Full text of "Harper's encyclopædia of United States history from 458 A.D. to 1905 Volume 5"

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EDITION

HARPER S ENCYCLOPEDIA

UNITED STATES HISTORY

FROM 458 A.D. TO 1905
BASED UPON THE PLAN OF

BENSON JOHN LOSSINQ, LL.D.

SOMET1MK EDITOR OF "THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL RECORD" AND AUTHOR OF
"THE PICTORIAL FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION " " THE PICTORIAL FIELD-
BOOK OF THE WAR OF l8T2 " ETC., ETC., ETC.

WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS COVERING EVERY PHASE OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND
DEVELOPMENT BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING

JOHN FISKE.

THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN

WM. R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D.

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D.

PR OF. OF HIS TOR Y AT HAR YARD

JOHN B. MOORE.

PROF. OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AT COLUMBIA

JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D.

PROF. OF LITERATURE AT UNIV. OF CALIFORNIA

WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D.

U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY UNIV. OF TORONTO

MOSES COIT TYLER, LL.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT CORNELL

EDWARD G. BOURNE, Ph.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT YALE

R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.

PROF. OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA

ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.

CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (Retired)

ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC.
WITH A PREFACE ON THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY

WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

AUTHOR OP

"A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE" ETC., ETC.

WITH ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, PORTRAITS, MAPS, PLANS, &c.

COMPLETE IN TEN VOLUMES
VOL. V

HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK - 1905 - LONDON

LIST OF PLATES

PRESIDENT ABRAHAM LINCOLN Frontispiece

PRESIDENT ANDREW JACKSON Facing page 96

THE BURNING OF JAMESTOWN "120

PRESIDENT THOMAS JEFFERSON . .- 130

PRESIDENT ANDREW JOHNSON 160

LINCOLN MAKING His FAMOUS SPEECH AT GETTYS
BURG 430

HARPERS ENCYCLOPEDIA

UNITED STATES HISTORY

Iberville, PIERRE LE MOYNE, SIEUR D ,
founder of Louisiana; born in Montreal,
Canada, July 16, 1661 ; was one of eleven
brothers who figure in some degree in
French colonial history. Entering the
French navy at fourteen, he became dis
tinguished in the annals of Canada for
his operations against the English in the
north and east of that province. In 1698
he was sent from France to the Gulf of
Mexico with two frigates (Oct. 22), to
occupy the mouth of the Mississippi and
the region neglected after the death of La
Salle. On finding that stream, he re
ceived from the Indians a letter left
by De Tonty, in 1686, for La Salle. There
he built Fort Biloxi, garrisoned it, and
made his brother Bienville the King s lieu
tenant. In May, 1699, he returned to
France, but reappeared at Fort Biloxi in
January, 1700. On visiting France and
returning in 1701, he found the colony
reduced by disease, and transferred the
settlement to Mobile, and began the coloni
sation of Alabama. Disease had im
paired his health, and the government
called him away from his work as the
founder of Louisiana. He was engaged in
the naval service in the West Indies,
where he was fatally stricken by yellow
fever, dying in Havana, Cuba, July 9,
1706.

Idaho, the thirtieth State admitted to
the American Union, was first explored by
. ae whites of the Lewis and Clark ex
pedition. Within its present limit the
Cceur d Alene mission was established in
1842. The region was visited almost ex-
V. A

clusively by hunters and trappers till
1852, when gold was discovered on its
present northern boundary. By act of
Congress of March 3, 1863, the Territory
of Idaho was created from a portion of
Oregon Territory, with an area which in
cluded the whole of the present State of

STATB SEAL OP IDAHO.

Montana and nearly all of that of Wyo
ming. In 1864 the Territory lost a part of
its area to form the Territory of Montana,
and in 1868 another large portion was cut
from it to form the Territory of Wyo
ming. On July 3, 1890, the Territory was
admitted into the Union as a State, hav
ing then a gross area of 84,800 square
miles. Between the dates of its creation
as a Territory and a State it became wide
ly noted as a most promising field for gold
!

IDAHO ILLINOIS

and silver mining, and for several years
later, Idaho was classed politically as a
silver State. Prospecting, however, de
veloped a large number of rich paying
gold properties, and during the copper
excitement of 1898-1901 many veins of
that mineral were found. During the
calendar year 1899 the gold mines of Idaho
yielded a combined product valued at
$1,889,000; and the silver mines a pro
duct having a commercial value of $2,311,-
080. The development of the various min
ing interests was seriously retarded for
many years by the lack of transporta
tion facilities, but by 1900 railroads
had been extended to a number of im
portant centres, and wagon-roads had been
constructed connecting direct with the
chief mining properties. The State also
had a natural resource of inestimable
value in its forests, with great variety of
timber. The chief agricultural productions
are wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and hay,
and the combined values of these crops in
the calendar year 1903 was $13,921,855,
the hay crop alone exceeding in value
$0,800,000. For 1903 the equalized valu
ation of all taxable property was $65,-
! 964,785, and the total bonded debt was
$692,500, largely incurred for the construc
tion of wagon-roads. The population in
1890 was 84,385; in 1900, 161,772. See
UNITED STATES, IDAHO, vol. ix.

TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS.

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

Name.

No. of Congress.

Date.

George L. Shoup

51st to

1890

Fred T. Dubois. ...... .

61st " 5-ith

1890 to 1897

Heiiry Heitfeld

55th " 57 Ul

1897 " 1U03

Welden B Heyburn

58th "

1903 "

Name.

Date.

1863 to 1864

1864 " 1866

1866 " 1867

1870

1870 to 1871

1871

1871 to 1876

1876 " 1880

John B Neil

1880 " 1883

1883

Win N. Burn

18R4 to 1885

Edwin A. Stevens

1885 " 1889

STATE GOVERNORS.

Name.

George L. Shoup. . . .

N. B. Willey

Wm. J. McConnell..
Frank Steunenberg.

Frank W. Hunt

John T. Morrison. . .
Frank R. Gooding . .

Date.

1890
1890 to 1893

1893
1897
1901
1903
1905

1897
1901

1905
1907

Ide, GEORGE BARTON, clergyman; born
in Coventry, Vt., in 1804; graduated at
Middlebury College in 1830; ordained in
the Baptist Church; pastor of the First
Baptist Church of Philadelphia, Pa., in
1838-52, and afterwards had a charge in
Springfield, Mass., for twenty years. He
published Green Hollow; Battle Echoes,
or Lessons from the War; etc. He died
in Springfield, Mass., April 16, 1872.

Ide, HENRY CLAY, jurist; born in Bar-
net, Vt., Sept. 18, 1844; graduated at
Dartmouth College in 1866. He was a
member of the Vermont State Senate in
1882-85; president of the Republican
State Convention in 1884; and a delegate
to the National Republican Convention in
1888. In 1891 he was appointed United
States commissioner to Samoa; in 1893-
97 was chief-justice of the islands under
the appointment of England, Germany,
and the United States; in 1900 became a
member of the Philippine Commission;
and in 1901 Secretary of Finance and
Justice of the Philippines. See SAMOA.

Ik Marvel. See MITCHELL, DONALD
GRANT.

Illiers, COUNT HENRY Louis, military
officer: born in Luxembourg in 1750; was
one of the French officers who served in
the Revolutionary War; took part in the
battle of the Brandywine, where he saved
Pulaski. He was the author of De la
guerre d Amerique, etc. He died in Paris
in 1794.

Illinoia, the proposed name for a State
of part of the Northwest Territory.

Illinois. The site of the present State
was first explored by Marquette and
Joliet, French missionaries from Canada,
in 1763, who were followed by La Salle
and Hennepin. Twenty years later mis
sion stations were established at Kaskas-
kia, Cahokia, and Peoria; and early in
the eighteenth century a French monas
tery was established at Kaskaskia. By
the treaty of 1763, the "Illinois country,"
as it was called, passed under the juris
diction of the English. By the treaty of

ILLINOIS

1783 it was ceded to the United States,
and it formed a part of the Northwest
Territory. The country conquered by
General Clarke, in 1778-79, the Virginia
Assembly erected into a county, which
they called Illinois. It embraced all ter-

STATE SEAL OF ILLINOIS.

ritory north of the Ohio claimed as within
the limits of Virginia, and ordered 500
men to be raised for its defence. In 1809,
when the present boundaries of Indiana
were defined, Illinois included Wisconsin
and a part of Minnesota, and in 1810 con
tained more than 12,000 inhabitants.

On Oct. 14, 1812, Gen. Samuel Hopkins,
with 2,000 mounted Kentucky riflemen,
crossed the Wabash on an expedition
against the Kickapoo and Peoria Indian
villages, in the Illinois country, the former
80 miles from his starting-place, the latter
120 miles. They traversed magnificent
prairies covered with tall grass. The army
was a free-and-easy, undisciplined mob,
that chafed under restraint. Discontent,
seen at the beginning, soon assumed the
forms of complaint and murmuring.
Finally, when halting on the fourth day s
march, a major rode up to the general and
insolently ordered him to march the troops
back to Fort Harrison. Very soon after
wards the army was scarcely saved from
perishing in the burning grass of a prai
rie, supposed to have been set on fire by
the Indians. The troops would inarch no
farther. Hopkins called for 500 volun
teers to follow him into Illinois. Not one
responded. They would not submit to his

leadership, and" he followed his army back
to Fort Harrison, where they arrived Oct.
25. This march of 80 or 90 miles into the
Indian country had greatly alarmed the
Indians, and so did some good. Towards
the same region aimed at by General Hop
kins another expedition, under Colonel
Russell, composed of two small companies
of United States regulars, with a small
body of mounted militia under Gov. Ninian
Edwards (who assumed the chief com
mand), in all 400 men, penetrated deeply
into the Indian country, but, hearing noth
ing of Hopkins, did not venture to attempt
much. They fell suddenly upon the princi
pal Kickapoo towns, 20 miles from Lake
Peoria, drove the Indians into a swamp,
through which they pursued them, some
times waist-deep in mud, and made them
fly in terror across the Illinois River.
Some of the pursuers passed over, and
brought back canoes with dead Indians in
them. Probably fifty had perished. The
expedition returned, after an absence of
eighteen days, with eighty horses and the
dried scalps of several persons who had
been killed by the savages, as trophies.

General Hopkins discharged the muti
neers and organized another expedition of
1,250 men, composed chiefly of foot-sol
diers. Its object was the destruction of
Prophetstown. The troops were composed
of Kentucky militia, some regulars under
Capt. Zachary Taylor, a company of ran
gers, and a company of scouts and spies.
They rendezvoused atVincennes, and march
ed up the Wabash Valley to Fort Harrison,
Nov. 5, 1812. They did not reach the
vicinity of Prophetstown until the 19th.
Then a detachment fell upon and burned
a Winnebago town of forty houses, 4
miles below Prophetstown. The latter and
a large Kickapoo village near it were also
laid in ashes. The village contained 160
huts, with all the winter provisions of
corn and beans, which were totally de
stroyed. On the 21st a part of the expe
dition fell into an Indian ambush and lost
eighteen men, killed, wounded, and miss
ing. So destitute were the troops, espe
cially the Kentuckians, who were clad in
only the remnants of their summer cloth
ing, that the expedition returned without
attempting anything more. They suftVml
dreadfully on their return march.

Among the prominent events of the War

ILLINOIS ILLINOIS INDIANS

of 1812-15 in that region was the massacre
at CHICAGO ( q. v. ) . After that war the pop
ulation rapidly increased, and on Dec. 3,
1818, Illinois, with its present limits, was
admitted into the Union as a State. The
census of 1820 showed a population of
more than 55,000. THE BLACK HAWK
WAR (q. v.) occurred in Illinois in 1832.
There the Mormons established themselves
in 1840, at Nauvoo (see MORMONS) ; their
founder was slain by a mob at Carthage,
in 1844, and soon afterwards a general
exodus of this people occurred. A new
State constitution was framed in 1847,
and in July, 1870, the present constitu
tion was adopted. The Illinois Central
Railroad, completed in 1856, has been a
source of great material prosperity for
the State. During the Civil War Illinois
furnished to the national government (to
Dec. 1, 1864) 197,364 troops.

In 1903 the equalized valuations of
taxable property aggregated $1,083,672,-
183; and in 1903 the entire bonded debt
consisted of $18,500 in bonds, which had
ceased to draw interest and never been
presented for payment. The population
in 1890 was 3,826^,351; in 1900, 4,821,550.
See UNITED STATES, ILLINOIS, vol. ix.

TERRITORIAL GOVERNOR.

Ninian Edwards commissioned. .. .April 24, 1809

STATE GOVERNORS.

Shadrach Bond assumes office.

Edward Coles

Ninian Edwards

John Reynolds,.

William L. D. EwtDg. . .act Dg .

Joseph Duncan assumes office.

Thomas Carlin

Thomas Ford

Augustus C. French

Joel A. Mall cson.

William H. Bissell

John Wood acting March 18,

Richard Yat.cs assumes office January,

Kiohard J. Oglesby "

John XI. Palmer "

Kirliard J. Oglesby "

John I, Bp.voridge acting March 4,

Shelby M. Cullnm assumes office. ... January,

Jnhn M. Hamilton acting Feb. 7,

Richard .1. Oglesby January,

Joseph W. Fifer

John P. Altgeld

John R. Tanner

Richard Yates

C. S. Deneen

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

UNITED STATES SENATOKSConJiwuerf.

Name.

No, ot Congress. Date.

Richard M. Young

25th t
!
28th t
2t
29th t
31st
34th
3
37th
39th
42d
43d
45th
40th
48th
50th
52d
55th
58th

o 27th
th,
o 31st
th
o 37th
33d
42d
h
o 39th
42d
45th
4tith
47th
49th

1837 t
1841
1843
1843
1847
1849
1855
18
1863 t
1865
1871
1873
1877
1879
1883
1887
1891
1897
1903

o 1843
1843
1849
1846
1861
1855
1871
1
1865
1871
1877
1878
1883
1886

Samuel McRoberts

Sidney Breese

James Semple

Stephen A. Douglas

James Shields

Lvm;iu Trutubull

Orville H. Browning
William A. Richardson...
Richard Yates

John A. Logan

Richard J. Oglesby

David Davis

John A. Logan

Shelby M Cullum

Charles B. Farwell

51st
55th
57th

1891
1897
1903

John M. Palmer....

William E. Mason

Albert J. Hopkins .

1818
1822
1826
1830
1834

i I

1838
1842
1846
1853
1857
1860
1861
1865
1869
1873

1877
1883
1885
1889
1893
1897
1901
1905

Name.

No. of Congress.

Date.

Ninian Edwards

15th to 18th

1818 to 1824

Jesse B Thomas

15th " 19th

1818 " 1826

John McLean

18th " 20th

1824 " 1830

Elias Kent Kane

19th " 23d

1826 " 1835

David J Baker

21st

1830

John Xf. Robinson

21st to 27th

1831 to 1841

William L. D. Ewing

24th

1836

Illinois Indians; a family of the
Algonquian nation that comprised several
clans Peorias, Moingwenas, Kaskaskias,
Tamaroas, and Cahokias. At a very early
period they drove a Dakota tribe, whom
they called the Arkansas, to the country
on the southern Mississippi. These were
the Quapaws. In 1640 they almost ex
terminated the Winnebagoes; and soon
afterwards they waged war with the Iro-
quois and Sioux. Their domain was be
tween Lakes Michigan and Superior and
the Mississippi River. Marquette found
some of them (the Peorias and Moingwe
nas) near Des Moines, west of the Mis
sissippi, in 1672; also the Peorias and
Kaskaskias on the Illinois River. The
Tamaroas and Cahokias were on the Mis
sissippi. The Jesuits found the chief Il
linois town consisting of 8,000 people, in
nearly 400 large cabins, covered with
water-proof mats, with, generally, four
fires to a cabin. In 1679 they were badly
defeated by the Iroquois, losing about
1,300, of whom 900 were prisoners; and
they retaliated by assisting the French,
under De la Barre and De Nonville,
against the Five Nations. The Illinois
were converted to Christianity by Father
Marquette and other missionaries, and
in 1700 Chicago, their great chief, visited
France, where he was much caressed. His
son, of the same name, maintained great
influence in the tribe until his death, in
1754. When Detroit was besieged by the
Foxes, in 1712, the Illinois went to its
relief, and in the war that followed they
suffered severely. Some of them were
with the French at Fort Duquesne; but
they refused to join Pontiac in his con-

ILOILO IMMIGRATION

spiracy. With the Miamis, they favored
the English in the war of the Revolution,
and joined in the treaty at Greenville in
1795. By the provision of treaties they
ceded their lands, and a greater portion of
them went to a country west of the Mis
sissippi, within the present limits of Kan
sas, where they remained until 18G7, when
they were removed to a reservation of 72,-
000 acres southwest of the Quapaws. In
1872 the whole Illinois nation had dwin
dled to forty souls. This tribe, combined
with the Weas and Piankeshaws, num
bered only 160 in all.

Iloilo, the principal city and capital
of the island of Panay, and one of the
three ports of entry in the Philippine
group opened to commerce in 1899. It is
situated 225 miles south of Manila, at
the southeastern extremity of Panay, and
is built on low, marshy ground, the whole
of which during a part of the spring is
covered with water. The population in
1900 was estimated at over 10,000. On
Dec. 25, 1898, after General Rios, who
held the town with 800 Spanish troops,
heard that the Philippine Islands were to
be ceded to the United States, instead of
awaiting the arrival of the American
forces, then on the way to take possession
of the city, he turned it over to Vincente
Guies, the alcade. On the following day
that official surrendered it to 3,000 Fili
pino insurgents. When Gen. M. P. Mil
ler, of the American army, reached the bay
on which the city is situated he found
General Lopez with 5,000 Filipinos in
possession. The Filipinos would not sur
render without instructions from Agui-
naldo, and General Miller made prepara
tions to take forcible possession, but on a
petition from the European residents no
hostile move was made until Feb. 11, 1899,
when the American commander demanded
the surrender of the city to the authority
of the United States. After it became evi
dent that the insurgent-officer in command
would not peaceably accede to this de
mand, the United States naval vessels
Petrel and Baltimore opened fire upon the
city, which was soon evacuated by the in
surgents after being fired. The American
troops quickly landed and extinguished
the flames, but not before considerable
damage had been done. During the en
gagement the Americans suffered no

casualties. Iloilo at the time of the bom
bardment was the seat of the so-called
government of the Visayan federation.

Ilpendam, JAN JANSEN VAN, merchant;
appointed custom - house officer on the
Delaware, and put in command of Fort
Nassau in 1640 by the Dutch governor
of New York. He tried to keep the Eng
lish colony from trading on the Delaware,
and his action in burning trading-houses
and taking the traders prisoner involved
the governor of New York in difficulty
with the government of New Haven. As
the result, Ilpendam resigned, but con
tinued to trade with the Indians. He
died at Marcus Hook, Pa., in 1685.

Imlay, GILBERT, author ; born in New
Jersey in 1750; served throughout the
Revolutionary War; was the author of
A Topographical Description of the West
ern Territory of North America; The Emi
grants, or the History of an Exiled
Family.

Immigration. When the French do
minion in America was ended, the causes
for war dismissed thereby, and the Indian
tribes on the frontiers were quieted, emi
gration began to spread westward in New
England, and also from the middle colo
nies over the mountains westward. Many
went from the other colonies into South
Carolina, where immigration was encour
aged, because the white people were
alarmed by the preponderance of the slave
population. Bounties were offered to im
migrants, and many Irish and Germans
settled in the upper districts of that prov
ince. Enriched by the labor of numerous
slaves, South Carolina was regarded as the
wealthiest of the colonies. Settlers also
passed into the new province of east Flor
ida. A body of emigrants from the Roa-
noke settled in west Florida, about Baton
Rouge; and some Canadians went into
Louisiana, for they were unwilling to
live under English rule. A colony of
Greeks from the shores of the Mediter
ranean settled at what is still known as
tike inlet of New Smyrna, in Florida. And
while these movements were going on
there were evidences of a rapid advance
in wealth and civilization in the older
communities. At that time the population
and production of Maryland, Virginia,
and South Carolina had unprecedented in
crease, and it was called their golden age.

IMMIGRATION

Commerce rapidly became more diffused.
Boston, which almost engrossed trade in
navigation, now began to find rivals in
New York, Baltimore, Norfolk, Charleston,
and little seaports on the New England
coasts; and its progress, which had been
arrested by these causes twenty-five years
before, stood still twenty-five years longer.
The leading political parties in recent
years have made almost identical declara
tions in their national platforms. At the
beginning of the campaign of 1896 the
Democratic National Convention, which
nominated Mr. Bryan, ignored the sub
ject; but the Free-Silver wing of the
party, in convention in Chicago, declared :
" We hold that the most efficient way of
protecting American labor is to prevent
the importation of foreign pauper labor
to compete with it in che home market,
and that the value of the home market to
our American farmers and artisans is
greatly reduced by a vicious monetary
system which depresses the prices of their
products below the cost of production,
and thus deprives them of the means of
purchasing the products of our home
manufactories ; and as labor creates the
wealth of the country, we demand the pas
sage of such laws as may be necessary to
protect it in all its rights;" and the Re
publican National Convention declared:
" For the protection of the quality of our
American citizenship, and of the wages of
our workingmen against the fatal com
petition of low-priced labor, we demand
that the immigration laws be thoroughly
enforced, and so extended as to exclude
from entrance to the United States those
who can neither read nor write." In the
campaign of 1900 the Democratic Na
tional Convention called for the strict en
forcement of the Chinese exclusion act
and its application to the same classes of
all Asiatic races; the Republican Na
tional Convention pronounced : " In the
further interest of American workmen we
favor a more effective restriction of the
immigration of cheap labor from foreign
lands, the extension of opportunities of
education for working children, the rais
ing of the age limit for child labor, the
protection of free labor as against con
tract convict labor, and an effective sys
tem of labor insurance;" the People s
party (Fusion wing) inserted this

declaration in its platform: "The im
portation of Japanese and other laborers
under contract to serve monopolistic cor
porations is a notorious and flagrant vio
lation of the immigration laws. We de
mand that the federal government shall
take cognizance of this menacing evil and
repress it under existing laws. We fur
ther pledge ourselves to strive for the
enactment of more stringent laws for the
exclusion of Mongolian and Malayan im
migration;" and the Silver Republican
party declared: "We are opposed to the
importation of Asiatic laborers in com
petition with American labor, and favor a
more rigid enforcement of the laws re
lating thereto."

Immigration Statistics. During the
period 1789-1820, when no thorough over
sight was exercised, it. is estimated that
the number of immigrants into the United
States aggregated 250,000; and during
the period 1820-1904 the aggregate was
22,574,223. The nationality of immi
grants in the fiscal year ending June 30,
1904, was as follows: Austria-Hungary,
178,316; German Empire, 46,520; Italy,
including Sicily and Sardinia, 194,155;
Norway, 23,728; Sweden, 27,824; Ruma
nia, 7,296; Russian Empire and Finland,
144,138; England, 37.865; Ireland, 36,731;
Scotland, 11,113; Wales, 1,829; Japan,
13.046; Turkey in Asia, 5,659; West
Indies. 11,285; all other countries, 75,846;
total, 815,361.

High-water mark was reached in 1903,
when the immigrants numbered 857,046.
the total of the previous year being the
highest up to that time, 648,743. The
lowest number of arrivals in the period
of 1867-1900 was 141,857 in 1877, and in
the period 1880-1904, 229,299 in 1898.

Immigration Act of 1S9L This meas-
Tire, " in amendment of the various acts
relative to immigration and the importa
tion of aliens under contract or agree
ment to perform labor," was introduced
in the House by Mr. Owen, of Indiana,
and referred to the committee on immi
gration and naturalization. It was re
ported back, discussed, and amended, and
passed the House Feb. 25, 1891, as fol
lows:

"Be it enacted, etc., that the follow
ing classes of aliens shall be excluded
from admission into the United States,
6

IMMIGRATION

in accordance with the existing acts regu
lating immigration, other than those con
cerning Chinese laborers: All idiots, in
sane persons, paupers or persons likely
to become a public charge, persons suffer
ing from a loathsome or dangerous con
tagious disease, persons who have been
convicted of a felony or other infamous
crime or misdemeanor involving moral
turpitude, polygamists, and also any per
son whose ticket or passage is paid for
with money of another or who is assisted
by others to come, unless it is affirma
tively and satisfactorily shown on special
inquiry that such person does not belong
to one of the foregoing excluded classes,
or to the class of contract laborers ex
cluded by the act of Feb. 26, 1885. But
this section shall not be held to exclude
persons living in the United States from
sending for a relative or friend who is
not of the excluded classes, under such
regulations as the Secretary of the Treas
ury may prescribe; Provided, that noth
ing in this act shall be construed to
apply to exclude persons convicted of a
political offence, notwithstanding said po
litical offence may be designated as a
felony, crime, infamous crime or mis
demeanor involving moral turpitude by
the laws of the land whence he came or
by the court convicting.

" Sec. 2. That no suit or proceeding for
violations of said act of Feb. 26, 1885,
prohibiting the importation and migra
tion of foreigners under contract or agree
ment to perform labor, shall be settled,
compromised, or discontinued without the
consent of the court entered of record
with reasons therefor.

" Sec. 3. That it shall be deemed a vio
lation of said act of Feb. 26, 1885, to
assist or encourage the importation or mi
gration of any alien by promise of em
ployment through advertisements printed
and published in any foreign country;
and any alien coming to this country in
consequence of such an advertisement
shall be treated as coming under a con
tract as contemplated by such act ; and
the penalties by said act imposed shall be
applicable in such a case; Provided, this
section shall not apply to States, and im
migration bureaus of States, advertising
the inducements they offer for immigra
tion to such States.

" Sec. 4. That no steamship or trans
portation company or owners of vessels
shall, directly, or through agents, either
by writing, printing, or oral representa
tions, solicit, invite, or encourage the im
migration of any alien into the United
States except by ordinary commercial
letters, circulars, advertisements, or oral
representations, stating the sailings of
their vessels and the terms and facilities
of transportation therein; and for a vio
lation of this provision any such steam
ship or transportation company, and any
such owners of vessels, and the agents by
them employed, shall be subjected to the
penalties imposed by the third section of
said act of Feb. 26, 1885, for violations
of the provisions of the first section of
said act.

" Sec. 5. That section 5 of said act of
Feb. 26, 1885, shall be, and hereby is,
amended by adding to the second proviso
in said section the words nor to minis
ters of any religious denomination, nor
persons belonging to any recognized pro
fession, nor professors for colleges and
seminaries, and by excluding from the
second proviso of said section the words
or any relative or personal friend.

" Sec. 6. That any person who shall
bring into or land in the United States
by vessel or otherwise, or who shall aid
to bring into or land in the United
States by vessel or otherwise, any alien
not lawfully entitled to enter the United
States, shall be deemed guilty of a mis
demeanor, and shall, on conviction, be
punished by a fine not exceeding $1,000,
or by imprisonment for a term not ex
ceeding one year, or by both such fine and
imprisonment.

" Sec. 7. That the office of superintend
ent of immigration is hereby created and
established, and the President, by and
with the advice and consent of the Sen
ate, is authorized and directed to appoint
such officer, whose salary shall be $4,000
per annum, payable monthly. The super
intendent of immigration shall be an
officer in the Treasury Department, under
the control and supervision of the Secre
tary of the Treasury, to whom he shall
make annual reports in writing of the
transactions of his office, together with such
special reports, in writing, as the Secre
tary of the Treasury shall require. The

IMMIGRATION

Secretary shall provide the superintendent
with a suitably furnished office in the
city of Washington, and with such books
of record and facilities for the discharge
of the duties of his office as may be
necessary. He shall have a chief clerk,
at a salary of $2,000 per annum, and two
first-class clerks.

" Sec. 8. That upon the arrival by wa
ter at any place within the United States
of any alien immigrants it shall be the
duty of the commanding officer and the
agent of the steam or sailing vessel by
which they came to report the name, na
tionality, last residence, and destination
of every such alien, before any of them
are landed, to the proper inspection offi
cers, who shall thereupon go or send com
petent assistants on board such vessel
and there inspect all such aliens, or the
inspection officer may order a temporary
removal of such aliens for examination
at a designated time and place, and then
and there detain them until a thorough
inspection is made. But such removal
shall not be considered a landing during
the pendency of such examination.

" The medical examination shall be
made by surgeons of the marine hospital
service. In cases where the services of a
marine hospital surgeon cannot be ob
tained without causing unreasonable de
lay, the inspector may cause an alien to
be examined by a civil surgeon, and the
Secretary of the Treasury shall fix the
compensation for such examinations.

" The inspection officers and their as
sistants shall have power to administer
oaths, and to take and consider testimony
touching the right of any such aliens to
enter the United States, all of which shall
be entered of record. During such inspec
tion after temporary removal the super
intendent shall cause such aliens to be
properly housed, fed, and cared for, and
also, in his discretion, such as are delayed
in proceeding to their destination after
inspection.

" All decisions made by the inspection
officers or their assistants touching the
right of any alien to land, when adverse
to such right, shall be final unless appeal
be taken to the superintendent of immi
gration, whose action shall be subject to
review by the Secretary of the Treasury.
It shall be the duty of the aforesaid offi

cers and agents of such vessel to adopt
due precautions to prevent the landing
of any alien immigrant at any place or
time other than that desdgnated by the
inspection officers, and any such officer
or agent or person in charge of such ves
sel who shall either knowingly or negli
gently land or permit to land any alien
immigrant at any place or time other
than that designated by the inspection
officers, shall be deemed guilty of a mis
demeanor and punished by a. fine not ex
ceeding $1,000, or by imprisonment for
a term not exceeding one year, or by both
such fine and imprisonment.

"That the Secretary of the Treasury
may prescribe rules for inspection along
the borders of Canada, British Columbia,
and Mexico so as not to obstruct, or un
necessarily delay, impede, or annoy pas
sengers in ordinary travel between said
countries: Provided, that not exceeding
one inspector shall be appointed for each
customs district, and whose salary shall
not exceed $1,200 per year.

" All duties imposed and powers con
ferred by the second section of the act of
Aug. 3, 1882, upon State commissioners,
boards, or officers acting under contract
with the Secretary of the Treasury shall
be performed and exercised, as occasion
may arise, by the inspection officers of
the United States.

" Sec. 9. That for the preservation of the
peace and in order that arrest may be
made for crimes under the laws of the
States where the various United States
immigrant stations are located, the offi
cials in charge of such stations, as occa
sion may require, shall admit therein the
proper State and municipal officers charged
with the enforcement of such laws, and
for the purposes of this section the juris
diction of such officers and of the local
courts shall extend over such stations.

" Sec 10. That all aliens who may un
lawfully come to the United States shall,
if practicable, be immediately sent back
on the vessel by which they were brought
in. The cost of their maintenance while
on land, as well as the expense of the re
turn of such aliens, shall be borne by the
owner or owners of the vessel on which
such aliens came; and if any master,
agent, consignee, or owner of such vessel
shall refuse to receive back on board the

IMMIGRATION IMPERIALISM

vessel such aliens, or shall neglect to de
tain them thereon, or shall refuse or neg
lect to return them to the port from
which they came, or to pay the cost of
their maintenance while on land, such
master, agent, consignee, or owner shall
be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and
shall be punished by a fine not less than
$300 for each and every offence; and any
such vessel shall not have clearance from
any port of the United States while any
such fine is unpaid.

" Sec. 11. That any alien who shall come
into the United States in violation of law
may be returned, as by law provided, at
any time within one year thereafter, at
the expense of the person or persons, A es-
sel, transportation company or corpora
tion bringing such alien into the United
States, and if that cannot be done, then
at the expense of the United States; and
any alien who becomes a public charge
within one year after his arrival in
the United States from causes existing
prior to his landing therein shall be
deemed to have come in violation of law
and shall be returned as aforesaid.

" Sec. 12. That nothing contained in this
act shall be construed to affect any pros
ecution or other proceeding, criminal or
civil, begun under any existing act or
acts hereby amended, but such prosecution
or other proceeding, criminal or civil,
shall proceed as if this act had not been
passed.

" Sec. 13. That the circuit and district
courts of the United States are hereby
invested Avith full and concurrent juris
diction of all causes, civil and criminal,
arising under any of the provisions of
this act; and this act shall go into effect
on the first day of April, 1891."

The measure passed the Senate Feb.
27, and was approved by the President
March 3, 1891.

Immigration, RESTRICTION OF. See
LODGE, HENRY CABOT.

Impeachment. The Constitution of

the United States gives the House of
Representatives sole power to impeach the
President, Vice-President, and all civil
officers of the United States by a numeri
cal majority only. It also gives the Sen
ate sole power to try all impeachments.
The Senate then sits as a court, organiz
ing anew, Senators taking a special oath
or affirmation applicable to the proceed
ing. From their decision there is no
appeal. A vote of two-thirds of the Sen
ate is necessary to convict. When the
President is tried the chief-justice pre
sides. The punishment is limited by the
Constitution ( 1 ) to removal from office ;
(2) to disqualification from holding and
enjoying any office of honor, trust, or
profit under the United States government.
Important cases: (1) William Blount,
United States Senator from Tennessee, for
conspiring to transfer New Orleans from
Spain to Great Britain, 1797-98; ac
quitted for want of evidence. (2) John
Pickering, judge of the district court of
New Hampshire, charged with drunken
ness, profanity, etc. ; convicted March 12,
1803. (3) Judge Samuel Chase, impeach
ed March 30, 1804; acquitted March 1,
1805. (4) James H. Peck, district judge
of Missouri, impeached Dec. 13, 1830, for
arbitrary conduct, etc.; acquitted. (5)
West II. Humphreys, district judge of
Tennessee, impeached and convicted for
rebellion, Jan. 26, 18G2. (6) Andrew
Johnson, President of the United States,
impeached " of high crimes and misde
meanors," Feb. 22, 1868; acquitted. (7)
W. W. Belknap, Secretary of War, im
peached for receiving money of post-
traders among the Indians, March 2, 1876 ;
resigned at the same time; acquitted for
want of jurisdiction.

" Impending Crisis," the title of a
book written by Hinton R. Helper, of
North Carolina, pointing out the evil ef
fects of slavery upon the whites, first
published in 1857. It had a large sale
(140,000 copies) and great influence.

IMPERIALISM

Imperialism. The Hon. William A. The arraignment of the national ad-
Peffer, ex-Senator from Kansas, makes ministration by certain citizens on a
the following important contribution to charge of imperialism, in the execution
the discussion of this question: of its Philippine policy, brings up for

IMPERIALISM

discussion some important questions relat- portation, not exceeding ten dollars for each
ing to the powers, duties, and responsibili- Person."

ties of government, among which are three These two provisions were intended to

that I propose to consider briefly, namely: apply and did apply to .negro slaves, of

First. Whence comes the right to gov- whom there were in the country at that

ern? What are its sphere and object ? time about 500,000, nearly one - sixth

Second. Are we, the people of the United of the entire population; and they, as a

States, a self-governing people? class, together with our Indian neighbors

Third. Is our Philippine policy anti- and the free people of color, were all ex-

American? eluded from the ranks of those who par-

I. ticipated in the institution of our new

government. Their consent to anything

As to the right to govern the right done or contemplated in the administra
te exercise authority over communities, tion of our public affairs was neither ask-
states, and nations, the right to enact, ed nor desired. Their consent or dissent
construe, and execute laws whence it is did not enter into the problems of govern-
derived? For what purposes and to what ment. It made no difference what their
extent may it be properly assumed? wishes were, or to what they were op-

In the Declaration of Independence it posed. A majority of such persons as en-
is asserted that: joyed political privileges they and they

" We hold these truths to be self-evident, onlyformed the new government and or-
that all men are created equal ; that they ganized its powers, without regard to the
are endowed by their Creator with certain disfranchised classes, as much so as if
inalienable rights: that among these are 41,, ! u.j . j. u A

life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. the . 8e classes had not been in existence.
That to secure these rights, governments are And, in addition to the non-voting peo-
instituted among men, deriving their just pie, there were many white men in the
powers from the consent of the governed." states who, by reason of their poverty,

But is it true that government, even in were not P ern iitted to vote, and hence

a republic like ours, derives its just pow- could not take P art in PP ular elections.

ers only from the consent of the governed? 1S P robabl 7&gt; saf e to say that, of the

Is it not a fact that at no time in our whole Population of the country, when the

history have we either had or asked the Constitution was put into effect, the num-

consent of all the people within our juris- ber that had no ? art in tne work of esta1&gt;

diction, to the powers of government which shmg the national government, either

we have been exercising over them? Is for or a S ainst ifc &gt; although they were sub-

it not true, on the contrary, that we have ject to its rule constituted at least 25

been governing many of them, not only per cent

without their consent, but in direct oppo- Stl11 more Tn evei T one of the States,

sition to it? an&lt; l among those persons, too, qualified

The Constitution, framed to provide such to vote there was opposition, more or

a form of government as the signers of less to the inauguration of the new rG-

the Declaration had in mind, contains the g ime&gt; . North Caroli na did not ratify the

following provision: Constitution till more than two years af

ter the convention that framed it had ad-

No person held to service or labor in one journed sine die; and Rhode Island did
State, under the laws thereof, escaping into . ,

another, shall, in consequence of any law or not come mto the Umon tl]1 Ma ? of Presl

regulatlon therein, be discharged from such dent Washington s second year.
service or labor, but shall be delivered up There is no way of ascertaining exact-

or " e * * ""^ * the ber of voters who

to the new plan, who did not consent to

And this: jt 5 anc j W ] 1O would have defeated it if they

"The migration or Importation of such could: but, if these be added to the dis-

persons as any of the States now existing fra.nchised classes, we have a total of at

Bha l I .J?J!;? i L P I2 P6 to admlt : sha " not be lf&gt;as t one-third of the inhabitants of the
prohibited by the Congress prior to the v^ar ,.

one thousand eight hundred and eight, hut country not consenting to the exercise of
a duty or tax may be imposed on such im- these governmental powers over them. Yet

IMPERIALISM

these powers were deemed by the majority
that organized them to be just powers,
and the said majority felt that they were
justified in executing them.

Thomas Jefferson held " the vital prin
ciple of republics " to be " absolute acqui
escence in the decisions of the major
ity." But whence comes the right of a
majority to rule? And may the majority
of to-day determine the course of the
majority of to-morrow? Had two-thirds of
a population of less than 4,000,000 in
1789 the rightful authority to lay down
rules of government for a population of
75,000,000 in 1900 rules which we can
not change, save by revolution, unless we
do it in accordance with forms prescribed
by our ancestors more than 100 years
ago?

We all believe with Jefferson that the
right of a majority to rule in a republic
is not to be challenged; and that the
answer to these troublesome questions
concerning the source of this undisputed
right to govern can be found only in
the theory that government is one of the
essential agencies provided in the begin
ning by the Father above for the work of
subduing the earth and bringing all men
to Himself. The thought is tersely ex
pressed by St. Paul in his letter to the
Romans: " There is no power but of God."
" The powers that be are ordained of
God." The ruler is a " minister of God."

Man s right to life, liberty, and room
to work in is inherent, and government
follows as naturally as the seasons fol
low each other. As long as the individual
man lives separated from his fellows, he
needs no protection other than he is able
himself to command; but when popu
lation increases and men gather in com
munities, governments are instituted
among them in order to make these in
dividual rights secure; and then new
rights appear, communal rights; for
communities, as well as individual per
sons, have rights.

The necessity for government increases
with the density of population, and the
scope of its powers is enlarged with the
extension of its territorial jurisdiction,
the diversity of employments in which the
citizenship are engaged, and the degree
of refinement to which they have attained.
The trapper, with his axe, knife, gun

and sack, pursues his calling alone in the
wilderness; but, with settlement, the
forest disappears, farms are opened up,
towns laid out, neighborhoods formed,
laws become necessary, and government
begins.

It is not necessary, however, that we
should agree on the origin of govern
ment, for we know that, as a matter of
fact, governments in one form or another
have existed ever since the beginning of
recorded history; and we know, further,
that under the operation of these govern
ments 90 per cent, of the habitable sur
face of the globe has been reclaimed from
barbarism. The whole world is to-day
virtually within the jurisdiction of regu
larly organized powers of government,
international law is recognized and en
forced as part of the general code of the
nations, and the trend of the world s
civilization is towards free institutions
and popular forms of government.

II.

As to whether we are a self-governing
people, the answer to this question de
pends upon whether all classes of the
population within our jurisdiction share
in the work of governing, or whether, as
in the ancient republics, only a portion
of the people are to be taken for the whole
for purposes of government.

In any age of the world, the character
of government fairly represents the state
of the world s inhabitants at that partic
ular period. That a people are not far
enough advanced to form a government
for themselves, and conduct its affairs
in their own way, is not a reason why they
should not have any government at all.
On its lower level, government may ex
tend no further than the will of an
ignorant despot, who holds the tenure
of life and property in his hands; but
as men advance, they rise to higher levels
and the sphere of government is enlarged.
In the end it will, of necessity, embrace
all human interests which are common.

The members of the Continental Con
gress, in declaring the cause which im
pelled the separation of the colonies
from the mother-country, began the con
cluding paragraph of the Declaration in
these words:

IMPERIALISM

" We, therefore, the representatives of the
United States of America, in Congress as
sembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of
the world for the rectitude of our intentions,
do, in the name, and by authority of the
good people of these colonies, solemnly pub
lish and declare," etc.

The words " good people of these colo
nies " included only such of the people as
at that time participated in the work
of local government, excluding those who
were opposed to separation. The Tories
and there were a good many of them
did not approve anything that the Con
gress did. They were regarded by the
patriots as public enemies, and were kept
under constant watch by committees of
inspection and observation in every county.
They were subject to arrest and imprison
ment even to banishment ; and in many
instances their property was confiscated.
The Congress surely did not speak in the
name of the Tories, nor by their au
thority.

The Articles of Confederation, under
the provisions of which the Congress acted
after March 2, 1781, recognized as its
constituency only " the free inhabitants
of each of these States." Slaves, though
constituting nearly, if not quite, 16 per
cent, of the population, were not reckoned
among the political forces to be respect
ed. Indians, likewise, were excluded.

The Constitution of the United States
opens thus:

" We, the people of the United States
... do ordain and establish this Constitu
tion for the United States of America."

But not more than two-thirds of the
population were represented in " We, the
people," and a majority of the two-thirds
assumed the responsibilities of govern
ment rightfully, as all loyal Americans
believe. The machinery of the republic
was set in motion in 1789, and the census
taken the next year showed the total
population to be 3,929,214, of which total
number 757,208 were colored mostly per
sons of African descent, who were nearly
all slaves, and these, with the other dis
franchised classes, as before stated, made
up about 33 per cent, of the population
that were not permitted to take part
in establishing the new government.

Furthermore, when the Constitution was

submitted to the legislatures of the several
States for their action, it was strenuous
ly opposed in some of them, and received
unanimous support in only three Dela
ware, New Jersey, and Georgia. The ma
jority in its favor was large in Con
necticut and South Carolina, while in
Virginia the majority was only ten votes,
and in New York only three. The vote in
five of the States stood thus: Pennsyl
vania, 46 to 23; Massachusetts, 187 to
168; Maryland, 63 to 11; New Hampshire,
57 to 46; New York, 30 to 27. North
Carolina and Rhode Island were two years
in making up their minds to accept places
in the Union.

So we see that a majority of about
two- thirds (and that may have been in
fact less than a majority of the whole
people) assumed to speak and act for all.
The people of the United States have all
along acted on that plan. We have gone
even further than that. We have in some
cases expressly authorized minorities to
determine the gravest matters. The Con
stitution provides that " a majority of
each (House of Congress) shall consti
tute a quorum to do business " ; and " each
House may determine the rules of its pro
ceedings." The Senate now consists of
ninety members; forty-six is a majority,
constituting a quorum. Of this forty-six,
tventy - four form a majority, and al
though it is less than one-third of the
whole body, may pass any measure that is
not required by the Constitution to re
ceive a majority or a two-thirds vote
a treaty, for example. And it is the same
in the House of Representatives.

And, although a majority of the electo
ral vote is required to choose a President
of the United States, it has frequently
happened that the successful candidate
was opposed by a majority of the voters
of the country.

In the matter of amending the Con
stitution, a. majority of the voters may
favor any particular amendment proposed,
but it must be ratified by three-fourths
of the legislatures of the several States
before it becomes law.

We not only have adopted the majority
principle as a rule of government, but we
have uniformly insisted upon acquiescence
in minority rule in any and all cases
where it has been so provided in advance.

IMPERIALISM

We have but to look at our record to
see that, from the beginning, we have ex
cluded a very large proportion of our own
people from all participation in affairs
of government, and we have never accused
ourselves of exercising unjust powers or
undue authority. This fact strengthens
the belief that there is a source of power
which does not lie in the people at all
a " higher power," if you please. The
Declaration of Independence conforms to
this view, in affirming that men are " en
dowed by their Creator with certain in
alienable rights," and in appealing to
the " Supreme Judge of the World," " with
a firm reliance on the protection of Divine
Providence."

III.

In order to determine whether our Phil
ippine policy is anti-American, we must
examine the testimony of American his
tory, and see the record that Americans
have made for themselves in their treat
ment of subject people in our own coun
try.

Virginia and New England may fairly
be taken as representative of the colo
nies up to the time of the Revolution,
in so far as the Indian population is con
cerned.

Patents to the London Company and to
the Plymouth Company were issued in
1(106 by King James I., authorizing them
to " possess and colonize that portion of
North America lying between the thirty-
fourth and forty - fifth parallels of north
latitude." What legal rights or privileges
James had in America were based wholly
on the discoveries made by English navi
gators. Rights of the native inhabitants
were not considered in the granting of
these patents, nor in the subsequent col
onization.

The London Company colonized Vir
ginia and the Plymouth Company and its
successors colonized New England. In
both cases landings were effected and set
tlements begun without consulting the
people that inhabited the country.

As to Virginia, among the early acts
of the Jamestown colony, under the lead
of Captain Smith, was the procuring of
food from the Indians by trading with
them, and at the same time fortifying the
new settlement against Indian depreda-

tions. Smith strengthened the fort in
1608, trained the watch regularly and
exercised the company every Saturday.
No organized opposition to the white set
tlement appeared during the first few
years, though the Indians manifested their
dissatisfaction in the arrest of Smith,
whom they would have summarily put to
death but for the intercession of the
chief s daughter. But in 1622, under
Opechancanough, they attacked the set
tlers, killed several hundred of them, and
devastated a good many plantations. They
were finally beaten back by the whites,
many of them being unmercifully slaugh
tered, and the rest driven into the wilder
ness. Twenty-two years later, under the
lead of the saine chief, another war broke
out, lasting two years, causing much loss
of life and property on both sides, and
resulting in the utter defeat of the Ind
ians and the cession by them of tracts
of land to the colonists. This policy was
pursued to the end of the colonial period.

The Plymouth colony early sent Cap
tain Standish, with a few men, to confer
with the natives and ascertain, if possible,
the state of their feelings in regard to
the white settlement; but the Indians
eluded him and he learned nothing. The
second year after this reconnoissance Can-
onicus, king or chief of the Narragansets,
by way of showing how he felt about it,
sent to the Plymouth people a bundle of
arrows tied with the skin of a rattle
snake. As an answer to this challenge,
the skin was stuffed with powder and bul
lets and returned. These exchanges of
compliments opened the way for a peace
treaty between the settlers and several
tribes; but some of the chiefs were sus
picious of the whites and formed a con
spiracy to kill them off. The scheme com
ing to the knowledge of the colonists, it
was frustrated by Standish and his com
pany, who treacherously killed two chiefs.
A treaty of peace with the Narragansets
soon followed this occurrence, and it re
mained in force until the Wampanoags,
weary of encroachments on their lands
by the whites, made war on them under
the leadership of King Philip, in 1675.

Among the incidents of that war, and
as showing the temper of the colonists,
may be mentioned the destruction of the
Narraganset fort and the subsequent capt-

IMPERIALISM

ure and treatment of Philip. The fort to this subject race in our new territorial
sheltered about 3,000 Narragansets, most- acquisitions we shall now see.
ly women and children. It was surprised The region bounded on the north by
during a snow-storm, the palisades and the Great Lakes, on the east by the Alle-
wigwams were fired, and the Indians were ghany Mountains, on th e south by the
driven forth by the flames to be either Ohio River, on the west by the Missis-
burned, suffocated, frozen, butchered, or sippi, out of which have grown the States
drowned in the surrounding swamp. His- of Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois,
tory says that " 500 wigwams were de- and Indiana, had been claimed under their
stroyed, 600 warriors killed, 1,000 women charters by Virginia, New York, Connecti-
and children massacred, and the winter s cut, and Massachusetts, but they ceded
provisions of the tribe reduced to ashes." their claims to the United States. The
"The government set a price of 30s. per country so ceded was our first territorial
head for every Indian killed in battle, and acquisition, and became known as the
many women and children were sold into Northwest Territory. A government was
slavery in South America and the West provided for it under the ordinance of
Indies." Towards the last, Captain 1787, and President Washington, in 1789,
Church, the noted Indian fighter, headed appointed Gen. Arthur St. Clair its gov-
an expedition to find Philip and destroy ernor. The various tribes of Indians in-
the remainder of the Wampanoags. habiting that part of the country object-
Philip was hunted from place to place, and cd to the jurisdiction of the whites, just
at last found in camp on Aug. 12, 1676. as some of the Filipinos have done in the
The renegade Indian who betrayed the Philippine Islands, and they made war
Narraganset camp led Captain Church to on the whites, under Michikiniqua, chief
the camp of Philip. The attack was made of the Miamis, as the Filipinos have done
at night, while the Indians were asleep, under Aguinaldo, chief of the Tagals.
Philip, in attempting to escape, was recog- Under date of Oct. 6, 1789, President
nized by an Indian ally of the whites and Washington forwarded instructions to
shot dead as he stumbled and fell into Governor St. Clair, in which he said:
the mire. His body was dragged forward, " It is highly necessary that I should,
and Church cut off his head, which as soon as possible, possess full informa-
was borne on the point of a spear to tion whether the Wabash and Illinois
Plymouth, where it remained twenty Indians are most inclined for war or
years exposed on a gibbet. According peace. . . . You will, therefore, inform
to the colonial laws, as a traitor, his the said Indians of the disposition
body was drawn and quartered on a o f the general government on this sub-
day that was appointed for public thanks- jcct, and of their reasonable desire that
giving. there should be a cessation of hostilities
With this policy steadily pursued to as a prelude to a treaty. ... I would
the end, when the time came for Ameri- have it observed forcibly that a war
cans themselves to turn upon their op- with the Wabash Indians ought to be
pressors, there was little left of the avoided by all means consistently with
Indian question in New England and Vir- the security of the frontier inhabitants,
ginia, or in any of the States ; but, with the security of the troops, and the na-
the Declaration of Independence, the tional dignity. . . . But if, after manifest-
formation of the federal Union, and the ing clearly to the Indians the disposition
establishment of a national government of the general government for the preser-
for the whole country, our Indian trou- vation of peace and the extension of a just
bles were confined chiefly to territory be- protection to the said Indians, they should
longing to the Union, regions acquired continue their incursions, the United
after the Union was formed, and, hence, States will be constrained to punish them
national territories under the sole juris- with severity."

diction of the national government, The Indians were most inclined for

though inhabited by Indians, whose rights war, as the Tagals have been, and a good

to the soil had never been questioned, deal of hard fighting, extending over five

What has been our policy with respect years, was done before they were brought

IMPERIALISM

to terms in a treaty. The battle at
Miami Village, Sept. 30, 1790, between
about 1,800 Americans under General
Harmar, and a somewhat larger body of
Indians under various chiefs, resulted in
a victory for the Indians, with a loss of
120 men killed and 300 wigwams burned.
Another pitched battle was fought near
the same place the next year. The Ind
ians were again victorious, and the Amer
ican loss was more than half the army
G31 killed and 263 wounded. On Aug. 20,
1794, General Wayne, with 900 United
States soldiers, routed the Indians in a
battle near Miami Rapids, and a year
later a treaty of peace was concluded, by
the terms of which nearly the whole of
Ohio was ceded by the Indians to the
United States.

It will be observed that with live years
of war we had got no farther west than
Ohio. And these battles with the Ind
ians in the Miami Valley were more
bloody than any ever fought by American
armies with white men.

This long and bloody Indian war did
not end our troubles in the Northwest.
The Indians confederated under Tecum-
seh in 1811, and they were routed at the
battle of Tippecanoe by General Har
rison. This practically terminated Ind
ian hostilities in the Northwest Territory,
but Tecumseh stirred up resistance
among the Creeks and their allies in our
new acquisitions south of the Ohio, known
as the Southwest Territory. The rebel
lion there began with the massacre at
Fort Minis, on Aug. 30, 1813, in the
Creek Nation, and ended with the battle
of Tohopeka, on March 27, 1814, where
the Indians were defeated by troops under
General Jackson. About 1,000 Creek
warriors were engaged at Tohopeka, and
more than half of them (550) were killed.
Seven fierce battles were fought during
the continuance of this brief war, with an
aggregate loss to the Indians of 1,300
killed and an unknown number of
wounded.

The Black Hawk War, in 1832, cost the
lives of twenty-five Americans and 150
Indians.

The Florida War began in 1835 and
lasted seven years, ending with the final
defeat of the Indians.

Since the conclusion of the Florida, or

Seminole, War our armed conflicts with
Indians have been mostly in the West, on
territory which we acquired by purchase
from France and by cession from Mexico
in concluding a two years war with that
country.

Between 184f&gt; and 1866 there were
some fifteen or twenty Indian wars or
affairs, in which it is estimated that
1,500 whites and 7,000 Indians were
killed.

In the actions between regular troops
and Indians, from 1806 to 1891, the num
ber of whites killed was 1,452; wounded,
1,101. The number of Indians killed was
4,363; wounded, 1,135.

Our Indian wars have been expensive
as well as bloody. It is estimated by the
War Department that, excluding the time
covered by our wars with Great Britain
(1812-14), and with Mexico (1846-48)
and with the Confederate States (1861-
65 ) , three-fourths of the total expense of
the army is chargeable, directly or in
directly, to the Indians; the aggregate
thus chargeable is put at $807,073,658,
and this does not include cost of fortifica
tions, posts, and stations; nor does it in
clude amounts reimbursed to the several
States ($10,000,000) for their expenses
in wars with the Indians. The Indian
war pension account in 1897 stood at
$28,201.632.

Except when engaged in other wars, the
army has been used almost entirely for the
Indian service, and stationed in the Ind
ian country and along the frontier.

Such in general outline is Americanism
as it has consistently exhibited itself in
the policy followed by this country at the
only junctures which are comparable to
the Philippine situation at the present
day. If it amounts to imperialism, then,
indeed, are we a nation of imperialists
without division.

But let us get closer to the subject. The
case presented by the anti-imperialists
against the administration is almost ex
actly paralleled in the history of Florida.
Spain s title to the Philippines was as
good as that by which she claimed Florida,
for it had the same basis the right of
discovery; and her right to cede and con
vey her title was as perfect in the one case
as in the other. In both instances, the
inhabitants were, by international law,

IMPERIALISM IMPOST DUTIES

transferred with the land on which they As to matters of government, American-

dwelt.* Filipinos inhabited the Philippine ism means American rule in American

Islands when Magellan discovered them in territory. Americans govern by major-

1521, and when Villalobos, a few years ities majorities of those who, by pre-

later, " took possession of the group and vious constitutional and statutory pro-

named it in honor of King Philip II., of visions, are authorized to govern, and

Spain," and they were there in 1898, when whose administration of public affairs has

Spain ceded the archipelago to the United been, as far as practicable, determined

States in consideration of closing a war in advance by properly constituted au-

and the payment of $20,000,000 in money, thorities.

The Seminole Indians inhabited Florida Beginning with the Pilgrims compact,

when that region was discovered by the we have grown a republic, removing or

Spanish navigators, and they were there surmounting all obstacles in the way of

in 1819-21, when Spain ceded the country our development, until now we are in the

to the United States in consideration of forefront of nations. We have liberated

removing a just cause of war on our part, the negro and given him the ballot. The

and a stipulation to settle claims against Indians, of whom there are about as

Spain to the amount of $5,000,000. many in the country as ever, have to their

The treaty for Florida was concluded in credit in the national treasury a trust

1819, but was not ratified by Spain till fund amounting to about $25,000,000;

the second year thereafter; a territorial they are dissolving their tribal relations;

government was established on March 30, the adults, under government supervision,

1822, the President in the mean time gov- are learning to work at farming and other

erning the Territory twenty years, the useful callings, their children are in gov-

State being admitted on March 3, 1845. ernment schools, and all are in process

During the territorial period the army of citizenization. Government Indian

was needed there most of the time to sup- schools now number about 150, with near-

press disorders in which the Indians were ly as many contract schools. Indian edu-

almost always mixed; and in 1835 the cation is costing the government about

war with the Seminoles began. Andrew $2,000,000 a year.

Jackson was President during the first The trouble in the Philippines has been

two years of this war ; it continued all occasioned by Aguinaldo and his associ-

through Van Buren s term, and extended ates. Americans are there of right, and

a year or more into that of Harrison and they ask nothing of the natives but to be

Tyler. To suppress this rebellion of Os- peaceable, to obey the laws, and to go

ceola and his allies, the army, consisting ahead with their business; they will not

of regulars, militia, and volunteers, was only be protected in every right, but will

employed seven years. be aided by all the powerful influences

President McKinley is doing in the of an advanced and aggressive civilization.

Philippines just what was done by Presi- See ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY; ANNEXED

dent Jackson and his successors in Flor- TERRITORY, STATUS OF; ANTI-EXPANSION -

ida, and he is doing it more humanely. ISTS.
Were they imperialists? Imports. See COMMERCE.

* American Supreme Court, in the case of Import Duties The first impost

the American Insurance Company vs. Canter, duties laid on the English-American colo-

1 Peters, 511, referring to the territory held nies were in 1672, when the British Par-

by a conqueror, awaiting the conclusion of ij ament , regarding colonial commerce as
a treaty, says : & ,

"If it be ceded by the treaty, the a proper source of public revenue and

acquisition is confirmed, and the ceded ter- taxation, passed a law imposing a duty

ritory becomes a part of the nation to which on SU gar. tobacco, ginger, cocoanut, in-

it is annexed. . . . On such a transfer ,. , , ,. , -, ,,

of territory, the relations of the inhabitants dl &gt; logwood, fustic, wool, and cotton,

with their former sovereign are dissolved, and under certain conditions. It was enacted

new relations are created between them and that the whole business should be man-

their country transfers the allegiance of appointed by the commissioners of cus-
those who remain In It." toms in England, under the authority of

IMPRESSMENT

the lords of the treasury. This was the the action of Parliament. In November,

first attempt at taxation of the colonies 1747, Commodore Knowles, while in Bos-

without their consent. ton Harbor, finding himself short of men,

The first of such duties established by sent a press-gang into the town one morn-
the United States was for the purpose ing, which seized and carried to the ves-
of restoring the public credit. On April sels several of the citizens. This violence
18, 1782, the Congress voted " that it be aroused the populace. Several of the naval
recommended to the several States as officers on shore were seized by a mob and
indispensably necessary to the restoration held as hostages for their kidnapped coun-
of public credit, and to the punctual trymen. They also surrounded the town
and honorable discharge of the public house, where the legislature was in ses-
debts, to invest the United States, in sion, and demanded the release of the
Congress assembled, with power to levy impressed men. The governor called out
for the use of the United States " certain the militia, who reluctantly obeyed. Then,
duties named upon certain goods import- alarmed, he withdrew to the castle.
ed from any foreign port. Under the pro- Knowles offered a company of marines to
visions of the Articles of Confederation, sustain his authority, and threatened to
the unanimous consent of the States was bombard the town if his officers were not
necessary to confer this power upon the released. The populace declared that the
Congress. This was the first attempt to lay governor s flight was abdication. Matters
such duties for revenue. The necessity became so serious that the influential citi-
was obvious, and all the States except zens, who had favored the populace, tried
Rhode Island and Georgia agreed to an to suppress the tumult. The Assembly or-
ad valorem duty of 5 per cent, upon all dered the release of the officers, and
goods excepting spirituous liquors, wines, Knowles sent back most of the impressed
teas, pepper, sugars, molasses, cocoa, and men. The authorities attributed the out-
coffee, on which specific duties were laid, break to " negroes and persons of vile con-
The Assembly gave, as a reason for its dition." This was the first of a series of
refusal, the inequality of such a tax, bear- impressments of American citizens by
ing harder on the commercial States, and British officers which finally led to the
the inexpediency and danger of intrust- War of 1812-15.

ing its collection to federal officers, un- Proofs of the sufferings of American

known and not accountable to the State seamen from the operations of the British

governments. A committee of the Con- impress system were continually received,

gress, with Alexander Hamilton as chair- and so frequent and flagrant were these

man, was appointed to lay the proposi- outrages, towards the close of 1805, that

tion before the several States and to urge Congress took action on the subject. It

their acquiescence. They sent it forth was felt that a crisis was reached when

with an eloquent address, which appealed the independence of the United States

to the patriotism of the people. The must be vindicated, or the national honor

measure was approved by the leading men would be imperilled. There was ample

of the country, and all the States but cause not only for retaliatory measures

two were willing to give Congress the de- against Great Britain, but even for war.

sired power. " It is money, not power, A non-importation act was passed. It was

that ought to be the object," they said, resolved to try negotiations once more.

The former will pay our debts, the latter William Pinkney, of Maryland, was ap-

may destroy our liberties." See COM- pointed (May, 180(5) minister extraordi-

MERCE; INTERNAL PV.EVEXUE. nary to England, to become associated

Impressment. In 1707 the British Par- with Monroe, the resident minister, in

liament, by act, forbade the impressment negotiating a treaty that should settle all

of seamen in American ports and waters disputes between the two governments,

for privateering service, unless of such He sailed for England, and negotiations

sailors as had previously deserted from were commenced Aug. 7. As the Ameri-

ships-of-war. The custom had been a can commissioners were instructed to

source of annoyance and complaint for make no treaty which did not secure the

several years, and was continued despite vessels of their countrymen on the high

V. B 17

IMPRESSMENT

seas against press-gangs, that topic re- of slavery as seamen in British ships-of-
ci ivnl the earliest attention. The Ameri- war. When Jonathan Hussell, minister
cans contended that the right of impress- at the British Court, attempted to ne-
rnent, existing by municipal law, could gotiate with that government (August,
not be exercised out of the jurisdic- 1812) for a settlement of disputes be-
tion of Great Britain, and, consequently, tween the Americans and British, and pro-
upon the high seas. The British replied posed the withdrawal of the claims of
that no subject of the King could expatri- the latter to the right of impressment
ate himself " once an Englishman, al- and the release of impressed seamen, Lord
ways an Englishman "and argued that Castlereagh, the British minister for for-
to give up that right would make every eign affairs, refused to listen to such a
American vessel an asylum for British proposition. He even expressed surprise
seamen wishing to evade their country s that, " as a condition preliminary even
service. Finally, the British commission- to a suspension of hostilities, the govern-
ers stated in writing that it was not in- ment of the United States should have
tended by their government to exercise thought fit to demand that the British gov-
this claimed right on board any American ernment should desist from its ancient
vessel, unless it was known it contained and accustomed practice of impressing
British deserters. In that shape this por- British seamen from the merchant-ships
tion of a treaty then concluded remained, of a foreign state, simply on the assur-
and was unsatisfactory because it was ance that a law was hereafter to be passed
based upon contingencies and provisions, to prohibit the employment of British
and not upon positive treaty stipulations, seamen in the public or commercial ser-
The American commissioners then, on vice of that state." The United States
their own responsibility, proceeded to treat had proposed to pass a law making such
upon other points in dispute, and an agree- a prohibition in case the British govern
ment was made, based principally upon ment should relinquish the practice of
Jay s treaty of 1794. The British made impressment and release all impressed
some concessions as to the rights of neu- seamen. Castlereagh acknowledged that
trals. The treaty was more favorable to there might have been, at the beginning
the Americans, on the whole, than Jay s, of the year 1811, l.GOO bona fide American
and, for the reasons which induced him, citizens serving by compulsion in the
the American commissioners signed it. It British navy. Several hundreds of them
was satisfactory to the merchants and had been discharged, and all would be,
most of the people; yet the President, con- Castlereagh said, upon proof made of their
suiting only his Secretary of State, and American birth; but the British govern-
without referring it to the Senate, re- ment, he continued, could not consent " to
jected it. suspend the exercise of a right upon
A Cause of War. The British govern- which the naval strength of the empire
ment claimed the right for commanders of mainly depended, unless assured that the
British ships - of - war to make up any object might be attained in some other
deficiency in their crews by pressing into way." There were then upward of 6,000
their service British-born seamen found cases of alleged impressment of American
anywhere not within the immediate juris- seamen recorded in the Department of
diction of some foreign state. As many State, and it was estimated that at least
British seamen were employed on board as many more might have occurred, of
of American merchant-vessels, the exer- which no information had been received,
cise of this claimed right might (and Castlereagh had admitted on the floor of
often did) seriously cripple American ves- the House of Commons that an official
sols at sea. To distinguish between Brit- inquiry had revealed the fact that there
ish and American seamen was not an easy were, in 1811, 3,500 men claiming to be
matter, and many British captains, eager American citizens. Whatever may have
to fill up their crews, frequently impressed been the various causes combined which
native-born Americans. These were some- produced the war between the United
times dragged by violence from on board States and Great Britain in 1812-15,
their own vessels and condemned to a life when it was declared, the capital question,

IMPRISONMENT FOB DEBT INDIAN CORN

and that around which gathered in agree
ment a larger portion of the people of
the republic, was that of impressment.
The contest was, by this consideration, re
solved into a noble struggle of a free
people against insolence and oppression,
undertaken on behalf of the poor, the help
less, and the stranger. It was this con
ception of the essential nature of the
conflict that gave vigor to every blow of
the American soldier and seamen, and
the watch-words " Free Trade and Sail
ors Eights " prevailed on land as well
as on the sea. See MADISON, JAMES.

Imprisonment for Debt. See DEBTORS.

Income-tax. The first income-tax was
enacted by Congress July 1, 18G2, to take
effect in 1863. It taxed all incomes over
$600 and under $10,000 3 per cent., and
over $10,000 5 per cent. By the act of
March 3, 1865, the rate was increased to
5 and to 10 per cent, on the excess over
$5,000, the exemption of $600 remaining
the same. On March 2, 1867, the ex
emption was increased to $1,000, and the
rate fixed at 5 per cent, on all excess
above $1,000; the tax to be levied only
until 1870. After a contest in Congress
the tax was renewed for one year only by
act of July 14, 1870, at the reduced rate
of 2 14 per cent, on the excess of income
above $2,000. A bill to repeal it passed
the Senate Jan. 26, 1871, by 26 to 25. The
House refused to take up the Senate bill
Feb. 9, 1871, by a vote of 104 to 105, but
on March 3, 1871, concurred in the report
of a committee which endorsed the Senate
bill and repealed the tax. The last tax
levied under the law was in 1871. In
come-taxes assessed and due in 1871 and
for preceding years, however, continued
to be collected, 1872-74, as seen by the
subjoined table:

AMOUNT OF REVENUE FROM INCOME-TAX EACH
YEAE.

1863 .$ 2,741,857

18G4 20,294,733

18G5 32,050,017

I860 72,982,160

18G7 66,014,429

1868 41,455. r&gt;99

1869 34,791,857

1S70 37,775,872

1871 19,162,652

1S72 14,436,861

1873 5,062,312

1874 140,391

Total $346,908,740

The Wilson tariff bill of 1894 contained
provisions for an income-tax, which the
United States Supreme Court declared un
constitutional on May 20, 1895.

Independence Day, LESSONS OF. See
GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD.

Independents. See CONGREGATIONAL
CHURCH.

Indian Corn. When the English
settlers first went to Virginia, they found
the Indians cultivating maize, and the
Europeans called it " Indian corn." It
proved to be a great blessing to the immi
grants to our shores, from Maine to
Florida. Indian corn appears among the
earliest exports from America. As early
as 1748 the two Carolinas exported about
100,000 bushels a year. For several years
previous to the Revolution, Virginia ex
ported 600,000 bushels annually. The
total amount of this grain exported an
nually from all the English-American
colonies at the beginning of the Revolu
tion was between 560,000 and 580,000
bushels. At the beginning of the nine
teenth century the annual export was
2,000,000 bushels. But its annual product
was not included in the census reports
until 1840, when the aggregate yield was
nearly 400,000,000 bushels. In the calen
dar year 1903 the aggregate production
was 2,244,176,925 bushels, from 88,091,-
993 acres, and the total value was $952,-
868,801. The banner States, in their order
and with their production, were: Illinois,
264,087,043 bushels. Iowa, 229,218,220
bushels; Missouri, 202,839,584 bushels;
Nebraska, 172,379,532 bushels; Kan
sas, 171,687,014 bushels; Indiana, 142,-
580,886 bushels; and Texas, 140,750,733
bushels all other States and Territories
being below the 100,000,000 mark. See
AGRICULTURE.

Legend of the Grain. While Capt.
Miles Standish and others of the Pilgrims
were seeking a place to land, they found
some maize in one of the deserted huts
of the Indians. Afterwards Samoset, the
friendly Indian, and others, taught the
Pilgrims how to cultivate the grain, for
it was unknown in Europe, and this sup
ply, serving them for seed, saved the lit
tle colony from starvation the following
year. The grain now first received the
name of "Indian corn." Mr. Schoolcraft
tells us that Indian corn entered into the
19

INDIAN CORN INDIAN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS

mythology of the Indians of the region Such is the legend of the origin of Ind-
of the Upper Lakes. In legend the Ind- ian corn, or maize.

ians tell us that a youth, on the verge Indian Industrial Schools. In addi-
of manhood, went into the forest to fast, tion to a large number. of day, boarding,
where he built himself a lodge and paint- and other schools maintained by the fed-
ed his face in sombre colors; and then era! government, various religious organ-
he asked the Master of Life for some pre- izations, and each of the five civilized
cious gift that should benefit his race, tribes in the Indian Territory, there were
Being weak from fasting, he lay down in in 1900 a total of twenty-four schools for
his lodge and gazed through its opening Indian youth, in which in addition to the
into the blue depths of the heavens, from ordinary branches special attention was
which descended a visible spirit in the paid to industrial education on lines that
form of a beautiful young man dressed in would render the youth self - supporting
green, and having green plumes on his in the future. These special schools corn-
head. This embodied spirit bade the young bined had a total of 262 instructors in in-
Indian to rise and wrestle with him as dustrial work, and 3,076 male and 2,288
the only way to obtain the coveted bless- female pupils, and the total expenditure
ing. Four days the wrestlings were re- for the school year 1898-99 was $198,-
peated, the youth feeling each time an in- 834. The most noted of these schools is
creasing moral and supernatural energy, the United States Indian Industrial
while his bodily strength declined. This School, established in Carlisle, Pa. It
mysterious energy promised him the final had in the above year twenty-nine in-
victory. On the third day his celestial vis- structors and 1,090 pupils, of whom 487
itor said to him: "To-morrow will be were girls. In addition to the foregoing
the seventh day of your fast, and the last schools the federal government was hav-
time I shall wrestle with you. You
will triumph over me and gain jour
wishes. As soon as you have thrown
me down, strip off my clothes and bury
me in the spot of soft, fresh earth.
When you have done this, leave me,
but come occasionally to visit the place
to keep the weeds from growing. Once
or twice cover me with fresh earth."
The spirit then departed, but returned
the next day; and, as he had predict
ed, the youth threw him on the ground.
The young man obeyed his visitor s in
structions faithfully, and very soon
was delighted to see the green plumes
of the heavenly stranger shooting up
through the mould. He carefully weed
ed the ground around them, and kept
it fresh and soft, and in due time
his eyes were charmed at beholding a
full-grown plant bending with fruit
that soon became golden just as the
frost touched it. It gracefully waved
its long leaves and its yellow tassels
in the autumn wind. The young man
called his parents to behold the new
plant. " It is Men-du-min," said his
father; "it is the grain of the
Great Spirit." They invited their
friends to a feast on the excellent
grain, and there were great rejoicings.

INDIAN APPRENTICES MAKING HARNEsa

INDIAN PROBLEM, THE

ing Indian youth educated in the Hamp- undertake the experiment of having Ind-

ton Normal and Industrial Institute in ian youth educated there also, ami such

Vii-ginia, which was originally established encouraging results followed that the

for the education of colored youth only, government has since kept a large

The success of the institution in its origi- class of Indian boys and girls in the

nal purpose induced the government to institution.

INDIAN PROBLEM, THE

Indian Problem, THE. The following
is a consideration of this subject from the
pen of the Rev. Lyman Abbott:

Helen Jackson has written the history
of 100 years of our nation s dealing with
the Indians, under the title of A Century
of Dishonor. Her specifications seem to
make the indictment of her title good.
Yet I am persuaded that the dishonor
which justly attaches to the history of
our dealings with the North American
Indians is due rather to a lack of pro
phetic vision, quite pardonable, in the
nation s leaders, and an ignorance and
indifference, not pardonable, in the nation
at large, rather than to any deliberate
policy of injustice adopted by the nation:
Bad as has been our treatment of the
Indians, it is luminous by the side of
Russia s treatment of the Jews, Turkey s
treatment of the Armenians, Spain s treat
ment of the Moors, and, if we include the
war of Cromwell against the Irish, the
English legislation against Irish industry,
Irish education, and the Church of Ire
land s choice, it compares favorably with
England s treatment of Ireland.

When thirteen States a fringe of civ
ilization on the eastern edge of an un
known wilderness constituted the Amer
ican Republic, there was no prophet to
foresee the time when the republic would
stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific
and from the Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico,
and would include 70,000,000 people.
If there were any such prophet he was as
a voice crying in the wilderness; no one
hea.rd or heeded. The politician is al
most invariably an opportunist, perhaps
necessarily so, since no great prevision is
granted to the children of men. The in
fant republic did not know and took little
pains to ascertain the extent of the domain
which stretched to the west, or the num
ber or character of the people who roamed

over it. Each decade was satisfied to pro
vide for its necessities and leave the next
decade to take care of itself. As the
boundary-line was pushed steadily west
ward, new treaties were made, by which
all territory west of a given boundary
was reserved for the Indians forever. I
think it was in 1800 that such a treaty
was made, securing to them for all future
time the land west of the Mississippi
River. All future time is a long while,
and each new treaty was made only to be
broken, as increase of population and in
coming immigration made new demands on
the continent for support. Thus gradually
grew up without design the so-called reser
vation system. Less and less land was
reserved to the Indians; more and more
was taken up by the whites; until at last
certain relatively small sections were
deeded to separate Indian tribes. In these,
according to the treaties made, the several
tribes were at liberty to remain forever
hunters and trappers, freed from the obli
gations and without the advantages and
perils of civilization.

These reservations have been practically
prison yards, within which the tribes have
been confined. If any member passed be
yond the boundaries of the reservation
without leave he was liable to arrest. If
he raised crops or manufactured goods
he could not carry them for sale to the
open market ; if he wished to buy he could
not go to the open market to purchase.
The land was owned by the tribe in com
mon, and the idle and industrious shared
alike its advantages and disadvantages.
Industry received no reward; idleness in
volved no penalty. Money due the tribe
under the treaty was paid with more or
less regularity, generally in rations, some
times in guns and ammunition to fight
the white man with, or seal ping-knives
to take from his head a trophy of the
baftle. The forms of industry to which

INDIAN PROBLEM, THE

SCENE ON AS INDIAN RESERVATION.

the men were accustomed hunting and
trapping gradually disappeared; little
or nothing was done to teach new forms
of industry or to inspire the men to
undertake them. From the reservation all
the currents of civilization were excluded
by federal law. The railroad, the tele
graph, the newspaper, the open market,
free competition all halted at its walls.
By favor of the government, generally
freely granted, the missionary was al
lowed to establish a church, or Christian
philanthropy to plant a school. But as
an educated Indian was rather impeded
than aided in the tribal community by
education, neither the church nor the
school could do more than save individuals
from a population shut up by law to the
general conditions of barbarism. No
courts sat in these reservations; no law
was administered by those judicial meth
ods familiar to the Anglo-Saxon; no war
rants from local courts outside could be
executed; no Indian, if wronged, could
appeal to any court for redress. Such law

as existed was administered by an Indian
agent, a person of ill-defined, and to the
Indian mind, of illimitable power. He
was as nearly an absolute despot as can
be conceived existing on American soil.
He was sometimes an intelligent and be
neficent despot, sometimes an ignorant and
incompetent one; but in either case a
despot.

Thus there has grown up in America,
by no deliberate design but by a natural
though mischievous opportunism which
has rarely looked more than ten years
ahead, a system as inconsistent with
American principles and the American
spirit as could easily be devised by the
ingenuity or conceived by the imagination
of a man. It has denied to the Indian,
often under the generous desire to do more
for him than mere justice, those rights
and prerogatives which the Declaration of
Independence truly declares to belong in
alienably to all men. It has made a
prisoner of him that it might civilize him,
under the illusion that it is possible to

INDIAN PROBLEM, THE

civilize a race without subjecting them to the same disadvantages. The same policy
the perils of civilization. It has en- of political removal and political ap-
deavored to conduct him from the relative pointment has characterized the whole
innocence of barbarism to the larger and Indian administration. Sometimes the
more perilous life of a free and civilized appointments have been made by the coin-
community, and to guard him from the missioner of Indian affairs, sometimes by
clangers of temptation and the consequences the Secretary of the Interior, sometimes
of his own ignorance en route. The practically by local politicians; but in
reservation system is absolutely, hopeless- all cases alike, not for expert knowledge
ly, incurably bad, " evil and wholly evil of Indians, but for political service ren-
and that continually." It was never dered or to be rendered, or from reasons
framed by any one. It has grown up of personal friendship. The notion that
under the commingled influence of careless there is a continuous and consistent
indifference, popular ignorance, local policy to be pursued towards the Indians,
prejudice, and unthinking sentimentalism. and that this requires continuity of ser-
The Indian problem is, in a sentence, vice and expertness of knowledge in the
how to eet rid of it in the easiest and administration, has not entered the head
quickest way possible, and bring the Ind- of our public men; or, if so, has not been
ian and every Indian into the same in- allowed to obtain lodgment there. That
dividual relation to the State and federal so bad a system has secured so many
srovernments that other men in this coun- good Indian agents and subordinate offi-
trv are, with the least possible violence cials is a matter for surprise. It is not
of rupture with the past and the greatest surprising that it has in more than one
possible regard for the right and the instance sent a drunken official to keep
welfare of those who are the least re- the Indians sober, an ignorant official to
sponsible for the present conditions the superintend their education, and a lazy
Indians themselves. official to inspire them with industry.

The reservation system, I say, is wholly One illustration of the result of this
bad. The indictment against it is four- method of administration is to be seen
fold. in the removal of Dr. Hailman, the

In th* first place, the Indian Bureau superintendent of Indian education, an
is, and always has been, a political ma- expert educator, whose retention in his
chine, whose offices are among the spoils office was urged upon the administration
which belong to the victors. In the by substantially all those familiar with
twenty years during which I have had the work which he had done. An even
some familiarity with Indian affairs, not more striking object-lesson is afforded by
a single commissioner of Indian affairs the outbreak among the Pillager Indians,
has been appointed because he was fa- largely due to three successive appraisals
miliar with the Indians, or an expert of their timber lands, two of which ap-
in the Indian problem, and only one who praisals have been set aside as inade-
was an expert in that work of education quate, through the incompetence of the
which is, of course, one of the chief ele- appraisers, the enormous cost of each ap-
ments in the Indian problem. They have praisal having been charged to the
been, I think, all of them, men of excel- Indians.

lent character honest, able, ambitious to But even if the Indian Bureau could
do the best that could be done for the be taken out of politics and kept out of
Indian. Some of them have made not- politics, the reservation system would
able contributions towards the solution still be incurably bad. It assumed that
of the problem. But each one of them the federal executive can administer a
has come into office with little or no paternal government over widely scat-
fainiliarity with the problem, has had to tered local communities. For such a
acquaint himself with it. and has hardly function it is peculiarly unfitted. The
had. more than enough time to do so be- attempt to engraft a Russian bureaucracy
fore his term of office has expired, and on American democracy is a fore-doomed
he has been replaced by a successor who failure. The federal government does ex-
had to take up the work subject to ercise paternal authority over the Dis-

INDIAN PROBLEM, THE

trict of Columbia. But on the decent gov
ernment of the District the well-being,
the health, and, perhaps, the lives of the
members of Congress depend; the relation
between the government and the governed
is thus direct, close, intimate. Local
communities in the United States exer
cise some paternal functions, as in the
case of the insane, the sick, and the
paupers. But here, again, those directly
interested have an opportunity of exer
cising an immediate supervision over the
work and calling the public officials to
account. But it is in the nature of the
case impossible that a President, a Sec
retary of the Interior, or even a commis
sioner of Indian affairs, can personally
supervise the innumerable details involved
in the paternal administration of com
munities scattered from Minnesota to
New Mexico, and from Michigan to Cali
fornia.

An aristocratic government, composed
of men who have inherited political ability
from a long line of governing ancestry,
and who have been especially trained for
that work from boyhood, so that both by
inheritance and training they are experts,
may be supposed fitted to take care of peo
ple weaker, more ignorant, or less compe
tent than themselves, though the history
of oligarchic governments does not render
that supposition free from doubt. But
there is nothing in either philosophy or
history to justify the surmise that 70,000,-
000 average men and women, most of
whom are busy in attending to their own
affairs, can be expected to take care of a
people scattered through a widely extended
territory a people of social habits and
social characteristics entirely different
from their care-takers ; nor is it much
more rational to expect that public ser
vants, elected on different issues for a dif
ferent purpose, can render this service
efficiently. Our government is founded on
the principle of local self-government;
that is, on the principle that each locality
is better able to take care of its own
affairs than any central and paternal au
thority is to take care of them. The mo
ment we depart from this principle we
introduce a method wholly xmworkable
by a democratic nation. It may be wide
of the present purpose, yet perhaps not as
an illustration, to say that if the United

States assumes political responsibility for
Cuba and the Philippines, as I personally
think it is bound to do, it must fulfil
that responsibility not by; governing them
as conquered territory from Washington,
but by protecting and guiding, but not
controlling them, while they attempt the
experiment of local self-government for
themselves. We have tried the first method
with our Indians, and it has been a con
tinuous and unbroken failure. We have
tried the second method with the territory
west of the Mississippi River, ours by con
quest or by purchase, and it has been an
unexampled success. If the Indian is the
" ward of the nation," the executive should
not be his guardian. How that guardian
ship should be exercised I shall indicate
presently.

This political and undemocratic pater
nalism is thoroughly bad for the Indian,
whose interests it is supposed to serve.
It assumes that civilization can be taught
by a primer in a school, and Christianity
by a sermon in a church. This is not
true. Free competition teaches the need
of industry, free commerce the value of
honesty ; a savings - bank the value of
thrift; a railroad the importance of punc
tuality, better than either preacher or
pedagogue can teach them. To t^iose, and
there are still some, who think we must
keep the Indian on the reservation until
he is prepared for liberty, I reply that he
will never be prepared for liberty on a
reservation. When a boy can learn to
ride without getting on a horse s back, or
to swim without going into the water, or
to skate without going on the ice then,
and not before, can man learn to live with
out living. The Indian must take his
chance with the rest of us. His rights
must be protected by law; his welfare
looked after by philanthropy; but pro
tected by law and befriended by philan
thropy, he must plunge into the current
of modern life and learn to live by living.
The tepee will never fit him for the house,
nor the canoe for the steamboat, nor the
trail for highways and railroads, nor
trapping and hunting for manufactures
and husbandry. Imagine the illustration
is Edward Everett Hale s, not mine
imagine that we had pursued towards our
immigrants the policy we have pursued
towards the Indians; had shut the Poles,

INDIAN PROBLEM, THE

the Hungarians, the Italians, the Germans, unproductive idleness a territory which,
the Scandinavians, each in a reservation if cultivated, would provide homes for as
allotted to them, and forbidden them to many thousands of industrious workers,
go out into the free life of America until No treaty can give them that right. It is
they had Americanized themselves how not in the power of the federal government
long would the process have taken? to consecrate any portion of its territory
But the capital objection to the reser- thus to ignorance and idleness. It has
vation system is that it is one impossible tried, again and again, to do so; it has
to maintain; and it is impossible to main- always failed; it always ought to fail; it
tain because it ought not to be main- always will fail. English parks kept un-
tained. The tide of civilization, surging tilled, yet ministering to taste and refine-
westward, comes some day to a fair and ment, have always been regarded by po-
wealthy but unused and idle territory, litical economists as difficult to justify;
There are forests which no woodman s axe nothing can be said to justify American
has ever touched; rivers where water-falls reservations, kept untilled only that they
turn no mill-wheels; mountains whose may minister to idleness and barbarism,
treasures of gold and silver, iron or cop- The editor, in asking me to write this
per or coal no pickaxe has uncovered; article, indicated his desire that I should
prairies whose fertile soil is prolific only write " on the probable future of the Ind-
in weeds. " Come," cries the pioneer, ians in their relation with the govern-
eager to develop this useless territory, ment, and the reforms necessary in the
" let us go in and make those acres rich administration of their affairs." It may
by our industry." "No!" replies the law; seem that I have been a long time coming
you cannot." "Why not?" "It be- to any definite answer to this question;
longs to the Indians." " Where are but in order to set forth succinctly a re-
they?" "Hunting, trapping, sleeping, form it is first necessary to set forth as
idling, and fed on rations." " When are clearly and forcibly as possible the evil
they going to use this land; to convert to be reformed. That evil, I believe, is
this timber into boards; these rivers into the reservation system. The reform is all
mill-streams; when are they going to ex- summed up in the words, abolish it.
cavate these minerals, and turn these Cease to treat the Indian as a red man
weedy prairies into fruitful farms?" and treat him as a man. Treat him as
"Never! This land in the heart of a we have treated the Poles, Hungarians,
civilized community is forever consecrated Italians, Scandinavians. Many of them
to barbarism." The pioneer s impatience are no better able to take care of them-
with such a policy is fully justified, selves than the Indians; but we have
though his manner of manifesting it is thrown on them the responsibility of
not. Barbarism has no rights which civil- their own custody, and they have learned
ization is bound to respect. The ques- to live by living. Treat them as we have
tion on what basis the right to land rests treated the negro. As a race the Afri-
is one of the most difficult which political can is less competent than the Indian ;
economy has to answer. Many scholars but we do not shut the negroes up in
who do not accept Henry George s con- reservations and put them in charge of
elusions accept his premise, that the soil politically appointed parents called
belongs to the community, and that in- agents. The lazy grow hungry; the
dividual ownership rests not on any criminal are punished; the industrious
indefeasible right, but on the express or get on. And though sporadic cases of in-
implied agreement of the community, justice are frequent and often tragic, they
Certain it is that the 500,000, more or are the gradually disappearing relics of a
less, of Indians who roamed over this con- slavery that is past, and the negro is find-
tinent in the seventeenth century, had no ing his place in American life gradually,
right byreason of that fact to exclude from both as a race and as an individual. The
it the several hundred million industri- reform necessary in the administration of
ous men and women whom eventually it Indian affairs is: Let the Indian admin-
will support. As little have a tribe of a ister his own affairs and take his chances,
few hundred Indians a right to keep in The future relations of the Indians with

INDIAN PROBLEM, THE

the government should be precisely the such cases should be dismissed. If the
same as the relations of any other indi- Indian still needs a guardian, if there
vidual, the readers of this article or the is danger that his land will be taxed away
writer of it, for example. This should from him, or that he will be induced to
be the objective point, and the sooner we sell it for a song, the courts, not the ex-
can get there the better. But this will ecutive, should be his guardian. Guardian-
bring hardship and even injustice on ship is a function the courts are accus-
individuals! Doubtless. The tomed to exercise. It ought not to be
world has not yet found any way in which difficult to frame a law such that an
all hardship and all injustice to individ- Indian could always appeal to a federal
uals can be avoided. Turn the Indian judge to have his tax appraisal revised,
loose on the continent and the race will and always be required to submit to a
disappear! Certainly. The sooner the federal judge any proposed sale of real
better. There is no more reason why we estate.

should endeavor to preserve intact the 3. The Indian and every Indian should
Indian race than the Hungarians, the be amenable to the law and entitled to its
Poles, or the Italians. Americans all, protection. I believe that, despite occa-
from ocean to ocean, should be the aim of sional injustice from local prejudice, it
all American statesmanship. Let us would be quite safe to leave their inter-
understand once for all that an inferior ests to be protected by the courts of any
race must either adapt and conform itself State or Territory in which they live;
to the higher civilization, wherever the for I believe that the American people,
two come in conflict, or else die. This is and certainly the American judiciary, can
the law of God, from which there is no be trusted. The policy of distrust has
appeal. Let Christian philanthropy do intensified the local prejudice against the
all it can to help the Indian to conform Indian. But it would be easy, if it be
to American civilization; but let not sen- necessary, to provide that any Indian
timentalism fondly imagine that it can might sue in a United States court, or
save any race or any community from this if sued or prosecuted might transfer the

inexorable law.

suit to a United States court. I

assume

This general and radical reform in- there is no constitutional provision against

volves certain specific cures. For ex- such a law.

ample: 4. All reservations in Avhich the land

1. The Indian Bureau ought to be taken is capable of allotment in severally should

at once and forever out of politics. The be allotted as rapidly as the Avork of sur-

government should find the man most ex- A-eying and making out the Avarrants can

pert in dealing Avith the Indians he may be carried on. The unallotted land should

be the present commissioner of Indian be sold and the proceeds held by the

affairs and instruct him to bring the United States in trust for the Indians.

Indian Bureau to a close at the earliest How to be expended is a difficult question,

possible moment. Once appointed to !S T ot in food and clothing, Avhich only pan-
office for that purpose he should

for that purpose he
there till the work is completed.

stay
I be-

perze.
Indian

The first lesson to be taught the
is, if he will not work, neither

Jieve that in one respect an army officer shall he eat. Perhaps in agricultural im-

would be the best fitted for such a post, plements; perhaps in schools; perhaps in

because he would be eager to bring the public improvements : perhaps in a.ll three.

work to a close, while the civilian would When the land is of a kind that cannot

see 100 reasons why it should be con- be allotted in severally, as in the case

tinned from year to year. His subor- of extended grazing lands, for example,

dinates should be Indian experts and re- it would seem as though a skilful lawyer

moved only for cause, never for political should be able to devise some way in

reasons. Avhich the tribe could be incorporated ami

2. There are, it is said, ten or a dozen the land given to the corporation in fee

reservations in which the land has al- simple; in which case the shares of stock

ready been allotted in severally and the possibly for a time should be inaliennhle.

reservations broken up. The agents in except by approval of the court ; or pos-

INDIAN RESERVATIONS INDIAN TERRITORY

sibiy the property might even be adminis- Indians include Quapaws, Peorias, Kas-

U-red for a tiino by a receiver appointed kaskias, Ottawa*. \Vyandottes, Miamis,

by and answerable to the court. Shawnees, M.odocs, Senecas, Cayugas, Sacs

5. Every Indian should be at once free and Foxes, Pottawattomies, Osages, Kaws,
to come and go as he pleases, subject as Kiowas, Comanches, Apaches, Arapahoes,
every other man is to the law of the local- Cheyenncs, Piankeshaws, and Weas, and
ity and the processes of the courts where the affiliated bands of Wichitas, Keechies,
he is, and under their protection. The Wacoes, Tawaeanies, Caddoes, loneis, Del-
Indian with his blanket should have the awares, and Penetethka Comanches. In the
privilege of travelling where he will, as latter part of 1873 the Modocs (a remnant
much as the Italian with her shawl. of Captain Jack s band) and about 400

6. Finally, as fast and as far as the Kickapoos and Pottawattomies, from the
tribal organization is dissolved and the borders of Texas and Mexico, were re-
reservation is broken up, the Indian moved to the Indian Territory. The Ter-
should have a ballot, on the same terms as itory is well watered and wooded, and has
olher citizens; not so much because his much fertile land suitable for raising cere-
vote will add to the aggregate wisdom of als and cotton, while the climate is mild
the community as because the ballot is and salubrious, but d&gt;y. Previous to the
the American s protection from injustice. Civil War the five civilized tribes were

The reform is very simple, if it is very well-to-do, even wealthy, possessing large

radical. It is: Apply to the solution of farms and many slaves, a&gt;/d having an ex-

the Indian problem the American method ; tensive trade with the Southern cities,

treat the Indian as other men are treated ; Many of them enlisted sume with the

set him free from his trammels; cease to Nationals, some with the Confederates

coddle him: in a word, in lieu of paternal and at the close of the war the tribes

protection, which does not protect, and were reduced to poverty. Since then,

free rations, which keep him in beggary, however, they have made remarkable

give him justice and liberty and let him progress, and have regained much of

take care of himself. their former wealth. In 1891 the Ind-

Indian Reservations. See RESERVA- ian population cultivated over 400,000

TIONS, INDIAN. acres of land, and raised fully 4,500,000

Indian Territory. By act of Congress, bushels of wheat, corn, and oats, 400,000
June 30, 1834, " all that part of the United bushels of vegetables, 00,000 bales, of cot-
States west of the Mississippi River, and ton, and 175.000 tons of hay, amounting
not within the States of Missouri and in value to nearly $0.000,000. A portion
Louisiana, or the Territory f novv the of the Territory is fine grass - land, well
State] of Arkansas, shall be considered fitted for grazing, and the several tribes
the Indian country." It has been reduced owned 800,000 head of live-stock. Besides
in area by the successive formation of these there were produced large quantities
States and Territories, until now it is of maple sugar, wild rice, cord-wood, hem-
ibounded north by Kansas, east by Missouri lock bark, and wool. More than 8,000,000
and Arkansas, south by Texas, and west feet of lumber was sawed, and many thou-
by Texas and Oklahoma, and contains an sands of woollen blankets, shawls, willow
area of 31,000 square miles. The popula- baskets, and other small articles of manu-
tion in 1800 was 180,182: in 1000, 301,000. facture were produced. The Territory also
This aggregate population, however, is produces iron, coal, marble, sandstone,
only partially Indian, as many " squaw- and brick-clay. Wild turkeys and other
men," other whites, and negroes are in- varieties of small game are abundant,
eluded therein. In 1000 there were seven In certain instances, where white men are
reservations in the Territory, and five civ- concerned, the jurisdiction of the United
ilized nations, the Cherokees, Chickasaws, States courts extends over the Territory.
Choctaws, Creeks, and Seminoles, and over The subject of a territorial government
07 per cent, of the entire population was for the Indian country has long been dis-
in the first four nations. It was estimated cnssed, but no decision has yet been
that the population of the five nations in- reached. It was the policy of the United
eluded 84J50 Indians. The reservation States to settle the various tribes in this

INDIANA

region upon separate reservations, as far of New France, and afterwards of the
as possible, where they might be free from Northwest Territory. In 1702 some
the encroachment of the white people, French Canadians discovered the Wabash,
and under the general superintendence and established several trading-posts on
and protection of the government; but its banks, among others, Vincennes. Lit-
nearly 3,000 " pale-faces " had intruded tie is known of the early settlers until
and seated themselves in the Territory, the country was ceded to the English, in
when, in 1889, a portion of it was made 17G3. The treaty of 1783 included Indi-
a Territory of the United States by pur- ana in the United States. A distressing
chase from the Indians, under the name Indian war broke out in 1788, but by vic-
of Oklahoma. tories by General Wilkinson (1791) and

In 1893 Congress created the commission General Wayne (1794), a dangerous con-
to the five civilized tribes, with instruc- federacy of the tribes was broken up.
tions to enter into negotiations with the Another was afterwards attempted by
several nations for the allotment of land Tecumseh, but was defeated by the result
in severalty or to procure the cession to of the battle of Tippecanoe.
the United States of the lands belonging In 1800 the " Connecticut Reserve," in
to the five tribes at such price and terms the northwestern portion of Ohio, having
as might be agreed upon, it being the ex
press determination of Congress to bring
about such changes as would enable the
ultimate creation of a Territory, with the
view to the admission of the same as a
State of the Union. The work of the com
mission was still in progress in 1901, a
principal difficulty being the taking of a
census that would show the number of
people in the several nations that would
be entitled to consideration in the execu
tion of the intentions of Congress. An
encouraging advance had been made in
carrying out the other duties of the com
mission.

Each of the five nations constitutes a
separate organism, independent of any cen
tral authority; having its own executive
and legislative officers; and being sover
eign excepting as to an observance of

certain provisions of Congress. Each na- been sold to a company of speculators,
tion, in a word, practically stands measures were taken to extinguish cer-
towards the other nations and to the tain claims on the part of the United
national government in the same rela- States and the State of Connecticut,
tion as any one of the States. Hence, the The speculators found their bargain to
labor of gathering information concern- be pecuniarily unprofitable, and likely to
ing the material, financial, educational, prove a serious embarrassment. Fully
social, and other interests of the Indian 1,000 settlers were already on the " Re-
Territory, and of carrying out the duties serve." Hitherto a confirmation of the
imposed on the commission, may be lik- Connecticut title to these lands by the
ened to the application of the same effort United States had been inferentially ac-
to any five adjoining States, although knowledged, and Connecticut had given
the actual area of investigation is here no quit-claim deeds; therefore, it was to
more restricted. the interest of the speculators to obtain

Indiana, STATE OF, was first explored from the United States a direct confirma-
by French missionaries and traders, and tion. On the other hand, it was an ob-
Vincennes was a missionary station as ject for the United States to extinguish
early as 1700. Indiana constituted a part Connecticut s claim of jurisdiction. Con-

STATE SEAL OP INDIANA.

INDIANA INDIANS

gress passed an act (April 28, 1800)
authorizing the issue of letters - patent
conveying the title of these lands to the
governor of Connecticut, for the benefit
of those claiming under her, and similar
letters-patent were used by Connecticut,
relinquishing all claim to jurisdiction.
So the " Reserve " was annexed to the
Northwest Territory, which was presently
divided, by act of Congress (May 7), into
two separate jurisdictions, the western
one being called the Territory of Indiana,
after one of the old ante-Revolutionary
land companies. St. Vincent, or Vin-
cennes, was made the capital, and Will
iam Henry Harrison was appointed gov
ernor of the Territory. It then included
Michigan and Illinois.

In 1803 a movement was made in Con
gress for suspending for a limited term,
in the case of Indiana Territory, the pro
vision of the ORDINANCE OF 1787 (q. v.)
prohibiting slavery northward of the Ohio
River. A committee, of which John
Randolph, of Virginia, was chairman, re
ported strongly against the proposition,
believing that " in the salutary operation
of this salutary and sagacious restraint
the inhabitants of Indiana would, at no
distant day, find ample remuneration for
a temporary privation of labor and immi
gration." At the next session (1804) it
was proposed to admit, for ten years, the
introduction of slaves born within the
United States, their descendants to be
free, masculine at the age of twenty-five
years, and feminine at twenty-one years.
No action was ever taken.

When war with Great Britain broke
out, in 1812, a fresh impulse was given to
Indian depredations, which had never
fairly ceased, but the hostiles were beaten,
and were quiet after the close of that con
test. On June 29, 1816, a convention
adopted a State constitution for Indiana,
and on Dec. 11 it was admitted into
the Union. Rapid and continued immigra
tion ensued. This was greatly increased
by the opening of the Erie Canal. Dur
ing the Civil War Indiana furnished to
the National army 195,147 soldiers. In
1899 the assessed valuation of taxable
property was $1,342,831,161; total tax
rate, $2.96 per $1,000; and total debt,
$5,004,615. The population in 1890 was
2,192,404; in 1900, 2,516,462. See CLAKK,

GEORGE ROGERS; UNITED STATES INDI
ANA, in vol. ix.

GOVERNORS OF TERRITORY.

William H. Harrison 1800 to 1812

JohnGibson acting 1800 " 1801

Thomas I osey appointed March 3, 1813

GOVERNORS OF STATE.

Jonathan Jennings. .. .elected to Congress 1816

Ratlin" Boon acting Sept, 12 to Dec. 5, 1822

William Heudricks elected U. S. Senator 1822

James B. Kay acting. .. Feb. 12 to Dec. 11, 1825

" " " 1825

Noah Noble 1831

David Wallace 1837

Samuel Bigger 1840

James Whitcomb elected U. S. Senator 1843

Paris C. Dunning acting 1848 to 1K49

Joseph A. Wright 1849

Ashbel P. Willard (died Oct. 4, 1800) 1857

Abrani A. Hammond, .acting 1860 to 1861

Henry S. Lane elected U. S. Senator 1861

Oliver P. Morton acting 1861 to 1865

" " elected U. S. Senator 1865

Conrad Baker acting 1867 to 1869

" " 18U9

Thomas A. Hendrii ks 1873

Jiimes D. Williams (died Nov. 20, 1880) 1877

Isiiac P. Gniy acting 1880 to 1881

Albert G. Porter 1881

Isaac P. Gray 1885

Alvin P. Hovey (died Nov. 23, 1891) 1889

Ira J. Chase acting 181)1 to 1893

Claude .Matthews 1893

James A. Mount 1897

Winfleld T. Durbin 1901

J. Frank Hanly 19U5

UNITED STATES SENATORS

Name.

No. of Congress.

te.

James Noble

14th to 22d

1816 t

1831

Waller Taylor
William Hendvicks

14th I .itli
19th " 24th

1816

1825

1S37

Robert Hanna

2 2d

1831

1832

22d to 25th

1832

1837

Oliver H Smith

25th " 27th

1837

1843

Alberts White

2(ith " 28th

1839

1844

Edward A. Hannegan

28th " 30th
29th " 37th

1843
1845

1849

1861

31st " 32d

1849

1852

Charles W Cathcart

32d

1852

1853

John Petit
Graham N Fitch

3 Jd to 33d
34th " 36th

1853
1857

1856
1860

Henry S Lane

37th " 39th

1861

1867

Joseph A Wright

37th

1861

1862

David Turpie

Thomas A. Hendricks. . . .
Oliver P. Morton

38lh to 40th
40th " 4Mb

1863 t
1867

1869

1877

Daniel D Pratt

41st " 43d

1H69

1875

Joseph E McDonald....

44th " 46th

1875

1881

4f.th " 5f&gt;th

1877

1897

Honjnmin Harrison

47th " 49th

1881

1888

50th " 56th

1888

1 1899

Charles W Fairbanks

55th "

1897

Albert J Beveridge

56th "

1899

Indians, the name commonly applied
to the people found by Columbus in
America; by many authorities believed to
have been the aboriginal inhabitants. The

INDIANS

following remarks and tables refer to
Indians within the present area of the
United States. In manners, customs, and
general features the difference between the
Indians of the Gulf States and those of the
shores of the Northern Lakes is scarcely
perceptible; it is only by languages that
they can be grouped into great families.
East of the Mississippi there were not
more than eight radically distinct lan
guages, four of which are still in existence,
while the others have disappeared.

NAMES AND LOCATION OF THE PRINCf PAL TRIBES
OF THE EIGHT GREAT FAMILIES AT THE TIME
OF THE FIRST SETTLEMENTS.

Name.

Location.

I. Algrmquian tribes:

East of the State of Maine

Etchemins or Ca-)

Maine.

Abenakis

(New Hampshire and

Narr;igansets. ... 1
Pokanokets or&gt;-
Wampanoags . . J

(Maine.

{ Eastern Massachusetts
( and Rhode Island.

( Central Massachusetts and

Moheguns

| Rhode Island.
( Western Massachusetts

Delawares or Len- &gt;
ni Lenape j

( and Connecticut.

( New Jersey, the valley
of the Delaware and

( Schuylkill.
j Eastern shores of Chesa-

Powhatan Confed-)

\ peake Bay.
E. Virginia and Maryland.

Corees

E North Carolina

Shawnees

(.South of the Ohio, W. Kon-

Miamis

\ tucky, and Tennessee,
j S. Michigan, N. Indiana,

Illinois

1 and N. W. Ohio.

Kickapoos

Pottawattomies ....
Ottawas

Northern Illinois.

Sacs and Foxes
Menomonees

Northern Wisconsin.
/Southern shore of Lake

ChippewasorOjib-\
ways (

I Superior.
(Southern shore of Lake

II. WyandoUe or Huron-
Iroquois tribes :
Eries (Huron or)
Wyandotte-Iro- S
quois) )

(Southern shore of Lake
I Erie.

Andastes (Huron J
or Wyandotte- S
Iroquois) )

Head-waters of the Ohio.

Wyandottes (Hu-j
ron or Wyan- /
dotte- Iroquois) )
Senecas (Iroquois (
proper) j

(Territory north of Lakes
( Erie and Ontario.

Western New York.

Cayugas (Iroquois)
proper) j

Centra! New York.

Onondagas (Iro-|
quois proper) . . j
Oneidas (Iroquois)
proper) j

It (( U

Eastern New York.

Mohawks (Iro- \
quois proper).. J

Tuscaroras (Iro- )
quois proper) . . j

It U U

IS. W. Virginia and North
1 Carolina. Joined the I ro-
( quoisofNew York, 17)3.

NAMES AND LOCATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TRIBES
OF THE EIGHT GREAT FAMILIES AT THE TIME
OF THE FIRST SETTLEMENTS Continued.

Name.

Location.

Chowans (Huron j
or Wyandotte- 1
Iroquois) )

Meherrins (Huron \
or Wyandotte J
Iroquois) )

NottawaysfHuron
or Wyandotte-
Iroquois)

III. Catawbas

IV. Cherokees.

V. Uchees

VI. Natchez

VII. Mobilian or Musco-

gees :

Chickasaws . .

Choctaws. .

Creeks ....

Seniinoles.

VIII. Winnebagoes.

Southern Virginia.

/W. North and South Cam.
( liua.

{Mountainous regions or
Tennessee, Georgia,
North and South Caro
lina.

About Augusta, Ga.
N. \V. Mississippi.

( Western Tennessee and
\ Northern Mississippi.
( Eastern Mississippi and
i Western Alabama.

Alabama and Georgia.

Florida.

About Green Bay, Wis.

PRINCIPAL TRIBES WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI IN
1300-90.

Name.

Location.

Dakotas (Sioux).

Arapahoes

Cheyennes

Kansas

Poncas

Omahas

Mandaus

Assiuiboins

Minnetaries (Gros Ventres).

Missouris

lowas

Osages

Crows

Raws ,

Pawnees

Caddos

Shoshones or Snakes

Kiowas ,

Utes

Comanches ,

Apaches ,

Navajos and Moquis

Yumas

Pueblos

Pimas

Bannocks

Modocs

Nez Percys

Flatheads . .

Klamaths .

/Wisconsin, west to Rocky
\ Mountains.
( Wyoming, head-waters of
\ Platte.

Wyoming and Nebraska.

Kansas, west.

Dakotas.

Nebraska.

Montana.

Montana and Dakotas.

Montana.

Lower Missouri.

Iowa.

Kansas, west.

Dakotas.

Kansas.

Kansas and Nebraska.

Red River and Arkansas.

Kansas to Oregon.

Kansas, west.

Utah and Colorado.

Texas and Now Mexico.

New Mexico and Arizona.

Arizona.

Arizona and California,

Nevada and New Mexico.

Arizona.

Idaho and Oregon.

Nevada and Oregon.

/California, Oregon, and
\ Nevada.
Oregon and N. California

For other details concerning the various
tribes, see their respective titles; also EES-
ERVATIONS, INDIAN.

Indians, AMERICAN. Believing the
earth to be a globe, Columbus expected to
find India or Eastern Asia by sailing
westward from Spain. The first land dis
covered by him one of the Bahama

INDIANS, AMERICAN

A. MODERN COMANCHB.

Islands he supposed to be a part of satisfying. Recent investigations favor a

India, and he called the inhabitants theory that, if they be not indigenous,

Indians. This name was afterwards ap- they came from two great Asiatic fami-

plied to all the nations of the adjacent lies: the more northern tribes of our

islands and the continent. continent from the lighter Mongolians,

Origin. There is no positive knowl- who crossed at Bering Strait, and the

edge concerning the origin of the more southerly ones, in California, Cen-

aborigines of America; their own tradi- tral and South America, from the darker

tions widely vary, and conjecture is un- Malays, who first peopled Polynesia, in

INDIANS, AMERICAN

INDIAN WAR-CLUBS.

the southern Pacific Ocean and finally colony said to have been lost in the wilds
made their way to our continent, grad- of North America 700 years ago.
ually spreading over it from the Pacific Unity. There seems to be a physical
to the Atlantic. Language fails to con- identity of race throughout most of the
nect any of them with the Asiatic continent. Their skin is generally of a
families, but their traditions, imple- dark reddish-brown, or cinnamon, color;
ments, and modes of life point to such they have long, black, and straight hair,
a relationship. It has been suggested prominent cheek-bones, and broad faces;

eyes deep-set, full and rounded lips,
broad and prominent noses, scanty beard;
their heads are generally square, arid
their stature about the same as that of
other races of the same latitude. Their
muscular development is not great, and
their hands and feet are small; their skin
is thinner, softer, and smoother than that
of Europeans; the expression of the men
is often noble, and many of the women
are handsome. Haughty in deportment,
taciturn, stoical, cunning, persevering, re
vengeful, brave and ferocious in war;
cruel towards enemies and faithful
towards friends; grateful for favors, hos
pitable and kind, the Indians of North
America are undoubtedly capable of great
and rapid development under the genial
influence of civilization. Their mental
temperament is poetic and imaginative
in a high degree, and it is often expressed
in great beauty and eloquence of lan
guage; but in their present social con
dition their animal propensities greatly
preponderate over the intellectual. The

.N GKAVJi-FOST.

tribes south of California have always
been noted for mental development much
superior to those of more northern lati-

that the Mandans and Chinooks, who are tudes.

almost white, are descendants of a Welsh Pursuits. War, hunting, and fishing

INDIANS, AMERICAN

are the chief pursuits of the men of the Those official honors \wre gained some-
more barbarous tribes; agriculture of the times by inheritance, but more frequently
semi-civilized. Among the savages found by personal merit. Such was the simple
in North America by Europeans, the
women performed almost all the manual
labor and burden-bearing. They carried
on their limited agriculture, which con
sisted in the production of maize or Ind
ian corn, beans, squashes, potatoes, and
tobacco. They manufactured the im
plements of war, and for hunting and fish
ing; made mats, and skin and feather
clothing, canoes, ornaments of the teeth
and claws of beasts, and of shells and
porcupine-quills; performed all domestic
drudgery, and constructed the lodges of
the bark of trees or the hides of beasts.
Rude figures of animate and inanimate
objects carved in wood or stone, or
moulded in clay, and picture-writing on
the inner bark of trees or the skins of
beasts, or cut upon rocks, with rude or
namented pottery, were the extent of
their accomplishments in the arts of de
sign and of literature. The picture-writ
ing was sometimes used in musical nota
tion, and contained the burden of their
songs.

Religion. They believed in a good and
Supreme Being, and in an Evil Spirit, and
recognized the existence of inferior good
and evil spirits. They believed in a fut
ure state of existence, and there were
no infidels among them. Superstition
swayed them powerfully, and charlatans,
called " medicine-men," were their phy
sicians, priests, and prophets, who, on all

occasions, used incantations. Christian government, seldom disobeyed, that con-
missionaries have labored among them in trolled about 1,000,000 dusky inhabi-
many places, from the time the Spaniards tants of the present domain of the United
and Frenchmen settled in America until States, which extends over nearly twenty-
now, and have done much to enlighten five degrees of latitude and about sixty
them. degrees of longitude.

Government. There was not a sem- Geographical Distribution. There seem
blance of a national government among the to have been only eight radically distinct
aborigines when the Europeans came, ex- nations known to the earlier settlers
cept that of the IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY namely, the Algonquian, Huron - Iroquois,
(q. v.}. Their language was varied by Cherokee, Catawba, Uchee, Natchez, Mo-
more than a hundred dialects, and they bilian or Floridian, and Dakota or Sioux,
were divided into many distinct families More recently, other distinct nations have
or tribes, under a kind of patriarchal been discovered namely, the Athabascas,
rule. Each family had its armorial sign, Sahaptins, Chinooks, Shoshones, and Atta-
called a totem, such as an eagle, a bear, kapas. Others will doubtless be found,
or a deer, by which it was designated. The Algonquians were a large family oc-
The civil head of a tribe was called a cupying all Canada, New England, a part
sachem, and the military leader a chief, of New York and Pennsylvania; all New
v. c 33

INDIAN ARROW-HEADS.

INDIANS, AMERICAN

Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia ;
eastern North Carolina above Cape Fear,
a large part of Kentucky and Tennessee,
and all north and west of those States
east of the Mississippi. Within the folds
of this nation were the Huron-Iroquois,
occupying a greater portion of Canada
south of the Ottawa River, and the region
between Lake Ontario and Lakes Erie and
Huron, nearly all of the State of New
York, and a part of Pennsylvania and
Ohio along the southern shores of Lake
Erie. Detached from the main body were
the Tuscaroras and a few smaller families
dwelling in southern Virginia and the up
per part of North Carolina. Five families
of the Huron-Iroquois, dwelling within
the limits of the State of New York,
formed the famous Iroquois Confederacy of
Five Nations. The Cherokees inhabited the

small family in the pleasant land along
the Oconee and the head-waters of the
Ogeechee and Chattahoochee, in Georgia,
and touched the Chevokees. They were
only a remnant of a once powerful tribe,
when the Europeans came, and they
claimed to be more ancient than the sur
rounding people. The Natchez occupied
a territory on the eastern side of the
Mississippi, extending northeastward
from the site of the city of Natchez along
the Pearl River to the head-waters of the
Chickasaw. They claimed to be older
than the Uchees, and, like others of the
Gulf region, they worshipped the sun and
fire, and made sacrifices to the source of
terrestrial light. The Mobilians or Flo-
ridians occupied a domain next in ex
tent to that of the Algonquians. It
stretched along the Atlantic coast from

fertile and
picturesque
region where
the moun
tain - ranges
that form
the water
shed between
the Atlantic and Mississippi melt in the
lowlands that border the Gulf of Mexico.

The Catawbas were their neighbors on
the east, and dwelt upon the borders of
the Yadkin and Catawba rivers, on both
sides of the boundary-line between North
and South Carolina. The Uchees were a

the mouth of the Cape Fear River to the
extremity of the Florida peninsula, and
westward along the Gulf of Mexico about
600 miles to the Mississippi River. They
also held jurisdiction up that stream as
far as the mouth of the Ohio. The do
main included parts of South Carolina,
the whole of Florida, Alabama, and Mis
sissippi, all of Georgia not occupied by
the Cherokees and Uchees, and portions
of Tennessee and Kentucky. The nation
was divided into three confederacies, each
powerful and independent, like our sepa
rate States. They were known respective
ly as the Muscogee or Creek (the most

INDIANS, AMERICAN

large number of tribes west
of the Great Lakes and Mis
sissippi, with whom the
earlier French explorers
came in contact. These,
speaking dialects of the
same language, apparently,
were regarded as parts of
one nation. They inhabited
the domain stretching
northward from the Arkan
sas River to the western
tributary of Lake Winnipeg,
and westward along all that
line to the eastern slope of
the Rocky Mountains. They
have been arranged into
four classes: 1. The Win-
nebagoes, situated between
Lake Michigan and the Mis
sissippi, within the domain
powerful), the Choitan, and the Chicka- of the Algonquians. 2. The Assiniboins,
saw. The heart of the Creek family was or Sioux proper, who formed the more

INDIAN PAPPOOSE AtfD CRADr.B.

INDIAN PICTURE WHITING.

in Alabama. Under the general title of northerly part of the nation. 3. The
Dakotas or Sioux have been grouped a Southern Sioux, who were seated in the

INDIANS, AMEBICAN

country between the Platte and Arkansas
rivers. The Sahaptins include the Nez
Perec s and Walla Wallas, extending from
the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean,
in Oregon and Washington. Beyond
these are the more powerful Chinooks,
now rapidly melting away. They em
braced numerous tribes, from the mouth
of the Columbia River to the Grand
Dalles. The Shoshones comprise tribes
inhabiting the territory around the head
waters of the Columbia and Missouri
rivers; the Comanches, extending from

government. There were 180,000 Indians
on reservations, or at schools under control
of the Indian Bureau, leaving about 90,000
in the five civilized tribes of Indian Terri
tory and in New York State, the former
numbering about 84,500, and the lat
ter, 5,232. Besides these, there were
32,567 taxable and self - sustaining Ind
ians who had become citiens of the
United States. The expensive and com
plicated machinery for the management of
Indian affairs has been much in the way
of the elevation of the race in the scale of

A GROUP OF EDUCATED INDIANS.

the head-waters of the Brazos to those
of the Arkansas; families in Utah and
Texas, and several tribes in California.
The Attakapas and Chitemachas, in
Texas, have languages that enter into no
known group.

Condition of the Indians. According to
official reports, the Indian population in
1904 was, approximately, about 270,000,
nearly all of whom were partially or abso
lutely under the control of the national

civilization, and has produced much evil by
creating irritation, jealousy, and universal
lack of faith in the white race. These
irritations for a long time kept a large
portion of the Indians in a state of chronic
hostility, and whole tribes utterly refused
all overtures of the government to accept
its protection and fostering care. In 1880
it was estimated that the number of po
tentially hostile Indians was fully 60,000.
In 1891 the condition of affairs had been

INDIRECT CLAIMS INFLATION LEGISLATION

much improved. Among many tribes the
introduction of agriculture, schools, and
churches had been attended with the hap-
piest results. There were 24,357 pupils
enrolled in the reservation, non-reserva-
tion, and day schools, besides 3,506 in in-
etitutes and public schools, and these
schools were supported at an expense of
$3,522,950. There is a tendency in most
nf the tribes to engage in settled pursuits
and accept citizenship. See also names
of various tribes.

Indirect Claims. See ALABAMA
CLAIMS.

Industrial Education. See TECH-
NOLOGY, SCHOOL? OF.

Industrial Exhibitions. See EXPOSI-
TIONS.

Inflation Legislation. In order to
fully comprehend the financial situation
of the United States which led up to
the inflation legislation, it is necessary
to go back to the State and national
finances just after the Civil War opened,
The demand - note issue of July 17,

1861, was the first attempt to use the
government notes as currency. These were
redeemable at sight in coin, and were
used in the payment of salaries due em-
ployes in the departments. The act
of Feb. 25, 1862, authorized the issue of
$150,000,000 in legal-tender United States
notes, $50,000,000 of which were to take
up the issue of demand notes. July 11,

1862, an additional issue of $150,000,000
in legal-tender notes was authorized by
Congress, $35,000,000 of this to be in
sums of less than five dollars. July 17,
1862, an act authorized the issue of notes
of the fractional part of one dollar, re-
ceivable in payment of all dues, except
customs, less than five dollars, and ex-
changeable for United States notes in
sums not less than five dollars. The
amount of this issue was not specified,
On Jan. 17, 1863, a resolution authorized
the issue of $100,000,000 in United States
notes for the immediate payment of
the army and navy. The amount of this
issue was subsequently included in the
act of March 3, 1863, which, authorized
an issue of legal-tender United States
notes, in all respects similar to those al-
ready issued, to the amount of $150,000,-
000, and also an amount, not to exceed
$400,000,000, of treasury notes, payable

at any time within three years, bearing
interest not to exceed 6 per cent., and
issued in denominations of not less than
ten dollars, which should be legal tender
for their face value, the same as the
United States notes. Under the author-
ity of this latter clause, there were is-
sued of one-year notes, bearing interest
at 5 per cent., $44,520,000, and of two-
year notes, bearing interest at 6 per cent.,
$106,480,000. Authority was given on
the same day for the issue of enough
fractional currency to bring the amount
of circulation up to $50,000,000.

Authority having been given by law
to reissue indefinitely any of the United
States notes, no care was taken, in re-
issuing them, to maintain any distinc-
tion in the character of the notes. The
amount outstanding at one time, how-
ever, never exceeded the aggregate
amount authorized to be issued by the
three acts, and its highest amount was
reached Jan. 30, 1864, when it was
$449,338,902. The total amount of legal-
tender paper issued by the government,
exclusive of fractional currency, having
a limited legal-tender quality, may be
thus summed up:

United States notes .......... $449,338,902

One year 5 per cent, notes.. 44,520,000
Two y ear 6 P er cent - notes.... 166,480,000

Total ................... $660,338,902

I n July, 1865, the government had out-
standing $433,000,000 of United States
notes, $43,000,000 of one and two year
notes, and $25,000,000 of fractional notes.
In his report at the opening of Congress
in that year Secretary McCulloch advo-
cated a contraction of the currency, and
to carry out this policy Congress, by an
act approved April 12, 1866, directed
"that of United States notes not more
than $10,000,000 may be retired and can-
celled within six months of the pas-
sage of this act, and thereafter not more
than $4,000,000 per month." Under this
act the notes were retired and cancelled
as provided by law, and reduced to ashes,
as provided by treasury regulations, until
threatened stringency in the money mar-
ket made Congress eager to ward off, if
possible, the inevitable result of contrac-
tion.

INFLATION LEGISLATION

By an act of Feb. 4, 1868, the authority would give the expected relief. This
to further retire United States notes was theory, in my belief, is a departure from
suspended, then leaving outstanding true principles of finance, national in-
$350,000,000. Now the maximum limit of terest, national obligations to creditors,
United States notes had been fixed, by the congressional promises, party pledges on
act of June 30, 1864, as $400,000,000, and the part of both political parties, and of
during the year 1870 some financial ge- personal views and promises made by me
nius discovered that this was meant to in every annual message sent to Congress,
indicate the minimum also, and that $44,- and in each inaugural address." After
000,000 in notes, though they had been quoting passages to verify this last
burned according to regulations, still re- assertion, the President said : " I am
mained as a reserve, which the Secretary not a believer in any artificial method
of the Treasury could issue or retire at of making paper money equal to coin,
his discretion. By virtue of this newly when the coin is not owned or held ready
discovered discretionary power, Secretary to redeem the promises to pay, for paper
Boutwell, in October, 1871, issued $1,- money is nothing more than promises to
500,000 of this to relieve a stringency on pay, and is valuable exactly in proportion
Wall Street. By the following year he to the amount of coin that it can be con-
had issued $4,637,256 of this reserve, but verted into. While coin is not used as
the outcry against his policy was so a circulating medium, or the currency of
strong that he retired nearly all of it, the country is not convertible into it at
and early in 1873 Secretary Richardson par, it becomes an article of commerce as
retired the rest. In the latter part of the much as any other product. The surplus
year, however, on the occasion of the will seek a foreign market, as will any
panic, Secretary Richardson reissued other surplus. The balance of trade has
$25,000,000 of it to relieve the embar- nothing to do with the question. Duties
rassed banks. on exports being required in coin creates

A bill fixing the legal - tender United a limited demand for gold. About enough
States currency at $400,000,000, and mak- to satisfy that demand remains in the
ing some important stipulations about country. To increase this supply I see
bank issues, was passed by both Houses no way open but by the government hoard-
early in 1874, but was vetoed by the Presi- ing, through the means above given, and
dent. A part of the veto message is here possibly by requiring the national banks
given to show the grounds of his ac- to aid. It is claimed by the advocates
tion: of the measure herewith returned that

" Practically it is a question whether there is an unequal distribution of the
the measure under discussion would give banking capital of the country. I was
an additional dollar to the irredeemable disposed to give great weight to this view
paper currency of the country or not, and of the question at first, but on reflection
whether, by requiring three-fourths of the it will be remembered that there still re-
reserve to be returned by the banks and mains $4,000,000 of authorized bank-note
prohibiting interest to be received on the circulation, assigned to States having less
balance, it might not prove a contraction, than their quota, not yet taken. In ad-
T!ut the fact cannot be concealed that dition to this the States having less than
theoretically the bill increases the paper their quota of bank circulation have the
circulation $100,000,000, less only the option of $25,000,000 more to be taken
amount of reserves restrained from circu- from those States having more than their
lation by the provision of the second sec- proportion. When this is all taken up,
tion. The measure has been supported or when specie payments are fully re-
on the theory that it would give increased stored, or are in rapid process of
circulation. It is a fair inference, there- restoration, will be the time to consider-
fore, that if in practice the measures the question of more currency."
should fail to create the abundance of cir- An act fixing the issue of United States
culation expected of it, the friends of the notes at $383,000,000, the amount then
measure particularly those out of Con- outstanding, was approved June 20, 1874.
gress would clamor for such inflation as Between 1868 and 1874 the amount of

INGALLS

fractional notes had also been increased of the Farmers Alliance, which he had

from $25,000,000 to $46,000,000. In Janu- severely criticised. On retiring from the

ary, 1875, the resumption act was passed, Senate he engaged in journalism and lec-

and under its provisions the retirement of turing till his death, in Las Vegas, N. M.,

United States notes was again begun. Aug. 16, 1900.

The redemption of the fractional currency Eulogy on Senator Hill. On Jan. 23,

with silver was also begun, and went on 1882, he delivered the following eulogy

so rapidly that by the end of 1877 only on the occasion of the death of Senator

$16,000,000 of it remained. Congress Benjamin Harvey Hill, of Georgia:
passed an act, May 31, 1878, forbidding

the further retirement of United States Mr. President, Ben. Hill has gone to

notes under the resumption act. But the the undiscovered country. Whether his

increase in the commerce of the country journey thither was but one step across

had by this time so far readjusted credits an imperceptible frontier, or whether an

that the value of legal tender and coin interminable ocean, black, unfluctuating,

had become nearly equal. On Jan. 1, and voiceless, stretches between these

1879, therefore, resumption took place earthly coasts and those invisible shores

according to law, without any serious we do not know.

derangement of the business of the Whether on that August morning af-

country. ter death, he saw a more glorious sun rise

Ing-alls, JAMES MONROE, military offi- w jth unimaginable splendor above a celes-

cer: born in Sutton, Vt., Jan. 25, 1837; tial horizon, or whether his apathetic and

was educated at Evansville (\Vis.) Semi- unconscious ashes still sleep in cold ob-

nary; graduated at the United States s truction and insensible oblivion we do

Artillery School in 1872; entered the regu- no t know.

lar army, Jan. 2, 1864; promoted 1st Whether his strong and subtle ener-

lieutenant, May 3, 1863; captain, July 1, gi es found instant exercise in another

1880; major, June 1, 1897; lieutenant- forum, whether his dexterous and undis-

colonel, Oct. 5, 1900; and was retired, c ipii ne d faculties are now contending in

Jan. 25, 1901. He founded the depart- a higher Senate than ours for supremacy,

ment of ballistics in the United States or whether his powers were dissipated and

Artillery School in 1882, and was the prin- dispersed with his parting breath we do

cipal instructor there till the outbreak of no t know.

the war with Spain, when the school sus- Whether his passions, ambitions, and

pended operations. He was the author affections still sway, attract, and impel,

of Exterior Ballistics; Ballistic Machines; whether he yet remembers us as we re-

BaUistio Tables; Ballistics for the In- member him we do not know.

struction of Artillery Gunners; etc. These are the unsolved, the insolvable

Ingalls, JOHN JAMES, lawyer; born in problems of mortal life and human des-

Middleton, Mass.j Dec. 29, 1833 ; grad- tiny, which prompted the troubled patri-

uated at Williams College in 1855, and arch to ask that momentous question,

was admitted to the bar in 1857. He went for which the centuries have given no

to Atchison, Kan., in 1858, and became a answer: "If a man die, shall he live

member of the Wyandotte Convention in again?"

18f&gt;9, secretary of the territorial council Every man is the centre of a circle,
in 1869, and secretary of the State Sen- whose fatal circumference he cannot pass,
ate in 1861. He was State Senator in Within its narrow confines he is potential,
1862, and in the same year was defeated beyond it he perishes; and if immortality
as "Republican candidate for lieutenant- is a splendid, but delusive dream, if the
governor. In 1803-65 he was editor of incompleteness of every career, even the
the Atchison Champion; in 1864 was again longest and most fortunate, be not sup-
defeated for lieutenant-governor ; in 1873- plemented and perfected after its termi-
91 was a United States Senator, and in nation here, then he who dreads to die
1887-91 was president pro tern, of the should fear to live, for life is a tragedy
Senate. He was forced to retire to private more desolate and inexplicable than
life in 1891 by the ascendancy in Kansas death.

INGALLS INGEBSOLL

Of all the dead whose obsequies we commanding presence, his sinewy diction,
have paused to solemnize in this chamber, his confidence, and imperturbable self-
I recall no one whose untimely fate seems control.

so lamentable, and yet so rich in prophecy, But in the maturity of his powers

as that of Senator Hill. He had reached and his fame, with unmeasured oppor-

the meridian of his years. He stood upon tunities for achievement apparently be-

the high plateau of middle life, in that fore him, with great designs unaccom-

serene atmosphere where temptation no plished, surrounded by the proud and af-

longer assails, where the clamorous pas- fectionate solicitude of a great constitu-

sions and contention, such as infrequently ency, the pallid messenger with the in-

fall to the lot of men, no longer find ex- verted torch beckoned him to depart.

ercise. Though not without the ten- There are few scenes in history more

dency to meditation, reverie, and introspec- tragic than that protracted combat with

tion which accompanies -genius, his tern- death. No man had greater inducements

perament was palestric. He was competi- to live. But in the long struggle against

tive and unpeaceful. He was born a po- the inexorable advances of an insidious

lemic and controversialist, intellectually and mortal malady, he did not falter or

pugnacious and combative, so that he was repine. He retreated with the aspect of

impelled to defend any position that might a victor, and though he succumbed, he

be assailed, or to attack any position that seemed to conquer. His sun went down

might be intrenched, not because the de- at noon, but it sank amid the prophetic

fence or assault was essential, but be- splendors of an eternal dawn.

cause the positions were maintained, and With more than a hero s courage,

those who held them became, by that with more than a martyr s fortitude, he

fact alone, his adversaries. This tendency waited the approach of the inevitable

of his nature made his orbit erratic. He hour, and went to the undiscovered coun-

was meteoric, rather than planetary, and try.

flashed with irregular splendor, rather Ingalls, RUFUS, military officer; born
than shone with steady and penetrating in Denmark, Me., Aug. 23, 1820; grad-
vays. His advocacy of any cause was fear- uated at West Point in 1843, enter-
less to the verge of temerity. He appeared ing the rifles, but was transferred to the
to be indifferent to applause or censure, dragoons in 1845. He served in the war
for their own sake. He accepted intrep- with Mexico, and was on the staff of Gen-
idly any conclusion that he reached, with- eral Harney on the Pacific coast. In
out inquiring whether it was politic or April, 1861, he went with Colonel Brown
expedient. to reinforce Fort Pickens; and in July

To such a spirit partisanship was un- was ordered to the Army of the Potomac,
avoidable, but with Senator Hill it did where he was upon the staff of General
not degenerate into bigotry. He was McClellan, with the rank of lieutenant-
capable of broad generosity, and extended colonel. He was chief quartermaster of
to his opponents the same unreserved that army from 1862 to 1865; was made
candor which he demanded for himself, brigadier-general of volunteers in May,
His oratory was impetuous, and devoid of 1863, and was brevetted major-general,
artifice. He was not a posturer or U. S. A. and U. S. V., March 13, 18(i5.
phrase-monger. He was too intense, too He was in most of the battles of the Army
earnest, to employ the cheap and paltry of the Potomac from that of South Moun-
decorations of discourse. He never re- tain to the surrender of Lee at Appomat-
connoitred a hostile position, nor ap- tox. He died in New York City, Jan. 16,
proached it by stealthy parallels. He 1803.

could not lay siege to an enemy, nor be- Ingersoll, CHARLES JARED, statesman;
leaguer him, nor open trenches, and sap born in Philadelphia, Oct. 3, 1782; became
and mine. His method was the charge a lawyer, and was attached to the legation
and the onset. He was the Murat of of Riifus King when he was minister to
senatorial debate. Not many men of this France. After travelling in Europe, he
generation have been better equipped for returned, and published a poem in 1800,
parliamentary warfare than he, with his and a tragedy in 1801. In 1810 he pub-

INGERSOLL

lished a political satire, called Inchiquin
the Jesuit s Letters. In 1813 he was in
Congress, and from 1815 to 1829 he was
United States district-attorney. He was
again in Congress from 1841 to 1847, when
he was a Democratic leader. President
Polk nominated him minister to France,
but the Senate did not confirm the nomina
tion. He wrote a history of the second
war between the United States and Great
Britain. He died in Philadelphia, Jan.
14. 1862.

Ingersoll, EDWARD, author; born in
Philadelphia, Pa., April 2, 1817; son of
Charles Jared Ingersoll; graduated at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1835. His
publications include History and Law of
Habeas Corpus and Grand Juries; and
Personal Liberty and Martial Law. He
was also the editor of Bale s Pleas of the
Crown; Addison on Contracts; and Saun-
ders on Uses and Trusts. He died in Ger-
mantown, Pa., Feb. 19, 1893.

Ingersoll, ERNEST, naturalist; born in
Monroe, Mich., March 13, 1852; was edu
cated at Oberlin College and the Harvard
Museum of Comparative Zoology. He be
came connected with the Hayden Survey
in 1873, and later was made a member of
the United States Fish Commission. In
1880 he was a special agent of the census
to report on the oyster industry. He went
to California in 1883 to write special arti
cles for Harper s Magazine. Later he was
editor of the Canadian Pacific Railway
Company s publications in Montreal. He
is author of Nests and Eggs of Ameri

can Birds; the Oyster -Industries of the
United States; Friends Worth Knowing;
Knocking Round the Rockies; The
Crest of the Continent; Western Canada;
The Book of the Ocean, etc. He is also
editor and part author of a series of
guide-books to the Eastern States and
cities.

Ingersoll, JAKED; born in Milford,
Conn., in 1722; graduated at Yale in
1742; was stamp agent in 1765. He was
obliged to reship the stamps he had
received and to resign his office. He is
the author of The Stamp Act. He
died in New Haven, Conn., in August,
1781.

Ingersoll, JARED, jurist; born in Con
necticut in 1749; graduated at Yale in
1766; studied law in London; returned to
Philadelphia in 1771; was a delegate to
the Continental Congress in 1780; a mem
ber of the Constitutional convention in
1787; and was the Federal candidate
for the Vice - Presidency in 1812, but
was defeated, receiving 86 electoral
votes. He died in Philadelphia, Oct. 31,
1822.

Ingersoll, JOSEPH REED, legislator;
born in Philadelphia, Pa., June 14, 1786;
graduated in Princeton in 1804; practised
law in Philadelphia; served in Congress
as Whig in 1835-37 and 1842-49; and was
an ardent supporter of Henry Clay; and
was United States minister to Great Brit
ain in 1852. He published Secession, a
Folly and a Crime; Life of Samuel Breck,
etc.

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN

Ingersoll, ROBERT GREEN, lawyer ; born
in Dresden, N. Y., Aug. 11, 1833; began
the study of law when eighteen years old,
and three years later was admitted to the
bar. His gift of oratory soon made him
a distinguished man, both in the courts
and in Democratic politics. In 1857 he
removed from Shawneetown, 111., to Peoria,
and in 1860 was an unsuccessful candidate
for Congress. In 1862 he organized the
llth Illinois Cavalry and went to the
front as its colonel. He spent most of his
military career in raiding and scouting.
On Nov. 28, 1862, while endeavoring to in
tercept a Confederate raiding body with

600 men, he was attacked by a force of
10,000, and captured. He was almost im
mediately paroled, and placed in command
of a camp at St. Louis. After a few
months in this capacity, fearing that he
would not be returned to active service,
he resigned his commission. Returning
home, he became a strong Republican, and
in 1866 was appointed attorney-general of
Illinois. In 1876, at the Republican Na
tional Convention, he nominated James G.
Elaine for the Presidency in a speech
which contained the following memorable
sentence: "Like an armed warrior, like a
plumed knight, James G. Elaine marched

INGERSOLL, EOBEKT GREEN

down the halls of the American Congress
and threw his shining lances full and fair
against the brazen forehead of every de-
famer of his country and maligner of its
honor." He was conspicuously active in
the Presidential campaigns of 1876 and
1880, and had it not been for his pro-

ROBKKT GRKE.V IXGERSOLL.

nounced agnostic views he would have
been honored with high official preferment.
In 1882 he settled in New York City, and
engaged in law practice till his death,
July 21, 1899. He was a man of rare per
sonal attractions; an orator of excep
tional brilliancy. His generosity was un
bounded. Among his lectures, which had
gained him wide popularity, the most char
acteristic were: Some Mistakes of Moses
The Family ; The Liberty of Man, Woman,
and Child; The Gods; and Ghosts. His
publications included: Lectures Complete;
and Great Speeches.

Thomas Paine. The following is Colo
nel IngersolFs noted review of the life
and works of THOMAS PAINE (q. v.) :

Eighty-three years ago Thomas Paine
ceased to defend himself. The moment
he became dumb all his enemies found a
tongue. He was attacked on every hand.
The Tories of England had been waiting
for their revenge. The believers in kings,
in hereditary government, the nobility of
every land, execrated his memory. Their
greatest enemy was dead. The believers
in human slavery, and all who clamored
for the rights of the States as against
the sovereignty of a nation, joined in the

chorus of denunciation. In addition to
this, the believers in the inspiration of
the Scriptures, the occupants of ortho
dox pulpits, the professors in Christian
colleges, and the religious historians, were
his sworn and implacable foes.

This man had gratified no ambition at
the expense of his fellow - men ; he had
desolated no country with the flame and
sword of war; he had not wrung millions
from the poor and unfortunate; he had
betrayed no trust, and yet he was al
most universally despised. He gave his
life for the benefit of mankind. Day and
night, for many, many weary years, he
labored for the good of others, and gave
himself body and soul to the great cause
of human liberty. And yet he won the
hatred of the people for whose benefit,
for whose emancipation, for whose civili
zation, for whose exaltation he gave his
life.

Against him every slander that malig
nity could coin and hypocrisy pass was
gladly and joyously taken as genuine,
and every truth with regard to his career
was believed to be counterfeit. He was
attacked by thousands where he was de
fended by one, and the one who defended
him was instantly attacked, silenced, or
destroyed.

At last his life has been written by
Moncure D. Conway, and the real history
of Thomas Paine, of what he attempted
and accomplished, of what he taught and
suffered, has been intelligently, truth
fully, and candidly given to the world.
Henceforth the slanderer will be without
excuse.

He who reads Mr. Conway s pages will
find that Thomas Paine was more than a
patriot; that he was a philanthropist
a lover not only of his country, but of
all mankind. He will find that his sym
pathies were with those who suffered,
without regard to religion or race, coun
try or complexion. He will find that this
great man did not hesitate to attack the
governing class of his native land, to
commit what was called treason against
the King, that he might do battle for the
rights of men ; that, in spite of the preju
dices of birth, he took the side of the
American colonies; that he gladly at
tacked the political abuses and absurdi
ties that had been fostered by altars and

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN

(hrones for many centuries; that he was
for the people against nobles and kings;
and that he put his life in pawn for the
good of others.

In the winter of 1774 Thomas Paine
came to America. After a time he was
employed as one of the writers on The
Pennsylvania Magazine.

Let us see what he did, calculated to ex
cite the hatred of his fellow-men.

The first article he ever wrote in Amer
ica, and the first ever published by him any
where, appeared in that magazine on March
8, 1775. It was an attack on American
slavery a plea for the rights of the
negro. In that article will be found sub
stantially all the arguments that can be
urged against that most infamous of all
institutions. Every line is full of human
ity, pity, tenderness, and love of justice.
Five days after this article appeared the
American Anti-Slavery Society was form
ed. Certainly this should not excite our
hatred. To-day the civilized world agrees
with the essay written by Thomas Paine
in 1775.

At that time great interests were
against him. The owners of slaves be
came his enemies, and the pulpits, sup
ported by slave - labor, denounced this
abolitionist.

The next article published by Thomas
Paine, in the same magazine, and for the
next month, was an attack on the prac
tice of duelling, showing that it was bar
barous, that it did not even tend to set
tle the right or wrong of a dispute, that
it could not be defended on any just
grounds, and that its influence was de
grading and cruel. The civilized world
now agrees with the opinions of Thomas
Paine upon that barbarous practice.

In May, 1775, appeared in the same
magazine another article written by
Thomas Paine, a Protest Against Cruelty
to Animals. He began the work that was
so successfully and gloriously carried out
by Henry Bergh, one of the noblest, one
of the grandest, men that this continent
has produced.

The good people of this world agree
with Thomas Paine.

In August of the same year he wrote
a plea for the Rights of Woman, the first
ever published in the New World. Cer
tainly he should not be hated for that.

He svas the first to suggest a union of
the colonies. Before the Declaration of
Independence was issued, Paine had writ
ten of and about the Free and Independent
States of America. He had also spoken
of the United States colonies as the " Glo
rious Union, and he was the first to write
these words: "The United States of
America."

In May, 1775, Washington said: "If
you ever hear of me joining in any such
measure (as separation from Great Brit
ain) you have my leave to set me down
for everything wicked." He had also
said: "It is not the wish or interest
of the government (meaning Massachu
setts), or of any other upon this conti
nent, separately or collectively, to set up
for independence." And in the same year
Benjamin Franklin assured Chatham that
no one in America was in favor of separa
tion. As a matter of fact, the people of
the colonies wanted a redress of their
grievances they were not dreaming of
separation, of independence.

In 1775 Paine wrote the pamphlet
known as Common Sense. This was pub
lished on Jan. 10, 1776. It was the first
appeal for independence, the first cry for
national life, for absolute separation. No
paTiiphlet, no book, ever kindled such a
sudden conflagration a purifying flame,
in which the prejudices and fears of mill
ions were consumed. To read it now,
after the lapse of more than 100 years,
hastens the blood. It is but the meagre
truth to say that Thomas Paine did more
for the cause of separation, to sow the
seeds of independence, than any other man
of his time. Certainly we should not
despise him for this. The Declaration of
Independence followed, and in that decla
ration will be fovind not only the thoughts,
but some of the expressions, of Thomas
Paine.

During the war, and in the very darkest
hours, Paine wrote what is called The
Crisis, a series of pamphlets giving from
time to time his opinion of events, and his
prophecies. These marvellous publica
tions produced an effect nearly as great
as the pamphlet Common Sense. These
strophes, written by the bivouac fires, had
in them the soul of battle.

In all he wrote. Paine was direct and
natural. He touched the very heart of

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN

the subject. He was not awed by names Chancellor Livingston, secretary of for-
or titles, by place or power. He never eign affairs; Robert Morris, minister of
his regard for truth, for principle finance, and his assistant, urging the ne-
never wavered in his allegiance to reason, cessity of adding a continental legislat-
to what he believed to be right. His argu- ure to Congress, to be elected by the
ments were so lucid, so unanswerable, his several States. Robert Morris invited
comparisons and analogies so apt, so un- the chancellor and a number of eminent
expected, that they excited the passionate men to meet Paine at dinner, where his
admiration of friends and the unquench- plea for a stronger Union was discussed
able hatred of enemies. 80 great were and approved. This was probably the
these appeals to patriotism, to the love earliest of a series of consultations pre-
of liberty, the pride of independence, liminary to the constitutional convention.
the glory of success, that it was said by On April 19, 1783, it being the eighth
some of the best and greatest of that time anniversary of the battle of Lexington
that the American cause owed as much Paine printed a little pamphlet entitled,
to the pen of Paine as to the sword of Thoughts on Peace and the Probable Ad-
Washington. vantages Thereof. In this pamphlet he

On Nov. 2, 1779, there was introduced pleads for " a supreme nationality absorb-
into the Assemblv of Pennsvlvania an act in- all cherisViprl srvwreirrnfiaa " TUV rw

into the Assembly of Pennsylvania an act ing all cherished sovereignties." Mr. Con-
for the abolition of slavery. The pre- way calls this pamphlet Paine s Farewell
amble was written by Thomas Paine. To Address, and gives the following extract:
him belongs the honor and glory of hav
ing written the first proclamation ot i was the cause of America that made
. ... , me aa author. The force with which it
emancipation in America Paine the first, struck my mind, and the dangerous condition

which the country was in, by courting an
impossible and an unnatural reconciliation
with those who were determined to reduce
her, instead of striking out Into the only line
that could save her a Declaration of In-
King, Louis XVI., loaded Paine with dependence made it impossible for me, feel-
Ing as I did, to be silent ; and if, in the
course of more than seven years, I have

Lincoln the last.

Paine, of all others, succeeded in getting
aid for the struggling colonies from
France. " According to Lamartine, the

favors, and a gift of six millions was con
fided into the hands of Franklin and

rendered her any service, I have likewise

Paine. On Aug. 25, 1781, Paine reached added something to the reputation of litera-
Boston, bringing 2,500,000 livres in silver, tur f.

and in convoy a ship laden with clothing B ut in as tb
and military stores."

In November, 1779, Paine was elected
clerk to the General Assembly of Pennsyl
vania.

freely and disinterestedly employing

of mankind.

the scenes of war are closed, and
every man preparing for home and happ .er
times, I therefore take leave of the subject.
I have most sincerely followed it from be-

T i Ton 1, A ginning to end, and through all its turns

In 1780, the Assembly received * nd w f ndings . and whateve ? country I may

a letter from General Washington m the hereafter be in, I shall always feel an honest

field, saying that he feared the distresses pride at the part I have taken and acted,

in the army would lead to mutiny in the nd a ?tltude to nature and providence

__ T for putting it in my power to be of some use

ranks. This letter was read by Paine to to mankind."

the Assembly. He immediately wrote to

Blair McClenaghan, a Philadelphia mer- Paine had made some enemies, first, by

chant, explaining the urgency, and enclos- attacking African slavery, and, second, by

ing $500, the amount of salary due him insisting upon the sovereignty of the na-

as clerk, as his contribution towards a re- tion.

lief fund. The merchant called a meet- During the "Revolution our forefathers,

ing the next day, and read Paine s letter, in order to justify making war on Great

A subscription list was immediately cir- Britain, were compelled to take the

ciliated, and in a short time about $!,- ground that all men are entitled to life,

500,000 was raised. With this capital liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. In

the Pennsylvania Bank afterwards the no other way could they justify their ac-

Bank of North America was established tion. After the war, the meaner instincts

for the relief of the armv.

began to take possession of the mind, and

In 1783 Paine wrote a memorial to those who had fought for their own lib-

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN

erty were perfectly willing to enslave with love and reverence. Every English-
others. We must also remember that the man who has sought to destroy abuses,
Revolution was begun and carried on by to lessen or limit the prerogatives of the
a noble minority that the majority were crown, to extend the suffrage, to do away
really in favor of Great Britain and did with " rotten boroughs," to take taxes from
what they dared to prevent the success knowledge, to increase and protect the
of the American cause. The minority, freedom of speech and the press, to do
however, had control of affairs. They were away with bribes under the name of
active, energetic, enthusiastic, and coura- pensions, and to make England a govern-
geous, and the majority were overawed, ment of principles rather than of persons,
shamed, and suppressed. But when peace has been compelled to adopt the creed and
came, the majority asserted themselves use the arguments of Thomas Paine. In
and the interests of trade and commerce England every step towards freedom has
were consulted. Enthusiasm slowly died, been a triumph of Paine over Burke and
and patriotism was mingled with the self- Pitt. No man ever rendered a greater
ishness of traffic. service to his native land.

But, after all, the enemies of Paine were The book called the Rights of Man was
few, the friends were many. He had the the greatest contribution that literature
respect and admiration of the greatest had given to liberty. It rests on the bed-
and the best, and was enjoying the fruits rock. No attention is paid to precedents
of his labor. except to show that they are wrong.

The Revolution was ended, the colonies Paine was not misled by the proverbs
were free. They had been united, they that wolves had written for sheep. He
formed a nation, and the United States had the intelligence to examine for him-
of America had a place on the map of the self, and the courage to publish his con-
world, elusions. As soon as the Rights of Man
Paine was not a politician. He had not was published the government was alarm-
labored for seven years to get an office, ed. Every effort was made to suppress
His services were no longer needed in it. The author was indicted; those who
America. He concluded to educate the published, and those who sold, were ar-
English people, to inform them of their rested and imprisoned. But the new gos-
rights, to expose the pretences, follies and pel had been preached a great man had
fallacies, the crimes and cruelties of shed light a new force had been born,
nobles, kings, and parliaments. In the and it was beyond the power of nobles
brain and heart of this man were the and kings to undo what the author-hero
dream and hope of the universal republic, had done.

He had confidence in the people. He hated To avoid arrest and probable death,
tyranny and war, despised the senseless Paine left England. He had sown with
pomp and vain show of crowned robbers, brave hand the seeds of thought, and he
laughed at titles, and the " honorable " knew that he had lighted a fire that noth-
badges worn by the obsequious and servile, ing could extinguish until England should
by lawners and followers; loved liberty be free.

with all his heart, and bravely fought The fame of Thomas Paine had roach-
against those who could give the rewards ed France in many ways principally
of place and gold, and for those who through Lafayette. His services in Amer-
could pay only with thanks. ica were well known. The pamphlet

Hoping to hasten the day of freedom, he Common 8msc had been published in
wrote the Rights of Man a book that French, and its effect had been immense,
laid the foundation for all the real liberty The Rights of Man that had created, and
that the English now enjoy a book that was then creating, such a stir in Eng-
made known to Englishmen the Decla- land was also known to the French. The
ration of Nature, and convinced millions lovers of liberty everywhere were the
that all are children of the same mother, friends and admirers of Thomas Paine,
entitled to share equally in her gifts. In America, England. Scotland, Ireland,
Every Englishman who lias outgrown the and France he was known as the de-
ideas of 1688 should remember Paine fonder of popular rights. He had preach-

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN

ed a new gospel. He had given a new felt grateful not only to the King, but
Magna Charta to the people. to every Frenchman. He, the adversary
So popular was Paine in France that of all kings, asked the convention to re-
he was elected by three constituencies member that kings were men, and subject
to the national convention. He chose to to human frailties. He took still another
represent Calais. From the moment he step, and said: "As France has been the
entered French territory he was received first of European nations to abolish
with almost royal honors. He at once royalty, let us also be the first to abolish
stood with the foremost, and was wel- the punishment of death."
corned by all enlightened patriots. As in Even after the death of Louis had been
America, so in France, he knew no idle- voted, Paine made another appeal. With
ness he was an organizer and worker, a courage born of the highest possible
The first thing he did was to found the sense of duty, he said:

first republican society, and the next to

,, ., . J "France has but one ally the United
write its Mamfcsio, in which the ground States of America. That is the only nation
was taken that France did not need a that can furnish France with naval pro-
king; that the people should govern them- vision s, for the kingdoms of northern Europe
selves. In this Manifesto was this argu- ffip ^"Se ^^o^^ d
ment: cussion is regarded in America as a deliverer

of their country. I can assure you that his

VUiat kind of office must that be In a execution will there spread universal sorrow

government which requires neither experience an d it is in your power not thus to wound

nor ability to execute ; that may be abandon- the feelings of your ally. Could I speak the

the desperate chance of birth ; that may French language I would descend to your

be filled with an idiot, a madman, a tyrant, bar, and in their name become your petitioner

with equal effect as with the good, the to respite the execution of your sentence

virtuous, the wise? An office of this nature O n Louis. ... Ah, citizens, give not the tyrant

s a mere nonentity ; it is a place of show, O f England the triumph of seeing the man

not. of use." perish on the scaffold who helped my dear

brothers of America to break his chains."
He said:

"I am not the personal enemy of kings. s was worthy of the man who said:
Quite the contrary. No man wishes more Where liberty is not, there is my
heartily than myself to see them all in the country."

happy and honorable state of private in- Pain e was second on the committee to
dividuals ; but I am the avowed, open and ,.

intrepid enemy of what is called monarchy ; P re P are the draft of a constitution for
and I am such by principles which nothing France to be submitted to the convention,
can either alter or corrupt, by my attach- He was the real author, not only of the
ment to humanity, by the anxiety which I ^-..14. t +v. J-A 4-- u e xi.

feel within myself for the dignity and honor draft of the constitution, but of the
of the human race." Declaration of Rights.

In France, as in America, he took the

One of the grandest things done by lead. His first thoughts seemed to be
Thomas Paine was his effort to save the first principles. He was clear because he
life of Louis XVI. The convention was was profound. People without ideas ex-
in favor of death. Paine was a foreigner, perience great difficulty in finding words
His career had caused some jealousies, to express them.

He knew the danger he was in; that the From the moment that Paine cast his
tiger was already crouching for a spring; vote in favor of mercy, in favor of life,
but he was true to his principles. He was the shadow of the guillotine was upon
opposed to the death penalty. He re- him. He knew that when he voted for
mcmbered that Louis XVI. had been the the King s life he voted for his own
friend of America, and he very cheerfully death. Paine remembered that the King
risked his life, not only for the good of had been the friend of America, and to
France, not only to save the King, but him ingratitude seemed the worst of
to pay a debt of gratitude. He askod crimes. He worked to destroy the mon-
the convention to exile the King to the arch, not the man ; the King, not the
United States. He asked this as a mem- friend. He discharged his duty and ac-
ber of the convention and as a citizen of cepted death. This was the heroism of
the United States. As an American he goodness, the sublimity of devotion.

INGERSOLL, EGBERT GREEff

Believing that his life was near its
close, he made up his mind to give to
the world his thoughts concerning " re
vealed religion." This he had for some
time intended to do, but other matters
had claimed his attention. Feeling that
there was no time to be lost, he wrote
the first part of the Age of Reason, and
gave the manuscript to Joel Barlow. Six
hours after, he was arrested. The second
part was written in prison while he was
waiting for death.

Paine clearly saw that men could not
be really free, or defend the freedom
they had, unless they were free to think
and speak. He knew that the Church was
the enemy of liberty ; that the altar and
throne were in partnership; that they
helped each other and divided the spoils.

He felt that, being a man, he had the
right to examine the creeds and the Script
ures for himself, and that, being an honest
man, it was his duty and his privilege to
tell his fellow-men the conclusions at
which he arrived.

He found that the creeds of all ortho
dox churches were absurd and cruel, and
that the Bible was no better. Of course
he found that there were some good
things in the creeds and in the Bible.
These he defended, but the infamous, the
inhuman, he attacked.

In matters of religion he pursued the
same course that he had in things politi
cal. He depended upon experience, and
above all on reason. He refused to ex
tinguish the light in his own soul. He
was true to himself, and gave to others
his honest thoughts. He did not seek
wealth, or place, or fame. He sought the
truth.

He had felt it to be his duty to attack
the institution of slavery in America,
to raise his voice against duelling, to plead
for the rights of woman, to excite pity
for the sufferings of domestic animals, the
speechless friends of man ; to plead the
cause of separation, of independence, of
American nationality, to attack the abuses
and crimes of monarchs, to do what he
could to give freedom to the world.

He thought it his duty to take another
step. Kings asserted that they derived
their power, their right to govern, from
God. To this assertion Paine replied with
the Rights of Man. Priests pretended

that they were the authorized agents of
God. Paine replied with the Age of Rea
son.

This book is still a power, and will be
as long as the absurdities and cruelties of
the creeds and the Bible have defenders.
The Age of Reason affected the priests just
as the Rights of Man affected nobles and
kings. The kings answered the arguments
of Paine with laws, the priests with lies.
Kings appealed to force, priests to fraud,
Mr. Conway has written in regard to the
Age of Reason the most impressive and
the most interesting chapter in his book.
Paine contended for the rights of the in
dividual, for the jurisdiction of the soul.
Above all religions he placed Reason,
above all kings, Men, and above all
men, Law.

The first part of the Age of Reason was
written in the shadow of a prison, the
second part in the gloom of death. From
that shadow, from that gloom, came a
flood of light. This testament, by which
the wealth of a marvellous brain, the love
of a great and heroic heart were given to
the world, was written in the presence of
the scaffold, when the writer believed he
was giving his last message to his fellow-
men.

The Age of Reason was his crime.

Franklin, Jefferson, Simmer and Lin
coln, the four greatest statesmen that
America has produced, were believers in
the creed of Thomas Paine.

The Universalists and Unitarians have
found their best weapons, their best ar
guments, in the Age of Reason.

Slowly, but surely, the churches are
adopting not only the arguments, but the
opinions, of the great Reformer. Theodore
Parker attacked the Old Testament and
Calvinistic theology with the same weap
ons and with a bitterness excelled by no
man who has expressed his thoughts in
our language.

Paine was a century in advance of his
time. If he were living now his sym
pathy would be with Savage, Chadwick,
Professor Briggs and the " advanced theo
logians." He, too, would talk about the
" higher criticism " and the latest defini
tion of " inspiration." These advanced
thinkers substantially are repeating the
Age of Reason. They still wear the old
uniform clinging to the toggery of the-

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN

ology but inside of their religious rags " It is unnecessary for me to tell you how
they agree with Thomas Paine. mucl1 a11 J* " countrymen I speak of the

"Not one arpiimpTit that PIITIP nrowl great mass of tne P e P le are interested in

your welfare. They have not forgot the

against the inspiration of the Bible, history of their own , Revolution and the
against the truth of miracles, against the difficult scenes through which they passed ;

barbarities and infamies of the Old Testa- nor do the y revl ? w its several stages without

.. reviving in their bosoms a due sensibility

ment, against the pretensions of priests of tue merits of those who served them in

and the claims of kings, has ever been that great and arduous conflict. The crime
answered o1 ingratitude has not yet stained, and 1

His arguments in favor of the existence ^ ^ e ^ e ^ t ^^
of what he was pleased to call the God j ng rendered important services in our own
of Nature were as weak as those of all Revolution, but as being on a more ex-

theists have been. But in all the affairs tensive s . ca ! e the u * rlen( i of human rights

, ,, . ,, , . , , . . and a distinguished and able advocate of

of this world, his clearness of vision, hi- public Uberty . To the welfare of Thomas

cidity of expression, cogency of argument, Paine we are not and cannot be indifferent."
aptness of comparison, power of state
ment and comprehension of the subject In the sarae ? ear Mr - Monroe wrote a

in hand, with all its bearings and con- letter to the committee of general safety,

sequences, have rarely, if ever, been ex- asking for the release of Mr. Paine, in

celled, which, among other things, he said:

He had no reverence for mistakes be- The services Thomag Paine rendered to

cause they were old. He did not admire his country in its struggle for freedom have

the castles of feudalism even when they implanted in the hearts of his countrymen

were covered with ivy. He not only said f sense f gratitude never to be effaced as

,, .., . . , , long as they shall deserve the title of a just

that the Bible was not inspired, but he and generous people."

demonstrated that it could not all be

true. This was " brutal." He presented On reaching America Paine found that
arguments so strong, so clear, so convin- the sense of gratitude had been effaced,
cing, that they could not be answered. He found that the Federalists hated him
This was " vulgar." with all their hearts because he believed

He stood for liberty against kings, for in the rights of the people and was still
humanity against creeds and gods. This true to the splendid principle advocated
was " cowardly and low." He gave his during the darkest days of the Revolution,
life to free and civilize his fellow-men. In almost every pulpit he found a malig-
This was " infamous." nant and implacable foe, and the pews

Paine was arrested and imprisoned in were filled with his enemies. The slave-
December, 1793. He was, to say the least, holders hated him. He was held responsi-
neglected by Gouverneur Morris and ble even for the crimes of the French
Washington. He was released through Revolution. He was regarded as a blas-
the efforts of James Monroe in November, phemer, an atheist, an enemy of God and
1794. He was called back to the conven- man. The ignorant citizens of Borden-
tion, but too late to be of use. As most town, as cowardly as orthodox, longed to
of the actors had suffered death, the mob the author of Common Sense and
tragedy was about over and the curtain The Crisis. They thought he had sold
was falling. Paine remained in Paris himself to the devil because he had de-
until the " reign of terror " was ended and fended God against the slanderous charges
that of the Corsican tyrant had com- that he had inspired the writers of the
menced. Bible because he had said that a being

Paine came back to America hoping to of infinite goodness and purity did not es-
spend the remainder of his life surrounded tablish slavery and polygamy,
by those for whose happiness and freedom Paine had insisted that men had the
he had labored so many years. He expected right to think for themselves. This so
to be rewarded with the love and rever- enraged the average American citizen that
ence of the American people. he longed for revenge.

In 1794 James Monroe had written to In 1802 the people of the United States
Paine these words: had exceedingly crude ideas about the

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN

liberty of thought and expression.
Neither had they any conception of re
ligious freedom. Their highest thought
on that subject was expressed by the
word " toleration," and even this tolera
tion extended only to the various Chris
tian sects. Even the vaunted religious
liberty of colonial Maryland was only to
the effect that one kind of Christian
should not fine, imprison and kill an
other kind of Christian, but all kinds of
Christians had the right, and it was their
duty, to brand, imprison and kill infidels
of every kind.

Paine had been guilty of thinking for
himself and giving his conclusions to the
world without having asked the consent
of a priest just as he had published his
political opinions without leave of the
king. He had published his thoughts on
religion and had appealed to reason to
the light in every mind, to the humanity,
the pity, the goodness which he believed
to be in every heart. He denied the right
of kings to make laws and of priests to
make creeds. He insisted that the people
should make laws, and that every human
being should think for himself. While
some believed in the freedom of religion,
he believed in the religion of freedom.

If Paine had been a hypocrite, if he
had concealed his opinions, if he had de
fended slavery with quotations from the
" sacred scriptures " if he had cared
nothing for the liberties of men in other
lands if he had said that the state could
not live without the Church if he had
sought for place instead of truth, he
would have won wealth and power, and
his brow would have been crowned with
the laurel of fame.

He made what the pious call the " mis
take " of being true to himself of living
with an unstained soul. He had lived
and labored for the people. The people
were untrue to him. They returned evil
for good, hatred for benefits received, and
yet this great chivalric soul remembered
their ignorance and loved them with all
his heart, and fought their oppressors
with all his strength.

We must remember what the churches
and creeds were in that day, what the
theologians really taught, and what the
people believed. To save a few in spite
of their vices, and to damn the many
V. D 49

without regard to their virtues, and all
for the glory of the Damner this icas
Calvinism. " He that hath ears to hear,
let him hear," but he that hath a brain
to think must not think. He that be-
lieveth without evidence is good, and he
that believeth in spite of evidence is a
saint. Only the wicked doubt, only the
blasphemer denies. This was orthodox
Christianity.

Thomas Paine had the courage, the
sense, the heart, to denounce these hor
rors, these absurdities, these infinite in
famies. He did what he could to drive
these theological vipers, these Calvinistic
cobras, these fanged and hissing serpents
of superstition from the heart of man.

A few civilized men agreed with him
then, and the world has progressed since
1809. Intellectual wealth has accumu
lated ; vast mental estates have been left
to the world. Geologists have forced
secrets from the rocks, astronomers from
the stars, historians from old records and
lost languages. In every direction the
thinker and the investigator have vent
ured and explored, and even the pews
have begun to ask questions of the pul
pits. Humboldt has lived, and Darwin
and Haeckel and Huxley, and the armies
led by them, have changed the thought
of the world.

The churches of 1809 could not be the
friends of Thomas Paine. No church as
serting that belief is necessary to salva
tion ever was, or ever will be, the cham
pion of true liberty. A church founded
on slavery that is to say, on blind obedi
ence, worshipping irresponsible and arbi
trary power must of necessity be the
enemy of human freedom.

The orthodox churches are now anxious
to save the little that Paine left of their
creed. If one now believes in God, and
lends a little financial aid, he is considered
a good and desirable member. He need
riot define God after the manner of the
catechism. He may talk about a " Power
that works for righteousness"; or the
tortoise Truth that beats the rabbit Lie
in the long run ; or the " Unknowable " ;
or the " Unconditioned " ; or the " Cosmic
Force"; or the "Ultimate Atom"; or
"Protoplasm," or the " What "provided
he begins this word with a capital.

We must also remember that there is a

INGERSOLL INGLIS

difference between independence and lib- forefathers that his words were gladly
erty. Millions have fought for independ- repeated by the best and bravest in many
ence to throw off some foreign yoke lands; if they knew that he attempted,
and yet were at heart the enemies of true by the purest means, to attain the noblest
liberty. A man in jail, sighing to be free, and loftiest ends that he was original,
may be said to be in favor of liberty, but sincere, intrepid, and that he could truth-
not from principle; but a man who, being fully say: "The world is my country, to
free, risks or gives his life to free the en- do good my religion " if the people only
slaved, is a true soldier of liberty. knew all this the truth they would re-
Thomas Paine had passed the legendary peat the words of Andrew Jackson:
limit of life. One by one most of his old " Thomas Paine needs no monument made
friends and acquaintances had deserted with hands; he has erected a monument
him. Maligned on every side, execrated, in the hearts of all lovers of liberty."
shunned, and abhorred his virtues de- Ingham, SAMUEL DELTJCENNA, legisla-
nounced as vices his services forgotten tor; born in Pennsylvania, Sept. 16, 1779;
his character blackened, he preserved the served several years in the Pennsylvania
poise and balance of his soul. He was legislature; served in Congress in 1813-18
a victim of the people, but his convictions and 1822-29. President Jackson appoint-
remained unshaken. He was still a soldier ed him Secretary of the Treasury, but he
in the army of freedom, and still tried to resigned on account of the Kitchen Cabi-
enlighten and civilize those who were im- net. He died in Trenton, N. J., June 5,
patiently waiting for his death. Even 1860.

those who loved their enemies hated him, Ingle, EDWARD, author; born in Balti-
their friend the friend of the whole more, Md., May 17, 1861 ; graduated at
world with all their hearts. Johns Hopkins University in 1882.
On June 8, 1809, death came death, al- Among his publications are Local Institu-
most his only friend. tions of Virginia; Local Institutions of
At his funeral no pomp, no pageantry, Maryland; Southern Sidelights; The Ne-
no civic procession, no military display, gro in the District of Columbia, etc.
In a carriage, a woman and her son who Ingle, RICHARD, mariner; born in Lon-
had lived on the bounty of the dead on don, England, about 1610. During the
horseback, a Quaker, the humanity of civil war in England the royalist governor
whose heart dominated the creed of his of Maryland seized Ingle s ship. On his
head and, following on foot, two negroes, return to England, Ingle applied to Par-
filled with gratitvide constituted the liament for redress, and received a corn-
funeral cortege of Thomas Paine. mission authorizing him to act against the
He who had received the gratitude of royalists. Ingle returned to America in
many millions, the thanks of generals and 1645, and, taking advantage of local
statesmen he who had been the friend troubles, expelled Leonard Calvert, and
and companion of the wisest and best himself took charge of the government
he who had taught a people to be free, for six months, at the end of which period
and whose words had inspired armies and Calvert regained control,
enlightened nations, was thus given back Inglis, CHARLES, clergyman; born in
to Nature, the mother of us all. Ireland, in 1734. From 1764 to the Revo-
If the people of the great republic knew lution he was assistant rector of Trinity
the life of this generous, this chivalric Church, New York; and was rector from
man, the real story of his services, his 1777 to 1783. He adhered to the royal
sufferings and his triumphs of what he cause, and departed for Nova Scotia with
did to compel the robed and crowned, the the loyalists who fled from New York
priests and kings, to give back to the City in 1783. His letters evinced consid-
people liberty, the jewel of the soul; if erable harsh feeling towards the Ameri-
they knew that he was the first to write can patriots as " fomenters of rebellion."
The Religion of Humanity; if they knew Dr. Inglis was consecrated bishop of Nova
that he, above all others, planted and Scotia in 1788, and in 1809 became a
watered the seeds of independence, of member of the governor s council. He
union, of nationality, in the hearts of our published an answer to Paine s Common

INGLIS INMAN

Sense, which made him obnoxious to the or imperative initiative is allowed. Any

patriots, and they confiscated his estate, petition containing a certain number of

He died in Halifax, N. S., Feb. 24, 1816. signatures (generally from 5,000 to 6,000) ,

His son JOHN was made bishop of Nova demanding action upon any matter what-

Scotia in 1825, and died in 1850; and his ever, must be given attention by the coun-

grandson, Gen. Sir JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT cil, which, after passing upon it, must

INGLIS, born in Halifax in 1814, was the submit it to the popular vote. This course

brave defender of Lucknow.

must be taken even if a proposed measure

Inglis, MARY, pioneer; born in 1729. is unfavorable to the council. Again, in

She, with her two children, was captured a number of the cantons, the people have

by the Shawnee Indians, who had made a the right of veto power. In about a

successful attack upon the small settle- month s time after any measure has been

ment. The Indians carried their captives adopted by the cantonal council it may

down the Kanawha River to the Scioto. he brought before the people by a petition,

She was thus the first white woman in and according to their vote made to stand

Kentucky. She made her escape in com- or fall. This veto power, however, may

pany with another white woman, and sue- be said to be included in the referendum,

ceeded in reaching a settlement on the In all the cantons, except Freiburg, the

Kanawha. She died in 1813. right of the people to have every important

Ingraham, DUNCAN N. See NATURAL- act of legislation referred back to them

JZATION (Koszta Case). for adoption or rejection is now estab-

Ingraham, JOSEPH HOLT, author ; born lished by law.

in Portland, Me., 1809; became a pro- In recent years the principle of the ini-
fessor in Jefferson College, Miss. ; subse- tiative and referendum has met with much
quently took orders in the Protestant favor in the United States, and in several
Episcopal Church. He wrote many novels, States there has been an influential move-
some of which were very popular, but he ment to bring about its adoption,
is best known through his three books, Injunction, an order of a court, which
entitled The Prince of the House of David; commands the party or parties against
The Pillar of Fire; and The Throne of whom it is issued (1) not to commit a
David. He died in Holly Springs, Miss., certain act; or (2) to desist from the

commission of a certain act; or (3) to
restore to its former condition something
which has been altered or interfered with

in December, 1866.

Ingram, DAVID. See HORTOP, JOB.

Ingulf, RUDOLF, traveller; born in

Cologne in 1727; emigrated to Mexico in by the person or persons to whom the

1751, where he became a merchant. After injunction is directed,
securing a competence he travelled through Inman, GEORGE, military officer ; born

Central America, Mexico, and California, in Boston, Mass., Dec. 3, 1755; graduated

He published, in the German language, at Harvard College in 1772. During the

Travels in New Spain; The Geologic For- Revolutionary War he was a royalist,

mation of California, in which he proved entering the army as a private, but soon

that California was a rich gold-field; receiving a commission; took part in the

Cosmography of America, etc. He died in battles of Princeton, Brandy wine, Ger-

Vienna in 1785.

mantown, and Monmouth, in the first of

Initiative and Referendum, a politi- which he was wounded. He was the au-
cal system which originated in Switzer- thor of Narrative of the Rcvolutionan/
land, designed to test the feeling of the War, 1776-1779. He died in the West

people

concerning

proposed legislation. Indies in 1789.

In the several cantons of the Swiss Con- Inman, HENRY, painter; born in Utica.

federation the councils merely formulate N. Y., Oct. 20, 1801 ; was a pupil of John

the laws, while the people pass them. Wesley Jarvis, the portrait - painter, to

Similar to the law of all other nations whom he was apprenticed for seven years,

that of Switzerland concedes the people a He painted landscapes and historical pict^

certain right of initiative in the way of ures, but portraits were his chief subjects,

petition ; but in many of the cantons this and he introduced lithography into the

right goes much further and an additional United States. In 1844 he went to Eng-

INMAN INSPECTION

land, where, becoming the guest of Words- in 1833 there were 2,500 lunatics in jails
worth, the poet, he painted his portrait, and other prisons, besides hundreds in
He also painted the portraits of other dis- the county poor-houses and private fam-
tinguished men while in England. He had ilies. One of the very earliest asylums
begun painting an historical picture for for the insane was that opened in 1797
the national Capitol, representing Daniel at Bloomingdale, in the suburbs of New
Boone in the wilds of Kentucky, at the York City, by the New York Hospital So-
time of his death, in New York City, Jan. ciety. To the labors of Miss DOROTHEA

L. Dix (g. v.) is largely due the establish-

Inman, HENRY, author; born in New ment of State asylums. Miss Dix de-
York, July 30, 1837; educated at the voted herself after 1837 to the investi-
Brooklyn public schools and Athenian gation of the subject, and visited every
Academy, and is the author of The Old State east of the Rocky Mountains, ap-
Santa Fe Trail; Great Salt Lake Trail; pealing to the State legislatures to pro-
Tales of the Trail; The Ranch on the vide for the care of the insane. In April,
Oxhide; Pioneer from Kentucky, etc. He 1854. a bill appropriating 10,000,000 acres
died in Topeka, Kan., Nov. 13, 1899. of public lands to the several States for
Inman, WILLIAM, naval officer; born in the relief of the pauper insane, passed
Utica, N. Y., in 1797; appointed midship- by Congress under her appeals, was vetoed
man, United States navy, in 1812; pro- by President Pierce. Her efforts, however,
moted to lieutenant, April 1, 1818; com- led to the establishment of State insane
mander in 1838; and captain in 1850. asylums, and it is now recognized as the
In 1859-61 he commanded the West duty of each State to care for its insane.
African squadron, during which time he New York State alone has fifteen corporate
succeeded in recapturing and liberating institutions of this class. The following
nearly 4,000 slaves; and was promoted statistics show the number of insane, etc.,
commodore, and was retired, April 4, 1867. in the United States. Until 1850 there
He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 23, 1874. were no reliable statistics:

Inness, GEORGE, artist; born in New-
burg, N. Y., May 1, 1825; removed to New
York in 1845; studied art; and was
chosen a member of the National Acad
emy in 1868. He was one of the greatest ISTO.
landscape-painters America has produced. :
His pictures include American Sunset;
Delaware Water -Gap; View near Med-
field, Mass.; An Old Roadway, Long Isl
and; and Under the Green Wood. He
died in Scotland Aug. 3, 1894.

Year.

Population of
U.S.

No. of Insane.

To earh million of
inhabitants.

1850

21 191 876

15 610

1860

31 4*3 321

24 64

1870

38 558 371

37 412

Q71

1880

50 155 783

91 997

1 QQ4

1890

62 622 250

106 252

1 (07

1900

76 303 387

lOfi 4-K^

Insolvency. See BANKRUPTCY LAWS.

Inspection, COMMITTEES OF. In many
of the present American States the class

Inness, HARRY, jurist; born in Caro- known as Tories, or adherents of the
line county, Va., in 1752; was an ardent crown, were in a minority at the beginning
patriot during the Revolutionary War; of the Revolutionary War, and in many
superintendent of the mines from which places suffered indignities, such as, if
the Americans obtained their lead; ap- offensively active, receiving a covering of
pointed judge of the Supreme Court of tar and feathers, being carted around as
Virginia in 1783, and United States dis- a public spectacle, and other abuses which
trict judge for Kentucky in 1787. His personal and political malignity could in-
enemies caused charges to be brought flict. To prevent such disgraceful scenes,
against him in Congress in 1808, but which would lead to retaliation and the
that body refused to take any action look- rule of mob law, the Continental Congress
ing to his impeachment. He died in specially committed the oversight of Tories
Frankfort, Ky., Sept. 20, 1816. and suspected persons to regularly ap-

Insanity. Until 1840 the insane poor pointed committees of inspection and ob-
in the United States were cared for al- servation for the several counties and dis-
most exclusively by the township and tricts. The Tories were also exposed to
county authorities. It was estimated that the dangers from the law, for the Whigs

INSTBTJMENT OF GOVERNMENT INSTJBANCE

had taken all power into their hands, and
required allegiance to State governments
from all the inhabitants. The consequence
was that many left the States and became
refugees in Great Britain or in its Ameri
can provinces.

Instrument of Government. See GOV
ERNMENT, INSTRUMENT OF.

Insurance. The following is a brief
summary of the insurance business in the
United States in its principal forms: The
first fire insurance in the colonies was
written in Boston by the Sun Company
(English) in 1728. Some insurance was
done in Philadelphia in 1752. The first
fire insurance policy issued in the United
States -was in Hartford, Conn., in 1794, un
der the unofficial title of "Hartford Fire
Insurance Co." Sixteen years after, in
1810, the Hartford Fire Insurance Com
pany was organized. From 1801-10 there
were 60 charters issued; 1811-20, 43;
1821-30, 149; 1831-40, 467; 1841-50, 401;
1851-60, 896; 1861-70, 1,041.

From Jan. 1, 1880, to Dec. 31, 1889,
property of the citizens of the United
States was insured against fire and ac
cident on ocean, lake, and river, and by
tornado, to the amount of over $120,000,-
000,000, for premiums of $1,156,675,391,
and losses were paid of $647,726,051, being
56 per cent, of the premiums.

The condition and transactions of fire
companies doing business in the United
States on Jan. 1, 1903, were as follows:

between twelve and forty - five years
of age. In 1734 it guaranteed a divi
dend for each deceased member not less
than 100. This was the first insurance
for a definite sum at death, whenever
that might occur. In 1762 the Equit
able Assurance Society of London began
to rate members according to age. At the
close of the eighteenth century there were
eight companies transacting, in a more or
less complete form, the business of life in
surance in Great Britain and Ireland. The
Presbyterian Annuity and Life Insurance
Company of Philadelphia, the first life in
surance company in the United States, re
ceived its charter from Thomas Penn in
1759. The Penn Company for Insurance
on Lives was chartered in 1812, and the
Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance
Company, Boston, in 1818.

The assessment system of life insurance
is based on the plan of collecting assess
ments on living members to pay death
losses as they occur. In this plan the as
sessments during early years are less than
the premiums of regular companies; but
they increase rapidly, and often become
impossible to collect in later years. Since
its appearance (about 1865) as an in
surance business, aside from fraternal
organizations, this system has rapidly ex
tended.

The first accident insurance company
established in the United States was the
Traveler s, of Hartford, Conn., in 1863;

Number of Companies.

Capital.

Assets Exclusive of
Premium Notes.

Net Surplus.

Cash Premiums Re
ceived during Year.

Total Cash Income
during Year.

313 Stock \
178 Mutual f

$70,537,743

$451,010,545

$171,390,1(52

$224,076,129

$242,819,167

Number of Companies.

Paid for Losses
during Year.

Paid for dividends
during Year.

Expenses other than
Losses and Divi
dends during Year

Total Disburse
ments during
Year.

Risks Written
during Year

313 Stock I

$113,147,727

$17,737,444

$74.499,597

$205,384,768

* $26,000,000. 000

178 Mutual \

* Approximation The statistics of fire Insurance business in the United States are, with the exception of the
estimate of visks written during the year, compiled from The Insurance Year-Book, published by The Spectator
Company. They do not include the returns of a few stock companies and some 600 mutuals and town and county
mutualsj whose "transactions are purely local and individually of small volume.

In 1903 the aggregate property loss by
fires was estimated at $135,000,000, and the
aggregate insurance loss at $75,000,000.

Life insurance was not known before
the sixteenth century. The first life in
surance company, " The Amicable," was
established in London, England, in 1706,
and insured at uniform rates persons

the first steam-boiler insurance company,
Hartford, Conn., was chartered in 1866;
and plate-glass was first insured in 1870.
Most of the States have established de
partments or bureaus of insurance, for the
supervision of the companies and the en
forcement of the laws requiring their
solvency to be maintained. The mainten-

INSURRECTIONS INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS

THE CONDITION OF THE REGULAR LEVEL PREMIUM COMPANIES ON JAN. 1, 1903 AND THE BUSINESS

OF THE PRECEDING YEAR WERE AS FOLLOWS*:

No.

Cos.

Assets.

Premiums
Received.

Total
Income.

Payments to
Policy-holders
(Losses, Divi
dends, Surren
ders, etc.)

Total Expen
ditures.

New Policies Issued.

Polidet in Force.

No.

Amount.

No.

Amount.

$2,091,852,851

$406,946,597

$504,627,705

$199,883,721

$321,966,272

(,309,388

*-&gt;.:8,i34,46:i

n.KWUSS

$in.soB.S9?.ssa

* Including industrial policies.
THE FOLLOWING SHOWS THE CONDITION AND BUSINESS OF ASSESSMENT COMPANIES AND ORDERS*:

No.
of
Cos.

Assets.

Assessments
Collected.

Total
Income.

Payments to
Policy-holders.

Total Expen
ditures.

Membership.

Insurance iu Force.

Admitted Dur
ing the Year.

No. of
Members.

Amount.

770

$45,591,473

$90,040,589

$97,114,065

$72,793,886

$83,193,861

706,200

5,270,207

$6,530,360,368

* These figures are from the Illinois Life Insurance Report for 1900, and represent the combined business of the
assessment companies and fraternal orders. The assessment business having declined since 1896, these aggregates
are nearly half those of that year.

The returns of life insurance in the first and third tables are from The Insurance Tear-Book, published by The
Spectator Company.

LIFE INSURANCE TABLE OF MORTALITY, AMERICAN EXPERIENCE.

&lt;

J s

s
s
s

Death Rate
per 1,000.

Expectation
of Life Years.

&lt;

Number
Living.

W c.
at

m OJ

&gt;&lt;
1

g
_

Expectation
of Life Years.

Number
Living.

li
i*

Death Rate
per 1,000.

Expectation
of Life Years.

100,000

749

7.49

48.72

78,862

756

9.59

28.90

43,133

2,243

52.00

9.47

99,251

746

7.52

48.08

78,106

765

9.79

28.18

40,890

2,321

56.76

8.97

98,505

743

7.54

47.45

77,341

774

10.01

27.45

38,569

2,391

61.99

8.48

97,762

740

7.57

46.80

76,567

785

10.25

26.72

36,178

2.448

67.67

8.00

97,022

737

7.60

46.16

75,782

797

10.52

26.00

33,730

2,487

73.73

7.55

96,285

735

7.63

45.50

74,985

812

10.83

25.27

31,243

2,505

80.18

7.11

95,550

732

7.66

44.85

74,173

828

11.16

24.54

28,738

2,501

87.03

6.68

94,818

729

7.69

44.19

73,345

848

11.56

23.81

26,237

2,476

94.37

6.27

94,089

727

7.73

43.53

72,497

870

12.00

23.08

23,761

2,431

102.31

5.88

93,362

725

7.77

42.87

71,627

896

12.51

22.36

21,330

2,369

111.06

5.49

92,637

723

7.81

42.20

70,731

927

13.11

21.63

18,961

2,291

120.83

5.11

91,914

722

7.86

41.53

69,804

962

13.78

20.91

16,670

2,196

131.73

4.74

91,192

721

7.91

40.85

68,842

1,001

14.54

20.20

14,474

2,091

144.47

4.39

90,471

720

7.96

40.17

67,841

1,044

15.39

19.49

12,383

1,964

158.61

4.05

89,751

719

8.01

39.49

66,797

1,091

16.33

18.79

10,419

1,816

174.30

3.71

89,032

718

8.07

38.81

65,706

1,143

17.40

18.09

8,603

1,648

191.56

3.39

88,314

718

8.13

38.12

64.563

1,199

18.57

17.40

8,955

1,470

211.36

3.08

87,569

718

8.20

37.43

63,364

1,260

19.89

16.72

5,485

1,292

235.55

2.77

86,878

718

8.26

3C.73

62,104

1,325

21.34

16.05

4,193

1,114

265.68

2.47

86,160

719

8.35

36.03

60,779

1,394

22.94

15.39

3,079

933

303.02

2.18

85,441

720

8.43

35.33

59,385

1,468

24.72

14.74

2,146

744

346.69

1.91

84,721

721

8.51

34.153

57,917

1,546

26.69

14.10

1,402

555

395.86

1.66

84,000

723

8.61

33.92

56,371

1,628

28.88

13.47

847

385

454.55

1.42

83,277

726

8.72

33.21

54,743

1,713

31.29

12.86

462

246

532.47

1.19

82,551

729

8.83

32.50

53,030

1,800

33.94

12.26

216

137

634.26

.98

81,822

732

8.95

31.78

51,230

1,889

36.87

11.67

7114.18

.80

81,090

737

9.09

31.07

49,341

1,980

40.13

11.10

857.14

.64

80,353

742

9,23

30.35

47,361

2,070

43.71

10.54

1,000.00

.50

79,611

749

9.41

29.62

45,291

2,158

47.65

10.00

ance of these departments, and all ex
penses of supervision are charged to the
companies, and sometimes amount to a
serious burden, increasing the cost of
insurance to the people. The belief of
most insurance experts and of political
economists is that the effort to regulate
the business by law has been carried too
far, and has done more harm than good.

Insurrections. See REBELLIONS ; RIOTS.

Interest. The table on opposite page
shows interest laws and statutes of limita
tions of the various States in the Union.

Interior, DEPARTMENT OF THE. See
CABINET, PRESIDENT S.

Internal Improvements. Millions of
acres of the public lands of the United
States have been granted to aid in the
construction of roads, canals, and rail
ways ; and also for educational and other
purposes. The first acts of Congress for
the purpose of internal improvements
were two for the new State of Ohio, which
became laws on April 30, 1802, and March
3, 1803, respectively. Previous to that
there had been donations of land in favor

INTEREST LAWS INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS

TABLE SHOWING INTEREST LAWS AND STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS.

States and
Territories.

Interest Laws.

Statutes of
Limitations.

States and
Territories.

Interest Laws.

Statutes of
Limitations.

Legal
Rate.

Rate Allowed
by Contract.

Judg
ments,
Years.

Notes,
Years

Open
Ac
counts,
Years.

Legal
Rate.

Rate Allowed
by Contract.

Judg
ments,
Years.

Notes,
Years.

Open

Ac
counts,
Years.

Per ct.
8
6
7
7
8
6
6
6
8
7
7
5
6
6
6
6
5
6
6
6
5
6
6
6
10

Per ct.
8
10
Any rate.
Any rate.
Any rate.

0)
6
10
10
8
12
7
8
8
10
6
8
Any rate.
6
Any rate.
7
10
10
8
Any rate.

20
10
5
5

108
t

20
12
20
7
6
20
20
20(d)
5
15
10
20
12
20
6*
10
7
10
10(6)

6*
5
5
4t
6

611
3
5
6
5
10
10
10
5
15
5
611
3
6
6
6
6
10
8

3
3
3

2
6
6
3
3
2
4
4
5
6
5
3
5(a)
3
6
3
6
6
6
3
5
3

Nebraska

Per ct.
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
7
6
6
6
7
7
6
6
8
6
6
7
6
6
8

Per ct.
10

Any rate.
6
6
12
6tt
6
12
8
12
10
6
Any rate.
8
12
Any rate.
10
Any rate.
6
6
12
6
10
12

5
6
20
20
7
10(i)
10
10
5
5(h)
10

5(/)
20
10
10(1)
10
10M
8
8
20
6
10
20(i)
5(fc)

5
6
6
6
6
6
3*
6
15
5
6
611
6
6
6
6
4
6
6
5*
6
10
6
5

4
4

6
6
4
6
3
6
6
3
6
6
6
6
6
6
2
4
6
211
3
3
6
8

Nevada

Arizona

New Hampshire.
New Jersey

New Mexico ....

New York

Delaware

North Carolina. .
North Dakota...
Ohio

Hist, of Columbia.
Florida

Oklahoma

Idaho

Oregon

Pennsylvania .. .
Rhode Island
South Carolina. .
South Dakota...
Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Maryland

Massachusetts .. .

Michigan

Virginia

Washington

Minnesota

West Virginia...
Wisconsin

Mississippi

Missouri ....

Wyoming

Montana

* Under seal, 10 years, t If made in State; if outside, 2 years, t No law and no decision regarding judgments.
Unless a different rate is expressly stipulated. II Under seal, 20 years.. If Store accounts; other accounts, 3
years, tt New York has by a recent law legalized any rate of interest on call loans of $5,000 or upward, on col
lateral security, tt Becomes dormant, but may be revived. Six years from last item, (a) Accounts between
merchants, 2 years. (6) In courts not of record, 5 years, (d) Twenty years in courts of record; in justice s
court, 10 years, (e) Negotiable notes, 6 years; non-negotiable, 17 years. (/) Ceases to be a lien after that period.
(h) On foreign judgments, 1 year, (i) Is a lien on real estate for only 10 years, (j ) Any rate, but only 6 per cent,
can be collected at law. (k) And indefinitely by having execution issue every 5 years. (/) Ten years foreign, 20
years domestic.

of various deserving persons. The grants to repay the government. On the same
to the inhabitants of Ohio were for the day (March, 1827) there was granted to
purpose of laying out public roads lead- Indiana a certain strip of land formerly
ing to the Ohio Elver. Other grants were held by the Pottawattomie Indians, the
made from time to time for improvements proceeds of the sale thereof to be applied
in the Northwest until 1824, when (May to building a road from Lake Michigan,
26) Congress authorized the State of Indi- via Indianapolis, to some convenient
ana to construct a canal, giving the right point on the Ohio River. March 3, 1827,
of way, with 90 feet of land on each a grant was made to Ohio of two sec-
side thereof. Nothing was done under tions of land along the entire line of a
the act; but in 1827 (March 2) two acts road to be constructed from Sandusky to
were passed, giving to Indiana and II- Columbus.

linois, respectively, certain lands in aid May 23, 1828, a grant of 400,000 acres

of the construction of canals, the first of the " relinquished lands " in certain

to connect the navigation of the Wabash counties in Alabama was made in aid of

River with the waters of Lake Erie, and the improvement of the Tennessee and

the second to connect the waters of the other rivers in that State. In this grant

Illinois River with those of Lake Michi- was the first provision for indemnity in

gan. A quantity of land equal to one- case the grant was not full by reason of

half of five sections in width, on each prior sales or disposals by the govern-

side of the canals, was granted, reserv- ment. Similar grants were made from

ing to the United States each alternate time to time for like purposes. March 2,

section. It was not an absolute grant 1833, the State of Illinois was authorized

of land in fee, for, under certain restric- to apply the lands granted by the act of

tions, the States had a right to sell the March 2, 1827, for canal purposes to the

awards, and from the proceeds they were construction of a railway instead. Tins

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS

was the first act looking to the con
struction of a railway through the assist
ance of land donations. The railroad sys
tem was then in its infancy. The State
did not avail itself of the privilege, but
subsequently built a canal. March 2,
1835, a grant was made to aid the con
struction of a railway in Florida. Suffi
cient was given for the way 30 feet of
land on each side and the right to take

right of way through such portions of the
public lands as remained unsold not to
exceed 80 feet in width to the New
Orleans and Nashville Railroad Company.
This road was never completed. Next
came a grant to East Florida and other
railroads which were never constructed.
March 3, 1837, a grant was made to the
Atchafalaya Railroad and Banking Com
pany, in Louisiana, similar to that to

GOVERNMENT TOLL-GATE ON THE CUMBER
LAND ROAD.

and use the timber for 100 yards
on each side for the construction

and repairs of the road. This was the the New Orleans and Nashville Railroad,

first grant of the right of way for a rail- Aug. 8, 1846, an act granted lands in aid

road, the previous grant having been for of improvements of the Des Moines River,

a canal. July 2, 1836, an act granted the in Iowa, and the Fox and Wisconsin

INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS

rivers, in Wisconsin. These rivers, when
improved, were to remain highways for
the United States government forever,
free from toll.

The grant to the then Territory of Iowa
for the improvement of the Des Moines
River led to long discussions as to the
extent of the grant, and to many legal
decisions. Finally, on March 22, 1858,
the consent of Congress was given to ap
ply a portion of the grant to the con
struction of a railway. The rivers were
not improved, but the railway was con
structed the Keokuk, Fort Des Moines,
and Minnesota Railroad. Sept. 20, 1850,
a grant was made to the State of Illinois
of every alternate section of land, desig
nated by even numbers, for six sections
in width, on each side of a railroad and
branches thereof. This road, which was
built, is known as the Illinois Central.
Although this was not the first concession
of land to a railway corporation, it
granted specific sections instead of one-
half of a certain number of sections, and
may be considered the initiatory measure
of the system since adopted in making
grants in favor of railways. On June 10,
1852, a donation was made to the State
of Missouri for the construction of certain
railroads therein, afterwards known as
the Hannibal and St. Joseph, and the
Misouri Pacific, south branch. This grant
was similar in character and extent to
that of the Illinois Central. In this, as
in the case of the Illinois Central, there
was a provision for the reimbursement of
the United States for all the land sold.
Feb. 9, 1853, an act made a similar grant
to Arkansas. June 29, 1854, an act
granted aid to Minnesota for construct
ing a railroad from the southern line of
that then Territory, via St. Paul, to its
eastern line, in the direction of Lake Su
perior. For this purpose there were given
each alternate section of land, designated
by odd numbers, for six sections in width
on each side of said road. This act was
repealed in August following.

At various times in 1856 grants of
land for similar piirposes were made to
the States of Iowa, Florida, Alabama,
Louisiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and
Mississippi. On March 3, 1856, a grant
was made to Minnesota. All of those
grants made in 1856 and 1857 were similar

to that given to Missouri in 1852. July
1, 1862, the Union Pacific Railroad Com
pany was created for the purpose of
constructing and maintaining a railroad
and telegraph line from the Missouri
River to the Pacific Ocean. They were
granted the right of way through the
public lands to the extent of 200 feet in
width on each side of the line of the road,
together with the necessary ground for
stations, buildings, etc. They were also
granted in aid of the construction of the
road every alternate section of public land
to the amount of five alternate sections a
mile on each side of the road, excepting
mineral lands and all lands already dis
posed of or reserved. Several other roads
were provided for on the same conditions,
which became known as the Central
Pacific, Central Branch of the Union Pa
cific, Kansas Pacific, and Sioux City and
Pacific. It was a grant of 10 miles of
land on each side of the road. By an act
approved July 2, 1864, instead of five,
ten sections were granted, making the
area 20 miles on each side of these
roads. The term mineral land was con
strued not to mean coal or iron. By the
same act a grant of 20 miles of land
was made to the Burlington and Missouri
River Railroad Company for the construc
tion of a road from the Missouri River to
some point not farther west than the one
hundredth meridian west longitude, to
connect with the Union Pacific road.

March 3, 1864, a grant of land was made
to the State of Kansas to assist in con
structing railroads within its borders, af
terwards known as the Atchison, Topeka,
and Santa Fe; Leavenworth, Lawrence,
and Galveston; and Missouri, Kansas, and
Texas railroads. In May, 1864, similar
grants were made to the States of Minne
sota, Wisconsin, and Iowa, and others soon
followed to Arkansas, Missouri, Alabama,
Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, and Kansas.
The North Pacific Railroad Company was
created July 1, 1864, with grants similar
to those of the Union Pacific, excepting
double the extent of land, through the Ter
ritories. July 27, 1866, grants were made
to the Atlantic and Pacific, and the South
ern Pacific, on terms similar to those of
the Union Pacific. March 3, 1869, land
grants were made to the Denver Pacific
Railway; and by act of March 3, 1871,

INTERNAL REVENUE INTERNATIONAL LAW

similar grants were made to the Southern
Pacific (branch line) and Texas and Pa
cific. Many of the grants made in the
earlier years of the system were enlarged.
The aggregate amount of land granted is
more than 215,000,000 acres, but the
amount made available is not more than
187,000,000 acres. By the aid of these
grants over 15,000 miles of railroad have
been built. Their benefits have extended
to all parts of the country, and cannot
be estimated by values. See CANALS;
PUBLIC DOMAIN; RAILROADS.

Internal Revenue. The following table
shows the total collections of internal
revenue in the United States in the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1903, by States and
Territories :

States and Territories.

Aggregate
Collections.

Alabama

$323,135.62

Arkansas

109,322 32

California and Nevada....
Colorado and Wyoming. . . .
Connecticut and Rhode Isl
and

3,069,990.31
568,713.37

1,865,550.10

Florida

719,400.39

Georgia

425,591.16

Hawaii

40,090.52

Illinois

50,562,455.25

Indiana

28,183,610.08

Iowa

835,487.90

Kansas, Indian Territory,
and Oklahoma

311,403.23

Kentucky

21,115,626.21

Louisiana and Mississippi. .
Maryland, Delaware, Dis
trict of Columbia, and two
Virginia districts

2,890,648.17
5,612,791 16

Massachusetts

3 567 075 54

Michigan

4 044 317 94

1 4?!^ ^70 R9

Missouri

8Q4S f!47 1 Q

Montana, Idaho, and Utah..
Nebraska, and North and
South Dakota

436,378.93
2,471 381 68

New Hampshire, Maine, and

591,025 13

New Jersey

5,998,058 98

New Mexico and Arizona. . .
New York

78,971.41
26,749 648 18

North Carolina

4 248 341 07

Ohio

20 979 333 1Q

Oregon, Washington, and
Alaska

812,766.75

Pennsylvania

18,890,389.88

South Carolina

616,800.33

Tennessee

1,661,300.15

Texas

667,670.22

Virginia

3,433,249.51

West Virginia

1.114,230 78

Wisconsin

7,332 052 01

Total .

$230.740.925.22

The table on opposite page gives a sum

mary of such receipts in the period 1880-
1903, both inclusive, with principal
sources.

The re-imposition of adhesive stamps in
1898 was provided for in the War Reve
nue Act of that year. The war revenue
and the receipts of the national treasury
from other sources having been much
larger than was anticipated, and having
produced a surplus largely in excess of
the actual financial needs of the country,
Congress adopted a conference report on
a bill to reduce the war revenue on Feb.
28, 1901, to go into effect on July 1
next ensuing. The revenue reduction was
expected to amount to $42,165.000 per an
num, the repeal of various stamp taxes
and a few changes in the existing law
concerning specified articles being esti
mated to make the following itemized re
ductions :

Commercial brokers, $138,000; certifi
cates of deposits, $200,000; promissory
notes, $3,500,000; bills of lading for ex
port, $100,000; telegraphic despatches,
$800,000; telephone messages, $315,000;
bonds other than indemnity, $25,000; cer
tificates not otherwise specified, $200,000;
charter party, $100,000; conveyances,
$1,750,000: insurance, $3,000,000; leases,
$200,000; mortgages, $500,000; passage
tickets, $100,000; power of attorney, $100,-
000; protests, $25,000; warehouse re
ceipts, $250,000; express receipts, $800,-
000; proprietary medicines, cosmetics, and
chewing-gum, $3,950,000; legacies, $500,-
000; cigars, $3,100,000; tobacco, $7.000,-
000; small cigars and cigarettes, $500,-
000; beer, $9,800,000; bank checks, $7,-
000,000; foreign bills of exchange, $50,-
000 ; money orders, $602,000 ; manifest for
Custom House, $60,000.

International Arbitration. See AKBT-
TICATION, INTERNATIONAL.

International Law, the name now
given to what was formerly known as the
Law of Nations. It is believed to have
originated in the Middle Ages, and to
have been first applied for the purpose
of regulating commercial transactions.
From this fact it took the name of " com
mercial law," and subsequently was ex
tended to transactions other than com
mercial of an international character. To
day the aim of international law is to
prevent war. The distinctive features of
58

INTERNAL REVENUE RECEIPTS -INTREPID

SUMMARY OF INTERNAL REVENUE RECEIPTS IN 1880-1903

Fiscal Years.

Spirits.

Tobacco.

Fermented
Liquors.

Banks and
Bankers.

Miscellaneous.

Adhesive
Stamps.

Collections
Under Repealed
Laws.

1880

$151,185,509
67,153,975
69,873,408
74,368,775
76,905,385
67,511,209
69,092,266
65,766,076
69,287,431
74,302,887
81,682,970
83,335,964
91,309,984
94,712,938
85,259,252
79,862,627
80,670,071
82,008,543
92,547,000
99,283,534
109,868,817
131.953,472

$38,870,149
42,854,991
47,391,989
42,104,250
26,062,400
26,407,088
27,907,363
30,083,710
30,636,076
31,862,195
33,949,998
32,796,271
31,000,493
31,843,556
28,617,899
29,707,908
30,711,629
30,710,297
36,230,522
52,493,208
69,355,084
43.514,810

$12,829,803
13,700,241
16,153,920
16,900,616
18,084,954
18,230,782
19,676,731
21,918,213
23,324,218
23,723,835
26,008,535
28,565,130
30,037,453
32,527,424
31,414,788
31,640,618
33,784,235
32,472,162
39,515,421
68,644,558
73,560,754
47,547,856

$3,350,985
3,762,208
5,253,458
3,748,995

* 4,288
4,203
6,179
69

135
85
1,180

1,461

899

$383,755
231,078
199,830
305,803
289,144
222,681
194,422
219,058
154,970
83,893
135,555
256,214
239,532
166,915
1,876,509
1,960,794
1,664,545
1,426,506
2,572,696
9,225,453
11,575,626
6.827,303

$7,668,394
7,924,708
7,570,109
7,053,053

794*418
43,837,819
40,964,365

$152,1 63
78,559
71,852
265,068
49,361
32,087
29,283
9,548

1881

1*82

1883

18S4

18S5

188t&gt;

187

1888

18o9

1890

185)1

1892

1S J3

1894

1895

1896

1897

1898

1899

1000

1903

Of the receipts in 1900 classed as "Miscellaneous," $2,884.492 was from legacies; $4,515,641 from special taxes
on bankers, billiard-rooms, brokers, and exhibitions ; and $1,079,405 from excise tax on gross receipts under the
\\ iir Revenue law of 1898 ; $2, 543,785 from oleomargarine ; $331,011 from playing cards ; $193,721 from penalties
and $17,064 from filled cheese.

international law may be summarized in
brief as follows: First, that every nation
possesses an exclusive sovereignty and
jurisdiction in its own territory; second,
that no State or nation can by its law di
rectly affect or bind property out of its
own territory, or persons not resident
therein, natural born subjects or others;
third, that whatever force the laws of
one country have in another depends sole
ly on the municipal laws of the latter.

There have been numerous congresses
of international law experts for the pur
pose of simplifying and making more def
inite the obligations which one country
owes to another, and in these congresses
the United States has occupied a con
spicuous place. The Association for the
Reform and Codification of the Law of
Nations held its first session in Brussels,
Oct. 10, 1873, and subsequent ones were
held in Geneva, The Hague, Bremen,
Antwerp, Frankfort, London, Berne,
Cologne, Turin, and Milan. An Institute
of International Law was organized in
Ghent in 1873, and has since held numer
ous sessions in various cities of Europe,
The most conspicuous action of the nations
concerning the abolition of international
hostilities was taken in the Peace Con
ference at The Hague, in 1899, to which
the United States was also a party. See
CODES; FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY.

International Monetary Conference.

See BIMETALLISM; EVARTS, WILLIAM
MAXWELL.

International Order of the King s
Daughters and Sons, a religious order
consisting of small circles of men, women,
and children. It is non-sectarian, and
its members may be found in nearly all
churches and in nearly every country. It
was established in New York City in 1886
by a circle of ten women. Its aim is to
help the needy and suffering, to consider
the poor, and to engage in all good works.
1 he members wear a small silver badge in
the shape of a cross, bearing the letters
I. H. N. on one side, and the date 1880
on the other. In 1900 it was estimated
that the society numbered more than
500,000 members. It ranks among the
strongest and most useful societies in the
world. The headquarters are at 156 Fifth
Avenue, New York. In 1900 the officers
were: President, Mrs. F. Bottome; vice-
president, Miss Kate Bond; general sec
retary, Mrs. Mary L. Dickinson; treas
urer, Mrs. J. C. Davis; recording secre
tary, Mrs. Robert Sturgis; and correspond
ing secretary, Mrs. Isabella Charles Davis.

Interoceanic Ship Canal. See NICA
RAGUA CANAL; PANAMA CANAL.

Intrepid, THE. The ketch Intrepid,
used in the destruction of the PHILADEL
PHIA (q. v.), had been converted into a
floating mine for the purpose of destroy
ing the piratical cruisers in the harbor

INTREPID INUNDATIONS

of Tripoli. In a room below deck 100 company engaged in the perilous enter-
barrels of gunpowder were placed, and prise. The Intrepid entered the harbor
immediately above them a large quantity at nine o clock in the evening. The night
of shot, shell, and irregular pieces of was very dark. Many eager eyes were
iron were deposited. Combustibles were turned towards the spot where her shad-
placed in other parts of the vessel. On owy form was last seen. Suddenly a
the night of Sept. 3, 1804, the Intrepid fierce and lurid light streamed up from

the dark waters like
volcanic fires and il
luminated the sur
rounding objects with
its lurid glare rocks,
flotilla, castle, town,
and the broad bosom
of the harbor. This
was followed by an
instant explosion,

and for a few mo
ments flaming masts
and sails and fiery
bomb - shells rained
upon the waters,
when suddenly all was
again dark. Anxious
ly the companions of
the intrepid men
who went into the
harbor awaited their
return. They never
came back. What
was the cause of the
premature explosion
that destroyed vessels
and men will never be
known. The belief
was that the ketch
was captured by the
Tripolitans on the
watch, and that Som-
ers, preferring death
to miserable captiv
ity, had himself ap
plied a lighted match
to the powder. A
fine monument, erect
ed to the memory of
the slain men and the
event, formerly stood

was towed into the harbor by two boats, at the western front of the national
the whole under the command of Captain Capitol, but is now in front of the Naval
Somers, attended by Lieutenant Wads- Academy at Annapolis,
worth, of the Constitution, and Mr. Israel, Inundations. For a long period of
an ardent young man who got on board time the principal inundations in the
the Intrepid by stealth. These, with a United States were caused by the over-
few men to work the torpedo-vessel, and flowing of the banks of the Mississippi
the crews of the boats, constituted the River. The record of these disasters, al-

ISTRKPID MEMKNTO AT ANNAPOLIS.

INUNDATIONS

DEVASTATION CAUSED BY FLOOD IN JOHNSTOWN, PA.

though not containing many individual caused the overflow of the rivers in west-
cases, is a distressing one because of the ern Pennsylvania and the loss of 220
vast amount of property destroyed and lives.

the large number of lives lost. The fol- 1881, June 12. Disastrous floods be-

lowing briefly summarizes the most nota- gan in Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, and Mis-

ble inundations in the United States: souri, lasting several days, and causing

1816. The White Mountain region in the destruction of much property.

New Hampshire was flooded by a deluge 1882, Feb. 22. The valleys of the Ohio

of rain after a drought of two years, and Mississippi rivers were flooded, and

Several valleys were completely under the loss of life and property was so great

water, and large tracts of forests were that the governor of Mississippi made a

torn from the ground and washed down public appeal for help,

the mountain sides. 1883, February. Portions of Pennsyl-

1849, May 12. A flood in New Orleans vania, Ohio, and Kentucky were visited by

spread over 160 squares and submerged a disastrous flood, which was most severe

1,600 buildings. at Cincinnati, lasting several days.

/N? /. May 16. The bursting of a reser- 1884, February. The Ohio River over-

voir on Mill Eiver, near Northampton, flowed its banks, causing the loss of fif-

Mass., caused the destruction of several teen lives and rendering 5,000 people

villages in the valley and the loss of 144 homeless,

lives. 1886, Jan. 5. Pennsylvania, New York,

1874, July 24- A waterspout burst in and several of the New England States

Eureka, Nev., and with the attendant were visited by floods, and great damage

heavy rains caused a loss of between twen- was done to property,

ty and thirty lives. 1886, Aug. 20. A storm in Texas was

1874, July 26. An unusual fall of rain followed by a flood, which was particular-

INUNDATIONS IOWA

ly disastrous in Galveston, where twenty-
eight lives were lost and property dam
aged to the extent of more than $5,000,-
000.

1889, May 31. The rising of the Cone-
maugh River, in Pennsylvania, under in
cessant rain, caused the breaking of the
dam about 18 miles above Johnstown. The
great mass of water rushed down to the
city in seven minutes, and at the Pennsyl
vania Railroad bridge, near the city, it
became dammed up, greatly increasing the
loss of life and collecting a large mass of
debris, which afterwards took fire and
added further to the destruction. Official
reports after the disaster placed the total
number of lives lost at 2 ; 142, and the
value of property destroyed at $9,674,105.
Nearly $3,000,000 was raised for the re
lief of the sufferers, contributions being
sent from nearly every State and large
city in the United States, and from sev
eral cities in Europe. In the distribution
of the relief, the sum of $1,500 was given
to each of 124 women made widows, and
$50 annually till they should reach the
age of sixteen was assigned to each of
965 children made orphans or half-
orphans.

1890, March and April. The levees of
the Mississippi River gave way in many
places and the waters flooded large areas
of land in Mississippi and Louisiana. The
worst crevasse was caused by the giving
way of the Morgansea, near Bayou Sara,
v/hich had been built by the federal and
State governments at a cost of about
$250,000.

1900, Sept. 6-9. A tropical hurricane
visiting the Southern coast spent its fury
at and near Galveston, Tex., on Sept. 9.
The loss of life and property here was the
largest ever reported in the history of the
United States from this cause, the loss
of life being officially estimated at about
7,000, and the value of property destroyed
about $30,000,000. The latter included
the United States military post. The re
lief contributions from various sources in
the United States and Europe amounted
to over $1,500,000.

1901, June 22. A cloudburst occurred
near the headwaters of the Elkhorn and
]")ry Fork rivers, whose confluence form
the main Tug River in the Flat Top coal
region of West Virginia. A disastrous

flood ensued, causing the loss of many lives
and the destruction of a large amount of
property. The consequent distress was
such that Governor White appealed to the
citizens of the State for relief for the
sufferers.

Investigating Committees. The first
investigating committee appointed by
Congress was in the case of the defeat of
GEN. ARTHTJK ST. CLAIK (q. v.). It was
a special committee, empowered to send
for persons and papers. Their call upon
the War Department for all papers relating
to the affair first raised the question of
the extent of the authority of the House
in such matters. The cabinet unanimous
ly agreed that the House had no power
to call on the head of any department for
any public paper except through the Presi
dent, in whose discretion it rested to fur
nish such papers as the public good might
seem to require and admit, and that all
such calls must be made by a special
resolution of the House, the power to
make them being an authority which
could not be delegated to any committee.
This decision of the cabinet estab
lished the method ever since practised
of calling upon the President for public
papers.

Iowa was originally a part of the vast
Territory of Louisiana, ceded to the United
States in 1803. The first settlement by
Europeans was made by Julian Du Buque,
who, in 1788, obtained a grant of a large
tract, including the site of the city of
Dubuque and the mineral lands around
it. There he built a fort, and manufact
ured lead and traded with Indians until
his death, in 1810. The Territory was
placed under the jurisdiction of Michigan
in 1834, and in 1836 under that of Wis
consin. It was erected into a separate
Territory June 12, 1838, and included all
the country north of Missouri between the
Mississippi and the Missouri and the
British line. This comprised a greater
part of Minnesota and the whole of the
present Dakotas, with an area of 94.000
square miles. The government was estab
lished at Iowa City, in 1839. In 18-14 a
State constitution was formed, but an ap
plication for admission into the Union
was denied. The admission was effected
Dec. 28, 1846, and in 1857 the capital was
established at Des, Moines. This State,

IOWA IREDELL

lying westward of the Mississippi River,
with a population of nearly 700,000 and a
loyal governor (Samuel J. Kirkwood),
was quick to perceive the needs of the na
tional government in its struggle with its
enemies, and was lavish in its aid. When
the President called for troops (April,
1861) the governor said, "In this emer
gency Iowa must not and does not occupy

The population in 1890 was 1,911,896;
in 1900, 2,231,853. See U. S., IOWA, vol. ix.

GOVERNORS TERRITORIAL.

Robert Lucas assumes office July, 1838

John Chambers " " 1841

James Clark " " 1845

GOVERNORS STATE.

Ansel Briggs assumes office 1840

Stephen Hempstead.
James W. Grimes...

Ralph P. Lowe

Samuel J. Kirkwood
William M. Stone...

Samuel Merrill

C. C. Carpenter

SamuelJ. Kirkwood.

Joshua G. Newbold. acting

John H. Gear assi ncs office.

Buren R. Sherman..
William Larrabee. . .
Frank D. Jackson...

Francis M. Drake

Leslie M. Shaw

Albert B. Cummins..

.Dec., 1850

. " 1854

. " 1858

.Jan., 1860

. " 1804

. " 1SOS

. " 1872

. " 1876

! " 1878

. " 1882

. " 1886

" 1894

" 1896

" 1898

" 1902

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

Name.

STATE SEAT, OF IOWA.

Augustus C. Dodge

George W. Jones

James Harlan

James W. Grimes

SamuelJ. Kirkwood.,..

James Harlan

James B. Howell

George G. Wright

William B. Allison.

a doubtful position. For the Union as Samuel J. Kirkwood..]

our fathers formed it, and for the govern- James W. McDill

.. . , ,, James F. Wilson

ment they framed so wisely and so well, j h n H. Gear.

No. of Congress.

Date.

30th to :!3d
30th " Mill
34th " 3Hth
36th " 40th

39th
40th to 43d

41st
42d to 44th

43d

45th to 40th

47th

48th to 54th
53d " 56th
50th "

1848 to
1848 " 1859
1866

18li9

1855
1859

1805
1807
1809
1871
1873
1877
18S1
1883
1895
1900

1867

1873

1871
1877

1H81
1883
1895
1900

the people of Iowa are ready to pledge Jonathan p. Doliiver....
every fighting-man in the State and every

dollar of her money and credit." That Iredell, JAMES, jurist; born in Lewes,

pledge was redeemed by sending over 75,- England, Oct. 5, 1750; emigrated to North

000 men to the front. The present con- Carolina in 1767; admitted to the bar in

stitution of Iowa was framed by a con- 1775; was elected judge of the Superior

vention at Iowa City early in 1857, and Court in 1777; appointed attorney-general

was ratified Aug. 3. The clause confining in 1779; and judge of the Supreme Court

the privilege of the elective franchise to in 1790. He died in Edenton, N. C., Oct.

white citizens was stricken out by act of 20, 1799.

the legislature, and was ratified by the Iredell, JAMES, lawyer; born in Eden-
people in 1868. ton, N. C., Nov. 2, 1788; son of James Ire-
In 1903 Iowa ranked as the second corn- dell; graduated at Princeton College in
producing State in the country, with an 1806; served in the War of 1812; aided
output of 229,218,220 bushels, valued at in the defence of Craney Island; elected
$87,102,924; the second in hay; and the governor of North Carolina in 1827, and
second in oats. The equalized valuation served out an unexpired term in the
of all taxable property was $637,937,386; United States Senate in 1828-31. His
and the State had no bonded debt. In publications include a Treatise on the Law
1900 the State had 14,819 manufacturing of Executors and Administrators; and a
establishments, with $102,733,103 capital; Digest of all the Reported Cases in the
58,553 wage-earners; paying $23,931,680 Courts of North Carolina, 1778 to 1845.
for wages, $101,170,357 for materials, He died in Edenton, N. C., April 13,
products valued at $164,617,877. 1853.

IBELAND

Ireland. The bold stand taken by the a resolution which made the country
Americans early in 1775 made the British virtually free.

ministry afraid of like movements in Ireland, which had been more oppressed
Ireland, where the Protestant minority by British rule than the American colo-
had hitherto been employed to keep the nies, had, at the beginning of the contest
majority, who were Roman Catholics, in between the latter and Great Britain,
subjection. That majority, amounting to shown peculiar subserviency to its polit-
seven-eighths of the entire population, ical master. When news of the affairs
were not only deprived of all political at Lexington and Bunker Hill reached
privileges, but were subjected to a great that country, the Irish Parliament voted
many rigorous and cruel restraints, de- that they " heard of the rebellion with
signed to keep them ignorant, poor, and abhorrence, and were ready to show to
helpless. Even the Protestants in Ireland the world their attachment to the sacred
were not allowed an equality with their person of the King." Taking advantage
fellow-subjects in England. Their Parlia- of this expressed loyalty, Lord North
ment did not possess the rights enjoyed obtained leave to send 4,000 able-bodied
by the American colonial assemblies; and men to America as a part of the British
Ireland, in matters of trade, was treated army. The strongest and best of the Irish
very much like a foreign country. The army were selected, and eight regiments
idea of political liberty aroused in the were shipped for America. This left Ire-
colonies was already sowing the seeds of land almost defenceless. Its Parliament
revolution in Ireland, and it was judged offered to organize a national militia,
expedient to conciliate the Irish by just which Lord North refused to accept, and,
legislation that should relax the harsh instead of a militia, organized and con-
commercial restrictions. This, however, trolled by the British government, self-
was done so sparingly that it fell far formed bands of volunteers sprang up
short of accomplishing permanent good, all over Ireland. North saw his blunder,
Indeed, it was regarded as a delusive, and had a militia bill enacted. But it
temporizing policy, and the attitude of was too late; the Irish Parliament pre-
the Irish people, encouraged by that of ferred the volunteers, supported by the
the Americans, even became more threat- Irish themselves. Meanwhile the eloquent,
ening than ever. The Catholic Relief Bill patriotic, and incorruptible Henry Grat-
of 1778 had made the Irish, for the first tan had become a member of the Irish Par-
time in their history, one people ; " all liament, and he was principally the agent
sects, all ranks, all races the nobleman that kindled the fire of patriotic zeal in
and the merchant, the Catholic and the Ireland that was burning so brightly in
Protestant, the Churchman and the Dis- America. In 1779, though only thirty -
senter, he who boasted of his pure native three years of age, he led the Irish Parlia-
lineage and he who was as proud of the ment in demanding reforms. He moved an
Saxon or Norman blood that flowed in amendment to the address to the King
his veins rushed together to the vindi- that the nation could be saved only by
cation of the liberties of their common free-trade, and it was adopted by unani-
country;" and, at the beginning of the mous vote. New taxes were refused. The
year, beheld them embodied to the num- ordinary supplies usually granted for two
ber of 80,000 volunteers. The British years were granted for six months,
government dared not refuse the arms Throughout the little kingdom an inex-
which they demanded to repel a threat- tinguishable sentiment of nationality was
ened invasion from France. The fiery aroused. Alarmed by the threatening at-
Grattan was then leader in the Irish titude, the British Parliament, in 1781,
Parliament. " I never will be satisfied," conceded to the dependent kingdom its
he exclaimed in debate, " so long as the claims to commercial equality,
meanest cottager in Ireland has a link The volunteer army of Ireland, com-
of the British chain clanking to his rags: manded by officers of their own choice,
he may be naked he shall not be in amounted to about 50,000 at the close of
irons." The Irish Parliament acted in the war with America (1782). They
accordance with this spirit, and adopted were united under one gencral-in-chief.

IRELAND

Feeling strong in the right and in its ma- the see of St. Paul on July 31, 1884, and
terial and moral vitality at the moment, was made archbishop on May 15, 1888.
and encouraged by the success of the From early youth he was a strong advo-
Americans, Ireland demanded reforms for cate of temperance. In 1869 he estab-
herself. The viceroy reported that unless lished the first total abstinence society in
it was determined that the knot which Minnesota. He also became active in col-
bound the two countries should be severed onizing the Northwest with Roman Catho-
forever, the points required by the Irish lies. In 18S7 he went to Rome with Bish-
Parliament must be conceded. It was a op Keaue, of Richmond, for the purpose of
critical moment. Eden, who was secre- placing before the Pope the need of a
tary for Ireland, proposed the repeal of Roman Catholic University at Washing-
the act of George I. which asserted the ton, D. C., which has since been estab-
right of the Parliament of Great Britain lished under the name of the Catholic
to make laws to bind the people and the
kingdom of Ireland the right claimed for
Parliament which drove the Americans to
war and the Rockingham ministry adopt
ed and carried the important measure.
Appeals from the courts of Ireland to the
British House of Peers were abolished;
the restraints on independent legislation
were done away with, and Ireland, still
owing allegiance to Great Britain, ob
tained the independence of its Parliament.
This was the fruit of the war for inde
pendence in America. The people of Ire
land owed the vindication of their rights
to the patriots of the United States; but
their gratitude took the direction of their
complained-of oppressor, and their legis
lature voted $500,000 for the levy of 20,000
seamen to strengthen the royal navy,
whose ships had not yet been withdrawn
from American waters, and which, with
an army, were still menacing the liberties
of the Americans.

Ireland, JOHN, clergyman; born in
Burnchurch, County Kilkenny, Ireland,
Sept. 11, 1838. When nine years old he
came to the United States and received
a primary education in the Catholic
schools of St. Paul, Minn. In 1853 he

went to France and took a preparatory University of America. In 1891 a mem-
course in the Meximieux Seminary, after orable controversy arose over the action
which he received his theological train- of a Roman Catholic priest in Faribault.
ing in the seminary of Hyeres. On Dec. Minn., in transferring the parochial school
21, 18GI, he was ordained a priest, and to the control of the public school board,
for a while served in the Civil War as The transfer and the conditions were ap-
chaplain of the 5th Minnesota Regiment, proved by Archbishop Ireland, and the
Later he was made rector of the St. Paul experiment became known as the " Fari-
Cathedral. In 1870-71 he represented bault Plan." The conditions in brief were
Bishop Grace of St. Paul in the Vatican that the city should bear all the expenses
Council in Rome. Subsequently the Pope of the school; that the text-books and
named him Bishop of Maronea and coad- general management should be the same
jutor to Bishop Grace, and he was con- as in the public schools; that the priest
secrated Dec. 21, 1875. He succeeded to should have the right of nominating
v. E 65

ARCHBISHOP JOHN IRELAND.

IRELAND, JOHN

teachers for the school of his own religious To-day a nation speaks her gratitude

denomination, who would be subject to to a nation; America proclaims her re-

the required examination; and that no membrance of priceless favors conferred

religious exercises, instruction, nor em- upon her by France. We speak to France

blems should be permitted in the school, in the name of America, under commis-

This plan was also adopted in Stillwater, sion from her chief magistrate, William

Minn. Soon, however, bishops in other McKinley, from her Senate and House

parts of the country, who disapproved of of Representatives, from her youths who

the scheme, complained at Rome that throng her schools, and from the tens

Archbishop Ireland was disregarding the of millions of her people who rejoice in the

ecclesiastical law as expressed by the rich inheritance won in years past by the

plenary councils of Baltimore. Archbishop allied armies of France and America.

Corrigan, of New York, was one of the We are bidden by America to give in the

leaders of this opposition. Archbishop hearing of the world testimony of her

Ireland was summoned to Rome, and gratitude to France.

after a long examination of the plan it Once weak and poor, in sore need of

was approved by the Congregation of sympathy and succor, to-day the peer of

the Propaganda in its decree of April the mightiest, self-sufficing, asking for

30, 1892. naught save the respect and friendship

Lafayette and America. On July 4, to which her merits may entitle her, the

1900, a statue of Lafayette, the cost of republic of the United States of America

which had been raised by the school chil- holds in loving remembrance the nation

dren of the United States, was unveiled from which in the days of her dire ne-

in Paris and formally presented to the cessity there came to her powerful and

French people. Archbishop Ireland was chivalrous support. Noble men and noble

selected to deliver the oration on the occa- nations forgive injuries; they never for-

sion, and on being informed of this Presi- get favors.

dent McKinley addressed him the follow- There is a land which is above all other

ing letter: lands the land of chivalry, of noble im
pulse and generous sacrifice, the land of

"EXECUTIVE MANSION, devotion to ideals. At the call of a high-

" WASHINGTON. June 11. , . . , , . .. .

" DEAR SIR, Within a few days I have ap- born principle her sons, with souls at-

proved a resolution of Congress which voices tuned by nature to the harmonies of the

in fitting terms the profound sympathy with t rue and the beautiful, leap instinctive-

SanceTy ^^S^^riTS^tS * "to the arena, resolved at any cost

of General Lafayette. It has given me much to render such principle a reality in the

pleasure to learn that you have been selected life-current of humanity. The pa^es of

to deliver the address on this most interest- its history are glistening with the names

ing occasion. ,, , .

" No more eminent representative of Amer- * heroes and martyrs, of knightly sol-

ican eloquence and patriotism could have been diers and saintly missionaries. It is of

chosen, and none who could better give ap- France I speak.

propriate expression to the sentiments of AA A-U c AI i 4. -m

gratitude and affection which bind our peo- At the close of the last celltur y ^ rance

pie to France. was, more than ever, ready to hearken

" I will be grateful if you will say how lo an appeal made in the name of hu-

we honor In our national capital the statue man r ; hts The M t of liberty was

of Lafayette erected by the French people, , .

and convey my hope that the presentation of hovering over the land, never again to

a similar memorial of that knightly soldier, depart from it, even if for a time baf-

whom both republics are proud to claim, may f| e d in its aspirations by the excesses of

^^^?fiSS*S?X^ !r iends ; the pp ression of ** To

ous rivalry in striving for the good of man- France America turned and spoke her

kind. Very sincerely yours, hopes and fears; her messengers plead-

* T, TV. T 1 Wl ^ LI ^ M v,u! C ? INL ^ T c, ccl ner cause in Paris; quick and generous
" Most Rev. John Ireland, Archbishop of St.

Paul, St. Paul, Minn." was the response which France gave to

the appeal.

The following is the principal part of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafay-

the oration: ette! Oh, that words of mine could ex-

IRELAND, JOHN

press the full burning love which our soul an American, as proud of America

Revolutionary sires did bear to this il- as the proudest of her patriots, the

lustrious son of old Auvergne! Oh, that champion before all contestants of her

I could pronounce his name with the rev- honor and her fair name. More cheerfully

erence with which my countrymen across even than his American companions in

the sea wish me to pronounce it before arms he bore the terrible hardships of the

the people of France! In America two war; again and again he pledged his per-

nanies are the idols of our national wor- sonal fortune to buy food and clothing for

ship, the burden of fireside tale, the in- his men, who knew him by the familiar

spiration of the poet s song, the theme appellation of " The Marquis, the soldiers

of the orator s discourse: the name of him friend." In camp and in battle his in-

who was the Father of his Country fluence was boundless; a word of cheer

George Washington; and the name of him irom his lips roused the drooping spirits

who was the true and trusty friend of of his soldiers; a word of command sent

Washington, Gilbert du Motier, Marquis them headlong against the enemy. A

visitor to the American camp, the Marquis

not de Chastellux, could not help remarking

that Lafayette was never spoken of with
out manifest tokens of attachment and
affection.

But much as Lafayette deserves and re

de Lafayette.

Strange were it if America did
cherish the name of Lafayette. He loved
America. " From the moment that I
heard the name of America," said he,
" I loved her ; from the moment I learned
of her struggles for liberty, I was inflamed ceives our love and honor in return for
with the desire of shedding my blood for his personal services in the cause of Amer-
her." He understood, above most men of ica, his chief title to the gratitude of our
his time, the full significance of America s people is that his heroic figure ever looms
contest. " Never," said he, " had so noble up before their entranced fancy as the
a purpose offered itself to the judgment of symbol of the magnanimity which France
men; it was the last struggle for liberty, as a nation displayed towards our country
and its defeat would have left freedom in her laborious struggle for life and lib-
without a home and without hopes." His erty. The value of the aid given to us
devotion to America was as unselfish as by France in our war for independence is

it was intense. " I offer myself," he
wrote, " to serve the United States with

inestimable. The joy which the memory
of it awakens in our souls is that which

all possible zeal without pension or allow- comes to us through the consciousness of

ance." our national life itself. France stood

Wealth and rank, the favors of court first sponsor for our nationhood. We
and king, high distinction in the service entered into the great family of nations
of his own country, the endearments of leaning on her arm, radiant with the re-
wife and child all that ambition could flection of her histrionic splendor, and
covet or opportunity promise, the youth strong in the protection of her titanic
of nineteen summers put resolutely aside stature. When Franklin stood in the
to cast his lot with a far-off people bat- palace of Versailles, the acknowledged en-
tling against fearful odds and that at a voy of America, and Gerard de Eayneval,
moment when their fortunes were at their as the minister of France, saluted the
lowest ebb, and hope had wellnigh aban- Congress of America at Philadelphia, the
doned their standard. When the agent of young republic thrilled with new life and
America in France sadly confessed that leaped at once into a full sense of security
he was even unable to furnish a ship to and a true consciousness of her dignity,
carry him and other volunteers, Lafayette Let historians relate as they will that
said: "I will buy a ship and take your the King and minister of France saw in
men with me."

By his magnanimity of soul, and by his in the

grace of manner, not less than by his mill- them.

the revolt of the American colonies, and
assistance that might be given
an opportunity for France to
tary prowess, he won all hearts and be- avenge the humiliation of the treaty of

came the idol of the American army. He 1763. It is not for us to demand that
proved himself to the inmost fibre of his statesmen become for our sake oblivious

IBELAND, JOHN

of the interests of their own country.
What America knows, what she will never
fail to know, is that King and ministers
of France gave us the aid through which

a well-ordered State, nor that without it
the rights of the people cannot be safe
guarded, nor that it is the best and proper
policy for every people. The form of a

we won our independence, that they gave government is a question that must rest

it to us in warmest friendliness and with
most chivalrous generosity, and that in
giving to us such aid they were applauded
by the noble-hearted people of France, who
loved America, and encouraged the alli
ance of their country with her, because

with the people of each nation, to be de
termined solely by them according to their
special needs and their dispositions of
character. It is, nevertheless, true that
the republican form of government is of
itself peculiarly expressive of the limita-

of the great principles which were linked tions and responsibilities of power, and

with the triumph or the defeat of the new
republic of the West.

The war of America was waged for a
mighty principle of deepest import to the
welfare of humanity. It rose thereby im
mensely above other wars in solemn grand
eur of meaning. The principle at stake
was that of civil and political liberty, the
triumph of which in America would be

consequently the founding of a republic
such as that of the United States was a
momentous event for liberty throughout
the entire world. In every commonwealth
the people s sense of their rights and
power was quickened, and there sprang
up in the consciences of the rulers of na
tions a new conception of their responsi
bilities towards the people. Whatever to-

the presage of its triumph in the world, day in any country the particular form of

It was this principle that shed singular
glory upon the battle-fields of America.
America rose in rebellion against arbi
trary and absolute government; she
sheathed the sword in the name of
rights of man and of the citizen.

There is but one who in His own right
has power to rule over men Almighty
God and from Him is derived whatever

government, democracy is there in some
degree; and it is there because of its
plenary triumph in America, whence went
un- forth the charmed spell that reached, were
the it but in weakened waves, the uttermost
bounds of civilized humanity.

The creation of the republic of the
United States was the inauguration of a
new era in the life of the human race

authority is exercised in human society, the era of the rights of manhood and of
That authority is not, however, directly citizenship and of the rights of the peo-

given to the one or the few; it is com
municated by him to the people to be
exercised in the form which they choose,
by those whom they designate. And the
men in whom this authority is invested
by delegations of the people are to use it
not for the benefit of the one or the few,
but for the good of the people. All this
is the plain teaching of reason and re
ligion, and yet not seldom were such sim
ple truths forgotten, not seldom in prac
tice was power held as if it belonged to
dynasties and classes, and exercised as if
" the human race lived for the few." The
rebellion of a people on so large a scale
as was the uprising of the American colo-

ple. Such is the true meaning of the
American Revolution, the full signifi
cance of the work done in America by
Lafayette and France.

This is the age of the people. Every
decade will mark an advance in the tri
umphant march of democracy. Political
movements do not go backward; the peo
ple do not abandon, except under duress,
and then only for a time, rights of which
they were once possessed, or the power
which they ha.ve once wielded to maintain
and enlarge those rights. To seek for ar
guments against democracy in its appar
ent perils is a waste of time. The part
of true statesmanship is to study the

nies could not but challenge universal at- perils such as they may be and take meas-
tention, and the triumph of such a rebel- ures to avert them. The progress of de-
lion could not but stir other peoples to a mocracy cannot be stayed. He who would

sense of their rights and to a stern resolve
to maintain them.

It will not, assuredly, be said that the

rule must rule through the people, through
the individual men who constitute the
people. To obtain results in the civil and

republican form of government is vital to political world he must go to the individ-

IRON IRON AND STEEL

ual, enlighten his mind, form his con- of the United States in 1898 and 1899
science and thus enlist his sympathies and was the output of Great Britain in 1880,
win his intelligent co-operation. He who which reached 18,026,049 long tons. The
does this will succeed; he who uses other output of the United States in 1899 aggre-
methods will fail. The task for those who gated in value $34,999,077. The chief
would rule men is made more difficult, ore-producing States were: Michigan, 9,-
The time is long gone by when men can 146,157 long tons; Minnesota, 8,161,289
bo swayed by sword or proclamation. But long tons; Alabama, 2,662,943 long tons;
manhood in men has meanwhile grown, and Pennsylvania, 1,009,327 long tons,
and they who love manhood in men should Virginia and West Virginia combined
rejoice. ranked next with 986,476 long tons. The

Why should we be asked to regret the production in the calendar year 1902 was
coming of democracy? What is it in its the largest in the history of the country,
ultimate analysis but the practical asser- 35,554,135 long tons, valued at $65,412,-
tion of the dignity of man, indelibly im
pressed upon him when he was fashioned
to the image of the Creator? What is it
but trust in the power of truth and right
eousness, and in the readiness of the hu
man soul to respond to such influences?
The growth of mind and will in the in
dividual is what all must hail who be
lieve in human progress, or in the
strength of Christian civilization. And
as mind and will grow in men, so grow in
him the consciousness of his rights and
power, and the resolve to uphold rights,
to put power into act, and to resist all
irrational or imnecessary restraint upon
either rights or power and thus is be
gotten democracy. The new age has
dawned for all humanity; but, where men
have the more quickly and the more thor
oughly understood their dignity, there its
golden rays have risen higher above the
horizon and shed more richly their light
upon human thought and action.

Iron, MARTIN, labor leader ; born in
Scotland, Oct. 7, 1832; emigrated to the
United States in 1846; and later settled
in Lexington, Mo. ; joined the Knights of
Labor and organized and led the famous
Missouri Pacific Railroad strike of 1886.
Ho died in Bunceville, Tex., Nov. 17, 1900.

Iron and Steel. The remarkable ad
vance in material prosperity of the
United States within a few years is
shown in most striking detail in the pro
duction and manufactures of iron and
steel. The calendar year 1899 was a 950; and in 1903 it was 35,019,308 long
record-breaker in the production of iron- tons.

ore throughout the world. In the United The amount of pig-iron manufactured
States the total output was 24.683.173 in the United States in 1903 was 18,009,-
long tons, an increase of 5,249,457 long 252 long tons. In the fifteen years 1889-
tcns over the aggregate of the preceding 1903 the total production of ore in the
year. The nearest approach to the total United States was 305,521,317 long tons,

Zone of
Reduction
andofCarbon

Tapping-hole

DIAGRAM OP A MODERN BLAST-FURNACE.

IRON AND STEEL

THE GRKAT ORE DOCKS AT MARQUETTE.

an average annual output of 20,368,088 of operating companies aggregated $1,455,-
long tons. In the production of 1903 the 696,000.

red hematite constituted the most promi- The steel industry also showed the
nent general class of iron-ore, yielding United States to be at the head of all
30,328,654 long tons, or 86.6 per cent, of other countries. The total output of the
the total. Brown hematite yielded 3,080,- steel-producing countries from which re-
399 long tons; magnetite, 575,422 long ports were available for 1901 was ap-
tons; and carbonate, 34,833 long tons, proximately 27,240,000 long tons, divided
Minnesota produced the largest amount among them as follows: United States,
of red hematite, Alabama the largest of 13,474,000 tons; Germany, 6,394,000;
brown hematite, New Jersey the largest Great Britain, 4,904,000; France, 1,425,-
of magnetite, and Ohio the largest of 000; Belgium, 653,000; Sweden, 269,000;
carbonate. and Spain, 121,000. The output in the

In 1890 the United States for the first United States included 8,713,302 long tons
time gained the lead among the pig-iron of Bessemer steel and 4,656,309 long tons
producing countries of the world, but lost of open-hearth steel.

it to Great Britain in 1894. The follow- In the iron and steel trade with
ing year, however, the United States foreign countries, in the twenty years
again outranked Great Britain, and has preceding 1900, the position of the
since kept ahead of that country. In United States was exactly reversed; and
1901 the five great pig-iron producers of within the last five years of that period
the world stood in the following order of the United States changed from an im-
importance: United States, 15.878,000 porting to an exporting country. In
long tons; Great Britain, 7,929,000; Ger- 1880 five times as much in value of iron
many, 7,867,000; Russia, 2,821,000; and and steel was imported into the United
France, 2,389,000. It is also a matter of States as was exported therefrom. At
record that in 1901 the United States pro- the close of this period the country ex-
duced over 33 per cent, of the total ore ported six times the value of its iron
output of the world, or 28,887,000 long and steel imports. These exports, in the
tons out of an estimated total of 87,000,- fiscal year 1899-1900, aggregated $121,-
000 long tons. It is further interesting to 858,341, thus ranking next to bread-
note that the capitalization of the groups stuffs, cotton, and provisions, the three

IRON AND STEEL

higher in value. There were in the iron other articles entering the daily require-

and steel exports twenty-one classes ments of man.

valued at from $1,000,000 to $9,000,000 If any further evidence was required
each. In the calendar year 1904 the ex- to indicate the supremacy of the United
port trade in iron and steel manufactures States in the allied iron and steel in-
aggregated $111,948,586. The marvellous dustries, the gigantic United States Steel
development of the iron and steel trade Corporation, organized in February, 1901,
above indicated contributed to make the by a pooling of the interests of more than

A MODERN BLAST- FURS AOE.

United States, in the opening of the a dozen great operating companies, known
twentieth century, the world s greatest on the "street" aa the "billion-dollar
producer of iron, steel, coal, copper, cot- steel combine," would probably be suffi-
ton, breadstuff s, provisions, and many cient to satisfy any doubt. Each of the

IRON AND STEEIJ-IBOQTJOIS CONFEDERACY

corporations in the new concern was 000,000 in bonds, and with a cash account

widely known for the large capital it of $200,000,000.

commanded and the vast amount of work Ironclad Oath. See OATHS.

it had already accomplished, and the pos- Ironsides, OLD. See CONSTITUTION.

sibilities open to consummation by a Iroquois Confederacy, THE, was

combination of these great concerns be- originally composed of five related fami-

came a matter entirely beyond the range lies or nations of Indians, in the present

of human calculation. The leading figures State of New York. These were called,

ROLLIXO SHEET-IRON.

in this consolidation of extraordinary
interests were Andrew Carnegie, the
1 ittsburg iron and steel king, and J.
Pierpont Morgan, the New York banker,
who financiered the combination. The
combination began operations with a total
capital of $1,154,000,000, divided into
$850,000,000 in capital stock, and $304,-

respectively, Mohawks, Oneidas, Onon-
dagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. Tradition
says the confederacy was founded by Hia
watha, the incarnation of wisdom, at about
the beginning of the fifteenth century.
He came from his celestial home and dwelt
with the Onondagas, where he taught the
related tribes the knowledge of good liv-

IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY

ing. Fierce warriors approached from the
north, slaying everything linman in their
path. Hiawatha advised a council. It
was held on the bank
of Onondaga Lake.
Representa tives
of each nation were
there. Under his di
rection a league was
formed, and each, can
ton was assigned its
appropriate place in
it. They gave it a
name signifying
" they form a cabin,"
and they fancifully
called the league
" The Long House."
The eastern door was
kept by the Mohawks,
and the western by
the Seneca s, and the
council-fire was with
the Onondagas, at
their metropolis, a
few miles south of
the site of the city of
Syracuse. By common
consent, a chief of
the Onondagas, called
Atatarho, was made
the first president of
the league. The Mo
hawks, on the east,
were called "the
door." The confeder
acy embraced within
its territory the pres
ent State of New
York north and west
of the Kaatzbergs and

south of the Adirondack group of moun
tains. The several nations were subdi
vided into tribes, each having a heraldic
insignia, or totem. Through the totemic
system they maintained a tribal union,
and exhibited a remarkable example of an
almost pure democracy in government.

Each canton or nation was a distinct
republic, independent of all others in re
lation to its domestic affairs, but each
was bound to the others of the league by
ties of honor and general interest. Each
had an equal voice in the general council
or congress, and possessed a sort of veto
power, which was a guarantee against

despotism. After the Europeans came, the
sachem, or civil head of a tribe, afiixed
his totem such as the rude outlines of a

ATATAKIKJ *

wolf, a bear, a tortoise, or an eagle to
every public paper he was required to
sign. It was like a monarch affixing his

* Atatarho, the first president of the
Iroquols Confederacy, Is represented by the
Indians as living, at the time he was chosen,
In grim seclusion in a swamp, where his
dishes and drinking-vessels, like those of half-
barbarian Caucasians, were made of the
skulls of his enemies slain in battle. When a
delegation went to him to offer him the
symbol of supreme power, they found him
sitting smoking his pipe, but unapproachable,
because he was entirely clothed with hissing
snakes. Here is the old story of Medusas
snaky tresses unveiled in the forests of the
new-found world.

NO. 1.

IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY

seal. Each of the original Five Nations was subjected to review by the soldiery,
was divided into three tribes, those of the who had the right to call councils when
Mohawks being designated as the Tortoise they pleased, and approve or disapprove
or Turtle, the Bear, and the Wolf. These public measures. The matrons formed
totems consisted of representations of a third and powerful party in the legis-
those animals. These were sometimes ex- lature of the league. They had a right
ceedingly rude, but were sufficient to de- to sit in the councils, and there exercise
note the tribe of the signer; as, No. 1, the veto power on the subject of a dec-
appended to the laration of war, and to propose and
signature of Little demand a cessation of hostilities. They
Hendrick, a Mo- were pre-eminently peace-makers. It was
hawk chief, repre- no reflection upon the courage of warriors
sents his totem a if, at the call of the matrons, they with-
turtle; No. 2, ap- drew from the war-path. These women
pended to the signa- wielded great influence in the councils, but
ture of Kanadagea, a chief of the Bear they modestly delegated the duties of
tribe, represents a bear lying on his speech-making to some masculine orator,
back; and No. 3 is the signature of With these Indians, woman was man s co-
Great Hendrick, of the Wolf tribe, the worker in legislation a thing unheard of
rude representation of that animal ap- among civilized people. So much did the
pearing at the end of his signature. Iroquois reverence the " inalienable rights
As each confederated union was di- of man," that they never made slaves of
vided into tribes, there were thirty or their fellow-men, not even of captives
forty sachems in the taken in war. By unity they were made
league. These had in- powerful; and to prevent degeneracy,
ferior officers under members of a tribe were not allowed to
them, and the civil intermarry with each other,
power was widely Like the Romans, they caused their
distributed. Office commonwealth to expand by annexation
was the reward of and conquest. Had they remained undis-
merit alone; mal- covered by the Europeans a century longer
:easance m it brought dismissal and pub- the Confederacy might have embraced the
lie scorn. All public services were com- whole continent, for the Five Nations had
pensated only by public esteem. The already extended their conquests from
powers and duties of the president of the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico,
the league were similar to those con- and were the terror of the other tribes
ferred and imposed upon the chief mag- east and west. For a long time the
istrate of our republic. He had au- French in Canada, who taught them the
thority to assemble a congress of rep- use of fire-arms, maintained a doubtful
resentatives; had a cabinet of six ad- struggle against them. Champlain found
visers, and in the council he was a
moderator. There was no coercive
power, excepting public opinion,
lodged anywhere. The military dom
inated the civil power in the league.
The chiefs derived their authority
from the people, and they sometimes,
like the Romans, deposed civil offi- NO. 3.
cers. The army was composed wholly

of volunteers, and conscription was im- them at war against the Canada Indians
possible. Every able-bodied man was from Lake Huron to the Gulf of St. Law-
bound to do military duty, and he, who renoe. He fought them on Lake Cham-
shirked it incurred everlasting disgrace, plain in 1609; and from that time until
The ranks were always full. The re- the middle of that century their wars
cruiting-stations were the war-dances, against the Canada Indians and their
Whatever was done in civil councils French allies were fierce and dis-

NO. 2.

IEOQUOIS CONFEDERACY

CHAMPLAIN S FIRST FIGHT WITH THE IROQUOIS.

tressing. They made friends of the
Dutch, from whom they obtained fire
arms; and they were alternately at
war and peace with the French for
about sixty years. The latter invaded the
cantons of the league, especially after the
Five Nations became allied with the Eng
lish, who, as masters of New York, used
their dusky neighbors to carry out their
designs. The Iroquois, meanwhile, car
ried their conquests almost to Nova Sco
tia on the east, and far towards the
Mississippi on the west, and subdued the
Susquehannas in Pennsylvania. In 1649
they subdued and dispersed the Wyandottes
in the Huron country. Some of the fugi
tives took refuge among the Chippewas;
others fled to Quebec, and a few were in
corporated in the Iroquois Confederacy.
The Wyandottes were not positively sub
dued, and claimed and exercised sover
eignty over the Ohio country down to the
close of the eighteenth century. Then the
Five Nations made successful wars on
their eastern and western neighbors, and
in 1655 they penetrated to the land of the
Catawbas and Cherokees. They conquered
the Miamis and Ottawas in 1657, and in
1701 made incursions as far as the Roan-

oke and Cape Fear rivers, to the land of
their kindred, the Tuscaroras. So deter
mined were they to subdue the Southern
tribes that when, in 1744, they ceded a
part of their lands to Virginia, they re
served a perpetual privilege of a war-path
through the territory.

A French invasion in 1693, and again in
1696, was disastrous to the league, which
lost one-half of its warriors. Then they
swept victoriously southward early in the
eighteenth century, and took in their kin
dred, the Tuscaroras, in North Carolina,
when the Confederacy became known as
the Six Nations. In 1713 the French gave
up all claim to the Iroquois, and after
that the Confederacy was generally neu
tral in the wars between France and Eng
land that extended to the American colo
nies. Under the influence of William
Johnson, the English Indian agent, they
went against the French in 1755, and some
of them joined Pontiac in his conspiracy
in 1763. When the Revolution broke out,
in 1775, the Iroquois, influenced by the
Johnson family, adhered to the crown,
excepting the Oneidas. Led by Brant and
savage Tories, they desolated the Mohawk,
Cherry, and Wyoming valleys. The coun-

IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY IRRIGATION

try of the Western Iroquois, in turn, was
desolated by General Sullivan in 1779, and
Brant retaliated fearfully on the frontier
settlements. At the close of the war the
hostile Iroquois, dreading the vengeance
of the exasperated Americans, took refuge
in Canada, excepting the Oneidas and Tus-
caroras.

By treaties, all the .ands of the Six
Nations in New York passed into the pos
session of the white people, excepting some
reservations on which their descendants
still reside. In the plenitude of their

ished them in human form as fiercely as
Henry VIII., or the rulers and the Gospel
ministers at Salem in later times. Their
" medicine men " and v prophets " were
as expert deceivers as the priests, oracles,
and jugglers of civilized men. They tor
tured their enemies in retaliation for kin
dred slain with almost as refined cruelty
as did the ministers of the Holy Inquisi
tion the enemies of their opinions; and
they lighted fires around their more emi
nent prisoners of war, in token of their
power, as bright and hot as those kindled

ATTACK ON AN IROQUOIS FORT (From an old print).

power the Confederacy numbered about by enlightened Englishmen around Joan

15,000; they now number about 13,000, of Arc as a sorceress, or Bishops Latimer

distributed at various points in Canada and Ridley as believers in what they

and the United States. In 1899 there thought to be an absurdity,

were 2,767 Senecas, 549 Onondagas, 161 Irrigation, artificial watering of land

Cayugas, 270 Oneidas, and 388 Tuscaroras in arid regions for the purpose of utiliza-

in New York State; 1,945 Oneidas in Wis- tion. This subject has claimed much at-

consin; and 323 Senecas in Indian Terri- tention in the United States since 1890

tory. Like the other Indians of the con- on the part of the general and State gov-

tinent, the Iroquois were superstitious and ernments, of large corporations, and of

cruel. They believed in witches as firmly private individuals. Associations de-

as did Cotton Mather and his Puritan signed to promote investigations into the

brethren in New England, and they pun- water and forest resources of the country

IRRIGATION

have been formed in various localities.
These bodies have raised large sums of
money with which they have co-operated
with various bureaus, chiefly the Geologi
cal Survey. The surprise is that there
has not been much greater interest mani-

A CALIFORNIA ORANGE GROVE, SHOWING RESULTS OF IRRIGATION.

fested in this subject, since one-third of and extending westward to the foot of the
the United States territory is officially Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Gas-
included in what is known as the great cade Mountains in Oregon and Washing-
" arid region," which needs only the ton. It comprises an immense territory,
magic touch of
water to change it
into fertile fields.

This vast area
falls topographical
ly into the follow
ing divisions:

1. The Great
Plains, stretching
from the 100th
meridian west to
the Rocky Moun
tains, a distance of
250 miles, and hav
ing an extent of
about 700 miles
from Manitoba on
the north to Texas
on the south.

2. A region be
ginning at the east
ern foothills of the

Rocky Mountains IRRIGATION BY PIPE SYSTEM.

IRRIGATION

In 1900 these
divisions taken as
a whole contained
a population of
9, 000,000 people,
and over 50,000,-
000 acres of land
under some form
of cultivation.
About 9,000,000
acres of this land
have been made
available through
irrigation, by
means of artesian
wells in a few
cases, but for the
most part by the
construction of
canals and ditches.
At a number of
irrigation con-

which includes the park system of the gresses held in the West the national
Eockies, culminating in Wyoming, Colo- government was strongly urged to under-
rado, New Mexico, and northeast Arizona, take an active part in the reclamation of
The section contains many mountain sys- the large arid areas susceptible of a high
tems, the Great Basin of Salt Lake, the state of agricultural development under
great canon system and plateau of the such liberal conditions as the national

IRRIGATION BY ARTESIAN-WELL SYSTEM.

Range,

Colorado, the meadow-lands of
Nevada, the northwest Columbia
Basin, and the National Park.

3. A region including about one-
fourth of the territory of Cali
fornia, and divided into two parts
the foothills of the Sierras and
the broad, level valley lying be
tween the Sierras and the Coast

SWEETWATER DAM, SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, USED IN IRRIGATION.

IRVINE IRVING

government alone could afford. The cen
sus of 1900, among general irrigation sta
tistics of the United States, reported the
following: Number of irrigators, 108,218;
acres irrigated, 7,539,545; area in crops,
5,944,412 acres, and in pasture and un-
matured crops, 1,595,133 acres; value of
irrigated crops, $86,860,491; and cost of
irrigation systems, $67,770,942. In 1902
a bill was approved by the President,
June 17, providing for the appropria
tion, as a special fund to be used in
the construction of irrigation works, of
all moneys received from the sale of public
lands in Arizona, California, Colorado,
Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Ne
vada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Okla
homa, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah,
Washington, and Wyoming, beginning
with the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901.
Under this law the fund amounted in
1901 to $3,144,821, and in 1902 to $4,585,-
516. This total, $7,730,337, was appor
tioned among the States and Territories
in 1903 as follows: Arizona, $81,773;
California, $503,270; Colorado, $628,995;
Idaho, $507,448; Kansas, $49,135; Mon
tana, $772,377; Nebraska, $235,194; Ne
vada, $23,414; New Mexico, $147,237;
North Dakota, $1,227,496; Oklahoma,
$1,008,795; Oregon, $910,061; South Da
kota, $307,562; Utah, $146,824; Washing
ton, $794,088; Wyoming, $385,762. On
June 30, 1904, the auditor of the Depart
ment of the Interior reported that the ac
cumulations of the reclamation fund then
amounted to approximately $25,000,000.

Irvine, JAMES, military officer; born in
Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. 4, 1735; took part
in Colonel Bouquet s expedition as cap
tain in a Pennsylvania regiment. During
the Revolutionary War he was captain
and later lieutenant-colonel of the 1st
Pennsylvania; and was commissioned
colonel of the 9th Pennsylvania Regiment,
Oct. 25, 1776. He was taken prisoner
during the action at Chestnut Hill, Dec.
5. 1777, carried to New York, and remain
ed there till he was exchanged in 1781.
After the close of the war he was a mem
ber of the General Assembly of Pennsyl
vania in 1785-86, and of the State Senate
in 1795-99. He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
April -28, 1819.

Irvine, WILLIAM, military officer; born
in Fermanagh, Ireland, Nov. 3, 1741;

was surgeon of a ship-of-war; came to
the United States after the peace of
1763, and practised medicine at Carlisle,
Pa. He was an active patriot, and raised
and commanded the 6th Pennsylvania
Regiment in 1776; was captured in the
battle at Three Rivers, Canada; ex
changed in May, 1778; served under
Wayne, and in 1781 was stationed at Fort
Pitt, charged with the defence of the
Northwestern frontier. He was a mem
ber of Congress in 1786-88, and took a
civil and military part in the task of
quelling the Whiskey Insurrection. He was
again a member of Congress in 1793-95.
He died in Philadelphia, July 29, 1804.

Irving, SIR HENRY, actor; born in
Keinton, near Glastonbury, England, Feb.
6, 1838. His real name was John Henry
Brodribb, but he preferred the name of
" Irving," and in 1887 was permitted by
royal license to continue the use of it.
He was educated in a private school in
London, and began his dramatic career
in 1856, when he took the minor part of
Orleans in Richelieu. In 1866 he estab
lished his reputation as an actor of merit
at the St. James Theatre, in London, as
Doricourt in The Belle s Stratagem. In
1870 he appeared as Digby Grant in the
Two Roses, which was played for 300
nights; and in 1871, after playing the
part of Mathias in The Bells at the
Lyceum Theatre, he came to be regarded
as the greatest actor in England. He as
sumed the management of the Lyceum
Theatre in 1878, and raised that house to
an international reputation. In May,
1881, he opened a memorable engagement
with Edwin Booth, producing Othello, in
which the two actors alternated the parts
of Othello and lago. He has made sev
eral successful tours of the United States
in company with Ellen Terry, on one of
which (1884) he delivered an address on
The Art of Acting before the students of
Harvard University. In a lecture on
Amusements, before the Church of Eng
land Temperance Society, he made a
strong defence of the morality of the
stage. He published Impressions of
America (1884). In 1895 he received the
honor of knighthood.

Irving, WASHINGTON, author; born in
New York City, April 3, 1783. His father
was a Scotchman, his mother an English-
79

IRVING, WASHINGTON

1808, his Knickerbocker s History of New
York. After editing a magazine during
the War of 1812-15, he went to Europe,
where he resided seventeen years; when,
after the failure of a mercantile house
in New York with which he was connected,
he was left to rely on his literary labors
for support. He spent his time partly
in England, France, Germany, and Spain,
and published his Life of Columbus in
1828, which was followed by the Con
quest of Granada and the Alhambra.
From 1829 to 1831 he was secretary of
the American legation in London, and re
ceived from George IV. the fifty-guinea
gold medal awarded for eminence in his
torical composition. He returned to New
York in 1832, and prepared and published
several works; and from 1839 to 1841

woman. He engaged in literature while contributed to the Knickerbocker Maga-
yet a youth, and was in Europe for his sine. From 1842 to 1846 he was minister
health in 1804-06. In 1807 he published, to Spain, and on his return to New York

WASHINGTON IRVING.

THE OLD CHURCH AT SLEKFY 1JOLUJW.

in connection with his brother Peter and he published a revised edition of all his
James K. Paulding, Salmagundi, and in works in 15 volumes, which had a

IRVING ISABELLA

very large sale. His last work was a
Life of Washington, in 5 volumes, com
pleted a few months before his death.
Mr. Irving never married. The honorary
degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him
by Harvard College, Oxford University,
in England, and Columbia College, in New
York. His remains rest near the sum
mit of a gentle slope in the cemetery at
tached to the ancient Dutch church at
the entrance to " Sleepy Hollow," near

built in 1669, and is the oldest church
edifice in the State of New York. Over
the Sleepy Hollow brook, near it, is the
bridge where Brom Bones, the supposed
" headless horseman," hurled the pump
kin at the frightened Ichabod, and drove
him from the neighborhood and Ka-
trina van Tassell forever. Mr. Irving
died in Irvington, N. Y., Nov. 28,
1859.
Irwin, JARED, legislator; born in

SUN.N YSIDE, HOME OF WASHINGTON IRVING.

Mecklenburg county, N. C., in 1750; re
moved to Georgia, and served throughout
the Revolutionary War ; was a member of
the State constitutional conventions of
1789, 1795, and 1798; and was elected
governor of the State in 1796 and 1806.

Tarrytown, N. Y. They lie by the side He died in Union, Ga., March 1, 1818.
of those of his mother. In a row lie the Isabella, Queen of Castile and Leon;
remains of his father, mother, brothers, born in Madrigal, Old Castile, April 23,
and sisters. The old church, which he 1451 ; lived in retirement with her mother,
made famous by the story of Ichabod a daughter of John II., of Portugal, until
Crane (a leader in the psalm-singing there her twelfth year. At the age of eleven
on Sundays) in his Legend of Sleepy Hoi- years she was betrothed to Carlos, brother
low, remains the same as when it was of Ferdinand (whom she afterwards mar-
V. F 8 1

ISABELLA

ried), then forty-six years old. His death
prevented the union. Other candidates
for her hand were proposed, but, being a

ISABKLLA OF CASTILE.

young woman of spirit, she rejected them.
Pier half-brother Henry, on the throne,
contracted a marriage for her, for state
purposes, with the profligate Don Pedro
Giron, grand-master of the Order of Cala-
trava. " I will plunge a dagger in Don
Pedro s heart," said the maiden, " before I
will submit to the dishonor." The grand
master died as suddenly as Carlos, while
on his way to the nuptials, probably from
the effects of poison. Henry now made
an arrangement by which Isabella was
recognized as heir to Castile and Leon,
with the right to choose her own husband,
subject to the King s approval. She chose
Ferdinand, Prince of Aragon, who signed
the marriage contract at Cervera, Jan. 7,
1469, guaranteeing to his betrothed all
the essential rights of sovereignty in Cas
tile and Leon. King Henry, offended be
cause his sister would not marry the
King of Portugal, sent a force to seize
her person. She escaped to Valladolid,
whither Ferdinand hastened in disguise,
and they were married, Oct. 19, 1469,
in the cathedral there. Civil war ensued.
The King died late in 1474, and Isabella
was declared Queen of Castile and Leon;
but her authority was not fully recog
nized until after a war with the King

of Portugal, who was affianced to Juana,
the rival of Isabella for the throne. After
that her career was brilliant. She ap
peared in arms at the head of her troops
in her wars with the JMoo.rs.

From a conviction that it was for the
safety of the Roman Catholic religion,
she reluctantly, it is said, gave her con
sent to the establishment of the Inquisi
tion ; and for this act, and her fiery zeal
for the Church, amounting at times to
fanatical cruelty, she is known in history
as Isabella, " the Catholic." Ferdinand
was now King of Aragon, and their king
doms were united and formed a strong
empire, and the consolidated Christian
power of the Spanish peninsula was ef
fected. The two monarchs were one in
love, respect, and interest. They ruled as
separate sovereigns, each having an inde
pendent council, and sometimes holding
their courts at points distant from each
other at the same time; but they were a
unit in the general administration of the
consolidated kingdoms, all acts of sover
eignty being executed in the name of
both, all documents signed by both, and
their profiles stamped together on the na
tional coins, while the royal seal dis
played the united arms of Castile and

VALLADOLID CATHEDRAL.

Aragon. The religious zeal of Isabella
was inflamed when Columbus, in his ap
plication for aid, declared that one great

ISABELLA ISLAND NUMBER TEN

DEATH BED OF QUEEN ISABELLA.

object of his ambition was to carry the
Gospel to the heathen of undiscovered
lands. But public affairs at first so en
grossed the attention of the monarchs
that the suit of the navigator did not pre
vail for a long time. Finally he was sum
moned before the monarchs, and pleaded
his cause in person. The Queen s zeal was
so increased that she resolved to give him
aid. " Our treasury," said Ferdinand,
has been too much drained by the war
to warrant us in the undertaking." The
Queen said, " I will undertake the enter
prise for my own crown of Castile; and,
if necessary, will pledge my jewels for the
money." Then she fitted out the expedi
tion that sailed from Palos in the autumn
of 1492. Afterwards she opposed the en
slaving of the natives of the western con
tinent; and when Columbus sent a cargo
of captives to Spain, she ordered them to
be carried back to their own country.
With Cardinal Ximenes she effected a
radical reform in the Church, as she had
in the State; and criminals, high or low,
the clergy and common offenders, felt the

sword of justice fall with equal severity.
Masculine in intellect, feminine in her
moral qualities, pious and loving, Isa
bella s virtues as virtues were estimated
then and there made a favorite theme
for the praise of Spanish writers. In
person she was beautiful well formed,
with clear complexion, light blue eyes,
and auburn hair. She had one son and
four daughters. Her youngest daughter,
Catharine, became the wife of Henry VIII.,
of England. See COLUMBUS, CHRISTO
PHER.

Island Number Ten. This island lies
in a sharp bend of the Mississippi River,
about 40 miles below Columbus, and with
in the limits of Kentucky. At the begin
ning of the Civil War it was considered
the key to the navigation of the lower
Mississippi. To this island some of the
troops and munitions of war were trans
ferred when General Polk evacuated
Columbus, and all the troops there were
in charge of Beauregard. On March 8,
1862, he sent forth a proclamation in
which he called for bells with which to

ISLAND NUMBER TEN

make cannon, and there was a liberal re
sponse. " In some cities," wrote a Con
federate soldier, " every church gave up
its bells. Court-houses, public institu
tions, and plantations sent them. And
the people furnished large quantities of
old brass andirons, candlesticks, gas-
fixtures, and even door-knobs." These
were all sent to New Orleans to be used
in cannon foundries. There they were
found by General Butler, sent to Boston,
and sold at auction. Beauregard had
thoroughly fortified the island, and, after
the. capture of New Madrid, it became
an object of great interest to both par
ties, for it was besieged by the Nationals.
For this purpose Commodore Foote left
Cairo, March 14, 1862, with a powerful
fleet of gun and mortar-boats. There
were seven of the former iron-clad and
one not armored, and ten of the latter.
On the night of the 15th Foote was at
Island Number Ten, and the next morn
ing (Sunday) he began the siege with a
bombardment by the rifled cannon of his
flag-ship, the Boston. This was followed
by the mortar-boats, moored at proper
points along the river shore, from which
tons of iron were hurled upon the island
and the batteries on the Kentucky bank
opposite. All day long the artillery duel
was kept up without much injury to
either party. Meanwhile a battery of
Illlinois artillery had been landed on the
Missouri shore, in a position to assail
the Confederate flotilla near the island.
The next day a tremendous attack on the
Confederate works was made by a float
ing battery of ten guns, formed of three

gunboats lashed together, side by side,
followed by three others separately. The
day s work was barren of any decisive re
sult. The island shores were lined with

A MORTAR- BO AT.

batteries. So the siege went on, with
varying fortunes, until the first week in
April, when Beauregard telegraphed to
Richmond that the " Federal guns " had
" thrown 3,000 shells and burned 50 tons
of gunpowder " without damaging his
batteries or killing one of his men.

The public began to be impatient; but
victory was near. General Pope was
chafing with impatience at New Madrid.
He wished to cross the river to the
peninsula and attack the island in the
rear, a movement that would insure its
capture. The opposite shore was lined
with Confederate batteries, and it would
be madness to attempt a crossing until
these were silenced. Gen. Schuyler Ham-

- "

ISLAND NUMBER TEN.

ISLAND NUMBER TEN

Army of Genl.Pope

Tt.Pleamrit

MAP OP ISLAND NUMBER TEN.

ilton proposed the construction of a dangerous voyage. Perceiving the peril-
canal across the neck of a swampy penin- ous fate that awaited them after the
sula of sufficient capacity to allow the completion of the canal, the Confederates
passage of gunboats and transports, so as sank steamboats in the channel of the
to effectually flank Island Number Ten and river to prevent the gunboats descend-
insure its capture. It was undertaken ing it, and they unsuccessfully attempted
under the supervision of Colonel Bissell, to escape from the island. After the
and was successfully performed. In the Carondelet had passed the batteries,
mean time daring feats against the shore Beauregard was satisfied that the siege
batteries had been performed; and dur- must speedily end in disaster to his com
ing a terrible thunder-storm on the night mand; so, after turning over the com-
of April 3, Captain Walke ran by the mand on the island to General McCall,
Confederate batteries with the gunboat and leaving the troops on the Kentucky
Carondelet, assailed by all of them, her and Tennessee shores in charge of Gen-
position being revealed by the flashes of eral McCown, he, with a considerable
lightning. It was the first vessel that number of his best soldiers, departed for
ran by Confederate batteries on the Mis- Corinth to check a formidable movement
sissippi River. She had not fired a gun of National troops through middle Ten-
during her passage, but the discharge of nessee towards Northern Alabama,
three assured anxious Commodore Foote The vigorous operations of Pope after
of the safety of the Carondelet after the he passed through the wonderful canal

ISLAND NUMBER TEN

hastened the crisis. McCall and his
troops, in their efforts to escape from
the island, were intercepted by Pope s
forces under Generals Stanley, Hamilton,
and Paine; and on April 8, 1862, Island

THE CAROXDELET.

Number Ten, with the troops, batteries,
and supports on the main, was surren
dered. Over 7,000 men became prisoners
of war; and the spoils of victory were 123
cannon and mortars, 7,000 small-arms,
many hundred horses and mules, four
steamboats afloat, and a very large
amount of ammunition. The fall of Isl
and Number Ten. was a calamity to the

Confederates which they never retrieved.
It caused widespread alarm in the Mis
sissippi Valley, for it appeared probable
that Memphis, one of the strongholds of
the Confederates, where they had immense
work-shops and armories,
would soon share the fate
of Columbus, and that Na
tional gunboats would
speedily patrol the great
river from Cairo to New
Orleans. Martial law was
proclaimed at Memphis,
and only by the wisdom
and firmness of the mayor
were the troops and panic-
stricken citizens prevented
from laying the town in
ashes. Preparations for
flight were made at Yicks-
burg, and intense alarm
prevailed at New Orleans
among the disloyal population. It seem
ed as if the plan devised by Fremont,
and now partially executed, was about to
be successfully carried out. Curtis had
already broken the military power of the
Confederates west of the Mississippi, and
a heavy National force, pressing on tow
ards Alabama and Mississippi, had just
achieved a triumph on the banks of the

BOMBARDMENT OF ISLAND NUMBER TEN,

ISLES IUKA SPRINGS

Tennessee, a score of miles from Corinth.
See FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES.

Isles, ANDRE DES, military officer; born
in Dieppe, France, in 1530; sent to Amer
ica in 1560 by Coligni for the purpose of
erecting a society for the settlement of
French Huguenots. He landed on the
Florida coast near Cape San Juan, and
erected a wooden fort, which he left in
charge of twenty men. Coligni sent 600
Huguenots and three ships, under com
mand of Captain Ribaut, with Des Isles
as lieutenant. In 1563 Des Isles returned
with 300 additional emigrants, but owing
to eternal strife between the leaders,
Ribaut and Des Isles, on the one hand,
and Laudonniere, on the other, the colony
was greatly reduced, and in this condition
was attacked by the Spaniard Menendez,
who massacred all the French.

Italy. The relations of the United
States with Italy, as with other Conti
nental countries, have usually been har
monious. In 1891, however, an incident
occurred which temporarily strained the
mutual good feelings. Several murders
had been committed in New Orleans, which
had been attributed by many to the influ
ence of a secret Italian society the Mafia.
A mimber of Italians had been arrested,
but the normal procedure seemed to nu
merous inhabitants of New Orleans en
tirely inadequate. On March 14, 1891,
eleven Italian prisoners were lynched in
the city prison by an assemblage largely
composed, so it was stated, of the " lead
ing citizens " of New Orleans. This event
created intense excitement. The Italians
in this country and Italy were greatly
aroused. The comments of Americans
varied from downright condemnation of
the proceedings to partial praise. The
Italian government recalled its minister,
Baron Fava. Eventually, April 12, 1892,
the United States government appropri
ated $25,000 for the families of the vic
tims, and diplomatic relations were re
sumed.

Itata, Chilean cruiser. She put in at
San Diego, Cal., April 25, 1891, for arms
and ammunition, and was seized by the
United States government for violation of
neutrality laws. She escaped, and was
pursued by the United States ship
Clnirlcston. On -June 4, 1891, the Itata
sin-rendered to the Charleston at Iquique.

Iturbide, AUGUSTIN DE, Emperor of
Mexico; born in Valladolid, Mexico, Sept.
27, 1783. Leading in a scheme for over
throwing the Spanish power in Mexico in
1821, he took possession of the capital
with troops in September in the name of
the nation, and established a regency.
He was declared Emperor, May 18, 1822,
but rivals and public distrust caused him
to abdicate, and he went to Europe in
1823. An insurrection in his favor in
Mexico induced him to return in 1824,
when he was seized and shot, in Padilla,
July 19, 1824. After his execution Mexico
granted his family a pension of $8,000
per year. ANGEL, the eldest son of
the Emperor, married Miss Alice Green,
of Georgetown, D. C., and their son
AUGUSTIN was adopted by the Emperor
Maximilian as his heir. In April, 1890,
Augustin Iturbide, who had entered the
Mexican army, published an attack on
the Mexican government, for which he
was court-martialled.

luka Springs, BATTLE NEAR. After
the evacuation of CORINTH (q. v.), Gen
eral Rosecrans was placed in command
of the forces under Pope, who had gone
to Virginia, to occupy northern Missis
sippi and Alabama, in the vicinity of Co
rinth, and eastward to Tuscumbia. His
forces were known as the Army of the
Mississippi, with headquarters at Corinth.
There were no more stirring events in
the region of General Grant s command
(under whom was Rosecrans) than
guerilla operations, from June until Sep
tember. At the beginning of September
the Confederates under Price and Van
Dorn moved towards the Tennessee River,
and, when Bragg moved into Tennessee,
Price attempted to cut off communica
tions between Grant and Buell. General
Armstrong (Confederate), with over
5,000 cavalry, struck the Nationals, Aug.
30, 1862, at Bolivar, with the intention
of severing the railway there. He was
repulsed by less than 1,000 men, under
Colonel Leggett. He was repulsed at
Jackson the next day, and again, on Sept.
1, at Britten s Lane, after a battle of four
hours with Indiana troops, under Colonel
Dennis. At the latter place Armstrong
left 179 men, dead and wounded, on the
field. Informed of this raid, at Tuscum
bia, Rosecrans hastened to luka, a little

ITTKA SPRINGS, BATTLE NEAR

village celebrated for its fine mineral
springs, about 15 miles east of Corinth,
where a large amount of stores had been
gathered. There, with Stanley s division,
he encamped at Clear Creek, 7 miles east
of Corinth, and, at the same time, Price
moved northward from Tupelo with about

listening for the sound of Ord s guns, and
skirmishing briskly by the way, had
reached a point within 2 miles of luka, on
densely wooded heights. There he formed
a line of battle. He sent forward his skir
mishers, who were driven back, and a
severe battle immediately followed. The

ICKA SPRINGS, 1862.

12,000 Confederate troops. Price struck
luka, Sept. 10, and captured the National
property there.

Grant at once put two columns in mo
tion to crush Price one, under Rosecrans,
to attack his flank and rear, and another,
under General Ord, to confront him. These
movements began on the morning of Sept.
18. Ord, with 5,000 men, advanced to
Burnsville, followed by General Ross with
more, while Rosecrans moved with the
separated divisions of Stanley and C. S.
Hamilton, about 9,000 strong, during a
drenching rain, to San Jacinto, 20 miles
southward of luka. On the next morning,
Sept. 19, they pushed on towards luka,
Mizner s cavalry driving a Confederate
guard. Early in the afternoon Hamilton,

llth Ohio Battery was, after a severe
struggle, placed in position on the crest of
the hill. With this battery, a few regi
ments of Iowa, Missouri, Minnesota, and
Indiana troops fought more than three
times their number of Confederates, led
by Price in person. Finally, when Colonel
Eddy, of an Indiana regiment, was mor
tally wounded, the remainder of his regi
ment was hurled back in disorder, leaving
the almost disabled battery to be seized
by the Confederates. For the possession
of these guns desperate charges and coun
tercharges were made, until at length the
Confederate soldiers dragged the guns off
the field. All of the horses and seventy-two
of the artillerymen had been killed. The
battle raged warmly elsewhere, when the

GRAVES OF THE llTH OHIO BATTEKY-MEN.

IVES IZARD

Confederates were driven to the shelter of Izard, GEORGE, military officer ; born in
the hollows near the village. Darkness end- South Carolina in 1777; son of

ed the battle of luka. The National loss was Izard. Having finished his education and

nearly 800, killed, wound
ed, and missing ; that of the

Confederates was nearly

1,400. Ord, meanwhile,

whom Grant had sent to

assist Rosecrans, had been

watching the movements

of Confederates who were

making feints on Corinth.

Expecting to renew the

battle at luka in the

morning, Stanley pressed

forward for the purpose,

but found that Price had

fled southward under cov
er of the darkness, leaving

behind the captured guns

of the llth Ohio Battery.

Price was pursued all day,

but escaped.
Ives, HALSEY COOLEY, artist; born in made a tour in Europe, he entered

Montour Falls, N. Y., Oct. 27, 1846; United States army, in 1794, as lieuten-

studied art; was chief of the art depart- ant of artillery. He was appointed aide

ment of the World s Columbian Exposi- to General Hamilton in 1709; resigned in

tion; and Professor of Drawing and De- 1803; commissioned colonel of artillery in

the spring of 1812; and promoted
to brigadier - general in March,
1813. He was in command on
Lake Champlain and on the Niag
ara frontier, in 1814, with the
rank of major-general. From 1825
until his death he was governor
of Arkansas Territory. Early in
September, 1814, he moved tow
ards Sackett s Harbor, under the
direction of the Secretary of War.
with about 4,000 troops, where he
received a despatch from General
Brown at Fort Erie, Sept. 10,
urging him to move on to his sup
port, as he had not more than
2,000 effective men. The first
division of Izard s troops arrived
at Lewiston on Oct. 5. He moved
up to Black Rock, crossed the Ni

agara River, Oct. 10-11, and en
camped 2 miles north of Fort
Erie. Ranking General Brown, he
took the chief command of the
combined forces, then numbering,
si"-n, and Director of the Museum and with volunteers and militia, about 8,000
School of Fine Arts in Washington Uni- men. He prepared to march against
versity Drummond, who, after the sortie at Fort

GEORGE IZARD.

IZABD

Erie, had moved down to Queenston. Izard
moved towards Chippcwa, and vainly en
deavored to draw Drummond out. He had
some skirmishing in an attempt to destroy
a quantity of grain belonging to the Brit
ish, in which he lost twelve men killed and
fifty-four wounded; the British lost many
more. Drummond fell back to Fort
George and Burlington Heights. Perceiv
ing further operations in that region to
be useless, and perhaps perilous, Izard
crossed the river and abandoned Canada.
Knowing Fort Erie to be of little service,
he caused it to be mined and blown up,
Nov. 5. He died in Little Rock, Ark.,
Nov. 22, 1828.

Izard, RALPH, statesman; born near
Charleston, S. C., in 1742; was educated
at Cambridge, England, and in 1767 mar

ried a daughter of Peter De Lancey,of New
York. They spent some time in Europe,
and Mr. Izard was appointed by Congress
commissioner to the Court of the Grand
Duke of Tuscany, and resided in Paris,
where he took sides with Arthur Lee
against Silas Deane and Franklin (see
DEANE, SILAS). He returned home in
1780; procured for General Greene the
command of the Southern army, and
pledged his large estates for the purchase
of ships-of-war in Europe. He was in
Congress in 1781-83, and in the United
States Senate in 1789-95. Two years
afterwards he was prostrated by paral
ysis. His intellect was spared, and he
lived in comparative comfort about eight
years, without pain, when a second shock
ended his life, May 30, 1804..

Jackson, city and capital of the State
of Mississippi: on the Pearl River and
several important railroads; is a large
cotton-shipping centre and has extensive
manufactories; population in 1890, 5,920;
in 1900, 7,816.

In 1863, while the troops of General

opposition, and began tearing up the rail-
way between that town and the capital.
Sherman was also marching on Jackson,
while McClernand was at a point near
Raymond. The night was tempestuous.
In the morning, Sherman and McPherson
pushed forward, and 5 miles from Jack-

SENATE CHAMKKK AT JACKSo.N,

Grant were skirmishing at Raymond, he son they encountered and drove in the

learned that Gen. Joseph E. Johnston was Confederate pickets. Two and a half

hourly expected at Jackson. To make miles from the city they were confronted

sure of that place, and to leave no enemy by a heavy Confederate force, chiefly

in his rear, Grant pushed on towards Georgia and South Carolina troops, under

Jackson. McPherson entered Clinton ear- General Walker. General Crocker s di-

ly in the afternoon of May 13, without vision led the van of the Nationals, and

JACKSON

a battle began at eleven o clock, while a back. Grant sent Sherman reinforce-

shower of rain was falling. The Confed- ments, giving that leader an army 50,000

erate infantry were in a hollow, with strong. With these he crossed the Big

their artillery on the crest of a hill be- Black River, during a great drought. In

yond them. Crocker pressed the Confed- dust and great heat the thirsty men

erates out of the hollow and up the slopes and animals went on to Jackson, John-

to their artillery. Still onward the Na- ston retiring before them and taking

GOVERNOR S MANSION AT JACKSON, MISS.

tionals pressed in the face of a severe fire,
when the Confederates broke and fled tow
ards the city, closely pursued for a mile
and a half to their earthworks. Under a
heavy storm of grape and canister shot
poured upon their works, the Nationals
reformed for the purpose of making an
assault; but there was no occasion, for
the garrison had evacuated the fort. They
left behind them seventeen cannon, and
tents enough to shelter a whole division.
The commissary and quartermaster s
stores were in flames. The city was taken
possession of by the Nationals, and the
stars and stripes were unfurled over the
State House by the 59th Indiana Regiment.
Entering Jackson that night, Grant
learned that Johnston had arrived, taken
charge of the department, and had or
dered Gen. J. C. Pemberton to march im
mediately out of Vicksburg and attack
the National rear.

After the fall of Vicksburg, Johnston
hovered menacingly in Grant s rear.
Sherman had pushed out to press him

position behind his breastworks there.
Sherman invested Jackson, July 10, each
flank resting on the Pearl River. He
planted 100 cannon on a hill, and open
ed on the city, July 12; but his trains
being behind, his scanty ammunition was
soon exhausted. In the assault, General
Lauman pushed his troops too near the
Confederate works, and in the course of
a few minutes 500 of his men were killed
or wounded by sharp - shooters and the
grape and canister from twelve cannon.
Two hundred of his men were made prison
ers. Under cover of a fog, Johnston made
a sortie, July 13, but with no beneficial
result, and on the night of July 16-17
he withdrew with his 25,000 men, hur
ried across the Pearl River, burned the
bridges behind him, and retreated to Mor
ton. Sherman did not pursue far, his
object being to drive Johnston away and
make Vicksburg secure. For this purpose
he broke up the railways for many miles,
and destroyed everything in Jackson that
might be useful to the Confederates.

JACKSON, ANDREW

Jackson, ANDREW, seventh President of from the North of Ireland, in 1765, and
the United States; born in the Waxhaw were of the Scotch-Irish. At fourteen
Settlement, Mecklenburg co., N. C., March years of age, Andrew joined the Revolu-
15, 1767. His parents had emigrated tionary forces in South Carolina. In

JACKSON, ANDBEW

that service he had two brothers killed.
He was with Sumter in the battle of
HANGING ROCK (q. v.), and in 1781 was
made a prisoner. He was admitted to
the practice of the law in western North
Carolina in 1786; removed to Nashville
in 1788: was United States attorney for
that district in 1790; member of the con
vention that framed the State constitu
tion of Tennessee in 1796; member of the
United States Senate in 1797; and judge
of the Tennessee Supreme Court from 1798
to 1804. From 1798 until 1814 he was
major-general of the Tennessee militia, and
conducted the principal campaign against
the Creek Indians, which resulted in the
complete subjugation of that nation in the
spring of 1814. On May 31, 1814, he was
appointed a major-general in the regular
army and given command of the Depart
ment of the South. His victory at New
Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815, gave him great re
nown.

On Jan. 21, with the main body of his
army, he entered the city. He was met in
the suburbs by almost the entire popula
tion, who greeted the victors as their
saviors. Two days afterwards there was
an imposing spectacle in the city. At
Jackson s request, the apos
tolic prefect of Louisiana ap
pointed Jan. 23 a day for the
public offering of thanks to
God for the victory just won.
It was a beautiful winter
morning on the verge of the
tropics. The religious cere
monies were to be held in
the old Spanish cathedral,
which was decorated with
evergreens for the occasion.
In the centre of the public
square in front of the cathe
dral, a temporary triumphal
arch was erected, supported
by six Corinthian columns,
and festooned by flowers and
evergreens. Beneath this arch
stood two beautiful little
girls, each upon a pedestal,
and holding in her hand a civic crown
of laurel. Near them stood two dam
sels, one personifying Liberty, the other
Justice. From the arch to the church,
arranged in two rows, stood beautiful
girls dressed in white, each covered

with a blue gauze veil, with a silver star
on her brow. These personated the several
States and Territories of the Union. Each
carried a basket filled with flowers, and
behind each was a lance stuck in the
ground, and bearing a shield on which
was inscribed the name and legend of the
State or Territory which she represented.
These were linked by festoons of ever
greens that extended from the arch to the
door of the cathedral. At the appointed
time, Jackson, accompanied by the officers
of his staff, passed into the square, and,
amid the roar of artillery, was conducted
to the raised floor of the arch. As he
stepped upon it, the two little girls leaned
gently forward and placed the laurel
crowns upon his head. At the same mo
ment, a charming Creole maiden (Miss
Kerr), as the representative of Louisiana,
stepped forward, and, with modesty in
voice and manner, addressed a few con
gratulatory words to the general, eloquent
with expressions of the most profound
gratitiide. To these words Jackson made
a brief reply, and then passed on towards
the church, the pathway strewn with flow
ers by the gentle representatives of the
States. At the cathedral entrance he was

BIRTHPLACE OF ANDREW JACKSON.

received by the apostolic prefect (Abb6 du
Bourg) in his pontifical robes, supported
by a college of priests in their sacerdotal
garments. The abb addressed the general
with eloquent and patriotic discourse, af
ter which the latter was seated conspicu-

JACKSON, ANDREW

ously near the great altar, while the Te
Deum Laudamus was chanted by the choir
and the people. When the pageant was
over, the general retired to his quarters
to resume the stern duties of a soldier;
and that night the city of New Orleans
blazed with a general illumination. On
the spot where the arch was erected, in
the centre of the public square in front
of the cathedral, has been erected a bronze
equestrian statue of Jackson, by Clark
Mills.

Jackson, like a true soldier, did not
relax his vigilance after the victory that
saved Louisiana from British conquest.
He maintained martial law in New Or
leans rigorously, even after rumors of a

JACKSON S HEADQUARTERS, NEW ORLEANS.

proclamation of peace reached that city.
When an official announcement of peace
was received from Washington he was
involved in a contention with the civil
authorities, who had opposed martial law
as unnecessary. In the legislature of
Louisiana was a powerful faction opposed
to him personally, and when the officers
and troops were thanked by that body
(Feb. 2, 1815), the name of Jackson was
omitted. The people were very indignant.
A seditious publication soon appeared,
which increased their indignation, and as
this was a public matter, calculated to
produce disaffection in the army, Jackson
caused the arrest of the author and his

trial by martial law. Judge Dominic A.
Hall, of the Supreme Court of the United
States, issued a writ of habeas corpus in
favor of the offender. Ja ckson considered
this a violation of martial law, and or
dered the arrest of the judge and his ex
pulsion beyond the limits of the city. The
judge, in turn, when the military law was
revoked (March 13, 1815) in consequence
of the proclamation of peace, required
Jackson to appear before him and show
cause why he should not be punished for
contempt of court. He cheerfully obeyed
the summons, and entered the crowded
court-room in the old Spanish-built court
house in citizen s dress. He had almost
reached the bar before he was recognized,
when he was greeted with huzzas by a
thousand voices. The judge was alarmed,
and hesitated. Jackson stepped upon a
bench, procured silence, and then, turning
to the trembling judge, said, "There is
no danger here there shall be none. The
same hand that protected this city from
outrage against the invaders of the coun
try will shield and protect this court, or
perish in the effort. Proceed with your
sentence." The agitated judge pronounced
him guilty of contempt of court, and fined
him $1,000. This act was greeted by a
storm of hisses. The general immediately
drew a check for the amount, handed it to
the marshal, and then made his way for
the court-house door. The people were in
tensely excited. They lifted the hero tipoiv
their shoulders, bore him to the street, and
there an immense crowd sent up a shout
that blanched the cheek of Judge Hall.
He was placed in a carriage, from which
the people took the horses and dragged it
themselves to his lodgings, where he ad
dressed them, urging them to show their
appreciation of the blessings of liberty and
a free government by a willing submission
to the authorities of their country. Mean
time, $1,000 had been collected by volun
tary subscriptions and placed to his credit
in a bank. The general politely refused to
accept it, and begged his friends to dis
tribute it among the relatives of those
who had fallen in the late battles. Nearly
thirty years afterwards (1843), Congress
refunded the sum with interest, amounting
in all to $2,700.

In 1817 he successfully prosecuted the
war against the Seminoles. In 1819 he

JACKSON, ANDREW

JACKSON S RECEPTION BY THE CITIZENS OF NEW ORLEANS.

resigned his military commission, and was honest and true; not always correct in

governor of newly acquired Florida in judgment; often rash in expressions and

1821-22. He was again United States actions ; misled sometimes by his hot anger

Senator in 1823-24; and in 1828, and also into acts injurious to his reputation; of

in 1832, he was elected President of the unflinching personal courage; possessed

United States (see CABINET, PRESI- of a tender, sympathizing nature, although

DENT S). His warfare on the United sometimes appearing fiercely leonine; and

States Bank during his Presidency re- a patriot of purest stamp. He retired

suited in its final destruction. from public life forever in the spring of

President Jackson possessed great firm- 1837. His administration of eight years

ness and decision of character; was was marked by great energy, and never

JACKSON, ANDREW

were the affairs of the republic in its authorities of the State or of the United
domestic and foreign relations more pros- States to enforce the payment of the
perous than at the close of his term of duties imposed by the said acts within
office. He died in " The Hermitage," near the same State, and that it is the duty
Nashville, Tenn., June 8, 1845. In 1852 of the legislature to paiss such laws as

may be neces
sary to give
full effect to
the said ordi
nance ;

And whereas,
by the said
ordinance, it is
further ordain
ed that in no
case of law or
equity decided
in the courts
of said State,
wherein shall
be drawn in
question the
validity of the
said ordinance
or of the acts
of the legislat
ure that may
be passed to
give it effect, or
of the said laws

of the United States, no appeal shall be
allowed to the Supreme Court of the
United States, nor shall any copy of the
record be permitted or allowed for that
purpose, and that any person attempting
tc take such appeal shall be punished as
for a contempt of court;

And, finally, the said ordinance declares
that the people of South Carolina will
maintain the said ordinance at every
hazard; and that they will consider the
passage of any act by Congress abolish
ing or closing the ports of the said State,
or otherwise obstructing the free ingress
or egress of vessels to and from the said
ports, or any other act of the federal gov
ernment to coerce the State, shut up her
ports, destroy or harass her commerce,
or to enforce the said acts otherwise
than through the civil tribunals of the
country, as inconsistent with the longer
continuance of South Carolina in the
Union, and that the people of the said
State will thenceforth hold themselves
absolved from all further obligation to
maintain or preserve their political con-

THB OLD COURT-HOUSE WHERE JACKSON WAS FINED FOR CONTEMPT OF COURT.

an equestrian statue of Jackson, in bronze,
by Clark Mills, was erected at Washing
ton, at the expense of the nation.

Nullification. On Sept. 19, 1832, Presi
dent Jackson issued the following procla
mation against nullification:

Whereas, a convention assembled in the
State of South Carolina have passed an
ordinance, by which they declare " that
the several acts and parts of acts of the
Congress of the United States, purport
ing to be laws for the imposing of duties
and imposts on the importation of for
eign commodities, and now having actual
operation and effect within the United
States, and more especially " two acts
for the same purposes passed on May 29,
1828, and on July 14, 1832, "are un
authorized by the Constitution of the
United States, and violate the true mean
ing and intent thereof, and are null and
void, and no law," nor binding on the
citizens of that State or its officers; and
by said ordinance it is further declared
to be unlawful for any of the constituted

JACKSON, ANDREW

must inevitably result from an observ
ance of the dictates of the convention.

Strict duty will require of me nothing
more than the exercise of these powers
with which I am now, or may hereafter
be, invested, for preserving the peace of
the Union, and for the execution of the
laws. But the imposing aspect which
opposition has assumed in this case, by
clothing itself with State authority, and
the deep interest which the people of the
United States must feel in preventing a
resort to stronger measures, while there
is a hope that anything will be yielded
to reasoning and remonstrance, perhaps
demand, and will certainly justify, a full
exposition to South Carolina and the na
tion of the views I entertain of this im
portant question, as well as a distinct
enunciation of the course which my sense"
of duty will require me to pursue.

The ordinance is founded, not on the
indefeasible right of resisting acts which
are plainly unconstitutional, and too op
pressive to be endured, but on the strange

nection with the people of the other

States, and will forthwith proceed to

organize a separate government, and do

all other acts and things which sovereign

and independent States may of right do.
And, whereas, the said ordinance pre
scribes to the people of South Carolina a

course of conduct in direct violation of

their duty as citizens of the United

States, contrary to the laws of their

country, subversive of its Constitution,

and having for its object the destruction

of the Union; that Union which, coeval

with our political existence, led our

fathers, without any other ties to unite

them than those of patriotism and a com
mon cause, through a sanguinary struggle

to a glorious independence; that sacred

Union, hitherto inviolate, which, perfect
ed by our happy Constitution, has

brought us, by the favor of heaven, to

a state of prosperity at home, and high

consideration abroad, rarely, if ever,

equalled in the history of nations. To

preserve this bond of our political exist
ence from de
struction, to
maintain invio
late this state
of national
honor and pros
perity, and to
justify the con
fidence my fel
low - citizens
have reposed in
me, I, Andrew
Jackson, Presi-
dent of the
United States,
have thought
proper to issue
this my procla
mation, stating
my views of the
Constitution
and laws ap
plicable to the
measures adopt
ed by the con
vention of South Carolina, and to the rea- position that any one State may not only
sons they have put forth to sustain them, declare an act of Congress void, but pro-
declaring the course which duty will re- hibit its execution ; that they may do this
quire me to pursue, and, appealing to the consistently with the Constitution; that
understanding and patriotism of the peo- the true construction of that instrument
pie, warn them of the consequences which permits a State to retain its place in the
V. a 97

THE HERMITAGE IN 1861.

JACKSON, ANDREW

Union, and yet be bound by no other of decision in theory, and the practical illus-
its laws than those it may choose to con- tration shows that the courts are closed
sider as constitutional. It is true, they against an application to review it, botli
add, that to justify this abrogation of a judges and jurors being sworn to decide
law, it must be palpably contrary to the in its favor. But reasoning on this sub-
Constitution ; but it is evident that, to ject is superfluous, when our social corn-
give the right of resisting laws of that pact, in express terms, declares that the
description, coupled with the uncontrolled laws of the United States, its Constitu-
right to decide what laws deserve that tion, and treaties made under it, are the
character, is to give the power of resisting supreme law of the land; and for greater
all laws. For as, by the theory, there is caution adds " that the judges in every
no appeal, the reasons alleged by the State shall be bound thereby, anything
State, good or bad, must prevail. If it in the Constitution or laws of any State

to the contrary not
withstanding." And
it may be assert
ed, without fear of
refutation, that no
federal government
could exist without
a similar provision.
Look for a moment
to the consequences.
If South Carolina
considers the reve
nue laws unconsti
tutional, and has a
right to prevent
their execution in
the port of Charles
ton, there would be
a clear constitu
tional objection to
their collection in
every other port,
arid no revenue
could be collected
anywhere, for all
imposts must be
equal. It is no an
swer to repeat that
JACKSON S TOMB. an unconstitutional

law is no law, so

should be said that public opinion is a long as the question of its legality is to be
sufficient check against the abuse of this decided by the State itself; for every law
power, it may be asked why it is not operating injuriously upon any local in-
deemed a sufficient guard against the pas- terest will be perhaps thought, and cer-
sage of an unconstitutional act by Con- tainly represented, as unconstitutional,
gress? There is, however, a restraint in and, as has been shown, there is no ap-
this last case, which makes the assumed peal.

power of a State more indefensible, and If this doctrine had been established at
which does not exist in the other. There an earlier day the Union would have
are two appeals from an unconstitutional been dissolved in its infancy. The excise
act passed by Congress one to the ju- law in Pennsylvania, the embargo and
diciary, the other to the people and the non-intercourse law in the Eastern States,
States. There is no appeal from the State the carriage tax in Virginia, were all

JACKSON, ANDREW

. :; . ..:_._
i,i-&gt;l

JACKSOX AS PRESIDENT RECEIVING DELEGATES.

deemed unconstitutional, and were more
unequal in their operation than any of
the laws now complained of; but fortu
nately none of those States discovered
that they had the right now claimed by
South Carolina. The war into which we
were forced to support the dignity of the
nation and the rights of our citizens might
have ended in defeat and disgrace instead

of victory and honor, if the States who
supposed it a ruinous and unconstitutional
measure had thought they possessed the
right of nullifying the act by which it
was declared, and denying supplies for
its prosecution. Hardly and unequally
as those measures bore upon several mem
bers of the Union, to the legislatures of
none did this efficient and peaceful remedy,

JACKSON, ANDREW

as it is called, suggest itself. The dis- proposed to form a feature in our govern-
covery of this important feature in our ment.

Constitution was reserved to the present In our colonial state, although depend-
day. To the statesmen of South Caro- ing on another power, we very early con-
lina belongs the invention, and upon sidered ourselves as connected by common
the citizens of the State will unfortu- interest with each other. Leagues were
nately fall the evils of reducing it to formed for common defence, and before
practice. the Declaration of Independence we were

If the doctrine of a State veto upon the known in our aggregate character as the
laws of the Union carries with it internal United Colonies of America. That deci-
evidence of its impracticable absurdity, sive and important step was taken jointly.

We declared ourselves a nation by a joint,
not by several acts, and when the terms
of our confederation were reduced to form,
it was in that of a solemn league of sev
eral States, by which they agreed that
they would collectively form one nation
for the purpose of conducting some cer
tain domestic concerns and all foreign re
lations. In the instrument forming that
Union is found an article which de
clares " that every State shall abide by
the determinations of Congress on all
questions which, by that confederation,
should be submitted to them."

Under the confederation, then, no State
could legally annul a decision
of the Congress or refuse to
submit to its execution; but
no provision was made to en
force these decisions. Con
gress made requisitions, but
they were not complied with.
The government could not op
erate on individuals. They
had no judiciary, no means of
collecting revenue.

But the defects of the con
federation need not be detailed.
Under its operation we could scarcely
be called a nation. We had neither
prosperity at home nor consideration
abroad. This state of things could
not be endured, and our present happy
Constitution was formed, but formed
in vain, if this fatal doctrine prevails.
It was formed for important objects
that are announced in the preamble
made in the name and by the authority
of the people of the United States,
whose delegates framed and whose con
ventions approved it. The most im
portant among these objects, that
our constitutional history will also afford which is placed first in rank, on
abundant proof that it would have been which all the others rest, .is " to form
repudiated with indignation had it been a more perfect Union." Now, is it pos-

100

ANDREW JACKSON IN 1814.

JACKSON, ANDREW

sible that even if there were no express
provision giving supremacy to the Con
stitution and laws of the United States
over those of the States, can it be con
ceived that an instrument made for the
purpose of " forming a more perfect
Union " than that of the confederation,
could be so constructed by the assembled
wisdom of our country as to substitute
for that confederation a form of govern
ment dependent for its existence on the
local interest, the party spirit of a State,
or of a prevailing faction in a State?
Every man of plain, unsophisticated un
derstanding, who hears the question, will
give such an answer as will preserve the
Union. Metaphysical subtlety, in pursuit
of an impracticable theory, could alone
have devised one that is calculated to de
stroy it.

I consider, then, the power to annul a
law of the United States assumed by one
State, incompatible with the existence of
the Union, contradicted expressly by the
letter of the Constitution, unauthorized
by its spirit, inconsistent with every prin
ciple on which it was founded, and de
structive of the great object for which
it was formed.

After this general view of the leading
principle, we must examine the particular
application of it which is made in the
ordinance.

The preamble rests its justification on
these grounds: It assumes as a fact that
the obnoxious laws, although they purport
to be laws for raising revenue, were in
reality intended for the protection of man
ufactures, which purpose it asserts to be
unconstitutional; that the operation of
these laws is unequal ; that the amount
ruised by them is greater than is required
by the wants of the government; and,
finally, that the proceeds are to be applied
to objects unauthorized by the Constitu
tion. These are the only causes alleged
to justify an open opposition to the laws
of the country, and a threat of seceding
from the Union if any attempt should be
made to enforce them. The first virtually
acknowledges that the law in question was
passed under a power expressly given by
the Constitution to lay and collect im
posts; but its constitutionality is drawn
in question from the motives of those
who passed it. However apparent this

purpose may be in the present case, noth
ing can be more dangerous than to admit
the position that an unconstitutional pur
pose, entertained by the members who as
sent to a law enacted under a constitu
tional power, shall make that law void;
for how is that purpose to be ascertained?
Who is to make the scrutiny? How often
may bad purposes be falsely imputed? In
how many cases are they concealed by
false professions? In how many is no
declaration of motive made? Admit this
doctrine, and you give to the States an
uncontrolled right to decide, and every
law may be annulled under this pretext.
If, therefore, the absurd and dangerous
doctrine should be admitted that a State
may annul an unconstitutional law, or
one that it deems such, it will not apply
to the present case.

The next objection is that the laws
in question operate unequally. This objec
tion may be made with truth to every law
that has been or can be passed. The wis
dom of man never yet contrived a system
of taxation that would operate with per
fect equality. If the unequal operation of
a law makes it unconstitutional, and if all
laws of that description may be abrogated
by any State for that cause, then indeed is
the federal Constitution unworthy of the
slightest effort for its preservation. We
have hitherto relied on it as the perpetual
bond of our Union. We have received it
as the work of the assembled wisdom of
the nation. We have trusted to it as to
the sheet-anchor of our safety in the
stormy times of conflict with a foreign
or domestic foe. We have looked to it
with sacred awe as the palladium of our
liberties, and with all the solemnities of
religion have pledged to each other our
lives and fortunes here and our hopes of
happiness hereafter, in its defence and
support. Were we mistaken, my country
men, in attaching this importance to the
Constitution of our country? Was our
devotion paid to the wretched, inefficient,
clumsy contrivance which this new doc
trine would make it? Did we pledge our
selves to the support of an airy nothing
a bubble that must be blown away by the
first breath of disaffection? Was this
self-destroying, visionary theory the work
of the profound statesmen, the exalted
patriotism to whom the task of constitu-

101

JACKSON, ANDREW

tional reform was intrusted? Did the who abuse it, and thus procure redress.
name of Washington sanction did the Congress may, undoubtedly, abuse this
States deliberately ratify such an anomaly discretionary power, but the same may be
in the history of fundamental legislation? said of others with which they are vested.
No. We were not mistaken. The letter of Yet the discretion must exist somewhere,
this great instrument is free from this The Constitution has given it to the rep-
radical fault; its language directly con- resentative of all the people, checked by
tradicts the imputation; its spirit, its evi- the representatives of the States and by
dent intent, contradicts it. No, we do not the executive power. The South Carolina
err. Our Constitution does not contain the construction gives it to the legislature or
absurdity of giving power to make laws, the convention of a single State, where
and another power to resist them. The neither the people of the different States,
sages, whose memory will always be rev- nor the States in their separate capacity,
enced, have given us a practical and, as nor the chief magistrate, elected by the
they hoped, a permanent constitutional com- people, have any representation. Which
pact. The Father of this country did not is the most discreet disposition of the
affix his revered name to so palpable an power? I do not ask you, fellow-citizens,
absurdity. Nor did the States, when they which is the constitutional disposition;
severally ratified it, do so under the im- that instrument speaks a language not
pression that a veto on the laws of the to be misunderstood. But if you were
United States was reserved to them, or assembled in general convention, which
that they could exercise it by implica- would you think the safest depository of
tion. Search the debates in all their con- this discretionary power in the last re-
ventions; examine the speeches of the most sort? Would you add a clause giving it
zealous opposers of federal authority; look to each of the States, or would you sane-
at the amendments that were proposed, tion the wise provisions already made
They are all silent; not a syllable uttered, by your Constitution? If this should be
not a vote given, not a motion made to the result of your deliberation when pro-
correct the explicit supremacy given to viding for the future, are you, can you
the laws of the Union over those of the be ready to risk all that we hold dear
States, or to show that implication, as is to establish, for a temporary and a local
now contended, could defeat it. No, we purpose, that which you must acknowledge
have not erred. The Constitution is still to be destructive, and even absurd, as a
the object of our reverence, the bond of general provision? Carry out the conse-
our Union, oiir defence in danger, the quences of this right vested in the different
source of our prosperity in peace; it shall States, and you must perceive that the
descend as we have received it, uncor- crisis your conduct presents at this day
rupted by sophistical construction, to our woiild recur whenever any law of the
posterity; and the sacrifices of local in- United States displeased any of the States,
terest, of State prejudices, of personal and that we should soon cease to be a na-
animosities, that were made to bring it tion.

into existence, will again be patriotically The ordinance, with the same knowledge

offered for its support. of the future that characterized a former

The two remaining objections made by objection, tells you that the proceeds of

the ordinance to these laws are that the the tax will be unconstitutionally applied,

sums intended to be raised by them are If this could be ascertained with certainty,

greater than are required, and that the the objection would, with more propriety,

proceeds will be unconstitutionally em- be reserved for the law so applying the

ployed. proceeds, but surely cannot be urged

The Constitution has given expressly against the laws levying the duty.

to Congress the right of raising revenue, These are the allegations contained in

and of determining the sum the public the ordinance. Examine them seriously,

exigencies will require. The States have my fellow-citizens judge for yourselves.

no control over the exercise of this right I appeal to you to determine whether

other than that which results from the they are so clear, so convincing, as to

power of changing the representatives leave no doubt of their correctness; and

102

JACKSON, ANDREW

even if you should come to this conclu- these questions according to its sound
sion, how far they justify the reckless, discretion. Congress is composed of the
destructive cotirse which you are directed representatives of all the States, and of
to pursue. Review these objections, and all the people of all the States; but we,
the conclusions drawn from them, once part of the people of one State, to whom
more. What are they? Every law, then, the Constitution has given no power on
for raising revenue, according to the the subject, from whom it has expressly
South Carolina ordinance, may be right- taken it away; we, who have solemnly
fully annulled, unless it be so framed agreed that this Constitution shall be
as no law ever will or can be framed, our law; we, most of whom have sworn
Congress has a right to pass laws for to support it, we now abrogate this law,
raising revenue, and each State has a right and swear, and force others to swear, that
to oppose their execution two rights di- it shall not be obeyed. And we do this
rectly opposed to each other; and yet, is not because Congress has no right to pass
this absurdity supposed to be contained such laws this we do not allege but
in an instrument drawn for the express because they have passed them with im-
purpose of avoiding collisions between the proper views. They are unconstitutional
States and the general government by an from the motives of those who passed
assembly of the most enlightened states- them, which we can never with certainty
men and purest patriots ever embodied know; from their unequal operation, al-
for a similar purpose? though it is impossible, from the nature

In vain have these sages declared that o f things, that they should be equal;
Congress shall have power to lay and col- and from the disposition which we pre
lect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; sume may be made of their proceeds, al-
in vain have they provided that they though that disposition has not been
shall have poAver to pass laws which declared. This is the plain meaning of
shall be necessary and proper to carry the ordinance in relation to laws which
those powers into execution; that those it abrogates for alleged unconstitutional-
laws and the Constitution shall be the ity. But it does not stop there. It re-
" supreme law of the land, and that the peals, in express terms, an important part
judges in every State shall be bound of the Constitution itself, and of laws
thereby, anything in the constitution or passed to give it effect, which have never
laws of any State to the contrary not- been alleged to be unconstitutional. The
withstanding." In vain have the people Constitution declares that the judicial
of the several States solemnly sanctioned powers of the United States extend to
these provisions, made them their para- cases arising under the laws of the Unit-
mount law, and individually sworn to ed States, and that such laws, the Con-
support them whenever they were called stitution and the treaties, shall be para-
on to execute any office. Vain provisions! mount to the State constitution and
ineffectual restrictions! vile profanation laws. The judiciary act prescribes the
of oaths! miserable mockery of legisla- mode by which the case may be brought
tion! if a bare majority of the voters in before a court of the United States, by
any one State may, on a real or sup- appeal, when a State tribunal shall decide
posed knowledge of the intent with which against this provision of the Constitu-
a law has been passed, declare themselves tion. The ordinance declares there shall
free from its operation say here it gives be no appeal ; makes the State law
too little, there too much, and operates paramount to the Constitution and laws
unequally; here it suffers articles to be of the United States; forces judges and
free that ought to be taxed; there it taxes jurors to swear that they will disregard
those that ought to be free; in this case their provisions; and even makes it penal
the proceeds are intended to be applied in a suitor to attempt relief by appeal,
to purposes which we do not approve; It further declares that it shall not be
in that the amount raised is more than lawful for the authorities of the United
is wanted. States, or of that State, to enforce the

Congress, it is true, is invested by the payment of duties imposed by the revenue
Constitution with the right of deciding laws within its limits.

103

JACKSON, ANDREW

Here is a law of the United States, not
even pretended to be unconstitutional, re
pealed by the authority of a small ma
jority of the voters of a single State.
Here is a provision of the Constitution
which is solemnly abrogated by the same
authority.

On such expositions and reasonings the
ordinance grounds not only an assertion
of the right to annul the laws of which it
complains, but to enforce it by a threat
of seceding from the Union if any at
tempt is made to execute them.

tives of the United States, not repre
sentatives of the particular State from
which they come. They are paid by the
United States, not by the State, nor are
they accountable to it for any act done
in the performance of their legislative
functions; and however they may in prac
tice, as it is their duty to do, consult and
prefer the interests of their particular
constituents when they come in conflict
with any other partial or local interest,
yet it is their first and highest duty, as
representatives of the United States, to

This right to secede is deduced fYom the promote the general good.

nature of the Constitution, which, they
say, is a compact between sovereign

The Constitution of the United States,
then, forms a government, not a league,

States, who have preserved their whole and whether it be formed by compact be-

sovereignty, and therefore are subject to
no superior; that, because they made the
compact, they cannot break it, when, in
their opinion, it has been departed from
by the other States. Fallacious as this
course of reasoning is, it enlists State
pride, and finds advocates in the honest
prejudices of those who have not studied
the nature of our government sufficiently
to see the radical error on which it rests.
The people of the United States form
ed the Constitution, acting through the
State legislatures in making the compact,
to meet and discuss its provisions, and
acting in separate conventions when they
ratified these provisions, but the terms
used in its construction show it to be a
government in which the people of the
States collectively are represented. We
are one people in the choice of the Presi-

tween the States or in any other manner,
its character is the same. It is a govern
ment in which all the people are repre
sented, which operates directly on the
people individually, not upon the States
they retained all the power they did not
grant. But each State having expressly
parted with so many powers as to con
stitute, jointly with the other States, a
single nation, cannot from that period
possess any right to secede, because such
secession does not break a league, but
destroys the unity of a nation, and any
injury to that unity is not only a breach
which would result from the contraven
tion of a compact, but it is an offence
against the whole Union. To say that any
State may at pleasure secede from the
Union is to say that the United States are
not a nation, because it would be a sole-

dent and Vice-President. Here the States cism to contend that any part of a nation

have no other agency than to direct the
mode in which the votes shall be given.
The candidates having the majority of all
the votes are chosen. The electors of a
majority of States may have given their
votes for one candidate, and yet another
may be chosen. The people then, and not
the States, are represented in the execu
tive branch.

In the House of Representatives there
is this difference, that the people of one
State do not, as in the case of President
and Vice-President, all vote for the same
officers. The people of all the States do
not vote for all the members, each State
electing only its own representatives.

might dissolve its connection with the
other parts, to their injury or ruin, with
out committing any offence. Secession,
like any other revolutionary act, may be
morally justified by the extremity of op
pression, but to call it a constitutional
right is confounding the meaning of terms,
and can only be done through gross error,
or to deceive those who are willing to as
sert a right, but would pause before they
made a revolution, or incur the penalties
consequent on a failure.

Because the Union was formed by com
pact, it is said the parties to that com
pact may, when they feel themselves
aggrieved, depart from it; but it is

But this creates no material distinction, precisely because it is a compact that they

When chosen, they are all

representa- cannot.
104

A compact is an agreement or

JACKSON, ANDREW

binding obligation. It may by its terms
have a sanction or penalty for its breach,
or it may not. If it contains no sanction,
it may be broken with no other conse
quence than moral guilt; if it have a
sanction, then the breach insures the
designated or implied penalty. A league
between independent nations generally has
no sanction other than a moral one, or if
it should contain a penalty, as there is
no common superior, it cannot be en
forced. A government, on the contrary,
always has a sanction, express or implied,
and in our case it is both necessarily im
plied and expressly given. An attempt,
by force of arms, to destroy a government
is an offence by whatever means the con
stitutional compact may have been formed,
and such government has the right, by
the law of self-defence, to pass acts for
punishing the offender, unless that right
is modified, restrained, or resumed by the
constitutional act. In our system, al
though it is modified in the case of trea
son, yet authority is expressly given to
pass all laws necessary to carry its powers
into effect, and under this grant provi
sion has been made for punishing acts
which obstruct the due administration of
the laws.

It would seem superfluous to add any
thing to show the nature of that union
which connects us; but as erroneous opin
ions on this subject are the foundation of
doctrines the most destructive to our
peace, I must give some further develop
ment to my views on this subject. No
one, fellow-citizens, has a higher reverence
for the reserved rights of the States than
the magistrate who now addresses you.
No one would make greater personal sac
rifices or official exertions to defend them
from violation, but equal care must be
taken to prevent on their part an improper
interference with our resumption of the
rights they have vested in the nation.
The line has not been so distinctly drawn
as to avoid doubts in some cases of the
exercise of power. Men of the best in
tentions and soundest views may differ
in their construction of some parts of the
Constitution, but there are others on
which dispassionate reflections can leave
no doubt. Of this nature appears to be
the assumed right of secession. It treats,
as we have seen, on the alleged undivided

sovereignty of the States, and on their
having formed, in this sovereign capacity,
a compact which is called the Constitu
tion, from which, because they made it,
they have the right to secede. Both of
these positions are erroneous, and some
of the arguments to prove them so have
been anticipated.

The States severally have not retained
their entire sovereignty. It has been
shown that in becoming parts of a nation,
not members of a league, they surrendered
many of their essential parts of sovereign
ty. The right to make treaties, declare
war, levy taxes, exercise exclusive judicial
and legislative powers, were all of them
functions of sovereign power. The States,
then, for all these purposes were no longer
sovereign. The allegiance of their citi
zens was transferred in the first instance
to the government of the United States.
They became American citizens, and owed
obedience to the Constitution of the
United States, and to laws made in con
formity \vith the powers it vested in Con
gress. This last position has not been
and cannot be denied. How, then, can
that State be said to be sovereign and
independent whose citizens own obedience
to laws not made by it, and whose
magistrates are sworn to disregard those
laws when they come in conflict with
those passed by another? What shows
conclusively that the States cannot be
said to have reserved an undivided sov
ereignty is that they expressly ceded
the right to punish treason, not treason
against their separate powers, but treason
against the United States. Treason is an
offence against sovereignty, and sovereign
ty must reside with the powers to punish
it. But the reserved rights of the State
are not less sacred because they have,
for their common interest, made the gen
eral government the depository of these
powers.

The unity of our political character (as
has been shown for another purpose) com
menced with its very existence. Under
the royal government we had no separate
character; our opposition to its oppres
sion began as united colonies. We were
the United States under the confederation,
and the name was perpetuated, and the
Union rendered more perfect, by the federal
Constitution. In none of these stages did

105

JACKSON, ANDREW

we consider ourselves in any other light government without the means of sup-
than as forming one nation. Treaties port, or an acquiescence in the dissolution
and alliances were made in the name of of our Union by the secession of one of
all. Troops were made for the joint de- its members. When the first was pro-
fence. How, then, with all these proofs posed, it was known that it could not
that, under all changes of our position, we be listened to for a moment. It was
had, for designated purposes and defined known, if force was applied to oppose the
powers, created national governments execution of the laws, that it must be re-
how is it that the most perfect of these pelled by force; that Congress could not,
several modes of union should now be without involving itself in disgrace and
considered as a mere league that may be the country in ruin, accede to the propo-
dissolved at pleasure? It is from an sition; and yet if this is not done in
abuse of terms. Compact is used as sy- a given day, or if any attempt is made to
nonymous with league, although the true execute the laws, the State is, by the or-
term is not employed, because it would dinance, declared to be out of the Union,
at once show the fallacy of the reason- The majority of a convention assembled
ing. It would not do to say that our for the purpose have dictated these terms,
Constitution was only a league, but it is or rather this rejecting of all terms, in
labored to prove it a compact (which in the name of the people of South Caro-
one sense it is), and then to argue that lina. It is true that the governor of
as a league is a compact, every compact the State speaks of the submission of their
between nations must, of course, be a grievances to the convention of all the
league, and that from such an engage- States, which, he says, they " sincerely and
ment every sovereign power has a right anxiously seek and desire." Yet this ob-
to recede. But it has been shown that, in vious and constitutional mode of obtain-
this sense, the States are not sovereign, ing the sense of the other States on the
and that even if they were, and the na- construction of the federal compact, and
tional Constitution had been formed by amending it, if necessary, has never been
compact, there would be no right in any attempted by those who have urged the
one State to exonerate itself from its ob- State on to this destructive measure. The
ligations. State might have proposed the call for a

So obvious are the reasons which forbid general convention to the other States,
this secession, that it is necessary only and Congress, if a sufficient mimber of
to allude to them. The Union was formed them concurred, must have called it. But
for the benefit of all. It was produced the first magistrate of South Carolina,
by natural sacrifices of interest and when he expressed hope that, " on a re-
opinions. Can these sacrifices be recalled? view by Congress and the functionaries
Can the States, who magnanimously sur- of the general government of the merits
rendered their title to the territories of of the controversy," such a convention
the West, recall the grant? Will the in- will be accorded to them, must have known
habitants of the inland States agree to that neither Congress nor any function-
pay the duties that may be imposed with- ary of the general government has au-
out their assent by those on the Atlantic thority to call such a convention, unless
or the Gulf, for their own benefit? Shall it be demanded by two-thirds of the
there be a free port in one State and States. This suggestion, then, is another
onerous duties in another? No one be- instance of the reckless inattention to
lieves that any right exists in a single the provisions of the Constitution with
State to involve all the others in these which this crisis has been madly hurried
and countless other evils contrary to on, or of the attempt to persuade the
the engagements solemnly made. Every people that a constitutional remedy had
one must see that the other States, in been sought and refused. If the legislat-
self - defence, must oppose it at all ha/- lire of South Carolina "anxiously de-
ards. sire " a general convention to consider

These are the alternatives that are pre- their complaints, why have they not made

sented by the convention: a repeal of all application for it in the way the Consti-

the acts for raising revenue, leaving the tution points out? The assertion that

106

JACKSON, ANDREW

they " earnestly seek it " is completely sequent diminution in the value of your

negatived by the omission. lands, were the sole effect of the tariff

This, then, is the position in which we laws.

stand. A small majority of the citizens The effect of those laws was confess-
of one State in the Union have elected edly injurious, but the evil was greatly
delegates to a State convention; that con- exaggerated by the unfounded theory you
vention has ordained that all the revenue were taught to believe, that its burdens
laws of the United States must be re- were in proportion to your exports, not to
pealed, or that they are no longer a mem- your consumption of imported articles,
ber of the Union. The governor of that Your pride was roused by the assertion
State has recommended to the legislature that a submission to those laws was a
the raising of an army to carry the seces- state of vassalage, and that resistance to
sion into effect, and that he may be em- them was equal, in patriotic merit, to the
powered to give clearances to vessels in opposition our fathers offered to the op-
the name of the State. No act of violent pressive laws of Great Britain. You
opposition to the laws has yet been com- were told that this opposition might be
mitted, but such a state of things is peaceably, might be constitutionally
hourly apprehended, and it is the intent made; that you might enjoy all the ad-
of this instrument to proclaim, not only vantages of the Union, and bear none of
that the duty imposed on me by the Con- its burdens. Eloquent appeals to your
stitution " to take care that the laws be passions, to your State pride, to your
faithfully executed," shall be performed native courage, to your sense of real in
to the extent of the powers already in- jury, were used to prepare you for the,
vested in me by law, or of such others as period when the mask which concealed the,
the wisdom of Congress shall devise and hideous features of disunion should be
intrust to me for that purpose, but to taken off. It fell, and you were made to
warn the citizens of South Carolina who look with complacency on objects which,
have been deluded into an opposition to not long since, you would have regarded
the laws, of the danger they will incur by with horror. Look back to the arts
obedience to the illegal and disorganizing which have brought you to this state ;
ordinance of the convention; to exhort look forward to the consequences to
those who have refused to support it to which it must inevitably lead! Look
persevere in their determination to up- back to what was first told you as an in-
hold the Constitution and laws of their ducement to enter into this dangerous
country, and to point out to all the peril- course ! The great political truth was re-
ous situation into which the good people peated to you, that you had the revolu-
of that State have been led, and that the tionary right of resisting all laws that
course they have been urged to pursue is were palpably unconstitutional and in-
one of ruin and disgrace to the very State tolerably oppressive; it was added that
whose rights they affect to support. the right to nullify a law rested on the

Fellow-citizens of my native State, let same principle, but that it was a peace-

me not only admonish you, as the first able remedy. This character which was

magistrate of our common country, not given to it made you receive, with too

to incur the penalty of its laws, but use much confidence, the assertions that were

the influence that a father would over his made of the unconstitutionality of the

children whom he saw rushing to certain law and its oppressive effects. Mark, my

ruin. In that paternal language, with fellow-citizens, that, by the admission of

that paternal feeling, let me tell you, my your leaders, the unconstitutionality

countrymen, that you are deluded by men must be palpable, or it will not justify

who are either deceived themselves or wish either resistance or nullification! What

to deceive you. Mark under what pre- is the meaning of the word palpable in

tences you have been led on to the brink the sense in which it is here used? That

of insurrection and treason on which you which is apparent to every one; that

stand! First, a diminution of the value which no man of ordinary intellect will

of your staple commodity, lowered by over- fail to perceive. Is the unconstitution-

production in other quarters, and the con- ality of these laws of that description?

107

JACKSON, ANDREW

Let those among your leaders, who once tection so many different States giving

approved and advocated the principle of to all their inhabitants the proud title of

protective duties, answer the question, American citizens, protecting their com-

and let them choose whether they will be merce, securing their literature and their

considered as incapable then of perceiv- arts ; facilitating their intercommunica-

ing that which must have been apparent tion; defending their frontiers; and mak-

to every man of common understanding, ing their name respected in the remotest

or as imposing upon your confidence, and parts of the earth. Consider the extent

endeavoring to mislead you now. In of its territory; its increasing and happy

either case they are unsafe guides in the population; its advance in arts which ren-

perilous path they urge you to tread, der life agreeable; and the sciences which

Ponder well on this circumstance, and elevate the mind! See education spread-

you will know how to appreciate the ex- ing the lights of religion, morality, and

aggerated language they address to you. general information into every cottage in

They are not champions of liberty emu- this wide extent of our Territories and

lating the fame of our Revolutionary States! Behold it as the asylum where

fathers; nor are you an oppressed peo- the wretched and the oppressed find a

pie contending, as they repeat to you, refuge and support! Look on this pict-

against worse than colonial vassalage. ure of happiness and honor, and say, we.

You are free members of a nourishing too, are citizens of America! Carolina is
and happy Union. There is no settled de- one of these proud States; her arms have
sign to oppress you. You have, indeed, defended, her best blood has cemented, this
felt the unequal operation of laws which happy Union ! And then add, if you
may have been unwisely, not unconstitu- can, without horror and remorse, this hap-
tionally, passed; but that inequality must py Union we will dissolve; this picture of
necessarily be removed. At the very mo- peace and prosperity we will deface; this
ment when you were madly urged on to free intercourse we will interrupt; these
the unfortunate course you have begun, fertile fields we will deluge with blood;
a change in public opinion had com- the protection of that glorious flag we
menced. The nearly approaching pay- renounce; the very name of Americans
ment of the public debt, and the conse- we discard. And for what, mistaken men ;
quent necessity of a diminution of duties, for what do you throw away these ines-
had already produced a considerable re- timable blessings? For what would you
duction, and that, too, on some articles exchange your share in the advantages
of general consumption in your State, and honor of the Union? For the dream
The importance of this change was under- of separate independence a dream inter-
rated, and you were authoritatively told rupted by bloody conflicts with your neigh-
that no further alleviation of your bur- bors, and a vile dependence on a foreign
dens was to be expected at the very time power. If your leaders could succeed in
when the condition of the country im- establishing a separation, what would be
periously demanded f-uch a modification your situation? Are you united at home;
of the duties as should reduce them to a are you free from the apprehension of civil
just and equitable scale. But, as if ap- discord, with all its fearful consequences?
prehensive of the effect of this change in Do your neighboring republics, every day
allaying your discontents, you were pre- suffering some new revolution, or contend-
cipitated into the fearful state in which ing with some new insurrection do they
you now find yourselves. excite your envy? But the dictates of a

I have urged you to look back to the high duty oblige me solemnly to announce

means that were used to hurry you on that you cannot succeed. The laws of the

to the position you have now assumed, and United States must be executed. I have

forward to the consequences it will pro- no discretionary power on the subject;

duce. Something more is necessary. Con- my duty is emphatically pronounced in

template the condition of that country the Constitution. Those who told you

of which you still form an important part, that you might peaceably prevent their

Consider its government uniting in one execution deceived you; they could not

bond of common interest and general pro- have been deceived themselves. They know

108

JACKSON, ANDREW

that a forcible opposition could alone pre- tion of your country. Its destroyers you
vent the execution of the laws, and they cannot be. You may disturb its peace;
know that such opposition must be re- you may interrupt the course of its pros-
pelled. Their object is disunion; but be perity; you may cloud its reputation for
not deceived by names : disunion, by armed stability, but its tranquillity will be re-
force, is treason. Are you really ready to stored, its prosperity will return, and
incur its guilt? If you are, on the heads the stain upon its national character will
of the instigators of the act be the dread- be transferred and remain an eternal blot
ful consequences; on their heads be the on the memory of those who caused the
dishonor, but on yours may fall the pun- disorder.

ishment. On your unhappy State will Fellow-citizens of the United States,
inevitably fall all the evils of the con- the threat of unhallowed disunion the
flict you force upon the government of names of those once respected, by whom
your country. It cannot accede to the it is uttered the array of military force
mad project of disunion, of which you to support it denote the approach of a
would be the first victims ; its first magis- crisis in our affairs on which the con-
trate cannot, if he would, avoid the per- tinuance of our unexampled prosperity,
formance of his duty. The consequence our political existence, and, perhaps, that
must be fearful for you, distressing to of all free governments, may depend,
your fellow-citizens here, and to the The conjuncture demanded a free, a full,
friends of good government throughout and explicit enunciation, not only of my
the world. Its enemies have beheld our intentions, but of my principles of action;
prosperity with a vexation they could not and, as the claim was asserted of a right
conceal ; it was a standing refutation of by a State to annul the laws of the Union,
their slavish doctrines, and they will point and even to secede from it at pleasure, a
to our discord with the triumph of malig- frank exposition of my opinions in rela-
nant joy. It is yet in your power to dis- tion to the origin and form of our gov-
appoint them. There is yet time to show eminent, and the construction I give to
that the descendants of the Pinckneys, the instrument by which it was created,
the Sumters, the Rutledges, and of the seemed to be proper. Having the fullest
thousand other names which adorn the confidence in the justness of the legal
pages of your Revolutionary history, will and constitutional opinion of my duties,
not abandon that Union, to support which which has been expressed, I rely, with
so many of them fought, and bled, and equal confidence, on your undivided sup-
died, port in my determination to execute the
I adjure you, as you honor their mem- laws, to preserve the Union by all con-
ory, as you love the cause of freedom, to stitutional means, to arrest, if possible,
which they dedicated their lives, as you by moderate but firm measures, the necea-
prize the peace of your country, the lives sity of a recourse to force; and, if it be
of its best citizens, and your own fair the will of Heaven, that the recurrence
fame, to retrace your steps. Snatch from of its primeval curse on man for the
the archives of your State the disorgan- shedding of a brother s blood should fall
izing edict of its convention; bid its upon our land, that it be not called down
members to reassemble, and promulgate by an offensive act on the part of the
the decided expressions of your will to United States.

remain in the path which alone can con- Fellow - citizens, the momentous case
duct you to safety, prosperity, and honor, is before you. On your undivided sup-
Tell them that, compared to disunion, all port of your government depends the de-
other evils are light, because that brings cision of the great question it involves,
with it an accumulation of all. Declare whether your sacred Union will be pre-
that you will never take the field unless served, and the blessings it secures to us
the star-spangled banner of your country as one people shall be perpetuated. No
shall float over you; that you will not one can doubt that the unanimity with
be stigmatized when dead, and dishonored which that decision will be expressed will
and scorned while you live, as the au- be such as to inspire new confidence in
thovs of the first attack on the Constitu- republican institutions, and that the pru-

109

JACKSON

dence, the wisdom, and the courage which camped around Lawrence, Kan., where he

it will bring to their defence will trans- took measures to prevent a legal polling

mit them unimpaired and invigorated to of votes at an election for members of

our children. the territorial legislature,- late in March.

May the Great Ruler of nations grant His followers threatened to hang a judge

that the signal blessings with which He who attempted to secure an honest vote,

has favored ours may not, by the madness and by threats compelled another to re-

of party or personal ambition, be disre- ceive every vote offered by a Missourian.

garded and lost; and may His wise Provi- When the Civil War broke out, Jackson

dence bring those who have produced this made strenuous efforts to place Missouri

crisis to see their folly before they feel on the side of secession, but was foiled

the misery of civil strife, and inspire a re- chiefly through the efforts of Gen. Na-

turning veneration for that Union which, thaniel Lyon. He was deposed by the

if we may dare to penetrate His designs, Missouri State convention, in July, 1861,

He has chosen as the only means of attain- when he entered the Confederate military

ing the high destinies to which we may service as a brigadier-general. He died

reasonably aspire. in Little Rock, Ark., Dec. 6, 1862.

In testimony whereof, I have caused the Jackson, FRANCIS, social reformer;

seal of the United States to be hereunto born in Newton, Mass., March 7, 1789;

affixed, having signed the same with my president of the Anti-Slavery Society in

hand. Boston for many years. He published a

Done at the city of Washington, this History of Newton, and died there Nov.

10th day of December, in the year of our 14, 1861.

Lord one thousand eight hundred and Jackson, FRANCIS JAMES, British min-

thirty-two, and of the independence of the ister to the United States, who succeeded

United States the fifty-seventh. David M. Erskine in 1809. An experi-

Jackson, CHARLES THOMAS, geologist; enced diplomatist, he had lately figured

born in Plymouth, Mass., June 21, 1805; discreditably in the affair of the seizure

graduated at Harvard in 1829, and after- of the Danish fleet by British men-of-war

wards studied in Paris. He was appoint- at Copenhagen. He had become known as

ed State geologist of Maine and surveyor " Copenhagen Jackson," whose conduct did

of public lands in 1836, and of Rhode Isl- not commend him to the good-will of the

and in 1839; and subsequently was engaged people of the United States. The impres-

on the geological survey of New Hamp- sion was that he had come with explana-

shire; explored the southern shore of Lake tions of the cause of the rejection of

Superior in 1844; and was appointed to Erskine s arrangement. The Secretary of

survey the mineral lands of Michigan in State, finding he had nothing to offer, ad-

1847. He is author of a large number of dressed Jackson in a letter in which a tone

reports on the geology of Maine, New of discontent was conspicuous, declaring

Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, the surprise and regret of the President

etc. He claimed to be the discoverer of that he had no explanations to offer as to

etherization, and received the Montyon the non-ratification of the Erskine ar-

prize from the French Academy of rangement, or authority to substitute any

Sciences. He died in Somerville, Mass., new arrangement for it. The object of the

Aug. 28, 1880. letter, probably, was to draw out from

Jackson, CLAIBORNE Fox, statesman; Jackson an explicit admission, as a basis

born in Fleming county, Ky., April 4, for an appeal to the nation, that he had

1807; became conspicuous as a leader no authority to treat except upon the

in the efforts of pro-slavery men to make ground of Canning s three conditions

Kansas a slave-labor State. In 1822 he namely, 1. The repealing as to Great

went to Missouri; was a captain in the Britain, but the keeping in force as to

Black Hawk War; served several years in France, and all countries adopting her

the State legislature; and was elected gov- decrees, so long as these decrees were con-

ernor of Missouri by the Democrats in tinned, all American non-importation and

1860. In 1855 he led a band of lawless non-intercourse acts; 2. The renunciation

men from Missouri, who, fully armed, en- by the United States, during the present

110

JACKSON

war, of any pretensions to carry on any government. In 1883, while a special
trade with the colonies of belligerents not commissioner to inquire into the circum-
allowed in time of peace; and 3. The allow- stances of the Mission Indians of Call
ing British ships-of-war to enforce, by fornia, she studied the history of the early
caj ture, the American non-intercourse acts Spanish missions, and a short time prior
wi\.h France and her allies. Jackson de- to her death she wrote the President a
clared that the rejection of that part of letter pathetically asking for the " right-
the arrangement of Erskine relating to ing of the wrongs of the Indian race."
the affair of the Chesapeake and Leopard Her works include Verses; Bits of Travel;
was owing partly to the offensive terms Nelly s Silver-Mine; The Story of Boone;
employed in the American note to Erskine A Century of Dishonor; Mammy Little-
concerning it. This note had offended the back and her Family; Ramona; Glimpses
old monarch, with whom Admiral Berkeley of Three Coasts; Hetty s Strange History,
was a favorite. In it Secretary Smith and others. She died in San Francisco,
said, April 17, 1809: " I have it in express Cal., Aug. 12, 1885.

charge from the President to state that, Jackson, HENRY BOOTES, military offi-
while he forbears to insist on a further cer; born in Athens, Ga., June 24, 1820;
punishment of the offending officer, he is graduated at Yale College in 1839, and
not the less sensible of the justice and admitted to the bar in 1840, when he
utility of such an example, nor the less settled in Savannah. He was appointed
persuaded that it would best comport with United States district attorney for
what is due from his Britannic Majesty Georgia in 1843. During the Mexican
to his own honor." Jackson s manner was War he was colonel of the 1st Georgia
offensive. He had an unbounded admira- Volunteers. At the close of the war he
tion for the government he represented, became part proprietor of The Georgian,
and a profound contempt for the Ameri- in Savannah. In 1853 he was sent to the
cans as an inferior people. He treated the Court of Austria as the United States
officers of the United States government charge d affaires. In 1854-58 he was
with the same haughty bearing that he did minister to Austria. Returning to the
those of weak and bleeding Denmark, and, United States he was commissioned a
after one or two personal interviews, Sec- special United States district attorney for
retary Smith refused to have any further Georgia, to aid in trying notorious slave-
intercourse with him except in writing, trading cases. When the Civil War broke
The insolent diplomat was offended, and out he entered the Confederate army with
wrote an impudent letter to the Secretary, the rank of brigadier-general. During the
He was informed that no more communi- battle of Nashville, in December, 18G4, he
cations would be received from him, when was taken prisoner, and was held till the
Jackson, disappointed and angry, left close of the war. Returning to Savannah
Washington with every member of the he resumed law practice. In 1875-88 he
diplomatic family, and retired to New was a trustee of the Peabody Educational
York. The United States government re- Fund. In 1885 he was appointed minister
quested his recall, and early in 1810 he to Mexico, but served only a few months,
was summoned to England. No other owing to his opposition to the govern-
minister was sent to the United States for ment in seizing the American ship Re-
about a year. becca. He published Tallulah, and other
Jackson, HELEN MARIA FISKE, author; Poems. He died in Savannah, Ga., May
born in Amherst, Mass., Oct. 18, 1831; 23, 1898.

daughter of Prof. Nathan W. Fiske; was Jackson, HOWEIX EDMUNDS, jurist;

educated in the Ipswich Female Semi- born in Paris, Tenn., April 8, 1832; grad-

nary; married Capt. Edward B. Hunt in uated at the West Tennessee College in

1852. She first became known as an au- 1848; admitted to the bar in 1856; elected

thor under the letters " H. H." in 1875, United States Senator from Tennessee in

when she married William S. Jackson. 1881, but resigned in 1886, when he was

In 1879 she became deeply interested in appointed United States district judge by

the condition of the American Indians and President Cleveland ; appointed justice of

their treatment by the United States the United States Supreme Court in 1893.

Ill

JACKSON

He died in West Meade, Tenn., Aug. 8, Harvard College in 1761; held a seat in
1895. the Provincial Congress in 1775; was

Jackson, JAAIES, military officer; born United States marshal in 1789-91. He
in Devonshire, England, Sept. 21, 1757; wrote Thoughts upon the Political Situa-
removed to Savannah, Ga., in 1772; stud- tion of the United States. He died in
ied law; entered the military service; Boston, Mass., March 5, 1810.
and was brigade-major of the Georgia Jackson, SHELDON, clergyman; born
militia in 1778. He took part in the in Minaville, N. Y., May 18, 1834; gradu-
defence of Savannah; and, when the Brit- ated at Union College in 1855, and at
ish seized it at the close of 1778, he fled Princeton Theological Seminary in 1858,
to South Carolina, where he joined Gen- and was ordained a minister in the
eral Moultrie. His appearance was so Presbyterian Church on May 5 of the lat-
wretched while in his flight, that he was ter year. The same year he went as a
arrested, tried, and condemned as a spy, missionary to the Choctaw Indians. In
and was about to be executed, when a 1859-69 he was engaged in missionary
reputable citizen of Georgia, who knew work in western Wisconsin and southern
him, saved him. Jackson fought a duel Minnesota; in 1869-70 was superintend
ent of the Presbyterian missions in
western Iowa, Nebraska, and the Rocky
Mountain Territories; and in 1877 became
superintendent of the Presbyterian mis
sions in Alaska. In 1885 he was ap
pointed United States general agent of
education for the Territory of Alaska.
In 1887 he organized at Sitka the Alaskan
Society of Natural History and Ethnol
ogy; in 1884 induced Congress to grant
a district organization to Alaska; in 1891
introduced reindeer into that region; and
in 1898 was authorized to secure a colony
of Laplanders for Alaska. He was sev
eral times a commissioner to the general
assembly of the Presbyterian Church,
and moderator in 1897. He gave $50,000
to establish a Christian college in Utah
in 1896. He is a member of the National

in March, 1780, with Lieutenant-Governor Geographical Society, and many other
Wells, killing his antagonist, and being similar organizations. His publications
severely wounded himself. He joined Col. include Alaska and Missions on the
Elijah Clarke, and became aide to Sum- North Pacific Coast; Education in
ter. With Pickens he shared in the vie- Alaska, and elaborate reports on Alaska
tory at the Cowpens. He afterwards did in the annual reports of the United States
good service as commander of a legionary Commissioner of Education,
corps, and was presented with a dwelling Jackson, THOMAS JONATHAN, military
in Savannah by the Georgia legislature, officer; born in Clarksburg, Va., Jan. 21,
In 1786 he was made brigadier-general, 1824; graduated at West Point in 1840,
and in 1788 was elected governor of entering the 2d Artillery; served in
Georgia, but the latter office he declined, the war with Mexico; was brevetted
From 1789 to 1791 he was a member of captain and major; and resigned in 1852
Congress, and from 1793 to 1795, and with health impaired, becoming profess-
from 1801 to 1806, United States Senator, or in the Military Institute at Lexing-
From 1798 to 1801 he was governor of ton, Va. He entered the Confederate ser-
the State. He died in Washington, D. C., vice, as colonel, in April, 1861, and corn-
March 12, 1806. manded the "Army of Observation" at
Jackson, JONATHAN, patriot; born in Harper s Ferry. His first engagement was
Boston, Mass., June 4, 1743; graduated at at Falling Waters. Jackson commanded

112

JAMES JACKSON.

JACKSON JACKSON AND ST. PHILIP

THOMAS J. ("STONEWALL") JACKSOX.

a brigade in the battle of Bull Run, where orphan, at an early age ; at the breaking
he received the name of " Stonewall." A out of the Revolutionary War he entered
furious charge, made by a New York regi- the military service. He finally became

aide to General Lincoln, and was made a
prisoner at Charleston in 1780. He was
secretary to Col. John Laurens, special
minister to France, and was in Washing
ton s military family as aide, with the
rank of major. Jackson was assistant
Secretary of War under Washington, and
was secretary to the convention that
framed the national Constitution in 1787.
From 1789 to 1792 he was aide and private
secretary to President Washington ; from
17!) 6 to 1801 was surveyor of the port of
Philadelphia, and was secretary to the
General Society of the Cincinnati. He
died in Philadelphia, Dec. 17, 1828.

Jackson and St. Philip, FORTS, two
fortifications on the Mississippi River,
57 miles southeast of New Orleans, which
command the lower approach to that
city. Both were strongly fortified by the
ment, under Col. Henry W. Slocum, had Confederates in the early part of the
shattered the Confederate line, and the Civil War, and were passed by the fleet
troops had fled to a plateau whereon Gen- under Farragut, April 24, 1862.
eral Jackson had just arrived
with reserves. " They are
beating us back!" exclaimed
Gen. Bernard E. Bee. "Well,
sir," replied Jackson, " we will
give them the bayonet." Bee
was encouraged. " Form !
form!" he cried to the fugi
tives ; " there stands Jackson
like a stone wall." The effect
of these words was wonderful.
The flight was checked, order
was brought out of confusion,
and ever afterwards the calm
general was called " Stone
wall." He attained the rank
of lieutenant-general, and was
accidentally shot by his own
men, while reconnoitring dur
ing the battle of Chancel-
lorsville; and, from his
wounds, and a sudden at
tack of pneumonia, he
died in Guinea Station,
Va., May 10, 1863.

Jackson, WILLIAM,
military officer; born in
Cumberland, England,
March 9, 1759; was taken
to Charleston, S. C., an
V H

GRATE OK THOMAS J. JACKSON.

113

JACOB JACOBI

Although Farragut had passed these
forts, and the Confederate flotilla had
been destroyed, the fortifications were still
lirmly held. The mortar-fleet under Por
ter was below them. General Butler, who
had accompanied the gunboats on their
perilous passage on the Sa-xon, had re
turned to his transports, and in small
boats his troops, under the general pilot
age of Gen. Godfrey Weitzel, passed
through bayous to the rear of Fort St.
Philip. When he was prepared to assail
it, the garrison was surrendered without

cer; born in Oldham county, Ky., in 1825;
went to California in 1846, where he aided
Gen. John C. Fremont in conquering that
section. In 18(12 he recruited a regiment
of 1,244 cavalry at Eminence, Ky. ; in
1803 became lieutenant-governor of Ken
tucky. He was strongly opposed to Presi
dent Lincoln s emancipation proclamation,
holding that it not only deprived those
loyal citizens who owned slaves of their
property, but it was unjust to the friends
of the Union.

Jacobi, MARY PUTNAM, physician; born

FORTS JACKSON AND ST. PHILIP AND ENVIRONS.

resistance (April 28), for they had heard in London, England, Aug. 31, 1842;

of the destruction of the Confederate flo- daughter of George P. Putnam, of New

tilla. The commander of Fort Jackson, York. She studied in the Philadelphia

fearing that all was lost, accepted gener- Medical College for Women, and grad-

ous terms of surrender from Commodore uated at the New York College of Phar-

Porter. The prisoners taken in the forts macy. She was the first woman ma-

and at the quarantine numbered about triculated at the Ecole de Medecine, in

1,000. The entire loss of the Nationals Paris, France, where she graduated in

from the beginning of the contest until 1871. For twelve years she was the dis-

New Orleans was taken was forty killed pensary physician at the Mount Sinai

and 177 wounded. See NEW ORLEANS. Hospital, and for ten years was professor

Jacob, RICHARD TAYLOR, military offi- in the Woman s Medical College, both in

114

JACOBS JAMES I.

New York. Her essay, The Question of maica, which they easily took possession

Rest for Women during Menstruation, of, for it was inhabited by only a few of

won the Boylston prize. She is the au- the enervated descendants of old Spanish

thor of The Value of Life; Cold Pack and colonists and some negro slaves. Winslow

Massage in Anwrnia; Hysteria; Brain died at sea soon after the repulse at Santo

Tumor, and other Essays; Studies in Pri- Domingo, and Sedgwick, of Massachu-

mary Education; Common-Sense Applied setts, was put in his place. He framed an

to Woman Suffrage; and numerous articles instrument of government for Jamaica,

in medical periodicals. having a supreme executive council, of

Jacobs, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, philan- which he was the head. Cromwell, anx-
tliropist; born in Paterson, N. J., Sept. ious to retain and people the island with
18, 1834; received a liberal education; subjects of Great Britain, ordered the en-
and engaged in business in Chicago in listment in Ireland of 1,000 girls and
1854. At an early age he became deep- young men, and sent them over. " Idle,
ly interested in Sunday-school work. In masterless robbers and vagabonds, male
1856 he was superintendent of the First and female," were arrested and sent to
Baptist Mission Sunday-school of Chi- Jamaica; and to have a due admixture of
cago, and in 1864 director of the First good morals and religion in the new col-
Baptist Sunday Choir. During the Civil ony, Cromwell sent agents to New Eng-
War he was secretary of the northwestern land for emigrants. Many at New Haven,
branch of the United States Christian not prospering at home, were disposed to
Commission. He founded the Waif s go, but, the magistrates opposing, few
Mission in Chicago, and with others or- went. The island was of great commercial
ganized the Immanuel Baptist Church importance when the outbreak between the
there in 1881, becoming supei intendent of English-American colonies and the mother
its Sunday-school. He originated the country occurred. In December its legis-
International Sunday-school Lessons which lature interposed. They affirmed the rights
are used now by all evangelical denom- of the colonies, enumerated their griev-
inations. In 1872 he became a member ances, and, enforcing their claims to re-
of the international lesson committee, dress, implored the King to become the
For several years he has been chairman mediator for peace, and to recognize the
of the executive committee of the Inter- title of the Americans to the benefits of
national Sunday-school Association. the English constitution. They disclaimed

Jacobs, HENRY EYSTER, theologian; any intention of joining the American con-
born in Gettysburg, Pa., Nov. 10, 1844; federated colonies, for they were too weak,
graduated at Pennsylvania College in 1862, being only a small colony of white inhab-
and at the Lutheran Theological Seminary, itants, with more than 200,000 slaves.
Gettysburg, in 1865; became Professor of Their petition was received by the King,
Systematic Theology at the Lutheran but no heed was given to it.
Theological Seminary in 1888. He is the James I., King of England, etc.;
author of History of the Lutheran Church born in Edinburgh Castle, June 19, 1566;
in America; The German Emigration to son of Mary Queen of Scots and Henry
America, 1709-40, etc. Lord Darnley. Of him Charles Dickens

Jamaica, CONQUEST OF. When Crom- writes: "He was ugly, awkward, and

well had made peace with the Dutch shuffling, both in mind and person. His

(1654) he declared war against Spain, tongue was much too large for his mouth,

and sent a fleet under Admiral Penn and his legs were much too weak for his body,

an army under General Venables to attack and his dull google-eyes stared and rolled

the Spanish West Indies. Edward Winslow like an idiot s. He was cunning, covet-

went with the fleet as one of Cromwell s ous, wasteful, idle, drunken, greedy, dirty,

commissioners to superintend the con- cowardly, a great swearer, and the most

quered countries. By volunteers from conceited man on earth. His figure what

Barbadoes and the Leeward Islands the was commonly called rickety from his

army was increased to 10,000. Santo Do- birth presented the most ridiculous ap-

mingo was first attacked. The English pearance that can be imagined, dressed

were repulsed, and then proceeded to Ja- in thick - padded clothes, as a safeguard

115

JAMES I.

against being stabbed (of which he lived
in constant fear), of a grass-green color
from head to foot, with a hunting horn
dangling at his side instead of a sword,
and his hat and feather sticking over one
eye or hanging on the back of his head,
as he happened to toss it on. He used to

JAMES I.

loll on the necks of his favorite courtiers,
and slobber their faces, and kiss and pinch
their cheeks; and the greatest favorite he
ever had used to sign himself, in his let
ters to his royal master, his Majesty s
dog and slave. He was the worst rider
ever seen, and thought himself the best.
He was one of the most impertinent talkers
(of the broadest Scotch) ever heard, and
boasted of being unanswerable in all man
ner of argument. He wrote some of the
most turgid and most wearisome treaties
ever read among others, a book upon
witchcraft, in which he was a devout be
liever and thought himself a prodigy of
authorship. He thought, and said, that a
king had a right to make and unmake
what laws he pleased, and ought to be ac
countable to nobody on earth. This is the
plain, true character of the personage
whom the greatest men about the Court
praised and flattered to that degree that I
doubt if there be anything more shameful
in the annals of human nature!" James
was the sixth King of Scotland of that
name, and came to the throne of Eng

land, after experiencing many vicissitudes,
March 24, 1603.

He was regarded as a " Presbyterian
king," and the Puritans expected not only
the blessings of toleration and protection
for themselves, but even hope for suprem
acy among the religionists of the realm.
Soon after his accession, James called a
conference of divines at Hampton Court.
He was chief actor at that conference, in
the role of " brute and mountebank."
Some of the Puritan divines ranked
among the brightest scholars in the land.
They were greatly annoyed by the coarse
browbeating of the bishop of London and
the coarser jests of the King. The ven
erable Archbishop Whitgift was present,
and bent the supple knee of the courtier
in the presence of royalty. When the
vulgar King said to the Puritan ministers,
" You want to strip Christ again ; away
with your snivelling," and much more to
that effect, Whitgift, the primate, ex
claimed, " Your Majesty speaks by the
special assistance of God s spirit." And
the bishop of London fell upon his knees
and said, "I protest my heart melts
within me for joy that Almighty God, of
His singular mercy, has given us such a
King as, since Christ s time, has not been."
This was the beginning of those royal and
prelatical revilings and persecutions of the
Puritans by the Stuarts and the hier
archy which drove the Puritans, in large
numbers, to seek asylum in the wilds of
North America.

The King s gross, ill manners and bad
personal appearance made an unfavor
able impression on the English people.
He had trouble with Parliament and
with the religionists of his realm from
the beginning of his reign. Glad to
get rid of troublesome subjects, he read
ily granted charters for settlements in
America; and in 1612 two "heretics"
w r ere burned in England, the last exe
cution of that kind that occurred in
that country. His son Henry, Prince of
Wales, died the same year, and his daugh
ter Elizabeth was married to the Elector
Palatine in 1613. His treatment of Sir
Walter Raleigh, whom he caused to be
beheaded (October, 1618), was disgrace
ful to human nature; his foreign policy,
also, was disgraceful to the English name.
Fickle, treacherous, conceited, and arbi-

116

JAMES II. JAMES

trary, his whole life was an example to be
avoided by the good. Dickens s portrayal
of his personal character is a fair picture
of his reign so far as the King was con
cerned. It was during that reign that a
new translation of the Bible was author
ized (1004) the English version yet in
use. The Duke of Buckingham was
James s special favorite for a long time;
and he and the Queen were suspected of
causing the King s last illness, by poison.
James II., King of England; born in
St. James s Palace, London, Oct. 14, 1633;
son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria.
During the civil war, in which his father
lost his head, James and his brother
Gloucester and sister Elizabeth were un
der the guardianship of the Duke of
Northumberland, and lived in the palace.
When the overthrow of monarchy ap
peared inevitable, in 1648, he fled to
the Netherlands, with his mother
and family, and he was in Paris
when Charles I. was beheaded. He
entered the French service (1651),
and then the Spanish (1655), and
was treated with much consideration
by the Spaniards. His brother as
cended the British throne in 1660 as
Charles II., and the same year James
married Anne Hyde, daughter of the
Earl of Clarendon. She died in
1671, and two years a.fterwards,
James married Maria Beatrice Elea
nor, a princess of the House of Este,
of Modena, twenty-five years younger
than himself. While in exile James
had become a Roman Catholic, but
did not acknowledge it until 1671.
He had become a commander in the
British navy, but the test - act of
1673 caused him to leave all public
employments. Being sent to Scot
land as head of the administration
there, he treated the Covenanters
with great cruelty. When Charles
died, James became King (Feb. 6,
1685). The prime object of his ad
ministration was to overthrow the
constitution of England and give the
control of the nation to Roman
Catholics. His rule was vigorous often
times tyrannous and in less than three
years almost the whole of his subjects
detested him. The foreign policy of
the government was made subservient to

that of France. Finally, the announce
ment that the Queen had given birth
to a son brought on a political crisis.
The people had been restrained from revo
lution by the belief that the government
would soon fall into the hands of his eld
est daughter, who had married the Prot
estant Prince William of Orange. Now
that event seemed remote, and William
was invited by leading men of the realm
to invade England. He did so in Novem
ber, 1688, when the King \vas abandoned
by every one but the Roman Catholics
even by his daughter Anne, who was after
wards Queen of England. James fled to
France, where he was received by Louis
XIV. with open arms. He made efforts to
regain his kingdom, but failed, and died
in St. Germain, France, Sept. 6, 1701.

JAMES II.

James, BENJAMIN, lawyer; born in
Stafford county, Va., April 22, 1768; be
came a lawyer and practised in Charles
ton, S. C., till 1796. Removed to his
native place and followed his profession
17

JAMES

till 1808, when he settled permanently in press on engrossing questions of the day.

Laurens district, S. C. He published Since 1869 he has lived chiefly in England.

Digest of the Statute and Common Law His publications include Trans-Atlantic

of Carolina. He died in Laurens district, Sketches (1875) ; A Passionate Pilgrim;

S. C., Nov. 15, 1825. The American; The Europeans; An Inter-

James, EDMUND JANES, educator; born national Episode; The Siege of London;
in Jacksonville, 111., May 21, 1855; was The Bostonians; Poor Richard; Watch
educated at the Illinois State Normal and Ward; Life of Haivthorne; A Little
School and at the Northwestern and Har- Tour in France; A London Life; The
vard universities. In 1878-79 he was Tragic Muse; The Lesson of the Master;
principal of the High School at Evanston, Embarrassments; Tales of Three Cities;
111.; in 1879-82 principal of the Model Essays in London and Elsewhere; The
High School at Normal, 111.; and in 1883- Wheel of Time; What Maisie Knew, etc.
95 Professor of Public Finance and Ad- James, HENRY AMMON, lawyer; born in
ministration in the Wharton School of Baltimore, Md., April 24, 1854; graduated
Finance and Economy of the University of at Yale College in 1874, and at its law
Pennsylvania. He was also Professor of school in 1878; began practice in New
Political and Social Science in the Univer- York City in 1880. He is the author of
sity of Pennsylvania in 1884-95, and Communism in America.
editor of Political Economy and Public James, LEWIS GEORGE, historian; born
Economy and Public Law Series, publish- in Providence, R. I., Feb. 19, 1844; grad
ed by the University of Pennsylvania, in uated at Providence High School; instruc-
1880-95. He became president of the tor in history in the Adelphia Academy,
American Academy of Political and Social Brooklyn, in 1894-95. He is the author
Science in 1889, and from 1890 to 1895 of Samuel Gorton, a Forgotten Founder
edited its Annals. In the latter year he of our Liberties, etc.

was made associate editor. In 1895 he James, THOMAS, clergyman; born in

was chosen Professor of Public Adminis- England in 1592; graduated at Cambridge

tration and director of the Extension in 1614; emigrated to the United States

Division in the University of Chicago. In in 1632, where he became the first pastor

1891-95 he was president of the American of the church in Charlestown, Mass. In

Society for the Extension of University consequence of dissension he removed to

Teaching. He is the author of Our Legal- New Haven and subsequently to Virginia,

Tender Decisions; The Education of Busi- but was obliged to leave Virginia as he

ness Men; The Relation of the Modern refused to conform to the English Church.

Municipality to the Gas Supply; and also He returned to New England in 1643, but

numerous papers and addresses on polit- went back to England, where he became

ical and educational topics. pastor of a church in Needham till 1662,

James, EDWIN, geologist; born in Wey- when he was removed for non-conformity

bridge, Vt., Aug. 27, 1797; graduated at after the accession of Charles II. He died

Middlebury College in 1816; and after- in England in 1678.

wards studied medicine, botany, and geol- James, THOMAS, navigator; born in

ogy in Boston. He is the author of a England about 1590. In 1631 he was

Report of the Expedition to the Rocky sent out by an association at Bristol to

Mountains, 1818-19; Narrative of John search for a northwest passage. With

Tanner, etc. He died in Burlington, la., twenty-one men, in the ship Henrietta

Oct. 28, 1861. Maria (named in honor of the Queen),

James, HENRY, author ; born in New he sailed May 3. On June 29 he spoke

York City, April 15, 1843; was educated in the ship of Capt. Luke Fox, who had been

France, Switzerland, and in the Harvard sent on the same errand by the King, and

Law School. His literary career opened furnished with a letter to the Emperor

in 1866. A year or two later he began of Japan, if he should find that country,

writing serial stories, but produced no ex- Neither James nor Fox discovered the cov-

tended novel till 1875. He has since been eted " passage," but the former made valu-

a prolific writer, not only of novels but able discoveries in Hudson Bay. James

also of contributions to the periodical was a man of science, and in his Journal

118

JAMES JAMESTOWN

he recorded his observations on rarities he History at the University of Chicago. He
had discovered, " both philosophicall and is the author of William Usselinx, Found-
mathematical!. " James and his crew suf- er of the Dutch and Swedish West India
fered terribly, for they passed a winter in Companies ; History of Historical Writing
those high latitudes, and returned in in America; Dictionary of United States
1632. In the following year he published History, etc. He is also the editor of Es-
The Strange and Dangerous Voyage of says on Constitutional History of the
Capt. Thomas James for the Discovery of United States; and The Correspondence of
a Northicest Passage to the South Sea. John C. Calhoun.

James, THOMAS LEMUEL, journalist; Jamestown. On May 13, 1G07, more
born in Utica, N. Y., March 29, 1831; than 100 Englishmen landed on a slightly
proprietor of the Madison County Jour- elevated peninsula on the left bank of
nal, published at Hamilton, N. Y., 1851- the " River of Powhatan," Virginia, 40
61; took an active interest in politics, or 50 miles from its mouth; chose the
serving the State and nation in various spot for the capital of a new colony;
capacities; was appointed postmaster of cleared the trees from the ground; and
New York City in 1873; Postmaster-Gen- began the building of a village, which, in
eral, March 6, 1881; and resigned in 1882, compliment to their King (James I.),
when he organized and became president they named Jamestown. They also gave
of the Lincoln National Bank, New York his name to the river. The spot is more
City. of an island than a peninsula, for the

James, WILLIAM, psychologist; born in marshy isthmus that connects it with the
New York City, Jan. 11, 1842; was edu- mainland is often covered with water. The
cated in private schools and at the Law- Rev. Robert Hunt, the pastor of the col-
rence Scientific School. In 1872 he became ony, preached a sermon and invoked the
Professor of Philosophy at Harvard Uni- blessings of God upon their undertaking,
versity. He is the author of Principles Then, in the warm sunshine, and among
of Psychology; Psychology: Briefer the shadowy woods and the delicious per-
Course; The Will to Believe, and other fume of flowers, the sound of the metal
Essays in Popular
Philosophy. He
was appointed Gif-
ford lecturer on
natural religion
in the University
of Edinburgh for
1899-1901.

Jameson, JOHN
FRANKLIN, educa
tor; born in Bos
ton, Sept. 19,
1859; graduated
at Amherst in
1879. In 1895,
when the American
Historical Review
was founded, he
became its man
aging editor. In
the same year,

when the Historical Manuscript Commis- axe was first heard in Virginia. Th&lt;&gt;
sion was instituted, he was made its first tree was felled for a dwelling on the-
chairman, and served as such till 1899. spot first settled, permanently, by English-
He was Professor of History at Brown men in America. The Indians were at
University in 1888-1900. In the latter first hostile, and the settlement built a
year he accepted a call to the chair of stockade. Their first church edifice there

119

THE ARRIVAL AT JAMESTOWN.

JAMESTOWN

was very simple. " When I first went like a barn " was burned while Captain
to Virginia," says Captain Smith, " I Smith was a prisoner among the Indians,
Well remember we did hang an awning and he found the settlers building a house
(which was an old sail) to three or four for the president of the council. When,

not long after, he was installed in
that office, he ordered the " building
of the palace to be stayed, as a thing
needless/ and the church to be re
built at once.

Commissioners under the new
charter arrived at Jamestown in
the spring of 1610. Of the 490
persons left there by Smith the
previous autumn, only sixty remain
ed alive. They had refused to fol
low the admonitions of Smith to
provide food for the winter, bvit
relied upon the neighboring Indians
to supply them. When Smith de
parted, the Indians showed hostility
and withheld corn and game. They
matured a plan for the destruction
of the settlers at Jamestown, when
POCAHONTAS ( q. v.) , like an angel of
mercy, hastened to the settlement un
der cover of darkness, warned them
of their danger, put them on their
guard, and saved them. Terrible had
been the sufferings of the colonists
through the winter. More than 400
had perished by famine and sickness
in the space of six months. It was
long after referred to by the sur
vivors as " the starving time." The
settlers were in the depths of despair
when the commissioners arrived. Sir
Thomas Gates, who was acting gov
ernor, saw no other way to save the

trees to shadow us from the sun ; our lives of the starving men than to abandon
walls were rails of wood, our seats un- the settlement, sail to Newfoundland, and
hewed trees, till we cut planks; our pul- distribute them among the fishermen
pit a bar of wood nailed to two neighbor- there. They were embarked in four pin
ing trees; in foul weather we shifted naces, but, at dawn, they met Lord Dela-
into an old, rotten tent, for we had few ware, with ships, supplies, and emigrants,
better. . . . This was our church till at the mouth of the river. All turned
we built a homely thing, like a barn, set back and, landed at deserted Jamestown,
upon crotchets, covered with rafts, sedge, they stood in silent prayer and thanks-
and earth; so were also the walls. The giving on the shore, and then followed
best of our houses were of the like curios- Rev. Mr. Buckle (who had succeeded Mr.
ity, but, for the most part, of far worse Hunt) to the church, where he preached
workmanship, that could neither well de- a sermon in the evening twilight. The
fend wind nor rain. Yet we had daily congregation sang anthems of praise, and
common prayer morning and evening, were listened to by crouching savages in
every Sunday two sermons, and every the adjacent woods. In that little chapel
three months communion till our minister at Jamestown Pocahontas was baptized
died." The church " the homely thing, and married a few years later. The fire

120

MAP OP JAMESTOWN SETTLEMKNT.
(From Capt. John Smith s Historic of Virginia.)

THE BURNING OF JAMESTOWN

JAMESTOWN

that consumed the first church also de
stroyed a large portion of the town
and surrounding palisades. There seems
to have been another destructive fire
there afterwards, for Smith, speaking
of the arrival of Governor Argall, in
1617, says: "In Jamestown he found
but five or six houses, the church down,
the palisades broken, the bridge [across
the marsh] in pieces, the well of fresh
water spoiled, and the storehouse used

colony was 4,000 strong and shipped to
England 40,000 pounds of tobacco. This
was raised with the aid of many bound
apprentices boys and girls picked up in
the streets of London and sent out and
of many " disorderly persons " sent by
order of the King."

Suddenly a great calamity overtook the
colony. Powhatan was dead, and his suc
cessor, OPECHANCANOUGH ( q. v. ) , always
hostile, planned a blow for the extermina-

ARRIVAL OF THE YOUNG WOMEN AT JAMESTOWN.

for a church." In the same year Smith s tion of the white people. It fell with

Generall Historie recalls a statement by terrible force late in March, 1622, and

John Rolfe: "About the last of August eighty plantations were reduced to eight,

came a Dutch man-of-war and sold us The settlers at Jamestown escaped the

20 Negars." A more desirable acces- calamity through the good offices of

sion came in 1621 through the ship- Chanco, a friendly Indian, who gave them

ment by the company of " respectable timely warning of the plot, and they were

young women for wives of those colonists prepared for defence. Jamestown became

who would pay the cost of transports- a refuge from the storm for the western

tion " at first 120 Ibs. of tobacco, af- settlements: Sickness and famine en-

terwards 150 Ibs. In July, 1620, the sued, and the -colony was greatly reduced

121

JAMESTOWN JANNEY

.- .. " 7~ \ \ ff -"-

^ - \J - - --"

-. "-ri _- V" ; r . . .- -. -^ry

JAMESTOWN IN 1622.

in number, for many left through fear, having reached Bacon that the royalist

It soon recovered, and increased in troops were coming upon him. The torch

strength. A new and substantial church was applied just at twilight, and the Vir-

was built, with a heavy brick tower, prob- ginia capital was laid in ashes. Nothing

ably between 1620 and 1625. During Ba- remained the next morning but the brick

JAMESTOWN IS 1902.

con s Rebellion, in 1G7C, Jamestown "the tower of the church and a few solitary

only village in all Virginia " was entered chimneys.

by that leader, after driving away the Janney, SAMUEL MACPiiERSON, author;

governor, and, in a council of war it was born in Loudon county, Va., Jan. 11, 1801;

determined to burn the town, a rumor became a Quaker preacher; was appointed

122

JANVIER JABBOE

a superintendent of Indian affairs in 18G9. In February, 1854, he returned to the

His publications include An Historical Bay of Jeddo, and finally effected a land-

Sketch of the Christian Church (luriny the ing and commenced negotiations, which

Middle Ages; Life of William Penn; His- were happily successful. The treaty then

tory of the Religious Society of Friends made stipulated that ports should be

from Its Rise to the Year 1828, etc. He thrown open to American commerce, to a

died in London county, Va., April 30, limited extent, in different Japanese isl-

1880. ands; that steamers from California to

Janvier, THOMAS ALLIBONE, author; China should be furnished with supplies
born in Philadelphia, Pa., July 16, 1849. of coal; and that American sailors ship-
He is the author of The Aztec Treasure- wrecked on the Japanese coasts should re-
House; In Old New York; Stories of Old ceive hospitable treatment. So Japan was
New Spain, etc. first opened to friendly relations with the

Japan and the United. States. Japan, Americans. Before this treaty the Dutch
like China, had always been a sort of seal- had monopolized the trade of Japan. Sub-
ed kingdom to the commerce of the world, sequently a peculiar construction of the
The foundation of the States of California treaty on the part of the Japanese au-
and Oregon, on the Pacific coast, suggest- thorities, in relation to the permanent
ed the great importance of commercial residence of Americans there, threatened
intercourse with Japan, because of the a disturbance of the amicable relations
intimate relations which must soon exist which had been established. The matter
between that coast and the East Indies, was adjusted, and in I860 the first em-
This consideration caused an expedition bassy from Japan visited the United
to be fitted out by the United States gov- States. It was an imposing array of Jap-
ernment in the summer of 1852 to carry anese officials. There was great opposi-
a letter from the President (Mr. Fill- tion in the empire to this intercourse with
more) to the Emperor of Japan soliciting "the barbarians." Civil war ensued. A
the negotiation of a treaty of friendship rapid change now marked public opinion
and commerce between the two nations, i Japan in regard to foreigners; and
by which the ports of the latter should be from that time the intimate relations, so-
thrown open to American A^essels for pur- cial and commercial, between the United
poses of trade. For this expedition seven States and Japan have constantly in-
ships-of-war were employed. They were creased, with results wonderfully bene-
placed under the command of Commodore ficial to both countries. Early in 1872 the
M. C. Perry, a brother of the victor on government of Japan sent another embas-
Lake Erie. The diplomatic portion of the sy to the United States, this one charged
mission was also intrusted to Commodore to inquire about the renewal of former
Perry. He did not sail until November, treaties. It consisted of twenty-one per-
1852^ The letter which he bore to the Em- sons, composed of the heads of the several
peror was drafted by Mr. Webster before departments of the Japanese government
*his decease, but countersigned by Edward and their secretaries. Among them was
Everett, his successor in office. Perry an imperial prince Mori who came to
carried out many useful implements and represent Japan at Washington as charge
inventions as presents to the Japanese d affaires, and also twelve students. The
government, including a small railway mission arrived at Washington at the be-
and equipments, telegraph, etc. He was ginning of March, and Mori had the honor
instructed to approach the Emperor in the of being the first minister ever sent by
most friendly manner; to use no violence his government to reside in a foreign
unless attacked; but if attacked, to let country.

the Japanese feel the full weight of his Jarboe, JOHN W., inventor; born in

power. Perry delivered his letter of ere- 1830. He served through the Civil War

dence, and waited some months for an in the 71st New York Regiment, and was

answer, without being permitted to land later influential in securing the display

on the shores of the "empire. Meanwhile of the American flag over the public

he visited and surveyed the Loo Choo Isl- school-houses of the country. He was the

ands. inventor of a process of making house-

123

JAENAC JASPER

hold utensils from papier-mache and sev
eral articles employed in the manufacture
of sugar. He died in New York City,
June 30, 1901.

Jarnac, GASTOX Lovis DE, military offi
cer; born in Ango ilcme, France, in 1758;
served in the French army during the
Revolutionary War ; emigrated to the
United States in 1795; returned to France
in 1805, but, being obliged to leave the
country on account of his criticisms of
Napoleon, he again came to the United
States, where he took service under Jean
Lafitte, the Louisiana buccaneer. Jarnac
was killed by the Indians in Texas, in
1818.

Jarves, JAMES JACKSON, author; born
in Boston, Mass., Aug. 20, 1820; estab
lished the first newspaper printed in the
Hawaiian Islands, in 1840. In 1850 he
was appointed by King Kamehameha III.
commissioner to the United States, Great
Britain, and France, for the purpose of
negotiating treaties, and in 1879 United
States vice-consul in Florence, Italy.
Among his works are History of Hawaii;
Parisian Sights and French Principles
seen through American Spectacles; Italian
Sights, etc. He died in Terasp, Switzer
land, June 28, 1888.

Jasper, WILLIAM, military hero; born
in South Carolina, about 1750; became a

sergeant in the 2d South Carolina Regi
ment; and greatly distinguished himself
in the attack on Fort Sullivan, June 28,
1776, by the British fleet. During the
hottest of the attack the Sovith Carolina
flag that waved over the fort fell to the
ground outside the fort, its staff having
been cut in two by a cannon-ball. Ser
geant Jasper, seeing the flag fall, leaped
down from one of the embrasures, seized
the ensign, climbed back, fixed the colors
to a sponge-staff, mounted the parapet,
stuck the improvised flag-staff in the
sand of one of the bastions, and returned
to his place in the fort. A few days after
wards Governor Rutledge took his own
sword from his side and presented it to
Jasper. He also offered him a lieuten
ant s commission, which the young man
modestly declined, because he could
neither read nor write, saying, "I am not
fit to keep officers company; I am but a
sergeant." He was given a sort of roving
commission by Colonel Moultrie, and,
with five or six men, he often brought in
prisoners before his commander was
aware of his absence. An earnest Whig
lady of Charleston, Mrs. Susannah El
liot, presented Jasper s regiment with
a stand of colors wrought with her own
hands. They were shot down at the as
sault on Savannah (1779), and in trying

SERGEANT JASPKR RKPLACIXG THE COLORS.

124

JAY

to replace them on the parapet of a re- ization of the government under the
doubt, Jasper was mortally wounded, but national Constitution. Mr. Jay was as-
brought them off. He died Oct. 9, 1779. sociated with Hamilton and Madison in
Jay, JOHN, diplomatist; born in New writing the series of articles in support
York City, June 23, 1817; graduated at of the Constitution known collectively as
Columbia College in 1836; admitted to the The Federalist. Washington appointed
bar in 1839; appointed minister to Austria Jay the first chief-justice of the Supreme
in 1869; chairman of the committee to Court of the United States,
investigate the New York custom-house On April 7, 1794, a motion was made
in 1877; and member of the State civil in the House of Representatives that all
service in 1883. Mr. Jay was a prominent commercial intercourse with Great Brit-
abolitionist and author of a number of ain and her subjects be suspended, so far
pamphlets, among them are The Dignity of as respected all articles of the growth or
the Abolition Cause; The American Church manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland,
and the American Slave-Trade; The Great until the surrender of the Western posts
Conspiracy and England s Neutrality; and due compensation for all losses and
Caste and Slavery in the American damages growing out of British aggres-
Church; America Free, or America Slave, sions on our neutral rights should be
etc. He died in New York City, May 5, made. This motion, if adopted, would
1894. lead directly to w r ar. Its adoption seemed

Jay, JOHN, statesman; born in New probable, and Washington, to avert the
York City, Dec. 12, 1745; was of Hugue- calamitous consequences, proposed to send
not descent. Graduated at King s College a special minister to England to negotiate
(now Columbia University) in 1764, he an amicable settlement of the existing
was admitted to the bar in 1768, and disputes. There were grave charges of
formed a partnership with Robert R. Liv- violations of the treaty of 1783 made by
ingston. In 1774 he was a delegate in the the two parties against each other. Wash-
first Continental Congress, and the same ington desired to send Hamilton on the
year he married a daughter of William mission. Violent opposition to this was
Livingston, of New Jersey. In that Con- made by his political enemies, whose ha-
gress, though the youngest member but tred and jealousy were intense. Fearing
one, he took a conspicuous part, being the Hamilton might not have the confirmation
author of the Address to the People of of the Senate, Washington nominated Mr.
Great Britain. His facile pen was often Jay (April 16), which nomination was
employed in framing documents in the confirmed April 19. The special minister
Congress of 1775. Early in 1776 he left arrived in England in June, where he was
Congress and engaged in the public affairs received with great courtesy by the Brit-
of his own State, being a leading member ish government. He negotiated a treaty
of the Provincial Congress in 1776. He which was not wholly satisfactory to his
wrote the able address of the convention countrymen, closing his labors on Nov. 19;
at Fishkill in December, 1776; reported a and from 1795 to 1801 he was governor
bill of rights to the New York constitu- of New York, under whose administration
tional convention in March, 1777; and slavery was abolished. This was his last
was the chief author of the first consti- public office. He died in Bedford, N. Y.,
tution of the State of New York. After May 17, 1829. See AMES, FISHER.
assisting in putting in motion the ma- Jay s Treaty. After Mr. Jay s formal
chinery of his State government, and be- reception in London, Lord Grenville, then
ing made a judge he entered Congress at the head of foreign affairs, expressed
a^ain late in 1778 and became presi- great anxiety to bring the negotiations
dent of that body. In September, 1779, to a successful issue. There was a wide
he was sent to Spain to negotiate a loan, difference of views concerning matters
Mr. Jay was one of the commissioners for in dispute. The Americans complained
negotiating a treaty of peace with Great that, contrary to the provisions of the
Britain. He returned to New York in treaty of peace (1783), a large number
1784, and was secretary for foreign of negroes had been carried off by the
affairs from that year until the organ- evacuating armies; and for this loss com-

125

JAY, JOHN

pensation was demanded for the owners, dered on June 1, 1796, the present resi-
They complained, also, of the detention dents to have the option of removing or
of the Western posts, which was the main of becoming American citizens. There
cause of the hostility of the Northwestern was to be a mutual reciprocity of inland
tribes. They also alleged numerous viola- trade and intercourse between the North

American territories of the two na
tions, including the navigation of the
Mississippi; but it did not extend to
the Hudson Bay Company, nor to the
admission of American vessels into
the harbors of the British North
American colonies, nor to the naviga
tion of the rivers of those colonies
below the highest port of entry. These
were the principal features of the
first ten articles of the treaty, which
were to be perpetual. Eighteen oth
ers, of the nature of a treaty of com
merce, were limited to two years.
They provided for the admission of
American vessels into British ports
in Europe arid the East Indies on
terms of equality with British ves
sels; but no terms were made con
cerning the East India coasting trade,
or the trade between Europe and the
British West Indies. There were re
strictions upon the American trade to
the British West Indies; and British
vessels were to be admitted to Ameri-
JOHN JAY. can ports on terms of the most fa

vored nations. Privateers were to

tions of their neutral rights, especially give bonds to respond to any dam-
on the high seas, such as the impressment ages they might commit against neu-
of seamen and the exclusion of American trals, and other regulations of that ser-
shipping from the trade of the British vice were made. The list of contraband
West Indies. There were other complaints articles was clearly denned. No vessel
on the part of the Americans; but the attempting to enter a blockaded port was
matters more immediately provocative to be captured unless she had first been
of war were the disputed questions of notified and turned away. Neither nation
neutral rights and the detention of the was to allow enlistments within its ter-
Western posts. Deeming it wise to adjust ritory by any third nation at war with
these two important difficulties, Jay the other; nor were the citizens or sub-
thought it best to yield, temporarily, other jects of either to be allowed to accept
considerations, or leave them for future commissions from such third nation, or
adjustment, and he was induced to sign to enlist in its service, on penalty of
a treaty, Nov. 19, 1794, defective in some being treated as pirates. Ships-of-war
respects and objectionable in others. It of the contracting parties were to be
provided for the collection of British debts mutually admitted in a friendly man-
in the United States contracted before the ner into the ports of each other, such
Revolution, but it did not secure indem- vessels to be free from any claim of
nity to those who lost slaves. It secured search, but were to depart as speedily
indemnity for unlawful captures on the as might be. Other and stringent regu-
high seas, and the evacuation of the lations were made concerning privateers,
military posts on the frontiers yet held In case of rupture or war, the citizens
by the British. These were to be surren- or subjects of either nation resident in

126

JAY, JOHN

the territories of the other were to be der of American rights. In order to pre-
allowed to remain and to continue their vent misrepresentations, and to elicit the
trade so long as they behaved peaceably, expressions of the people, Washington
They might be ordered off, in case of caused the whole treaty to be published,
suspicion, on twelve months notice, or A mad, seditious cry went over the land
without any notice, if detected in viola- from the opposition. In several cities
tions of the laws. No reprisals were to mobs threatened personal violence to the
be ordered by either party till satisfaction supporters of the treaty. Hamilton was
had first been demanded. Fugitives from stoned at a public meeting in New York,
justice charged with murder or forgery while speaking in the open air. The Brit-
were to be mutually given up. ish minister at Philadelphia was insulted ;
Early Opposition. The treaty was con- and in Charleston the British flag was
eluded at London on Nov. 19, 1794. It trailed in the dust of the streets. Jay
reached the President in March, 1795, was denounced as a traitor; and in Vir-
after the adjournment of Congress. The ginia disunion was recommended as a cure
Senate was convened, in special session, for political evils. The Democratic socie-
to consider it, early in June, 1795. After ties and orators put forth claims for
a debate for a fortnight, in secret session, sympathy for France. " She has a govern-
a vote of 20 to 10 precisely a constitu- ment congenial to our own. Citizens, your
tional majority advised (June 24) the security depends on France. Let us unite
ratification of the treaty, excepting the with her and stand or fall together!"
article which related to the renunciation shouted opposition orators throughout the
by the Americans of the privilege of trans- country. The Democrats adorned their
portation of sugar, molasses, coffee, co- hats with the French cockade. Jay was
coa, and cotton in the West India trade, burned in effigy in many places, and long-
Cotton was then just promising to be ings for the guillotine were freely express-
of vast importance in the carrying-trade, ed in public assemblies.
and such an article was wholly inadmissi- When the President had proclaimed the
ble. The President had determined, before treaty as the law of the land, he, accord-
the meeting of the Senate, to ratify the ing to promise, sent a copy of it, March
treaty; and when it was laid before the 2, 1796, to the House. Its appearance was
cabinet all agreed with him excepting the beginning of a violent debate in that
the Secretary of State (Edmund Ran- body, which turned upon the question
dolph, of Virginia), who raised the point whether the House possessed discretionary
that by the ratification, before an ob- power to carry the treaty into execution
noxious British Order in Council concern- or not at its pleasure. The debate arose
ing neutrals should be repealed, the Brit- on a motion of Edward Livingston, of
ish claim to the right of search and im- New York, calling upon the President for
pressment would be conceded by the his instructions to Jay and other papers
Americans. Hamilton, who had been relating to the treaty. After about thirty
, consulted, advised the ratification, but speeches, in a debate of three weeks, which
to withhold the exchange of ratifications grew warmer and warmer the longer it
until that order should be repealed. The lasted, the resolution was adopted, March
Senate had removed the seal of secrecy 24, by a vote of 62 to 37. The President
from their proceedings, but had forbidden consulted his cabinet, and they unanimous-
any publication of the treaty itself. State- ly decided that the House had no right
ments concerning the provisions of the to make such a call, as they were not a
treaty soon appeared. The Democratic part of the treaty-making power. They
societies and newspapers had resolved to also decided that it was not expedient
oppose and attack the treaty whatever for the President to furnish the papers,
might be its provisions. They had opposed for the call should be considered as an
the mission to negotiate it. After it was unfounded claim of power on the part
received Randolph revealed enough of its of the House to interfere with the privi-
character to give a foundation for many leges of the President and Senate. The
attacks upon it in the newspapers. It President, therefore, declined to comply
was denounced as a pusillanimous surren- with the request of the House, giving

127

JAY JAYHAWKERS

his reasons in a special message. Reso- A resolution declaring the treaty uncon-
lutions asserting the majesty of the House stitutional was defeated. The legislature
were introduced (April 6), and were sup- of Delaware passed, Jan. 14, 1796, a reso-
ported by Madison. These resolutions were lution of approval. Gov. Samuel Adams,
adopted by a vote of 57 to 35, and the of Massachusetts, spoke of the treaty
subject of the " British treaty " was a as " pregnant with evil," suggested a con-
staple topic of debate for some time after- flict of authority between the President
wards. Finally, April 30, the House pass- and Senate and the House of Representa-
ed a resolution 51 to 48 that it was tives, and transmitted to the general
expedient to pass laws for carrying the court the resolutions of Virginia on the
treaty into effect. subject of amendments to the Constitu-
The discussions of the treaty were soon tion. The Massachusetts Senate declared
transferred from public meetings and the their concurrence in the belief of the
newspapers to the arena of State legisla- governor that the national government
tures. Governor Shelby, in his speech to was in " honest hands," and the house sug-
the Kentucky legislature, attacked the gested " a respectful submission on the
treaty. The House seemed to agree with part of the people to the constituted au-
him (Nov. 4, 1794), but the Senate evaded thorities as the surest means of enjoying
any decided committal. The house of and perpetuating the invaluable blessings
delegates of Virginia adopted, by a vote of our free and representative govern-
of 100 to 50, a resolution approving the ment." The general court of Rhode Island
conduct of their Senators in voting (Nov. expressed their confidence in the general
20) against the treaty. A counter-resolu- government. So, also, did the legislature
tion declaring their undiminished conn- of New York.

dence in the President was lost 59 to Jay, JOHN, diplomatist; born in New

79; but another resolution disclaiming York City, June 23, 1817; son of William

any imputation of the President s motives Jay; became manager of the New York

was passed 78 to 62. The legislature of Young Men s Anti-slavery Society in 1834;

Maryland resolved that they felt a deep was graduated at Columbia College in

concern at efforts to detach from the 1836; admitted to the bar in 1839; acted

President the " well-earned confidence of as counsel without pay for many fugitive

his fellow-citizens," and declared their slaves; minister to Austria in 1869-75;

" vinabated reliance in his judgment, integ- chairman of the committee to investigate

rity, and patriotism." The Senate of Penn- the system of the New York Custom-

sylvania made a similar declaration. The House in 1877; and president of the New

legislature of New Hampshire expressed, York State Civil Service Commission in

Dec. 5, 1795, their "abhorrence of those 1883-88. He died in New York City, May

disturbers of the peace " who had endeav- 5, 1894.

ored to render abortive measures so well Jay, WILLIAM, jurist; born in New
calculated to advance the happiness of the York City, June 16, 1789; son of John
country. The North Carolina legislature, Jay; graduated at Yale in 1807; appoint-
by a decided majority, adopted a series of ed judge of the Court of Common Pleas in
resolutions, Dec. 8, reprobating the treaty 1818; reappointed under the new consti-
and thanking their Senators for having tution in 1822; served till 1843, when he
opposed it. In the legislature of South was superseded on account of his anti-
Carolina resolutions were introduced de- slavery views. He was the author of Life
during the treaty "highly injurious to of John Jay; The Action of the Federal
the general interests of the United Government in Behalf of Slarcry; War
States"; when the friends of the treaty, and Peace, in which he suggested that
finding themselves in a minority, declared international disputes should be settled
the legislature had no business to interfere by arbitration ; The Mexican War ; etc.
with the duties of the President and Sen- He died in Bedford, N. Y., Oct. 14, 1858.
ate of the United States, and refused Jayhawfcers and Bed Legs, names ap-
to vote, the resolutions were adopted unan- plied to Free-State men who, during the
imously. The House did not venture to Kansas conflict in 1854-59, began a series
send up these resolutions to the Senate, of reprisals for outrages committed by

128

JAYNE JEFFERSON

pro-slavery men, but ultimately practical- Adelplii Theatre, London, and, although

ly became bandits. he has since played in many of the most

Jayne, HORACE, biologist ; born in Phila- popular comedies of the day, and in vari-
delphia, March 5, 1859; graduated at ous parts of the world, he will be remem-
the University of Pennsylvania in 1879, bered longest for his presentations of that
and at its medical school in 1882 ; studied character. Mr. Jefferson has also distin-
biology at Leipzig and Jena in 1883-84; guished himself as an orator and a paint-
and, returning to the United States, was er. For many years his chief diversions
first appointed lecturer in biology in the were fishing and painting, and in 1899
University of Pennsylvania, and subse- he permitted an exhibition of sixteen of
quently Professor of Vertebrate Morphol- his landscape-paintings in oil in the
ogy there. For a number of years he was national capital. He published an auto-
dean of the faculty. In 1900 he was di- biography in 1890.

rector of the Wistar Institute of the Uni- As the representative of the dramatic

versity of Pennsylvania. He is the author profession, Mr. Jefferson was invited by

of Mammalian Anatomy; Revision of the the faculty of Yale University to deliver

DermestidcB of North America; Abnormi- a lecture on Dramatic Art, which was

ties Observed in North American Coleop- given on April 27, 1892, in the course of

tera, etc. which he says:

Jeannette, VOYAGE OF THE. See DE

LONG. If I am asked to reason from my knowl-

Jeffers, WILLIAM NICHOLSON, naval edge and engraft it on the history of
officer; born in Gloucester county, N. J., the past, I would unhesitatingly declare
Oct. 6, 1824; joined the navy in 1840; that the stage is in a much better con
served in the war with Mexico, and also dition now than it ever was before. The
through the Civil War; was promoted social and moral status of the whole
commodore in February, 1878. His pub- world has undoubtedly improved, and gone
lications include Short Methods in Navi- hand in hand with scientific and material
gation; Theory and Practice of Naval progress; and permit me to assure you
Gunnery; Inspection and Proof of Can- that the stage in this respect has not been
non; Marine Surveying; Ordnance In- idle, but that, to my knowledge, it has
structions for United States Navy, etc. in the march of improvement kept pace
He died in Washington, D. C., July 23, foot by foot with every social advance.
1883. Even the coarse dramas of the olden

Jefferson, the name proposed to be time were in keeping with the conditions

given to what is now the State of Colo- of the social and literary society that sur-

rado, in 1858, when an attempt was made rounded it. Those plays that appealed

to establish a provisional government, to the lowest tastes were not only welcome

The scheme failed in consequence of con- but demanded by the court of Charles,

flicting claims on the part of the surround- Old Pepys, who lived during this time,

ing Territories. When, however, Congress says in his diary: "I went last night

created the new Territory in 1861, the to see A Midsummer Night s Dream; it

name Colorado w r as given to it. was a great waste of time, and I hope I

Jefferson, JOSEPH, actor ; born in Phila- shall never again be condemned to see

delphia, Pa., Feb. 20, 1829; is descended such a poor play. Ah, give me a com-

from several generations of actors; made edy of Ethelridge, and let us have no more

his first appearance on the stage when of this dull, vague Shakespeare." It was

three years old; played in the old Span- not, therefore, that there were no good

ish theatre in Matamoras, Mexico, two plays, but that the vicious public wanted

days after that city was taken by the bad ones, and while rakes and unprin-

Americans; and in 1857 established his cipled gallants and vile women were the

reputation as a comedian by his perform- heroes and heroines of the stage, the

ance as Asa Trenohnvd in Our American plays of Shakespeare had been written for

Cousin, in New York City. In 1865 he a hundred years. Such lovely creatures

appeared for the first time in his inimi- as Rosalind, Desdemona, Beatrice, Ophelia,

table role of Rip Van }Yinl:l&lt;&gt;, in the Imogene, Portia, and Juliet, together with
v. i 129

JEFFERSON

their noble mates, Orlando, Benedict, Ham- And so the people insisted that the actors

let, Romeo, and a host of pure and mar- should give them an exhibition of the

vellous creations, were moulding on the licentious times rather than the splendid

shelves, because the managers had suffered lessons of Shakespeare. As the social

bankruptcy for daring to produce them, world improved in its Pastes the drama

Shakespeare says that the actors are " the followed it nay, in some instances has

abstract and brief chronicles of the times." led it.

JEFFERSON, THOMAS

Jefferson, THOMAS, third President of View of the Rights of British America,
the United States; born in Shadvvell, Va., which, it is believed, procured for him
April 2, 1743; was educated at the Col- a place in the list of American traitors
lege of William and Mary; studied law denounced by the British Parliament. He
under George Wythe; and was admitted had taken an active part against the
to the bar in 1767. From 1769 to 1775 Boston port bill. Mr. Jefferson took his
he was an active member of the Virginia seat in the Continental Congress in June,
House of Burgesses. In that body he 1775, when he was thirty-two years of
introduced a bill empowering masters to age. In that body he served on the most
manumit their slaves. On Jan. 1, 1771, important committees, and in drawing up

state papers. On the committee to draft
the Declaration of Independence, to Mr.
Jefferson was assigned the duty of writ
ing that important paper, which he ad
vocated and signed. True to the proclivi
ties of his nature in favor of human
liberty, he introduced a clause censuring
slavery, which was stricken out. In Oc
tober, 1776, he retired from Congress to
take part in his own State affairs, and
for two years and a half was employed
in revising the laws of Virginia and pro
curing some wise enactments, such as
abolishing the laws of primogeniture, giv
ing freedom to convicts, etc. During the
entire Revolutionary War Jefferson was
very active in his own State, serving as
its governor from June, 1779, to 1781.
At the time of his retirement from the
chair, Cornwallis, invading Virginia, des
olated Jefferson s estate at Elk Hill, and
he and his family narrowly escaped capt
ure. Mr. Jefferson was again in Con
gress in 1783, and, as chairman of a
committee, reported to that body the
definite treaty of peace with Great Brit
ain. Assisting the suggestions of Gouver-
he married Martha Skelton, a rich and neur Morris, he proposed and carried a
beautiful young widow of twenty-three, bill establishing the decimal system of
He was a member of the committee of currency. In 1785 he succeeded Dr.
correspondence of Virginia, which he as- Franklin as minister at the French Court,
sisted in forming, and was engaged in where he remained until 1789, when he
active public life until his retirement returned and took a seat in Washing-
from the Presidency of the United States, ton s cabinet as Secretary of State.
In 1774 he wrote his famous Summary In France he had published his Notes

130

STATL K OF T1IO.MAS JEFFUKSOX.

JEFFERSON, THOMAS

on Virginia, and he had there become ed men of his own country and of Europe,
thoroughly imbued with the spirit of In person he was tall and slender, with
the French revolutionists previous to sandy hair, florid complexion in his youth,
the bloody era of 1793. Not finding at and brilliant gray eyes, a little inclining
home the same enthusiastic admiration to brown. He was buried in a family
of the French people in
their struggle against " the
conspiracy of the kings,"
he became morbidly sus
picious of a monarchical
party in the United States
that might overthrow the
government. He formed
and led an active party
called " Republican " or
" Democratic," and there
was much acrimonious
feeling soon engendered
between that and the
Federal party, of which
Alexander Hamilton was
the active leader. Mr. Jef
ferson was an able leader
of the Democratic party,
and secured so large a fol
lowing that in 1800 be was
elected President, and
served eight years, retir
ing in March, 1809, when
he withdrew from public
life and retired to his seat
at Monticello, near Char-
lottesville, Va. Among the
important events of his
administration were the
purchase of Louisiana, an
exploration of the conti
nent from the Mississippi
River to the Pacific Ocean,

and difficulties with France and Great cemetery near his house at Monticello,
Britain on account of their violation of and over his grave is a granite monument,
the rights of neutrals. Mr. Jefferson was bearing the inscription, written by him-
the founder of the University of Virginia self, and found among his papers after his
(1819) at Charlottesville, Va., and was death, "Here lies buried Thomas Jeffer-
its rector until his death, which occurred son, author of the Declaration of Inde-
on the same day, and almost at the same pendence, of the Statute of Virginia for
hour, as that on which John Adams died, religious freedom, and father of the Uni-
who was his associate in drafting the versity of Virginia." Mr. Jefferson re-
Declaration of Independence, and sign- garded slavery as a moral and political
ing it, just fifty years before (July 4, evil, and did much to alleviate its hard-
1826). ships. His correspondence with men of

Jefferson was a keen politician, though all classes was voluminous, for he was a
no speaker; a man of great learning and fluent writer and had a very wide ac-
fine scholarly as well as scientific attain- quaintance. Few men have exerted as
ments, and in conversation extremely at- much influence in establishing the free
tractive. His house was the resort of learn- institutions of the United States as

131

CAKICATUKK OF JEFFERSON.

JEFFERSON, THOMAS

Thomas Jefferson. He adopted for the Laws with powerful effect against him.
motto of his private seal that of Oliver The Federalists were defeated. Jefferson
Cromwell " Rebellion to tyrants is and Burr had each seventy-three votes in
obedience to God." See LEWIS, MERI- the electoral college, a nd, according to
WETHER. the provisions of the Constitution, the

When, in the early summer of 1781, election was carried into the House of
Cornwallis was overrunning a portion of Representatives. There exciting scenes
Virginia, he sent Tarleton with his cav- occurred. Two or three members, too
a]ry to capture the Virginia Assembly
siting at Charlottesville, and also Gov
ernor Jefferson, who lived 2 miles from
that place. On the way Tarleton destroyed
twelve wagon-loads of clothing intended
for Greene s army in North Carolina.
Within 10 miles of Charlottesville Tarle
ton detached Captain McLeod, with a
party of horsemen, to capture Governor
Jefferson at Monticello, while he pressed
forward. On his way he captured some
members of the legislature, but when he
arrived at Charlottesville the remainder,
forewarned, had fled and escaped. Mc-
Leod s expedition to Monticello was quite
as unsuccessful. Jefferson was entertain
ing several members of the legislature, in
cluding the presiding officers of both sick to appear otherwise, were brought to
houses, when the British cavalry were the House on beds. For seven days the
seen coming up the winding road towards balloting went on. After it was ascer-
the mansion. Jefferson immediately sent tained that a Democrat was elected, the
his family away, while he and the others Federalists all voted for Burr, as being
escaped on horseback. Jefferson had not less objectionable than Jefferson; but the
been gone ten minutes when McLeod rode friends of the latter were stronger than
up and found the house deserted. all opposition, and he was elected. The

The leaders of the two great parties whole Federal party were mortified

and humiliated by the triumph of Jef
ferson, their arch - enemy. He was in
augurated March 4, 1801. See CABINET,
PRESIDENT S; LOUISIANA; MAZZEI, PHILIP.
Inaugural Address. The following is
the principal part of the inaugural ad
dress, delivered on March 4, 1801:

JEFFERSON S SEAL.
MOTTO: "Rebellion to tyrants is obedience to God.

PART OF JEFFERSON S GIG.

Friends and Fellow - citizens, Called
upon to undertake the duties of the first
executive officer of our country, I avail
myself of the presence of that portion of
my fellow-citizens which is here assembled,
to express my grateful thanks for the

nominated their respective candidates for favor with which they have been pleased
the Presidency in 1800, the Federalists to look towards me, to declare a sincere
choosing to be voted for John Adams and consciousness that the task is above my
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney; the Demo- talents, and that I approach it with those
crats, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, anxious and awful presentiments which
There was a breach in the Federal party, the greatness of the charge and the weak-
owing to extended dislike of Adams, and ness of my powers so justly inspire. A
the Democrats used the Alien and Sedition rising nation, spread over a wide and

132

JEFFERSON, THOMAS

fruitful land, traversing all the seas with
the rich productions of their industry,
engaged in commerce with nations who
feel power and forget right, advancing
rapidly to destinies beyond the reach of
mortal eye; when I contemplate these
transcendent objects, and see the honor,
the happiness, and the hopes of this be
loved country committed to the issue and
the auspices of this day, I shrink from
the contemplation, and humble myself be
fore the magnitude of the undertaking.
Utterly, indeed, should I despair, did
riot the presence of many whom I see

which we have passed, the animation of
discussions and of exertions has sometimes
worn an aspect which might impose on
strangers unused to think freely, and to
speak and to write what they think; but
this being now decided by the voice of the
nation, announced according to the rules
of the Constitution, all will of course ar
range themselves under the will of the law,
and unite in common efforts for the com
mon good. All, too, will bear in mind
this sacred principle, that though the will
oi the majority is in all cases to prevail,
that will, to be rightful, must be reason-

BEDROOJf IN WHICH JEFFERSON DIED.

here remind me that, in the other high able; that the minority possess their

authorities provided by our Constitu- equal rights, which equal laws must pro-,

tion, I shall find resources of wisdom, tect, and to violate which would be op-

of virtue, and of zeal, on which to pression. Let us then, fellow-citizens,

rely under all difficulties. To you, then, unite with one heart and one mind, let us

gentlemen, who are charged with the sov- restore to social intercourse that harmony

ereign functions of legislation, and to and affection without which liberty and

those associated with you, I look with en- even life itself are but dreary things. And

couragement for that guidance and sup- let us reflect that, having banished from

port which may enable us to steer with our land that religious intolerance under

safety the vessel in which we are all em- which mankind so long bled and suffered,

barked, amid the conflicting elements of we have yet gained little, if we counte-

a troubled world. nance a political intolerance as despotic,

During the contest of opinion through as wicked, and as capable of bitter and

133

JEFFERSON, THOMAS

bloody persecutions. During the throes that this government, the world s best
and convulsions of the ancient world, dur- hope, may, by possibility, want energy to
ing the agonizing spasms of infuriated preserve itself? I trust not. I believe this,
man, seeking through blood and slaughter on the contrary, the strongest government
his long-lost liberty, it was not wonderful on earth. I believe it is the only one
that the agitation of the billows should where every man, at the call of the law,
reach even this distant and peaceful shore; would fly to the standard of the law, and
that this should be more felt and feared would meet invasions of the public order
by some, and less by others, and should as his own personal concern. Sometimes
divide opinions as to measures of safety; it is said that man cannot be trusted with
but every difference of opinion is not a the government of himself. Can he then
difference of principle. We have called be trusted with the government of others?
by different names brethren of the same Or have we found angels, in the form of
principle. We are all republicans; we kings, to govern him? Let history answer
are all federalists. If there be any this question.

among us who wish to dissolve this Let us, then, with courage and confi-
Union, or to change its republican form, dence, pursue our own federal and repub-
let them stand undisturbed as monu- lican principles; our attachment to union
inents of the safety with which error and representative government. Kindly
of opinion may be tolerated, where reason separated by nature and a wide ocean
is left free to combat it. I know, indeed, from the exterminating havoc of one quar-
that some honest men fear that a republi- ter of the globe; too high-minded to en-
can government cannot be strong; that dure the degradation of the others; pos-
this government is not strong enough. But sessing a chosen country, with room
would the honest patriot, in the full tide enough for our descendants to the thou-
of successful experiment, abandon a gov- sandth generation; entertaining a due
eminent which has so far kept us free and sense of our equal right to the use of
firm, on the theoretic and visionary fear our own faculties, to the acquisition of

our own industry,
to honor and con
fidence from our fel
low-citizens, result
ing not from birth,
but from our actions
and their sense of
them; enlightened
by a benign religion,
professed indeed and
practised in various
forms, yet all of
them inculcating
honesty, truth, tem
perance, gratitude,
and the love of
man ; acknowledging
and adoring an over-
ruling Providence,
which, by all its dis
pensations, proves
that it delights in
the happiness of
man here, and his
greater happiness
hereafter ; with all
these blessings, what
more is necessary to

MON TrCELLO, JEFFERSON S HOME.

134

JEFFERSON, THOMAS

make us a happy and prosperous people? the general government in its whole con-
Still one thing more, fellow-citizens a stitutional vigor, as the sheet-anchor of
wise and frugal government, which shall our peace at home and safety abroad; a
restrain men from injuring one another, jealous care of the right of election by
shall leave them otherwise free to regu- the people, a mild and safe corrective of

abuses which are lopped by the sword of
revolution where peaceable remedies are
unprovided; absolute acquiescence in the
decisions of the majority, the vital princi
ple of republics, from which there is no
appeal but to force, the vital principle
and immediate parent of despotism; a
well-disciplined militia, our best reliance
in peace, and for the first moments of
war, till regulars may relieve them; the
supremacy of the civil over the military
authority; economy in the public expense,
that labor may be lightly burdened; the
honest payment of our debts, and sacred
preservation of the public faith; encour
agement of agriculture, and of commerce
as its handmaid; the diffusion of informa
tion, and arraignment of all abuses at the
bar of the public reason; freedom of re
ligion, freedom of the press, and freedom
of person, under the protection of the
habeas corpus; and trial by juries impar
tially selected. These principles form the
bright constellation which has gone before
us, and guided our steps through an age
of revolution and reformation. The wis-
late their own pursuits of industry and dom of our sages, and blood of our heroes,
improvement, and shall not take from the have been devoted to their attainment;
mouth of labor the bread it has earned, they should be the creed of our political
This is the sum of good government; and faith, the text of civic instruction, the
this is necessary to close the circle of our touchstone by which to try the services of
felicities. those we trust; and should we wander

About to enter, fellow-citizens, upon the from them in moments of error or of
exercise of duties which comprehend every- alarm, let us hasten to retrace our steps,
thing dear and valuable to you, it is and to regain the road which leads alone
proper you should understand what I deem to peace, liberty, and safety. . . .
the essential principles of our government, The Jeffersonian Policy. Soon after
and, consequently, those which ought to his inauguration, Jefferson indicated his
shape its administration. I will compress policy in a letter to Nathaniel Macon,
them within the narrowest compass they in Congress, as follows: "1. Levees are
will bear, stating the general principle, done away with. 2. The first communi-
but not all its limitations. Equal and ex- cation to the next Congress will be, like
act justice to all men, of whatever state all subsequent ones, by message, to which
or persuasion, religious or political ; peace, no answer will be expected. 3. Diplo-
commerce, and honest friendship with all matic establishments in Europe will be
nations, entangling alliances with none; reduced to three ministers. 4. The com-
the support of the State governments in pensation of collectors depends on you
all their rights, as the most competent [Congress], and not on me. 5. The army
administrations for our domestic concerns, is undergoing a chaste reformation. 6.
and the surest bulwarks against anti-re- The navy will be reduced to the legal
publican tendencies; the preservation of establishment by the last of this month

135

THOMAS JEFFKRSOS S GRAVE.

JEFFEBSOIT

[May, 1801]. 7. Agencies in every de- he had to abandon the undertaking. Jef
partment will be revived. 8. We shall ferson, then governor of Virginia, gave
push you to the uttermost in economiz- instructions for the occupation of a sta-
ing. 9. A very early recommendation tion on the Mississippi River between the

mouth of the Ohio
and the parallel of
36 30 ; and in
the spring of 1780
Clarke chose a
strong position 5
miles below the
mouth of the Ohio,
whereon he built
Fort Jefferson.
Here the Ameri
cans planted their
first sentinel to
watch over the
freedom of the
navigation of
the "Father of
Waters."

PORT JEFFERSON, GARDEN KEY. JefferSOH and

Taylor, FOKTS. At

has been given to the Postmaster-General the Garden Key, one of the Tortugas
to employ no traitor, foreigner, or Revo- Islands, off the extremity of the Florida
lutionary Tory in any of his offices." Peninsula, was Fort Jefferson- and at
Three days after his inauguration he Key West was Fort Taylor. Neither of
wrote to Monroe: "I have firmly refused these forts was quite finished at the be-
to follow the counsels of those who have ginning of 1861. The Confederates early
desired the giving of offices to some of the contemplated their seizure, but the
Federalist leaders in order to reconcile laborers employed on them by the United
them. I have given,
and will give, only
to Republicans un
der existing cir
cumstances." The
doctrine, "To the
victor belong the
spoils," which has
been accepted as
orthodox in the
politics of our re
public ever since,
was then first pro
mulgated.

Jefferson, FORT,
a fortification built
by COL. GEORGE
ROGERS CLARK
( q. v. ) , on the west
side of the Missis
sippi. He had designed to extend his in- States government were chiefly slaves,
vasion to Detroit, but troops to reinforce and their masters wished to reap the
him had been added to the force of an- fruit of their labor as long as possible,
other bold leader (see SHELBY, EVAN), and It was believed these forts might be

136

FORT TAYLOR, KEY WEST.

JEFFREYS JENKINS

seized at any time by the Floridians. Cap- make laws to that end; and when, in 1689,
tain Brannan, with a company of artil- the Stuarts were driven from the throne
lery, occupied barracks about half a mile of England, these people were pardoned,
from Fort Taylor. Some of the military and the Virginians received them with
and civil officers there were Confederates, open arms as brethren. Sir George died
and they determined to oppose Captain ir London, April 18, 1689.
Brannan if he should attempt to take Jenckes, JOSEPH, colonial governor;
possession of that fort. Finally Captain born on the site of the city of Pawtucket,
Brannan succeeded by a stratagem in R. I., in 1656; held a seat in the General
gaining possession. The steamer Wyan- Assembly of Ehode Island in 1679-93;
dotte lay near the fort, and her guns com- was appointed to arrange the boundary
manded the bridge that connected it disputes with Connecticut and Massachu-
with the island. One Sunday morning, setts, and afterwards those which had
while the inhabitants were at church, arisen between Massachusetts and New
Captain Brannan marched his men by a Hampshire and Maine. He was also
back road, crossed the bridge, and entered made commissioner to answer a letter
the fort. Supplies had already been for- of the King regarding the " condition
warded by water. Both forts were of affairs in Rhode Island," and to re-
strengthened and were lost to the Con- ply to a number of questions proposed
federates. by the lords of the privy council. He
Jeffreys, SIR GEORGE, jurist; born in was governor of Rhode Island in 1727-
Acton, Denbighshire, in 1648; was called 32. He died June 15, 1740.
to the bar in 1668; became chief-justice Jenckes, THOMAS ALLEN, legislator;
of England in 1683; and was elevated to born in Cumberland, R. I., Nov. 2, 1818;
the post of lord chancellor in 1685. He graduated at Brown University in 1838;
was of a blood-thirsty and cruel dispo- admitted to the bar in 1840; served in
sition, delighting in the severe punishment Congress in 1862-71. He was the author
of the enemies of the King. After the re- of the United States bankruptcy law, which
bellion of the Duke of Monmouth (1685) was passed in 1867; and was also one of
was crushed he held courts in the insur- the earliest and most prominent advocates
gent districts which are known in history of civil service reform. His bill in ad-
&8 the " Bloody Assizes." The partisans vocacy of the same was passed in 1868.
of Monmouth in arms were fully 6,000 in He died in Cumberland, R. I., Nov. 4,
number, many of them persons of great re- 1875.

spectability. They were brought before Jenkins, CHARLES JONES, jurist; born

the court of the chief-justice by scores, in Beaufort district, S. C., Jan. 6, 1805;

He seemed to delight in convicting and settled in Jefferson county, Ga., in 1816;

punishing them. He caused 320 to be graduated at Union College in 1824; held

hanged or beheaded, and more than 800 a seat in the Georgia legislature in 1836-

to be sold as slaves in the West Indies and 50. He was a Union delegate to the Geor-

Virginia. Many of the latter were given to gia convention in 1850, and as chairman

court favorites that they might sell them of that body drafted the resolutions known

on speculation or extort money for their as " The Platform of 1850," in which it

pardon from those who had any to give. In was resolved " that the State of Georgia,

this nefarious business Lord Effingham, even to the disruption of every tie which

governor of Virginia, engaged; and many binds her to the Union, resist any act

men of culture, as well as good mechanics, of Congress abolishing slavery." He was

were sent to Virginia to be sold as slaves, a judge of the Supreme Court of Geor-

and so added excellent social materials for gia in 1859 - 65, and governor in 1865-

society in that colony. " Take care," 68. Mr. Jenkins received two votes for

wrote King Charles to Effingham, " that President of the United States in the

they continue to serve for ten years at electoral college of 1872. He died in

least, and that they be not permitted in Summerville, Ga., June 13, 1883.

any manner to redeem themselves by Jenkins, JAMES G., jurist; born in

money or otherwise until that term be Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 18, 1834;

fully expired." The Assembly refused to was liberally educated in New York State;

137

JENKINS JENKINSON S FERRY

and was admitted to the bar in New York 1869-71 ; and has since done much work

City in 1855. Two years later he removed in bridge-building. He was in charge of

to Milwaukee, Wis., where he practised the construction of the Randolph bridge

till 1888, when he was appointed United over the Missouri River, at Kansas, Mo.,

States judge for the district of Wiscon- and was employed on the Mississippi

sin. In 1893 he was promoted to the levees. He has been chief engineer of

bench of the United States Circuit Court railroads in the South and Southwest,

of the 7th Judicial Circuit. In December, and was also chief engineer of the Ar-

1893, he issued an injunction forbidding ansas Pass harbor and jetty works in

all employes of the Northern Pacific Rail- Texas. In 1898-99 he was major of the

road (which at that time was in the Volunteer Engineer Corps, and chief

hands of receivers appointed by the court) engineer officer of the 1st Division of tho

from joining or conspiring with others in 2d Army Corps. In 1887 he became a

striking against reduced wages. The Cir- member of the American Society of Civil

cuit Court of Appeals sustained this in- Engineers.

junction in a modified form. Upon this Jenkinson, CHARLES, English politi-

action the labor leaders endeavored to cian; was private secretary to Lord Bute

have Judge Jenkins impeached, but with- when he was the English premier, and,

out result. when he resigned, Jenkinson became the

Jenkins, JOHN, military officer; born principal secretary of the treasury. He

in New London, Conn., Nov. 27, 1751; was an Oxford scholar, and, becoming per-

served throughout the Revolutionary War sonally acquainted with George III., when

as a lieutenant; and during the Wyoming he was Prince of Wales, became devoted

massacre commanded Forty Fort. He died to his service. He had great tact in

in Wyoming, Pa., March 19, 1827. dealing with delicate personal matters,

Jenkins, JOHN STILWELL, author ; born and so was fitted to please all ; or, rather,

in Albany, N. Y., Feb. 15, 1818; edu- not to offend any. He was chiefly instru-

cated at Hamilton College, and began the mental in pushing forward the English

practice of law in Weedsport, N. Y. His ministry in their schemes for taxing the

publications include Generals of the Last English - American colonists, and was

War with Great Britain; a condensation really the author of Townshend s obnox-

of Hammond s History of New York; Life ious bills and Grenville s Stamp Act. He

of Silas Wright; History of the Mexican held a place with Lord North at the

War; Lives of the Governors of New Treasury board, in 1768, and was the

York; Lives of Jackson, Polk, and Cal- chief instigator of that minister s bills

houn, etc. He died in Weedsport, N. Y., for asserting the absolute authority of

Sept. 20, 1852. the Parliament over the American colo-

Jenkins, THORNTON ALEXANDER, naval nies.

officer; born in Orange county, Va., Dec. Jenkinson s Ferry, BATTLE AT. In
11, 1811; appointed midshipman in 1828; 1864, General Steele, at Little Rock, Ark.,
commissioned lieutenant in 1839; pro- tried to co-operate with the Red River
moted captain in 1862; and rear-admiral expedition, but was unable to do so effect-
in 1870. In 1834 to 1860 he was employed ually, for he was confronted by a heavy
on the coast survey, and in the light- body of Confederates. He started south-
house board. He was fleet captain, and ward, March 23, with 8,000 troops,
commanded the Hartford when Farragut cavalry and infantry. He was to be
passed Forts Jackson and St. Philip be- joined by General Thayer at Arkadelphia,
low New "Orleans, April 24, 1862 ; com- with 5,000 men, but this was not then
manded the Richmond when Farragut accomplished. Steele pushed on for the
captured Mobile in 1864. He died in purpose of flanking Camden and draw-
Washington, D. C., Aug. 9, 1893. ing out Price from his fortifications there.

Jenkins, WILLIAM DUNBAR, civil cngi- Early in April Steele was joined by
neer; born in Adams county, Miss., Sept. Thayer, and on the evening of the 15th
19,. 1849; was educated at military they entered Camden as victors. Serious-
schools in France and Belgium; studied ly menaced by gathering Confederates,
civil engineering in Lexington, Va., in Steele, who, by the retreat of Banks, had

138

JENKS JERSEY PRISON-SHIP

been released from duty elsewhere, moved Jenney, WILLIAM LE BAROX, architect;
towards Little Rock. He crossed the born in Fairhaven, Mass., Sept. 25, 1832;
Washita on the night of April 26. At was educated at Phillips Academy, An-
Jenkinson s Ferry, on the Sabine River, dover, Mass.; graduated at the Ecole
he was attacked by an overwhelming Centrale des Arts et Metiers, Paris, in
force, led by Gen. Kirby Smith in person. 1856. He also studied art and archi-
Steele s troops, though nearly famished, tecture in Paris studios in 1858-59. On
fought desperately during a most sangui- his return he was commissioned a cap-
nary battle that ensued. Three times the tain in the United States army; was as-
Confederates charged heavily, and were signed to engineer duty; and served on
repulsed. The battle was fought by in- the staff of Gen. U. S. Grant from the
fantry alone, and the Nationals finally battle of Cairo to Corinth, and then on
drove their adversaries and gained a com- that of Gen. W. T. Sherman until 1866,
plete victory. Then they crossed the receiving the brevet of major in 1864;
river and moved on towards Little Rock, he settled in Chicago as an architect in
In the struggle at Jenkinson s Ferry the 1868 ; was landscape engineer for the West
Confederates lost over 3,000 men, includ- Chicago parks in 1870-71; invented the
ing more than 300 officers. The Nationals skeleton construction (now generally used
lost 700 killed and wounded. Steele s in tall buildings) in 1883; and was the
broken army reached Little Rock on architect for the Union League Club and
May 2. the Siegel & Cooper Building, in New

Jenks, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE, educator; York City; The Fair, and the Horti-
born in St. Clair, Mich., Sept. 2, 1856; cultural Building at the World s Colum-
graduated at the University of Michi- bian Exposition, in Chicago, and other
gan in 1878; and was admitted to the notable structures.

bar of that State. Later he taught Ger- Jersey Prison-ship, one of the prisons
man, Latin, and Greek at Mount Morris used by the British at New York during
(111.) College. In 1886-89 he was Pro- a part of the Revolutionary War. Noth-
fessor of Political Science and English ing could exceed the horrors of these
Literature at Knox College, Galesburg, crowded prisons. The sugar-houses of
111.; in 1889-91 was Professor of Political New York being large, were used for the
Economy and Social Science in the Indiana purpose, and therein scores suffered and
University; and in 1891 became Professor died. But the most terrible scenes oc-
of Political Science in Cornell University, curred on board several old hulks, which
He is the author of Henry C. Carey als
Nationalokonom; Road Legislation for the
American State, and contributions on
monopolies, political methods, etc., to
reviews, magazines, and encyclopaedias
in the United States, Germany, and Eng
land.

Jenks, JOSEPH, inventor; born near
London; came to America in 1645, and
is supposed to have been the first brass- THE JERSEY PRISON-SHIP.

founder on this continent. On May 6,

1648, he secured a patent from the Massa- were anchored in the waters around New
chusetts legislature for a water-mill and York, and used for prisoners. Of them
for a saw-mill. In 1652 he made the dies, the Jersey was the most notorious for the
it is said, for the silver coinage the sufferings it contained, and the brutality
" pine-tree " money of that province. In of its officers. From these vessels, anchor-
1654 he made a fire-engine for Boston, and ed near the present navy-yard at Brook-
in 1655 he received a patent for an im- lyn, almost 11,000 victims were carried
proved method of manufacturing scythes, ashore during the war, and buried in
In 1667 he had an appropriation for the shallow graves in the sand. Their re-
encouragement of wire-drawing. He died mains were gathered in 1808 and put
in Lynn, Mass., in 1683. in a vault situated near the termination

139

JEBSEYS JESUIT MISSIONS

of Front Street and Hudson Avenue, to promote the power and dominion of

Brooklyn. France in America. Within three years

Jerseys, THE. Collective name for the after the restoration of Canada to the

colonies of East and West New Jersey. French there were fifteen Jesuit priests

Jervis, JOHN BLOOMFIELD, engineer; in the province (163G). The first most
born in Huntington, N. Y., Dec. 14, 1795; noted of these missionaries were Brebeuf
assisted in the construction of the Erie and Daniel, who were bold, aggressive,
and the Delaware and Hudson canals. He and self-sacrificing to the last degree,
was connected with railroads from their Then came the more gentle Lallemande,
first introduction, and made many im- who, with others, traversed the dark
provements in locomotives; and was chief wilderness with a party of Hurons who
engineer of the Croton aqueduct in 1836. lived far to the westward, on the borders
He is the author of A Description of the of one of the Great Lakes. They suffered
Croton Aqueduct; A Report of the Hud- incredible hardships and privations cat-
son River Railroad; Railway Property; ing the coarsest food, sleeping on the bare
Labor and Capital, etc. He died in Home, earth, and assisting their red companions
N. Y., Jan. 12, 1885. in dragging their canoes at rough port-

Jessup, HENRY HARRIS, clergyman; ages. On a bay of Lake Huron they
Lorn in Montrose, Pa., April 19, 1832; erected the first house of the society
graduated at Yale University in 1851, among the North American Indians. That
and at Union Theological Seminary little chapel, which they called the cradle
in 1855; and after ordination went to a of the Church, was dedicated to St. Jo-
missionary to Tripoli, where he served in seph, the husband of the Blessed Virgin.
1856-CO. In the latter year he went to They told to the wild children of the
Beirut. In 1879 he was moderator of the forest the story of the love of Christ and
General Assembly. He is the author of his crucifixion, and awed them with the
Mohammedan Missionary Problem; The terrors of perdition. For fifteen years
Women of the Arabs; The Greek Church Brfibeuf carried on his missionary labors
and Protestant Missions; Syrian Home among the Hurons, scourging his flesh
Life; Kamil, Moslem Convert, etc. twice a day with thongs; wearing an irrm

Jesuit Missions. In 1539 the Society girdle armed at all points with sharp pro
of Jesus, or Jesuits, was established by jections, and over this a bristly hair-
Ignatius Loyola, Its members were, by shirt, which continually " mortified the
its rules, never to become prelates. Their flesh"; fasted frequently and long: kept
vows were to be poor, chaste, and obe- his pious vigils late into the night, and
dient, and in constant readiness to go on by penitential acts resisted every tempta-
missions against heresy and heathenism, tion of the flesh.

Their grand maxim was the widest diffu- As missionary stations multiplied in

sion of influence, and the closest internal the western wilderness, the central spot

unity. Their missions soon spread to was called St. Mary. It was upon the

every part of the habitable globe then outlet of Lake Superior into Lake Huron,

known. They planted the cross in Europe, There, in one year, 3,000 Indians received

Asia, Africa, and America, and on the a welcome at the hands of the priest,

islands of the sea; and when Champlain This mission awakened great sympathy

had opened the way for the establishment in France. Everywhere prayers were ut-

of French dominion in America, to the tered for its protection and prosperity.

Jesuits was assigned the task of bearing The King sent magnificently embroidered

the Christian religion to the dusky in- garments for the Indian converts. The

habitants in North America. More per- Pope expressed his approbation, and to

severing and more effective than the vo- confirm and strengthen these missions a

taries of commerce and trade, the Jesuits college in New France was projected. The

became the pioneers of discovery and set- pious young Marquis de Gaenache, with

tlement in North America. Their para- the assent of his parents, entered the So-

mount object was the conversion of the ciety of Jesus, and with a portion of their

heathen and an extension of the Church; ample fortune he endowed a seminary for

their secondary, yet powerful, object was education at Quebec. Its foundation was

140

JESUIT MISSIONS

laid in 1635, just before the death of and adventures of missionary life. On
Champlain. That college was founded his way from Quebec to the Hurons he
two years before the first high seminary was captured by a roving band of Mo-
of learning was established in the Protes- hawks, and he who was one of the first to
tant colonies in America by John Har
vard ( see HARVARD UNIVERSITY ) . At
the same time the Duchess d Acquillon,
aided by her uncle, Cardinal Richelieu,
endowed a public hospital at Quebec,
open to the afflicted, whether white or
red men, Christians or pagans. It was
placed in charge of three young nuns,
the youngest twenty-two, and the oldest
twenty -nine years of age, who came
from Paris for the purpose. In 1640,
Hochelaga (Montreal) was taken pos
session of as a missionary station, with
solemn religious ceremonies, and the
Queen of Angels was petitioned to take
the island of Montreal under her protec
tion. Within thirteen years the remote
wilderness was visited by forty-two
Jesuit missionaries, besides eighteen other
devoted men. These assembled two or
three times a year at St. Mary s; the re
mainder of the time they were scattered
through the forests in their sacred work.

A plan was conceived in 1638 of estab
lishing missions among the Algon-
quians, not only on the north, but on
the south of the Great Lakes, and at
Green Bay. The field of labor opened
to the view of the missionaries a vast
expanse of wilderness, peopled by many
tribes, and they prayed earnestly for re
cruits. Very soon Indians from very re
mote points appeared at the mission
stations. The hostilities of the Five
Nations had kept the French from
navigating Lakes Ontario and Erie;
finally, in 1640, Brebeuf was sent to
the NEUTRAL NATION (q. v. ), on the
Niagara River. The further penetra
tion of the country south of the Lakes
was then denied, but a glimpse of the
marvellous field soon to be entered upon
was obtained. In September and October, carry the cross into Michigan was now
1641, Charles Raymbault and Isaac Jogues the first to bear it to the villages of the
penetrated to the Falls of St. Mary, in the Five Nations. At the villages on the way
strait that forms the outlet of Lake from the St. Lawrence to the Mohawk
Superior, where they heard of the Sioux, domain Father Jogues was compelled to
They yearned to penetrate the country of submit to the horrors of running the
this famous people. This favor was denied gantlet, yet he never repined, but re-
the missionaries. Father Raymbault re- joiced in his tribulations, and was made
turned to Quebec and died, but Father happy by the conversion, here and there,
Jogues was destined to endure many trials of one of the savages, whom, on one occa-

141

A JESUIT TRAVELLING THROUGH THE WILDERNESS.

JESUIT MISSIONS

sion, he baptized with drops of dew. As
he roamed through the forests of the Mo
hawk Valley he carved the name of Jesus
and the figure of a cross on the trees, and
with a chant took possession of the coun
try in the name of Christ. He was ran
somed by the Dutch at Albany, sailed for
France, but soon returned to Canada.

Another missionary ( Bressani ) , who
suffered horribly, was also ransomed by
the Dutch. In the summer of 1646 the
Jesuits established a mission among the
Indians of Maine, and so French out
posts were established on the Kennebec
and the upper Lakes fourteen years after
these missionary labors were begun.
There was then a lull in hostilities be
tween the French and the Five Nations,
and Father Jogues went to the Mohawks
as ambassador for Canada. His report
caused an effort to establish a mission

cast his body into the Mohawk River.
In 1648, warriors from the Mohawk Valley
fell upon the Hurons, and the Jesuit mis
sions among them were destroyed, and
priests and converts were murdered after
horrible tortures. Finally, in 1654, when
peace between the French and the Five
Nations had been restored, Father Le
Moyne was sent as ambassador to the
Onondagas, when he was cheered by the
sight of many Hurons holding on to their
faith. Le Moyne was allowed to establish
a mission in the Mohawk Valley. Very
soon the Onondagas received Father Da-
blon and his companions kindly, and
chiefs and followers gathered around the
Jesuits with songs of welcome. A chapel
was built in a day. " For marbles and
precious metals," Dablon wrote, " we em
ployed only bark; but the path to
heaven is as open through a roof of bark

A JKSUIT MISSIONARY PREACHING TO THE INDIANS.

among them, and he alone understand- as through arched ceilings of silver and
ing their language, was sent, but lost his gold." Fifty French people settled near
life among the Mohawks, who hung his the missionary station, and very soon
head upon the palisades of a village, and there were Christian laborers among the

142

JESUIT MISSIONS

Cayugas and Oneidas. A change came. Aug. 28, 1657, but was recalled to Mon-
War was again kindled, and Jesuits and treal. Rene Menard was with Le Mercier
settlers were obliged to flee from the at Onondaga from 1656 to 1658, and after-
bosom of the Five Nations. After that, wards among the Cayugas. Julien Gar-
the self-sacrificing Jesuits penetrated the nier, sent to the Mohawks in May, 1668,
western wilderness to the Mississippi passed to Onondaga, and thence to the
River, carrying the cross as the emblem Senecas, and was engaged in this mission
of their religion, and the lilies of France until 1683. Claude Dablon, at Onondaga
as tokens of political dominion. In these a few years after 1655, and was after-
labors they were assisted by the votaries wards among the tribes of the Upper
of commerce. Seeds of civilization were Lakes. Jacques Fremin, at Onondaga
planted here and there, until harvests from 1656 to 1658; was sent to the Mo-
were beginning to blossom all along the hawks in July, 1667; left there for the
Lakes and the Mississippi to the Gulf of Senecas in October, 1668, where he re-
Mexico. The discoveries of these priests mained a few years. Pierre Rafeix, at
and traders gave to France a claim to Onondaga from 1656 to 1658; chaplain in
that magnificent domain of millions of Courcelle s expedition in 1665; sent to
square miles, extending from Acadia the Cayugas in 1671, thence to Seneca,
along the St. Lawrence and the Lakes, where he was in 1679. Jacques Bruyas,
and the establishment of French domin- sent to the Mohawks, July, 1667, and to
ion in Louisiana, on the borders of the the Oneidas in September, where he spent
Gulf of Mexico. It has been truthfully four years, and thence returned to the
said, The history of these [Jesuit] Mohawks in 1672; was at Onondaga in
labors is connected with the origin of 1679, 1700, and 1701. Etienne de Car-
every celebrated town in the annals of heil, sent to Cayuga in 1668, and was ab-
French America ; not a cape was turned or sent in 1671-72; returned, and remained
a river entered but a Jesuit led the way." until 1684. Pierre Milet was sent with
There were twenty-four different Jesuit De Carheil to the Cayugas in 1668, and
missionaries among the Six Nations be- left in 1684; was at Niagara in 1688.
tween 1657 and 1769. Their names and and was taken prisoner at Cataraqua in
places of service were as follows: Paul 1689. Jean Pierron was sent to the Mo-
Ragueneau, at Onondaga, from July, 1657, hawks in July, 1667 ; went among the
to March, 1658. Isaac Jogues, prisoner Cayugas in October, 1668, and was with
among the Mohawks from August, 1642, the Senecas after 1672, where he was in
to August, 1643; a missionary to the same 1679. Jean de Lamberville was at Onon-
nation in 1646, and killed in October of daga in 1671-72; was sent to Niagara in
the same year. Francis Joseph Le Mer- 1687. Francis Boniface was sent to the
cier, at Onondaga, from May 17, 1656, to Mohawks in 1668, and was there after
March 20, 1658. Francis Duperon, at 1673. Francis Vaillant de Gueslis suc-
Onondaga, from 1657 to 1658. Simon Le ceeded Boniface among the Mohawks about
Moyne, at Onondaga, July, 1654; with 1674: accompanied the expedition against
the Mohawks from Sept. 16, 1655, until the Senecas in 1687 ; was sent to New York
Nov. 9 of the same year; then again in in December, 1687, and to the Senecas in
1656, until Nov. 5; again there (third 1703. Pierre de Mareuil was at Onon-
time) from Aug. 26, 1657, until May, daga in June, 1709, where he surrendered
1658; at Onondaga, from July, 1661, until himself to the English in consequence of
September, 1662; ordered to the Senecas war breaking out between the latter and
in July, 1663, but remained at Montreal, the French, and was courteously treated
He died in Canada in 1665. Francis Jo- at Albany. Jacques d Heu was among
seph Bressani, a prisoner among the Mo- the Onondagas in 1708, and the Senecas
hawks from April 30 to Aug. 19, 1644. in 1709. Anthony Gordon founded St. Re-
Pierre Joseph Mary Chaumont, at Onon- gis in 1769, with a colony from St. Louis,
daga from September, 1655, until March There were two " Sulpicians " as mission-
20, 1658. Joseph Anthony Poncet was a aries in northern New York, Francis
prisoner among the Iroquois from Aug. Piquet, who founded Oswegatchie (Ogdens-
20 to Oct. 3, 1652; started for Onondaga burg) in 1748, and his successor at Oswe-

143

JESUP JEWS

gatchie, Pierre Paul Francis de la Garde, for his services in the battle of Lundy s

For Jesuit missions in California, see Lane, or Niagara, in which he was severe-

JUNIPERO. ly wounded. After the war, he was pro-

Jesup, MORRIS KETCHUM, philanthro- moted to adjutant-general and quarter-
pist; born in Westport, Conn., June 21, master-general of the army in 18 18, with the
L830; removed to New York City; was a rank of brigadier-general, and was brevet-
clerk in a manufacturing house till 1852, ted major-general in 1828. In 1836 he was in
and thence till 1884 was engaged in command of the army in the Creek nation,
banking business. He was elected presi- and at the close of the year he commanded
dent of the Five Points House of Industry the army in Florida. He was wounded
in 1872, and the same year became a by the Seminoles in January, 1838. lie
founder and president of the Young Men s died in Washington, D. C., June 10, 1860.
Christian Association of New York City. Jewell, MARSHALL, diplomatist; born
In 1881 he was elected president of the in Winchester, N. H., Oct. 20, 1825; learn-
New York City Mission and Tract Society, ed the tanner s trade; and established a
for which he built the DeWitt Memorial leather business. He was elected governor
Church, in memory of his father-in-law, of Connecticut in 1869, re-elected in 1871
and also president of the Museum of and 1872; appointed minister to Russia
Natural History, to which he presented in 1873; and became Postmaster-General
a collection of native woods valued at in 1874. He died in Hartford, Conn., Feb.
$100,000. He was elected president of 10, 1883.

the New York Chamber of Commerce in Jewett, SARAH ORNE, author; born in
1899. Besides the above institutions, he South Berwick, Me., Sept. 3, 1849; was
has been an officer in the leading benevo- educated at the Berwick Academy. She
lent and educational institutions in New has travelled extensively in the United
York City and elsewhere. Mr. Jesup has States, Canada, and Europe; and is
been exceedingly liberal in his benefac- widely known as a short-story writer,
tions, and has extended his aid to a large Her works include Decphavcn; Plan
variety of interests. In 1897 he assumed Days; Old Friends and New; A White
the expense, estimated at from $50,000 Heron; A Marsh Island; Betty Leicester;
to $75,000, of a series of expeditions to Country By-ways; The Mate of the Day-
secure anthropological material for the light, and Friends Ashore; A Country
Museum of Natural History, with special Doctor; The Story of the Normans; The
reference to the origin of the ancient King of Folly Island, and other People;
population of this continent and its re- Strangers and Wayfarers; A Native of Win-
lation to the ancient inhabitants of the by, and Other Talcs; The Life of Nancy;
Old World. This project involves the The Country of the Pointed Firs, etc.
thorough exploration of the coast of the Jews. The Jewish citizenship of the
north Pacific Ocean. In 1891 he gave to United States is one of the most substan-
Yale Divinity School $51,000, and the tial of all foreign constituents of our corn-
Women s Hospital, in New York City, plex population. The Jews are an exceed-
$100,000; in 1899 he erected Jesup Hall ingly law-abiding people, and in their
for Williams College, at a cost of $35,000; charities are unsurpassed by any race
and in 1900 he presented to Yale Univer- among us. Their homes, asylums, hospi-
sity the collection of Arabic manuscripts tals, and educational establishments are
made by Count Landberg, a distinguished among the best endowed and most pro-
Swedish collector and traveller, for which gressive institutions in the country, and
he paid $20,000. He also erected, for the the benevolent acts of prosperous Hebrew
Union Theological Seminary, a building men towards objects and institutions other
known as Jesup Hall. than those of their own people have re-

Jesup, THOMAS SIDNEY, military offi- ceived a high and a deserved recognition,
cer; born in Virginia, in 1788; entered At the fifteenth annual meeting of the
the army in 1808, and was Hull s adju- Association of Jewish Immigrants, in
tant-general in 1813. For his good con- Philadelphia, in 1899, President Levy s re-
duct at the battle of Chippewa, he was port treated especially of the general in-
brevetted lieutenant-colonel ; also colonel crease in immigration. Of the 312,000 im-

144

JEWS

migrants to this country, representing an
increase of 36 per cent, over the figures
of the preceding year, the Jewish con
tingent was 37,000, an increase of 32.1
per cent. A large proportion of the Jew
ish immigrants came from Russia, where,
however, the persecutions to which the
Jews were subjected were being less rigor
ously enforced than formerly. The fer
ment infused into the European social
body by the Dreyfus affair appeared to
have had a clarifying effect, even the Pro
curator of the Russian Holy Synod hav
ing in a recent interview disavowed anti-
Semitic sentiments. The actual storm
centre of Slavic anti-Semitism had moved
over the border from Russia to Austria
and Rumania, and in Bohemia the condi
tion of affairs was described as gravely
foreboding. In Vienna the fever of anti-
Semitism had passed its critical stage.
This had been, in part, due to the disclos
ure of colossal frauds in the administra
tion of the city finances by numerous
leaders of the anti-Semite majority. In
Germany and France the conditions were
still more favorable.

Turning to the subject of Jewish colo
nization, President Levy said that the
movement to colonize Jews in Palestine
had been stemmed by the interference of
the Turkish government. Jewish colonies
had been established in Cyprus, and the
De Hirsch colonies in Argentine were
showing unmistakable signs of progress.
Of the New Jersey colonies, the one at
Woodbine, under the fostering care of the
American De Hirsch Fund trustees, was
growing in importance, and left no doubt as
to its ultimately successful establishment.
The other colonies at Alliance, Norma, Car-
mel, and Rosenhayn had passed the prob
lematic stage and gave promise of success.

In the American-Jewish Year-Book for
1899-1000 (Hebrew year, 5660), Cyrus
Adler, the editor, considering the number
of Jews in the United States, said : " As
the census of the United States has, in
accordance with the spirit of American
institutions, taken no heed of the religious
convictions of American citizens, whether
native-born or naturalized, all statements
concerning the number of Jews living in
this country are based upon estimate,

"In 1818 Mordecai M. Noah estimated
the Jewish population at 3,000. In 1826
Isaac C. Harby placed the figures at 6,000,
and in 1840 these were further increased
by the estimate published in the American
Almanac to 15,000. In 1848 M. A. Berk
made their number 50,000. In 1880 Will
iam B. Hackenburg put the figures at
230,257; in 1888 Isaac Markens put them
at 400,000, and in 1897 David Sulzberger
estimated the total at 937,800."

The following figures are then given:

JEWISH IMMIGRATION INTO THE UNITED STATES,
1885-99.

Year.

New York.

Philadelphia,

Baltimore.

1885

18 535

1 076

1886

27 348

2 310

1887

25 788

1 680

1888

29 602

1 761

1889

22,674

1 288

1890

32 321

1 982

1891

62 574

4 984

1 581

1892

62 134

3 039

5 152

1893

25 678

5 324

1 941

1894

16 381

3 825

1 902

1895

27 065

2 791

2 221

1896

23 802

2 499

1 817

1897

17 278

1 7B2

1 1)61

180H

22 921

2 079

2 409

To July, 1899...

12,909

1,463

Total

417 010

36 390

20 140

Immigration for 1881-84 74,310

New York, 1885-99 417,010

Philadelphia, 1885-99 36,390

Baltimore, 1885-99 20,140

Total 547,850

" If we add this immigration to the
estimate of Mr. Hackenburg made in
1880," says Mr. Adler, " we can secure a
total of 778,107, without making any al
lowance for the natural increase in twenty
years, nor for the immigration through
Canada and other ports of the United
States than New York, Philadelphia, and
Baltimore."

Early in 1904 Professor Hainan, of
Basel, Switzerland, calculated that there
were about 19,000,000 Jews in the world,
of whom nearly 11,000,000 were in Europe
and 8,000,000 outside of Europe, including
1.000,000 in the United States. Accord
ing to his estimates Russia had 5,500,000;
Austria- Hungary, 1,860,000; Germany,
568,000; Rumania, 300,000; Great Britain,
22,000; Turkey, 120,000; Holland, 97,000;
France, 77,000; Italy, 50,000; Bulgaria,

though several of the estimates have been 31,000; Switzerland, 12,000; Greece, 6,000;

most conscientiously made,
v. K

Servia,
145

5.000; Denmark, 4,000; Sweden,

JEWS AND JUDAISM

3,500; Belgium,, 3,000; Spain, 2,500; and chusetts, 60,000; Minnesota, 10,000; Mis-
Portugal, 300. souri, 50,000; New Jersey, 23,000; New
The American Jewish Year-Book for York, 500,000 ; Ohio, 50,000 ; Pennsylvania,
1903-04 stated the Jewish population of 95,000; Tennessee, 10,000; Texas, 15,000;
the United States at 1,127,268, which Virginia, 15,000; Wisconsin, 15,000. The
would make the United States rank third immigration figures for 1903 show that
among the nations of the world in respect in 1902-03, 58,079 Jews entered the port
to Jewish citizens. The Yewr-Book esti- of New York, of whom 30,536 were Rus-
mated that fully 500,000 Jews were resi- sians, 18,113 Austrians, 8,314 Rumanians,
dents of New York State, the greater 527 Germans, 271 Turks, 233 English, 35
part being on Manhattan Island. The Dutch, 28 French, 12 Swedes, 5 Scotch,
following States were credited with hav- and 5 South Americans. From Aug. 27,
ing 10,000 or more Jews among their 1902, to Aug. 25, 1903, 24 synagogues were
people: California, 28,000; Illinois, 75,000; dedicated in fourteen of the United States,
Indiana, 25,000; Kentucky, 12,000; Loui- 16 hospitals and many other institutions
siana, 12,000; Maryland, 26,500; Massa- were opened.

JEWS AND JUDAISM

Jews and Judaism. Professor Richard dependent upon the political conditions of

J. H. Gottheil, the scholarly writer on these countries. More than seventy years

Jewish questions, and son of the well- oi the century had passed before this

known Rabbi Gottheil, of New York, struggle had been fought out.

writes as follows regarding Hebraism in The cause of Jewish emancipation in

America. England suffered no such sudden changes

as it did on the continent. It proceeded

For the Jew the Middle Ages did not by regular stages through the abrogation

end with the Reformation and the Renais- of the Act of Test in 1828, the admission

sance; but only disappeared in the trans- of Jews as citizens of London in 1830, as

formation brought about gradually by the sheriffs in 1835, as magistrates in 1845,

French Revolution. During this period and in 1858 as members of Parliament by

the Jew has passed through more up- the removal of the words " upon the faith

heavals than many nations have during of a Christian " in the oath taken by the

three or four times the number of years, members.

The modern European and American world There are between 10,000,000 and 11,-

has had a hard fight to find its way into 000,000 Jews to-day in the world ; of these,

its present changed condition; but much about 9,000,000 live in Europe; 1,000,000

harder by far was the task laid upon the in the United States and Canada; 350,000

Jew; and, whether he has succeeded or in Africa; 350,000 in Asia; and 16,000

not, he has made an honest fight. The in Australasia.

tale of the Jew of the nineteenth century In England and America no organiza-
is a record of his endeavor to do justice tion of the Jews has been effected, as the
to the two demands which were made upon state does not there take cognizance of the
him: the one from the outside world to religious belief of the people. In both
fit himself to take his place worthily and these countries attempts have been made
do his work side by side with the other by the Jews themselves to organize under
citizens of the state in which he lived; the one head upon a purely religious basis,
other from within his own ranks to har- but without much success. The congrega-
monize his religious belief with his new tional system has been carried to its ut-
point of view and to adapt his religious most limits in the United States, where
exercises to modern social conditions. The each congregation is a law unto itself and
struggle of the Jews in the various Euro- absolutely rejects any interference on the
pean countries for civil rights and for part of any larger body. From time to
equality before the law was long drawn time a desire has been manifested to super-
out, and was marked by varying fortunes sede this purely congregational system by

146

JEWS AND JUDAISM

some form of union. The late Dr. Isaac
M. Wise, of Cincinnati, had at various
times attempted to bring the Jews of the
United States together with an authorita
tive synod at their head. Out of this and
other attempts have come the Central Con
ference of American Rabbis and The Union
of American Congregations (founded in
1873), which now comprises about ninety-
one congregations. These organizations,
liowever, do not by any means represent
either all of the Jewish ministers or all
of the Jewish congregations, and the
Union itself is merely a deliberative body
having no power to do anything in the in
ternal affairs of one of its constituent
synagogues. Since the union of American
Jewish congregations comprises only such
as stand upon a Reform platform, a union
of Orthodox congregations was formed in
New York two or three years ago, and it
is hoped that this organization will do
much towards binding together the very
many congregations of those who adhere
strictly to traditional Judaism.

But the organization of Jews as a
church has not been found sufficient. It
was early felt that some more secular
bond must be found which should unite
the Jews of various persuasions for com
mon and concerted action. The first at
tempt in this direction was nobly made
by Narcisse Leven, Eugene Emanuel,
Charles Netter, and a few others, in found
ing (1880) the "Alliance Israelite Uni-
verselle " in Paris, whose object it was to
aid in removing Jewish disabilities wher
ever they might exist, and to raise the
spiritual condition of their coreligionists
in northern Africa, eastern Europe, and
western Asia by the founding of schools.
From these small beginnings the Alliance
has grown to be an important factor in
the conservation of Jewish interests.
Faithful to its programme, it has estab
lished a large number of elementary and
technical schools, and has intervened ac
tively in Algeria, Morocco, the Turkish
Empire, and Persia whenever Jews or Jew
ish interests were in any way threatened.
Its attempt, however, to represent the
whole Jewish people has not been success
ful; for the reason that it has been allied
too closely with French national interests;
and side by side with the " Alliance Fran-
caise" it has been an active propagandist

of the French language and of French cult
ure in the East. This one-sidedness of
its work is best seen in the fact that by its
side similar organizations have been cre
ated in other countries, " The Board of
Delegates of American Israelites " in the
United States, " The Anglo-Jewish Associa
tion " in England, the " Israelitische Al
liance " in Austria, and the " Deutsche Ge-
meindebund " in Germany. At one point
it was hoped that the B nai B rith, estab
lished in this country in 1843, by Isidor
Busch, Julius Bien, and others, would
form such a union of Jews, where the
theological differences would be eliminated.
But though this order, which has 315
lodges in the United States and Canada,
has established itself in such countries
as Germany, Rumania, Austria, Algeria,
Bulgaria, and Egypt, and despite the good
work it has so far done, the mere fact
that it is a secret organization prevents it
from standing forth as the representative
of international Jewry. Where, then, and in
what manner is such a body to be found?
It is a mistake to suppose that the Jews
as a people are rich. The proletariat
among them is proportionately much
larger than it is among other people; and
thus it came about that the Jewish quar
ters in all the large cities were already
well filled when they were (almost at a
moment s notice) called upon to receive
double or triple the number they already
held. The actual number of the Jewish
poor was thereby greatly increased; for
many a family that had been wealthy or
in easy circumstances in Russia, Galicia,
or Rumania, had been reduced to want
and been compelled to take its place
among those who needed the help of their
brethren. This help was freely and cheer
fully given all the world over. Great
sacrifices were made by the richer Jews
to meet the pressing needs of the hour,
and, with no help from the outside world,
excepting the London Mansion House
Fund in 1882, the thousands and tens of
thousands of immigrants were cared for.
The Jewish charitable organizations, the
development of which has been during the
latter half of the nineteenth century the
brightest spot in Jewish communal life,
rose to the demands of the occasion, and
the more than princely munificence of
Baron and Baroness Maurice de Hirsch,

147

JEWS AND JUDAISM

in regard to the Russian Jews, may justly of Jews there must be stopped, and the

be looked upon with pride. crowding into certain distinct fields of

New Ghettos, however, were formed in work must be brought to an end. A deter-
nearly all the cities to which these immi- mined effort has already been made to
grants came; and this name for the habi- force the new immigrants into less crowded
tat of the poorer Jews became again famil- parts of the land to which they come. In
iar, aided by the popularity which some this country this is being done by the
modern novelists had given to it. In the United Hebrew Charities, and notably by
Middle Ages and down to our own time the B nai B rith. A distinct clannish feel-
the Jews had been forced by the state ing has, however, to be overcome, and a
to live apart in such Ghettos; sometimes fear of venturing into an unknown coun-
for their own protection, sometimes to try where the immigrant will be surround-
preserve the outside world from contact ed by people who do not understand his
with them. The modern Ghetto is a volun- peculiar social and religious customs.
tary gathering of the Jews for the purpose That the Jew has taken by preference
of mutual help and from a feeling of re- to certain branches of trade and work is
ciprocal obligations. To the outside ob- due to the fact that anti-Jewish legisla-
server it presents an unsightly appear- tion has for centuries closed many walks
ance; it is the abode of poor people, and of life to him, and the guild organization
its population is usually strange in dress, excluded him rigorously from many
manners, and speech. The sweating sys- spheres of activity. Then, too, his richly
tern (which in one form or another is to developed home life has induced a certain
be found in all these Ghettos) has been a distaste for occupations which take the
dreadful incentive towards grinding the wage-earner out of his home and away
face of the poor; and the results of too from his family. That, however, these
great a hoarding are often quite apparent; inherited instincts can easily be overcome
so that the general morality of the Jews is clearly seen whenever the occasion
in these Ghettos has suffered in conse- offers. Even in Amsterdam, where three-
quence. A people ignorant of the Ian- fourths of the diamond industry is in the
guage of their new home are a prey to the hands of Jews, there are to be found Jew-
evil - intended, who make use of their ish cobblers, cigar-makers, plumbers, car-
ignorance for their own commercial and pet - weavers, mattress - makers, watch-
political advancement. This has been makers, etc. In the East End of London
notably seen in the city of New York, there are, it is true, 10,000 Jews who
where a lax city government has permitted are engaged in the clothes - making
the vampires of society to fasten their trades, but the rest of 40,000 Jewish
fangs upon the Ghetto and to produce con- wage - earners of this quarter are scat-
ditions which call for the active interfer- tered over all possible branches of
ence of all those forces which seek to work masonry, metal-working, textile
stamp out crime and vice. But, on the industries, furniture-making, cap-making,
other hand, to one who is acquainted with and the like. The same is true of New
the inner life of the Ghetto the virtues York, where, although the number of Jews
which have hitherto characterized the employed in the tailoring industries is
Jews industry and sobriety are still to disproportionately large, the following
be found there; much more frequently list of Hebrew unions shows how far
than in those parts where the richer afield the Jewish workman has gone:
classes congregate, and whose wealth Cap-Makers, Cap-Blockers, Shirt-Makers,
enables them to withdraw their doings Mattress-Makers, Purse-Makers, Liberty
from the public gaze. Its members are as Musical Union, Jewish Chorus Union,
industrious as bees in a hive; and though Jewellers Union, Tin-Smithers Union,
extremely litigatious, drunkenness is un- Bill-Posters, Waiters Alliance, Architect-
known and actual crime is comparatively ural Ironworkers, Hebrew Typographical
rare. Union, Tobacco Cutters, Paper - Makers,

In order to correct the abuses of the Bookbinders. The same is relatively true

Ghetto, two things are absolutely neces- of all other countries where Jews live in

sary the increase of the actual number large numbers.

148

JEWS AND JUDAISM

It is a popular misconception that the Alexandria, into Moorish culture in Spain,
Jew has an innate distaste for agricult- into Slavism in Russia and Poland. Wh,eu
ure. His continued commercial life, forced the first wave of the moder-n spirit com-
upon him for many centuries, has, it nienced to break from France eastward
is true, disaccustomed the Jew to the over the whole of Europe, it reached the
life of a tiller of the soil. But the Jewish Jew also. While in France the new spirit
state was largely an agricultural one; the was largely political in Germany it was
legislation of the Bible and the later Law more spiritual. In its political form as
Books was clearly intended for an agri- well as in its spiritual form it reacted
cultural people; and Jews have never not only upon the political condition of
shown an unwillingness to return again the Jew, but especially upon his mental
to the soil. In Southern Russia there are attitude. The new spirit was intensely
to-day 225 Jewish colonies with a popula- modern, intensely cosmopolitan, intensely
tion of 100,000. In Palestine there are Occidental, and intensely inductive. The
now more than twenty colonies with a Jew had preserved to a great degree his
population of more than 5,000, and similar deductive, Oriental, particularistic, and
agricultural colonies have been established ancient mode of thought and aspect of
at various times in the United States, life. The two forces were bound to meet.
Canada, and the Argentine Republic. In As a great oak is met by the storm, so Avaa
many cases, it is true, these colonies have Israel set upon by the fury of this terrible
not yet become self-supporting, but this onslaught. It is of interest to see in what
has been due in a large measure to mal- manner he emerged from this storm
administration and to the popular con- whether he has been able to bend to its
ditions under which the colonies were fury, to lose perhaps some of his leaves
founded. and even some of his branches, but to

It cannot be denied that a goodly part change only in such a way as to be able
of the Jewish proletariat belongs to the to stand upright again when the storm
Socialist party. The whole Biblical sys- is past.

tern is in itself not without a Socialist It was in the United States that the
tinge; and the two great founders of the Reform movement developed its full ca-
modern system, Lasalle and Marx, were pacity and bore its most perfect fruit.
Jews. But the Jew is by nature peace- In a new land, which was untrammelled
loving; and under more favorable circum- by traditions of the past, and where the
stances, and with the opportunity of a congregational system became the basis of
greater development of his faculties, Jewish communal life, the ideas which the
Socialism in his midst has no very active German Reformers had sown had a most
life ; the Jew very soon becoming an ar- fruitful ground in which to grow. It can-
dent partisan of the existing state of not be said that the Reform movement
affairs. here was actually started by the Ger-

The facility with which the Jews attach mans, for already, in 1825, one of the
themselves to changed circumstances congregations in Charleston, S. C., made
stands out characteristically through their up almost entirely of Sefardic Jews,
whole history. It might, indeed, be said had developed " The Reformed Society of
with some show of truth that this pli- Israelites"; and the formation of the
ability is the weak side in the Jewish society seems to have been due, not only
character. The readiness of the Jew to be to the demand for an aesthetic service, but
almost anything and not simply his own to an attempt to formulate a creed which
self has been one of the factors producing should omit all reference to the coming of
a certain ill will against him. Disraeli the Messiah, the return to Palestine, and
was the most jingo of all imperialists in the bodily resurrection. This attempt at
England; Lasker, the most ardent advo- formulating a Theistic Church, however,
cate of the newly constituted German Em- was unsuccessful ; and it was not until the
pire. This pliability is the result of the advent from Germany in the 50 s and 60 s
wandering life he has led and the various of rabbis who had been influenced by the
civilizations of which he has been a part, movement in Germany that reform corn-
He has to find his way into Hellenism in menced to make itself felt here. Mcrz-

140

JEWS AND JUDAISM

bacher in New York, Isaac M. Wise in Al
bany and Cincinnati, S. Hirsch in Phila
delphia, David Einhorn in Baltimore, are
only a few of the names of those who
fought in the thick of the fight. About the
year 1843 the first real Eeform congrega
tions were established, the Temple Emanu-
el in New York and Har Sinai in Balti
more. It cannot be my purpose here
to trace the history of the movement in
this country; suffice it to say that the un
trammelled freedom which existed here
very soon played havoc with most of the
institutions of the Jewish religion. Each
congregation and each minister, being a
law to itself, shortened the service, excised
prayers, and did away with observances
as it thought best. Not that the leaders
did not try, from time to time, to regulate
the measure of reform to be introduced,
and to evolve a platform upon which the
movement should stand. Rabbinical con
ferences were held for that purpose in
Cleveland (1856), Philadelphia (1869),
Cincinnati (1871), and Pittsburg (1885).
While in the earlier conferences the at
tempt was made to find some authoritative
statement upon which all parties could
agree, in the subsequent ones the attempt
was given up. They became more and
more meeting-places simply for the ad
vanced Reform wing of the Jewish Church.
The position of this wing of the Reformed
synagogue may best be seen in the declara
tion of principles which was published by
the Pittsburg conference. It declared
that Judaism presents the highest con
ception of the God idea; that the Bible
contains the record of the consecration of
the Jewish people; that it is a potent in
strument of religious and moral instruc
tion; that it reveals, however, the primi
tive ideas of its own age ; that its moral
laws only are binding; and that all cere
monies therein ordained which are not
adapted to the views and habits of modern
civilization are to be rejected; that all
Mosaic and rabbinical laws regulating
diet, priestly functions, and dress, are for
eign to our present mental state; that the
Jews are no longer a nation, and therefore
do not expect a return to Palestine; that
Judaism is a progressive religion, always
striving to be in accord with the postulates
of reason ; that the belief in bodily resur
rection, in the existence of a hell and a

150

paradise, are to be rejected ; and that it is
1he duty of Jews to participate in the
great task of modern times to solve on the
basis of justice and righteousness the
problems presented by the transitions and
evils of the present organization of soci
ety. Such a platform as this could not
fail to arouse intense opposition on the
part of the Orthodox Jews, and to lose for
the conference even some of its more con
servative adherents. As in Charleston, in
1825, a platform of Theism was here postu
lated, which was bereft of all distinctively
Jewish characteristics, and which practi
cally meant a breaking away from historic
Judaism. This position of the advanced
Reformers is also manifested in the stand
which they have taken in regard to the
necessity of the Abrahamic covenant. At
a meeting of the Central Conference of
American (Reformed) Rabbis, held at
Baltimore in 1881, a resolution was passed
to the effect that no initiatory rite or cere
mony was necessary in the case of one de
siring to enter the Covenant of Israel, and
that such a one had merely to declare his
or her intention to worship the one sole
and eternal God, to be conscientiously gov
erned in life by God s laws, and to adhere
to the sacred cause and mission of Israel
as marked out in Holy Writ.

The service in Reform synagogues in the
United States has kept pace with this de
velopment of doctrine, or rather with this
sloughing-off of so much that is distinctive
ly Jewish. The observance of the second-day
festivals has been entirely abolished, as
well as the separation of the sexes and the
covering of the head in prayer. The ritual
has been gradually shortened, the ancient
language of prayer (Hebrew) has been
pushed further and further into the back
ground, so that in some congregations the
service is altogether English; and in a
few congregations an additional service
on Sunday, intended for those who cannot
attend upon the regular Sabbath-day, has
been introduced. Only one congregation,
Sinai in Chicago, has followed the old Ber
lin Reform synagogue and has entirely
abolished the service on Friday night and
Saturday morning. But whatever criti
cism one might like to offer on the Reform
movement in the United States, it deserves
great praise for the serious attempt it
has made to understand its own position

JEWS AND JUDAISM

ENTRANCE TO TEMPLE BETH-EL, A JEWISH SYNAGOGUE IN NEW YORK CITY.

and to square its observance with that Cincinnati). It has published a Union
position. It has also been most active in Prayer-book and a Union Hymn-book, and
its modern institutional development. It has given great care to the development of
has certainly beautified and spiritualized the Confirmation and the bettering of the
the synagogue service ; it has founded a Sunday-school. It has tried to make the
Union of American Hebrew Congregations, synagogue a centre for the religious and
and a seminary (Hebrew Union College in spiritual development of its members;

151

JEWS AND JUDAISM

and it cannot be denied that the very hold upon things which are supernatural
large mass of educated Jews in this coun- will lead many of its members to seek
try, in so far as they have any affiliation satisfaction elsewhere. That they will
with the synagogue, belong to the Re- seek it in the Jewish synagogue is hardly
form wing. But at the same time probable, seeing how the racial and other
it must not be forgotten that there is ties have been broken or at least greatly
a very large body of Orthodox and loosened. They or their children will
conservative Jews, whose number has glide rather into some form of the domi-
been greatly increased during the last nant church, possibly, in the swinging of
twenty years through the influx of Rus- the pendulum, into some orthodox form
sian, Galician, and Rumanian Jews. of that church. I cannot help quoting the
Reform Judaism without some centrif- words of an intelligent outside observer
ugal force is bound to continue on the of the Jewish question, the Right Hon.
road it has once taken. The logical out- James Bryce, M. P. : " If Judaism be
come of the principles formulated at the comes merely Theism, there will be little
Pittsburg conference is a gradual develop- to distinguish its professors from, the per-
ment into an ethical Theism without any sons, now pretty numerous, who, while
distinctive Jewish coloring. The leader of Christian in name, sit loose to Christian
advanced Reform Judaism in this country doctrine. The children of Jewish theists
has recently said that Judaism must be will be almost as apt as the children of
recast along the lines of a universal ethi- other theists to be caught up by the move-
cal religion ; that then all distinctive Jew- ment which carries the sons and daughters
ish elements of the synagogue symbolism of evangelical Anglicans and of Noncon-
will pass away, and that such a denation- formists towards, or all the way to, the
alized Jewish temple will seek a closer al- Church of Rome."

liance with Unitarianism and Theism, and Where, then, is this centrifugal force to
with them, perhaps in a few decades, will be found, which will hold together the
form a new church and a new religion for various elements in Israel, no matter what
united humanity. That such a tendency their theological opinions may be? Before
is inherent in Reform Judaism is seen also attempting to answer this question, a word
in the formation of the Society of Ethical must be said in regard to the anti-Semitic
Culture in New York. The leader of this movement, the recrudescence of which has
7Tiovement is the son of a former promi- so profoundly affected the Jewish people
rent rabbi of the leading Reform congre- during the last twenty years of the nine-
gation in this country. In seeking to teenth century. A word only, because the
bring out the underlying ethical prin- facts are of too recent date to need a de-
ciples of Judaism, he has gone entirely tailed statement here. The great master-
outside the pale of the ancient faith ; and rnind, Zunz, writing in Germany in 1832,
ihe movement would not concern us here believed that persecution for religious be-
were it not that nearly all the members lief could not withstand the onslaughts of
(at least of the parent society in New the new era. Theodore Reinach, some
York) are Jews, whose evident desire it fifty years later, asserted that anti-Semi-
is not to be recognized as such, at least tism was impossible in France. How
so far as religious ceremonies and social sadly has a dementi been given to the
affiliations are concerned. The society hopes thus expressed, especially in these
does not even bear the name Jewish, but two countries !~

with a certain leaning towards liberal I pass over the outbreaks against the
Christianity tries to find a basis for the Jews during the early years of the nine-
morality and ethics of the old synagogue teenth century, even the Damascus blood-
outside the sphere of supernatural re- accusation in 1840, and the forcible bap-
ligion. While the Ethical Culture Society tism of little Edgar Mortara in 185S; they
has been quite a power in certain lines of were believed to belong to the old order of
charitable and educational work, it may things, with which the new, at least in
reasonably be questioned whether it has that direction, had nothing in common,
any future as a form of church organiza- Starting in Germany, perhaps as a po
tion. The inborn longing of man for some litical move on the part of Bismarck, it

152

JEWS AND JUDAISM JOHN ADAMS

spread into Russia, Galicia, Austria, Ru
mania, and France. In most of these coun
tries it not only found expression in the
exclusion of the Jews from all social inter
course with their fellows, but in Russia
produced the riots of 1881 and 1882; in
Austria and Bohemia the turbulent scene
in the Reichstag, and even the pillaging of
Jewish houses and Jewish synagogues; in
Rumania it received the active support
of the government and reduced the Jews
there to practical penury; while in France
it showed itself in accusations against the
Jews which for barbarity could match any
that were brought against them in the
Middle Ages. The charges against the
Jews are varied in their character. In
Germany they have been blamed for ex
ploiting the agricultural class and for
serving the interests of the Liberal party,
forgetting that Leo and Stahl, the found
ers of the Orthodox party in Prussia,
were themselves Jews, and that Disraeli
in England was born of the same race.
The most foolish accusations on almost
every conceivable subject have been lodged
against them by such men as Ahlwart,
Stocker, Lueger, and Prumont; and in
late years the old and foolish charge that
the Jews use the blood of Christian chil
dren in the making of Passover bread has
been revived, in order to infuriate the
populace; despite the fact that popes,
ecclesiastics, and hosts of Christian pro
fessors have declared the accusation to be
purely imaginary and malignant. The
false charge that a Jewish officer in France

Among the few bright spots on the
world s chart are those countries inhabited
by the Anglo-Saxon race. Anti-Semitism
is unknown in England (though the at
tempt has been made to fix the blame for
the Boer war on the Jews) ; and the in
stitutions of the United States have up
till now prevented the entrance here of
the disease, though in the mild form of
social anti-Semitism which debars Jewish
children from private schools and Jewish
people from clubs and summer hotels, it
lias insinuated itself into some of the
Eastern cities, notably into New York.

Jogues, ISAAC, missionary; born at
Orleans, France, Jan. 10, 1607; became a
Jesuit at Rouen in 1624; was ordained in
1G36; and, at his own request, was imme
diately sent to Canada. He was a most
earnest missionary among the Indians on
both sides of the Lakes. Caught, tortured,
and made a slave by the Mohawks, he re
mained with them until 1643, when he es
caped to Albany, and was taken to Man
hattan. Returning to Europe, he was
shipwrecked on the English coast. He
returned to Canada in 1646, where he con
cluded a treaty between the French and
the Mohawks. Visiting Lake George, he
named it St. Sacrament, and, descending
the Hudson River to Albany, he went
among the Mohawks as a missionary, who
seized and put him to death as a sorcerer,
at Caughnawaga, N. Y., Oct. 18, 1646.

John Adams, THE. The naval opera
tions on the sea in 1814, though not so
important as in the two preceding years

PLACE WHERK TUB JOHN ADAMS WAS DESTROYED.

had betrayed secrets of his government was in some respects, fully sustained the char-
sufficient to unloosen the most savage at- acter of the American navy. The John
tacks upon the Jews which the modern Adams frigate had been cut down to a
world has seen. corvette of twenty-eight guns in 1813, ami

153

JOHN DOE JOHNSON

was the first that figured after the open
ing of 1814. She started on a cruise from
Washington in January, and on the night
of the 18th passed the British blockading
squadron in Lynn Haven Bay, put to sea,
and ran to the northeast to cross the track
of the West India merchantmen. She
made a few prizes, and on March 25 she
captured the Indiaman Woodbridge. While
taking possession of her the commander
of the Adams (Capt. Charles Morris) ob
served twenty-five merchant vessels, with
two ships-of-war, bearing down upon her
with a fair wind. Morris abandoned his
prize, and gave the Adams wings for flight
from danger. In April she entered the
harbor of Savannah for supplies, and on
May 5 sailed for the Manila Reef to watch
for the Jamaica convoy, but the fleet pass
ed her in the night. She gave chase in the
morning, but was kept at bay by two ves
sels of war. She crossed the Atlantic, and
on July 3 was off the Irish coast, where
she was chased by British vessels, but al
ways escaped. For nearly two months the
weather was foggy, cold, and damp, be
cause the ocean was dotted with icebergs.
Her crew sickened, and Captain Morris de
termined to go into port. He entered
Penobscot Bay, and was nearly disabled
by striking a rock, Aug. 17, 1814, and
made his way up the Penobscot River to
Hampden. British vessels followed, and
to prevent her falling into the hands of
his enemy, Morris burned her.

John Doe and Richard Roe, names
used in legal fictions, especially as stand
ing pledges for the prosecution of suits.
In early times real and substantial persons
were required to pledge themselves to
answer to the crown for an amercement,
or fine, set upon the plaintiff, for raising
a false accusation, if he brought action
without cause, or failed in it; and in 1285,
13 Edward I., sheriffs and bailiffs were,
before deliverance of a distress, to receive
pledges for pursuing a suit, and for the
return of the property, if awarded. But

this becoming a matter of form, the ficti
tious names of Doe and Roe were used
until the form was abolished by the com
mon-law procedure act, 1852.

In the United States these names are
used in place of the unknown real names
of parties against whom legal proceedings
have been undertaken; and the form Jane
Doe is similarly applied in cases of women.

Johnes, EDWARD RODOLPH, lawyer ; born
in Whitesboro, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1852; grad
uated at Yale College in 1873 and at
Columbia Law School in 1876. He was the
Venezuelan representative in the boundary
dispute of that country and also counsel
in the Nicaragua and Costa Rica boun
dary case. His publications include The
Monroe Doctrine as Applied to Venezuelan
Boundary Question; English and American
Bankruptcy and Insolvency Laws; History
of Southampton, R. /., etc.

Johns Hopkins University, a non-
sectarian institution in Baltimore, Md. ;
organized in 1876 with funds provided by
JOHNS HOPKINS (q. v.) ; coeducational in
its medical department. At the close of
1900 the university had 131 professors and
instructors; 645 students in all depart
ments; 94,000 volumes in the library;
1,204 graduates; and an endowment of
$3,000,000. Under the presidency of
Daniel C. Oilman the institution achieved
a large measure of success and influence,
a distinctive feature being the original re
search conducted by the students. Presi
dent Gilman resigned his charge in 1901,
and was succeeded by Ira Remsen, LL.D.,
who had been Professor of Chemistry in
the university since its opening.

Johnson, ALEXANDER BRYAN, banker;
born in Gosport, England, May 29, 1786;
came to the United States in 1801 and
settled in Utica, N. Y. ; was in the banking
business over forty-five years. His pub
lications include The Nature of Value,
Capital, etc. ; Guide to Right Understand
ing of our American Union, etc. He died
in Utica, N. Y., Sept. 9, 1867.

JOHNSON, ANDREW

Johnson, ANDREW, seventeenth Presi- to read. After working as a journeyman
dent of the United States; born in Ha- in South Carolina, he went to Greenville,
leigh, N. C., Dec. 29, 1808. He learned Tenn., taking with him his mother, who
the trade of a tailor, and taught himself was dependent on him. There he worked

154

JOHNSON, ANDREW

at his trade, married, and was taught by Congress as an illegal body, deserving of

his wife to write; became alderman and no respect. The tour, made wholly for

mayor; a member of the legislature political effect, extended to St. Louis.

(1832-33 and 1839); presidential elector His conduct at Cleveland and St. Louia

(1840) ; State Senator in 1841; and mem- was so offensive that the common coun-

ber of Congress from 1843 to 1853. From cils of Cincinnati and Pittsburg refused

1853 to 1857 he was governor of Tennes- to accord him a public reception. The at-

see, and from 1857 to 1863 United States tempt to establish a new party with

Senator. In 1862 he was appointed mill- President Johnson as a leader was a fail-

tary governor of Tennessee, and in 1864 ure.

was elected Vice-President of the United When the cabinet of President John-
States. On the death of President Lin- son resigned, the friends of Mr. Stanton,
coin he succeeded to the office, in accord- Secretary of War, urged him to retain
ance with the provisions of the Constitu- the office, for it was believed the chief
tion. On the morning of the death of Mr. magistrate was contemplating some revo-
Lincoln, April 15, 1865, the cabinet offi- lutionary movement. The tenure of office
cers, excepting Mr. Seward, who was suf- act seemed to guarantee Mr. Stanton
fering from a murderous assault, ad- against removal. The Fortieth Congress
dressed a note to the Vice-President, offi- met immediately after the adjournment
cially notifying him of the decease of the of the Thirty-ninth, and adjourned March
President, and that the emergency of the 31, 1867, to meet on the first Wednesday
government demanded that he should im- in July following, for the express pur-
mediately enter upon the duties of the pose of preventing the President from
Presidency. Mr. Johnson appointed ten doing serious mischief. After removing
o clock that morning, when he would be obstructions cast in the way of reor-
ready to take the oath of office. That ganization by the President, Congress
oath was administered by Chief-Justice adjourned, July 20, to meet Nov. 21,
Chase, in the presence of the cabinet offi- hoping the President would no longer
cers and several members of Congress, disturb the public peace by his conduct.
Then the President delivered a brief They were mistaken. As soon as Con-
speech to the gentlemen present. There, gress adjourned, in violation of the ten-
in the midst of universal and unparalleled ure of office act he proceeded to remove
excitement, the authority of the nation Mr. Stanton from office. He first asked
was quietly transferred to other hands a him, Aug. 5, to resign. " Grave public
few hours after the death of President considerations," he said, " constrain me
Lincoln. Mr. Johnson requested Mr. Lin- to request your resignation as Secretary
coin s cabinet to remain, and the govern- of War." Stanton replied, " Grave public
ment went on without a shock to its considerations constrain me to continue
steady movement. See CABINET, PRESI- in the office of Secretary of War until the
DENT S. next meeting of Congress." He shared
On Aug. 14, 1866, a convention was held in the general suspicion that Johnson
in Philadelphia, composed largely of Con- was contemplating a revolutionary move-
federate leaders and their sympathizers ment in favor of the Confederates. A
in the North, for the purpose of organ- week later the President directed Gen-
izing a new political party, with Presi- eral Grant to assume the position and
dent Johnson as its standard - bearer, duties of Secretary of War. As a duti-
Whereupon Johnson and a part of his ful soldier, he obeyed his commander-in-
cabinet made a circuitous journey to Chi- chief. Stanton, knowing the firmness
cago, ostensibly for the purpose of being and incorruptible patriotism of Grant,
present at the dedication of a monument withdrew under protest. This change
to Senator Douglas. He harangued the was followed by such arbitrary acts on
people on the way in language so un- the part of the President that the country
becoming the dignity of a chief magis- was thoroughly alarmed. Even the Presi-
trate of the republic that the nation felt dent s private friends were amazed and
a relief from mortification after his re- mortified by his conduct. He gave un-
turn in September. He had denounced satisfactory reasons for dismissing Stan-

155

JOHNSON, ANDREW

ton. On Jan. 13, 1868, the Senate rein- of themselves and all the people of the
stated Stanton, when Grant quietly with- United States, against Andrew Johnson,
drew. The enraged President reproached President of the United gtates, in rnain-
the latter for yielding to the Senate, tenance and support of their impeachment
charged him with having broken his against him for high crimes and misde-
promises, and tried to injure his reputa- meanors.
tion as a citizen and a soldier. A ques- ARTICLE r.
tion of veracity between them arose, when That said Andrew Johnson, President
the general-in-chief felt compelled to say, of the United States, on the 21st day of
in a letter to the President: "When my February, in the year of our Lord 18G8,
honor as a soldier and my integrity as a at Washington, in the District of Colum-
man have been so violently assailed, par- bia, unmindful of the high duties of his
don me for saying that I can but regard office, of his oath of office, and of the re-
this whole matter, from beginning to end, quirement of the Constitution that he
as an attempt to involve me in the resist- should take care that the laws be faith-
ance of law for which you have hesitated fully executed, did unlawfully, and in
to assume the responsibility in orders, violation of the Constitution and laws of
and thus to destroy my character before the United States, issue an order in writ-
the country." The President s conduct ing for the removal of Edwin M. Stan-
concerning Stanton led immediately to ton from the office of Secretary for the
his impeachment. Department of War, said Edwin M. Stan-

On Feb. 22, 18C8, the House of Repre- ton having been theretofore duly appoint-

sentatives, by a vote of 126 to 47, "Re- ed and commissioned, by and* with the

solved, that Andrew Johnson, President advice and consent of the Senate of the

of the United States, be impeached of United States, as such Secretary, and said

hift-h crimes and misdemeanors." A com- Andrew Johnson, President of the United

mittee presented nine articles of impeach- States, on the 12th day of August, in the

ment (see below). Managers were ap- year of our Lord 1867, and during the

pointed, and on March 3 they presented recess of said Senate, having suspended

two other charges. The Senate organized by his order Edwin M. Stanton from said

as a high court of impeachment, with office; and within twenty days after the

Chief- Justice Chase presiding, on the 5th; first day of the next meeting of said

the President was summoned to the bar Senate that is to say, on the 12th. day of

on the 7th, and appeared by counsel on December, in the year last aforesaid

the 13th; and the trial was begun on the having reported to said Senate such sus-

3flth. The examination of witnesses pension, with the evidence and reasons

ended April 22; the arguments of counsel for his action in the case, and the name

were concluded May 6; and twenty days of the person designated to perform the

were consumed in debates in the Senate, duties of such office temporarily until

The votes of fifty-four Senators present the next meeting of the Senate, and said

were taken on the verdict on May 26, Senate thereafterward, on the 13th day

when thirty-five were for conviction, and of January, in the year of our Lord

nineteen for acquittal. As two-thirds of 1868, having duly considered the evi-

the votes were necessary for conviction, dence and reasons reported by said

the President was acquitted by one vote. Andrew Johnson for said suspension and

Soon after the expiration of his term having refused to concur in said suspen-

as President, he was an unsuccessful can- sion, whereby, and by force of the pro-

didate for the United States Senate; in visions of an act entitled "An act regu-

1872 he was defeated for Congressman- lating the tenure of certain civil offices."

at-Large; and in January, 1875, he was passed March 2, 1867, said Edwin M.

elected a United States Senator. He died Stanton did forthwith resume the func-

near Carter s Station, Tenn., July 31, tions of his office, whereof the said An-

1875. drew Johnson had then and there due

Impeachment Proceedings. Articles notice, and said Edwin M. Stanton, by

exhibited by the House of Representa- reason of the premises, on said 21st day

tives of the United States, in the name of February, being lawfully entitled to

156

JOHNSON, ANDREW

liold said office as Secretary for the De- session, and without authority of law,

partment of War, which said order for did, with intent to violate the Constitu-

the removal of said Edwin M. Stanton is, tion of the United States and the act

in substance, as follows that is to say: aforesaid, issue and deliver to one Lorenzo

Thomas a letter of authority, in substance

EXECUTIVE MANSION as follows, that is to say:
" WASHINGTON, D. C., Feb. 21, 1868.

" SIR, By virtue of the power and au
thority vested in me as President by the EXECUTIVE MANSION,
Constitution and laws of the United States, " WASHINGTON, D. C., Feb. 21, 1868.
you are hereby removed from office as Secre- " SlR &gt; H n - Edwin M. Stanton having
tary for the Department of War, and your this da y been removed from office as Secre-
function as such will terminate upon re- tar y for the Department of War, you are
ceipt of this communication. hereby authorized and empowered to act as

"You will transfer to Brevet Maj.-Gen. Secretary of War, ad interim, and will im-

Lorenzo Thomas, adjutant-general of the mediately enter upon the discharge of the

army, who has this day been authorized and duties pertaining to that office,

empowered to act as Secretary of War, ad Mr - Stanton has been instructed to trans-

intcrim, all records, books, papers, and other fer to y" a11 the records, books, papers, and

public property now in your custody and otner P"bhc property now in his custody

charge. and charge.

" Respectfully yours, " Respectfully yours,

"ANDREW JOHNSON. "ANDREW JOHNSON.

" Hon. Edwin M. Stanton, Washington, D. C." " To Brevet Maj.-Gen. Lorenzo Thomas,

Adjutant-General United States Army,

Which order was unlawfully issued, Washington, D. C."
with intent then and there to violate the

act entitled " An act regulating the tenure then and there bein S no vacancy in said

of certain civil offices," passed March 2, offic e of Secretary for the Department of

1867; and, with the further intent, con- War ? whereby said Andrew Johnson,

trary to the provisions of said act, in President of the United States, did then

violation thereof, and contrary to the pro- and tnere commit and was guilty of a

visions of the Constitution of the United hi S h misdemeanor in office.

States, and without the advice and con- ARTICLE in.
sent of the Senate of the United States,

the said Senate then and there being in That said Andrew Johnson, President of

Bession, to remove said Edwin M. Stanton the United States &gt; on the 21st da y of Feb

from the office of Secretary of the Depart- ruai T&gt; the year of our Lord

ment of War, the said Edwin M. Stanton Washington, in the District of Columbia,

being then and there Secretary of War, did commit and was g 1 " 1 ^ of a h .^ h

and being then and there in due and law- Kiisdemeanor m office, m this, that, with-

ful execution and discharge of the duties out authority of law, while the Senate of

of said office, whereby said Andrew John- the United States was then and there m

son, President of the United States, did session &gt; he did appoint one Lorenzo

then and there commit and was guilty Thomas to be Secretary for the Depart-

of a high misdemeanor in office. ment of War ad ^terim, without the ad-

vice and consent of the Senate, and with

ARTICLE II. intent to violate the Constitution of the

That on the said 21st day of February, United States, no vacancy having hap-
in the year of our Lord 1868, at Wash- pened in said office of Secretary for the
ington, in the District of Columbia, said Department of War during the recess of
Andrew Johnson, President of the United the Senate, and no vacancy existing in
States, unmindful of the high duties of said office at the time, and which said ap
his office, of his oath of office, and in vio- pointment, so made by said Andrew John-
lation of the Constitution of the United son, of said Lorenzo Thomas, is in sub-
States, and contrary to the provisions of stance as follows, that is to say:
an act entitled "An act regulating the (Same as in Article II.)
tenure of certain civil offices," passed
March 2, 1867, without the advice and

consent of the Senate of the United States, That said Andrew Johnson, President

eaid Senate then and there being in of the United States, unmindful of the

157

JOHNSON, ANDREW

high duties of his office, and of his oath
of office, in violation of the Constitution
and laws of the United States, on the 2 1st
day of February, in the year of our Lord
1868, at Washington, in the District of
Columbia, did unlawfully conspire with
one Lorenzo Thomas, and with other per
sons, to the House of Representatives un
known, with intent by intimidation and
threats unlawfully to hinder and prevent
Edwin M. Stanton, then and there the
Secretary for the Department of War,
duly appointed under the laws of the Unit
ed States, from holding said office of Sec
retary for the Department of War, con
trary to and in violation of the Constitu
tion of the United States, and of the pro
visions of an act entitled " An act to de
fine and punish certain conspiracies," ap
proved July 31, 1861, whereby said An
drew Johnson, President of the United
States, did then and there commit and
was guilty of a high crime in office.

ARTICLE v.

That said Andrew Johnson, President of
the United States, unmindful of the high
duties of his office, and of his oath of office,
on the 21st day of February, in the year
of our Lord 1868, and on divers other days
and times in said year, before the 2d day
of March, A.D. 1868, at Washington, in
the District of Columbia, did unlawfully
conspire with one Lorenzo Thomas, and
with other persons to the House of Rep
resentatives unknown, to prevent and hin
der the execution of an act entitled " An
act regulating the tenure of certain civil
offices," passed March 2, 1867, and in pur
suance of said conspiracy did unlawfully
attempt to prevent Edwin M. Stanton,
then and there being Secretary for the De
partment of War, duly appointed and com
missioned under the laws of the United
States, from holding said office, whereby
the said Andrew Johnson, President of the
United States, did then and there commit
and was guilty of a high misdemeanor in
office.

ARTICLE VI.

158

the District of Columbia, did unlawfully
conspire with one Lorenzo Thomas by
force to seize, take, and possess the prop
erty of the United States in the Depart
ment Of War, then and there in the cus
tody and charge of Edwin M. Stanton,
Secretary for said Department, contrary
to the provisions of an act entitled " An
act to define and punish certain conspir
acies," approved July 31, 1861, and with
intent to violate and disregard an act en
titled " An act regulating the tenure of
certain civil offices," passed March 2, 1867,
whereby said Andrew Johnson, President
of the United States, did then and there
commit a high crime in office.

ARTICLE VII.

That said Andrew Johnson, Presi
dent of the United States, unmindful of
the high duties of his office and of his
oath of office, on the 21st day of February,
in the year of our Lord 1868, at Washing
ton, in the District of Columbia, did
unlawfully conspire with one Lorenzo
Thomas with intent unlawfully to seize,
take, and possess the property of the
United States in the Department of War,
in the custody and charge of Edwin M.
Stanton, Secretary of said department,
with intent to violate and disregard the
act entitled " An act regulating the tenure
of certain civil offices," passed March 2,
1867, whereby said Andrew Johnson, Pres
ident of the United States, did then and
there commit a high misdemeanor in
office.

ARTICLE VIII.

That said Andrew Johnson, Presi
dent of the United States, unmindful of
the high duties of his office and of his
oath of office, with intent unlawfully to
control the disbursement of the moneys
appropriated for the military service and
for the Department of War, on the 21st day
of February, in the year of our Lord 1868,
at Washington, in the District of Colum
bia, did unlawfully and contrary to the
provisions of an act entitled "An act reg
ulating the tenure of certain civil offices,"
passed March 2, 1867, and in violation of
the Constitution of the United States, and
without the advice and consent of the Sen
ate of the United States, and while the
Senate was then and there in session,

[X - meaner in office.

JOHNSON, ANDREW

there being no vacancy in the office of Sec- United States, according to the provisions

retary for the Department of War, with of said act, and with the further intent

intent to violate and disregard the act thereby to enable him, the said Andrew

aforesaid, then and there issue and deliver Johnson, to prevent the execution of an

to one Lorenzo Thomas a letter of author- act entitled " An act regulating the tenure

ity in writing, in substance as follows, of certain civil offices," passed March 2,

that is to say: 1867, and to unlawfully prevent Edwin

(Same as in Article II.) M. Stanton, then being Secretary for the

Whereby said Andrew Johnson, Presi- Department of War, from holding said

dent of the United States, did then and office and discharging the duties thereof,

there commit and was guilty of a high whereby said Andrew Johnson, President

misdemeanor in office. of the United States, did then and there

commit and was guilty of a high misde-

That said Andrew Johnson, President

of the United States, on the 22d day of x -

February, in the year of our Lord 1868, That said Andrew Johnson, President

at Washington, in the District of Colum- of the United States, unmindful of the

bia, in disregard of the Constitution and high duties of his office and the dignity and

the laws of the United States, duly en- proprieties thereof, and of the harmony

acted, as commander-in-chief of the army and courtesies which ought to exist and

of the United States, did bring before be maintained between the executive and

himself then and there William H. Emory, legislative branches of the government of

a major-general by brevet in the army of the United States, designing and intend-

the United States, actually in command of ing to set aside the rightful authority and

the Department of Washington and the powers of Congress, did attempt to bring

military forces thereof, and did then and into disgrace, ridicule, hatred, contempt,

there, as such commander-in-chief, declare and reproach the Congress of the United

to and instruct said Emory that part of a States and the several branches thereof,

law of the United States, passed March 2, to impair and destroy the regard and re-

1867, entitled "An act making appropria- spect of all the good people of the United

tions for the support of the army for the States for the Congress and legislative

year ending June 30, 1868, and for other power thereof (which all officers of the

purposes," especially the second section government ought inviolably to preserve

thereof, which provides, among other and maintain), and to excite the odium

things, that " all orders and instructions, and resentment of all the good people of

relating to military operations, issued by the United States against Congress and

the President or Secretary of War, shall the laws by it duly and constitutionally

be issued through the general of the army, enacted ; and, in pursuance of said de-

and, in case of his inability, through the sign and intent, openly and publicly, and

next in rank," was unconstitutional, and in before divers assemblages of the citizens

contravention of the commission of said of the United States convened in divers

Emory, and which said provisions of law parts thereof to meet and receive said

had been theretofore duly and legally pro- Andrew Johnson, as the chief magistrate

mulgated by general order for the govern- of the United States, did, on the 18th day

ment and direction of the army of the of August, in the year of our Lord 1866,

United States, as the said Andrew John- and on divers other days and times, as

son then and there well knew, with intent well before as afterwards, make and de-

thereby to induce said Emory, in his offi- liver, with a loud voice, certain intemper-

cial capacity as commander of the Depart- ate, inflammatory, and scandalous ha-

ment of Washington, to violate the pro- rangues, and did therein utter loud threats

visions of said act, and to take and re- and bitter menaces as well against Con

ceive, act upon, and obey such orders as gress as the laws of the United States

he, the said Andrew Johnson, might make duly enacted thereby, amid the cries,

and give, and which should not be issued jeers, and laughter of the multitudes then

through the general of the army of the assembled and within hearing, which are

159

JOHNSON, ANDREW

set forth in the several specifications
hereinafter written, in substance and
effect, that is to say:

[Here are set out three specifications,
quoting parts of speeches alleged to have
been made by the President, Aug. 15,
Sept. 3, and Sept. 8, 1866.]

Which said utterances, declarations,
threats, and harangues, highly censurable
in any, are peculiarly indecent and un
becoming to the chief magistrate of the
United States, by means whereof said An
drew Johnson has brought the high office
of the President of the United States into
contempt, ridicule, and disgrace, to the
great scandal of all good citizens, whereby
said Andrew Johnson, President of the
United States, did commit and was then
and there guilty of a high misdemeanor in
office.

ARTICLE XI.

That said Andrew Johnson, President
of the United States, unmindful of the
high duties of his office and of his oath
of office, and in disregard of the Consti
tution and laws of the United States,
did heretofore, to wit: on the 18th day of
August, 1866, at the city of Washington,
in the District of Columbia, by public
speech, declare and affirm in substance that
the Thirty-ninth Congress of the United
States was not a Congress of the United
States authorized by the Constitution to
exercise legislative power under the same,
but, on the contrary, was a Congress of
only part of the States, thereby denying
and intending to deny that the legisla
tion of said Congress was valid or obli
gatory upon him, the said Andrew Johnson,
except in so far as he saw fit to approve
the same, and also thereby denying
and intending to deny the power of said
Thirty-ninth Congress to propose amend
ments to the Constitution of the United
States; and, in pursuance of said decla
ration, the said Andrew Johnson, Presi
dent of the United States, afterwards,
to wit: on the 21st day of February,
1868, at the city of Washington, in
the District of Columbia, did unlawful
ly and in disregard of the requirements
of the Constitution, that he should take
care that the laws be faithfully exe
cuted, attempt to prevent the execu
tion of an act entitled " An act regu

lating the tenure of certain civil offices,"
passed March 2, 1867, by unlawfully devis
ing and contriving, and attempting to
devise and contrive, means by which he
should prevent Edwin M. Stanton from
forthwith resuming the functions of the
office of Secretary for the Department of
War, notwithstanding the refusal of the
Senate to concur in the suspension there
tofore made by Andrew Johnson of said
Edwin M. Stanton from said office of
Secretary for the Department of War, and
also by further unlawfully devising and
contriving, and attempting to devise and
contrive, means then and there to pre
vent the execution of an act entitled " An
act making appropriations for the sup
port of the army for the fiscal year end
ing June 30, 1868, and for other pur
poses," approved March 2, 1867, and also
to prevent the execution of an act en
titled "An act to provide for the more
efficient government of the rebel States,"
passed March 2, 1867 ; weherby the said
Andrew Johnson, President of the United
States, did then, to wit: on the 21st day
of February, 1868, at the city of Washing
ton, commit and was guilty of a high mis
demeanor in office.

And the House of Representatives by
protestation, saving to themselves the
liberty of exhibiting at any time here
after any further articles or other accu
sation, or impeachment against the said
Andrew Johnson, President of the United
States, and also of replying to his an
swers which he shall make unto the arti
cles herein preferred against him, and of
offering proof to the same and every
part thereof, and to all and every other
article, accusation, or impeachment which
shall be exhibited by them, as the case
shall require, do demand that the said
Andrew Johnson may be put to answer
the high crimes and misdemeanors in of
fice herein charged against him, and that
such proceedings, examinations, trials,
and judgments may be thereupon had and
given as may be agreeable to law and
justice.

Senate of the United States, sitting as
a court of impeachment for the trial of
Andrew Johnson, President of the United
States.

The answer of the said Andrew John
son, President of the United States, to

160

JOHNSON, ANDREW

the articles of impeachment exhibited touching the department aforesaid, and

against him by the House of Representa- for whose conduct in such capacity, sub-

tives of the United States. ordinate to the President, the President

is, by the Constitution and laws of the

ANSWER TO ARTICLE i. United States, made responsible. And

For answer to the first article he says: this respondent, further answering, says
that Edwin M. Stanton was appointed 1^ succeeded to the office of President of
Secretary for the Department of War on the United States upon, and by reason
the loth day of January, A.D. 1862, of, the death of Abraham Lincoln, then
by Abraham Lincoln, then President of President of the United States, on the
the United States, during the first term 15th day of April, 1865, and the said
of his Presidency, and was commission- Stanton was then holding the said office
ed, according to the Constitution and of Secretary for the Department of War,
la ws of the United States, to hold the said under and by reason of the appointment
office during the pleasure of the President; and commission aforesaid; and, not hav-
that the office of Secretary for the De- ing been removed from the said office by
partment of War was created by an act this respondent, the said Stanton con-
of the First Congress, in its first session, tinued to hold the same under the ap-
passed on the 7th day of August, A.D. pointment and commission aforesaid, at
1789, and in and by that act it was the pleasure of the President, until the
provided and enacted that the said Sec- time hereinafter particularly mentioned;
retary for the Department of War shall and at no time received any appointment
perform and execute such duties as shall or commission save as above detailed,
from time to time be enjoined on and in- And this respondent, further answering,
trusted to him by the President of the says that on and prior to the 5th day
United States, agreeably to the Constitu- of August, A.D. 1867, this respondent,
tion, relative to the subjects within the the President of the United States, re-
scope of the said department; and fur- sponsible for the conduct of the Secre-
thermore, that the said Secretary shall tary for the Department of War, and
conduct the business of the said depart- having the constitutional right to resort
ment in such a manner as the President to and rely upon the person holding that
of the United States shall, from time to office for advice concerning the great and
time, order and instruct. difficult public duties enjoined on the

And this respondent, further answer- President by the Constitution and laws
ing, says that, by force of the act afore- of the United States, became satisfied
said, and by reason of his appointment that he could not allow the said Stanton
aforesaid, the said Stanton became the to continue to hold the office of Secretary
principal officer in one of the executive for the Department of War, without
departments of the government within hazard of the public interest; that the
the true intent and meaning of the sec- relations between the said Stanton and
ond section of the second article of the the President no longer permitted the
Constitution of the United States, and President to resort to him for advice, or
according to the true intent and meaning to be, in the judgment of the President,
of that provision of the Constitution of safely responsible for his conduct of the
the United States; and in accordance affairs of the Department of War, as by
with the settled and uniform practice of law required, in accordance with the
each and every President of the United orders and instructions of the President;
States, the said Stanton then became, and thereupon, by force of the Constitu-
and, so long as he should continue to tion and laws of the United States, which
hold the said office of Secretary for the devolve on the President the power and
Department of War, must continue to be, the duty to control the conduct of the
one of the advisers of the President of business of that executive department of
the United States, as well as the person the government, and by reason of the con-
intrusted to act for and represent the stitutional duty of the President to take
President in matters enjoined upon him care that the laws be faithfully exe-
or intrusted to him by the President, cuted, this respondent did necessarily
V. L 161

JOHNSON, ANDREW

consider, and did determine, that the said believed that it was practically settled
Stanton ought no longer to hold the said by the First Congress of the United States,
office of Secretary for the Department of and had been so considered and, uniform-
War. And this respondent, by virtue of ly and in great numbers of instances, act-
the power and authority vested in him ed on by each Congress and President of
as President of the United States, by the the United States, in succession, from
Constitution and laws of the United President Washington to and including
States, to give effect to such his decision President Lincoln, and from the First
and determination, did, on the 5th day Congress to the Thirty - ninth Congress,
of August, A.D. 1867, address to the said that the Constitution of the United States
Stanton a note, of which the following is conferred on the President, as part of the
a true copy: executive power, and as one of the neces-

" SIB, Public considerations of a high sar ^ means and instruments of perform-

character constrain me to say that jour ln tne executive duty expressly imposed

resignation as Secretary of War will be on him by the Constitution, of taking care

accepted." that the lawg be f a i t hf u lly executed, the

To which note the said Stanton made power at any and all times of removing

the following reply: from office all executive officers, for cause,

to be judged by the President alone. This

WASHlNGT^Z; ME 5; T i867. les P d ^t had, in pursuance of the Con-

" SIR, Your note of this day has been stitution, required the opinion of each

received, stating that public considerations principal officer of the executive depart-

of a high character constrain you to say men ts~ upon this question of constitutional
that my resignation as Secretary of War , . , ,

will be accepted. executive power and duty, and had been

" In reply I have the honor to say, that advised by each of them, including the

public considerations of a high character, said Stanton, Secretary for the Depart-
which alone have induced me to continue at t f w th t d th Constitution

the head of this Department, constrain me , , r

not to resign the office of Secretary of War ol tne United States this power was

before the next meeting of Congress. lodged by the Constitution in the Presi-

" Very respectfully yours, dent of the United States, and that, con
sequently, it could be lawfully exercised

This respondent, as President of the by him, and the Congress could not de-
United States, was thereon of opinion that, prive him thereof; and this respondent,
having regard to the necessary official re- in his capacity of President of the United
hitions and duties of the Secretary for the States, and because in that capacity he
Department of War to the President of the was both enabled and bound to use his
United States, according to the Constitu- best judgment upon this question, did, in
tion and laws of the United States, and good faith, and with an earnest desire to
having regard to the responsibility of the arrive at the truth, come to the conclusion
President for the conduct of the said Sec- and opinion, and did make the same known
retary, and having regard to the para- to the honorable the Senate of the United
mount executive authority of the office States, by a message dated on the 2d day
which the respondent holds under the Con- of March, 1867 (a true copy whereof is
stitution and laws of the United States, hereunto annexed and marked A), that
it was impossible, consistently with the the power last mentioned was conferred
public interests, to allow the said Stanton and the duty of exercising it, in fit cases,
to continue to hold the said office of Secre- was imposed on the President by the Con-
tary for the Department of War; and it stitution of the United States, and that
then became the official duty of the re- the President could not be deprived of
spondent, as President of the United this power or relieved of this duty, nor
States, to consider and decide what act could the same be vested by law in the
or acts should and might lawfully be done President and the Senate jointly, either
by him, as President of the United States, in part or whole; and this has ever since
to cause the said Stanton to surrender remained, and was the opinion of this re-
the said office. spondent at the time when he was forced,

This respondent was informed and verily as aforesaid, to consider and decide what

162

JOHNSON, ANDREW

act or acts should and might lawfully be of War, and having, in his capacity of

done by this respondent, as President of President of the United States, so ex-

the United States, to cause the said Stan- amined and considered, did form the

ton to surrender the said office. opinion that the case of said Stanton and

This respondent was also then aware his tenure of office were not affected by
that by the first section of " An act regu- the section of the last-named act.
lating the tenure of certain civil offices " And this respondent, further answer-
passed March 2, 1867, by a constitutional ing, says that, although a case thus ex-
majority of both Houses of Congress, it isted which, in his judgment as President
was enacted as follows: of the United States, called for the exer-

That every person holding any civil of- cise of the executive power to remove the
fice to which he has been appointed by and said Stanton from the office of Secretary
with the advice and consent of the Senate, for the Department of War, and although
and every person who shall hereafter be this respondent was of opinion, as is
appointed to any such office, and shall above shown, that under the Constitution
become duly qualified to act therein, is of the United States the power to remove
and shall be entitled to hold such office the said Stanton from the said office was
until a successor shall have been in like vested in the President of the United
manner appointed and duly qualified, ex- States; and although this respondent was
cept as herein otherwise provided; Pro- also of the same opinion, as is above
vided, that the Secretaries of State, of the shown, that the case of the said Stanton
Treasury, of War, of the Navy, and of was not affected by the first section of the
the Interior, the Postmaster-General, and last-named act; and although each of the
the Attorney-General, shall hold their said opinions had been formed by this re-
offices respectively for and during the term spondent upon an actual case, requiring
of the President by whom they may have him, in his capacity of President of the
been appointed, and one month thereafter, United States, to come to some judgment
subject to removal by and with the ad- and determination thereon, yet this re-
vice and consent of the Senate. spondent, as President of the United

This respondent was also aware that States, desired and determined to avoid,
this act was understood and intended to if possible, any question of the construc-
be an expression of the opinion of the tion and effect of the said first section of
Congress by which that act was passed, the last-named act, and also the broader
that the power to remove executive officers question of the executive power conferred
for cause might, by law, be taken from the on the President of the United States by
President and vested in him and the Sen- the Constitution of the United States to
ate jointly; and although this respondent remove one of the principal officers of one
had arrived at and still retained the of the executive departments for cause
opinion above expressed and verily believed, seeming to him sufficient; and this Te
as he still believes, that the said first spondent also desired and determined that
section of the last-mentioned act was and if, from causes over which he could exert
is wholly inoperative and void by reason no control, it should become absolutely
of its conflict with the Constitution of necessary to raise and have in some way
the United States, yet, inasmuch as the determined either or both of the said last-
same had been enacted by the constitu- named questions, it was in accordance
tional majority in each of the two Houses with the Constitution of the United
of that Congress, this respondent consid- States, and was required of the President
ered it to be proper to examine and decide thereby, that questions of so much gravity
whether the particular case of the said and importance, upon which the legisla-
Stanton, on which it was this respondent s tive and executive departments of the
duty to act, was within or without the government had disagreed, which involved
terms of that first section of the act; or, powers considered by all branches of the
if within it, whether the President had government, during its entire history
not the power, according to the terms of down to the year 1867, to have been con-
the act, to remove the said Stanton from fided by the Constitution of the United
the office of Secretary for the Department States to the President and to be neces-

163

JOHNSON, ANDBEW

sary for the complete and proper execu- States, I am suspended from office as Secre
tion of his constitutional duties, should tar / of , ^Y ar - and wll] cease to exercise any
, , ... , . ,, and all functions pertaining to the same ;
be m some proper way submitted to that and also dlrect ing me at once to transfer

judicial department of the government in- to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, 1 who has this day

trusted by the Constitution with the been authorized and empowered to act as

cower and subiected bv it to the dutv Secretai&gt; y of War &gt; ad interim, all records,

er V aiy books, papers, and other public property now

not only of determining finally the con- in my cus tody and charge. Under a sense

struction and effect of all acts of Con- of public duty, I am compelled to deny your

gress, but of comparing them with the rl S Qt under the Constitution and laws of

., ,. , ,, TT ., j CM j the United States, without the advice and

Constitution of the United States, and consent of tne Senate) and with out legal

pronouncing them inoperative when found cause, to suspend me from office as Secre-
in conflict with that fundamental law tary of War, or the exercise of any or all
which the people have enacted for the functions pertaining to the same, or without
,, . such advice and consent to compel me to
government of all their servants. And to transfer to any person the records, books,
these ends, first, that, through the action papers, and public property in my custody
of the Senate of the United States, the as Secretary. But, inasmuch as the general
absolute duty of the President to substi- ^ ^n^^in^/ ^Jn^!^
tute some fit person in place of Mr. Stan- notified me that he has accepted the ap-
ton as one of his advisers, and as a pointment, I have no alternative but to sub-
principal subordinate officer whose official mi * T ^ jSSent" BUperi r
conduct he was responsible for, and had

lawful right to control, might, if possible, And this respondent, further answering,

be accomplished without the necessity of gays, that it is provided, in and by the

raising any one of the questions afore- second section of " An act to regulate

said; and, second, if this duty could not the tenure of certain civil offices," that

be so performed, then that these questions, the President may suspend an officer from

or such of them as might necessarily the performance of the duties of the office

arise, should be judicially determined in held by him, for certain causes therein

manner aforesaid, and for no other end designated, until the next meeting of the

or purpose, this respondent, as President Senate, and until the case shall be acted

of the United States, on the 12th day of ori by the Senate; that this respondent, as

August, 1867, seven days after the recep- President of the United States, was ad-

tion of the letter of the said Stanton, of vised, and he verily believed and still be-

the 5th of August, hereinbefore stated, lj ev es, that the executive power of removal

did issue to the said Stanton the order f rom o ffi CC) confided to him by the Consti-

following, namely: tution aforesaid, includes the power of

EXECUTIVE MANSION, suspension from office at the pleasure of the

" WASHINGTON, Aug. 12, 18P&gt;7. President, and this respondent, by the or-

" Sin, By virtue of the power and author- d er aforesaid, did suspend the said Stan-

ity vested in me, as President, by the Consti- t f offi t untu the next meet j ng

tution and laws of the United States, you ... ,, ,

are hereby suspended from office as Secre- ot the Senate, or until the Senate should

tary of War, and will cease to exercise any have acted upon the case, but by force of

and all functions pertaining to the same. t he power and authority vested in him

"You will at once transfer to Gen. . ~ ... ,. , , f ,-. rinUori

Ulysses S. Grant, who has this day been by the Constitution and laws of the United

authorized and empowered to act as Secre- States, indefinitely, and at the pleasure

tary of War, ad interim, all records, books, o f the President, and the order, in form

^our r ciwtod anTchar h e C property DOW in aforesaid, was made known to the Senate

"""on!" Edwin M Stantol? Secretary of War." of the United States on the 12th day of

December, A.D. 1867, as will be more

To which said order the said Stanton fu]]y hereinafter stated.

made the following reply: And tn j g respondent, further answer-

" WAR DEPARTMENT. ff, ^ys that, in and by the act of Feb.

" WASHINGTON CITY, Aug. 12, 1867. 13, 1795, it was, among other things, pro-

" SIR, Your note of this date has been v ided and enacted that, in case of vacancy

received, informing me that by virtue of . tfc ffi f Secretary f or the Depart-
the powers vested In you as President, by , , , - - J ,,

the Constitution and laws of the United ment of War, it shall be lawful for the

164

JOHNSON, ANDREW

President, in case he shall think it neces- a copy whereof is hereunto annexed and
sary, to authorize any person to perform marked B, wherein he made known the
the duties of that office until a successor orders aforesaid, and the reasons which
be appointed or such vacancy rilled, but had induced the same, so far as this re-
not exceeding the term of six months; spondent then considered it material and
and this respondent, being advised and necessary that the same should be set
believing that such law was in full force forth, and reiterated his views coneern-
and not repealed, by an order dated Aug. ing the constitutional power of removal
12, 1867, did authorize and empower vested in the President, and also ex-
Ulysses S. Grant, general of the armies pressed his views concerning the con-
of the United States, to act as Secretary struction of the said first section of the
for the Department of War, ad interim, in last-mentioned act, as respected the power
the form in which similar authority had of the President to remove the said Stan-
theretofore been given, not until the next ton from the said office of Secretary for
meeting of the Senate, and until the Sen- the Department of War, w r ell hoping that
ate should act on the case, but at the this respondent could thus perform what
pleasure of the President, subject only to he then believed, and still believes, to be
the limitation of six months, in the said his imperative duty in reference to the
last-mentioned act contained; and a copy said Stanton, without derogating from the
of the last-named order was made known powers which this respondent believed
to the Senate of the United States, on the were confided to the President, by the
12th day of December, A.D. 1867, as will Constitution and laws, and without the
be hereinafter more fully stated; and, in necessity of raising, judicially, any ques-
pursuance of the design and intention tion concerning the same,
aforesaid, if it should become necessary, And .this respondent, further answering,
to submit the said questions to a judicial says that, this hope not having been real-
determination, this respondent, at or near ized, the President was compelled either
the date of the last-mentioned order, did to allow the said Stanton to resume the
make known such his purpose to obtain a said office and remain therein contrary
judicial decision of the said questions, or to the settled convictions of the Presi-
such of them as might be necessary. dent, formed as aforesaid, respecting the
And this respondent, further answering, powers confided to him, and the duties re-
says that, in further pursuance of his in- quired of him by the Constitution of the
tentions and design, if possible, to per- United States, and contrary to the opinion
form what he judged to be his imperative formed as aforesaid, that the first sec-
duty, to prevent the said Stanton from tion of the last - mentioned act did not
longer holding the office of Secretary for affect the case of the said Stanton, and
the Department of War, and at the same contrary to the fixed belief of the Presi-
time avoiding, if possible, any question re- dent that he could no longer advise with
specting the extent of the power of re- or trust or be responsible for the said
moval from executive office confided to Stanton, in the said office of Secretary for
the President, by the Constitution of the the Department of War, or else he was
United States, and any question respect- compelled to take such steps as might,
ing the construction and effect of the first in the judgment of the President, be law-
section of the said " act regulating the ful and necessary to raise, for a judicial
tenure of certain civil offices," while he decison, the questions affecting the lawful
should not, by any act of his, abandon right of the said Stanton to resume the
and relinquish, either a power which he said office, or the power of the said Stanton
believed the Constitution had conferred to persist in refusing to quit the said
on the President of the United States, to office, if he should persist in actually re-
enable him to perform the duties of his fusing to quit the same; and to this end,
office, or a power designedly left to him and to this end only, this respondent did,
by the first section of the act of Congress on the 21st day of February, 1868, issue
last aforesaid, this respondent did, on the the order for the removal of the said Stan-
12th day of December, 1867, transmit to ton, in the said first article mentioned
the Senate of the United States a message, and set forth, and the order authorizing

165

JOHNSON, ANDBEW

the said Lorenzo Thomas to act as Secre- vice and consent of the Senate of HIP
tary of War, ad interim, in the said second United States, then in session; but he
article set forth. denies that he thereby violated the Con-
And this respondent, proceeding to an- stitution of the United States, or any
iswer specifically each substantial allega- law thereof, or that he did thereby in-
tion in the said first article, says: He tend to violate the Constitution of the
denies that the said Stanton, on the 21st United States, or the provisions of any
day of February, 1868, was lawfully in act of Congress; and this respondent re
possession of the said office of Secretary fers to his answer to said first article
for the Department of War. He denies for a full statement of the purposes and
that the said Stanton, on the day last intentions with which said order was
mentioned, was lawfully entitled to hold issued, and adopts the same as part of
the said office against the will of the his answer to this article; and he further
President of the United States. He denies that there was then and there no
denies that the said order for the re- vacancy in the said office of Secretary
moval of the said Stanton was unlaw- for the Department of War, or that
fully issued. He denies that said order he did then and there commit, or was
was issued with intent to violate the act guilty of, a high misdemeanor in office;
entitled, " An act to regulate the tenure and this respondent maintains and will
of certain civil offices." He denies that insist:

the said order was a violation of the last- 1. That at the date and delivery of said

mentioned act. He denies that the said writing there was a vacancy existing in

order was a violation of the Constitution the said office of Secretary for the Depart-

of the United States, or of any law there- ment of War.

of, or of his oath of office. He denies that 2. That, notwithstanding the Senate of
the said order was issued with an intent the United States was then in session, it
to violate the Constitution of the United was lawful and according to long and well-
States, or any law thereof, or this re- established usage to empower and author-
spondent s oath of office; and he respect- ize the said Thomas to act as Secretary
fully, but earnestly, insists that not only of War, ad interim.

was it issued by him in the performance 3. That, if the said act regulating the
of what he believed to be an imperative tenure of civil offices be held to be a valid
official duty, but in the performance of law, no provision of the same was violated
what this honorable court will consider by the issuing of said order, or by the
was, in point of fact, an imperative offi- designation of said Thomas to act as Spe
cial duty. And he denies that any and retary of War, ad interim.
all substantive matters, in the said first

article contained, in manner and form ANSWER TO ARTICLE m

as the same are therein stated and set And for answer to said third article,

forth, do, by law, constitute a high mis- this respondent says that he abides by his

demeanor in office, within the true intent answer to said first and second articles,

and meaning of the Constitution of the in so far as the same are responsive to

United States. the allegations contained in the said third

article, and, without here again repeating
the same answer, prays the same be taken

And for answer to the second article, as an answer to this third article as fully

this respondent says that he admits he as if here again set out at length; and as

did issue and deliver to said Lorenzo to the new allegation contained in said

Thomas the said writing set forth in third article, that this respondent did ap-

said second article, bearing date at Wash- point the said Thomas to be Secretary for

ington, District of Columbia, Feb. 21, the Department of War, ad interim, this

1868, addressed to Brevet Ma j. -Gen. respondent denies that he gave any other

Lorenzo Thomas, adjutant-general Unit- authority to said Thomas than such as

ed States army, Washington, District of appears in said written authority, set out

Columbia ; and he further admits that in said article, by which he authorized

the same was so issued without the ad- and empowered said Thomas to act as

Ififi

JOHNSON, ANDREW

Secretary for the Department of War, ad
interim; and he denies that the same
amounts to an appointment, and insists
that it is only a designation of an officer
of that department to act temporarily as
Secretary for the Department of War, ad
interim, until an appointment should be
made. But, whether the said written au
thority amounts to an appointment, or
to a temporary authority or designation,
this respondent denies that in any sense
he did thereby intend to violate the Con
stitution of the United States, or that he
thereby intended to give the said order
the character or effect of an appointment
in the constitutional or legal sense of
that term. He further denies that there
was no vacancy in said office of Secre
tary for the Department of War exist
ing at the date of said written au
thority.

ANSWER TO ARTICLE IV.

And for answer to said fourth article
this respondent denies that on the said
21st day of February, 1868, at Washington
aforesaid, or at any other time or place,
he did unlawfully conspire with the said
Lorenzo Thomas, or with the said Thomas
and any other person or persons, with in
tent by intimidations and threats unlaw
fully to hinder and prevent the said Stan-
ton from holding said office of Secretary
for the Department of War, in violation
of the Constitution of the United States
or of the provisions of the said act of
Congress in said article mentioned, or that
he did then and there commit or was guilty
of a high crime in office. On the con
trary thereof, protesting that the said
Stanton was not then and there lawfully
the Secretary for the Department of War,
this respondent states that his sole pur-
puse in authorizing the said Thomas to act
as Secretary for the Department of War,
ad interim was, as is fully stated in his
answer to the said first article, to bring
the question of the right of the said Stan-
ton to hold said office, notwithstanding
his said suspension, and notwithstanding
the said order of removal, and notwith
standing the said authority of the said
Thomas to act as Secretary of War, ad
interim, to the test of a final decision by
the Supreme Court of the United States
in the earliest practicable mode by which

the question could be brought before that
tribunal.

This respondent did not conspire or
agree with the said Thomas or any other
person or persons, to use intimidation or
threats to hinder or prevent the said Stan-
ton from holding the said office of Secre
tary for the Department of War, nor did
this respondent at any time command or
advise the said Thomas or any other per
son or persons to resort to or use either
threats or intimidation for that purpose.
The only means in the contemplation of
purpose of respondent to be used are set
forth fully in the said orders of Feb.
21, the first addressed to Mr. Stanton,
and the second to the said Thomas. By
the first order the respondent notified
Mr. Stanton that he was removed from
the said office, and that his functions as
Secretary for the Department of War
were to terminate upon the receipt of that
order, and he also thereby notified the
said Stanton that the said Thomas had
been authorized to act as Secretary for
the Department of War ad interim, and
ordered the said Stanton to transfer to
him all the records, books, papers, and
other public property in his custody and
charge; and by the second order this re
spondent notified the said Thomas of the
removal from office of the said Stanton,
and authorized him to act as Secretary
for the department, ad interim, and di
rected him to immediately enter upon the
discharge of the duties pertaining to that
office, and to receive the transfer of all
the records, books, papers, and other pub
lic property from Mr. Stanton, then in
his custody and charge.

Kespondent gave no instructions to the
said Thomas to use intimidation or
threats to enforce obedience to these
orders. He gave him no authority to
call in the aid of the military, or any
other force to enable him to obtain pos
session of the office, or of the books,
papers, records, or property thereof. The
only agency resorted to or intended to be
resorted to was by means of the said ex
ecutive orders requiring obedience. But
the Secretary for the Department of War
refused to obey these orders, and still
holds imdisturbed possession and custody
of that department, and of the records,
books, papers, and other public property

167

JOHNSON, ANDREW

therein. Respondent further states that, that, in pursuance of said alleged con-
in execution of the orders so by this re- spiracy, he did unlawfully attempt to pre-
spondent given to the said Thomas, he, vent the said Edwin M. Stanton from
the said Thomas, proceeded in a peace- holding said office of Secretary for the
ful manner to demand of the said Stan- Department of War, or that he was there-
ton a surrender to him of the public by guilty of a high misdemeanor in office,
property in the said department, and to Respondent, protesting that said Stanton
vacate the possession of the same, and to was not then and there Secretary for the
allow him, the said Thomas, peaceably to Department of War, begs leave to refer to
exercise the duties devolved upon him his answer given to the fourth article and
by authority of the President. That, as to his answer given to the first article as
this respondent has been informed and to his intent and purpose in issuing the
believes, the said Stanton peremptorily orders for the removal of Mr. Stanton,
refused obedience to the orders so issued, and the authority given to the said Thomas,
Upon each refusal no force or threat of and prays equal benefit therefrom as if
force was used by the said Thomas, on the same were here again repeated and
authority of the President, or otherwise, fully set forth.

to enforce obedience, either then or at any And this respondent excepts to the suf-

subsequent time. ficiency of the said fifth article, and

This respondent doth here except to states his ground for such exception, that

the sufficiency of the allegations contained it is not alleged to what means or by what

in said fourth article, and states for agreement the said alleged conspiracy was

ground of exception that it was not formed or agreed to be carried out, or in

stated that there was any agreement be- what way the same was attempted to be

tween this respondent and the said carried out, or what were the acts done in

Thomas, or any other person or persons, pursuance thereof,
to use intimidation and threats, nor is
there any allegation as to the nature of

said intimidation and threats, or that And for answer to the said sixth article,
there was any agreement to carry them this respondent denies that on the said
into execution, or that any step was taken 21st day of February, 1868, at Washing-
or agreed to be taken to carry them into ton aforesaid, or at any other time or
execution, and that the allegation in said place, he did unlawfully conspire with
article that the intent of said conspiracy the said Thomas by force to seize, take,
was to use intimidation and threats is or possess, the property of the United
wholly insufficient, inasmuch as it is not States in the Department of War, con-
alleged that the said intent formed the trary to the provisions of the said acts
basis or became a part of any agreement referred to in the said article, or either
between the said alleged conspirators, of them, or with intent to violate either
and, furthermore, that there is no allega- o f them. Respondent, protesting that
tion of any conspiracy or agreement to said Stanton was not then and there Sec-
use intimidation or threats. retary for the Department of War, not

only denies the said conspiracy as charged,

ANSWER TO ARTICLE V. , i j , e i / j. e

but also denies unlawful intent in refer-

And for answer to said fifth article, ence to the custody and charge of the

this respondent denies that on said 21st property of the United States in the said

day of February, 1868, or at any other Department of War, and again refers to

time or times, in the same year, before his former answers for a full statement

the said 2d day of March, 1868, or at any of his intent and purpose in the premises,
prior or subsequent time, at Washington

aforesaid, or at any other place, this re- ASSWER TO ARTICLE VI1

spondent did unlawfully conspire with the And for answer to the said seventh ar-

said Thomas, or with any other person or tide, respondent denies that on the said

persons, to prevent or hinder the execution 21st day of February, 1868. at Washing-

of the said act entitled " An act regulat- ton aforesaid, or at any other time and

ing the tenure of certain civil offices," or place, he did unlawfully conspire with the

168

JOHNSON, ANDREW

said Thomas with intent unlawfully to 22d day of February, 1868, the following
seize, take, or possess the property of the note was addressed to the said Emory by
United States in the Department of War, the private secretary of the respondent:

with intent to violate or disregard the

, . , " EXECUTIVE MANSION,

said act in the said seventh article re- ,. WASHINGTON, D. C., Feb. 22, 1868.

ferred to, or that he did then and there GENERAL, The President directs me to

commit a high misdemeanor in office. Re- say that he will be pleased to have you call

spondent, protesting that the said Stan- .p^Ujuj-J-gr J^pjcttajjj^

ton was not then and there Secretary for .. WILLIAM G. MOORE, U. S. A."
the Department of War, again refers to

his former answers, in so far as they are General Emory called at the Executive
applicable, to show the intent with which Mansion according to this request. The
he proceeded in the premises, and prays object of respondent was to be advised by
equal benefit therefrom as if the same General Emory, as commander of the De-
were here again fully repeated. Respon- partment of Washington, what changes
dent further takes exception to the suf- had been made in the military affairs of
ficiency of the allegations of this article as the department. Respondent had been in
to the conspiracy alleged, upon the same formed that various changes had been
ground as stated in the exceptions set made which in nowise had been brought
forth in his answer to said article fourth, to his notice or reported to him from the

Department of War, or from any other

ANSWEB TO ARTICLE vin. quarter, and desired to ascertain the facts.

And for answer to said eighth article, After the said Emory had explained in
this respondent denies that on the 21st detail the changes which had taken place,
day of February, 1808, at Washington said Emory called the attention of re-
aforesaid, or at any other time or place, spondent to a general order which he re-
he did issue and deliver to the said ferred to and which this respondent then
Thomas the said letter of authority set sent for, when it was produced. It is as
forth in the said eighth article, with the follows:

intent unlawfully to control the disburse- ( GENERAL ORDERS, No. 17.)
ments of the money appropriated for the WAR DEPARTMENT, ADJUTANT-GENERAL S
military service and for the Department , WAsm *^ arc , ^ 1867 .
of War. This respondent, protesting The followlng acts of congress are pub-
there was a vacancy in the office of Secre- ii sne( j f or the information and government
tary for the Department of War, admits of all concerned :
that he did issue the said letter of author- (f n _p UBIjlc _ Na 85
ity, and he denies that the same was with ,. An ac( . making appropriations for sup-
any unlawful intent whatever, either to port of the army for the year ending June
violate the Constitution of the United 30, 1868, and for other purposes.
States or any act of Congress. On the ^ ^ ^ &&amp;lt;? ^ fur thcr enacted, that
contrary, this respondent again affirms the headquarters of the general of the
that his sole intent was to vindicate his army of the United States shall be at the
anthoritv is President of the United city of Washington, and all orders and in
structions relating to military operations,

States, and by peaceful means to bring lssued by the p res ident or Secretary of War,
the question of the right of the said Stan- shall be issued through the general of the
ton to continue to hold the office of Secre- army, and, In case of his inability, through
tary of War to a final decision before the !&gt;* ta ran*. ^^^^"^J
Supreme Court of the United States, as from C0 mmand or assigned to duty else-
has been hereinbefore set forth : and he where than at said headquarters, except at
pray, the same benefit fro his answer J^*^^ "?",.,* l"&gt;^, "
in the premises as if the same were net instructions relating to military operations
again repeated at length. Issued contrary to the requirements of this

section shall be null and void ; and any"

ANSWER TO ARTICLE IX. officer, who shall issue orders or instructions

,. contrary to the provisions of this section,

And for answer to the said ninth arti- shall be a eeme d guilty of a misdemeanor in

cle, the respondent states that on the said office ; and any officer of the army who shall

109

JOHNSON, ANDBEW

transmit, convey, or obey any. orders or in- obey any law or any order issued in con
structions so issued, contrary to the pro- f orm itv with anv law or intpnr! tn offpr
visions of this section, knowing that such 7, (
orders were so issued, shall be liable to im- anv inducement to the said Emory to
prisonment for not less than two or more violate any law. What this respondent
than twenty years, upon conviction thereof then said to General Emory was simply
in any court of competent jurisdiction. ,1 , . .

the expression of an opinion which he

" Approved March 2, 1867. then fully believed to be sound, and which

he yet believes to be so, and that is that,

" By order of the Secretary of War, b th exnress provisions nf tho rV&gt;neH

"E. D. TOWNSEND, Assistant Adjutant- 2*i

General. tution, this respondent, as President, is

" Official : made the commander - in - chief of the

, Assistant Adjutant-General." armies of the United States, and as such

General Emory not only called the at- lie is to be respected, and that his or-
tention of respondent to this order, but ders &gt; whether issued through the War De-
to the fact that it was in conformity partment or through the general-in-chief,
with a section contained in an appropri- or by other channels of communication,
ation act passed by Congress. Eespondent, are entitled to respect and obedience, and
after reading the order, observed, " This that such constitutional power cannot be
is not in accordance with the Constitu- taken from him by virtue of any act of
tion of the United States, which makes Congress. Respondent doth therefore
me Commander-in-Chief of the Army and deny that by the expression of such
Navy, nor with the language of the com- opinion he did commit or was guilty of a
mission which you hold." General Em- high misdemeanor in office; and this re-
ory then stated that this order had met spondent doth further say that the said
respondent s approval. Respondent then article nine lays no foundations whatever
said in reply, in substance, "Am I to for the conclusion stated in the said
understand that the President of the article, that the respondent, by reason of
United States cannot give an order but the allegations therein contained, was
through the general-in-chief?" General guilty of a high misdemeanor in office.
Emory again reiterated the statement In reference to the statement made by
that it had met respondent s approval, General Emory, that this respondent had
and that it was the opinion of some of approved of said act of Congress contain-
the leading lawyers of the country that ing the section referred to, the respondent
this order was constitutional. With admits that his formal approval was given
some further conversation, respondent to said act, but accompanied the same
then required the names of the lawyers by the following message, addressed and
who had given the opinion, and he men- sent with the act to the House of Rep-
tioned the names of two. Respondent resentatives, in which House the said act
then said that the object of the law was originated, and from which it came to
very evident, referring to the clause in respondent:

the appropriation act upon which the or- "To the House of Representatives,
der purported to be based. This, accord- The act entitled An act making ap
ing to respondent s recollection, was the propriations for the support of the army
substance of the conversation held with for the year ending June 30, 1868, and
General Emory. for other purposes/ contains provisions

Respondent denies that any allegations to which I must call attention. These
in the said article of any instructions or provisions are contained in the second sec-
declarations given to the said Emory, tion, which, in certain cases, virtually de-
then or at any other time, contrary to or prives the President of his constitutional
in addition to what is hereinbefore set functions as commander - in - chief of the
forth, are true. Respondent denies that, army, and in the sixth section, which de-
in said conversation with said Emory, he nied to ten States in the Union their con-
had any other intent than to express the stitutional right to protect themselves, in
opinions then given to the said Emory, any emergency, by means of their own
nor did he then nor at any other time militia. These provisions are out of
request or order the said Emory to dis- place in an appropriation act, but I am

170

JOHNSON, ANDREW

Compelled to defeat these necessary ap- lieves substantially a correct report) is

propriations if I withhold my signature hereto annexed as part of this answer,

from the act. Pressed by these consider- and marked Exhibit C.

ations, I feel constrained to return the That, thereupon, and in reply to the

bill with my signature, but to accompany address of said committee by their chair-

it with my earnest protest against the man, this respondent addressed the said

sections which I have indicated. committee so waiting upon him in one

"Washington, D. C., March 2, 1867." of the rooms of the Executive Mansion;

Respondent, therefore, did no more than and this respondent believes that this,

to express to said Emory the same his address to said committee, is the

opinion which he had so expressed to the occasion referred to in the first specifica-

House of Representatives. tion of the tenth article; but this re

spondent does not admit that the pas-

ANSWER TO ARTICLE X. ^ . f extracts from

And in answer to the tenth article and a speech or address of this respondent

specifications thereof, the respondent upon said occasion, correctly or justly pre-

says that, on the 14th and 15th days of sent his speech or address upon said

August, in the year 1866, a political con- occasion ; but, on the contrary, this re-

vention of delegates from all, or most, of spondent demands and insists that if

the States and Territories of the Union this honorable court shall deem the

was held in the city of Philadelphia, said article and the said first specifica-

under the name and style of the National tion thereof to contain allegation of

Union Convention, for the purpose of matter cognizable by this honorable

maintaining and advancing certain polit- court as a high misdemeanor in office,

ical views and opinions before the peo- within the intent and meaning of the

pie of the United States, and for their Constitution of the United States, and

support and adoption in the exercise of shall receive or allow proof in support of

the constitutional suffrage in the elec- the same, that proof shall be required to

tion of representatives and delegates in be made of the actual speech and address

Congress, which were soon to occur in of this respondent on said occasion,

many of the States and Territories of which this respondent denies that said

the Union; which said convention, in article and specification contain or cor-

the course of its proceedings, and in rectly or justly represent.
furtherance of the objects of the same, And this respondent, further answer-

adopted a " declaration of principles " ing the tenth article and specifications

and " an address to the people of the thereof, says that at Cleveland, in the

United States," and appointed a com- State of Ohio, and on the 3d day of Sep-

mittee of two of its members from each tember, in the year 1866, he was attended

State, and of one from each Territory, by a large assembly of his fellow-citizens,

and one from the District of Columbia, to and, in deference and obedience to their

wait upon the President of the United call and demand, he addressed them upon

States and present to him a copy of the matters of public and political consid-

proceedings of the convention ; that, on eration ; and this respondent believes that

the 18th day of the said month of August, said occasion and address are referred to

this committee waited upon the Presi- in the second specification of the tenth

dont of the United States, at the Exec- article; but this respondent does not ad-

utive Mansion, and was received by him rait that the passages therein set forth

in one of the rooms thereof, and by their as if extracts from a speech of this re-

chairman, Hon. Reverdy Johnson, then spondent on said occasion, correctly or

and now a Senator of the United States, justly present his speech or address upon

acting and speaking in their behalf, pre- said occasion; but, on the contrary, this

sented a copy of the proceedings of the respondent demands and insists that, if

convention, and addressed the President this honorable court shall deem the said

of the United States in a speech, of which article and the said second specification

a copy (according to a published report thereof to contain allegation of matter

of the same, and as the respondent be- cognizable by this honorable court as a

171

JOHNSON, ANDREW

high misdemeanor in office, within the
intent, and meaning of the Constitution
of the United States, and shall receive
or allow proof in support of the same,
that proof shall be required to be made
of the actual speech and address of this
respondent on said occasion, which this
respondent denies that said article and
specification contain or correctly or justly
represent.

And this respondent, further answering
the tenth article and the specifications
thereof, says that at St. Louis, in the
State of Missouri, and on the 8th day of
September, in the year 1806, he was at
tended by a numerous assemblage of his
fellow-citizens, and in deference and obedi
ence to their call and demand he addressed
them upon matters of public and political
consideration; and this respondent be
lieves that said occasion and address are
referred to in the third specification of
the tenth article ; but this respondent does
not admit that the passages therein set
forth, as if extracts from a speech of this
respondent on said occasion, correctly or
justly present his speech or address upon
said occasion; but, on the contrary, this
respondent demands and insists that if
this honorable court shall deem the said
article and the said third specification
thereof to contain allegation of matter
cognizable by this honorable court as a
high misdemeanor in office, within the in
tent and meaning of the Constitution of
the United States, and shall receive or
allow proof in support of the same, that
proof shall be required to be made of the
actual speech and address of this respon
dent on said occasion, which this respon
dent denies that the said article and speci
fication contain or correctly or justly rep
resent.

And this respondent, further answering
the tenth article, protesting that he has
not been unmindful of the high duties of
his office, or of the harmony or courtesies
which ought to exist and be maintained
between the executive and legislative
branches of the government of the United
States, denies that he has ever intended or
designed to set aside the rightful authority
or powers of Congress, or attempted to
bring into disgrace, rdicule, hatred, con
tempt, or reproach, the Congress of the
United States, or either branch thereof,

or to impair or destroy the regard or re
spect of all or any of the good people of
the United States for the .Congress or the
rightful legislative power thereof, or to
excite the odium or resentment of all or
any of the good people of the United
States, against Congress, and the laws by
it duly and constitutionally enacted. This
respondent further says that at all times
he has, in his official acts as President, rec
ognized the authority of the several Con
gresses of the United States, as constituted
and organized during his administration of
the office of President of the United States.

And this respondent, further answering,
says that he has, from time to time, un
der his constitutional right and duty as
President of the United States, communi
cated to Congress his views and opinions
in regard to such acts or resolutions there
of, as, being submitted to him as Presi
dent of the United States, in pursiiance
of the Constitution, seemed to this re
spondent to require such communications:
and he has, from time to time, in the ex
ercise of that freedom of speech which be
longs to him as a citizen of the United
States, and, in his political relations as
President of the United States, to the
people of the United States, is upon fit
occasions a duty of the highest obligation,
expressed to his fellow-citizens his views
and opinions respecting the measures and
proceedings of Congress; and that in such
addresses to his fellow-citizens, and in
such his communications to Congress, he
has expressed his views, opinions, and
judgment of and concerning the actual
constitution of the two Houses of Congress
without representation therein of certain
States of the Union, and of the effect that
in wisdom and justice, in the opinion and
judgment of this respondent, Congress in
its legislation and proceedings shall give
to this political circumstance; and what
soever he has thus communicated to Con
gress or addressed to his fellow-citizens or
any assemblage thereof, this respondent
says was and is within and according to
his right and privilege as an American
citizen, and his right and duty as Presi
dent of the United States.

And this respondent not waiving or at
all disparaging his right of freedom of
opinion and of freedom of speech, as
hereinbefore or hereinafter more particu-

172

JOHNSON, ANDREW

larly set forth, but claiming and insist
ing upon the same, further answering the
said tenth article, says that the views and
opinions expressed by this respondent in
his said addresses to the assemblages of
his fellow-citizens, as in said article or in
this answer thereto mentioned, are not
and were not intended to be other or dif
ferent from those expressed by him in his
communications to Congress that the
eleven States lately in insurrection never
had ceased to be States of the Union, and
that they were then entitled to representa
tion in Congress by local Representatives
and Senators as fully as the other States
of the Union, and that, consequently, the
Congress, as then constituted, was not, in
fact, a Congress of all the States, but a
Congress of only a part of the States.
This respondent always protesting against
the unauthorized exclusion therefrom of
the said eleven States, nevertheless gave
his assent to all laws passed by said Con
gress, which did not, in his opinion and
judgment, violate the Constitution, exer
cising his constitutional authority of re
turning bills to said Congress with his ob
jections when they appeared to him to be
unconstitutional or inexpedient.

And, further, this respondent has also
expressed the opinion, both in his com
munications to Congress, and in his ad
dresses to the people, that the policy
adopted by Congress in reference to the
States lately in insurrection did not tend
to peace, harmony, and union, but, on the
contrary, did tend to disunion and the
permanent disruption of the States, and
that, in following its said policy, laws had
been passed by Congress in violation of
the fundamental principles of the govern
ment, and which tended to consolidation
and despotism; and, such being his de
liberate opinions, he would have felt him
self unmindful of the high duties of his
office if he had failed to express them in
his communications to Congress or in his
addresses to the people when called upon
by them to express his opinions on mat
ters of public and political consideration.

And this respondent, further answering
the tenth article, says that he has always
claimed and insisted, and now claims and
insists, that both in his personal and pri
vate capacity of a citizen of the United
States, and in the political relations o

the President of the United States, to the
people of the United States, whose ser
vant, under the duties and responsibilities
of the Constitution of the United States,
the President of the United States is and
should always remain, this respondent had
and has the full right, and in his office
of President of the United States is held
to the high duty, of forming, and on fit
occasions expressing, opinions of and con
cerning the legislation of Congress, pro
posed or completed, in respect of its
wisdom, expediency, justice, worthiness,
objects, purposes, and public and political
motives and tendencies; and Avithin and
as a part of such right and duty to form,
and on fit occasions to express, opinions
of and concerning the public character
and conduct, views, purposes, objects, mo
tives, and tendencies of all men engaged
in the public service, as well in Congress
as otherwise, and under no other rules or
limits upon this right of freedom of opin
ion and of freedom of speech, or of re
sponsibility and amenability for the act
ual exercise of such freedom of opinion
and freedom of speech than attend upon
such rights and their exercise on the
part of all other citizens of the United
States and on the part of all their public
servants.

And this respondent, further answering
said tenth article, says that the several
occasions on which, as is alleged in the
several specifications of said article, this
respondent addressed his fellow-citizens
on subjects of public and political consid
erations were not, nor was any one of
them, sought or planned by this respon
dent; but, on the contrary, each of said
occasions arose upon the exercise of a
lawful and accustomed right of the peo
ple of the United States to call upon their
public servants, and express to them their
opinions, wishes, and feelings upon mat
ters of public and political consideration,
and to invite from such, their public ser
vants, an expression of their opinions,
views, and feelings on matters of public
and political consideration ; and this re
spondent claims and insists before this
honorable court, and before all the people
of the United States, that of or concern
ing this his right of freedom of opinion,
and of freedom of speech, and this his ex-

173

ercise of such right on all matters of

JOHNSON, ANDREW

public and political consideration, and in of the Union were denied representation
respect of all public servants, or persons therein; or that he made any or either
whatsoever engaged in or connected there- of the declarations or affirmations in this
with, this respondent, as a citizen, or as behalf, in the said article alleged, as de-
President of the United States, is not nying or intending to deny that the legis-
subject to question, inquisition, impeach- lation of said Thirty-ninth Congress was
ment, or inculpation, in any form or man- valid or obligatory upon this respondent,
ner whatsoever. except so far as this respondent saw fit
And this respondent says that neither to approve the same; and as to the alle-
the said tenth article, nor any specification gation in said article, that he did thereby
thereof, nor any allegation therein con- intend or mean to be understood that the
tained, touches or relates to any official said Congress had not power to propose
act or doing of this respondent in the amendments to the Constitution, this re-
office of President of the United States, spondent says that in said address he
or in the discharge of any of its constitu- said nothing in reference to the subject
tional or legal duties or responsibilities; of amendments of the Constitution, nor
but said article and the specifications and was the question of the competency of
allegations thereof, wholly and in every the said Congress to propose such amend-
part thereof, question only the discretion ments, without the participation of said
or propriety of freedom of opinion or free- excluded States, at the time of said ad-
dom of speech, as exercised by this re- dress, in any way mentioned or con-
spondent as a citizen of the United States sidered or referred to by this respon-
in his personal right and capacity, and dent, nor in what he did say had he any
without allegation or imputation against intent regarding the same, and he denies
this respondent of the violation of any the allegation so made to the contrary
law of the United States, touching or re- thereof. But this respondent, in further
lating to freedom of speech or its exer- answer to, and in respect of the said alle-
cise by the citizens of the United States, gations of the said eleventh article here-
or by this respondent as one of the said inbefore traversed and denied, claims and
citizens or otherwise; and he denies that, insists upon his personal and official right
by reason of any matter in said article of freedom of opinion and freedom of
or its specifications alleged, he has said speech, and his duty in his political re-
or done anything indecent or unbecoming lations as President of the United States,
in the chief magistrate of the United to the people of the United States, in
States, or that he has brought the high the exercise of such freedom of opinion
office of the President of the United States and freedom of speech, in the same man-
into contempt, ridicule, or disgrace, or ner, form, and effect as he has in his
that he has committed or has been guilty behalf stated the same in his answer to
of a high misdemeanor in office. the said tenth article, and with the same

effect as if he here repeated the same ;

ANSWER TO ARTICLE XI. , , f .-. , , ,

and he further claims and insists, as in

And in answer to the eleventh article said answer to said tenth article he has
this respondent denies that on the 18th claimed and insisted, that he is not sub-
day of August, in the year 1866, at the ject to question, inquisition, impeachment,
city of Washington, in the District of or inculpation, in any form or manner,
Columbia, he did, by public speech or of or concerning such rights of freedom
otherwise, declare or affirm, in substance of opinion or freedom of speech, or his
or at all, that the Thirty-ninth Congress said alleged exercise thereof,
of the United States was not a Congress And this respondent further denies that,
of the United States authorized by the on the 21st day of February, in the year
Constitution to exercise legislative power 1868, or at any other time, at the city
under the same, or that he did then and of Washington, in the District of Co-
there declare or affirm that the said lumbia, in pursuance of any such decla-
Thirty-ninth Congress was a Congress ration as is in that behalf in said eleventh
of only part of the States in any sense article alleged, or otherwise, he did un-
or meaning other than that ten States lawfully, and in disregard of the require-

174

JOHNSON

ment of the Constitution that he should States, nor the omission by this respon-
take care that the laws should be faith- dent of any act of official obligation or
fully executed, attempt to prevent the exe- duty in his office of President of the
cution of an act entitled " An act regu- United States ; nor does the said article
lating the tenure of certain civil offices," nor the matters therein contained name,
passed March 2, 1867, by unlawfully de- designate, describe, or define any act or
vising or contriving, or attempting to mode or form of attempt, device, con-
devise or contrive, means by which he trivance, or means, or of attempt at
should prevent Edwin M. Stanton from device, contrivance, or means, whereby
forthwith resuming the functions of Sec- this respondent can know or understand
retary for the Department of W#r; or what act or mode or form of attempt, de-
by unlawfully devising or contriving, or vice, contrivance, or means, or of at-
attempting to devise or contrive, means tempt at device, contrivance, or means,
to prevent the execution of an act en- are imputed to or charged against this
titled, " An act making appropriations respondent in his office of President of
for the support of the army for the fiscal the United States, or intended so to be,
year ending June 30, 1868, and for other or whereby this respondent can more fully
purposes," approved March 2, 1867, or to or definitely make answer unto the said
prevent the execution of an act entitled, article than he hereby does.
" An act to provide for the more efficient And this respondent, in submitting to
government of the rebel States," passed this honorable court this his answer to
March 2, 1867. the articles of impeachment exhibited

And this respondent, further answer- against him, respectfully reserves leave

ing the said eleventh article, says that he to amend and add to the same from time

has, in answer to the first article, set to time, as may become necessary or

forth in detail the acts, steps, and pro- proper, and when and as such necessity

oeedings done and taken by this respon- and propriety shall appear,

dent to and towards or in the matter of ANDREW JOHNSON.

the suspension or removal of the said Ed- HENRY STANBERY,

win M. Stanton in or from the office of B. R. CURTIS,

Secretary for the Department of War, THOMAS A. R. NELSON,

with the times, modes, circumstances, in- WILLIAM M. EVARTS,

tents, views, purposes, and opinions of W. S. GROESBECK,

official obligation and duty under and with Of Counsel.

which such acts, steps, and proceedings Johnson, BRADLEY TYLER, lawyer;

were done and taken; and he makes an- born in Frederick, Md., Sept. 29, 1829;

swer to this eleventh article, of the mat- graduated at Princeton in 1849; studied

ters in his answer to the first article, law at the Harvard Law School in 1850-

pertaining to the suspension or removal 51, and began practice in Frederick. In

of said Edwin M. Stanton, to the same 1851 he was State attorney of Frederick

intent and effect as if they were here re- county. In 1860 he was a delegate

peated and set forth. to the National Democratic Conventions

And this respondent further answering in Charleston and Baltimore; voted for

the said eleventh article denies that by the States Rights platform; and, with

means or reason of anything in said most of the Maryland delegates, with-

article alleged this respondent, as Presi- drew from the convention, and gave his

dent of the United States, did on the support to the Breckinridge and Lane

21st day of February, 1868, or at any ticket. During the Civil War he served

other day or time, commit or that he in the Confederate army, rising from the

was guilty of a high misdemeanor in office, rank of captain to that of brigadier-gen-

And this respondent, further answering eral. After the war he practised law in

the said eleventh article, says that the Richmond, Va., till 1879, and then in

same and the matters therein contained Baltimore till 1890. He was a member

do not charge or allege the commission of the State Senate in 1875-79. His pub-

of any act whatever by this respondent, lications include Chase s Decisions; The

in his office of President of the United Foundation of Maryland; Life of General

175

JOHNSON

Washington; Memoirs of Joseph E. John- published in 1054 under the title of Won-

ston; Confederate History of Mary- dcr-working Providence of Zions Saviour

land; etc, in New England. He died in Woburn,

Johnson, BTJSHROD RUST, military offi- Mass., April 23, 1672.

cor ; born in Belmont county, O., Sept. Johnson, FORT, a former protective

G, 1817; graduated at West Point in work on the Cape Fear Elver, near Wil-

1840; he served in the Florida and Mexi- mington, N. C. On June 14, 1775, the

can wars ; and was Professor of Mathe- royal governor, Joseph Martin, took refuge

matics in military academies in Kentucky in the fort, as the indignant people had

and Tennessee. He joined the Confed- begun to rise in rebellion against royal

erate army in 1861; was made a briga- rule. From that stronghold he sent forth

dier-general early in 1862 ; was captured a menacing proclamation, and soon after-

at Fort Donelson, but soon afterwards wards preparations for a servile insur-

escaped; was wounded in the battle of rection were discovered. The rumor went

Shiloh; and was made major-general in abroad that Martin had incited the slaves.

1SG4. He was in command of a division The exasperated people determined to drive

in Lee s army at the time of the sur- him from the fort and demolish it. A

render at Appomattox Court-house, and body of 500 men, led by John Ashe and

after the war was chancellor of the Uni- Cornelius Harnett, marched to the fort,

versity of Nashville. He died in Brigh- Martin had fled on board a British vessel

ton, 111., Sept. 11, 1880. of war in the river. The munitions of

Johnson, CAVE, jurist; born in Robert- war had all been removed on board of a

son county, Tenn., Jan. 11, 1793; elected transport, and the garrison also had fled,

circuit judge in 1820; served in Congress, The people burned the barracks and demol-

1829-37; and appointed Postmaster-Gen- ished the walls.

era! in 1845. He died in Clarksville, Tenn., Johnson, FRANKLIN, educator; born

Nov. 23, 1866. in Frankfort, 0., Nov. 2, 1836; grad-

Johnson, CLIFTON, author; born in uated at Colgate Theological Seminary

I.Iadley, Mass., Jan. 25, 1865; received a in 1861. He held pastorates in Michigan

common-school education. He is the au- find New Jersey in 1862-73, and in Cam-

thor of The New England Country; What bridge, Mass., in 1874-88. In 1890 he

They Say in New England; Studies of Nciv became president of the Ottawa Univer-

England Life and Nature, etc. sity, Kansas, and remained there two

Johnson, EASTMAN, artist; born in years, when he was called to the chair

Lovell, Me., July 29, 1824; was educated of History and Homiletics in the Uni-

in the public schools of Augusta, Me.; versity of Chicago.

studied in the Royal Academy of Diissel- Johnson, GUY, military officer; born in
dorf for two years, and was elected an Ireland in 1740; married a daughter of
academician of the National Academy of SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON (q. v.}, and in
Design in 1860. He has painted many 1774 succeeded him as Indian agent. He
notable pictures, including The Kentucky served against the French from 1757 to
Home; Husking Bee; The Stage Coach; 1760. At the outbreak of the Revolution
Pension Agent; Prisoner of State, etc. he fled to Canada, and thence went with
His portraits include Two Men, ex-Presi- the British troops who took possession of
dents Arthur, Cleveland, and Harrison, New York City in September, 1776; he re-
Commodore Vanderbilt, W. H. Vander- mained there some time, and became man-
bilt, Daniel Webster, John Quincy Adams, ager of a theatre. He joined Brant, and
John D. Rockefeller, Mrs. Dolly Madison, participated in some of the bloody out-
Mrs. August Belmont, Mrs. Hamilton rages in the Mohawk Valley. In 1779 he
Fish, and many others. fought with the Indians against Sullivan.

Johnson, EDWARD, author; born in He died in London, March 5, 1788.
Herne Hill, England, in 1599; emigrated Johnson, HALE, lawyer; born in

to the United States in 1630; elected Montgomery county, Ind., Aug. 21, 1847;

speaker of the Massachusetts House of admitted to the bar of Illinois in 187-&gt; :

Representatives in 1655. He is the author has been actively identified with the

of a history of New England which was Prohibition party for twenty years, and

176

JOHNSON

has been its candidate for governor of the
State of Illinois and for Vice-President in
1896.

Johnson, HELEN KENDRICK, author;
born in Hamilton, N. Y., Jan. 4, 1843;
daughter of Asahel C. Kendrick, the
Greek scholar and author; was educated
at the Oread Institute, Worcester, Mass.
She has edited Our Familiar Songs, and
Those Who Made Them; The American
Woman s Journal, etc. Her original works
are The Roddy Books; Raleigh Westgate;
and Woman and the Republic. She has
contributed many articles to periodicals,
and is specially known as an opponent of
woman suffrage.

Johnson, HENRY PHELPS, historian;
born in 1842; became Professor of History
in the College of the City of New York.
He is the author of Loyalist History of the
Revolution; The Campaign of 1776 Around
New York; The Yorktown Campaign;
Yale and the Honor Roll in the American
Revolution, etc.

Johnson, HERSCHEL VESPASIAN, legis
lator ; born in Burke county, Ga., Sept.
18, 1812; graduated at the University of
Georgia in 1834; appointed for an unex-
pired term to the United States Senate in
1848; elected judge of the Superior Court
of Georgia in 1849; governor in 1853 and
1855. In the Civil War he was a member
of the Confederate Senate; was elected
to the United States Senate during the
reconstruction period, but was not al
lowed to take his seat, and was appointed
judge of the circuit court in 1873. In
18GO Mr. Johnson was the candidate for
the Vice - Presidency on the ticket with
Stephen A. Douglas. He died in Jefferson
county, Ga., Aug. 16, 1880.

Johnson, JOHN, educator; born in
Bristol, Me., Aug. 23, 1806; graduated at
Bowdoin College in 1832; Professor of
Natural Sciences at Wesleyan University
in 1837-73, when he was made professor
emeritus. He was the author of A. His
tory of the Towns of Bristol and Bremen
in the State of Maine, etc. He died in
Clifton, S. I., Dec. 2, 1879.

Johnson, JOHN, Indian agent; born in
Ballyshannon, Ireland, in March, 1775;
came to the United States in 1786 and
settled in Cumberland county, Pa. He par
ticipated in the campaign against the
Indians in Ohio in 1792-93; was agent of

V. M

177

Indian affairs for thirty-one years; served
in the War of 1812, becoming quarter
master. In 1841-42 he was commissioner
to arrange with the Indians of Ohio for
their emigration from that district. He
was the author of an Account of the Ind
ian Tribes of Ohio. He died in Wash
ington, D. C., April 19, 1861.

Johnson, SIR JOHN, military officer;
born in Mount Johnson, N. Y., Nov. 5,
1742; son of Sir William Johnson; was
a stanch loyalist, and in 1776 the Whigs
tried to get possession of his person. He
tied to Canada with about 700 followers,
where he was commissioned a colonel, and
raised a corps chiefly among the loyalists
of New York, known as the Royal Greens.
He was among the most active and bitter
foes of the patriots. While investing Fort
Stanwix in 1777, he defeated General
Herkimer at Oriskany, but was defeated
himself by General Van Rensselaer in
1780. After the war Sir John went to
England, but returned to Canada, where
he resided as superintendent of Indian
affairs until his death, in Montreal, Jan.
4, 1830. He married a daughter of John
Watts, a New York loyalist.

Johnson, JOHN BUTLER, educator; born
in Marlboro, O., June 11, 1850; grad
uated at the University of Michigan in
1878, and became a civil engineer in the
United States Lake and Mississippi River
surveys. In 1883-98 he was Professor of
Civil Engineering in Washington Univer
sity, St. Louis. Later he was made dean
of the College of Mechanics and Engineer
ing in the University of Wisconsin. He
was director of a testing laboratory in St.
Louis, where all the United States timber
tests were made. He also had charge of
the index department of the journal pub
lished by the Association of Engineering
Societies, and compiled two volumes of
Index Notes to Engineering Literature.
He ia author of Theory and Practice of
Surveying; Modern Framed Structures;
Engineering Contracts and Specifications;
Materials of Construction, etc.

Johnson, JOSIAH STODDARD, author;
born in New Orleans, Feb. 10, 1833; grad
uated at Yale College in 1853 and at the
University Law School in 1854. He joined
the Confederate army in 1863, and served
till the close of the war. Later he en
gaged in the practice of law and in jour-

JOHNSON

RICHARD MENTOR JOHNSON.

nalism. He is the author of Memorial
History of Louisville; First Explorations
of Kentucky; Confederate History of Ken
tucky, etc.

Johnson, SIR NATHANIEL, colonial gov
ernor of South Carolina in 1703-9. Dur
ing his administration he defeated the
French who had attacked the colony in
1706. He died in Charleston in 1713.

Johnson, OLIVER, journalist; born in
Peacham, Vt., Dec. 27, 1809; was man
aging editor of The Independent in 1865-
70; and later was editor of the Christian
Union. He was the author of William
Lloyd Garrison and His Times, or Sketches
of the Anti-Slavery Movement in Amer
ica. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. 10,
1889.

Johnson, REVERDY, statesman; born in
Annapolis, Md., May 21, 1796; was ad
mitted to the bar in 1815. After serving
two terms in his State Senate, he was
United States Senator from 1845 to 1849,
when he became United States Attorney-
General under President Taylor. Mr.
Johnson was a delegate to the Peace Con
vention; United States Senator from 1863 dent Grant in 1869; supported Horace
to 1868; and minister to Great Britain in Greeley in the Presidential campaign of
1868-69, negotiating a treaty for the set- 1872. He died in Annapolis, Md., Feb. 10,
tlement of the ALABAMA CLAIMS (q. v.) 1876.

Johnson, RICHARD MENTOR, Vice-Presi
dent of the United States; born in
Bryant s Station, Ky., Oct. 17, 1781;
graduated at Transylvania University;
became a lawyer and State legislator, and
raised a regiment of cavalry in 1812.
With them he served under Harrison, and
was in the battle of the Thames in 1813,
where he was dangerously wounded. From
1807 to 1819 and 1829 to 1837 he was a
member of Congress. He was United
States Senator from 1819 to 1829, and
Vice-President of the United States from
1837 to 1841. He died in Frankfort, Ky.,
Nov. 19, 1850.

Johnson, RICHARD W., military officer;
born in Livingston county, Ky., Feb. 7,
1827; graduated at West Point in 1849.
He was a captain of cavalry in the
Civil War until August, 1861, when he
was made lieutenant-colonel of a Ken
tucky cavalry regiment. In October he

RETEKDY JOHNSON. Wa9 commissioned a brigadier-general of

volunteers, and served under Buell. In

question, which was rejected by the United the summer of 1862 he commanded a divi-
States Senate. He was recalled by Presi- sion of the Army of the Tennessee, and

178

JOHNSON

afterwards had the same command in the
Army of the Cumberland. In the battles
at Stone River and near Chickamauga,
and in the Atlanta campaign, he was a
most useful officer. He was severely
wounded at New Hope Church, and com
manded a division of cavalry in the battle
of Nashville, in December, 1864. He was
brevetted major-general, U. S. V. and U. S.
A., for gallant services during the war ;
was retired in 1867; and was Professor
of Military Science in the Missouri State
University in 1868-69, and in the Univer
sity of Minnesota in 1869-71. He died in
St. Paul, Minn., April 21, 1897.

Johnson, ROHERT, colonial governor;
born in England in 1682; was appointed
governor of South Carolina in 1717; and
royal governor in 1731. He died in
Charleston, S. C., May 3, 1755.

Johnson, ROBERT UNDERWOOD, editor;
born in Washington, D. C., Jan. 12,
1853; graduated at Earlham College, Indi
ana, in 1871. He became connected with
the editorial staff of the Century in 1873 ;
edited the Century War Series (with
Clarence Clough Buel), and subsequently
extended the work by 4 volumes, covering
the battles and leaders of the Civil War.
It was he who induced General Grant to
write his Memoirs, the first part of which
was published in the Century War Series.
He originated the movement which re
sulted in the establishment of the Yosem-
ite National Park; and was secretary of
the American Copyright League. His
works include The Winter Hour; Songs
of Liberty, etc.

Johnson, ROSSITER, author and editor;
born in Rochester, N. Y., Jan. 27, 1840;
graduated at the University of Roch
ester in 1863. In 1864-68 he was an as
sociate editor of the Rochester Democrat;
in 1869-72 was editor of the Concord
(N. H. ) Statesman; and in 1873-77 was
an associate editor of the American Cyclo-
pcedia. In 1879-80 he assisted Sydney
Howard Gay in preparing the last two
volumes of the Bryant and Gay History
of the United States. Since 1883 he has
been the sole editor of Appleton s Annual
Cyclopaedia. He edited The Authorised
History of the World s Columbian Exposi
tion (4 vols., 1898); and The World s
Great Books (1898-1901). He is also an
associate editor of the Standard Diction-

179

ary. His original books are A History
of the War Betioeen the United States
and Great Britain, 1812-15; A History
of the French War, Ending in the Con
quest of Canada; A History of the War
of Secession (1888; enlarged and illus
trated, under the title Camp-fire and Bat
tle-field, 1894); The Hero of Manila, etc.
He has been president of the Quill Club,
the Society of the Genesee, the New
York Association of Phi Beta Kappa, and
of the People s University Extension So
ciety. He received the degree of Ph.D.
in 1888, and that of LL.D. in 1893.

Johnson, SAMUEL, jurist; born in Dun
dee, Scotland, Dec. 15, 1733; was taken to
North Carolina by his father when he was
three years of age, and was in civil office
there under the crown until he espoused
the cause of the patriots. In 1773 he
was one of the North Carolina committee
of correspondence and an active mem
ber of the Provincial Congress. He was
chairman of the provincial council in
1775, and during 1781-82 was in the Con
tinental Congress. In 1788 he was govern
or of the State, and presided over the
convention that adopted the national Con
stitution. From 1789 to 1793 he was
United States Senator, and from 1800
to 1803 was judge of the Supreme Court.
He died near Edenton, N. C., Aug. 18,
1816.

Johnson, THOMAS, jurist; born in St.
Leonards, Calvert co., Md., Nov. 4, 1732;
was an eminent lawyer, and was chosen a
delegate to the second Continental Con
gress in 1775. He had the honor of nomi
nating George Washington for the post of
commander-in-chief of the Continental
armies. He was chosen governor of the
new State of Maryland in 1777, and was
associate-justice of the Supreme Court of
the United States from 1791 to 1793,
when he resigned. He was offered the post
of chief-justice of the District of Colum
bia in 1801, but declined it. He died at
Rose Hill, near Frederickton, Oct. 26, 1819.

Johnson, THOMAS GARY, clergyman;
born in Fishbok Hill, Va., July 19^ 1859;
graduated at Hampden-Sidney College in
1881 and at Union Theological Seminary,
Va., in 1887 ; was ordained in the Pres
byterian Church; became Professor of
Ecclesiastical History and Polity at Union
Theological Seminary, Va., in 1892. He

JOHNSON

is the author of A History of the Southern the Indian trade. Dealing honestly with

Presbyterian Church; A Brief Sketch of the the Indians and learning their language,

United Synod of the Presbyterian Church he became a great favorite with them.

in the United States of America, etc. He conformed to their manners, and, in

Johnson, WILLIAM, jurist; born in time, took Mary, a sister of Brant, the

Charleston, S. C., Dec. 27, 1771; grad- famous Mohawk chief, to his home as his

uated at Princeton in 1790; admitted to wife. When the French and Indian War

the bar in 1793; elected to the State legis- broke out Johnson was made sole super -

lature in 1794; appointed an associate intendent of Indian affairs, and his great

justice of the United States Supreme influence kept the Six Nations steadily

Court in 1804; served until his death, from any favoring of the French. He

in Brooklyn, N. Y., Aug. 11, 1834. He kept the frontier from injury until the

is the author of the Life and Corre- treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748).

spondence of Maj.-Gen. Nathanael Greene.
Johnson, WILLIAM, lawyer; born in

In 1750 he was a member of the pro-
vincial council. He withdrew from his

Middletown, Conn., about 1770; graduated post of superintendent of Indian affairs
at Yale College in 1788; reporter of the in 1753, and was a member of the con-
Supreme Court of New York in 1806-23, vention at Albany in 1754. He also at-
and of the New York Court of Chancery tended grand councils of the Indians, and
in 1814-23. He was the author of New was adopted into the Mohawk tribe and
York Supreme Court Reports, 1199-1803; made a sachem. At the council of gov-
New York Chancery Reports 1814-23; and ernors, convened by Braddock at Alex-
Digest of Cases in the Supreme Court of andria in 1755. Johnson was appointed
New York. He died in New York City in sole superintendent of the Six Nations,
July, 1848. created a major-general, and afterwards

Johnson, SIR WILLIAM, military offi- led an expedition intended for the capture
cer; born in Smithtown, County Meath, of Crown Point. The following year he
Ireland, in 1715; was educated for a mer- was knighted, and the King gave him the
chant, but an unfortunate love affair appointment of superintendent of Indian
changed the tenor of his life. He came to affairs in the North ; he was also made a

colonial agent. He continued in the
military service during the remainder of
the war, and was rewarded by his King
with the gift of 100,000 acres of land
north of the Mohawk River, which was
known as " Kingsland," or the " Royal
Crant." Sir William first introduced
sheep and blooded horses into the Mohawk
Valley. He married a German girl, by
whom he had a son and two daughters ;
also eight children by Mary (or Mollie)
Brant, who lived with him until his death.
Sir William lived in baronial style and
exercised great hospitality. He died in
Johnstown, N. Y., July 11, 1774.

Johnson, WILLIAM SAMUEL, jurist;
born in Stratford, Conn., Oct. 7, 1727;
graduated at Yale College in 1744;
became a lawyer; and was distinguished
for his eloquence. He was a delegate to
the STAMP ACT CONGRESS (7. v.) , and for

America in 1738 to take charge of landed five years (from 1766 to 1771) was agent
property of his uncle, Admiral Sir Peter for Connecticut in England. He cor-
Warren, in the region of the Mohawk responded with the eminent Dr. Johnson
Valley, and seated himself there, about 24 several years. He was a judge of the
miles west of Schenectady, engaging in Supreme Court of Connecticut and a com-

180

SIR WILUAM JOHNSON.

JOHNSON-CLARENDON CONVENTION JOHNSTON

nrissioner for adjusting the con
troversy between the proprie
tors, of Pennsylvania and the
Susquehanna Company. Judge
Johnson was in Congress (1784
to 1787), and was also a mem
ber of the convention that
framed the national Constitu
tion, in which he was the first
to propose the organization of
the Senate as a distinct branch
of the national legislature. He
was United States Senator from
1789 to 1791, and, with his col
league, Oliver Ellsworth, drew
up the bill for establishing the
judiciary system of the United
States. He was president of
Columbia College from 1787 to
1800. He died in Stratford,
Nov. 14, 1819.

Johnson - Clarendon Con
vention, the treaty negotiated
by Reverdy Johnson, while
minister to England, dated Jan.
14, 18G9. This treaty proposed
a mixed commission for the
consideration of all claims,
including the Alabama claims.
The treaty, which was the foun
dation of the subsequent successful one, in Brooklyn, N. Y., April 2, 1849;
was rejected by the United States Senate, graduated at Rutgers College, studied law,
as the provision made in it for national and became a few years later Professor
losses was not satisfactory. See JOHNSON, of Jurisprudence and Political Economy
REVERDY. in Princeton University. His contribu-

Johnston, ALBERT SIDNEY, military tions to American history were valuable,
officer; born in Washington, Mason co., They include a History of American Poli-
Ky., Feb. 3, 1803; graduated at West tics, histories of Connecticut and the
Point in 1826; served in the Black Hawk United States, the political articles in
War, and resigned in 1834. He entered Lalor s Cyclopaedia of Political Science,
the Texan army as a private in 183G and and the political sketch under the article
was soon made a brigadier-general, and " United States " in the Encyclopaedia
in 1838 became commander-in-chief of the Rritannica. He died in Princeton, N. J.,
army and Secretary of War. He retired July 20, 1889.

to private life in Texas. He served in Johnston, JOSEPH EGGLESTON, mili-
the war with Mexico, and became pay- tary officer; born in Longwood, Va., Feb.
master in the United States army in 1849. 3, 1809; graduated at West Point in
In 1860-G1 he commanded the Pacific De- 1829, and entered the artillery. He
partment, and, sympathizing with the served in the wars with the Florida Ind-
Confederates, was superseded by General ians, and with Mexico, in which he was
Simmer and entered the Confederate ser- twice wounded. He became lieutenant-
vice, in command of the Division of the colonel of cavalry in 1855, and quarter-
West. At his death, in the battle of master-general, with the rank of briga-
Shiloh, April 6, 1862, General Beauregard dier-general. in June, 1860. He joined
succeeded him. the Confederates in the spring of 1861,

Johnston, ALEXANDER, historian ; born and was commissioned a major-general in

181

WILLIAM SAMUKL JOHNSON.

JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON

the Army of Virginia. He was in com- severe struggle. The Confederates ral-
mand at the battle of Bull Run, and lied, and, returning with an overwhelm-
fought gallantly on the Virginia penin- ing force, retook the hill. Palmer, find-
sula, until wounded at the battle of Fair ing his adversaries gathering in force
Oaks, or Seven Pines (1862), when he larger than his own, and learning that
was succeeded by Lee. He afterwards the object of his expedition had been ac-
opposed Grant and Sherman in the Mis- complished, in the calling back of Hardee
ssissippi Valley. He was in command dur- by Johnston, fell back and took post
ing the Atlanta campaign in 1864 until (March 10) at Ringgold. In this short
July, when he was superseded by General campaign the Nationals lost 350 killed
Hood. and wounded; the Confederates about

When Johnston heard of Sherman s raid, 200.

and perceived that Polk could not resist With the surrender of Lee, the Civil
him, he sent two divisions of Hardee s War was virtually ended. Although he
corps, under Generals Stewart and Ander- was general-in-chief, .his capitulation in-
son, to assist Polk. Grant, in command eluded only the Army of Northern Vir-
at Chattanooga (February, 1864), sent ginia. That of Johnston, in North Caro-
General Palmer with a force to counter- lina, and smaller bodies, were yet in the
act this movement. Palmer moved with field. When Sherman, who confronted
his corps directly upon Dalton (Feb. 22), Johnston, heard of the victory at Five

Forks and the evacuation
of Petersburg and Rich
mond, he moved on John
ston (April 10, 1865), with
his whole army. The lat
ter was at Smithfield, on
the Neuse River, with ful
ly 30,000 men. Jefferson
Davis and the Confeder
ate cabinet were then at
Danville, on the southern
border of Virginia, and had
just proposed to Johnston
a plan whereby they might
secure their own personal
safety and the treasures
they had brought with
them from Richmond. It
was to disperse his army,
excepting two or three bat
teries of artillery, the cav
alry, and as many infan
try as he could mount,
with which he should form
a guard for the " govern
ment," and strike for the
Mississippi and beyond,
with Mexico as their final
objective. Johnston spurn-
where Johnston was encamped. The Con- ed the proposition, and, deprecating the bad
federates were constantly pushed back and example of Lee in continuing what he
there was almost continual heavy skirmish- knew to be a hopeless war, had the moral
ing. In the centre of Rocky Face Valley, courage to do his duty according to the
on a rocky eminence, the Confederates dictates of his conscience and his nice
made a stand, but were soon driven from sense of honor. He refused to fight
the crest by General Turchin, after a any more, or to basely desert his

182

JOSEPH EGQLKSTON JOHNSTON.

JOHNSTON

army far away from their home, as forty-eight hours. This notification was
the " government " proposed, and stated accompanied by a demand for the sur-
frankly to the people of North and render of Johnston s army, on the terms
South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, in- granted to Lee. The capitulation was
eluded within his military department, agreed upon at the house of James Ben-
that " war could not be longer contin- nett, near Durham s Station, April 26.
ued by them, except as robbers," and About 25,000 troops were surrendered,
that he should take measures to stop The capitulation included all the troops
it and save the army and people from in Johnston s military department. Gen-
further evil, and " avoid the crime of eral Taylor surrendered at Citronelle,
waging a hopeless war." Sherman was Ala., to General Canby, on the same
pushing Johnston with great vigor, when terms, and the Confederate navy on the
the former received a note from the lat- Tombigbee River was surrendered by
ter (April 14, 1865), asking if a tern- Commander Farrand to Rear - Admiral
porary suspension of
active hostilities might be
arranged to allow the
" civil authorities to enter
into the needful arrange
ments to terminate the
existing war." Sherman
promptly replied that he
would do so, and was will
ing to hold a conference.
He said that, as a basis
of action, he would under
take to abide by the terms
made by Grant and Lee at
Appomattox Court-house.
Sherman and Johnston
met at Durham s Station,
half-way between Raleigh
and Hillsboro, at ten
o clock, April 17. John
ston said he regarded the
Confederate cause as lost,

and admitted that Grant s terms were Thatcher. After the war he engaged in
magnanimous; but he insisted upon con- the fire insurance business; was a Demo-
ditions involving political guarantees, cratic member of Congress in 1876-78;
which Sherman had no authority to grant, and United States commissioner of rail-
At a second conference the next day, roads in 1885-89. He died in Washington,
Sherman consented to a memorandum of D. C., March 21, 1891.
agreement as a basis for the considera- Johnston, RICHARD MALCOLM, author;
tion of the government, which, if carried born in Powelton, Ga., March 8, 1822;
out, would have instantly restored to all graduated at Mercer University, Geor-
persons engaged in the rebellion every gia, in 1841, and a year later was
right and privilege, social and political, admitted to the bar. In 1857-61 he
which they had enjoyed before the war, was Professor of Literature in the Uni-
without any liability of punishment. II versity of Georgia. He was an officer in
was adroitly drawn up by Breckinridge, the Confederate army throughout the
and was signed by the respective com- Civil War. In 1867 he moved to Balti-
manding generals. The national govern- more, and engaged in authorship. His
ment instantly rejected it, and General works include Georgia, Sketches; Dukes-
Grant was sent to Raleigh to declare that borough Tales; Historical Sketch of
rejection, which he did April 24, and English Literature (with W. H.
proclaimed that the truce would end in Browne) ; Old Mark Langston; Two Gray

183

PLACE OP JOHNSTON S SURRENDER TO SHERMAN.

JOHNSTON

JOHNSTON S COMMISSION.

Tourists; Mr. Absalom Billingslca, and "Remember the Carolina!" a vessel
Other Georgia Folk; Ogeechee Cross Fir- which some persons from Canada had cut
ings; Widoto Guthrie; The Primes and loose at Schlosser (on Niagara River), set
Their Neighbors; Studies: Literary and on fire, and sent blazing, over Niagara
Social; Old Times in Middle Georgia;
Pearse Amerson s Will, etc. He died in
Baltimore, Md., Sept. 23, 1898.

Johnston, WILLIAM, revolutionist; born
in Canada, in 1780; was an American spy
on the Canada frontier during the War
of 1812-15. He was living at Clayton,
N. Y., on the bank of the St. Lawrence,
when the " patriot " war in Canada broke
out in 1837. Being a bold and adventur
ous man, and cordially hating the British,
Johnston was easily persuaded by the
American sympathizers in the movement
to join in the strife. The leaders regarded
him as a valuable assistant, for he was
thoroughly acquainted with the whole re
gion of the Thousand Islands, in the St.
Lawrence, from Kingston to Ogdensbvirg.
He was employed to capture the steam
boat Robert Peel, that carried passengers Falls. The passengers and baggage of the
and the mail between Prescott and To- p cc i wer e put on shore and the vessel was
ronto, and also to seize the Great Britain, burned, because her captors could not
another steamer, for the use of the "pa- manage her. Governor Marcy, of New
triots." With a desperate band, Johnston York, declared Johnston an outlaw, and
rushed on board of the Peel at Wells s offered a reward of $500 for his person.

The governor of Canada (Earl of Dur
ham) offered $5,000 for the conviction of
any person concerned in the " infamous
outrage." Johnston, in a proclamation
issued from " Fort Watson," declared him
self the leader of the band; that his com
panions were nearly all Englishmen; and
that his headquarters were on an island
within the jurisdiction of the United
States. Fort Watson was a myth. It
was wherever Johnston was seated among
the Thousand Islands, where for a long
time he was concealed, going from one
island to another to avoid arrest. His
daughter, a handsome maiden of eighteen
years, who was an expert rower, went to
his retreat at night with food. At length
he was arrested, tried at Syracuse on a
charge of violating the neutrality laws,
and acqiiitted. Again arrested and put in
jail, he managed to escape, when a reward
of $200 was offered for him. He gave him
self up at Albany, was tried, convicted,
Island, not far below Clayton, on the and sentenced to one year s imprisonment
night of May 29, 1838. They were armed in the jail there and to pay a fine of $250.
with muskets and bayonets and painted His faithful daughter, who had acquired
like Indians, and appeared with a shout, the title of " The Heroine of the Thousand

184

WILLIAM JOHNSTON.

JOHNSTON JOHN THE PAINTER

Islands," hastened to Albany and shared Johnstone, GEORGE, diplomatist; born
the prison with her father. He procured in Dumfries, Scotland; entered the British
a key that would unlock his prison-door, navy; became post-captain 1762, and gov-
His daughter departed and waited for him ernor of West Florida in 1763; and was
at Rome. He left the jail, walked 40 one of the commissioners sent to the Unit-
miles the first night, and soon joined her. ed States to treat with Congress in 1778.
They went home, and Johnston was not He had been an advocate of the Americans
molested afterwards. The " patriots " in the House of Commons, and brought
urged him to engage in the struggle again, letters of introduction to Robert Morris,
He had had enough of it. They sent him Joseph Reed, and other leading patriots,
the commission of a commodore, dated at Finding the commissioners could do noth-
" Windsor, U. C., Sept. 5, 1839," and ing, officially, with Congress, Johnstone
signed " H. S. Hand, Commander-in-Chief attempted to gain by bribery what could
of the Northwestern Army, on Patriot not be acquired by diplomacy. To Morris
Service in Upper Canada." On that com- and others he wrote letters, urging the ex-
mission was the device seen in the engrav- pediency of making arrangements with the
ing the American eagle carrying off the government, and suggesting, in some of his
British lion. The maple-leaf is an emblem letters, that those persons who should be
of Canada. He refused to serve, and re- instrumental in bringing it about would
mained quietly at home. President Pierce not fail of high honors and rewards from
appointed him light-house keeper on Rock the government. An American lady in
Island, in the St. Lawrence, in sight of Philadelphia, whose husband was in the
the place where the Peel was burned. British service, and who was a relative of
Johnston, WILLIAM PRESTON, educator; Ferguson, the secretary of the commission,
born in Louisville, Ky., Jan. 5, 1831; son was induced by Johnstone to approach
of Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston. He grad- Joseph Reed with a proposition. Mrs. Fer-
uated at Yale University in 1852, and guson was a daughter of Dr. Graeme, of
at the Louisville Law School in the fol- Pennsylvania, a bright woman, in whose
lowing year, and began practice in Louis- prudence and patriotism the Whigs had
ville. When the Civil War broke out, he such confidence that the interchange of
er-tered the Confederate army as major of visits among them and the Tories never
the 1st Kentucky Regiment. In 1862 he led to a, suspicion that she would betray
was appointed by President Davis his the cause of her country. Johnstone made
aide-de-camp with the rank of colonel, her believe he was a warm friend of the
When Lee surrendered Colonel Johnston Americans, and he entreated her to go to
remained with the President, and was General Reed and say to him that if he
captured with him. After his release he could, conscientiously, exert his influence
lived a year in Canada and then resumed i bringing about a reconciliation, he
law practice in Louisville. In 1867, when might command $50;000 and the highest
General Lee was made president of Wash- post in the government. " That," said
ington and Lee University, Colonel John- Mrs. Ferguson, " General Reed would con-
ston was appointed Professor of English sider the offer of a bribe." Johnstone dis-
History and Literature there, where he claimed any such intention, and Mrs. Fer-
remained till 1877. During 1880-83 he guson carried the message to Reed as soon
was president of the Louisiana State Uni- as the British left Philadelphia. Reed in-
versity and the Agricultural and Mechani- dignantly replied, " I am not worth pur-
cal College at Baton Rouge. In 1883, when chasing, but, such as I am, the King of Eng-
Tulane University, in New Orleans, was land is not rich enough to do it." These
founded, he was elected its president, and facts being made known to Congress, reso-
served as such till his death, in Lexing- lutions were passed, Aug. 11, 1778, accus-
ton, Va., July 16, 1899. His publications ing the commissioner of an attempt at
include Life of Albert Kidney Johnston; bribery and corruption, and declining to
The Prototype of Hamlet; The Johnstons hold any fiirther communication with him.
of Salisbury; also the poems, My Garden He died Jan. 8, 1787.
Walk; Pictures of the Patriarchs; and Johnstown Flood. See INUNDATIONS.
Seekers After God. John the Painter. While SILAS

185

JOHN THE PAINTER JOINT HIGH COMMISSION

DEANE (q. v.), commissioner of the Conti
nental Congress, was in Paris (1777), a
stranger, advanced in years, called upon
him one day, and requested a strictly pri
vate interview. It was granted, when the
stranger told Deane that he was a native
of Scotland, but was an American citizen,
and had lived at Amboy, N. J., where he
had a comfortable house. The British
troops stationed there, suspecting him of
being a Whig, had greatly abused him,
and finally burned his house to ashes.
He told Deane he had resolved on revenge ;
that he had determined to kill King
George, and had come to Europe for the
purpose. He had been to England, had
laid his plans, and was ready to execute
them. He thought it right to acquaint
Deane, the United States minister, with
his scheme. He said he passed by the
name of " John the Painter." Mr. Deane
opposed the assassination of the King as
cowardly and unjust. He was innocent
of wrong in the matter. If he must have
revenge, he should take it in a manly,
generous way; he should go into the
American army, and meet his enemy as a
soldier, and not as a vulgar assassin;
and if he could so meet King George, at
the head of his army, he could kill him
with propriety. It would be lawful to
so kill his generals. The man was finally
persuaded by Deane to abandon his regi-
cidal plan, and left. He soon returned,
thanked Deane for persuading him not to
lay violent hands on " the Lord s
Anointed," and said he was determined to
seek revenge by burning the naval stores
at Portsmouth, England. Deane said that
would tend to weaken the enemy in carry
ing on the war, and was legitimate busi
ness. He was astonished at the wisdom
of the man s plans. He warned him. how
ever, that if he should be caught his life
would pay the penalty of his crime. " I
am an old man," was the reply, " and it
matters little whether I die now or five
years hence." He borrowed a guinea from
Deane, and crossed the channel.

At Portsmouth he took lodgings at the
house of a very poor woman on the out
skirts of the town. While he was ab
sent, she had the curiosity to examine a
bundle which he had brought with him.
It contained some clothing and a tin box,
with some sort of a machine inside. John

wanted a top to it, and had one made by
a tinman. The same evening the naval
storehouses were fired by this " infernal
machine," and $500,000 worth of property
was destroyed. Strict search was made
for the incendiary in the morning at every
house in the town. The old woman told
them of John the Painter and his mys
terious tin box. The tinman reported
making a top for it. John was fixed upon
as the incendiary. Not doubting he had
been sent by the enemy for the purpose,
and that relays of horses had been fur
nished for his escape, horsemen were sent
out on every road, with orders to pur
sue any person they should find riding
very fast. John, meanwhile, was trudg
ing on foot towards London. Men came
up to him and asked him if he had seen
any person riding post-haste. " Why do
you inquire?" asked John. He was prop
erly answered, when John told the pur
suers they were mistaken, for he " John
the Painter " was the incendiary, and
gave them his reasons for the act. They
took him back to Portsmouth, where he
was recognized by the old woman and the
tinman. He candidly told them that he
should certainly have killed the King had
not Mr. Deane dissuaded him, and that
ho was revenged, and Avas ready to die.
He was tried, condemned, and hung. A
false and unfair account of his trial was
published, and no mention was made of
Mr. Deane s having saved the life of the
King. The Gentleman s Magazine for
1777 contains the English account of the
affair, with a portrait. The above is
compiled from manuscript notes made
from the lips of Deane by Elias Bomli-
not.

Joint High Commission. The gov
ernment of the United States, in behalf
of its citizens, claimed from Great Britain
damages inflicted on the American ship
ping interests by the depredations of
the ALABAMA (q. v.) and other Anglo-
Confederate cruisers. To effect a peace
ful solution of the difficulty, REVERDY
JOHNSON (q. v.), of Maryland, was sent
to England, in 1868, to negotiate a treaty
for that purpose. His mission was not
satisfactory. The treaty which he nego
tiated was almost universally condemned
by his countrymen, and was rejected by
the Senate. His successor, JOHN Lo-

186

JOINT HIGH COMMISSION JOLIET

THROP MOTLEY (g. t;.), appointed minister federate cruisers; (6) claims of British
at the British Court, was charged with subjects against the United States for
the same mission, but failed in that par- losses and injuries arising out of acts
ticular, and was recalled in 1870. The committed during the Civil War. A
matter was finally settled by arbitration, treaty was agreed to, and was signed
Much correspondence succeeded the efforts May 8, 1871, which provided for the
to settle by treaty. Finally, in January, settlement, by arbitration, by a mixed
1871, the British minister at Washing- commission, of all claims on both sides
ton, Sir Edward Thornton, in a letter to for injuries by either government to the
Secretary Fish, proposed, under instruc- citizens of the other, during the Civil
tions from his government, a Joint High War, and for the permanent settlement of
Commission, to be appointed by the two all questions in dispute between the two
governments, respectively, to settle dis- nations (see WASHINGTON, TREATY OF).
putes of every kind between the United Arbitrators were appointed, who, at
States and Great Britain, and so estab- Geneva, Switzerland, formed what was
lish a permanent friendship between the known as the Tribunal of Arbitration,
two nations. Mr. Fish proposed that the and reached a decision in which both par-
commission should embrace in its in- ties acquiesced. See ARBITRATION, TRI-
quiries the matter of the " Alabama BUNAL OF.

Claims," so that nothing should remain Joliet, Louis, discoverer; born in Que-
to disturb amicable relations. The sug- bee, Canada, Sept. 21, 1645; was edu-
gestion was approved, and each govern- cated at the Jesuit college in his native
ment appointed commissioners. The city, and afterwards engaged in the fur-
President appointed, for the United trade in the Western wilderness. In 107 3
States, Hamilton Fish, Secretary of Intendant Talon, at Quebec, with the
State; Samuel Nelson, associate-justice sanction of Governor Frontenac, selected
of the United States Supreme Court; Joliet to find and ascertain the direc-
Kobert C. Schenck, minister to England; tion of the course of the Mississippi and
Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar, late United its mouth. Starting from Mackinaw, in
States Attorney-General; and George H. May, 1673, with Father Marquette and
Williams, United States Senator from five other Frenchmen, they reached the
Oregon. Queen Victoria appointed Mississippi June 17. They studied the
George Frederick Samuel, Earl de Gray country on their route, made maps, and
and Earl of Ripon; Sir Stratford Henry gained much information. After inter-
Northcote; Sir Edward Thornton, her course with Indians on the lower Missis-
minister at Washington; Sir Alexander sippi, near the mouth of the Arkansas,
McDonald, of the privy council of Can- who had trafficked with Europeans, they
ada, and attorney - general of that prov- were satisfied that the Mississippi
ince; and Montague Bernard, Profess- emptied into the Gulf of Mexico, and
or of International Law in Oxford Uni- made their way back to Green Bay, where
versity. The commissioners first met in Joliet started alone for Quebec to report
Washington, Feb. 27, 1871. Lord Tenter- to his superiors. His canoe was upset
den, secretary of the British commission, in Lachine Rapids, above Montreal, and
and J. C. Bancroft Davis, assistant Secre- his journals and charts were lost, but
tary of State of the United States, were he wrote out his narrative from memory,
chosen clerks of the Joint High Commis- which agreed, in essentials, with that of
sion. The commissioners of the United Marquette. Joliet afterwards went on an
States were instructed to consider : ( 1 ) expedition to Hudson Bay, in the service
the fisheries; (2) the navigation of the of his King, and was rewarded by his
St. Lawrence River ; ( 3 ) reciprocal trade sovereign with the appointment of hydrog-
between the United States and the Do- rapher to his Majesty, and was favored
minion of Canada; (4) the Northwest with the seigniory of the island of Anti-
water boundary and the island of San costi in 1680. La Salle s pretensions de-
Juan; (5) the claims of the United nied him the privilege of making explo-
States against Great Britain for com- rations in the West. He died in Canada
pensation for injuries committed by Con- in May, 1700.

187

JONATHAN JONES

Jonathan, BROTHER, the name popular- AYirx/ja/KT Press in the Middle States of
ly applied to the United States, as JOHN America, etc.

BULL is to Great Britain; originated Jones, JACOB, naval officer; born near
in Washington s humorous allusion to Smyrna, Del., in March/ 1768; gradu-
JONATHAN TRUMBULL (q. v.) , governor of ated at the University of Pennsylvania,
Connecticut, the only colonial governor
who favored independence.

Joncaire, or Jonquiere, JACQUES
PIERRE DE TAFFANEL, MARQUIS DE LA,
naval officer; born in La Jonquiere,
France, in 1G86; entered the navy in
1698, and in 1703 was adjutant in the
French army. He was a brave and skil
ful officer, and was in many battles. He
became captain in the navy in 1736, and
accompanied D Anville in his expedition
against Louisburg in 1745. In 1747 he
was appointed governor of Canada, but,
being captured by the British, he did not
arrive until 1749. He died in Quebec,
May 17, 1752.

Jones, CHARLES COLCOCK, clergyman ;
born in Liberty county, Ga., Dec. 20, 1804 ;
received his theological training at An-
dover and Princeton Theological Semi
naries; was ordained in the Presbyterian
Church, and became active in the work
of educating the negro race. His publi
cations include Religious Instruction for
Negroes in the Southern States; Sugges
tions on the Instruction of Nee/roes in

the South; and a History of the Church and entered the navy as a midshipman in
of God. He died in Liberty county, Ga., 1799. He was an officer of the Phila-
March 16, 1863. delphia when she was captured at Trip-

Jones, CHARLES COLCOCK, lawyer; born oli. In 1810 he was made commander,
in Savannah, Ga., Oct. 28, 1831 ; grad- and when the War of 1812-15 broke out
uated at Princeton in 1852; admitted to he was in charge of the sloop-of-war
the bar of Georgia in 1856; during the Wasp, in which he gained a victory. He
Civil War he served as colonel of artillery, commanded the Macedonian, in Decatur s
Among his historical works are Monumen- squadron, as post-captain. After the war
tal Remains of Georgia; Historical Sketch he commanded the Mediterranean squad-
of the Chatham Artillery; Life of Gen. ron; was a commissioner of the navy
Henry Lee; Commodore Josiah Tatnall; board; and governor of the naval asylum
Jean Pierre Purry; Richard Henry Wilde; at Philadelphia. Congress voted him
Siege of Savannah in 1119 ; De Soto and thanks and a gold medal and several
His March through Georgia, etc. States presented him with swords. He

Jones, HORATIO GATES, lawyer; born died in Philadelphia, Aug. 3, 1850.
in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 9, 1822; gradu- Jones, JAMES ATHEARN, author; born
ated at the University of Pennsylvania in in Tisbury, Mass., June 4, 1790; received
1841; was admitted to the bar in 1847; a common - school education, and engaged
became connected with many historical in journalism in Philadelphia in 1826;
societies. His publications include History later was editor in Baltimore, Md., and
of Roxborongh and Manai/unk ; Report of in Buffalo, N. Y. His publications in-
the Committee of the Historical Society elude Traditions of the North American
of Pennsylvania on the Bradford Bicen- Indians, or Tales of an Indian Camp;
tenary; Andreiv Bradford, Founder of the Letter to an English Gentleman on Eng-

188

JACOB JONES.

JONES

GOLD MEDAL AWARDED BY CONGRESS TO JACOB JONES.

Hah Libels of America; and Haverhill, commander the first salute ever given to
or Memoirs of an Officer in the Army of the American flag by a foreign man-of-war.
Wolfe. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., in In April he scaled the walls of White-
August 1853. haven, in England, on the borders

Jones, JOHN MATHER, journalist; born Irish Sea, and spiked thirty-eight can-
in Bangor, North Wales, June 9, 1826; non.

came to the United States in 1849; was In 1779, while cruising up and
the founder of the Welsh town of New the east* coast of Scotland, between the
Cambria, Mo., and also of Avonia, in Kan- Solway and the Clyde, he tried to capture
sas In 1865-74 he was the owner and the Earl of Selkirk, in order to secure
publisher of The Mirror, the first Welsh notable prisoner for exchange,
newspaper established in the United been an early friend of Jones s father.
States. He was the author of a History His seat was at the mouth of
of the Rebellion (in Welsh). He died
in Utica, N. Y., Dec. 21, 1874.

Jones, JOHN PAUL, naval officer; born
in Kirkbean, Scotland, July 6, 1747. Be
fore he was eighteen years old he com
manded a vessel that traded with the
West Indies. Jones came to Virginia in
1773, inheriting the estate of his brother,
who died there. Offering his services
to Congress, he was made first lieutenant
in the navy in December, 1775, when,
out of gratitude to General Jones, of
North Carolina, he assumed his name.
Before that he was John Paul. He was
a bold and skilful sea - rover, gathering
up many prizes. Made captain in the
fall of 1776, he raised the first flag ever
displayed on a United States ship-of-war
the Alfred. He destroyed the Port Royal
(N. S.) fisheries, capturing all the vessels
and freight. In the summer of 1777 he Jones anchored his vessel, the Ran-
sailcd in the Ranger to Europe, and in ger, in the Solway at noon, and with
February, 1778, received from a French a few men, in a single boat, he went to a

189

JOHN PATTL JONES.

JONES, JOHN PAUL

wooded promontory on which the earl s
line estate lay, where he learned that his
lordship was not at home. Disappointed,
he ordered his men back to the boat, when
his lieutenant, a large and fiery man, pro
posed to go to the mansion and plunder
it of the family plate. Jones would not
listen to the proposition, for the memory
of old associations made his heart tender
towards Lady Selkirk, who had been very
kind to him. Again he ordered his men
back, but they and the lieutenant, eager
for prize-money, in defiance of his ex
postulations, went to the house and de
manded the plate. The frightened Lady
Selkirk surrendered it with her own
hands. When the prizes of the Ranger

tember, while Jones s squadron lay a few
leagues north of the mouth of the num
ber, he discovered the Baltic fleet of forty
merchantmen (convoyed b y the Serapis,
a 44 - gun ship, and the Countess of
Scarborough, of twenty - two guns ) ,
stretching out from Flamborough Head.
Jones signalled for a chase, and all but
the Alliance, Captain Landais, obeyed.
While the opposing war-ships were ma
noeuvring for advantage, night fell upon
the scene. At seven o clock in the even
ing of Sept. 23, 1779, one of the most des
perate of recorded sea-fights began. The
Bon Homme Richard and Serapis, Captain
Pearson, came so close to each other that
their spars and rigging became entangled,

GOLD MEDAL 1 RKSKNTED TO JOIIN PAUL JONES.

were sold Jones bought this plate, and and Jones attempted to board his antago-

sent it back to Lady Selkirk with a letter nist. A short contest with pike, pistol,

in which he expressed his regret because and cutlass ensued, and Jones was re-

of the annoyance she had suffered. pulsed. The vessels separated, and were

During the spring and summer of 1779, soon placed broadside to broadside, so

American cruisers were very active, both close that the muzzles of their guns

in American and European waters. At touched each other. Both vessels were

the middle of August Jones was sent out dreadfully shattered: and, at one time,

from the French port of L Orient, with the Serapis was on fire in a dozen places,

five vessels, to the coast of Scotland. His Just as the moon rose, at half-past nine

flag-ship was the Bon Homme Richard. As o clock, the Richard, too, caught fire. A

he was about to strike some armed Brit- terrific hand - to - hand fight now ensued,

ish vessels in the harbor of Leith a storm Jones s ship, terribly damaged, could not

arose, which drove him into the North float much longer. The flames were

Sea. When it ceased, he cruised along creeping up the rigging of the Serapis,

the Scottish coast, capturing many prizes and by their light Jones saw that hia

and producing great alarm. Late in Sep- double-headed shot had cut the mainmast

190

JONES, JOHN PAUL

THE HAXD-TO-HAND FIGHT ON THE DECK OF THE SERAPIS.

of the tferapts almost in two. He hurled to Jones he said, in a surly tone, " It is
another, and the tall mast fell. Pearson painful to deliver up my sword to a man
saw his great peril, hauled down his flag, who has fought with a rope around his
and surrendered. As he handed his sword neck!" (Jones had been declared a

191

JONES

pirate by the British government.) The made vice-admiral and knighted. He
battle ceased, after raging three hours, resigned from the Russian service,
The vessels were disengaged, and the Rich- and was appointed consul of the United
ard soon went to the bottom of the North States at Algiers in 17Q2, but he died
Sea. For this victory Congress gave before the commission reached him.
Jones the thanks of the nation, a gold He died in Paris, July 18, 1792. His
medal and a commission as commander of body was brought back to the United

States by a squadron of war - ships in
June, 1905.

Jones, JOHN PERCIVAL, United States
Senator; born in Hay, Wales, in 1830;
came to the United States while a child;
removed to California in 1849; served
several terms in the State legislature.
Mr. Jones removed to Nevada in 1867,
and was elected to the United States
Senate for the term beginning March 4,
1873, and several times re-elected. Origi
nally a Republican, he was one of the
founders of the " Silver " Republican
party, which acted with the Democratic
party in the campaigns of 1896 and 1900.

Jones, JOHN WINSTON; born in
Chesterfield, Va., Nov. 22, 1791; grad
uated at William and Mary College in
1803; elected to Congress in 1835; served
until March, 1845; during his last term
he was speaker of the House. He died
Jan. 29, 1848.

Jones, JOSEPH, jurist; born in Vir
ginia in 1727; elected a member of the
House of Burgesses; to the Continental
Congress in 1778; also to the convention
of 1778; in 1778 he was appointed judge
of the general court of Virginia ; resigned
in 1779, but accepted a reappointment
the same year. He died at his home in
Virginia, Oct. 28, 1805.

Jones, LEONARD AUGUSTUS, author;
born in Templeton, Mass., Jan. 13, 1832;
graduated at Harvard College in 1855, and
at its Law School in 1858; began practice
in Boston. His publications include A
Treatise on the Law of Mortgages of
Real Property; A Treatise on the Law
of Railroads and Other Corporate Securi
ties; Pledges, including Collateral Securi
ties; An Index to Legal Periodical Liter
ature, etc.

the America, which ship was soon pre- Jones, MARCUS EUGENE, scientist; born
sented to France. The King of France in Jefferson, O., April 25, 1852; grad-
made Jones a knight of the Order of uated at Iowa College, in 1875; instructor
Merit, and presented him with a gold there in 1876-77; Professor of Natural
sword. Jones entered the service of Rus- Science in Colorado College in 1879-80 ;
sia as rear-admiral in 1787, and, in conse- the same in Salt Lake City in 1880-81.
quence of a victory over the Turks, was He was appointed a special expert in the

192

PC****""

JONES RAISING TtlK FIRST FLAG KVER DISPLAYED ON A
UNITED STATES 8HIP-OF-WAR.

JONES

United States Treasury Department in
1889, and was geologist for the Rio
Grande Valley Railroad in 1890-93. Sub
sequently he established himself as an
expert in botany, geology, and mining.
He is author of Excursion Botanique; Salt
Lake City; Ferns of the West; Some
Phases of Mining in Utah; Botany of the
Great Plateau; and Geology of Utah.
Jones, SAMUEL PORTER, clergyman;

born in Chambers county, Ala., Oct. 16,
1847; was admitted to the Georgia bar in
1869 ; but after beginning practice under
bright prospects his health failed; and in
1872 he was ordained to the ministry of
the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
For eight years he served in various pas
torates in the North Georgia Conference,
and for twelve years was agent of the
North Georgia Orphanage. Popularly

V. N

JONES INVESTKO WITH THK ORDER OF MILITARY MERIT.

193

JONES JORDAN

known as "Sam Jones," he has engaged
extensively in evangelistic work and in
lecturing, in all parts of the United
States. His publications include Sermons
and Sayings by Sam Jones; Music Hall
Sermons; Quit Your Meanness ; St. Louis
Series; Sam Jones s Oivn Book; and
Thunderbolts.

Jones, THOMAS, lawyer; born in Fort
Neck, L. I., April 30, 1731; graduated
at Yale in 1750; admitted to the bar of
New York in 1755, and practised in New
York; was recorder of New York City
in 1769-73, when he was appointed judge
of the Supreme Court. He was arrested
a number of times as a loyalist, and was
exchanged for General Silliman in 1780;
went to England in 1781; was included
in the New York State act of attainder
in 1782. His estate on Long Island,
Tryon Hall, descended to his daughter,
who had married Richard Floyd, upon
condition that the name Jones be added
to that of Floyd. The estate is still in the
Floyd-Jones family. Judge Jones wrote
a History of New York During the Revolu
tionary War, a valuable contribution to
history, as it is the only one from the
view-point of a loyalist who participated
in the events of that time. He died in
England, July 25, 1792.

Jones, THOMAS AP CATESBY, naval of
ficer; born in Virginia, in 1789; entered
the navy in 1805. From 1808 to 1812 he
was engaged in the Gulf of Mexico in the
suppression of piracy, smuggling, and the
slave-trade. He fought the British flotilla
on Lake Borgne late in 1814, when he was
wounded and made captive. He command
ed the Pacific squadron in 1842. He died
in Georgetown, D. C., May 30, 1858.

Jones, WILLIAM; born in Philadelphia,
Pa., in 1760; served throughout the Revolu
tionary War, at first in the army and later
in the navy; elected to Congress in 1801;
appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1813.
He died in Bethlehem, Pa., Sept. 5, 1831.

Jones, WILLIAM ALFRED; born in New
York City, June 26, 1817; graduated at
Columbia College in 1836; appointed li
brarian of Columbia College in 1851. He
is the author of The Library of Columbia
College; The First Century of Columbia
College, etc.

Jonesboro, BATTLE AT. Sherman began
his flanking when he raised the siege of

ATLANTA (q. v.) , on the night of Aug. 25.
1864. General Slocum, with the 20th
Corps, proceeded to the protection of the
sick, wounded, and stores near the Chatta-
hoochee, and Howard and the rest of the
army moved for the West Point Railway.
General Stanley s corps was on the ex
treme left, and the armies of Howard,
Thomas, and Schofield pressed forward so
secretly that Hood was not informed of
the movement until the Nationals were de
stroying that road. This was done, Aug.
28, for 12 miles, and the next day they
struck the Macon road. Schofield reached
the road at Rough-and-Ready Station, 10
miles from Atlanta. Thomas struck it at
Couch s ; and Howard, crossing the Flint
River half a mile from Jonesboro, ap
proached it at that point. There he was
met by one-half of Hood s army, under
Hardee. With the remainder Hood was
holding the defences of Atlanta, but he
was too weak to attempt to strike Scho
field. There was a severe fight at the
passage of the Flint River, on the morn
ing of Aug. 31, between the forces of How
ard and Hardee. Howard s army was dis
posed with Blair s corps in the centre, and
rude breastworks were cast up. The con
test was renewed very soon, when Hardee
attempted to crush Howard before he
could receive reinforcements. He failed.
The Nationals thus attacked were veterans.
For two hours there was a desperate strife
for victory, which was won by Howard.
Hardee recoiled, and in his hasty retreat
left 400 of his dead on the field and 300
of his badly wounded at Jonesboro. His
loss was estimated at 2.500 men. How
ard s loss was about 500. Meanwhile
Sherman had sent relief to Howard. Kil-
patrick and Garrard were very active, and
General Davis s corps soon touched How
ard s left. At four o clock in the after
noon Davis charged and carried the Con
federate works covering Jonesboro on the
north, and captured General Govan and a
greater part of his brigade. In the morn
ing Hardee had fled, pursued by the Na
tionals to Lovejoy s.

Jordan, DAVID STARR, educator; born
in Gainesville, N. Y., Jan. 19, 1851;
graduated at Cornell University in 1872;
and at the Indiana Medical College in
1875. He was Professor of Biology in But
ler University, Indiana, in 1875-79; held

194

JORDAN JUDAISM

the same chair in Indiana University in exploit he was given command of the

1879-85; and was president there in 1885- Montgomery. On July 16, 1862, he was

91. In the latter year he was elected presi- promoted to lieutenant-commander. In

dent of the Leland Stanford, Jr., Uni- 1864 when the entrance to Mobile Bay was

versity. Since 1877 he has held several forced he took a conspicuous part. In

appointments under the United States 1866 he was promoted commander; in

government in connection with the fisheries 1874, captain; in 1883, commodore; in

and the fur-seal industry. He is author of 1886, rear-admiral; and in 1890 was re-

A Manual of Vertebrate Animals of North- tired. He had charge of the operations on

ern United States; Science Sketches; Fish- the Isthmus of Panama in 1885 and suc-

eries of North and Middle America; Fac- ceeded in obtaining a free transit across

tors of Organic Evolution; Matka and the isthmus and in restoring peace between

Kotik; Care and Culture of Men; The In- the rebels and the government of Colom-

numerable Company; and many papers on bia, for which he was thanked by the Pres-

ichthyology. ident of that country. Congress voted him

Jordan, JOHN WOOLF, antiquarian; full pay for life.

born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 14, 1840; Joiirnal of Congress, the official name

graduated at Nazareth Hall in 1856; be- of the authorized record of the proceed-

came editor of the Pennsylvania Magazine ings of the Congress of the United States;

of History and Biography. He is the au- has regularly been kept and published

thor of Friedensthal and Its Stockaded from the first meeting of the Continental

Mill; A Moravian Chronicle, 1749-67 ; Congress at Philadelphia, September, 1774.

Bethlehem During the Revolution; The Joutel, HENRY, explorer ; born in Rouen,

Military Hospitals at Bethlehem and Li- France, in the seventeenth century; took

titz During the Revolution; Occupation of part in La Salle s expedition; built Fort

New York by the British, 1775-83, etc. St. Louis, and was made its commander;

Jordan, THOMAS, military officer ; born escaped assassination at the time La Salle

in Luray, Va., Sept. 30, 1819; graduated was killed; and later returned to France

at West Point in 1840; took part in the by way of the Great Lakes and the St.

Seminole War, and in the war with Lawrence River. He wrote a History of

Mexico; he entered the Confederate army the La Salle Expedition, which was pub-

in 1861 as lieutenant - colonel, but was lished in Paris in 1713.

made adjutant - general ; served on the Juarez, BENITO PABLO, statesman ; born

staff of General Beauregard, and on that in San Pablo Guelatao, Oaxaca, Mexico,

of General Bragg. In 1869 he joined the March 21, 1806; was descended from the

Cuban insurgents, but resigned the next ancient Indian race. Well educated, he

year and returned to the United States. gained distinction as a lawyer. He was a

Josselyn, JOHN, author ; born in Eng- legislator, and was governor of his na-

land early in the seventeenth century; tive state from 1848 to 1852. Banished

travelled in America in 1638-39 and 1663- by Santa Ana in 1853, he lived in New

71. He is the author of New England s Orleans until 1855, when he returned, and

Rarities Discovered; An Account of Two became minister of justice. Experiencing

Voyages to Neiv England, etc. the vicissitudes of public life in that

Jouett, JAMES EDWARD, naval officer; country, he was elected President of
born in Lexington, Ky., Feb. 27, 1828. He Mexico in June, 1861. Then came the
entered the navy as midshipman in 1841; French usurpation and the short-lived
fought in the war with Mexico, and empire of MAXIMILIAN (q. v.). He de-
graduated at the United States Naval feated the imperial forces in 1867 and
Academy in 1847. He went with the ex- caused the Emperor to be shot. In Oc-
pedition to Paraguay and served in the tober Juarez was re-elected President, and
Berriby war. Later he was promoted for five years Mexico was distracted by
passed midshipman and in 1855 became revolutions. Peace was restored in 1872,
master and lieutenant. In 1861 he de- but Juarez, then President, worn down
stroyed the Confederate war vessel Royal with perplexities, died of apoplexy in the
Yacht, in Galveston Harbor, while in city of Mexico, July 18 of that year,
command of the frigate Santee. For this Judaism. See JEWS.

195

JUDD JUDICIARY OF THE UNITED STATES

Judd, ALBERT FRANCIS, jurist; born in
the Hawaiian Islands, Jan. 7, 1838; grad
uated at Yale University in 1862; elect
ed to the Hawaiian legislature in 1868;
appointed attorney - general of the Ha
waiian Islands in 1873; a justice of the
Supreme Court of the islands in 1874;
chief-justice in 1881. He died in Hono
lulu, May 20, 1900.

Judd, DAVID WRIGHT, journalist; born
in Lockport, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1838; gradu
ated at Williams College in 1860; later
became proprietor and editor of Hearth
and Home. He served in the National
army during a part of the Civil War.

ate was busy in organizing a judiciary. A
bill drafted by Oliver Ellsworth, of Con
necticut, which embodied a f plan of a judi
ciary, was, after several amendments, adopt
ed by both Houses and became a law.
It provided for a Supreme Court, having
one chief - justice and five associate jus
tices, who were to hold two sessions annu
ally at the seat of the national capital.
Circuit and district courts were also es
tablished, which had jurisdiction over
certain specified cases. Each State was
made a district, as were also the Terri
tories of Kentucky and Maine. The dis
tricts, excepting Kentucky and Maine,
were grouped together into three circuits.
An appeal from these lower courts to the
Supreme Court of the United States was
allowed, as to points of law,
in all civil cases where the

SUPREME COURT IN SKSSION, WASHINGTON.

He published Two Tears
Campaigning in Virginia and
Maryland, and edited The
Life and Writings of Frank
Forester, and The Education-
nl Cyclopaedia. He died in
New York City, Feb. 6, 1888.

Judd, SYLVESTER, author;
born in Westhampton, Mass., April 23,

1789; was a member of the State legislat- matter in dispute amounted to $2,000.
ure in 1817, and owner of the Hampshire A marshal for each was to be appointed
Gazette in 1822-34. He is the author of by the President, having the general pow-
History of Hadley, and Thomas Judd and ers of a sheriff; and a district attorney,
His Descendants. He died in Northamp- to act for the United States in all cases
ton, Mass., April 18, 1860. in which the national government might

Judiciary, FIRST NATIONAL. While be interested, was also appointed. John
the House of Representatives of the first Jay was made the first chief-justice of
Congress was employed (1789) in provid- the United States.

Judiciary of the United States. Su

ing means for a sufficient revenue, the Sen-

196

JUDICIARY OF THE UNITED STATES JUDSON

preme Court. Under the confederation lished and organized by Congress, consists

there was no national judicial department, of one chief-justice and four associate

The Supreme Court was organized in 1789, judges; salary, $6,000 per annum. Sn-

with one chief-justice and five associate preme Court of the District of Columbia,

judges. There are now eight associate established and organized by Congress,

justices. It holds one term annually at consists of one chief-justice and four as-

the seat of government, commencing on sociate judges; salary of chief-justice,

the second Monday in October. The United $6,500 ; associate judges, $6.000. Terri-

States are divided for judicial purposes torial courts, established and organized

into nine circuits, and these circuits are by Congress. Arizona, one chief-justice

subdivided into two or more districts, and three associate judges; Indian Terri-

The 1st circuit consists of the States tory, one judge; New Mexico, one judge

of Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and four associate judges ; Oklahoma, one

and Rhode Island; 2d, Connecticut, New chief-justice and two associate judges;

York, and Vermont; 3d, Delaware, New salary, $4,000 per annum. When any

Jersey, and Pennsylvania; 4th, Maryland, judge of any court of the United States

North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, resigns his office, after having held his

and West Virginia; 5th, Alabama, Flor- commission as such at least ten years,

ida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and and having reached seventy years of age

Texas; 6th, Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, during his service, he shall receive during

and Tennessee; 7th, Illinois, Indiana, and life the same salary as at the time of

Wisconsin ; 8th, Arkansas, Colorado, Iowa, his resignation. This right is given to

Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, no other class of civil officers under the

North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyo- government of the United States. The

ming; 9th, California, Idaho, Nevada, Ore- Attorney-General appears in the Supreme

gon, Montana, and Washington. Each Court of the United States in behalf of

judge of the Supreme Court is allotted a the government. There is also a United

circuit, and is required to attend that States district attorney appointed for each

circuit at least one term every two years, district in which circuit and district courts

Salary of chief - justice, $13,000; each are held, to look after the interest of the

justice, $12,500 a year. Circuit courts, government in all cases that concern it.

established and organized by Congress. Women were admitted to practise in the

Each of the circuits has allotted to it one Supreme Court of the United States by

of the judges of the Supreme Court, and act of Congress, approved Feb. 15, 1879.
has a local judge appointed, termed cir- In addition to the above, there are

cuit judge. There are twenty-seven circuit special courts created from time to time

judges, all excepting two circuits hav- for specific purposes, as the court on

ing three judges each; salary, $7,000 a Spanish War claims.

year. Circuit court of appeals, establish- In 1900 Congress established a district

ed and organized by Congress, 1891, for court for Alaska, with judges residing

the relief of the Supreme Court. The jus- in Juneau, St. Michael s, and Eagle City,

tice of the Supreme Court presiding over and also provided a civil code for the

the circuit, the circuit judge, and a judge Territory. In cases where constitutional

appointed for this special court constitute questions are involved, appeals and writs

it; salary, $7,000 a year. District courts, of error from this court may be taken

established and organized by Congress. Of to the United States Supreme Court;

these districts there are eighty-five, each where other questions are involved they

presided over by a judge, termed district may be taken to the United States Cir-

judge; salary, $6,000 a year. Court of cuit Court of the 9th District,
claims, established and organized by Con- For a full list of the judges of the Su-

gress, 1855, to hear and determine claims preme Court, Circuit Courts, District

against the United States. It consists of Courts, Court of Claims, etc., see FEDERAL

one chief-justice and four associate judges. GOVERNMENT.

The solicitor-general appears before this Judson, ADONIRAM, missionary; born

court; salary of judges, $6,000 per an- in Maiden, Mass., Aug. 9, 1788; grad-

num. Court of private land claims, estab- uated at Brown University in 1807,

197

JUDSON JULIE N

and Andover Theological Seminary in The Mississippi Valley (in the United

1810. He was ordained on Feb. 6, 1812, States of America,, by Shaler) ; and The

and with his wife, Anne Hasseltine, sailed Young American, etc.

for Calcutta on the 19th. In Rangoon, Julian, GEORGE WASHINGTON, legia-

Burma, he toiled nearly forty years, lator: born near Centreville, Ind., May

gathering around him thousands of con- 5, 1817. He was self-educated; and was

verts and many assistants, Americans and admitted to the bar in 1840. After prac-

Burmese. He translated the Bible into tising for five years, he was elected to

the Burmese language, and had nearly the legislature, and in 1849-51 repre-

completed a dictionary of that language sented the Free-soil party in Congress,

at the time of his death. His wife dying and in 1852 was the candidate for tin-

in 1826, he married (April, 1834) the Vice-Presidency on the Free-soil ticket,

widow of a missionary (Mrs. Sarah H. He also received five votes for Vice-Presi-

lioardman), who died in September, 1845. dent in the electoral college of 1872. He

While on a visit to the United States in was a strong opponent of slavery, and

1846, he married Miss Emily Chubbuck a stanch supporter of the homestead

("Fanny Forester," the poet), who ac- policy. He was again a member of Con-

companied him back to Burma. His first gress in 1861-71. During the last period

wife, Anne Hasseltine, was the first Amer- he was a member of the committees on

ican woman missionary in the East Indies, conduct of the war, on reconstruction,

He died at sea, April 12, 1850. and on the preparation of articles of im-

Judson, EDWARD, clergyman ; born in peachment against President Johnson.
Maulmain, Burma, Dec. 27, 1844; son of In 1872 he joined the Liberal Republican
Adoniram Judson. He was brought to party. In 1885-89 he was surveyor-gen-
the United States in 1850; studied in eral of New Mexico. His publications
Hamilton and Madison (now Colgate) include Speeches on Political Question*.
universities; graduated at Brown Uni- Political Recollections; Later Speeches;
versity in 1865. In 1867-74 he was Pro- and Life of Joshua H. Giddings. He died
fessor of Latin and Modern Languages in in Irvington, Ind., July 7, 1899.
Madison University; in 1874-75 travelled Julian, ISAAC HOOVER; born in Centre-
in foreign countries; and, returning to the ville, Ind., June 19, 1823; editor and pro-
United States, was pastor of the North prietor of The True Republican at Rich-
Baptist Church in Orange, N. J., till 1881, mond, Ind., and subsequently of the Peo-
when he resigned to take up mission work pie s Era at San Marco, Texas; he is the
in New York. He became pastor of the author of the early history of the White
Berean Baptist Church, and afterwards Water Valley.

built the Judson Memorial on Washington Julien, ALEXIS ANASTAY, geologist;

Square. In 1897 he was appointed in- born in New York, Feb. 13, 1840; grad-

structor in pastoral theology at Colgate uated at Union College in 1859, and

Theological Seminary, and in 1903 was the following year went as chemist to

called to the University of Chicago. He the guano island of Sombrero, where he

has published a Life of Adonira-m Judson. studied geology and natural history.

Judson, HARRY PRATT, educator; born While there he also collected birds and
in Jamestown, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1849; shells and made meteorological observa-
graduated at Williams College in 1870; tions for the Smithsonian Institution. Re
called to the chair of History at the Uni- turning to New York in 1864, he soon
versity of Minnesota in 1885; and was after became assistant in charge of the
made head Professor of Political Science, quantitative laboratory in the newly
and dean of the faculties of Arts, Litera- founded Columbia School of Mines. In
ture, and Science at the University of 1885-97 he had charge of the department
Chicago in 1892. He is the author of of biology in the same institution, and in
History of the Troy Citizens Corps; the latter year became instructor in geol-
Casar s Army; Europe in the Nineteenth ogy. In 1875-78 he was connected with
Century; The Groicth of the American the North Carolina Geological Survey.
Nation; The Higher Education as a Train- He is a fellow of the American Geologi-
ing for Business; The Latin in English; cal Society, the Geological Society of

198

JULIO JUBIES

America, the American Society of Nat- California missions. He founded the fol-

uralists, and other organizations, and lowing missions: San Diego, Cal., July 16,

a past vice-president of the New York 1769; San Carlos, at Monterey, June 3,

Academy of Sciences. 1770; San Antonio, July 14, 1771; San

Julio, E. B. D. FABRINO, artist; born Gabriel, near Los Angeles, Sept. 8, 1771;

on the island of St. Helena in 1843; edu- San Luis Obispo, Sept. 1, 1772; San Fran-

cated in Paris; came to the United States cisco, June 27, 1776; San Juan Capis-

about 1861, and after living in the North trano, Nov. 1, 1776; Santa Clara, Jan.

a number of years settled in New Or- 18, 1777; San Buenaventura, March 31,

leans, where he engaged in portrait-paint- 1782. He died in Monterey, Cal., Aug.

ing. He is principally known through 28, 1784.

his painting, The Last Meeting of Lee Junius, LETTERS OF. During the

and Jackson. He died in Georgia, Sept. quarrel between Great Britain and her

15, 1879. colonies (1765-75), a series of letters ad-
Jumel, ELIZA BOWEN, society leader; dressed to King George III., his ministers,

born at sea in 1769. She married Col. and other distinguished public men in

Peter Croix in 1786, and, after his death, England, were published in the Public

Stephen Jumel, a wealthy merchant in Advertiser, and were generally signed

New York City, in 1801. Upon Jumel s " Junius " or " Philo-Junius." In the first

death she married Aaron Burr in 1830, authorized collection of these letters there

whom she sued for a divorce, which was were forty-four by " Junius " and fifteen

not granted. She died in New York, July by " Philo-Junius." They treated of

16, 1865. public men and public measures of
Juneau, LAURENT SOLOMON, pioneer; that day in a style that produced a pro-
born near Montreal, Canada, Aug. 9, 1793; found impression and interest in the
was the first white settler in Milwaukee, public mind, and excited the hottest in-
where he traded in furs. He was the dignation of those who felt the lash. The
first postmaster and mayor of Milwaukee, style was condensed but lucid; full of
He died in Shawano, Wis., Nov. 14, 1856. studied epigrammatic sarcasm, brilliant
His remains were removed to Milwaukee, metaphor, and fierce personal attack.
Wis., in 1887, and a statue of heroic size The government and those interested in
erected in honor of his memory. the matter tried in vain to ascertain the

Jungman, JOHN GEORGE, clergyman; name of the author. It was evident
born in Hockheimer, Germany, April 19, that he was a man of wealth and refine-
1720; became a lay evangelist to the Ind- ment, and possessing access to minute in-
ians in 1742; ordained a deacon in the formation respecting ministerial measures
Moravian Church in 1770. Jungman was a,nd intrigues. The most eminent legal
one of the earliest pioneers in the terri- advisers of the crown tried in vain to
tory of the Ohio. In 1781 Jungman was get a clew to the secret of his identity;
taken prisoner by the Hurons and con- and the mystery which has ever since
fined in the fort at Detroit. At the close enveloped the name of the author of the
of the war of the Revolution Jungman letters of " Junius " has kept up an in-
continued his missions among the Ind- terest in them, which, because of the re-
ians in Michigan, but, broken in health, moteness of their topics, could not other-
he was obliged to give up his labors in wise have been kept alive. Some after-
1785. He died in Bethlehem, Pa., July wards claimed their authorship, but with-

17, 1808. out a particle of proof in favor of the
Junipero, MIGUEL JOSE SERRA, mission- claim. The names of more than fifty per-

ary; born in the island of Majorca, Nov. sons have been mentioned as the sus-
24, 1713; entered the order of St. Francis pected authors. An array of facts, cir-
in 1729; was sent to Mexico in 1750, where cumstances, and fair inferences has satis-
he was assigned to labor among the Ind- fied the most careful inquirers that Sir
ians of Sierra Gorda. When the Jesuits Philip Francis was "Junius." The let-
were expelled from Lower California in ters were chiefly written between 1769
1767, the Franciscans, under Junipero, and 1772.

were appointed to take charge of all the Juries. Trial by jury was introduced

199

JURIES JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT

into England during the Saxon heptarchy, cases by jury, but not of civil cases. This

six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen caused dissatisfaction, people claiming

being appointed to try causes between that the omission was intended to abolish

Englishmen and Welshmen of property, trial by jury in civil cases, hence the

and made responsible with their whole Seventh Amendment was adopted at an

estates, real and personal, for false ver- early day, securing the rights of trial by

diets. By most authorities the institu- jury in suits at common-law where the

tion is ascribed to Alfred about 88G. In value in controversy exceeds $20. Grand

Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as juries (of not less than twelve or more

a bulwark of the people s liberty. An act than twenty- three persons) decide whether

for trial by jury in civil cases in Scot- sufficient evidence is adduced to put the

land was passed in 1815. The constitu- accused on trial. In the United States,

tion of 1791 established trial by jury in owing to many striking instances of the

France. An imperial decree abolished miscarriage of justice, there has been in

trial by jury throughout the Austrian recent years an influential sentiment in

Empire Jan. 15, 1852. Trial by jury be- favor of having verdicts of juries rendered

gan in Russia Aug. 8, 1866; in Spain, on the majority vote of the jurors.

1889. In Scotland, Guernsey, Jersey, and Justice, DEPARTMENT OF. See CABINET,

France juries decide by a majority ; in PRESIDENT S.

France, since 1831, a majority of two- Justices of the Supreme Court. A

thirds is reqxiired. Under the original complete list of all the justices will be

Constitution of the United States pro- found in the article on the SUPREME

vision is made for the trial of criminal COURT.

200

DE K ALB S MOSUMKNT.

Kalb JOHANN, BABON DE, military offi- trous battle at Sander s Creek, near Cam-
cer born in Hiittendorf, Bavaria, June 29, den, S. C., he was mortally wounded, an.
1721; entered the French military service died three days afterwards, Aug. 19, 1
in 1743, and in 1747 rose to the rank of
brigadier-general under Marshal Broglie,
and obtained the order of military merit
in 1761. The next year he visited the
English-American colonies as a secret
agent of the French government, to ascer
tain their political temper. He was a
brigadier-general in the French army when
(November, 1776) he was engaged by
Franklin and Deane to serve in the Con
tinental army. He accompanied Lafayette
to America in 1777, and was appointed
major-general, Sept. 15, 1777, by the Con
tinental Congress. He served under the
immediate command of Washington until
after the evacuation of Philadelphia, June,
1778; then in New Jersey and Maryland
until April, 1780, when he was sent to as
sist Lincoln, besieged in Charleston. He

arrived too late. De Kalb became chief His body was pierced with eleven wounds,
commander in the South after the fall of It was buried at Camden. A marble mon
ument was erected to his memory in front
of the Presbyterian Church at Camden,
the corner-stone of which was laid by
Lafayette in 1825.

Kanakas. See HAWAII.
Kanawha, the name which was pro
posed for the State consisting of the
western portion of Virginia, which had
refused to ratify the State ordinance of
secession. See WEST VIRGINIA.

Kanawha, BATTLE OF THE GREAT. See
DUN MORE, JOHN MURRAY.

Kane, ELISHA KENT, explorer; born in
Philadelphia, Feb. 20, 1820; was educated
at the universities of Virginia and Penn
sylvania, taking his medical degree in
1843. Ill-health led to his entering the
navy, and he sailed as physician to the
embassy to China in 1843. He travelled
Charleston, but was soon succeeded by extensively in Asia and Europe, traversed
General Gates, when he became that offi- Greece on foot, explored westen
cer s second in command. In the disas- to some extent, was in the war with Mex-

201

OK KAI.B.

KANSAS

ELJSHA KENT RANK.

ico, and in May, 1850, sailed as surgeon
and naturalist under Lieut. Edwin J. De
Haven, in search of Sir John Franklin.
Sir John, an English navigator, had
sailed on a voyage of discovery and ex
ploration with two vessels, in May, 1845.
Years passed by, and no tidings of him or
his companions came.
Expeditions were sent
from England in
search of him. Pub
lic interest in the fate
of Sir John was ex
cited in Europe and
the United States, and
in May, 1850, Henry
Grinnell, a merchant
of New York, fitted
out two ships, the Ad
vance and Rescue, and
placed them in charge
of Lieutenant De Ha
ven, to assist in the
effort. These vessels
returned, after re
markable adventures
in the polar seas, in
the autumn of 1851,
without success. In
connection with the

United States government, Mr. Grinnell
fitted out another expedition for the same
purpose in 1853. Two vessels, under the
command of Dr. Kane, sa-iled from New
York in May. Kane and his party made
valuable discoveries, among others, of an
" open polar sea," long suspected and
sought for by scientific men and navi
gators. But they failed to find Sir John
Franklin. The companies of these two
vessels suffered much, and were finally
compelled to abandon the ships and make
their way in open boats to a Danish set
tlement in Greenland. Thtir long absence
created fears for their safety, and a relief
expedition was sent in search of them.
They returned home in the vessels of the
latter in the autumn of 1855. Gold med
als were awarded Dr. Kane by Congress,
the legislature of New York, and the Royal
Geographical Society of London; but his
own life and those of most of his compan
ions were sacrificed. His health failed, and
he went first to London and then to Ha
vana, Cuba, where he died, Feb. 16, 1857.

THE ADVANCE IN THB ICE.

KANSAS, STATE OF

Kansas, STATE OF, was part of the Lou- repealed the Missouri Compromise act.
isiana purchase in 1803. The Territories This produced great agitation through-
of Kansas and Nebraska were established out the country, and great commotion
in 1854 by act of Congress, which really among the settlers in Kansas. On Jan.

202

KANSAS, STATE OF

29, 1861, Kansas was admitted into
the Union as a State. During the war
Kansas furnished to the National army
more than 20,000 soldiers. It is very rap
idly increasing in population and wealth.
Its population in 1890 was 1,427,096; in
1900, 1,470,495. Much of the State is a
fine grazing country, well supplied with
rivers and watered by numerous creeks.

STATE GOVERNORS.

Name.

Tenn.

1861 to 1862

1862 " 1864

S J Crawford

1864 " 1868

1868 " 1872

1873 " 1875

1876 " 187H

John P St John

1879 " 1883

George W Click

1883 1885

1886 1887

1887 1893

1893 * 1895

E N Merrill

1895 * - 1897

John W Leedy

1897 1899

William E Stanley

1899 " 1903

Willis J. Bailev

1903 " 1905

Edward W Hoch

1905 " 1907

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

STATE SEAL OP KANSAS.

On its eastern border the navigable Mis
souri River presents a waterfront of al
most 150 miles. It has a coal - bear
ing region which occupies the whole of
the eastern part of the State, and em
braces about 17,000 square miles. The
climate of Kansas is beautiful and healthy,
and probably no other Western State
of the Union has so many bright, sun
ny days. The raising of cattle is a
prominent industry. Kansas is a very
attractive State for enterprising set
tlers, and promises to be one of the
finest portions of the Union. In 1903
the aggregate assessed valuation of tax
able property was $388,724,480, the
State tax rate was 6.40 per $1,000; and
the bonded debt (July 1) was $632,000,
all held in State funds. See UNITED
STATES, KANSAS, vol. ix.

TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS.

Name.

No. or Congreaa.

Term.

James H. Lane

37th to 39th

1861 to 1866

Samuel G. Fomeroy
l-.Umund G Ross.......

37th " 43d
39th " 41st

1861 " 1873
1866 " 1871

Alexander Caldwcll

42d

1871 " 1873

Kobert Crozier

43d

1873 " 1874

James 11. Harvey

43d to 44th

1874 " 1877

John J. Ingalls

43d " 51st

1873 " 1891

1 reston B. Plumb

45th " 52d

1877 " 1891

William A. Pefler

52d " 55th

1891 " 1897

Bishop W. Perkins

52d
53d

1892 " 1893
1893

54th to 56th

1895 to 1901

55th " 57th

1897 " 1903

Joseph Ralpb Burton
Chester I Loug

57th "
58th "

1901 "
1903 "

The Kansas-Nebraska Act. The com
promise of 1850 (see OMNIBUS BILL) did
not stop the agitation of the slavery ques
tion. The following resolution was intro
duced in Congress in 1852: "That the
series of acts passed during the first ses
sion of the Thirty-first Congress, known as
compromises, are regarded as a final ad
justment and a permanent settlement of
the questions therein embraced, and should
be maintained and executed as such." In
January, 1854, Senator Stephen A. Doug
las, of Illinois, presented a bill in the
Senate for the erection of two vast Terri
tories in mid-continent, to be called, re
spectively, Kansas and Nebraska.

The following are some of the principal
provisions of this act:

Name.

Andrew H. Reeder. Pa. .

Wilson Shannon, O

John W. Genry. Pa

Robert J. Walker, Miss.

J W. Denver

Samuel Medary

fieorge M. Bebee

Term.

The executive power is vested in a gov
ernor appointed by the President and
Senate.
o *? i A secretary of the Territory, appointed

1855 In5n

1856 " 1857 for five years.

1857 1858 TI^ legislative power to be vested in the

1858 to 1861 governor and a legislative Assembly, con-
I8 fi i sistin?; of a council and a House of Rep-

203

KANSAS, STATE OP

resentatives; the council to consist of one years of age and upward, actual resi-

thirteen members, and the House of dents of the Territory and citizens of the

twenty-six. The latter may be increased, United States, or having declared on oath

but may not exceed thirty-nine. their intention to become citizens, were

The first election of members of the entitled to vote at the first election; the

THE CAPITOL, TOPBKA.

legislature was to be held at such time
and place, and was to be conducted in
such manner, as the governor should pre
scribe. He was also to appoint the in
spectors of election, and to direct the man
ner of making the returns.

All free white male inhabitants, twenty-

qualifications of voters at subsequent
elections to be prescribed by the legisla
tive Assembly.

Bills passed by the legislature were to
be submitted to the governor, but might
be passed against the veto by two-thirda
majorities.

204

KANSAS, STATE OF

The judicial power was to be vested in
a supreme court, district courts, probate
courts, and in justices of the peace. The
supreme court to consist of three judges,
one in each judicial district, and one of
them to be chief-justice. They were to be
appointed by the President and Senate.

The first election of delegates to Con
gress, and the time and places of election,
were subject to the appointment and direc
tion of the governor.

The act also provided that the acts of
Congress for the reclamation of fugitive
slaves should extend to the Territories.
Not the least important was the follow
ing:

" That the Constitution and all the laws
of the United States which are not locally
inapplicable, shall have the same force
and effect within the said Territory as
elsewhere within the United States, ex
cept the eighth section of the act pre-

1820, either protecting, establishing, pro
hibiting, or abolishing slavery."

After long and bitter discussions in
both Houses of Congress, the bill was
passed, and became a law by receiving
the signature of the President, May 31,
1854. From that day the question of
slavery was a subject of discussion and
sectional irritation, until it was abolished
in 1863.

Civil War in Kansas. The Kansas-
Nebraska act left all the Territories of
the United States open to the establish-

KANSAS AVEXUE, TOPKKA, SHOWIXG POST-OFFICE.

paratory to the admission of Missouri ment in them of the social institutions of
into the Union, approved March 6, 1820, every State in the Union, that of slavery
which being inconsistent with the prin- among others. It was a virtual repeal
ciple of non-intervention by Congress of the MISSOURI COMPROMISE (q.v.).
with slavery in the States and Terri- The question immediately arose, Shall the
tories, as recognized by the legislation of domain of the republic be the theatre of
1850, commonly called the compromise nil free or all slave labor, with the corre-
measures, is hereby declared inoperative spending civilization of each condition as
and void ; it being the true intent and a consequence? This question was suc-
meaning of this act, not to legislate ceeded by positive action by the friends of
slavery into any Territory or State, nor each labor system. Those in favor of the
to exclude it therefrom, but to leave the slave system, viewing the willingness of
people thereof perfectly free to form and those in the free-labor States to accede to
regulate their domestic institutions in the wishes of the Southern politicians so
their own way, subject only to the Con- as to secure Southern trade, felt confid
stitution of the United States; Provided, that their supremacy was secure,
that nothing herein contained shall be party sounded the trumpet for battle, and
construed to revive or put in force any the Territory of Kansas was the chosen
law or regulation which may have existed battle-field. The fugitive slave law ha&lt;
prior to the act of the 6th of March, created an intense and wide-spread feel-

205

KANSAS, STATE OE

ing of hostility to slavery in the free-labor
States, and when the advocates of slavery
began to assert their exclusive right to
the government of Kansas, and thus cast
down the gauntlet before their opponents,
the latter gladly took it up. They re
solved to carry on the contest with the
peaceful weapons of the ballot-box. Sud
denly, emigration began to flow in a
steady, copious, and ever-increasing
stream from the free-labor States, espe
cially from New England, into the new
Territory. It soon became evident that the
settlers from those States in Kansas
would soon outnumber and outvote those
from the slave-labor States.

The dominant power in politics was
pro-slavery in its proclivities. Alarmed
by this emigration, it proceeded to organ
ize physical force in Missouri to counter
act the moral force of its opponents if
necessary. Combinations were formed
under various names " Social Band,"
"Friends Society," "Blue Lodge," "The
Sons of the South," etc. A powerful or
ganization under the title of the " Emi
grant Aid Society " had been formed in
Boston under the sanction of the legislat
ure of Massachusetts immediately after
the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill

(May, 1854) ; and the Southern societies
just mentioned were organized to oppose
this " Emigrant Aid Society." At a meet
ing at Westport, Mo., early in July, 1854,
it was resolved that Missourians who
formed the associations represented there
should be ready at all times to assist,
when called upon by pro-slavery citizens
of Kansas, in removing from the Territory
by force every person who should attempt
to settle under the auspices of the Emi
grant Aid Society. Both parties planted
the seeds of their respective systems in
Kansas. They founded towns : those from
the free-labor States founded Lawrence,
Topeka, Boston, Grasshopper Falls, Paw
nee, and one or two others. Those from
the slave-labor States founded Kickapoo,
Doniphan, Atchison, and others on or near
the Missouri River. Immediately after
the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill,
hundreds of Missourians went to Kansas
and selected a tract of land, and put a
mark upon it for the purpose of estab
lishing a sort of pre-emption title to it,
and at a public meeting resolved, " That
we will afford protection to no abolition
ist as a settler of this Territory; that we
recognize the institution of slavery as al
ready existing in this Territory, and ad-

STREET 8CBSE, WICHITA.

206

KANSAS, STATE OF

vise slave-holders to introduce their prop- It made Kansas a free-labor State, and

erty as soon as possible." under this constitution they asked for

The national government appointed A. admission into the Union, as such. The
H. Reeder governor of the new Territory, strife -between freedom and slavery was
He arrived in October, 1854, and took then transferred to the national capital,
measures for the election of a territorial Reeder made a contest for a seat in Con-
legislature. With the close of this elec- gress with the delegate chosen by the
tion (March, 1855), the struggle for su- illegal votes. Meanwhile, elections had
premacy in Kansas between the friends been held (Jan. 17, 1856) in Kansas under
and opponents of the slave system began the legally adopted new State constitu-
in dead earnest. The pro-slavery men tion, and matters seemed very dark for
had an overwhelming majority in the the pro-slavery party in Kansas, when
legislature, for Missourians had gone over President Pierce, in a message to Con-
the border by hundreds and voted. When, gress (Jan. 24, 1856), represented the ac-
in November, 1854, a delegate to Congress tion of the legal voters in the Territory
for Kansas was elected, of nearly 2,900 in framing a State constitution as re-
votes cast, over 1,700 were put in by bellion. All through the ensuing spring
Missourians who had no right there. At violence and bloodshed prevailed in the
the election of the legislature, there were unhappy Territory.

only 1,410 legal votes in the Territory of Seeing the determination of the actual
Kansas; but there were 6,218 votes polled, settlers to maintain their rights, armed
mostly illegal ones by Missourians. Fully men flocked into the Territory from the
1,000 men came from Missouri, armed with slave-labor States and attempted to coerce
deadly weapons, two cannon, tents, and the inhabitants into submission to the
other paraphernalia of war, led by Clai- laws of the illegally chosen legislature,
borne F. Jackson, and encamped around Finally Congress sent thither a com-
the little town of Lawrence, and in like mittee of investigation. The majority re-
manner such intruders controlled every ported, July 1, 1856, that every election
poll in the Territory. Then a reign of had been controlled by citizens from Mis-
terror was begun in "Kansas. All classes souri; that the action of the legal voters
of men carried deadly weapons. The il- of Kansas was valid, and that the State
legally chosen legislature met at a point constitution was the choice of the major-
on the border of Missouri, and proceeded ity of the people. The canvass for a new
to enact barbarous laws for upholding President was now in operation, and so
slavery in the Territory. These Governor absorbed public attention that Kansas had
Reeder vetoed, and they were instantly rest for a while. James Buchanan was
passed over his veto. He was so ob elected by the Democratic party. At the
noxious to the pro-slavery party that, at beginning of his administration the Dred
the request of the latter, ^President Pierce Scott ease greatly intensified the strife
removed him, and sent Wilson Shannon, between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery
of Ohio, to fill his place. men, especially in Kansas. Mr. Buchanan

The actual settlers in Kansas, who were favored the views of the pro-slavery men,
chiefly anti-slavery men, held a convention, and his strong support gave them, in Kan-
Sept. 5, 1855, when they resolved not to sas, renewed courage. Then the opposing
recognize the laws of the illegal legislat- parties were working with energy for the
ure as binding upon them. They refused admission of Kansas as a State, with op-
to vote for a delegate to Congress at an posing ends in view. The pro-slavery
election appointed by the legislature, and party, in convention at Lecompton early
they called a delegate convention at in September, 1857, framed a constitu-
Topeka on Oct. 19. At that convention tion in which was a clause providing that
Governor Reeder was elected delegate to the "rights of property in slaves now in
Congress by the legal votes of the Ter- the Territory shall in no manner be inter-
ritory. On the 23d another convention fered with," and forbade any amendments
of legal voters assembled at Topeka and of the instrument until 1864. It was sub-
framed a State constitution. It was ap- mitted to the votes of the people on Dec.
proved by the legal vote of the Territory. 21, but by the terms of the election law

207

KANSAS, STATE OF

passed by the illegal legislature no one
might vote against that constitution.
The vote was taken, " For the constitu
tion with slavery," or " For the constitu
tion without slavery"; so in either
case a constitution that protected and
perpetuated slavery would be voted for.
Meanwhile, at an election for a territorial
legislature, the friends of free labor suc
ceeded in electing a delegate to Con
gress.

The legally elected legislature ordered
the Lecompton constitution to be sub
mitted to the people for adoption or re
jection. It was rejected by over 10,000
majority. Notwithstanding this strong
popular condemnation of the Lecompton
constitution, President Buchanan sent it
in to Congress (Feb. 2, 1858), wherein
was a large Democratic majority, with a
message in which he recommended its ac
ceptance and ratification. In that mes
sage, referring to the opinion of Chief-
Justice Taney, the President said: " It
has been solemnly adjudged, by the high
est judicial tribunal known to our laws,
that slavery exists in Kansas by virtue of
the Constitution of the United States;
Kansas is, therefore, at this moment, as
much a slave State as Georgia or South
Carolina." The constitution was ac
cepted by the Senate by a vote of 32
against 25, but in the House a substitute
was adopted, which provided for the re-
submission of the Lecompton constitution.
It was done, and that instrument was
again rejected by 10,000 majority, Aug.
2, 1858. A convention at Wyandotte
adopted a new constitution, which was
framed by the opponents of slavery. This
was accepted, Oct. 4, 1859, by a vote of
10,421 against 5,530, under which, Jan.
21, 1861, Kansas was admitted into the
Union as a free-labor State.

During the political excitement in Kan
sas there was actual civil war, and some
blood was shed. Early in April, 1856,
armed men from Southern States, under
Colonel Buford, arrived in Kansas. The
United States marshal there took Bu-
ford s men into the pay of the govern
ment, and armed them with government
muskets. Lawrence was again besieged
(May 5), and on the 21st the inhabi
tants, under a promise of safety to per-
eons and property, were induced to give

up their arms to the sheriff. The in
vaders immediately entered the town,
blew up and burned the hotel, destroyed
two printing-offices, and plundered stores
and houses. The free-labor party were
furnished with arms from the free-labor
States. Collisions occurred, and on May
26 a fight took place at Ossawatomie, in
which the anti-slavery men were led by
JOHN BROWN ( q. v . ) , where five men
were killed. There was another skirmish
at Black Jack (June 2), which resulted
in the capture of Captain Pots and thirty
of his men. Emigrants from the free-
labor States, on their way through Mis
souri, were turned back by armed parties.
On Aug. 14, anti - slavery men captured
a fort near Lecompton, occupied by Colo
nel Titus with a party of pro - slavery
men, and made prisoners the commander
and twenty of his men. On Aug. 25
the actingrgovernor (Woodin) declared
the Territory in a state of rebellion. He
and David R. Atchison, late United
States Senator from Missouri, gathered a
considerable force, and, on Aug. 29, a
detachment sent by the latter attacked
Ossawatomie, which was defended by a
small band under John Brown. The lat
ter was defeated, with the loss of two
killed, five wounded, and seven made
prisoners. The assailants lost five killed,
and thirty buildings were burned. At
the annual election at Leavenworth, a
party from Missouri killed and wounded
several of the anti-slavery men, burned
their houses, and forced about 150 to em
bark for St. Louis. John W. Geary, who
had been appointed governor, arrived in
Kansas early in September, and ordered
all armed men to lay down their weap
ons ; but Missouri men, in number about
2,000, and forming three regiments of
artillery, marched to attack Lawrence.
Geary, with United States troops, prevail
ed upon them to desist, and near the close
of the year (1856) he was enabled to re
port that peace and order prevailed in
Kansas.

The Author on His Bill. The follow
ing is the substance of the speech of
Senator Stephen A. Douglas on the Kan
sas-Nebraska bill, delivered in the Sen
ate on March 3, 1854:

208

The principle which we propose to

KANSAS, STATE OP

carry into effect by the bill is this: originally framed by the territorial corn-
That Congress shall neither legislate mittee. On the first trial, the Senate re-
slavery into any Territories or State, fused to strike it out, but subsequently did
nor out of the same; but the people shall so, after full debate, in order to establish
be left free to regulate their domes- that principle as the rule of action in ter-
tic concerns in their own way, subject ritorial organizations. . . . But my ac-
only to the Constitution of the United cusers attempt to raise up a false issue,
States. and thereby divert public attention from

In order to carry this principle into the real one, by the cry that the Missouri
practical operation, it becomes necessary Compromise is to be repealed or violated
to remove whatever legal obstructions by the passage of this bill. Well, if the
might be found in the way of its free ex- eighth section of the Missouri act, which
ercise. It is only for the purpose of carry- attempted to fix the destinies of future
ing out this great fundamental principle generations in those Territories for all time
of self-government that the bill renders to come, in utter disregard of the rights
the eighth section of the Missouri act in- and wishes of the people when they shall
operative and void. be received into the Union as States, be

Now, let me ask, will these Senators inconsistent with the great principles of
who have arraigned me, or any one of self-government and the Constitution of
them, have the assurance to rise in his the United States, it ought to be abrogated,
place and declare that this great principle The legislation of 1850 abrogated the Mis-
was never thought of or advocated as ap- souri compromise, so far as the country
plicable to territorial bills, in 1850; that embraced within the limits of Utah and
from that session until the present, no- New Mexico was covered by the slavery re-
body ever thought of incorporating this striction. It is true that those acts did
principle in all new territorial organiza- not in terms and by name repeal the act
tions; that the committee on Territories of 1820, as originally adopted, or as ex-
did not recommend it in their report; and tended by the resolutions annexing Texas
that it required the amendment of the in 1845, any more than the report of the
Senator from Kentucky to bring us up to committee on Territories proposed to re-
that point? Will any one of my accusers peal the same acts this session. But the
dare to make the issue, and let it be tried acts of 1850 did authorize the people of
by the record ? I will begin with the com- those Territories to exercise " all right-
promises of 1850. Any Senator who will ful powers of legislation consistent with
take the trouble to examine our journals, the Constitution," not excepting the ques-
will find that on March 25 of that year I tion of slavery; and did provide that,
reported from the committee on Territories when those Territories should be admitted
two bills including the following measures: into the Union, they should be received
the admission of California, a territorial with or without slavery as the people
government for New Mexico, and the ad- thereof might determine at the date of
justment of the Texas boundary. These their admission. These provisions were in
bills proposed to leave the people of Utah direct conflict with a clause in the former
and New Mexico free to decide the slavery enactment, declaring that slavery should
question for themselves, in the precise Ian- be forever prohibited in any portion of said
guage of the Nebraska bill now under dis- Territories, and hence rendered such clause
cussion. A few weeks afterwards the com- inoperative and void to the extent of such
mittee of thirteen took these two bills and conflict. This was an inevitable conse-
put a wafer between them, and reported quence, resulting from the provisions in
them back to the Senate as one bill with those acts, which gave the people the right
some slight amendments. One of these to decide the slavery question for them-
amendments was that the territorial legis- selves, in conformity with the Constitu-
latures should not legislate upon the sub- tion. It was not necessary to go further
ject of African slavery. I objected to and declare that certain previous enact-
that provision on the ground that it sub- ments, which were incompatible with the
verted the great principle of self-gov- exercise of the powers conferred in
ernment upon which the bill had been the bills, are hereby repealed. The
v. o 209

KANSAS, STATE OF

very act of granting those powers March, 1820, to authorize the people of
and rights has the legal effect of re- Missouri to form a constitution and a
moving all obstructions to the exercise State government, preparatory to the ad-
of them by the people, as prescribed mission of such State into the Union. The
in those territorial bills. Following first section provided that slavery should
that example, the committee on Terri- be " forever prohibited " in all the terri
tories did not consider it necessary to tory which had been acquired from France
declare the eighth section of the Missouri north of 36 30 , and not included within
act repealed. We were content to or- the limits of the State of Missouri. There
ganize Nebraska in the precise language is nothing in the terms of the law that
of the Utah and New Mexico bills. Our purports to be a compact, or indicates
object was to leave the people entirely free that it was anything more than an ordi-
to form and regulate their domestic insti- nary act of legislation. To prove that it
tutions and internal concerns in their own was more than it purports to be on its
way, under the Constitution; and we face, gentlemen must produce other evi-
deemed it wise to accomplish that object dence, and prove that there was such an
in the exact terms in which the same thing understanding as to create a moral obli-
had been done in Utah and New Mexico gation in the nature of a compact. Have
by the acts of 1850. This was the princi- they shown it?

pie upon which the committee voted; and Now, if this was a compact, let us
our bill was supposed, and is now believed, see how it was entered into. The bill
to have been in accordance with it. When originated in the House of Representa-
doubts were raised whether the bill did tives, and passed that body without a
fully carry out the principle laid down in Southern vote in its favor. It is proper
the report, amendments were made from to remark, however, that it did not at
time to time, in order to avoid all mis- that time contain the eighth section, pro-
construction, and make the true intent of hibiting slavery in the Territories; but,
the act more explicit. The last of these in lieu of it, contained a provision pro-
amendments was adopted yesterday, on hibiting slavery in the proposed State of
the motion of the distinguished Senator Missouri. In the Senate, the clause pro-
from North Carolina (Mr. Badger), in hibiting slavery in the State was stricken
regard to the revival of any laws or regu- out, and the eighth section added to the
lations which may have existed prior to end of the bill, by the terms of which
1820. This amendment was not intended slavery was to be forever prohibited in
to change the legal effect of the bill. Its the territory not embraced in the State
object was to repel the slander which had of Missouri north or 36 30 . The vote
been propagated by the enemies of the on adding this section stood, in the Sen-
measure in the North that the Southern ate, 34 in the affirmative, and 10 in the
supporters of the bill desired to legislate negative. Of the Northern Senators, 20
slavery into these Territories. The South voted for it, and 2 against it. On the
denies the right of Congress either to question of ordering the bill to a third
legislate slavery into any Territory or reading, as amended, which was the test
State, or out of any Territory or State, vote on its passage, the vote stood 24
Non-intervention by Congress with slavery yeas and 20 nays. Of the Northern Sen-
in the States or Territories is the doctrine alors, 4 only voted in the affirmative, and
of the bill, and all the amendments which 18 in the negative. Thus it will be seen
have been agreed to have been made with that if it was intended to be a compact,
the view of removing all doubt and cavil the North never agreed to it. The North-
as to the true meaning and object of the ern Senators voted to insert the prohi-
measure. . . . bition of slavery in the Territories; and
Well, sir, what is this Missouri Compro- then, in the proportion of more than four
mise, of which we have heard so much of to one, voted against the passage of the
late? It has been read so often that it ia bill. The North, therefore, never signed
not necessary to occupy the time of the the compact, never consented to it, never
Senate in reading it again. It was an agreed to be bound by it. This fact be-
act of Congress, passed on the 6th of comes very important in vindicating the

210

KANSAS, STATE OF

character of the North for repudiating tories, Missouri was to be admitted into
this alleged compromise a few months the Union, in conformity with the act
afterwards. The act was approved and of 1820, that compact was repudiated by
became a law on the 6th of March, 1820. the North, and rescinded by the joint
In the summer of that year, the people action of the two parties within twelve
of Missouri formed a constitution and months from its date. Missouri was
State government preparatory to admis- never admitted under the act of the
sion into the Union, in conformity with 6th of March, 1820. She was refused
the act. At the next session of Congress, admission under that act. She was voted
the Senate passed a joint resolution de- out of the Union by Northern votes, not-
claring Missouri to be one of the States withstanding the stipulation that she
of the Union, on an equal footing with should be received; and, in consequence
the original States. This resolution was of these facts, a new compromise was
sent to the House of Representatives, rendered necessary, by the terms of which
where it was rejected by Northern votes, Missouri was to be admitted into the
and thus Missouri was voted out of the Union conditionally admitted on a con-
Union, instead of being received into the dition not embraced in the act of 1820,
Union under the act of the 6th of March, and in addition to a full compliance
1820, now known as the Missouri Com- with all the provisions of said act. If,
promise. Now, sir, what becomes of our then, the act of 1820, by the eighth sec-
plighted faith, if the act of the 6th of tion of which slavery was prohibited in
March, 1820, was a solemn compact, as Missouri, was a compact, it is clear to
we are now told? They have all rung the comprehension of every fair-minded
the changes upon it, that it was a sacred man that the refusal of the North to
and irrevocable compact, binding in admit Missouri, in compliance with its
honor, in conscience, and morals, which stipulations, and without further condi-
could not be violated or repudiated with- tions, imposes upon us a high moral obli-
out perfidy and dishonor! . . . Sir, gation to remove the prohibition of
if this was a compact, what must be slavery in the Territories, since it has
thought of those who violated it almost been shown to have been procured upon
immediately after it was formed? I say a condition never performed. . . .
it is a calumny upon the North to say The Declaration of Independence had
that it was a compact. I should feel a its origin in the violation of that great
flush of shame upon my cheek, as a fundamental principle which secured to
Northern man, if I were to say that it the colonies the right to regulate their
was a compact, and that the section of own domestic affairs in their own way;
the country to which I belong received and the Revolution resulted in the tri-
the consideration and then repudiated umph of that principle and the recogni-
the obligation in eleven months after it tion of the right asserted by it. Abo-
was entered into. I deny that it was a litionism proposes to destroy the right
compact, in any sense of the term. But and extinguish the principle for which
if it was, the record proves that faith our forefathers waged a seven years
was not observed; that the contract was bloody war, and xipon which our whole
never carried into effect; that after the system of free government is founded.
North had procured the passage of the They not only deny the application of this
act prohibiting slavery in the Territories, principle to the Territories, but insist
with a majority in the House large upon fastening the prohibition upon the
enough to prevent its repeal, Missouri abolitionists; the doctrine of the oppo-
was refused admission into the Union as nents of the Nebraska and Kansas bill,
a slave-holding State, in conformity with and the advocates of the Missouri restric-
the act of March 6, 1820. If the propo- tion demands congressional interference
sition be correct, as contended for by the with slavery not only in the Territories,
opponents of this bill that there was a but in all the new States to be formed
solemn compact between the North and therefrom. It is the same doctrine, when
the South that, in the consideration of applied to the Territories and new States
the prohibition of slavery in the Terri- of this Union, which the British govern-

211

KANSAS, STATE OF

nient attempted to enforce by the sword until the swelling tide of emigration
upon the American colonies. It is this should burst through and accomplish by
fundamental principle of self-government violence what it is the part of wisdom and
which constitutes the distinguishing feat- statesmanship to direct and regulate by
ure of the Nebraska bill. The opponents law. How long could you have postponed
of the principle are consistent in oppos- action with safety? How long could you
ing the bill. I do not blame them for maintain that Indian barrier and restrain
their opposition. I only ask them to meet the onward march of civilization, Chris-
the issue fairly and openly by acknowl- tianity, and free government by a bar-
edging that they are opposed to the prin- barian wall? Do you suppose that you
ciple which it is the object of the bill to could keep that vast country a howling
carry into operation. It seems that there wilderness in all times to come, roamed
is no power on earth, no intellectual over by hostile savages, cutting off all
power, no mechanical power, that can safe communication between our Atlantic
bring them to a fair discussion of the and Pacific possessions? I tell you that
true issue. If they hope to delude the the time for action has come and cannot
people and escape detection for any con- be postponed. It is a case in which the
siderable length of time under the catch- "let-alone" policy would precipitate a
words, "Missouri Compromise" and crisis which must inevitably result in vio-
" faith of compacts," they will find that lence, anarchy, and strife,
the people of this country have more pene- You cannot fix bounds to the onward
tration and intelligence than they have inarch of this great and growing country,
given them credit for. You cannot fetter the limbs of the young

Mr. President, there is an important giant. He will burst all your chains. He
fact connected with this slavery regula- will expand, and grow, and increase, and
tion which should never be lost sight of. extend civilization, Christianity, and lib-
It has always arisen from one and the era! principles. Then, sir, if you cannot
same cause. Whenever that cause has check the growth of the country in that
been removed, the agitation has ceased; direction, is it not the part of wisdom to
and whenever the cause has been renewed, look the danger in the face, and provide
the agitation has sprung into existence, for an event which you cannot avoid ? I tell
That cause is, and ever has been, the at- you, sir, you must provide for lines of
tempt on the part of Congress to interfere continuous settlement from the Mississippi
with the question of slavery in the Terri- Valley to the Pacific Ocean. And in mak-
tories and new States formed therefrom, ing this provision, you must decide upon
Is it not wise, then, to confine our action what principles the Territories shall be
within the sphere of our legitimate duties organized ; in other words, whether the
and leave this vexed question to take care people shall be allowed to regulate their
of itself in each State and Territory, ac- domestic institutions in their own way,
cording to the wishes of the people thereof, according to the provisions of this bill, or
in conformity to the forms and in sub- whether the opposite doctrine of congres-
jection to the provisions of the Constitu- sional interference is to prevail. Post-
tion? pone it, if you will; but whenever you do

The opponents of the bill tell us that act, this question must be met and de-
agitation is no part of their policy; that cided. . . .

their great desire is peace and harmony; There is another reason why I desire to

and they complain bitterly that I should see this principle recognized as a rule of

have disturbed the repose of the country action in all time to come. It will have

by the introduction of this measure. Let the effect to destroy all sectional parties

me ask these professed friends of peace, and sectional agitations. If, in the lan-

and avowed enemies of agitation, how the guage of the report of the committee, you

issue could have been avoided? They tell withdraw the slavery question from the

me that I should have let the questioTi halls of Congress and the political arena,

alone; that is, that I should have left and commit it to the arbitrament of those

Nebraska unorganized, the people unpro- who are immediately interested in and

tected, and the Indian barrier in existence alone responsible for its consequences,

212

KANSAS, STATE OF

there is nothing left out of which sectional The Crime Against Kansas. On May

parties can be organized. It never was 19-20, 1856, Charles Simmer delivered the

done, and never can be done, on the bank, following speech in the United States Sen-
tariff, distribution, or any party issue ate on what he declared to be a crime

which has existed or may exist, after this against Kansas:
slavery question is drawn from politics.

On every other political question these Mr. President, you are now called to
have always supporters and opponents in redress a great transgression. Seldom in
every portion of the Union in each State, the history of nations has such a question
county, village, and neighborhood resid- been presented. Tariffs, army bills, navy
ing together in harmony and good-fellow- bills, land bills, are important, and justly
ship, and combating each other s opinions occupy your care; but these all belong
and correcting each other s errors in a to the course of ordinary legislation. As
spirit of kindness and friendship. These means and instruments only, they are nee-
differences of opinion between neighbors essarily subordinate to the conservation
and friends, and the discussions that grow of government itself. Grant them or deny
out of them, and the sympathy which each them, in greater or less degree, and you
feels with the advocates of his own opin- will inflict no shock. The machinery of
ions in every portion of this widespread government will continue to move. The
republic, add an overwhelming and irre- state will not cease to exist. Far other-
sistible moral weight to the strength of wise is it with the eminent question now
the confederacy. Affection for the Union before you, involving, as it does, liberty
can never be alienated or diminished by in a broad territory, and also involving
any other party issues than those which the peace of the whole country, with our
are joined upon sectional or geographical good name in history forevermore.
lines. When the people of the North shall Take down your map, sir, and you will
be rallied under one banner, and the whole find that the Territory of Kansas, more
South marshalled under another banner, than any other region, occupies the mid-
and each section excited to frenzy and die spot of North America, equally dis-
madness by hostility to the institutions tant from the Atlantic on the east, and
of the other, then the patriot may well the Pacific on the west; from the frozen
tremble for the perpetuity of the Union, waters of Hudson Bay on the north, and
Withdraw the slavery question from the the tepid Gulf Stream on the south, con-
political arena, and remove it to the States stituting the precise territorial centre of
and Territories, each to decide for itself, the whole vast continent. To such ad-
and such a catastrophe can never happen, vantages of situation, on the very high-
Then you will never be able to tell, by any way between two oceans, are added a
Senator s vote for or against any meas- soil of unsurpassed richness, and a fas-
ure, from what State or section of the cinating, undulating beauty of surface,
Union he comes. with a health-giving climate, calculated to
Why, then, can we not withdraw this nurture a powerful and generous people,
vexed question from politics? Why can worthy to be a central pivot of American
we not adopt the principle of this bill institutions. A few short months only
as a rule of action in all new territorial have passed since this spacious and medi-
organizations ? Why can we not deprive terranean country was open only to the
these agitators of their vocation and ren- savage who ran wild in its woods and
der it impossible for Senators to come prairies, and now it has already drawn
here upon bargains on the slavery ques- to its bosom a population of freemen
tion? I believe that the peace, the har- larger than Athens crowded within her
mony, and perpetuity of the Union require historic gates, when her sons, under
us to go back to "the doctrines of the Miltiades, won liberty for mankind on the
Revolution, to the principles of the Com- field of Marathon; more than Sparta con-
promise of 1850, and leave the people, tained when she ruled Greece, and sent
under the Constitution, to do as they may forth her devoted children, quickened by^a
see proper in respect to their own in- mother s benediction, to return with their
ternal affairs. shields, or on them; more than Rome

213

KANSAS, STATE OF

gathered on her seven hills, when, under of popular institutions, more sacred than

her kings, she commenced that sovereign any heathen altar, have been desecrated;

sway, which afterwards embraced the where the ballot-box, more precious than

whole earth ; more than London held when, any work, in ivory or marble, from the

on the fields of Crecy and Agincourt, the cunning hand of art, has been plundered;

English banner was carried victoriously and where the cry, " I am an American

over the chivalrous hosts of France. citizen," has been interposed in vain

Against this Territory, thus fortunate against outrage of every kind, even upon

in position and population, a crime has life itself. Are you against sacrilege?

been committed, which is without example I present it for your execration. Are

in the records of the past. Not in plun- you against robbery? I hold it up to

dered provinces or in the cruelties of self- your scorn. Are you for the protection of

ish governors will you find its parallel; American citizens? I show you how their

and yet there is an ancient instance, dearest rights have been cloven down,

which may show at least the path of jus- while a tyrannical usurpation has sought

tice. In the terrible impeachment by to install itself on their very necks !
which the great Roman orator has blasted But the wickedness which I now begin

through all time the name of Verres, to expose is immeasurably aggravated by

amid charges of robbery and sacrilege, the motive which prompted it. Not in

the enormity which most aroused the any common lust for power did this un-

indignant voice of his accuser, and which common tragedy have its origin. It is

still stands forth with strongest distinct- the rape of a virgin Territory, compelling

ness, arresting the sympathetic indigna- it to the hateful embrace of slavery; and

tion of all who read the story, is that it may be clearly traced to a depraved

away in Sicily he had scourged a citi- longing for a new slave State, the hide-

zen of Rome that the cry, " I am a ous offspring of such a crime, in the hope

Roman citizen," had been interposed in of adding to the power of slavery in the

vain against the lash of the tyrant gov- national government. Yes, sir; when the

ernor. Other charges were that he had whole world alike, Christian and Turk,

carried away productions of art, and that is rising up to condemn this wrong, and

he had violated the sacred shrines. It to make it a hissing to the nations, here

was in the presence of the Roman senate in our republic, force ay, sir, FORCE

that this arraignment proceeded; in a has been openly employed in compelling

temple of the Forum; amidst crowds Kansas to this pollution, and all for the

such as no orator had ever before drawn sake of political power. There is the

together thronging the porticoes and simple fact, which you will in vain at-

colonnades, even clinging to the house- tempt to deny, but which in itself pre-

tops and neighboring slopes and under sents an essential wickedness that makes

the anxious gaze of witnesses summoned other public crimes seem like public

from the scene of crime. But an audi- virtues.

ence grander far of higher dignity of But this enormity, vast beyond corn-
more various people, and of wider intelli- parison, swells to dimensions of wicked-
gence the countless multitude of sue- ness which the imagination toils in vain
ceeding generations, in every land, where to grasp, when it is understood that for
eloquence has been studied, or where the this purpose are hazarded the horrors
Roman name has been recognized, has of intestine feud not only in this distant
listened to the accusation, and throbbed Territory, but everywhere throughout the
with condemnation of the criminal. Sir, country. Already the muster has begun,
speaking in an age of light, and a land The strife is no longer local, but na-
of constitutional liberty, where the safe- tional. Even now, while I speak, portents
guards of elections are justly placed hang on all the arches of the horizon
among the highest triumphs of civiliza- threatening to darken the broad land,
tion, I fearlessly assert that the wrongs which already yawns with the mutterings
of much-abused Sicily, thus memorable of civil war. The fury of the propagan-
in history, were small by the side of the dists of slavery, and the calm determina-
wrongs of Kansas, where the very shrines tion of their opponents, are now diffused

214

KANSAS, STATE OF

from the distant territory over widespread ings I now arraign derive their fearful
communities, and the whole country, in all consequences only from this connection,
its extent marshalling hostile divisions, In now opening this great matter, I
and foreshadowing a strife which, unless am not insensible to the austere demands
happily averted by the triumph of free- of the occasion ; but the dependence of the
dom, will become war fratricidal, parri- crime against Kansas upon the slave-
cidal war with an accumulated wicked- power is so peculiar and important that I
ness beyond the wickedness of any war trust to be pardoned while I impress it
in human annals; justly provoking the with an illustration, which to some may
avenging judgment of Providence and the seem trivial. It is related in Northern
avenging pen of history, and constituting mythology that the god of Force, visiting
a strife, in the language of the ancient an enchanted region, was challenged by
writer, more than foreign, more than his royal entertainer to what seemed an
social, more than civil; but something humble feat of strength merely, sir, to
compounded of all these strifes, and in lift a cat from the ground. The god
itself more than war; sed potius commune smiled at the challenge, and calmly plac-
quoddam ex omnibus, et plus quam bellum. ing his hand under the belly of the animal,
Such is the crime which you are to with superhuman strength strove while
judge. But the criminal also must be the back of the feline monster arched far
dragged into day, that you may see and upward, even beyond reach, and one paw
measure the power by which all this wrong actually forsook the earth, until at last
is sustained. From no common source the discomfited divinity desisted; but he
could it proceed. In its perpetration was was little surprised at his defeat when
needed a spirit of vaulting ambition which he learned that this creature, which
would hesitate at nothing; a hardihood seemed to be a cat, and nothing more,
of purpose which was insensible to the was not merely a cat, but that it belonged
judgment of mankind; a madness for to and was a part of the great terrestrial
slavery which would disregard the Consti- serpent, which, in its innumerable folds, en-
tution, the laws, and all the great exam- circled the whole globe. Even so the
pies of our history; also a consciousness creature, whose paws are now fastened
of power such as comes from the habit upon Kansas, whatever it may seem to be,
of power; a combination of energies found constitutes in reality a part of the slave-
only in a hundred arms directed by a hun- power, which, in its loathsome folds, is
dred eyes; a control of public opinion now coiled about the whole land. Thus
through venal pens and a prostituted do I expose the extent of the present con-
press; an ability to subsidize crowds in test, where we encounter not merely local
every vocation of life the politician with resistance, but also the unconquered sus
his local importance, the lawyer with his taining arm behind. But out of the vast-
subtle tongue, and even the authority of ness of the crime attempted, with all its
the judge on the bench ; and a familiar woe and shame, I derive a well-founded as-
use of men in places high and low, so that surance of a commensurate vastness of
none, from the President to the lowest effort against it by the aroused masses of
border postmaster, should decline to be its the country, determined not only to vindi-
tool ; all these things and more were need- cate right against wrong, but to redeem
ed, and they were found in the slave-power the republic from the thraldom of that
of our republic. There, sir, stands the oligarchy which prompts, directs, and
criminal, all unmasked before you heart- concentrates the distant wrong. . . .
less, grasping, and tyrannical with an But, before entering upon the argu-
audacity beyond that of Verres, a subtlety ment, I must say something of a general
beyond that of Machiavelli, a meanness be- character, particularly in response to
yond that of Bacon, and an ability beyond what has fallen from Senators who have
that of Hastings. Justice to Kansas can raised themselves to eminence on this floor
be secured only by the prostration of this in championship of human wrongs. I
influence; for this is the power hehind mean the Senator from South Carolina
greater than any President which succors (Mr. Butler) and the Senator from
and sustains the crime. Nay, the proceed- Elinois (Mr. Douglas), who, though un-

215

KANSAS, STATE OP

like as Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, over the republic, and yet, with a ludicrous
yet, like this couple, sally forth together ignorance of his own position unable to
in the same adventure. I regret much to see himself as others see him or with an
miss the elder Senator from his seat; but effrontery which even hie white head
the cause, against which he has run atilt ought not to protect from rebuke, he ap-
with such activity of animosity, demands plies to those here who resist his section-
that the opportunity of exposing him alism the very epithet which designates
should not be lost; and it is for the cause himself. The men who strive to bring
that I speak. The Senator from South back the government to its original policy,
Carolina has read many books of chivalry, when freedom and not slavery was sec-
and believes himself a chivalrous knight, tional, he arraigns as sectional. This will
with sentiments of honor and courage, not do. It involves too great a perversion
Of course, he has chosen a mistress to of terms. I tell that Senator that it is to
whom he has made his vows, and who, himself, and to the "organization" of
though ugly to others, is always lovely which he is the " committed advocate,"
to him ; though polluted in the sight of the that this epithet belongs. I now fasten it
world, is chaste in his sight I mean the upon them. For myself, I care little for
harlot, Slavery. For her, his tongue is names; but since the question has been
always profuse in words. Let her be im- raised here, I affirm that the Republican
peached in character, or any proposition party of the Union is in no just sense
made to shut her out from the extension sectional, but, more than any other party,
of her wantonness, and no extravagance national; and that it now goes forth to
of manner or hardihood of assertion is dislodge from the high places of the gov-
then too great for this Senator. The ernment the tyrannical sectionalism of
frenzy of Don Quixote, in behalf of his which the Senator from South Carolina
wench, Dulcinea del Toboso, is all sur- is one of the maddest zealots. . . .
passed. The asserted rights of slavery, As the Senator from South Carolina is
which shock equality of all kinds, are the Don Quixote, the Senator from Illinois
cloaked by a fantastic claim of equality. (Mr. Douglas) is the squire of slavery,
If the slave States cannot enjoy what, in its very Sancho Panza, ready to do all its
mockery of the great fathers of the re- humiliating offices. This Senator, in his
public, he misnames equality under the labored address, vindicating his labored
Constitution in other words, the full report piling one mass of elaborate error
power in the national Territories to com- upon another mass constrained himself,
pel fellow-men to unpaid toil, to separate as you will remember, to unfamiliar de-
husband and wife, and to sell little chil- cencies of speech. Of that address I have
dren at the auction block then, sir, the nothing to say at this moment, though be-
chivalric Senator will conduct the State of fore I sit down I shall show something of
South Carolina out of the Union ! Heroic its fallacies. But I go back now to an
knight! Exalted Senator! A second Moses earlier occasion, when, true to his native
come for a second exodus! impulses, he threw into this discussion,
But not content with this poor menace, " for a charm of powerful trouble," per-
which we have been twice told was " meas- sonalities most discreditable to this body,
ured," the Senator, in the unrestrained I will not stop to repel the imputations
chivalry of his nature, has undertaken to which he cast upon myself; but I mention
apply opprobriovis words to those who them to remind you of the " sweltered
differ from him on this floor. He calls venom sleeping not," which, with other
them " sectional and fanatical "; and oppo- poisoned ingredients, he cast into the
sition to the usurpation in Kansas he de- caldron of this debate. Of other things I
nounces as " an uncalculating fanaticism." speak. Standing on this floor, the Sen-
To be sure, these charges lack all grace of ator issued his rescript, requiring sub-
originality, and all sentiment of truth; mission to the usurped power of Kansas;
but the adventurous Senator does not hesi- and this was accompanied by a manner
tate. He is the uncompromising, unblush- all his own such as befits the tyrannical
ing representative on this floor of a fla- threat. Very well. Let the Senator try.
grant sectionalism, which now domineers I tell him now that he cannot force any

216

KANSAS, STATE OF

such submission. The Senator, with the miliar with the life of Franklin; and yet
slave-power at his back, is strong; but he he referred to this household character,
is not strong enough for this purpose. He while acting agent of our fathers in Eng-
is bold. He shrinks from nothing. Like land, as above suspicion; and this was
Danton, he may cry, " L audace! I audace! done that he might give a point to a false
tou jours I audace /" but even his audacity contrast with the agent of Kansas not
cannot compass this work. The Senator knowing that, however they may differ in
copies the British officer who, with boast- genius and fame, in this experience they
ful swagger, said that with the hilt of are alike: that Franklin, when intrusted
his sword he would cram the " stamps " with the petitions of Massachusetts Bay,
down the throats of the American people, was assaulted by a foul-mouthed speaker,
and he will meet with a similar failure, where he could not be heard in defence,
He may convulse this country with a and denounced as a " thief," even as the
civil feud. Like the ancient madman, he agent of Kansas has been assaulted on
may set fire to this temple of constitu- this floor, and denounced as a " forger."
tional liberty, grander than the Ephesian And let not the vanity of the Senator be
dome; but he cannot enforce obedience to inspired by the parallel with the British
that tyrannical usurpation. statesman of that day; for it is only in

The .Senator dreams that he can subdue hostility to freedom that any parallel can
the North. He disclaims the open threat, be recognized.

but his conduct still implies it. How lit- But it is against the people of Kansas
tie that Senator knows himself or the that the sensibilities of the Senator are
strength of the cause which he persecutes ! particularly aroused. Coming, as he an-
He is but a mortal man; against him is nounces, "from a State" ay, sir, from
an immortal principle. With finite power South Carolina he turns with lordly dis-
he wrestles Avith the infinite, and he must gust from this newly formed community,
fall. Against him are stronger battalions which he will not recognize even as a
than any marshalled by mortal arm the " body politic." Pray, sir, by what title
inborn, ineradicable, invincible sentiments does he indulge in this egotism? Has he
of the human heart; against him is nature read the history of " the State " which he
in all her subtle forces; against him is represents? He cannot surely have for-
God. Let him try to subdue these. gotten its shameful imbecility from sla-

With regret, I come again upon the very, confessed throughout the Revolution,
Senator from South Carolina (Mr. But- followed by its more shameful assump-
ler), who, omnipresent in this debate, over- tions for slavery since. He cannot have
flowed with rage at the simple suggestion forgotten its wretched persistence in the
that Kansas had applied for admission as slave-trade as the very apple of its eye,
a State; and, with incoherent phrases, dis- and the condition of its participation in
charged the loose expectoration of his the Union. He cannot have forgotten its
speech, noAV upon her representative, and constitution, which is republican only in
then upon her people. There was no ex- name, confirming power only in the hands
travagance of the ancient parliamentary of the few, and founding the qualifications
debate which he did not repeat; nor was of its legislators on a "settled free-
there any possible deviation from truth hold estate and ten negroes." And yet
which he did not make, with so much of the Senator, to whom that " State " has
passion, I am glad to add, as to save him in part committed the guardianship of its
from the suspicion of intentional aberra- good name, instead of moving, with back-
tion. But the Senator touches nothing ward treading steps, to cover its naked-
which he does not disguise with error, ness, rushes forward in the very ecstasy
sometimes of principle, sometimes of fact, of madness, to expose it by provoking a
He shows an incapacity of accuracy, comparison with Kansas. South Carolina
whether in stating the Constitution, or in is old; Kansas is young. South Carolina
stating the law, whether in the details of counts l&gt;y centuries where Kansas counts
statistics or the diversions of scholarship, by years. But a beneficent example may
He cannot open his mouth, but out there be born in a day; and I venture to say
flies a blunder. Surely he ought to be fa- that, against the two centuries of the older

217

KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL KATIPUNAN LEAGUE

" State," may be already set the two years Frederick the Great and the United States.
of trial, evolving corresponding virtue, in He died in Berlin, Germany, Oct. 27,
the younger community. In the one is 1884.

the long wail of slavery; in the other, Kaskaskia. The Illinois country under
the hymns of freedom. And if we glance the rule of the French contained six dis-
at special achievements, it will be difficult tinct settlements, one of which was Kas-
to find anything in the history of South kaskia, situated upon the Kaskaskia
Carolina which presents so much of heroic River, 5 miles above its mouth, and with-
spirit in an heroic cause as appears in in 2 miles of the Mississppi River. Kas-
that repulse of the Missouri invaders by kaskia, under the French re"gime, was,
the beleaguered town of Lawrence, where comparatively speaking, a large town, con-
even the women gave their effective efforts taining from 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants,
to freedom. . . . When the French were expelled from this

Already in Lawrence alone there are region by the British and Americans, the
newspapers and schools, including a high population rapidly decreased. On July
school, and throughout this infant Terri- 5, 1778, the town was captured by the
tory there is more mature scholarship Americans under GEORGE ROGERS CLARKE
far, in proportion to its inhabitants, than (q. v. ) , who was acting under authoriza-
in all South Carolina. Ah, sir, I tell the tion of Patrick Henry, at that time gov-
Senator that Kansas, welcomed as a free ernor of Virginia.

State, will be a " ministering angel " to Kasson, JOHN ADAM, diplomatist ;
the republic when South Carolina, in the born in Charlotte, Vt., Jan. 11, 1822;
cloak of darkness which she hugs, " lies graduated at the University of Vermont
howling." ... in 1842; and was admitted to the bar in

To overthrow this usurpation is now Massachusetts. Removing to St. Louis,
the special, importunate duty of Congress, Mo., he practised till 1857, when he set-
admitting of no hesitation or postpone- tied in Des Moines, la. In 1861-62 he
ment. To this end it must lift itself from was first assistant Postmaster-General ; in
the cabals of candidates, the machinations 1863-67 was a member of Congress, and
of party, and the low level of vulgar in 1863 and 1867 the United States
strife. It must turn from that slave commissioner to the international postal
oligarchy and refuse to be its tool. Let the Congress. He again served in Congress
power be stretched forth towards this in 1873-77, and in the latter year was ap-
distant Territory, not to bind, but to un- pointed United States minister to Aus-
bind; not for the oppression of the weak, tria, where he remained till 1881, when he
but for the subversion of the tyrannical; was again elected to Congress. In 1884-
not for the prop and maintenance of a re- 85 he was minister to Germany, and in
volting usurpation, but for the confirma- 1893 envoy to the Samoan international
tion of liberty. . . . conference. President McKinley ap-

Kansas-Nebraska Bill. See KANSAS, pointed him United States special com-

Kapp, FRIEDRICH, author; born in missioner plenipotentiary to negotiate rec-
Hamm, Prussia, April 13, 1824; educated iprocity treaties in 1897, under the Ding-
at the University of Heidelberg, and be- ley tariff act; and in 1898 he became a
came a lawyer; came to the United States member of the Anglo-American Joint
in 1850, and practised in New York till High Commission. He resigned the office
1870, when he returned to Germany. His of reciprocity commissioner in March,
publications include The Slave Question 1901, owing to the failure of the Fifty-
in the United States; Life of the Ameri- sixth Congress to act on several commer-
can General Friedrich Wilheltn von Steu- cial treaties he had negotiated.
ben; History of Slavery in the United Katipunan League, a revolutionary
States of America; The Trading in Sol- organization in the Philippine Islands.
diers of the German Princes with Amer- The aim of the society was to expel the
ica; A History of the German Migration Spaniards and the monastic orders from
into America; On Immigration and the the islands. The most inhuman atrocities
Commission of Emigration; Life of the were committed by both the Spanish troops
American General Johann de Kalb; and and the Katipunan insurgents. The re-

218

KAUFMAN KAUTZ

volt was brought to an end by a compact
made Dec. 14, 1897, between Aguinaldo
and thirty-four other leaders, who agreed
to quit the Philippine Islands, not to re
turn until authorized by the Spanish gov
ernment; the Spanish government agree
ing to pay $1,700,000 in instalments,
provided the rebellion was not renewed
within a certain time. A first instalment
of $400,000 was paid, but the promised
reform was not carried out and the
families of the former leaders were per
secuted by the Spanish authorities.

Kaufman, THEODORE, artist; born in
Nelsen, Hanover, Dec. 18, 1814; studied
painting in Munich and Hamburg; came
to the United States in 1855, and served
during the Civil War in the National
army. Later he settled in Boston. His
works include General Sherman near the
Watch/ire; On to Liberty; A Pacific Rail
way Train attacked by Indians; Slaves
seeking Shelter under the Flag of the
Union; Admiral Farragut entering Har
bor through Torpedoes; and Farragut
in the Rigging.

Kautz, ALBERT, naval officer; born in
Georgetown, O., Jan. 29, 1839; entered
the navy as acting midshipman in 1854;
graduated at the Naval Academy in
1859; promoted to passed midshipman,
master, and lieutenant, in 1861; and was
a prisoner of war in North Carolina, and
at Richmond, Va., in June-October, 1861.
In 1862 he was flag-lieutenant to Farra
gut, on the Hartford, and, after the sur
render of New Orleans, he entered the
city, removed the " Lone Star " flag from
the city hall, and raised the stars and
stripes over the custom-house. He was
also on the Hartford when that ship took
part in the engagement with the batteries
of Vicksburg. He was promoted to lieu
tenant-commander in 1865; commander
in 1872; captain in 1885; commodore in
1897; and rear-admiral in 1898; and in
the latter year was placed in command of
the Pacific station. In 1899 Admiral
Kautz figured prominently in settling the
troubles at Samoa. In March of that
year, after he arrived at the scene of the
trouble, on board the Philadelphia, he
spent two days in making inquiries, and
then called a meeting of all the consuls
and the senior officers of the English and
German war-ships in the harbor. After

219

this meeting he issued a proclamation
in which he declared that the so-called
provisional government under Mataafa
was without legal status, according to
the terms of the Berlin treaty. He,
therefore, ordered Mataafa and his fol
lowers to lay down their arms and return
to their homes. The German consul,
however, would not agree to this procla
mation, and issued a counter one, which
was translated into the Samoan language,
and circulated among the supporters of
Mataafa. This proclamation was as fol
lows :

"Notice to all Samoans:

" By the proclamation of the admiral of
the United States, dated March 11, was made
known that the three consuls of the signa
tory powers of the Berlin treaty, as well as
the three commanders of men-of-war, had
been unanimous to no more recognize the
provisional government, composed of Mataafa
and the thirteen chiefs.

" I, therefore, make known to you that this
proclamation is quite false. I, the German
consul-general, continue to recognize the
provisional government of Samoa until I
receive contrary instructions from my govern
ment.

" ROSE, German Consul-General.

"APIA, March 13, 1899."

This notice resulted in hostilities which
lasted for several days. About 175 sailors
were landed from the American and Brit
ish war-ships. Before order was restored,
several American and British officers and
sailors were killed, and others wounded.
The loss of the natives was supposed to
have been very heavy (see SAMOA).
Admiral Kautz was retired in January,
1901.

Kautz, AUGUST VALENTINE, military
officer; born in Ispringen, Germany, Jan.
5, 1828; brother of Admiral Kautz. His
parents came to the United States the
year of his birth, and in 1832 settled in
Ohio. He graduated at the United States
Military Academy in 1852; commis
sioned second lieutenant in the 4th In
fantry in 1853; promoted first lieuten
ant in 1855; captain in the 6th Cavalry
in 1861; colonel 8th Infantry in 1874;
brigadier-general in 1891 ; and was re
tired Jan. 5, 1892. In the volunteer ser
vice he was commissioned colonel of the
2d Ohio Cavalry, Sept. 2, 1862; promoted
to brigadier - general, May 7, 1864; and
brevetted major - general, Oct. 28, follow-

KEAN KEAKNY

ing. During the Civil War he distinguish
ed himself at Montioello, Ky. ; at Peters
burg, Va. ; in the action on the Darby-
town road in Virginia : in the pursuit and
capture of John Morgan, the Confederate
raider; and in the final Richmond cam
paign. After the war he served in Ari
zona, California, and Nebraska. General
Kautz published The Company Clerk;
Customs of Service for Non-commissioned
Officers and Soldiers; and Customs of
Service for Officers. He died in Seattle,
Wash., Sept. 4, 1895.

Kean, JOHN, legislator; born in Ursino,
N. J., Dec. 4, 1852; was educated at Yale
College; graduated at the Law School of
Columbia College in 1875; admitted to
the New Jersey bar in 1877, but never
practised; was a member of Congress in
1883-85 and 1887-89; and a Republican
United States Senator in 1889-1905.

Keaiie, JOHN JOSEPH, clergyman; born
in Ballyshannon, Ireland, Sept. 12, 1839;
came to the United States in 1846; was
educated in St. Charles s College and St.
Mary s Seminary, Baltimore; ordained a
priest of the Roman Catholic Church in
186G, and assigned to St. Patrick s
Church, Washington. He remained there
till Aug. 25, 1878, when he was conse
crated Bishop of Richmond, Va. He was
rector of the Catholic University of Amer
ica, Washington, D. C., in 1886-97, when
he resigned and went to Rome. In 1900
he was appointed Archbishop of Dubuque.

Kearns, THOMAS, legislator; born near
Woodstock, Ontario, Canada, April 11,
18C2; removed to Utah, where he worked
in a mine, later becoming owner of two
mines. He was a delegate to the Republi
can National Convention in 1896 and 1900;
and a Republican United States Senator

in 1901-05.

Kearny, LAWRENCE, naval officer; born

in Perth Amboy, N. J., Nov. 30, 1789;
entered the navy in 1807 ; performed im
portant services on the coast of South
Carolina and adjoining States during the
War of 1812-15; and after the war, in
command of the schooner Enterprise, as
sisted with efficiency in ridding the West
Indies and Gulf of Mexico of pirates.
He also, in the Warren, drove the Greek
pirates from the Levant in 1827, and
broke up their nests. In command of the
East India squadron in 1851, he secured

from the Chinese authorities the recogni
tion of the right of Americans to trade
there, and the same protection and facili
ties to our merchants as wjere about being
granted by treaty to Great Britain. He
died in Perth Amboy, Nov. 29, 1868.

Kearny, PHILIP, military officer; born
in New York City, June 2, 1815; studied
law, but, preferring the military pro
fession, entered the army at twenty-
two years of age as lieutenant of
dragoons. Soon afterwards the govern
ment sent him to Europe to study and
report upon French cavalry tactics.
While there he fought in the French

PHILIP KEARNY.

army in Africa as a volunteer, and re
turned in 1840 with the cross of the Le
gion of Honor. Aide to General Scott
(1841-44), he was made captain in the
United States army, and served on the
staff of Scott in the war with Mexico, re
ceiving great applause. Near the city of
Mexico he lost his left arm in battle.
After serving a campaign on the Pacific
coast against the Indians, he went to Eu
rope, and served on the staff of the French
General Maurier in the Italian War
(1859). He received from the French gov
ernment a second decoration of the Legion
of Honor. He hastened home when the
Civil War broke out; was made brigadier-
general of volunteers just after the bat
tle of Bull Run, and commanded a brigade
of New Jersey troops in Franklin s di
vision, Army of the Potomac. He com-

220

KEABNY

manded a division in Heintzelman s corps ; Washington, from Aug. 25 till his death,

behaved gallantly during the Peninsula near Chantilly, Va., Sept. 1, 1862. He

campaign; was made major-general of had placed his division in preparation for

volunteers in July, 1862; was the first battle, and after dark was reconnoitring

to reinforce Pope; and was engaged in within the enemy s lines when he was dis-

the battles between the Rappahannock and covered and shot dead.

KEABNY, STEPHEN WATTS

Kearny, STEPHEN WATTS, military
officer; born in Newark, N. J., Aug. 30,
1794; uncle of Gen. Philip Kearny. When
the War of 1812-15 broke out young
Kearny left his studies at Columbia Col
lege, entered the army as lieutenant of
infantry, and distinguished himself in the
battle of Queenston Heights. In April,
1813, he was made captain, and rose to
brigadier - general in June, 1846. He was
in command of the Army of the West
at the beginning of the war with Mexico,
and with that army marched to California,
conquering New Mexico on the way. He
established a provisional government at
Santa F6, pressed on to California, and
was twice wounded in battle. For a few
months in 1847 he was governor of Cali
fornia; joined the army in Mexico; in
March, 1848, was governor, military and
civil, of Vera Cruz, and in May of the
same year was made governor of the city
of Mexico. In August, 1848, he was
brevetted major-general, and died in St.
Louis, Mo., on Oct. 31, following.

The Kearny-Stockton Controversy.
The differences between General Kearny
and Commodore Stockton, after the occu
pation of California, originated primarily
in the indefiniteness of the instructions
which were issued from the seat of govern
ment. Those addressed to the naval com
manders on the Pacific, in their judgment,
justified the organization of a military
force and a civil government in California,
and under those instructions Commodore
Stockton authorized Colonel Fremont to
organize the California battalion and take
its command with the title of major. By
virtue of those, he likewise took the neces
sary steps for the organization of a civil
government for California and invested
Fremont with the title and responsibilities
of governor.

As soon as these results were com-
summated, Kit Carson was sent, with an

escort of fifteen men, to bear the intelli
gence overland to Washington, as soon as
possible. Just as he had crossed the
desert and was approaching the American
frontier, he was met by General Kearny,
with a small force of dragoons, marching
westward, under instructions from his
government to conquer California and or
ganize a civil government in the terri
tory, a work which had already been suc
cessfully accomplished.

Upon learning what had occurred,
Kearny insisted upon Carson s returning
with him, as his guide, to California,
having forwarded the despatches to
Washington by another messenger of his
own selection. Upon the general s arrival
at Los Angeles, the capital of California,
and the seat of the new government, the
contest soon arose betAveen himself and
Commodore Stockton. The process by
which Colonel Fremont became involved
in this controversy is obvious. He held
a commission in the army as lieutenant
of topographical engineers, and, as such,
was, primarily, subject to the orders of
his superior general officer of the army.
He had since yielded to the exigencies of
the occasion, and, from motive and for
reasons which cannot be impeached,
waived any privileges he might have
claimed, as the real conqueror of North
California, and, in point of rank, the su
perior representative of the army on the
Pacific coast, and, with his men, volun
teered to serve under Commodore Stock
ton in the further prosecution of the war
in South California, the subjugation of
which could not be so successfully effected
without the aid of a fleet. By accepting
the governorship of California, a vacancy
had been created in the command of the
California battalion, and other changes
had become necessary. The first intima
tion which Colonel Fremont received of
General Kearny s intention to test the

221

KEARNY, STEPHEN WATTS

validity of Commodore Stockton s acts, this morning to make such a reply as the
through him, was conveyed in the follow- brief time allowed for reflection will en-
ing note: able me.

"HEADQUARTERS, ARMY OF THE WEST, " I found Commodore Stockton in pos-

" CIUDAD DE Los ANGELES, session of the coun try, exercising the func-

" Jan 16 1867 tions of military commandant and civil

governor, as early as July of last year;

By direction of Brigadier - General and sh thereafter I received from him

send you a copy of a com- the commission of milit commandant ,

munication to him from the secretary of ., , ,. ,. m , . , T . ,. , ,

. the duties of which I immediately entered

War dated June 18, 1846, in which u, and haye continued to e / erdse to

the following: These troops and such thfl ^ moment&lt;

as may be organized in California, will T t j i i A.I.-

I found also, on my arrival at this

be under your command.; The general j gQmc ^^ op ^ Com _

directs that no change will be made m modore stockton gtm exerci ^ the func .

the organization of your battalion of tiong of dvil ftnd milit gov e rn or, with

volunteers or officers appointed m it, the game t deference to his rank

without Ins sanction or approval being on the part of all officers (including your-

first obtained WM F. EMORY, ge]f J maintained and requ ired when

Lieutenant and Acting Assistant he agsumed them ^ July ^

"I learned also, in conversation with

This note at once raised the question J ou &gt; that on the march from San Diego,

whether he was to obey General Kearny, recently, to this place, you entered upon

and thereby, so far as his example could and discharged duties implying an ac-

go, invalidate the acts of Commodore knowledgment on your part of supremacy

Stockton, in which he had co-operated, or to Commodore Stockton,

obey Commodore Stockton, and, so far " J feel &gt; therefore, with great deference

as his decision would go, sustain the to vour professional and personal charac-

validity of those proceedings which he be- ter &gt; constrained to say that, until you and

lieved to be both legal and patriotic. If Commodore Stockton adjust between your-

he took the former course, he incurred selves the question of rank, where I re-

the liability to be arraigned, and, in his spectfully think the difficulty belongs, I

judgment, justly disgraced for disobeying sha11 have to report and receive orders, as

an officer whose rank and authority he heretofore, from the commodore,

had deliberately recognized; and he fur- "With considerations of high regard, I

ther incurred the charge of base ingrati- am &gt; Bir &gt; y ur obedient servant,

tilde towards an officer whose courtesy " * C. FREMONT,

and confidence he had shared, whose con- "Lieutenant-Colonel U. S. A., and Mili-

duct he ha d approved, and who unex- tary Commandant of the Territory

pectedly found himself in a situation to of California,

need the support of his friends. Fremont " Brig.-Gen. S. W. Kearny, U. S. A."
was incapable of deserting either a friend

or what he deemed a post of duty; he Tne same da y that General Kearny ad-

accordingly addressed to General Kearny dressed the note above quoted to Colonel

the following reply, on the following day: Fremont, a yet more serious correspond
ence commenced between him and Commo-

" CIUDAD DE Los ANGELES, dore Stockton. It is here given at length,

" Jan. 17, 1847. with the introductory remarks of Commo-

" SIR, I have the honor to be in receipt dore Stockton s biographer, who evidently

of your favor of last night, in which I wrote under the eye and approval of the

am directed to suspend the execution of commodore:

orders which, in my capacity of military " Fremont throughout the California

commandant of this territory, I had re- war was strictly and technically in the

ceived from Commodore Stockton, gov- naval service, under Commodore Stockton,

ernor and commander - in - chief in Cali- He had taken service under him with an

fornia. I avail myself of an early hour express agreement that he would continue

222

KEARNY, STEPHEN WATTS

subject to his orders as long as he con- to form such government and make such

tinued in command in California. This appointments?

engagement both he and Captain Gillespie " If you have such authority, and will

had entered into from patriotic motives, show it to me or furnish me with a cer-

and to render the most efficient service to tified copy of it, I will cheerfully acqui-

the country. He visited California origi- esce in what you are doing. If you have

nally upon topographical, and not on mili- not such authority, I then demand that

tary, duty. His volunteering under Stock- you cease all further proceedings relating

ton on special service was a patriotic im- to the formation of a civil government of

pulse, in complying with which the gov- this Territory, as I cannot recognize in

ernment were in honor bound to sustain you any right in assuming to perform

him. He therefore very properly refused duties confided to me by the President,
to violate his agreement with Stockton, " Very respectfully, "your obedient ser-

and unite with Kearny against him. vant, S. W. KEARNY,

" Having failed to compel Fremont to " Brigadier-General U. S. A.

acknowledge his authority, the general ad- " Commodore R. F. Stockton, Acting
dressed himself to the commodore and de- " Governor of California."

manded that he should abdicate the com-
mand-in-chief. COMMODORE STOCKTON TO GENERAL

" The commodore, considering the sub- KEARNY.

jugation of California complete, and that HEADQUARTERS, CIUDAD DE Los ANGELES,
no further hostilities were likely to take (( j -. -.& ,~

place, was of opinion that he might now

,. i_ i v- kiR, -In answer to your note, received

relinquish his governorship and com- ,, . .

j . , . , , . , . this afternoon, I need say but little more

mand-m-chief and return to his ship. ,, ,,

. . . . , ,, . , r than that which I communicated to vou

But, having informed the government that

, . , j , . . in a conversation at San Diego that

upon that event he intended to appoint ~ ,.,

,-, California was conquered and a civil gov-
Colonel Fremont governor, he now pro- . .

ernment put into successful operation;

ceeded to carry that design into execu- ., , ,

that a copy of the laws made by me for

, the government of the Territory, and the
" General Kearny, learning this to be

. , . , , , , names ot the officers selected to see them

the purpose ot the commodore, and de- ,.,.,,, ... 3

... faithfully executed, were transmitted to

sirous of exercising the functions of gov- ., _. ., , ,, TT ., , _., . ,

, . , , . ,, ; , the President of the United States before

ernor himself, addressed to mm the fol- , . ,, .,

, . you arrived in the Territory,

lowing letter: . i . T T

1 will only add that I cannot do any-

GENERAL KEARNY TO COMMODORE thing nor desist from doing anything on

STOCKTON. your demand, which I will submit to the

President and ask for your recall. In the
HEADQUARTERS, ARMY OF THE WEST, , . -n

mean time you will consider yourself sus-

CIUDAD DE Los ANGELES, , / ,, TT ., ,

. pended from the command of the United

l&lt;3 &gt; J States forces in this place.

SIR, I am informed that you are en- Faithfully, your obedient servant,
gaged in organizing a civil government, j^ p_ STOCKTON,
and appointing officers for it in this terri- Commander-in-Chief.
tory. As this duty has been specially as- To Brev et Brig.-Gen. S. W. Kearny."
signed to myself, by orders of the Presi
dent of the United States, conveyed in let- GENERAL KEARNY TO COMMODORE STOCKTON.
ters to me from the Secretary of War, of

June 3, 8, and 18, 1846, the original of "HEADQUARTERS, ARMY OF THE WEST,
which I gave to you on the 12th, and " CIUDAD DE Los ANGELES,

which you returned to me on the 13th, "Jan. 17, 1847.

and copies of which I furnished you with " SIR, In my communication to you of

on the 26th December, I have to ask if yesterday s date I stated that I had

you have any authority from the Presi- learned that you were engaged in organiz-

dent, from the Secretary of the Navy, or ing a civil government for California. I

from any other channel of the President referred you to the President s instruc-

223

KEABNY, STEPHEN WATTS

tions to me (the original of which you
have seen) and copies of which I furnished
you, to perform that duty, and added that
if you had any authority from the Presi
dent, or any of his organs, for what you
were doing, I would cheerfully acquiesce,
and if you had not such authority I de
manded that you would cease further pro
ceedings in the matter.

" Your reply of the same date refers me
to a conversation held at San Diego, and
adds that you cannot do anything or de
sist from doing anything or alter anything
on your (my) demand. As, in conse
quence of the defeat of the enemy on the
8th and 9th inst., by the troops under
my command, a-nd the capitulation en
tered into on the 13th inst. by Lieutenant-
Colonel Fremont with the leaders of the
Californians, in which the people under
arms and in the field agree to disperse and
remain quiet and peaceable, the country
may now, for the first time, be considered
as conquered, and taken possession of by
us; and as I am prepared to carry out the
President s instructions to me, which you
oppose, I must, for the purpose of prevent
ing a collision between vis and possibly a
civil war in consequence of it, remain
silent for the present, leaving with you the
great responsibility of doing that for
which you have no authority, and pre
venting me from complying with the Pres
ident s orders.

" Very respectfully, your obedient ser
vant, S. W. KEARNY,

" Brigadier-General U. S. A.
" Commodore R. F. Stockton, Acting
" Governor of California."

The motives which actuated Colonel Fr6-
mont in electing to pursue the course
which he did upon the arrival of General
Kearny, are scarcely open to misconstruc
tion. There happens, however, to be the
best of evidence in regard to them in a
letter addressed to Colonel Benton at the
time of the collision, which reveals in all
the confidence of personal friendship the
innermost secrets of his heart. In that
letter, he says:

"... When I entered Los Angeles I
was ignorant of the relations subsisting
between these gentlemen, having received
from neither any order or information
which might serve as a guide in the cir

cumstances. I, therefore, immediately on
my arrival, waited upon the governor and
Commander-in-chief, Commodore Stockton,
arid, a few minutes afterwards, called
upon General Kearny. I soon found them
occupying a hostile attitude, and each
denying the right of the other to assume
the direction of affairs in this country.

" The ground assumed by General
Kearny was that he held in his hand
plenary instructions from the President
directing him to conquer California, and
organize a civil government, and that con
sequently he would not recognize the acts
of Commodore Stockton.

" The latter maintained that his own
instructions were to the same effect as
Kearny s; that this officer s commission
was obsolete, and never would have been
given could the government have antici
pated that the entire country, seaboard
and interior, would have been conquered
and held by himself. The country had
been conquered and a civil government in
stituted since September last, the consti
tution of the Territory and appointments
under the constitution had been sent to
the government for its approval, and
decisive action undoubtedly long since had
upon them. General Kearny was in
structed to conquer the country, and upon
its threshold his command had been near
ly cut to pieces, and, but for relief from
him (Commodore Stockton), would have
been destroyed. More men were lost than
in General Taylor s battle of the 8th. In
regard to the remaining part of his in
structions, how could he organize a
government without first proceeding to
disorganize the present one? His work
had been anticipated; his commission was
absolutely null and void and of no effect.

" But if General Kearny believed that
his instructions gave him paramount au
thority in the country, he made a fatal
error on his arrival. He was received
with kindness and distinction by the
commodore, and offered by him the com
mand of his land forces. General Kearny
rejected the offer and declined interfering
witli Commodore Stockton. This officer
was then preparing for a march to Ciu-
dad de Los Angeles, his force being princi
pally sailors and marines, who were all
on foot (fortunately for them), and who
were to be provided with supplies on their

224

KEARNY, STEPHEN WATTS

march through an enemy s country, where Instructions of a corresponding import
all the people are cavalry. His force was were of course received from the War De-
paraded, and ready to start, 700 in num- partment, by General Kearny, and with
ber, supported by six pieces of artillery, them, or not long afterwards, a despatch
The command, under General Stockton, from Mr. Marcy, of which the following
had been conferred upon his first lieuten- is an extract:
ant, Mr. Rowan. At this iuncture Gen-

eral Kearny expressed to Commodore EXTRACT FROM INSTRUCTIONS TO BRIGAMER-
Stockton his expectation that the com- GENERAL KEARNY.
mand would have been given to him. The " WAK DEPARTMENT, June 17, 1847.
commodore informed the general that "... When the despatch from this de-
Lieutenant Rowan was in his usual line partment was sent out in November last,
of duty, as on board ship, relieving him there was reason to believe that Lieu-
of the detail of the drudgery of the camp, tenant-Colonel Fr6mont would desire to re-
while he himself remained the com- turn to the United States, and you were
mander-in-chief ; that if General Kearny then directed to conform to his wishes in
was willing to accept Mr. Rowan s place, that respect. It is not now proposed to
under these circumstances, he could have change that direction. But since that
it. The general assented. Commodore time it has become known here that he
Stockton called up his officers and ex- bore a conspicuous part in the conquest
plained the case. Mr. Rowan gave up of California, that his services have been
his post generously and without hesita- very valuable in that country, and doubt-
tion; and Commodore Stockton desired less will continue to be so should he re-
them clearly to understand that he re- main there.

mained commander-in-chief ; under this " Impressed, as all engaged in the pub-
arrangement the whole force entered lie service must be, with the great im-
Angeles; and on the day of my arrival portance of harmony and cordial co-opera-
at that place General Kearny told me tion in carrying on military operations in
that he did then, at that moment, recog- a country so distant from the seat of
nize Commodore Stockton as governor of authority, the President is persuaded that
the Territory. when his definite instructions were re-

" You are aware that I had con- ceived, all questions of difficulty were set-
tracted relations with Commodore Stock- tied, and all feelings which had been
ton, and I thought it neither right nor elicited by the agitation of them had sub-
politically honorable to withdraw my sup- sided.

port. No reason of interest shall ever " Should Lieutenant-Colonel Fremont,

compel me to act towards any man in who has the option to return or remain,

such a way that I should afterwards be adopt the latter alternative, the President

ashamed to meet him." does not doubt you will employ him in

Early in the spring, new instructions, such a manner as will render his services

bearing date Nov. 5, reached Commodore most available to public interest, having

Stockton, which put an end to the latter s reference to his extensive acquaintance

supremacy in the quarter. In his des- with the inhabitants of California, and

patch the Secretary of the Navy says: his knowledge of their language, qualifi-

" The President has deemed it best for cations independent of others, which it is

the public interests to invest the military supposed may be very useful in the pres-

officer commanding with the direction of ent and prospective state of our affairs in

the operations on land, and with the ad- that country. . . .

ministrative functions of the government " Very respectfully, your ob t servant,
over the people and Territory occupied " W. L. MARCY,
by us. You will relinquish to Colonel " Secretary of War."
Mason, or to General Kearny, if the latter The " definite instructions " to which
shall arrive before you have done so, the reference is here made were never corn-
entire control over these matters, and turn municated to Colonel Fremont, and their
over to him all papers necessary to the suppression was very justly esteemed by
performance of his duties." him a grievance for several reasons, and
V. P 225

KEABNY, STEPHEN WATTS

among others, because they show that by
the President s directions it was at
Colonel Fremont s option whether he
would remain in California or not, an
option, however, which was denied him by
General Kearny.

Early in March, and after taking the
supreme command in California, General
Kearny addressed Colonel Fremont the
following letter:

military, in that section, of the country
as he may deem proper and necessary.
Any instructions he may give you will be
considered as coming from "myself."

A few weeks later Colonel Frfimont re
ceived orders from General Kearny to re
port himself at Monterey with such of the
members of his topographical corps as
were still under pay, prepared to set out
at once for Washington. Colonel Fremont
then applied for permission to join his
GENERAL KEARNY TO COLONEL FREMONT, regiment, under General Taylor s com-

" HEADQUARTERS, 10TH MILITARY DEPT.,
" MONTEREY, U. CAL., March 1, 1847.

" SIR, By Department orders, No. 2,
of this date (which will be handed to
you by Captain Turner, 1st Dragoons,
A. A. A.G., for my command ) , you will see
that certain duties are there required of
you as commander of the battalion of
California volunteers.

" In addition to the duties above re
ferred to, I have now to direct that you
will bring with you, and with as little de
lay as possible, all the archives and pub
lic documents and papers which may be
subject to your control, and which apper
tain to the government of California, that
1 may receive them from your hands at
this place, the capital of the Territory.

" I have directions from the general-in-
chief not to detain you in this country,
against your wishes, a moment longer
than the necessities of the service may
require ; and you will be at liberty to
leave here after you have complied with
these instructions, and those in the order
referred to.

" Very respectfully, your ob t servant,

" S. W. KEARNY.

" Lieut.-Col. J. C. Fremont, Regiment of
Mounted Riflemen, Commanding Bat
talion of California Volunteers, Ciu-
dad de Los Angeles."

About a month later, he received the
following order from General Kearny:

" HEADQUARTERS, IOTH MILITARY DEPT.,
" MONTEREY, CAL., March 28.

" SIR, This will be handed to you by
Colonel Mason, 1st Dragoons, who goes to
the southern district, clothed by me with

mand, supposed to be on its way to Vera
Cruz. This request was refused without
explanation or apology, and on June
14 Colonel Fremont addressed General
Kearny as follows:

COLONEL FREMONT TO GENERAL KEARNY.

NEW HELVETIA, U. CAL.,

"June 14, 1847.

" SIR, In a communication which I re
ceived from yourself in March of the pres
ent year I am informed that you had been
directed by the commander-in-chief not to
detain me in this country against my
wishes longer than the absolute necessities
of the service might require.

" Private letters in which I have entire
confidence further inform me that the
President has been pleased to direct that
I should be permitted the choice of join
ing my regiment in Mexico, or returning
directly to the United States. An applica
tion which I had the honor to make to you
at the Ciudad de Los Angeles for permis
sion to proceed immediately to Mexico
having been rejected, and the duties of
the exploring expedition which had been
confided to my direction having been ter
minated by yourself, I respectfully re
quest that I may now be relieved of all
connection with the topographical party
which you have taken under your charge,
and be permitted to return to the United
States. Travelling with a small party
by a direct route, my knowledge of the
country and freedom from professional
business will enable me to reach the States
some forty or fifty days earlier than your
self, which the present condition of affairs
and a long absence from my family make
an object of great importance to me.

" It may not be improper to say to you

full authority to give such orders and in- that my journey will be made with private

structions upon all matters, both civil and means,

226

and will not, therefore, occasion

KEARNY KEELY

any expenditure to the government. I tenant-Colonel Fremont having performed

have the honor to be, with much respect, the above duty, will consider himself

your obedient servant, under arrest, and will then repair to

" J. C. FREMONT, Washington City, and report himself to

" Lieutenant-Colonel, Mounted Riflemen, the adjutant-general of the army." . . .

" Brig.-Gen. S. W. Kearny, Commanding, For Colonel Fremont s subsequent ac-

etc." tions, see FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES.

To this request Colonel Fremont re- Kearny s Expedition and Conquest

ceived the following reply: f 7 New Mexico See KEARNY, STEPHEN

WATTS.

GENERAL KEARNY TO COLONEL FREMONT. Kearsarge, THE. Wrecked on Ronca-

dor Reef, in Caribbean Sea, Feb. 2, 1894.

" CAMP NEAR NEW HELVETIA, See ALABAMA , TlIE .

"CALIFORNIA, June 14, I8.J7.- Keeler, JAMES EDWARD, astronomer;

" SIR, The request contained in your born in La Salte, 111.. Sept. 10, 1857;

communication to me of this date, to be graduated at Johns Hopkins University in

relieved from all connection with the 1881 . accompanied Prof. Langley on the

topographical party (nineteen men), and Mount Whitney expedition; studied two

be permitted to return to the United years with Quincke, in Heidelberg, and

States with a small party made up by w jth Von Helmholz, in Berlin. He was ap-

your private means, cannot be granted, pointed assistant astronomer of the Lick

" I shall leave here on Wednesday, the Observatory in 1886, and when the ob-

10th instant, and I require of you to be servatory was transferred to the State

with your topographical party in my camp (J une) 1888), he was made full astrono-

( which will probably be about 15 miles me r. He was director of the Allegheny

from here) on the evening of that day, Observatory in 1889-98, and on June 1,

and to continue with me to Missouri. 1898, was made director of the Lick Obser-

" Very respectfully, your obedient vatory. Professor Keeler was a mem-
servant, S. W. KEARNY, ber of many American and foreign scien-
" Brigadier-General. tine societies, among them the Royal
" Lieutenant-Colonel Fremont, Regiment Astronomical Society of Great Britain,
" Mounted Riflemen, New Helvetia." and in 1898 was awarded the Rumford

General Kearny broke up his camp near meda * of the American Academy of Arts
Sutter s fort on the day after issuing this and Sciences. He wrote extensively for
order, and set out for the United States, The AstropMjswal Journal and other tech-
attended by Colonel Fremont, who was nical periodicals He died on Mount Ham-
treated, however, with deliberate dis- llton Cal., Aug. 13, 1
respect throughout the journey. The *??* JOHN ^OKRELL, me chanic; born

party reached Fort Leavenworth about in FMh f d % 1 !fc ^ \ ^ 1 *

Aug. 22. On that day General Kearny a Carpenter till 1872 Prior to that date

sent for him, and directed Lieutenant he had become interested m music, claim-

Wharton to read to him a copy of the first in g that the tuning-fork had suggested

paragraph of an order he had just issued to h a new motive power After years

of that date, as follows: of experiment he exhibited a machine

which appeared to have great power, its

" FORT LEAVENWORTH, Aug. 22, 1847. motion, according to him, being produced
" Lieutenant - Colonel Fremont, of the neither by steam, electricity, nor compress-
Regiment of Mounted Riflemen, will turn ed air, but by the vibrations of a violin
over to the officers of the different de- bow. This machine was called the " Keely
partments at this post, the horses, mules, motor," and in 1874 a stock company was
and other public property in the use of established which contributed thousands
the topographical party now under his of dollars to enable him to perfect his
charge, for which receipts will be given, alleged discovery. From 1872 to 1891 he
He will arrange the accounts of these built and rejected 129 different models;
men (nineteen in number), so that they in 1881 a wealthy woman of Philadelphia
can be paid at the earliest date. Lieu- built a new laboratory for him, and also

227

KEEN KEITH

furnished a weekly salary that he might of Asa Trenchard and Edward A. Sothern

continue his experiments. At various ex- that of Lord Dundreary, then a minor

hibitions he produced wonderful effects, character, which Mr. Sothern afterwards

but never revealed how these were ac- made the principal one iri a new version

complished. After his death the whole of the play. In 1860 she brought out

scheme was examined, and it was claimed The Seven Sisters, which ran for 169

by many to be a fraud that the machine nights. It was while her company was

was operated by a compressed-air motor playing Our A merican Cousin, at Ford s

in the cellar. He died in Philadelphia, Theatre, Washington, on April 14, 1865,

Pa., Nov. 18, 1898. that President Lincoln was fatally shot.

Keen, GREGORY BERNARD, librarian; She remained on the stage till within two

born in Philadelphia, Pa., March 3, 1844; years of her death, in Montclair, N. J.,

graduated at the University of Pennsyl- Nov. 4, 1873.

vania in 1861, and at the Divinity School Kegs, BATTLE OF THE. See HOPKINSON,

of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Phila- FRANCIS.

delphia, in 1866; became a Roman Catho- Keifer, JOSEPH WARREN, lawyer; born

He in 1868; was librarian of the Uni- in Clark county, O., Jan. 30, 1836; edu-

versity of Pennsylvania in 1887-97; and cated at Antioch College; was admitted to

became librarian of the Historical Society the bar and began practice in Springfield,

of Pennsylvania in 1898. He is the editor O. In the Civil War he served in the

of the Pennsylvania Magazine of History Union army, rising from the rank of

and Biography, and the author of a num- major to colonel and brevet brigadier-gen-

ber of articles on The Descendants of eral and major-general. At the close of

Joran Kyn, the Founder of Upland, and the war he declined the appointment of

the chapters on New Sweden and New Al- lieutenant-colonel of the 26th United

~b\on in the Narrative and Critical His- States Infantry. In 1868-69 he was a

tory of America. State Senator; in 1877-83 a Republican

Keenan, PETER, military officer; born Representative in Congress; and in 1881-

in York, N. Y., Nov. 9, 1834 ; was adopt- 83 speaker of the House. During the war

ed by a wealthy Philadelphia family; be- with Spain President McKinley appointed

came a captain in the 8th Pennsylvania him a major-general of volunteers. Since

Cavalry in 1861. After the rout of the 1873 he has been president of a national

llth Corps on the right wing at the bat- bank. In April, 1901, he published Sla-

tle of Chancellorsville, May 2, 1863, with very and Four Tears of War.

less than 500 men, he charged the Con- Keith, GEORGE, clergyman ; born in

federates, taking them by complete sur- Aberdeen, Scotland, about 1645; belong-

prise, so that their advance was sufficient- ed to the Society of Friends; came to East

ly checked until the National guns were Jersey; was surveyor-general in 1682;

got into position. This charge saved the and in 1689 taught school in Philadelphia.

National army from complete rout. He He wrote and spoke much in favor of the

was killed during the action. Quakers, and visited New England in their

Keene, LAURA, actress; born in Chelsea, interest; but about 1691 he established a
London, England, in 1820; real name, sect who called themselves "Christian
MARY Moss ; made her first appearance Quakers." Keith was irritable, quarrel-
on the stage in London, in 1845; was mar- some, and imperious. He finally left the
ried to Henry W. Taylor in 1847, and to Quakers altogether; took orders in the
John Lutz in 1857. She won her greatest Church of England; and died rector of
successes in light comedy. She first ap- Edburton, Sussex. England, in 1715.
peared in the United States at Wallack s Keith, SIR WILLIAM; born near Peter-
Theatre, New York, in 1852, where she head, England, in 1080; appointed gov-
subsequently took the management of the ernor of Pennsylvania and Delaware in
Varieties Theatre, and later opened a 1717 by George I. at the request of the
theatre under her name, which she man- principal inhabitants. He was the only
aged till 1863. At this house, in 1858, she pre - Revolutionary governor who sym-
first brought out Our American Cousin, pathized with the colonists in their strug-
in which Joseph Jefferson took the part gles with the proprietaries or British gov-

228

KELL KELLEYSVILLE

eminent. He was superseded in his office away by the Hudson Bay Company. He

in 1726, and was elected a member of the was the author of a Geographical Memoir

colonial legislature. He returned to Eng- of Oregon, and .4 History of the Settle-

land in 1728, and projected a series of ment of Oregon and of the Interior of

colonial histories, of which that on Vir- Upper California, and of Persecutions and

ginia was the only one published. He died Afflictions of Forty Years Continuance

in London, Nov. 18, 1749. Endured by the Author. He died in

Kell, JOHN MC!NTOSH, naval officer; Palmer, Mass., Jan. 17, 1874.

born in Darien, Ga., Jan. 26, 1823; en- Kelley, HENRY B., jurist; born in

tered the United States Naval Academy in Huntsville, Ala., in 1823; served through-

1841 ; served under Commodores Sloat and out the Mexican War as lieutenant of the

Perry in California and Japan ; joined the 14th U. S. V.; resigned in 1848; re-

Confedevate navy as executive officer of entered the army in 1855; resigned in

the 8u inter; transferred to the Alabama 1861 to enter the Confederate army. He

in 1862; was in the fight with the Kear- was a judge in the Louisiana Court of

sarge, but rescued by the English yacht Appeals from 1884 till his death at New

Deerhound when the Alabama sank; pro- Orleans, June 16, 1894.

moted captain C. S. N. He wrote Cruise Kelley, JAMES DOUGLAS JERROLD, naval

and Combats of the Alabama in Battles officer; born in New York City, Dec. 25,

and Leaders of the Civil War. He died 1847; graduated at the United States

in Sunnyside, Ga., Oct. 5, 1900. Naval Academy in 1868 ; promoted ensign

Keller, HELEN ADAMS, deaf, dumb, and in 1869; master in 1870; lieutenant in

blind; born in Tuscumbia, Ala., June 27, 1872; lieutenant-commander in 1893; and

1880. She was sent to the Wright- commander in 1899. For a prize essay

Humason School in New York City when written in 1881 he received a gold medal

seven years of age, where she made rapid from the United States Naval Institute,

progress under her teacher, Miss Sullivan. During the war with Spain (1898) he was

In 1897 she was sent to the Arthur Gil- chairman of the board on auxiliary ves-

man School, and in 1899 she entered Had- sels; and in 1900-1 was on duty in Chi-

cliffe College, where she studied Greek, nese waters. He is widely known by his

Latin, and the higher mathematics. This numerous writings on naval subjects. His

is probably the most wonderful instance publications include The Question of

in the history of education where seeming- Ships; Our Navy ; A Desperate Chance;

ly insuperable difficulties have been sue- American Yachts; The Ship s Company;

cessfully surmounted. The Story of Coast Defence; American

Kelley, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, military Hen-o -War; The Navy of the United

officer; born in New Hampton, N. H., April States, 1875-99, etc.

10, 1807; removed to western Virginia in Kelley, WILLIAM DARRAH, legislator;
1826. He entered the national army as born in Philadelphia, Pa., April 12, 1814;
colonel of the 1st Virginia Regiment; took admitted to the bar in 1841; was a Free-
part in the battle of Philippi, where he trade Democrat till 1848, when he entered
was severely wounded; promoted brig- the Republican party, becoming a firm
adier-general in 1861, major-general in abolitionist and protectionist. He was
1865. After the Civil War he was col- elected to Congress in 1860, and held a
lector of internal revenue and examiner seat in that body for many years. He
of pensions. He died in Oakland, Md., was the author of Slavery in the Terri-
July 16, 1891. tories (an address) ; Address at the Col-

Kelley, HALL JACKSON, colonist; born ored Department of the House of Refuge;
in Northwood, N. H., Feb. 28, 1790; grad- Reasons for Abandoning the Theory of
uated at Middlebury College in 1813; be- Free-Trade and Adopting the Principle of
came interested in colonizing Oregon, and Protection to American Industry; Letters
influenced the Massachusetts legislature on Industrial and Financial Questions;
to incorporate the " American Society for The New South, etc. He died in Washing-
Encouraging the Settlement of the Oregon ton, D. C., Jan. 9, 1890.
Territory." Later he conducted a number Kelleysville, BATTLE OF. See KELLY S
of settlers thither, but they were driven FORD.

229

KELLOGG KELLY

Kellogg, CLARA LorisE. opera-singer; Territory in 1861; colonel of the 7th Illi-
born in Sumterville, S. ( ., July 12, 1842; nois United States Volunteers in 1861;
removed to New York in 1856, and there collector in 1865; United States Senator
received her musical education. She made from Louisiana in 1869; governor of
her first appearance in New York as Louisiana, 1873-77; re-elected United
Gilda, in Rigolctto, in 1861, and in Lon- States Senator in 1877; member of Con
don in Her Majesty s Theatre in 1867. gress, 1883-85.

She made tours through the United States Kelly, JAMES EDWARD, sculptor; born

from 1868 till her reappearance in Lon- in New York" City, July 30, 1855; began

don in May, 1872. Returning to the studying art under Charles Parsons, of

United States, she sang in Italian opera the art department of Harper & Brothers,

for a season; organized an English opera in 1873, and subsequently at the Academy

company; then an Italian opera company of Design; and in 1878 began his career

(1876); married her manager, Carl Stra- as an illustrator in sculpture of person -

kosch, in 1887, and retired to private ages and events prominent in American

life- history by modelling the well - known

Kellogg, EDGAK ROMEYN, military offi- statuette of Sheridan s Ride, for which

cer; born in New York City, March 25, the general posed. In the following year

1842; entered the army in April, 1861, as he made a portrait bust of Thomas A.

a sergeant in the 24th Ohio Infantry; was Edison with the first phonograph; and in

promoted to second lieutenant in October 1882 produced the Paul Revere statue,

following; then resigned and enlisted as During 1883-85 he was engaged on the

a private in the 16th United States In- five panels for the Monmouth Battle

fantry. He was promoted to first lieu- Monument, representing the Council of

tenant, Aug. 1, 1862; attained the rank War at Hopewell; Ramsey Defending His

of brigadier-general, Dec. 5, 1899, and was Guns; Washington Rallying His Troops;

retired for disabilities Dec. 16, 1899. In Molly Pitcher; and Wayne s Charge. In

the Civil War he greatly distinguished 1886 he completed Grant at Donelson, for

himself in the battle of Murfreesboro and which the general furnished sittings and

in the Atlanta campaign, and in the war details. For the Saratoga Monument he

with Spain (1898) he commanded the 10th produced the panels, Arnold Wounded in

United States Infantry in the battle of the Trenches; and Schuylcr Transferring

San Juan Hill, near Santiago de Cuba, His Plans to Gates. For the National

on July 1. Cemetery at Gettysburg he was the sculp-

Kellogg, ELIJAH, clergyman; born in tor of General Deven and the 6th New

Portland, Maine, May 20, 1813; graduated York Cavalry and the Buford Monument,

at Bowdoin in 1840. He wrote many In 1891 he produced the colossal figure,

popular books for young people, and was The Call to Arms, for the Soldiers Monu-

the author of the well-known Address of ment at Troy, N. Y. In 1895 he fur-

Spartacus to the Gladiators. He died in nished the Long Island panel, for the Sons

Harpsburg, Maine, March 17, 1901. of the Revolution; in 1897 the memorial

Kellogg, MARTIN, educator; born in of the battle of Harlem Heights on the

Vernon, Conn., March 15, 1828; graduated grounds of Columbia University, also for

at Yale College in 1850; went to Cali- the Sons of the Revolution; and in 1901

fornia as a Congregational clergyman; was engaged on a monument to commem-

was Professor of Latin in the old Cali- orate the defence of New Haven, for the

fornia College in 1859-69; and in 1869, Sons of the American Revolution. Besides

when the University of California was these works he has produced heads of the

founded, became Professor of Ancient Lan- principal commanders of the Civil War

guages there. He held the chair till 1893, from life, including Generals Grant, Sheri-

and was then president till 1899. He died dan, Sherman, Hancock, Stanley, Pleason-

in San Francisco, Cal., Aug. 26, 1903. ton, etc.; a portrait bust of Admiral Wor-

Kellogg, WILLIAM PITT, governor of den; busts and statuettes from life of

Louisiana; born in Orwell, Vt., Dec. 8, Admiral Dewey, Rear-Admiral Sampson,

1831 ; admitted to the bar of Illinois in and Lieutenant Hobson ; and heads from

1850; appointed chief-justice of Nebraska life of the captains of Dewey s and Samp-

230

KELLY S FORD KEMPFF

son s fleets, and of the principal army offi
cers of the Spanish-American War, and
an equestrian statue of Gen. Fitz-John
Porter.

Kelly s Ford, a locality on the Rappa-
hannock River in Virginia, which was the
scene of several engagements between the
National and Confederate forces during
the Civil War. The first, on Aug. 20,

1862, was with the cavalry of the Army
of Virginia; the second, on March 17,

1863, in which the 1st and 5th United
States, the 3d, 4th, and 16th Pennsyl
vania, the 1st Rhode Island, the 6th
Ohio, and the 4th New York cavalry
regiments, and the 6th New York battery
were engaged; the third, on Aug. 1-3,
1863, being a part of the engagements at
Rappahannock and Brandy stations; and
the fourth, Nov. 7, 1863, in which the
1st United States Sharp-shooters, the 40th
New York, 1st and 20th Indiana, 3d and
5th Michigan, and the 110th Pennsylvania
regiments, supported by the remainder of
the 3d Corps of the Army of the Potomac,
were engaged. On Jan. 27, 1864, the
cavalry division of the Army of the Ohio
had an engagement at Fair Gardens, Tenn.,
otherwise known as French Broad or
Kelly s Ford.

Kempff, Louis, naval officer; born
near Belleville, 111., Oct. 11, 1841; grad
uated at the United States Naval Acad
emy in 1861 ; and was assigned to
the Vandalia on blockading duty off
Charleston. While there he captured the
schooner Henri/ Middleton, of Charleston,
and took it to New York. On Nov. 7 he
participated in the battle at Port Royal,
S. C. He was made lieutenant in 1862.
During the remainder of the Civil War he
served on the Wabash and other vessels
of the Atlantic and Gulf squadrons; took
part in the bombardment of Sewell s
Point, Va., in May, 1862; and in the re-
occupation of Norfolk, Va. In 1866 he
was promoted lieutenant-commander; in
1876, commander; in 1891, captain; and
in 1899, rear-admiral. In 1900, when the
Boxer troubles broke out in China, he
was assigned to the command of the
American naval forces in Chinese waters.
He arrived at Taku on the Newark, May
28, and on the following day sent ashore
108 marines. The other foreign war-ships
in the harbor also landed about 100 men

each. When an attempt was made to send
this international force to Peking to res
cue the members of the foreign legations
there, the Tsung-li-Yamen (or Chinese for
eign office) refused permission, but subse
quently a portion of the allied troops, in-

LOriS KEMPFF.

231

eluding sixty-three American marines,
were sent by train to the capital, reach
ing it on June 1. The troubles grew rap
idly worse, and on June 17 the foreign ad
mirals at Taku, with the exception of Ad
miral Kempff, sent a demand for the
evacuation of the Taku forts by 2 P.M.
In answer to this demand the Chinese
opened fire upon the foreign war - ships
which had congregated in the harbor.
The British, French, Russian, and Japa
nese ships replied, and after seven hours
the forts surrendered. At first there was
general regret among naval officers and
others that Admiral Kempff had not
taken part in the bombardment of the
forts. Later, however, he gave as his rea
sons that a state of war against China
did not exist; that such an attack would
be legally an act of war; and that formal
aggression by the foreign governments
would be regarded by the Chinese as con
stituting a state of war, would unite all
the Chinese against the powers, and in
crease the difficulty of settling the
trouble. These reasons were found to be
in strict harmony with the policy of
the United States government. Admiral
Kempff s action was approved by his gov-

KENDALL KENESAW MOUNTAINS

eminent, and was subsequently com
mended by many European statesmen.

Kendall, AMOS, statesman; born in
Dunstable, Mass., Aug. 16, 1789; gradu
ated at Dartmouth in 1811; removed to
Kentucky, and was admitted to the bar
in 1814. For some time he was tutor in
Henry Clay s family; subsequently editor
of several papers, of which the Argus
of Western America, published in Frank
fort, Ky., was the most influential ; was
Postmaster - General in 1835-40, during
which time he freed that department of
debt, besides introducing numerous re
forms. He published the Life of Andrew
Jackson, Private, Military, and Civil. He
died in Washington, D. C., Nov. 11, 1869.
See KITCHEN CABINET.

Kendall, GEORGE WILKINS, journalist;
born in Amherst (now Mount Vernon),
N. H., Aug. 22, 1809 ; removed to New Or
leans in 1835, and with Francis A. Lums-
den, founded the Picayune, the first cheap
daily newspaper in that city. Later this
paper became the best known in the South.
His publications include Narrative of the

Texan Santa Fe Expedition; and The War
between the United States and Mexico.
He died in Oak Spring, Tex., Oct. 22, 1867.
Kenesaw Mountains, ACTION NEAR.
General Johnston, pursued by General
Sherman, after evacuating Allatoona Pass,
took a stand. At his back were the Big
and Little Kenesaw mountains, within
3 miles of Marietta. With these ly
ing close together, Lost and Pine moun
tains formed a triangle. Confederate bat
teries covered their summits, and on the
top of each Confederate signal-stations
were placed. Thousands of men were
busy in the forest casting up intrench-
ments from base to base of these rugged
hills in preparation for a great struggle.
Sherman advanced to Big Shanty, and
there made preparations to break through
the Confederate works between Kenesaw
and Pine mountains. Hooker was on the
right and front of his line, Howard was
on the left and front, and Palmer be
tween it and the railway. Under a heavy
cannonade, the advance began, June 14,
1864. The Nationals pushed over the

VIEW OF KENESAW FROM PINE MOUNTAIN.

232

KENNAN KENNEDY

rough couttry, fighting at almost every on his return lectured on that subject in

step. That night the Confederates aban- the United States and England. In May,

doned Pine Mountain, and took position 1898, he went to Cuba with the American

in the intrenchments between Kenesaw National Red Cross Society. His works

and Lost mountains. Upon the latter include Tent Life in Siberia; Siberia and

eminence the Nationals advanced in a the Exile System; Campaigning in Cuba,

heavy rain-storm, and on the 17th the Con- etc.

federates abandoned Lost Mountain and Kennebec River Expedition. General
the long line of intrenchments connect- Washington sent Gen. Benedict Arnold to
ing it with Kenesaw. Sherman continu- the Kennebec to co-operate with Mont-
ally pressed them heavily, skirmishing in gomery in the Canadian expedition of
dense forests, furrowed with ravines and 1775. Arnold, with 1,200 men, reached
tangled with vines. Quebec and assaulted the town on Dec. 31.

From the top of Kenesaw Johnston MONTGOMERY (q. v.) was killed, and 400

could see the movements of the Nationals, Americans were captured. After a siege

and from batteries on its summit could of three months, Arnold was driven away

hurl plunging shot. The antagonists by Burgoyne.

struggled on ; and finally General Hood Kennedy, JOHN PENDLETON, statesman
sallied out of the Confederate intrench- and author; born in Baltimore, Md., Oct.
ments with a strong force to break through 25, 1795; graduated at the University of
Sherman s line between Thomas and Scho- Maryland in 1812; admitted to the bar in
field. He was received with a terrible 1816; elected to the House of Delegates,
return blow, which made him recoil in Maryland, in 1820; to the House of Repre-
great confusion, leaving, in his retreat, sentatives in 1838 ; was a member of the
his killed, wounded, and many prisoners, twenty-fifth, twenty-seventh, and twenty-
This struggle is known in history as the eighth Congresses; elected speaker of the
battle of the Kulp House. This repulse Maryland House of Delegates in 1846; ap-
inspirited the Nationals. On June 27 pointed Secretary of the Navy under Pres-
they made a furious assault on the Con- ident Fillmore in 1852. Among his works
federate lines at two points south of are a Review of Mr. Cambrcling s Free-
Kenesaw, to break them, separate their Trade Report; A Memorial on Domestic
forces, and destroy their army. The Na- Industry; A Report on the Commerce and
tionals were repulsed, with an aggregate Navigation of the United States, by the
loss of about 3,000 men. Among the killed Committee of Commerce, of which Mr.
were Generals C. G. Harker and D. Me- Kennedy was chairman ; and also a Re-
Cook, and many valuable officers of lower port on the Warehouse System by the same
grade were wounded. The loss of the committee; Life of William Wirt; Dis-
Confederates, behind their breastworks, courses on the Life of William Wirt, and
was slight. Sherman now disposed his George Calvcrt, the First Lord Baltimore.
troops so as to seriously threaten John- Mr. Kennedy as an author is, however, best
ston s rear. Turner s Ferry across the known by his novels, Swallow Barn; A
Chattahoochee was menaced, and the in- Sojourn in the Old Dominion; Horse-shoe
tended effect was instantaneous. On the Robinson: A Tale of the Tory Ascendency;
night of July 2 Johnston abandoned Kene- Rob of the Bowl, a Legend of St. Inigoes,
saw and all his intrenchments, and when, a story of colonial Maryland life. He died
at dawn (July 3), the Nationals stood on in Newport, R. I., Aug. 28, 1870.
the crest of that mountain, they saw the Kennedy, WILLIAM, author; born near
Confederates flying through and beyond Paisley, Scotland, Dec. 26, 1799; was made
Marietta towards the Chattahoochee, in consul at Galveston, Tex., where he lived
the direction of Atlanta. for many years, returning to England in

Kennan, GEORGE, author; born in Nor- 1847. He was the author of The Rise,
walk, O., Feb. 16, 1845. In 1866-68 he Progress, and Prospects of the Republic
directed the construction of the middle of Texas; and of a condensation of the
division of the Russo-American telegraph same, entitled Texas, Its Geography, Nat-
line. In 1885-86 he went to Siberia to ural History, and Topography, etc. He
examine the Russian exile system; and died near London, England, in 1847.

233

KENT KENTON

Kent, JACOB FORD, military officer;
born in Philadelphia, Sept. 14, 1835; en
tered the army as second lieutenant of
the 3d Infantry, in May, 1861. For gal
lantry at Marye s Heights he was pro
moted first lieutenant, and brevetted cap
tain and major; was promoted captain
of the 3d Infantry in 1864; and for
gallantry in the battle of Spottsylvania,
and for distinguished services in the
field during the war, was brevetted lieu
tenant-colonel and colonel. At the close
of the war he was commissioned colonel
of the 24th United States Infantry. On
July 8, 1898, he was appointed a major-
general of volunteers. During the cam
paign in Cuba he commanded the first
division of the 5th Corps. On Oct. 4,
1898, he was promoted brigadier - gen
eral, U. S. A., and on Oct. 15 was retired
at his own request.

Kent, JAMES, jurist; born in Phillips-
town, N. Y., July 31, 1763; studied law

JAMBS KENT.

with Egbert Benson; and began its prac
tice in 1787, at Poughkeepsie, N. Y. He
was a member of the New York legislat
ure from 1790 to 1793, and became Pro
fessor of Law in Columbia College in
1793. Deeply versed in the doctrine of
civil law, he was made a master in chan
cery in 1796; city recorder in 1797; judge
of the Supreme Court in 1798; chief-
justice in 1804; and was chancellor from
1814 to 1823. After taking a leading part
in the State constitutional convention in
1821, he again became law professor in

Columbia College, and the lectures he
there delivered form the basi? of his able
Commentaries on the United States Con
stitution, published in 4 volumes. He was
one of the clearest legal writers of his
day. In 1828 he was elected president
of the New York Historical Society. He
passed his later years in revising and en
larging his Commentaries, and in giving
opinions on legal subjects. He died in
New York City, Dec. 12, 1847.

Kent Island Colony. In May, 1631,
King Charles I. granted a license to Will
iam Claiborne " to traffic in those parts of
America for which there was already no
patent granted for sole trade." With the
intention of monopolizing the Indian trade
of Chesapeake Bay, Claiborne and his asso
ciates planted a small colony on Kent
Island, situated in the centre of the prov
ince of Maryland, soon afterwards granted
to Lord Baltimore. This grant and settle
ment gave much trouble to the proprietor
of Maryland and the settlers there under
his patent. See CLAIBORNE, WILLIAM.

Kenton, SIMON ; born in Fauquier coun
ty, Va., April 3, 1755. Supposing he had
killed in an affray a rival in a love affair
when he was sixteen years old, he fled to
the wilderness west of the Alleghany
Mountains, where he was the friend and
companion of Daniel Boone in many dar
ing feats. He was in expeditions against
the Indians, was captured by them, and
taken to Detroit. Escaping from a Brit-

SIMON KENTON.

234

KENTUCKY

isli prison there in 1779, he distinguished
himself in resisting the invasion of Ken
tucky by the British and Indians in that
year. Finally, after an expedition against
the Indians on the Miami, he settled
(1784) near Maysville. He accompanied
Wayne in his expedition in 1794. In 1805
he was seated near the Mud River, in
Ohio, and was made brigadier-general of
militia. In 1813 he served under Governor
Shelby at the battle of the Thames. Beg
gared by lawsuits because of defective
titles to lands, he lived in penury many
years. In 1824 he appeared at Frankfort,
Ky., in tattered clothes, and successfully
appealed to the legislature to release the
claim of the State to lands which were his.
Congress afterwards allowed him a pen
sion. He died in Logan county, 0., April
29, 183G.

Kentucky, STATE OF. In 1776 Ken
tucky was made a county of Virginia, and
in 1777 the first court was held at Har-
rodsburg. Conventions held at Danville in
1784-8.) recommended a peaceable and con
stitutional separation from Virginia. In
178G an act was passed by the Virginia
legislature complying with the desires of
Kentucky, and on June 1, 1792, it was
admitted into the Union as a State. Its
population at that time was about 75,000.
For several years much uneasiness was

ing stations. A great majority of the
people were loyal to the Union, but the
governor was not, and the unfortunate
position of neutrality which the latter,
with the Confederates, caused Kentucky
to assume brought upon her the miseries

STATE SEAL OP KENTUCKY.

of civil war. Steps were taken for the
secession of the State, and for the or
ganization of a Confederate State govern
ment, but failed. The State was scarred
by battles, invasions, and raids, and mar
tial law was proclaimed by President Lin-

felt among the people of Kentucky on ac- coin, July 5, 1864. The civil authority

count of Indian depredations and the free was restored Oct. 18, 1865. A convention

navigation of the Mississippi River. These for revision of the State constitution, or-

were settled satisfactorily by the purchase dered at the 1889 election by a majority

of Louisiana in 1803. During the War of of 31,931, met at Frankfort, Sept. 8 of

1812 Kentucky took an active part, send- the same year. The new constitution was

ing fully 7,000 men to the field; and after completed on April 11, submitted to the
that war the State was undisturbed by
any stirring events until the breaking out
of the Civil War. A second constitution

took effect in 1800, a third in 1850. At of the State on Sept. 28, 1891. Popula-

the beginning of the Civil War Kentucky tion in 1890, 1,858,635; in 1900, 2,147,174.

people at the August election, and was
adopted by an overwhelming vote. It
was published as the fundamental law

assumed a position of neutrality, but it See UNITED
was really one of hostility to the Union, vol. ix.
The governor refused to comply with the
President s requisition for troops; but
Lieut. William Nelson, of the navy, a
native of the State, and then on ordnance
duty at Washington, began to recruit for
the National army; and towards the close
of July, 1861, he established Camp Dick
Robinson, in Garrard county, for the or
ganization of Kentucky volunteers. These John A( j a j r .
nocked to this camp and to other recruit- Joseph Desha.

235

STATES KENTUCKY, in

GOVERNORS.

Name.

Isaac Shelby

James Garrard

Christopher Greenup.

Charles Scott

Isaac Shelby

George Madison

Gabriel Slaughter

Term.

1792
1796
1804
1808
1812
I

1816
1820
1824

to 1796
1804
1808
1812
1816

1816
o

1820
1824
1828

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

GOVERNORS Continued. try beyond the mountains westward of

Name.

Term . JNorth Carolina. In 1769 he returned to

Thomas Metcalfe

1828 to 1832 ^ UI t u Carolina and g;ive glowing accounts
1832 1834 of the fertile country he had left. He
1836 1837 P ersua( led Daniel Boone and four others
1837 1840 to go with him to explore it. Boone had
1844 1848 b ecome a great hunter and expert in
1848 isso woodcraft. They reached the headwaters
1851 1855 of the Kentucky, and, from lofty hills,
1855 1859 beheld a vision of a magnificent valley,
1861 1863 coverecl witn forests, stretching towards
1863 1867 the Ohio, and abounding in game of the

I868 18 to 7 1871 woods and waters of every kind. They
1871 " 1875 fought Indians some of the tribes who
1879 " 1883 roame d over Kentucky as a common
1883 " 1887 hunting-ground. Boone was made a pris-

1891 " 1895 ner but esca P ecl - He determined to
1896 " 1900 settle in the beautiful country between
the upper Kentucky and Tennessee
1900 to rivers, and, after remaining a while the

John Breathitt

J T Morehead

James Clark

C. A Wicklille

Robert P Letch er

William Owsloy

John J Crittendeu

Lazarus W Powell

Charles S Morehead

Beriah Magoffiu . .... ....

J. F Robinson

Thomas E Bramletle

John L Helm

John W Stevenson

Preston H Leslie

James B. McCrearv

J Proctor Knott

Simon B Buckuer

J Y. Brown

William Bradley

WilliamS Taylor

William Goebel

J C W Beckham

UNITED STATES SENATORS. soie wime man in tnat region, he returned

Name.

No. of Congress

Term. lor his wire and children in 1771. Two

John Brown

2d to 9th
2d " 4th
4th " 7th
7th " 9th
9th
9th
9th to llth
10th " 13th
llth
12th to 13th
13th
13th to 14th
13th " 14th
14th " 19th
14th
15th
16th to 21st
16th
19th
21st to 24th
22d " 27th
24th " 30lh
27th
30th
30th to 32d
31st " 32d
32d
32d to 33d
33d
34th to 37th
36th " 39th
37th
37th to 42d
39th " 40th
40th
42d
42d to 45th
43d " 46th
45th 51st
46th 49th
49th 65th
51st 62d
53d 56th
55th 57th
57th
58th "

years later he started with his own and
1792 " 1795 five other families for the paradise in
ism &lt;&lt; isoJ ^ ne wilderness. Driven back upon settle-
1805 " 1806 ments on the Clinch, he was detained a

1806 1809 year and a half lon ger. He penetrated to
1807 " 1813 the Kentucky, and, on June 14, 1775, com-
1811 " 1814 l )leted a 1 fort on the site of the present
1814 Boonesboro. He soon brought his family
1813 * 1815 tnere and planted the first permanent
1815 1825 settlement in Kentucky. Mrs. Boone and
1817 " 1819 her ^ughters were the first white women
1819 " 1829 who ever stood on the banks of the Ken-
1819 " 1820 tucky River.

1825
1829 to 1835 The precarious tenure by which places

1835 " IRIS * ia * were settled in Kentucky by Boone
1842 and others were held, while the land was
1848 to 1849 subjected to bloody incursions by Ind-
1849 " 1852 i ans &gt; was changed after George Rogers
1852 Clarke s operations in Ohio had made
852 1853 1855 the tribes there no longer invaders of the
1855 to 1861 soil south of that river. The number of
59 IBM W "stations" began to multiply. A block-
1861 to 1872 house was built (April, 1779) on the site

1 Mfi i " 1 HAS / i

1868 " 1871 * e - v * Lexington. By a law of
1872 " 1873 Virginia (May, 1779), all persons who
1873 1879 ia( ^ se ttled west of the mountains before
1890 June, 1778, were entitled to claim 400
1885 1897 acres f l a nd, without any payment: and
3890 1893 they had a right of pre-emption to an ad-
1897 " 1903 Jining 1,000 acres for a very small sum
1901 of money, while the whole region between

1903 * 1^ ^ /"^ i m

John Edwards

Humphrey Marshall ....

John Breckinridge

Henry Clay

John B. Thurston

John Pope

Henry Clay

George M Bibb

George Walker

William T. Barry

Isham Talbot

Martin D Hardin

John J. Crittenden

Richard M. Johnson

George M Bibb

John J. Crittenden

James T Morehead .

Thomas Metcalfe

Joseph R. Underwood...
Henry Clay

David Meriwether
Archibald Dixon

John B. Thompson. .. .

John J Critteuden..

Lazarus W. Powell. ....

John C. Breckinridge
Garrett Davis

James Guthrie

Thomas C. McCreery
Willis B. Machen

John W. Stevenson

Thomas C. McCreery

John S Williams . .

Joseph C. S. Blackburn.
John 6 Carlisle

William J. Deboe

Joseph C. S. Blackburn. .
James B. McCrearv. .

Early Settlements. In 1767 John Fin- served for military bounties. Settlements
ley, an Indian trader, explored the coun- quite rapidly increased under this liberal

236

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

Virginia land system, and fourteen years free-labor and slave-labor border States to
after its passage Kentucky had a popu- decide upon just compromises, and de
lation that entitled it to admission into clared their willingness to support the
the Union as a State. national government, unless the incom-
In Civil War Days. The people were ing President should attempt to " coerce
strongly attached to the Union, but its a State or States." The legislature,

DANIEL BOOXE S FIRST SIGHT OF KENTUCKY.

governor (Beriah Magoffin) and leading which assembled about the same time,

politicians of his party in the State sym- was asked by the governor to declare, by

pathized with the Confederates. The ac- resolution, the " unconditional disappro-

tion of Kentucky was awaited with great bation " of the people of the State of the

anxiety throughout the Union. The gov- employment of force against " seceding

ernor at first opposed secession, for the States." On Jan. 22 the legislature ac-

people were decidedly hostile to revolu- cordingly resolved that the Kentuck-

tionary movements in the Gulf region; ians. united with their brethren of the

yet they as decidedly opposed what was South, would resist any invasion of the

called the " coercion of a sovereign soil of that section at all hazards and

State." At a State convention of Union to the last extremity. This action was

and Douglas men, held on Jan. 8, 1861, taken because the legislatures of several

it was resolved that the rights of Ken- free - labor States had offered troops for

tucky should be maintained in the Union, the use of the national government in

They were in favor of a convention of the enforcing the laws in " seceding States."

237

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

They decided against calling a conven
tion, and appointed delegates to the
Peace Congress.

On April 18 a great Union meeting was
held in Louisville, over which James
Guthrie and other leading politicians of
the State held controlling influence. At
that meeting it was resoJved that Ken
tucky reserved to herself " the right to
choose her own position; and that, while
her natural sympathies are with those
who have a common interest in the pro
tection of slavery, she still acknowledges
her loyalty and fealty to the government
of the United States, which she will
cheerfully render until that government
becomes aggressive, tyrannical, and re
gardless of our rights in slave property."
They declared that the States were the
peers of the national government, and
gave the world to understand that the
latter should not be allowed to use " san
guinary or coercive measures to bring
back the seceded States." They alluded to
the Kentucky State Guard as the " bul
wark of the safety of the commonwealth,
. . . pledged equally to fidelity to the
United States and to Kentucky."

Early in the summer the governor de

clared that arrangements had been made
that neither National or Confederate
troops should set foot on the soil of that
State. The neutrality of Kentucky was
respected many months. Pillow had
urged the seizure of the bluff at Colum
bus, in western Kentucky, as an aid to
him in his attempt to capture Cairo and
Bird s Point, but the solemn assurance
of the Confederate government that Ken
tucky neutrality should be respected re
strained him; but on Sept. 4, General
(Bishop) Polk, with a considerable force,
seized the strong position at Columbus,
under the pretext that National forces
were preparing to occupy that place. The
Confederate Secretary of War publicly
telegraphed to Polk to withdraw his
troops; President Davis privately tele
graphed to him to hold on, saying, " The
end justifies the means." So Columbus
was held and fortified by the Confederates.
General Grant, then in command of the
district at Cairo, took military possession
of Paducah, in northern Kentucky, with
National troops, and the neutrality of
Kentucky was no longer respected. The
seizure of Columbus opened the way for
the infliction upon the people of that

FIRST (PKR.MANENT) STATE-HOUSE, FRANKFORT, KY.
238

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

KEXTL CKY K1VER, FROM HIGH BRIDGE.

State of the horrors of war. All Ken- federates of Kentucky met in convention

tucky, for 100 miles south of the Ohio at Eussellville, Oct. 29, 1861. They drew

River, was made a military department, up a manifesto in which the grievances of

with Gen. Eobert Anderson, the hero of Kentucky were recited, and the action of

Fort Sumter, for its commander. the loyal legislature was denounced. They

Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston, w r as in passed an ordinance of secession, declared

command of the Confederate Western De- the State independent, organized a pro-

partment, which included southern and visional government, chose George W.

western Kentucky, then held by the Con- Johnston provisional governor, appointed

federates, and the State of Tennessee, delegates to the Confederate Congress at

with his headquarters at Nashville. Un- Richmond, and called Bowling Green the

der the shadow of his power the Con- State capital. Fifty-one counties were

239

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

SITE OF THE LAST INDIAN 8ETTLRMENT IN KENTUCKY.

represented in that convention by about These troops were from States north-
200 men, without the sanction of the ward of the Ohio, and loyalists of Ken-
people, tucky and Tennessee. They occupied an
Late in 1861, the Confederates occupied irregular line across Kentucky, paral-
a line of military posts across southern lei with that of the Confederates. Gen-
Kentucky, from Cumberland Gap to Co- eral McCook led 50,000 men down the rail-
lumbus, on the Mississippi River, a dis- road, and pushed the Confederate line to
tance of nearly 400 miles. Don Carlos Bowling Green, after a sharp skirmish at
Buell, major-general, had been appointed Mumfordsville, on the south side of the
commander of the Department of the Ohio, Green River. In eastern Kentucky Col.
with his headquarters at Louisville. There James A. Garfield struck (Jan. 7, 1862)
he gathered a large force, with which he the Confederates, under Humphrey Mar-
was enabled to strengthen various ad- shall, near Prestonburg, on the Big Sandy
vanced posts and throw forward along the River, and dispersed them. This ended
line of the Nashville and Louisville Rail- Marshall s military career, and Garfield s
way a large force destined to break the services there won for him the commis-
Confederate line. He had under his com- sion of a brigadier-general. On the 19th,
mand 114,000 men, arranged in four col- General Thomas defeated Gen. George B.
umns, commanded respectively by Brig.- Crittenden near Mill Spring, when Gen-
Gens. A. McDowell McCook, O. M. eral Zollicoffer was slain and his troops
Mitchel, G. H. Thomas, and T. L. Grit- driven into northwestern Tennessee. This
tenden, acting as major-generals, and latter blow effectually severed the Con-
aided by twenty brigade commanders, federate lines in Kentucky, and opened

240

KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS

the way by which the Confederates were co-States forming, as to itself, the other
soon driven out of the State and also out party. That the government created by
of Tennessee. The Confederate line was this compact was not made the exclusive
paralyzed eastward of Bowling Green, and or final judge of the extent of the powers
their chief fortifications and the bulk of delegated to itself; since that would have
their troops were between Nashville made its discretion, and not the Constitu-
and Bowling Green and the Mississippi, tion, the measure of its powers; but that
On that line was strong Fort Donel- as in all other cases of compact among
son, on the Cumberland River. Believ- parties having no common judge, each
ing Beauregard to be a more dashing offi- party has an equal right to judge for it-
cer than Johnston, the Confederates ap- self, as well of infractions as of the mode
pointed him commander of the Western and measure of redress.
Department, late in January, 1862, and II. Resolved, that the Constitution of
he was succeeded in the command at Ma- the United States having delegated to Con-
nassas by Gen. G. W. Smith, formerly of gress a power to punish treason, counter-
New York City. feiting the securities and current coin of

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, the United States, piracies and felonies

THE. The Federal party in the United committed on the high seas, and offences

States determined to crush out by law the against the laws of nations, and no other

anti-Federalists who were bitterly attack- crimes whatever, and it being true as a

ing the administration. In 1708 they sue- general principle, and one of the amend-

ceeded in passing the Naturalization act ments to the Constitution having also de-

of June 18, the Alien acts of June 25, and declared " that the powers not delegated

July 6, and the Sedition act of July 14. to the United States by the Constitution,

Virginia, New York, New Jersey, Penn- nor prohibited by it to the States, are re-

sylvania, and Kentucky petitioned Con- served to the States respectively, or to the

gress to repeal these laws. Of these, Ken- people," therefore also the same act of

tucky felt the most aggrieved, and on Congress passed on July 14, 1798, and en-

Nov. 8, 1798, John Breckinridge intro- titled "An act in addition to the act en-

duced the Kentucky resolutions, which titled an act for the punishment of cer-

were substantially drafted by Jefferson, tain crimes against the United States," as

These were adopted by the Lower House also the act passed on June 27, 1798, en-

on Nov. 10, by the Upper House on Nov. titled " An act to punish frauds com-

13, and approved by the governor on mitted on the Bank of the United States "

Nov. 1C. Copies were immediately print- (and all other of their acts which assume

ed and sent to the officials of all the other to create, define, or punish crimes other

States and to Congress. The following than those enumerated in the Constitu-

is the text of these resolutions: tion), are altogether void and of no force,

and that the power to create, define, and

I. Resolved, that the several States com- punish such other crimes is reserved, and

posing the United States of America are of right appertains solely and exclusively

not united on the principle of unlimited to the respective States, each within its

submission to their general government ; own Territory.

but that by compact under the style and III. Resolved, that it is true as a gen-
title of a Constitution for the United eral principle, and is also expressly de-
States, and of amendments thereto, they clared by one of the amendments to the
constituted a general government for Constitution, that " the powers not dele-
special purposes, delegated to that govern- gated to the United States by the Consti-
inent certain definite powers, reserving tution, nor prohibited by it to the States,
each State to itself, the residuary mass are reserved to the States respectively or
of right to their own self-government; and to the people"; and that no power over
that whensoever the general government the freedom of religion, freedom of speech,
assumes undelegated powers, its acts are or freedom of the press being delegated to
unauthoritative, void, and are of no force, the United States by the Constitution, nor
That to this compact each State acceded prohibited by it to the States, all law-
as a State, and is an integral party, its ful powers respecting the same did of right
V. Q 241

KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, THE

remain, and were reserved to the States, the act of the Congress of the United
or to the people; that thus was manifested States passed on June 22, 1798, en-
their determination to retain to them- titled " An act concerning aliens," which
selves the right of judging how far the assumes power over alie"n friends not
licentiousness of speech and of the press delegated by the Constitution, is not
may be abridged without lessening their law, but is altogether void and of no
freedom, and how far those abuses, which force.

cannot be separated from their use, V. Resolved, that in addition to the
should be tolerated, rather than the use be general principle, as well as the express
destroyed; and thus also they guarded declaration, that powers not delegated are
against all abridgment by the United reserved, another and more special pro-
States of the freedom of religious opinions vision inserted in the Constitution from
and exercises, and retained to themselves abundant caution has declared " that the
the right of protecting the same, as this migration or importation of such per-
State, by a law passed on the general de- sons as any of the States now existing
mand of its citizens, had already protected shall think proper to admit, shall not be
them from all human restraint or inter- prohibited by the Congress prior to the
ference; and that in addition to this gen- year 1808." That this commonwealth does
eral principle and express declaration, an- admit the migration of alien friends
other and more special provision has been described as the subject of said act con-
made by one of the amendments to the cerning aliens; that a provision against
Constitution, which expressly declares prohibiting their migration is a pro-
that " Congress shall make no law re- vision against all acts equivalent there-
specting an establishment of religion, or to, or it would be nugatory; that to
prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or remove them when migrated is equiva-
abridging the freedom of speech, or of the lent to a prohibition of their migra-
press," thereby guarding in the same sen- tion, and is therefore contrary to the
tence, and under the same words, the free- said provision of the Constitution, and
doin of religion, of speech, and of the press, void.

insomuch, that whatever violates either, VI. Resolved, that the imprisonment of
throws down the sanctuary which covers a person under the protection of the laws
the others, and that libels, falsehoods, and of this commonwealth on his failure to
defamation, equally with heresy and false obey the simple order of the President to
religion, are withheld from the cogni- depart out of the United States, as is un-
zance of federal tribunals. That there- dertaken by the said act entitled " An act
fore the act of the Congress of the concerning aliens," is contrary to the Con-
United States, passed on July 14, 1798, stitution, one amendment to which has
entitled " An act in addition to the act provided that " no person shall be deprived
for the punishment of certain crimes of liberty without due process of law," and
against the United States," which does that another having provided " that in all
abridge the freedom of the press, is criminal prosecutions the accused shall
not law, but is altogether void and of enjoy the right to a public trial by an
no effect. impartial jury, to be informed of the nat-

IV. Resolved, that alien friends are un- ure and cause of the accusation, to be
der the jurisdiction and protection of the confronted with the witnesses against him,
laws of the State wherein they are; that to have compulsory process for obtaining
no power over them has been delegated to witnesses in his favor, and to have the
the United States, nor prohibited to the assistance of counsel for his defence,"
individual States distinct from their the same act undertaking to authorize the
power over citizens; and it being true as President to remove a person out of the
a general principle, and one of the amend- United States who is under the protection
ments to the Constitution having also de- of the law, on his own suspicion, with-
clared that " the powers not delegated to out accusation, without jury, without pub-
the United States by the Constitution nor lie trial, without confrontation of the
prohibited by it to the States are reserved witnesses against him, without having
to the States respectively or to the people," witnesses In his favor, without defence,

242

KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, THE

without counsel, is contrary to these pro- a repeal of the aforesaid unconstitutional
visions also of the Constitution, is there- and obnoxious acts.

fore not law but utterly void and of no IX. Resolved, lastly, that the governor
force. That transferring the power of of this commonwealth be, and is hereby
judging any person who is under the pro- authorized and requested to communicate
tection of the laws, from the courts to the the preceding resolutions to the legislat
ures of the several States, to assure them
that this commonwealth considers Union
for specified national purposes, and par-

which provides that " the judicial power ticularly for those specified in their late

federal compact, to be friendly to the
peace, happiness, and prosperity of all the
States; that faithful to that compact, ac
cording to the plain intent and meaning
in which it was understood and acceded
this transfer of judiciary powers is to that to by the several parties, it is sincerely
magistrate of the general government who anxious for its preservation ; that it does
already possesses all the executive, and also believe, that to take from the States
a qualified negative in all the legislative all the powers of self - government, and

President of the United States, as is un
dertaken by the same act concerning aliens,
is against the article of the Constitution

of the United States shall be vested in
courts, the judges of which shall hold
their offices during good behavior," and
that the said act is void for that reason
also; and it is further to be noted that

power.

VII. Eesolved, that the construction ap
plied by the general government (as is

transfer them to a general and consoli
dated government, without regard to the
special delegations and reservations sol-

evinced by sundry of their proceedings) to emnly agreed to in that compact, is not

those parts of the Constitution of the for the peace, happiness, or prosperity of

United States which delegate to Congress these States. And that therefore this com-

a power to lay and collect taxes, duties, monwealth is determined, as it doubts not

imposts, and excises; to pay the debts its co-States are, tamely to submit to un-

and provide for the common defence and delegated and consequently unlimited pow-

general welfare of the United States, and ers in no man or body of men on earth;

to make all laws which shall be necessary that if the acts before specified should

and proper for carrying into execution the stand, these conclusions would flow from

powers vested by the Constitution in the them; that the general government may

government of the United States, or any
department thereof, goes to the destruc-

place any act they think proper on the
list of crimes and punish it themselves,

tion of all the limits prescribed to their whether enumerated or not enumerated by

power by the Constitution,
meant by that instrument to be subsid
iary only to the execution of the limit-

That words the Constitution as cognizable by them;
that they may transfer its cognizance to
the President or any other person, who

ed
as

powers, w ue
themselves to

ought not to be so construed may himself by the accuser, counsel, judge,
give unlimited powers, and jury, whose suspicions may be the
nor a part so to be taken, as to destroy evidence, his order the sentence, his offi-
the whole residue of the instrument.
That the proceedings of the general gov
ernment, under color of these articles, will very numerous and valuable description

cer the executioner, and his breast the
sole record of the transaction ; that a

be a fit and necessary subject for re-
visal and correction at a time of greater

of the inhabitants of these States, being
by this precedent reduced as oxitlaws to

tranquillity, while those specified in the the absolute dominion of one man, and

preceding resolutions call for immediate the barrier of the Constitution thus swept

redress. away from us all, no rampart now re-

VIII. Resolved, that the preceding reso- mains against the passions and the power

lutions be transmitted to the Senators and of a majority of Congress, to protect from

Representatives in Congress from this a like exportation or other more grievous

commonwealth, who are hereby enjoined punishment the minority of the same

to present the same to their respective body, the legislatures, judges, governors,

Houses, and to use the best endeavors to and counsellors of the States, nor their

procure at the next session of Congress, other peaceable inhabitants who may ven-

243

KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, THE

ture to reclaim the constitutional rights ments on the acts concerning aliens, and
and liberties of the States and people, or for the punishment of certain crimes
who for other causes, good or bad, may hereinbefore specified, plainly declaring
be obnoxious to the views or marked by whether these acts are of are not au-
the suspicions of the President, or be thorized by the federal compact. And it
thought dangerous to his or their elec- doubts not that their sense will be so an-
tions or other interests, public or person- nounced as to prove their attachment un-
al; that the friendless alien has indeed altered to limited government, whether
been selected as the safest subject of a general or particular, and that the rights
first experiment; but the citizen will soon and liberties of their co-States will be ex-
follow, or rather has already followed, posed to no dangers by remaining em-
for already has a sedition act marked him barked on a common bottom with their
as its prey; that these and successive acts own; that they will concur with this
of the same character, unless arrested on commonwealth in considering the said
the threshold, may tend to drive these acts so palpably against the Constitution
States into revolution and blood, and will as to amount to an undisguised declara-
furnish new calumnies against Republican tion, that the compact is not meant to
governments, and new pretexts for those be the measure of the powers of the gen-
who wish it to be believed that men can- eral government, but that it will pro-
not be governed but by a rod of iron ; that ceed in the exercise over these States of
it would be a dangerous delusion were a all powers whatsoever; that they will view
confidence in the men of our choice to this as seizing the rights of the States
silence our fears for the safety of our and consolidating them in the hands of
rights; that confidence is everywhere the the general government with a power as-
parent of despotism; free government is sumed to bind the States (not merely in
founded in jealousy and not in confi- cases made federal), but in all cases what-
dence; it is jealousy and not confidence soever, by laws made, not with their con-
which prescribes limited constitutions to sent, but by others against their consent;
bind down those whom we are obliged to that this would be to surrender the form
trust with power; that our Constitution of government we have chosen, and to live
has accordingly fixed the limits to which under one deriving its powers from its
and no further our confidence may go; own will, and not from our authority;
and let the honest advocate of confidence and that the co-States recurring to their
read the Alien and Sedition acts, and say natural right in cases not made federal
if the Constitution has not been wise in will concur in declaring these acts void
fixing limits to the government it created, and of no force, and will each unite
and whether we should be wise in destroy- with this commonwealth in requesting
ing those limits. Let him say what the their repeal at the next session of Con-
government is if it be not a tyranny, gress.

which the men of our choice have conferred Virginia affirmed substantially the same
on the President, and the President of our threatening doctrine, Dec. 21, 1798, more
choice has assented to and accepted over temperately and cautiously set forth in
the friendly strangers, to whom the mild resolutions drawn by Madison, as follows:

spirit of our country and its laws had

pledged hospitality and protection; that Resolved, that the General Assembly
the men of our choice have more respected of Virginia doth unequivocally express a
the bare suspicions of the President than firm resolution to maintain and defend
the solid rights of innocence, the claims the Constitution of the United States, and
of justification, the- sacred force of truth, the constitution of this State, against ev-
and the forms and subsistence of law and ery aggression, either foreign or domestic,
justice. In questions of power, then, let and that they will support the govern-
no more be heard of confidence in man, ment of the United States in all measures
but bind him down from mischief by the warranted by the former,
chains of the Constitution. That this That this Assembly most solemnly de-
commonwealth does therefore call on its clares a warm attachment to the union of
co-States for an expression of their senti- the States, to maintain which it pledges

244

KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, THE

all its powers; and that for this end it is
their duty to watch ever and oppose every
infraction of those principles which con
stitute the only basis of that union, be
cause a faithful observance of them can
alone secure its existence and the public
happiness.

That this Assembly doth explicitly and
peremptorily declare that it views the pow
ers of the federal government, as result
ing from the compact to which the States
are parties, as limited by the plain sense
and intention of the instrument constitut
ing that compact; as no further valid than
they are authorized by the grants enu
merated in that compact, and that in case
of a deliberate, palpable, and dangerous
exercise of other powers not granted by
the said compact, the States who are par
ties thereto have the right, and are in
duty bound, to interpose for arresting the
progress of the evil, and for maintaining
within their respective limits the au
thorities, rights, and liberties appertain
ing to them.

That the General Assembly doth also
express its deep regret that a spirit has,
in sundry instances, been manifested by
the federal government to enlarge its
powers by forced constructions of the con
stitutional charter which defines them;
and that indications have appeared of a
design to expound certain general phrases
(which having been copies from the very
limited grant of powers in the former arti
cles of confederation were the less liable
to be misconstrued), so as to destroy the
meaning and effect of the particular enu
meration, which necessarily explains and
limits the general phrases ; so as to
consolidate the States by degrees into
one sovereignty, the obvious tendency and
inevitable consequence of which would be
to transform the present republican sys
tem of the United States into an abso
lute or, at best, a mixed monarchy.

That the General Assembly doth partic
ularly protest against the palpable and
alarming infractions of the Constitution,
in the two late cases of the " Alien and Se
dition acts," passed at the last session of
Congress, the first of which exercises a
power nowhere delegated to the federal
government, and which, by uniting legis
lative and judicial powers to those of
executive, subverts the general principles

of free government, as well as the particu
lar organization and positive provisions of
the federal Constitution; and the other
of which acts exercises, in like manner, a
power not delegated by the Constitution,
but on the contrary expressly and positive
ly forbidden by one of the amendments
thereto; a power which more than any
other ought to produce universal alarm,
because it is levelled against the right of
freely examining public characters and
measures, and of free communication
among the people thereon, which has never
been justly deemed the only effectual
guardian of every other right.

That this State having, by its conven
tion which ratified the federal Constitu
tion, expressly declared " that, among
other essential rights, the liberty of con
science and of the press cannot be can
celled, abridged, restrained, or modified by
any authority of the United States," and,
from its extreme anxiety to guard these
rights from every possible attack of
sophistry or ambition, having with other
States recommended an amendment for
that purpose, which amendment was in
due time annexed to the Constitution, it
would mark a reproachful inconsistency
and criminal degeneracy, if an indifference
were now shown to the most palpable vio
lation of one of the rights thus declared
and secured, and to the establishment of
a. precedent which may be fatal to the
other.

That the good people of this common
wealth having ever felt and continuing
to feel the most sincere affection to their
brethren of the other States, the truest
anxiety for establishing and perpetuating
the union of all, and the most scrupulous
fidelity to that Constitution which is the
pledge of mutual friendship, and the in
strument of mutual happiness, the Gen
eral Assembly doth solemnly appeal to the
like dispositions of the other States, in
confidence that they will concur with this
commonwealth in declaring, as it does
hereby declare, that the acts aforesaid
are unconstitutional, and that the neces
sary and proper measures will be taken
by each for co - operating with this
State in maintaining unimpaired the
authorities, rights, and liberties reserved
to the States respectively, or to the
people.

245

KEOKUK KERR

That the governor be desired to trans- the Virginia peninsula, early in 1862, it
mit a copy of the foregoing resolutions to was necessary to hold the Confederates in
the executive authority of each of the oth- check in the Shenandoah Valley (where
er States, with a request that the same they were led by "Stonewall" Jackson),
may be communicated to the legislature in order to secure Washington, D. C.
thereof. General Lander, who had struck Jackson a

And that a copy be furnished to each of sharp blow at Blooming Gap, had died,
the Senators and Representatives repre- and was succeeded in command by Gen-
senting this State in the Congress of the eral Shields. Banks was then (February.
United States. 1862) in command of the 5th Corps.

The Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 were He sent Colonel Geary to reoccupy Har-
followed by another series in 1799, in per s Ferry, and took command there in
which the right of a sovereign State to person late in that month. He pushed
nullify obnoxious laws of the federal gov- Jackson back to Winchester, where he was
eminent was distinctly claimed. posted with about 8,000 men, when John-

The Resolutions of 1799 asserted " that ston evacuated Manassas, early in March,
the principle and construction contended Then he retired up the valley, pursued by
for by sundry of the State legislatures, Shields, who produced great consterna-
that the general government is the exclu- tion among the Confederates. Shields
sive judge of the nature of the powers found his antagonist too strong to war-
delegated to it, stopped not short of des- rant an attack, and fell back to Winches-
potism since the discretion of those who ter, closely pursued by cavalry under Colo-
administer the government and not the nel Ashby. Banks repaired to Manassas
Constitution would be the measure of after its evacuation, leaving Shields to
their powers; that, the several States who guard the Shenandoah Valley. Near Win-
formed that instrument, being sovereign Chester he had nearly 7,000 men (part of
and independent, have the unquestionable them cavalry) and twenty- four guns well
right to judge of the infraction; and, posted half a mile north of the village of
that a nullification of those sovereign- Kernstown and 2y 2 miles south of Win-
ties of all unauthorized acts done under Chester. On March 22 Ashby s cavalry
color of that instrument is the rightful drove in Shieds s pickets. Under cover of
remedy." night Shields pushed on some troops, under

Keokuk, chief of the Sac and Fox Ind- Colonel Kimball, to Kernstown. A sharp
ians; born on Rock River, 111., about 1780; and severe battle ensued, in which Shields
was a strong friend of the whites, and by was badly wounded. The Confederates
his influence among his people averted a were repulsed at all points, and fled up
number of attacks which they had planned the valley, closely pursued by Banks, who
against the Americans. In 1832, when remained in that region to watch the Con-
his band was intent upon uniting with federates, while McClellan should move on
BLACK HAWK (q. v.) in an attack on the Richmond.

Americans, he held his warriors aloof and Kerr, MICHAEL CRAWFORD, statesman;
even held in check Black Hawk himself, born in Titusville, Pa., March 15, 1827 ;
Later, he visited Washington, New York, graduated at the Louisville University in
etc. He died in Kansas in June, 1848. 1851; removed to Indiana in 1852, where

Kernan, FRANCIS, lawyer; born in he practised law. After filling various
\Vayne, N. Y., Jan. 14, 1816; was gradu- State offices he was elected to Congress
ated at Georgetown College, Washington, in 1864 and served until 1872, when he
D. C., in 1836; admitted to the bar in was defeated for re-election by a small
1840; reporter of the New York Court of majority. He was returned to Congress
Appeals in 1854-57 ; elected to the legisla- in 1874, and elected speaker of the House,
ture in 1861, and to Congress in 1862; Dec. 6, 1875. He died in Rockbridge, Va.,
and was a Democratic United States Aug. 19, 1876.

Senator in 1875-81. He died in Utica, Kerr, ORPHEUS C. See NEWELL, ROB-
N. Y., Sept. 15, 1892. ERT HENRY.

Kernstown, BATTLE AT. When the Kerr, WILLIAM JASPER, educator; born
Army of the Potomac was transferred to in Richmond, Utah, Nov. 17, 18G3; took

246

FRAXCIS SCOTT KKT.

KETTEL KEY

the normal course at the University of Frederick county, Md., Aug. 9, 1780; was
Utah in 1882-84, and studied at Cornell a lawyer and poet, and, removing to
University in 1890-91, and during the Washington. D. C., became district attor-
summers of 1891-93. He was instructor ney. A collection of his poems was pub-
in geology, physiology, and physics in
Brigham Young College in 1887-88, and
instructor in mathematics till 1892, when
he became Professor of Mathematics and
Astronomy in the University of Utah,
where he remained till 1894, when he was
elected president of Brigham Young Col
lege.

Kettel, SAMUEL, editor; born in New-
buryport, Mass., Aug. 5, 1800; became
editor of the Boston Courier in 1848. His
publications include Specimens of Ameri
can Poetry, with Critical and Biographical
Notices; Personal Narrative of the First
Voyage of Columbus, etc. He died in
Maiden, Mass., Dec. 3, 1855.

Kettle Creek, BATTLE OF. Nearly
800 North and South Carolina Tories, led
by Colonel Boyd, started to join the Brit
ish at Augusta, in February, 1779, deso
lating the upper country of the latter

State on the way. When within two days Hshed after his death, in Baltimore, Jan.
march of Augusta they were attacked 11. 1843.

(Feb. 14), at Kettle Creek, by Col. An- The Star-Spangled Banner. On the re-
diew Pickens, with the militia of Ninety- turn of the British to their vessels after
six, and, after a sharp fight, were de- the capture of Washington, they carried
feated. Boyd and seventy of his men with them Dr. Beanes, an influential and
were killed, and seventy-five were made well-known physician of Upper Marlboro,
prisoners. Pickens lost thirty - eight His friends begged for his release, but
men. Admiral Cockburn refused to give him up,

Key, DAVID MCK.ENDREE, jurist; born and sent him on board the flag-ship of
in Green county, Tenn., Jan. 27, 1824; Admiral Cochrane. Key, then a resident
passed his youth on a farm ; gradu- of Georgetown, well known for his affa-
ated at Hiwassee College, and admitted to bility of manner, was requested to go to
the bar in 1850; and settled in Chat
tanooga to practise in 1853. He was a
Democratic Presidential elector in 1856
and 1860; served throughout the Civil
War in the Confederate army; was a
member of the State constitutional con
vention in 1870; chancellor of the third
chancery district of Tennessee from 1870
to 1875; and was elected United States

Senator in 1875, to fill a vacancy. He Cochrane as a solicitor for the release of
was appointed Postmaster-General in the doctor. He consented, and the Presi-
President Hayes s cabinet, in 1877; re- dent granted him permission. In corn-
signed on becoming judge of the eastern pany with John S. Skinner, a well-known
and middle districts of Tennessee, in citizen of Baltimore, he went in the car-
1880; and resigned the last appointment tel-ship Minden, under a flag of truce,
in 1895. He died in Chattanooga, Tenn., They found the British ships at the mouth
Feb. 3, 1900. of the Potomac, preparing to attack Balti-

Key, FKAXCIS SCOTT, author; born in more. Cochrane agreed to release Beanes,

247

SIGNATURE OF FRANCIS SCOT! KEV.

KEY, FRANCIS SCOTT

r -

2
g

248

KEYES KICKAPOOS

but refused to allow him or his friends to 1848; admitted to the bar in 1862; con-
return then. They were placed on board nected with the New York State banking
the Surprise, where they were courteously department in 1865-73; and later resumed
treated. When the fleet went up Patapsco law practice. His publications include
Bay, they were sent back to the Minden, New York Court of Appeals Reports; His-
with a guard of marines to prevent their tory of Savings-Banks in the United
landing and conveying information to States; and New York Code of Public In-
their countrymen. The Minden was an- struction. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
chored within sight of Fort McHenry, and Oct. 17, 1897.

from her decks the three friends observed Keyes, ERASMUS DARWIN, military

the tierce bombardment of the fort which officer; born in Brimfield, Mass., May 29,

soon ensued. It ceased before the dawn 1810; graduated at West Point in 1832,

(Sept. 14, 1814). The anxious Americans entered the artillery, and was made

did not know whether the fort had sur- assistant adjutant, with rank of captain,

rendered or not. They awaited the appear- in 1838. Becoming full captain in 1841,

ance of daylight with painful suspense, he was appointed instructor of artillery

In the dim light of the opening morning and cavalry at West Point in 1844. He

they saw through their glasses the star- did service against the Indians on the

spangled banner yet waving in triumph Pacific coast, and when the Civil War

over the fort, and soon learned the fate broke out was appointed (May, 1861),

of the land expedition against Baltifnore colonel of infantry and brigadier-general

and preparations of the discomfited British of volunteers. At the battle of Bull

for speedy departure. When the fleet was Run, in July, he commanded the first bri-

ready to sail, Key and his friends were re- gade in Taylor s division. Early in 1862

leased, and returned to the city. It was he was appointed commander of the 4th

during the excitement of the bombardment, Corps of the Army of the Potomac, and

and when pacing the deck of the Minden won the rank of major-general of volun-

between midnight and dawn, that Key teers and the brevet of brigadier-general,

composed the popular song, The Star- U. S. A., by his conduct in the peninsular

Spangled Banner, the first stanza of which campaign. He resigned May 6, 1864, and

expressed the feelings of thousands of eye- engaged in gold - mining. General Keyes

witnesses of the scene, and is reproduced published Fifty Years Observation of

on the preceding page from the original Men and Events. He died in Nice, France,

manuscript. The rude substance of the Oct. 11, 1895.

song was written on the back of a Keystone State, the popular title for

letter which Key happened to have in the State of Pennsylvania, supposed to

his pocket. On the night after his re- have been given because of its central po-

turn to Baltimore he wrote it out in sition among the original thirteen States

full and read it to his uncle, Judge at the time of the formation of the na-

Nicholson, one of the defenders of the tional Constitution. In an arch formed

fort, and asked his opinion of it. The by the thirteen States Pennsylvania

pleased judge took it to the print- would, from its geographical position,

ing-office of Capt. Benjamin Edes, and form the keystone. The early certifi-

caused it to be printed in hand - bill cates of membership of the Tammany

form. Samuel Sands set up the song in Society have an arch composed of the

type, printed it, and distributed it among States, of which Pennsylvania is the key-

the citizens. It was first sung by Charles stone.

Durang, at a restaurant next door to Kickapoos, an Algonquian tribe found

the HolHday Street Theatre, Baltimore, by the French missionaries, towards the

to an assemblage of patriotic defenders close of the seventeenth century, on the

of Baltimore, and after that nightly at Wisconsin River. They were great rovers ;

the theatre and everywhere in public and were closely allied to the Miamis ; and in

private. 1712 joined the Foxes in an attack upon

Keyes, EMERSON WILLARD, lawyer; Detroit, and in wars long afterwards,

born in Jamestown, N. Y., June 30, 1828; They were reduced in 1747 to about eighty

graduated at the State Normal School in warriors, and when the English conquered

249

KIDD

Canada in 1763 there were about 100 tion of Livingston, who was then in Eng-

Kickapoos on the Wabash. They joined land, Captain Kidd was appointed her

Pontiac in his conspiracy, but soon made commander and admitted as a shareholder,

peace; and in 1779 they joined George His commission bore the. royal seal and

Rogers Clarke in his expedition against signature. On April 3, 1696, he sailed

the British in the Northwest. Showing from Plymouth, and arrived at New York

hostility to the Americans, their settle- about July 4. With his ship well pro-

ment on the Wabash was desolated in visioned, and with a crew of 154 men and

1791; but they were not absolutely sub- boys, he sailed for Madagascar, the chief

dued until the treaty at Greenville in rendezvous of the pirates who infested

1795, after Wayne s decisive victory, when the India seas.

they ceded a part of their land for a small In the course of a year or more rumors
annuity. In the early part of the nine- reached England that Kidd had turned
teenth century the Kickapoos made other pirate. At length the clamor became so
cessions of territory; and in 1811 they loud that the royal shareholder in the en
joined Tecumseh and fought the Amer- terprise and his associates perceived the
icans at Tippecanoe. In the War of 1812 necessity of taking action, and an order
they were the friends of the English; and was issued to all English colonial govern-
afterwards a larger portion of them ors to cause the arrest of Kidd wherever
crossed the Mississippi and seated them- he might be found. In the spring of 1699
selves upon a tract of land on the Osage he appeared in the West Indies in a vessel
River. Some cultivated the soil, while loaded with treasure. Leaving her in a
others went southward as far as Texas, in bay on the coast of Haiti in charge of his
roving bands, plundering on all sides. For first officer and a part of the ship s corn-
some time Texas suffered by these inroads ; pany, he sailed northward with forty men
but in 1854 some of them, peaceably in- in a sloop, entered Long Island Sound,
clined, settled in Kansas, when, becom- and at Oyster Bay took on board James
ing dissatisfied, many of them went off to Emott, a New York lawyer, and, landing
Mexico, where they opposed the depreda- him on Rhode Island, sent him to the Earl
tions of the Apaches. In 1899 there were of Bellomont, then at Boston as governor
237 Kickapoos at the Pottawattomie and of Massachusetts, to inquire how he
Great Nehama agency in Kansas, and 246 (Kidd) would be received by his partner
Mexican Kickapoos at the Sac and Fox in the enterprise. During Emott s absence
agency in Oklahoma. Kidd had buried some of his treasure,
Kidd, WILLIAM, navigator; born in which he brought with the sloop, on Gar-
Scotland, presumably in Greenock, about diner s Island. Bellomont s answer was
1650; entered the merchant-marine ser- such that Kidd went to Boston, July 1,
vice in his youth, and distinguished him- 1699, where he was arrested, sent to Eng-
self as a privateersman against the French land, tried on a charge of piracy and mur-
in the West Indies. He was active der, found guilty, and executed, May 24,
against the pirates that infested the wa- 1701, protesting his innocence. It is ad-
ters near New York, out of which port mitted that his trial was grossly unfair;
he sailed; and for his services the Assem- and it is believed that Kidd was made a
bly of the province gave him $750 in 1691. scape-goat to bear away the sins of men in
In 1695 a company for the suppression high places. Earl Bellomont sent to Haiti
of piracy by privateering was organized in for Kidd s ship, but it had been stripped
England. Among the shareholders in the by the men in charge; but he recovered
enterprise were King William III., the the treasure buried on Gardiner s Island;
Earl of Bellomont, Robert Livingston, of also that which Kidd had with him on
New York, and other men of wealth and the sloop, amounting in the aggregate
influence. One-tenth of all the booty to about $70,000. Ever since Kidd s
gained by privateering was to be set aside death there have been numerous at-
for the King, and the rest was to be tempts to discover places along the At-
divided among the shareholders. A new lantic and Gulf coasts where the pirate
ship, of 287 tons, was bought, and named was believed to have secreted other
the Adventure Galley; and at the sugges- treasure.

250

KIDDER KIEFT

Kidder, FREDERICK, author; born in
New Ipswich, N. H., April 16, 1804; en
gaged in business at different times in
Boston, New York, and the South; and
became widely known as an antiquarian
authority. His publications include The
History of New Ipswich, N. H., from Its
First Grant in 1736 to 1852 (with Augus
tus A. Gould) ; The Expeditions of Copt.
John Lovewell; Military Operations in
Eastern Maine and Nova Scotia during
the Revolution; History of the First New
Hampshire Regiment in the War of the
Revolution; and History of the Boston
Massacre, March 5, 1110. He died in
Molrose, Mass., Dec. 19, 1885.

Kieft, WILHELM, Dutch governor; born
in Holland, about 1600. Little is known
of him before his appearance at Manhat
tan on March 28, 1638. He seems to have
been an unpopular dweller at Rochelle,
France, where his effigy had been hung
upon a gallows. De Vries, an active mar
iner, who knew him well, ranked him
among the " great rascals " of his age. He
was energetic, spiteful, and rapacious the
reverse of Van Twiller, his immediate pred
ecessor. Kieft began his administration
by concentrating all executive power in his
own hand? ; and he and his council pos
sessed such dignity, in their own estima
tion, that it became a high crime to ap
peal from their decision. He found public
affairs in the capital of New Nether-
land in a wretched condition, and put
forth a strong hand to bring order out of
confusion. Abuses abounded, and his
measures of reform almost stripped the
citizens of their privileges. Dilapidated
Fort Amsterdam was repaired and new
warehouses for the company were erected.
He caused orchards to be planted, gardens
to be cultivated, police ordinances to be
framed and enforced, religion and morality
to be fostered, and regular religious ser
vices to be publicly conducted. A spa
cious stone church was built within
the fort, and the Connecticut architect
hung in its wooden tower Spanish
bells which had been captured at Porto
Rico.

A more liberal policy in respect to the
ownership of land caused the immigration
to increase, and Cavaliers from Virginia
and Puritans from New England were
seen listening to Dominie Bogardus in his

fine pulpit in the new church. All that
Kieft required of new settlers was an oath
of fidelity and allegiance to the States-
General of Holland. The demands for new
homesteads caused Kieft to purchase
lower Westchester and a large portion of
Long Island. The encroaching Puritans
on the east, and the Swedes on the Dela
ware, gave Kieft much concern, especially
the latter, for Minuit, a former Dutch
governor, was at their head. Kieft pro
tested against their " intrusion." Minuit
laughed at him, and disregarded his
threats. Very soon the energetic char
acter of the governor, manifested in well
doing, was as conspicuous in ill-doing. He
allowed his fellow-traders with the Ind
ians to stupefy them with rum and cheat
them; and he demanded tribute of furs,
corn, and wampum from the tribes around
Manhattan. They paid the tribute, but
cursed the tyrant. Kieft saw their power
and was afraid. Some swine were stolen
from colonists on Staten Island, when
Kieft, seeking an excuse for striking ter
ror to the hearts of those he had wronged,
accused the Raritans of the crime, and
sent armed men to chastise them. The
River Indians grasped their hatchets and
refused to pay tribute any longer. The
hatred of all the savages was aroused.
The people of New Amsterdam were
alarmed, and quarrels between them and
the governor were frequent and stormy.
He wanted to make war on the Indians.
The people refused to bear a mvisket or
favor the crime. Unwilling to bear the
responsibility, Kieft called an assembly
of " masters and heads of families." in
New Amsterdam, to consult upon public
measures. Twelve discreet men were
chosen (1641) to act for them; and
this was the first representative as
sembly in New Netherland. War was
deferred, and the twelve devised a plan
for a municipal government for New Am
sterdam.

Kieft was alarmed, for he did not wish
his own power abridged, and he made
promises (but to be broken) of conces
sions of popular freedom on their giv
ing him consent to chastise the Indians
in Westchester. It was reluctantly given,
when the perfidious governor dissolved
them, and forbade any popular assembly
thereafter. In 1643 he caused a cruel

251

KILBOUENE KILPATRICK

HUGH JUDSON KILPATK1CK.

massacre of fugitive Indians at HOBOKEN dier-general and major-general of volun-
(q. v.). A fierce war was kindled. The teers, and the command of a division of
friendly Long Island tribes joined their cavalry in the Army of the Potomac. He
injured brethren, and the Dutch colony was very active in the campaign against
was threatened with destruction. Help Atlanta in 1864, in Sherman s march to
came from a Puritan, and the Indians
were subdued. Kieft, despised by the
colonists on whom he had brought ruin,
humbly asked them to form a representa
tive council again. The people gladly
did so, for they had lost all confidence
in the governor. This concession was a
pitiful trick of Kieft to foil the wrath of
the colonists. He neglected the advice of
the popular assembly, and sought by
every means to fill his own coffers with
gain against a day of reckoning which
he perceived was near. The representa
tives of the people, finding his rule unen
durable, asked for the recall of Kieft be
fore the colony should be ruined. Their
prayer was heeded, and the people cele
brated his departure by the firing of
great guns. Some pugnacious burghers
threatened the governor with personal
chastisement when he should " take off
the coat with which he was bedecked by

the lords, his masters." The prophecy the sea, and in his march through the
of De Vries (1643) "The murders in Carolinas to the surrender of Johnston,
which you [Kieft] have shed so much For the latter campaign he was brevetted
innocent blood will yet be avenged upon major - general U. S. A. In 1865 - 68
your own head" was fulfilled. Kieft he was United States minister to Chile;
sailed for Holland Aug. 16, 1647, in the in 1881 he was reappointed; and held the
ship Princess, with more than $100,000 post till his death in Valparaiso, Dec. 4,
of ill-gotten wealth. The vessel, by mis- 1881.

take, entered the Bristol channel, struck On Sunday morning, Feb. 28, 1864, Kil-
a rock, and was wrecked on the coast of patrick, with 5,000 cavalry, picked from
Wales, and Kieft was drowned. his own and the divisions of Merritt

Kilbourne, JOHN, author; born in and Gregg, crossed the Rapidan, swept
Berlin, Conn., Aug. 7, 1787; graduated around to the right flank of Lee s army
at Vermont University in 1810. His pub- by way of Spottsylvania Court - house,
lications include Gazetteer of Vermont; and, pushing rapidly towards Richmond,
Gazetteer of Ohio; a volume of Public struck the Virginia Central Railroad at
Documents concerning the Ohio Canals; Beaver Dam station, where he had his
a map of Ohio ; and a School Geogra- first serious encounter with the Confed-
phy. He died in Columbus, O., March 12, crates, under the Maryland leader, Brad-
1831. ley T. Johnson, whom he defeated. Then

Kilpatrick, HUGH JUDSON, military he struck across the South Anna, cut the
officer; born near Deckertown, N. J., Fredericksburg and Richmond Railway,
Jan. 14, 1836; graduated at West and on March 1 halted within 3 miles of
Point in 1861; and first entered the ar- Richmond. His grand object was to
tillery. He was wounded in the battle liberate the Union captives from Libby
of Big Bethel (June, 1861), and in Sep- prison (see CONFEDERATE PRISONS). He
tember was made lieutenant-colonel of was now within the outer line of its
cavalry. His efficient services on all oc- defences, at which the Confederates had
casions won for him the rank of briga- thrown down their arms and fled into

252

KIMBALL KINDERGARTEN

the city. At Spottsylvania Court - house
about 500 of his best men, led by Col.
Ulric Dahlgren, a dashing young officer,
diverged from the main column for the
purpose of striking the James Elver Canal
above Richmond, destroying as much of
it as possible, and, crossing the James
River, attacked the Confederate capital on
the south simultaneously with the attack
of Kilpatrick on the north. The object
of this move was to liberate the Union
prisoners at Belle Isle, on the James
River, in front of Richmond. Kilpat
rick, disappointed in not hearing Dahl-
gren s guns, and hard pressed by the Con
federates as he attempted to penetrate
the second line of defences, withdrew
after a sharp fight, and halted 6 miles
from Richmond. He was pursued by the
Confederates, with whom he skirmished,
and returned to his place of departure.
Meanwhile Dahlgren, misled by a negro
guide, failed to cross the James River,
but struck the outer line of fortifications
on the northern side of Richmond at
dark, March 2. In a conflict that ensued
the Nationals were repulsed, and they
retreated towards Chickahominy, hotly
pursued. Dahlgren and about 100 of his
men became separated from the rest. On
the evening of the 3d the young leader,
in a conflict some distance from Rich
mond, was shot dead, and his men were
made prisoners.

General Sherman, when he heard of
Wheeler s raid, sent Kilpatrick, with
5,000 cavalry, during the night of Aug.
18, 1864, to strike the railway at West
Point, Ga., and break it to Fairborn,
and then to tear up the Macon road
thoroughly. When he reached the Macon
road, near Jonesboro, he was confronted
by Ross s Confederate cavalry. These he
routed, and drove through Jonesboro,
and just as he began tearing up the road
some cavalry came up from the south,
and compelled him to desist and fly. He
swept around, and again struck the road
at Lovejoy s, where he was attacked by
a larger force. Through these he dashed,
capturing and destroying a four-gun bat
tery, and sweeping around, reached head
quarters on the 22d, with seventy pris
oners.

Kimball, SUMNER INCREASE, executive
officer; born in Lebanon, Me., Sept. 2,

1834; graduated at Bowdoin College in
1855; was admitted to the bar in 1858;
and began practice in North Berwick, Me.
In September, 1859, he was elected to the
State legislature; in January, 1861, be
came clerk in the office of the second audi
tor of the treasury at Washington; and
in 1870 became chief clerk. He took
charge of the Revenue Marine Service in
1871, and in 1878 was appointed general
superintendent of the United States Life-
Saving Service. He represented the Unit
ed States in the international marine
conference in 1880. He is the author of
Organization and Methods of the United
States Life-Saving Service.

Kindergarten, a system of education
originated by Friedrich Wilhelm August
Froebel. The first school was opened at
Blankenburg, Germany, but it was not
until 1849 that the system was carried to
any effective extent in that country, and
not until 1851 that it was introduced into
England. The system rests upon the idea
that education in its earliest phases
should depend upon the perceptive facul
ties. Whatever there may be in a child
of instinct, desire, impulse, hope, or pur
pose should at first be strengthened.
Children from the ages of four to six are
admitted to the kindergarten and are
taught by means of toys, games, and sing
ing. Only five kindergarten schools ex
isted in the United States prior to 1870.
When the National Educational Associa
tion met in Boston, Mass., in 1872, a com
mittee was appointed to examine the sys
tem. This committee recommended its
general adoption. When first introduced
into this country it was entirely a pri
vate undertaking; but later, when its suc
cess was proven, it began to be included
in the curriculum of public school educa
tion. At the beginning of the twentieth
century nearly every public school sys
tem, whether in city or town, had a kin
dergarten department in operation. In
recent years the growth of such schools
has been so rapid that a special course of
training for teachers in kindergarten work
has been found necessary, and there are
several institutions that make a specialty
of this teacher-training. In 1900 the
United States bureau of education esti
mated the number of pupils in kinder
gartens at 203,600.

253

KING

King, CHARLES, author; born in Al- 1861, during which time he introduced
bany, N. Y., Oct. 12, 1844; graduated the official-penalty envelope. Later he
at the United States Military Academy in engaged in the practice of his profession
1866, and commissioned a second lieuten- in Washington. He published Turning on
ant in the 1st Artillery; promoted to first the Light (a review of the administration
lieutenant in 1870; transferred to the 5th of President Buchanan), etc. He died in
Cavalry in 1871; promoted captain in Washington, D. C., May 20, 1897.
1879; and in the same year resigned his King, HORATIO COLLINS, lawyer; born
commission. He was inspector-general of in Portland, Me., Dec. 22, 1837; grad-
the Wisconsin National Guard in 1882-89; uated at Dickinson College in 1858; ad-
commissioned colonel of the 4th Regiment mitted to the bar in 1861 ; served in the
in 1890; and made adjutant-general in National army in 1862-65; practised law
1895. Early in 1898 he was appointed a till 1870; then engaged in journalism,
brigadier-general of volunteers for the war He published King s Guide to Regimental
with Spain; served in the Philippines; Courts-Martial, and edited Proceedings of
and resigned Aug. 2, 1899. For many the Army of the Potomac.
years he has been known best as " Captain King, JAMES WILSON, naval engineer ;
King, the author." His publications, born in Maryland in 1818; entered the
which have obtained wide celebrity, in- navy in 1844 as third assistant engineer;
elude Famous and Decisive Battles; Be- served through the Mexican War ; was pro-
tween the Lines; Under Fire; The Gen- moted to chief engineer in 1852; was ap-
eral s Double; A Trooper Galahad; Found pointed chief engineer of the navy-yard in
in the Philippines, etc. New York in 1858; and chief engineer of

King, CLARENCE, geologist; born in the Atlantic blockading squadron in 1861.
Newport, R. I., Jan. 6, 1842; gradu- In 1869-73 he was chief of the bureau
ated at the Sheffield School of Yale Col- of steam engineering. He was retired in
lege in 1862, and joined the California 1880. During his service he made many
geological survey in 1863. He made the improvements in the construction and
paleontological discoveries which deter- equipment of war vessels. His publi-
mined the approximate age of gold-bearing cations include European Ships of War;
rocks. In 1867-72 he led the expedition The War Ships and Navies of the World.
for the geological survey of the 40th par- King, JONAS, missionary; born in Haw-
allel. In the latter year he exposed the ley, Mass., July 29, 1792; graduated at
Arizona " diamond fields " deception. He Williams College in 1816, and at Andover
suggested and organized the United States Seminary in 1819. For some months he
geological survey, and in 1878-81 was its was engaged in missionary work in South
director. From 1881 he was engaged in Carolina; and he went to Palestine in
special investigations. He wrote Syste- the same work in 1824, where he remained
matte Geology; Mountaineering in Sierra about three years. In the fall of 1827 he
Nevada, etc. He died in Phoenix, Ariz., was employed as missionary in the North-
Dec. 24, 1901. ern and Middle States, and in July, 1828,

King, HAMILTON, diplomatist; born in he entered upon the Greek mission. In 1829
St. Johns, Newfoundland, June 4, 1852; he married a Greek lady, and remained in
graduated at Olivet College, Mich., in that country until his death, in Athens,
1878; appointed United States minister May 22, 1869. Before 1867 he had trans-
resident and consul-general to Siam in lated and printed, in modern Greek, five
January, 1898. He is the author of Out- volumes of the American Tract Society s
lines of United States History, etc. publications. He also published four vol-

King, HOKATIO, lawyer ; born in Paris, umes of his own works in that language.

Me., June, 21, 1811; received a common Mr. King was a most efficient missionary,

school education; studied law, and was King, PRESTON, lawyer; born in Og-

admitted to the bar; became a clerk in the densburg, N. Y., Oct. 14, 1806; was gradu-

J ost-office Department in Washington in ated at Union College and later admitted

1839 ; was made first assistant Post- to the bar. He was a member of Congress

master-General in 1854, and was Post- in 1843-47 and in 1849-51; and a Re-

master-General from Feb. 12 to March 7, publican United States Senator in 1857-

254

KING KING S DAUGHTERS AND SONS

G3 ; and later resumed practice in New
York City, where he died Nov. 12, 1865.

King, RUFUS, statesman; born in Scar-
boro, Me., March 14, 1755; graduated at
Harvard in 1777; studied law with Theo-
philus Parsons in Newburyport, and in
1778 became aide-de-camp on General
Glover s staff, in the expedition against
the British on Rhode Island. In 1785 he
was an earnest advocate of the absolute
freedom of the slaves, to be secured by
the operation of an act of Congress, mak
ing such freedom a fundamental principle
of the Constitution. Mr. King and Gen
eral Schuyler were chosen the first repre
sentatives of New York in the national
Senate of 1789, under the new Constitu
tion. Mr. King was a leading Federalist.
From 1798 to 1804 he was American
minister to Great Britain; and in 1818
he was sent to the United States Senate
for the third time. He was an able leader
of the opposition to the admission of
Missouri under the terms of the com
promise as a slave-labor State.
In 1825 he accepted the ap
pointment of minister to Eng
land, but returned in feeble
health the next year, and died
in Jamaica, L. I., April 29,
1827.

King, THOMAS STARR,
clergyman; born in New York
City, Dec. 17, 1824; was a
minister in the Universalist
Church till 1848, and after
wards in the Unitarian Church.
At the outbreak of the Civil
War he worked earnestly for the Union
cause and for the United States Sanitary
Commission. He was a popular lecturer
and the author of The White Hills; Patri
otism and Other Papers; etc. He died in
San Francisco, Cal., March 4, 1864.

King, WILLIAM HENRY, jurist; born in
Fillmore City, Utah, June 3, 1863; re
ceived a collegiate education ; began law
practice in 1887; was president of the
Utah Senate; appointed associate justice
of the Utah Supreme Court in 1894; and
was a Democratic member of Congress in
1896-98, declining renomination.

King, WILLIAM Rurus, statesman ; born
in Sampson county, N. C., April 7, 1786;
graduated at the University of North
Carolina in 1803; practised law, and

served in the legislature of his State. He
was a member of Congress (1811-16), and
for two years (1816-18) was secretary of
legation at Naples. On his return he be
came a cotton-planter in Alabama, and
was United States Senator from 1819 to
1844, and from 1847 to 1853, being minis
ter to France during 1844-46. Mr. King
was elected Vice-President of the United
States in 1852, but died (in Cahawba,
Ala., April 18, 1853) a few weeks after
taking the oath of office at Havana, a
privilege accorded by a special act of
Congress.

King George s "War. See GEORGE II.,
1744-48.

King Philip s War. See MASSACHU
SETTS; PHILIP, KING.

King William s War. See WILLIAM
III.

King s Bridge, spanning Spuyten Duy-
vil Creek, New York City, was first
erected in the year 1691, and called " the
King s bridge." An unsuccessful attempt

KING S BRIDGE m I860

was made by Washington to cut off a
force of the British at this place on the
night of July 2, 1781. See NEW YORK
CITY.

King s College. See COLUMBIA UNI
VERSITY.

King s Daughters, a religious organ
ization founded in New York City, Jan.
18, 1886. It is inter - denominational,
and purposes to do whatever is possi
ble through women for the cause of hu
manity. Any woman or girl who will
give small but regular contributions to
Christian work is eligible to membership.
It has a large membership in the United
States and Europe.

King s Daughters and Sons, INTER
NATIONAL ORDER OF THE. See INTERNA-

255

KING S FERRY KING S MOUNTAIN

TIONAL OKDER OF THE KING S DAUGHTERS
AND SONS.

King s Ferry, THE. Between Stony
Point and Verplanck s Point, on the Hud
son River, just below the lower entrance
to the Highlands, was an important
crossing-place, known as the King s Ferry.
It was by this ferry that the great route
from the Eastern to the Middle States
crossed the Hudson. It was defended by

two fort s
Stony Point on
the west side,
and Fort La
fayette, at Ver
planck s Point,
on the east.
Sir Henry
Clinton r e-
solved to seize
this ferry and
its defences. On

the return of the expedition of Matthews
and Collier from Virginia, Sir Henry
ascended the Hudson with the same
squadron and 6,000 soldiers. He landed
his troops on both sides of the river, May
31, 1779, a few miles below the forts.
The works on Stony Point were unfin-

OLD SIGN.

the fort at Verplanck s Point, which, in
vested on the land side, was compelled to
surrender, June 1, after a spirited resist
ance.

King s Mountain, BATTLE ON. Maj.
Patrick Ferguson was sent by Lord Corn-
wallis to embody the Tory militia among
the mountains west of the Broad River.
Many profligate men joined his standard,
and he crossed the river at the Cherokee
Ford, Oct. 1, 1780, and encamped among
the hills of King s Mountain, near the
line between North and South Carolina,
with 1,500 men. Several corps of Whig
militia, under Colonels Shelby, Sevier,
Campbell, and others, united to oppose
Ferguson, and on Oct. 7 they fell upon
his camp among a cluster of high, wood
ed, gravelly hills of King s Mountain. A
severe engagement ensued, and the Brit
ish forces were totally defeated. Fergu
son was slain, and 300 of his men were
killed or wounded. The spoils of victory
were 800 prisoners and 1,500 stand of
arms. The loss of the Americans was
twenty men. The event was to Cornwallis
what the defeat of the British near Ben-
nington was to Burgoyne. Among the
prisoners were some of the most cruel

VIEW AT KING S MOUNTAIN BATTLE-GROUND.

ished, and, on the approach of the British, Tories of the western Carolinas, who had
were abandoned. Cannon were placed on executed the severe orders of Cornwallis.
its outer works, and brought to bear on Ten of them, after a trial by " drum-head

256

KING S PBOVINCE KINGSTON

court-martial," were hung on the limb of
a great tulip-tree. On the spot where
Ferguson fell, a small monument was
erected to commemorate the event, and
to the memory of some of the patriots
killed in the battle.

The defeat of the British changed the
aspects of the war in the South. It
awed the Tories and encouraged the
Whigs. The mustering of forces beyond
the mountains to oppose his movements
took Cornwallis by surprise. It quick
ened the North Carolina legislature into
more vigorous action, and it caused a gen
eral uprising of the patriots of the South,
and suddenly convinced their oppressor
that his march through North Carolina to
the conquest of Virginia was not to be a
mere recreation. Met by North Caro-

MONCMENT OS KINfi s MOfXTAIN.

linians at Charlotte, he was compelled to
fall back to the Catawba, and his experi
ence in that winter campaign was marked
by great perplexities and disasters.

King s Province. In 1683 a new royal
commission was named for the settlement
of boundary disputes between Connecticut,
Rhode Island, and Plymouth. Its mem
bers beiKg principally selected from Massa
chusetts and Connecticut, Rhode Island ob
jected to them as not disinterested; and
when they proceeded to hold a session
within the disputed territory, the Rhode
Island Assembly met near by and forbade
them to "hold court" within the juris
diction of the province. The commission
adjourned to Boston, and reported to the
King (1686) that the Narraganset coun
try (the southwestern continental half of
the present State of Rhode Island) be-
V, B 2

longed to Connecticut; this domain was
called the King s Province for a while,
but was under the jurisdiction of Joseph
Dudley, the temporary royal governor of
Massachusetts. He proceeded to organ
ize there an independent government, and
changed the names of the towns.

Kingston, the present county seat of
Ulster county, N. Y., was settled by the
Dutch and Huguenots. It is memorable in
the United States as the place where the
first constitution of New York was framed,
in 1777, and the first legislature was con
vened under it; also as having been de
stroyed by a British marauding expedi
tion up the Hudson in the autumn of the
same year.

Kingston, BUKNINQ OF. Sir Henry
Clinton s success in capturing Forts Clin
ton and Montgomery emboldened him to
send a marauding expedition up the Hud
son to make a diversion in favor of Bur-
goyne, hoping thereby to draw many
troops from the army of Gates to defend
the exposed country below. Early on the
morning after the capture of the forts,
Oct. 16, 1777, the boom and chain were
severed, and a flying squadron of light-
armed vessels under Sir James Wallace,
bearing the whole of Sir Henry s land
force, went up the river to devastate its
shores. Sir Henry wrote a despatch to
Burgoyne on a piece of tissue-paper, say
ing, " We are here, and nothing between
us and Gates," enclosing it in a small,
hollow bullet. The messenger was arrest
ed in Orange county as a spy. The mes
sage was found and the spy was hanged.
The marauding force, meanwhile, spread
havoc and consternation along the shores.
The legislature of the newly organized
State of New York were then in session
at Kingston. The marauders went thither
and burned the village, Oct. 7, the legis
lature having escaped with their papers.
Then they crossed over to the village of
Rhinebeck Flats, and went to Living
ston s Manor and applied the torch.
There they heard of Burgoyne s defeat.

Kingston (N. C.). General Evans,
with 6,000 Confederate troops, was de
feated by General Foster, with 10,000
National troops, Dec. 14, 1862. The Con
federates, under Bragg, were overtaken by
Cox, of Schofield s army, and obliged to
retire to Goldsboro, March 8-10, 1865.
57

KINLOCK KIRCHWEY

Kinlock, FRANCIS, patriot; born in
Charleston, S. C., March 7, 1755; was
educated in England. When the Revolu
tionary War broke out he returned to
America and became a captain in the Con
tinental army; held a seat in the con
vention of 1787, voting for the adoption
of the national Constitution. He was
the author of a Eulogy on George Wash
ington, Esq., etc. He died in Charleston,
S. C., Feb. 8, 1826.

Kinney, JONATHAN KENDRICK, lawyer;
born in Royalton, Vt., Oct. 26, 1843; re
ceived a common school education ; served
in the Civil War; became a lawyer in
1875. He is the author of A Digest of
the Decisions of the Supreme Court of the
United States.

Kinnison, DAVID, patriot; born in Old
Kingston, near Portsmouth, Me., Nov.
17, 1736. With a few neighbors at Leb
anon, Conn, (where he was a farmer),
he went to Boston and assisted in destroy-

DAVID KINNISON.

ing the tea destined for that port. Dur
ing the Revolutionary War he was in ac
tive service, and in the latter part of it he
was a prisoner among the Indians more
than a year and a half. He lived in dif
ferent places until the breaking out of

the War of 1812-15, during which he was
engaged in the military service. He went
to Chicago in 1845, where he died, Feb.
24, 1851, the last surv.ivor of the "Boston
Tea-Party."

Kinston, the county seat of Lenoir,
N. C., and an important shipping port for
cotton and tobacco. On Dec. 14, 1862,
there was an engagement here in which
WesselPs brigade of Peck s division and
the 1st, 2d, and 3d brigades of the 1st
division of the Department of North Caro
lina took part; and on March 14, 1865,
the city was occupied by the National
forces under General Schofield.

Kip, WILLIAM INGKAHAM, clergyman;
born in New York City, Oct. 3, 1811;
graduated at Yale College in 1831, and
later at the General Theological Seminary ;
was. ordained in the Protestant Episcopal
Church in 1835; elected bishop of Califor
nia in 1857. He was the author of Early
Jesuit Missions in America; The Olden
Time in New York, etc. He died in
San Francisco, Cal., April 7, 1893.

Kirchhoff, CHARLES WILLIAM, en
gineer; born in San Francisco, Cal.,
March 28, 1854; graduated at the
Royal School of Mines, Claus-
thal, Germany, in 1874. Returning
to the United States he was chemist
of the Delaware Lead Refinery in
Philadelphia, in 1874-79; managing
editor of the Engineering and Mining
Journal in 1883-86; and for several
years was connected with The Iron
Age, of which he became editor-in-
chief in 1899. Since 1883 he has
been special agent of the United
States Geological Survey for the col
lection of statistics of the production
of lead, copper, and zinc. He was
president of the American Institute
of Mining Engineers in 1898-99.

Kirchwey, GEORGE W., educator;
born in Detroit, Mich., July 3, 1855;
graduated at Yale College in 1879;
studied law in New Haven and
Albany; was admitted to the bar in
Albany in 1881; and practised there
for ten years. In 1889-91 he was dean
of the Albany Law School, and in 1891
became Professor of Law in Columbia
University. He has edited a number of
legal text-books; contributed frequently
to legal periodicals; and was one of the

258

KIRKLAND KITTANNING

revisers of Johnson s Universal Cyclopce- He labored with that nation as a mis-
dia in 1892-95. sionary of religion and patriotism during

Kirkland, CAROLINE MATILDA STANS- the war, when the other tribes of that
BURY, author; born in New York City, confederacy, through the influence of
Jan. 12, 1801; settled in Clinton, X. Y., Brant and the Johnsons, had taken the
and there married Mr. Kirkland in 1827. opposite side. He accompanied Sullivan
Her publications include Western Clear- in his expedition against the Senecas in
ings; The Evening Book, or Sketches of 1779. Mr. Kirkland was the founder of
Western Life; Memoirs of Washington; Hamilton College. Having been granted
The Destiny of Our Country, etc. She by the government a tract of land 2 miles
died in New York City, April 6, 1804. square in the present town of Kirkland,
Kirkland, JAMES HAMPTOX, edu- Oneida co., X. Y., he removed there in
cator; born in Spartanburg, S. C., Sept. 1789. He died in Clinton, N. Y., Feb. 28,
9, 1859; graduated at Wofford College 1808.

in 1877; held the chair of Greek and Kirkwood, SAMUEL JORDAN, lawyer;
German in Wofford College in 1881- born in Harford county, Md., Dec. 20,
83; and then went abroad to travel and 1813; removed to Ohio in 1835, and was
study. Returning to the United States admitted to the bar of that State in 1843.
in 1886, he became Professor of Latin in He removed to Iowa in 1855; was elected
Vanderbilt University, where he remained governor in 1859 and 1861; United States
till 1893, when he was elected chancellor. Senator in 1866; governor again in 1875;
He is the editor of Satires and Epistles and United States Senator again in 1876,
of Horace, and author of numerous mono- serving until 1881, when he was appointed
graphs and of contributions to philological Secretary of the Interior; retired to
reviews, etc. private life in 1882. He died in Iowa

Kirkland, SAMUEL, missionary; born City, la., Sept. 1, 1894.

in Norwich, Conn., Dec. 1, 1741; grad- Kitchen Cabinet, an appellation in
uated at Princeton in 1765. At the common use during the administration
school of Rev. E. Wheelock, he learned of President Jackson, of which Francis
the Mohawk language, and, by sojourns P. Blair and Amos Kendall were the re-
among the Senecas, their language also, cipients. Blair was the editor of The
After the affair at Lexington, the pro- Globe, the organ of the administration,
vincial congress of Massachusetts re- and Kendall was one of its principal con-
quested him to use his influence to secure tributors. These two men were frequent
ly consulted by the President as confi
dential advisers. To avoid observation
when they called on him, they entered
the President s dwelling by a back door.
On this account the opposition party,
who believed the advice of these two men
caused Jackson to fill nearly all the of
fices with Democrats, after turning out
the incumbents, called them in derision
the " kitchen cabinet."

Kittanning, DESTRUCTION OF. In con
sequence of repeated injuries from the
white people of Pennsylvania, the Dela
ware Indians had become bitterly hostile
in 1756. They committed many depre-
dations, and early in September Col. John
Armstrong marched against the Indian
SAMUEL KIRKLAND. town of Kittanning, on the Alleghany

River, about 45 miles northeast from

either the friendship or neutrality of the Pittsburg. He approached the village
Six Nations. He was instrumental in at- stealthily, and fell upon the Indians furi-
taching the Oneidas to the patriot cause, ously with about 300 men at 3 A.M.,

259

KITTREDGE KLONDIKE

Sept. 8, 1756. The Indians refusing the was honorably discharged from that

quarter which was offered them, Colonel service.

Armstrong ordered their wigwams to be Klondike, a region in the Northwest

set on fire. Their leader, Captain Jacobs, Territory of Canada, borderfng on the Klon-

and his wife and son were killed. About dike and Yukon rivers. The first white peo-

forty Indians were destroyed, and eleven pie who visited the region went there in

English prisoners were released. the interest of the Hudson Bay Company.

MAIN STREET, DAWSON CITY, JULY, 1897.

Kittredge, ALFRED B., lawyer; born in j n 1873 the existence of gold in paying

Cheshire county, N. H., March 28, 1861; quantities was reported, in a region then

was graduated at Yale College in 1882, supposed to be wholly within British Co-

and from its law school in 1885; and be- lumbia. Miners penetrated farther towards

gan practice in Sioux Falls, S. D. He the Yukon in 1882, and were successful in

was a member of the State Senate in placer mining along the Stewart and other

1889-93; and a Republican United States rivers. The first rush for the region be-

Senator in 1901-09. gan in 1887, when the Forty-Mile Creek

Klamath Indians, a tribe of North was discovered and coarse gold found

American Indians. In 1899 there were there. In the next year mining was start-

673 on a reservation at the Hoopa Valley ( ,d on the Forty-Mile Creek, and by 1897

agency in California, and 585 at the nearly all of the available gold had been

Klamath agency in Oregon. taken out. The first reports of the wealth

Kline, JACOB, military officer; born in o f the Klondike region proper were made

Pennsylvania, Nov. 5, 1840; was commis- by Indians. The first white man to enter

sioned first lieutenant in 1861 ; captain in the region was George W. Carmack, who

1864; major in 1887; lieutenant-colonel staked the first claim on Bonanza Creek,

in 1892; and colonel April 30, 1897. j n August, 1896. Here $14,200 were se-

During the Civil War he was bre- cur ed in eight days by three men. On

vetted captain, April 7, 1862, for gallantry j u ] y 14, 1397, a steamer from the Klon-

at Shiloh, and major, Sept. 1, 1864, for dike arrived at San Francisco. On board

gallantry in the Atlanta campaign. On were forty miners, who had more than

May 27, 1898, he was appointed a $500,000 in gold dust, and there was $250,-

brigadier - general of volunteers for the 000 more for the Commercial Company.

war with Spain, and on March 15, 1899, After an assay it was found that the Klon-

260

KNAPP KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIBCLE

dike gold was not as pure as that of Cali
fornia, there being combined with it a
greater amount of iron, lead, etc. On
July 17 of the same year a second steamer
arrived at San Francisco, bringing sixty-
eight miners, with $1,250,000 worth of
gold. Immediately the " Klondike fever "
became general, and so large was the num
ber of gold-seekers that the capacity of all
the steamers running to St. Michael,
Juneau, and Dyea was overtaxed. For a
time it was feared that many of these gold-
seekers would perish before the opening
of the passes in the following spring on
account of the lack of provisions. On
June 13, 1898, by an act of the Canadian
Parliament, the boundaries of Ungava,
Keewatin, Franklin, Mackenzie, and Yukon
were changed, and the Yukon region was
constituted a separate territory, with an
area of 198,300 square miles, 2,000 of
which is water surface. In February,
1898, the United States Coast and Geo
detic Survey issued a new map of the
Yukon River region. The map includes
the territory between long. 38 and 166
W., and lat, 60 to 67 N. The Yukon
Eiver is traced considerably beyond the
Klondike region, and the portion within
Alaska is very fully treated. The coun
try between Forty-Mile Post and Stewart
Eiver is also given with minute exactness.
The results of military and scientific ex
plorations undertaken by the United
States government in Alaska indicate that
that Territory contains a larger amount
of gold, besides other economic " min
erals," than the area popularly termed
the " Klondike region." See ALASKA.

Knapp, SAMUEL LORENZO, author ; born
in Newburyport, Mass., Jan. 19, 1783;
graduated at Dartmouth College in 1804;
became a lawyer; and was a commander
on the coast defences in the War of 1812.
His publications include Travels in North
America by Ali Bey; Memoirs of Gen
eral Lafayette ; American Biography ; His
tory of the United States (a revision of
John Hinton s edition) ; Memoir of the
Life of Daniel Webster; Life of Aaron
Burr; Life of Andrew Jackson, etc. He
also edited The Library of American His
tory. He died in Hopkinton, Mass., July
8, 1838.

Knickerbocker, JOHN ; born in Schaght-
icoke, N. Y., in 1749; inherited the Knick-

201

erbocker estates from his uncle, Herman
Knickerbocker; served in the American
army in the Revolutionary War; after
the war represented Rensselaer county in
the New York legislature. He died at
Schaghticoke in 1827. Washington Ir-
ving s use of the name in his Knicker
bocker s History of New York has result
ed in its being used to describe the typical
Dutch New York gentleman. Where New
York City is personated in caricatures, the
figure is that of " Father Knickerbocker."

Knights of Labor, the name assumed
by a labor league having a membership
in all parts of the United States and
Canada, with an executive head styled
" General Master Workman." Subser
vient to the central authority are numer
ous local organizations. The order claims
the right and exercises the power of regu
lating the conditions of labor between em
ployers and the employed, having officers
called " walking delegates," who enter in
dustrial establishments and order men and
women to quit work, unless the conditions
between them and their employers are
satisfactory to the order. In 1903 the
order claimed a membership of 40,000.

Knights of Pythias, a fraternal organ
ization founded in Washington, D. C., in
1864, having for its objects the exercise of
friendship, charity, and benevolence. From
an original membership of seventy-four it
had grown to one of 562,327 in 1903, and
so gained fourth place among the fraternal
organizations of the country. The en
dowment rank (life insurance) had a
membership of over 60,000, representing
an endowment of $103,711,000.

Knights of the Golden Circle, the
name of an organization founded for the
overthrow of the government of the Unit
ed States. It was a secret society, and
was first organized for action in the
slave-labor States. The members were
pledged to assist in the accomplishment
of the designs of those who were intent
upon the establishment of an empire
within the limits of the Golden Circle.
It was the soul of the filibustering move
ments in Central America and Cuba from
1850 to 1857; and, when these failed, the
knights concentrated their energies for
the accomplishment of their prime object
the destruction of the Union and the
perpetuation of slavery. The subordinate

KNOWLTON KNOW-NOTHING PARTY

organizations were called "castles." Formation; Fossil Flora of Alaska; Cala-
When the secession movement began, these logue of the Cretaceous and Tertiary
knights became specially active in Texas. Plants of North America, etc.; and is the
When the disloyal peace faction made its editor of The Plant World.
appearance in the North, an alliance be- Knowlton, MINER, military officer;
t\voen the leading members of it and the born in Connecticut, in 1804; graduated
Knights of the Golden Circle was formed, at the United States Military Academy in
and the "order" became very numerous 1829; promoted captain in 1846; and
and formidable in some of the free-labor served in the Mexican War. His pub-
States, especially in the West. The late lications include Notes on Gunpowder,
Benson J. Lossing, in New Orleans, in Cannon, and Projectiles, and he com-
^pril, 1861, heard a New York journalist piled Instructions and Regulations for
tell a group of Confederates that he be- the Militia and Volunteers of the United
longed to a secret order in that city, States. He was also one of the compilers
50,000 strong, who would sooner fight of Instructions for Field Artillery, which
for the South than for the North. An was adopted by the War Department in
army chaplain was told by a Confederate 1845. He died in Burlington, N. J., Dec.
officer, just before the draft riot in New 25, 1870.

York, " You will be surprised at the num- Knowlton, THOMAS, military officer ;
ber of friends we have in your very midst; born in West Boxford, Mass., Nov. 30.
friends who, when the time comes, will 1740; was a soldier of the French and
destroy your railroads, your telegraph Indian War, and assisted in the reduc-
wires, your government stores and prop- tion of Havana in 1762. He was in the
erty, and thus facilitate the glorious in- Ashford militia at Lexington, April 19,
vasion [Lee s] now breaking you in 1775, and was selected as one of the fa-
pieces." At about that time the knights tigue party to fortify Bunker Hill. In
in the West held a meeting at Springfield, action there he fought bravely. A regi-
111. (June 10, 1863), when it was resolved ment of light infantry, which formed the
to make the draft a pretext for revolu- van of the American army at New York,
tion, and measures were accordingly was commanded by him, and he was corn-
adopted. It was arranged that New York missioned lieutenant-colonel of a regiment
should take the initiative. The plan was of rangers selected from the Connecticut
for each State to assume its " indepen- troops. He fell in the battle of Harlem
dent sovereignty." Morgan s raid in Indi- Plains, Sept. 16, 1776, and his character
ana and Ohio was a part of the plan of was eulogized by Washington in general
that revolution. It was supposed that orders.

the Knights of the Golden Circle and the Know-nothing Party, a secret politi-
members of the peace faction would rise cal party organized in 1853 for the pur-
and join him by thousands; but in this pose mainly of opposing foreign citizen-
he was mistaken. ship. As early as 1835 an attempt was
Knowlton, FRANK HALL, botanist; made to originate some such movement in
born in Brandon, Vt., Sept. 2, 1860; New York City, where a foreign popula-
graduated at Middlebury College, Ver- tion had already gained much strength,
mont, and appointed an aid in the United This movement, however, ended in failure
States National Museum in 1884; became before the election for mayor in 1837.
assistant curator of botany in 1887; and The fe eling, however, was again revived in
assistant paleontologist of the United 1843, after the Democrats, who had been
States Geological Survey in 1889. In successful in the election, gave the largest
1887-96 he was Professor of Botany in share of offices to foreign-born citizens.
Columbia University. He wrote the bo- In the following year the same native
tanical definitions for the Century Die- feeling was extended through New Jersey
tionary and later had charge of the de- and to Philadelphia, where several riots
partment of botany in the Standard Die- occurred between native and Irish citi-
tionary, writing about 25,000 definitions zens. This agitation resulted in natives
for the last work. He is the author of holding the majority of offices for several
Fossil Wood and Lignite of the Potomac years. In 1852, however, when the sec-

262

KNOX

tional contest as to the extension of slave temas Ward attracted the attention of
territory became so strong, and when the Washington. In November (1775) he was
Democratic party was receiving reinforce- placed in command of the artillery, and
ments from immigrants, the old opposi- was employed successfully in bringing can-
tion to foreigners again appeared; but non from captured forts on Lake Cham-
this time in the form of a secret, oath- plain and on the Canadian frontier to
bound fraternitj , whose objects were not Cambridge, for the use of the besieging
even made known to its own members till army. Knox w r as made a brigadier-gen-
they had reached the higher degrees, eral in December, 1776, and was the chief
Whenever any questions were asked the commander of the artillery of the main
members by outsiders they would say, " I army throughout the whole war, being
don t know," and from this circumstance conspicuous in all the principal actions,
the popular name of " Know - nothings " He was one of the court of inquiry in
was given them. In the elections of 1854 Major Andre s case; was in command at
they appeared as a well-disciplined party, West Point after hostilities had ceased,
carrying Massachusetts and Delaware, and arranged for the surrender of New
and in the following year they polled York. At Knox s suggestion, the Society
122,282 votes in New York State and of the Cincinnati was established. He
made great strides in the South. In the was Secretary of War before and after
Presidential campaign of 1856 the Know- Washington became President of the
nothing party was called the "American United States (1781-95), and when he
party " and presented Millard Fillmore left office he settled at Thomaston, where
as its candidate. As the great question he administered the most generous hos-
of slavery then began to gain greater pitality till his death, Oct. 25, 1806.
strength and to absorb a larger amount Knox, JOHN JAY, financier; born in
of public attention a lesser importance Knoxboro, N. Y., March 19, 1828; grad-
was given to nativism. The party reap- uated at Hamilton College in 1849, and
peared in 1860, under the name of the engaged in banking. In 1866 he became
Constitutional Union party, and, failing connected with the Treasury Department
to carry the South, soon disappeared from in Washington; and in 1867 was appoint-
the political field. See WISE, H. A. ed deputy comptroller of the currency;

Knox, HENRY, military officer; born in and in 1872 became comptroller. He pre-
Boston, July 25, 1750; was of Scotch- pared a bill on coinage which was passed

by Congress, and is known as the " Coin
age act of 1873." He retired from public
life in 1884, when he became president of
a bank in New York City. He was the
author of United States Notes, or a His
tory of the Various Issues of Paper Money
by the Government of the United States.
He died in New York City, Feb. 9, 1892.
Knox, PHILANDER CHASE, lawyer; born
in Brownsville, Pa., May 4, 1853; grad
uated at Mount Union College, Alli
ance, O., in 1872; settled in Pittsburg,
Pa., to study law, and was there admit
ted to the bar in 1875. Soon afterwards
he was appointed assistant attorney of the
United States for the western district of
Pennsylvania; in 1877 he formed a part-
Irish stock. He became a thriving book- nership with Judge J. H. Reed; and for
seller in Boston, and married Lucy, several years was Andrew Carnegie s chief
daughter of Secretary Flucker. He be- legal adviser. He became acquainted witli
longed to an artillery company when the President McKinley during his college
Revolution began, and his skill as an en- days, and they afterwards remained close
gineer artillerist on the staff of Gen. Ar- personal friends. On April 5, 1901, the

263

HENRY K.NOX.

KNOX KOBBE

President appointed Mr. Knox Attorney- tie of Brandywine in 1777, and in Mon-
General of the United States to succeed mouth in 1778; and commanded an ex-
John W. Griggs, resigned. Mr. Knox is a pedition to Springfield, N. J., in June,
member of a number of clubs in Pittsburg, 1780. In the absence df Sir Henry Clin-
New York, and Philadelphia; and in 1897 ton he was in command of the city of
was elected president of the Pennsyl- New York. He died in Cassel, Dec. 7,
vania Bar Association. 1800.

Knox, WILLIAM, author; born in Ire- Kobbe, WILLIAM A., military officer;

land in 1732; was provost-marshal in born in New York City, May 10, 1840;

Georgia in 1756-61, when he returned to entered the volunteer army as a private

England; and was under-secretary of in the 7th New York Regiment in 1862,

state for American affairs in 1770-83. and at the close of the Civil War was

His publications relating to the United mustered out of this service with the

States include A Letter to a Member of rank of captain in the 178th New York

Parliament ; The Claims of the Colonies Infantry. On March 17, 1866, he was ap-

to an Exemption from Internal Taxes; pointed a second lieutenant in the 19th

The Present State of the Nation; and The United States Infantry; Feb. 5, 1872,

Controversy between Great Britain and was transferred to the 3d Artillery;

Her Colonies Reviewed. He died in Baling, April 6, 1885, was promoted to captain;

England, Aug. 25, 1810. and March 8, 1898, to major. After join-

Knoxville, SIEGE OF. General Burn- ing the 3d Artillery he graduated at
side, with the Army of the Ohio, occupied the Artillery School (1873). Soon after
Knoxville, Sept. 3, 1863. The Confederate war was declared against Spain he was
General Buckner, upon his advance, evacu- appointed colonel of the 35th United
ated east Tennessee and joined Bragg at States Volunteer Infantry, and in October,
Chattanooga. Early in November, Gen- 1899, was promoted to brigadier-general
eral Longstreet, with 16,000 men, advanced of volunteers for service in the Malolos
against Knoxville. On the 14th he crossed campaign in the Philippines. In Janu-
the Tennessee. Burnside repulsed him on ary, 1900, he was given command of an
the 16th at Campbell s Station, gaining expedition to the southern extremity of
time to concentrate his army in Knoxville. Luzon. On the 18th of that month he
Longstreet advanced, laid siege to the left Manila with his command in the trans-
town, and assaulted it twice (Nov. 18 and ports Hancock and Garonne and the local
29), but was repulsed. Meantime Grant steamers Venus, JEolus, Salvadora, and
had defeated Bragg at Chattanooga, and Castellano, which vessels were convoyed
Sherman, with 25,000 men, was on the by the gunboats Nashville, Helena, and
way to relieve Knoxville. Longstreet, Maraveles. On Jan. 20 all of these ves-
compelled to raise the siege, retired up sels, in single file, proceeded slowly up
the Holston River, but did not entire- Sorsogon Bay. When the expedition
ly abandon east Tennessee until the reached Sorsogon that town had already
next spring, when he again joined Lee in displayed flags of truce. During the next
Virginia. few days the towns of Donsol, Bulan, Virac,

Knyphausen, BARON WILHELM VON, and Legaspi on Catanduanes Island were

military officer; born in Liitzberg, Ger- occupied. The only resistance was at Le-

many, Nov. 4, 1716; began his military ca- gaspi where five Americans were wounded,

reer in the Prussian service in 1734, and and forty-five dead and fifteen wounded

became a general in the army of Frederick insurgents were found. In this action the

the Great in 1775. He arrived in America shells from the Nashville set on fire and

in June, 1776, and was first engaged in bat- destroyed 8,000 bales of hemp. This dis-

tle here in that of Long Island in An- trict of the Philippine Islands is noted

gust following, in which he commanded a as a large hemp-producing country. In

body of Hessian mercenaries. Knyphaus- March, following, General Kobbg was ap-

en was in the battle of White Plains; pointed military governor of the province

assisted in the capture of Fort Washing- of Albay, Luzon, and of Catanduanes Isl-

ton, which was named by its captors Fort and, and also temporary governor of

Knyphausen; was conspicuous in the bat- the islands of Samas and Leyte; and soon

264

KOHL KOREA

afterwards he opened the hemp ports to from the Shenandoah was fired on by

commerce. On the reorganization of the the natives. This visit was also fruitless

regular army in February, 1901, he was of results, and Commander Fabiger sailed

appointed one of the new brigadier-gen- away. On April 10, 1870, Admiral Rod-

erals. gers sailed from New York in the Colo-

Kohl, JOHN GEORGE, traveller; born in rado to take command of the Asiatic

Bremen, Germany, April 28, 1808; trav- squadron, which consisted of the flag-ship

elled in the United States in 1854-58. His Colorado, forty-five guns; the steamship

publications relating to the United States Monocacy, six guns, and the steamer

include History of the Discovery of the Palos, two guns. Among the incidental

United States Coast; History and Investi- results of the expedition was the careful

gation of the Gulf Stream; Travels in the survey of an extensive part of the coast

United States; History of the Two Oldest of Korea. The King of Korea was in-

Charts in the New World; History of the formed of the approach of the expedition,

Discovery of the Northeastern Coast of and sent three officials with a letter to

America, and a number of lectures on the the Americans. The burden of this

History of the Discovery of America. He epistle was that the Koreans wanted to

was also the author of a Lecture on the be let alone, and that the crew of the

Plan of a Chartographical Depot for the General Sherman had been killed for com-

History and Geography of the American mitting piracy and murder. Up to that

Continent. He died in Bremen, Germany, time the Korean authorities had practi-

Oct. 28, 1878. cally denied all official knowledge of the

Korea, WAR WITH. The trouble be- fate of the General Sherman and her
tween the United States and Korea began crew. Other Korean delegations visited
in 1866. A vessel named the General the squadron, all expressing themselves
Sherman, bearing American papers, in as thoroughly satisfied with the peaceable
that year made her last trip from Chee- character of the expedition, and willing
Foo to Ping-Yang City in Korea, near that a survey of their coast and rivers
which the ship was captured and de- should be made. The ships proceeded up
stroyed, and her passengers and crew the Fleuve de Sel (Salt River), and on
massacred. Official notice of this out- passing some of the forts were fired on
rage was given to the United States by by the Korean forces, which numbered
Admiral Bell, United States navy, then in about 2,000. The fire was returned, and
command of the Asiatic squadron, whose in about ten minutes the forts were si-
force, however, was insufficient to secure lenced and the enemy driven from them,
redress from the hostile Koreans. Two The fire from the forts was severe, but
years previous (1864) the Koreans had owing to the ignorance of the native gun-
become involved with a Christian nation ners, only one man in the squadron was
because of their having put to death wounded, and the only damage was a
several French missionaries. The French leak in the Monocacy, which was soon re-
had sent out an armed expedition, but paired. In this encounter the Palos and
it was poorly prepared and badly con- the Monocacy were engaged, together
ducted, and was compelled to retire, with several steam-launches of the sur-
These circumstances greatly emboldened veying party. These craft rejoined Ad-
the Koreans, so that in 1867, when Com- miral Rodgers, with the Benicia and the
mander Shufeldt, with the United States Colorado, and an expedition was formed
steamer Wachusett, visited Korea to to return and destroy the forts. This
save, if any remained, the passengers force consisted of 945 men, with the Palos
or crew of the General Sherman, he was and the Monocacy. June 11 the Ameri-
able to accomplish nothing and had to cans destroyed the forts near the mouth
return. It was learned later that two of the river, burned the neighboring
survivors of the crew of the General Sher- houses, and continued to advance until
man were in prison in Korea, and in they reached the forts which had opened
1868 Commander Fabiger, in the United fire on the expedition June 1. The
States steamship Shenandoah, sailed for Americans stormed these forts, and in the
Korea. In the course of this trip a boat first onset took them, with a loss of three

205

KOSCITJSZKO

THADDEUS KOSCICSZKO.

killed and seven .wounded. Lieutenant scythes, he routed nearly twice that num-
McKee was killed as he entered the in- ber of Russians at Raclawice, April 4.
trenchments. The Korean commancler-in- Committing the conduct of a provisional
chief was killed in the combat, and the government to a national council, he
second officer in command was taken pris- marched against his enemies. In War-
oner, besides many other natives. Ad- saw he was besieged by a combined army
miral Rodgers a few days later released of Russians and Prussians. These, after
the prisoners, whom the Korean authori
ties did not appear willing to receive. A
formal protest against the war-like ac
tions of the Koreans was made by Mr.
Low, the American minister. Documents
found by the Americans showed that the
Korean government had planned the sur
prise of the United States ships, and that
the native rulers were astonished at the
failure of their forts to annihilate the
vessels at the first fire.

Kosciuszko, TADEUSZ (THADDEUS), pa
triot; born in Lithuania, Poland, Feb. 12,
1746; was of noble descent, and was edu
cated at the military academy at War
saw; also in France, at the expense of
the Polish government. He entered the
Polish army as captain, but a passion for
the daughter of the marshal of Lithuania
caused him to leave his country and offer
Ms services to the Americans. He ar
rived in 1776, with a note of introduction

and recommendation to Washington by several bloody conflicts, were compelled
Dr. Franklin. "What do you seek here?" by the Polish chief to raise the siege,
inquired the chief. " I come to fight as Austria had joined the assailants of the
a volunteer for American independence," Poles, and, with an army of 150,000 men,
answered Kosciuszko. "What can you fell upon and crushed them (Oct. 10) at
do?" asked Washington. "Try me," was Macieowice. Kosciuszko fought gallantly,
ihe quick reply. He entered Washing- and fell covered with wounds, uttering
ton s military family, Oct. 18, 1776, as the sadly prophetic words, afterwards ful-
colonel of engineers. He planned the filled, "Finis Polonice!" He was made
fortified camp of General Gates at Bemis s captive, and was imprisoned at St. Peters-
Heights, in 1777, and was the principal burg until the accession of the Emperor
engineer in constructing the works at Paul, who set him at liberty, and offered
West Point, on the Hudson. Attached Kosciuszko his own sword. It was re-
to Greene s army in the South, he was fused, the Polish patriot saying, " I have
the engineer in the siege of NINETY-SIX no need of a sword, since I have no coun-
(q. v.), in June, 1781. For his services try to defend." In 1797 he visited the
in the Continental army he received the United States, where he was warmly wel-
thanks of Congress, the Order of the Cin- coined, and received, in addition to a pen-
cinnati, and the brevet of brigadier-gen- pion, a grant of land by Congress. He
eral. Returning to Poland, he fought resided near Fontainebleau, in France;
against the Russians, under Poniatowski, and when Bonaparte became Emperor, in
in 1792; but the Polish patriots were de- 1800, he tried to enlist Kosciuszko in his
feated, and Kosciuszko retired to Leipsic. schemes in relation to Poland. Kosciusz-
Another rising of the Poles occurred in ko refused to lend his services, except
1794, when Kosciuszko was placed at the on condition of a guarantee of Polish
head of the insurgents as dictator; and, freedom. He went to live in Solothurn,
with 5,000 peasants, armed mostly with Switzerland, in 1816, where he was killed

266

KOSSUTH

by a fall from his horse over a precipice, church at Cracow. An elegant monument
Oct. 15, 1817. The remains of this true of white marble was erected to his mem-
nobleman of Poland lie beside those of ory at West Point by the cadet corps
Sobieski and Poniatowski in the cathedral of 1828, at a cost of $5,000.

KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)

Kossuth, LAJOS (Louis), patriot; born
in Monok, Hungary, April 27, 1802; was
in the Hungarian Diet in 1832-36; impris
oned for political reasons by the Austrian
government in 1837-40; re-elected to the
Diet in 1847; and became minister of
finance in the independent Hungarian min
istry which Emperor Ferdinand was forced
to grant in 1848. Later in that year the
Hungarians rose in insurrection against
Austria; on April 14, 1849, the Diet de
clared Hungary independent, and appoint
ed Kossuth governor; on Aug. 11 follow
ing Kossuth resigned his functions to
General Gorge! ; and, on the surrender of
the latter two days afterwards, Kossuth
fled to Turkey, where he remained in exile
till 1851. In l851-52 he visited the United
States and received a hearty welcome in

LOUIS KOSSUTir.

all the principal cities. Subsequently he
resided in London and in Turin, where he
died, March 20, 1894. Under the title of
Schriften aus der Emigration he published
his memoirs in 1881-82.

In the United States. After his flight
to Turkey the Austrian government de
manded his extradition. The United States
and England interfered, and he was al
lowed his freedom, with his family and

friends. The United States government
sent the war-steamer Mississippi to bring
him to the United States, and early in the
autumn of 1851 he embarked for this coun
try. While in exile in Turkey and in
prison, he employed his time in studying
living languages, and he was enabled to
address the people of the West in the Eng
lish, German, French, and Italian lan
guages. He arrived at New York, Dec. 5,
1851, accompanied by his wife. There he
addressed public meetings and deputations
in various Northern cities, and in all his
speeches he showed a most intimate knowl
edge of American history and institutions.
His theme was a plea for sympathy and
substantial aid for his country, Hungary.
He wished to obtain the acknowledgment
of the claims of Hungary to independence,
and the interference of the United States
and Great Britain, jointly, in behalf of
the principle of non-intervention, which
would allow the nations of Europe fair
play in their renewed struggle for liberty.
He constantly asserted that grand princi
ple that one nation has no right to inter
fere with the domestic concerns of an
other, and that all nations are bound to
use their efforts to prevent such interfer
ence. The government of the United
States, to which he appealed, assuming its
traditional attitude of neutrality in all
quarrels in Europe, declined to lend aid,
excepting the moral power of expressed
sympathy. Kossuth called for private
contributions in aid of the struggle
of his people for independence, and
received more assurances of sympathy
than dollars, for there seemed to be a
reaction in Europe, and the chance for
Hungarian independence appeared more
remote than ever. He arrived in Washing
ton at the close of December, and was re
ceived by two United States Senators and
the marshal of the district. The Secre
tary of State (Daniel Webster) waited
upon him; so also did many members of
Congress. On the 31st he was presented

267

KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)

to President Fillmore by Mr. Webster,
who received him cordially. On Jan. 5,
1852, he was introduced to the Senate.
He entered the Senate chamber accom
panied by Senators Cass and Seward.
General Shields introduced him. The
Senate adjourned, and the members all
paid their personal respects to the dis
tinguished exile. He then visited the
House of Representatives, where he was
warmly received by the speaker and most
of the members. Then he was introduced
to each member personally, and presented
to an immense crowd of ladies and gentle
men who had assembled. A congressional
banquet was given him at the National
Hotel, at which W. R. King, president of
the Senate, presided, Kossuth and Speaker
Boyd being on his right hand, and Secre
tary Webster on his left. On that occa
sion Kossuth delivered one of his most
effective speeches. Mr. Webster con
cluded his remarks with the following
sentiment : " Hungarian independence,
Hungarian control of her own destinies,
and Hungary as a distinct nationality
among the nations of Europe." After
Kossuth s departure there were debates in
Congress on propositions for the United
States to lend material aid to the people
of Hungary, struggling for national in
dependence; but the final determination
was that the United States should not
change its uniform policy of neutrality
in favor of Hungary. The cordial recep
tion of Kossuth everywhere, and the mag
netic power of his eloquence over every
audience, were gratifying and wonderful.
A contemporary wrote : " The circum
stances attending the reception of Kos
suth constituted one of the most extraor
dinary spectacles the New World had ever
yet beheld." He returned to Europe in
July.

Speech in Faneuil Hall. The following
is the first of three speeches made in Fan
euil Hall, Boston, in April and May, this
occasion being a public meeting. He had
been welcomed to the State by Gov.
George S. Boutwell,to the Senate by Presi
dent Henry Wilson, and to the House of
Representatives by Speaker Nathaniel P.
Banks. A legislative banquet followed
the delivery of the speech here given:

Ladies and Gentlemen, Do me the jus

tice to believe that I rise not with any
pretension to eloquence within the Cradle
of American Liberty. If 1 were standing
upon the ruins of Prytaneum, and had to
speak whence Demosthenes spoke, my
tongue would refuse to obey, my words
would die away upon my lips, and I would
listen to the winds fraught with the dread
ful realization of his unheeded prophecies.
Spirit of American eloquence, frown not
at my boldness that I dare abuse Shake
speare s language in Faneuil Hall ! It is
a strange fate, and not my choice. My
tongue is fraught with a down-trodden na
tion s wrongs. The justice of my cause is
my eloquence; but misfortune may ap
proach the altar whence the flame arose
which roused your fathers from degrada
tion to independence. I claim my people s
share in the benefit of the laws of nature
and of nature s God. I will nothing add
to the historical reputation of these walls;
but I dare hope not to sully them by ap
pealing to those maxims of truth the pro
mulgation of which made often tremble
these walls from the thundering cheers of
freemen, roused by the clarion sound of
inspired oratory.

"Cradle of American Liberty"; it is a
great name; but there is something in it
which saddens my heart. You should not
say " American liberty." You should say
" Liberty in America." Liberty should not
be either American or European it should
be just liberty." God is God. He is
neither America s God nor Europe s God.
He is God. So shall liberty be. " Ameri
can liberty " has much the sound as if you
would say " American privilege." And
there is the rub. Look to history, and,
when your heart saddens at the fact that
liberty never yet was lasting in any corner
of the world and in any arre, you will find
the key of it in the gloomy truth that all
who yet were free regarded liberty as their
privilege instead of regarding it as a prin
ciple. The nature of every privilege is ex-
clusiveness; that of a principle is com
municative. Liberty is a principle; its
community is its security; exclusiveness
is its doom.

What is aristocracy? It is exclusive
liberty; it is privilege; and aristocracy is
doomed, because it is contrary to the des
tiny and welfare of man. Aristocracy
should vanish, not in the nations, but also

268

KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)

from among the nations. So long as tery of this rare circumstance, a man must
that is not done, liberty will nowhere be see the people of New England and espe-
lasting on earth. It is equally fatal to cially the people of Massachusetts,
individuals as to nations to believe them- In what I have seen of New England
selves beyond the reach of vicissitudes, there are two things the evidence of which
To this proud reliance, and the isolation strikes the observer at every step pros-
resulting therefrom, more victims have perity and intelligence. I have seen
fallen than to oppression by immediate ad- thousands assembled, following the noble
versities. You have prodigiously grown impulses of generous hearts; almost the
by your freedom of seventy-five years; but entire population of every city, of every
what is seventy-five years to take for a town, of every village where I passed,
charter of immortality? No, no, my hum- gathered around me, throwing the flowers
ble tongue tells the records of eternal of consolation in my thorny way. I can
truth. A privilege never can be lasting, say I have seen the people here, and I
Liberty restricted to one nation never can have looked at it with a keen eye, sharp-
be sure. You may say, "We are the ened in the school of a toilsome life,
prophets of God," but you shall not say, Well, I have seen not a single man bear-
God is only our God." The Jews have ing mark of that poverty upon himself
said so, and the pride of Jerusalem lies in which in old Europe strikes the eye sadly
the dust. Our Saviour taught all human- at every step. I have seen no ragged
ity to say, " Our Father in heaven " ; and poor. I have seen not a single house
his Jerusalem is lasting to the end of days, bearing the appearance of desolated pov-
" There is a community in mankind s erty. The cheerfulness of a comfortable
destiny." That was the greeting which I condition, the result of industry, spreads
read on the arch of welcome on the Capi- over the land. One sees at a glance that
tol Hill of Massachusetts. I pray to God the people work assiduously not with
the republic of America would weigh the the depressing thought just to get from
eternal truth of those words, and act ac- day to day, by hard toil, through the
cordingly. Liberty in America would then cares of a miserable life, but they work
be sure to the end of time. But if you with the cheerful consciousness of sub-
say " American liberty," and take that stantial happiness. And the second thing
grammar for your policy, I dare say the which I could not fail to remark is the
time will yet come when humanity will stamp of intelligence impressed upon the
have to mourn over a new proof of the very eyes and outward appearance of the
ancient truth, that without community people at large. I and my companions
national freedom is never sure. You have seen that people in the factories, in
should change " American liberty " into the workshops, in their houses, and in the
" Liberty," then liberty would be forever streets, and could not fail a thousand
sure in America, and that which found a times to think, " How intelligent that
cradle in Faneuil Hall never would find a people looks." It is to such a people that
coffin through all coming days. I like the orators of Faneuil Hall had to speak,
not the word " cradle " connected with the and therein is the mystery of their suc-
word " liberty." It has a scent of mortal- cess. They were not wiser than the pub-
ity. But these are vain words, I know, lie spirit of their audience, but they were
Though in the life of nations the spirits the eloquent interpreters of the people s
of future be marching in present events, enlightened instinct.

A isible to every reflecting mind, still those No man can force the harp of his own

who foretell them are charged with arro- individuality into the people s heart; but

gantly claiming the title of prophets, and every man may play upon the cords of

prophecies are never believed. However, his people s heart, who draws his in-

the cradle of American liberty is not only spiration from the people s instinct,

famous from the reputation of having been Well, I thank God for having seen the

always the lists of the most powerful elo- public spirit of the people of Massacliu-

quence; it is still more conspicuous for setts bestowing its attention to the cause

having seen that eloquence attended by I plead, and pronouncing its verdict,

practical success. To understand the mys- After the spontaneous manifestations of

269

KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)

public opinion which I have met in Massa- I cannot express the emotion I felt
chusetts, there can be not the slightest when, standing on the steps of your capi-
doubt that his Excellency, the high- tol, these words above, my head, the peo-
minded governor of Massachusetts, when pie of Massachusetts tendered me its
he Avrote his memorable address to the hand in the person of its chief magistrate,
legislature, the joint committee of the The emotion which thrilled through my
legislative assembly, after a careful and heart was something like that Lazarus
candid consideration of the subject, not must have felt when the Saviour spoke
only concurring in the views of the execu- to him, " Rise " ; and, when I looked up
tive government, but elucidating them in with a. tender tear of heartfelt gratitude
a report, the irrefutable logic and elevated in my eyes, I saw the motto of Massachu-
statesmanship of which will forever en- setts all along the capitol, "We seek
dear the name of Hazewell to oppressed with the sword the mild quietness of
nations, and the Senate of Massachusetts liberty." You have proved this motto not
adopting the resolutions proposed by the to be an empty word. The heroic truth of
legislative committee, in respect to the it is recorded in the annals of Faneuil
question of national intervention I say Hall ; it is recorded on Bunker Hill ; re-
the spontaneous manifestation of public corded in the Declaration of Indepen-
opinion leaves not the slightest doubt that dence. Having read that motto, coupled
all these executive and legislative pro- with the acknowledgment of the principle
ceedings not only met the full approbation that there is a community in the destiny
of the people of Massachusetts, but were, of all humanity, I know what answer I
in fact, nothing else but the solemn inter- have to take to those millions who look
pretation of that public opinion of the with profound anxiety to America,
people of Massachusetts. A spontaneous Gentlemen, the Mohammedans say that
outburst of popular sentiments tells often the city of Bokhara receives not light
more in a single word than all the skill from without, but is lustrous with its
of elaborate eloquence could. I have met own light. I don t know much about Bok-
that word. "We worship not the man, hara; but so much I know, that Boston
but we worship the principle," shouted is the sun whence radiated the light of
out a man in Worcester, amid the thun- resistance against oppression. And, from
dering cheers of a countless multitude, what it has been my good fortune to ex-
It was a word like those words of flame, perience in Boston, I have full reason to
spoken in Faneuil Hall, out of which lib- believe that the sun which shone forth
erty in America was born. That word is with such a bright lustre in the days of
a revelation that the spirit of eternal truth oppression has not lost its lustre by free-
and of present exigencies moves through dom and prosperity. Boston is the
the people s heart. That word is teem- metropolis of Massachusetts, and Massa-
ing with the destinies of America. chusetts has given its vote. It has given

Would to God that, in the leading it after having, with the penetrating sa-
quarters, small party considerations gacity of its intelligence, looked atten-
should never prevent the due appreciation tively into the subject, and fixed with
of the people s instinctive sagacity! It is calm consideration its judgment there
with joyful consolation and heartfelt about. After having had so much to
gratitude I own that of that fear I am speak, it was with infinite gratification
forever relieved in respect to Massachu- I heard myself addressed in Brookfield,
setts. Once more I have met the revela- Framingham, and several other places,
tion of the truth that the people of with these words: "We know your coun-
Massachusetts worship principles. I have try s history; we agree with your prin-
met it on the front of your capitol, in ciples; we want no speech; just let us
those words raised to the consolation of hoar your voice, and then go on ; we
the oppressed world, by the constitutional trust and wish you may have other things
authorities of Massachusetts, to the high to do than speak." Thus, having neither
heaven, upon an arch of triumph, " Re- to tell my country s tale, because it is
member that there is a community in man- known, nor having to argue about prin-
kind s destiny." ciples, because they are agreed with, I

270

KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)

am in the happy condition of being able
to restrain myself to a few desultory re
marks about the nature of the difficulties
I have to contend with in other quarters,
that the people of Massachusetts may see
upon what ground those stand who are
following a direction contrary to the dis
tinctly pronounced opinion of Massachu
setts, in relation to the cause I plead.

Give me leave to mention that, having
had an opportunity to converse with lead
ing men of the great political parties
which are on the eve of an animated con
test for the Presidency would it had
been possible for me to have come to
America either before that contest was
engaged or after it will be decided! I
came, unhappily, in a bad hour I availed
myself of that opportunity to be informed
about what are considered to be the prin
cipal issues in case the one or the other
party carries the prize; and, indeed, hav
ing got the information thereof, I could
not forbear to exclaim, " But, my God, all
these questions together cannot outweigh
the all-overruling importance of foreign
policy!" It is there, in the question of
foreign policy, that the heart of the next
future throbs. Security and danger, de
veloping prosperity, and its check, peace
and war, tranquillity and embarrassment
yes, life and death will be weighed in
the scale of foreign policy! It is evident
things are come to the point where they
have been in ancient Rome, when old Cato
never spoke privately or publicly, about
whatever topic, without closing his speech
with these words, " However, my opinion
is that Carthage must be destroyed,"
thus advertising his countrymen that there
was one question outweighing in impor
tance all other questions, from which pub
lic attention should never for a moment
be withdrawn. Such, in my opinion, is
the condition of the world now. Car
thage and Rome had no place on earth
together. Republican America and all-
overwhelming Russian absolutism cannot
much longer subsist together on earth.
Russia active America passive there is
an immense danger in that fact. It is
like the avalanche in the Alps, which the
noise of a bird s wing may move and
thrust down with irresistible force, grow
ing every moment. I cannot but believe
it were highly time to do as old Cato did,

and finish every speech with these words,
" However, the law of nations should be
maintained, and absolutism not permitted
to become omnipotent." I could not for
bear to make these remarks, and the an
swer I got was, " That is all true
and all right, and will be attended
to when the election is over; but, after
all, the party must come into power,
and you know there are so many consid
erations men want to be managed, and
even prejudices spared, and so forth."
And it is true, but it is sorrowful that it
is true. That reminds me of what, in
Schiller s Maria Stuart, Mortimer says to
Lord Leicester, the all-mighty favorite of
Elizabeth, " God, what little steps has
such a great lord to go at this court!"
There is the first obstacle I have to meet
with. This consolation, at least, I have
that the chief difficulty I have to contend
with is neither lasting, nor an argument
against the justice of my cause or against
the righteousness of my principles. Just
as the calumnies by which I am assailed
can but harm my own self, but cannot im
pair the justice of my country s cause or
weaken the property of my principles, so
that difficulty, being just a difficulty and
no argument, cannot change the public
opinion of the people, which always cares
more about principles than about wire
pullings.

The second difficulty I have to contend
with is rather curious. Many a man has
told me that, if I had only not fallen into
the hands of the abolitionists and free-
soilers, he would have supported me ;
and, had I landed somewhere in the South
instead of New York, I would have met
quite different things from that quarter.
But, being supported by the free-soilers,
of course I must be opposed by the South.
On the other side I received a letter from
which I beg leave to quote a few lines:
" You are silent on the subject of slavery.
Surrounded as you have been by slave
holders ever since you put your foot on
English soil, if not during your whole voy
age from Constantinople and ever since
you have been in this country surrounded
by them whose threats, promises, and flat
tery make the stoutest hearts succumb
your position has put me in mind of a
scene described by the apostle of Jesus
Christ when the devil took him up into a

271

KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)

high mountain," etc. Now, gentlemen, abandon the cause I plead only because
thus being charged from one side with I mix not with the agitation of an in-
being in the hands of abolitionists, and terior question is a greater injustice yet,
from the other side with being in the because to discuss the question of foreign
hands of the slave-holders, I indeed am at policy I have a right. My nation is an
a loss what course to take, if these very object of that policy. We are interested
contradictory charges were not giving me in it. But to mix with interior party
the satisfaction to feel that I stand just movements I have no right, not being a
where it is my duty to stand, on a truly citizen of the United States.
American ground. The third difficulty which I meet, so

I must beg leave to say a few words far as I am told, is the opposition of the
in that respect the more because I could commercial interest. I have the agree-
not escape vehement attacks for not com- able duty to say that this opposition, or,
mitting myself, even in that respect, with rather, indifference, is only partial. I
whatever interior party question. I have met several testimonials of the most
claim the right for my people to regu- generous sympathy from gentlemen of
late its own domestic concerns. I claim commerce. But if, upon the whole, it
this as a law of nations, common to all should be really true that there is more
humanity; and, because common to all, I coolness, or even opposition, in that quar-
claim to see them protected by the United ter than in others, then I may say that
States, not only because they have the there is an entire misapprehension of the
power to defend what despots dare of- true commercial interests in it. I could
fend, but also because it is the necessity say that it would be strange to see com-
of their position to be a. power on earth, merce, and chiefly the commerce of a re-
which they would not be if the law of na- public, indifferent to the spread of lib-
tions can be changed, and the general eral institutions. That would be a sad
condition of the world altered, without experience, teeming with incalculable mis-
their vote. Now, that being my posi- fortunes, reserved to the nineteenth cen-
tion and my cause, it would be the most tury. Until now history has recorded
absurd inconsistency if I would offend that " commerce has been the most power-
that principle which I claim and which I ful locomotive of principles and the most
advocate. fruitful ally of civilization, intelligence,

And, O my God, have I not enough and of liberty." It was merchants whose
sorrows and cares to bear on these poor names are shining with immortal lustre
shoulders? Is it not astonishing that the from the most glorious pages of the
moral power of duties, and the iron will golden books of Venice, Genoa, etc. Com-
of my heart, sustain yet this shattered merce, republican commerce, raised single
frame? that I am desired yet to take up cities to the position of mighty powers
additional cares? If the cause I plead be on earth, and maintained them in that
just, if it be worthy of your sympathy, proud position for centuries; and surely it
and at the same time consistent with the was neither indifference nor opposition to
impartial considerations of your own republican principles by which they have
moral and material interests which a thus ennobled the history of commerce
patriot should never disregard, not even and of humanity. I know full well that,
out of philanthropy then why not weigh since the treasures of commerce took
that cause with the scale of its own value, their way into the coffers of despotism,
and not with a foreign one? Have I not in the shape of eternal loans, and capital
difficulties enough to contend with, that began to speculate upon the oppression
I am desired to increase them yet with of nations, a great change has occurred
my own hands? Father Mathew goes on in that respect.

preaching temperance, and he may be op- But, thanks to God, the commerce of
posed or supported on his own ground; America is not engaged in that direction,
but whoever imagined opposition to him hated by millions, cursed by humanity,
because, at the same time, he takes not Her commerce is still what it was in for-
into his hands to preach fortitude or mer times the beneficent instrumentality
charity? And, indeed, to oppose or to of making mankind partake of all the

272

KOSSUTH, LAJOS (LOUIS)

fruits and comforts of the earth and of
human industry. Here it is no paper specu
lation upon the changes of despotism ;
and, therefore, if the commercial inter
ests of republican America are considered
with that foresighted sagacity, without
which there is no future and no security
in them, I feel entirely sure that no partic
ular interest can be more ambitious to
see absolutism checked and freedom and
democratic institutions developed in Eu
rope than the commerce of republican
America. It is no question of more or less
profit, it is a question of life and death
to it. Commerce is the heel of Achilles,
the vulnerable point of America. Thither
will, thither must be aimed the first blow
of victorious absolutism. The instinct of
self-preservation would lead absolutism to
strike that blow if its hatred and indigna
tion would not lead to it. Air is not more
indispensable to life than freedom and
constitutional government in Europe to
the commerce of America.

Though many things which I have seen
have, upon calm reflection, induced me to
raise an humble Avord of warning against
materialism, still I believe there was more
patriotic solicitude than reality in the fact
that Washington and John Adams, at the
head of the War Department, complained
of a predominating materialism (they
styled it avarice) which threatened the
ruin of America. I believe that complaint
would, even to-day, not be more founded
than it was in the infant age of your re
public. Still, if there be any motive for
that complaint of your purest and best
patriots if the commerce of America
would know, indeed, no better guiding star
than only the momentary profit of a cargo
just floating over the Atlantic I would
be even then at a loss how else to account
for the indifference of the commerce of
America in the cause of European liberty
than by assuming that it is believed the
present degraded condition of Europe may
endure, if only the popular agitations are
deprived of material means to disturb that
which is satirically called tranquillity.

But such a supposition would, indeed,
be the most obnoxious, the most dangerous
fallacy. As the old philosopher, being
questioned how he could prove the exist
ence of God, answered, " By opening the
eyes," just so nothing is necessary but to
v. s 27

open the eyes in order that men of the
most ordinary common-sense become aware
of it, that the present condition of Europe
is too unnatural, too contrary to the vital
interests of the countless millions, to en
dure even for a short time. A crisis is
inevitable. No individual influence can
check it; no indifference or opposition can
prevent it. Even men like myself, concen
trating the expectations and confidence of
oppressed millions in themselves, have only
just enough power, if provided with the
requisite means, to keep the current in a
sound direction, so that in its inevitable
eruption it may not become dangerous to
social order, which is indispensable to the
security of person and property, without
which especially no commerce has any
future at all. And that being the un
sophisticated condition of the world, and
a crisis being inevitable, I indeed cannot
imagine how those who desire nothing
but peace and tranquillity can withhold
their helping hands, that the inevitable
crisis should not only be kept in a sound
direction, bvit also carried down to a happy
issue, capable to prevent the world from
boiling continually, like a volcano, and
insuring a lasting peace and a lasting
tranquillity, never possible so long as the
great majority of nations are oppressed,
but sure so soon as the nations are con
tent; and content they can only be when
they are free. Indeed, if reasonable logic
has not yet forsaken the world, it is the
men of peace, it is the men of commerce,
to the support of whom I have a right to
look. Others may support my cause out
of generosity these must support me out
of considerate interest ; others may oppose
me out of egotism American commerce,
in opposing me, would commit suicide.

Gentlemen, of such narrow nature are
the considerations which oppose my
cause. Of equally narrow, inconsistent
scope are all the rest, with the enumera
tion of which I will not abuse your kind
indulgence. Compare with them the
broad basis of noble principles upon which
the commonwealth of Massachusetts took
its stand in bestowing the important bene
fit of its support to my cause, and you
cannot forbear to feel proudly that the
spirit of old Massachusetts is still alive,
entitled to claim that right in the coun
cils of the united republic which it had
3

KOSZTA KtJ-KLUX KLAN

in the glorious days when, amid dan- and the elevation and education of the

gers, wavering resolutions, and partial de- colored race in the South, to prevent

spondency, Massachusetts took boldly the colored men from exercising the right of

lead to freedom and independence. suffrage, to maintain the rule of the Bour-

Those men of immortal memory, who, bon whites in the South, and to prevent

within these very walls, lighted with the the immigration of whites into the South

heavenly spark of their inspiration the from the North and the introduction of

torch of freedom in America, avowed for Northern industries; and all this was for

their object the welfare of mankind; and, the alleged purpose of "redeeming the

when you raised the monument of Bun- South." The organization was divided

ker Hill, it was the genius of freedom into districts in each of the Southern

thrilling through the heart of Massachu- States; at the head of each division or

setts which made one of your distin- district was a grand officer, who, with

guished orators say that the days of your numerous assistants, was given power to

ancient glory will continue to rain influ- appoint the work and duty of each man

ence on the destinies of mankind to the in his division; and each member was

end of time. It is upon this inspiration bound under the most solemn oath.

I rely, in the name of my down-trodden Some of the devilish deeds of the mur-

country to-day the martyr of mankind, derous Klan were brought to light by

to-morrow the battle-field of its destiny, the congressional investigation instituted,

Time draws nigh when either the influ- but no chronicle has yet appeared, nor

ence of Americans must be felt through- will any ever be able, to depict the hor-

out the world, or the position abandoned rors of the midnight warfare upon weak

to which you rose with gigantic vitality and helpless negroes and their families,

out of the blood of your martyrs. I have the outrages by men in ghostly disguises,

seen the genius of those glorious days the homes destroyed, and the general ter-

spreading its fiery wings of inspiration ror spread over the Southern States where,

over the people of Massachusetts. I feel colored people were most thickly settled.
the spirit of olden times moving through The actions of the Ku-klux Klan in the

Faneuil Hall. Let me leave your hearts South were made the subject of heated

alone with the inspiration of history, debates in Congress, and on March 21,

Let me bear with me the heart-strength- 1871, a joint investigating committee was

ening conviction that I have seen Boston appointed. Two days afterwards, Presi-

still a radiating sun, as it was of yore, dent Grant sent the following message to

but risen so high on mankind s sky as both Houses:
to spread its warming rays of elevated

patriotism far over the waves. American " To the Senate and House of Represents

TMJf&gt;Q *

patriotism of to-day is philanthropy for

f. ,-, A condition of affairs now exists in

some of the States of the Union rendering

Gentlemen, I trust in God, I trust in life and property insecure, and the carrying

the destinies of humanity, and intrust of th e mails and the collection of the rev-

the hones of onnressed Eurone to the enue dan g er us. The proof that such a

condition of affairs exists in some localities

consistent energy of Massachusetts. j s now before the Senate. That the power

Koszta, MARTIN. See NATURALIZA- to correct these evils is beyond the control

fjON. of the Senate authorities, I do not doubt :

., , , T _, that the power of the executive of the United

^ Ku-klux Klan, a political organization states, acting within the limits of existing

founded, it is generally admitted, in the laws, is sufficient for present emergencies

State of Tennessee about the beginning of Is not clear - Therefore, I urgently recom-

jv TOCO -c&lt; AT. mend such legislation as in the lodgment

the year 1868. From the month of Janu- of Congress * hall effectually secure life,

ary to May it spread so rapidly all over liberty, and property, and the enforcement

the Southern States that according to of law ln a11 narts of tne TTnited States. It

some of the best authorities, by the mid- "^ ^^/d ?n S?2f?2 JK

the year the organization num- ommendation shall expire at the end of the

bered no fewer than 500,000 men. The next session of Congress. There is no other

objects of the Klan were to oppose the R"b1ect on which I would recommend legis-

; , ,, \: lation during the present session,

enforcement of the reconstruction acts "US GRANT "

274

KTJ-KLUX KLAN

The result of the investigations was the the United States, or from discharging

passage by Congress of an act entitled the duties thereof, or by force, intimida-

" An act to enforce the provisions of the tion, or threat to induce any officer of

Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitu- the United States to leave any State, dis-

tion of the United States, and for other trict, or place where his duties as such

purposes," popularly known as " the officer might lawfully be performed, or to

Force bill," which was approved by the injure him in his person or property on

President April 20. This act was as fol- account of his lawful discharge of the

lows: duties of his office, or to injure his per-

" Force bill " of 1871. Be it enacted, son while engaged in the lawful discharge
by the Senate and House of Representa- of the duties of his office, or to injure
tives of the United States of America in his property so as to molest, interrupt,
Congress assembled, that any person who hinder, or impede him in the discharge
under color of any law, statute, ordinance, of his official duty, or by force, intimi-
regulation, custom, or usage of any dation, or threat to deter any party or
State, shall subject, or cause to be sub- witness in any court of the United States
jected, any person within the jurisdic- from attending such court, or from testi-
tion of the United States to the depri- fying in any matter pending in such court
vation of any privileges or immunities fully, freely, and truthfully, or to in-
secured by the Constitution of the United jure any such party or witness in his per-
States, shall, any such law, statute, or- son or property on account of his hav-
dinance, regulation, custom, or usage of ing so attended or testified, or by force,
the State to the contrary notwithstand- intimidation, or threat to influence the
ing, be liable to the party injured in any verdict, presentment, or indictment, of
action at law, suit in equity, or other any juror or grand-juror in any court of
proper proceeding for redress; such pro- the United States, or to injure such juror
ceeding to be prosecuted in the several in his person or property on account of
district or circuit courts of the United any verdict, presentment, or indictment,
States, with and subject to the same rights lawfully assented to by him, or on ac-
of appeal, review upon error, and other count of his being or having been such
remedies provided in like cases in such juror, or shall conspire together, or go
courts, under the provisions of the act in disguise upon the public highway or
of the ninth of April, eighteen hundred upon the premises of another for the
and sixty-six, entitled " An act to protect purpose, either directly or indirectly, of
all persons in the United States in their depriving any person or any class of per-
civil rights, and to furnish the means of sons of the equal protection of the laws,
their vindication"; and the other reme- or of equal privileges or immunities
dial laws of the United States which are under the laws, or for the purpose of
in their nature applicable in such cases. preventing or hindering the constituted

Sec 2 That if two or more persons authorities of any State from giving or
within any State or Territory of the securing to all persons within such State
United States shall conspire together to the equal protection of the laws, or shall
overthrow, or to put down, or to destroy conspire together for the purpose
by force the government of the United any manner impeding, hindering, obstruct
States, of to levy war against the ing, or defeating the due course of jus-
United States, or to oppose by force the tice in any State or Territory, with m-
authority of the government of the tent to deny to any citizen of the United
United States, or by force, intimidation, States the due and equal protection of
or threat to prevent, hinder, or delay the laws, or to injure any person in his
the execution of any law of the United person or his property for lawfully en-
Rtntos or by force to seize, take or pos- forcing the right of any person or
SPSS any property of the United States, of persons to the equal protection of
contrary to the authority thereof, or by laws, or by force, intimidation, or thre
force, intimidation, or threat to prevent to prevent any citizen of the
any person from accepting or holding any States lawfully entitled to vote from
office of trust or place of confidence under ing his support or advocacy m a lawful

275

KU-KLTJX KLAN

manner towards or in favor of the elec- secured by this act, and the constituted

tion of any lawfully qualified person as authorities of such State shall either be

an elector of President or Vice-President unable to protect, or shall, from any

of the United States, or as a member of cause, fail in or refuse protection of the

the Congress of the United States, or to people in such rights, such facts shall be

injure in any way any such citizen in his deemed a denial by such State of the equal

person or property on account of such protection of the laws to which they are

support or advocacy, each and every per- entitled under the Constitution of the

son so offending shall be deemed guilty United States; and in all such cases, or

of a high crime, and, upon conviction whenever any such insurrection, violence,

thereof in any district or circuit court of unlawful combination, or conspiracy shall

the United States, or district or supreme oppose or obstruct the laws of the United

court of any Territory of the United States or the due execution thereof, or im-

States having jurisdiction of similar of- pede or obstruct the due course of justice

fences, shall be punished by a fine not under the same, it shall be lawful for the

less than $500 nor more than $5,000, or President, and it shall be his duty, to

by imprisonment with or without hard take such measures, by the employment

labor, as the court may determine, for a of the militia or the land and naval forces

period of not less than six months nor of the United States, or of either, or by

more than six years, as the court may other means, as he may deem necessary

determine, or by both such fine and im- for the suppression of such insurrection,

prisonment as the court shall determine, domestic violence, or combinations; and

And if any one or more persons engaged any person who shall be arrested under

in any such conspiracy shall do, or cause the provision of this and the preceding

to be done, any act in furtherance of the section shall be delivered to the marshal

object of such conspiracy, whereby any of the proper district, to be dealt with ac-

person shall be injured in his person or cording to law.

property, or be deprived of having and Sec. 4. That whenever in any State or
exercising any right or privilege of a citi- part of a State the unlawful combinations
zen of the United States, the person so named in the preceding section of this act
injured or deprived of such rights and shall be organized and armed, and so nu-
privileges may have and maintain an ac- merous and powerful as to be able, by vio-
tion for the recovery of damages occa- lence, to either overthrow or set at de-
sioned by such injury or deprivation of fiance the constituted authorities of such
rights and privileges against any one or State and of the United States within
more of the persons engaged in such con- such State, or when the constituted
spiracy, such action to be prosecuted in authorities are in complicity with, or shall
the proper district or circuit court of the connive at the unlawful purposes of, surh
United States, with and subject to the powerful and armed combinations; and
same right of appeal, review upon error, whenever, by reason of either or all of the
and other remedies provided in like cases causes aforesaid, the conviction of such
in such courts under the provision of the offenders and the preservation of the pub-
act of April ninth, one thousand eight hun- lie safety shall become in such district im-
dred and sixty-six, "An act to protect practicable, in every such case such coin-
all persons in the United States in their binations shall be deemed a rebellion
civil rights, and to furnish the means of against the government of the United
their vindication." States, and during the continuance oi
Sec. 3. That in all cases where insur- such rebellion, and within the limits of
rection, domestic violence, unlawful com- the district which shall be so under the
binations, or conspiracies in any State sway thereof, such limits to be prescribed
shall so obstruct or hinder the execution by proclamation, it shall be lawful for the
of the laws thereof, and of the United President of the United States, when in
States, as to deprive any portion or class his judgment the public safety shall re-
of the people of such State of any of the quire it, to suspend the privileges of the
rights, privileges, or immunities, or pro- writ of habeas corpus, to the end that
tection, named in the Constitution and such rebellion may be overthrown: Pro-

276

KU-KLUX KLAN KUNZ

vided, that all the provisions of the sec- son or persons, by reasonable diligence,
ond section of an act entitled "An act could have prevented; and such damages
relating to habeas corpus and regulating may be recovered in an action on the case
judicial proceedings in certain cases," ap- in the proper circuit court of the United
proved March third, eighteen hundred and States, and any number of persons guilty
sixty-three, which relate to the discharge of such wrongful neglect or refusal may be
of prisoners other than prisoners of war, joined as defendants in such action: Pro-
and to the penalty for refusing to obey vided, that such action shall be com-
the order of the court, shall be in full menced within one year after such cause
force so far as the same are applicable to of action shall have accrued; and if the
the provisions of this section: Provided death of any person shall be caused by
further, that the President shall first any such wrongful act and neglect, the
have made proclamation, as now provided legal representatives of such deceased
by law, commanding such insurgents to person shall have such action therefor,
disperse. And provided also, that the and may recover not exceeding five thou-
provisions of this section shall not be in snnd dollars damages therein, for the
force after the end of the next regular benefit of the widow of such deceased per-
session of Congress. son, if any there be, or if there be no

Sec. 5. That no person shall be a grand widow, for the benefit of the next of kin
or petit juror in any court of the United of such deceased person.
States upon any inquiry, hearing, or trial Sec. 7. That nothing herein contained
of any suit, proceeding, or prosecution shall be construed to supersede or repeal
based upon or arising under the provi- any former act or law, except so far as
sions of this act who shall, in the judg- the same may be repugnant thereto; and
ment of the court, be in complicity with any offences heretofore committed against
any such combination or conspiracy; and the tenor of any former act shall be
every such juror shall, before entering upon prosecuted, and any proceeding already
tiny such inquiry, hearing, or trial, take and commenced for the prosecution thereof
subscribe an oath in open court that he shall be continued and completed, the
has never, directly or indirectly, coun- snine as if this act had not been passed,
selled, advised, or voluntarily aided any except so far as the provisions of this
such combination or conspiracy; and each act may go to sustain and validate such
and every person who shall take this proceedings,
oath, and shall therein swear falsely, shall Approved, April 20, 1871.
be guilty of perjury, and shall be subject In October following President Grant
to the pains and penalties declared issued a proclamation calling on the mem-
against that crime, and the first section bers of illegal associations in nine coun-
of the act entitled " An act defining ad- ties in South Carolina to disperse and
ditional causes of challenge and prescrib- surrender their arms and disguises with-
ing an additional oath for grand and petit in five days. Five days afterwards an-
jurors in the United States courts," ap- other proclamation was issued suspend-
proved June seventeenth, eighteen hun- ing the privileges of the writ of habeas
dred and sixty-two, be, and the same is corpus in the counties named. Over 200
hereby, repealed. persons were arrested within a few days,

Sec. 6. That any person or persons hav- and the organization of the Ku - klux
ing knowledge that any of the wrongs Klan was practically overthrown by the
conspired to be done and mentioned in middle of the following January,
the second section of this act are about Kunz, GEORGE FREDERICK, gem expert;
to be committed, and having power to born in New York City, Sept. 29, 1850;
prevent, or aid in preventing, the same, was educated in public schools and at
shall neglect or refuse so to do, and such Cooper Union. In 1883 he was appointed
wrongful act shall be committed, such special agent of the United States Geo-
person or persons shall be liable to the logical Survey. He had charge of the
person injured, or his legal representa- department of mines in the Paris Expo-
tives, for all damages caused by any such sition of 1889, in the Kimberley Exposi-
wrongful act which such first-named per- tion of 1892, and in the World s Colum-

277

KUN2 KYLE

bian Exposition of 1893, and was honorary logical Survey he has contributed the

special agent of mines in the Atlanta chapter on The Production of Precious

Exposition of 1895, and in the Omaha Stones to the annual report on Mineral

Exposition of 1898. He made a special Resources.

investigation of the occurrence of Ameri- Kyle, JAMES HENDERSON, statesman ;
can pearls for the United States Fish born in Xenia, O., Jan. 24, 1854; grad-
Commission, in 1892-98, and was an uated at Oberlin College in 1878; removed
honorary special agent to the commis- to South Dakota in 1890; member of the
sioner -general of the United States to the State Senate, 1890; United States Sen-
Paris Exposition of 1900. In 1889 he ator, 1891; re-elected, 1897. He was a
was decorated by the French govern- leader in the FARMERS ALLIANCE and
ment officier de I Academic. Since his POPULIST PARTIES (q. v.) . He died in
appointment to the United States Geo- Aberdeen, S. D., July 1, 1901.

278

Labor, INDUSTRIAL. Organizations of moting their material, social, intellectual,
laboring men for mutual protection and and moral prosperity." He is also espe-
the advancement of their common interests cially charged, in accordance with the gen-
are by no means new or peculiar to the eral design and duties prescribed by the
United States. Tradesmen s guilds and law, " at as early a date as possible, and
societies were common in London several whenever industrial changes shall make it
centuries ago; but it was not until 1870 essential, to ascertain the cost of produc*
that such organizations began to be for- ing articles, at the time dutiable in th&
midable and to have a national influence. United States, in leading countries where
The first trades-union in this country was such articles are produced, by fully specified
established by the tailors in 1803. The units of production, and under a classifi-
first local union of printers was organized cation showing the different elements of
in 1831. The first organized movement cost of such articles of production, in-
against the employment of convict labor eluding wages paid in such industries,"
was made in a convention of mechanics in etc. Besides the national Department
Utica, N. Y., in 1834. In 1845 the first of Labor, there are bureaus of statistics
industrial congress had a meeting in New and labor in nearly all of the States,
York. From that time the progress of the the principal objects of which are to col-
labor movement, although at first imper- lect and disseminate information on all
ceptibly slow, was assured. In 1869 a matters of practical interest and value
secret association of workingmen, known both to employers and employed. In 1886
as the KNIGHTS OF LABOR (q. v.), was or- most of the trades-unions in the United
ganized at Philadelphia. Within a few States, through their representatives in a
years this association had its branches in convention at Columbus, O., united in a
every State of the Union, and enrolled national organization called the American
many thousands of members. Many ef- Federation of Labor. In 1903 this organ-
forts were made at different times to ization comprised 1,823 local unions, with
effect a political organization of working- a total membership of 2,100,000, and em-
men, but owing to dissensions and differ- braced more than seventy different trades,
ences of opinion among those engaged in Labor Legislation. The following States
these movements, very little was accom- have adopted laws prohibiting boycotting
plished save indirectly through the influ- in terms: Colorado, Illinois, and Wisconsin,
ence brought to bear upon the great politi- The States and Territories having laws
cal parties already in power. prohibiting blacklisting in terms are Ala
in 1888 a department of labor was ere- bama, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida,
ated by act of Congress, with headquarters Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,
in Washington, D. C. This department is Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada,
under the control of a commissioner of North Dakota, Oklahoma, Utah, Virginia,
labor, whose duty it is " to acquire and Washington, and Wisconsin,
diffuse among the people of the United The following States and Territories
States useful information on subjects con- have laws which may be fairly construed
nected with labor, in the most general and as prohibiting boycotting: Alabama, Con-
comprehensive sense of that word, and es- necticut, Florida, Georgia, Maine, Massa-
pecially upon its relation to capital; the chusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missis-
hours of labor; the earnings of laboring sippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, New
men and women; and the means of pro- York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon,

279

LABOR, INDUSTRIAL

South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, and
Wisconsin.

The following States and Territories
have laws which may be fairly construed
as prohibiting blacklisting: Georgia,
Michigan, New Hampshire, New York,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and
South Dakota.

In the following States it is unlawful
for any employer to exact an agreement
either written or verbal, from an employe
not to join or become a member of any
labor organization, as a condition of em
ployment: California, Colorado, Connec
ticut, Idaho, Indiana, Massachusetts, Min
nesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New York,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.

The following is a summary of the laws
of those States that have adopted the
eight-hour work-limit:

California. Eight hours of labor con
stitute a day s work, unless it is other
wise expressly stipulated by the parties
to a contract. The time of service of all
laborers, workmen, and mechanics em
ployed upon any public works of, or done
for, the State, or for any political sub
division thereof, whether the work is to
be done by contract or otherwise, is limit
ed and restricted to eight hours in any
one calendar day, and a stipulation that
no workman, laborer, or mechanic in the
employ of the contractor or sub-contractor
shall be required or permitted to work
more than eight hours in any one calen
dar day, except in cases of extraordinary
emergency, shall be contained in every
contract to which the State or any politi
cal sub-division thereof is a party. In the
case of drivers, conductors, and gripmen
of street-cars for the carriage of passen
gers, a day s work consists of twelve
hours. Employment of minor children
for more than eight hours per day is ab
s