

429

MAP OF THE BATTLE OF FRANKLIN.

FRASER FREDERICKSBTTRG

Fraser, SIMON, military officer; born in

and, m 1,29; served with distinction

in Germany and was appointed a brig-

-general in the British army by

Governor Carleton, Sept. 6, 1776. He

gained a victory over the Americans at

lubbardtan in July, 1777, and was shot

by one of Morgan s riflemen in the first

battle on Semis s Heights, Sept. 19, 1777,

died on Oct. 7, following.

Fraternal Organizations. According

reports of the supreme bodies of these

Drganizations the membership of the prin-

organizations in the

states and Canada in 1900 was

Frederick, Four, a protective work on
the north bank of the Potomac River in
Maryland, 50 miles below Fort Cumber
land : erected in 1 7 "&gt; "&gt;-."&gt;().

Fredericksburg, BATTLE AT. Lee s
evacuation of Maryland after the battle on
Antietam Creek occurred on Sept. 19-20,
1802. Lee rested a few days on the Vir
ginia side of the Potomac, and then
marched leisurely up the Shenandoah Val
ley. McClellan did not pursue, but, after
twice calling for reinforcements, he de
clared his intention to stand where he was.
on the defensive, and "attack the enemy
should he attempt to recross into Mary
land." The government and the loyal peo-

Odd Fellows.. 025 07-* ple im P atient of dela y&gt; d emanded an im-

Freemasons V.V.V. !!.*!. ! 896^830 mediate advance. On Oct. 6 the Presi-

Modern Woodmen of America 547^625 d t instructed McClellan to "cross the

Improved Order of Red Men.. 236*702 drive nim Sou th. Your army must now

Knights of the Maccabees. .. . . . . 227, ? 936 inove ," he said, " while the roads are good."

Royal Arcanum 205,628 Twenty-four days were spent in correspond-

l MeThanir!r 1 American ^ _^ ence before the order wag obeyed&gt; Mc .

Foresters of America 175, r&gt;69 Clellan complaining of a lack of men and

Independent Order of Foresters.. 170, o()0 supplies to make it prudent to move for-

America 104,869 P assed b 7 and Lee s army was thoroughly

Benevolent and Protective Order rested and reorganized, and communica-

. f Klks. 75,000 lions with Richmond were re-established,

Knights of Honor G&lt; 62 l?3 the Army f the Potomac tegan to cross

Ladies Catholic Benevolent Asso- the river ( ct - 26 ) , 100,000 strong. The

elation .^ 59,821 Nationals were led on the east side of the

^ , on 58,000 Blue Ridge, but failed to strike the rp

Improved Order of Heplasophs. . . 55,668 ,

Knights and Ladies of Honor 53,000 I0atin Confederates over the mountain

Order of United American Me- i flank or to get ahead of them; and Lee

49,189 pushed Longstreet s troops over the Blue

Catholic Benevo ent Leg on.. 44000 r&gt;-i

Ancient Order of Foresters..... 38,008 Rld * e to Cul P e per Court-house, between

Tribe of Ben Hur 36,429 the Army of the Potomac and Richmond.

Sons of Temperance... . 34^614 ready to dispute the advance of the Na-

Knights of Malta . 27,000 v/ere . now necessary to sever and defeat, in

Catholic Knights of America.... 23^200 detail, Lee s army.

Ro! e i d T?m e , r f F M !,? rlm Fathers " : 2.?1 On Nov. 5 McClellan was relieved of

Royal Templars of Temperance... 22,718 Mmma-nA *r,J r&gt; -j

B rith Abraham Order 19^87 mmand . and General Burnside was put

Order of Chosen Friends 17,533 ln his place. A sense of responsibility

United Ancient Order of Druids.. . 16,782 made the latter commander exceedingly

American Legion^of Honor". 11 . 13407 cautlous - . Before he moved he endeavored

Smaller organizations not re- * 8 e t his 120,000 men well in hand.

Ported 54,913 Aquia Creek was made his base of sup-

Total r TOO 01 R P lies and he moved the army towards

0,722,01 Fredericksburg on Nov. 10. Sumner led

sbanded in 1900. tlic movement down the left bank of

the Rappahannock. By the 20th a greater

Frazier s Farm, BATTLE OF. See portion of Burnside s forces were opposite
GLEXDALE. BATTLE OF. Fn-dericksburg, and their cannon com-

430

K
K
h

55
w

O
tf
y

a
H

-
o

Pi
p

14
O

Q
H

OJ
fc

fc
O

H
J

FBEDEEJCKSBURG, BATTLE AT

JEDBRJCKSBURG

MAP OF BATTLE OF FREDKKICKSB0RG.

manded the town. Sumner demanded the
surrender of the city (Nov. 21). It was
refused. The bridges had been destroyed,
A greater portion of the inhabitants now
fled, and the town was occupied by Con-
federate troops. Lee s army, 80,000
strong, was upon and near the Heights of
Fredericksburg by the close of November,
and had planted strong batteries there,
The army lay in a semicircle around Fred-
ericksburg, each wing resting upon the

431

Rappahannock, its right at Port Royal
and its left G miles above the city. Pon-
toons for the construction of bridges
across the Rappahannoc-k were not re-
ceived by Burnside until the first week in
December. Then 60,000 National troops
under Sumner and Hooker lay in front of
Fredericksburg, with 150 cannon, com-
manded by General Hunt. The corps of
Franklin, about 40,000 strong, was en-
camped about 2 miles below.

FBEDEBICKSBUBG, BATTLE AT

On the morning of Dec. 1 1 the engineers
went quietly to work to construct five
pontoon bridges for the passage of the
National army. Sharp-shooters assailed
the engineers. The heavy ordnance of
the Nationals on Stafford Heights opened
upon the town, set it on fire, and drove
out many troops. The sharp-shooters re
mained. They were dislodged by a party
that crossed the river in boats, the
bridges were rebuilt, and by the evening

of the 12th a greater portion of the Na
tional army occupied Fredericksburg, and
on the morning of the 13th made a simul
taneous assault all along the line. The
Confederates, with 300 cannon, were
well posted on the heights and ready for
action. The battle was begun by a part
of Franklin s corps, Meade s division, sup
ported by Gibbon s, with Doubleday s in
reserve. Meade soon silenced a Confed
erate battery, but very soon a terrible

TBS ATTACK ON FKKDKB1CK8BCRQ.

432

FREDERICKSBTTBO FBEEDMEN

storm of shells and canister-shot, at near yield. Hooker sent 4,000 men in the track
range, fell upon him. He pressed on, and of French, Hancock, and Howard, to at-
three of the assailing batteries were tack with bayonets only. These were
withdrawn. Jackson s advance line, under hurled back by terrific volleys of rifle-
A. P. Hill, was driven back, and 200 balls, leaving 1,700 of their number pros-
men made prisoners, with several battle- trate on the field. Night soon closed the
flags as trophies. Meade still pressed awful conflict, when the Army of the
on, when a fierce assault by Early com- Potomac had 15,000 less of effective men
pel led him to fall back. Gibbon, who than it had the day before. Burnside, in-
came up, was repulsed, and the shattered tent on achieving a victory, proposed to
forces fled in confusion; but the pursuers send his old corps, the 9th, against the
were checked by General Birney s division fatal barrier (a stone wall) on Marye s
of Stoneman s corps. The Nationals could Hill, but Sumner dissuaded him, and, on
not advance, for Stuart s cavalry, on Lee s the 14th and 15th, his troops were with-
right, strongly menaced
the Union left. Finally,
Reynolds, with rein
forcements, pushed back
the Confederate right to
the Massaponax, where
the contest continued un
til dark. Meanwhile,
Couch s corps had occu
pied the city, with Wil-
cox s between his and
Franklin s. At noon
Couch attacked the Con
federate front with great
vigor. Kimball s bri
gade, of French s divi
sion, led. Hancock s fol
lowing. Longstreet was
posted on Marye s Hill,
just back of the town.
Upon his troops the Na
tionals fell heavily, while
missiles from the Confed
erate cannon made great
lanes through their ranks.

After a brief struggle, French was thrown drawn to the north side of the Rappahan-
back, shattered and broken, nearly one-half neck, with all his guns, taking up his
of his command disabled. Hancock ad- pontoon bridges. Then the Confederates
vanced, and his brigades fought most vig- re-occupied Frcdericksburg.
orously. In fifteen minutes, Hancock, Free Commonwealth, PLAN FOB A.
also, was driven back. Of 5,000 veterans See MILTON, JOHN.

whom he led into action, 2,013 had Freedley, EDWIN TROXELL, author;
fallen, and yet the struggle was main- born in Philadelphia, Pa., July 28, 1827;
tained. studied law at Harvard College in 1845;

Howard s division came to the aid of removed to Philadelphia in 1851. His
French and Hancock: so, also, did those publications include I liiladelphia and its
of Sturgis and Getty. Finally, Hooker Man ttfactures; History of American Man-
crossed the river with three divisions, nfaclurcs; Leading Pursuits and Leading
He was so satisfied with the hopelessness Men, etc.

of any further attacks upon the strong Freedmen, the former slaves who were
position of the Confederates, that he emancipated during the American Civil
begged Burnside to desist. He would not War.
in. 2 E 4;5.S

SCK.NK IN FREDERICKSBBRG ON THK MORNING OF DKC. 12, 1862.

at die Common Council chamber in the City
Hall of the city of New York, the follow
ing resolutions were unanimously agreed to :
" Whereas, the Corporation of the city
entertains the most lively sense of the
late brilliant achievements of Gen. Jacol

intrepidity of the hero of Chippewa and bis
brave companions in arms, and afford!:
ample proof of the superior valor of

FREEDMEN S BUREAU-FREEDOM OF A CITY

Freedmen s Bureau. Early in ISC,:.
Congress established a Bureau of Freed-
im-n, Refugees, and Abandoned Lands, at
tached to the War Department; and early
in May GEN. OLIVER O. HOWARD (q. v.)
was appointed commissioner. He ap
pointed eleven assistant commissioners, all
army officers; namely for the District
of Columbia, Gen. John Eaton, Jr.; Vir
ginia, Col. O. Brown; North Carolina, Col.
E. Whittlesey; South Carolina and
Georgia, Gen. R. Sexton; Florida, Col.
T. W. Osborne; Alabama, Gen. W.
Swayne; Louisiana, first the Rev. T.
W. Conway, and then Gen. A. Baird;
Texas, Gen. E. M. Gregory; Missis
sippi, Col. S. Thomas; Kentucky and
Tennessee, Gen. C. B. Fisk, Missouri
and Arkansas, Gen. J. W. Sprague.
The bureau took under its charge the
freedmen, the refugees, and the aban
doned lands in the South, for the pur
pose of protecting the freedmen and the
refugees in their rights, and returning
the lands to their proper owners,
make the operations of the bureau moi
efficient an act was passed (Feb. 19,
1866) for enlarging its powers,
dent Johnson interposed his veto, but it
became a

GENERAL BROWN S GOLD BOX.

of the educational supervision, which re
mained in force by act of Congress until

ssss $

reBpect to a gallant officer and his intrepid

f iw 2 a City. The conferring of

all the privileges of a citizen upon a
stranger, or one not entitled to such privi
leges because of non-residence, is an an
cient way of honoring one for meritorious
services." When the eminent lawyer of

defended the liberty of the press in the case
of JOHN PETER ZENGER (q. t&gt;.),the corpora
tion of the city of New York conferred the
freedom of the city upon him. The certi
icate of such honor is usually enclosed m
a gold box, bearing on the underside of the
lid an inscription indicative of the event.
The following is a copy of the certificate
of freedom which the corporation of
city of New York gave to GEN. JACOB
BROWN (q. v.) after the battles of Chip-
T ,twa and Lundy s Lane, in the summer

* .--.

h ga iiery of portraits belonging to
c f ^ ,*. * He = jr .----&lt;
^temieiea to^ ^ ^ ^^ Brown&gt; Kg _

^ , g admitted a nd allowed a freeman
and a citizen of the said city, to have, t

lmmun , tleB
o the said city

or
By order of the

.in! of the said city to be hereunto affixed.
\Vitness : De Witt Clinton, Esquire, Mayor, the

I ord one thousand eight hundred and fif t
and of the Independence and sovereignty
of the United States the thirty-ninth.

" DE WITT CLINTON."

This form of honor has been bestowed
lut seldom in the United States; in Eu-

England and Scot-

FREEDOM OF SPEECH FREE NEGROES

Freedom of Speech. The first amend
ment to the national Constitution, rati
fied in December; 1791, after forbidding
Congress to make any law respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting
the free exercise thereof, says, " or
abridging the freedom of speech or of the
press; or the right of the people to peace
ably assemble, and to petition the govern
ment for a redress of grievances." This
secures the invaluable right of utterance
of opinions, and reserves to all citizens
the privilege of making their grievances
known to the national government. This
is a privilege of American citizenship in
striking contrast with European methods,
and one that has been abused but seldom.

Freedom of the Press, THE. See LOVE-
JOY, ELIJAH PARISH.

Freeman, FREDERICK, clergyman; born
in Sandwich, Mass., in 1800; was ordained
pastor of the Presbyterian Church in
Plymouth, Mass., in 1823; subsequently
took orders in the Protestant Episcopal
Church. Among his works are a History
of Cape Cod; Annals of Barnstable
County; Genealogy of the Freeman
Family, etc. He died in Sandwich, Mass.,
in 1883.

Freemasonry, a secret fraternal organ
ization of which there is no certain in
formation as to the time of its intro
duction into the United States. According
to many masonic writers a provincial
grand lodge (St. John s) and also a
private lodge were established at Boston,
Mass., by Henry Price on July 30, 1733.
Benjamin Franklin, who is supposed to
have been initiated in England, published 1
the masonic constitution in 1734; and
during the same year Henry Price was
constituted grand master over all North
America. On Nov. 4, 1752, George Wash
ington became a member of the order and
on Aug. 4, 1753, was made a master
mason. The first masonic hall in the
United States was built in Philadelphia in
1754. The returns of the grand lodges
of the United States and British America
for 1899-1900 were as follows: Whole
number of members, 857.577; raised, 46,-
175; admissions and restorations, 21.325;
withdrawals, 16,603; expulsions and sus
pensions, 597 ; suspensions for non-pay
ment of dues, 16,844; deaths, 13,507. Gain
in membership over preceding year, 21,028.

These grand lodges are in full afliiatiun
with the English grand lodge, of which
the Duke of Connaught is the grand
master, and the grand lodges of Ireland,
Scotland, Cuba, Peru, South Australia,
&gt;ew South Wales, Victoria, and Mexico,
and also with the masons of Germany and
Austria. They are not in affiliation and
do not correspond with the masons under
the jurisdiction of the grand orient of
France; they, however, affiliate with and
recognize masons under the jurisdiction
of the supreme council.

Free Negroes. The alarm expressed in
debates on the act prohibiting the slave-
trade, in 1809, because of the increase and
influence of free negroes, was manifested
in the legislation of several States im
mediately afterwards. Indeed, such fears
had existed earlier. In 17!)(i North Caro
lina passed an act prohibiting emancipa
tion, except for meritorious services, and
by allowance of the county courts. South
Carolina had passed a similar act in 1800;
also another act the same year, declaring
it unla.wful for any number of free ne
groes, mulattoes, or mestizoes to assemble
together, even though in the presence of
\vhite persons, " for mental instruction or
religious worship." There had been two
alarms of insurrection in Virginia (1799
and 1801), arid in 1805 the freedom of
emancipation, allowed by an act in 1782,
was substantially taken away, by a provi
sion that, thenceforward, emancipated
slaves remaining in the State one year
after obtaining their freedom should be
apprehended and sold into slavery for
the benefit of the poor of the county.
Overseers of the poor, binding out black or
mulatto orphans as apprentices, were for
bidden to require their masters to teach
them reading, writing, and arithmetic, as
in the case of white orphans ; and free
b acks coming into the State were to be
sent back to the places whence they came.
The legislature of Kentucky in 1808
passed a law that free negroes coming
into that State should give security to
depart within twenty days, and on failure
to do so should be sold for one year, the
same process to be repeated, if, at the end
of the year, they should be found in the
State twenty days afterwards. This law
remained in force until the breaking-out
of the Civil War.

FREE POSTAGE FREE-THINKERS

Postage. See FRAUKIXQ PMVI- vote of 157,000. The compromise meas-
LEGE ures of 1850, and the virtual repeal of

Free School System. See EDUCATION, the MISSOURI COMPROMISE (q. v.) in the
ELEMENT \RY: MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. act for the creation of the Territories &lt;
Free - soil Party, a political party Kansas and Nebraska m 1854, greatly i
founded in 1848 upon the principle of the creased the strength of the Free-soil
non-extension of the slave system in the party, and it formed the nucleus of
Territories It was an outgrowth of the historical Republican party m 1866, when
LIBERTY PARTY (q. v.) of 184(5. The im- the Free-soilers, as a distinct party, (
mediate cause of its organi/ation was the appeared.

acquisition of new territory at the close Free Ships, Free Goods.
of the war with Mexico, which would, if BABGO.

not prevented, become slave territory. In Free-thinkers. The freedom of thought
a biU appropriating money for the nego- and expression on theological subject,
tiation of peace with Mexico, submitted which now happily prevails did no
to Congress in 1846, DAVID WILMOT exist in the eighteenth century Then
(q v), a Democratic member from Penn- a person who openly opposed
ylvania, offered an amendment, "Pro- cepted tenets of orthodoxy was os-
*ded that there shall be neither slavery tracized, and hence it is that, even m
Ir involuntary servitude in any Terri- this day, Franklin and Jefferson are some-
tory on the continent of America which times spoken of as infidels (that is,
Si hereafter be acquired by or annexed opposers of the Christian religion), a
to the United States by virtue of this charge cruelly unjust They were simply
Appropriation, or in any other manner, ex- free-thinkers, men who indulged m
mt for crime" etc It was carried in exercise of reason in dealing with the
he Hoise but failed in the Senate; and theology of the day. The first American
n the next session it was defeated in free-thinker was Jeremiah Dummer for
both branches. This was the famous many years colonial agent in England of
"Wilmot Proviso." Connecticut, and author of the Defence

Resolutions to this effect were offered in of the New England Charters. Franklin
both the Democratic and Whig conven- was one of his converts yet never car
tions in 1846, but were rejected. A con- ried his views so far as to deny, a? Du
eqnenTe of such rejection was a consid- mer did, the supernatural origin of the
r /lie secession of prominent men, and Christian religion. Franklin was no prop-
many oihers, from both parties, especially a.andist of his peculiar theological I views.
n Massachusetts, New York, and Ohio. He thought religion necessary for the good
In New York the seceding Democrats of individuals and society ostensi
!vere called "BARNBURNERS " (..) and hered to the Church of England, and never
he two classes of seceders combined were countenanced attacks upon current rehg-
called " Free-soilers." The two combined, ions ideas. Ihe first work a ft

.atpri JOHN P HALE (n. v.) for Presi- his scoffing essay against
dent and GEOKOEW. JT/LIA* (g. *.) for left his otherwise bright name under a

Vice-President, who received a popular cloud

436

FBEE THOUGHT

Tree Thought. On the general subject tacks; for they were unable to meet even
of the growth of Free Thought with the supposed testimony of fossils to the
special reference to the United States, Flood. It is curious that the bearing of
we present a condensation of Professor the Newtonian astronomy on the Bibli-
Goldwin Smith s views. cal cosmography should not have been

before perceived; most curious that it

The history of religion during the past should have escaped Newton himself. His
century may be described as the sequel system plainly contravened the idea which
of that dissolution of the mediaeval faith made the earth the centre of the universe,
which commenced at the Reformation. with heaven above and hell below it, and

At the Reformation Protestantism threw by which the cosmography alike of the
off the yoke of pope and priest, priestly Old and the New Testament is pervaded,
control over conscience through the con- The first destructive blow from the region
fessional, priestly absolution for sin, and of science was perhaps dealt by geology,
belief in the magical power of the priest which showed that the earth had been
as consecrator of the Host, besides the wor- gradually formed, not suddenly created,
ship of the Virgin and the saints, purga- that its antiquity immeasurably transcend-
tory, relics, pilgrimages, and other inci- ed the orthodox chronology, and that
dents of the mediaeval system. death had come into the world long before

Though Protestantism produced a multi- man. Geologists, scared by the echoes of
tude of sects, especially in England at the their own teaching, were fain to shelter
time of the Commonwealth, hardly any themselves under allegorical interpreta-
of them were free-thinking or sceptical; tions of Genesis totally foreign to the in-
those of any importance, at all events, tentions of the writer; making out the
were in some sense dogmatic, and were " days " of Creation to be seons, a ver-
anchored to the inspiration of the Bible, sion which, even if accepted, would not

Under the Restoration religious thought have accounted for the entrance of death
and controversy slept. The nation was into the world before the creation of
weary of those subjects. The liberty for man. Many will recollect the shifts to
which men then struggled was political, which science had recourse in its efforts
though with political liberty was bound to avoid collision with the cosmogony sup-
up religious toleration, which achieved posed to have been dictated by the Creator
a partial triumph under William III. to the reputed author of the Pentateuch.

The Church of Rome, to meet the storm The grand catastrophe, however, was
of the Reformation, reorganized herself at the discovery of Darwin. This assailed
the Council of Trent on lines practically the belief that man was a distinct cre-
traced for her by the Jesuit. Papal autoc- ation, apart from all other animals, with
racy was strengthened at the expense of an immortal soul specially breathed into
the episcopate, and furnished at once with him by the author of his beinjj. It show-
a guard and a propagandist machinery of ed that he had been developed by a nat-
extraordinary power in the order of Loyo- ural process out of lower forms of life,
la. That the plenary inspiration of the It showed that instead of a fall of man
liible in the Vulgate version, and includ- there had been a gradual rise, thus cutting
ing the Apocrypha, should be reaffirmed away the ground of the Redemption and
was a secondary matter, inasmuch as the the Incarnation, the fundamental doctrines
Church of Rome holds that it is not she of the orthodox creed. For the hypothesis
who derives her credentials from Scrip- of creation generally was substituted that
ture, but Scripture which depends for the of evolution by some unknown but natural
attestation of its authority upon her. force.

Of the disintegrating forces criticism Not only to revealed or supernatural
the higher criticism, as it is the fashion but to natural religion a heavy blow was
to call it has by no means been the only dealt by the disclosure of wasted seons
one. Another, and perhaps in recent times and abortive species which seem to pre-
the more powerful, has been science, from dude the idea of an intelligent and om-
whicli Voltaire and the earlier sceptics ni potent designer.

received little or no assistance in their at- The chief interpreters of science in its

437

FREE THOUGHT

bearing on religion were, in England, law which, if fully carried into effect,
Tyndall and Huxley. Tyndall always de- 7imst have 1 fearfully darkened life. It
clared himself a materialist, though no produced in Jonathan Edwards the phi-
one could less deserve the name if it im- losopher of Calvinism, from the meshes of
plied anything like grossness or disregard whose predestinarian logic it has been
of the higher sentiments. He startled found difficult to escape, though all such
the world by his declaration that matter reasonings are- practically rebutted by our
contained the potentiality of all life, an indefeasible consciousness of freedom of
assertion which, though it has been found choice and of responsibility as attendant
difficult to prove experimentally, there can thereon. New England Puritanism was
be less difficulty in accepting, since we intolerant, even persecuting; but the re-
see life in rudimentary forms and in dif- ligious founder and prophet of Rhode Isl-
ferent stages of development. Huxley and proclaimed the principles of perfect
wielded a trenchant pen and was an un- toleration and of the entire separation of
compromising servant of truth. A bitter the Church from the State. The ice of
controversy between , him and Owen arose New England Puritanism was gradually
out of Owen s tendency to compromise, thawed by commerce, non-Puritan immi-
He came at one time to the extreme con- gration from the old country, and social
elusion that man was an automaton, influences, as much as by the force of
which would have settled all religious intellectual emancipation; though in
and moral questions out of hand; but in founding universities and schools it had
this he seemed afterwards to feel that in fact prepared for its own ultimate sub-
he had gone too far. An automaton au- version. Unitarianism was a half-way
tomatically reflecting on its automatic house through which Massachusetts pass-
character is a being which seems to defy ed into thorough-going liberalism such as
conception. The connection of action with we find in Emerson, Thoreau, and the
motive, of motive with character and circle of Brook Farm; and afterwards
circumstance, is what nobody doubts; into the iconoclasm of Ingersoll. The
but the precise nature of the connection, only Protestant Church of much impor-
as it is not subject, like a physical con- tance to which the New World has given
nection, to our inspection, defies scrutiny, birth is the Universal ist, a natural ofT-
and our consciousness, which is our only spring of democratic humanity revolting
informant, tells that our agency in some against the belief in eternal fire. Kn-
qualified sense is free. thusiasm unilluminated may still hold its

The all-embracing philosophy of Mr. camp-meetings and sing " Rock of Ages "

Herbert Spencer excludes not only the in the grove under the stars.

FAipernatural but theism in its ordinary The main support of orthodox Protes-

form. Yet theism in a subtle form may tantism in the United States now is an

be thought to lurk in it. " By continu- off-shoot from the old country. It is Meth-

ally seeking," he says, " to know, and odism, which, by the perfection of its

being continually thrown back with a organization, combining strong ministerial

deepened conviction of the impossibility authority with a democratic participa-

of knowing, we may keep a]ive the con- tion of all members in the active service

sciousness that it is alike our highest of the Church, has so far not only held

wisdom and our highest duty to regard its own but enlarged its borders and in-

that through which all things exist as creased its power: its power, perhaps,

the Unknowable." Unknowableness in it- rather than its spiritual influence, for

self excites no reverence, even though it the time comes when the fire of enthusi-

be supposed infinite and eternal. Noth- asm grows cold ami class-meetings lose

ing excites our reverence but a person, or their fervor. The membership is mostly

at least a moral being. drawn from a class little exposed to the

Religion passed from Old to New Eng- disturbing influences of criticism or sci-

land in the form of a refugee Protestant- ence ; nor has the education of the min-

ism of the most intensely Biblical and the isters hitherto been generally such as to

most austere kind. It had. notably in bring them into contact with the argii-

Connecticut, a code of moral and social ments of the sceptic.

438

FREE THOUGHT

In the United States at the beginning of as happy as anything the Catholic Church
the nineteenth century there were faint rel- had to show. From fear of New England
ics of state churches churches, that is, rec- Puritanism it had kept its people loyal
ognized and protected, though not endowed to Great Britain during the Revolutionary
by the state. But there had been little to War. From fear of French atheism it
irritate scepticism or provoke it to vio- kept its people loyal to Great Britain
Icnce of any kind, and the transition has during the war with France. It sang
accordingly been tranquil. Speculation, Te Deum for Trafalgar. So things were
however, has now arrived at a point at till the other day. But then came the
which its results in the minds of the Jesuit. He got back, from the subservi-
more inquiring clergy come into collision ency of the Canadian politicians, the lands
with the dogmatic creeds of their churches which he had lost after the conquest and
and their ordination tests. Especially the suppression of his order. He sup-
does awakened conscience rebel against planted the Gallicans, captured the hier-
the ironclad Calvinism of .the Westmin- archy, and prevailed over the great Sul-
ster Confession. Hence attempts, hitherto pician Monastery in a struggle for the
baffled, to revise the creeds; hence heresy pastorate of Montreal. Other influences
trials, scandalous and ineffective. have of late been working for change in

Who can undertake to say how far re- a direction neither Gallican nor Jesuit,
ligion now influences the inner life of Railroads have broken into the rural se-
the American people? Outwardly life in elusion which favored the ascendency of
the United States, in the Eastern States the priest. Popular education has made
at least, is still religious. Churches are some way. Newspapers have increased
well maintained, congregations are full, in number and are more read. The peas-
offertories are liberal. It is still respect- ant has been growing restive under the
able to be a church-goer. Anglicanism, burden of tithe and fabrique. Many of
partly from its connection with the Eng- the habitants go into the Northern States
lish hierarchy, is fashionable among the of the Union for work, and return to
wealthy in cities. We note, however, that their own country bringing with them
in all pulpits there is a tendency to glide republican ideas. Americans who have
from the spiritual into the social, if not been shunning continental union from
into the material ; to edge away from the dread of French-Canadian popery may lay
pessimistic view of the present world aside their fears.

with which the Gospels are instinct; to It was a critical moment for the Catho-

attend less exclusively to our future, and lie Church when she undertook to extend

more to our present state. Social re- her domain to the American Republic,

unions, picnics, and side-shows are grow- She had there to encounter a genius radi-

ing in importance as parts of the church cally opposed to her own. The remnant

system. Jonathan Edwards, if he could of Catholic Maryland could do little to

now come among his people, would hard- help her on her landing. But she came

ly find himself at home. in force witli the flood of Irish, and after-

In French Canada the Catholic Church wards of South German, emigration. How

has reigned over a simple peasantry, her far she has been successful in holding

own from the beginning, thoroughly sub- these her lieges would be a question dif-

missive to the priesthood, willing to give ficult to decide, as it would involve a

freely of its little store for the build- rather impalpable distinction between

ing of churches which tower over the formal membership and zealous attach-

hamlet, and sufficiently firm in its faith ment. In America, as in England, ritu-

to throng to the fane of St. Anne Beau- alism has served Roman Catholicism as

pre for miracles of healing. She has kept a tender. The critical question was how

the habitant ignorant and unprogressive, the religion of the Middle Ages could

but made him, after her rule, moral, in- succeed in making itself at home under

sisting on early marriage, on remarriage, the roof of a democratic republic, the

controlling his habits and amusements animating spirit (if which was freedom,

with an almost Puritan strictness. Prob- intellectual and spiritual as well as polit-

ably French Canada has been as good and ieal, while the wit of its people was pro-

439

FREE THOUGHT

verbially keen and their nationality was dom of inquiry and advance in thought
jealous as well as strong. The papacy are of course impossible. Nothing is pos-
may call itself universal; in reality, it is sible but immobility, or reaction such as
Italian. During its sojourn in the French that of the syllabus. Dr. Brownson, like
dominions the popes were French : other- Hecker, a convert, showed after his con-
wise they have been Italians, native or version something of the spirit of free in-
domiciled, with the single exception of quiry belonging to his former state, though
the Flemish Adrian VI., thrust into the rather in the line of philosophy than in
chair of St. Peter by his pupil, Charles that of theology, properly speaking. But
V., and by the Italians treated with con- if he ever departed from orthodoxy he re-
turnely as an alien intruder. The great turned to it and made a perfectly edify -
majority of the cardinals always has ing end.

been and still is Italian. She has not Such is the position in which at tin-
thrust the intolerance and obscurantism close of the nineteenth century Christendom
of the encyclical in the face of the dis- seems to have stood. Outside the pale of
ciples of Jefferson. She has paid all due reason of reason ; we do not say of truth
homage to republican institutions, alien were the Roman Catholic and Eastern
though they are to her own spirit, as her Churches: the Roman Catholic Church
uniform action in European politics resting on tradition, sacerdotal author-
hitherto has proved. She has made little ity, and belief in present miracles; the
show of relics. She has abstained from Eastern Church supported by tradition,
miracles. The adoration of Mary and sacerdotal authority, nationality, and the
the saints, though of course fully main- power of the Czar. Scepticism had not
tained, appears to be less prominent, eaten into a church, preserved, like that
Compared with the mediaeval cathedral of Russia, by its isolation and intellectual
and its multiplicity of side chapels, al- torpor; though some wild sects had been
tars, and images, the cathedral at New generated, and Nihilism, threatening with
York strikes one as the temple of a some- destruction the church as well as the
what rationalized version. Yet between state, had appeared on the scene. Into
the spirit rf American nationality, even the Roman Catholic Church scepticism
in the most devout Catholic, and that of had eaten deeply, and had detached from
the Jesuit or the native liegeman of her, or was rapidly detaching, the intel-
Rome, there cannot fail to be an opposi- lect of educated nations, while she seemed
tion more or less acute, though it may resolutely to bid defiance to reason by
be hidden as far as possib e under a de- her syllabus, her declaration of papal
cent veil. This was seen in the case of infallibility, her proclamation of the im-
Father Hecker, who had begun his career maculate conception of Mary. Outside
as a Socialist at Brook Farm, and. as a the pale of traditional authority and
convert to Catholicism, founded a mission- amenable to reason stood the Protestant
ary order, the keynote of which was that churches, urgently pressed by a question
" man s life in the natural and secular as to the sufficiency of the evidences of
order of things is marching towards free- supernatural Christianity above all, of
dom and personal independence." This its vital and fundamental doctrines: the
he described as a radical change, and a fall of man, the incarnation, and the
radical change it undoubtedly was from resurrection. Tin- Anglican Church, a
the sentiments and the system of Loyola, fabric of policy compounded of Catholi-
Condemnation by Rome could not fail to cism without a pope and biblical Prot-
follow. Education has evidently been the estanti*m. was in the throes of a strug-
scene of a subterranean conflict between glo between those two elements, largely
the Jesuit and the more liberal, or. antiquarian ;uul of little importance com-
what is much the same thing, the more pared with the vital question as to the
American section. The American and lib- evidences of revelation and the divinity
eral head of a college has been deposed, of Christ.

under decorous pretences, it is true, but In the Protestant churches generally

still deposed. In the American or anyother trstheticism had prevailed. Even the must

branch of the "Roman Catholic Church free- austere of them had introduced church

440

FREE TRADE

art, flowers, and tasteful music; a ten
dency which, with the increased craving
for rhetorical novelty in the pulpit, seem
ed to show that the simple Word of God
and the glad tidings of salvation were
losing their power, and that human at
tractions were needed to bring congrega
tions together.

The last proposal had been that dogma,
including the belief in the divinity of
Christ, having become untenable, should
be abandoned, and that there should be
formed a Christian Church with a ritual
and sacraments, but without the Chris
tian creed, though still looking up to
Christ as its founder and teacher; an or
ganization which, having no definite ob
ject and being held together only by in
dividual fancy, would not be likely to
last long.

The task now imposed on the liegemen

of reason seems to be that of reviewing
reverently, but freely and impartially, the
evidences both of supernatural Christi
anity and of theism, frankly rejecting
what is untenable, and if possible laying
new and sounder foundations in its place.
To estimate the gravity of the crisis we
have only to consider to how great an
extent our civilization has hitherto rest
ed on religion. It may be found that after
all our being is an insoluble mystery.
If it is, we can only acquiesce and make
the best of our present habitation; but
who can say what the advance of knowl
edge may bring forth? Effort seems to
be the law of our nature, and if continued
it may lead to heights beyond our pres
ent ken. In any event, unless our inmost
nature lies to us, to cling to the unten
able is worse than useless ; there can be
no salvation for us but in truth.

FREE TRADE

Free Trade. William Ewart Gladstone, nature. And where should an English-
several times Prime Minister of England, man look for weapons to be used against
wrote the following plea for Free Trade, protection, or an American for weapons
to which a reply was made by James G. to be wielded in its favor, except in
Elaine, which will be found in the ar- America and England respectively?
tide on PROTECTION : This sentiment received, during a late

Presidential struggle, a lively illustration

in practice. An American gentleman,

The existing difference of practice be- Mr. N. McKay, of New York, took, ac-

tween America and Britain with respect cording to the proverb, the bull by the

to free trade and protection of neces- horns. He visited Great Britain, made

sity gives rise to a kind of inter- what he considered to be an inspection of

national controversy on their respective the employments, wages, and condition of

merits. To interfere from across the the people, and reported the result to his

water in such a controversy is an act countrymen, while they were warm with

which may wear the appearance of im- the animation of the national contest,

pertinence. It is prima facie an intrusion under the doleful titles of Free-Trade

by a citizen of one country into the do- Toilers and Starvation Wages for Men

mestic affairs of another, which as a and Women. He was good enough to

rule must be better judged of by deni- forward to me a copy of his most interest-

zens than by foreigners. Nay, it may ing tract, and he did me the further honor

oven seem a rather violent intrusion; for to address to me a letter covering the

the sincere advocate of one of. the two pamphlet. He challenged an expression

systems cannot speak of what he deems of my opinion on the results of free trade

to be the demerits of the other otherwise in England and on " the relative value of

than in broad and trenchant terms. In free trade and protection to the English-

this case, however, it may be said that speaking people."

something of reciprocal reproach is im- There was an evident title thus to call

plied in the glaring contrast between the upon mo. because I had, many years since,

legislation of the two countries, apart given utterance to an opinion then and

from any argumentative exposition of its now sincerely entertained. I thought, and

441

FREE TRADE

each of the rolling years teaches me more before." And I can state with truth that
and more fixedly to think, that in inter- 1 have heard this very same melody before;
national transactions the British nation nay, that I am familiar with it. It comes
for the present enjoys a commercial pri- to us now with a pleasant novelty; but
macy; that no country in the world once upon a time we British folk were
shows any capacity to wrest it from us, surfeited, nay, almost bored to death, with
except it be America; that, if America it. It is simply the old song of our
shall frankly adopt and steadily main- squires, which they sang with perfect sis-
tain a system of free trade, she will by surance to defend the corn laws, first
degrees, perhaps not slow degrees, out- from within the fortress of an unreformcd
strip us in the race, and will probably Parliament, and then for a good many
take the place which at present belongs years more, with their defences fatally
to us; but that she will not injure us and fast crumbling before their eyes, after
by the operation. On the contrary, she Parliament had been reformed. Mr. Mc-
will do us good. Her freedom of trade Kay and protection, now made vocal in
will add to our present commerce and our him, terrify the American workman by
present wealth, so that we shall be bet- threatening him with the wages of his
ter than we now are. British comrade, precisely as the English

It would have been impertinent in me, landlord coaxed our rural laborers, when

and on other grounds impolitic, to accept we used to get our best wheats from Dant-

the invitation of Mr. McKay while the zig, by exhibiting the starvation wages of

I residential contest was yet pending. But the Polish peasant.

all the agencies in that great election But there is also a variation in the

have now done their work, and protection musical phrase. Our low wages, it is

has obtained her victory. Be she the love- said, form the basis of our cheap produc-

liest and most fruitful mother of the tion. So it is desired, as Mr. McKay ap-

wealth of nations, or be she an impostor prises me, to " get some relief from the

and a swindler, distinguished from other American government " ; by which I

swindlers mainly by the vast scale of her understand that he calls for more protec-

operations, she no longer stands within tion. For example: I have learned that

the august shadow of the election, and turfs are occasionally senc from Ireland

she must take her chance in the arena of to America to supply the Irish immigrant

discussion as a common combatant, en- with a rude memorial of the country he

titled to free speech and to fair treat- was forced to leave, but has not ceased to

ment, but to nothing more. So that the love; and that these turfs are dear to his

citizens of two countries long friendly, and affectionate patriotism, and have been

evidently destined to yet closer friendli- bought by him at prices relatively high,

ness, may now calmly and safely pursue an But they are charged (I am told) as

argument which, from either of the oppos- unenumerated articles, at 15 per cent, on

ing points of view, has the most direct bear- the value. I hope there is no strong tur-

ing on the wealth, comfort, and well-being bary interest in America, for I gather

of the people on both sides of the water. that, to secure high wages to the diggers.

The appeal of the champion whose call you would readily, and quite consistent-
lias brought me into the field is very prop- ly, raise this, say, to 25. The protec-
erly made "to the wage-earners of the the argument, however, at this stage
United States." He exhibits the deplo- rather is. How can the capitalist engaged
rable condition of the British workingman, in manufacture compete with his British
and asks whether our commercial suprem- rivsil. who obtains labor at half the
acy is not upheld at his expense. The price? But this also is to us neither
constant tenor of the argument is this: more nor loss than the repetition of an
High wages by protection, low wanes by old and familiar strain. The argument
free trade. It is even as the recurring is so plausible that, in the early days of
burden of a song. Now. it sometimes our well-known corn-law controversy, it
happens that, while we listen to a melody commended itself even to some of the first
presented to us as new, the idea gradual- champions of repeal. They pointed out
ly arises in the mind, " I have heard this that during the great French war the

442

FREE TRADE

trade of our manufacturers was secured edge. My enumeration may be sufficient

by our possession of the sea ; but that or may be otherwise. Whether it be ex-

when, by the establishment of peace, that haustive or not, the facts will of them-

became an open highway, it was impossi- selves tend to lay upon protectionism the

ble for our manufacturers, who had to burden of establishing, by something more

pay their workmen wages based upon pro- than mere concomitancy, a casual rela-

tection prices for bread as the first neces- tion between commercial restraint and

sary of life, any longer to compete with wages relatively high. But what if, be-

the cheap bread and cheap labor of the sides doing this, I show (and it is easy)

Continent. And, in truth, they could that \vages which may have been partially

show that their trade was at the time, to and relatively high under protection, have

a great extent, either stationary or even become both generally and absolutely

receding. These arguments were made higher, and greatly higher, under free

among us, in the alleged interest of labor trade?

and of capital, just as they are now em- That protection may coexist with high

ployed by you; for America may at pres- wages, that it may not of itself neutral
ise all the gifts and favors of nature,

ent be said to diet on the cast-off reason
ings of English protectionism. They

that it does not as a matter of course

were so specious that they held the field make a rich country into a poor one

until the genius of Cobden recalled us all this may be true, but is nothing to

from conventional phrases to natural laws, the point. The true question is whether

and until a series of bad harvests (about protection offers us the way to the maxi-

1838-41) had shown the British workman mum of attainable wage. This can only

that what enhanced the price of his bread be done by raising to the utmost attain-

had no corresponding power to raise the able height the fund out of which wages

rate of his wages, but distinctively tended and profits alike are drawn. If its ten-

to depress them.

dency is not to increase, but to diminish,

Let me now mark the exact point to that fund, then protection is a bar to
which we have advanced. Like a phono- high wages, not their cause; and is, there-
graph of Mr. Edison, the American pro- fore, the enemy, not the friend, of the
tectionist simply repeats on his side of classes on whose wages their livelihood
the Atlantic what has been first and depends. This is a first outline of the
often, and long ago, said on ours. Under propositions which I shall endeavor to
protection our wages were, on the whole, unfold and to bring home,
higher than those of the Continent. Mr. McKay greatly relied upon a repre-
Under protection American wages are sentation which he has given as to the
higher than those of Great Britain. We rate of wages in England. It is only in-
then argued, post hoc, ergo propter hoc. cidental to the main discussion, for the
He now argues (just listen to his phono- subject of this paper is not England, but
graph), post hoc, ergo propter hoc. But America. Yet it evidently requires to be
our experience has proceeded a stage fur- dealt with: and I shall deal with it broad-
ther than that of the American people, ly, though briefly, asking leave to con-
Despite the low wages of the Continent, test alike the inferences and the facts
we broke down every protective wall and which he presents. My contention on this
flooded the country (so the phrase then head will be twofold. First, he has been
ran) with the corn and the commodities misled as to the actual rate of wages in

England. Secondly, the question is not
whether that rate is lower than the
rate in America, nor even whether the

of the whole world ; with the corn of
America first and foremost. But did our
rates of wages thereupon sink to the level

of the Continent? Or did it rise steadily American workman (and this is a very
and rapidly to a point higher than had different matter) is always better off

been ever known before?

That the American rate of wages

than the workman in England, it is,
is What are English wages now under free

higher than ours I concede. Some, at trade, compared with what they formerly
least, of the causes of this most grati- were under protection?
fying fact I shall endeavor to acknowl- And first, as to the actual rates in par-

443

FREE TRADE

ticular cases to which he has referred, I I am assured, had any existence. The
must draw a line between the case of the temperature in Rosebridge mine, which he
English chain-makers, on which he has states at 93, does not exceed 70. The
dwelt, and the case of the great coal wages of men are not 3s. a day, but vary
industry, of which he has taken the town from a minimum of 3s. 3d. up to the sum
of Wigan as a sample. of 4s. Gd. The minimum for women on
In an old society like this, with an in- the bank is not Is., but Is. 6d., and the
definite variety of occupations, there are maximum not Is. 9d., but 2s. Yards such
usually some which lie, as it were, out as he estimates at 45 inches wide are for-
of the stream, and which represent the bidden by by - laws of the local board
traditions of a former time, or pecu- issued in 1883, and similar laws issued
liarities of circumstance, not yet touched in 1860 require that cottages shall have
by that quickening breath of freedom in an open space, at the rear or side, of not
trade and labor under which I shall show less than 150 square feet. Barrows are not
it to be unquestionable that an over- in use for wheeling coal underground. In
whelming proportion of our population a word, so far as the only place I have
have found their way to a great and, in- been able to make the subject of exami-
deed, extraordinary improvement. In par- nation is concerned, the accuracy of the
ticular, we may expect to find a lam- supposed statements of fact is contested
entable picture in those cases where hand all along the line by persons on the spot,
labor is destined to be supplanted by ma- whom I know to be of the highest trust-
chinery, but where the transition, though worthiness and authority,
at hand, has not yet taken effect. These We are, however, happily in a condi-
chain-makers are represented as earning, tion to bring upon the arena evidence of
man and wife together, $4 per week, far higher moment than assertions or
Small as is this amount, it would not denials founded upon a few rapid glances
have drawn on that account the least of a traveller, even had he not been laden
notice in the days when humanity took with a foregone conclusion, or than de-
its standards from the facts supplied by nials offered against those assertions. So
protection. Under the present circum- far as Great Britain is concerned, it i-
stances, it happens to have attracted obvious enough to what point we should
marked attention in Parliament, and else- address our inquiries, if they are to be
where, and I believe that it is at this of any serious force in determining by re-
very time the subject of public inquiry, suits the controversy upon the respective
But the true answer to the argument merits of protection and free trade. We
from isolated cases, is that there is no must endeavor to ascertain the general
relation whatever between the condition rate of wages now, in comparison with
of this or that small, antiquated, and what it was under the protective system,
solitary employment, and the general con- and with constant regard to the cost of
dition of our wage-earning population. living as exhibited by the prices of corn-
It is otherwise, however, with reference modities.

to Wigan. Employment at this im- And, in order to try the question for

portant centre is subject to the economical this country at large, whether free trade

currents of the time, and undoubtedly the has been a curse or a blessing to the peo-

facts it may exhibit must be held to bear pie who inhabit it, I shall repair at once

upon the general question of the condition to our highest authority. Mr. G iff en, of

of the people. But it so happens that I the board of trade, whose careful and

have the best means of obtaining infor- comprehensive disquisitions are before

n;ation about Wigan, and I had better the world, and are known to command, in

Mate at once that I am at issue with a very high degree, the public confidence.

Mr. McKay s report upon the facts. The He supplie* us with tables which com-

statemeuts made by him have doubtless pare the wages of 1833 with those of

done their work: but it is still a mat- 1883 in such a way as to speak for the

ter of interest to dear up the truth. The principal branches of industry, with tli--

steeple, of which he declares that the exception of agricultural labor. The

parish church has been denuded, never, as wages of miners, we learn, hare increased

444

FREE TRADE

in Staffordshire (which, almost certainly, laborer. He observes that the aggregate
is the mining district of lowest incre- proportion of unskilled to skilled labor
ment) by 50 per cent. In the great ex- has diminished a fact which of itself
portable manufactures of Bradford and forcibly exhibits the advance of the labor-
Huddersfield, the lowest augmentations ing population as a whole. I will not en-
are 20 and 30 per cent., and in other ttr upon details; but his general conclu-
branches they rise to 50, 83, 100, and sion is this : the improvement is from 70
even to 150 and 160 per cent. The quasi- to 90 per cent, in the wages of unskilled
domestic trades of carpenters, bricklayers, non-agricultural labor. And again, com-
and masons, in the great marts of Glas- paring the laborer with the capitalist be-
gow and Manchester, show a mean in- tween 1843 and 1883, he estimates that,
crease of 03 per cent, for the first, 65 while the income from capital has risen in
per cent, for the second, and 47 per cent, this country from 190,000,000 to 400,-
for the third. The lowest weekly wage 000,000, or by 210 per cent., the working-
named for an adult is 22s. (as against class income, below the standard which en-
17s. in 1833), and the highest 36s. tails liability to income-tax, has risen from
But it is the relative rate with which 235,000,000 to 620,000,000, or at the rate
we have to do; and, as the American of 160 per cent. Within the same period
writer appears to contemplate with a pe- the prices of the main articles of popular
culiar dread the effect of free trade upon consumption have not increased, but hav3
shipping, I further quote Mr. Giffen on certainly declined. The laborer s charges,
the monthly wages of seamen in 1833 except for his abode, have actually dimin-
and 1883, in Bristol, Glasgow, Liverpool, ished as a whole. -For his larger house-
and London. The percentage of increase, rent he has a better liouse. To the gov-
since we have passed from the protective ernment he pays much less than he did,
system of the navigation law into free and from the government he gets much
trade, is, in Bristol, 66 per cent.; in more; and "the increase of his money
Glasgow, 55 per cent.; in Liverpool (for wages corresponds to a real gain."
different classes), from 25 per cent, to Such, then, have been the economical re-
70 per cent. ; and in London, from 45 per suits of free trade as compared with pro-
cent, to 69 per cent. Mr. Giffen has tection. Of its political, moral, and so-
given the figures in all the cases where cial results, at least so far as they regard
he could be sufficiently certain of exacti- the masses of the people, an account in
tude. No such return, at once exact and no way less satisfactory could be given,
comprehensive, can be supplied in the wore this the proper occasion for entering
case of the rural workman. But here on the subject. If it be said that the tale
the facts fire notorious. We are assured I have told is insufficient, and that wages
that there has been a universal rise ought still to rise, this may be so; and
(somewhat checked, I fear, by the recent rise I hope they will; but protection had
agricultural distress), which Caird and no such tale to tell at all. For the work-
other authorities place at 60 per cent, ing population at large it meant stagna-
Mr. Giffen apparently concurs; and, so tion, depression, in many cases actual and
far as my own personal sphere of obser- daily hunger and thirst, in some unques-
"vation reaches, I can with confidence con- tionable and even gross degradation. 1
firm the estimate and declare it to be will venture to say that, taking the case
moderate. Together with this increase of as a whole, it would be difficult to match
pay, there has been a general diminution in history the picture which Great Britain
of the hours of work, which Mr. Giffen now presents of progress, achieved main-
places at one-fifth. If we make this cor- ly through wise laws, from stinted means
rection upon the comparative table, we and positive want towards comfort and
shall find that the cases are very few in abundance for the people,
which the increment does not range as With a view to presenting the argument
high as from 50 and towards 100 per for leaving trade to the operation of nat-
cent. ural laws in the simplest manner, I shall
In a later essay, of January, 1886, Mr. begin with some postulates which I sup-
Giffen touches the case of the unskilled pose to be incapable of dispute.

445

FREE TRADE

International commerce is based, not
upon arbitrary or fanciful considerations,
but upon the unequal distribution among
men and regions of aptitudes to produce
the several commodities which are neces
sary or useful for the sustenance, com
fort, and advantage of human life.

If every country produced all commodi
ties with exactly the same degree of facil
ity or cheapness, it would be contrary to
common-sense to incur the charge of send
ing them from one country to another.

But the inequalities are so great that
(for example) region A can supply region
B with many articles of food, and region
B can in return supply region A with
many articles of clothing, at such rates
that, although in each case the charge of
transmission has of necessity been added
to the first cost, the respective articles
can be sold after importation at a lower
rate than if they were home-grown or
home - manufactured in the one or the
other country respectively.

The relative cost, in each case, of pro
duction and transmission, as compared
with domestic production, supplies, while
all remain untrammelled by state law, a
rule, motive, or main-spring of distribu
tion which may be termed natural.

The argument of the free-trader is that
the legislator ought never to interfere, or
only to interfere so far as imperative fiscal
necessity may require it, with this natural
law of distribution.

All interference with it by a government
in order to encourage some dearer method
of production at home, in preference to a
cheaper method of production abroad, may
fairly be termed artificial. And every
such interference means simply a diminu
tion of the national w r ealth. If region A
grows corn at home for 50s. with which
region B can supply it at 40s., and region
B manufactures cloth at 20s. with which
region A can supply it at 15s., the na
tional wealth of each is diminished by
the 10s. and the 5s. respectively.

And the capitalists and laborers in each
of these countries have so much the less to
divide into their respective shares, in that
competition between capital and labor
which determines the distribution between
them of the price brought in the market
by commodities.

In my view, and I may say for my

countrymen in our view, protection, how
ever dignified by the source from which it
proceeds, is essentially an invitation to
waste, promulgated with the authority of
law. It may be more violent and pro
hibitory, or it may be less; but, up to the
point to which it goes, it is a promise
given to dear production to shield it
against the competition of cheap produc
tion, or given to dearer production to hold
it harmless against cheaper ; to secure for
it a market it could not otherwise hold,
and to enable it to exact from the con
sumer a price which he would not other
wise pay.

Protection says to a producer, Grow
this or manufacture that at a greater nec
essary outlay, though we might obtain it
more cheaply from abroad, where it can be
produced at a smaller necessary outlay.
This is saying, in other words, waste a
certain amount of labor and of capital ;
and do not be afraid, for the cost of your
waste shall be laid on the shoulders of a
nation which is well able to bear it. So
much for the waste unavoidably attach
ing to dearness of production. But there
are other and yet worse descriptions of
waste, as to which I know not whether
America suffers greatly from them, but I
know that in this country we suffered
from them grievously under the sway of
protection. When the barrier erected by
a protective duty is so high that no for
eigner can overleap it, that duty enables
the home manufacturer not only to charge
a high price, but to force on the consumer
a bad article. Thus, with an extravagant
duty on foreign corks, we had for our own
use the worst corks in Europe. And yet
again, protection causes waste of another
kind in a large c ass of cases. Suppose
the natural disadvantages of the home pro
ducer to equal 15 per cent., but the pro
tective duty to be 30. But cheapness re
quires minute care, economy, and despatch
at all the stages through which production
has to pass. This minute care and thrift
depend mainly on the pressure of com
petition. There were among us, and there
may be elsewhere, many producers whom
indolence tempts to neglect: who are not
sufficiently drawn to resist this inertia by
the attraction of raising profit to a maxi
mum ; for whom the prospect of advan
tage is not enough without the sense of

446

FBEE TRADE

necessity, and whom nothing can spur to upon the net surplus left by the prices of
a due nimbleness of movement except the industrial products after defraying out
fear of not being able to sell their arti- of them the costs of production. To make
cles. In the case I have supposed, the this surplus large is to raise national
second 15 per cent, is a free margin wealth to its maximum. It is largest
whereupon this indolence may disport when we produce what we can produce
itself: the home producer is not only cheapest. It is diminished, and the nation
covered for what he wastes through is so far impoverished, whenever and
necessity, but for what he wastes from wherever and to whatever extent, under
negligence or choice; and his fellow-coun- the cover of protective laws, men are in-
trymen, the public, have to pay alike for duced to produce articles leaving a
both. We suffered grievously from this smaller surplus instead of articles leaving
in England, for oftentimes the rule of the a larger one. But such is the essence of
producer is, or was, to produce not as well protection. In England (speaking rough-
as he can, but as badly as he can, and as ly) it made us produce more wheat at
well only as he must. And happy are you high prices instead of more tissues at
if, through keener energy or more trouble- low prices. In America it makes you
some conscience in production, you have produce more cloth and more iron at
no similar suffering in America. high prices instead of more cereals and

If protection could be equally distrib- more cotton at low prices. And your con-
uted all around, then it would be fair as tention is that by making production
between class and class. But it cannot thus costly you make wages high. To
possibly be thus distributed in any this question let us pass onward; yet not
country until we have discovered a without leaving behind us certain results
country which will not find its interest which I think you will find it hard to at-
in exporting some commodity or other, tack, unless it be in flank and rear. Such
For the price of that commodity at home as these: First, that extra price imposed
must be determined by its price in foreign on class A for the benefit of class B, with-
or unprotected markets, and therefore, out compensation, is robbery, and robbery
even if protective duties are inscribed on not rendered (in the abstract) more re-
the statute - book at home, their effect spectable because the state is the culprit,
must remain absolutely null, so far as Secondly, that protection means dear
this particular article is concerned. It production, and dear production means,
is beyond human wit and power to secure pro tanto, national impoverishment,
to the cotton-grower, or to the grower of But the view of the genuine protec-
wheat or maize in the United States, the tionist is the direct opposite of all this,
tenth part of a cent per bale or per bushel I understand his contention to be that
beyond what the price in the markets of protection is (as I should say freedom is)
export will allow to him. If, under these a mine of wealth; that a greater aggre-
circumstances, he is required to pay to gate profit results from what you would
the iron-master of Pennsylvania, or to call keeping labor and capital at home
the manufacturer at Lowell, an extra than from letting them seek employment
price on his implements or on his cloth- wherever in the whole world they can find
ing, for which he can receive no compensa- it most economically. But if this really
tion whatever, such extra price is at first is so, if there be this inborn fertility
sight much like robbery perpetrated by in the principle itself, why are the several
law - States of the Union precluded from ap-

If such be the ugly physiognomy pre- plying it within their own respective
sented, at the present stage of our in- borders? If the aggregate would be made
quiry, by this ancient and hoary-headed richer by this internal application of pro-
wizard in relation to the claim for equal tection to the parts, why is it not so ap-
dealing between class and class, the pre- plied? On the other hand, if the country
sumptive case is not a whit better in re- as a whole would by this device be made
gard to the aggregate wealth of the na- not richer, but poorer, through the inter-
tion. Wealth is accumulation; and the ference with the natural laws of produc-
aggregate of that accumulation depends tion, then how is it that by similar inter-

447

FREE TRADE

ference the aggregate of the States, the trade. I do not think the argument

great commonwealth of America, can be would be unfair. It really is the logical

made, in its general balance-sheet, not corollary of all your utterances on the

poorer, but richer? high wages which (as you believe) pro-

What is the value of this argument tection gives in America, and on the low
about keeping capital at home, by means wages which (as you believe) our free
of protection, which, but for protection, trade, now impartially applied all round,
would find its way abroad? The conten- inflicts upon England. But I refrain from
tion seems to be this: capital which would pressing the point, because I do not wish
be most profitably employed abroad ought to be responsible for urging an argument
by legal inducement to be inveigled into which tends to drive the sincere protec-
remaining here, in order that it may be tionist deeper and deeper into, not the
less profitably employed at home. Our mud, but (what we should call) the mire.
object ought to be, not to pursue those But now I suppose the answer might
industries in which the return is the be that the case which I have put is an
largest when compared with the outlay, extreme case; and that arguments are not
but to detain in this country the largest well judged by their extremes. In some
quantity of capital that we can. Now, matters, for instance in moral matters,
here _I really must pursue the argument where virtue often resides in a mean, this
into its hiding-places by testing it in may be so. But the laws of economy,
extremes. If the proper object for the which we are now handling, approach
legislator is to keep and employ in his much more to the laws of arithmetic; and
country th" greatest possible amount of if your reasoning is that we ought to
capital, then the British Parliament prefer, among the fields for the invest-
( exempli gratia) ought to protect not ment of capital, what is domestic to what
only wheat but pineapples. A pineapple is profitable, it is at least for the pro-
is now sold in London for 8s. Gd., which tectionist to show and he never has
before we imported that majestic fruit shown why it is worth a nation s while
from the tropics, would have sold for 2. on this account to lose 5s. in the pound,
Why not protect the grower of pineapples but not to lose (say) 10s. or 15*.
at 2 by a duty of 400 per cent.? Do I will, however, instead of relying on
not tell me that this is ridiculous. It is an unanswered challenge, push the war
ridiculous upon my principles; but upon into the enemy s country. I shall boldly
your principles it is allowable, it is wise, contend that the whole of this doctrint
it is obligatory as wise, shall I say? as that capital should be tempted into an
it is to protect cotton fabrics by a duty area of dear production for the sake or
of 50 per cent. No; not as wise only, under the notion of keeping it at home
but even more wise, and therefore even is a delusion from top to bottom. It says
more obligatory. Because according to to the capitalist, Invest (say) $1,000,-
this argument we ought to aim at the 000 in mills or factories to produce yarn
production within our own limits of those and cloth which we could obtain more
commodities which require the largest ex- cheaply from abroad that is, be it re-
penditure of capital and labor to rear membered, which could be produced
them, in proportion to the quantity pro- abroad and sent here at a smaller cost of
duced ; and no commodity could more am- production, or, in other words, with less
ply fulfil this condition. waste; for all expenditure in production

If protection be, as its champions (or beyond the measure of necessity call it
victims) hold, in itself an economical what we may is simple waste. To in-
good, then it holds in the sphere of pro- duce him to do this, you promise that he
duction the same place as belongs to truth shall receive an artificial instead of a
in the sphere of philosophy, or to virtue natural price; and. in order that the for-
in the sphere of morals. In this case, you eigner may not drive him from the mar-
cannot have too much of it; so that, while ket, this artificial price shall be saddled,
mere protection is economical good in em- through the operation of an import duty,
bryo, such good finds its full develop- upon the competing foreign commodity;
ment only in the prohibition of foreign not in order to meet the wants of the

448

FBEE TRADE

state, which is the sole justifying pur- reason upon the assumption that this is

pose of an import duty, but in order to effected. And I ask indeed, by the force

cover the loss on wasteful domestic pro- of argument I may almost require you

duction, and to make it yield a profit, to make an admission to me which is of

And all this in order, as is said, that the the most serious character namely, this,

capitalist may be induced to keep his that there is a great deal of capital un-

capital at home. But, in America, be- doubtedly kept at home by protection,

sides the jealously palisaded field of dear not for the purpose of dear production,

production, there is a vast open expanse which is partial waste, but for another

of cheap production, namely, in the whole kind of waste, which is sheer and abso-

mass (to speak roughly) of the agricult- lute and totally uncompensated. This is

ural products of the country, not to men- the waste incurred in the great work of

tion such gifts of the earth as its mineral distributing commodities. If the price of

oils. In raising these, the American capi- iron or of cotton cloth is increased 50

talist will find the demand of the world per cent, by protection, then the capital

unexhausted, however he may increase the required by every wholesale and every

supply. Why, then, is he to carry his retail distributer must be increased in

capital abroad when there is profitable the same proportion. The distributer is

employment for it at home? If protec- not, and cannot be, in his auxiliary and

tion is necessary to keep American capital essentially domestic work, protected by

at home, W 7 hy is not the vast capital now an import duty, any more than can the

sustaining your domestic agriculture, and scavenger or the chimney-sweep. The ini-

raising commodities for sale at free- port duty adds to the price he pays, and,

trade prices, exported to other countries? consequently, to the circulating capital

Or, conversely, since vast capitals find an which he requires in order to carry on

unlimited field for employment in cheap his traffic; but it adds nothing to the

domestic production without protection, rate of profit which he receives, and

it is demonstrated that protection is not nothing whatever to the employment

required in order to keep your capital which he gives. This forced increment of

at home. cipital sets in motion no labor, and is

No adversary will, I think, venture compelled to work in the uncovered field
upon answering this by saying that the of open trade. It has not the prima facie
profits are larger in protected than in un- apology (such as that apology may be)
protected industries. First, because the which the iron-maker or the mill-owner
best opinions seem to testify that in your may make, that he is employing Ameri-
protected trades profits are hard pressed can labor which would not otherwise be
by wages a state of things very likely employed. If the waste under a pro-
to occur, because protection, resting upon tective duty of 50 per cent, be a waste
artificial stimulants, tends to disturb and of 50 per cent., the waste of the extra
banish all natural adjustment. But, sec- capital required in distribution is a
oudly, there can hardly be any votary of waste of 100 per cent, on the cost of the
protection sufficiently quixotic to contend operation; for it accomplishes absolutely
that waste ought to be encouraged in nothing on behalf of the community
economical processes, and the entire com- which would not be accomplished equally
munity taxed without fiscal necessity, in if the commodity were 50 per cent, less
order to secure to a particular order of in price; just as the postman distribut-
capitalists profits higher than those reaped ing letters at Is. performs no better
by another order the public claim (such or other service- than the postman dis-
you hold it) of both resting upon exactly tributing letters at Id. But of dis-
the same basis namely, this, that they tributers the name is legion; they con-
keep their capitals at home. stitute the vast army of the wholesale

There is yet another point which I can- and retail tradesmen of a country, with
not pass without notice. I have not ad- all the Avants appertaining to them. As
rnitted that protection keeps at home any consumers, they are taxed on all pro-
capital which would otherwise go abroad, tected commodities; as the allies of pro-
Rut I now, for the moment, accept and ducers in the business of distributing,
in. 2 F 449

FREE TRADE

they are forced to do with more capital in a limited way, impossible. If it be
what could be done as well with less. true, the steps in the process are, 1 con-
Admitting that we see in the United ceive, as follows: America absolutely re-
States a coexistence of high wages with quires for her own use a certain number
protection, but denying the relation of and tonnage of vessels. Congress lays
cause and effect between them, I may be such duties upon. foreign ships and ma-
asked whether I am prepared to broaden terials that they shall not be obtained
that denial into a universal proposi- from abroad at less than double the price
tion, and contend that in no case can at which they are sold in the open
wages be raised by a system of protection, market. Therefore the American ship-
My answer is this: A country cannot builder can force his countrymen to pay
possibly raise its aggregate wage fund him any sum, not exceeding two prices,
by protection, but must inevitably reduce for his commodity. The remaining point
it. It is a contrivance for producing dear is the division of the amount between the
and for selling dear, under cover of a capitalist and the workman. That is gov-
wall or fence which shuts out the cheaper eined by the general state of the labor
foreign article, or handicaps it on ad- market in the country. If the labor mar-
mission by the imposition of a heavy fine, ket, although open to the world, is in-
Yet I may for the moment allow it to be sufficiently supplied, then the wage-earner
possible that, in some particular trade may possibly, in a given case, come in for
or trades, wages may be raised (at the a share of the monopoly price of ships,
expense of the community) in consequence If the handwork be one requiring a long
of protection. There was a time when apprenticeship (so to call it) , and thereby
America built ships for Great Britain impeding the access of domestic corn-
namely, before the American Revolution, petitors, this will augment his share.
She now imposes heavy duties to prevent Then why not the like, some one will ask,
our building ships for her. Even my in all cases? Because the community in
own recollection goes back to the period, the given case pays the price of the
between sixty and seventy years ago, monopoly that is to say, throws the price
when by far the most, and also the best to waste, and because, while a trader in
part, of the trade between us was car- a multitude of commodities may lose upon
ried in American bottoms. Mr. McKay one of them, and yet may have a good
refers in his letter to a period before the balance-sheet upon the whole, he must not
war when she could compete with British and cannot lose upon them all without
labir, but when, as he informs us, your ceasing to be a trader; and a nation, with
shipwright was paid 6s. a day, whereas respect to its aggregate of production, is
now he has 14s.; which means that, as a single trader.

as the profits of capital are not supposed Without, then, absolutely denying it to
to have declined, the community pays for be possible that in some isolated and ex-
ships more than twice as much as it ctptional cases there may be a relation
used to pay, and your ship-builders do between protection (and all protection, so
a small trade with a large capital, instead far as it goes, is monopoly) and high
of doing (as before) a large trade with a wages, I contend that to refer generally
(relatively) small capital. the high rate of wages in the United
I will not now stop to dilate on my ad- States to this cause would be nothing less
miration for the resources of a com- than preposterous. And on this part of
munity which can bear to indulge in these the case I desire to propound what up-
impoverishing processes;, nor even to ask pears to me to be in the nature of a
whether the shipwright in the small trade dilemma, with some curiosity to know
has the same constancy of wage as ho had how the champions of protection would be
in the large one, or whether his large disposed to meet it. Let me assume, for
receipt is countervailed by his large out- the purpose of trying the issue, that one-
lay on the necessaries and comforts of half of the salable products of the United
life. But I will look simply to the ques- States are agricultural and one-half manu-
tion whether protection in this case raises factured, and that the manufactured
wages. I do not undertake to say it is, moiety are covered by protection, while

450

FREE TRADE

the agricultural half, since they are tional advantages which as a country the
articles of large export, bear only such United States enjoy; which enable them
a price as is assigned to them by foreign to bear the process of depletion that,
competition in the markets where they are through the system of protection, it is
sold. I take this rough estimate for the their pleasure to undergo, and which for
sake of simplicity, and in the same view them cause the question to be one not of
1 overlook the fact that the sugar which absolute retrogression, but only of ham-
you grow is still covered, as it used to be pered and retarded progress,
covered, by an operative protection. One- I hold that dear production, even if
half, then, of American labor enjoys pro- compensated to the producer by high
tective wages; the other half of the prod- price, is a wasteful and exhausting proc-
ucts of the United States is furnished by ess. I may still be asked for a detailed
mere " free-trade toilers." Now, I want answer to the question, " How, then, is it
to ask whether the wages of the agricult- that America, which, as you say, makes
ural half are raised by the existence of enormous waste by protection, neverthe-
protective laws which cover the artisan less outstrips all other countries in the
half. This you cannot possibly affirm, be- rapid accumulation of her wealth?" To
cause it is an elementary fact that (given which my general answer is that the case
the quantity of labor in the market) they is like that of an individual Avho, with
are governed by the prices of the com- wasteful expenditure, has a vast fortune,
modities they produce, and that those such as to leave him a large excess of re-
prices are free-trade prices. You have ceipts. But for his waste that excess
free-trade toilers " all over your country, would be larger still.

and by their side you have protected arti- I will, then, proceed to set forth some

sans. I ask, then, next, this question: Is of the causes which, by giving exceptional

the remuneration of the " free-trade toil- energy and exceptional opportunity to the

ers," all things taken into account, equiva- work of production in America, seem to

lent to that of the protected artisans? allow (in homely phrase) of her making

If it is not, why do not the agricultural ducks and drakes of a large portion of

men pass over into the provinces of de- what ought to be her accumulations, and

mand for manufacturing and mining yet, by virtue of the remainder of them, to

labor, and, by augmenting the supply, re- astonish the world.

duce and equalize the rate? Which is 1- Let me observe, first, that America
like asking, How comes it that a man is produces an enormous mass of cotton,
content with one loaf when two are offered cereals, meat, oils, and other commodities,
him? The answer would be, He is not which are sold in the unsheltered market
content; whenever he can, he takes the of the world at such prices as it will
two and leaves the one. It follows that yield. The producers are fined for the
in this case there exists no excess of wage benefit of the protected interests, and re-
for him to appropriate. The loaf, mean- ceive nothing in return ; but they obtain
ing by the loaf not a mere money rate, but for their country, as well as for the world,
that money rate together with all its in- the whole advantage of a vast natural
cidents of all kinds, is equal as between trade that is to say, a trade in which
the protected and the unprotected laborer, production is carried on at a minimum
The proportions of the two kinds of labor cost in capital and labor as compared
are governed in the long run (and perhaps with what the rest of the world can do.
in America more certainly and rapidly 2. America invites and obtains in a re-
than anywhere else) by the advantages at- niarkable degree from all the world one
taching to each respectively. In other of the great elements of production, with-
words, the free-trade wages are as good out tax of any kind namely, capital,
as the protected wages; and (apart from 3. While securing to the capitalist pro-
small and exceptional cases) the idea that ducer a monopoly in the protected trades,
protection raises the rate of wages on any she allows all the world to do its best,
large scale or in any open field is an by a free immigration, to prevent or qual-
illusion. ify any corresponding monopoly in the
But I proceed to consider the vast excep- class of workmen.

451

FBEE TRADE

4 She draws upon a bank of natural her foot, so that the most timid among
resources so vast that it easily bears us need not now to greatly droad her com-
those deductions of improvidence which petition in the international
simply prevent the results from being world.

vaster still. Again, the international position of

Let me now mention some at least among America may, in a certain light, be illus-
those elements of the unrivalled national trated by comparing together the economi-
stren^th of America which explain to us cal conditions under which coal has been
why she is not ruined by the huge waste produced in the different districts of this
of the protective system. And first of island. The royalty upon coal represents
these I place the immense extent and vast- that surplus over and above estimated
ness of her territory, which make her not trading profit from a mine which the
so much a country as in herself a world, lessee can afford to pay the landlord. In
and not a verv little world. She carries England, generally, royalties have varied
on the business of domestic exchanges from about 6(/. a ton to !W. in a few cases ;
on a scale such as mankind has never scarcely ever higher. But in
seen Of all the staple products of human shire, owing to the existence of a remark
industry and care, how few are there able coal-measure, called the 10-yard coal,
which, in one or another of her countless and to the presence of ironstone abiui-
re-ions the soil of America would refuse dantly interstratified with the coal, the
tovield No other country has the same royalty has often amounted to no less
diversity the same free choice of indus- 3s. This excess has a real analogy to t
trial pursuit, the same option to lay hold surplus bounty of Mother Earth in Ainer-
not on the good merely, but on the best. ica. And when I see her abating somewhat
Historically, all international trade has of her vast advantages through the
had its broadest basis in the interchange of protection, I am reminded of the curious
between tropical or southern commodities fact that (as it happens) this unusual
and those of the temperate or northern abundance of the mineral made the get-
zone And even this kind of exchange ting of it in Staffordshire singularly
America possesses on a considerable scale wasteful, and that fractions, and no small
within her own ample borders. fractions, of the 10-yard coal are now ir-

Apart from this wide variety, I sup- recoverably buried in the earth, like
pose there is no other country of the tribute which America has and lias. ;.. i
whole earth in which, if we combine to- seems, contentedly been paying to her
gether the surface and that which is below protected interests.

the surface, Nature has been so bountiful In most of the elements of cheapness,
to man The mineral resources of our America wholly surpasses us; as, for ox-
own Britannic Isle have, without question, ample, in the natural, indefeasible ad
principally contributed to its commercial vantages she enjoys through the vastnos:
pre-eminence But when we match them not only of the soils which produce, but
with those of America, it is Lilliput of the markets which consume, her pro-
against Brobdingnag. I believe that your ductions. I have lately seen a penny
coal-field, for example, is to ours nearly periodical, published by Messrs. Harper
in the proportion of thirty-six to one. of New York, which far surpasses all
Now this vast aggregate superiority of that the enterprise and skill of our pub-
purelv natural wealth is simply equiva- lishers have been able to produce. But
lent to the gift, say, of a queen in a game all these plus quantities she works hard to
of chess, or to a start allowed in a race convert into minuses through the devour-
by one boy to another; with this differ- ing agency of protection,
eiice- that America could hold her own There are two other particulars which
against all comers without the queen, and I have to notice before quitting this jx.r-
that, like her little Lord Fauntleroy, she tion of the subject. Each of them m-
can if she likes, run the race, and perhaps volves a compliment the one to us, the
win it upon equal terms. By protection other to yourselves. As there is an in-
she makes a bad move, which helps us to vidious element in all self-praise, I will
make fight, and ties a heavy clog upon get rid first of what touches us. It is

452

FREE TRADE

this: Trade is, in one respect at least, with one great and crying want, the
like mercy. It cannot be carried on with- scarcity of labor. So they were put upon
out conferring a double benefit. Again, the application of their mental powers
trade cannot be increased without increas- to labor-saving contrivances, and this
ing this benefit, and increasing it (in the want grew as fast as, or faster than, it
long run) on both sides alike. Freedom was supplied. Thus it has come about
has enormously extended our trade with that a race endued with consummate abil-
the countries of the world, and, above all ity for labor, has also become the richest
others, with the United States. It fol- of all races in instruments for dispensing"
lows that they have derived immense ben- with labor. The provision of such in-
efit, that their waste has been greatly struments has become with you a stand-
repaired, their accumulations largely aug- ing tradition, and this to such a degree
mented, through British legislation. We that you have taken your place as (prob-
have not on this ground any merit or ably) the most inventive nation in the
any claims whatever. We legislated for world. It is thus obvious enough that
our own advantage, and are satisfied with a remarkable faculty and habit of in-
the benefit we have received. But it is vention, which goes direct to cheapness,
a fact, and a fact of no small dimensions, helps to fill up that gap in your produc-
which, in estimating the material develop- tive results which is created by the waste-
ment of America, cannot be lost sight of. fulness of protection. The leakage in the

My second point touches the circum- national cistern is more than compen-

stances of the national infancy and sated by the efficiency of the pumps that

growth. It would be alike futile and un- supply it.

just, in pointing out the singular ad- America makes no scruple, then, to
vantages over the outer world which cheapen everything in which labor is con-
nature has given to America, not to take cerned, and she gives the capitalist the
notice of those advantages which her command of all inventions on the best
people have earned or created for them- terms she can contrive. Why? Only be-
selves. In no country, I suppose, has cause this is the road to national wealth,
there been so careful a cultivation of the Therefore, she has no mercy upon labor,
inventive faculty. And if America has but displaces it right and left. Yet,
surpassed in industrial discoveries the when we come to the case where capital
race from which her people sprang, we do is most in question, she enables her ship-
not grudge her the honor or the gain, builders, her iron-masters, and her mill-
Americans are economists in inventions owners to charge double or semi-double
and do not let them slip. For example, prices; which, if her practice as to labor-
the reaping-machine of modern times, saving be right, must be the road to na-
I believe, was invented in Forfarshire, but tional poverty. E converse, if she be
did not pass into any general use. Still- right in shutting out foreign ships and
born there, it disappeared; but it was ap- goods to raise the receipts of the Ameri-
preciated and established in America, and can capitalist, why does she not tax
then came back among us as an importa- the reaping-machine and the American
tion from thence, and was at last appreci- " devil " to raise the receipts of the
ated and established here. The scarcity of American laborer? Not that I recommend
labor has, in truth, supplied the great such consistency. I rejoice in the
republic with an essential element of anomalies and contradictions by virtue of
severe and salutary discipline. which the applications of science every-

The youth of America was, especially where abound through the States for the

in New England, a youth, not of luxury, benefit of their populations, and, with-

but of difficulty. Nature dealt somewhat out doubt, though more circuitously, of

sternly with your ancestors; and to their ours also, and of the world at large,

great advantage. They were reared in I have still to notice one remaining

a mould of masculine character, and were point. It is this: I do not doubt that

made fit to encounter, and turn to ac- production is much cheapened in Amer-

count, all vicissitudes. As the country ica by the absence of all kinds of class

opened, they were confronted everywhere legislation except that which is termed

453

FREE TRADE

protection; an instance alike vicious and porters of the corn law. It is of the
gigantic, but still an instance only. In tendencies of a system that I speak, which
our British legislation, the interest of operate variously, upon most men un-
the individual or the class still rather consciously, upon some men not at all ;
largely prevails against that of the pub- and surely that system cannot be good
lie. In America, as I understand the which makes an individual, or a set of
matter, the public obtains full and equal individuals, live on the resources of the
justice. I take for example the case community and causes him relatively to
of the railroads; that vast creation, one diminish that store, which duty to his
of almost universal good to mankind, fellow - citizens and to their equal rights
now approaching to one-tenth or one- should teach him by his contributions to
twelfth of our entire national posses- augment. The habit of mind thus en-
sions. It is believed that in unnecessary gendered is not such as altogether befits
parliamentary expenditure, and in ab- a free country or harmonizes with an in-
normal prices paid for land, the railways dependent character. And the more the
of this country were taxed to between system of protection is discussed and con-
50,000,000 and 100,000,000 sterling be- tested, the more those whom it favors are
youd the natural cost of their creation, driven to struggle for its maintenance,
Thus does the spirit of protection, only the farther they must insensibly deviate
shifting its form, still go ravening about from the law of equal rights, and, per-
among us. Nothing is so common here haps, even from the tone of genuine per-
as to receive compensation; and we get sonal independence.

it not only for injuries, but for benefits. In speaking thus, we speak greatly
But while the great nation of the Union from our own experience. I have person-
rightly rejoices in her freedom from our ally lived through the varied phases of
superstitions, why should she desire, that experience, since we began that bat-
create, and worship new superstitions of tie between monopoly and freedom which
her own ? c st us about a quarter of a century of

1 am sorry to say that, although I the nation s life. I have seen and known,
have closed the economical argument, I and had the opportunity of comparing,
have not yet done with the counts of the temper and frame of mind engen-
my indictment against protection. I have, dered first by our protectionism, which
indeed, had to ask myself whether I we now look back upon as servitude, and
should be within my right in saying hard then by the commercial freedom and equal-
things, outside the domain of political ity which we have enjoyed for the last
economy, about a system which has com- thirty or forty years. The one tended to
mended itself to the great American state harden into positive selfishness ; the other
and people, although those hard things has done much to foster a more liberal
are, in part at least, strictly consequent tone of mind.

upon what has been said before. Indeed, The economical question which I have

the moral is so closely allied to the been endeavoring to discuss is a very large

economical argument as to be inter- one. Nevertheless, it dwindles, in my

twined with it rather than consequent view, when it is compared with the para-

upon it. Further, I believe the people mount question of the American future.

of the United States to be a people who, viewed at large. There opens before the

like that race from which they are sprung, thinking mind when this supreme ques-

love plain speaking; and do not believe tion is propounded a vista so transcending

that to suppress opinions deliberately and all ordinary limitation as requires an al-

conscientiously held would be the way to most preterhuman force arid expansion of

win your respect. the mental eye in order to embrace it.

I urge, then, that all protection is Some things, and some weighty things,
morally as well as economically bad. This are clear so far as the future admits of
is a very different thing from saying that clearness. There is a vision of territory,
all protectionists are bad. Many of them, population, power, passing beyond all ex-
wit hout doubt, are good, nay, excellent, perience. The exhibition to mankind, for
as were in this country many of the sup- the first time in history, of free insfitu-

454

FREE TRADE FREEWILL BAPTISTS

tions on a gigantic scale, is momentous,
and I have enough faith in freedom,
enough distrust of all that is alien from
freedom, to believe that it will work
powerfully for good. But together with
and behind these vast developments there
will come a corresponding opportunity of
social and moral influence to be exercised
over the rest of the world. And the ques
tion of questions for us, as trustees for
our posterity, is, What will be the nature
of this influence? Will it make us, the
children of the senior races, who will have
to come under its action, better or worse?
Not what manner of producer, but what
manner of man, is the American of the
future to be?

I am, I trust, a lover of human advance
ment; but I know of no true progress ex
cept upon the old lines. Our race has not
lived for nothing. Their pilgrimage
through this deeply shadowed valley of
life and death has not been all in vain.
They have made accumulations on our be
half. I resent, and to the best of my
power I would resist, every attempt to de
prive us either in whole or in part of the
benefit of those accumulations. The
American love of freedom will, beyond all
doubt, be to some extent qualified, per
haps in some cases impaired, by the subtle
influence of gold, aggregated by many
hands in vaster masses than have yet been
known.

" Aurum per medios ire satellites,
Et perrumpere amat saxa, potentius
Ictu fulmineo."

But, to rise higher still, how will the
majestic figure, about to become the larg
est and most powerful on the stage of the
world s history, make use of his power?
Will it be instinct with moral life in pro
portion to its material strength? Will
he uphold and propagate the Christian
tradition with that surpassing energy
which marks him in all the ordinary pur
suits of life? Will he maintain with a
high hand an unfaltering reverence for
that law of nature which is anterior to
the Gospel, and supplies the standard to
which it appeals, the very foundation on
which it is built up? Will he fully know,
and fully act upon the knowledge, that
both reverence and strictness are essen
tial conditions of all high and desirable
well-being? And will he be a leader and

teacher to us of the Old World in rejecting
and denouncing all the miserable degrad
ing sophistries by which the arch-enemy,
ever devising more and more subtle
schemes against us, seeks at one stroke
perhaps to lower us beneath the brutes,
assuredly to cut us off from the hope and
from the source of the final good? One
thing is certain: his temptations will mul
tiply with his power; his responsibilities
with his opportunities. Will the seed be
sown among the thorns? Will worldli-
ness overrun the ground and blight its
flowers and its fruit? On the answers to
these questions, and to such as these, it
will depend whether this new revelation
of power upon the earth is also to be a
revelation of virtue; whether it shall
prove a blessing or a curse. May Heaven
avert every darker omen, and grant that
the latest and largest growth of the great
Christian civilization shall also be the
brightest and the best! See MORRILL,
JUSTIN SMITH; PROTECTION.

Free-traders, COMPANY OF. When the
province of Pennsylvania was granted to
William Penn, a number of settlements
already existed there. A royal proclama
tion confirming the grant to Penn, and
another from Penn himself, were sent to
these settlements by the hand of William
Markham in the summer of 1681. In his
proclamation Penn assured the settlers
that they should live free under laws of
their own making. Meanwhile adventur
ers calling themselves the Company of
Free-traders made a contract with the
proprietor for the purchase of lands at
the rate of about $10 the 100 acres, sub
ject to a perpetual quit-rent of Is. for
every 100-acre grant; the purchasers also
to have lots in a city to be laid out. Three
^essels filled with these emigrants soon
sailed for the Delaware, with three com
missioners, who bore a plan of the city,
and a friendly letter from Penn to the
Indians, whom he addressed as brethren.

Freewill Baptists, a division of Bap
tists founded by Benjamin Randall in
New Durham, N. H., in 1780. They grad
ually extended beyond New England into
the West, but made no advance in the
South, owing to their strong anti-slavery
opinions. The doctrine and practice of
the- Freewill Baptists are embodied in a
Treatise written in 1832. The chapters,

455

FBELINGHTJYSEN

twenty-one in all, declare that man can as a captain in the army. Afterwards he
be rescued from his fallen state and made filled various State and county offices, and
a child of God by redemption and regen- in 1790 was appointed by Washington to
eration, which have been freely provided, lead an expedition against the western
The " call of the Gospel is co-extensive Indians, with the rank of major-general,
with the atonement, to all men," so that In 1793 he was chosen United States
salvation is " equally possible to all." Senator, and served three years. He died
The " truly regenerate " are " through in- April 13, 1804.

firmity and manifold temptations, in Frelinghuysen, FREDERICK THEODORE,
danger of falling," and "ought therefore statesman; born in Millstone, N. J., Aug.
to watch and pray lest they make ship- 4, 1817; grandson of the preceding; grad-
wreck of faith." They practise immer- uated at Rutgers College in 1836; be-
sion, and hold that every Christian, what- came an eminent lawyer, and was attor-
ever his belief regarding the mode of bap- ney-general of New Jersey, 1861-66. He
tism, is eligible to partake of the Lord s was chosen United States Senator in 1868,
Supper. In 1900 they reported 1,619 min- and was re-elected for a full term in 1871.
isters, 1,486 churches, and 85,109 mem- He was a prominent member of the Repub-
bers. lican party. In July, 1870, President

Frelinghuysen, FREDERICK, lawyer; Grant appointed him minister to England,
born in Somerset county, N. J., April 13, but he declined the position. On Dec. 12,
1753; graduated at the College of New 1881, he entered the cabinet of President
Jersey in 1770, and became an emi- Arthur as Secretary of State, on the
nent lawyer. He was a member of the resignation of Secretary Elaine, and
Continental Congress much of the time served to the end of that administration,
during the Revolutionary War, and served March 4, 1885. He died in Newark, N.

J.. May 20, 1885.

Frelinghuysen,
THEODORE, law
yer; born in Mill
stone, N. J., March
28, 1787; son of
Gen. Frederick
Frel ingh uy sen;
graduated at
the College of
New Jersey in
1804, and was ad
mitted to the bar
in 1808. In the
War of 1812-15
he commanded a
company of volun
teers, and in 1817
became attorney-
general of Ne\v
Jersey, which

post he held until
1829, when he was
elected United

States Senator. In
1838 . he was
chosen chancellor
of the University
of New York, a ml
made his residence

THBODOHB f RMUKOHCYUBN. 1 that CltVJ i n.l

450

FREMONT

in 1844 he was nominated for Vice-Presi- Fremin, JACQUES. See JESUIT MISSIONS.

dent of the United States, with Henry Clay Fremont, JESSIE BENTON, author; born

for President. Mr. Frelinghuysen left the in Virginia in 1824; was the daughter of

University of New York in 1850 to be- Senator Thomas H. Benton, of Missouri;

came president of RUTGERS COLLEGE (q. married John C. Fr6mont in 1841. She

v.) , in his native State, which place he published The Story of the Guard; Me-

hcld until his death in New Brunswick, moir of Thomas H. Benton; Souvenirs of

N. J., April 12, 1862. My Time; A Tear of American Travel; etc.

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

Fremont, JOHN CHARLES, explorer; against 174 given for Buchanan. Return-
born in Savannah, Ga., Jan. 21, 1813; ing from Europe in May, 1861, and be-
graduated at Charleston College in 1830. ing appointed a major-general in the
His father was a Frenchman, and his United States army, he was assigned to
mother a Virginian. He was instruc- command the Western Department; but,
tor in mathematics in the United States
navy from 1833 to 1835. Engaged in
surveying the Cherokee country in the
winter of 1837-38, he began his famous
explorations, first in the country between
the Missouri River and the British pos
sessions. He had been appointed second
lieutenant of topographical engineers in
July. In 1841 he married a daughter of
Senator Thomas H. Benton, and in May,
1842, he began, under the authority of
the government, the exploration of an
overland route to the Pacific Ocean. He
ascended the highest peak of the Wind
River Mountains, which was afterwards
named Fremont s Peak. He explored
the Great Salt Lake region in 1843, and
penetrated to the Pacific near the mouth
of the Columbia River. In 1845 he ex
plored the Sierra Nevada in California,
and in 1846 became involved in hostilities

with the Mexicans on the Pacific coast, through the intrigues of ambitious poll-
He assisted in the conquest of California ; ticians, was removed from the corn-
was appointed its military governor ; and, mand in the course of six months, while
after its admission as a State, became successfully prosecuting a campaign he
one of its first United States Senators, had planned. He was in command of an-
He continued his explorations after the other department, but resigned in 1862,
war. For his scientific researches, Fre- declining to serve under an officer in-
mont received, in 1850, a gold medal from ferior to him in rank. Radical Repub-
the King of Prussia, and another from the licans nominated him for the Presidency
Royal Geographical Society of London, in 1864, after which he took leave of
He had already received from his country- political life; but he became active in
men the significant title of " The Path- promoting the construction of a trans-
finder." At his own expense he made a continental railway. He died in New
fifth exploration, in 1853, and found a York, July 13, 1890.

new route to the Pacific. In 1856, the In the spring of 1845 Captain Fremont
newly formed Republican party nomi- was sent by his government to explore
nated him for the Presidency of the United the great basin and the maritime region
States, and he received 114 electoral votes of Oregon and California. He crossed the

457

JOHN CHARLES FREMONT.

FBEMONT, JOHN CHARLES

Sierra Nevada, in the dead of winter, from on Feb. 8, 1847, assuming that office him-
Great Salt Lake into California, with self, he declared the annexation of Cali-
between sixty and seventy men, to obtain fornia to the United States. Fremont re-
supplies. Leaving them in the valley of fused to obey General Kearny, his
the San Joaquin, he went to Monterey, superior officer, who sent him to Wash-
then the capital of the province of Cali- ington under arrest, where he was tried
fornia, to obtain permission from the Mex- by a court-martial, which sentenced him
ican authorities to continue his explora- to be dismissed from the service, but
tions. It was given, but was almost recommended him to the clemency of the
immediately withdrawn, and he was per- President. The penalty was remitted,
emptorily ordered to leave the country and in October, 1848, Fremont entered
without delay. He refused, when General upon his fourth exploration among the far
de Castro, the Mexican governor, mus- western mountains. See KEARXY, STEPHEN
tered the forces of the province to expel WATTS; STOCKTON, EGBERT FIELD.
him. At length he was permitted to go Fremont was in Europe when the Civil
on with his explorations without hin- War broke out, and, leaving on receiving
derance. On May 9, 1846, he received de- notice of his appointment to the army,
spatches from his government, directing he returned home, bringing with him
him to watch the movements of the Mexi- arms for the government. He arrived
cans in California, who seemed disposed in Boston on June 27, and July 6 he was
to hand the province over to the British appointed to the command of the Western
government. It was also rumored that Department, just created. He arrived at
General de Castro intended to destroy all St. Louis July 26, where he made his
the American settlements on the Sacra- headquarters. He found disorder every-
mento River. Fremont hurried back to where. The terms of enlistment of home
California, and found De Castro on the guards, or three-months men, were ex-
march against the settlements. The P ring, and they were unwilling to re-
settlers flew to arms, and joined Fre- enlist. He had very little money or arms
mont s camp, and, under his leadership, at his disposal, and was unable to send
these settlements were not only saved, but aid to General Lyon, in the southwestern
the Mexican authorities were driven out portion of the State, battling with the
of California. Fremont and his followers Confederates. He resolved to assume
met General de Castro and his forces, grave responsibilities. He applied to the
strong in numbers, when Fremont retired United States Treasurer at St. Louis for
about 30 miles, to a mountain position, a portion of $300,000 in his hands, but
where he called around him the American was refused. He was about to seize
settlers in that region. With these he $100,000 of it when the officer yielded;
captured a Mexican post at Sonoma Pass and, with the money, Fremont secured the
(June 15, 1846), with nine cannon and re-enlistment of many of the home guards.
250 muskets. De Castro was routed, and L r c strongly fortified St. Louis, and pre-
on July 5 the Americans in California pared to place the important post at
declared themselves independent, and Cairo in a position of absolute security,
elected Fremont governor of the province. With nearly 4,000 troops on steamers, he
He then proceeded to join the American proceeded to Cairo with such a display
naval forces at Monterey, under Commo- that the impression was general that he
dore Stockton, who had lately arrived, had 12,000. Although large bodies of
with authority from Washington to con- Confederate troops in Kentucky and Mis-
quer California. Frgmont appeared there souri were gathered for the purpose of
with 160 mounted riflemen. On Aug. 17, seizing Cairo and Bird s Point, Fremont
1846, Stockton and Fremont took posses- was not molested in his mission, and
sion of the city of Los Angeles: and at Prentiss, at the former place, was amply
that place General Kearny. who had just strengthened. Pillow and Thompson and
taken possession of New Mexico, joined Hardee, who had advanced in that di-
Stmrkton and Fremont, Dec. 27. 1S40. rection, fell back, and became very dis-
Kearny would not sanction the election of creet. FrC-mont returned to St. Louis on
FrSmont as governor of California, and Aug. 4, having accomplished his wishes

458

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

and spread alarm among the Confederates. 5,000 troops immediately to Washington,
Polk, at Memphis, ordered Pillow to D. C., notwithstanding McClellan num-
evacuate New Madrid, with his men and bered 75,000 within easy call of the
heavy guns, and hasten to Randolph and capital. Fremont s force, never exceedin"
Fort Pillow, on the Tennessee shore. 56,000, was scattered over his department.
When news of the battle at Wilson s Chafing under unjust complaints, he pro-
Creek, and the death of Lyon, reached St. cceded to put into execution his plan of
Louis, the Confederates were jubilant, ridding the Mississippi Valley of Confed-
Fremont immediately proclaimed martial crates. His plan contemplated the capt-
law, and appointed a provost-marshal, ure or dispersion of troops under General
Some of the most active Confederates were Price in Missouri, and the seizure of Lit-
arrested, and the publication of news- tie Rock, Ark. By so doing, he expected
papers charged with disloyalty was sus- to turn the position of Pillow and others
pended. But the condition of public af- in the vicinity of New Madrid, cut off the
fairs in. Missouri was becoming more and supplies from the southwest, and compel
more alarming. The provisional govern- them to retreat, at which time a flotilla
ment was almost powerless. Fremont of gunboats, then building near St. Louis,
took all authority into his own hands, might descend the Mississippi, and assist
Confederates were arrested and impris- in military operations against the bat-
soned, and disloyalty of every kind felt teries at Memphis. In the event of this
the force of his power. He proclaimed movement being successful, he proposed
that the property, real and personal, of to push on towards the Gulf of Mexico
all persons in Missouri who should be with his army, and take possession of New
proven to have taken an active part with Orleans. More than 20,000 soldiers were
the enemies of the government in the set in motion (Sept. 27, 1861) southward
field should be confiscated to the public (5,000 of them cavalry), under the re
use, and their slaves, if they had any, spective commands of Generals Hunter,
should thereafter be free men (see Pope, Sigel, McKinstry, and Asboth, ac-
EMANCIPATJOX PROCLAMATIONS). As he companied by eighty - six heavy guns,
acted promptly in accordance with his These were moving southward early in
proclamation, great consternation began October; and on the llth, when his army
to prevail. At that moment his hand was was 30.000 strong, he wrote to the gov-
srayed. Because of his avowed deter- ernment: "My plan is, New Orleans
mination to confiscate the property and straight; I would precipitate the war
free the slaves of the disloyalists, a forward, and end it soon victoriously."
storm of indignation suddenly arose in He was marching with confidence of suc-
the border slave States, which alarmed cess, and his troops were winning little
the national government, and the Presi- victories here and there, when, tlirough
dent, wishing to placate the rebellious the influence of men jealous of him and
spirit of those States, requested Fremont his political enemies, Fremont s career
to modify his proclamation on these was suddenly checked. False accusers,
points. He declined to do so, when the public and private, caused General Scott
President, at Fromont s request, issued to send an order for him to turn over his
an order for such a modification. Fr6- command to General Hunter, then some
mont could not, for it would imply that distance in the rear. Hunter arrived just
he thought the measure wrong, which he as the troops were about to attack Price,
did not. He took the command, and countermanded

Fremont was censured for his failure Fromont s orders for battle; and nine
to reinforce Colonel Mulligan at Lexing- days afterwards Gen. H. W. Halleck was
ton. The public knew very little of his placed in command of the Department of
embarrassments at that time. Pressing Missouri. The disappointed and disheart-
demands came for reinforcements from ened army were turned buck, and marched
General Grant at Paducah. At various to St. Louis in sullen sadness. Soon af-
points in his department were heard cries tcrwards an elegant sword was presented
for help, and a peremptory order came to Fremont, inscribed, " To the Path-
from General Scott for him to forward finder, by the Men of the West."

459

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

Ascent of Fremont s Peak. In the Jour
nal of his first expedition (1842), Fre
mont gives a modest yet thrilling account
of the ascent of the highest peak of the
Rocky Mountains and of the planting of
" Old Glory " on the extreme summit.
The altitude of this peak is given by Prof.
F. V. Hayden as 13,790 feet. The Journal
reads as follows:

August 10. The air at sunrise is clear
and pure, and the morning extremely cold,
but beautiful. A lofty snow-peak of the

mountain is glittering in the first rays of rose before us, pile upon pile, glowing in
the sun, which has not yet reached us. the bright light of an August day. Imme-

of granite. Winding our way up a long
ravine, we came unexpectedly in view of a
most beautiful lake, set like a gem in the
mountains. The sheet of water lay trans
versely across the direction we had been
pursuing; and, descending the steep, rocky
ridge, where it was necessary to lead our
horses, we followed its banks to the south
ern extremity. Here a view of the utmost
magnificence and grandeur burst upon our
eyes. With nothing between us and their
feet to lessen the effect of the whole height,
a grand bed of snow-capped mountains

The long mountain wall to the
rising 2,000 feet abruptly from

east, diately below them lay the lake, between
the two ridges, covered with dark pines, which

plain, behind which we see the peaks, is swept down from the main chain to the

still dark, and cuts clear against the glow
ing sky. A fog, just risen from the river,
lies alone: the base of the mountain. A

spot where we stood. Here, where the
lake glittered in the open sunlight, its
banks of yellow sand and the light foliage

little before sunrise, the thermometer was of aspen groves contrasted well with the

at 35, and at sunrise 33. Water froze
last night, and fires are very comfortable.
The scenery becomes hourly more interest
ing and grand, and the view here is truly
magnificent; but, indeed, it needs some
thing to repay the Ion
of 1,000 miles. The

above the wall, and makes a magical
change. The whole valley is glowing and
bright, and all the mountain-peaks are
gleaming like silver. Though these snow-
mountains are not the Alps, they have
their own character of grandeur and mag
nificence, and will doubtless find pens and
pencils to do them justice. In the scene
before us, we feel how much wood im
proves a view. The pines on the moun
tain seemed to give it much additional
beauty. I was agreeably disappointed in
the character of the streams on this side
the ridge. Instead of the creeks, which
description had led me to expect, I find
bold, broad streams, with three or four
feet of water, and a rapid current. The
fork on which we are encamped is up
ward of 100 feet wide, timbered with
groves or thickets of the low willow. We

gloomy pines. " Never before," said Mr.
Prenss, - in this country or in Europe,
have I seen such magnificent, grand
rocks." I was so much pleased with the
beauty of the place that I determined to

6 prairie journey make the main camp here, where our ani-
sun has just shot mals would find good pasturage, and ex
plore the mountains with a small party of
men. Proceeding a little further, we came
suddenly upon the outlet of the lake,
where it found its way through a narrow
passage between low hills. Dark pines,
which overhung the stream, and masses of
rock, where the water foamed along, gave
it much romantic beauty. Where we
crossed, which was immediately at the
outlet, it is two hundred and fifty feet
wide, and so deep that with difiioulty we
were able to ford it. Its bed was an ac
cumulation of rocks, boulders, and bmad
slabs, and large angular fragments, among
which the animals fell repeatedly.

The current was very swift, and the wa
ter cold and of a crystal purity. In crim
ing this stream, I met with a great mis
fortune in having my barometer broken.
It was the only one. A great part of

were now approaching the loftiest part the interest of the journey for me was in

of the Wind River chain; and I left the
valley a few miles from our encampment,
intending to penetrate the mountains, ,-is
far as possible, with the whole party. We
were soon involved in very broken ground.
among long ridges covered with fragments

-100

the exploration of these mountains, of
which so much had been said that was
doubtful and contradictory: and now
their snowy peaks rose majestically !
fore me, and the only means of giving
them authentically to M-ii-ncc. the &lt;&gt;l.

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCKNKItY.

of my anxious solicitude by night and disputes. Their grief was only inferior

day, was destroyed. We had brought this to my own.

barometer in safety 1,000 miles, and This lake is about 3 miles long and
broke it almost among the snow of the of very irregular width and apparently
mountain. The loss was felt by the great depth, and is the head - water of
vuole camp. All had seen my anxiety, the third New Fork, a tributary to Green
and aided me in preserving it. The River, the Colorado of the West. On the
height of these mountains, considered by map and in the narrative I have called
the hunters and traders the highest in it Mountain Lake. I encamped on the
the whole range, had been a theme of north side, about 350 yards from the out-
constant discussion among them ; and all let. This was the most western point at
had looked forward with pleasure to the which I obtained astronomical obser-
moment when the instrument, which they vations, by which this place, called Ber-
believed to be as true as the sun, should nier s encampment, is made in 110 08
stand upon the summits and decide their 03" W. long, from Greenwich, and lat.

4G1

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

4.3 4! 4.r- The mountain peaks, as
laid down, wore fixed by hearings from
this and other astronomical j&gt;oints. \\"e
had no other compass than the small ones
used in sketching the country; but from
an azimuth, in which one of them was
used, the variation of the compass is 18
E. The correction made in our field work
by the astronomical observations indi
cates that this is a very correct observa
tion.

As soon as the camp was formed, I set
about endeavoring to repair my barometer.
As I have already said, this was a stand
ard cistern barometer, of Troughton s con
struction. The glass cistern had been
broken about midway; but, as the instru
ment had been kept in a proper position,
no air had found its way into the tube,
the end of which had always remained cov
ered. I had with me a number of phials
of tolerably thick glass, some of which
were of the same diameter as the cistern,
and I spent the day in slowly working
on these, endeavoring to cut them of the
requisite length ; but, as my instrument
was a very rough file, I invariably broke
them. A groove was cut in one of the
trees, where the barometer was placed
during the night, to be out of the way of
any possible danger; and in the morning
I commenced again. Among the powder-
horns in the camp, I found one which was
very transparent, so that its contents
could be almost as plainly seen as through
glass. This I boiled and stretched on
a piece of wood to the requisite diameter,
and scraped it very thin, in order to in
crease to the utmost its transparency. I
then secured it firmly in its place on the
instrument with strong glue made from
a buffalo, and filled it with mercury prop
erly heated. A piece of skin, which had
covered one of the phia.ls, furnished a good
pocket, which was well secured with strong
thread and glue; and then the brass cover
was screwed into its place. The instru
ment was left some time to dry; and,
when I reversed it, a few hours after, I
h:;d Die satisfaction to find it in perfect
order, its indications being about the same,
as on the other side of the lake before it
had been broken. Our success in this little
incident diffused pleasure throughout the
camp ; and we immediately set about our
preparations for ascending the mountains.

462

As will IK- seen, on reference to a map,
on this short mountain chain are the
head - waters of four great rivers of the
lontinetit. namely, the Colorado, Colum
bia, Missouri, and 1 latte Rivers. It hud
been my design, after having ascended the
mountains, to continue our route on the
western side of the range, and, crossing
through a pass at the northwestern end
of the chain, about 30 miles from our
present camp, return along the eastern
slope across the heads of the Yellowstone
River, and join on the line to our station
of August 7, immediately at the foot of
the ridge. In this way, I should be en
abled to include the Avholc chain and its
numerous waters in my survey ; but vari
ous considerations induced me, very re
luctantly, to abandon this plan.

I was desirous to keep strictly within
the scope of my instructions; and it would
have required ten or fifteen additional
days for the accomplishment of this ob
ject. Our animals had become very much
worn out with the length of the journey ;
game was very scarce; and, though it
does not appear in the course of the narra
tive (as I have avoided dwelling upon
trifling incidents not connected with the
objects of the expedition), the spirits of
the men had been much exhausted by the
hardships and privations to which they
had been subjected. Our provisions had
wellnigh all disappeared. Bread had
been long out of the question ; and of all
our stock we had remaining two or three
pounds of colTce and a small quantity of
macaroni, which had been husbanded with
great care for the mountain expedition
we were about to undertake. Our daily
meal consisted of dry buffalo meat cooked
in tallow: and, as we had not dried this
with Indian skill, part of it was spoiled,
and what remained of good was as hard
as wood, having much the taste and ap
pearance of so many pieces of bark. Even
of this, our stock was rapidly diminishing
in a camp which was capable of consum
ing two buffaloes in every twenty- four
hours. These animals had entirely disap
peared, and it was not probable that we
should fall in with them again until we
returned to the Sweet Water.

Our arrangements for the ascent were
rapidly completed. We were in a hostile
country, which rendered the greatest

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

vigilance and circumspection necessary, had passed over, nature had collected all
The pass at the north end of the mountain her beauties together in one chosen place,
was generally infested by Blackfeet; and We were overlooking a deep valley, which
immediately opposite was one of their was entirely occupied by three lakes, and
forts, on the edge of a little thicket, two from the brink the surrounding ridges
or three hundred feet from our encamp- rose precipitously 500 and 1,000 feet,
nient. We were posted in a grove of covered with the dark green of the
beech, on the margin of the lake, and a balsam pine, relieved on the border of
few hundred feet long, with a narrow the lake with the light foliage of the
prairillon on the inner side, bordered by aspen. They all communicated with each
the rocky ridge. In the upper end of other; and the green of the waters,
this grove we cleared a circular space common to mountain lakes of great depth,
about 40 feet in diameter, and with showed that it would be impossible to
the felled timber and interwoven cross them. The surprise manifested by
branches surrounded it with a breastwork our guides when these impassable ob-
5 feet in height. A gap was left for a stacles suddenly barred our progress
gate on the inner side, by which the ani- proved that they were among the hidden
mals were to be driven in and secured, treasures of the place, unknown even to
while the men slept around the little work, the wandering trappers of the region.
It was half hidden by the foliage, and. Descending the hill, we proceeded to make
garrisoned by twelve resolute men, would our way along the margin to the southern
have set at defiance any band of savages extremity. A narrow strip of angular
which might chance to discover them in fragments of rock sometimes afforded a
the interval of our absence. Fifteen of rough pathway for our mules; but gen-
the best mules, with fourteen men, were erally we rode along the shelving side,
selected for the mountain party. Our occasionally scrambling up, at a consider-
provisions consisted of dried meat for two able risk of tumbling back into the lake,
days, with our little stock of coffee and The slope was frequently 60. The
some macaroni. In addition to the pines grew densely together, and the
barometer and thermometer I took with ground was covered with the branches
me a sextant spy-glass, and we had, of and trunks of trees. The air was fragrant
course, our compasses. In charge of the with tho odor of the pines; and I realized
camp I left Brenier, one of my most trust- this delightful morning the pleasure of
worthy men, who possessed the most de- breathing that mountain air which makes
termined courage. a constant theme of the hunter s praise,
August 12. Early in the morning we and which now made us feel as if we had
left the camp, fifteen in number, well all been drinking some exhilarating gas.
armed, of course, and mounted on our The depths of this unexplored forest were
best mules. A pack animal carried our a place to delight the heart of a botanist,
provisions, with a coffee-pot and kettle There was a rich undergrowth of plants
and three or four tin cups. Every man and numerous gay-colored flowers in brill-
had a blanket strapped over his saddle, iant bloom. We reached the outlet at
to serve for his bed. and the instruments length, where some freshly barked wil-
were carried by turns on their backs. We lows that lay in the water showed that
entered directly on rough and rocky beaver had been recently at work. There
ground, and. just after crossing the ridge, were some small brown squirrels jumping
had the good fortune to shoot an ante- about in the pines and a couple of large
lope. We heard the roar, and had a mallard ducks swimming about in the
glimpse of a waterfall as \ve rode along; stream.

and. crossing in our way two fine streams. The hills on this southern end were

tributary to the Colorado, in about two low, and the lake looked like a mimic sea

hours ride \ve readied the top of the first as the waves broke on the sandy beach

row or range of the mountains. Here, in the force of a strong breeze. Therp

again, a view of the most romantic beauty was a pretty open spot, with fine grass

met our eyes. It seemed as if, from the for our mules; and we made our noon

vast expanse of uninteresting prairie we halt on the beach, under the shade of

403

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

some large hemlocks. We resumed our seemed to conduct by a smooth gradual

journey after a halt of about an hour, slope directly towards the peak, which,

making our way up the ridge on the from long consultation as we approached

western side of the lake. In search of the mountain, we had decided to be the

smoother ground, we rode a little inland, highest of the range. Pleased with the

and, passing through groves of aspen, discovery of so fine a road for the next

soon found ourselves again among the day, we hastened down to the camp,

pines. Emerging from these, we struck where we arrived just in time for supper,

the summit of the ridge above the upper Our table service was rather scant; and

end of the lake. we held the meat in our hands, and clean

We had reached a very elevated point; rocks made good plates on which to

and in the valley below and among the spread our macaroni. Among all the

hills were a number of lakes at different strange places on which we had occasion

levels, some two or three hundred feet to encamp during our long journey, none

above others, with which they com- have left so vivid an impression on my

municated by foaming torrents. Even to mind as the camp of this evening. The

our great height, the roar of the cata- disorder of the masses which surrounded

racts came up ; and we could see them us, the little hole through which we saw

leaping down in lines of snowy foam, the stars overhead, the dark pines where

From this scene of busy waters, we we slept, and the rocks lit up with the

turned abruptly into the stillness of a glow of our fires made a night picture

forest, where we rode among the open of very wild beauty.

bolls of the pines over a lawn of August 13. The morning was bright

verdant grass, having strikingly the air and pleasant, just cool enough to make

of cultivated grounds. This led us, after exercise agreeable; and we soon entered

a time, among masses of rock, which the defile I had seen the preceding day.

had no vegetable earth but in hollows It was smoothly carpeted with a soft

and crevices, though still the pine forest grass and scattered over with groups of

continued. Towards evening we reached flowers, of which yellow was the pre-

a defile, or rather a hole in the moun- dominant color. Sometimes we were

tuins, entirely shut in by dark pine-cov- forced by an occasional difficult pass to

ered rocks. pick our way on a narrow ledge along

A small stream, with a scarcely per- the side of the defile, and the mules were

ceptible current, flowed through a level frequently on their knees; but these ob-

bottom of perhaps 80 yards width where structions were rare, and we journeyed

the grass was saturated with water. Into on in the sweet morning air, delighted at

this the mules were turned, and were our good fortune in having found such

neither hobbled nor picketed during the a beautiful entrance to the mountains,

night, as the fine pasturage took away This road continued for about 3 miles,

all temptation to stray; and we made our when we suddenly reached its termi-

bivouac in the pines. The surrounding nation in one of the grand views which

masses were all of granite. While supper at every turn meet the traveller in this

\vas being prepared, I set out on an ex- magnificent region. Here the defile up

cursion in the neighborhood, accompanied which we had travelled opened out into a

by one of my men. We wandered about small lawn, where, in a little lake, the

among the crags and ravines until dark, stream had its source.

richly repaid for our walk by a fine col- There were some fine asters in bloom,

lection of plants, many of them in full but all the flowering plants appeared to

bloom. Ascending a peak to find the seek the shelter of the rocks and to be

place of our camp, we saw that the little of lower growth than below, as if they

defile in which we lay communicated with loved the warmth of the soil, and kept

the long green valley of some stream, out of the way of the winds. Imme-

vdiich, here locked up in the mountains, diately at our feet a precipitous descent

far away to the south, found its way in led to a confusion of defiles, and before us

a dense forest to the plains. rose the mountains as we have represent-

Looking along its upward course, it ed them in the view on page 461. It is

4G4

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

not by the splendor of far-oil views, numerable springs made them very

which have lent such a glory to the Alps, slippery.

that these impress the mind, but by a By the time we had reached the farther
gigantic disorder of enormous masses and side of the lake, we found ourselves all
a savage sublimity of naked rock in won- exceedingly fatigued, and, much to the
dorful contrast with innumerable green satisfaction of the whole party, we en-
spots of a rich floral beauty shut up in camped. The spot we had chosen was a
their stern recesses. Their wildness seems broad, flat rock, in some measure protected
well suited to the character of the people from the winds by the surrounding crags,
who inhabit the country. and the trunks of fallen pines afforded

I determined to leave our animals here us bright fires,
and make the rest of our way on foot, torrent which

Near by was a foaming
tumbled into the little

The peak appeared so near that there lake about 150 feet below us, and which,

was no doubt of our returning before by way of distinction, we have called

night; and a few men were left in charge Island Lake. We had reached the upper

of the mules, with our provisions and limit of the piney region; as above

blankets. We took with us nothing but this point no tree was to be seen, and

our arms and instruments, and, as the patches of snow lay everywhere around us

day had become warm, the greater part on the cold sides of the rocks. The flora

left our coats. Having made an early of the region we had traversed since leav-

dinner, we started again. We were soon ing our mules was extremely rich, and

involved in the most ragged precipices, among the characteristic plants the scarlet

Hearing the central chain very slowly, flowers of the Dodecathcon dentatum ev-

and rising but little. The first ridge hid erywhere met the eye in great abundance,

a succession of others; and when, with A small green ravine, on the edge of which

great fatigue and difficulty, we had we were encamped, was filled with a profu-
cl imbed up 500 feet, it was but to

sion of alpine plants in brilliant bloom.

feet, it was

make an equal descent on the other From barometrical observations made dur
side. All these intervening places were ing our three days sojourn at this place,
filled with small deep lakes, which met its elevation above the Gulf of Mexico is
the eye in every direction, descending 10,000 feet. During the day we had seen
from one level to another, sometimes no sign of animal life; but among the
under bridges formed by huge fragments rocks here we heard what was supposed to
of granite, beneath which was heard the be the bleat of a young goat, which we
roar of the water. These constantly ob- searched for with hungry activity, and
structed our path, forcing us to make found to proceed from a small animal of
long detours, frequently obliged to re- a gray color, with short ears and no tail,
trace our steps, and frequently falling probably the Siberian squirrel. We saw a
among the rocks. Maxwell was precipi- considerable number of them, and, with
tated towards the face of a precipice, and the exception of a small bird like a spar-
saved himself from going over by throw- row, it is the only inhabitant of this
ing himself flat on the ground. We elevated part of the mountains. On our
clambered on, always expecting with return we saw below this lake large flocks
e\ery ridge that we crossed to reach the of the mountain-goat. We had nothing
foot of the peaks, and always disap- to eat to-night. Lajeunesse with several
pointed, until about four o clock, when, others took their guns and sallied out in
pretty well worn out, we reached the search of a goat, but returned unsuccess-
s. iore of a little lake in which there was ful. At sunset the barometer stood at
a rocky island, and from which we ob- 20.522, the attached thermometer 50

tained the view

in the frontis- Here we had the misfortune to break our

piece. We remained here a short time to thermometer, having now only that at-

rest, and continued on around the lake, tached to the barometer. I was taken ill

which had in some places a beach of shortly after we had encamped, and con-

white sand, and in others was bound tinned so until late in the night, with

with rocks, over which the way was diffi- violent headache and vomiting. This was

cult and dangerous, as the water from in- probably caused bv the excessive fatigue
in. 2 G 405

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

I had undergone? and want of food, and reeled towering 800 or 1,000 feet into
perhaps also in some measure by the the air above him. In the mean time,
rarity of the air. The night was cold, finding himself grow rather worse than
as a violent gale from the north had better, and doubtful how far my strength
sprung up at sunset, which entirely blew would carry me, I sent Basil Lajeunesse
away the heat of the fires. The cold and with four men back to the place where
our granite beds had not been favor- the mules had been left.
able to sleep, and we were glad to see We were now better acquainted with the
the face of the sun in the morning, topography of the country; and I directed
Not being delayed by any prepara- him to bring back with him, if it were
tion for breakfast, we .set out imme- in any way possible, four or five mules,
diately. with provisions and blankets. With me
On every side as we advanced was heard were Maxwell and Ayer ; and, after we
the roar of waters and of a torrent, which had remained nearly an hour on the rock,
we followed up a short distance until it it became so unpleasantly cold, though
expanded into a lake about one mile in the day was bright, that w r e set out on our
length. On the northern side of the lake return to the camp, at which we all ar-
was a bank of ice, or rather of snow cov- rived safely, straggling in one after the
ered with a crust of ice. Carson had other. I continued ill during the after-
been our guide into the mountain, and noon, but became better towards sundown,
agreeably to his advice we left this little when my recovery was completed by the,
valley and took to the ridges again, which appearance of Basil and four men, all
we found extremely broken and where we mounted. The men who had gone with
were again involved among precipices, him had been too much fatigued to return.
Here were ice-fields; among which we and were relieved by those in charge of
were all dispersed, seeking each the best the horses; but in his powers of en-
path to ascend the peak. Mr. Preuss at- durance Basil resembled more a moun-
tempted to walk along the upper edge of tain-goat than a man. They brought
one of these fields, which sloped away at blankets and provisions, and we enjoyed
an angle of about twenty degrees; but well our dried meat and a cup of good
his feet slipped from under him, and he coffee. We rolled ourselves up in our
went plunging down the plane. A few blankets, and, with our feet turned to
hundred feet below, at the bottom, were a blazing fire, slept soundly until morn-
some fragments of sharp rock, on which ing-
he landed, and, though he turned a couple August 15. It had been supposed that
of somersets, fortunately received no in- we had finished with the mountains; and
jury beyond a few bruises. Two of the the evening before it had been arranged
men, Clement Lambert and Descoteaux, that Carson should set out at daylight,
had been taken ill, and lay down on the and return to breakfast at the Camp of
rocks a short distance below; and at this the Mules, taking with him all but four
point I was attacked with headache and or five men, who were to stay with me
giddiness, accompanied by vomiting, as and bring back the mules and instruments.
on the day before. Finding myself un- Accordingly, at the break of day they set
able to proceed, I sent the barometer over out. Willi Mr. Preuss and myself re-
to Mr. Preuss, who was in a gap two or mained Basil Lajeunesse, Clement Lam-
three hundred yards distant, desiring him bert. Janisse. and Descoteaux. When we
to reach the peak, if possible, and take had secured strength for the day by a
an observation there. He found himself hearty breakfast, we covered what re-
unable to proceed farther in that direc- mained. which was enough for one meal,
tion, and took an observation where the with rocks, in order that it might be safe
barometer stood at 19.401, attached ther- from any marauding bird, and saddling
momder 50 in the gap. Carson, who cur mules, turned our faces once more
had gone over to him, succeeded in reach- towards the peaks. This time we deter
ing one of the snowy summits of the mined to proceed quietly and cautiously,
main ridge, whence he saw the peak tow- deliberately resolved to accomplish our
ards which all our efforts had been di- object, if it were within the compass of

466

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

human means. We were of opinion that sitting down as soon as \ve found breath
a long defile which lay to the left of yes- beginning to fail. At intervals we reached
terday s route would lead us to the foot places where a number of springs gushed
of the main peak. Our mules had been from the rocks, and about 1,800 feet above
refreshed by the fine grass in the little the lakes came to the snow-line. From
ravine at the island camp, and we intend- this point our progress was uninterrupted
ed to ride up the defile as far as possible, climbing. Hitherto I had worn a pair of
in order to husband our strength for the thick moccasins, with soles of parfleche;
main ascent. Though this was a fine pas- but here I put on a light thin pair, which
sage, still it was a defile of the most I had brought for the purpose, as now the
rugged mountains known, and we had use of our toes became necessary to a fur-
many a rough and steep slippery plae to ther advance. I availed myself of a sort
cross before reaching the end. In this of comb of the mountains, which stood
place the sun rarely shone. Snow lay against the wall like a buttress, and which
along the border of the small stream the wind and the solar radiation, joined
which flowed through it, and occasional to the steepness of the smooth rock, had
icy passages made the footing of the mules kept almost entirely free from snow. Up
very insecure; and the rocks and ground this I made my way rapidly. Our cau-
were moist with the trickling waters in tious method of advancing in the outset
this spring of mighty rivers. We soon had spared my strength ; and, with the ex-
had the satisfaction to find ourselves rid- ception of a slight disposition to head
ing along the huge wall which forms the ache, I felt no remains of yesterday s ill-
central summits of the chain. There at ness. In a few minutes we reached a
last it rose by our sides, a nearly perpen- point where the buttress was overhanging,
dicular wall of granite, terminating 2,000 and there was no other way of surmount-
to 3,000 feet above our heads in a ser- ing the difficulty than by passing around
rated line of broken, jagged cones. We one side of it, which was the face of a
rode on until we came almost immediately vertical precipice of several hundred
below the main peak, which I denominated feet.

the Snow Peak, as it exhibited more snow Putting hands and feet in the crevices
to the eye than any of the neighboring between the blocks, I succeeded in getting
summits. Here were three small lakes over it, and, when I reached the top,
of a green color, each perhaps 1,000 yards found my companions in a small valley be-
in diameter, and apparently very deep. low. Descending to them, we continued
These lay in a kind of chasm: and, ac- climbing, and in a short time reached the
cording to the barometer, we had attain- crest. I sprang upon the summit, and an-
ed but a few hundred feet above the other step would have precipitated me into
Island Lake. The barometer here stood an immense snow-field 500 feet below,
at 20.450. attached thermometer 70. To the edge of this field was a sheer
We managed to get our mules up to a icy precipice; and then, with a grad-
little bench about 100 feet above the ual fall, the field sloped off for about a
lakes, where there was a patch of good mile, until it struck the foot of another
grass, and turned them loose to graze, lower ridge. I stood on a narrow crest,
During our rough ride to this place, they about 3 feet in width, with an in-
had exhibited a wonderful surefootedness. clination of about 20 N. 51 E. As soon
Par-ts of the defile were filled with an- as I had gratified the first feelings of curi-
gular, sharp fragments of rock, 3 or osity, I descended, and ea^h man ascended
4 and 8 or 10 feet cube, and among in his turn ; for I would only allow one at
these they had worked their way, leap- a time to mount the unstable and pre-
ing from one narrow point to another, carious slab, which it s&lt;vmed a breath
rarely making a false step, and giving us would hurl into the abyss below. We
no occasion to dismount. Having divested mounted the barometer in the snow of the
ourselves of every unnecessary encum- summit, and. fixing a ramrod in a crevice,
brance, we commenced the ascent. This unfurled the national flag to wave in the
time, like experienced travellers, we did breeze where never flag waved before,
not press ourselves, but climbed leisurely, During our morning s ascent we had met

407

FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES

no sign of animal life except the small, extremity of the ridge the peaks
sparrow-like bird already mentioned. A plainly visible, among which were some
stillness the most profound and a terrible of the springs of the Nebraska or Platte
solitude forced themselves constantly on River. Around us the whole scene had
the mind as the great features of the place, one main striking feature, which was that
Here on the summit where the stillness of terrible convulsion. Parallel to its
was absolute, unbroken by any sound, and length, the ridge was split into chasms and
the solitude complete, we thought our- fissures, between which rose the thin, lofty
selves beyond the region of animated life; walls, terminated with slender minarets
but, while we were sitting on the rock, a and columns, which is correctly represented
solitary bee (bromus, the humble-bee) in the view from the camp on Island Lake,
came winging his flight from the eastern According to the barometer, the little
valley, and lit on the knee of one of the crest of the wall on which we stood was
men. 3,570 feet above that place and 2,780 above
It was a strange place the icy rock the little lakes at the bottom, immediately
and the highest peak of the Rocky Moun- at our feet. Our camp at the Two Hills
tains for a lover of warm sunshine and (an astronomical station) bore south 3
flowers; and we pleased ourselves with east, which with a bearing afterwards ob-
the idea that he was the first of his tained from a fixed position enabled us to
species to cross the mountain barrier, a locate the peak. The bearing of the Truix
solitary pioneer to foretell the advance Tetons was north 50 west, and the diroc-
of civilization. I believe that a moment s tion of the central ridge of the Wind River
thought would have made us let him con- Mountains south 39 east. The summit
tinue his way unharmed; but we carried rock was gneiss, succeeded by sienitic
out the law of this country, where all gneiss. Sienite and feldspar succeeded
animated nature seems at war, and, seiz- in our descent to the snow-line, where
ing him immediately, put him in at least we found a feldspathic granite. I had
a fit place, in the leaves of a large book, remarked that the noise produced by the-
among the flowers we had collected on explosion of our pistols had the usual
our way. The barometer stood at 18.293, degree of loudness, but was not in t la
the attached thermometer at 44, giving least prolonged, expiring almost sinml-
for the elevation of this summit 13,570 taneously. Having now made what obser-
feet above the Gulf of Mexico, which may vations our means afforded, we proceeded
be called the highest flight of the bee. It to descend. We had accomplished an ob
is certainly the highest kno\vn flight of ject of laudable ambition, and beyond the
that insect. From the description given strict order of our instructions. We had
by Mackenzie of the mountains where he climbed the loftiest peak of the Rocky
crossed them with that of a French officer Mountains, and looked down upon the
still farther to the north and Colonel snow 1,000 feet below, and, standing
Long s measurements to the south, joined where never human foot had stood before,
to the opinion of the oldest traders of the felt the exultation of first explorers. It
country, it is presumed that this is the was about two o clock when we left the
highest peak of the Rocky Mountains, summit ; and, when we reached the bot-
The day was sunny and bright, but a torn, the sun had already sunk behind
slight shining mist hung over the lower the wall, and the day was drawing to a
plains, which interfered with our view of close. It would have been pleasant to
the surrounding country. On one side we have lingered here and on the summit
overlooked innumerable lakes and streams, longer; but we hurried away as rapidly
the spring of the Colorado of the Gulf of as the ground would permit, for it was
California: and on the other was the an object to regain our party as soon as
Wind River Valley, where were the heads possible, not knowing what accident the
of the Yellowstone branch of the Missouri, next hour might bring forth.
Far to the north we just could discover We reached our deposit of provisions
the snowy heads of the Trois Tetona, at nightfall. Here was not the inn which
where were the sources of the Missouri awaits the tired traveller on his return
and Columbia rivers; and at the southern from Mont Blanc, or the orange groves of

408

FRENCH FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR

South America, with their refreshing
juices and soft, fragrant air; but we
found our little cache of dried meat and
coll ee undisturbed. Though the moon was
bright, the road was full of precipices,
and the fatigue of the day had been
great. We therefore abandoned the idea
of rejoining our friends, and lay down
on the rock, and in spite of the cold slept
soundly.

French, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, his
torian; born in. Richmond, Va., June 8,
1799; removed to Louisiana in 1830; re
tired from business in 1853; and removed
to New York City. He published Biblio-
fjraphia Americana; Historical Collections
of Louisiana; History of the Iron Trade
of the United States; Historical Annals of
\orth America. He died in New York
City, May 30, 1877.

French, DANIEL CHESTER, sculptor;
born in Exeter, N. H., April 20, 1850;
educated in Boston, Mass., and in Flor
ence, Italy; had a studio in Washing
ton, D. C., in 1876-78, and then estab
lished himself in Florence. His best-
known works are The Minute-Man of Con
cord, in Concord, N. H. ; a life-size statue
of General Cass, in the Capitol in Wash
ington; Dr. Gallaudet and His First Deaf-
Mute Pupil; the Millmore Memorial; the
colossal Statue of the Republic, at the
World s Columbian Exposition; and the
Garfteld Memorial, in Philadelphia, Pa.
In April, 1901, he was chosen by the
Lawton Monument Association, of Ind
ianapolis, Ind., to make a memorial to
GEN. HENRY W. LAWTON (q. v.) , who
was killed in the battle of San Mateo,
Philippine Islands, Dec. 19, 1899.

French, MANSFIELD, clergyman; born
in Manchester, Vt., Feb. 21, 1810; settled
in New York City in 1858, where he became
an earnest abolitionist. In 1802 he ex
amined the conditions of the negroes at
Port Royal, and on his return to New
York held a great meeting at Cooper In
stitute, Feb. 10, 1862, which resulted in
the establishment of the National Freed-
nian s Relief Association with himself as
general agent, In March, 1863, with a
corps of teachers, he returned to Port
Royal and taught the negroes methods of
fanning. He rendered important service
to the government by organizing an ex
pedition which during one period of the

469

Civil War intercepted telegraphic messages
from the Confederate armies and forward
ed them to Washington. He died at Pear-
sail s, L. I., March 15, 1876.

French and Indian War. A fourth
intercolonial war between the English
and French colonies in America was be
gun in 1754, in which the Indians, as
usual, bore a conspicuous part. The
English population (white) in the colo
nies was then a little more than 1,000,-
000, planted along the seaboard. The
French were 100,000 strong, and occupied
the regions of Nova Scotia, the St.
Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and a line of
trading-posts in the Valley of the Missis
sippi to the Gulf of Mexico. The latter,
as chiefly traders, had gained great in
fluence over many of the Indian tribes.
There was outward peace, but inward
war, between the colonists, and it needed
only a small matter to kindle a flame of
hostilities. After the capture of Louis-
burg (1745), the French had taken
measures to extend and strengthen their
dominion in America. Their power be
came aggressive, and early in 1754 it was
evident that they intended to hold mili
tary possession of the Ohio and the
region around its head-waters. The Eng
lish attempted to build a fort at the
forks of the Ohio. The French seized
the post, and completed the fortification
(see DUQUESNE, FORT). Washington led
provincial troops to recapture it, but was
unsuccessful. The colonists appealed to
the British government, and received
promises of its aid in the impending
war; and in 1755 GEN. EDWARD BRAD-
DOCK (q. v.) was sent, with regular
troops, to command any forces that
might be raised in America to resist the
French and their Indian allies. Three
separate expeditions were planned, one
against Fort Duquesne, another against
forts on, or near, Lake Ontario, and a
third against French forts on Lake Cham-
plain. An expedition against ACADIA
(q. v.) was also undertaken. The three
expeditions failed to accomplish their full
purposes.

In May, 1756, England declared war
against France, and sent Lord Loudoun
as chief commander in the colonies, with
General Abercrombie as his liouten.int.
Expeditions similar to those of 1755 were

FBENCH AND INDIAN WAB

tacked. Louisburg
was captured, but
Abercrombie, who
led the troops tow
ards Lake Cham-
plain, failed in his
attack on Ticonder-
oga. Fort Fronte-
nac, at the foot of
Lake Ontario, was
captured ; so, also,
was Fort Duquesne,
and its name was
changed to Fort
Pitt, in compliment
to the great prime
minister. These suc
cesses so alarmed
the Indians that,
having assembled in
council, they agreed
not to fight the
Knglish any more.

Pitt now resolved
to conquer Canada.
General Amherst
was placed in chief
command in Amer
ica, in the spring
of 1759, and a land

planned, but failed in the execution. The and naval force was sent over from
skilled soldier, the Marquis de Montcalm, England. Again three expeditions were
commanding the French and Indians, capt- put in motion, one to go up the St.
ured Oswego, on the southern shore of
Lake Ontario. Loudoun proposed to con
fine the campaign of 1757 to the capture
of Louisburg, on Cape Breton. Going
there with a large land and naval arma
ment, he was told that the French were
too strong for him. He believed it, with
drew, and returned to New York. Mean
while, Montcalm had strengthened Fort
Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain, and
captured and destroyed the English fort,
William Henry, at. the head of Lake
George (August, 1757) ; and so ended the
campaign and the leadership of the in
efficient Lord Loudoun. William Pitt at
this time took the chief control of public
affairs in England, and prepared to prose
cute the war in America with vigor.
Gen. James Abercrombie was placed in
chief command in America in 1"."&gt;S. ami
\dmiral Boscawen wa- sent with a fleet Lawrence. 1o capture Quebec, another
to co-operate. Louisl.uri:. Fort Ticon- drive the French from Lake Champla
deroea and Fort Duquesne were to be at- and force them back to Canada; and

470

MAP OF TUB SCENE OF OPERATIONS.

FORT WILLIAM ITKXRY.

FRENCH ASSISTANCE

a third to attack Fort Niagara, at the with his squadron, to co-operate with
mouth of the Niagara River. General General Sullivan against the British in
Wolfe commanded the expedition against Rhode Island.

Quebec, General Amherst led the troops On July 10, 1780, another powerful
against, the French on Lake Champlain, Trench fleet, commanded by the Chevalier
and General Prideaux commanded the de Ternay, arrived at Newport, R. I. It
expedition against Fort Niagara. Pri- was composed of seven ships of the line, be-
deaux was killed in besieging Fort Ni- sides frigates and transports. The latter
agara, but it was captured under the bore a French army, 6,000 strong, coin-
lead of Sir William Johnson, in July, manded by Lieutenant-General the Count
Amherst drove the French from Lake de Rochambeau. This was the first divi-
Champlain into Canada, and they never sion intended for the American service,
came back; and he built the strong and was the first fruit of Lafayette s per-
fortress on Crown Point whose pictu- sistent personal efforts at the French
resque ruins still attract the
attention of the tourist.
Wolfe attacked Quebec, and
at the moment of victory he.
was killed. Montcalm, the
commander of the French,
also perished on the field.
In 1760 the French tried to
recapture Quebec, but were
unsuccessful. Early in Sep
tember Amherst went down
the St. Lawrence and capt
ured Montreal. The con
quest of Canada was now
completed, and the French OSWKGO i.v 1755.

and Indian War was essen
tially ended. The last act in it was a Court. With wise forethought the offi-
treaty of peace, concluded in Paris in cial relations between Washington and
1763. Rochambeau had been settled by the

French Assistance. In accordance French government. In order to prevent,
with the spirit of the treaty of alliance any difficulties in relation to command be-
between the United States and France tween the French and American officers,
(Feb. 6, 1778), a French fleet was speedily the French government commissioned
fitted out at Toulon. It consisted of Washington a lieutenant-general of the
twelve ships of the line and four frigates, empire. This allowed him to take pre-
commanded by the COUNT D ESTAING cedence of Rochambeau and made him
(q. v.) . This fleet arrived in the Dela- commander of the allied armies. On all
ware on July 8, 1778, bearing 4.000 points of precedence and etiquette the
French troops. With it came M. Gerard, French officers were instructed to give
the first French minister accredited to place to the American officers,
the United States. Silas Deane also re- At the solicitation of Washington, the

O "

turned from his mission to France in the French fleet at Newport sailed for the
same vessel (the Languedoc] , the flag- Virginia waters to assist in capturing
ship. Having sent his passengers up to Arnold, then marauding in Virginia. The
Philadelphia in a frigate, D Estaing sailed fleet was to co - operate with Lafayette,
for Sandy Hook, and anchored off the liar- whom Washington had sent to Virginia
her of New York. Lord Howe, who had for the same purpose. The British block-
fortunately for himself left the Delaware ailing squadron, which had made its win-
a few days before D Esta-ing s arrival, tcr quarters in Gardiner s P&gt;av. at the
was now with his fleet in Raritan Bay. eastern end of Long Island, pursued the
whither the heavy French vessels could French vessels, and oil the Capos of Vir-
not safely follow. On July 22 he sailed, ginia a sharp naval engagement occurred,

471

FRENCH ASSISTANCE FRENCH CREEK

iu which the latter were beaten and re- archs hated republicanism, and feared the

turned to Newport. This failure on the revolution as menacing thrones; and the

part of the French fleet caused Lafayette chief motive in favoring the Americans,

to halt in his march at Annapolis, Md. especially of France, was to injure Eng-

Two of the French vessels, taking advan- land, humble her pride, and weaken her

tage of a storm that disabled the block- power.

ading squadron, entered Chesapeake Bay The headquarters of the American army
(February, 1781). Thus threatened bj were at Verplanck s Point at the begin-
1, ind and water, Arnold withdrew to Ports- ning of autumn, 1782, where (about 10,-
mouth, so far up the Elizabeth River as 000 strong) it was joined by the French
to be out of the reach of the French ships, army on its return from Virginia, in
There he was reinforced by troops un- September. The latter encamped on the
der General Phillips, of the Convention left of the Americans, at Crompond, about
troops, who had been exchanged for Gen- 10 miles from Verplanck s Point. They
eral Lincoln. The French ships soon had received orders to proceed to Boston
returned to Newport, after making some and there embark for the West Indies,
prizes. They left their encampment near Peeks-
When, on June 2, 1779, the legislature kill Oct. 22, and marched by way of
of Virginia unanimously ratified the Hartford and Providence. Rochambeau
treaties of alliance and commerce between there left the army in charge of Baron
France and the United States, and the de Viomenil and returned to Washing-
governor had informed the French minis- ton s headquarters on his way to Phila-
ter at Philadelphia of the fact, that delphia. The French troops reached Bos-
functionary at once notified his govern- ton the first week in December. On the
ment. Vergennes, on Sept. 27, instruct- 24th they sailed from Boston, having boon
ed the minister at Philadelphia (Lu- in the United States two and a half years,
zerne) in these words: "During the Rochambeau sailed from Annapolis for
war it is essential, both for the United France Jan. 11, 1783.

States and for us, that their union should French Creek, ACTION AT. The troops
be as perfect as possible. When they collected by Wilkinson on Grenadier Isl-
shall be left to themselves the general and in 1813 suffered much, for storm after
confederation will have much difficulty storm swept over Lake Ontario, and snow
in maintaining itself, and will, perhaps, fell to the depth of 10 inches. A Cana-
be replaced by separate confederations, dian winter was too near to allow delays
Should this revolution take place, it will on account of the weather, and on Oct. 29
weaken the United States, which have not General Brown, with his division, moved
now, and never will have, real and re- forward in boats, in the face of great
spectable strength except by their \mion. peril, in a tempest. He landed at French
But it is for themselves alone to make Creek (now Clayton) and took post in a
these reflections. We have no right to pre- wood. The marine scouts from Kingston
sent them for their consideration, and we discovered Brown on the afternoon of Nov.
have no interest whatever to see Amer- 1. and two brigs, two schooners, and eight
ica play the part of a power. The possi- gunboats, filled with infantry, bore down
bility of a dissolution of the Union, and upon him at sunset. Brown had planted
the consequent suppression of Congress, a battery of three 18-pounders on a high
leads us to think that nothing can be wooded bluff on the western shore of
more conformable to our political interest French Creek, at its mouth, and with it
than separate acts by which each State the assailants were driven away. The
shall ratify the treaties concluded with conflict was resumed at dawn the next
France; because in this way every State morning, with Die same result. The Brit-
will be found separately connected with i*h lost many men; the Americans only
us. whatever may be the fortune of the two killed and four wounded. Meanwhile,
general confederation." The policy of tin: troops were coming down tho river from
French, as well as the Spaniards, towards Grenadier Island, and there landed on the
the United States was purely selfish from site of Clayton. Wilkinson arrived there
beginning to end. The two Bourbon mon- on Nov. 3, and on the morning of the 5th

4.72

FRENCH DECREES FRENCH DOMAIN IN AMERICA

MOUTH OF FRENCH CRKKK.

the army, in 300 ba
teaux and other
boats, moved down the
river.

French. Decrees.
The presence of John
Jay in England to
make a treaty with
Great Britain
aroused the French to
a sense of the impor
tance of observing its
own treaty stipula
tions with the United
States, which had
been utterly disre
garded since the war
with England began.
On Jan. 4, 1795, a
new decree was is
sued, giving full force
and effect to those
clauses of the treaty
of commerce (1778) with the United 17D7, the Secretary of State laid before
States respecting contraband and the Congress a full exhibit of the wrongs
carriage of enemies goods. When news inflicted by the French on American
of the failure of the Americans to commerce. Skipwith, American consul-
elect Jefferson President reached France, general in France, had presented to the
the Directory issued a decree (March 2, Directory 170 claims, many of them for
1797) purporting to define the authority provisions furnished, examined, and al-
granted to French cruisers by a former de- lowed ; for 103 vessels embargoed at Bor-
cree. It was intended to annihilate deaux, for which promised indemnity had
American commerce in European waters, never been paid; and to these wrongs were
The treaty with America was declared to added enormous depredations then going
be so modified as to make American ves- on in the West Indies, seizing and confis-
sels and their cargoes liable to capture eating the property of Americans without
for any cause recognized as lawful ground restraint. American vessels were capt-
of capture by Jay s treaty. They also de- ured and their crews treated with indig-
creed that any American found serving on nity and cruelty. Encouraged by the ac-
board hostile armed vessels should be cession of Spain to their alliance and the
treated as pirates, even though they might victories of Bonaparte in Italy, the French
plead imprisonment and compulsion as an Directory grew every day more insolent,
excuse; in other words, American seamen, They were countenanced by a great party
impressed by the British, were made liable in. the United States, which had failed
to be hanged by the French. On Jan. 18, by only two votes to give a President to
1798, a sweeping decree against American the American Eepublic. See FRANCE, RE-
commerce was promulgated by the French I.ATIONS WITH.

Directory. It declared to be good prizes French Domain in America. On Oct.
all vessels having merchandise on board 7, 1763, the King of England (George
the production of England or her colonies, III. ), by proclamation, erected out of the
whoever the owner of the merchantman territory acquired from the French by the
might be; and forbade, also, the entrance treaty of Paris three provinces on the
into any French port of any vessel which, continent namely, east Florida, west
at any previous part of her voyage, had Florida, and Quebec; and an insular prov-
touched at any English possession. ince styled Grenada. East Florida was

French Depredations. On Feb. 27. bounded on the north by the St. Mary i

473

FRENCH TORTS IN AMERICA FRENCH MILLS

River, the intervening region thence to
the Altamaha being annexed to Georgia.
The boundaries of west Florida were the
Apalachicola, the Gulf of Mexico, the Mis
sissippi, and lakes Pontchartrain and
Maurepa-s; and on the north by a line
due east from the mouth of the Yazoo
River, so as to include the French settle
ments near Natchez. The boundaries of
the province of Quebec were in accord
ance with the claims of New York and
Massachusetts, being a line from the
southern end of Lake Nepissing, striking
the St. Lawrence at lat. 45 N., and fol
lowing that parallel across the foot of
Lake Champlain to the head-waters of
the Connecticut River, and thence along
the highlands which form the water-shed
between the St. Law T rence and the sea.
Grenada was composed of the islands of
St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago. See
FLORIDA.

French Forts in America. The
French, for the security of the interior
territory of America, built a fort in the
Illinois country, in lat. 41 30 , as a check
upon the several tribes of the Sioux who
were not in alliance with them. They also
built a fort at the junction of the Illinois
and a large tributary, and five other forts
from the junction of the Missouri and

Mississippi rivers to Kaskaskia. The fort
at the latter place was regarded as of
great importance, because it was " the
pass and outlet of the convoys of Louisi
ana and of the traders and hunters of the
post at Detroit, and that of the greater
part of the savage nations." Another,
on the banks of the Ohio, opposite the
mouth of the Tennessee River, was consid
ered " the key of the colony of Louisiana,
and would obstruct the designs of the Kng-
lish in alienating the Indians of the Ohio.
It would also, Vaudreuil thought, restrain
the incursions of the Cherokeea on the
Wabash and Mississippi rivers, check the
Ghickasaws, and by this means secure the
navigation of the Mississippi and a free
communication between Louisiana and
Canada. There were at that time about
sixty forts in Canada, most of which had
around them fine self-supporting settle-
i;i(-nts; and the establishments, posts, and
settlements in Louisiana at that time
(175G) employed about 2,000 soldiers.

French Mills. After the battle at
CHRYSLER S FIELD (q. v.) the American
army went into winter-quarters at French
Mills, on the Salmon River. The waters
of that stream were freezing, for it was
late in November (1813). General Brown
proceeded to make the troops as comfort-

FKKNCII MII.I.S IN IM .II.

474

FRENCH NEUTRALS FRENCH POLITICS IN AMERICA

able as possible. Huts were constructed, sympathized with the French people avow-
yet, as the winter came on very severe, edly struggling to obtain political free-
the soldiers suffered much; for many of dom; and the influence of that sympathy
them had lost their blankets and extra was speedily seen in the rapid development
clothing in the disasters near Grenadier of the Republican party in the United
Island, at the beginning of their voyage States. The supposed advent of liberty
down the St. Lawrence, and in the battle in France had been hailed with enthu-
at Chrysler s Field. Until the huts were siasm in America, but common-sense and
built, even the sick had no shelter but a wise prudence caused many thinking
tents. Provisions
were scarce, and
the surrounding
country was a wil
derness. They were
in the midst of the
cold of a Canadian
winter, for they
were in lat. 45
N. In their dis
tress they were
tempted by Brit
ish emissaries, who
circulated placards
among the soldiers
containing the fol
lowing words :
" NOTICE. -- All
American soldiers
who may wish to
quit the unnatural
war in which they
are at present en
gaged will receive
the arrears due

them by the American government, to the Americans to doubt the genuineness of
extent of five months pay, on their ar- French democracy. This tended to a
rival at the British outposts. No man more distinct defining of party lines be-
shall be required to serve against his own tween the Federalists and Republicans,
country." It is believed that not a single This enthusiasm was shown by public fes-
soldier of American birth was enticed away tivals in honor of the French revolution-
by this allurement. In February, 1814, ists. At a celebration in honor of the
the army began to move away from their temporary conquest of the Austrian
winter encampment. The flotilla was de- Netherland by Dumcuriez (1792), held in
stroyed and the barracks burned. Brown, Boston, Jan. 24, 1793, a select party of
with a larger portion of the troops, march- 300 sat down to a least in Faneuil Hall,
ed for Sackett a Harbor, and the remainder over which Samuel Adams, then lieu-
accompanied Wilkinson, the commander- tenant-governor of Massachusetts, pre-
in-chief, to Plattsburg. sided. Speeches, toasts, music all were

French Neutrals. See ACADIA. indicative of sympathy for the French

French Politics in America. The cause. The children of the Boston
progress of the French Revolution, de- schools were paraded in the streets, and
cisively begun at the meeting of the to each one was given a cake imprinted
States-General (May 5, 1789), was con- with the words "Liberty and Equality."
temporaneous with the organization of Similar celebrations wore held in other
the American Republic under the new places; and the public feeling in favor of
Constitution. The Americans naturally the French was intensified by the arrival

475

LAXDIXii-I LACK OP TROOPS OX THK SALMON RIVER.

FRENCH PRIVATEERS FRENCH SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA

of M. Genet as representative of the
French Republic. That was on April 9,
1793. He brought with him news of the
declaration of war against England. It
had reached New York five days before.
More fiercely than ever the two parties
were arrayed against each other ; and now
the Federalists were first called the
" British party," and the Republicans the
French party." So long as the French
Republic, so miscalled, lasted, the poli
tics of France exerted marked influence in
the United States. See GENET, EDMOXD
CHARLES.

French Privateers. On the arrival of
Citizen Genet at Charleston, S. C., he
fitted out privateers to depredate on Brit
ish commerce, issued commissions for their
commanders, and conferred authority
upon French consuls each to create him
self into an admiralty court to decide
upon the disposition of prizes brought
into port by French cruisers. Genet had
commissioned two, when the United States
government interfered. He persisted, in
defiance of the government, and very soon
quite a number were afloat namely,
Sans Culotte, Citizen Genet, Cincinnatus,
Vainqucur de la Bastille, UEmbuscade,
A n ti - Gear rje, Carmagnole, Roland, and
Concord. L Embuscade, the frigate that
brought Genet to America, and the Genet,
were both fitted out as privateers at
Charleston. The others went out of the
ports of Savannah, Boston, and Phila
delphia. These captured more than fifty
English vessels, quite a number of them
within American waters. After Genet
had been warned that the fitting-out of
privateers in American ports was a viola
tion of the law, he had the Little Sarah
(a vessel captured by one of the privateers
and sent to Philadelphia) made into a
letter-of-marque under the very eyes of
the government, and called the vessel The
Little Democrat. Governor Mifflin pre
pared to seize the vessel before it should
leave port, when Jefferson, tender towards
the French minister, waited on Genot in
person to persuade him not to send the
vessel to sea. Genet stormed, and declared
his crew would resist. He finally prom
ised that the vessel should only drop dmvn
the river a litlle way. That " little way "
was far out of the reach of militia or
other forces. Very soon afterwards, in

violation of his solemn assurance, Genet
ordered The Little Democrat to go to sea,
and others followed. In the last year of
John Adams s administration, and before
there was a final settlement of difficulties
with France, quite a large number of
French privateers yet at sea fell into the
hands of American cruisers. These, with
others previously taken, made the number
captured about fifty. There w T ere also re
captures of numerous merchant vessels
which had been previously taken by the
French.

French Refugees in America. The
colony of Huguenots planted in America
by Coligni disappeared, but the revoca
tion of the EDICT OF XAXTES (q. v.) in
1685 caused another and larger emigration
to America. The refugees in England
had been kindly assisted there, and after
the accession of William and .Mary Parlia
ment voted $75,000 to be distributed
" among persons of quality and all such
as, through age or infirmity, were unable
to support themselves." The King sent a
large body of them to Virginia, and lands
were allotted them on the James River;
others purchased lands of the proprie
taries of Carolina, and settled on the
Santee River; while others merchants
and artisans settled in Charleston.
These Huguenots were a valuable acquisi
tion to the colonies. In the South they
planted vineyards and made wine. A large
number of them settled in the province of
New York, chiefly in Westchester and
Ulster counties, and in the city of New
York.

French Settlements in America.
Callieres. who succeeded Frontenac as gov
ernor of Canada in 1000. sent messages to
the Five Nations with the alternative of
peace or an exterminating war, against
which, it is alleged, the English could not
render them assistance. Their jealousy
had I)ec7i excited against the latter by a
claim of Bellomont to build forts on their
territory, and they were induced to send a
deputation to a gnuid assembly at Mon
treal of all the Indian allies of the French.
There a treaty of friendship was con
cluded: and so the l-Yem-h who had been
restrained by the hostility of the Troquois
Confederacy, secured a free passage tow
ards the Mississippi. Almost imme
diately 100 settlers, with a Jesuit leader,

476

FRENCH SPOLIATION CLAIMS

The change in the government of France
It by the Revolution of 1830 was a favorable
of time for Mr. Hives, the American minister
to France, to again propose a settlement.
Jesuit The French, as before stated, had set up a
and counter-claim of the non-fulfilment of the

were sent to take possession of the strait there was no changing the French position

between lakes Erie and St. Clair. They on the subject.
built a fort, and called the spot Detroit,
the French name for a strait or sound.
soon became the favorite settlement
western Canada. Villages of French set
tlers soon grew up around the
missionary stations at Kaskaskia

Cahokia, on the eastern bank of the treaty of 1778; but the American govern-

Mississippi, between the mouths of the ment argued that subsequent events had

Illinois and Ohio. These movements oc- exonerated the United States from all de-

casioned no little alarm to the English mands under that treaty. Mr. Rives sue-

in New York and New England. ceeded in negotiating a treaty by which

French Spoliation Claims. For more the long-pending controversy was closed.

than a century what are known as the By it the French government agreed to

French spoliation claims have been vainly pay to the United States, in complete sat-

urged on the attention of Congress. These isfaction of all claims of American citizens

claims originated as follows: In the year for spoliations, nearly $5,000,000, in six

1778, France and the United States en- annual instalments, $300,000 to be allowed

tered upon a treaty of " commerce and by the American government to France for

amity," by which each government pledged French citizens for ancient supplies, ae-

itself to exempt from search or seizure all counts, or other claims. The United

vessels belonging to the other, even though States Senate ratified the treaty, but the

such vessels were carrying the goods of its French Chamber of Deputies refused to

enemies; that is, each agreed to permit its make the appropriation to carry it out,

commercial ally to carry on trade with an an &lt;l an unpleasant dispute arose between

enemy, unless such trade dealt in goods the two governments. The matter was

that were known as contraband of war. finally settled, as between the two govorn-

At that time these two countries were al- nients, on the basis of the treaty in 1836.

lied in war against Great Britain, but Those American merchants, however,

when, some time after tha close of the who had claims against the French gov-

Revolutionary War, France was again in- ernment, objected to yielding up these

volved in hostilities with that country, claims to settle a debt of the government,

the United States refused to join her and ami accordingly petitioned Congress to

proclaimed strict neutrality. France now indemnify their losses. They argued,

found her American trade interfered with and justly, that France had admitted the

by Great Britain, while she was bound by fairness of these claims in yielding her

treaty not to interfere with Great Brit- own claims to satisfy them, and that the

ain s trade wilh the United States. , Con- United States, in accepting this relin-

sidering this injustice, she broke her qaishment, received a consideration fully

treaty with this country, and confiscated worth the sum of the private claims,

the cargoes of American vessels trading and thus bound herself in honor to pay

with Great Britain. This country was in them. However, this petition failed of

no mood or condition then to go to war its effect, and though repeated again and

with France, so the government overlooked again, the claimants have not yet suc-

these hostile acts, and, in 1797, and again ceeded in securing the settlement of the

in 17flO, made overtures for a peaceful set- claims. Committees of both Houses, it is

The claims of these American true, have several times reported in favor

vessel-owners and merchants who had been of the claims, and an act appropriating

despoiled of their property were presented money for them has twice passed Con-

by our commissioners, but the French gov- gress. This was vetoed the first time by

ernment refused to take any account of President Polk, and the second time 1&gt;\-

them unless we would allow a counter
claim against the United States for a

President Pierce, and, but for HIP lack of
one vote in the Senate, the first of these

breach of the treaty of alliance. Much would have, passed over the President s
diplomatic fencing was resorted to, but veto. Many of our greatest si .-demon

477

FRENCH SPOLIATION CLAIMS FRENCHTOWN

Daniel Webster, Thomas Benton, Silas and, with few exceptions, their children
Wright and others-have championed the are also dead, but grandchildren M

these claims in Congress with great-grandchildren may at least reap the
much eloquence. In 1883 a bill passed benefit of tardy justice
the Senate authorizing the court of claims Frenchtown, MASSACRE AT In the
to investigate these long-standing cases middle of December, 1812 General Harri
and report upon them. This bill passed son wrote the War Department that if
louse in January, 1885, and was ap- no political or other necessity existed
proved by the President. The original for the recovery of Michigan and the in-
have long since passed away, vasion of Canada, the enormous expense

of transportation, and
the sufferings of men
and beasts in the task,
pleaded for a remission
of efforts to attain that
recovery until spring.
He was directed to use
his own judgment in the
matter, and was as
sured that immediate
measures would be taken
for recovering the con
trol of Lake Erie to the
Americans. He was in
structed, in case he
should penetrate Canada,
not to offer the inhabi
tants anything but pro
tection ; and, secondly,
not to make temporary
acquisitions, but to pro
ceed so surely that he
might hold fast any ter
ritory he should acquire.
Other troops having ar
rived, Harrison resolved
to attempt the capture
of Fort Maiden. His
whole effective force did
not exceed 6,300 men.
He designated the bri
gades from Pennsylvania
and Virginia, and one
from Ohio, under Gen.
Simon Perkins, as the
right wing of the army:
and the Kentuckians.
under Gen. James Wil
kinson, as the left wing.
So arranged, the army
pressed forward toward"
the rapids of the Mau-
mee, the designated gen
eral rende/vous. Win
chester, with 800 young

PPKNTHTOWN. Kentuckians, reached

47S

IMP OK T,,K

FKENCHTOWN, MASSACRE AT

there on Jan. 10, 1813, and established ately succeeded in a shower upon the

a fortified camp, when he learned that camp. The Americans, seizing their arms,

a party of British and Indians were tried to defend themselves. Very soon

occupying Frenchtown, on the Raisin the soldiers fled to the woods, when

MONROE, FKOil THE BATTLE -OKOl XD.

River ( now Monroe, Mich. ) , 20 miles
south of Detroit. He sent a detachment,
under Colonels Allen and Lewis, to pro
tect the inhabitants in that region,
who drove the enemy out of the hamlet
of about thirty families, and held it
until the arrival of Winchester, on the
20th, with about 300 men. General Proc
tor was then at Fort Maiden, 18 miles
distant, with a considerable body of Brit
ish and Indians. With 1,500 of these he
crossed the Detroit River, and marched
stealthily at night to destroy the Ameri
cans. Winchester was informed late in
the evening of the 21st that a foe was ap
proaching. He did not believe it, and at
midnight was in perfect repose. The
pentinels were posted, but, the weather
being intensely cold, pickets were sent out
upon roads leading to the town. Just
as the drummer-boy was beating the
reveille, in the gray twilight of the 22d,
the sharp crack of a rifle, followed by the
rattle of musketry, awoke the sleepers.
Bomb-shells nnd canister-shot immedi-

479

the savages, who swarmed there, smote
them fearfully, with gleaming hatchets.
The British and their dusky allies made
it a war of extermination. Winchester
was captured, and he concluded an ar
rangement with Proctor to surrender his
troops on condition that ample provision
should be made for their protection
against the Indians. The promise was
given and immediately violated.

Proctor, knowing Harrison (who had
advanced to the Maumee ) to be near, hast
ened towards Maiden with his captives,
leaving the sick and wounded prisoners
behind. The Indians followed awhile,
whon they turned back, murdered and
scalped those who were unable to travel as
captives, set fire to the houses, and took
many prisoners to Detroit to procure ex-
oibitant prices for their ransom. Proc
tor s indifference to this outrage, and the
dreadful suspicion, which his character
warranted, that he encouraged the butch
ery of the defenceless people, was keenly
felt all through the West, particularly in

FRENCH WEST INDIES FRIENDS

Kentucky, for most of the victims were 1805. His poetry was highly commended

of the flower of society in that State; and by Scotch and English literary critics,

for a long time afterwards the most in- He died near Freehold, N. J., Dec. 18,

spiriting war-cry of the Kentucky soldiers 1832.

was, "Remember the River Raisin!" Friendly Association. In the middle
French West Indies, THE. Canada of the eighteenth century the descendants
conquered, the British turned their arms of William Penn, who succeeded to the
against the French West India Islands, in proprietorship of Pennsylvania, departed
which the colonies participated. Gaude- from the just course pursued by the great
loupe had already been taken. General founder of the commonwealth towards the
Monckton, after submitting his commis- Indians and the white people, and exas-
sion as governor to the council of New perated both by their greed and covetous-
York, sailed from that port (January, ness. The Indians were made thoroughly
1762), with two line-of-battle ships, 100 discontented by the frauds practised on
transports, and 1,200 regulars and colo- them in the purchase of lands and the
nial troops. Major Gates (afterwards depredations of banditti called traders,
adjutant-general of the Continental army I So much had they become alienated from
went with Monckton as aide-de-camp, and the English that in 1755 the Delawares
carried to England the news of the capture and others joined the French in making
of Martinique. Richard Montgomery (af- war. For some time the Friends, or
terwards a. general in the Continental Quakers, had observed with sorrow the
army) held the rank of captain in this ex- treatment of the Indians by Thomas and
pedition. The colonial troops were led by John Penn and the traders, and, impelled
(ion. Phineas Lyman. Grenada, St. Lucia, by their uniform sympathy with the op-
and St. Vincent s indeed, every island pressed, they formed a society in 17~&gt;0
in the Caribbean group possessed by the called the Friendly Association for Re-
French fell into the hands of the Eng- gaining and Preserving Peace with the
lish. The French fleet was ruined, and Indians by Pacific Measures. The so-
French merchantmen were driven from ciety was a continual thorn in the sides
the seas. British vessels, including those of the proprietors and Indian traders, for
of New York and New England, now ob- the active members of the association
tnined the carrying-trade of those islands: watched the interests of the red men with
also, under safe conducts and flags of keen vigilance, attended every treaty, and
truce, that of Santo Domingo. prevented a vast amount of fraud and
Freneau, PHILIP, " the Poet of the cheating in the dealings of the white
Revolution ;" born in New York City, Jan. people with the natives. Charles Thom-
2, 1752; graduated at the College of son, afterwards secretary of the Conti-
New Jersey in 1771. He was of Hugue- nental Congress, was a very efficient
not descent, and evinced a talent for rhym- co-worker with them, making truthful
ing as early as the age of seventeen years, reports of the proceedings at treaties, and
when he wrote a poetical History of the preventing false or garbled statements.
Prophet Jonah. He was in the \Vest Ind- The Friendly Association continued until
ies during a part of the Revolutionary 1704.

War, and while on a voyage in 1780 was Friends, SOCIETY OF, otherwise known

captured by a British cruiser. After his as Quakers, claim as their founder CKOKGE

release he wrote many patriotic songs, Fox (q. r.), an Englishman; born in

and was engaged in editorial duties, no- Drayton, Leicestershire, in 1024. The

tably on the Democratic X/ilional (In-cttc, first general meeting of Friends was held

of Philadelphia, the organ of Jefferson in IfifiS, and the second in 1(172. Owing

and his party. He continued to edit and to the severe persecution which they suf-

publish newspapers. His productions con- fered in England, a number of them camo

tvihuted largely to animate his country- to America in 1650, and landed at Boston,

men while struggling for independence, whence they were later scattered by per-

An edition of his Revolutionary Poems, sedition. The first annual meeting in

with a Memoir and \otcft, by Evert A. America is said to have been held in

Duyckinck, was published in New York in Rhode Island in 1661. It was separated

480

FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

from the London annual meeting in 1683. Me. Annual meetings were founded in

This meeting was held regularly at New- Maryland in 1672, in Pennsylvania and

port till 1878, since when it has al- New Jersey in 1681, in North Carolina

ternated between Newport and Portland, in 1708, and in Ohio in 1812. The

III. 2 H

Q0AKKR EXHOKTKK IN Cnl.OMAL SEW ENGLAND.
481

FRIES FROBISHER

Friends have no creed, and no sacraments.
They claim that a spiritual baptism and
a spiritual communion without outward
signs are all that are necessary for men.
They believe in the Old and New Testa
ments as the Word of God, and, therefore,
accept the atonement and sanctification.
Belief in the " immediate influence of the
Holy Spirit " is said to be the most promi
nent feature of their faith. They have
monthly meetings, embracing a number of
local meetings. They also have quarterly
meetings, to which they send delegates,
and these latter may deal with cases of
discipline and accept or dissolve local or
monthly meetings. The highest body,
however, is the yearly meeting, to which
all other meetings are subordinate. The
Friends in the United States are divided
into four bodies, known as the Orthodox,
Hicksite, Wilburite, and Primitive. The
first mentioned greatly exceeds the others
in strength. In 1900 they reported 1,279
ministers, 820 meeting-houses, and 91,868
members. The last reports of the other
branches showed: Hicksites, 115 minis
ters, 201 meeting-houses, and 21,992 mem
bers ; Wilburites, 38 ministers, 52 meet
ing-houses, and 4,329 members; and
Primitives. 11 ministers, 9 meeting-houses,
and 232 members. See QUAKERS.

Fries, JOHN, rioter; born in Bucks
county, Pa., in 1764. During the window-
tax riots in Northampton, Bucks, and
Montgomery counties, Pa., in 1798-99,
Fries headed the rioters, liberated several
prisoners whom the sheriff had arrested,
and in turn arrested the assessors. Fries
was arrested and tried on the charge of
high treason, pronounced guilty, and sen
tenced to be hanged in April, 1800. Presi
dent Adams issued a general amnesty
which covered all the offenders.

Frobisher, MARTIN, navigator; born
in Doncaster, Yorkshire, England, about
1536; was a mariner by profession, and
yearned for an opportunity to go in search
of a northwest passage to India. For
fifteen years he tried in vain to get pecun
iary aid to fit out ships. At length the
Earl of Warwick and others privately
fitted out two small barks of 25 tons each
and a pinnace, with the approval of Queen
Elizabeth, and with these he sailed from
Deptford in June, 1576, declaring that he
would succeed or never come back alive.

As the flotilla passed the palace at Green
wich, the Queen, sitting at an open
window, waved her hand towards the com
mander in token of good-will and farewell.
Touching at Greenland, Frobisher crossed
over and coasted up the shores of Labra
dor to latitude 63, where he entered
what he supposed to be a strait, but which
was really a bay, which yet bears the
name of Frobisher s Inlet. He landed,
and promptly took possession of the
country around in the name of his Queen.
Trying to sail farther northward, he was
barred by pack-ice, when he turned and
sailed for England, bearing a heavy black
stone which he believed contained metal.
He gave the stone to a man whose wife,
in a passion, cast it into the fire. The
husband snatched the glowing mineral
from the flames and quenched it in some
vinegar, when it glittered like gold. On
fusing it, some particles of the precious
metal were found. When this fact became
known a gold fever was produced. Money

MARTIN FROHJSHKK

was freely offered for fitting-out vessels
to go for more of the mineral. The Queen
placed a ship of the royal navy at Fro
bisher s disposal, and he sailed, with two
other vessels of 30 tons each, from Har
wich in 1577. instructed to search for
gold, and not for the northwest passage.
The vessels were laden with the black ore
on the shores of Frobisher s Inlet, and on
the return of the expedition to England a
commission was appointed to determine
the value of the discovery.

Very little gold was found in the car-

482

FROEBEL FRONTENAC

FROBISHER BAY, TIIK SCKSE OF HIS EXPLORATION S.

goes, yet faith was not exhausted, and
Frobisher sailed in May, 1578, with fifteen
ships in search of the precious metal.
Storms dispersed the fleet. Some turned
back, two of them went to the bottom of
the sea, and three or four of them re
turned laden with the worthless stones.
Frobisher had won the honor of a discov
erer, and as the first European who pene
trated towards the Arctic Circle to the 63d
degree. For these exploits, and for ser
vices in fighting the Spanish Armada, he
was knighted by Klizabeth, and in 1500-!&gt;2
he commanded a squadron sent against the
Spaniards. In 1594 he was sent with two
ships to help Henry IV. of France, and in
a battle at Brest (Nov. 7) he was mor
tally wounded.

Frpebel, JULIUS, author ; born in
Griesheim, Germany, July 10, 1805; edu
cated in his native country. He came
to the United Slates in middle life and
was naturalized: lectured in New York,
and in 1850 went to Nicaragua, Chihuahua,
and Santa Fe as a correspondent of the
New York Tribune: In 1857 he returned
to Germany. He was the author of Seven
Years Travel in Central America, North
ern Mexico, and the Far West of the
United Klitti K; The / (publican, etc. He
died in Zurich, Nov. 0, 1803.

Frontenac, FORT, a fortification built

by Frontenac in 1073 at the foot of Lake
Ontario, at the present Kingston. After
the repulse of the English at Ticonderoga
(July 8, 1758), Col. John Bradstreet
urged Abercrombie to send an expedition
against this fort. He detached 3,000 men
for the purpose, and gave Colonel Brad-
street command of the expedition. He
went by the way of Oswego, and crossed
the lake in bateaux, having with him 300
bateau-men. His troops were chiefly pro
vincials, and were furnished with eight
pieces of cannon and two mortars. They
landed within a mile of the fort on the
evening of Aug. 25, constructed batteries,
and opened them upon the fort at short
range two days afterwards Finding the
works untenable, the garrison surrendered
( Aug. 27 ) without much resistance. The
Indians having previously deserted, there
\\ -ere only 110 prisoners. The spoils were
sixty cannon, sixteen mortars, a large
quantity of small arms, provisions and
military stores, and nine armed vessels.
On his return, Bradstreet assisted in
building Fort Stanwix, in the Mohawk
Yalley, on the site of Rome, Oneida
county.

Frontenac, Louis DK BUADE, COUNT DE,
colonial governor; born in France in 1620;
was made a colonel at seventeen years of
age, and was an eminent lieutenant-gen-

FRONT ROYAL FRY

eral at twenty-nine, covered with decora- tie in which he was severely wounded,
lions and sears. Selected by Marshal when TOO of his men. with a section of
Turenne to lead troops sent for the relief rilled 10-pounders and his whole supply
of Canada, he was made governor of that train, fell into the hands of the Con-
province in 1672. and built Fort Frontenac federates.

(now Kingston), at the foot of Lake On- Frost, CHARLES, pioneer; born in Tiver-
tario, in 1673. He was recalled in 1682, ton, England, in 1632; came with his
but was reappointed in 1689, when the father to America, who settled on the Pis-
French dominions in America were on the cataqua River in 1636. Frost was a mem-
l.rink of ruin. With great energy he car- ber of the general court from ItWS to
ried on war against the English in New 165!), and a councillor from 1693 to 1697.
York and New England, and their allies, He was accused by the Indians of having
the Iroquois. Early in 16% an expedition seized some of their race for the purpose
which he sent towards Albany desolated of enslavement and was killed in 1697.
Schenectady; and the same year he sue- Frost, JOHN, author; born in Kenne-
cessfully resisted a land and naval force bunk, Me., Jan. 26, 1800; graduated at
pent against Canada. He was in Montreal Harvard in 1822; was the author of
when an Indian runner told him of the ap- History of the World; Pictorial History
proach to the St. Lawrence of Colonel of the United States; Book of the Army;
Sclmyler (see KING WILLIAM S WAR). Book of the Navy, etc. He died in Phila-
Frontenac then seventy years of age, delphia, Pa., Dec. 28, 1859.
called out his Indian allies, and, taking a Frost, JOHX, soldier; born in Kittery,
tomahawk in his hand, he danced the Avar- Me., May 5, 1T38; was a captain of colonial
dance, and chanted the war-song in their troops in the Canadian campaign of 1 /&gt;!&gt;.
presence and then led them successfully and lieutenant - colonel at the siege of
aaainst the foe. He afterwards repulsed Boston in 1T75. In 1776 he was promoted
Phipps at Quebec, having been informed to colonel and served under General Gate-
of his expedition by an Indian runner until Burgoyne s surrender, when he was
from Pemaquid. So important was that ordered to Washington s army and par-
repulse considered that King Louis caused ticipated in the battle of Monmouth and
a medal to be struck with the legend, other engagements. After the close of
" France victorious in the New World." the war he was appointed judge of the
This success was followed by an expedi- court of sessions for York county. Me.
tion sent by Frontenac against the Mo- He died in Kittery, Me., in July. 1810.
hawks in 1696; and he led forces in per- Frothingham, RICHARD, historian
son against the Onondagas the same year, born in Charlestown, Mass., Jan. 31, 181i
Frontenac was the terror of the Iroquois, was proprietor of the Boston Post, and
for his courage and activity were wonder- was several times elected to the legis-
ful. He restored the fallen fortunes of lature; mayor of Charlestown in^ 1851-53.
France in America, and died soon after- Among his publications are History of
wards in Quebec, Nov. 28, 1698. Charlestown; History or the Siege of Bos-

Front Royal; BATTLE AT. On May 23, ton: TJ&gt;r Command in the Battle of Bun-
186- 7 General Ewell fell with crushing krr Hill ; Life of Joseph Warren; Rise of
force, almost without warning, upon the the 1 llt ,l t lic. etc. He died in Charles-
little erarrison of 1,000 men, under Colo- town. Mass.. Jan. 29. 1880.
nel Kenly, at Front Royal. Kenly was Fry, JAMES BARNET, military officer ;
charged with the protection of the roads born in Carrollton, Green co.,
and bridges between Front Royal and 22. 1S27 : graduated at the United States
Strasbm- His troops were chiefly New Military Academy in 1847. After
Yorkers and Pennsylvania. Kenly made ing as assistant instructor of artillery
a gallant defence, but was driven from the at West Point, he was a --.-Tied to the 3d
town He made another stand, but was Artillery, then in Mexico, where he r*
i MKhecl across the Shenandoah. He at- mained till the close of the war. Aft
tempted to burn the bridge behind him. doing frontier duty at various posts he
but failed, when Ewell s cavalry in pur- was again instructor at West
suit overtook him. Kenly again gave bat- 1853-54, and adjutant there in

-IS)

FBY FRYE

On March 16, 1861, he was appointed as- pirate in Santiago de Cuba, Nov. 7, 1873.
sistant adjutant-general, and later in the See FILIBUSTER.

same year became chief of staff to Gen. Fry, JOSHUA, military officer; born in

Irwin McDowell. In 1861-62 he was on Somersetshire, England; educated at Ox-

the staff of Gen. Don Carlos Buell. He ford, and was professor of mathematics

was appointed provost-marshal-general of in the College of William and Mary in

the United States, March 17, 1863, and Virginia. He served in public civil life

was given the rank of brigadier-general, in Virginia, and in 1754 was intrusted

April 21, 1864. General Fry registered with the command of an expedition

1,120,621 recruits, arrested 76,562 de- against the French on the head-waters of

serters, collected $26,366,316, and made an the Ohio. He died at a place at the

exact enrolment of the National forces, mouth of Will s Creek (now Cumberland)

He was brevetted major-general in the Md., while conducting the expedition

regular army. March 13, 1865, for faith- May 31, 1754. He had been colonel

lul, meritorious, and distinguished ser- of the militia (1750) and a member of the

After the war he served as ad- governor s council. When Frye died the

jutant-general, with the rank of colonel, command of the expedition to the Ohio

of the divisions of the Pacific, the South, was assumed by George Washington who

the Missouri, and the Atlantic, till 1881, had been second in command

when he was retired from active service Frye, JAMES, military officer; born in

at his own request. He was the author Andover, Mass., in 1709; served in several

of Final Report of the Operations of the local offices, and in the army at the capt-

reau of the Provost-Marshal-General in ure of Louisburg in 1755. At the opening

$63-66; Sketch of the Adjutant-general s of the Revolution he commanded the Essex

Department of the United States Army R cg i me nt (Massachusetts), taking an ac-

from 1775 to 18,5; History and Legal tive part in the battle of Bunker Hill.

Effects of Brevets in the Armies- of Great He afterwards commanded a brigade of

Britain and the United States, from their the army investing Boston. He died Jan.

orif/m in 1692 to the Present Time; Army 8 1776

Sacrifices; UcDon-eU and Tyler in the rrye, WILLIAM PIERCE, lawyer; born
Campaign of Bull Run; Operations of the
Army under Buell; and New York and
Conscription. He died in Xewport, R. I.,
July 11, 1894.

Fry, JOSEPH, military officer: born in
Andover, Mass., in April, 1711; was an en
sign in the army that captured Louislmrg
in 1745, and a colonel in the British army
at the capture of Fort William Henry by
Montcalm in 1757. He escaped and
reached Fort Edward. In 1775 Congress
appointed him brigadier-general, but in
the spring of 1776 he resigned on account
cf infirmity. He died in Fryeburg, Me.,
in 1794.

Fry, JOSEPH, naval officer; born in
Louisiana, about 1828: joined the navy in
1841; was promoted lieutenant in Septem
ber, 1855 : resigned when Louisiana se
ceded ; was unable to secure a command in
the Confederate navy, but was commis
sioned an officer in the army. In 1873
he became captain of the Yiri/iniun. known

as a Cuban war steamer. His ship was in Lewiston, Me., Sept. 12, 1831: gradu-
captured by a Spanish war vessel, and he. ated at Bowdoin College in 1850; and
with many of his crew, was shot as a became a lawyer. He served as a mem-

485

WIM.M.M 1 IKKCK FRTE.

FRYER FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS

the Maine legislature in 1861- magistrate, on being satisfied that the
in 1867; was mayor of Lewiston charges against the fugitive were true,

should give a certificate to that effect,
which was a sufficient warrant for re-
manding the person seized back to sla
very. Any person in any way obstructing

ber of

(&gt;2 and

in 1866-67; attorney-general of Maine in

1867-69; Representative in Congress in

1871-81; and was elected to the United

States Senate in 1881, 1883, 1888, 1895,

and 1900. For a number of years he was such seizure or removal, or harboring or
chairman of the Senate committee on concealing such fugitive, was liable to a
commerce. In 1898 he was appointed one penalty of $500. For some time the law

of the commissioners to negotiate a. treaty
with Spain, under the terms of the pro
tocol, and afterwards ably defended the
treaty in committee and on the floor of
the Senate. In recognition of his ser-

altracted very little attention, but finally
this summary violation of the right of
personal liberty without a trial by jury,
or any appeal on points of law, was de
nounced as dangerous and unconstitu-

vices in behalf of peace the legislature of tional ; and most of the free-labor States
Maine set apart a day for him to become passed acts forbidding their magistrates,
a guest of the State.

Fryer, JOHN. Orientalist;

born in

Hythe, England, Aug. 6, 1839: grad
uated at Highbury College in 1860; Pro
fessor in Alfred University, Hong-Kong,
in 1861; Professor of English Literature
in T ung-Wen College, Peking, in 1863-65;
for many years connected with the Chi
nese government in an official capacity
for the purpose of translating modern
scientific books into Chinese. Professor

under severe penalties, to take any part
in carrying this law into effect. It be
came a dead letter until revived in 1850.
The domestic slave-trade increased the
liability of free persons of color being
kidnapped, under the provisions of the
fugitive slave act of 1793. A petition
was presented to Congress in 1818 from
the yearly meeting of Friends at Balti
more, praying for further provisions for
protecting free persons of color. This had

Fryer has published a large number of followed a bill brought in by a committee

books, essays, and reports in the Chinese at the instigation of Pindall, a. member

language, and was appointed Professor of

Oriental Languages and Literature in the

University of California in 1896. In 1902

the Chinese government appointed him

president of the Wuchang University. He

published a full account of the Buddhist

missions in America, under the title The

Buddhist Discover)/ of America 1,000

Years before Columbus. See Hui SHEN.

Fteley, AMMIONSE, engineer; born in
France in is:i7: came to the United States
in 1865; was appointed chief engineer
of the Aqueduct Commission of New York
in 1888. He was identified with the con
struction of many engineering projects,
including the Croton Aqueduct, the tunnel

under the Kast River, New York, etc. He
died in Yonkcrs. June 11, 1903.

Fugitive Slave Laws. In 1793 an act
was passed by Congress for the rendition

from Virginia, for giving new stringency
to the fugitive slave act. While this
bill was pending, a member from Rhode
Island (Burritt) moved to instruct the
committee on the Quaker memorial to in
quire into the expediency of additional pro
visions for the suppression of the foreign
slave-trade. Pindall s bill was warmly
opposed by members from the free-labor
Slates as going entirely beyond the con
stitutional provision on the subject of
fugitives from labor. They contended that
the personal rights of one class of citizens
were not to be trampled upon to secure
the rights of property of other citizens.
The bill was supported by the Southern
members and a few Northern ones; a!-&lt;&gt;
by Speaker Henry Clay; and it passed
the House of Representatives by a vote
of 84 to 69. Among the yeas were ten

of fugitive slaves. It provided that the from New York, five from Massachusetts,

owner of the slave, or " servant," as it was four from Pennsylvania, and one from

termed in the act, his agent or attorney, Now Jersey. It passed the Senate, after

might sei/e the fugitive and carry him several important amendments, by a vote

before any United States judge, or before of 17 to 13. Meanwhile some of its Xorth-

any magistrate of the city, town, or coun- orn supporters seem to have been alarmed

ty in which the arrest was made; such by thunders of indignation from their con-

486

FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS FULLER

stituents, and when it reached the House
it was laid on the table, and was there al
lowed to die.

One of the acts contemplated by Mr.
Clay s " OMNIBUS BILL " ( q. v.) was for
the rendition of fugitive slaves to their
owners, under the provision of clause 3,
section 2, article 4, of the national Con
stitution. In September, 1850, a bill to
that effect was passed, and became a
law by the signature of President Fill-

of the right to defence allowed to the
vilest criminal, be carried away into
hopeless slavery, beyond the reach of pity,
mercy, or law. This perception of pos
sible wrong that would follow the execu
tion of the fugitive slave law caused
several free-labor States to pass laws for
protecting their colored population. See
PERSONAL LIBERTY LAWS ; SLAVERY.

Fuller, MELVILLE WESTON, jurist; born
in Augusta, Me., Feb. 11, 1833; grad-

a lawyer in his native city; and
afterwards removed to Chicago,

more. The bill was drawn up by Senator uated at Bowdoin College, in 1853; be-
James M. Mason, of Virginia, and in came
some of its features was made very offen- soon
sive to the sentiments and feelings of the
people of the free-labor States. It pro
vided that the master of a fugitive slave,
or his agent, might go into any State or
Territory of the republic, and, with or
without legal warrant there obtained,
seize such fugitive, and take him forth
with before any judge or commissioner,
whose duty it should be to hear and de
termine the case. On satisfactory proof
being furnished the judge or commis
sioner, such as the affidavit, in writing,
or other acceptable testimony, by the
pursuing owner or agent, that the ar
rested person " owes labor " to the party
that arrested him, or his principal, it was
made the duty of such judge or commis
sioner to use the power of his office to
assist the claimant to take the fugitive
hack into bondage. It was further pro
vided that in no hearing or trial under the
act should the testimony of such alleged where he built up an important practice,
fugitive be admitted in evidence; and He was a member of the legislature, and a

the

MELVILLE TVESTON FULLER.

that

the parties claiming

should not be molested in their work of
carrying the person back " by any process
issued by any court, judge, or magistrate,
or any person whomsoever"; and any citi-

fugitive delegate to several Democratic national
conventions. In 1888 he was appointed
by President Cleveland chief - justice of
the Supreme Court of the United States.
Fuller, SARAH MARGARET, MARCHIONESS

zen might be compelled to assist in the D OssoLi, author; born in Cambridge,
capture and rendition of a slave. This Mass., May 23, 1810; at the age of seven-
last clause of the act was so offensive to teen read French, Italian, Spanish, and
every sentiment of humanity and justice, German fluently; became a teacher in Bos-
so repugnant to the feelings of the people ton in 1835; and, two years later, in Provi-
of the free-labor States, and so contrary dence, R. I. She formed classes for young

to the Anglo-Saxon principle of fair-play,
that, while the habitual respect for law
Ly the American people caused a general
acquiescence in the requirements of the
fugitive slave law, there was rebellion
against it in every Christian heart. It
was seen that free negroes might, by
the perjury of kidnappers and the denial

487

ladies in Boston for training in conversa
tion, and the next year (1840) became
editor of the Dial, the organ of the
TRANSCENDENTALISTS (q. v.),to which she
contributed articles on the social condi
tion of women. In 1844 she became
literary editor of the New York Tribune.
Miss Fuller travelled in Europe, and,

FULTON

visiting Italy in 1847, she married the
Marquis d Ossoli. In 1850, returning to
her native country with her husband and
child, the vessel was wrecked on the
southern coast of Long Island, and all
three were drowned, July 16, 1850. Her
writings are held in the highest esti
mation, and have made a deep impres
sion upon features of social life in
America.

Fulton, JUSTIN DEWEY, clergyman;
born in Earlville, N. Y., March 1, 1828;
graduated at the University of Roches
ter in 1851, and then studied at the
theological seminary there. In 1863-
73 he was pastor of Tremont Temple, Bos
ton; in 1873-75 of the Hanson Place Bap
tist Church, in Brooklyn; later he founded
the Centennial Baptist Church in Brook
lyn, and was its pastor for several years.
He then gave up church work and de
voted himself to writing and speaking
against the Roman Catholic Church. His
publications include The Roman Catholic
Element in American History; Woman as
God made Her; Show Your Colors; Rome
in America; Charles H. Spurgeon our
Ally, etc. He died in Somerville, Mass.,
April 16, 1901.

Fulton, ROBERT, inventor; born in

Little Britain, Lancaster co., Pa., in 1765 ;
received a common-school education ; be
came a miniature painter; and, at the
age of twenty, was practising that pro
fession in Philadelphia, by which he made

ROBERT FULTOX

FULTON S CLKRMOXT

enough money to buy a small farm in
Washington county, on which he placed
his mother. Then he went to England;
studied painting under Benjamin West;
became a civil engineer; and made him
self familiar with the steam engine, then
just improved by Watt. He devised vari
ous machines, among them an excavator
for scooping out the channels of aque
ducts. He wrote and published essays on
canals and canal navigation in 1795-96.
He went to Paris in 1797, and remained
there seven years with Joel Barlow,
studying languages and sciences, and
invented a torpedo. This he offered
to the French and English govern
ments, but both rejected the inven
tion, and in December, 1806, he ar
rived in New York. He went to
Washington, where the models and
drawings of his torpedo made a fa
vorable impression. In 1807 he per
fected his steamboat for navigating
the Hudson, having been aided by
Robert R. Livingston, with whom
he had been acquainted in Paris.
Livingston had made experiments in
steamboating as early as 17!&gt;$, when
he was granted the exclusive privi
lege of navigating the waters of the
State by steam. Fulton was finally
included in the provisions of the act,
and in September, 1807, the Clcr-
mont, the first steamboat that navi
gated the Hudson, made a successful
voyage from New York to Albany and
back. She travelled at the rate of 5
miles an hour. See LIVINGSTON, R. R.

488

FUNDAMENTAL CONSTITUTIONS

FULTOX 8 TOKl KDO.

At this time, Fulton regarded his tor- an aristocratic government, in feudal
pedo as the greater and more beneficial form, employed the Earl of Shaftesbury
invention, as he believed it would estab- and John Locke to frame one. They
lisli the " liberty of the seas."
The government, in 1810, appropri
ated $5,000 to enable him to try
further experiments with his tor
pedo; but a commission decided
against it, and he was compelled
to abandon his scheme. Steam
navigation was a success. He

was a

built ferry-boats to run across the
North (Hudson) and East rivers,
and built vessels for several
steamboat companies in different
parts of the United States. In
1814 he was appointed by the gov
ernment engineer to superintend
the construction of one or more
floating batteries. He built a war
F( earner (the first ever construct
ed), which he called the Detnologos.
She had a speed of 2% miles an
hour, and was deemed a marvel;

she was named Fulton the First, taken to completed the task in March, 1669, and
the Brooklyn navy-yard, and there used named the instrument " Fundamental
as a receiving-ship until January, 1829, Constitutions." It provided for two or-
when she was accidentally blown up (see ders of nobility; the higher to consist of
TORPEDOES). Fulton died in New York, Feb. landgraves, or earls, the lower of caciques,
24, 1815. See STEAMBOAT, INVENTION OF. or barons. The territory was to be divid-
Fundamental Constitutions. The pro- ed into counties, each containing 480,000

acres, with one landgrave and two
caciques. There were also to be lords
of manors, who, like the nobles,
might hold courts and exercise judi
cial functions, but could never at
tain to a higher rank. The four
estates proprietors, earls, barons,
and commoners were to sit in one
legislative chamber. The proprietors
were always to be eight in number,
to possess the whole judicial power,
and have the supreme control of all
tribunals. The commons were to
have four members in the legislat
ure to every three of the nobility.
Every form of religion was profess
edly tolerated, but the Church of
England only was declared to be or
thodox. In the highest degree mo
narchical in its tendency, this form
of government was distasteful to
the people ; so, after a contest of

prietors of the Carolinas, which included about twenty years between them and the
Ilic territory of what was afterwards the proprietors, the absurd scheme was aban-
colony of Georgia, wishing to establish doned.

489

FULTON S HIRTHPLACE.

FUNDING SYSTEM FUNSTON

Funding System, EARLY. On Aug. 4,
1790, an act was adopted for funding the
public debt of the United States. It au
thorized the President of the United
States to borrow $12,000,000, if so much
was found necessary, for discharging th
tin-ears of interest and the overdue in
stalments on the foreign debt, and for pay
ing off the whole of that debt, could it be
effected on advantageous terms: the
money thus borrowed to be reimbursed
within tifteen years. A new loan was also
to be opened, payable in certificates of the
domestic debt, at their par value, and in
Continental bills of credit, " new tenor,"
at the rate of $100 for $1. The act also
authorized an additional loan, payable in
certificates of the State debts, to the
amount of $21,500,000; but no certificates
wore to be received excepting such as had
been issued for services and supplies dur
ing the war for independence. For pay
ment of the interest and principal on the
public debt the foreign debt having the
preference, and then the Continental loan
a pledge was made of the income of the
existing tonnage and import duties, after
an annual deduction of $000.000 for cur
rent expenses. The faith of the United
States was also pledged to make up all
deficiencies of interest. The proceeds of
the sales of Western lands then belonging
to, or which might belong to, the United
States, were specially and exclusively ap
propriated towards the discharge of the
principal. For superintending these loans
and for the general management of the
public debt, the old Continental system
of a loan-office commission in each State
was continued. The funding system was
very beneficial to the country. The re
sult of its satisfactory operation on the
business of the nation was the re-estab
lishment of commerce. See FINANCES,
UNITED STATES.

Funston, FREDERICK, military officer;
born in Ohio, Nov. 9, ISO S; attended the
Kansas State University, but did not
graduate; became a newspaper reporter
in Kansas City in 1SOO; botanist of the
United States Death Valley Expedition in
1891 ; and special commissioner of the De
partment of Agriculture to explore Alaska,
with a view of reporting on its flora,
1893-94: joined the Cubans in 1896 and
served in their army for a year and a

half. At the beginning of the war with
Spain lie was commissioned colonel of the
20th Kansas Volunteers, which lie accom
panied to the Philippines, where he subse
quently made an exceptionally brilliant
record. On March :51, 18!M&gt;. he was the
first man to enter Malolos, the Filipino in
surgents capital. On May -2. IS!)!). Presi
dent Mclvinley promoted him to brigadier-
general in the newly organized volunteer
service, on the recommendation of Gen-

FREDKRICK Fl XSTON.

erals Otis and MacArthur, for signal skill
and gallantry in swimming across the Rio
Grande at Calumpit in the face of a heavy
fire from the insurgents, and establishing
a rope ferry by means of which the Ameri
can troops were enabled to make a cross
ing and to successfully engage the insur
gents. On May 2, 1000, while making a
personal reconnoissance up the Rio Grande
de la Pampanga he discovered a perpen
dicular ladder leading up a cliff crowned
with a dense forest. Beside the ladder
hung a rope which, when pulled, rang an
alarm bell in the woods back of the preci
pice. Deeming these appearance- BUS-
picious, he ascended the ladder and at the
summit found many large wooden cases
filled with documents comprising a great
number of the archives of the insurgents,
including all the correspondence of Agui-
naldo from the time of his earliest com
munications with Dewey down to the flight

490

FURMAN FUR-TRADE

from Malolos, and also including Agui- was started by the director-general of
naldo s personal letter-book, with press Louisiana. A trading expedition was
copies of his correspondence. These boxes fitted out, and under the direction of
were hidden in a ravine, but were all re- Pierre Ligueste Laclede, the principal pro-
covered and taken to Manila, where their jector of the enterprise, it went to the
contents were delivered to the American Missouri region, and established its chief
authorities. On March 23, 1901, he capt- depot on the site of the city of St. Louis,
ured AGUINALDO (q. v.) , and on the 30th which name was then given to that lo-
following was commissioned brigadier- cality. There furs were gathered from
general in the regular army. the regions extending eastward to Mack-

Furman, GABRIEL, lawyer; born in inaw, and westward to the Rocky Moun-

Brooklyn, N. Y., Jan. 23, 1800 ; trans- tains. Their treasures went in boats down

mitted extensive antiquarian researches, the Mississippi to New Orleans, and thence

but his only published work is Notes, to Europe; or up the Illinois River, across

Geographical and Historical, Relative to a portage to Lake Michigan, and by way

the Toivn of Brooklyn. He died in Brook- of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence

lyn, N. Y., Nov. 11, 1834. to Montreal and Quebec.

Furman, RICHARD, clergyman; born in Early in the nineteenth century, fur-
Esopus, N. Y., in 1755. While still a trading posts had been established on the
child his father removed to South Caro- Cohimbia River and other waters that
lina. He became a minister in the empty into the Pacific Ocean. In 1784
Baptist Church before he was of age, and JOHN JACOB ASTOR (q. v.) , an enterpris-
was such an ardent patriot during the ing young German merchant of New York,
Revolution that Lord Cornwallis offered embarked in the fur-trade. He purchased
a reward for his capture, Mr. Furman furs in Montreal and sold them in Eng-
was a member of the first constitutional land; after the treaty of 1795 he shipped
convention of South Carolina, and presi- them to different European ports. In this
dent of the first convention representing trade, chiefly, he amassed a fortune of
all the Baptist societies in America. Fur- $250,000, when he embarked in a scheme
man University in South Carolina was for making a great fur depot on the Pa-
named in his honor. He died in Charles- cific coast. He was then competing with
ton, S. C., in 1825. the great fur companies of the Northwest,

Fnrnas, ROBERT WILKINSON, born in under a charter in the name of the

Miami county, O., May 5, 1824; removed American Fur Company, for which he

to Nebraska in 1855; appointed colonel of furnished the entire capital. Mr. Astor

the 2d Nebraska Cavalry during the Civil made an earnest effort to carry on the

War; elected governor of Nebraska in business between the Pacific coast of

1873; president of the Nebraska His- America and China, founding the town of

torical Society and of the Nebraska Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia

Pioneers Society, also grand master of River. Through the bad faith of a busi-

the Order of Odd Fellows and of the ness partner in 1813, that establishment

Masonic Society. was sold for a nominal sum and placed

Fur-trade. While the English-Ameri- under British control. After that Mr.

can colonies remained dependents of Great Astor carried on his operations in the

Britain, they derived very little advan- region of the Rocky Mountains, with his

tage from the extensive fur-trade with chief post at Mackinaw. Alaska, acquired

the Indians, for the Hudson Bay Com- in 1867 by purchase, opened a new field

pany absorbed nearly the whole of the for the American fur-trade. The furs

traffic. It was contention between the from that region are mainly those of the

French and English colonists for the con- fur-seal; there are also those of the

trol of this trade that was a powerful ele- beaver, ermine, fox, otter, marten, and

ment among the causes that brought on other animals. From 1870 to 1890 the

the FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (q. v.). In monopoly of the trade was in the hands

1762 a fur company was organized in New of the Alaska Commercial Company of

Orleans for carrying on the fur-trade ex- San Francisco, Cal. In the latter year

tensively with the Western Indians. It the government granted the right of tak-

491

FUSANG FYFFE

ing fur-seals to the North American Com
mercial Company for a yearly rental of
*i&gt;0,000 and $7.62y 3 for each seal-skin.
Canadian sealing-vessels were, for several
vears, illegally engaged in the indiscrimi
nate slaughter of the seals, threatening
their extinction. In 1889 some of these
vessels were seized by United States rev
enue-cutters, thus giving rise to the Be
ring Sea controversy with Great Britain.
See" ALASKA; ANGLO-AMERICAN COMMIS
SION ; FISHERIES.

Fusang, or Fuh-Sang, the name of the
country visited by Buddhist monks in the
fifth century, supposed to be Mexico. See
HTJI SHEN.

Fuss and Feathers. A political nick
name applied to (Jen. Winfleld Scott.

Futhey, JOHN SMITH, historian; born
in Chester county, Pa., Sept. 3, 1820;

admitted to the bar in 1843, and was dis
trict attorney for five years. In 1879
he became presiding judge of the district.
He is the author of many historical works,
including Historical Collections of Chester
County; Historical Address on the One
Hundredth Anniversary of the Paoli Mas
sacre; etc. He died in 1888.

Fyffe, JOSEPH, naval ollicer : born in
Urbana, (&gt;.. July 20, 18:52: entered the
navy as midshipman, Sept. 9, 1847: served
on the Cumberland and the bomb-ship
Stromboli in the war with Mexico; was
a volunteer in the Grinnell arctic expedi
tion of 185G; served throughout the Civil
War, taking part in the attack on Fort
Fisher, the destruction of the Confederate
blockade-runner Kant/cr, in the operations
near Dutch Gap Canal, etc. He died in
Pierce, Neb., Feb. 25, 1896.

E 174 .L91 1905 v.3 SMC
tossing, Benson John,
Harper s encyclopedia of
United States history from
47083523

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