Full text of "Harper's encyclopedia of United States history from 485 A.D. to 1905 Volume 7"

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EDITION

HARPER S ENCYCLOPEDIA

of
UNITED STATES HISTORY

FROM 458 A.D. TO 1905
BASED UPON THE PLAN OF

BENSON JOHN LOSSINQ, LL.D.

SOMETIME EDITOR OF "THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL RECORD" AND AUTHOR OF
"THE PICTORIAL FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION" " THE PICTORIAL FIELD-
BOOK OF THE WAR OF l8l2" ETC., ETC., ETC.

WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS COVERING EVERY PHASE OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND
DEVELOPMENT BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING

JOHN FISKE.

THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN

WM.R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D.

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT HARVARD

JOHN B. MOORE.

PROF. OF INTERNATIONAL LAW AT COLUMBIA

JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D.

PROF. OF LITERATURE AT UNIV. OF CALIFORNIA

WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D.

U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY UNIV. OF TORONTO

MOSES COIT TYLER, LL.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT CORNELL

EDWARD G. BOURNE, Ph.D.

PROF. OF HISTORY AT YALE

R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D.

PROF. OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA

ALFRED T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.

CAPTAIN UNITED STATES NAVY (Retired).

ETC., ETC., ETC., ETC.
WITH A PREFACE ON THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY

WOODROW WILSON, PH.D., LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
AUTHOR OF

"A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE" ETC., ETC.

WITH ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, PORTRAITS, MAPS, PLANS, &&amp;lt;.

COMPLETE IN TEN VOLUMES
VOL. VII

HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK - 1905 - LONDON

All rights resided.

LIST OF PLATES

lece

PRESIDENT THEODORE ROOSEVELT Frontispi

SCENE ON THE LUNETA, MANILA Facing page 180

PRESIDENT FRANKLIN PIERCE .."..". " " 202

THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS " "212

PRESIDENT JAMES K. POLK " " 240

ADMIRAL DAVID D. PORTER " " 2 rg

MAPS

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS Facing page 17 6

PORTO Rico "

HARPERS ENCYCLOPAEDIA

UNITED STATES HISTORY

Oak Woods, BATTLE OF. In the Civil
War the siege of Richmond had gone on
quietly until near the close of June, 1862,
when General Heintzel man s corps, with
a part of Keyes s and Sumner s, was order
ed to move forward on the Williamsburg
road, through a swampy wood, for the pur
pose of ascertaining the nature of the
ground beyond, and to place Heintzelman
and Sumner in a position to support a
proposed attack upon the Confederates at
a certain point by General Franklin. They
met a Confederate force, and a fight en
sued, in which the brigades of Sickles
and Grover, of Hooker s division, bore the
brunt. The Confederates were driven from
their encampment, and the point aimed at
was gained. The National loss was 516
men killed and wounded.

Oaths, solemn appeals to God for the
truth of an affirmation. There are two
classes of oaths ; ( 1 ) assertatory, when
made as to a fact, etc.; (2) promissory,
oaths of allegiance, of office, etc. Taken by
Abraham, 1892 B.C. (Gen. xxi. 24), and
authorized 1491 B.C. (Exod. xxii. 11).
The administration of an oath in judicial
proceedings was introduced by the Saxons
into England, 600.

Of supremacy, first administered to
British subjects, and ratified by Par
liament, 26 Henry VIII 1535

Oaths were taken on the Gospels so
early as 528 ; and the words, " So
help me God and all saints," conclud
ed an oath until 1550

Ancient oath of allegiance in England,
" to be true and faithful to the King
and his heirs, and truth and faith to

VII. A 1

bear of life and limb and terrene
honor ; and not to know or hear of
any ill or damage intended him with
out defending him therefrom," to
which James I. added a declaration
against the pope s authority 1G03

It was again altered 1689

Affirmation of a Quaker authorized in
stead of an oath, by statute, in 1696
et seq.

Of abjuration, being an obligation to
maintain the government of King,
lords, and Commons, the Church of
England, and toleration of Protestant
Dissenters, and abjuring all Roman
Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13
William III 1701

Affirmation, instead of oath, was per
mitted to Quakers and other Dis
senters by acts passed in 1833, 1837,
1838, and 1863.

In 1858 and 1860 Jews elected members
of Parliament were relieved from part
of the oath of allegiance.

New oath of allegiance by 31 and 32
Victoria c. 72 (1868), for members of
the new Parliament : "I do swear
that I will be faithful and bear true
allegiance to her Majesty Queen Vic
toria, her heirs and successors, ac
cording to law, so help me God."
(Bradlaugh case, Parliament, 1880.)

Following is the form of the oath of
allegiance Washington was directed by
Congress to administer to the officers
of the army before leaving Valley
Forge: "I [name and office], in the
armies of the United States of Amer
ica, do acknowledge the United States
of America to be free, independent, and
sovereign States, and declare that
the people thereof owe no allegiance
or obedience to George III., King
of Great Britain ; and I renounce, re
fuse, and abjure any allegiance or
obedience to him : and I do - - that
I will to the utmost of my power sup
port, maintain, and defend the said

OBEE O BRIEN-

in honor of J. F. Oberlin (1740-1826), a
Protestant pastor of Waldbach, Alsace.
In 1903 it reported 96 professors and in
structors; 1,509 students; 3,856 grad
uates; 08,000 volumes in the library;
grounds and buildings valued at $716,000;
and productive funds, $1,576,153. Henry
C. King, D.D., president.

Oblong, THE. In 1731 the long-disputed
boundary between New York and Connecti
cut seemed to be settled by mutual con
cessions. A tract of land lying within
the claimed boundary of Connecticut, 580
rods in width, consisting of 61,440 acres,
and called from its figure "The Oblong,"
was ceded to New York as an equivalent
for lands near Long Island Sound sur
rendered to Connecticut. That tract is
now included in the Connecticut towns of
Greenwich, Stamford, New Canaan, and
Darien. This agreement was subscribed
by the respective commissioners at Dover,
then the only village on the west side
of the Oblong. The dividing - line was
not run regularly, and this gave rise
to a vexatious controversy, which was set
tled in 1880.

O Brien, JEREMIAH, naval officer; born
in Scarboro, Me., in 1740. On hearing of
the affair at Lexington (April, 1775), he
and four brothers, and a few volunteers,
captured a British armed schooner in
Machias Bay, May 11, 1775. Jeremiah
was the leader. It was the first naval
victory, and the first blow struck on the
water, after the war began. O Brien soon
afterwards made other captures, and he
was commissioned a captain in the Massa
chusetts navy. He commanded a privateer,
but was captured, and suffered six months
in the JERSEY PRISON-SHIP (q. v. ). He
was also confined in Mill Prison, England, a

For another form of special oath, see year, when he escaped and returned home.
AGUINALDO, EMILTO. At the time of his death, Oct. 5, 1818,

Ober, FREDERICK ALBION, author; born O Brien was collector of customs at Machias.
in Beverly, Mass., Feb. 13, 1849 ; now con- O Brien, RICHARD, naval officer ; born in
nected as ornithologist with the Smith- Maine in 1758: commanded a privateer in
sonian Institution, for which he has trav- the Revolutionary War, and was an officer
clled extensively. Among his works are on the brig Jefferson in 1781; was capt-
Puerto Rico and its Resources; Brief His- ured by the Dey of Algiers, and enslaved
tories of Spain, Mexico, and the West for many years, carrying a ball and chain
Indies, etc. until a service performed for his mas-

Oberlin College, a non-sectarian, co- ter s daughter alleviated his condition,
educational institxition in Oberlin, O., Thomas Jefferson, while Secretary of State
founded in 1833 by the Rev. John J. Ship- (1797), procured his emancipation, and
herd and Philo P. Stewart, and so named appointed him an agent for the United

United States against the said King
George III., his heirs and successors,
and his or their abettors, assistants,
and adherents, and will serve the said
United States in the office of -
which I now hold, with fidelity ac
cording to the best of my skill and

understanding " June, 1778

[By act of Congress, Aug. 3, 1861,
the oath of allegiance for the cadets
at West Point was amended so as to
abjure all allegiance, sovereignty, or
fealty to any State, county, or coun
try whatsoever, and to require un
qualified support, of the Constitution
and the national government.]
Iron-clad " or " test " oath, pre
scribed by Congress July 2, 1862, to
be taken by persons in the former
Confederate States appointed to office
under the national government. The
text was as follows : I, A. B., do
solemnly swear (or affirm) that I
have never voluntarily borne arms
against the United States since I
have been a citizen thereof ; that
I have voluntarily given no aid,
countenance, counsel, or encourage
ment to persons engaged in armed
hostility thereto ; that I have neither
sought, nor accepted, nor attempted
to exercise the functions of any office
whatever, under any authority or pre
tended authority in hostility to the
United States ; that I have not yield
ed a voluntary support to any pre
tended government, authority, power,
or constitution within the United
States, hostile or inimical thereto.
And I do further swear (or affirm)
that, to the best of my knowledge
and ability, I will support and defend
the Constitution of the United States
against all enemies, foreign and
domestic ; that I will bear true faith
and allegiance to the same ; that I
take this obligation freely, without
any mental reservation or purpose of
evasion, and that I will well and
faithfully discharge the duties of the
office on which I am about to enter,
so help me God."

OBSERVATORY O CONOR

States. He died in Washington, D. C., teen years of age, and remained there

Feb. 14, 1824. four years. Teaching school awhile at

Observatory. The first observatory in Lebanon, he removed to Montauk, L. I.,

Europe was erected at Nuremberg, 1472, where he taught and preached. Sent to

by Walthers. The two most celebrated of England (1766) as an agent for Whee-

the sixteenth century were the one erect- lock s Indian school, he attracted great

ed by Landgrave William IV. at Cassel, attention, for he was the first Indian

1561, and Tycho Brahe s at Uranienborg, preacher who had visited that country.

1567. The first attempt in the United Occurn was employed in missionary labors

States was at the University of North among the Indians, and acquired much

Carolina, 1824; and the first permanent influence over them. He died in New

one at Williams College, 1836. The lead- Stockbridge, N. Y., July 14, 1792.

ing observatories in the United States are Oconastoto, INDIAN CHIEF, elected head

those of the Naval Observatory in Wash- chief of the Cherokees in 1738. In the

ington, the Princeton University, Harvard French and Indian War he sided at first

University, Dudley Observatory at Albany, with the English, but in consequence of a

Michigan University, Chicago University, dispute between the Indians and some Eng-

Hamilton College, and the Lick Observa- lish settlers, he made a general attack on

tory in California. the frontier settlements of the Carolina?.

Ocala (Fla.) Platform, of the Farm- At the head of 10,000 Creeks and Chero-
ers Alliance, was adopted Dec. 8, 1890. kees he forced the garrison of Fort London
It favored free silver, a low tariff, an to surrender, and in violation of his prom-
income tax, the abolition of national ise, treacherously killed all his prison-
banks, and the establishment of sub- ers, over 200 in number. Three men
treasuries, which should lend money to the only escaped Capt. John Stuart, and two
people at a low interest. soldiers. Stuart s life was saved by one

O Callaghan, EDMUND BAILEY, histo- of the chiefs, who assisted him in returning
rian; born in County Cork, Ireland, Feb. to Virginia. As a result of the massacre
29, 1797. He was a member of the the colonists burned the Cherokee towns,
Parliament of Lower Canada in 1836. and forced Oconastoto into an alliance
He came to the United States in which lasted until the war of the Revolu-
1837, and was for many years ( 1848- tion, when Captain Stuart, who had been
70) keeper of the historical manuscripts made British Indian agent, induced Ocon-
in the office of the secretary of state of astoto to head an attack on the colonists
New York. He translated the Dutch rec- with 20,000 Indians. JOHN SEVIER
ords obtained from Holland by Mr. Brod- (q. v.) after a five years struggle succeed-
head, contained in several published vol- ed in permanently crushing the power of
umes. O Callaghan wrote and edited very the allied Indians. Oconastoto was re-
valuable works, such as the Documentary ported alive in 1809 by Return J. Meigs,
History of New York (4 volumes) ; Docu- United States Indian agent, although
ments relating to the Colonial History of eighty years previously (1730) he had
New York (11 volumes) ; Journals of the reached manhood and had represented the
Legislative Councils of New York (2 vol- Cherokee nation in a delegation sent to
umes) ; Historical Manuscripts relating England.

to the War of the Revolution; Laws and O Conor, CHARLES, lawyer; born in

Ordinances of New Netherland (2 volumes, New York City, Jan. 22, 1804; admitted

1638-74). In 1845-48 he prepared and to the bar in 1824. He was connected

published a History of New Netherland with many of the most prominent legal

(2 volumes). At the time of his death, cases, the most famous of which were

May 27, 1880, he was engaged in translat- the suits against the Tammany ring in

ing the Dutch records of the city of New 1871, in which William M. Evarts, James

York. Emmot, and Wheeler H. Peckham were

Occom, SAMSON, Indian preacher; born associated with him. In 1872 Mr.

in Mohegan, New London co., Conn., about O Conor was nominated for the Prpsi-

1723; entered the Indian school of Mr. dency by that portion of the Democratic

Wheelock at Lebanon when he was nine- party which was opposed to the election

ODD-FELLOWS OGDEN

of Horace Greeley. Mr. O Conor was one
of the counsel of Samuel J. Tilden be
fore the electoral commission in 1876. He
died in Nantucket, Mass., May 12, 1884.

Odd-fellows, a name adopted by mem
bers of a social institution having signs
of recognition, initiatory rites and cere
monies, grades of dignity and honor;
object purely social and benevolent, con
fined to members. The independent order
of odd-fellows was formed in Manchester,
England, in 1813. Odd-fellowship was in
troduced into the United States from Man
chester in 1819; and the grand lodge of
Maryland and the United States was con
stituted Feb. 22, 1821. In 1842 the Ameri
can branch severed its connection with the
Manchester unity. In 1843 it issued a
dispensation for opening the Prince of
Wales Lodge No. 1, at Montreal, Canada.
American odd - fellowship has its head
quarters at Baltimore and branches in
nearly all parts of the world, the su
preme body being the sovereign grand
lodge of the world. In 1903 its member
ship was 1,031,399; total relief paid,
$4,068,510.

Odell, BENJAMIN B., JR., governor;
born in Newburg, N. Y., Jan. 14, 1854;
member of Congress in 1895-99; elected
governor of the State of New York in
1900.

O Dell, JONATHAN, clergyman; born in
Newark, N. J., Sept. 25, 1737; grad
uated at the College of New Jersey
in 1754; took holy orders in 1767, and
became pastor of the Episcopal Church in
Burlington, N. J. During the Revolution
he was in frequent conflict with the
patriots in his parish, and at the close of
the war he went to England, but returned
to America and settled in New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia. He died in Fredericton,
N. B., Nov. 25, 1818.

Odell, MOSES FOWLER, statesman; born
in Tarry town, N. Y., Feb. 24, 1818; elected
to Congress in 1861 as a fusion Democrat
from Brooklyn, N. Y., and in 1863 as a
war Democrat. He was a member of the
committee on the conduct of the war. In
1865 he was appointed naval officer of the
port of New York, and subsequently was
offered the post of collector of the port,
which he declined on account of failing
health. Mr. Odell was a prominent mem
ber of the Methodist Episcopal Church,

and widely known as the superintendent
of the Sunday - school of Sands Street
Church. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., June
13, 1866.

Ogden, AARON, military officer; born
in Elizabethtown, N. J., Dec. 3, 1756;
graduated at Princeton in 1773; taught
school in his native village; and in the
winter of 1775-76 assisted in capturing,
near Sandy Hook, a British vessel laden
with munitions of war for the army in
Boston. Early in 1777 he entered the

AARON OGDES.

army as captain under his brother Mat
thias, and fought at Brandywine. He was
brigade-major under Lee at Monmouth,
and assistant aide-de-camp to Lord Stir
ling; aid to General Maxwell in Sullivan s
expedition; was at the battle of Spring
field (June, 1780) ; and in 1781 was with
Lafayette in Virginia. He led infantry
to the storming of a redoubt at Yorktown,
and received the commendation of Wash
ington. After the war he practised law,
and held civil offices of trust in his State.
He was United States Senator from 1801
to 1803, and governor of New Jersey from
1812 to 1813. In the War of 1812-15 he
commanded the militia of New Jersey.
At the time of his death, in Jersey City,
N. J., April 19, 1839, he was president-
general of the Society of the Cincinnati.

Ogden, DAVID, jurist; born in Newark,
N. J., in 1707; graduated at Yale in 1728;
appointed judge of the Supreme Court of
New Jersey in 1772, but was obliged to
resign at the beginning of the War of the
Revolution. He was in England the great
er portion of the time until 1789, acting as

OGDEN OGDENSBUBG

agent for the loyalists who had claims on
Great Britain, and he secured a com
pensation of $100,000 for his own losses.
He settled in Whitestone, N. Y., in 1789,
and died there in June, 1800.

Ogden, HERBERT GOUVERNEUB, topog
rapher; born in New York, April 4,
1846; served in the Civil War; connected
with the United States coast survey;
took part in the Nicaragua expedition,
1865 ; exploration of the Isthmus of
Darien, 1870; Alaskan boundary ex
pedition, 1893, etc.

Ogden, MATTHIAS, military officer; born
in Elizabethtown, N. J., Oct. 22, 1754;
joined the army at Cambridge in 1775,
accompanied Arnold in his expedition to
QUEBEC (q. v.) , and commanded the 1st
New Jersey Regiment from 1776 until the
close of the war, when he was brevetted
brigadier-general. He died in Elizabeth-
town, N. J., March 31, 1791.

Ogdensburg, BATTLES AT. The pres-

of northern New York from that quarter
caused Gen. Jacob Brown to be sent to
Ogdensburg to garrison old Fort Presenta
tion, or Oswegatchie, at the mouth of the
Oswegatchie River. Brown arrived on Oct.
1, and the next day a British flotilla, com
posed of two gunboats and twenty-five
bateaux, bearing about 750 armed men,
left Prescott to attack Ogdensburg. At
the latter place Brown had about 1,200
effective men, regulars and militia, and
a party of riflemen, under Captain For-
syth, were encamped near Fort Presenta
tion, on the margin of the river. The
latter were drawn up in battle order to
dispute the landing of the invaders. Brown
had two field-pieces, and when the British
were nearly in mid-channel these were
opened upon them with such effect that
the enemy were made to retreat precipi
tately and in great confusion. This re
pulse gave Brown much credit, and he
was soon regarded as one of the ablest
men in the service.

The British again attacked Ogdensburg
hi the winter of 1813. On Feb. 22 about
800 British soldiers, under Colonel Mc-
Donell, appeared on the ice in front of the
town, approaching in two columns. It
was early in the morning, and some of the
inhabitants of the village were yet in bed.
Colonel Forsyth and his riflemen were sta
tioned at Fort Presentation, and against
them the right column of the invaders,
300 strong, moved. Forsyth s men were

PRESENT SITE OF FOKT I RESENTATIOS.

ent city of Ogdensburg, N. Y., was a little partially sheltered by the ruins of the
village in 1812, at the mouth of the fort. Waiting until the column landed,
Oswegatchie River. The British village the Americans attacked them with great
of Prescott was on the opposite side of energy with rifle-shot and cannon-baJls
the St. Lawrence. A threatened invasion from two small field-pieces. The invaders

OGDENSBURG OGILVIE

were repulsed with considerable loss, and syth, seeing his peril, gave orders for a re-
fled in confusion over the frozen bosom of treat to Black Lake, 8 or 9 miles distant,
the St. Lawrence. Meanwhile the left col- There he wrote to the War Department,
umn, 500 strong, had marched into the giving an account of the affair, and say-
town and captured a 12-pounder cannon ing, " If you can send me 300 men, all
and its custodians without resistance, shall be retaken, and Prescott too, or I

MAP OF THK OPKRATIONS AT OGDENSBURG.

They then expected an easy conquest of
the town, but were soon confronted by
cannon under Captain Kellogg and Sher
iff York. The gun of the former became
disabled, and he and his men fled across
the Oswegatchie and joined Forsyth, leav
ing the indomitable York to maintain the
fight alone, until he and his band were
made prisoners. The village was now in
complete possession of the British, and
McDonell proceeded to dislodge Forsyth
and his party at the fort. He sent a mes
sage to that commander to surrender, say
ing, " If you surrender, it shall be well ; if
not, every man shall be put to the bayo
net." " Tell Colonel McDonell," said For
syth to the messenger, " there must be
more fighting done first." Then the two
cannon near the ruins of the fort gave
heavy discharges of grape and canister
shot, which threw the invaders into con
fusion. It was only momentary. An
overwhelming party of the British were
preparing to make an assault, when For-

will lose my life in the attempt." The
town, in possession of the enemy, was
plundered by Indians and camp-followers
of both sexes, who came over from Canada,
and by resident miscreants. Every house
in the village but three was entered, and
the public property carried over to Cana
da. Two armed schooners, fast in the ice,
were burned, and the barracks near the
river were laid in ashes. Fifty-two pris
oners were taken to Prescott. The Amer
icans lost in the affair, besides the prison
ers, five killed and fifteen wounded; the
British loss was six killed and forty-eight
wounded. They immediately evacuated the
place, and the fugitive citizens returned.
Ogilvie, JOHN, clergyman; born in New
York City in 1722; graduated at Yale in
1748; missionary to the Indians in 1749;
chaplain to the Royal American Regiment
during the French and Indian War; as
sistant minister of Trinity Church, New
York City, in 1764. He died in New York
City, Nov. 26, 1774.

OGLESBY OGLETHORPE

Oglesby, EICHARD JAMES, military offi- Yamacraw Bluff. A satisfactory confer-
cer; born in Oldham county, Ky., July 25, ence with the surrounding Indians, with
1824; settled in Decatur, 111., in 183G. MARY MUSGROVE (q. v.) as interpreter,
When the Mexican War broke out he en- resulted in a treaty which secured sov-
tered the army as lieutenant in the 8th ereignty to the English over a large ter-
Illinois Infantry and participated in the ritory. Oglethorpe went to England in
siege of Vera Cruz and in the action at 1734, leaving the colony in care of others,
Cerro Gordo. Resigning in 1847 he and taking natives with him. He did not
studied law, and began practice in 1851. return to Georgia until 1736, when he
He was elected to the State Senate in took with him several cannon and about
1860, but when the Civil War began re- 150 Scotch Highlanders skilled in the mill-
signed his seat and became colonel of the tary art. This was the first British army
8th Illinois Volunteers; won distinction in Georgia. With him also came REV.
in the battles of Pittsburg Landing and JOHN WESLEY (q. v.) .and his brother
Corinth; and was promoted major-general Charles, for the purpose of giving
in 1862. He was elected governor of II- spiritual instruction to the colonists ,
linois in 1864 and 1872, but in his second The elements of prosperity were now
term served a few days only when he was with the colonists, who numbered more
elected United States Senator. In 1878 he than 500 souls; but the unwise re-
was again elected governor. He died in strictions of the trustees were a serious
Elkhart, 111., April 24, 1899. bar to advancement. Many Germans, also,

Oglethorpe, JAMES EDWARD, "father" now settled in Georgia, among them a
of Georgia; born in London, England, Dec. band of Moravians; and the Wesleys were
21, 1698. Early in 1714 he was commis- followed by GEORGE WHITEFIELD (q. v.),&
sioned one of Queen Anne s guards, and
was one of Prince Eugene s aids in the
campaign against the Turks in 1716-17.
At the siege and capture of Belgrade he
was very active, and he attained the rank
of colonel in the British army. In 1722
he was elected to a seat in Parliament,
which he held thirty-two years. In that
body he made a successful effort to relieve
the distresses of prisoners for debt, who
crowded the jails of England, and projected
the plan of a colony in America to serve
as an asylum for the persecuted Protes
tants in Germany and other Continental
countries, and " for those persons at home
who had become so desperate in circum
stances that they could not rise and hope JAMES EDWARD OGLETHORPE.
again without changing the scene and mak
ing trial of a different country." Thorn- zealous young clergyman burning with zeal
son, alluding to this project of transporting for the good of men, and who worked lov-
and expatriating the prisoners for debt to ingly with the Moravians in Georgia.
America, wrote this half-warning line, " O With his great guns and his Highland-
great design! if executed icell." It was ers, Oglethorpe was prepared to defend his
proposed to found the colony in the coun- colony from intruders; and they soon
try between South Carolina and Florida, proved to be useful, for the Spaniards at
King George II. granted a charter for the St. Augustine, jealous of the growth of
purpose in June, 1732. which incorporated the new colony, menaced them. With his
twenty-one trustees for founding the col- martial Scotchmen, Oglethorpe went on
ony of Georgia. an expedition among the islands off the
Oglethorpe accompanied the first com- coast of Georgia, and on St. Simon s he
pany of emigrants thither, and early in founded Frederica and built a fort. At
1733 founded the town of Savannah on Darien, where a few Scotch people had

OGLETHORPE OHIO

planted a settlement, he traced out a forti
fication. Then he went to Cumberland
Island, and there marked out a fort that
would command the mouth of the St.
Mary s River. On a small island at the
entrance of the St. John s River he
planned a small military work, which he
named Fort George. He also founded Au
gusta, far up the Savannah River, and
built a stockade as a defence against hos
tile Indians.

These hostile preparations caused the
Spaniards at St. Augustine to threaten
war. Creek tribes offered their aid to
Oglethorpe, and the Spaniards made a
treaty of peace with the English. It was
disapproved in Spain, and Oglethorpe was
notified that a commissioner from Cuba
would meet him at Frederica. They met.
The Spaniard demanded the evacuation of
all Georgia and a portion of South Caro
lina by the English, claiming the territory
to the latitude of Port Royal as Spanish
possessions. Oglethorpe hastened to Eng
land to confer with the trustees and seek
military strength. He returned in the au
tumn of 1738, a brigadier-general, author
ized to raise troops in Georgia. He found
the colonists languishing and discontented.
Idleness prevailed, and they yearned for
the privilege of employing slave-labor.
Late the next year war broke out between
England and Spain. St. Augustine had
been strengthened with troops, and Ogle
thorpe resolved to strike a blow before the
Spaniards should be well prepared; so he
led an unsuccessful expedition into Flori
da. Two years later the Spaniards pro
ceeded to retaliate, but were frustrated by
a stratagem. Oglethorpe had successfully
settled, colonized, and defended Georgia,
spending a large amount of his own fort
une in the enterprise, not for his own
glory, but for a benevolent purpose. He
returned to England in 1743, where, after
performing good military service as major-
general against the " Young Pretender "
(1745), and serving a few years longer
in Parliament, he retired to his seat in
Essex. When General Gage returned from
America, in 1775, Oglethorpe was offered
the general command of the British troops
in this country, though he was then about
seventy-seven years of age. He did not
approve the doings of the ministry, and
declined. He was among the first to

offer congratulations to John Adams,
because of American independence, when
that gentleman went as minister to
England in 1784. He died in Essex,
England, Jan. 30, 1785. See FLORIDA;
GEORGIA.

O Hara, CHARLES, military officer; born
in 1730; was a lieutenant of the Cold-
stream Guards in 1756, and, as colonel
of the Foot Guards, came to America in
1780 in command of them. He served
under Cornwallis, and commanded the
van in the famous pursuit of Greene in
1781. He was badly wounded in the battle
of GUILFORD (q. v . ) , and was commander
of the British right, as brigadier-general,
at the surrender at Yorktown, when he
gave to General Lincoln the sword of Corn
wallis, the latter too ill, it was alleged,
to appear on the field. After serving as
governor of several English colonies, he
was lieutenant-governor of Gibraltar in
1787, and governor in 1795. In 1797 he
was made general. He died in Gibraltar,
Feb. 21, 1802.

O Hara, THEODORE, poet; born in Dan
ville, Ky., Feb. 11, 1820; graduated at
St. Joseph Academy, Bardstown, Ky. ; and
admitted to the bar in 1845. He was ap
pointed captain and assistant quarter
master in the army in June, 1846, and
served with distinction throughout the
Mexican War. After the remains of the
Kentucky soldiers who fell at Buena Vista
were reinterred in their native State he
wrote for that occasion the well-known
poem, The Bivouac of the Dead, the first
stanza of which is:

"The muffled drum s sad roll lias beat

The soldier s last tattoo.
No more on life s parade shall meet

That brave and fallen few.
On Fame s eternal camping-ground

Their silent tents are spread;
And Glory guards, with solemn round,

The bivouac of the dead."

During the Civil War he enlisted in the
Confederate army and became colonel of
the 12th Alabama Regiment. He died near
Guerryton, Ala., June 6, 1867.

Ohio, STATE OF. was first explored by
La Salle about 1680, his object being trade
and not settlement. Conflicting claims
to territory in that region led to the
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (q. v.}. The

OHIO, STATE OF

French held possession of the region north
of the Ohio River .until the conquest of
Canada in 1760 and the surrender of vast
territory by the French to the English in
1763. After the Revolution disputes arose

SEAL OF THE STATE OF OHIO.

between several States as to their respec
tive rights to the soil in that region.
These were settled by the cession of the
territory to the United States by the re
spective States, Virginia reserving 3,709,-
848 acres near the rapids of the Ohio,
and Connecticut a tract of 3,666,921 acres

near Lake Erie. In 1800 jurisdiction
over these tracts was relinquished to
the national government, the States
retaining the right to the soil, while
the Indian titles to the rest of the State
were bought up by the national govern
ment.

In the autumn of 1785 United States
troops began the erection of a fort on the
right bank of the Muskingum, at its
mouth. The commander of the troops
was Maj. John Doughty, and he named
it Fort Harmar, in honor of his com
mander, Col. Josiah Harmar. It was the
first military post of the kind built in
Ohio. The outlines formed a regular
pentagon, embracing three-fourths of an
acre. United States troops occupied Fort
Harmar until 1790, when they left it to
construct Fort Washington, on the site of
Cincinnati. After the treaty of Green
ville it was abandoned.

In 1788 Gen. Rufus Putnam, at the
head of a colony from Massachusetts,
founded a settlement at the mouth of the
Muskingum River, and named it Marietta,
in honor of Marie Antoinette, the Queen of
Louis XVI. of France. A stockade fort
was immediately built as a protection
against hostile Indians, and named Cam
pus Martius. In the autumn of the same

FORT HARMAR.
9

OHIO, STATE OF

CAMP! S MAET1US.

year a party of settlers seated themselves
upon SYMMES S PURCHASE (q. v.) and
founded Columbia, near the mouth of the
Little Miami. Fort Washington was soon
afterwards built, a little below, on
the site of Cincinnati.

Ohio was soon afterwards organ
ized into a separate territorial gov
ernment. The settlers were annoy
ed by hostile Indians until Wayne s
victories in 1794 and the treaty at
Greenville gave peace to that re
gion. In 1799 the first territorial
legislature assembled, and Ohio was
admitted into the Union as a State-
April 30, 1802. From 1800 to 1810
the seat of government was at
Chillicothe. For a while it was at
Zanesville, then again at Chilli
cothe, and finally, in 1816, Colum
bus was made the, x&gt;ermanent scat
of the State government.

Its people were active on the
frontiers in the War of 1812. The
President called on Gov. P.,. J.
Meigs for 1,200 militia to be pre
pared to march to Detroit. Gov.
William Hull, of Michigan, was
persuaded to accept the commission
of brigadier-general and take command of
them. Governor Meigs s call was gen
erously responded to, and at the mouth
of the Mad River, near Dayton, O.,

the full number
had assembled at
the close of April,
1812. They were
organized into
three regiments,
and elected their
field - officers be
fore the arrival
of Hull. The colo
nels of the re
spective reg
iments were
Duncan McAr-
t h u r , James
Findlay, and
Lewis Cass. The
4th Regiment of
regulars, station
ed at Vincennes,
under Lieut.-Col.
James Miller,
had been ordered

to join the militia at Dayton. The com
mand of the troops was surrendered to
Hull by Governor Meigs on May 25, 1812.
They began their march northward June

SKAT OP GOVERNMENT AT CHILLICOTHE IX 1800.

1 ; and at Urbana they were joined by
Miller s 4th Regiment, which, under Colo
nel Boyd, had participated in the battle
of TIPPECANOE (q. v.) . They encountered

OHIO, STATE OF

heavy rains and terrible fatigue all the army during the war 317,133 soldiers. Pop-
way to Detroit, their destination. See ulation in 1890, 3,672,316; in 1900, 4,157,-
HULL, WILLIAM. 545. See UNITED STATES, OHIO, in vol. ix.

THE STATE CAPITOL, COLUMBUS.

In March, 1851, a convention revised the
State constitution, and it was ratified in
June; but a new constitution, framed by
a convention in 1873, was rejected by the
people at an election in 1874.

At the beginning of the Civil War, the
governor of Ohio, William Dennison, Jr.,
was an avowed opponent of the slave
system. The legislature met on Jan. 7,
1861. In his message the governor ex
plained his refusal to surrender alleged
fugitive slaves on the requisition of the
authorities of Kentucky and Tennessee;
denied the right of secession; affirmed the
loyalty of his State; suggested the repeal
of the fugitive slave law as the most
effectual way of procuring the repeal of
the personal liberty acts; and called for
the repeal of the laws of the Southern
States which interfered with the consti
tutional rights of the citizens of the free-
labor States. " Determined to do no
wrong," he said, " we will not contentedly
submit to wrong." The legislature de
nounced (Jan. 12) the secession move
ments; promised for the people of Ohio
their firm support of the national govern
ment; and, on the 14th, pledged "the en
tire power and resources of the State for
a strict maintenance of the Constitution
and laws of the general government by
whomsoever administered." These prom
ises and pledges were fulfilled to the ut
most, the State furnishing to the National

TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS.

Name.

Term
began.

Term
expired.

Politics.

Arthur St. Clair

1788
1802

GOVERJ.

1803
1807
1808
1810
1814
1814
1818
1822
1822
1826
1830
1832
1836
1838
1840
1842
1844
1844
1846
1849
1850
1853
1856
1860
1862
1864
1865
1866
1868
1872
1 874
1876
1878
1880
1884
1886
1890
1892
1896
1900
1904

1802
1803

ORS.

1807
1808
1810
1814
1814
1818
1822
1822
1826
1830
1832
1836
1838
1840
1842
1844
1844
1846
1849
1850
1853
1856
1860
1862
1864
1865
1866
1868
1872
1874
1876
1878
1880
1884
1886
1890
1892
1896
1900
l J04

*
*

Democrat.
Whig.
Democrat.
Whig.
Democrat.

Whig.

II
II

Democrat.
ti

Republican.

|
I

I
I
(
I

Democrat.
Republican
Democrat.
Republican.
Democrat.
Republican.
Democrat.

Republican.

Charles W. Byrd

STATE
Edward Tiffin

Thomas Kirker.

Samuel Huntington ....
Return Jonathan Meigs.
Othniel Looker. . .

Thomas Worthington...
Ethan Allen Brown
Allen Trimble

Jeremiah Morrow. . .

Allen Trimble

Duncan McArthur

Robert Lucas

Joseph Vance

Wilson Shannon

Thomas Corwiu

Wilson Shannon

Thomas W. Hartley

Mordecai Bartley
William Bebb

Seabury Ford

Reuben Wood

William Medill

Salmon P. Chase

William Denuison

David Tod

John Brough

Charles Anderson

Jacob Dolson Cox

Rutherford B. Hayes
Edward F. Noyes

William Allen

Rutherford B. Hayes
Richard M. Bishop

Charles Foster

George Hoadley

Joseph B. Foraker

James E. Campbell

William McKinley, Jr
Asa S. Bushnell

George K. Nash

Myron T. Herrick

OHIO OHIO COMPANY

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

Name.

No. of Congress.

Term.

John Smith

8th to 10th

1803 to 1808

8th " 10th

1803 " 1807

Return Jonathan Meigs
Edward Tiffin

10th " llth
10th " llth

1809 " 1810
1807 " 1809

llth

1809

llth to 13th

1810 to 1813

llth " 13th

1811 " 1814

13th " 14th

1814 " 1815

Jeremiah Morrow

13th " 16th

1813 1819

14th " 23d

1815 1833

William A Trimble

16th " 17th

1819 1821

Ethan Allen Brown

17th " 19th

1822 1825

William Henry Harrison. . .

19th " 20th
20th " 23d

1825 1828
1828 1831

22d " 25th

1831 " 1837

23d " 26th

1833 " 1839

25th " 31st

1837 " 1849

26th " 29th

1839 " 1845

29th " 31st

1845 "1850

31st

1850

31st to 34th

1849 to 1855

32d " 41st

1851 " 1869

34th " 37th

1855 " 1861

Salmon P Chase

37th

1861

John Sherman

37th to 45th

1861 to 1877

Allen G Thurman

41st " 47th

1869 " 18SO

45th " 4(&gt;th

1877 " 1879

George H Pendleton

46th " 49th

1879 " 1885

James A Garfield

47th

1880

John Sherman ......

47th to 54th

1881 to 1897

49th " 52d

1885 " 1891

Calvin S. Brice
Joseph B. Foraker.
Marcus A Hanna ........

52d " 55th
55th "
55th " 58th

1891 " 1896
1S97 "
1897 " 1904

Charles Dick

58th "

1904 "

Ohio Company, THE. When, by treaty,
the Indians had ceded the lands of the
Northwestern Territory, the thoughts of
enterprising men turned in that direc
tion as a promising field for settlements.
On the night of Jan. 9, 1786, Gen. Rufus
Putnam and Gen. Benjamin Tupper form
ed a plan for a company of soldiers of the
Revolution to undertake the task of settle
ment on the Ohio River. The next day
they issued a call for such persons who
felt disposed to engage in the enter
prise to meet at Boston on March 1,
by delegates chosen in the several
counties in Massachusetts. They met,
and formed " The Ohio Company."
It was composed of men like Rufus
Putnam, Abraham Whipple, J. M. Var-
num, Samuel Holden Parsons, Benja
min Tupper, R. J. Meigs, whom Amer
icans think of with gratitude. They
purchased a large tract of land on the
Ohio River; and on April 7, 1788, the
first detachment of settlers sent by the
company, forty-eight in number men,
women, and children seated themselves

SITB OF MARIHTTA IN 1781.
12

OHIO LAND COMPANY

GENERAL PUTNAM S LAND OFFICE AT MARIETTA.

near the confluence of
the Muskingum and
Ohio rivers, athwart
the great war-path of
the fierce Northwest
ern tribes when they
made their bloody in
cursions to the fron
tiers of Virginia and
Pennsylvania. They
named the settlement
Marietta, in honor of
Marie Antoinette,
Queen of France, the
ally of the Americans.
This was the seed
from which sprang the
great State of Ohio.
It was composed of
the choice materials
of New England society. At one time and, at their own cost, to build and gar-
in 1789 there were no less than rison a fort. The government was anx-
ten of the settlers there who had re- ious to carry out this scheme of coloniza-
ceived a college education. During that tion west of the Alleghany Mountains to
year fully 20,000 settlers from the East counteract the evident designs of the
were on lands on the banks of the Ohio. French to occupy that country.
At the beginning of 1788 there was not a The French took immediate measures
white family within the bounds of that to countervail the English movements,
commonwealth. Galissoniere, who had grand dreams of

Ohio Land Company, THE. Soon French, empire in America, fitted out an
after the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle an expedition under Celeron de Bienville in
association of London merchants and Vir- 1749 to proclaim French dominion at
ginia land speculators, known as " The various points along the Ohio. The corn-
Ohio Land Company," obtained from the pany took measures for defining and occu-
crown a grant of 500,000 acres of land on pying their domain. Thomas Lee, two of
the east bank of the Ohio River, with tha the Washingtons, and other leading Vir-
exclusive privilege of the Indian traffic, ginia members ordered goods suitable for
Internationa], or at least intercolonial, the Indian trade to be sent from London,
disputes immediately occurred. The The company sent an agent to explore the
French claimed, by right of discovery, the country and confer with the Indian tribes;
whole region watered by the tributaries and in June, 1752, a conference was held
of the Mississippi River. The English set at Logstown, near the Ohio, and friendly
up a claim, in the name of the Six Na- relations were established between the
tions, as under British protection, and English and the Indians. But the West-
which was recognized by the treaties of ern tribes refused to recognize the right
Utrecht (1713) and Aix-la-Chapelle of either the English or the French to
(1748), to the region which they had lands westward of the Alleghany Moun-
formerly conquered, and which included tains. A Delaware chief said to Gist, the
the whole eastern portion of the Missis- agent of the company, The French claim
sippi Valley and the basin of the lower all the land on one side of the river, and
lakes, Erie and Ontario. These conflict- the English claim all the land on the other
ing claims at once embarrassed the opera- side of the river: where is the Indian s
tions of the Ohio Land Company. It was land?" This significant question was an-
provided by their charter that they were to swered by Gist: " Indians and white men
pay no quit-rent for ten years; to colonize are subjects of the British King, and all
at least 100 families within seven years; have an equal privilege in taking up and

OJEDA OKEMOS

possessing the land." The company sent ened, in case of their refusal, to make war

surveyors to make definite boundaries, upon them, and subdue them " to the yoke

English settlers and traders went into the and obedience of the Church and his Maj-

country. The jealousy of the French was esty"; that he would make slaves of

aroused. They seized and imprisoned their wives and children, take all their

some of the surveyors and traders, and possessions, and do them all the harm he

built forts. The French and Indian War could, protesting that they alone would

that broke out soon afterwards put a be to blame for all deaths and disasters

stop to the operations of the company, which might follow their disobedience.

See FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR; OHIO See ALEXANDER VI.

COMPANY. . This proclamation, which justified mur-

Ojeda, ALONZO DE, adventurer; born in der and robbery under the sanction of

Cuenca, Spain, in 1465; was among the the Church and State, indicated the spirit

earliest discoverers in America after of most of the Spanish conquerors. The

Columbus and Cabot. He was with Co- natives delayed, and slaughter began,

lumbus in his first voyage. Aided by the Captives were carried to the ships as

Bishop of Badajos, he obtained royal per- slaves. The outraged Indians gathered

mission to go on a voyage of discovery, in bands and slew many of the Spanish

and the merchants of Seville fitted out soldiers with poisoned arrows. Ojeda

four ships for him, in which he sailed for took shelter from their fury among mat-

St. Mary s on May 20, 1499, accompanied ted roots at the foot of a mountain, where

by Americus Vespucius as geographer, his followers found him half dead. At

Following the track of Columbus in his that moment Nicuessa, governor of the

third voyage (see COLUMBUS, CHRISTO- other province, arrived, and with rein-

PHER), they reached the northeastern forcements they made a desolating war on

coast of South America, and discovered the natives. This was the first attempt

mountains on the continent. Coasting to take possession of the mainland in

along the northern shore of the continent America. Ojeda soon retired with some

(naming the country Venezuela ) , Ojeda of his followers to Santo Domingo. The

crossed the Caribbean Sea, visited Santo vessel stranded on the southern shore

Domingo, and returned to Spain in Sep- of Cuba, then under native rule, and a

tember. In 1509 the Spanish monarch di- refuge for fugitive natives from Santo

vided Central America into two provinces, Domingo. The pagans treated the suffer-

and made Ojeda governor of one of them ing Christians kindly, and were reward-

and Nicuessa of the other. Ojeda sailed ed with the fate of those of Hispaniola

from Santo Domingo late in the autumn, (see SANTO DOMINGO). The pious Ojeda

accompanied by Pizarro and some Spanish had told of the wealth of the Cubans,

friars, whose chief business at the outset and avaricious adventurers soon made that

seems to have been the reading aloud to paradise a pandemonium. He built a

the natives in Latin a proclamation by the chapel there, and so Christianity was

Spanish leader, prepared by eminent introduced into that island. He died

Spanish divines in accordance with a de- in Hispaniola in 1515.

cree of the Pope of Rome, declaring that O jib way Indians. See CHIPPEWA IND-

God, who made them all, had given in TAXS.

charge of one man named St. Peter, who Okeechobee Swamp, BATTLE OF, an en-
had his seat at Rome, all the nations on gagement in Florida in which General
the earth, with all the lands and seas on Taylor defeated the Seminoles and capt-
the globe; that his successors, called ured Osceola, Dec. 25, 1837.
popes, were endowed by God with the Okemos, Indian chief; nephew of PON-
same rights; that one of them had given TIAC (q. v.). When a boy he fought the
to the monarchs of Spain all the islands Americans under Arthur St. Clair and
and continents in the Western Ocean, and Anthony Wayne, and took an active part
that the natives of the land he was on in the War of 1812, receiving a severe
were expected to yield implicit submission wound in the attack on Fort Meigs. He
to the servants of the King and Ojeda, his died in Lansing, Mich., December, 1886,
representative. The proclamation threat- probably much over 100 years of age.

OKLAHOMA

Oklahoma, TERRITORY OF. During the the Indians were permitted to sell to the

Civil War many of the Indians belonging United States a vast tract of unused

to the Five Civilized Nations in the Ind- lands in the central and western part of

ian Territory espoused the cause of the their territory. Several millions of acres

Confederacy and took up arms against the were bought by the government, for the

United States. At the close of the war purpose of making a place of settlement

the government declared that by these acts for freedmen and several Indian tribes.

THE RUSH OP SETTLKKS INTO OKLAHOMA.

of hostility the grants and patents by Included in this tract was Oklahoma,

which the tribes held their extensive do- which originally consisted of about 2,000,-

mains had become invalid, and a read- 000 acres in the centre of the territory,

justment of the treaty acts under which It remained for several years unoccupied,

these grants had been made was ordered, being closed to white immigrants because,

By the conditions of this new adjustment as its former owners, the Creeks, claimed,

OKLAHOMA OLD PROBABILITIES

it had been purchased for another pur- thrown open to settlers, and again there

pose. was a wild rush of home-seekers; in July,

In 1889 the government bought it a 1901, the same scenes were enacted in the

second time from the Creeks, paying a Kiowa and Comanche country. Popula-

much higher price, but obtaining it with- tion in 1890, 61,834; in 1900, 398,331. See

out any restrictive conditions. For ten UNITED STATES OKLAHOMA, in vol. ix.
years companies of adventurers, called

" boomers," under the lead of Capt. David TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS.

L. Payne, had been hovering on the out- ^::;;::^ ^.. -"-, ggSB

..
skirts of the territory, and now and then William c. Renfrew.... Democrat ............ 1893-1897

AT, i,,/! f^v +^ Q TM,V C.M.Barnes .......... Republican ........... 1897-1901

stealing across the border for the pur- Thomas B . Ke rguso n .. .......... 1901 -

pose of making settlements on the forbid

den lands. As often as they had thus Old Dominion, a title often given to
trespassed, however, they were promptly the State of Virginia. The vast, unde-
driven out again by the United States fined region named Virginia, by Queen
troops. A proclamation was issued by Elizabeth was regarded by her as a fourth
the President, April 22, 1889, opening kingdom of her realm. Spenser, Raleigh s
1,900,000 acres of land for settlement, firm friend, dedicated his Faery Queene
There was immediately a grand rush into (1590) to Elizabeth, "Queen of England,
the territory by the "boomers," and by France, Ireland, and Virginia." When
thousands of home-seekers and specula- James VI. of Scotland came to the Eng-
tors. In a single day the city of Guth- Hsh throne (1603), Scotland was added,
rie, with a population of 10,000, sprang and Virginia was called, in compliment,
into existence, and ail the valuable land the fifth kingdom. On the death of
was taken up. By subsequent proclama- Charles I. on the scaffold (1649), his son
tions other lands were opened, and the Charles, heir to the throne, was in exile.
bounds of the territory were extended un- SIR WILLIAM BERKELEY (q. v.) , a stanch
til, in 1891, it embraced 39,030 square miles, royalist, was then governor of Virginia,
A large portion of Oklahoma, however, and a majority of the colony were in sym-
remained under the occupancy of Indian pathy with him. He proclaimed that son,
tribes, who were under the control of the " Charles the Second, King of England,
Indian bureau, and received regular sup- Scotland, Ireland, and Virginia " ; and
plies of clothing and food from the gov- when, in 1652, the Virginians heard that
ernmcnt. Among these tribes were about the republican government of England
500 Sacs and Foxes, 400 Kickapoos, 2,000 was about to send a fleet to reduce them
Cheyennes, and 1,200 Arapahoes. to submission, they sent a message to

Oklahoma when settled was a richly Breda, in Flanders, where Charles then
wooded country, except in the west, where resided, inviting him to come over and be
there were extensive prairies. The climate King of Virginia. He was on the point of
is delightful, and the soil fertile and well sailing for America when circumstances
adapted to agriculture. The first territo- foreshadowed his restoration to the throne
rial governor was appointed by the Pres- of his father. When that act was accom-
ident in 1890. The name Oklahoma means plished, the grateful monarch caused the
" Beautiful Country." The Cherokee Strip arms of Virginia to be quartered with
or Outlet towards Kansas was acquired those of England, Scotland, and Ireland,
from the Cherokee nation, and on Sept. as an independent member of the empire.
16, 1893, it was opened to settlers. The From this circumstance Virginia received
scenes attending the opening resembled the title of The Dominion. Coins with such
those in 1889 and 1891. Ninety thou- quarterings were struck as late as 1773.
sand intending settlers registered, and Old Ironsides, a name given to the
20,000, it was estimated, encamped on the frigate CONSTITUTION (q. v.).
site selected for the chief town. The Old Probabilities, a title familiarly
Strip contains about 6,000,000 acres, part given to the head of the United States
of which is good farming land. On May weather bureau, first applied to Professor
23, 1896, another great section of terri- Abbe by Gen. Albert J. Myer, the chief
tory, called the Kickapoo Strip, was signal-officer of the bureau.

to*

OLD SOUTH CHURCH- OLIPH ANT

Old South Church, Boston. The oppo- tion in church and commonwealth." Be-

sition to the requirement of church-mem- fore these disclosures Oldham had be-

bership for the exercise of political rights haved with much insolence, abusing the

(see HALF-WAY COVENANT) led to the es- governor and Captain Standish, calling

tablishment, in 1669, of the " Third Church them " rebels and traitors," and, when

in Boston," known as " The Old South " proved guilty, he attempted to excite a

since 1717, of which Mr. Fiske says: "It mutiny on the spot. Lyford burst into

is a building with a grander history than tears and confessed that he " feared he

any other on the American continent, was a reprobate." Both were ordered to

unless it be that other plain brick build- leave the colony, but Lyford, humbly

ing in Philadelphia where the Declara- begging to stay, asking forgiveness and

tion of Independence was adopted and the promising good behavior, was reinstated,

federal Constitution framed." Oldham went to Nantasket, with some of

Old Style, dates according to the his adherents, and engaged in traffic with

Julian calendar, which was supplanted by the Indians. Lyford was soon detected

the Gregorian calendar in 1582, but not again in seditious work and expelled from

accepted by Great Britain until 1752. the colony. He joined Oldham. They

Oldham, JOHN, Pilgrim; born in Eng- afterwards lived at Hull and Cape Anne,

land about 1600. In 1623 the Pilgrims, and Oldham represented Watertown in the

regarding Robinson, in Holland, as their popular branch of the Massachusetts gov-

pastor, and expecting him over, had no eminent in 1634. He made an exploring

other spiritual guide than Elder Brewster. journey to the site of Windsor, on the

Because of this state of things at Plym- Connecticut River, the next year, which

outh, the London partners were taunted was followed by the emigration to that

with fostering religious schism. To re- region in 1635. While in a vessel at

Here themselves of this stigma, they sent Block Island, in July, 1636, Oldham was

a minister named Lyford to be pastor, murdered by some Indians, who fled to

He was kindly received, and, with John the Pequods, on the mainland, and were

Oldham, who went to Plymouth at about protected by them. This led to the war

the same time, was invited to the consul- with the PEQUOD INDIANS (q. v.) .

tations of the governor with his council. Oldmixon, JOHN, author; born in

It was soon discovered that Lyford and Bridgewater, England, in 1673; and died

Oldham were plotting treason against the in London, July 9, 1742. He was the

Church and State. Several letters written author of The British Empire in Amer-

by Lyford to the London partners, breath- ica (2 volumes), published in 1708.

ing sedition, were discovered by Bradford Oligarchy. See ARISTOCRACY.

as they were about to be sent abroad. Olin, STEPHEN, clergyman ; born in

The governor kept quiet for a while, but Leicester, Vt., March 2, 1797; graduated

when Lyford set up a separate congrega- at Middlebury College in 1820; became

tion, with a few of the colonists whom he a Methodist clergyman in 1824; presi-

had seduced, and held meetings on the dent of Randolph-Macon College in 1834;

Sabbath, Bradford summoned a General president of Weslcyan University in 1839.

Court (1624), before whom the offending He died in Middletown, Conn., Aug. 16,

clergyman and his companions were ar- 1851.

raigned on a charge of seditious corre- Oliphant, LAURENCE, author; born in

spondence. They denied the accusation, Cape Town, Africa, in 1829. Lord Elgin

when they were confronted by Lyford s let- made him his private secretary in 1853,

ters, in which he defamed the settlers, ad- and in 1865 he was elected to Parliament,

vised the London partners to prevent Rob- but he resigned in 1868 in obedience to

inson and the rest of his congregation instructions from Thomas L. Harris,

coming to America, as they would inter- leader of the Brotherhood of the Xew

fere with his church schemes, and avowed Life a spiritualistic society of which both

his intention of removing the stigma of Oliphant and his wife were members,

schism by a regularly organized church. Among his publications are Minnesota, or

A third conspirator had written that the Far West in 1855; and The Tender

Lyford and Oldham " intended a reforma- Recollections of Irene Macgillicuddy, a sa-

VII. B 17

OLIVER OLMSTEAD

tire on American society. He died in the Puritan policy. He died at sea in

Twickenham, England, Dec. 23, 1888. 1855.

Oliver, ANDREW, governor; born in Oliver, PETER, jurist; born in Boston,
Boston, March 28, 1706; graduated at Mass., March 26, 1713; was a brother
Harvard in 1724; a representative in the of Andrew Oliver, and graduated at Har-
General Court from 1743 to 1746; one of vard in 1730. After holding several
his Majesty s council from 1746 to 1765; offices, he was made judge of the Supreme
secretary of the provincefrom 1756 to 1770; Court of Massachusetts in 1756, and in
and succeeded Hutchinson (his brother-in- 1771 chief-justice of that court. His
law) as lieutenant-governor. In 1765 he course in Boston in opposition to the pa-
was hung in effigy because he was a stamp triots made him very unpopular, and he
distributer, and his course in opposition was one of the crowd of loyalists who fled
to the patriotic party in Boston caused from that city with the British army in
him to share the unpopularity of Hutchin- March, 1776. He went to England, where
son. His letters, witli those of Hutchin- he lived on a pension from the British
son, were sent by Franklin to Boston, and crown. He was an able writer of both
created great commotion there. He died prose and poetry. Chief-Justice Oliver, on
in Boston, March 3, 1774. See HUTCHIN- receiving his appointment, refused to ac-
SON, THOMAS. ce pt his salary from the colony, and was

Oliver, BENJAMIN LYNDE, author ; born impeached by the Assembly and declared
in Marblehead, Mass., in 1788; was ad- suspended until the issue of the impeach-
mitted to the bar. His publications in- ment was reached. The Assembly of Mas-
elude The Rights of an American Git- sachusetts had voted the five judges of the
izen; Laic Summary; Forms of Practice, Superior Court ample salaries from the
or American Precedents in Personal and colonial treasury, and called upon them to
Real Actions; Forms in Chancery, Ad- refuse the corrupting pay from the crown.
miralty, and Common Law, etc. He died Only Oliver refused, and he shared the
in 1843. fate of Hutchinson. He died in Birming-

Oliver, HENRY KEMELE, musician; born ham, England, Oct. 13, 1701.

in Beverly, Mass., Nov. 24, 1800; gradu- Oliver, ROBERT, military officer; born

ated at "Dartmouth College in 1818; in Boston, Mass., in 1738; served through

taught music for many years; elected the War of the Revolution, and was one of

mayor of Lawrence, Mass., 1859; State the earliest settlers in Ohio, locating in

treasurer of Massachusetts, 1861 ; mayor Marietta. He filled various State offices,

of Salem, Mass., 1866. Mr. Oliver is best and died in Marietta, O., in May, 1810.

known as organist, director of choirs, Oliver, THOMAS, royal governor; born

and composer. He wrote Federal Street; in Dorchester, Mass., Jan. 5, 1734; grad-

Beacon Street, and many other well- uated at Harvard in 1753; succeeded

known hymn-tunes, and published a num- Lieut.-Gov. Andrew Oliver (of another

bcr of church tune - books. He died in family) in March, 1774, and in September

Boston, Mass., Aug. 10, 1885. following was compelled by the people _of

Oliver, PETER, author; born in Han- Boston to resign. He took refuge with

over, N. H., in 1822; studied law and be- the British troops in Boston, and fled

gan practice in Suffolk county, Mass. He with them to Halifax in 1776, and thence

was the author of The Puritan Common- to England. He died in Bristol, England,

wealth: An Historical Review of the Pun- Nov. 29, 1815.

tan Government in Massachusetts in its Olmstead, CASE OF. During the Revo-

Civil and Ecclesiastical Relations, from lutionary War, Capt. Gideon Olmstead,

its Rise to the Abrogation of the First with some other Connecticut men, was

Charter; together loith some General Re- captured at sea by a British vessel and

flections on the English Colonial Policy taken to Jamaica, where the captain and
and on the Character of Puritanism. In three others of the prisoners were com-
this book, which revealed much literary pelled or persuaded to enter as sailors on
skill as well as great learning, he em- the British sloop Active, then about to
phasized the unfavorable side of the sail for New York with stores for the
Puritan character, and severely criticised British there. When off the coast of

OLMSTED OLUSTEE STATION

Delaware the captain and the other three colonel), and was often the chief officer

Americans contrived to secure the rest of of the Rhode Island forces. He fought

the crew and officers (fourteen in number) conspicuously at Red Bank, Springfield,

below the hatches. They then took pos- Monmouth, and Yorktown, and after the

session of the vessel and made for Little war he was collector of the port of Provi-

Egg Harbor. A short time after, the dence, and president of the Rhode Island

Active was boarded by the sloop Conven- Society of Cincinnati. He died in Provi-

tion of Philadelphia, and, with the priva- dence, R. I., Nov. 10, 1812.

teer Girard, cruising with her, was taken Olney, JESSE, geographer; born in

1o Philadelphia. The prize was there Union, Conn., Oct. 12, 1798; taught school

libelled in the State court of admiralty, for some years; then devoted himself to

Here the two vessels claimed an equal the preparation of text-books, geographies,

share in the prize, and the court decreed a history of the United States, arithme-

one-fourth to the crew of the Convention, tics, readers, etc. He died in Stratford,

one-fourth to the State of Pennsylvania Conn., July 31, 1872.

as owner of the Convention, one-fourth to Olney, RICHARD, lawyer; born in

the Girard, and the remaining one-fourth Oxford, Mass., Sept. 15, 1835; graduated

only to Olmstead and his three com- at Brown University in 1856; admitted to

panions. Olmstead appealed to Congress, the bar in 1859; member of the Massa-

and the committee of appeals decided in chusetts legislature; appointed United

his favor. The Pennsylvania court re- States Attorney-General by President

fused to yield, and directed the prize sold Cleveland in 1893, and Secretary of State

and the money paid into court to await in 1895.

its further order. This contest continued Olney, STEPHEN, military officer; born
until 1809, when the authorities of Penn- in North Providence, R. I., in October, 1755 ;
sylvania offered armed resistance to the brother of Jeremiah Olney; entered the
United States marshal at Philadelphia, army as a lieutenant in his brother s com-
upon which he called to his assistance a pany in 1775. and served with distinction
posse comitatus of 2,000 men. The mat- in several of the principal battles of the
ter was, however, adjusted without an Revolutionary War. He served under La-
actual collision, and the money, amounting fayette in Virginia, and was distinguished
to $18,000, paid to the United States in the capture of a British redoubt at
marshal. Yorktown during the siege, where he was

Olmsted, DENISON, scientist; born in severely wounded by a bayonet- thrust.

East Hartford, Conn., June 18, 1791; Colonel Olney held many town offices, and

graduated at Yale in 1813; taught in New for twenty years represented his native

London schools, Yale College, and the Uni- town in the Assembly. He died in North

versity of North Carolina. He published Providence, R. I., Nov. 23, 1832.

the Geological Survey of North Carolina; Olustee Station, BATTLE AT. Early in

Text-books on Astronomy and Natural 1864 the national government was in-

Philosophy; and Astronomical Observa- formed that the citizens of Florida, tired

tions in the Smithsonian Collections. He of the war, desired a reunion with the

died in New Haven, Conn., May 13, 1859. national government. The President com-

Olmsted, FREDERICK LAW, landscape missioned his private secretary (John

architect; born in Hartford, Conn., April Hay) a major, and sent him to Charleston

26, 1822; chief designer (with Calvert to accompany a military expedition which

Vaux) of Central Park, New York City, General Gillmore was to send to Florida,

1857; and, with others, of many public Hay to act in a civil capacity if required,

parks in Brooklyn, Boston, Buffalo, Chi- The expedition was commanded by Gen.

cago (including World s Fair), Milwau- Truman Seymour, who left Hilton Head

kee, Louisville, Washington, etc. He died (Feb. 5, 1864) in transports with 6,000

in Waverly, Mass., Aug. 28, 1903. troops, and arrived at Jacksonville, Fla.,

Olney, JEREMIAH, military officer; born on the 7th. Driving the Confederates from

in Providence, R. I., in 1750; was made there, the Nationals pursued them into

lieutenant-colonel at the beginning of the the interior. General Finnegan was in

Revolutionary War (afterwards made command of a considerable Confederate

OMAHA OMAHA INDIANS

force in Florida, and stoutly opposed this the best of the material resources of their
movement. At Olustee Station, on a rail- commonwealths,- and while art and music
way that crossed the peninsula in the and all phases of the aesthetic were not
heart of a cypress swamp, the Nationals neglected, it was the fine panorama of the
encountered Finnegan, strongly posted. A material West which afforded the most
sharp battle occurred (Feb. 20), when interest. Cast in a different figure, this
Seymour was repulsed and retreated to Trans-Mississippi Exposition was an epit-
Jacksonville. The estimated loss to the ome of the wealth and not only of the
Nationals in this expedition was about wealth, but of the progress of the great
2,000 men; the Confederate loss, 1,000 men central region of the nation,
and several guns. Seymour carried with One of the speakers at the opening of
him about 1,000 of the wounded, and left the exposition put the progress of the re-
250 on the field, besides many dead and gion in a nutshell when he made note of
dying. The expedition returned to Hilton the fact that in the land where only fifty
Head. The Nationals destroyed stores years ago the Indians wandered at will,
valued at $1,000,000. At about the same there are now 22,000,000 people, with an
time Admiral Bailey destroyed the Confed- aggregate wealth of $22,000,000,000.
erate salt-works on the coast of Florida, Many of the States contributed liberally
valued at $3,000,000. to the exposition in the way of suitable

Omaha, the metropolis of Nebraska; buildings, while the general government
county seat of Douglas county ; military appropriated $200,000 for its building, and
headquarters of the Department of the in it placed exhibits of great interest.
Platte; has extensive machine, car, and The government took official notice of the
repair shops, smelting and refining works, exposition by issuing a series of postage-
large trade, seven national banks, and an stamps, from one cent to $2, inclusive,
assessed property valuation of $101,256,- commemorative of the event. Over three
290. Population in 1890, 140,452; in 1900, hundred millions of these stamps were
102,555. The city was the seat of ordered for the first instalment. The de-
the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. The signs on the stamps are appropriate to
corner-stone of the exhibition was laid the great West and its progress, illustra-
on Arbor Day, 1897, and the opening ting phases of pioneer life,
ceremonies were held June 1, 1898. In The officers of the exposition were: Gor-
the telegram which President McKinley don W. Wattles, president ; Alvin Saunders,
sent to the exposition, after setting resident vice-president; Herman Kountze,
in motion its machinery, he paid a treasurer; John A. Wakefield, secretary;
tribute, for which the success of this Major T. S. Clarkson, general manager,
exposition will give warrant, when he said with an executive committee of seven,
that nowhere have the unconquerable de- and vice-presidents for each of the twen-
termination, the self-reliant strength, and ty-four Trans-Mississippi States. The
the sturdy manhood of American citizen- exposition covered a tract of more than
Bhip been more forcibly illustrated than in 200 acres, containing a water amphi-
the achievements of the people from be- theatre and many handsome buildings,
yond the Mississippi. Despite the fact that the country was at

It would not be easy to estimate the war with Spain, the exposition was well
value of such an exposition as this in attended and a great success in every way.
illustrating to the nation at large the Omaha Indians, a tribe of Indians of
immense resources of the region which the Dakota family. They are represented
lies in the great Mississippi basin and in Marquette s map in 1673. They were
contiguous to it. The exhibits of the divided into clans, and cultivated corn and
mining, the manufacturing, the agricult- beans. One of their customs was to pro-
ure, the forestry, the horticxilture, the hibit a man from speaking to his father-
commerce were an epitome of the business in-law and mother-in-law. They were re-
of this vast region extending from the duced, about the year 1800, by small-pox,
Canadian line to the Gulf of Mexico. The from a population capable of sending out
States themselves, through appropriations, 700 warriors to about 300. They then
provided the funds to show to the world burned their villages and became wander-

O MAHONY " ON TO RICHMOND !

ers. They were then relentlessly pursued a territory in the Mormon settlements in
by the Sioux. They had increased in num- Deseret, called Utah. Then the com
ber, when Lewis and Clarke found them promise measures contained in the omni-
on the Quicoure in 1805, to about 600. bus bill were taken up separately. In
They have from time to time ceded lands August a bill for the admission of Cali-
to the United States, and since 1855 have fornia passed the Senate; also for provid-

been settled, and have devoted themselves

a territorial government for New

" On to Richmond!" At the beginning
1862 the loyal people became very

exclusively to agriculture. In 1899 they Mexico. In September a fugitive slave

numbered 1,202, and were settled on the bill passed the Senate; also a bill for the

Omaha and Winnebago agency, in Ne- suppression of the slave-trade in the Dis-

braska. trict of Columbia. All of these bills were

O Mahony, JOHN FRANCIS, Fenian adopted in the House of Representatives

leader; born in Kilkenny, Ireland, in in September, and received the signature

1816; emigrated to the United States in of President Fillmore. See CLAY, HENRY.
1854 ; organized the Fenian Brotherhood

in I860; issued bonds of the Irish Repub- of

lie, which were purchased by his followers impatient of the immobility of the im-

to the amount of nearly a million dollars, rnense Army of the Potomac, and from

He died in New York City, Feb. 7, 1877. every quarter was heard the cry, " Push

Omnibus Bill, THE. The subject of the on to Richmond!" Edwin M. Stanton
admission of California as a State of the succeeded Mr. Cameron as Secretary of
Union, in 1850, created so much sectional War. Jan. 13, 1862, and the President
ill-feeling that danger to the integrity of issued a general order, Jan. 27, in which
the Union was apprehended. Henry Clay, he directed a general forward movement
feeling this apprehension, offered a plan of all the land and naval forces on Feb.
of compromise in the United States 22 following. This order sent a thrill
Senate, Jan. 29, 1850, in a series of of joy through the heart of the loyal peo-
resolutions, providing for the admission pie, and it was heightened when an order
of California as a State; the organization directed McClellan to move against the
of new territorial governments; fixing the inferior Confederate force at Manassas.
boundary of Texas ; declaring it to be in- McClellan remonstrated, and proposed to
expedient to abolish slavery in the Dis- take his great army to Richmond by the
trict of Columbia while that institution circuitous route of Fort Monroe and the
existed in Maryland, without the consent Virginia peninsula. The President finally
of the people of the District, and without yielded, and the movement by the longer
just compensation to the owners of slaves route was begun. After the Confederates
within the District; that more effectual had voluntarily evacuated Manassas, the
laws should be made for the restitution of army was first moved in that direction,
fugitive slaves; and that Congress had no not, as the commander-in-chief said, to
power to prohibit or obstruct the trade pursue them and take Richmond, but to
in slaves between the several States. Clay give his troops " a little active experience
spoke eloquently in favor of this plan, before beginning the campaign." The
Mr. Webster approved it, and Senator " promenade," as one of his French aides
Foote, of Mississippi, moved that the called it, disappointed the people, and the
whole subject be referred to a committee cry was resumed, "On to Richmond!"
of thirteen six Southern members and The Army of the Potomac did not begin
six Northern members they to choose the its march to Richmond until April. The
thirteenth. This resolution was adopted President, satisfied that General McClel-
April 18; the committee was appointed, lan s official burdens were greater than
and Mr. Clay was made chairman of it. he could profitably bear, kindly relieved
On May 8, Mr. Clay reported a plan of him of the chief care of the armies,
compromise in a series of bills substantial- and gave him, March 11, the command
ly the same as that of Jan. 29. It was call- of only the Department of the Potomac,
ed an "omnibus bill." Long debates en- While Hooker and Lee were contending
sued, and on July 31 the whole batch was near CHANCELLORSVILLE (q. v.), a great-
rejected except the proposition to establish er part of the cavalry of the Army of

" ON TO RICHMOND ! ON TO WASHINGTON !"

the Potomac was raiding on the communi- Rapidan. For a while the opposing armies

cations of Lee s army with Richmond.
Stoneman, with 10,000 men, at first per
formed this service. He rode rapidly, cross
ing rivers, and along rough roads, and
struck the Virginia Central Railway near
Louisa Court-house, destroying much of it
before daylight. They were only slightly
opposed, and at midnight of May 2, 1863,

rested. Meade advanced cautiously, and
at the middle of September he crossed
the Rappahannock, and drove Lee beyond
the Rapidan, where the latter took a
strong defensive position. Here* ended
the race towards Richmond. Meanwhile
the cavalry of Buford and Kilpatrick *
had been active between the two rivers,

the raiders were divided for separate work, and had frequent skirmishes with Stuart s

On the morning of the 3d one party de
stroyed canal - boats, bridges, and Con
federate supplies at Columbia, on the
James River. Colonel Kilpatrick, with
another party, struck the Fredericksburg
Railway at Hungary Station and destroy
ed the depot and railway there, and,
sweeping down within 2 miles of Rich
mond, captured a lieutenant and eleven
men within the Confederate works of that
capital. Then he struck the Virginia Cen
tral Railway at Meadows Bridge, on the

mounted force. Troops had been drawn
from each army and sent to other fields
of service, and Lee was compelled to
take a defensive position. His defences
were too strong for a prudent commander
to assail directly. See RICHMOND, CAM
PAIGN AGAINST.

" On to Washington!" The seizure of
the national capital, with the treasury and
archives of the government, was a part
of the plan of the Confederates everywhere
and of the government at Montgomery.

Chickahominy; and thence pushed on, de- Alexander H. Stephens, the Vice-Presi-
stroying Confederate property, to Glou- dent of the Confederacy, was sent by Jef
ferson Davis to treat with Virginia for its
annexation to the league, and at various

cester Point, on the York River. Another
party, under Lieutenant - Colonel Davis,

destroyed the station and railway at Han- points on his journey, whenever he made
over Court-house, and followed the road speeches to the people, the burden was, " On
to within 7 miles of Richmond, and also to Washington!" That cry was already re-
pushed on to Gloucester Point. Another sounding throughout the South. It was an
party, under Gregg and Buford, destroyed echo of the prophecy of the Confederate

the railway property at Hanover Junction.
They all returned to the Rappahannock
by May 8; but they had not effected the
errand they were sent upon namely, the
complete destruction of Lee s communica
tions with Richmond.

Three days after General Lee escaped
into Virginia, July 17-18, 1863, General
Meade crossed the Potomac to follow his
flying antagonist. The Nationals marched

Secretary of War. " Nothing is more
probable," said the Richmond Inquirer,
in 1861, " than that President Davis will
soon march an army through North Caro
lina and Virginia to Washington"; and
it called upon Virginians who wished to
" join the Southern army " to organize at
once. " The first fruits of Virginia seces
sion," said the New Orleans Picayune, on
the 18th, " will be the removal of Lincoln

rapidly along the eastern base of the Blue and his cabinet, and whatever he can

Ridge, while the Confederates went rapidly
up the Shenandoah Valley, after trying to
check Meade by threatening to re-enter
Maryland. Failing in this, Lee hastened
to oppose a movement that menaced his
front and flank, and threatened to cut off
his retreat to Richmond. During that ex
citing race there were several skirmishes
in the mountain-passes. Finally Lee, by
a quick and skilful movement, while Meade
was detained at Manassas Gap by a heavy
skirmish, dashed through Chester Gap,
and, crossing the Rappahannock, took a
position between that stream and the

carry away, to the safer neighborhood of
Harrisburg or Cincinnati perhaps to Buf
falo or Cleveland." The Vicksburg (Miss.)
Whig of the 20th said: " Maj. Ben Mc-
Culloch has organized a force of 5,000 men
to seize the Federal capital the instant
the first blood is spilled." On the evening
of the same day, when news of bloodshed
in Baltimore reached Montgomery (see
BALTIMORE ) , bonfires were built in front of
the Exchange Hotel, and from its balcony
Roger A. Pryor, of Virginia, in a speech
to the multitude, said that he was in " favor
of an immediate march on Washington."

" ON TO WASHINGTON !" ONEIDA

At the departure of the 2d Regi
ment of South Carolina Infantry for
Richmond, the colonel, as he handed
the flag just presented to it to the color-
sergeant, said : " To your particular charge
is committed this noble gift. Plant it
where honor calls. If opportunity offers,
let it be the first to kiss the breezes of
heaven from the dome of the Capitol at
Washington." The Richmond Examiner
said, on April 23 the day when Stephens
arrived in that city: "The capture of
Washington City is perfectly within the
power of Virginia and Maryland, if Vir
ginia will only make the proper effort
by her constituted authorities. There
never was half the unanimity among the
people before, nor a tithe of the zeal upon
any subject that is now manifested to
take Washington ard drive from it every
Black Republican who is a dweller there.
From the mountain-tops and valleys to the
shores of the sea there is one wild shout
of fierce resolve to capture Washington
City at all and every human hazard."

On the same day Governor Ellis, of
North Carolina, ordered a regiment of
State troops to march for Washington;
and the Goldsboro (N. C.) Tribune of the
24th, speaking of the grand movement of
Virginia and a rumored one in Maryland,
said : " It makes good the words of Secre
tary Walker, of Montgomery, in regard
to the Federal metropolis. It transfers
the lines of battle from the Potomac to
the Pennsylvania border." The RaJeigh
(N. C. ) Standard of the same date said:
" Our streets are alive with soldiers "
(North Carolina was then a professedly
loyal State ) ; and added, " Washington
City will be too hot to hold Abraham Lin
coln and his government. North Carolina
has said it, and she will do all she can to
make good her declaration." The Eufaula
(Ala.) Express said, on the 25th: "Our
policy at this time should be to seize the
old Federal capita], and take old Lincoln
and his cabinet prisoners of war." The
Milledgeville (Ga.) Southern Recorder
said: "The government of the Confeder
ate States must possess the city of Wash
ington. It is folly to think it can be used
any longer as the headquarters of the Lin
coln government, as no access can be had
to it except by passing through Virginia
and Maryland. The District of Columbia

cannot remain under the jurisdiction of
the United States Congress without humil
iating Southern pride and disputing
Southern rights. Both are essential to
greatness of character, and both must co
operate in the destiny to be achieved." A
correspondent of the Charleston Courier,
writing from Montgomery, said : " The de
sire for taking Washington, I believe, in
creases every hour; and all things, to my
thinking, seem tending to this consumma
tion. We are in lively hope that before
three months roll by the [Confederate]
government Congress, departments, and
all will have removed to the present Fed
eral capital." Hundreds of similar ex
pressions were uttered by Southern poli
ticians and Southern newspapers; and
Alexander H. Stephens brought his logic
to bear upon the matter in a speech at At
lanta, Ga., April 30, 1861, in the follow
ing manner : " A general opinion prevails
that Washington City is soon to be at
tacked. On this subject I can only say,
our object is peace. We wish no aggres
sions on any man s rights, and will make
none. But if Maryland secedes, the Dis
trict of Columbia will fall to her by re
versionary right the same as Sumter to
South Carolina, Pulaski to Georgia, and
Pickens to Florida. When we have the
right, we will demand the surrender of
Washington, just as we did in the other
cases, and will enforce our demand at ev
ery hazard and at whatever cost." At the
same time went forth from the free-labor
States, "On to Washington!" for its pres
ervation; and it was responded to effectu
ally by hundreds of thousands of loyal
citizens.

Onderdonk, HENRY, author; born in
North Hempstead, N. Y., June 11, 1804;
graduated at Columbia in 1827. Among
his publications are Revolutionary His
tories of Queens; Neio York; Suffolk;
and Kings Counties; Long Island and
New York in the Olden Times; The An
nals of Hempstead, N. Y., etc. He died
in Jamaica, N. Y., June 22, 1886.

Oneida, THE. The first warlike meas
ure of the Americans previous to the hos
tilities begun in 1812 was the construction,
at Sackett s Harbor, N. Y., of the brig
Oneida, 16 guns, by Christian Berg and
Henry Eckford. She was launched in
1809, and was interifPed for a twofold pur-

ONEIDA COMMUNITY ONONDAGA INDIANS

pose to enforce the revenue laws under titude they were largely held by the in-
the embargo act, and to be in readiness fluence of Samuel Kirkland, a Protestant
to defend American property afloat on missionary, and Gen. Philip Schuyler.
Lake Ontario in case of war with Great Because of this attitude they were sub-
Britain. Her first duty in that line was jected to great losses by the ravages of
performed in 1812, when she was com- Tories and their neighbors, for which the
manded by Lieut. Melancthon T. Woolsey. United States compensated them by a
The schooner Lord Nelson, laden with treaty in 1794. They had previously ceded
flour and merchandise, and owned by their lands to the State of New York,
British subjects at Niagara, was found in reserving a tract, now in Oneida county,
American waters in May, 1812, on her where some of them still remain. They
way to Kingston, and was captured by the had been joined by the Stockbridge and
Oneida and condemned as lawful prize. Brotherton Indians. Some of them emi-
About a month later (June 14) another grated to Canada, and settled on the
British schooner, the Ontario, was capt- Thames; and in 1821 a large band pur-
ured at St. Vincent, but was soon dis- chased a tract on Green Bay, Wis. They
charged. At about the same time still an- have all advanced in civilization and the
other offending schooner, the Niagara, was mechanic arts, as well as in agriculture,
seized and sold as a violator of the and have schools and churches. In 1899
revenue laws. These events soon led to there were 270 Oneidas at the New York
retaliation. agency, and 1,945 at the Green Bay

Oneida Community. See NOYES, JOHN agency.
HUMPHREYS. O Neill, JOHN, military officer; born in

Oneida Indians, the second of the five Ireland in 1834; served in the National
nations that composed the original IRO- army during the Civil War; commanded
QTJOis CONFEDERACY (q. v.) . Their domain a force of 1,200 Fenians who invaded Can-
extended from a point east of Utica to ada in 1866, most of whom were arrested
Deep Spring, near Manlius, south of by the United States authorities. He
Syracuse, in Onondaga county, N. Y. again invaded Canada in 1870, was capt-
Divided into three clans the Wolf, Bear, ured and imprisoned. He died in Omaha,
and Turtle their tribal totem was a stone Neb., Jan. 7, 1878.

in a forked stick, and their name meant Onondaga Indians, the third nation
"tribe of the granite rock." Tradition of the Iroquois Confederacy; their name
says that when the great confederacy was means " men of the great mountain." Tra-
formed, Hiawatha said to them: "You, dition says that at the formation of the
Oneidas, a people who recline your bodies confederacy Hiawatha said to them: "You,
against the Everlasting Stone, that can- Onondagas, who have your habitation at
not be moved, shall be the second nation, the Great Mountain/ and are overshad-
because you give wise counsel." Very soon owed by its crags, shall be the third
after the settlement of Canada they be- nation, because you are greatly gifted
came involved in wars with the French with speech, and are mighty in war."
and their Huron and Montagnais allies. Their seat of government, or "castle,"
In 1653 they joined their neighbors, the was in the hill country southward from
Onondagas, in a treaty of peace with the Syracuse, where was the great council-
French, and received missionaries from fire of the confederacy, or meeting - place
the latter. At that time they had been of their congress. The Atatarho, or great
so reduced by war with southern tribes sachem of the tribe, was chosen to be
that they had only 150 warriors. In the the first president of the confederacy,
general peace with the French, in 1700, They were divided into fourteen clans,
they joined their sister nations; and when with a sachem for each clan, and their
the Revolutionary War was kindling they domain extended from Deep Spring, near
alone, of the then Six Nations in the great Manlius, Onondaga co., west to a line
council, opposed an alliance with the Eng- between Cross and Otter lakes. This na
tion carried on war with the Indians

They remained faithful to the English- in Canada, and also with the French,
American colonists to the end. In this at- after their advent on the St. Lawrence;

ONONDAGA INDIANS ONTARIO

AN ONONDAGA COUNCIL.

and they were prominent in the destruc- was weakened, and finally, in 1777, the

tion of the Hurons. In 1653 they made council-fire at Onondaga (as the confed-

peace with the French, and received Jesuit erate government was familiarly called)

missionaries among them. The peace was was formally extinguished. The Onon-

not lasting, and in 1662 a large force of dagas joined the English, and the war

Onondagas ravaged Montreal Island. They left them helpless, and in 1778 they ceded

again made peace, and in 1668 the French all their lands to the State of New York,

mission was re-established. except a reservation set apart for their

As the English extended their influence remnant, which they continue to hold,

among the Five Nations, the Iroquois were In 1899 they numbered 549. There are

won to their interest, and the Onondagas about 400 Onondagas in Canada, making

permitted them to erect a fort in their the total number of the once powerful

domain; but when, in 1696, Frontenac nation less than 1,000. It is said that

invaded their territory, the Onondagas the Onondaga dialect is the purest one

destroyed the fort and their village, and of the Iroquois.

returned to the forests. The French sent Ontario, LAKE, OPERATIONS ON. Corn-
deputies to the Onondaga sachems, and modore Isaac Chauncey was in command
then, in 1700, signed the general treaty of a little squadron of armed schooners,
of peace at Montreal. This was broken hastily prepared, on Lake Ontario late
in 1709, when the Onondagas again made in 1812. The vessels were the Oneida (his
war on the French, and were alternately flag -ship), Conquest, Growler, Pert,
hostile and neutral towards them until Scourge, Governor Tompkins, and Hamil-
the overthrow of the French power, in ton. He sailed from Sackett s Harbor
1763. When the war for independence (Nov. 8) to intercept the British squad-
was kindling, a general council of the ron, under Commodore Earl, returning to
confederacy was held at Onondaga Castle. Kingston from Fort George, on the Niag-
The Oneidas and Tuscaroras opposed an ara River, whither they had conveyed
alliance with the English, and each na- troops and prisoners. Chauncey took
tion was left to act as it pleased in the his station near the False Ducks, a gi oup
matter. By this decision the confederacy of islands nearly due west from Sackett s

ONTARIO, LAKE, OPERATIONS ON

Harbor. On the afternoon of Nov. 9 lie of a cannon. He would not leave the

fell in with Earl s Hag-ship, the Royal deck, and was knocked overboard and

George. He chased her into the Bay of drowned.

Quint6, where he lost sight of her in After the capture of Fort George Chaun-
the darkness of night. On the following cey crossed the lake, looked into York,
morning (Nov. 10) he captured and burn- and then ran for Kingston without meet-
ed a small armed schooner, and soon after- ing a foe. He retired to Sackett s Harbor,
wards espied the Royal George making where he urged forward the completion
her way towards Kingston. Chauncey of a new corvette, the General Pike, 26
gave chase with most of his squadron guns. She was launched June 12, 1813,
(which had been joined by the Julia], and placed in command of Capt. Arthur
and followed her into Kingston Harbor, Sinclair. It was late in the summer be-
where he fought her and five land-batter- fore she was ready for a cruise. Mean-
ies for almost an hour. These batteries while, the keel of a fast-sailing schooner
were more formidable than he supposed, was laid by Eckford at Sackett s Harbor,
A brisk breeze having arisen, and the and named the Sylph, and a small vessel
ni"ht coming on, Chauncey withdrew and was kept constantly cruising, as a scout,
anchored. The next morning the breeze off Kingston, to observe the movements
had become almost a gale, and Chauncey of the British squadron there. This little
weighed anchor and stood out lakeward. vessel (Lady of the Lake] captured the
The Tompkins (Lieutenant Brown), the British schooner Lady Murray (June 16),
Hamilton (Lieutenant McPherson), and laden with provisions, shot, and fixed
Julia (Sailing-master Trant) chased the ammunition, and took her into the har-
Simcoe over a reef of rocks ( Nov. 11), bor. Sir James L. Yeo was in command
and riddled her so that she sank before of the British squadron on the lake. He
she reached Kingston. Soon afterwards made a cruise westward, and on July 7
the Hamilton captured a large schooner appeared with his squadron off Niagara,
from Niagara. This prize was sent past Chauncey and Scott had just returned
Kingston with the Growler (Sailing-mas- from tlve expedition to York. Chauncey
ter Mix ) , with a hope of drawing out immediately went out and tried to get
the Royal George; but Chauncey had so the weather-gage of Sir James. He had
bruised her that she was compelled to thirteen vessels, but only three of them
haul on shore to keep from sinking. A had been originally built for war pur-
number of her crew had been killed, poses. His squadron consisted of the
The wind had increased to a gale on the Pike, Madison, Oneida, Hamilton, Scourge,
nights of the llth and 12th, and during Ontario, Fair American, Governor To&gt;/&gt;j&gt;-
the night of the 12th there was a snow- kins, Conquest, Growler, Julia, Asp, and
storm. Undismayed by the fury of the Pert. The British squadron now consist-
elements, Chauncey continued his cruise, ed of two ships, two brigs, and two large
for his heart was set on gaining the su- schooners. These had all been constructed
premacy of the Lakes. Learning that for war, and were very efficient in arma-
the Earl of Moira was off the Real Ducks ment and shields. The belligerents ma-
Islands, he attempted to capture her. She rceuvred all day, and when at sunset a
was on the alert and escaped, but a dead calm fell they took to sweeps. When
schooner that she was convoying was darkness came, the American squadron
made captive. On the same day Chauncey was collected by signal. The wind finally
saw the Royal George and two other armed freshened, and at midnight was blowing
vessels, but they kept out of his way. a fitful gale. Suddenly a rushing sound
In this short cruise he captured three was heard astern of most of the fleet, and
merchant vessels, destroyed one armed it was soon ascertained that the Hamil-
schooner, disabled the British flag-ship, ton and Scourge, had disappeared. They
and took several prisoners, with a loss, had been capsized by a terrible squall,
on his part, of one man killed and four and all of the officers and men, excepting
wounded. Among the latter was Sailing- sixteen of the latter, ha.1 perished. These
master Arundel, commander of the Pert, two vessels carried nineteen guns between
who was badly injured by the bursting them. All the next day the squadrons

ONTARIO, LAKE, OPERATIONS ON

manoeuvred for advantage, and towards floated away it was found that the Wolfe
evening Chauncey ran into the Niagara (Sir James s flag-ship) was too much in-
Kiver. All that night the lake was swept jured to continue the conflict any longer,
by squalls. On the morning of the 9th She pushed away dead before the wind,
Chauncey went out to attack Sir James, gallantly protected by the Royal George.
and the day was spent in fruitless manceu- A general chase towards Burlington Bay
\res. At six o clock on the 10th, having immediately ensued. Chauncey could
the weather-gage, Chauncey formed his doubtless have captured the whole British
fleet in battle order, and a conflict seemed fleet, but a gale was threatening, and
imminent; but his antagonist being un- there being no good harbors on the coast,
willing to fight, the day was spent as if he should be driven ashore certain
others had been. Towards midnight there capture by land troops would be the con-
was a contest, when the Growler and sequence. So he called oft" his ships and
Julia, separating from the rest of the returned to the Niagara, where he lay
fleet, were captured. Returning to Sack- two days while a gale was skurrying
ett s Harbor, Chauncey prepared for an- over the lake. The weather remaining
other cruise with eight vessels. Making thick after the gales, Sir James left Bur-
but a short cruise, on account of sickness lington Bay for Kingston. Chauncey was
prevailing in the fleet, he remained in the returning to Sackett s Harbor, whither
harbor until Aug. 28, when he went out all his transports bearing troops had gone,
in search of his antagonist. He first saw and at sunset, Oct. 5, when near the
him on Sept. 7, and for a week tried to Ducks, the Pike captured three British
get him into action, but Sir James strict- transports the Gonfiance, Hamilton (the
ly obeyed his instructions to "risk noth- Growler and Julia with new names), and
iiig." *0n the llth Chauncey bore down Mary. The Sylph captured the cutter
upon Sir James off the mouth of the Drummond and the armed transport Lady
Genesee River, and they had a running Gore. The number of prisoners captured
fight for three hours. The Pike was on these five vessels was 264. Among the
somewhat injured, but the British vessels prisoners were ten army officers. Sir James
suffered most. The latter fled to King- remained inactive in Kingston Harbor
ston, and Chauncey went
into Sackett s Harbor. On
the 18th he sailed for the
Niagara for troops, and
was chased by Yeo. After a
few days Chauncey cross
ed over to York with the
Pike, Madison, and Sylph,
where the British fleet lay,
when the latter fled, fol
lowed by the American
vessels in battle order.
The baronet was now com
pelled to fight or stop
boasting of unsatisfied de
sires to measure strength
with the Americans. An
action commenced at a
little past noon, and the
Pike sustained the desper
ate assaults of the heavi
est British vessels for twenty min- during the remainder of the season, and
utes, at the same time delivering destruc- Chauncey was busied in watching hia
tive broadsides upon her foes. She was movements and assisting the army in its
assisted by the Tompkins, Lieutenant descent of the St. Lawrence. He did not,
Finch; and when the smoke of battle however, sufficiently blockade Kingston

DESTRUCTION AT SODCS BAY.

ONTARIO OPECHANCANOUGH

Harbor to prevent marine scouts from slip- returned to Sackett s Harbor. The St. Law-
ping out and hovering near Wilkinson s ranee sailed in October with more than
flotilla on the St. Lawrence. 1,000 men, accompanied by other vessels

A British squadron on the lake hovered of war; and with this big ship Sir James
along its southern shores in the summer was really lord of the lake. The Amer-
of 1813 and seriously interfered with sup- icans determined to match the 8t. Law-
plies on their way to the American camp rcnce, and at Sackett s Harbor the keels
on the Niagara. They captured (June 12, of two first-class frigates were laid. One
1813) two vessels laden with hospital of them was partly finished when peace
stores at Eighteen-mile Creek, eastward was proclaimed, early in 1815. Chaun-
of the Niagara River. They made a de- cey expected that Yeo would attack
scent upon the village of Charlotte, situ- his squadron in the harbor, but he did
ated at the mouth of the Genesee River, not; and when the lake was closed by
on the 15th, and carried off a large quan- ice the war had ended on the northern
tity of stores. On the 18th they appeared frontier.

off Sodus Bay, and the next evening an Opechancanough, brother of Powhat-
armed party, 100 strong, landed at Sodus an, was " King of Pamunkey " when the
Point for the purpose of destroying Amer- English first landed in Virginia. He was
lean stores known to have been deposited born about 1552, and died in 1644. He
there. These had been removed to a place first became known to the English as the
of concealment a little back of the village, captor of John Smith in the forest. Ope-
The invaders threatened to destroy the chancanough would have killed him imme-
village if the hiding-place of the stores diately, but for Smith s presence of mind,
was not revealed. The women and chil- He drew from his pocket a compass, and
dren fled from their homes in alarm. A explained to the savage as well as he could
negro, compelled by threats, gave the de- its wonderful nature; told him of the form
sired information; and they were march- of the earth and the stars how the sun
ing in the direction of the stores when chased the night around the earth con-
they were confronted at a bridge over a tinually. Opechancanough regarded him as
ravine by forty men under Captain Turner, a superior being, and women and children
A sharp skirmish ensued. The British stared at him as he passed from village
were foiled, and as they returned to their to village to the Indian s capital, until
vessels they burned the public storehouses, he was placed in the custody of Pow-
five dwellings, and a hotel. The property hatan. Opechancanough attended the mar-
destroyed at Sodus was valued at $25,000. riage of his niece, Pocahontas, at James-
The marauders then sailed eastward, and town. After the death of his brother
looked into Oswego Harbor, but Sir James (1619) he was lord of the empire, and
Yeo, their cautious commander, did not immediately formed plans for driving the
venture to go in. English out of his country.

Chauncey was unable to accomplish Gov. Sir Francis Wyatt brought the
much with his squadron during 1814. constitution with him, and there was evi-
Early in the season he was taken sick, dence of great prosperity and peace every-
and in July his squadron was blockaded where. But just at that time a fearful
at Sackett s Harbor, and it was the last cloud of trouble was brooding. Opechan-
of that month before it was ready for sea. canough could command about 1,500 war-
On the 31st Chauncey was carried, in a riors. He hated the English bitterly,
convalescent state, on board the Superior and inspired his people with the same
(his flag-ship), and the squadron sailed feeling, yet he feigned friendship for them
O}i a cruise. It blockaded the harbor of until a plot for their destruction was per-
Kingston, and Chauncey vainly tried to fected.

draw out Sir James Yeo for combat. At Believing the English intended to seize
the close of September Chauncey was in- his domains, his patriotism impelled him
formed that the St. Lawrence, pierced for to strike a blow. In an affray with a. set-
112 guns, which had been built at Kings- tier, an Indian leader was shot, and the
ton, was ready for sea, when the commo- wily emperor made it the occasion for in-
dore prudently raised the blockade and flaming the resentment of his people

OPECHANCANOITGH OPEQUAN

against the English. He visited the gov- at its close there were, probably, not 1,000
ernor in war costume, bearing in his belt within the territory of 8,000 square miles.
a glittering hatchet, and demanded some The colony, too, was sadly injured in
concessions for his incensed people. It number and strength. A deadly hostility
was refused, and, forgetting himself for between the races continued for more than
a moment, he snatched the hatchet from twenty years. Opechancanough lived, and
his belt and struck its keen blade into a had been nursing his wrath all that time,
log of the cabin, uttering a curse upon prudence alone restraining him from war.
the English. Instantly recovering himself, His malice remained keen, and his thirst
he smiled, and said : Pardon me, govern- for vengeance was terrible,
or; I was thinking of that wicked Eng- When, in 1(543, Thomas Kolfe, son of
lishman (see ARGALL, SAMUEL) who stole his niece Pocahontas, came from England,
my niece and struck me with his sword, and with Cleopatra, his mother s sister,
I love the English who are the friends visited the aged emperor, and told him of
of Powhatan. Sooner will the skies fall the civil war between the English factions,
than that my bond of friendship with the the old emperor concluded it was a favor-
English shall be dissolved." Sir Francis able time for him to strike another blow
warned the people that treachery was for his country. He was then past ninety
abroad. They did not believe it. They so years of age, and feeble in body. He sent
trusted the Indians that they had taught runners through his empire. A confed-
them to hunt with fire-arms. eration of the tribes for the extermination

A tempest suddenly burst upon them, of the English was formed, and the day
On April 1 (March 22, O. S.), 1622, the fixed to begin the work in the interior and
Indians rushed from the forests upon all carry it on to the sea. Early in April,
the remote settlements, at a preconcerted 1644, they began the horrid work. The old
time, and in the space of an hour 350 men, emperor was carried on a litter borne by
women, and children were slain. At Hen- his warriors. In the space of two days
rico, the devoted Thorpe, who had been they slew more than 300 of the settlers,
like a father to the children and the sick sparing none who fell in their way. The
of the savages, was slain. Six members of region between the Pamunkey and York
the council and several of the wealthier rivers was almost depopulated. Governor
inhabitants were made victims of the Berkeley met the savages with a corn-
treachery, petent armed force, and drove them back

On the very morning of the massacre with great slaughter. Opechancanough

the Indians ate at the tables of those was made a prisoner, and carried in

whom they intended to murder at noon, triumph to Jamestown. He was so much

The people of Jamestown were saved by exhausted that he could not raise his eye-

Chanco, a Christian Indian, who gave lids, and in that condition he was fatally

them timely warning, and enabled them to wounded by a bullet from the gun of an

prepare for the attack. Those on remote English soldier who guarded him, and who

plantations who survived beat back the had suffered great bereavements at the

savages and fled to Jamestown. In the hands of the savages. The people, curious,

course of a few days eighty of the in- gathered around the dying emperor,

habited plantations were reduced to eight. Hearing the hum of a multitude, he asked

A large part of the colony were saved, and an attendant to raise his eyelids. When

these waged an exterminating war. They he saw the crowd he haughtily demanded

struck such fearful retaliating blows that a visit from the governor. Berkeley came,

the Indians were beaten back into the when the old man said, with indignation,

forest, and death and desolation were " Had it been my fortune to have taken

spread over the peninsula between the Sir William Berkeley prisoner, I would

York and James rivers. The emperor fled not meanly have exposed him as a show

to the land of the Pamunkeys, and by a to my people." He then stretched him-

show of cowardice lost rmich of his influ- self upon the earth and died,
ence. The power, of the confederacy was Open Door. See CHINA AND THE

broken. Before the war there were 6,000 POWERS.

Indians within 60 miles of Jamestown ; Opequan, BATTLE OF. See WINCHESTER.

ORANGE ORDERS IN COUNCIL

Orange, FORT, a defensive work at employed in coast-survey duty, when he
Albany, N. Y. In 1614 Captain Chris- was sent to California. He took part in
tiansen, who, in the interest of trade, expeditions against the Indians, and, in
went up the Hudson River to the head of September, 1SG1, was made brigadier-gen-
navigation, built a fortified trading-house eral of volunteers, commanding a brigade
on an island just below the site of Albany, of the Pennsylvania Reserves near the
which he called Castle Island. The spring Potomac. In May, 1862, he was made
floods made the place untenable, and in major-general of volunteers, and ordered
1017 a new fort was built at the mouth to the Army of the Mississippi, where he
of the Tawasentha ("place of many did good service while in command at
dead"), or Norman s Kill, on the west Corinth. He commanded the 13th Army
side of the river. There a treaty of Corps at the siege and capture of Jackson
friendship and alliance was made with the and Vicksburg. In the campaign against
Five Nations, the first ever made between Richmond, in 18G4, he commanded the
the Indians and Hollanders. The situa- 18th Corps from July to September, when
tion of the new fort proving to be in- he was severely wounded in the assault on
convenient, a more permanent fortification Fort Harrison. He commanded the De-
was built a few miles farther north, and partment of Virginia from January to
called Fort Orange, in compliment to the June, 1865, and was a participant in the
Stadtholder, or chief magistrate, of Hoi- capture of Lee s army in April. General
land. Some of the Walloons settled there, Ord was brevetted major-general in the
and held the most friendly relations with United States army, and commissioned
the Indians. Near the fort Kilian Van a brigadier-general, July 26, 1866; and
Rensselaer, a wealthy pearl merchant of was retired Dec. 6, 1880. He died in
Amsterdam, purchased from the Indians a Havana, Cuba, July 22, 1883.
large tract of land in 1630, sent over a col- Orders in Council. On Nov. 6, 1793,
ony to settle upon it, and formed the " Col- a British Order in Council was issued, but
onie of Rensselaerswyck." A settlement was not made public until the end of the
soon grew around Fort Orange, and so the year, directing British cruisers to stop,
foundations of ALBANY (q. v.) were laid, detain, and bring in for legal adjudication
Ord, EDWARD OTHO CRESAP, military all ships laden with goods the production
officer; born in Cumberland, Md., Oct. of any French colony, or carrying pro
visions or other supplies for the use of
such colony. The order, which was cal
culated to destroy all neutral trade with
the French colonies, even that which had
been allowed in times of peace, was issued
simultaneously with the despatch of a
great expedition for the conquest of the
French West Indies. Martinique, Guada-
loupe, and St. Lucia all fell into the hands
of the English. The news of the British
order produced great excitement at Phila
delphia, where Congress was in session,
and public feeling against Great Britain
ran high. It was manifested in and out
of Congress by debates and discussions,
and while these were in progress the feel
ing against the British was intensified by
the publication in New York papers of
what purported to be a speech of Lord
Dorchester to a certain Indian deputation
from a late general council at the Maumee

18, 1818; graduated at West Point in Rapids, in which he suggested the prob-
1839, entering the 3d Artillery. He was ability of a speedy rupture between the
in the Seminole War, and in 1845-46 was United States and Great Britain.

EDWARD OTHO CRESAP ORD.

ORDERS IN COUNCIL ORDINANCE OF 1787

The British order and Dorchester s States government, after due notice, should
speech caused resolutions to be introduced still persist in its non-importation and
by Sedgwick, March 12, 1794, into the other hostile acts. Efforts were imme-
House of Representatives for raising d lately made by both governments for a
fifteen regiments of 1,000 men each, for settlement of existing difficulties, but
two years, and the passage of a joint res- failed. The British minister (Lord Castle-
olution, March 26, laying an embargo for reagh) declined to make any stipulation,
thirty days, afterwards extended thirty formal or informal, concerning impress-
days longer, having in view the obstruct- nients. The war finally proceeded on the
ing of the supply of provisions to the matter of impressments alone. See BERLIN
British fleet and army in the West Indies. DECREE; EMBARGO ACTS.
Sedgwick s resolutions were rejected, but Ordinance of 1787. The title of this
a substitute was passed suggesting a draft important act of Congress is " An ordi-
of militia. It was proposed to detach nance for the government of the territory
from this body 80.000 minute-men, enlist of the United States northwest of the
a regiment of artillery, and raise a stand- River Ohio," and the text is as follows :
ing force of 25,000 men. While debates l&gt;, e it ordained by the United States in
were going on, news came that a second Congress assembled, that the said terri-
Orcler in Council had been issued, Jan. tory, for the purposes of temporary gov-
8, 1794, superseding that of Nov. 6, re- eminent, be one district, subject, however,
stricting the capture of French produce in to be divided into two districts, as future
neutral vessels to cases in which the prod- circumstances may, in the opinion of Con-
uce belonged to Frenchmen, or the vessel gress, make it expedient,
was bound for France; also, that no Be it ordained by the authority afore-
confiscations were to take place under the sa id, that the estates, both of resident
first order. This allayed the bitterness and non-resident proprietors in the said
of feeling in the United States against territory, dying intestate, shall descend
Great Britain. to, and be distributed among, their chil-

In 1807 and 1810 Orders in Council were dren, and the descendants of a deceased

issued to meet the effects of the French child, in equal parts; the descendants of

decrees (Berlin and Milan). These re- a deceased child or grandchild to take the

mained in force, and bore heavily upon share of their deceased parent in equal

American commerce until after the dec- p ar ts among them: And where there

laration of war in 1812. Joel Barlow, shall be no children or descendants, then

who had been appointed American ambas- i n equa l parts to the next of kin in equal

sador to France in 1811, had urged the degree; and, among collaterals, the chil-

French government to revoke the decrees dren of a deceased brother or sister of the

as to the Americans. This was done, intestate shall have, in equal parts among

April 28, 1811, and a decree was issued them, their deceased parents share; and

directing that, in consideration of the re- there shall, in no case, be a distinction

sistance of the United States to the Orders between kindred of the whole and half

in Council, the Berlin and Milan decrees blood; saving, in all cases, to the widow

were to be considered as not having exist- O f the intestate her third part of the real

ed, as to American vessels, since Nov. 1, estate for life, and one-third part of the

1810. Barlow forwarded this decree to personal estate; and this law, relative to

Russell, American minister at the British descents and dower, shall remain in full

Court. It arrived there just in time to force until altered by the legislature of

second the efforts of the British manu- the district. And, until the governor and

facturers, who were pressing the govern- judges shall adopt laws as hereinafter

ment for a revocation of the Orders in mentioned, estates in the said territory

Council. A new ministry, lately seated, may be devised or bequeathed by wills in

being in danger of the desertion of a por- writing, signed and sealed by him or her,

tion of their supporters, yielded, and on in whom the estate may be "(being of full

June 23, 1812, they revoked the orders age), and attested by three witnesses;

of 1807 and 1810, with a proviso, how- and real estates may be conveyed by lease

ever, for their renewal in case the United and release, or bargain and sale, signed,

OEDINANCE OF 1787

sealed, and delivered by the person, being in force in the district until the organi-

of full age, in whom the estate may be, zation -of the General Assembly therein,

and attested by two witnesses, provided unless disapproved of by Congress; but,

such wills be duly proved, and such con- afterwards, the legislature shall have

veyances be acknowledged, or the execu- authority to alter them as they shall think

tion thereof duly proved, and be recorded fit.

within one year after proper magistrates, The governor, for the time being, shall
courts, and registers shall be appointed be commander-in-chief of the militia, ap-
for that purpose; and personal property point and commission all officers in the
may be transferred by delivery; saving, same below the rank of general officers;
however, to the French and Canadian in- all general officers shall be appointed and
habitants, and other settlers of the Kas- commissioned by Congress,
kaskias, St. Vincents, and the neighbor- Previous to the organization of the Gen-
ing villages who have heretofore profess- eral Assembly, the governor shall appoint
ed themselves citizens of Virginia, their such magistrates and other civil officers,
laws and customs now in force among in each county or township, as he shall
them, relative to the descent and convey- find necessary for the preservation of the
ance of property. peace and good order in the same: After

Be it ordained by the authority afore- the General Assembly shall be organized,

said, that there shall be appointed, from the powers and duties of the magistrates

time to time, by Congress, a governor, and other civil officers shall be regulated

whose commission shall continue in force- and defined by the said Assembly; but all

for the term of three years, unless sooner magistrates and other civil officers, not

revoked by Congress; he shall reside in herein otherwise directed, shall, during

the district, and have a freehold estate the continuance of this temporary gov-

therein in 1,000 acres of land, while in the ernment, be appointed by the governor,
exercise of his office. For the prevention of crimes and in-

There shall be appointed, from time to juries, the laws to be adopted or made
time, by Congress, a secretary, whose com- shall have force in all parts of the dis
mission shall continue in force for four trict, and for the execution of process,
years unless sooner revoked ; he shall re- criminal and civil, the governor shall make
side in the district, and have a freehold proper divisions thereof; and he shall
estate therein in 500 acres of land, while proceed, from time to time, as circum-
in the exercise of his office; it shall be his stances may require, to lay out the parts
duty to keep and preserve the acts and of the district in which the Indian titles
laws passed by the legislature, and the shall have been extinguished, into coun-
public records of the district, and the pro- ties and townships, subject, however, to
ceedings of the governor in his executive such alterations as may thereafter be made
department : and transmit authentic copies by the legislature.

of such acts and proceedings, every six So soon as there shall be 5,000 free

months, to the secretary of Congress: male inhabitants of full age in the dis-

There shall also be appointed a court to trict, upon giving proof thereof to the

consist of three judges, any two of whom governor, they shall receive authority,

to form a court, who shall have a common- with time and place, to elect representa-

law jurisdiction, and reside in the district, tives from their counties or townships to

and have each therein a freehold estate in represent them in the General Assembly:

500 acres of land while in the exercise of Provided, that for every 500 free male

their offices: and their commissions shall inhabitants, there shall be one represent-

continue in force during good behavior. ative, and so on progressively with the

The governor and judges, or a majority number of free male inhabitants, shall the

of them, shall adopt and publish in the right of representation increase, until the

district such laws of the original States, number of representatives shall amount to

criminal and civil, as may be necessary twenty-five; after which the number and

and best suited to the circumstances of proportion of representatives shall be regu-

the district, and report them to Congress lated by the legislature: Provided, that

from time to time: which laws shall be no person shall be eligible or qualified to

ORDINANCE OF 178T

act as a representative unless he shall of the council five years, unless sooner
have been a citizen of one of the United removed. And the governor, legislative
States three years, and be a resident in council, and House of Representatives shall
the district, or unless he shall have re- have authority to make laws in all cases
sided in the district three years; and, in for the good government of the district,
either case, shall likewise hold in his own not repugnant to the principles and ar-
right, in fee - simple, 200 acres of land tides in this ordinance established and
within the same: Provided, also, that a declared. And all bills, having passed
freehold in 50 acres of land in the dis- by a majority in the House, and by a
trict, having been a citizen of one of majority in the council, shall be referred
the States, and being resident in the dis- to the governor for his assent; but no
trict, or the like freehold and two years bill, or legislative act whatever, shall be
residence in the district, shall be neces- of any force without his assent. The gov-
sary to qualify a man as an elector of a ernor shall have power to convene, pro-
representative, rogue, and dissolve the General Assem-

The representatives thus elected shall bly, when, in his opinion, it shall be

serve for the term of two years; and, in expedient.

case of the death of a representative, or The governor, judges, legislative coun-

removal from office, the governor shall cil, secretary, and such other officers as

issue a writ to the county or township Congress shall appoint in the district,

for which he was a member, to elect an- shall take an oath or affirmation of fidel-

other in his stead, to serve for the residue ity and of office; the governor before the

of the term. president of Congress, and all other offi-

The General Assembly, or legislature, cers before the governor. As soon as a

shall consist of the governor, legislative legislature shall be formed in the dis-

council, and a House of Representatives, trict, the council and House, assembled

The legislative council shall consist of five in one room, shall have authority, by

members, to continue in office five years, joint ballot, to elect a delegate to Con-

unless sooner removed by Congress; any gress, who shall have a seat in Congress,

three of whom to be a quorum ; and the with a right of debating but not of voting

members of the council shall be nomi- during this temporary government,

nated and appointed in the following man- And, for extending the fundamental

ner, to wit: As soon as representatives principles of civil and religious liberty,

shall be elected, the governor shall appoint which form the basis whereon these re-

a time and place for them to meet to- publics, their laws and constitutions, are

gether; and, when met, they shall nomi- erected; to fix and establish those prin-

nate ten persons, residents in the district, ciples as the basis of all laws, constitu-

and each possessed of a freehold in 500 tions, and governments, which forever

acres of land, and return their names hereafter shall be formed in the said

to Congress; five of whom Congress shall territory: to provide also for the estab-

appoint and commission to serve as afore- lishment of States, and permanent gov-

said; and, whenever a vacancy shall hap- ernment therein, and for their admission

pen in the council, by death or removal to a share in the federal councils on an

from office, the House of Representatives equal footing with the original States,

shall nominate two persons, qualified as at as early periods as may be consistent

aforesaid, for each vacancy, and return with the general interest:

their names to Congress ; one of whom Con- It is hereby ordained and declared by

gress shall appoint and commission for the authority aforesaid, that the follow-

the residue of the term. And every five ing articles shall be considered as articles

years, four months at least before the of compact between the original States

expiration of the time of service of the and the people and States in the said ter-

members of council, the said House shall ritory, and forever remain unalterable, un-

nominate ten persons, qualified as afore- less by common consent, to wit:

said, and return their names to Con- ART. 1. No person, demeaning himself

gress; five of whom Congress shall ap- in a peaceable and orderly manner, shall

point and commission to serve as members ever be molested on account of his mode
vn. c 33

ORDINANCE OF ITS?

of worship or religious sentiments, in the
said territory.

ART. 2. The inhabitants of the said ter
ritory shall always be entitled to the ben
efits of the writ of habeas corpus, and of
the trial by jury; of a proportionate rep
resentation of the people in the legislat
ure; and of judicial proceedings according
to the course of the common law. All per
sons shall be bailable, unless for capital
ofl ences, where the proof shall be evident
or the presumption great. All fines shall
be moderate; and no cruel or unusual pun
ishments shall be inflicted. No man shall
be deprived of his liberty or property but
by the judgment of his peers or the law of
the land; and, should the public exi
gencies make it necessary, for the common
preservation, to take any person s prop
erty, or to demand his particular services,
full compensation shall be made for the
same. And, in the just preservation of
rights and property, it is understood and
declared that no law ought ever to be
made, or have force in the said territory,
that shall, in any manner whatever, inter
fere with or affect private contracts or en
gagements, bona fide, and without fraud,
previously formed.

AKT. 3. Religion, morality, and knowl
edge, being necessary to good government
and the happiness of mankind, schools and
the means of education shall forever be en
couraged. The utmost good faith shall al
ways be observed towards the Indians;
their lands and property shall never be
taken from them without their consent;
and, in their property, rights, and liberty,
they shall never be invaded or disturbed,
unless in just and lawful wars authorized
by Congress; but laws founded in justice
and humanity shall, from time to time,
be made for preventing wrongs being done
to them, and for preserving peace and
friendship with them.

ART. 4. The said territory, and the
States which may be formed therein, shall
forever remain a part of this confederacy
of the United States of America, subject
to the Articles of Confederation, and to
such alterations therein as shall be con
stitutionally made; and to all the acts
and ordinances of the United States in
Congress assembled, comformable thereto.
The inhabitants and settlers in the said
territory shall be subject to pay a part of

the federal debts contracted or to be con
tracted, and a proportional part of the
expenses of government, to be apportioned
on them by Congress according to the
same common rule and measure by which
apportionments thereof shall be made on
the other States ; and the taxes, for paying
their proportion, shall be laid and levied
by the authority and direction of the legis
latures of the district or districts, or new
States, as in the original States, within
the time agreed upon by the United States
in Congress assembled. The legislatures
of those districts or new States shall
never interfere with the primary disposal
of the soil by the United States in Con
gress assembled, nor with any regulations
Congress may find necessary for securing
the title in such soil to the bona fide pur
chasers. No tax shall be imposed on lands
the property of the United States; and,
in no case, shall non-resident proprietors
be taxed higher than residents. The
navigable waters leading into the Missis
sippi and St. Lawrence, and the carrying-
places between the same, shall be common
highways, and forever free, as well to the
inhabitants of the said territory as to the
citizens of the United States, and those
of any other States that may be admitted
into the confederacy, without any tax, im
post, or duty therefor.

ART. 5. There shall be formed in the
said territory not less than three nor
more than five States; and the boundaries
of the States, as soon as Virginia shall
alter her act of cession, and consent to the
same, shall become fixed and established
as follows, to wit: The Western State in
the said territory shall be bounded by the
Mississippi, the Ohio, and Wabash rivers;
a direct line drawn from the Wabash and
Post St. Vincent s, due north, to the terri
torial line between the United States and
Canada; and, by the said territorial line,
to the Lake of the Woods and Mississippi.
The middle State shall be bounded by the
said direct line, the Wabash from Post
Vincent s, to the Ohio; by the Ohio, by a
direct line, drawn due north from the
mouth of the Great Miami, to the said ter
ritorial line, and by the said territorial
line. The Eastern State shall be bounded
by the last-mentioned direct line, the
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and the said terri
torial line: Provided, however, and it is

ORDNANCE OREGON

further understood and declared, that the province of Massachusetts. In 1788 the
boundaries of these three States shall be Secretary of War called the attention of
subject so far to be altered, that, if Con- Congress to the fact that there were in
gress shall hereafter find it expedient, the arsenals of the United States " two
they shall have authority to form one or brass cannon, which constituted one
two States in that part of the said terri- moiety of the field artillery with which
tory which lies north of an east and the late war was commenced on the part
west line drawn through the southerly of the Americans." Congress by resolu-
bencl or extreme of Lake Michigan. And, tion directed the Secretary to have suitable
whenever any of the said States shall inscriptions placed on them; and, as they
have 00,000 free inhabitants therein, such belonged to Massachusetts, he was in-
State shall be admitted, by its delegates, structed to deliver them to the order of
into the Congress of the United States, on the governor of that State. The two
an equal footing with the original States cannon belonging to citizens of Boston
in all respects whatever, and shall be at were inscribed, respectively, " The Han-
liberty to form a permanent constitution cock, Sacred to Liberty," and " The
and State government: Provided, the Adams, Sacred to Liberty"; with the
constitution and government so to be additional words on each, " These were
formed, shall be republican, and in con- used in many engagements during the
formity to the principles contained in war."

these articles; and, so far as it can Ordnance Department, a bureau of

be consistent with the general inter- the War Department, under the direction

est of the confederacy, such admission of a chief of ordnance. The duties of the

shall be allowed at an earlier period, department consist in providing, preserv-

and when there may be a less number ing, distributing, and accounting for every

of free inhabitants in the State than description of artillery, small - arms, and

60.000. all the munitions of war which may be

ART. 6. There shall be neither slavery required for the fortifications of the coun-
nor involuntary servitude in the said ter- try, the armies in the field, and for the
ritory, otherwise than in the punishment whole body of the militia of the Union.
of crimes, whereof the party shall have In these duties are comprised that of de-
been duly convicted; Provided, always, tennining the general principles of con-
that any person escaping into the same, struction, and of prescribing in detail the
from whom labor or service is lawful- models and forms of all military weapons
ly claimed in any one of the original employed in war. They comprise also the
States, such fugitive may be lawfully duty of prescribing the regulations for the
reclaimed and conveyed to the person inspection of all these weapons, for main-
claiming his or her labor or service as taining uniformity and economy in their
aforesaid. fabrication, for insuring their quality, and

Be it ordained by the authority afore- for their preservation and distribution,
said, that the resolutions of the 23d Ordnance Survey. See COAST SURVEY.
of April, 1784, relative to the subject Oregon, STATE OF. The history of this
of this ordinance, be, and the same are State properly begins with the discovery
hereby repealed, and declared null and of the mouth of the Columbia River In-
void. Captain Gray, of Boston, in the ship

Done by the United States, in Congress ( 1 olumlna, May 7, 1792, who gave the

assembled, the 13th day of July, in name of his vessel to that river. His re-

the year of our Lord 1787, and of port caused President Jefferson to send

their independence the twelfth. the explorers LEWIS and CLARKE (&lt;/&lt;/. v.)

See NORTHWESTERN TERRITORY, THE. across the continent to the Pacific (1804-

Ordnance. The whole train of artil- 0). In 1811 John J. Astor and others

lery possessed by the English-American established a fur-trading post at the

colonies when the war for independence mouth of the Columbia lliver. and called

broke out (April 1"!), 177")) was com- it Astoria. The British doctrine, always

posed of four field-pieces, two belonging practised and enforced by them, that the

to citizens of Boston, and two to the entrance of a vessel of a civilized nation,

OREGON, STATE OF

STATE SEAL OP OREGON.

for the first time, into the mouth of a
river, gives title, by right of discovery, to
the territory drained by that river and its
tributaries, cleai ly gave to the Americans
the domain to the lat. of 54 40 N.,
for the discovery of the Columbia River
by Captain Gray, in 1792, was not dis
puted. In 1818 it was mutually agreed

that each nation should equally enjoy the
privileges of all the bays and harbors on
that coast for ten years. This agreement
was renewed, in 1827, for an indefinite
time, with the stipulation that either
party might rescind it by giving the other
party twelve months notice. This notice
was given by the United States in 1846,
and also a proposition to adjust the ques
tion by making the boundary on the par
allel of 49. This was rejected by the
British, who claimed the whole of Oregon.
The President then directed the proposi
tion of compromise to be withdrawn, and
the title of the United States to the
whole territory of 54 40 N. lat. to be
asserted. The question at one time
threatened war between the two nations,
but it was finally settled by a treaty ne
gotiated at Washington, June 15, 1846, by
James Buchanan on the part of the United
States and Mr. Pakenham for Great
Britain, by which the boundary-line was
fixed at 49 N. lat.

In 1833 immigration to this region,

SCENE ON THE COLUMBIA RIVER, DISCOVERED" BY CAPTAIN GRAY.

OREGON, STATE OP

ORKCON IXDIA.NS.

overland, began, and in 1850 many thou- don the country. Major-General Wool, sta-
sands had reached Oregon; but very soon tioned at San Francisco, went to Port-
many of the settlers were drawn to Cali- land, Ore., and there organized a cam-
fornia by the gold excitement there. To paign against the Indians. The latter
encourage immigration the Congress, in had formed a powerful combination, but
1850, passed the donation law," giving to Wool brought hostilities to a close during
every man who should settle on land there the summer of 1850. The bad conduct of
before Dec. 1 of that year 320 acres of Indian agents, and possibly encouragement
land, and to his wife a like number of given the Indians by employes of the
acres; also, to every man and his wife who Hudson Bay Company, were tho chief
should settle on such land between Dec. 1, causes of the trouble.

1850, and Dec. 1, 1853, 160 acres of land In 1841 the first attempt to organize
each. Under this law 8,000 claims were a government was made. In 1843 an ex-
registered in Oregon. Settlers in Oregon ecutive and legislative committee was es-
and in Washington Territory, in 1855, suf- tablished; and in 1845 the legislative com-
fered much from Indians, who went in mittee framed an organic law which the
bands to murder and plunder the white settlers approved, and this formed the
people. The savages were so well organ- basis of a. provisional government until
ized at one time that it was thought the 1848, when Congress created the Territory
white settlers would be compelled to aban- of Oregon, which comprised all the United

OREGON

States territory west of the summit of the
Rocky Mountains and north of the forty-
seccnd parallel. The territorial government
went into operation on March 3, 1849,
with Joseph Lane as governor. In 1853
Washington Territory was organized, and
took from Oregon all its domain north of
the Columbia River. In 1857 a convention
framed a State constitution for Oregon,
which was ratified, in November of that
year, by the people. By the act of Feb. 14,
1859, Oregon was admitted into the Union
as a State, with its present limits. Many
Indian wars have troubled Oregon, the
last one of importance being the Modoc
War, 1872-73 (see MODOC INDIANS). Pop
ulation in 1890, 313,767; in 1900, 413,536.
See UNITED STATES, OREGON, in vol. ix.

TERRITORIAL GOVERNORS.

George Abernethy appointed

Joseph Lane "

J. P. Gaines "

Joseph Lane "

George L. Curry "

John W. Davis "

George L. Curry "

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

Name.

No. of Congress.

Term.

Delazon Smith

35th
35th to 37th
86th

37th
37th to 39th
37th " 40th
39th " 42d
40th " 43d
42d " 45th
43d " 4fith
45th " 47th
4tith " 4 .)th
47th " 54th
48th " 55th
54th " 57th
55th " 57th
57th "
58th "

1859 t
1859
1860
18
1862 t
1861
1865
1867
1871
1873
1877
1879
1883
1885
188
1898
1901
1903

3 1860
1861
1861
2
1865
1867
1871
1873
1877
1879
1883
1885
1895
1897
1901
1903

Joseph Lauo

Kdward I). Baker

Benjamin Stark. ........

lienjamin F. Harding

.lames W. Nesinith . .

George H. Williams

Henry W. Corbett . .

James K. Kellv

John H. Mitchell

Lafayette F. G rover

James H. Slater

Joseph N. Holph

John H. Mitchell

George W. McBride .

Joseph Simon

John H. Mitchell

Charles W Fulton

1845

1849

1853

1854

STATE GOVERNORS.

John Whiteaker assumes office 1859

Addison C. Gibbs " 1862

George L. Woods " 1866

Lafnyette Grover " 1870

3. F. Chadwick acting . ..Feb. 1, 1877

W. W. Thayer assumes office 1878

Zenas Ferry Moody li 1882

Svlvester Pennoyer, Dem.. " ...Janl, 1887

William Paine Lord " 1895

Theodore T. Geer " 1899

George E. Chamberlain " 1903

Oregon, battle-ship; carries four 13-
inch guns, eight 8-inch, four 6-inch, and
thirty-one rapid-fire machine guns. At the
outbreak of hostilities with Spain, the Ore-
c/on was ordered from San Francisco, where
she was built, to the Atlantic coast. She
left San Francisco March 19, and arrived
at Callao, Peru, April 4, where she took on
coal; reached Sandy Point April 18, and
again took on coal ; reached Rio de
Janeiro April 30, Bahia May 8, Barba-
does May 18, and Jupiter Inlet, Florida,
May 24. The entire distance run was
14,706 knots, at an expenditure of 4,155
tons of coal. While in Rio de Janeiro,
Captain Clark received word that the
Spanish torpedo-boat Temerario had sailed
from Montevideo with the intention of

UNITED STATES BATTLE-SHIP OREGON.

OREGON BOUNDARY ORISKANY

destroying the Oregon. Captain Clark stitutional Association, which was the
notified the Brazilian authorities that if means of bringing about the reforms in
the Temerario entered the harbor with the constitution of the State of New York
hostile intention, she would be attacked; in 1846. When the Civil War broke out
and at the same time left orders with the he was one of the most active promoters
commander of the United States cruiser of measures for the preservation of the
Marietta to keep a search-light on the Union, and was secretary of the Society
entrance to the harbor, and in case the for Promoting the Enlistment of Colored
Temerario appeared, to notify her com- Troops. He originated, in 1867, an or-
mander that if she approached within half ganized movement for reforming and
a mile of the Oregon she would be cheapening the operations of the railroad
destroyed. In the battle of Santiago the system of the United States. He was au-
spced of the Oregon enabled her to thor of Sketches of Rochester, tcith .Yo-
take a front position in the chase in tices of Western Yew York, and Ameri-
which she forced the Cristobal Colon to can Political Anti-Masonry. He died in
run ashore to avoid destruction from Rochester, N. Y., Aug. 17, 1886.
the Oregon s 13 - inch shells. Probably O Reilly, JOHN BOYLE, author ; born in
the presence of the Oregon prevented Dowth Castle, Ireland, June 28, 1844; be-
the escape of the Colon and, perhaps, the came a Fenian, and was sentenced to death
Vi-.caya. After the conclusion of peace for high treason, but sentence was com-
the Oregon was ordered from New York muted to transportation. He escaped from
to Manila. Australia in 1869. was picked up on the

Oregon Boundary. See OREGON. high seas by an American ship and taken

O Reilly, HENRY, journalist; born in to America. He was editor and proprie-
Carrickmacross, Ireland, Feb. 6, 1806. tor of the Boston Pilot. He died in Bos-
His father emigrated to America in 1816, ton, Mass., Aug. 10, 1890.
and soon afterwards this son was appren- Original Package. Dealers in spirit-
ticed to the publisher of the New York uous liquors claimed the right of import-
Columbian (newspaper) to learn the art ing such articles in original packages into
of printing. The Columbian w r as a stanch States which had prohibitory laws. The
advocate of the Erie Canal, and a political United States Supreme Court in 1890 held
supporter of De Witt Clinton as its able that they had such power, as Congress
champion. The mind of the apprentice alone could control inter - State traffic,
was thus early impressed with the impor- Congress then passed an act giving the
tance of measures for the development of States control, even though such merchan-
the vast resources of the United States, dise was imported in the original package.
At the age of seventeen years he became Oriskany, BATTLE OF. Brant, the Mo-
assistant editor of the New York Patriot, hawk chief, came from Canada in the
the organ of the People s party, which spring of 1777, and in June was at the
elected De Witt Clinton governor of New head of a band of Indian marauders on
York in 1824. When, in 1826, Luther the upper waters of the Susquehanna.
Tucker & Co. established the Rochester Brig.-Gen. Nicholas Herkimer was at the
Daily Advertiser, O Reilly was chosen its head of the militia of Tryon county, N. Y.,
editor, but after four years he retired. He and was instructed by General Schuyler
resumed editorial work there in 1831. In to watch and check the movements of the
1834 he wrote the first memorial presented Mohawk chief, whose presence had put an
to the legislature and the canal board, end to the neutrality of his tribe and of
in favor of rebuilding the failing struct- other portions of the Six Nations. Hear-
ures of the Erie Canal. He then proposed ing of the siege of Fort Schuyler by
a plan for the enlargement of the canal, Colonel St. Leger (Aug. 3), Herkimer
and was chairman of the committee ap- gathered a goodly number of Tryon county
pointed by the first Canal Enlargement militia, and marched to the relief of the
Association in 1837. In 1838 he was ap- garrison. He and his little army were
pointed postmaster of Rochester, and after- marching in fancied security on the morn-
wards engaged in journalism. ing of Aug. 6 at Oriskany, a few miles
He was the originator of the State Con- west of the present city of Utica, when

ORLEANS O RORKE

GENERAL IlKRKlMEIt S KKSIDESCK.

Tories and Indians from St. Leger s camp, Orleans, FRANCOIS FERDINAND Louis
lying in ambush, fell upon the patriots at MARIE, PRINCE DE JOINVILLE, son of Louis
all points with great fury. Herkimer s Philippe, King of the French; born in
rear-guard broke and fled; the remainder Neuilly, Aug. 14,1818; came to the United
bravely sustained a severe conflict for States in 1861, and with his two nephews,

the Count of Paris and the Duke of
Chartres, served on the staff of General
McClellan for a year, when they returned
to France. His son, the Duke of Pen-
thievre, was at the same time a cadet
in the Naval Academy at Annapolis. He
wrote La Guerre d Amerique; Campagne
du Potomac; etc. He died in Paris,
France, June 17, 1900.

Orleans, Louis PHILIPPE, COUNT OF
PARIS; born in Paris, Aug. 24, 1838;
served on General McClellan s staff (1861-
62) ; wrote a History of the Civil War in
America, which has been translated into
English and published in the United
States (4 volumes). He died in London,
England, Sept. 8, 1894.

Orleans, TERRITORY OF. Louisiana, by
act of Congress, was divided into two ter
ritories, the southern one being called Or
leans Territory. The line between them
was drawn along the thirty-third parallel
of north latitude. This territory then pos-
more than an hour. General Herkimer sessed a population of 50,000 souls, of
had a horse shot dead under him, and the whom more than half were negro slaves,
bullet that killed the animal shattered his Eefugee planters from Santo Domingo had
own leg below the knee. Sitting on his introduced the sugar-cane into that
saddle at the foot of a beech-tree, he con- region, and the cultivation of cotton was
tinued to give orders. A thunder-shower beginning to be successful. So large were
caused a lull in the fight, and then it was the products of these industries that the
renewed with greater vigor, when the Ind- planters enjoyed immense incomes. The
ians, hearing the sound of firing in the di- white inhabitants were principally French
rection of Fort Schuyler, fled to the deep Creoles, descendants of the original French
woods in alarm, and were soon followed colonists.

by the Tories and Canadians. The pa- Orne, AZOR, military officer; born in
triots remained masters of the field, and Marblehead, Mass., July 22, 1731; was a
their brave commander was removed to successful merchant and an active patriot,
his home, where he died from loss of a member of the Massachusetts Provincial
blood, owing to unskilful surgery. See Congress, and long one of the committee
HERKIMER, NICHOLAS. of safety. In organizing the militia, and

Orleans, DUKE OF, son of " Philippe in collecting arms and ammunition, he was
Egalite," was in the French Eevolution- very active. In January, 1776, he was
ary army, but becoming involved with Du- appointed one of the three Massachusetts
mouriez in 1793; fled from France to major-generals, but did not take the field.
Switzerland; and in 1796 came to America, For many years he was a member of the
where he travelled extensively, visiting State Senate and council of Massachusetts,
Washington at Mount Vernon in 1797. and was a zealous advocate of education.
He was elected King of the French in He died in Boston, June 6, 1796.
1830, and reigned until his abdication in O Rorke, PATRICK HENRY, military offi-
1848. He died in Claremont, England, cer; born in County Cavan, Ireland,
Aug. 26, 1850. March 25, 1837; came to the United States

ORE, OSAGE INDIANS

in 1842; graduated at West Point in
1801; served on the staff of Gen. Daniel
Tyler, and afterwards on that of Gen.
Thomas W. Sherman. In 1862 he was ap
pointed colonel of the 140th New York
Volunteers, and in the Chancellorsville
campaign temporarily commanded a bri
gade. At the battle of Gettysburg, July
2, 1863, he charged at the head of his men
at Little Round Top, and was killed as he
reached the top of the hill.

Orr, ALEXANDER ECTOK, merchant; born
in Strabane, Ireland, March 2, 1831 ; came
to the United States in 1851; has been
president of the New York Produce Ex
change and of the New York Chamber of
Commerce several times ; president of the
New York Rapid Transit Commission.

Orr, JAMES LAWRENCE, statesman; born
in Craytonville, S. C., May 12, 1822;
graduated at the University of Virginia
in 1842; became a lawyer at Anderson,
S. C. ; and edited a newspaper there in
1843. After serving in the State legislat
ure, he became a member of Congress in
1849, and remained such by re-election
until 1850. He was speaker of the Thirty-
fifth Congress. In the South Carolina con
vention of Dec. 20, 1860, he voted for seces
sion, and was appointed one of three com
missioners to treat with the national gov
ernment for the surrender of the United
States forts in Charleston Harbor to the
Confederates. He was a Confederate Sen
ator from 1862 to 1865, and provisional
governor of South Carolina from 1866 to
1868, under the appointment of the Presi
dent. He afterwards acted with the Re
publican party, and in 1870 was made
judge of the L T nited States circuit court.
In 1873 he was appointed United States
minister to Russia, and died soon after
his arrival there, May 5.

Orr, JOHN WILLIAM, artist; born in
Ireland, March 31, 1815; came to the
United States with his parents while a
child; studied wood-engraving and ma
terially advanced the art. He died in
Jersey City, N. J., March 4, 1887.

Orth, GODLOVE STOXER, statesman ; born
in Lebanon, Pa, April 22, 1817; ad
mitted to the bar in 1839, practising in
Indiana. He was elected State Senator in
1842; member of Congress in 1863, serving
till 1871; re-elected to Congress in 1873.
He favored the annexation of Santo Do-

mingo in 1868; and was the author of the
"Orth" bill which regulated the United
States diplomatic and consular system. In
1875 he was appointed minister to Austria.
He died in Lafayette, Ind., Dec. 16, 1882.

Ortiz, JUAN. Soon after De Soto enter
ed Florida he was met by a Spaniard who
was a captive among the Indians. He
had been captured when on the expedition
with Narvaez, and preparations had been
made to sacrifice him. He was bound hand
and foot and laid upon a scaffold, under
which a fire was kindled to roast him
alive. The flames were about reaching
his flesh when a daughter of Ucita, the
chief, besought her father to spare his life,
saying, " If he can do no good, he can do
no harm." Though greatly incensed by
the conduct of the Spaniards, Ucita grant
ed the petition of his daughter, and Ortiz
was lifted from the scaffold, and thence
forth was the slave of the chief. Three
years later Ucita was defeated in battle ;
and, believing that the sparing of Ortiz
had brought the misfortune upon him, re
solved to sacrifice the young Spaniard.
The daughter of Ucita again saved his life.
She led him at night beyond the bounds
of her father s village, and directed him
to the camp of the chief who had defeated
L cita, knowing that he would protect the
Christian. When, years afterwards, he
was with some hostile Indians fighting De
Soto, and a horseman was about to slay
him, he cried out, " Don t kill me, I am a
Christian." The astonishel Castilians
stayed their firing, and Ortiz became of
great use to De Soto as an interpreter.

Orton, EDWARD, geologist; born in De
posit, N. Y., March 9, 1829; graduated at
Hamilton College in 1848; became State
geologist of Ohio in 1869; president of the
Ohio State University, 1873-81. He was
the author of Geology of Ohio; Petroleum,
in United States Geological Reports; etc.
He died in Columbus, O., Oct. 16, 1899.

Osage Indians. In 1825 a treaty was
made at St. Louis by Gen. William Clark
with the Great and Little Osage Indians
for all their lands in Arkansas and else
where. These lands were ceded to the
United States in consideration of an an
nual payment of $7,000 for twenty years,
and an immediate contribution of 600
head of cattle, 600 hogs, 1,000 fowls, 10
yoke of oxen, 6 carts, with farming uten-

OSBORN OSCEOLA

CHIEF OSCEOLA.

sils, and other provisions similar to those Moultrie,
in the treaty with the Kansas Indians, grief and
It was also agreed to provide a fund for
the support of schools for the benefit of
the Osage children. Provision was made
for a missionary establishment; also for
the United States to assume the payment
of certain debts due from Osage chiefs to
those of other tribes, and to deliver to the
Osage villages, as soon as possible, $4,000
in merchandise and $2,000 in horses and
their equipments. In 1899 the Osage Ind
ians numbered 1,761, and were located in
Oklahoma.

Osborn, HERBERT, scientist; born in
Lafayette, Wis., March 19, 1856; grad
uated at Iowa State College in 1879; State

entomologist of Iowa
in 1898; connected
with the United States
Department of Agri
culture, 1885-94; mem
ber of many scientific
societies.

Osceola ( Black
Drink), Seminole Ind
ian chief; born on the
Chattahoochee River,
Ga,, in 1804; was a
half - breed, a son of
Willis Powell, an Eng
lishman and trader,
by a Creek Indian
woman. In 1808 his
mother settled in Flor
ida, and when he grew
up he became by emi
nent ability the govern
ing spirit of the Semi-
noles. In all their
sports he was foremost,
and was always inde
pendent and self - pos
sessed. From the be
ginning Osceola op
posed the removal of
the Seminoles from
Florida, and he led
them in a war which
began in 1835 and con
tinued about seven
years. Treacherously
seized while under the
protection of a flag of
truce, Oct. 22, 1837,
he was sent to Fort
where he was prostrated by
wasted by a fever, and finally

OSCKOLA S GRAVB.

OSGOOD OSTEOPATHY

died, Jan. 30, 1838. A monument was Ostend Manifesto. In July, 1853,
erected to his memory near the main en- William L. Marcy, the Secretary of State,
trance-gate of Fort Moultrie. His loss wrote to Pierre Soule, American minis-
Mas a severe blow to the Seminoles, who tor at Madrid, directing him to urge
continued the war feebly four or five upon the Spanish government the sale or
years longer. cession of Cuba to the United Sta t cs.

Osgood, HELEN LOUISE GIBSOX, philan- Nothing more was done until after the
thropist; born in Boston about 1835. Left affair of the Black Warrior in the winter
an orphan, she was well educated by her of 1854. In April, 1854, Mr. Soule was
guardian, Francis B. Fay, of Chelsea, and instructed and clothed with full power to
was endowed with talents for music and negotiate for the purchase of the island,
conversation. She was among the first to In August the Secretary suggested to
oiganize soldiers aid societies when the Minister Buchanan in London, Minister
Civil War began, and provided work for Mason at Paris, and Minister Soule at
the wives and daughters of soldiers who Madrid the propriety of holding a con-
reeded employment. Early in 1802 she ference for the purpose of adopting meas-
went to the army as a nurse, "where her ures for a concert of action in aid of nego-
gentleness of manner and executive ability tiations with Spain. They accordingly
made her eminently successful. She ad- met at Ostend, a seaport town in Belgium,
ministered relief and consolation to thou- Oct. 9, 1854. After a session of three
sands of the wounded, and organized and days they adjourned to Aix-la-Chapelle,
conducted for many months a hospital for in Rhenish Prussia, and thence they ad-
1.000 patients of the sick and wounded of dressed a letter, Oct. 18, to the United
the colored soldiers of the Army of the States government embodying their views.
Potomac. In 1866 she was married to Mr. In it they suggested that an earnest effort
Osgood, a fellow-laborer among the sol- io purchase Cuba ought to be immediately
diers, but her constitution had been over- made at a price not to exceed $120,000.-
tasked, and she died a martyr to the great COO, and that the proposal should be laid
cause, in Newton Centre, Mass., April 20, before the Spanish Cortes about to as-
1868. somble. They set forth the great advan-

Osgood, SAMUEL, statesman; born in lage that such a transfer of political

Andover, Mass., Feb. 14, 1748; gradu- jurisdiction would be to all parties con-

ated at Harvard University in 1770; cerned; that the oppression of the Spanish

studied theology, and became a merchant, authorities in Cuba would inevitably lead

An active patriot, he was a member of to insurrection and civil war; and, in

the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts conclusion, recommended that, in the event

and of various committees; was a captain cf the absolute refusal of Spain to sell

at Cambridge in 1775, and aide to General the island, it would be proper to take it

Artemas Ward, and became a member of away from its " oppressors " by force,

the Massachusetts board of war. He left In that event, the ministers said, " we

the army in 1776 with the rank of colonel, should be justified by every law, human

and served in his provincial and State and divine, in wresting it from Spain, if

legislature. He was a member of Con- we possess the power." President Pierce

gress from 1780 to 1784; first commis- did not think it prudent to act upon the

sioner of the United States treasury from advice of these ministers, and Mr. Soule.

178.3 to 1789, and United States Post- dissatisfied with his prudence, resigned his

master-General from 1789 to 1791. He office. See SOULE, PIERRE.

afterwards served in the New York legis- Osteopathy, a method by which dis-

lature, and was speaker of the Assembly eases of the human body are treated with-

from 1801 to 1803. From 1803 until his out medicines. In 1874 Dr. A. T. Still, of

death, in New York City, Aug. 12, 1813, Baldwin, Kan., discovered what he dt-

he was naval officer of the port of New clared a more natural system of healing

York. Mr. Osgood was well versed in than that universally accepted. He held

science, and literature. that inasmuch as the human body was so

Ossawatomie Brown. See BROWN, perfectly constructed it ought without any

JOHN. external aid excepting food to protect itself

OSTERHAUS OSWEGATCHIE INDIAN MISSION

against disease, and further reasoned that in 18G4 he was in the Atlanta campaign.
" a natural flow of blood is health, and In command of the 15th Corps, he was
disease is the effect of local or general with Sherman in his march through
disturbance of blood." After various ex- Georgia and South Carolina. In July,
periments he became convinced that the 1864, he was made major-general, and in
different organs of the body depend for 1865 he was General Canby s chief of staff,
their health on nerve centres which are After the war he was appointed consul at
principally located along the spine. These Lyons, France; then made his home in
he declared could be controlled and stimu- Mannheim, Germany; revisited the United
lated by certain finger manipulations, States in 1904.

which would not only cause the blood to Oswald, ELEAZAR, military officer;
circulate freely, but would produce an born in England about 1755; came to
equal distribution of the nerve forces. By America in 1770 or 1771; served under
this treatment the diseased part would Arnold in the expedition against Ticon-
be readjusted and would have "perfect deroga and became his secretary; and at
freedom of motion of all the fluids, forces, the siege of Quebec he commanded with
and substances pertaining to life, thus re- great skill the forlorn hope after Arnold
establishing a condition known as health. was wounded. In 1777 he was made lieu-
Since the promulgation of this theory a tenant-colonel of Lamb s artillery regi-
number of institutions for the training of ment, and for his bravery at the battle of
practitioners have been founded in various Monmouth General Knox highly praised
sections of the country, principally in the him. Soon after that battle he left the
West, where several States have placed service and engaged in the printing and
osteopathy on the same legal basis as other publishing business in Philadelphia, where
schools of medicine. he was made public printer. Oswald chal-

Osterhaus, PETER JOSEPH, military offi- lenged General Hamilton to fight a duel in
cer; born in Coblentz, Germany, about 1789, but the quarrel was adjusted. In
1820; served as an officer in the Prussian business in England in 1792, he went to
army; removed to St. Louis, Mo., where France, joined the French army, and coin-
he entered the National service in 1861 as manded a regiment of artillery. He died
major of volunteers. He served under in New York, Sept. 30, 1795.
Lyon and Fremont in Missouri, command- Oswegatchie Indian Mission. To in-
ing a brigade under the latter. He com- sure the friendship of the Six Nations,

G alissoniere,
governor of
Canada, in 1754
established an
Indian mission
on the southern
bank of the
St. Lawrence.
For this work
the Abbe Fran
cis Piquet was
chosen, and he
selected the
mouth of the
Oswegatch i e
for the station,
of Ogdensburg, where he
in so many Iroquois

FORT OSWKGATCIIIK IN 1812.

manded a division in the battle of Pea on the site
Ridge, and greatly distinguished himself, hoped to draw

In June, 1862, he was made brigadier-gen- converts as would bind all their kin-
eral, and, commanding a division, he help- dred to the French alliance. By order
ed to capture Arkansas late in January, of General Brown a redoubt was be-
1863. He was in the campaign against gun in 1812 at the site of old Fort Pres-
Vicksburg and in northern Georgia, and entation, which was not finished when

OSWEGO

Ogdensburg was attacked the second time their weakness through sickness and lack

by the British in 1813. See OGDENSBURG. of provisions (of which he was informed

" Oswego, a city and county seat of by spies), collected about 5,000 French-

Oswego co., N. Y. ; now noted for its man- men, Canadians, and Indians at Frontenac

ufactures and for its large shipments of
grain and lumber; population in 1900,

(now Kingston), at the foot of Lake On
tario, crossed that lake, and appeared be-

ATTACK ON FORT ONTARIO, OSWEGO, MAY 5, 1814.

22,199. The following are among its
points of historical interest: Governor
Burnet, of New York, wisely concluding

fore Oswego in force on Aug. 11. He at
tacked Fort Ontario, on the east side of
the river, commanded by Colonel Mercer,

that it would be important for the Eng- who, with his garrison, after a short but
lish to get and maintain control of Lake brave resistance, withdrew to an older fort
Ontario, as well for the benefits of trade on the west side of the stream. The English
and the security of the friendship of the were soon compelled to surrender the fort.
Six Nations as to frustrate, the designs of Their commander was killed, and on the
the French to confine the English colonies 14th Montcalm received, as spoils of vie-
to narrow limits, began to erect a trading- tory, 1,400 prisoners, a large quantity of
house at Oswego in 1722. This pleased the ammunition and provisions and other
Indians, for they saw in the movement a stores, 134 pieces of artillery, and several

promise of protection from incursions of
the French. Soon afterwards, at a con
vention of governors and commissioners
held at Albany, the Six Nations renounced

vessels lying in the harbor. The Six Na
tions had never been well satisfied with
the building of these forts by the English
in the heart of their territory. To please

their covenant of friendship with the Eng- them, Montcalm demolished the forts, and

by this act induced the Six Nations to
take a position of neutrality. The capture
of this fort caused the English com-
mander-in-chief to abandon all the expedi-

lish.

In 1756 Dieskau was succeeded by the
Marquis de Montcalm, who, perceiving
the delay of the English at Albany and

OSWEGO OTIS

tions he had planned for the campaign of the 7th the invaders withdrew, after hav-
!756. ing embarked the guns and a few stores

During the winter and spring of 1813- found in Oswego, dismantled the fort, and
14 the Americans and British prepared burned the barracks. They also raised
to make a struggle for the mastery of and carried away the Growler; also sev-
Lake Ontario. When the ice in Kingston eral citizens who had been promised pro-
Harbor permitted vessels to leave it, Sir tection and exemption from molestation.
James L. Yeo, commander of the British In this affair the Americans lost, in killed,
squadron in thoge waters, went out upon w r ounded, and missing, sixty-nine men ;
the lake with his force of about 3,000 the British lost nineteen killed and
land troops and marines. On May 5, 1814, seventy-five wounded. See ONTARIO, LAKE,
he appeared off Oswego Harbor, which was OPERATIONS ON.

defended by Fort Ontario, on a bluff on Otis, ELWELL STEPHEN, military officer;
the east side of the river, with a garrison born in Frederick City, Md., March 25,
of about 300 men under Lieut.-Col. George 1838; removed with his parents to Roches-
E. Mitchell. Chauncey, not feeling strong ter, N. Y., early in life; graduated at the
enough to oppose Yeo, prudently remained University of Rochester in 1858, and at
with his squadron at Sackett s Harbor, the Harvard Law School in 1861. In the
The active cruising force of Sir James con- summer of 1862 he recruited in Rochester,
sisted of eight vessels, carrying an aggre- N. Y., a company of the 140th New York
gate of 222 pieces of ordnance. To op
pose these at Oswego was the schooner
Growler, Captain Woolsey. She was in
the river for the purpose of conveying
guns and naval stores to Sackett s Harbor.
To prevent her falling into the hands of
the British, she was sunk, and a part of
her crew, under Lieutenant Pearce, joined
the garrison at the fort. The latter
then mounted only six old guns, three of
which were almost useless, because they
had lost their trunnions. Mitchell s force
was too small to defend both the fort and
the village, on the west side of the river,
so he pitched all his tents near the town
and gathered his whole force into the fort.
Deceived by the appearance of military
strength at the village, the British pro
ceeded to attack the fort, leaving the
defenceless town unmolested. The land
troops, in fifteen large boats, covered by
the guns of the vessels, moved to the shore
near the fort early in the afternoon. They
were repulsed by a heavy cannon placed

near the shore. The next day (May 6) Infantry, with which he served throughout
the fleet again appeared, and the larger the Civil War, and was promoted lieu-
vessels of the squadron opened fire on the tenant-colonel, Oct. 24, 1863. When the
fort. The troops landed in the afternoon, regular army was reorganized he was com-
and, after a sharp fight in the open field, missioned lieutenant-colonel of the 22d In-
the garrison retired, nnd the British took fantry, July 28, 1866; served against the
possession of the fort. The main object Indians in 1867-81; established the school
of the British was the seizure of naval of cavalry and infantry at Fort Leaven-
stores at the falls of the Oswego River worth, Kan., in 1881; and commanded it
(now Fulton), and Mitchell, after leaving till 1885. He was promoted brigadier-
the fort, took position up the river for general U. S. A., Nov. 28, 1893; appoint-
their defence. Early on the morning of ed a major-general of volunteers, May 4

ELWELL STEPHEN OTIS.

OTIS

1898 ; succeeded Gen. Wesley Hewitt as
military governor of the Philippine Isl
ands in August following; returned to
the United States and was promoted
major-general, June 16, 1900; retired
March 25, 1902. He is the author of
The Indian Question.

Otis, GEORGE ALEXANDER, surgeon; born
in Boston, Mass., Nov. 12, 1830; graduated

WRITS OF ASSISTANCE (q. v.) called forth
popular discussion in 1761. He denounced
the writs in unmeasured terms. At a
town-meeting in Boston in 1761, when
this government measure was discussed by
Mr. Gridley, the calm advocate of the
crown, and the equally calm law T yer Oxen-
bridge Thacher, the fiery Otis addressed
the multitude with words that thrilled ev-

at Princeton in 1849; appointed army suv- ery heart in the audience and stirred every
geon in 1861 ; assigned to duty in the
surgeon - general s office, Washington, in
1866. Dr. Otis was the author of Report
on Surgical Cases treated in the Army of
the United States from 1867-7 J ; Plans for
the Transport of the Sick and Wounded,
etc. ; and was the compiler of the surgical
portion of the Medical and Surgical His
tory of the War of the Rebellion. He died
in Washington. D. C.. Feb. 23, 1881.

Otis, HARRISON GRAY, statesman; born
in Boston, Mass., Oct. 8, 1765; graduated
at Harvard University in 1783, and was
admitted to the bar in 1786, where his fine
oratory and varied acquirements soon gain
ed him much fame. In Shays s insurrec
tion (see SHAYS, DANIEL) he was aide to
Governor Brooks; served in the Massachu
setts legislature; was member of Congress
from 1797 to 1801; United States district
attorney in 1801 ; speaker of the Assembly
from 1803 to 1805; president of the Sta.te
Senate from 1805 to 1811; judge of com
mon pleas from 1814 to 1818; and mayor
of Boston from 1829 to 1832. In 1814 he
was a prominent member of the Hartford
Convention, and wrote a series of letters
upon it. In 1804 he pronounced an elo
quent eulogy of General Hamilton. Many
of his occasional addresses have been pub
lished. His father was Samuel Alleyn
Otis, brother of James. He died in Bos
ton, Oct. 28, 1848.

Otis, JAMES, statesman ; born in West
Barnstable, Mass., Feb. 5, 1725; graduated
at Harvard University in 1743, and stud
ied law with Jeremiah Gridley. He began
the practice of his profession at Plymouth,
but settled in Boston in 1750, where he
soon obtained a high rank as a lawyer and
an advocate at the bar. Fond of literary
pursuits, and a thorough classical scholar,
he wrote and published Rudiments of Latin
Prosody in 1760, which became a text-book
at Harvard. He entered piiblic life as a

JAMES OTIS.

patriotic feeling of his hearers into earnest
action. Referring to the arbitrary power
of the writ, he said, " A man s house is
his castle; and while he is quiet, he is as
well guarded as a prince in his castle.
This writ, if it should be declared legal,
would totally annihilate this privilege.
Custom-house officers may enter our houses
when they please; we are commanded to
permit their entry. Their menial servants
may enter may break locks, bars, every
thing in their way; and whether they
break through malice or revenge, no man,
no court can inquire. ... I am deter
mined to sacrifice estate, ease, health, ap
plause, and even life, to the sacred calls
of my country, in opposition to a kind of
power the exercise of which cost one king
his head and another his throne." The
same year he \vas chosen a representative

zealous patriot and gifted orator when the in the Massachusetts Assembly, and there-

OTIS, JAMES

in became a leader of the popular party, fore them concerning writs of assistance.
In 1764 he published a pamphlet enti- I have accordingly considered it; and now
tied The Rights of the Colonies Vindi- appear, not only in obedience to your order,
cated, which attracted great attention in but likewise in behalf of the inhabitants
England for its finished diction and mas- of this town, who have presented another
terly arguments. Otis proposed, June 6, petition, and out of regard to the liberties
1765, the calling of a congress of delegates of the subject. And I take this oppor-
to consider the Stamp Act. He was chosen tunity to declare that, whether under a fee
a delegate, and was one of the committee or not (for in such a cause as this I de-
to prepare an address to the Commons of spise a fee), I will to my dying day op-
England (see STAMP ACT CONGRESS), pose, with all the powers and faculties God
Governor Bernard feared the fiery orator, has given me, all such instruments of
and when Otis was elected speaker of the slavery on the one hand and villany on the
Assembly the governor negatived it. But other as this writ of assistance is.
he could not silence Otis. When the min- It appears to me the worst instrument
istry required the legislature to rescind of arbitrary power, the most destructive of
its circular letter to the colonies, re- English liberty and the fundamental prin-
questing them to unite in measures for re- ciples of law, that ever was found in an
dress (see MASSACHUSETTS), Otis made a English law-book. I must, therefore, beg
speech which his adversaries said was " the your honors patience and attention to
most violent, abusive, and treasonable dec- the whole range of an argument that
la ration that perhaps was ever uttered." may, perhaps, appear uncommon in many
He carried the House with him, and it things, as well as to points of learning
refused to rescind by a vote of 92 to that are more remote and unusual ; that
17. In the summer of 1769 he publish- the whole tendency of my design may the
ed an article in the Boston Gazette more easily be perceived, the conclusions
which greatly exasperated the custom- better descend, and the force of them be
house officers. He was attacked by one better felt. I shall not think much of my
of them ( Sept. 9 ) , who struck him on pains in this cause, as I engaged in it from
the head with a cane, producing a severe principle. I was solicited to argue this
wound and causing a derangement of the cause as advocate-general ; and, because I
brain, manifested at times ever after- would not, I have been charged with deser-
wards. Otis obtained a verdict against tion from my office. To this charge I
the inflicter of the wound (Robinson) can give a very sufficient answer. I re-
for $5,000, which he gave up on receiving nounced that office, and I argue this cause
a written apology. In 1777 Otis withdrew from the same principles; and I argue it
to the country on account of ill-health. He with the greater pleasure, as it is in favor
was called into public life again, but was of British liberty, at a time when we hear
unable to perform the duties; and finally, the greatest monarch \ipon earth declaring
when the war for independence (which his from his throne that he glories in the
trumpet-voice had heralded) had closed, he name of Briton, and that the privileges of
attempted to resume the practice of his his people are dearer to him than the most
profession. But his death was nigh. He valuable prerogatives of his crown; and
had often expressed a wish that his death as it is in opposition to a kind of power
might be by a stroke of lightning. Stand- the exercise of which in former periods of
ing at his door at Andover during a thun- history cost one king of England his head,
der-shower, he was instantly killed by a and another his throne. I have taken
lightning-stroke on May 23, 1783. more pains in this cause than I ever will

Writs of Assistance. The following is take again; although my engaging in this
the substance of an address by Mr. Otis and another popular cause has raised
before the Supreme Court of Massachu- much resentment. But I think I can sin-
setts in February, 1761 : cerely declare that I cheerfully submit my
self to every odious name for conscience

May it please your honors, I was de- sake ; and from my soul I despise all those

sired by one of the court to look into the whose guilt, malice, or folly, has made

books and consider the question now be- them my foes. Let the consequences be

OTIS, JAMES

what they will, I am determined to pro- with this writ, in the daytime, may enter
ceed. The only principles of public con- all the houses, shops, etc., at will, and
duct that are worthy of a gentleman or a command all to assist him. Fourthly,
man are to sacrifice estate, ease, health, by this writ, not only deputies, etc., but
and applause and even life to the sacred even their menial servants, are allowed
calls of his country. to lord it over us. What is this but to

These manly sentiments, in private life, have the curse of Canaan with a wit-
make the good citizen; in public life, ness on us; to be the servant of servants,
the patriot and the hero. I do not say the most despicable of God s creation?
that, when brought to the test, I shall Now one of the most essential branches
be invincible. I pray God I may never of English liberty is the freedom of one s
be brought to the melancholy trial; but house. A man s house is his castle; and,
if ever I should, it will be then known while he is quiet, he is as well guarded
how far I can reduce to practice princi- as a prince in his castle. This writ,
pies which I know to be founded in truth, if it should be declared legal, would
In the mean time, I will proceed to the totally annihilate this privilege. Custom-
subject of this writ. house officers may enter our houses when

Your honors will find in the old books, they please; and we are commanded to
concerning the office of a justice of the permit their entry. Their menial ser-
peace, precedents of general warrants to vants may enter, may break locks, bars,
search suspected houses. But in more and everything in their way; and whether
modern books you will find only special they break through malice or revenge,
warrants to search such and such houses, no man, no court can inquire. Bare sus-
specially named, in which the complain- picion without oath is sufficient. This
ant has before sworn that he suspects wanton exercise of this power is not a
his goods are concealed ; and will find chimerical suggestion of a heated brain.
it adjudged that special warrants only I will mention some facts. Mr. Pew had
are legal. In the same manner, I rely one of these writs, and when Mr. Ware
on it that the writ prayed for in this succeeded him, he endorsed this writ over
petition, being general, is illegal. It is to Mr. Ware; so that these writs are ne-
a power that places the liberty of every gotiable from one officer to another; and
man in the hands of every petty officer, so your honors have no opportunity of
I say I admit that special writs of as- judging the persons to whom this vast
sistance, to search special places, may be power is delegated. Another instance
granted to certain persons on oath ; but is this : Mr. Justice Walley had called
I deny that the writ now prayed for can this same Mr. Ware before him, by a
be granted, for I beg leave to make some constable, to answer for a breach of the
observations on the writ itself, before I Sabbath-day acts, or that of profane swear-
proceed to other acts of Parliament. In ing. As soon as he had finished, Mr. Ware
the first place, the writ is universal, being asked him if he had done. He replied,
directed " to all and singular justices, " Yes." " Well, then," said Mr. Ware,
sheriffs, constables, and all other officers " I will show you a little of my power,
and subjects"; so that, in short, it is I command you to permit me to search
directed to every subject in the King s your house for uncustomed goods"; and
dominions. Every one with this writ went on to search the house from the
may be a tyrant; if this commission be garret to the cellar; and then served
legal, a tyrant in a legal manner; also, the constable in the same manner! But
may control, imprison, or murder any one to show another absurdity in this writ:
within the realm. In the next place, it if it should be established, I insist upon
is perpetual; there is no return. A man it every person, by the 14th Charles II.,
is accountable to no person for his doings, has this power as well as the custom-
Every man may reign secure in his petty house officers. The words are: "It shall
tyranny, and spread terror and desolation be lawful for any person or persons au-
around him, until the trump of the arch- thorized," etc. What a scene does this
angel shall excite different emotions in open ! Every man prompted by revenge,
his soul. In the third place, a person ill - humor, or wantonness to inspect the
vn. D 49

OTTAWA INDIANS OUVBJER

inside of his neighbor s house may get Vienna ; took part in the Austrian Revolu-

a writ of assistance. Others will ask it tion of 1848; the Schleswig-Holstein war

from self-defence; one arbitrary exertion against Denmark; and in the revolutions

will provoke another, until society be in- in Baden and Saxony; came to the United

volved in tumult and in blood. States in 1850; was proprietor of the

Ottawa Indians, a tribe of the Algon- Klaats-Zeitung, New York; and gave large
quian family, seated on the northern part sums of money to educational and chari-
of the Michigan peninsula when discov- table institutions. He was an active
ered by the French. When the Iroquois Democrat, but opposed to Tammany Hall,
overthrew the Hurons in 1649 the fright- He died in New York City, Dec. 15, 1900.
ened Ottawas fled to the islands in Green Otterbein, PHILIP WILLIAM, clergy-
Bay, and soon afterwards joined the Sioux man; born in Germany, June 4, 1726;
beyond the Mississippi. They were speed- ordained in 1749; removed to America in
ily expelled, when they recrossed the great 1752, where he ministered to the Germans
river; and after the French settled at De- in Pennsylvania, among whom he labored
troit a part of the Ottawas became seat- until his death at Baltimore, Md., Nov.
ed near them. Meanwhile the Jesuits 17, 1813.

had established missions among them. Ouatanon, FORT, a defensive work on
Finally the part of the nation that was the Wabash, just below the present city
at Mackinaw passed over to Michigan; of Lafayette, Ind. At 8 P.M. on May 31,
and in the war that resulted in the con- 1703, a war-belt reached the Indian village
quest of Canada the Ottawas joined the near the fort. The next morning the coin-
French. PONTIAC (q. v.), who was at the mandant was lured into an Indian cabin
head of the Detroit family, engaged in and bound with cords. On hearing of this
a great conspiracy in 1763, but was not his garrison surrendered. The French liv-
joined by those in the north of the penin- ing near saved the lives of the men by
sula. At that time the whole tribe num- paying ransom and receiving the English-
bered about 1,500. In the Revolution and men into their houses. See PONTIAC.
subsequent hostilities they were opposed Ouray, Indian chief of the Uncompah-
to the Americans, but finally made a gre Utes; born about 1820; always
treaty of peace at Greenville, in 1795, friendly to civilization, and generally
when one band settled on the Miami River, known as the " White man s friend."
In conjunction with other tribes, they Through his influence the Utes were re
ceded their lands around Lake Michigan strained in 1879 from hostilities. He died
to the United States in 1833 in exchange at Los Pinos agency, Aug. 27, 1880.
for lands in Missouri, where they flourish- Oureouhare, Indian chief of the Cayu-
ed for a time. After suffering much gas; was treacherously captured by the
trouble, this emigrant band obtained a French in 1687 and sent to France, but
reservation in the Indian Territory, to was sent back to Canada in 1789 with
which the remnant of this portion of the Frontenac, for whom he conceived a friend-
family emigrated in 1870. The upper ship. He was employed by the French to
Michigan Ottawas remain in the North, effect an alliance with the Iroquois, but
in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. There was unsuccessful. In the ensuing war he
are some in Canada, mingled with other led the Christian Huron Indians against
Indians. Roman Catholic and Protestant the Iroquois. He died in Quebec in 1697.
missions ha.ve been established among Ouvrier, PIERRE GUSTAVE, historian;
them. Their own simple religion em- born in Calais, France, in 1765; was ap-
braces a belief in a good and evil spirit, pointed chancellor to the French consulate
In 1899 there were 162 Ottawas at the in Philadelphia in 1795; later he descend-
Quapaw agency, Indian Territory, and a ed the Mississippi River to New Orleans,
larger number at the Mackinac agency, and also explored the Missouri and
Michigan, where 6,000 Ottawas and Chip- Arkansas rivers. In 1796-1804 he ex-
pewas were living on the same reservation, plored Missouri, Louisiana, northern

Ottendorfer, OSWALD, journalist; born Texas, both Carolinas, Georgia, Ohio,

in Zwittaii, Moravia, Feb. 26, 1826; Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and

studied in the universities of Prague and southern Illinois. He returned to France

OVANDO OWEN

on the restoration of Louis XVIII. His
publications include The Political and
Civil History of the United States of
North America; and Critical Studies on
the Political Constitution of the United
States of North America and the Con
tradictions which exist between it and the
Civil Laics of the Various States of the
Union. He died in Calais, France, in 1822.

Ovando, NICHOLAS DE, military officer;
born in Valladolid, Spain, in 1460; was
sent by Queen Isabella to supplant Bobadil-
la as governor of Santo Domingo in 1501,
charged by the Queen not to allow the
enslavement of the natives, but to pro
tect them as subjects of Spain, and to
carefully instruct them in the Christian
faith. Ovando sailed for the West Indies,
Feb. 13, 1502, with thirty-two ships, bear
ing 2,500 persons to become settlers in that
country. By command of the Queen, the
Spaniards and natives were to pay tithes;
none but natives of Castile were to live
in the Indies; none to go on discoveries
without royal permission; no Jews, Moors,
nor new converts were to be tolerated
there; and all the property that had
been taken from Columbus and his brother
was to be restored to them. In Ovando s
fleet were ten Franciscan friars, the first
of that order who came to settle in the
Indies. Ovando, like Bobadilla, treated
Columbus with injustice. He was recalled
in 1508, and was succeeded in office by
Diego Columbus, son of the great ad
miral. Ovando died in Madrid, Spain,
in 1518.

Ovenshine, SAMUEL, military officer;
born in Pennsylvania, April 2, 1843;
served through the Civil War, advancing
from second lieutenant to major; appoint
ed brigadier-general United States volun
teers in 1898, and ordered on duty in the
Philippine Islands; promoted brigadier-
general United States army, and retired,
both in October, 189&.

Overland Express. See PONY EXPRESS.

Owen, GRIFFITH, pioneer; born in
Wales, where he was educated as a physi
cian. In 1G84 he induced William Penn
to set apart 40,000 acres in Pennsylvania
for a Welsh settlement, the land to be
sold to Welsh-speaking persons only.
Griffith and his family led the settlers to
this tract of land, which he called Merion.
He died in Philadelphia in 1717.

Owen, ROBERT, social reformer ; born in
Newtown, North Wales, May 14, 1771.
At the age of eighteen he was part pro
prietor of a cotton-mill, and became a
proprietor of cotton-mills at Lanark, Scot
land, where he introduced reforms. In
1812 he published his New Views of So
ciety, etc., and afterwards his Book of
the New Moral World, in which he main
tained a theory of modified communism.
Immensely wealthy, he distributed tracts
inculcating his views very widely, and soon
had a host of followers. In 1823 he came
to the United States and bought 20,000
acres of land the settlement at New Har
mony, Ind. with dwellings for 1,000 per
sons, where he resolved to found a com
munist society. This was all done at his
own expense. It was an utter failure. He
returned in 1827, and tried the same
experiment in Great Britain, and after
wards in Mexico, with the same result.
Yet he continued during his life to ad
vocate his peculiar social notions as the
founder of a system of religion and so
ciety according to reason. During- his
latter years he was a believer in spiritual
ism, and became convinced of the im
mortality of the soul. He was the origi
nator of the " labor leagues," from which
sprang the Chartist movement. He died
in Newtown, North Wales, Nov. 19, 1858.
See NEW HARMONY.

Owen, ROBERT DALE, author ; born in
Glasgow, Scotland, Nov. 9, 1801 ; son of
Robert Owen; educated in Switzerland;
came with his father to the United States
in 1825, settled at New Harmony, Ind.,
and, with Madame d Arusmont (nee
Frances Wright), edited the New Har
mony Gazette, afterwards published in
New York and called the Free Inquirer
(1825-34). He returned to New Har
mony, and was elected, first to the Indi
ana legislature, and then to Congress,
wherein he served from 1843 to 1847, tak
ing a leading part in settling the north
western boundary question. He introduced
the bill (1845) organizing the Smithso
nian Institution, and became one of its
regents. He was a member of the con
vention that amended the constitution of
Indiana in 1850, and secured for the
women of that State rights of property.
In 1853 he was sent to Naples as chart/6
d affaires, and was made minister in 1855.
51

OWSLEY OXNARD

He published, in pamphlet form, a dis
cussion he had with Horace Greeley in
1860 on divorce, and it had a circulation
of 60,000 copies. During the Civil War
he wrote much in favor of emancipating
the slaves, and pleaded for a thorough
union of all the States. Mr. Owen was
a firm believer in spiritualism, and wrote
much on the subject. He died at Lake
George, N. Y., June 25, 1877.

Owsley, WILLIAM, jurist; born in Vir
ginia in 1782; taken to Kentucky by his

father in 1783, where he became a lawyer
and a member of the State legislature. He
served as a judge of the Kentucky Supremo
Court from 1812 to 1828; elected governor
of the State in 1844, serving two terms.
He died in Danville, Ky., December, 1862.
Oxnard, BENJAMIN A., manufacturer;
born in New Orleans, La., Dec. 10, 1855;
graduated at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology in 1875; became the founder
of the beet-root sugar industry in the
United States.

Paca, WILLIAM, a signer of the Declara
tion of Independence; born in Wye Hall,
Harford co., Md., Oct. 31, 1740; studied
law in London; and began its practice in
Annapolis, where he became a warm op
ponent to the obnoxious measures of Par
liament. He was a member of the commit
tee of correspondence in 1774, and was a
delegate in Congress from 1774 to 1779.
He was State Senator from 1777 to 1779;
chief- justice from 1778 to 1780, and gov
ernor from 1782 to 178G. From 1789
until his death he was United States dis
trict judge. From his private wealth he
gave liberally to the support of the patriot
cause. He died in Wye Hall, in 1799.

Pacific Exploring Expedition. The
acquisition of California opened the way
for an immense commercial interest on
the Pacific coast of the United States, and
in the spring of 1853 Congress sent four
armed vessels, under the command of
Captain Ringgold, of the navy, to the
eastern shores of Asia, by way of Cape
Born, to explore the regions of the Pa
cific Ocean, which, it was evident, would
soon be traversed by American steam
ships plying between the ports of the
western frontier of the United States and
Japan and China. The squadron left Nor
folk May 31, with a supply-ship. The ex
pedition returned in the summer of 185G.
It made many very important explora
tions, among them of the whaling and
sealing grounds in the region of the coast
of Kamtchatka and Bering Strait.

Pacific Ocean. See CABEZA DE VACA;
NUNEZ DE; MAGELLAN, FERDIXAXDO.

Pacific Railway. The greatest of
American railroad enterprises undertaken
up to that time was the construction of
a railway over the great plains and lofty
mountain - ranges between the Missouri
River and the Pacific Ocean. As early as
1846 such a work was publicly advocated
by Asa Whitney. In 1849, after the dis

covery of gold in California promised a
rapid accumulation of wealth and popula
tion on the Pacific coast, Senator Thomas
H. Benton introduced a bill into Congress
providing for preliminary steps in such
an undertaking. In 1853 Congress passed
an act providing for surveys of various
routes by the corps of topographical en
gineers. By midsummer, 1853, four ex
peditions for this purpose were organized
to explore as many different routes. One,
under Major Stevens, was instructed to
explore a northern route, from the upper
Mississippi to Puget s Sound, on the Pa
cific coast. A second expedition, under
the direction of Lieutenant Whipple, was
directed to cross the continent from a line
adjacent to the 36th parallel of N. lat.
It was to proceed from the Missis
sippi, through Walker s Pass of the
Rocky Mountains, and strike the Pacific
near San Pedro, Los Angeles, or San
Diego. A third, under Captain Gunnison,
was to proceed through the Rocky Moun
tains near the head-waters of the Rio del
Norte, by way of the Hueferno River and
the Great Salt Lake in Utah. The fourth
was to leave the southern Mississippi,
and reach the Pacific somewhere in Lower
California perhaps San Diego. These
surveys cost about $1,000,000. Nothing
further, however, was done, owing to po
litical dissensions between the North and
the South, until 1862 and 1864, when Con
gress, in the midst of the immense strain
upon the resources of the government in
carrying on the war, passed acts granting
subsidies for the work, in the form of 6
per cent, gold bonds, at the rate of $16,-
000 a mile from the Missouri River to the
eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, $48,-
000 a mile for 300 miles through those
mountains, $32,000 a mile between the
Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada,
and $16,000 a mile from the western slope
of the latter range to the sea. In addi-
53

PACIFIC RAILWAY" PACIFICUS

lion to these subsidies, Congress granted
about 25,000,000 acres of land along the
line of the road. Some modifications were
afterwards made in these grants. Work
was begun on the railway in 1863, by
two companies the " Central Pacific,"
proceeding from California and working
eastward, and the " Union Pacific," work
ing westward. The road was completed
in 1869, when a continuous line of rail
road communication between the Atlantic

tance being about 3,400 miles. Another
railroad with a land-grant from the gov
ernment, and called the " Northern Pacific
Railroad," to extend from Lake Superior
to Puget s Sound, on the Pacific, was be
gun in 1870.

" Pacificus " and " Helvidius." Wash
ington s proclamation of neutrality was
violently assailed by the Democratic press
throughout the country, and the adminis
tration found determined opposition grow-

OXE OF THE FIRST TRAINS ON THE PACIFIC RAILROAD.

and Pacific oceans was perfected. The
entire length of the road, exclusive of its
branches, is about 2,000 miles. It crosses
nine distinct mountain-ranges, the highest
elevation in the route being 8,235 feet, at
the crossing of the Black Hills at Evan s
Pass. The route from New York to San
Francisco, by way of Chicago and Omaha,
is travelled in six or seven days, the dis-

e more and more powerful. The Prssi-
dent received coarse abuse from the op
posing politicians. Under these circum
stances, Hamilton took the field in defence
of the proclamation, in a series of articles
over the signature of " Pacificus." In
these he maintained the President s right,
by its issue, to decide upon the position
in which the nation stood. He also de-

PADUCAH PAINE

fended the policy of the measure. To music in Germany; appointed Professor
these articles a reply appeared, July 8, of Music at Harvard in 1872. He is the
1793, over the signature of " Helvidius," author of the music which was sung at
which was written by Madison, at the the opening of the World s Fair of 1876,
special request of Jefferson. The latter, in and also of the march and hymn for the
a letter urging Madison to answer Hamil- World s Fair of 1893, etc.
ton, felt compelled to say that Genet (see Paine, ROBERT TREAT, a signer of the
GEXEST, EDMOXD CHARLES) was a hot- Declaration of Independence; born in Bos-
headed, passionate man, without judgment, ton, March 11, 1731; graduated at Har-
and likely, by his indecency, to excite pub- vard University in 1749; taught school
lie indignation and give the Secretary of to help support his parents, and also made
State great trouble. Indeed, Jefferson a voyage to Europe. Pie studied theology,
afterwards offered his resignation, but and in 1758 was chaplain of provincial
Washington persuaded him to withdraw it. troops. Then he studied law, and prac-

Paducah. General Forrest, the Con- tised it in Taunton successfully for many

federate cavalry leader captured Jackson, years. He was the prosecuting attorney

Tenn., and, moving northward, appeared in the case of Captain Preston and his

before Paducah, held by Colonel Hicks, men after the Boston massacre. A dele-

with 700 men. His demand for a surrender gate to the Provincial Congress in 1774,

was accompanied with the threat, " If he was sent to the Continental Congress

you surrender you shall be treated as the same year, where he served until 1778.

prisoners of war, but if I have to storm On the organization of the State of Massa-

your works you may expect no quarter." chusetts, he was made attorney-general, he

He made three assaults, and then retired having been one of the committee who

after losing over 300 men, and moved on drafted the constitution of that common-

to Fort Pillow. wealth. Mr. Paine settled in Boston in

Page, THOMAS JEFFERSON, naval officer; 1780, and was judge of the Massachusetts

born in Virginia in 1808. In 1815 he was Supreme Court from 1790 to 1804. He

in command of the Water Witch, which died in Boston, May 11, 1814.
was sent by the United States to explore Paine, ROBERT TREAT, JR., poet, son of

the La Plata River, and in 1858 he was the signer; born in Taunton, Mass., Dec.

authorized to continue his explorations. 9, 1773; graduated at Harvard University

His report, which was published in New in 1792; was originally named Thomas,

York, w T as the first definite source of in- but in view of the character of Thomas

formation of the La Plata River and its Paine, author of Common Sense, he had it

tributaries. During the Civil War he changed by the legislature, he desiring, as

served in the Confederate navy. He died he said, to bear a " Christian " name. He

in Rome, Italy, Oct. 26, 1899. became a journalist and a poet, and was

Page, THOMAS NELSOX, author; born the author of the popular ode entitled

in Hanover county, Va., April 23, 1853; Adams and Liberty. He became a lawyer

graduated at the University of Virginia; in 1802, and retired from the profession

is the author of In Old Virr/iuia : The Old in 1809. His last important poem The

South: Essays, Social and Historical; Steeds of Apollo was written in his

Before the War; Red Rock: A Chronicle father s house in Boston. He died in Bos-

of Reconstruction, etc. ton, Nov. 13, 1811.

Paige, Lucius ROBIXSON, author; born Adams and Liberty. In the spring

in Hardwick, Mass., March 8, 1802; re- and early summer of 1798 a war-spirit of

ceived an academic education : became a great intensity excited the American peo-

Universalist minister in 1823: retired pie. The conduct of France towards the

from pastoral work in 1839. His publica- L^nited States and its ministers had caused

tions include Universalism Defended; His- the American government to make prep-

tory of Cambridge, Mass., 1630-1817 ; His- arations for war upon the French. In

tory of Hardwick, Mass., etc. He died in June Paine w r as engaged to. write a

Cambridge, Mass., Sept. 2, 1890. patriotic song to be sung at the anniver-

Paine, JOHX KNOWLES, musician ; born sary of the Massachusetts Charitable Fire

in Portland, Me., Jan. 9, 1839; studied Society. He composed one which he

PAINE

entitled Adams and Liberty. It was
adapted to the spirit of the time, and had
a wonderful effect upon the people. It
was really a war-song, in nine stanzas.
The following verses expressed the temper
of the people then:

" While France her huge limbs bathes recum
bent in blood.

And Society s base threats with wide dis
solution,
May Peace, like the dove, who returned

from the flood,

Find an ark of abode in our mild Con
stitution.

But though Peace is our aim,
Yet the boon we disclaim,
If bought by our Sov reignty, Justice, or
Fame.

" Tis the fire of the flint each American

warms ;
Let Rome s haughty victors beware of

collision,
Let them bring all the vassals of Europe in

arms
We re a world by ourselves, and disclaim

a division.

While with patriot pride
To our laws we re allied,
No foe can subdue us, no faction divide.

" Our mountains are crowned with imperial

oak,
Whose roots, like our liberties, ages have

nourished ;

But long ere our nation submits to the yoke,
Not a tree shall be left on the field where

it flourished.
Should invasion impend,
Every grove would descend
From the hill-tops they shaded, our shores
to defend.

" Let our patriots destroy Anarch s pestilent

worm,
Lest our Liberty s growth should be

checked by corrosion,
Then let clouds thicken round us, we heed

not the storm,
Our realm fears no shock but the earth s

own explosion.
Foes assail us in vain,
Though their fleets bridge the main,
For our altars and laws with our lives we ll

maintain.
For ne er shall the sons of Columbia be

slaves

While the earth bears a plant or the sea
rolls its waves."

At the home of Major Russell, editor
of the Boston Centinel, the author offered

it to that gentleman. "It is imperfect," wards worked at his trade and preached

said Russell, " without the name of Wash- as a Dissenting minister. He was an ex-

ington in it." Mr. Paine was about to ciseman at Thetford, and wrote (1772) a

take some wine, when Russell politely and pamphlet on the subject. Being accused

good-naturedly interfered, saying, " You of smuggling, he was dismissed from office.

can have none of my port, Mr. Paine, until
you have written another stanza with
Washington s name in it." Paine walked
back and forth a few minutes, called for
a pen, and wrote the fifth verse in the
poem as follows:

" Should the tempest of war overshadow our

land,
Its bolts could ne er rend Freedom s

temple asunder ;

For, unmoved, at its portal, would Wash
ington stand,
And repulse with his breast the assaults

of the thunder !
His sword from the sleep
Of its scabbard would leap,
And conduct with its point ev ry flash to

the deep !
For ne er shall the sons of Columbia be

slaves

While the earth bears a plant or the sea
rolls its waves."

This song became immensely popular,
and was sung all over the country in
theatres and other public places, in draw
ing-rooms and work-shops, and by the
boys in the streets.

Paine, THOMAS, patriot; born in Thet-
ford, England, Jan. 29, 1737. His father
was a Quaker, from whom he learned the
business of stay-making. He went on a
privateering cruise in 1755, and after-

PAINE, THOMAS

Meeting Dr. Franklin, the latter advised Greene. In December, 1776, he published
him to go to America. He arrived in the first number of his Crisis, and con-
Philadelphia in December, 1774, and was tinned it at intervals during the war.
employed as editor of the Pennsylvania In 1777 he was elected secretary to the
Magazine. In that paper he published, committee on foreign affairs. SILAS
October, 1775, Serious Thoughts, in which DEANE (q. v.) , who a-cted as mercantile as
he declared his hope of the abolition of well as diplomatic agent of the Conti-
slavery. At the suggestion of Dr. Benja- nental Congress during the earlier portion
min Eush, of Philadelphia, it is said, he of the war, incurred the enmity of Arthur
put forward a powerfully written pam- Lee and his brothers, and was so misrep-
phlet, at the beginning of 1776, in favor resented by them that Congress recalled
of the independence of the colonies. It him from France. It had been insinuated
opened with the often-quoted words, by Carmichael that Deane had appropri-
" These are the times that try men s ated the public money to his private use.
souls." Its terse, sharp, incisive, and Two violent parties arose, in and out of
vigorous sentences stirred the people with Congress, concerning the doings of the
irrepressible aspirations for independence, agents of Congress abroad. Robert Mor-
A single extract will indicate its char- ris, and others acquainted with financial
acter: "The nearer any government ap- matters, took the side of Deane. The pow-
proaches to a republic, the less business erful party against him was led by Rich-
there is for a king ; in England a king ard Henry Lee, brother of Arthur, and
hath little more to do than to make war chairman of the committee on foreign
and give away places. Arms must decide affairs. Deane published (1779) An At/
the contest [between Great Britain and dress to the People of the United States,
America] ; the appeal was the choice of in which he commented severely on the
the King, and the continent hath escaped conduct of the Lees, and justly claimed
the challenge. The sun never shone on a credit for himself in obtaining supplies
cause of greater worth. Tis not the affair from France through Beaumarchais.
of a city, a county, a province, or a king- Paine, availing himself of documents in
dom, but of a continent of at least one- his custody, published a reply to Deanr s
eighth part of the habitable globe. Tis address, in which he asserted that the sup-
not the concern of a day, a year, or an plies nominally furnished through a mer-
age; posterity are virtually involved in it cantile house came really from the French
even to the end of time. . . . Freedom government. This avowal, which the
hath been hunted round the globe: Asia French aoid Congress both wished to con-
and Africa hath long expelled her; Eu- ceal, drew from the French minister, Ge-
rope regards her like a stranger; and Eng- rard, a warm protest, as it proved duplic-
land hath given her warning to depart, ity on the part of the French Court; and,
Oh, receive the fugitive, and prepare an to appease the minister, Congress, by reso-
asylum for mankind." The effect of Com- lution, expressly denied that any present
nwn Sense was marvellous. Its trumpet of supplies had been received from France
tones awakened the continent, and made previous to the treaty of alliance. Paine
every patriot s heart beat with intense was dismissed from office for his impru-
emotion. It was read with avidity every- dence in revealing the secrets of diplo-
where; and the public appetite for its macy.

solid food was not appeased until 100,000 Late in November, 1779, he was made

copies had fallen from the press. The clerk of the Pennsylvania Assembly; and

legislature of Pennsylvania voted to the in that capacity read a letter to that body

author $2,500. Washington, in a letter from General Washington, intimating that

written at Cambridge, highly applauded a mutiny in the army was imminent be-

it, and all over the colonies there were im- cause of the distresses of the soldiers. The

mediate movements in favor of absolute Assembly was disheartened. Paine wrote

independence. a letter to Blair McClenaghan, a Phila-

For a short time after the Declaration delphia merchant, stating the case, and

of Independence Paine was in the military enclosing $500 as his contribution to a

service, and was aide-de-camp to General relief fund. A .meeting of citizens was

PAINE PAKENHAM

called, when a subscription was circu
lated, and very soon the sum of 300,000
(Pennsylvania- currency) was collected.
With this capital a bank (afterwards the

PAINE S MONUMENT.

Bank of North America) for the relief of
the army was established. With Colonel
Laurens, Paine obtained a loan of 6,000,-
000 livres from France in 1781. In 1786
Congress gave him $3,000 for his services
during the war, and the State of New
York granted him a farm of 300 acres of
land at New Rochelle, the confiscated es
tate of a loyalist.

Sailing for France in April, 1787, his
fame caused him to be cordially received
by distinguished men. In 1788
he was in England, superin
tending the construction of
an iron bridge (the first of
its kind) which he had in
vented. It now spans the
Wear, at Sunderland. He
wrote the first part of his
Eights of Man in 1791, in
reply to Burke s Reflections
on the Revolution in France.
It had an immense sale, and
the American edition had a
preface by Thomas Jefferson.
An active member of the rev
olutionary society in England,
he was elected to a seat in the
French National Convention
in 1792. He had a trium
phant reception in Paris, but

in London he was indicted for sedition
and afterwards outlawed. Paine assisted
in framing the French constitution in
1793; and the same year he opposed the
execution of the King, and proposed his
banishment to America. This action
caused his imprisonment by the Jaco
bins, and he had a narrow escape from
the guillotine. It was at that period
that he wrote his Age of Reason. James
Monroe, then American minister to France,
procured his release from prison in 1794.
After an absence from the United States
of fifteen years, he returned in a govern
ment vessel in 1802. His admirers hon
ored him with public dinners; his political
opponents insulted him. Settled in New
York, he died there, June 8, 1809, and was
buried on his farm at New Rochelle, the
Quakers, for peculiar reasons, having de
nied his request to be interred in one of
their burying-grounds. Near where he
was buried a neat monument was erected
in 1839. In 1819 William Cobbett took
his bones to England. In 1875 a me
morial building was dedicated in Boston,
having over the entrance the inscription,
" Paine Memorial Building and Home of
the Boston Investigator." See INGERSOLL,
RORERT GREEN.

Pakenham, SIR EDWARD MICHAEL, mili
tary officer; born in County Westmeath,
Ireland, March 19, 1778. At the age of
about fifteen years he was appointed ma
jor of light dragoons, and at twenty
lieutenant-colonel of foot. In 1812 he

THE PECAN-TREES AT VILLEKE S, NEW ORLEANg.

PALATINES PALMER

Was made major-general; served with dis- Palfrey, JOHN GORHAM, author; born
tinction under Wellington in the Penin- in Boston, Mass., May 2, 1796; grandson
sular campaign; and in 1814 was intrusted of William Palfrey (T741-80); gradu-
with the expedition against NEW ORLEANS ated at Harvard College in 1815; minister
(q. v.) , where he was killed, Jan. 8, 1815. of Brattle Street Church, Boston, from
The body of Sir Edward was conveyed to ]818 to 1830; Dexter Professor of Sacred
Villere s, when the viscera were removed Literature in Harvard; editor of the
and buried between two pecan-trees near North American Review from 1835 to
the mansion. The rest of the body was 1843; member of the legislature of Massa-
]. laced in a cask of rum and conveyed to clmsetts ; and from 1844 to 1848 was
England for interment. Such was the dis- secretary of state. Mr. Palfrey is distin-
position of the bodies of two or three other guished as a careful historian, as evinced
officers. It is said the pecan-trees never bore by his History of Ncio England to 1688
fruit after that year, and the negroes look- (3 volumes, 1858-64). He delivered
ed upon the spot with superstitious awe. courses of lectures before the Lowell In-
Palatines. Early in the eighteenth stitute, and was an early and powerful
century many inhabitants of the Lower anti-slavery writer. He died in Cam-
Palatinate, lying on both sides of the bridge, Mass., April 26, 1881.
Rhine, in Germany, were driven from Palma, TOMAS ESTRADA, patriot; born
their homes by the persecutions of Louis in Bayamo, Cuba; studied at the Univer-
XVI. of France, whose armies desolated sity of Seville, Spain.* He was active in
their country. P^ngland received many of the Cuban insurrection of 1867-78, dur-
the fugitives. In the spring of 1708, on ing the latter part of which he was Presi-
the petition of Joshua Koekerthal, evan- dent of the Cuban Republic. He repre-
gelical minister of a body of Lutherans, sented the Cuban Republic during the last
for himself and thirty-nine others to be revolution as plenipotentiary. He was
transported to America, an order was elected President of the Cuban Republic in
issued by the Queen in Council for such 1901, and sailed for Cuba from Xew York
transportation and their naturalization on April 17, 1902. He was inaugurated
before leaving England. The Queen pro- May 20, 1902.

vided for them at her own expense. This Palmer, ERASTUS Dow, sculptor ; born
first company of Palatines was first land- in Pompey, Onondaga co., X. Y., April
ed on Governor s Island, Xew York, and 2, 1817. Until he was twenty-nine
afterwards settled near the site of Xew- years of age he was a carpenter, when he
burg, Orange co., X. Y., in the spring of began cameo-cutting for jewelry, which
1709. In 1710 a larger emigration of was then fashionable. This business in-
Palatines to America occurred, under the jured his eyesight, and he attempted
guidance of Robert Hunter, governor of sculpture, at which he succeeded at the
Xew York. These, about 3,000 in number, age of thirty-five. His first work in
went farther up the Hudson. Some set- marble was an ideal bust of the infant
tied on Livingston s Manor, at German- Ceres, which was exhibited at the Academy
town, where a tract of 6,000 acres was of Design, Xew York. It was followed
bought from Livingston by the British by two exquisite bas-reliefs representing
government for their use. Some soon the morning and evening star. Mr. Pal-
afterwards crossed the Hudson into Greene rner s works in bas-relief and statuary
county and settled at West Camp ; others are highly esteemed. He produced more
went far up the Mohawk and settled the than 100 works in marble. His Angel
district known as the German Flats; of the Resurrection, at the entrance to
while a considerable body went to Berks the Rural Cemetery at Albany, and
county, Pa., and were the ancestors of The White Captive, in the Metropoli-
many patriotic families in that State, tan Museum, Xew York City, com-
Among the emigrants with Hunter a vio- mand the highest admiration. He went
lent sickness broke out, and 470 of them to Europe in 1873, and in 1873-74 coin-
died. With this company came JOHN pleted a statue of Robert R. Livingston for
PETER ZEXGER (q. v.) and his widowed the national Capitol. He died in Albany,
mother, Johanna. X. Y., March 9, 1904.

PALMER PALO ALTO

Palmer, INNES NEWTON, military he was promoted major-general. He took

officer; born in Buffalo, N. Y., March 30, part in the battle of Chickamauga, and

1824; graduated at West Point in 1846; commanded the 14th Corps in the Atlanta

served in the war against Mexico; and campaign. He was governor of Illinois

in August, 1861, was made major of in 1868-72; United States Senator in

cavalry. In September he was made 1891-97; and candidate of the gold

brigadier-general of volunteers, having standard Democrats for President in

been engaged in the battle of Bull Run in 1896. He died in Springfield, 111., Sept.

July previous. He commanded a brigade 25, 1900.
in the Peninsular campaign in 1862; a Palmetto Cockades, ornaments made

division in North Carolina the first half
cf 1863; and from August of that year
until April, 1864, he commanded the de
fences of the North Carolina coast. He
was in command of the District of North
Carolina until March, 1865, participating
in Sherman s movements. In 1865 he was
brevetted brigadier-general U. S. A. ; in
1868 commissioned colonel of the 2d
United States Cavalry; and in 1879 was
retired.

Palmer, JAMES SHEDDEN, naval officer;
born in New Jersey in 1810; entered the
navy as midshipman in 1825, and was
promoted rear-admiral in 1866. He served

PALMETTO COCKADE.

of blue silk ribbon,
with a button in the
centre bearing the
image of a palmetto-
tree. They were also
called Secession cock
ades. Secession bon
nets, made by a North
ern milliner in Charles
ton, were worn by the
ladies of that city on
the streets immediately
after the passage of the
ordinance of secession.
Palmetto State, a popular name given
in the East India seas in 1838, and in to the State of South Carolina, its coat-
blockading the coast of Mexico from 1846 of -arms bearing the figure of a palmetto-
to 1848. At the beginning of the Civil tree.

War he was in the blockade fleet under Palo Alto, BATTLE OF. On a part of
Dupont. In the summer of 1863 he led the a prairie in Texas, about 8 miles north-
advance in the passage of the Vicksburg east of Matamoras, Mexico, flanked by
batteries, and later in the same year per- ponds and beautified by tall trees (which
formed the same service. Palmer was gave it its name), General Taylor, march-
Farragut s flag-captain in the expedition ing with less than 2,300 men from Point
against New Orleans and Mobile, and Isabel towards Fort Brown, encountered
fought the Confederate ram Arkansas, about 6,000 Mexicans, led by General
In 1865 he was assigned to the command Arista, in 1846. At a little past noon a
of the North Atlantic squadron. He died furious battle was begun with artillery by
in St. Thomas, W. I., Dec. 7, 1867. the Mexicans and a cavalry attack with

Palmer, JOHN McCAULEY, military offi- the lance. The Mexicans were forced back,
cer; born in Eagle Creek, Scott co., Ky., and, after a contest of about five hours,
Hept. 13, 1817; became a resident of II- they retreated to Resaca de la Palma and
linois in 1832; was admitted to the bar encamped. They fled in great disorder,
in 1840; member of the State Senate from having lost in the engagement 100 men
1852 to 1854; and a delegate to the peace killed and wounded. The Americans lost
convention in 1861. He was colonel of fifty-three men. During the engagement
the 14th Illinois Volunteers in April, Major Ringgold, commander of the Amer-
1861; served under Fremont in Missouri; ican Flying Artillery, which did terrible
and in December was made brigadier- work in the ranks of the Mexicans, was
general of volunteers. He was at the capt- mortally wounded by a small cannon-
ure of New Madrid and Island Number ball that passed through both thighs
Ten, and commanded a brigade in the and through his horse. Rider and horse
Army of the Mississippi. He commanded both fell to the ground. The latter
a division under Grant and Rosecrans in was dead; the major died at Point Isabel
1862, and was with the latter at the battle four days afterwards. See MEXICO, WAR
of Stone River. For his gallantry there WITH.

PANAMA PANAMA CANAL

Panama, CONGRESS AT. In 1823 Simon Canal Company of America was incor-

Bolivar, the liberator of Colombia, South porated with a capital of $30,000,000. The

America, and then President of that re- Colombian government extended the limit

public, invited the governments of Mexico, of its concessions several times, the last

Peru, Chile, and Buenos Ayres to unite one till Oct. 31, 1910.

with him in forming a general congress at In 1897 President McKinley appointed
Panama. Arrangements to that effect an Isthmian Canal Commission to ex-
were made, but the congress was not held amine available routes; in 1900 the com-
until July, 1826. The object was to settle mission recommended the Nicaragua
upon some line of policy having the force route; and soon afterwards the French
of international law respecting the rights Panama Canal Company offered to sell
of those republics, and to adopt measures its unfinished canal, franchises, and rights
for preventing further colonization by Eu- to the United States for $40,000,000. The
ropean powers on the American continent. Isthmian Commission then recommended
They fully accepted the Monroe doctrine the purchase of the Panama canal, esti-
(see MONROE, JAMES). In the spring of mating that it could be completed in ten
1825 the United States was invited to send years, that it would cost $45,630,700 less
commissioners to the congress. These to complete it than to construct the Nica-
were appointed early in 1826, and ap- ragua canal, and that the annual cost of
peared at the congress early in July; but maintenance and operation would be
its results were not important to any of $1,300,000 less. On June 28, 1902, Presi-
the parties concerned. dent Roosevelt approved an act which

Panama Canal. The first exploration authorized the President to acquire, for
for an interoceanic canal at the isthmus $40,000,000, all the rights, privileges,
was made by H. de la Serna in 1527-28, franchises, etc., of the French Panama
and a canal was proposed by Lopez de Canal Company. Also to acquire from
Gomarfa in 1551, William Paterson in Colombia perpetual control of a strip of
1698, Gogonche, the Spaniard, in 1799, land not less than six miles wide, and to
and Humboldt in 1803. Naval officers of construct and perpetually operate and
the United States, Great Britain, and maintain the canal, the control to include
France made a number of independent sur- the right to maintain and operate the
veys in the ensuing fifty years. A ship- Panama Railroad, also jurisdiction over
canal was proposed in the Clayton-Bulwer said strip and the ports at the ends there-
treaty in 1850; the United States and of. Failing to secure such title and such
Colombia signed a treaty for the con- control, he, having obtained for the United
struction of a canal in 1870; an inter- States perpetual control of the necessary
national canal congress was held in Paris territory from Costa Rica and Nicaragua,
in 1879; and French engineers began work should construct a canal from Greytown
on the Panama route in 1881. In the on the Caribbean Sea to Brito on the
meantime a canal through Nicaragua was Pacific. The act appropriated $10,000,-
proposed by Americans and favored by 000 and authorized additional appropria-
General Grant. The de Lesseps company, tions, not to exceed $135,000,000 should
organized with a capital of $100,000,000, the Panama route be adopted, or $180,-
continued work till December, 1888, when 000,000 should the Nicaragua route be
it was compelled to suspend payments, adopted. The act also requested the Presi-
By that time the canal had been exca- dent to open negotiations with Great
vated for about fourteen miles only on Britain for the abrogation of the canal
the first section. The French government clause in the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, and
ordered an investigation of the canal on Nov. 18, 1901, a convention was signed
company s affairs; amazing evidences of in Washington, D. C., to this effect,
fraud and bribery were discovered ; and After the approval of this act the United
by 1894 the costly plant and works had States sought to secure from Colombia the
reached the stage of decay and ruin. In rights and privileges enumerated in the
1897 a new company was organized in act, and a treaty to this effect was nego-
France, with a capital of $10,000,000, to tiated, but was not ratified by Colombia,
continue the work, and in 1899 the Panama On Nov. 3, 1903, the Colombian Depart-

PANAMA RAILWAY PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION, 1901

ment of Panama seceded and proclaimed of the United States. Questions of inter-
its independence of Colombia. On Nov. 18 national importance were discussed, and
a treaty between the new republic and the ten republics signed an arbitration treaty.
United States was signed, in which the Another conference was held in Mexico
latter secured all the desired rights and City in 1901-02, when the following
privileges. On Feb. 29, 1904, the Presi- measures affecting the United States were
dent appointed a Panama Commission endorsed:

consisting of the following: Rear- Admiral A pan-American railway; a pan-Amer-
John G. Walker; Maj.-Gen. George W. ican bank; the St. Louis Exposition; the
Davis, William Barclay Parsons, William Philadelphia Commercial Museum; the
H. Burr, Benjamin M. Harrod, Carl E. Olympian games at Chicago; adhesion to
Grunsky, and Frank J. Hecker. General The Hague conference ; compulsory arbitra-
Davis was appointed governor of the tion between seventeen states (the United
Canal Zone. The purchase-price of $40,- States refused to endorse this measure) ;
000,000 was paid to the French company an interoceanic ship-canal; the reorgan-
in April, 1904. ization of the Bureau of American Re-
Tlie engineering committee of the Pana- publics; improved maritime communica-
ma Canal Commission recommended a tion ; the exchange of official and other
sea-level canal at cost of $230,500,000 on publications; the codification of the pub-
Feb. 26, 1905. lie and private international law; con-
The members of the Canal Commission ventions as to patents, trade-marks, copy-
resigned, March 29, 1905, and the Presi- rights, and extradition; the appointment
dent appointed a new commission, con- of coffee experts to meet in New York
sisting of Theodore P. Shonts, chairman; City to study the coffee crisis; the preser-
Charles E. Magoon, governor of Canal vation of archaeological remains. These
Zone; John F. Wallace, chief engineer; measures are to be submitted to the sep-
M. T. Endicott. Rear- Admiral, U.S.N. ; arate governments for ratification.
Peter C. Hains, Brigadier-General, U.S.A., Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo,
retired: Oswald H. Ernst, Colonel, U. S. N. Y., held May 1-Nov. 3, 1901; one of
Engineers; and Benjamin M. Harrod on the most important expositions in the
April 3, 1905. United States, as it confined itself to the
A few days later the President invited productions of North and South Amer-
Germany, England, and France to nomi- ica. Entirely novel architectural, elec-
nate one engineer each to serve on the trical, and landscape effects were de-
Panama Canal Commission. veloped, the electrical exhibition particu-
A force of about 8,000 men were en- larly being far superior to that of any
gaged in the active work of excavation other world s fair. The electric tower was
in May, 1905, but several thousand addi- the centre of the exposition and was 375
tional men will be put to work on the feet high, the main structure being 80
completion of the surveys and the arrival square feet and 200 feet high. This
of new and improved machinery from the tower and the surrounding buildings and
United States. grounds were most brilliantly illuminated
Panama Railway, THE. A railway by electric lights, on a scale never before
extending from the Atlantic to the Pa- attempted, and with a result never before
c-ific side of the isthmus that connects approached. The general style of the
North arid South America ; completed in architecture was the Spanish Renaissance,
1855. It extends from Colon on the making a general use of many brilliant
Caribbean Sea to Panama on the Pacific tints and colors. The popular name for
Ocean. The railway was purchased by the exposition was the Landscape City,
the United States, March 29, 1905. A portion of Delaware Park, Buffalo, em-
Pan-American Conference, a confer- bracing 350 acres, was selected as the
ence of representatives of the American site for the fair, the total cost of which
republics inspired by James G. Elaine, was estimated at $10,000,000. Buffalo is
opened in Washington, D. C., Oct. 2, 1889, the chief gateway between the East and the
and extended into 1890, during which time West. Within a radius of 500 miles there
the delegates visited the principal cities is a population of over 40,000,000 people.

PAN-AMERICAN UNION PAPINEAU

In addition to the classified and special ex- 1 A.M. (Sept. 21) leaped from the gloom
liibit was the Midway Pleasure Ground, like tigers from a jungle, and began the
comprising many interesting and novel ex- work of death at different points. The
hibits. patriots, not knowing at what point was

While holding a public reception in the the chief attack, fired a few volleys, and,
Temple of Music on Sept. 6, President breaking into fragments, fled in eonfu-
McKinley was shot by an anarchist named sion towards Chester. The British and
Leon Czolgosz, and died of the wounds Hessians killed 150 Americans, some of
Saturday, Sept. 14, 1901. See McKiNLEY, them in cold blood, after they had sur-
WILLIAM. rendered and begged for quarter. A Hes-

Pan- American Union. See ADAMS, sian sergeant afterwards said: " We killed
Jonx QUINCY. 300 of the rebels with the bayonet. I

Panics, exceptional disturbances in stuck them myself like so many pigs, one
financial and commercial affairs. Periods after another, until the blood ran out of
of prosperity generally run a course of the touch-hole of my musket." This event
ten years in England, as, IMG, 1825, 1837, has been properly spoken of as a massacre.
1847, 1857, 1866, 1875, and 1885, in each The dead were buried on the site of the
of which years there was a commercial encampment. The spot is enclosed by a
crisis in that country. In the United wall, and a monument of marble within
States the periodical return has been less commemorates the dead,
regular and less frequent, the most notable Paper Money in America. To defray
panics that were followed by crises being the expenses of De Nonville s expedition,
those of 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, and 1893. a paper currency, similar to the Conti-
Of these that of 1837 was caused by ex- rental bills of credit, was issued by the
cessive land speculations and the opera- government of Canada in 1C84, which was
tions of "wild-cat" banks (see BANKS, called "card money." It was redeemable
WILD-CAT) ; that of 1857, in large measure in bills on France. Levies for the French
also due to land speculations, causing sus- and Indian War were raised in Virginia
pension of many banks, and 5,123 com- and in 1755 the Virginia Assembly, having
mercial failures with liabilities
exceeding $300,000,000; that of
1873, caused by over-speculation
and the suspension of specie pay
ments, was precipitated by the
failure of Jay Cooke & Co.; and
that of 1893, attributed both to
silver legislation in Congress and
a fear of changes in the tariff.

Paoli Tavern. Near this build
ing, on the Lancaster road, Gen
eral Wayne lay encamped, with
1,500 men and two cannon, in
a secluded spot, on the night of
Sept. 20, 1777. A Tory inform
ed Howe of this encampment, and
he sent General Grey, with a con
siderable force, to attack it at
midnight. The night was dark

and stormy. Grey gave- orders to use only voted 20,000 towards their support, au-
the bayonet, and give no quarter. He ap- thorized the issue of treasury notes the
preached stealthily, murdering the pickets first paper money of that province. See
near the highway. Warned by this, CURRENCY.

Wayne immediately paraded his men, but, Papineau, Louis JOSEPH, politician;
unfortunately, in the light of his camp- born in Montreal, Canada, in October,
fires. Towards midnight Grey s force, in 1789; educated at the Seminary of Que-
two divisions, crept up a ravine, and at bee; admitted to the bar; and entered the

PAOLI MONUMENT.

PABEDES Y ABBILLAGA PABKEB

Lower Canadian Parliament in 1809, be- When Santa Ana reappeared in Mexico,

coming speaker in 1815. He became a Paredes was seized and confined, but es-

leader of the radical, or opposition, party caped to Havana. Going to Europe, he

at the beginning of his public life. He op- sought to place a Spanish or French prince

posed the union of the two Canadas, at at the head of the Mexicans. He after-

which the English party aimed, and in wards returned to Mexico City, where he

1823 he was sent on a mission to London, died on Sept. 11, 1849.

to remonstrate against that measure. In Parke, JOHN GRUBB, military officer;
1827 he was again a member of the House, born in Chester county, Pa., Sept. 22, 1827 ;
and elected its speaker; and in 1834 he graduated at West Point in 1849. Entering
introduced to that body a list of the de- the engineer corps, lie became brigadier-
munds and grievances of the Lower Cana- general of volunteers Nov. 23, 1861. He
dians, known as the " Ninety-two Resolu- commanded a brigade under Burnside in
tions." He supported the resolutions with his operations on the North Carolina
great ability, and recommended constitu- coast early in 1862, and with him joined
tional resistance to the British govern- the Army of the Potomac. He served in
ment and commercial non-intercourse with McClellan s campaigns, and when Burn-
England. Matters were brought to a crisis side became its commander he was that
in 1837, when the new governor (Lord general s chief of staff. In the campaign
Gosford) decided to administer the gov- against Vicksburg he was a conspicuous
eminent without the assistance of the actor. He was with Sherman, command-
colonial Parliament. The Liberal party ing the left wing of his army after the
flew to arms. Papineau urged peaceful fall of Vicksburg. He was also engaged
constitutional opposition, but an insurrec- in the defence of Knoxville; and in the
tion was begun that could not be allayed Richmond campaign, in 1864, he command-
by persuasion, and he took refuge in the ed the 9th Corps, and continued to do so
United States at the close of that year, until the surrender of Lee. In 1865 he was
In 1839 he went to France, where he en- brevetted major-general; in 1889 was re-
gaged in literary pursuits about eight tired. He died in Washington, D. C., Dec.
years. After the union of the Canadas, 16, 1900.

in 1841, ad a general amnesty for po- Parker, ALTON BROOKS, jurist; born in
litical offences was proclaimed, in 1844, Cortland, N. Y., May 14, 1852; acquired a
Papineau returned to his native coun- public-school education; taught school in
try (1847), and was made a member of Virgil, Binghamton, and Rochester, N. Y.,
the Canadian Parliament. After 1854 he and later attended the Albany Law School,
took no part in public affairs. He where he was graduated in 1872. Admit-
died in Montebello, Quebec, Sept. 23, ted to the bar in 1872, practising in Kings-
1871. ton, N. Y. ; became clerk of the board of
Paredes y Arrillaga, MARIANO, mili- supervisors of Ulster county in 1873,
tary officer; born in Mexico City in 1797; surrogate in 1877, and was re-elected in
became an active participant in the polit- 1883; elected justice of the Supreme
ical events in Mexico in 1820. When, Court of New York in 1885 to fill a
upon the annexation of Texas to the Unit- vacancy, and was re - elected ; was a
ed States (1845), President Herrera en- member of the Second Division of the
deavored to gain the acquiescence of the Court of Appeals of New York in 1889-
Mexicans to the measure, Paredes assist- 93, and of the General Term of the
ed him, and with 25,000 men defeated First District in 1893-96; elected chief-
Santa Ana., who was banished. After- justice of the Court of Appeals of New
wards Paredes, with the assistance of York in 1897; and Democratic nominee
Arista, defeated Herrera, and was installed for President of the United States, in
President of Mexico June 12, 1845. The 1904.

next day he took command of the army, Gold-Standard Telegram. Immediately
leaving civil affairs in the hands of Vice- after his nomination he broke his silence
President Bravo. He was at the head of as to his political views by sending to the
the government on the breaking-out of national convention the following tele-
war with the United States (May, 1846). gram:

PABKEB

" ESOPUS, N. Y., July 9, 1904. City in 1776. He also participated in the
" I regard the gold standard as firmly capture of Savannah in 1778. He died in
and irrevocably established and shall act Copenhagen, Denmark, March 7, 1807.
accordingly if the action of the conven- Parker, JOEL, jurist; born in Jaffrey,
tion to-day shall be ratified by the people. N. H., Jan. 25, 1795; graduated at Dart-
" As the platform is silent on the sub- mouth College in 1811; admitted to the
ject, my view should be made known to bar and began practice in Keene, N. H., in
the convention, and if it is proved to be 1815; became chief-justice of the Supreme
unsatisfactory to the majority I request Court of New Hampshire in 1830; was
you to decline the nomination for me at Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in
once, so that another may be nominated Dartmouth College in 1847-57. His pub-
before adjournment. lications include Daniel Webster as a

"ALTON B. PARKER." Jurist; The Non-Extension of Slavery;
After the election Judge Parker re- Personal Liberty Laics and Slavery in the
moved to New York City and engaged in Territories; The Right of Secession; Con-
active law practice. stitutional Law; The War Powers of Cow-
Parker, EDWARD GRIFFIN, lawyer; born grcss and the President ; Revolution and
in Boston, Mass., Nov. 16, 1825; gradu- Construction; The Three Powers of Gov-
ated at Yale College in 1847; admitted to ernment; Conflict of Decisions; etc. He
the bar in 1849, and practised in Boston died in Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 17, 1875.
till 1861, when he entered the National Parker, SIR PETER, naval officer; born
army as an aide on the staff of Gen. in England in 1721; became a post-cap-
Benjamin F. Butler. After the war tain in the British navy in 1747. As corn-
he removed to New York City. His mander of a fleet, he co-operated with Sir
publications include The Golden Age of Henry Clinton in an unsuccessful attack
American Oratory and Reminiscences of on Charleston, June 28, 1776. He after-
Rufus Choate. He died in New York City, wards assisted both Viscount General
March 30, 1868. Howe and Admiral Lord Howe in the
Parker, ELY SAMUEL, military officer; capture of New York, and commanded the
born on the Seneca Indian reservation, squadron which took possession of Rhode
Tonawanda, N. Y., in 1828; became chief Island late in that year. He died in
of the Six Nations; was educated for a England, Dec. 21, 1811.
civil engineer; was a personal friend of Parker, SIR PETER, grandson of the
Gen. U. S. Grant, and during the Civil above; born in England in 1786; entered
War was a member of his staff, and mili- the navy at an early age, and commanded
tary secretary. In the latter capacity he the Henelaus in the War of 1812. On a
drew up the first copy of the terms of plundering expedition, Aug. 30, 1814, he
capitulation of General Lee s army. He met a band of Maryland militia, and in
was commissioned a first lieutenant of the fight Sir Peter was killed.
U. S. cavalry in 1866; brevetted brigadier- Parker, THEODORE, clergyman; born in
general U. S. A. in 1867; and was com- Lexington, Mass., Aug. 24, 1810. His
missioner of Indian affairs in 1869-71. grandfather, Capt. John Parker, command-
He died in Fairfield, Conn., Aug. 31, 1895. ed the company of minute-men in the skir-
Parker, FOXHALL ALEXANDER, naval mish at Lexington. In 1829 he entered
officer; born in New York City, Aug. 5, Harvard College, but did not graduate;
1821; graduated at the Naval Academy in taught school until 1837, when he was
1843; served through the Civil War with settled over a Unitarian society at West
distinction; was promoted commodore in Roxbury. In 1846 he became minister
His publications include Fleet of the 28th Congregational Society in
Tactics; Squadron Tactics; The Naval Boston. Parker became the most famous
Howitzer; The Battle of Mobile Bay; etc. preacher of his time. He urgently op-
He died in Annapolis, Md., June 10, posed the war with Mexico as a scheme

for the extension of slavery; was an early

Parker, SIR HYDE, naval officer; born advocate of temperance and anti-slavery
in England in 1739; was in command of mesrsures; and after the passage of the
one of the ships which attacked New York fugitive slave law he was one of its
vii. E 65

PARKEE, THEODORE

most uncompromising opponents. So mark- ruled as it is commonly thought cither
ed was his sympathy for Anthony Burns, by the mass of men who follow their na-
the seized fugitive slave at Boston (Janu- tional, ethnological, and human instincts,
ary, 1854), a*s to cause his indictment and or by a few far-sighted men of genius for
trial for a violation of the fugitive slave politics, who consciously obey the law of
law. It was quashed. In 1859 hemor- God made clear in their own masterly mind
rhage of the lungs terminated his public and conscience, and make statutes in ad-
career. He sailed first to Santa Cruz, vance of the calculation or even the in-
thence to Europe, spending the winter stincts of the people, and so manage the

ship of state that every occasional tack
is on a great circle of the universe, a
right line of justice, and therefore the
shortest way to welfare; but by two very
different classes of men by mercantile
men, who covet money, actual or expectant
capitalists; and by political men, who
want power, actual or expectant office
holders. These appear diverse; but there
is a strong unanimity between the two
for the mercantile men want money as a
means of power and the political men
power as a means of money. There are
noble men in both classes, exceptional, not
instantial, men with great riches even,
and great office. But, as a class, these
men are not above the average morality
of the people, often below it; they have
no deep religious faith, which leads them
to trust the higher law of God. They do
not look for principles that are right, con
formable to the constitution of the uni
verse, and so creative of the nation s
permanent welfare, but only for expedient
measures, productive to themselves of self
ish money or selfish power. In general,
they have the character of adventurers,
the aims of adventurers, the morals of ad-

THKOUOKK PARKER.

1859-00 in Rome, whence, in April,

Florence, where he died, May 10, 1860.

He bequeathed 13,000 valuable books

the Public Library of Boston.

The following are extracts from Parker s
oration on the dangers of slavery:

set out for home, but only reached venturers; they begin poor, and of course

obscure, and are then "democratic," and
to hurrah for the people: ." Down with the
powerful and the rich," is the private
maxim of their heart. If they are suc
cessful and become rich, famous, attaining
high office, they commonly despise the
I. Will there be a separation of the two people: "Down with the people!" is the
elements, and a formation of two distinct axiom of their heart only they dare not
states freedom with democracy, and sla- say it; for there are so many others with
very with a tendency to despotism? That the same selfishness, who have not yet
may save one-half the nation, and leave achieved their end, and raise the oppo-
the other to voluntary ruin. Certainly, site cry. The line of the nation s course
it is better to enter into life halt or maim- is a resultant of the compound selfishness
ed rather than having two hands and two of these two classes.

feet to be cast into everlasting fire. . . . From these two, with their mercanti

But I do not think this " dissolution of and political selfishness, we are to expec
the Union " will take place immediately no comprehensive morality, which wil
or very soon For America is not now cure the rights of mankind; no compre-

PARKER, THEODORE

hensive policy which will secure expedient Mexico, to get more slave soil. Ninth,
measures for a long time. Both will unite America gave ten millions of money to
in what serves their apparent interest, Texas to support slavery, passed the fugi-
brings money to the trader, power to the tive slave bill, and has since kidnapped
politician whatever be the consequence men in New England, New York, New
to the country. Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Wis-

As things now are, the Union favors consin, Illinois, Indiana, in all the East,
the schemes of both of these classes of in all the West, in all the Middle States,
men; thereby the politician gets power, All the great cities have kidnapped their
the trader makes money. own citizens. Professional slave-hunters

If the Union were to be dissolved and a are members of New England churches;
great Northern commonwealth were to be kidnappers sit down at the Lord s table
organized, with the idea of freedom, three- in the city of Cotton, Chauncey, and May-
quarters of the politicians, federal and hew. In this very year, before it is half
State, would pass into contempt and ob- through, America has taken two more
livion; all that class of Northern dema- steps for the destruction of freedom. The
gogues who scoff at God s law, such as repeal of the Missouri Compromise and the
filled the offices of the late Whig admin- enslavement of Nebraska: that is the tenth
istration in its day of power or as fill the step. Here is the eleventh: the Mexican
offices of the Democratic administration treaty, giving away $10,000,000 and buy-
to-day they would drop down so deep ing a little strip of worthless land, solely
that no plummet would ever reach them; that it may serve the cause of slavery,
you would never hear of them again. . . . Here are eleven great steps openly taken

II. The next hypothesis is, freedom may towards the ruin of liberty in America,
triumph over slavery. That was the ex- Are these the worst? Very far from it!
pectation once, at the time of the Declara- Yet more dangerous things have been done
tion of Independence; nay, at the forma- in secret.

tion of the Constitution. But only two I. Slavery has corrupted the mercantile

national steps have beeen taken against class. Almost all the leading merchants

slavery since then one the ordinance of of the North are pro-slavery men. They

1787, the other the abolition of the Afri- hate freedom, hate your freedom and
can slave-trade; really that was done in mine! This is the only Christian country

1788, formally twenty years after. In in which commerce is hostile to freedom,
the individual States the white man s free- II. See the corruption of the political
dom enlarges every year; but the federal class. There are 40,000 officers of the
government becomes more and more ad- federal government. Look at them in
dieted to slavery. This hypothesis does Boston their character is as well known
not seem very likely to be adopted. as this hall. Read their journals in this

III. Shall slavery destroy freedom? It city do you catch a whisper of freedom
looks very much like it. Here are nine in them? Slavery has sought its menial
groat steps, openly taken since 87, in servants men basely born and basely
favor of slavery. First, America put sla- bred: it has corrupted them still further,
very into the Constitution. Second, out and put them in office. America, like Rus-
of old soil she made four new slave States, sia, is the country for mean men to thrive
Third, America, in 1793, adopted slavery in. Give him time and mire enough
as a federal institution, and guaranteed a worm can crawl as high as an eagle
her protection for that kind of property flies. State rights are sacrificed at the
as for no other. Fourth, America bought North ; centralization goes on with rapid
the Louisiana territory in 1803, and put strides; State laws are trodden under foot,
slavery into it. Fifth, she thence made The Northern President is all for slavery.
Louisiana, Missouri, and then Arkansas The Northern members of the cabinet arc
slave States. Sixlh, she made slavery for slavery; in the Senate, fourteen North-
perpetual in Florida, Seventh, she an- ern Democrats were for the enslavement
nexed Texas. Eighth, she fought the Mexi- of Nebraska; in the House of Representa-
can War, and plundered a feeble sister tives, forty-four Northern Democrats voted
republic of California, Utah, and New for the bill fourteen in the Senate forty-

PARKER, THEODORE

four in the House; fifty-eight Northern younger than my children might be: and

men voted against the conscience of the
North and the law of God. Only eight
men out of all the South could be found
friendly to justice and false to their own
local idea of injustice. The present ad
ministration, with its supple tools of tyr
anny, came into office while the cry of
" No higher law " was echoing through the
land!

III. Slavery has debauched the press.
How many leading journals of commerce
and politics in the great cities do you
know that are friendly to freedom and
opposed to slavery? Out of the five large
daily commercial papers in Boston, Whig
or Democratic, I know of only one that
has spoken a word for freedom this great
while. The American newspapers are poor
defenders of American liberty. Listen to
one of them, speaking of the last kidnap
ping in Boston: " We shall need to employ
the same measures of coercion as are neces
sary in monarchical countries." There ia
always some one ready to do the basest
deeds. Yet there are some noble jour
nals, political and commercial, such as the
New York Tribune and Evening Post.

IV. Then our colleges and schools are
corrupted by slavery. I do not know of
five colleges in all the North which pub
licly appear on the side of freedom.
What the hearts of the presidents and
professors are, God knows, not I. The
great crime against humanity, practical
atheism, found ready support in Northern
colleges in 1850 and 1851. Once the com
mon reading-books of our schools were full
of noble words. .Read the school-books now
made by Yankee peddlers of literature, and
what liberal ideas do you find there?
They are meant for the Southern market.
Slavery must not be offended !

V. Slavery has corrupted the churches!
There are 28,000 Protestant clergymen in
the United States. There are noble
hearts, true and just men among them,
who have fearlessly borne witness to the
truth. I need not mention their names.
Alas! they are not very numerous; I
should not have to go over my fingers
many times to count them all. I honor
these exceptional men. Some of them are
old, far older than I am, older than my
father need have been; some of them are
far younger than I ; nay, some of them

I honor these men for the fearless testi
mony which they have borne the old,
the middle-aged, and the young. But
they are very exceptional men. Is there
a minister in the South who preaches
against slavery? How few in all the
North !

At this day 600,000 slaves are directly
and personally owned by men who are
called " professing Christians," " members
in good fellowship " of the churches of
this land; 80,000 owned by Presbyterians,
225,000 by Baptists, 250,000 owned by
Methodists 600,000 slaves in this land
owned by men who profess Christianity,
and in churches sit down to take the
Lord s Supper, in the name of Christ and
God ! There are ministers who own their
fellow-men " bought with a price."

Does this not look as if slavery were to
triumph over freedom?

VI. Slavery corrupts the judicial class.
In America, especially in New England,
no class of men has been so much respected
as the judges; and for this reason: we
have had wise, learned, excellent men for
our judges; men who reverenced the high
er law of God, and sought by human
statutes to execute justice. You all know
their venerable names, and how reveren
tially we have looked up to them. Many
of them are dead; some are still living,
and their hoary hairs are a crown of
glory on a judicial life, without judicial
blot. But of late slavery has put a dif
ferent class of men on the benches of the
federal courts mere tools of the govern
ment; creatures which get their appoint
ment as pay for past political service,
and as pay in advance for iniquity not yet
accomplished. You see the consequences.
Note the zeal of the federal judges to
execute iniquity by statute and destroy
liberty. See how ready they are to sup
port the fugitive slave bill, which tram
ples on the spirit of the Constitution,
and its letter, too; which outrages jus
tice and violates the most sacred prin
ciples and precepts of Christianity. Not
a United States judge, circuit or district,
has uttered one word against that " bill
of abominations." Nay, how greedy
they are to get victims under it! No
wolf loves better to rend a lamb into
fragments than these judges to kidnap

PARKER PARKMAN

a fugitive slave, and punish any man
who dares to speak against it. You know
what has happened in fugitive slave bill
courts. You remember the " miraculous "
rescue of Shadrach : the peaceable snatch
ing of a man from the hands of a coward
ly kidnapper was " high treason " ; it was
" levying war." You remember the
" trial " of the rescuers ! Judge Sprague s
charge to the grand jury that, if they
thought the question was which they ought
to obey, the law of man or the law of God,
then they must "obey both!" serve God
and mammon, Christ and the devil, in the
same act ! You remember the " trial," the
" ruling " of the bench, the swearing on
the stand, the witness coming back to
alter and " enlarge his testimony " and
have another gird at the prisoner ! You
have not forgotten the trials before Judge
Kane at Philadelphia, and Judge Grier at
Christiana and Wilkesbarre.

These are natural results of causes well
known. You cannot escape a principle.
Enslave a negro, will you? you doom to
bondage your own sons and daughters by
your own act. . . .

All this looks as if the third hypothesis
would be fulfilled, and slavery triumph
over freedom; as if the nation would
expunge the Declaration of Independence
from the scroll of time, and, instead of
honoring Hancock and the Adamses and
Washington, do homage to Kane and Grier
and Curtis and Hallett and Loring. Then
the preamble to our Constitution might
read " to establish justice, insure domestic
strife, hinder the common defence, dis
turb the general welfare, and inflict the
curse of bondage on ourselves and our
posterity." Then we shall honor the Puri
tans no more, but their prelatical tor
mentors, nor reverence the great reform
ers, only the inquisitors of Rome. Yea, we
may tear the name of Jesus out of the
American Bible; yes, God s name. . . .

See the steady triumph of despotism!
Ten years more like the ten years past,
and it will be all over with the liberties
of America. Everything must go down,
and the heel of the tyrant will be on our
neck. It will be all over with the rights
of man in America, and you and I must
go to Austria, to Italy, or to Siberia for
our freedom; or perish with the liberty
which our fathers fought for and secured

to themselves not to their faithless sons!
Shall America thus miserably perish?
Such is the aspect of things to-day!

Parkhurst, CHARLES HENRY, clergy
man ; born in Framingham, Mass., April
17, 1842; graduated at Amherst in 1866;
studied at Halle and Leipzig; became
pastor of the Madison Square Presbyte
rian Church, New York City, in 1880. In
1891 he accepted the presidency of the So
ciety for the Prevention of Crime. The
revelations made by the society led to an
investigation of the New York police by
the State authorities in 1894. Among
Dr. Parkhurst s publications is Our Fiyht
with Tammany.

Parkman, FRANCIS, author; born in
Boston, Mass., Sept. 16, 1823; graduated
at Harvard College in 1844, and fitted him
self for the legal profession, but soon aban
doned it. He made a tour of the Rocky
Mountains, and lived for some time among
the Dakota Indians. The hardships he

FRANCIS PARKMAN.

there endured caused a permanent im
pairment of his health, and through life
he suffered from a chronic disease and
partial blindness. Notwithstanding these
disabilities he long maintained a fore
most rank among trustworthy and accom
plished American historians. His chief
literary labors were in the field of in
quiry concerning the power of the French,
political and ecclesiastical, in North Amer
ica. So careful and painstaking were his

PARKS IN THE UNITED STATES PARLIAMENT

labors that he was regarded as authority crown; it can alter and establish the re-

on those subjects which engaged his ligion of the country.

pen. Mr. Parkman s first work was The The first act of the British Parliament
California and Oregon Trail, in which relating to the American colonies was
he embodied his experience in the Far passed in 1548, and prohibited the ex-
West. His first work on the French in action of any reward by an officer of
America was The Conspiracy of Pon- the .English admiralty from English
tiac (1851). It was followed by Pioneers fishermen and mariners going on the
of France in the Nero World (1865); The service of the fishery at Newfoundland.
Jesuits in North America; The Discovery The next of importance, and the first that
of the Great West. (1869); The Old Re- elicited debate, was in 1021, when the
gime in Canada (1874); Mont calm and House of Commons denounced the new
Wolfe (1883). He died in Boston, Mass., charter given to the PLYMOUTH COMPANY
Nov. 8, 1893. (q. v.) as a "grievance." The King, anger-
Parks in the "United States. The de- ed by what he regarded as an attack upon
velopinent of the park system, national, his prerogative, had Sir Edward Coke,
state, and civic, in the United States, is Pym, and other members imprisoned, or
recent, though Boston had its " Common," virtually so, for what he called " factious
part of a purchase for a cow pasture in conduct." The debates involved the dec-
1034, and since 1878 protected from en- laration of the right of Parliament to
croachment by law. Interest in public absolutely rule colonial affairs and a flat
parks was created by the papers of A. J. denial of the right the course of debate
Downing in 1849, and led to the establish- followed before the War of the Kevolu-
ment of Central Park (802 acres) in the tion began. At that session King Jamea
city of New York in 1857. The most im- took high-handed measures against the
portant national parks or reservations in representatives of the people. He declared
the United States are: the proceedings of the House of Commons

the work of " fiery, popular, and turbu-

Yosemite Park and Marlposa Grove, on lent sp i r i ts ," to which they replied bv in-

tlio Merced River in Marlposa county, ... ,, . . , * , , .

Cal., discovered in 1851, and estab- Betting in their journals a declaration

lished by Congress 1864 that they had the right of discussing all

Yellowstone National Park, 3.575 square subjects in such order as they might think

miles, nearly all in northwestern d assertin? that {hey were not

AAyoming, established by act of Con-

g ress iy[ ay i 1872 responsible to the King for their con-

A State forestry commission was appointed duct. James sent for the book, tore out

by New York State for the preservation the obnoxious entry with his own hand,

Bui^Sn^S r V^.Vop^ 1885 and suspended their sittings.

to the public July 15, 1885 In 1763 the extent of the powers of

Parliament over the colonies began to

Parliament, ENGLISH. The Teutonic be seriously questioned. A certain su-
Witenagemot or assembly of the wise, the premacy was admitted. For a long time
noble, and the great men of the nation the colonies, especially of New England,
was the origin of parliament. Coke de- had carried on a struggle with Parliament
clared that the term parliament was used concerning its interference with colonial
in the time of Edward the Confessor, manufactures, trade, and commerce. It
A.D. 1041. The first regular parliament, had interfered with their currency, with
according to many historians, was that joint-stock companies, the collection of
of Edward I. in 1294. The first speaker debts, laws of naturalization, assumed to
of the House of Commons, Peter De La legislate concerning the administration of
Mare, was elected in 1377. The powers oaths, and to extend the operations of
and jurisdiction of Parliament are abso- the mutiny act to the colonies. Against
lute, and cannot be confined either by these and other interferences in their local
causes or persons within bounds. It has affairs the colonists had protested. Par-
sovereign and uncontrollable authority in liament had persisted, and, by a sort of
making and repealing laws; it can regu- forced, though partial, acquiescence, these
late and new-model the succession to the interferences came to be regarded as vest-

PARLIAMENT, ENGLISH

ed rights. The Parliament had never vent- adjustment. The mercantile and trading

ured to impose direct taxes on the col- interests of every kind, whose business was

onies a supereminent power but the in- seriously menaced by the,American Associ-

direct taxation, by means of custom-house ation, formed a powerful class of outside

officers, was regarded as an equivalent by opponents of the ministers. The English

the colonists, and watched with jealous vig- Dissenters, also, were inclined, by relig-

ilance. When, in 1765, schemes of indirect ious sympathies, to favor the Americans.

taxation were put in operation to increase In the House of Commons, the papers re-

the imperial revenue, and not for the mere ferring to America were referred to a

regulation of trade, the colonists rebelled, committee of the whole; while in the

The second Parliament of George III. House of Lords, Chatham (William Pitt) ,

opened in December, 1768. All the papers after long absence, appeared and proposed

relating to the American colonies were an address to the King advising a recall

laid before it. The House of Lords se- of the troops from Boston. This proposi-

verely denounced the public proceedings tion was rejected by a decisive majority.

in Massachusetts. Approving the conduct Petitions for conciliation, which flowed

of the ministry, they recommended instruc- into the House of Commons from all the

tions to the governor of Massachusetts to trading and manufacturing towns in the

obtain full information " of all treasons," kingdom, were referred to another com-

and to send the offenders to England mittee, which the opposition called the

for trial, under an unrepealed statute of " committee of oblivion." Among the pe-

Henry VIII. for the punishment of treason titions to the King was that of the Conti-

committed out of the kingdom. These rec- nental Congress, pi esented by Franklin,

ommendations met powerful opposition in Bollan, and Lee, three colonial agents, who

the House of Commons, in which Barre. asked to be heard upon it, by counsel, at

Burke, and Pownall took the lead. But the bar of the House. Their reqxiest was

Parliament, as a body, considered the pro- refused on the ground that the Congress

ceedings in the colonies as indicative of a was an illegal assembly and the alleged

factious and rebellious spirit, and the rec- grievances only pretended.
ommendations of the House of Lords were On Feb. 1, Chatham brought forward

adopted by a very decided majority; for a bill for settling the troubles in America,

each member seemed to consider himself which provided for a full acknowledgment

insulted by the independent spirit of the on the part of the colonies of the suprem-

Americans. " Every man in England," acy and superintending power of Parlia-

wrote Franklin, " regards himself as a ment, but that no tax should ever be levied

piece of a sovereign over America seems except by consent of the colonial assem-

to jostle himself into the throne with the blies. It provided for a congress of the

King, and talks of our subjects in the colonies to make the acknowledgment, and

colonies.

to vote, at the same time, a free grant to

The election for members of a new Par- the King of a certain perpetual revenue to

liament that took place in November, be placed at the disposal of Parliament.

1774, resulted in a. large ministerial ma- His bill was refused the courtesy of lying

jority, which boded no good for the Amer- on the table, and was rejected by a vote

ican colonies. The King, in his opening of two to one at the first reading. The

speech (Xov. 30), spoke of the "daring ministry, feeling strong in their large ma-

spirit of resistance in the colonies," and jority of supporters, presented a bill in

assured the legislature that he had taken the House of Commons (Feb. 3) for cut-

measures and given orders for the restora- ting off the trade of New England else-

tion of peace and order, which he hoped where than to Great Britain, Ireland, and

would be effectual. A large majority of the British West Indies. This was intend-

both Houses were ready to support the ed to offset the American Association. It

King and his ministers in coercive meas- also provided for the suspension of these

ures; but there was a minority of able colonies from the prosecution of the New-

men, in and out of Parliament, utterly op- foundland fisheries, a principal branch of

to subduing the colonies by force of their trade and industry. In an address
arms, and anxious to promote an amicable to the throne proposed by ministers (Feb.

PAKLIAMENT, ENGLISH

7), it was declared tfnat rebellion existed colonies," and entreating the King, as a
in Massachusetts, countenanced and fo- first step towards the redress of griev-
mented by unlawful combinations in other ances, to dismiss his present ministry. In
colonies. Effectual measures were recom- these debates the speakers exhibited vari-
mended for suppressing the rebellion. The ous phases of statesmanship, from the sa-
support of Parliament was pledged to the gacious reasoner to the flippant optimist,
King. who, believing in the omnipotence of Great
Then Lord North astonished his party Britain and the cowardice and weakness
and the nation by proposing a scheme for of the Americans, felt very little concern,
conciliation, not much unlike that of Charles James Fox advised the administra-
Chatham. It proposed that when any tion to place the Americans where they
colony should offer to make a provision stood in 1763, and to repeal every act
for raising a sum of money disposable passed since that time which affected
by Parliament for the common defence, either their freedom or their commerce,
and should provide for the support of civil Lord North said if such a scheme should
government and the administration of be effected there would be an end to the
justice within its own limits, and such dispute. His plan was to send an arma-
offer should be approved by the King, Par- ment to America, accompanied by commis-
liament should forbear the levy of any sioners to offer mercy upon a proper
duties or taxes within such colony, so submission, for he believed the Americans
long as it should be faithful to its prom- were aiming at independence. This belief
ises, excepting such as might be required and its conclusion were denied by Gen-
for the regulation of trade. The bill was eral Conway, who asked, " Did the Ameri-
warmly opposed by the ultra advocates of cans set up a claim for independence pre-
parliamentary supremacy, until North ex- vious to 1763?" and answered, "No, they
plained that he did not believe it would were then dutiful and peaceable subjects,
be acceptable to all the colonies, and that and they are still dutiful." He declared
it was intended to divide and weaken that the obnoxious acts of Parliament had
them. Then the bill passed. With a simi- forced them into acts of resistance,
lar design, a bill with the features of " Taxes have been levied upon them," he
the New England "restraining bill" was said; "their charters have been violated,
passed, after hearing of the general sup- nay, taken away; administration has at-
port given by the colonial assemblies to tempted to overawe them by the most
the proceedings of the Congress. It ex- cruel and oppressive laws." Edmund
tended similar restrictions to all the colo- Burke condemned the use of discretionary
nies excepting New York, North Carolina, power made by General Gage at Boston,
and Georgia, the first and last named James Grenville deprecated the use of
having declined to adopt the American force against the Americans, because they
Association, and the ministers entertain- did not aim at independence; while Mr.
ing hope of similar action by the Assembly Adam thought it absolutely necessary to
of North Carolina. reduce them to submission by force, be-
Finally Burke offered a. series of resolu- cause, if they should be successful in their
tions to abandon all attempts at parlia- opposition, they would certainly " proceed
mentary taxation and to return to the old to independence." He attempted to show
method of raising American supplies by that their subjugation would be easy, be-
thc free grant of the colonial assemblies, cause there would be no settled form of
His motion was voted down. Soon after- government in America, and all must be
wards John Wilkes (then Lord Mayor of anarchy and confusion.
London, as well as member of the House of Mr. Burke asked leave to bring in a,
Commons), whom the ministry had tried bill for composing the troubles in Amer-
to crush, and whom they regarded as their ica, and for quieting the minds of the
mortal enemy, presented to the King, in his colonists. He believed concession to be
official capacity, a remonstrance from the the true path to pursue to reach the happy
City authorities expressing " abhorrence " result. He proposed a renunciation of
of the measures in progress for " the op- the exercise of taxation, but not the right ;
pression of their fellow-subjects in the to preserve the power of laying duties for

PARLIAMENT OF RELIGIONS PARROTT

the regulation of commerce, but the money (2) to define and expound the important
raised was to be at the disposal of the truths they hold and teach in common;
several general assemblies. He proposed (3) to promote and deepen human brother-
to repeal the tea duty of 1767, and to pro- hood; (4) to strengthen the foundations
claim a general amnesty. His speech on of theism and the faith in immortality;
that occasion embraced every considera- (5) to hear from scholars, Brahman,
tion of justice and expediency, and warn- Buddhist, Confucian, Parsee, Mohammedan,
ed ministers that if they persisted in vex- Jewish, and other faiths, and from all
ing the colonies they would drive the sects and denominations of the Christian
Americans to a separation from the Church, accounts of the influence of each
mother-country. The plan was rejected, belief on literature, art, science, commerce,
Mr. Luttrell proposed to ask the King to government, social life, etc.; (6) to record
authorize commissioners to receive pro- the present condition and outlook of the
posals for conciliation from any general various religions of the world,
convention of Americans, or their Con- Parmentier, AUGUSTE HENRY, histo-
gress, as the most effectual means for pre- rian; born in Sancerre, France, in 1752,
venting the effusion of blood. It was re- ordained a priest in 1791. He wrote The
jected. In the House of Lords the Duke History of the French Provinces in North
of Grafton proposed to bring in a bill for America; The History of the French Col-
repealing every act which had been passed ony of Louisiana, etc. He died in Phila-
by Parliament relative to America since delphia, Pa., in 1816.

1763. It was not acted upon. Lord Parnell, CHARLES STEWART, Irish
Lyttelton severely condemned the meas- leader, born in Avondale, Ireland, in 1846;
ures of the administration, and united entered Parliament in 1875; and died in
with the Duke of Grafton in his proposi- Brighton, England, Oct. 2, 1891. His
tion for a repeal of the obnoxious acts, father, John Henry Parnell, visited the
He, with others, had believed that a show United States in 1824 and married Delia
of determination to reduce the colonies to Tudor Stewart, daughter of Admiral
submission would cause them to quail. Charles Stewart, "Old Ironsides."
He now knew he was mistaken. The Parris, SAMUEL, clergyman; born in
valiant declaration went forth, backed by London, England, in 1653; was first a
10,000 men, but it had not intimidated a merchant and then a minister. It was in
single colony. Notwithstanding the strong his family that Salem witchcraft began
reasons given by the opposition for minis- its terrible work, and he was the most
ters to be conciliatory towards the Amer- zealous prosecutor of persons accused of
ic-ans, the majority of Parliament were in the " black art." In April, 1693, his
favor of attempting coercion with a strong church brought charges against him. He
hand. Towards the end of the session acknowledged his error and was dismissed.
Burke asked leave to lay before the Com- He preached in various places afterwards,
mons the remonstrance lately voted by but was an unhappy wanderer, and died
the Assembly of New York. The ministry in Sudbury, Mass., Feb. 27, 1720.
and their friends had counted largely on Parrott, ENOCH GREENLEAF, naval offi-
&lt;he defection of that province; and they cer; born in Portsmouth, N. H., Dec. 10,
were so sorely disappointed when they 1814; entered the navy as midshipman
found the document so emphatic in its in 1831, and was with Commodore Perry
claims of the rights of Englishmen that on the coast of Africa in 1843. In the
Lord North opposed and prevented its re- frigate Congress he assisted at the capt-
ception by the House. The acts of that ure of Guaymas and Mazatlan on the
session of Parliament greatly widened the Mexican Pacific coast, and in 1861 was
breach between Great Britain and her made commander. He assisted in the de-
American colonies. struction of the war-vessels at Norfolk
Parliament of Religions, held at the and the navy-yard opposite, in April, 1861,
Worlds Fair in Chicago, Sept. 11-27, and was at the capture of the Savannah.
893. The objects proposed were: (1) In active service on the Atlantic coast
To bring together in conference the lead- from the Chesapeake to Georgia, and on
ing representatives of different religions; the James River, he was in command of

PARROTT PARSONS

the Monadnock in the two attacks on Fort 1756; admitted to the bar in 1759; was

Fisher, and was at the surrender of a representative in the Connecticut Assem-

Charleston. He became a rear-admiral in bly for eighteen sessions. He was an ac-

1873; retired in 1874. He died in New tive patriot at the beginning of the Revo-

lork City, May 10, 1879.

lution. He was made colonel of a Con-

Parrott, ROBEKT PARKER, military offi- recticut regiment in 1775, and engaged
cer; born in Lee, N. H., Oct. 5, 1804; in the siege of Boston. In August, 1776,
graduated at West Point in 1824; served he was made a brigadier-general, and as
in the army until 1836, when he resigned such engaged in the battle on Long Island,
to accept the superintendency of the West In 1779 Parsons succeeded General Put-
Point foundry. He invented a system of nam in command of the Connecticut line,
casting and rifling cannon which he placed and in 1780 was commissioned a major-
at the disposition of the United States general. At the close of the war he re-
governinent. This system was used in sumed the practice of law, and was ap-
the United States during the Civil War. pointed by Washington first judge of the
He died in Cold Spring, N. Y., Dec. 24, Northwestern Territory. He was also em-
1877. ployed to treat with the Indians for the

Parry, SIR WILLIAM EDWARD, Arctic extinguishment of their titles to the Con-
navigator; born in Bath, England, Dec. 19, necticut Western Reserve, in northern
1790; entered the royal navy at thirteen. Ohio.
Being engaged in blockading the New Eng- 1787;

He went to the new territory in
settled there; and was drowned
land coast in 1813, he ascended the Con- in the Big Beaver River, Ohio, Nov. 17,

1789.

Parsons, TIIEOPHILUS, jurist; born in

necticut River about 20 miles, and de
stroyed twenty-seven privateers and other
vessels. In 1818 he joined Sir John Ross s Byfield, Mass., Feb. 24, 1750; graduated
expedition to the Polar seas, and the next at Harvard College in 1769; admitted to
year he commanded a second expedition, the bar in 1774; and was at the head
penetrating to lat. 70 44 20" N. and long, of a grammar-school in Falmouth (now
110 W., which entitled him to receive the Portland), Me., when it was destroyed,
reward of $20,000 offered by Parlia- He began practice in Newburyport in
ment for reaching thus far west within 1777, and in 1780 was one of the principal
the Arctic Circle. He was promoted to framers of the State constitution of
commander on his return, in 1820, and Massachusetts. He removed to Boston in
was knighted in 1829. He made another 1800, where, until his death, he was re-
expedition in 1821-23; and in another, in garded as the brightest of the legal lights
1826, he reached the lat. of 82 45 in of New England. He had been a zealous

boats and

sledges,

the nearest point to advocate

of the national Constitution
the north pole which had then been reach- in 1788, and in 1806 was made chief-
ed. Parry was made rear-admiral of the justice of Massachusetts. His decisions

His mem-
He died ory was wonderful, and he was elo
quent as a speaker. His Opinions were

white in 1852, and in 1853 lieutenant- are embraced in six volumes.

governor of Greenwich Hospital,
in Ems, Germany, July 8, 1855.
Parsons, FRANK, lawyer ; born in Mount published in New York in 1836, under

the title of Commentaries on

Holly, N. J., Nov. 14, 1854; graduated

at Cornell in 1873; lecturer on law in the can

Amcrl-
Law. He died in Boston, Oct. 30,

Boston University in 1892; Professor of 1813.

History and Political Science in the Kan- Parsons, TIIEOPHILUS, lawyer; born in

sas Agricultural College in 1897. He is Newburyport, Mass., May 17, 1797; grad-

the author of a large number of articles uated at Harvard College in 1815; studied

on economics in the public press, and law; was Professor of Law in Harvard in

among his books are Our Country s Need; 1847-82. His publications include Elc-

Kational Money; The Drift of Our Time, ments of Mercantile Law; Laws of Busi-

etc. ness for Business Men; Maritime Law;

Parsons, SAMUEL HOLDEN, military Notes on Bills of Exchange; Shipping and

officer; born in Lyme, Conn., May 14, Admiralty; The Political, Personal, and

1737; graduated at Harvard College in Property Rights of a Citizen of the Unit-

PARSONS CASE PASTORIUS

cd States, etc. He died in Cambridge,
Mass., Jan. 22, 1882.

Parsons Case, THE. A short crop of
tobacco in Virginia having enhanced the
value of that staple, and the issuing of
bills of credit (1755) for the first time
in that province having depreciated the
currency, the Assembly passed a tempo
rary act authorizing the payment of all
tobacco debts in the depreciated currency,
at a stipulated price. Three years later
(1758) an expected short crop caused
the re-enactment of this tender-law. The
salaries of the parish ministers, sixty-five
in number, were payable in tobacco, and
they were likely to become losers by this
tender-law. The clergy sent an agent to
England, who obtained an Order in Coun
cil pronouncing the law void. Suits were
brought to recover the difference between
twopence per pound in depreciated cur
rency and the tobacco, to which, by law,
the ministers were entitled. In defend
ing one of these suits the rare elo
quence of Patrick Henry was first devel
oped.

Parton, JAMES, author; born in Canter
bury, England, Feb. 9, 1822; was brought
to the United States when a child; re
ceived a common school education in New
York City; removed to Newburyport,
Mass., in 1875. His publications include
Life of Horace Greeley; Life and Times

of Aaron Burr; Life of Andrew Jackson,
Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin;
Manual for the Instruction of Rings, Rail
road and Political, and How New York is
Governed; Famous Americans of Recent
Times; The Words of Washington; Life
of Thomas Jefferson, Third President of
the United States, etc. He died in Ne\v-
buryport, Mass., Oct. 17, 1891.

Parvin, THEODORE SUTTON, author;
born in Cedarville, N. J., Jan. 15, 1817;
removed to Ohio and later to Iowa.. In the
latter State he served in the legislature
and also filled many public offices. He
was the author of a History of loiva, and
a History of the Knights Templar in
America. For fifty-five years he was
grand secretary of the Knights Templar
in Iowa. He died in 1901.

Paschal, GEORGE WASHINGTON, lawyer;
born in Skull Shoals, Ga., Nov. 23, 1812;
received an academic education; was ad
mitted to the bar in 1832; removed to
Texas in 1847. During the Civil War he
earnestly supported the National cause;
settled in Washington, D. C., in 1869. His
publications include Annotated Digest of
the Laws of Texas; Annotated Constitu
tion of the United Slates: Decisions of
the Supreme Court of Texas; Sketch of
the Last Years of Samuel Houston, etc.
He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 16,
1878.

PASTOBIUS, FRANCIS DANIEL

Pastorius, FRANCIS DANIEL, author of
A Particular Geographical Description of
the Lately Discovered Province of Penn
sylvania, Situated on the Frontiers of this
Western World, America,; published in
Frankfort and Leipzig in 1700; translated
from the original German by Lewis H.
Weiss.

John G. Whittier, in an introductory
note to his poem, The Pennsylvania Pil
grim, wrote : " The beginning of German
emigration to America may be traced to
the personal influence of William Penn,
who in 1677 visited the Continent, and
made the acquaintance of an intelligent
and highly cultivated circle of Pietists, or
Mystics, who, reviving in the seventeenth
century the spiritual faith and worship
of Tauler and the

the fourteenth, gathered about the pastor
Spener, and the young and beautiful
Eleonora Johanna von Merlau. In this
circle originated the Frankfort Land Com
pany, which bought of William Penn, the
governor of Pennsylvania, a tract of land
near the new city of Philadelphia.

" The company s agent in the New
World was a rising young lawyer, Francis
Daniel Pastorius, son of Judge Pastorius,
of Windsheim, who studied law at Stras-
burg, Basle, and Jena, and at Ratisbon,
and received the degree of Doctor of Law,
at Nuremberg, in 1676. In 1679 he be
came deeply interested in the teachings
of Dr. Spener. In 1680-81 he travelled in
France, England, Ireland, and Italy with
his friend Herr von Rodeck. I was, he
says, glad to enjoy again the company

PASTOBIUS, FRANCIS DANIEL

of my Christian friends rather than be
with Von Rodeck, feasting and dancing.
In 1683, in company with a small number
of German Friends, he emigrated to Amer
ica, settling upon the Frankfort Company s
tract. The township was divided into
four hamlets namely, Germantown, Kris-
heim, Crefield, and Sommerhausen. He
united with the Society of Friends, and
became the recognized head and law
giver of the settlement. He married, two
years after his arrival, Anneke, daughter
of Dr. Klosterman, of Muhlheim.

" In the year 1688 he drew up a memorial
against slave-holding, which was adopted
by the Germantown Friends, and sent up
to the monthly meeting, and thence to the
yearly meeting at Philadelphia. It is
noteworthy as the first protest made by
a religious body against negro slavery.
The original document was discovered in
1844, by the Philadelphia antiquarian,
Nathan Kite, and published in The Friend.
It is a bold and direct appeal to the best
instincts of the heart. Have not, he
asks, those negroes as much right to
fight for their freedom as you have to
keep them slaves?

" Under the wise direction of Pastorius,
the Germantown settlement grew and pros
pered. The inhabitants planted orchards
and vineyards, and surrounded themselves
with souvenirs of their old home. A large
number of them were linen-weavers, as
well as small farmers. The Quakers were
the principal sect; but men of all re
ligions were tolerated, and lived together
in harmony. In 1692 Richard Frame pub
lished, in what he called verse, a De
scription of Pennsylvania, in which he
alludes to the settlement:

" The German town of which I spoke before,
Which is at least in length one mile or

more,
Where lives High German people and Low

Dutch,
AVhose trade in weaving linen cloth is

much

There grows the flax, as also you may know
That from the same they do divide the tow.
Their trade suits well their habitation
We find convenience for their occupation. "

OF THE DISCOVERY OF THE PENNSYLVANIAN

REGIONS.

Although, after the successful expedi
tions of Columbus and Americus, many

colonies had arisen in this Western World,
such as Nova Hispania, Nova Gallia,
Brasilia, Peru, Golden Castilia, His-
paniola, Cumana, Jamaica, Nova Anglia,
Florida, Virginia, etc., it so happened,
anno 1665 [ !], by means of the skilful and
enterprising navigators sent out under the
auspices of Caroli Stuardus I., King of
England, a new and large country was dis
covered, lying far beyond the above-men
tioned colonies. For the time being, how
ever, no name was given to it, inasmuch
as the natives roamed about the forests,
not having any fixed residences or towns
from which any name could have been de
rived; but they lived here and there in
the wilderness in Tuguriis, or huts made
of the bark of trees.

About the time of this discovery the
Duke of York, having great numbers of
Swedes and others under his control, com
manded that a town should be commenced
on the Dellavarra River, which was
fortified; and he called the place New
Castle. He likewise granted to the Swedes
large privileges to induce them to remain
there, and to cultivate the lands, intend
ing to settle it, also, with English emi
grants. The Swedes began to clear away
the forests, and soon became a flourishing
community.

About this time the unheard-of tragedy
was enacted in England, that the King
was taken by his own subjects and behead
ed; his son, the heir to the throne, pur
sued for his life; but he managed to make
his escape through the instrumentality
of his general, Lord Penn, who carried
him to France in disguise, for which
goodly service Penn s entire estates were
confiscated or destroyed ; and he himself
died in exile, before the restoration of the
prince.

Upon the reinstating of Carolus II. on
the throne of his father, he was visited
by William Penn, the only son of Lord
Penn; and he received him very gracious
ly. In consideration of the services of
his father, he presented to him this entire
region, together with the colony of New
Castle, forever. This royal bounty bears
the date April 21, 1681. Penn now pub
lished it in the city of London, that he
intended to establish a colony there,
and offered to sell lands to all such as
wished to emigrate. Upon this many

PASTOBIUS, FRANCIS DANIEL

persons offered to go, and Penn accom- feet front, and is four hundred feet deep,

panied them thither, where he founded the Next to it is to be a street. Adjoining

city of Philadelphia, in 1682. A Ger- it lies the second lot of the same size

man society also contracted with his as No. 1. Then another street. Lot No.

agents in London for several thousand 3 joins this street, its size being the same

acres of land to establish a German colony as the other two. On these lots we can

there. The entire region was named build two dwellings at each end, making

Pennsylvania, which signifies Penn s forest in all twelve buildings with proper yards

lands. and gardens, and all of them fronting on

[Here follow Penn s charter and plans the streets.

of settlement, which are already well For the first few years, little or no

known and are therefore omitted.] profit can reasonably be expected to ac
crue from these lots, on account of tho

CONCERNING THE GERMAN SOCIETY. g reat scarc i t y o f money in this prov-

The German society commissioned my- ince, and, also, that as yet this coun-

self, Francis Daniel Pastorius, as their try has no goods or productions of

licensed agent, to go to Pennsylvania and any kind to trade with or export to Eu-

to superintend the purchase and survey rope,

of their lands. Our governor, William Penn, intends to

I set out from Franckfort - on - the- establish and encourage the growing and

Mayne, went to London, where I made manufactory of woollens; to introduce the

the purchase, and then embarked for cultivation of the vine, for which this

America. country is peculiarly well adapted, so that

Under the protection of the Almighty, our company had better send us a quantity

I arrived safely at Philadelphia; and I of wine barrels and vats of various sorts,

was enabled to send my report home to also all kinds of farming and gardening

Germany on the 7th of March, 1684. implements. Item, several iron boilers of

The lands I purchased were to be as various sizes, and copper and brass ket-

follows: fifteen thousand acres in one ties. Item, an iron stove, several blankets

tract on some navigable stream. and mattresses, also a few pieces of

Three hundred acres in the City Liber- Barchet and white linens, which might be

ties, which is the strip of land lying be- sold in our trading-house here to good ad-

tween the rivers Dellavarra and Scol- vantage,

kill, above Philadelphia. On the 16th of November last a fair had

Three lots in the city proper for the been held at Philadelphia; but we only

purpose of building thereon. sold about ten dollars worth at our trad-

Upon my arrival I applied to the ing-house, owing altogether to the scare-
governor, William Penn, for warrants, ity of money, as has been already men-
so as to survey and take possession of tioned.
the aforesaid lands. As relating to our newly laid out town,

His first answer, concerning the three Germanopolis, or Germantown, it is situ-

hundred acres in the Liberties and the ated on a deep and very fertile soil, and

three lots in the city, was this: "That is blessed with an abundance of fine

these could by right not be claimed by the springs and fountains of fresh water. The

German Company, because they had been main street is sixty and the cross street

purchased after he had left London, the forty feet in width. Every family has

books closed, and all the lots previously a plot of ground for yard and garden

disposed of." He, however, had three lots three acres in size.

in the city surveyed for me, out of his [Here follow William Penn s laws,
youngest son s portion, instead of those which are already well known and there-
above mentioned. fore omitted.]

Beginning to number the houses from

the Dellavarra Eiver, our trading-house OF THE SITUATION OF THE COUNTRY AND

is the ninth in order. THE RIVERS THEREOF.

Our first lot in the city is of the fol- The situation of Pennsylvania is like

lowing dimensions. It has one hundred unto that of Naples in Italy. This region

PASTOBIUS, FRANCIS DANIEL

lies in the fortieth degree of north lati
tude, is bounded on the east by the Del-
lavarra River, and extends in length 75
miles, in breadth 45.*

The islands bordering upon this prov
ince are New Jersey, Marieland, and Vir
ginia. In these regions, several new and
beautiful stars and constellations are
visible, which have heretofore been en
tirely unknown to the European astrologi
and learned ones.

The river Dellavarra is so beautiful a
stream as not to have its equal among
all the rivers of Europe.

It is navigable for vessels of one hun
dred tons thirty miles beyond Philadelphia.
It separates Pennsylvania from New Jer
sey. At Philadelphia it is two and at
New Castle three miles wide; is abun
dantly stocked with the finest fish, as is
likewise the river Scolkill.

The springs and fountains of water are
innumerable.

The woods and copses are filled with
beautiful birds of great variety, which
proclaim their Creator s praises, in their
pleasantest manner. There is, besides, a
great abundance of wild geese, ducks, tur
keys, quails, pigeons, partridges, and many
other sorts of game.

The town of Uplandt is twenty miles
above New Castle on the river, and is a
fine large place, inhabited mostly by
Swedes.

On the twenty-fourth day of Octobriis,
anno 1685, I, Francis Daniel Pastorius,
with the wish and concurrence of our
governor, laid out and planned a new
town, which we called Germantown or
Germanopolis, in a very fine and fertile
district, with plenty of springs of fresh
water, being well supplied with oak, wal
nut, and chestnut trees, and having be
sides excellent and abundant pasturage
for the cattle. At the commencement
there were but twelve families of forty-
one individuals, consisting mostly of
German mechanics and weavers. The
principal street of this, our town, I made
sixty feet in width, and the cross street,
forty feet. The space or lot for each
house and garden I made three acres in
size; for my own dwelling, however, six
acres.

Before my laying out of this town, I
had already erected a small house in
Philadelphia, thirty feet by fifteen in
size. The windows, for the want of
glass, were made of oiled paper. Over
the d oor I had placed the following in
scription :

OF THE TOWNS AND CITIES IN THIS Parva domus, scd arnica bonis, procul este

PROVINCE. prophani,

The governor, William Penn, laid out at which our governor, when he paid me

the city of Philadelphia, between the two a visit, laughed heartily, at the same

rivers Dellavarra and Scolkill, naming time encouraging me to build more,

it with the pious wish and desire that its I have also obtained 15,000 acres

inhabitants might dwell together in of land for our company, in one tract,

brotherly love and unity. with this condition that within one

The Dellavarra is deep enough so that year at least thirty families should

the largest vessels can come up close to settle on it; and thus we may, by God s

the bank, which is but about a stone s blessing, have a separate German prov-

cast from the city. ince, where we can all live together in

Another English company have laid out one.
the new town of Frankfort, five miles
above Philadelphia, at which now so

flourishing and pleasant place they have OF THE PRODUCTIONS OF THE COUNTRY.

already established several good mills, Inasmuch as this region lies in the same

a glass-house, pottery, and some stores degree of latitude as Montpelier and

and trading-houses. Naples, but has a much richer soil, and

New Castle lies forty miles from ihe th.it better watered by its many springs
ocean on the Dellavarra, and has a very and rivulets, it is but reasonable to sup-
good harbor. pose that such a country must be well

* German miles, one of which is equal to calculated to produce all kinds of fruit.

5 English miles The air is pure and serene, the summer is

PASTORITTS, FRANCIS DANIEL

longer and warmer than it is in Germany,
and we are cultivating many kinds of
fruits and vegetables, and our labors meet
with rich reward.

Of cattle we have a great abundance,
but for want of proper accommodation
they roam at large for the present.

Sugar and syrup we import from Bar
bados, and he that has not money bar
ters with such articles of produce as he
imay have. The articles of trade be
tween the Indians and the Christians
consist of fish, birds, deer-skins, and the
furs of beavers, otters, foxes, etc. They
usually exchange these things for liquor
or else for their own kind of money,
which they call wampum, and consists
of red and white sea - shells, which are
neatly prepared, and strung like beads.
These strings of wampum they make
use of to decorate themselves with.
Their king wears a crown made of the
same.

Twelve strings of the red are valued as
much as twenty-four white ones. They
like this kind of money much better than
our silver coin, because they are so often
deceived by it, not being able to dis
tinguish the counterfeit from the genuine,
and, as they cannot well calculate the
difference in its value, they do not much
like to take it.

The money in circulation among our
selves is Spanish and English coin. Gems
and precious stones we have none, neither
do we desire any. We would not give
him any great thanks who would dig
them out of the earth; for these things
which God has created for good and wise
purposes have been most shamefully
abused by man, and have become the ser
vants of human pride and ostentation
rather than being conducive to the
Creator s glory.

OF THE GROWTH AND IMPROVEMENT OP
THIS COLONY.

Although this far-distant land was a
dense wilderness and it is only quite re
cently that it has come under the cul
tivation of the Christians there is much
cause of wonder and admiration how
rapidly it has already, under the blessing
of God, advanced, and is still advancing,
day by day. The first part of the time

we were obliged to obtain our provisions
from the Jerseys for money, and at a
high price; but now we not only have
enough for ourselves, but a considerable
surplus to dispose of among our neighbor
ing colonies. Of the mos^ needful me
chanics we have enough now; but day-
laborers are very scarce, and of them
we stand in great need. Of mills, brick
kilns, and tile-ovens we have the necessary
number.

Our surplus of grain and cattle we
trade to Barbados for rum, syrup, sugar,
and salt. The furs, however, we ex
port to England for other manufactured
goods.

We are also endeavoring to introduce
the cultivation of the vine, and also the
manufacture of woollen cloths and linens,
so as to keep our money as much as pos
sible in the country. For this reason
we have already established fairs to be
held at stated times, so as to bring the
people of different parts together for
the purposes of barter and trade, and
thereby encourage our own industry
and prevent our little money from going
abroad.

OF THE INHABITANTS OF THIS LAND.

The inhabitants may be divided into
three classes: (1) the Aborigines, or, as
they are called, the savages; (2) those
Christians who have been in the country
for years, and are called old settlers; (3)
the newly arrived colonists of the different
companies.

1. The savages, or Indians, are in gen
eral strong, nimble, and well-shaped peo
ple, of a dark, tawny complexion, and
wore no clothing whatever when the first
Europeans came to this country. Now,
however, they hang a blanket about their
shoulders, or some of them also have
shirts.

They have straight black hair, which
they cut off close to the head, save one
tuft, which they leave stand on the right
side. Their children they anoint with the
fat of the bears and other animals, so
as to make their skin dark, for by nature
they would be white enough. They cul
tivate among themselves the most scrupu
lous honesty, are unwavering in keeping
promises, defraud and insult no one, are

PASTOBIUS, FRANCIS DANIEL

very hospitable to strangers, obliging to of his wisdom and divine power, and par-
their guests, and faithful even to death ticularly do they listen with emotion to
towards their friends. the narrative of the Saviour s life and

Their huts, or wigwams, they make by sufferings; but it is greatly to be re-
bending down several young trees, and gretted that we are not yet sufficiently
covering them with bark. acquainted with their language, so as to

They use neither tables nor chairs explain the great plan of salvation to
nor furniture of any kind, except, per- them fully.

haps, a single pot or kettle to cook their They behave with the greatest respect
food. and decorum whenever they attend public

I once saw four of them dining together worship in our churches ; and it is my
in great enjoyment of their feast. It con- firm belief that many of these poor Amer-
sisted in nothing more than a pumpkin, ican savages will in the great % day rise
simply boiled in water, without salt, up in judgment with those of Tyre and
butter, or spice of any kind. Their seat Sidon against our own wicked and per-
and table was the bare ground, their verse generation. As regards their domes-
spoons were sea-shells, wherewith they tic arrangements, the men attend to the
supped the warm water, and their plates chase, hunting, and fishing, the women
were the leaves of the nearest tree, which, bring up their children, instructing them
after they were done their meal, they had in virtue and honor. They raise some
no occasion of washing or any need of few vegetables, such as corn and beans;
carefully preserving for future use. I but, as to any extensive farming and cul-
thought to myself on witnessing this tivation, they concern themselves nothing
scene how these poor savages, who have about it, but are rather surprised that
never heard of the Saviour s doctrines and we, as Christians, should have so many
maxims of contentment and temperance, cares and anxieties as to our support and
how far superior they are to ourselves, nourishment, just as if we did not believe
so-called Christians, at least so far as that God will and can sustain and provide
these virtues are concerned. for us.

They are otherwise very grave and re- They speak a most beautiful and grave
served, speak but little, and in few language, which sounds very much like
words, and are greatly surprised when the Italian, although it has entirely dif-
they hear much needless and even foolish ferent words.

talking and tale-bearing among us Chris- They are in the habit of painting their
tians. faces with various colors, and the women

They are true and faithful in their as well as the men are very fond of
matrimonial relations, abhorring licen- tobacco.

tiousness in the extreme. Above all do 2. The earlier European or old settlers,
they despise deception and falsehood. These never had the proper motives in
They have no idols, but adore one great, settling here; for, instead of instructing
good Spirit, who keeps the devil in sub- the poor Indians in the Christian virtues,
jection. They believe in the immor- their only desire was gain, without ever
tality of the soul, and, according as scrupling about the means employed in
they have lived in this world, do they obtaining it.

expect a reward or punishment in the By these means they have taught those
future. natives who had dealings with them

Their peculiar mode of worship con- nothing but deception and many other
sists principally in singing and dancing, evil habits, so that there is very little
during which they make use of the most of virtue or honesty remaining on either
singular contortions and positions of the side.

body: and, when the remembrance of the These wicked people make it a custom
death of parents or dear friends is brought to pay the savages in rum and other
to their mind, they break forth into the liquors for the furs they bring to them,
most piteous cries and lamentations. so that these poor deluded Indians have

They are fond of hearing us speak about become very intemperate, and sometimes
the Creator of heaven and the earth, and drink to such excess that they can neither

PASTOBIUS, FRANCIS DANIEL

walk nor stand. On such occasions they from the parents to their children only

often commit thefts and other vices. per traditionem.

3. The newly arrived colonists of our The English and the Dutch adhere to
and other companies. We who have come the Calvinistic persuasion,
over to this land with good and honest The colonists of William Penn are near-
intentions have purchased considerable ly all Quakers.

tracts of land where we will settle, and The Swedes and Germans are Evangeli-

endeavor to live in happiness and content- cal Lutherans, under the jurisdiction of

ment; and we are living in the hope and the Bishop of Upsala. The Swedes have

expectation that we can in time do some- their own churches. The name of their

thing for the eternal welfare and salvation clergyman is Fabricius, of whom I must

of the aborigines. May our God prosper say with deep regret that he is an intem-

and bless our undertakings! perate man, and, as regards spiritual

things, very dark and ignorant. We in
Germantown built a little chapel for our-

OF THE GOVERNMENTS OF THIS LAND. selyes in 1686j but dM not SQ much care

The aborigines of this country had their for a splendid stone edifice as for having

own chiefs and kings. an humble but true temple devoted to the

We Christians acknowledge as our gov- living God, in which true believers might

ernor and chief magistrate the oft-named be edified to the salvation of their souls.

and excellent, the Hon. William Penn, to The ministers here might have an excel-

whom this region was granted and given lent opportunity to obey and practise the

as his own by his Majesty of England, command of the Saviour, " Go ye into all

Carolus II., with the express command the world and preach the gospel " ; but,

that all the previous and future colonists unfortunately, they seek more their own

should be subject to Penn s laws and juris- comfort and ease than they do the glory of

diction. the Redeemer.

This wise and truly pious ruler and gov
ernor did not, however, take possession of

j .,, , OF THE GERMAN SOCIETY FOR THE SETTLING

the province thus granted without hav-

. , , . IN PENNSYLVANIA.

ing nrst conciliated, and at various coun
cils and treaties duly purchased from, The principal participants in this so-
the natives of this country the various ciety of ours are the following-named
regions of Pennsylvania. He, having by gentlemen:

these means obtained good titles to the Jacob von De Walle, Dr. John Jacob

province, under the sanction and signature Schuetz, and Daniel Behagel, all of

of the native chiefs, I therefore have pur- Franckfort-on-the-Mayne.

chased from him some thirty thousand Gerhard von Mastricht, of Duisburg;

acres for my German colony. Thomas von Wylich, and John Lebrunn, of

Now, although the oft-mentioned Will- Wesel.

iam Penn is one of the sect of Friends, Benjamin Furly, of Rotterdam; Philip

or Quakers, still he will compel no man Fort, of London.

to belong to his particular society; but These persons will attend to and care

he has granted to every one free and un- for all letters and papers for our colony,

trammelled exercise of their opinions and and will also assist and give advice to

the largest and most complete liberty of all such as desire to emigrate, if such

conscience. applicants be of good moral character

and standing, and their motives and in
tentions for emigrating are honest and

OF THE VARIOUS RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS i

OF THESE PARTS. In Pennsylvan ; a the whole direction

The native Indians have no written re- and management of the colony has been

ligious belief or creed; and their own intrusted to my humble abilities, for the

peculiar ideas, which are by no means time being; and may the Almighty give

so rude or so barbarous as those of many me the proper wisdom and strength to

other heathens, have to be transmitted fulfil all my arduous duties.
VII. F 81

PASTORIUS, FRANCIS DANIEL

OF THE OPPORTUNITIES AND WAYS OF EMI
GRATING TO THIS COUNTRY.

From the month of April until in the
fall of every year there are vessels sailing
to Pennsylvania, at frequent times, from
England, principally from the port of
Deal, although there is no fixed time or
day set for sailing, and persons are
therefore compelled to watch their op
portunity. Whenever there is a company
of thirty-five or forty passengers together,
exclusive of the ship s crew, a vessel is
despatched. Every grown-up man pays
for his passage the sum of 6 sterling,
or thirty-six rix dollars. For a female
or servant, twenty-two rix dollars. One
pound sterling is equal to six rix dol
lars.

OF MY OWN VOYAGE HITHER.

After I had left London, where I had
made all my arrangements with Penn s
agent, and arrived at Deal, I hired four
male and two female servants, and on the
7th of June, 1683, set sail with a com
pany of eighty passengers. Our ship drew
thirteen feet of water. Our fare on board
was poor enough. The allowance of pro
vision for ten persons per week was as
follows: three pounds of butter; daily,
four cans of beer and one can of water;
every noon, two dishes of pease ; four times
per week salt meat, and three times salt
fish, which we were obliged to cook, each
man for himself, and had daily to save
enough from dinner to serve for our sup
pers also. And, as these provisions were
usually very poor, and the fish sometimes
tainted, we were all compelled to make
liberal use of liquors and other refresh
ments of a similar nature to preserve the
health amid such hard fare. Moreover,
it is the practice of the masters of these
vessels to impose upon their passengers
in a shameful manner by giving them very
short allowances. It is therefore advisable
not to pay the passage in full in England,
but to withhold a part until the arriving
in America, so that they are obliged to
fulfil their part of the contract. Fur
thermore, it is advisable to endeavor to
obtain passage in vessels bound to Phila
delphia direct, inasmuch as those who
come in such, landing at Upland, are
subjected to many and grievous molesta
tions.

On the sixteenth day of August, 1083,
we came in sight of the American conti
nent, but did not enter the Capes of Dela
ware until the 18th ejusdem. The 20th
ejusdem we passed by NBAV Castle and
Upland, and arrived toward evening at
Philadelphia, in perfect health and safety,
where we were all welcomed with great
joy and love by the governor, William
Penn, and his secretary. He at once made
me his confidential friend, and I am fre
quently requested to dine with him, where
I can enjoy his good counsel and edify
ing conversations. Lately I could not
visit him for eight days, when he waited
upon me himself, requesting me to dine
with him in future twice in each week,
without particular invitation, assuring
me of his love andj, friendship toward
myself and the German nation, hoping
that all the rest of the colonists would
do the same.

OF THE DUTIES AND LABORS OF THE GERMAN
COLONIST.

Our German society have in this place
now established a lucrative trade in
woollen and linen goods, together with a
large assortment of other useful and
necessary articles, and have intrusted this
extensive business to my own direction.
Besides this they have now purchased and
hold over thirty thousand acres of land,
for the sake of establishing an entirely
German colony. In my newly laid out
Germantown there are already sixty-four
families in a very prosperous condition.
Such persons, therefore, and all those
who still arrive, have to fall to work and
swing the axe most vigorously; for wher
ever you turn the cry is, Itur in antiquam
sylvam, nothing but endless forests. So
that I have been often wishing for a num
ber of stalwart Tyrolians, to throw down
these gigantic oak and other forest trees,
but which we will be obliged to cut down
ourselves by degrees and with almost in
credible labor and exertion, during which
we can have a very forcible illustration
of the sentence pronounced upon our poor
old father Adam, that in the sweat of his
brow he should eat his bread. To our
successors, and others coming after us, we
would say that they must not only bring
over money, but a firm determination to
labor and make themselves useful to our

PATCH PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY

infant colony. Upon the whole, we may In 1870 the Patent Office was made a
consider that man blessed whom the devil branch of the State Department; it after-
does not find idling. In the mean time wards became a bureau of the Interior
we are employing the wild inhabitants as Department. During the fiscal year 1903-
day-laborers, for which they are, however, 04 there were 56,023 applications for
not much inclined; and we ourselves are patents, re-issues, etc.

gradually learning their language, so to Paterson, JOHN, military officer; born
instruct them in the religion of Christ, in New Britain, Conn., in 1744; graduated
inviting them to attend our church ser- at Yale College in 1762; became a lawyer,
vices, and therefore have the pleasing and was an active patriot in Massa-
hope that the spirit of God may be the chusetts at the breaking-out of the Revolu-
means of enlightening many of these poor tion, being a member of the Provincial
heathens unto their souls salvation. To Congress. After the affair at Lexington he
Him be honor, praise, thanks, and glory, hastened with a regiment of minute-men
forevermore. Amen. to Cambridge, where he cast up the first.

Patch, SAMUEL, diver; born in Rhode redoubt of the fortifications around Bos-
Island in 1807. As an athlete he became ton. After the evacuation of that city
known as a diver, making his first cele- he was sent to Canada, and a part of his
brated leap from the bridge over the regiment was engaged at the Cedars.
Passaic River at Paterson, N. J. He met When the army left Canada he joined
his death Nov. 13, 1829, in jumping from Washington, and was engaged in the bat-
abridge over the Genesee River at Roches- ties of Trenton and Princeton; and in
ter, N. Y., at a height of 125 feet above the February, 1777, he was made brigadier-
water, general and attached to the Northern De-
Patent Laws. Clause 8, section 8, partment, where he rendered important
article 3 of the national Constitution gives services in the events which ended in the
to Congress power to " promote the prog- capture of Burgoyne. At the battle of
ress of science and useful arts by securing, Monmouth, the next year, he was very
for a limited time, to authors and in- efficient, and remained in the service until
venters, the exclusive right to their re- the close of the war. In 17S6 he com-
spective writings and discoveries." The manded a detachment of Berkshire mili-
first law framed under this provision was tia which was sent to suppress Shays s
approved April 10, 1790, and secured to insurrection. He removed to Lisle, N. Y.,
authors and inventors the exclusive rights after that, where he became a member of
in the use of their productions for four- the legislature, member of the convention
teen years. It remained in force three that revised the State constitution in
years, when it was repealed. Only three 1801, and member of Congress from 1803
patents were granted the first year, thirty- to 1805. He died in Lisle, N. Y., July
three the second, and eleven the third. 19, 1808.

A new law was passed in 1793. It was Paterson, WILLIAM, jurist; born at
amended from time to time, and remained sea in 1745; graduated at Princeton in
in force until 1836, when all existing 1763; admitted to the bar in 1769: at-
patent laws were repealed, and a new one torney-general for New Jersey in 1776;
was approved. During the ten years from elected to the Continental Congress in
1790 to 1800 the number of patents grant- 1780; to the Constitutional Convention in
ed was 276. The matter of infringement 1787: elected United States Senator in
of patents was first brought under the 1789; governor of New Jersey, 1791; ap-
equity jurisdiction of the United States pointed justice of the United States
courts in 1819, and in 1832 provision was Supreme Court in 1793. He died in Al-
made by Congress for the re-issue of bany, N. Y., Sept. 9, 1806.
patents under certain conditions. Prior Patrons of Husbandry, a secret order
to the new law of 1836, only 10,020 patents organized in the United States, Dec 4
had been issued. From 1837 to 1890, the 1867, by O. H. Kelly, of the United States
number of patents issued was 475,785. In bureau of agriculture, for the purpose
1861 the time for which patents were of promoting the social and material in-
issued was extended to seventeen years, terests of persons engaged directly or indi-

PATROONS

rectly in the agricultural and allied Indus- manufacture cloth of any kind, on pain
tries. The unit of organization is the of banishment from the colony; and the
local grange, subordinate to the State company agreed to furnish them with
grange, and that in turn under the juris- as many African slaves " as they con-
diction of the national grange. Although veniently could " ; also, to protect them
the order is non-political, the national against foes.

grange has expressed favor towards the Each colony was bound to support a

following subjects of reform: minister of the Gospel and a school-master,

1. Postal savings-banks. 2. Enactment and so provide a comforter of the sick and
of pure food laws. 3. Rural free-mail de- a teacher of the illiterate. Such was the
livery. 4. Additional powers to the Inter- modified feudalism introduced into the
state Commerce Commission. 5. Speedy young Dutch colony, which naturally fos-
vonst ruction of the Nicaragua Canal by tered aristocratic ideas. It recognized the
the United States. 6. To prevent the right of the Indians to the soil by corn-
pooling of railroads. 7. Impartial inves- pelling its purchase from them; it invited
tigation of foreign trade relations. 8. independent farmers, to whom a homestead
Election of United States Senators by should be secured, and promised protection
popular vote. 9. Settlement of interna- to all in case of war, and encouraged re-
tional differences by arbitration. ligion and learning. Yet the free New

In 1901 the national grange had estab- England system was far better for the de-

lished 27,689 subordinate granges in forty- velopment and growth of popular liberty,

four States and Territories. See FARM- Several of these patroon domains were

ERS ALLIANCE; PEOPLE S PARTY. secured by directors of the Amsterdam

Patrooiis. To induce private capital- Chamber. The patroons began vigorously

ists to engage in making settlements in to make settlements on the Hudson and

NEW NETHERLAND (q. v.) , the West India Delaware rivers, and so construed the

Company, in 1629, resolved to grant charter of privileges and exemptions that

lands and manorial privileges to such as they claimed a right to traffic with the

should accept the conditions of a proposed Indians. This brought them into collision

charter of privileges and exemptions, with the other directors, whose jealousy

Reserving the island of Manhattan, they was aroused. The patroons persisted, and

offered to grant lands in any part of New an appeal was made to the States-General,

Netherland, to the extent of 16 miles which prudently postponed a decision, " in

along any navigable stream (or 4 miles order to enable the parties to come to

if on each shore), and indefinitely in an amicable settlement." So ended the

the interior, to any person who should action of the Dutch government in the

agree to plant a colony of fifty adults matter.

within four years; or, if he should bring The patroon system discouraged indi-

more, his domain to be proportionately vidual enterprise. Private persons who

enlarged. He was to be absolutely lord of wished to emigrate dared not attempt it.

the manor, politically and otherwise, hold- Some of the best tracts of land in the

ing inferior courts for the jurisdiction of colony were appropriated by the patroons.

petty civil cases; and, if cities should The latter, ambitious and grasping, at-

grow up on his domain, he was to have tempted to enlarge their privileges, and

power to appoint the magistrates and boldly presented to the States-General a

other officers of such municipalities, and new plan for the purpose, in which they

have a deputy to confer with the governor, demanded that they should monopolize

These lords of manors were called pa- more territory; have longer time to settle

troons, or patrons, and the settlers under colonists; be invested with larger feudal

them were to be exempted from all taxa- powers; be made entirely independent of

tion and tribute for the support of the the control of the company with respect

provincial government for ten years ; and to the internal government of the colonies }

for the same period every man, woman, enjoy free-trade throughout and around

and child was bound not to leave the ser- New Netherland ; have a vote in the coun-

rice of the patroon without his written cil of the director-general; be supplied

consent. The colonists were forbidden to with convicts from Holland as servants,

PATROONS PATTEBSON

and with negro slaves; and, finally, that form a political party favorable to their
all private persons and poor immigrants cause. It succeeded in 1842, and several
should be forbidden to purchase lands years afterwards, in electing one-eighth
from the Indians, and should be required of the legislature who favored the anti-
to settle themselves within the established renters; and in 1846 a clause was in-
colonies and under the control of the serted in the revised constitution of the
manorial lords. These extravagant de- State, abolishing all feudal tenures and
mands caused their existing privileges to incidents, and forbidding the leasing of
be curtailed by a new charter of privileges agricultural lands for a longer term than
and exemptions, issued in 1640. A host twelve years. The same year Governor
of smaller " masters of colonies " was Wright, who was a candidate for re
created, and the legal powers of the old election as chief magistrate, was defeated
patroons were abridged. Quarrels between by 10,000 majority given to John Young,
these lords of manors and the civil gov- the anti-rent candidate, who afterwards
eminent of New Netherland continued released all offenders of the law who
until the province passed from the pos- were in prison. The excitement gradually
session of the Dutch to that of the subsided, and only in courts of law were
English. the anti-rent associations actively seen.

These feudal tenures having been abol- The last proprietor of the Van Rensselaer
ished, the proprietors of manor grants manor sold his interests in his lands to
contrived a form of deed by which the a person who made amicable arrangements
grantees agreed to pay rents and dues al- with all the tenants for the rent, sale, and
most precisely as before. This tenure be- purchase of the farms,
came burdensome and odious to the tillers ; Patten, GEORGE WASHINGTON, military
and in 1839 associations of farmers were officer; born in Newport, R. I., Dec. 25,
formed for the purpose of devising a 1808; graduated at Brown University in
scheme of relief from the burdens. The 1824, and at West Point in 1830. He
movement was soon known as anti-rent- served in the war against the Seminoles
ism, and speedily manifested itself in open and in Mexico and was brevetted major
resistance to the service of legal processes for gallantry at Cerro Gordo, where he
for the collecting of manorial rents. The lost a hand. He was made lieutenant-
first overt act of lawlessness that attract- colonel of the 2d Infantry, June 7, 1862,
ed public attention was in the town of and retired Feb. 17, 1864. Colonel Patten
Grafton, Rensselaer county, where a band was a contributor of poetical pieces for
of anti-renters, disguised, killed a man, yet periodicals from his youth, and a volume
the criminal was never discovered. In of his poems was published in 1867. He
1841 and 1842 Governor Seward in his was also author of an Army Manual
messages recommended the reference of the (1863); and Tactics and Drill for In-
alleged grievances and matters in dispute fantry, Artillery, and Cavalry (3 volumes,
on both sides to arbitrators, and appoint- 1861-63). He died in Houlton, Me., April
ed three commissioners to investigate and 28, 1882.

report to the legislature. Nothing was ac- Patterson, DANIEL TOD, naval officer;
complished, and the disaffection increased, born in New York, March 6, 1786; enter-
So rampant was the insubordination to ed the navy as midshipman in 1800; was
law in Delaware county that Governor with Bainbridge at Tripoli, and master-
Wright, in 1845, recommended legislation commander in 1813. In 1814 he command-
for its suppression, and he declared the ed the naval force at and near New
county in a state of insurrection. Finally, Orleans that co-operated with General
the trial and conviction of a few persons Jackson in defence of that city. Patterson
for conspiracy and resistance to law, and was active, afloat and ashore, for nearly
their confinement in the State prison, forty years. He died in Washington,
caused a cessation of all operations by D. C., Aug. 15, 1839.
masked bands. Patterson, ROBERT, military officer;

There was so much public sympathy born in Tyrone county, Ireland, Jan. 12,

manifested for the cause of the anti-rent- 1792: was brought to America by his par-

ers that the association determined to ents in his early youth; engaged in mer-

PATTISON PAULDING

ROBEKT PATTERSOX.

cantile pursuits; but entered the army in New York in 1846-87. His publica-
1813; was made full captain in 1814, and tions include Four Hundred Years of
served to the end of the war. He resumed American History; Natural Resources of
mercantile life and became largely in- the United States; Yorktown, 1781-1881;
terested in manufactures. Commissioned The Democratic Party, its History and In-
major-general of volunteers when the war fluence; A Brief History of the Presby-
with Mexico broke out, he took an active terian Church in the United States;
part in the campaign under Scott from Political Parties in the United States,

etc.

Paulding 1 , HIRAM, naval officer; born
in New York City, Dec. 11, 1797; entered
the United States navy as midshipman in
September, 1811; was under Macdonough,
on Lake Champlain, and received a sword
from Congress for his services there. He
accompanied Porter against the pirates
in the West Indies in 1823, and became
master-commander in 1837. He was com
missioned captain in 1844, and was in
active service in the West Indies and on
the Pacific coast; and for the important
services which he rendered the State of
Nicaragua in suppressing the filibuster
Walker, that republic gave him a sword.
He was made a rear-admiral on the retired
list (1861). In command of the navy-
yard at Brooklyn (1862-65) he did ex-

Yera Cruz to the city of Mexico. When cellent service in preparing ships for the
the Civil War broke out, he was placed different squadrons, and in 1866 was gov-
in command of a division of three months ernor of the Philadelphia Naval Asylum,
men. In command of troops watching the Admiral Paulding was a son of John
forces under the Confederate General Paulding, one of the captors of Major
Johnston at Winchester, Va., the fail
ure of General Scott to send him or
ders caused him to fail to co-operate
with McDowell in his movements that
resulted in the battle of BULL RUN
( q. f. ) . For this failure he was un
justly dismissed from the service,
and he was under a cloud for some
time. He did not re-enter the serv
ice. He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Aug. 7, 1881.

Pattison, ROBERT EMORY, states
man; born in Quantico, Md., Dec. 8,
1850; comptroller of Philadelphia,
1877-82; governor of the State, 1883-
80 and 1891-94; United States Pacific
Railway commissioner, 1887-90. He
died in Overbrook, Pa., Aug. 1, 1904.
. Patton, JACOB HARRIS, author;
born in Fayette county, Pa., May 20,
1812: graduated at Jefferson College,
Pa., in 1839; and at the Union Theo
logical Seminary in 1846; was prin
cipal of a private classical school in

H1KAM PAUUHXU.

PATJLDING PAULTJS S HOOK

JOHN PAULDING.

Andre. He died in Huntington, L. I., Oct. gress a silver medal each, and were award-
20, 1878. ed an annuity of $200... In 1827 a marble

Paulding, JAMES KIRKE, author; born monument was erected by the corpora-
in Dutchess county, N. Y., Aug. 22, 1779;
was a son of an active Revolutionary
soldier, who was commissary-general of
New York troops in the Continental
service, and was ruined by the non-ac
ceptance by the government of his drafts,
or non-redemption of his pledges, and he
was imprisoned for debt. James went to
New York City, and in early life became
engaged in literary pursuits with Wash
ington Irving, whose brother William mar
ried Paulding s sister. They began, in 1807,
the popular publication Salmagundi. He
was introduced to the government through
his pamphlet on The United States and
England, and, in 1814, was made secre
tary of the board of naval commissioners.
Afterwards he was navy agent at New
York, and, from 1839 to 1841, was Secre
tary of the Navy. Mr. Paulding was a
facile and elegant writer of essays and
stories, and was possessed of a fund of
humor that pervaded his compositions.
He contributed to the periodicals of the
day, and wrote and published several
volumes. He died in Hyde Park, N. Y.,

April 6, 1860. tion of New York City in St. Peter s

Paulding, JOHN, patriot, and one of church-yard near Peekskill, as a memorial
the captors of Andre; born in New York of him. He died in Staatsburg, N. Y.,
City in 1758. Three times he was made Feb. 18, 1818.

a prisoner during the Revolutionary War, Paulus s Hook, SURPRISE OF. In 1779

there was a British military
work at Paulus s Hook (now
Jersey City ) , garrisoned by 500
men, under Major Sutherland.
A plan was formed for taking it
by surprise, and its execution
was intrusted to Maj. Henry
Lee, then back of Bergen. With
300 picked men, followed by a
strong detachment under Lord
Stirling as a reserve, at 3.30
A.M. on Aug. 19, he passed the
unguarded outer works and en
tered the main works undiscov
ered; for the garrison, feeling
secure, had not barred the sally
port, and the sentinels were all

MONUMEKT. absent or asleep. The surprise

was most complete. He captured

and had escaped, the second time, only 159 of the garrison, including officers. The
four days before the capture of Andre, remainder retreated to a circular redoubt,
lie and his associates received from Con- It was too strong to be affected by small-

PAUNCEFOTE PAUPERISM IN THE UNITED STATES

ARM IS HUM AN I TATS
OCVIMXIT.

MEDAL AWARDED TO. HENRY LEE.

arms, and Lee retreated, with his prison
ers, back to camp. His loss was only
two killed and three wounded. In Sep
tember following Congress voted thanks
and a gold medal to Lee for this exploit.

Pauncefote, LORD JULIAN OF PRESTON,
diplomatist; born in Preston Court, Eng
land, in 1828; was called to the bar in
1852; appointed attorney-general of Hong-
Kong in 1865; acting chief -justice of the
Supreme Court in 1869-72; became per
manent foreign under secretary in 1882;

minister to the United States in 1889; and
ambassador in 1893. He represented
Great Britain at the Suez Canal confer
ence in 1885, and at the peace conference
at The Hague in 1899, and in the latter
year was created first Lord Pauncefote.
Since his official residence in the United
States he won the esteem of the United
States government and people. He died
in Washington, D. C., May 24, 1902. His
body was sent to England in a United
States man-of-war.

PAUPERISM IN THE UNITED STATES

Pauperism in the United States. Pro
fessor Richard T. Ely, formerly of Johns
Hopkins University, now of the Univer
sity of Wisconsin, contributes the fol
lowing to the study of this question:

While we may deplore the lack of care
ful statistical information concerning
pauperism in this and other countries,
there are certain facts which we do know.
First of all is this fact: there exists in
the United States an immense mass of
pauperism. No one knows either how
great this mass is, or whether it is rela
tively, or even absolutely, larger than in
former times. Several States in the
Union, as New York, Massachusetts, Penn
sylvania, and Ohio, publish statistics con
cerning the defective, delinquent, and de
pendent classes, but many of the States
gather no statistics at all, or very inade
quate ones. Such statistics as we have
cannot well be brought together and com
pared, because they have not been col-

lected in the same year in different States,
nor have they been collected according to
similar methods. The word pauper in one
State means one thing, and in another
State something else. For example, de
pendent children are in one place classed
among the paupers, and in another place
they are put in a category by themselves.

The only authority competent to gather
the facts which we ought to know for
the whole country is the federal govern
ment, and it has attempted to do some
thing in the various censuses. The census
reports, however, have been heretofore in
complete and unsatisfactory. Mr. Fred
erick H. Wines, a high authority, was the
special agent of the tenth census ap
pointed to gather the statistics concern
ing pauperism, and he reported altogether
about 500,000. This, however, is an un
derestimate. Only a little over 21,000
out-door paupers were reported, where
as a single city undoubtedly has a
larger number receiving public relief out-

PAUPERISM IN THE UNITED STATES

side of public institutions. It is admitted the direct and indirect cost of pauperism
in the report that " the attempt to so- to this country. The direct pauper ex-
cure anything like a complete or adequate penditures of the United States may be
enumeration of them in the present census placed at $25,000,000 at least; indeed, this
was a failure." "The present census" must be an underestimate, for New York
means the census of 1S80. State alone expends for charitable pur-

At the sixteenth conference of chari- poses through its various institutions over

ties and correction, in Omaha, in 1889, $13,000,000. If we place the average num-

the committee on reports from States ex- ber of persons in the country supported

pressed the opinion that it was safe to by charity at 500,000, and estimate the

estimate the number of persons in the loss of productive power for each one of

United States receiving out-door relief at these at $100 per year, we shall have an in-

an average of 250,000 during the year, in- direct loss of $50,000,000 to be added to

eluding at least 600,000 different persons, the direct expenditures. One hundred mil-

This same committee, including Messrs, lions of dollars a year must be regarded

F. B. Sanborn and H. H. Hart, did not as a conservative estimate of the total

regard 110,000 persons as an overesti- direct or indirect pecuniary loss to the

mate of the population of the almshouses country on account of pauperism. A far

of the country. Five States of the Union more serious loss, however, is the loss in

alone report nearly half that number, manhood and womanhood.
These are New York, with 19,500 inmates In contrast to this first fact of the

of almshouses; Pennsylvania, with 13,- great mass of pauperism, we have the

500; Massachusetts, with 9,000; Ohio, second equally indisputable fact that it

with 8,000 ; and Illinois, with 5,000. These is for the most part a curable disease.

Slates, however, do not include much over Wherever there has been any earnest and

one-third of the population of the country, intelligent attempt to remedy the evil,

Mr. Charles D. Kellogg, the able and de- the success has been equal to all the

voted secretary of the New York Charity most sanguine could anticipate. I have

Organization Society, has estimated that read accounts of many such attempts to

3,000,000 people in the United States lessen pauperism, and everything that I

.were wholly or partially supported by have read has confirmed in my mind the

alms during a recent year, and that the belief that it is a curable evil. A few

support received by this number was equal illustrations out of a great number at

to the total support of 500,000 paupers hand must suffice for present purposes,

during the entire year. This estimate The Elberfeld system of charitable relief

is based upon such facts as he had been is well known. About 1850 an earnest

able to gather, and even a guess from one attempt was made in that city to deal

situated as he is has some weight. . . . with the question of pauperism. At that

The number of paupers varies greatly time the number of inhabitants was

from year to year, according to the gen- 50,000; in 1880 it was 90,000; but the

eral prosperity of the country and other number of friendly visitors required had

causes, and even within the same year, not increased. The number needing help

according to the season. The estimate fell from 2,948 in the year 1853 to 1,287

of 3,000,000 cannot be regarded as an in 1876, or from fifty-seten in the thou-

extravagant one for the United States sand of population to between fifteen and

during hard times. We have, then, that sixteen in the thousand. The city of Leip-

number of persons who at some time sic introduced the Elberfeld system in

or another are compelled to ask support 1881, and in a single year the number of

which they will not or cannot obtain for paupers fell off 2,000. Even England

themselves. If we should cut down this seems to have met with some success in

number to 500,000, it would be sufficient dealing with pauperism, for the paupers

to cause distress to every lover of comprised 5 3 / 10 per cent, of the popula-

his kind, and to justify inquiry into tion in 1863, 4 8 /io in 1871, and only 2

the nature of pauperism, its causes and per cent, in 1882.
its cure. The experience of Buffalo, in this

Numerous estimates have been made of country, has been as instructive as it is

PAUPERISM IN THE UNITED STATES

gratifying. During the first ten years of children belong to the redeemable portion
the existence of the Buffalo Charity Or- of humanity. This second fact states,
ganization Society namely, from 1877 to then, this proposition: pauperism as now
1887 the pauperism of the city decreased, known may be considered a needless evil;
so far as statistics indicate, at least 50 in other words, in modern society there
per cent. Of 763 families dealt with by are sufficient resources to cure it if men
that society in 1878-79, Mr. Rosenau, the would but apply them,
secretary, was able to state that, so far The third indisputable fact observed is
ns he knew, 458 families had never been that only slight effort is put forth by
applicants for charity since 1879, and the community at large to cure the evil
only 81 were met with in 1887. Mr. of pauperism. Mr. Rosenau has shown
Rosenau further said that, if the citizens that only one in 713 persons, in thirty-
of Buffalo would furnish the society with two cities where there are charity or-
funds and workers, the close of 1897 ganization societies which reported, con-
would see the city practically free from tributed to their funds. These cities
pauperism, and, he hoped, with very little represented a population of about 7,250,-
abject poverty within her limits. Mr. 000, and the number of contributors was
Kellogg, of the New York society, in his only a little over 10,000. When we put
fifth annual report, claims that of 4,280 this in contrast with the church-mem-
cases treated during the preceding year, bership of the country, which comprises
697 became self-supporting by securing something like one - third of the pop-
employment for them, by training them ulation, or, if we count only adult
in industry, or by starting them in busi- members, one - fourth, we are remind-
ness. During the same year 1,508 cases ed of the conclusion reached by Mr.
treated during the first year of the Frederic Harrison and others that for
society s existence were re-examined, and social regeneration Christianity is a fail-
over 20 per cent, of these cases were lire. Of course many cannot contribute
known to continue self-supporting. Of money, but there is equal complaint of a
course some of the others treated during lack of persons who are willing to con-
the first year who could not be traced con- tribute their time and sympathy as
tinned self-supporting. friendly visitors. Those who have read
There is reason to believe that there are Tolstoi s book, What to Do, will find
adult paupers who can never be rendered there described the experience of every
entirely independent and self-supporting, sincere friend of humanity who has at-
Some of these are willing to work, but tempted to secure genuine co-operation
have simply not been furnished with among the fortunate classes to help ele-
qualities requisite for success in the com- vate the less fortunate classes out of their
petitive world of to-day, or their latent economic, physical, and moral wretched-
faculties, which might once have been ness namely, general but vague expres-
developed, have been allowed to remain un- sions of interest, with a final refusal of
used so long that their present develop- the aid needed. As in the parable of the
ment is practically impossible. These re- New Testament, they all begin to make
quire permanent treatment in establish- excuses. . . .

ments adapted to them, where such powers What are the causes of pauperism?

as they have can be utilized for their These causes are many, and they cannot

own good and the benefit of society, bo stated in any single sentence. The

With some others the trouble is not so most general statement possible is that

much mental or physical as moral, and the causes of poverty are heredity and

these require permanent treatment, severe environment, producing weak physical,

but kind, in separate establishments, mental, and moral constitutions. If

The first of these permanently helpless sociological investigations have made one

classes belongs to a certa n extent to the thing clearer than another, it is that

imbeciles, while the second belongs rather paupers are a class into which one is

to the criminal class. Both of these often born, and from which, when born

classes, however, are few in number, and into it, one can be rescued, as a rule, only

all others can be redeemed. Nearly all by a change of environment. These in-

PAUPERISM IN THE UNITED STATES

vestigations show likewise that paupers
are a class of inferior men. Inquiry was
made at the Prison Association two years
ago as to the chief cause of crime, and
every expert in criminal studies was re
ported to have replied, " Bad homes and
heredity." The same reply may be given
as to the causes of pauperism. Four dif
ferent careful studies of the causes of
pauperism have been made, two in New
York State, one in Indiana, and one in
Berlin.

The first which I have in mind was
made by Mr. Richard L. Dugdale, and was
called " The Jukes." The ancestor of the
Jukes is called " Margaret, the mother of
criminals." Mr. Dugdale estimated that
1,200 of this family in seventy-five years
cost the community directly and indirectly
not less than $1,250,000.

The second study was made in New
York State under the direction of the
legislature by the State board of chari
ties. The investigation occupied the sec
retary of this board and various assistants
for nearly two years, and the antecedents
of every inmate of the poor-houses of the
State were examined. Mrs. C. R. Lowell,
who has been so active in the charities
of Xew York State, and who has achieved
a well-merited reputation, read a report
on the results of this investigation. She
describes typical women. The description
of two cases may be quoted, and they will
serve for all.

" In the Herkimer county poor-house a
single woman, aged sixty-four years, twenty
of which have been spent in the poor-house :
has had six illegitimate children, four of
whom have been paupers."

" In the Montgomery county poor-house a
woman twenty years of age, illegitimate, un
educated, and vagrant ; has two children in
the house, aged, respectively, three years and
six months, both illegitimate, and the latter
born in the institution ; recently married
an intemperate, crippled man, formerly a
pauper."

Mrs. Lowell says : " These mothers are
women who began life as their own children
have begun it inheriting strong passions
and weak wills, born and bred in the poor-
house, taught to be wicked before they could
speak plain, all the strong evil in their nat
ures strengthened by their surroundings, and
the weak good trampled out of life."

The third study to which I referred is
that made by Mr. Oscar McCulloch, and
is called The Tribe of Ishmael. Mr.

McCulloch, who is a clergyman in In
dianapolis, found the poor and degraded
in that part of the country closely con
nected by ties of blood and marriage.
This band of paupers and criminals takes
its name from one Ben Ishmael, who can
be traced as far back as 1790, when he
was living in Kentucky. The descendants
of this family have intermarried with
thirty other families. In the first genera
tion we know the history of 3, in the
second of 84, in the third of 283, in the
fourth of 640, in the fifth of 679, and in
the sixth of 57. We have a total of
1,750 individuals, with but scant records
previous to 1840. Among these we find
121 prostitutes. Several murders can be
traced to the Tribe of Ishmael. Thiev
ing and larceny are common ainong them,
and they are nearly all beggars. Look
ing back into the history of the family
of Ben Ishmael, we find that three of
his grandchildren married three sisters
from a pauper family. Death is frequent
among them, and they are physically un
able to endure hard work or bad climate.
They break down early and go to the poor-
house or hospital. . . .

The fourth of the studies is that made
by city missionaries in Berlin a few years
ago, and reported by Court Pastor
Stocker. The ancestors of this criminal
and pauper family were two sisters, of
whom the older died in 1825. Their pos
terity numbers 834 persons. The crim
inalists are able to trace the history of
709 with tolerable accuracy. Among
these there were 106 illegitimate children,
164 prostitutes, 17 pimps, 142 beggars,
64 inmates of poor-houses, and 76 guilty
of serious crimes, who together had passed
116 years in prison. It is estimated that
this single family cost the State over
$500,000. It is worthy of note in this
connection that the members of the Tribe
of Ishmael are, as a rule, temperate, and
total abstainers are found among the worst
classes. . . .

There are those, undoubtedly, whose
pauperism can be traced neither to hered
ity nor unfavorable environment, but they
are comparatively few. Well-brought-
up children of morally and physical
ly sound parents seldom become pau
pers.

Perhaps the most careful analv.sis of
91

PAUPERISM IN THE UNITED STATES

ANALYSIS OF THE CAUSES OF POVERTY.

Characteristics :

1. Undervitalizatlon and indolence.

2. Lubricity.

3. Specific disease.

4. Lack of judgment.

5. Unhealthy appetites.

4. Unhealthy diet.

5. Disregard of family ties.

the causes of pauperism has been made by G.000,000, and in the United States at over
Professor Amos G. Warner, of the Uni- 1,000,000, and an extremely small percent-
versity of Nebraska. He presents the fol- age is due to strikes or lockouts. Child-
lowing analysis of the more immediate or labor, which has assumed terrible propor-
proximate causes of poverty: tions in recent yea-rs, and the employment

of women must be placed among the causes
of poverty, both of them tending to break
up the home. Industrial crises are a
chief cause of modern pauperism, it having
been observed in every modern nation
that the number of tramps and pa.upers
increases immensely during a period of

Habits producing and produced by the industrial depression. Many men, while

above : seeking work during these periods, fall

1. Shiftlessness. hopelessly into vagabondage and pauper-

2. Self-abuse and sexual excess. ism and those dependent upon them are

3. Abuse of stimulants and narcotics. ...

thrown upon the public.

What has been said about causes of
pauperism makes it easy to understand the
nature of the remedies required. It is
necessary to go back of the phenomena
which lie on the surface to underlying
causes. Things which are not seen are of
more importance than things which are
seen. I have said that the two chief
causes of pauperism are heredity and en-

c. Excessive or TlT-managed taxation, vironment, and the question arises, How

d. Emergencies unprovided for. change these for the better ? Fortunately

e. Undue power of class over class, the more powerful is environment, and

that is the more easily controlled. The
remedy is to break up these pauper and
According to all careful investigations, criminal bands, and at the earliest age
intemperance plays a minor, although an to remove the children from their poison-
important, rOle, the returns under this ous atmosphere. Wherever an attempt has
head depending largely upon the preju- been made to improve the children of the
dices of the person making the investi- lowest classes by placing them in whole-
gation. One Prussian table of causes of some environment, the results have been
destitution attributes less than 2 per cent, eminently satisfactory. Not all, but a
to intemperance. The tenth report of large majority, grow up to be indepen-
the Buffalo Charity Organization Society dent, self-respecting, and respected citizens,
shows that during the period of its exist- Less may be done for adults who have
ence over 11 per cent, of the cases of pau- once become thoroughly identified with the
perism were traced by its secretary to " lost and lapsed classes," but even for
intemperance. In London Mr. Charles most of these much can be accomplished
Booth not General Booth attributes by bringing wholesome influences to bear,
from 13 to 14 per cent, of the cases to in- The class regarded as most helpless of all
temperance. There are others who attrib- is that of fallen women, but the Salvation
lite a much larger percentage of pauper- Army s " Slum Sisterhood," consisting of
ism to intemperance, but nearly if not young women of character who go among
quite always a minority. Lack of em- the most degraded, have secured success
ployment, or involuntary idleness, is a even among these. The secret is to go
more prominent cause of pauperism, and among these people of the submerged tenth
undoubtedly many cases of intemperance as Christ went among men, sharing their
may be traced back to a period of involun- sorrows and helping them with the per-
tary idleness. The number of unemployed sonal contact of superior natures. Self-
in England and Wales has been placed at sacrifice, enjoined by true Christianity, is

1. Inadequate natural resources.

2. Bad climatic conditions.

3. Defective sanitation, etc.

4. Evil associations and surroundings.

5. Defective legislation and defective ju

dicial and punitive machinery.

6. Misdirected or inadequate education.

7. Bad industrial conditions :

a. Variations in value of money.

b. Changes in trade.

f. Immobility of labor.
8, Unwise philanthropy.

PAUPEEISM IN THE UNITED STATES

the neglected social force which solves have been much abused for emphasizing

social problems. external circumstances, but they seem at

Germany has a large number of " labor- last to have carried conviction to those
ers colonies " for the dependent classes, actually at work among the poor. The
and these colonies have succeeded well, on late Mr. Charles Loring Brace, who work-
the whole. It seems clear that there is a ed successfully among the poor of New
class which must be kept permanently iso- York City, although himself a religious
lated in asylums and subjected to kind man, warned us against the effort to cure
but firm discipline. They are called by the worst evils of the slums of cities by
General Booth the " morally incurable," technical religious means. Mr. Brace
and include those who " will not work and speaks of a too great confidence in " the
will not obey." These are to be regard- old technical methods, such as distribut
ed, from the stand-point of competitive ing tracts, holding prayer-meetings, and
society, as social refuse, but they are not scattering Bibles," and assures us that
entirely useless on that account. Their " the neglected and ruffian classes are in
own good requires strong government, no way affected directly by such influences
which will utilize whatever powers they as these." But if the testimony of a lay-
possess, and only in case improvement is man is doubted, we may quote the Kev.
seen in individuals among them should Mr. Barnett, rector of St. Jude s, in Lon-
greater liberty be allowed to these relative- don, who tells us that " the social reform-
ly more hopeful cases. It is felt by all er must go alongside the Christian mis-
specialists in sociology that these hope- sionary." The Methodists have generally
lessly lost and lapsed should not be al- as much confidence as any denomination
lowed to propagate their kind. in these technically religious methods, but

The analysis of applicants for relief the well-known Methodist minister, the

made by American charity organization Rev. Hugh Price Hughes, of London, says:

societies shows that the number of poor " I have had almost as much experience of

and worthy people is much larger than evangelistic work as any man in this

one would gather from superficial news- country, and I have never been able to

paper articles. Nearly 28,000 cases were bring any one who was actually starving

analyzed, with this result: to Christ." Let us hear the chief of the

Worthy of continuous relief.. 10.3 per cent. Sal 7 ati n A v &gt; who certainly does not

Worthy of temporary relief. . . 26.6 " " underrate religious exhortation. General

Needing relief in the form of Booth says:

work 40.4 " "

Unworthy of relief 22 7 " " " * have had some experience on this sub
ject, and have been making observations with

It is difficult to say who ought to be called respect to it ever since the day I made my
unworthy of relief, but evidently those first attempt to reach these starving, hungry
, . crowds just over forty-five years ago and I
are placed in that category whose trouble am quite satisfied that these multitudes will
is above everything else moral, and among not be saved in their present circumstances,
these are some who ought most of all to A11 tne clergymen, home missionaries, tract-
excite our comnassion distributers, sick-visitors, and every one else
)n - who cares about the salvation of the poor.

Turning now to more specific remedies, may ma ke up their minds as to that. The

we may instance two which have been poor must be helped out of their present social

tried and failed. One is miscellaneous miseries."

alms-giving, which has been a social curse, Some specific remedies must, on account
producing the very evil which we want to of lack of space, be merely mentioned. A
cure. Every time money is given on the prominent cause of misery in all cities
street to a beggar without inquiry harm is found to be early and thoughtless mar-
is done. The other remedy which has riages. A public sentiment must be
been tried is still advocated by some, and formed on this subject. The results are
that is tract-distribution and preaching, weak and feeble children, and often ulti-
Social reformers have long said that con- mate discouragement and pauperism on
ditions must first be changed before we the part of parents unable to carry the
can work upon the individual by appeals burdens which they have taken upon them-
to his moral nature. Social reformers selves. A further development of charity

PAUPERISM IN THE UNITED STATES PAXTON MASSACRE

organization societies will he helpful, to such an extent conform to their proud
Friendly societies and trades - unions professions that the slums of cities will
should be encouraged in every way, and disappear and be replaced by wholesome
the example of a few educated and cult- dwellings, permitting in these quarters
ured people not of the wage-earning class, once more to spring up that old and benei-
who have joined societies like the Knights icent institution the Home,
of Labor, ought to be more generally fol- Pavonia. Michael Pauw, one of the
lowed. The close association with one s directors of the Dutch West India Com-
fellows in these societies is most helpful, pany, bought of the Indians (1630) a
and this keeps their members from pauper- large tract of land in the present limits
ism. Very few paupers are members of of New Jersey, including what are now
any trades-union. When in a time of great Jersey City and Hoboken, to which he
distress a large fund was raised in London presently added, by purchase, Staten Isl-
for distribution, in one district 1,000 men and and neighboring districts, and he-
applied for help before one mechanic came, came a patroon. This region was called
and among all the applicants there was Pavonia, and one of the ferries to New
only one member of a trades-union. York City now bears that name.

The chief agency of reform, however, Pawnee Indians, a warlike tribe of

must be sought in the helpful co-opera- North American Indians, which lived in

tion of citizens with public authorities, villages of earth-covered logs, on the bor-

particularly with those of the city. Pri- ders of the Platte River, in Nebraska and

vate societies have made a failure of Kansas. They appear to be of the Illinois

efforts to improve social conditions. The family, divided into several bands, and

Elberfeld system, so often quoted, means were continually at war with the Sioux

precisely this co-operation of private ef- and other surrounding tribes. Hostile to

fort with municipal authorities. This or- the Spaniards, they have ever been friend-

ganization of charities is a municipal one, ty to the Americans. Sometimes they sac-

which drafts into its service the best rificed prisoners to the sun ; cultivated a

citizens as friendly visitors in such num- few vegetables; and shaved their heads,

bers that there is one to every four poor excepting the scalp-lock. The women

families. dressed decently, and the men went on a

Finally, every social improvement tends hunt regularly to the plains for buffalo,

to diminish the number of paupers, and At the beginning of the nineteenth century

the question of pauperism thus involves they numbered about 0,000, with 2,000

the whole of social science. Remedies are warriors. In 1833 they were seated upon

of two kinds, positive and preventive a reservation north of the Nebraska River,

namely, those which seek to cure the and made rapid progress towards civil -

evil and those which aim to prevent ization, when the fierce Sioux swept down

its coming into existence. The num- upon them, ravaged their country, and

ber of our almshouses, asylums, and char- killed many of their people. Driven south

itable institutions of all sorts, of which of the Nebraska, they lost nearly half their

we boast so much, is really our shame, number by disease. In 1861 they num-

They show that we are but half-Chris- bered 3,414, and assisted the government

tians. As we progress in real Christian- in a war with the Sioux. As soon as the

ity, preventive measures will be more and latter made peace with the government,

more emphasized. They will include, they fell upon the Pawnees and slaughter-

among other things, improved education ed them without mercy. In 1872 their

of every grade, better factory legislation, crops were destroyed by locusts, and they

including employers -liability acts, means removed to another section, where they

for the development of the physical man, were placed under charge of the Quakers,

like gymnasiums, play-grounds, and parks, with a perpetual annuity of $30,000. In

increased facilities for making small sav- 1899 there were 700 of them on a reser-

ings, like postal savings-banks, and more vation in Oklahoma.

highly developed sanitary legislation and Paxton Massacre, THE. The atrocities

administration. We may hope to see the of Pontiac s confederates on the frontiers

time when the practice of Christians will of Pennsylvania aroused the ferocity of

PAYNE

the Scotch-Irish settlers there, and on the
night of Dec. 14, 1763, nearly fifty of them
fell upon some peaceful and friendly Ind
ians at Conestoga, on the Susquehanna,
\vho were living quietly there, under the
guidance of Moravian missionaries. These
Indians were wrongly suspected of har
boring or corresponding with hostiles.
Very few of the Indians were ever at
Conestoga, and all who remained men,
women, and children were murdered by
the " Paxton Boys," as they called them
selves. The village, with the winter
stores, was laid in ashes. The citizens of
Lancaster collected the scattered sur
vivors into the workhouse for protection.
The " Paxton Boys " burst into it, and be
fore the citizens could assemble, murdered
all the Indians and fled. The Moravian
Indians at Wyalusing and Nain hurried to
Philadelphia for protection,
but the "Paxton Boys"
threatened to go there in
large numbers and kill them,
and they were sent to Prov
ince Island, put under the
charge of the garrison there,
and were saved. The govern
ment offered a reward for
the arrest of the murder
ers, but such was the state
of feeling in the interior of
Pennsylvania that no one
dared to move in the matter.
It assumed a political and
religious aspect. The par
ticipators in the crime were
not ignorant and vulgar
borderers, but men of such
high standing and conse
quence that the press, in
denouncing their acts, for
bore to give their names.

Payne. HENRY B., states
man; born in Hamilton,
N. Y., Nov. 30, 1810; re
moved to Cleveland, O., in
1834; State Senator, 1849;
member of Congress, 1875-77; CJnited
States Senator, 1885-91. He died in
Cleveland, 0., Sept. 9, 1896.

Payne, HEXRY C., statesman; born in
Ashfiekl. Mass., Nov. 23, 1843; removed to
Wisconsin in 1863; postmaster of Mil
waukee, 1876-SO: appointed Postmaster-
General, Jan. 8, 1902.

Payne, JOHN HOWARD, dramatist; born
in New York City, June 9, 1792; was very
precocious, editing The Thespian Mirror
when only thirteen years of age. He be
came a poet, a dramatist, and an actor of
renown. At the age of fifteen and six
teen he published twenty-five numbers of
a periodical called The Pastime, and in
1S09, at the age of seventeen, he made a
successful entrance upon the theatrical
profession at the Park Theatre, New York,
as Young Norval. In 1810 he played
Hamlet and other leading parts with great
success, and, at the age of twenty and
twenty-one, he played with equal success
at Drury Lane, London. While there he
produced many dramas, chiefly adapta
tions from the French. In one of these
occurs the song Home, Sweet Home, by
which he is chiefly known. Payne be-

JOHN HOWARD PAYNE.

came a correspondent of Coleridge and
Lamb; and, in 1818, when he was twenty-
six years of age, his tragedy of Brutus was
successfully brought out at Drury Lane.
He returned to the United States in 1832.
He was appointed consul at Tunis, and
died in office there, April 10, 1852. His
remains were brought to Washington late

PAYSON PEACE COMMISSION

in March, 1883, and interred at George- CONFERENCE OF 1864) there were in the
town. year 1864 two semi-official attempts to

Payson, PHILLIPS, clergyman; born in bring about peace between the North and
Walpole, Mass., Jan. 18, 1736; gradu- the South. General Grant, under date of
ated at Harvard College in 1754; studied July 8, wrote a letter to Gen. Robert E.
theology, and was pastor of the Congrega- Lee, requesting that Col. James S. Jacques,
tional Church in Chelsea, Mass., in 1757- 78th Illinois Infantry, and James R.
1801. His publications include Transac- Gilmour be allowed to meet Col. Robert
tions of the American Academy of Arts Ould, Confederate commissioner for the
and Sciences; Battle of Lexington; Death exchange of prisoners. The reply was
of Washington, etc. He died in Chelsea, satisfactory, and the two Northern corn-
Mass., Jan. 11, 1801. missioners, after meeting Colonel Ould,

Peabody, GEORGE, philanthropist; born had an interview with President Davis,
at Danvers, Mass., Feb. 18, 1795. After The plan proposed by the Northern corn-
serving as a clerk in his uncle s store in missioners was declared by President
Georgetown, D. C., in 1812-13, he became Davis to be altogether impracticable.
a partner with Elisha Riggs, in New York Mr. Benjamin, Confederate Secretary of
City, and afterwards in Baltimore. In State, in an official letter to James M.
July, 1843, he became a banker, in Lon- Mason, commissioner in Europe, states
don, and amassed an immense fortune, " it was proposed that there should be a
which he used in making princely benefac- general vote of all the people of both fed-
tions, as follows: To his native town, erations, the majority of the vote thus
$200,000, to establish a lyceum and libra- taken to determine all disputed questions.
ry; to the first Grinnell expedition in President Davis replied that as these pro-
search of Sir John Franklin, $10,000; to posals had been prefaced by the remark
found an institute of science, literature, that the people of the North were in the
and the fine arts, in Baltimore, $1,400,- majority, and that the majority ought
000; and, in 1862, to the city of London, to govern, the offer was in effect a pro-
$2,500,000, for the benefit of its poor. In posal that the Confederate States should
1866 he gave to Harvard University $150,- surrender at discretion, admit that they
000 to establish a professorship of Amer- had been wrong- from the beginning, sub-
ican archaeology, and, the same year, to mit to the mercy of their enemies, and
the Southern Educational Fund, $2,000,- avow themselves to be in need of pardon;
000. The trustees dissolved the fund, that extermination was preferable to dis-
Jan. 24, 1905, giving $1,000,000 to found honor."

the Peabody School at Nashville, Tenn. Later in the year, Messrs. Clement C.
He also gave to Yale College, to found a Clay, of Alabama, Jacob Thompson, of
chair of geology, $150,000. He died in Mississippi, Prof. James P. Holcombe,
London, England, Nov. 4, 1869, and of Virginia, and George N. Sanders, of
his remains were sent to the United Kentucky, arrived in Canada via the Ber-
States on the British man - of - war mudas, and opened communications with a
Monarch, and received by an Amer- view to a conference. Horace Greeley wrote
ican squadron under command of Admiral President Lincoln urging him to invite the
Farragut. Confederate commissioners to Washington,

Peabody, SELIM HOBART, scientist; there to submit their propositions. The
born in Rockingham, Vt., Aug. 20, 1829; President acquiesced in Mr. Greeley s re-
graduated at the University of Vermont quest, but directed that Mr. Greeley should
in 1852; was connected with a number proceed to Niagara and accompany the
of colleges as professor of physics, math- Confederate commissioners to Washing-
ematics, civil engineering, etc. He was ton.

the chief of the department of liberal In an exchange of letters between Mr.
arts in the World s Fair of 1893, and first Greeley and Messrs. Clay and Holcombe,
editor-in-chief of the International Cyclo- the latter stated that the safe conduct
pcedia. He died May 26, 1903. of the President of the United States had

Peace Commission. In addition to the been tendered them under a misapprehen-
Hampton Roads Conference (see PEACE sion of the facts; that they were not ac-

PEACE COMMISSIONERS

credited by the Confederacy as bearers
of propositions looking to the establish
ment of peace; that they were, however,
in the confidential employ of their gov
ernment, and entirely familiar with its
wishes and opinions. Under the circum
stances, Mr. Greeley declined to meet
Messrs. Clay and Holcombe without
further instructions from the President
of the United States. July 20 Mr. Greeley
and Major Hay, President Lincoln s pri
vate secretary, crossed the Niagara and
met Messrs. Clay and Holcombe, to whom
the following letter was handed:

" EXECUTIVE MANSION,

" WASHINGTON, July 18, 1864.
" To Whom It May Concern:

"Any proposition which embraces the res
toration of peace, the integrity of the whole
Union, and the abandonment of slavery, and
which comes by and with an authority that
can control the armies now at war against
the United States, will be received and con
sidered by the executive government of the
United States, and will be met by liberal
terms on other substantial and collateral
points ; and the bearer thereof shall have safe
conduct both ways.

" ABRAHAM LINCOLN."

In the absence of any official authority
on the part of Messrs. Clay, Holcombo,
Sanders, and Thompson, all negotiations
ceased.

Peace Commissioners. Viscount Gen
eral Howe and Admiral Lord Howe, who
arrived at New York almost simultane
ously (July, 1776), were authorized as
joint commissioners to treat with the
Americans for reconciliation, pursuant to
a recent act of Parliament. They had
very limited powers. They were not al
lowed to recognize the validity of any con
gress, or of the commission of any military
officer among the colonies ; they could only
treat with persons as individuals; grant
pardons to individuals or communities
which should lay down their arms or dis
solve their governments, but they might
not be judges of any complaints, nor prom
ise any redress. They began the business
of their mission in the spirit of these in
structions by addressing the American
commander-in-chief as " Mr. Washington,
Esq.," in superscribing a note which they
sent by a flag, accompanied with a copy of
the declaration of the royal clemency.

VII.-

Washington refused to receive it. An
officer who bore a second note (which also
was not received) assured Washington
that the commissioners were invested with
large powers to effect reconciliation. " They
seem to have power only to grant pardons,"
said Washington " having committed no
fault, we need no pardon."

The admiral addressed a letter to Dr.
Franklin, whom he had known person
ally in England, and received a reply, cour
teous in tone, but in nowise soothing to
his feelings as a statesman or a Briton.
As they had equal power to negotiate
peace or wage war, the commissioners now
prosecuted the latter, and not long after
wards the battle on Long Island occurred,
in which the Americans were defeated.
General Sullivan was among the prisoners.
Thinking it to be a favorable time to try
their peace measures again, the commis
sioners sent Sullivan, on his parole, to
Congress, to induce that body to designate

THE BILLOP HOUSE.

some person with whom the admiral
might hold a conference. They appoint
ed Messrs. Franklin, Adams, and Rutledge
a committee to meet him, informally, at
a place on Staten Island (which he had
indicated) opposite Amboy. They met
there, Sept. 11, 1776, at the house of the
loyalist Colonel Billop. Both parties
were very courteous. Lord Howe told
them he could not receive them as repre
sentatives of the Congress, but as private
gentlemen, and that the independence of
the colonists, lately declared, could not be
considered for a moment. " You may call
us what you please," they said, " we are
nevertheless the representatives of a free
and independent people, and will entei tain
no proposition which does not recognize

PEACE COMMISSIONERS PEACE CONFERENCE OF 1864

our independence." Further conference
was unnecessary.

On June 4, 1778, the Earl of Carlisle,
George Johnstone, and William Eden, com
missioners appointed by the King under
Lord North s conciliatory bills, arrived at
Philadelphia. The brothers Howe, who
were to be of the commission, could not
join them, but Sir Henry Clinton took the
place of Sir William. The commissioners
sent their credentials and other papers by
their secretary to the Congress at York,
Pa., with a flag. That body and the Amer
ican people, having already perused the
bills and found in them no word about in
dependence, had resolved to have nothing
to do with commissioners that might be
sent, and to meet no advance on the part
of the government of Great Britain unless
the fleets and armies should be withdrawn
and the independence of the United States
be declared. Their papers were returned
to them with a letter from the president
of the Congress saying they could not
treat excepting on a basis of acknowledged
independence. The commissioners tried by
various arts to accomplish their purpose,
but failed, and, after issuing an angry
and threatening manifesto, sailed for Eng
land in October.

After the total destruction of the South
ern army near Camden, in August, 1780,
some of the Southern members of Con
gress, alarmed at the progress of the Brit
ish, became so anxious for the aid of
Spain that they proposed, in October,
1780, to abandon all claims to the naviga
tion of the Mississippi as the price of a
Spanish subsidy and alliance. Meanwhile
(January, 1781) the Empress of Russia
had been joined by the Emperor of Ger
many in an offer of mediation. Great
Britain, getting wearied of the war, had
accepted the offer. These facts being com
municated to Congress by the French
minister, a committee was appointed to
confer with him. Their report, the opin
ions of the French ambassador, and the
financial pressure made- Congress greatly
modify its terms of peace on which they
had so stremiously insisted. They waived
an express acknowledgment of indepen
dence. They were willing to accept any
thing which substantially amounted to it.
The treaty with France was to be main
tained in full force, but all else was in

trusted to the discretion of the negotiators
for peace who might be appointed, former
instructions indicating the wishes of Con
gress. These concessions were opposed by
the New England delegates, but were
adopted by the votes of Southern mem
bers, who were anxious for peace. It
was proposed to have five commission
ers who should represent the differ
ent sections of the Union, and John
Adams, John Jay, Benjamin Franklin,
Thomas Jefferson, and Henry Laurens
were appointed. The Russian and German
mediation resulted in nothing, and Great
Britain haughtily refused to acknowledge
the independence of the United States in
any form.

Peace Conference of 1864. Francis
P. Blair, Sr., conceived the idea that
through his personal acquaintance with
most of the Confederate leaders at Rich
mond he might be able to effect a peace.
So, without informing the President of
his purpose, he asked Mr. Lincoln for a
pass through the National lines to the
Confederate capital. On Dec. 26, the
President handed Mr. Blair a card on
which was written, " Allow Mr. F. P.
Blair, Sr., to pass our lines to go South
and return," and signed his name to it.
This self-constituted peace commissioner
went to Richmond, had several interviews
with President Davis, and made his way
back to Washington in January, 1865,
with a letter written to himself by Jef
ferson Davis, in which the latter express
ed a willingness to appoint a commission
" to renew the effort to enter into a con
ference with a view to secure peace to the
two countries." This letter Mr. Blair
placed in the hands of the President,
when the latter wrote a note to Blair
which he might show to Davis, in which
he expressed a willingness now, as he had
ever had, to take proper measures for
" securing peace to the people of our com
mon country." With this letter Blair re
turned to Richmond.

Mr. Lincoln s expression, " our common
country," as opposed to Davis s " the two
countries," deprived the latter of all hope
of a negotiation on terms of independence
for the Confederate States. But there
was an intense popular desire for the war
to cease which he dared not resist, and he
appointed Alexander H. Stephens, John A.

PEACE CONFERENCE

Campbell, and R. M. T. Hunter commis
sioners to proceed to Washington.
They were permitted to go on a steamer
only as far as Hampton Roads, without
the privilege of landing, and there, on
board the vessel that conveyed them, they
held a conference (Feb. 3, 1865) of several
hours with President Lincoln and Secre
tary of State Seward. That conference
clearly revealed the wishes of both parties.
The Confederates wanted an armistice by
which an immediate peace might be
secured, leaving the question of the separa
tion of the Confederate States from the
Union to be settled afterwards. The Presi
dent told them plainly that there would
be no suspension of hostilities and no
negotiations, except on the basis of the
disbandment of the Confederate forces and
the recognition of the national authority
throughout the republic. He declared,
also, that he should not recede from his
position on the subject of slavery, and the
commissioners were informed of the adop
tion by Congress three days before of the
Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu
tion. So ended the peace conference.

In a speech at a public meeting in Rich
mond on Jan. 6, Davis, in reference to the
words of President Lincoln " our com
mon country" said, "Sooner than we
should ever be united again, I would be
willing to yield up everything I hold on
earth, and, if it were possible, would
sacrifice my life a thousand times before
I would succumb." The meeting passed
resolutions spurning with indignation the
terms offered by the President as a " gross
insult " and " premeditated indignity " to
the people of the " Confederate States."
Davis declared that in less than twelve
months they would " compel the Yankees
to petition them for peace upon their own
terms." He spoke of " his Majesty Abra
ham the First," and said that " before the
campaign was over, Lincoln and Seward
might find they had been speaking to their
masters." At a war-meeting held a few
days afterwards at Richmond, it was re
solved that they would never lay down
their arms until their independence was
won. See PEACE COMMISSION.

Peace Conference, UNIVERSAL. Count
Mouravieff, the Russian minister for for
eign affairs, on Aug. 24, 1898, suggested a
conference of the powers \YJth a. view to

the maintenance of universal peace, and
the limiting of excessive armaments. As
the suggestion met with general favor, the
Emperor of Russia, on Jan. 11, 1899, pro
posed a congress to be held at The Hague,
May 18, 1899, in which each power, what
ever the number of its delegates, would
have only one vote. The subjects to be
submitted for international discussion at
the congress could be summarized as fol
lows :

1. An understanding not to increase
for a fixed period the present effective
of the armed military and naval forces,
and at the same time not to increase the
budgets pertaining thereto; and a prelim
inary examination of the means by which
a reduction might even be effected in
future in the forces and budgets above-
mentioned.

2. To prohibit the use in the armies and
fleets of any new kind of fire-arms what
ever and of new explosives, or any pow
ders more powerful than those now in use
either for rifles or cannon.

3. To restrict the use in military war
fare of the formidable explosives already
existing, and to prohibit the throwing of
projectiles or explosives of any kind from
balloons or by any similar means.

4. To prohibit the use in naval warfare
of submarine torpedo-boats or plungers,
or other similar engines of destruction ;
to give an undertaking not to construct
vessels with rams in the future.

5. To apply to naval warfare the stipu
lations of the Geneva Convention of 1864,
on the basis of the Additional Articles of
1808.

6. To neutralize ships and boats em
ployed in saving those overboard during
or after an engagement.

7. To revise the declaration concerning
the laws and customs of war elaborated
in 1874 by the conference of Brussels,
which has remained unratified to the pres
ent day.

8. To accept in principle the employment
of good offices, of mediation and faculta
tive arbitration in cases lending themselves
thereto, with the object of preventing arm
ed conflicts between nations; to come to
an understanding with respect to the mode
of applying these good offices, and to es
tablish a uniform practice in using them.

The following governments were repre-

PEACE CONFEBENCE PEACE CONGRESSES

sented: Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bui- dent Roosevelt announced his intention
garia, China, Denmark, France, Germany, of inviting at an early day the leading
Great Britain, Greece, Italy, Japan, Lux- nations to join in a second peace con-
embourg, Mexico, Montenegro, the Nether- ference at The Hague. The members of
lands, Persia, Portugal, Rumania, Rus- the Union assembled in Boston, Oct. 3,
sia, Servia, Siam, Spain, Sweden and following, to hold the thirteenth annual
Norway, Switzerland, Turkey, and the convention of the International Peace Con-
United States of America. gress. See ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL.

The United States were represented by Peace Congresses. In 1782 Prince Kau

the Hon. Andrew D. White, ambassador nitz agreed with Vergennes that, in a pro-

to Berlin ; the Hon. Seth Low, president posed peace congress at Vienna, the United

of Columbia University; the Hon. Stan- States government should be represented,

ford Newel, minister to The Hague; Capt. so that direct negotiations between it and

Alfred T. Mahan, U. S. N. ; Capt. William Great Britain might proceed simultane-

Crozier, U. S. A., and the Hon. Frederick ously with those of the European powers.

W. Holls, of New York. The proposition was pronounced by the

At the opening of the conference, May able Queen of France to be a masterpiece
18, M. de Staal, the Russian ambassador, of political wisdom. But England re-
was elected President. fused to negotiate for peace with France

The subjects suggested in the Russian until that power should give up its con-
circular of Jan. 11 were referred to three nection with the American "rebels."
committees, the reports of which were This proposition was embodied by Kau-
submitted July 29 and signed by all. Ac- nitz in the preliminary articles which he
companying the report were the follow- prepared for the peace congress. He cast
ing proposed conventions: the blame of its ill-success on the un-

I. Convention for the pacific settlement reasonable pretensions of the British
of international conflicts. ministry.

II. Convention regarding the laws and On Jan. 19, 1861, a series of resolutions
customs of war by land. were adopted by the Virginia legislature

III. Convention for the adaptation to recommending a national peace convention
maritime warfare of the principles of or congress to be held in the city of Wash-
the Geneva Convention of Aug. 22, 1864. ington on Feb. 4, for the purpose of effect-
Added to the convention relative to ing a general and permanent pacification;

laws and customs of war were three dec- commending the Crittenden compromise

larations, separately signed as follows: as a just basis of settlement; and ap-

1. The contracting powers agree to pro- pointing two commissioners, one to go
hibit, for a term of five years, the launch- to the President of the United States, and
ing of projectiles and explosives from bal- the other to the governors of the seceding
loons, or by other new methods of a States, to ask them to abstain from all
similar nature. hostile action pending the proceedings of

2. The contracting parties agree to the proposed convention. The proposition
abstain from the use of bullets which for such a convention was received with
expand or flatten easily in the human body, great favor. President Buchanan laid it
such as bullets with a hard envelope which before Congress with a commendatory
does not entirely cover the core, or is message, but the Virginians had accom-
pierced with incisions. panied this proposition with a menace.

3. The contracting parties agree to ab- On the same day the legislature resolved,
stain from the use of projectiles the ob- " That if all efforts to reconcile the un-
ject of which is the diffusion of asphyxi- happy differences between the sections
ating or deleterious gases. of our country shall prove abortive, then

The United States signed the first of every consideration of honor and interest

these declarations, but declined to sign demands that Virginia shall unite her des-

the second and third. tinies with the slave-holding States."

On receiving the members of ^he Inter- Delegates to the peace convention were

national Parliamentary Peace Union at chosen from nearly every State but the

the White House, Sept. 24, 1904, Presi- seven seceding ones. They met at Wil-

100

PEACE CONGRESSES

lard s Hotel, in Washington, D. C., Feb. 4.
The convention was permanently organized
by the appointment of ex-President John
Tyler, of Virginia, to preside, and Crafts
J. Wright, of Ohio, as secretary. The con
vention was opened with prayer by Rev.
Dr. P. D. Gurley. Mr. Guthrie, of Ken
tucky, opened the business by offering a
resolution for the appointment of a com
mittee consisting of one from each State
represented, to whom all resolutions and
propositions for the adjustment of diffi
culties might be referred, with authority
to report a plan to " restore harmony and
preserve the Union." The committee was
appointed, and Mr. Guthrie was chosen its
chairman. He made a report on the 15th,
in which several amendments to the Con
stitution were offered. It proposed:

First. The re - establishment of the
boundary between slavery and freedom
on the line fixed by the Missouri Com
promise lat. 36 30 N. It also pro
posed that when any territory north or
south of that line should contain the req
uisite number of inhabitants to form a
State, it should be admitted into the
Union on an equal footing with the orig
inal States, either with or without slavery,
as the constitution of the new State may
determine.

Second. That territory should not be ac
quired by the United States unless by
treaty, nor, except for naval or commercial
stations, unless such treaty should be rati
fied by four-fifths of all the members of
the Senate.

Third. That neither the Constitution
nor any amendment thereof should be con
strued to give power to Congress to inter
fere with slavery in any of the States of
the Union, nor in the District of Columbia,
without the consent of Maryland and the
slave-holders concerned, compensation to
be made for slaves emancipated to owners
who refuse their consent; nor to interfere
with slavery under the jurisdiction of the
United States, such as in arsenals, navy-
yards, etc., in States where it was recog
nized ; nor to interfere with the trans
portation of slaves from one slave-
labor State to another ; nor to authorize
any higher taxation on slaves than on
land.

Fourth. That the clause in the Constitu
tion relating to the rendition of slaves

should not be construed to prevent any
of the States, by appropriate legislation,
and through the action of their judicial
and ministerial officers, from enforcing the
delivery of fugitives from labor to the
person to whom such service or labor
should be due.

Fifth. That the foreign slave - trada
should be forever prohibited.

Sixth. That the first, second, third, and
fifth of the foregoing propositions, when
in the form of ratified amendments to the
Constitution, and the clause relating to
the rendition of fugitive slaves, should not
be amended or abolished without the con
sent of all the States.

Seventh. That Congress should provide
by law that the United States should pay
to the owner the full value of his fugi
tive slave in all cases where the law-officer
whose duty it was to arrest such fugitive
should be prevented from doing so by vio
lence or intimidation, or where such fugi
tive should be rescued, after arrest, and
the claimant thereby should lose his prop
erty.

This was the majority report, and was
substantially the Crittenden compromise
then before the Senate. Two members of
the committee- Baldwin, of Connecticut,
and Seddon, of Virginia each presented
a minority report. The former proposed
a general convention of all the States to
consider amendments to the Constitution ;
the latter objected to the majority report
because it fell short of the demands of
Virginia. He proposed an amendment to
the Constitution that would protect the
slave-holder in transporting his slaves any
where, as property; also that should for
ever exclude from the ballot-box and pub
lic office " persons who are in whole or in
part of the African race." He also pro
posed an amendment recognizing the right
of peaceable secession. Other propositions
were submitted by members in open con
vention, among them one from Salmon
P. Chase, of Ohio, proposing an adjourn
ment of the convention to April 4, to en
able all the States to be represented. The
various propositions were earnestly dis
cussed for several days. David Dudley
Field, of New York, proposed, Feb. 26, to
amend the majority report by striking
out the seventh section and inserting the
words, " No State shall withdraw from the

101

PEACE CONGRESSES PEACE ESTABLISHMENT

Union without the consent of all the rejected. The peace convention was a fail-
States convened in pursuance of an act ure. It was a vain attempt to conciliate
passed by two-thirds of each House of the slave power.

Congress." This was rejected by a vote Peace Establishment. When the evac-

of 11 States against 10. The votes were uation of the seaboard by the British

by States. When, on the same day, the was completed in November, 1783, the

majority report was taken up for final ac- northern and western frontier posts con-

tion, Baldwin s proposition, offered as a tinued to be held by British garrisons,

substitute, was rejected by a. vote of 13 These were Oswegatchie (now Ogdens-

States against 8. Seddon then offered burg), Oswego, Niagara, Presque Isle

his substitute, and it was rejected 16 (now Erie) , Sandusky, Detroit, Mackinaw,

States against 4. James B. Clay, a son and some of lesser importance. The occu-

of Henry Clay, then offered Crittenden s pation of these posts by garrisons did not

compromise. It was rejected by 14 States enter into the calculations for an immedi-

ngainst 5. Guthrie s report was then ate peace establishment at the close of the

taken up, and after some modifications Revolution, and the military force retain-

was adopted. ed was less than 700 men. These were

Following this, T. E. Franklin moved, under the command of Knox, and placed

as the sense of the convention, that the in garrison at West Point and Pittsburg.

highest political duty of every citizen of Even these were discharged very soon

the United States is allegiance to the afterwards, excepting twenty-five men to

national government, and that no State guard the stores at Pittsburg and fifty-five

has a constitutional right to secede there- for West Point. No officer above the rank

from. It was rejected by 10 States of captain was retained in the service. It

against 7. Mr. Guthrie offered a preamble was provided, however, that whenever the

to his propositions, which was agreed to, western posts should be surrendered by

and Mr. Tyler was requested to present the the British, Connecticut, New York, New

plan to Congress forthwith. This ended Jersey, and Pennsylvania should furnish

the business of the convention, when Rev- their quota of 700 twelve-months men to

erdy Johnson, of Maryland, obtained leave do garrison duty.

to place on record and have printed with At the close of the War of 1812 Presi-
the proceedings of the convention a resolu- dent Madison proposed a military peace
tion deploring the secession of some of the establishment of 20,000 men. When Con-
States; expressing a hope that they would gress considered it, the House of Repre-
return; that "the republican institutions sentatives proposed 6,000, and the Senate
guaranteed each State cannot and ought proposed 15,000. There was a compro-
not to be maintained by force," and that mise, and 10,000 was the number agreed
therefore the convention deprecated any to. Two major-generals, four brigadier-
effort of the federal government to coerce, generals, and the necessary staff, regimen-
in any form, the said States to reunion tal, and company officers, were selected by
or submission, as tending to an irrepara- the President from those in the service,
ble breach, and leading to incalculable ills. The supernumerary officers and men, ac-
The proceedings of the convention were cording to the original terms of enlist-
laid before the Senate, March 2, 1861. ment, were to be discharged, with three
After a long debate on that and several months extra pay. The naval establish-
other propositions, it was finally decided ment was left as it was, with an addition-
by a vote of 25 to 11 to postpone the al appropriation of $200,000 annually for
" Guthrie plan " in favor of a proposition three years for its gradual increase. A
of amendment adopted by the House of board of three naval officers was created
Representatives, which provided that " no to exercise, under the Secretary of the
amendment shall be made to the Constitu- Navy, the general superintendence of the
tion which will authorize or give to Con- Navy Department. The grade of officers
gress the power to interfere within any in the naval service remained unaltered,
State with the domestic institutions there- a proposition to create the offices of ad-
of." The Senate concurred, and the Grit- miral and vice-admiral having failed. See
tenden compromise being called up, it was ARMY.

102

PEACE MEDALS PEACE PARTY

Peace Medals.
There was rejoicing
in Great Britain as
well as in the Unit
ed States on the
conclusion of peace
in 1814, particular
ly among the manu
facturing and mer
cantile classes. A
medal was struck in
commemoration of
the great event,
which bore upon
one side the words,
" Treaty of Peace

and Amity between Great Britain and members of the Congressional minority,
the United States of America. Signed whose protest against the war had been
at Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814"; and upon the conscientiously made, this peace faction
other a feminine figure standing on the endeavored by attempting to injure the
segment of a globe, holding in one hand the public credit, preventing enlistments into
olive branch of peace. Another was struck, the armies, spreading false stories con-
which is represented in the accompanying cerning the strength of the British and
engraving. The British government, grate- the weakness of the Americans, and public
ful for the loyalty of Canada during the speeches, sermons, pamphlets, and news-
war, caused a medal of gratitude to be paper essays to compel the government to
struck, as seen below. sheathe the sword and hold out the

MEDAL COMMEMORATIVE OF THK TREATY OF PEACE.

MEDAL OF GRATITCDE.

Peace Party. On the declaration of olive branch of peace at the cost of na-

war in June, 1812, an organization known tional honor and independence. Their un-

as the peace party soon appeared, com- scrupulous, and sometimes treasonable,

posed of the more violent opposers of the machinations were kept up during the

administration and disaffected Democrats, whole war, and prolonged it by embar-

whose partisan spirit held their patriot- rassing their government. The better

ism in complete subordination. Lacking portion of the Federal party discounte-

thc sincerity and integrity of the patriotic nanced these acts. With a clear percep-

103

PEACE PARTY PEACE RESOLUTIONS

tion of duty to the country, rather than jecting or holding as a conquered province
to their party, leaders like Quincy, Emott, any sovereign State now or lately one of
and a host of others gave their support the United States." To this John C.
to the government in its hour of need. Breckinridge added, " or to abolish sla-

The first call for the marshalling of very therein." From the beginning of
the hosts of the peace party, so conspicu- the Civil War there was a faction, com-
ous during the Civil War, was sounded in posed of the disloyal politicians of the
Congress when (July 10, 1861), a loan opposition, who used every means in their
bill was introduced authorizing the Sec- power to embarrass the government. They
retary of the Treasury to borrow $250,- affiliated with the KNIGHTS OP THE GOLD-
000,000 for the support of the govern- EN CIRCLE (q. v.) , and, like the peace
ment and to prosecute a war in its defence, faction in 1812-15, they were practical
Clement L. Vallandigham, Representative enemies of their country. Matthew F.
in Congress from Ohio, made an elabo- Maury, formerly superintendent of the
rate speech against the measure and the National Observatory, in a letter to the
entire policy of the administration in its London Times (Aug. 17, 1863), said, in
vindication of the national authority by proof that there was no chance for the
force of arms. He charged the President preservation of the Union, " There is al-
with usurpation in calling out and in- ready a peace party in the North. All
creasing the military and naval forces of the embarrassments with which that party
the country; in blockading ports; in sus- can surround Mr. Lincoln, and all the
pending the privilege of the writ of habeas difficulties that it can throw in the way
corpus; and other acts which the safety of the war party in the North, operate
of the government seemed to require directly as so much aid and comfort to
and all done without the express author- the South." The faction issued many pub-
ity of Congress. He declared that the lications in furtherance of their views,
denunciation of slavery and slave-holders and never ceased their operations until
was the cause of the war; denounced the the close of the war which they had pro-
revenue laws as injurious to the cotton- longed.

growers; charged his political opponents Peace Resolutions. During the holi-
with being anxious for war instead of day recess of Parliament in 1781-82, the
peace, and of having adopted a war policy people and legislators of England had the
for partisan purposes; warned the coun- surrender of Cornwallis to reflect upon,
try that other usurpations would follow, and came to the conclusion that further
such as the denial of the right of pe- efforts to subdue the colonies were useless,
tition and the freedom of conscience; and On Feb. 22, 1782, a motion was offered by
pronounced the war for the " coercion of Conway, in the House of Commons,
sovereign States " to be " unholy and un- against continuing the war in America,
just." From that time until the close of It was then negatived by a majority of
the war, and even afterwards, Mr. Vallan- cne. Five days later, Conway s resolution
digham used all his powers in giving " aid for an address to the King on the subject
and comfort " to the Confederates. He was carried by a majority of 19. To this
and the peace party opposed every meas- address the King gave an equivocal an-
ure of the administration for ending the swer. On March 4 Conway brought for-
war. They were doubtless sincere; but ward an address to the King to declare
the friends of the republic regarded them that the House would consider as enemies
as mistaken and mischievous. to the King and country all those who

Benjamin Wood, Representative from should further attempt the prosecution
New York, proposed (July 15) that Con- of a war on the continent of America for
gress should take measures for assembling the purpose of reducing the revolted colo-
a border-State convention to devise means nies to obedience. It was adopted without
for securing peace. Mr. Powell, of Ken- a division. The next day, with like unan-
tucky, introduced (July 18) an addition imity, leave was given by the House to
to a bill for the reorganization of the bring in an " enabling bill," allowing the
army, which declared that no part of the King to make a peace or truce with Amer-
army or navy should be employed in " sub- ica. It was accordingly brought in, but

104

PEACH-TREE CHEEK PEACOCK

it was ten weeks before it became a law
under a new administration. The North
administration was no more. Of it Dr.
Johnson said: " Such a bunch of imbecility
never disgraced the country. It was com
posed of many corrupt and greedy men,
who yielded to the stubbornness of the
King for the sake of the honors and emolu
ments of office."

Peach-tree Creek, BATTLE OF. See AT
LANTA.

Peacock, THE, a notable war-vessel of
the United States in the War of 1812,
mounting eighteen guns. In March, 1814,
under command of Captain Warrington,
she sailed from New York on a cruise. She

were killed or wounded. Only two of the
Peacock s men were wounded ; and so little
was she injured that an hour after the
battle she was in perfect fighting order.
The Epervier sold for $55,000, and on
board of her was found $118.000 in specie.
She was such a valuable prize that War
rington determined to take her into Sa
vannah himself. On the way, when abreast
of Amelia Island, on the coast of Florida,
the Epervier, in charge of Lieut. John B.
Nicholson, came near being captured by
two English frigates. She entered the Sa
vannah River in safety on May 1, 1814.
The Peacock reached the same port on
May 4. This capture produced much ex-

WARRINGTON MEDAL.

was off the coast of Florida for some time
without encountering any conspicuous ad
venture. On April 29, Warrington dis
covered three sails to the windward, under
convoy of an armed brig of large dimen
sions. The two war-vessels made for each
other, and very soon a close and severe
battle ensued. The Peacock was so badly
injured in her rigging at the beginning
that she was compelled to fight " run
ning at large," as the phrase is. She
could not manoeuvre much, and the con
test became one of gunnery. The Peacock
won the game at the end of forty minutes.
Her antagonist, which proved to be the
J pervier, eighteen guns, Captain Wales,
struck her colors. She was badly injured,
no less than forty-five round-shot having
struck her hull. Twenty-two of her men

ultation. Congress thanked Warrington
in the name of the nation, and gave him a
gold medal. In another cruise to the
shores of Portugal soon afterwards, the
Peacock captured fourteen vessels, and
returned to New York at the end of Octo
ber.

In 1815, after parting with Biddle, Cap
tain Warrington pursued his cruise in the
Peacock, and on June 30, Avhen off An jer,
in the Strait of Sunda, between Sumatra
and Java, he fell in with the East India
cruiser Nautilus, fourteen guns, Lieut.
Charles Boyce. Broadsides were exchanged,
when the Nautilus struck her colors. She
had lost six men killed and eight wounded.
The Peacock lost none. This event oc
curred a few days after the period set by
the treaty of peace for the cessation of

105

PEALE PEA RIDGE

hostilities. Warrington was ignorant of Mr. Peale painted several portraits oi
any such treaty, but, being informed the Washington, among them one for Houdon s
next day of its ratification, he gave up use in making his statue of the patriot,
the Nautilus and did everything in his He labored long for the establishment of
power to alleviate the sufferings of her an academy of fine arts in Philadelphia,
wounded crew. He then returned home, and when it was founded he co-operated
bearing the distinction of having fired the faithfully in its management, and con-
last shot in the second war for indepen- tributed to seventeen annual exhibitions,
dence. When the Peacock reached the Most of his family inherited his artistic
United States every cruiser, public and and philosophical tastes. He died in
private, that had been out against the Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 22, 1827. REM-
British had returned to port, and the war BRANDT, his son, born in Bucks county, Pa.,
was over. Feb. 22, 1778; died in Philadelphia, Oct.

Peale, CHARLES WILSON, painter; born 3, 1860; painted a portrait of Washing-
in Chestertown, Md., April 16, 1741; was ton from life, which is now in the Senate
at first apprenticed to a saddler, and after- chamber in Washington, and was corn-
wards carried on that business, as well mended by personal friends of the patriot
as silversmith, watch-maker, and carver, as the best likeness of him (excepting
He finally became a portrait-painter, and Houdon s statue) ever made. He studied
was a good sportsman, naturalist, pre- under West in London, and, going to
server of animals, an inventor, and was Paris, painted portraits of many eminent
the first dentist in the country who made men for his father s museum. Charles
sets of artificial teeth. He took instruc- Wilson Peale s youngest son, TITIAN RAM
SEY, born in Philadelphia in 1800; died
there, March 13, 1885, was also a painter
and naturalist. He was painter and
naturalist to the South Sea Surveying
and Exploring Expedition.

Pearce, JAMES ALFRED, statesman;
born, in Alexandria, Va., Dec. 14, 1805;
graduated at Princeton in 1822; admitted
to the bar in 1824; elected to the Mary
land legislature in 1831; elected member
of Congress in 1835; elected United States
Senator in 1843. President Fillmore
nominated Senator Pearce as Secretary of
the Interior. The nomination was con
firmed but declined. He died in Chester-
town, Md., Dec. 20, 1862.

Pea Ridge, BATTLE AT. When the Con-
CHARLKS WILSON PEALE. federates under General Price fled into

Arkansas in February, 1861, General Cur-

tions from Copley, in Boston, in 1770-71; tis and a strong force of Nationals pur-
studied at the Royal Academy in London ; sued him. Curtis crossed the Arkansas
and in 1772 painted the first portrait of line on Feb. 18 and drove Price and his
Washington ever executed, in the costume followers over the Boston Mountains. He
of a Virginia colonel, and at the same then fell back and took a position near
time painted a miniature of Mrs. Wash- Pea Ridge, a spur of the Ozark Mountains,
ington. He did military service and car- Meanwhile Price had been joined by Gen.
ried on portrait-painting during the Revo- Earl Van Dorn, a dashing young officer
lutionary War, and for fifteen years he was who was his senior in rank, and now took
the only portrait-painter in America. He chief command of the Confederates. Forty
made a portrait gallery of Revolutionary heavy guns thundered a welcome to the
worthies, and opened, in Philadelphia, the young general. " Soldiers!" cried the gen-
first museum in the country, and was the eral, " behold your leader ! He comes to
first to give lectures on natural history, show you the way to glory and immortal

106

PEA RIDGE, BATTLE AT

renown. He comes to hurl back the were in battle order. His 1st and 2d

minions of the despots at Washington, divisions, on the left, were commanded re-

whose ignorance, licentiousness, and bru- spectively by Generals Asboth and Sigel;

tality are equalled only by their craven the 3d was under Gen. J. C. Davis, and

natures. They come to free your slaves, composed the centre, and the 4th, on the

BATTLE OP PEA RIDGE.

lay waste your plantations, burn your vil
lages, and abuse your loving wives and
beautiful daughters." Van Dorn came
from western Arkansas with Generals Mc-
Culloch, Mclntosh, and Pike. The lat
ter was a New England man and a poet,
and came at the head of a band of Indians
whom he had lured into the service. The
whole Confederate force then numbered
25,000 men; the National troops, led by
Curtis, did not exceed 11,000 men, with 50
pieces of artillery.

On March 5 Curtis was informed by his
scouts of the swift approach of an over
whelming force of Confederates ; he con
centrated his army in the Sugar Creek
Valley. He was compelled to fight or
make a disastrous retreat. Choosing the
former, he prepared for the struggle.
Meanwhile Van Dorn, by a quick move
ment, had flanked Curtis and gained his
rear, and on the morning of the 7th he
moved to attack the Nationals, not doubt
ing his ability to crush him and capture
his train of 200 wagons. Curtis s troops

107

right, was commanded by Colonel Carr.
His line of battle extended about 4 miles,
and there was only a broad ravine be
tween his troops and the heavy Confed
erate force. Towards noon the battle
was opened by a simultaneous attack of
Nationals and Confederates. A very
severe conflict ensued, and continued a
greater part of the day, with varying fort
unes to each party, the lines of strife
swaying like a pendulum. At 11 A.M. the
pickets on Curtis s extreme right under
Major Weston were violently assailed, and
Colonel Osterhaus, with a detachment of
Iowa cavalry and Davidson s Peoria Bat
tery, supported by Missouri cavalry and
Indiana infantry, attacked a portion of
Van Dorn s troops before he was fairly
ready for battle. Colonel Carr went to the
assistance of Weston, and a severe engage
ment ensued. Thus the battle near Pea
Ridge was opened.

Osterhaus met with a warm reception,
for the woods were swarming with Con
federates. His cavalry were driven back,

PEA RIDGE PEARSON

Infantry

Artillery

lloads

Woods

when General Davis came to his rescue (March 8), when the Nationals hurled
with General Sigel, who attacked the Con- such a destructive tempest of shot and
federate flank. Soon afterwards Davis shell upon the Confederates that the lat-
fought severely with McCulloch, Mclntosh, ter soon broke and fled in every direction
and Pike. Then the battle raged most in the wildest confusion. Van Dorn, who
fiercely. The issue of the strife seemed had been a greater part of the day with
doubtful, when the 18th Indiana attacked the troops that fought Carr, concentrated
the Confederate flank and rear so vigor- his whole available force on Curtis s right,
ously with ball and bayonet that they The latter had been vigilant, and at 2
were driven from that part of the field, A.M. he had been joined by Sigel and his
when it was strewn with the dead bodies command. The whole four divisions of the
of Texans and Indians. The Confederates army were in position to fight Van Dorn
now became fugitives, and in their flight at daylight. With batteries advantageous-
they left their dead and wounded on the ly planted, and infantry lying down hi
field. Among the latter were Generals front of them, Curtis opened a terrible
McCulloch and Mclntosh, mortally hurt, cannonade. Battery after battery of the
Osterhaus, and Sigel with his heavy guns, Confederates was silenced in the course of

two hours, and so horrible was
the tempest of iron that Van
Dorn and his followers were
compelled to fly to the shelter
of the ravines of Cross Tim
ber Hollow. At the same time,
Sigel s infantry, with the
troops of the centre and right,
engaged in the battle. Van
Dorn fled suddenly, and Gen
eral Price, who had been post
ed some distance off, was forced
to participate in the flight.
The Confederate army, made so
strong and hopeful by Van
Dorn s speech twenty-four hours
before, was now broken into
fragments. This conflict, call
ed the battle of Elkhorn by the
Confederates, was a sanguinary
one. The Nationals lost 1.351
killed, wounded, and missing.
The loss of the Confederates
was never reported.

Pearl. See SCHOONER PEARL.
Pearson, ALFRED L., mil
itary officer; born in Pitts-
burg, Pa., Dec. 28, 1838; en
tered the United States army
as captain in 1862; retired as
major-general in 1865; re-

now went to the assistance of Colonel Carr ceived the congressional medal of honor ;
on the right. But Carr had held his commander of the Nation? 1 Union
ground. There were no indications that Veteran Legion in 1888. He died in Pitts-
the Confederates wished to renew the burg, Pa., Jan. 6, 1903.
fight, for it was now sunset. The Na- Pearson, GEORGE FREDERICK, naval offi-
tionals bivouacked on the battle-field that cer; born in Exeter, N. H., Feb. 6, 1796;
night among the dead and dying. entered the navy as midshipman, March

The contest was renewed at dawn 11, 1815, and rose to captain in 1855.

108

MAP OP BATTLE OF PEA RIDGE.

PEARSON PEFFEE,

While he was at Constantinople, in 1837,
the Sultan offered to give him command of
the Turkish navy, with the rank of ad
miral, and the salary of $10,000 a year.
It was declined. He effectually cleared
the Gulf of Mexico of pirates. In 1865-
66 he was in command of the Pacific
squadron. Retired in 1861 ; promoted
commodore in 1862, and rear-admiral in
1866 on the retired list. He died in Ports
mouth, N. H., June 30, 1867.

Pearson, JONATHAN, educator; born in
Chichester, N. H., Feb. 23, 1813; grad
uated at Union College in 1835 ; was
instructor there in 1835-39; assistant
professor of chemistry and natural
philosophy in 1839-49; professor of nat
ural history in 1849-73; and was then
given the chair of agriculture and
botany.

Peary, ROBERT EDWIN, explorer; born
in Cresson, Pa., May 6, 1850; graduated
at Bowdoin College in 1877; appointed
civil engineer United States navy in 1881;
assistant engineer Nicaragua ship - canal
in 1884. He, Peary, made voyages to the
Polar regions in 1886, 1891, 1893-95,
1896, 1897, and 1898-1902, and in 1904
was preparing for another voyage in the
summer of 1905. He was president of
the American Geographical Society in
1903-05. He is the author of Over the
Great Ice; A Complete Narrative of Arc
tic Work.

Peck, GEORGE, clergyman; born in Mid-
dlefield, N. Y., Aug. 8, 1797; was ordain
ed in the Methodist Episcopal Church in
1816; was editor of the Methodist Quar
terly Review in 1840-48, and of the Chris
tian Advocate in 1848-52. His publica
tions include Reply to Dr. Bascom on
Slavery; History of Wyoming ; Our Coun
try, Its Trials and its Triumphs; etc.
He died in Scranton, Pa., July 29, 1876.

Peck, JOHN JAMES, military officer;
born in Manlius, N. Y., Jan. 4, 1821;
graduated at West Point in 1843, enter
ing the 2d Artillery. He served in the
war against Mexico, and resigned in 1853,
settling in Syracuse as a banker. In Au
gust, 1861, he was made brigadier-gen
eral of volunteers, and, July 4, 1862, ma
jor-general. He performed excellent ser
vice during the whole Civil War, espe
cially in defence of Suffolk. He was mus
tered out in August, 1865, after which

he was president of a life-insurance com
pany in Syracuse, N. Y., where he died,
April 21, 1878. See SUFFOLK, SIEGE OF.

Peck, JOHN MASON, clergyman ; born in
Litchfield, Conn., Oct. 31, 1789; was or
dained in the Baptist Church in 1813;
was an itinerant preacher in the West in
1817-26; settled in Rock Spring, 111., in
1826. His publications include A Guide
for Emigrants; Gazetteer of Illinois;
Father Clark, or the Pioneer Preacher;
and Life of Daniel Boone. He died in
Rock Spring, 111., March 15, 1858.

Peckham, RTIFUS WILLIAM, jurist;
born in Albany, Nov. 8, 1838; admitted
to the bar in 1859; elected justice of the
State Supreme Court, New York, in 1883;
appointed associate justice of the United
States Supreme Court in 1895.

Peculiar Institution. A phrase ap
plied in the South to slavery.

Peet, HARVEY PRINDLE, educator; born
in Bethlehem, Conn., Nov. 19, 1794;
graduated at Yale College in 1822; be
came instructor in the deaf - and - dumb
asylum in Hartford in the same year, and
soon after was made superintendent of that
institution. In 1831-68 he was principal
of the New York Institution for the Deaf
and Dumb. His publications include
Course of Instruction for the Deaf and
Dumb; Statistics of the Deaf and Dumb;
Legal Rights, etc., of the Deaf and Dumb;
History of the United States of America,
etc. He died in New York City, Jan. 1,
1873.

Peet, STEPHEN DENISON, clergyman;
born in Euclid, O., Dec. 2, 1830;" grad
uated at Beloit College in 1851 and at
Andover Theological Seminary in 1854;
was active in the ministry of the Congre
gational Church in 1855-G6; later became
known as an archaeologist. In 1878 he
founded and became editor of The Amer
ican Antiquarian, the first journal in the
United States devoted entirely to archaeol
ogy. His publications include History of
Ashtabula County, Ohio; Ancient Archi
tecture in America; History of Early Mis
sions in Wisconsin; Primitive Symbolism;
Mound Builders; Animal Effigies; Cliff
Dwellers; The Effigy Mounds of Wiscon
sin, etc.

Peffer, WILLIAM ALFRED, legislator;
born in Cumberland county, Pa., Sept. 10,
1831; enlisted as a private in the 83d

109

PEGRAM PEMAQUID

Illinois Infantry in 1862; mustered out in
1865 with the rank of lieutenant; then
removed to Kansas and established the
Fredonia Journal. He was elected to the
State Senate in 1874; to the United
States Senate in 1891; and was the un
successful candidate for governor of Kan
sas in 1898 on the Prohibition ticket. See
IMPERIALISM : PEOPLE S PARTY ; SENATE.

Pegram, JOHN, military officer; born
in Petersburg, Va., Jan. 24, 1832; gradu
ated at West Point in 1856; left the
army, and took command of a Confed
erate regiment, which he led when made
a prisoner by General McClellan. In 1862
he was made a brigadier-general, was a
noted leader in all the campaigns in Vir
ginia, and was regarded as one of the
ablest of the Confederate division com
manders. Wounded in a battle at Hatch
er s Run, he died there, Feb. 6, 1865.

Peirce, BENJAMIN, scientist; born in
Salem, Mass., April 4, 1809; graduated
at Harvard College in 1829; became tutor
hi mathematics there in 1831, and from
1842 to 1867 was Perkins Professor of
Astronomy and Mathematics, and was
also consulting astronomer to The Ephem-
cris and Nautical Almanac from its estab
lishment in 1849. Dr. Peirce was a pupil of
Dr. Bowditch s, and read the proof-sheets
of his translation of the Mecanique -Celeste.
In September, 1867, he was appointed
superintendent of the United States Coast
Survey, which post he held until his
death in Cambridge, Mass., Oct. 6, 1880.
He was a" member of leading scientific
societies at home and abroad; an as
sociate of the Royal Astronomical So
ciety of London, 1842; member of the
Royal Society ot London, 1852; president

of the American Association for the Ad
vancement of Science in 1853 ; and one
of the scientific council that established
the Dudley Observatory at Albany, N. Y.,
in 1855. Dr. Peirce published many sci
entific essays; and in 1851 discovered
and announced the fluidity of Saturn s
rings.

Pelagic Seal Killing. See BERING SEA.
ARBITRATION.

Pemaquid. On Feb. 29, 1631, the Presi
dent and Council for New England grant
ed to Robert Aldworth and Giles Elbridge
100 acres of land for every person whom
they should transport to the province of
Maine within seven years, who should
continue there three years, and an abso
lute grant of 12,000 acres of land as
" their proper inheritance forever," to be
laid out near the Pemaquid River. In
1677 Governor Andros sent a sloop, with
some forces, to take possession of the ter
ritory in Maine called Cornwall, which
had been granted to the Duke of York.
He caused Fort Frederick to be built at
Pemaquid Point, a headland of the south
west entrance to Bristol Bay. The East
ern Indians, who, ever since King Philip s
War, had been hostile, then appeared
friendly, and a treaty was made with
them at Casco, April 12, 1678, by the
commissioners, which put an end to a
distressing war. In 1692 Sir William
Phipps, with 450 men, built a large stone
fort there, which was superior to any
structure of the kind that had been built
by the English in America. It was called
Fort William Henry, and was garrisoned
by sixty men. There, in 1693, a treaty
was made with the Indians, by which
they acknowledged subjection to the crown

PKMAQUIU.

110

PEMBERTON PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN

of England, and delivered hostages as a was a leading member of the Virginia

pledge of their fidelity; but, instigated House of Burgesses when the Revolution-

by the French, they violated the trea- ary War broke out, and, as a conservative

ty the next year. patriot, was opposed to radical Patrick

The French, regarding the fort at Pema- Henry. He was a member of the Conti-
quid as "controlling all Acadia," de- nental Congress in 1774-75, and president
termined to expel the English from it. of the Virginia conventions of December,
An expedition against it was committed 1775, and May, 1776, the latter instruct-
to Iberville and Bonaventure, who anchor- ing their representatives in Congress to
ed at Pentagoet, Aug. 7, 1696, where they vote for independence. Mr. Pendleton was
were joined by the Baron de Castine, with a member of the committee of correspon-
200 Indians. These auxiliaries went for- dence and of the committee of safety,
ward in canoes, the French in their ves- which controlled the military affairs of
sels, and Divested the fort on the 14th. Virginia. On the organization of the State
Major Chubb was in command. To a sum- he was appointed speaker of the Assembly,
mons from Iberville to surrender, the ma- and, with Wythe and Jefferson, revised
jor replied, " If the sea were covered with the colonial laws. He was president of
French vessels and the land with Indians, both the court of chancery and court of
yet I would not give up the fort." Some appeals, and in 1788 he presided over the
skirmishing occurred that day, and, hav- convention that ratified the national Con
ing completed a battery, the next day stitution. He died in Richmond, Va., Oct.
Iberville threw some bombs into the fort, 23, 1803.

which greatly terrified the garrison. Cas- Pendleton, GEORGE HUNT, statesman;
tine sent a letter, assuring the garrison born in Cincinnati, 0., July 25, 1825;
that, if the place should be taken by as- member of Congress from Ohio, 1857-05 :
sault, they would be left to the Indians, United States Senator, 1879-85. He was
who would give no quarter; he had seen the author of the civil - service - reform
the King s letter to that effect. The gar- measure known as the Pendleton act.
rison, compelling Chubb to surrender, were During President Cleveland s first ad-
sent to Boston, to be exchanged for French ministration, 1885-89, Senator Pendleton
and Indian prisoners, and the costly fort represented the United States at Berlin,
was demolished. He died in Brussels, Belgium, Nov. 24,

Pemberton, JOHN CLIFFORD, military 1889.

officer; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. Penick, CHARLES CLIFTON, clergyman;

10, 1814; graduated at West Point in born in Charlotte county, Va., Dec. 9,

1837; served in the Seminole War, and 1843; graduated at Alexandria Seminary

was aide-de-camp to General Worth in in 1869. During the Civil War he served

the war against Mexico. He entered the the Confederacy in the 38th Virginia

Confederate service in April, 1861, as Regiment; was ordained in the Protestant

colonel of cavalry and assistant adjutant- Episcopal Church in 1870, and was conse-

general to Gen. J. E. Johnston. He rose crated bishop of Cape Palmas, West

to lieutenant-general, and was the oppo- Africa, in 1877. His publications include

nent of Grant in northern Mississippi in Hopes, Perils, and Struggles of the Ne-

1863, to whom he surrendered, with his (/rocs in America; What Can the Church

army, at VICKSBURG ( q. v.) . He died in Do for the Negro in the United States,

Penllyn, Pa., July 13, 1881. etc.

Pendergrast, GARRETT JESSE, naval of- Peninsular Campaign, the name of the

ficer; born in Kentucky, Dec. 5, 1802; en- campaign conducted by General McClel-

tered the United States navy in 1812. He Ian in 1862 on the Virginia peninsula, be-

commanded the Cumberland in 1861, which t\veen the York River and its tributaries

he saved by threatening to fire on Nor- and the James River, which rivers empty

folk unless the harbor obstructions were into Chesapeake Bay or its adjacent

removed. He died in Philadelphia, Nov. v/aters. On the extremity of the point of

?&gt; 1862. land between them stands Fort Monroe.

Pendleton, EDMUND, statesman ; born The campaign continued from the landing

in Caroline county, Va., Sept. 9, 1721; of General Heintzelman s corps of the

111

PENINSULAS, CAMPAIGN

12 35 6 11 12

BADGES OF DESIGNATION OF THE ARMY OF TUB POTOMAC (The numbers designate the different army corps).

Army of the Potomac at Fort Monroe, ceeds, and McDowell is retained to de-
March 22, 18G2, until the departure of fend Washington by an order issued

, , T r ,. . May 24, 1862
the army from Harrisons Landing, in [This order saved the Confederate capital.)
August of the same year, including the Jackson drives Banks out of Win-
famous seven days battle before Rich- Chester (see CROSS KEYS, ACTION

AT) May 25, 1862

mond.

Heintzelman s corps embarks for Por
tress Monroe March 17, 1862

Headquarters of the Army of the Poto
mac transferred to vicinity of Por
tress Monroe April 1, 1862

McDowell s corps detached from the
army April 4, 1862

Yorktown and its line of defence, about
13 miles in length, occupied by 11,000
Confederates nnder Magruder, is at
tacked by the Nationals; repulsed..

Hanover Court-house May 27, 1862

[Fitz-John Porter, with a corps of
12,000 men, is ordered by McClellan
to destroy the bridges over the South
Anna, as instructed to do from Wash
ington ; opposed by the Confederates
under Branch at Hanover Court
house, he defeats them.]

Porter returns to his former position
at Gaines s Mills May 29, 1862

BATTLE OF PAIR OAKS (q. v.) OR SEVEN

PINES May 31-June 1, 1862

"April 4, 1862 Robt. E. Lee assumes command of the

Siege, so-called, of Yorktown Confederates June 3, 1862

April 4-May 5, 1862 Gen. J. E. B. Stuart, with a small
Confederates evacuate Yorktown . May 5, 1862 cavalry division, passes around the

BATTLE OF WILLIAMSBURQ (q. v.) Army of the Potomac June 12-13, 1862

May 5, 1862 BATTLE OF MECHANICSVILLE (q. v .)....

[General Hooker attacked the Con
federates with his division alone un
til reinforced by Kearny s division
about 4 P.M. The Confederates re
tired towards Richmond during the
night. The National loss in killed,
wounded, and missing, 2,228.]

General Franklin s division lands at
West Point May 6, 1862

Norfolk evacuated by the Confederates.

May 10, 1862

Iron-clad Merrimac blown up by the
Confederates May 11, 1862

Com. John liodgers, moving up the
James to within 8 miles of Richmond
with his fleet, retires after an unequal
contest with batteries on Drury s
Bluff or Fort Darling May 15, 1862

McClellan s headquarters established at
the "White House" (belonging to
Mrs. Robt. E. Lee) on the Pamunkey.

June 26, 1862
BATTLE OF GAINES S MILLS (q. v.) . . . .

June 27, 1862

First siege of Richmond abandoned ;
Keyes s corps ordered to the James
on the evening of June 27, 1862

[Lee, failing to comprehend Mc
Clellan s plans, loses the whole of
June 28 in false movements.]

Battle of Savage s Station; Sumner re
pulses Magruder June 29, 1862

Entire Army of the Potomac safely
across " White Oak Swamp " on the
morning of June 30, 1862

BATTLE OF GLENDALE (q. v.)..June 30, 1862

Army of the Potomac, with its immense
trains, concentrated on and around
Malvern Hill on the morning of....

July 1, 1862

BATTLE OF MALVERN HILL (q. v.) . . . .

July 1, 1862

May 16, 1862 President visits McClellan at liar-
McDowell, with a corps of 40,000 men rison s Landing July 7, 1862

and 100 pieces of artillery, instructed Hooker reoccupies Malvern Hill

to co-operate with the Army of the
Potomac advancing on Richmond. . . .

Aug. 4, 1862
McClellan ordered to withdraw to Aquia

May 17, 1862
To frustrate this union " Stonewall "
Jackson assumes the offensive by
threatening Washington. The Na
tional forces in northern Virginia
at this time were : Banks, 20,000,
Milroy and Schenck, 6.000, Fremont,
10,000, and McDowell s corps at
Fredericksburg, 40,000. Jackson suc-

112

Creek Aug. 4, 1862

Harrison s Landing entirely vacated . . .

Aug. 16, 1862

McClellan reaches Aquia Creek

Aug. 24, 18C2

Reports at Alexandria Aug. 26, 1862

Perm, JOHN, a signer of the Declara
tion of Independence; born in Caroline

PENN

county, Va., May 17, 1741 ; studied law onciled them, and the youth was sent to

with Edmund Pendleton; was an eloquent France, with the hope that gay society in

and effective speaker : and possessed a high Paris might redeem him from his almost

order of talent. In 1774 he settled in morbid soberness. It failed to do so,

Greenville county, N. C., and was a dele- and, on his return, in 1664, in compliance

gate in the Continental Congress from with the wishes of his father, he became

there in 1775-76 and 1778-80. Mr. Penn a student of law. The great fire in Lon-

was placed in charge of public affairs in don, in 1665, drove him from the city and

North Carolina when Cornwallis invaded deepened his serious convictions. Then

the State in 1781. He died in North Caro- he was sent to the management of his

lina in September, 1788. father s estates, near Cork, Ireland, where

Penn, JOHN, the " American Penn," he again fell in with Thomas Loe, and

born in Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 29, 1700; became a Quaker in all but garb.

son of William Penn by his second wife; On returning to England, his father

was the only male descendant of the tried to persuade him to conform to the

founder who remained a Quaker. He died customs of polite society, but he steadily

in England in October, 1746.

refused. He soon became a Quaker

Penn, WILLIAM, founder of Pennsyl- preacher and a powerful controversial
vania; born in London, England, Oct. 14, writer, producing several notable pam-
1644. His father
was Admiral Sir
William Penn, of
the royal navy, and
his mother was an
excellent Dutch
woman of Rotter
dam. He received
very strong relig
ion s impressions
while he was yet a
child. At the age
of fifteen years he
entered Christ
Church College, Ox
ford, where, through
the preaching of
Thomas Loe, he be
came a convert to
the doctrine of the
Quakers. He, with
two or three others,
refused to conform
to the worship of
the Established
Church, or to wear
the surplice, or
gown, of the stu
dent. He and his
companions even
went so far as to
strip some of the
students of their
robes, for which he

was expelled from the college. For this phlets. He attacked the generally received
offence his father beat him and turned doctrines of the Trinity, but afterwards
him out of the house. The mother rec- partially retracted, when it had produced

VII. H 113

m : " f .

WILLIAM PENN.

PENN, WILLIAM

great excitement in the religious society conformity. He travelled in Holland and
of England. He was confined in the Germany to propagate the doctrines of
Tower nine months, during which he wrote Friends, and there interceded in behalf
his principal work, entitled A 7 o Cross, no of his persecuted brethren. In 1672 Penn
married a daugh-

tor of Sir Will
iam Springett,
and, the next few
years, devoted
his time to
preaching and
writing.

In 1674 he be
came umpire in
a dispute be
tween Fenwick
and Byllinge,
both Quakers,
concerning their
property rights
in New Jersey.
Penn decided in
favor of Byl
linge, and after-
w a r d s bought
the domain from
him. Penn at
once became zeal
ously engaged in
the work of col
onization, and,
desiring to have
a safe asylum
from persecution
for his brethren,
he obtained a
grant of a large
domain in Amer
ica from Charles
II., in 1681, in
payment of a
debt of about
$80,000 due to
his father from

Crown. The Duke of York, under whom the crown. The charter vested the per-
Admiral Penn had served, procured his re- petual proprietorship of the vast region
lease. Penn was arrested for preaching (with Delaware, which was then annexed
in the streets in London, charged with to it), containing 45,000 square miles, in
creating a tumult and disturbing the him and his heirs, in the fealty of an an-
peace. His trial took place in the mayor s nual payment of two beaver-skins. Penn
court. The jury declared him not guilty, wished to call the domain New Wales,
but the court determined to convict him, and afterwards, on account of extensive
and ordered the jury to bring in a verdict forests, he suggested Sylvania. The King
ot guilty. They refused, and were fined ordered it to be called Penn Sylvania,
and sent to Newgate Prison. Afterwards because he had great admiration for
he suffered much persecution for his non- Penn s father. Penn tried to get the sec-

114

DEPARTURE OF THE WELCOME.

PENN, WILLIAM

retary to change the name, but could not, Indians, and that the person of an Indian
and it was called Pennsylvania in the should be held as sacred as that of a white
charter. man. Penn advertised his land at 40s.

When he had secured his charter Penn an acre, and servants could hold 50 acres
issued an advertisement which contained in fee-simple. Penn was so well known
inducements for persons to emigrate to in his own country and on the Continent
the new province, and a scheme of admin- that perfect confidence was placed in his
istration of justice suited to the disposi- declarations. English Friends, in large
tion of the Quakers. He declared that his numbers, proposed to come over, and a
object was to establish a just and right- German company, led by PASTOKIUS (q.v.),
cous government in the province, that bought 15,000 acres. This was the corn-
would be an example for others. He as- mencement of German emigration to
sumed that government is a part of re- Pennsylvania, The colony nourished. The
ligion itself, as sacred in its institution motto on Penn s seal " Mercy and Jus-
and end; that any
government is free
to the people under
it, whatever be its
frame, where the
laws rule and the
people are a party
to the laws. He
declared that gov
ernments depend
upon men, not men
upon governments;
and he guaranteed
liberty of con
science. He de
clared that none
should be molested
or prejudiced in
matters of faith
and worship, and
that nobody should
be compelled, at
any time, to fre
quent or maintain
any religious place
of worship or
ministry whatso
ever. He said that
prisons must be
converted into
schools of reforma
tion and edu
cation; that liti
gation ought to
give way to arbi
tration; that an
oath was a super
fluity, and made

lying punishable as a crime. Trial by tice "expressed prominent traits of his
jury was established, and, in all cases character.

where an Indian was involved, the jury Penn, with others, purchased east Jer-
should consist of six white men and six sey, which was already a flourishing

115

LANDING OP PENN AT PHILADELPHIA.

PBNN S SEAL.

PENN, WILLIAM

colony. In September, 1682, lie embarked we have more information. Penn was
for America on the ship Welcome, and, at then thirty-eight years of age. Most of
the end of six weeks, landed (Oct. 28, O. his companions the deputy-governor and

a few others were younger than he, and
were dressed in the garb of Friends the
fashion of the more simple Puritans dur
ing the protectorate of Cromwell. The
Indians were partly clad in the skins of
beasts, for it was on the verge of winter
(Nov. 4, 1682), and they had brought
their wives and children to the council, as
was their habit. The scene must have
been a most interesting one Europeans
and Indians mingling around a great fire,
kindled under the high branches of the
elm, and the contracting parties smoking
the calumet. That tree was blown down
in 1810; it was estimated to be 233 years
old. Upon its site the Penn Society, of

S.) near the site of New Castle, Del., Philadelphia, erected a commemorative
where he was joyfully received by the monument. It stands near the intersec-
settlers. After conferring with Indian tion of Beach and Hanover streets,
chiefs and making some unimportant trea- After visiting New York and New
ties, he went up the Delaware to the site Jersey, and meeting a general assembly,
of a portion of Philadelphia, and there
made a famous treaty. It was to be an
everlasting covenant of peace and friend
ship between the two races. " We meet,"
said Penn, " on the broad pathway of good
faith and good-will; no advantage shall
be taken on either side, but all shall be
openness and love. I will not call you
children, for parents sometimes chide
their children too severely; nor brothers
only, for brothers differ. The friendship
between me and you I will not compare
to a chain, for that the rains might rust,
or a falling tree might break. We are
the same as if one man s body was to be
divided into two parts; we are all one
flesh and blood." Then Penn gave the
chiefs presents, and they, in turn, handed
him a belt of wampum, a pledge of their
fidelity. Delighted with his words, and
with implicit faith in his promises, they

said: "We will live in love with William Penn sailed for England in August;, 1684.
Penn and his children as long as the sun The King died a few months after Penn s
and moon shall endure." arrival. He was succeeded by James,

This promise was kept; not a drop of Duke of York, who was a warm friend of
the blood of a Quaker was ever shed by Penn s. The latter took lodgings near the
an Indian. Penn had achieved a mighty court, where he constantly used his in-
victory by the power of justice and love, fluence in obtaining relief for his suffer-
There is no written record of that treaty ing brethren, who thronged his house by
extant; it seemed an ineradicable tradi- hundreds, seeking his aid. He finally ob-
tion among both races. Of the personal tained a royal decree, by which more than
character of the European actors in it 1,200 Quakers were released from prison.

116

WILLIAM PtNN

AND THE.
INDIAN NATION

1682 i

UNBROKIN FAITH

TREATY MONUMENT.

PENN, WILLIAM

This was followed by a proclamation of
the King (April, 1087), declaring liberty
of conscience to all, and removing tests
and penalties. Meanwhile Penn had made
a tour on the Continent, and, by order of
James, had a conference with the
monarch s son-in-law, William of Orange,
and tried to persuade him to adopt the
principles of universal toleration. Be
cause Penn had been personally intimate
with James, soon after the Revolution
(1688) he was summoned before the

of the King s Bench, and acquitted. The
charge was renewed, in 1691, by a man
who was afterwards branded by the House
of Commons as a cheat, a rogue, and a
false accuser.

In the mean time Pennsylvania had been
much disturbed by civil and religious quar
rels, and, in 1692, the monarchs deprived
Penn of his authority as governor of the
province, and directed Governor Fletcher,
of New York, to assume the adminis
tration. Powerful friends interceded in

TREE UNDER WHICH THE TREATY WAS MADE.

privy council to answer a charge of trea
son. No evidence appearing against him,
he was discharged. Not long afterwards,
a letter from the exiled monarch to Penn,
asking him to come to France, having been
intercepted, he was again brought before
the council, in presence of King William.
Perm declared his friendship for James,
but did not approve his policy, and he was
again discharged. In IG JO he was a third
lime accused, and was arrested on a
charge of conspiracy, tried by the court

Penn s behalf, and he was honorably ac
quitted (November, 1C93) by the King and
council. Three months later his wife,
Gulielma Maria, died, and, within two
years, he married Hannah Callowhill, a
Quaker lady of great excellence. His
proprietary rights having been fully re
stored to him (August, 1694), he sailed
for Pennsylvania with his wife and
daughter in September, 1699. He was
soon recalled by tidings that the House
of Lords was considering a measure for

PENN, WILLIAM

bringing all the proprietary governments
in America under the crown. Penn hast
ened to England, giving to Philadelphia

PKXX S CHAIR.

a city charter, dated Oct. 25, 1701. It was
one of his last official acts. The measure
which hastened his departure from Amer
ica was soon abandoned; but he was deeply
moved with anxiety about his affairs in
Pennsylvania, where his son, whom he had
sent as his deputy, had been guilty of dis
graceful conduct. At the same time his
confidential agent in London, who was a
Friend, had left to his executors false
charges against Penn to a very large
amount. To avoid extortion, Penn suffer
ed himself to be confined in Fleet Prison
for a long time (1708), until his friends
compromised with his creditors. In 1712
Penn made arrangements for the transfer
of his proprietary rights to the crown for
$60,000, when he was prostrated by
paralysis. He lived till July 30, 1718,
much of the time unable to move, and
never regained his mental vigor. Penn s
remains were buried in Jordan s Ceme
tery, near the village of Chalfont St. Giles,
in Buckinghamshire.

William Penn s character was frequent
ly assailed by the wicked and envious dur
ing his life, but always without success,

and Lord Macaulay -was equally unsuc
cessful in his assaults upon the honor,
honesty, purity, and integrity of the
founder of Pennsylvania, for official rec-
oids have proved the falsity of the allega
tions made by contemporaries and 1lie
eminent historian. Penn had a fine coun
try residence, sometimes called "The Pal
ace," on the bank of the Delaware River,
nearly opposite Bordentown. It was con
structed in 168*3, at an expense of about
$35,000. In 1700 his city residence in
Philadelphia was the " Slate-roof House,"
on the northeast corner of Second Street
and Norris s Alley. It was a spacious
building for the time, constructed of brick
and covered with slate. It was built for
another in 1690. Penn occupied it while
he remained in America, and there his
son, John Penn, governor of Pennsylvania
when the Revolution broke out, was born.
In that house the agent of Penn (James
Logan) entertained Lord Cornbury, of
New York, and his suite of fifty persons.
The house was purchased by William
Trent, the founder of Trenton. Arnold
occupied it as his headquarters in 1778,
and lived there in extravagant style.

Essay towards the Present and Future
Peace of Europe. This was published by
Penn in the latter part of the year 1693-
94, while war was raging on the Conti
nent. Penn sought to show " the desirable
ness of peace and the truest means of it "
at that time and for the future. His
essay consisted of a scheme for a general
alliance or compact among the different
states of Europe, whereby they should
agree to constitute a " General Diet " or

SLATE-ROOF (PENN S) HOUSE IN PHILADELPHIA.

118

PENNINGTON PENNSYLVANIA

congress of nations, wherein each should
bo represented by deputies, and all dif
ferences should be settled on equitable
terms and without recourse to arms. The
tract was printed twice in 1693. It is not
included in the original folio edition of
Penn s works, but finds place in one of
the later editions. It is reprinted in the
Memoirs of the Historical Society of
Pennsylvania, vol. vi.

Penn s plan for the federation and peace
of Europe, doubly interesting to us as the
work of one whose relation to American
history was so conspicuous, is noteworthy
as the first essay of such an international
character known to us which is free from
every suspicion of ulterior motive and
inspired purely by the love of humanity.
The one great plan of earlier date is the
" Great Design " of Henry IV. of France,
to which Penn himself refers in his essay.
The original account of this is in Sully s
Memoirs. It is a matter of controversy
how much this design was really Henry s;
and those interested in the matter may

find a careful discussion of it in Kitchin s
History of France, vol. ii., p. 472. A most
interesting and stinruTating article based
upon the " Great Design " is Edward
Everett Bale s The United States of Eu
rope, first published in Old and New,
1871, and republished in Lend a Hand,
July, 1896. The most famous and impor
tant modern essay on international arbi
tration and the federation of the world
is Kant s Eternal Peace, of which there
are two good English translations, one by
Morell, the other by Hastie, included in
a. little volume of translations of Kant s
political essays, entitled Kant s Principles
of Politics.

Pennington, WILLIAM, statesman; born
in Newark, N. J., May 4, 1796; gradu
ated at Princeton in 1813; admitted to
the bar of New Jersey in 1815; elected
governor of New Jersey in 1837 ; elected
member of Congress in 1859, and was
chosen speaker of the House, February,
1860. He died in Newark, N. J., Feb. 16,
1862.

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

Pennsylvania, STATE OF, one of the negative on the Assembly which he had
original thirteen States of the American once yielded; with playing the part of a
Union, and a former colony; named in hard and exacting landlord; with keep-
honor of William Penn, in the sketch of ing the constitution of the courts and the
whose life much of its early history has administration of justice in his own
been given.

At the beginning of the eighteenth cen
tury a Church of England party had
grown up in Pennsylvania, towards which
the Christian Quakers gravitated. These
Episcopalians jealously watched the pro
ceedings of the Quaker magistrates of the
province, and represented them as unfit
to rule, especially in time of war. Penn s
governor (Evans) having thrown out a
hint that the proprietor " might throw
off a load he had found too heavy " the
political interference of the Assembly
that body became very angry, and, headed
by David Lloyd, a lawyer, and their speak
er (who had been at one time Penn s at
torney-general ) , they agreed to nine res
olutions, which Lloyd embodied in a hands; with appointing oppressive offi-
memorial addressed to the proprietary, ccrs ; and, finally, with a downright be-
In it Penn was charged with an evasion trayal of the colonists in his present
of the fulfilment of his original promises negotiation for parting with the govern-
to the colonists, by artfully securing that ment a matter in which he was charged

119

STATE SEAL OP PENNSYLVANIA.

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

to proceed no further, lest it should look England, and, returning, brought a letter

like a " first fleecing and then selling." from Penn to the Assembly, giving an out-

Penn demanded the punishment of Lloyd, line history of his efforts in settling his

The new Assembly shifted the responsibility province, and intimating that, unless a

change should take place, and
quiet be restored, he might
rind it necessary to dispose of
so troublesome a sovereignty.
An entirely new Assembly was
chosen at the next election,
and nearly all the points in
dispute were arranged. But
Penn, wearied with conten
tions, made an arrangement
to cede the sovereignty of his
province to the Queen for the
consideration of about $60,-
000, reserving to himself the
quit-rents and property in the
soil. The consummation of
this bargain was prevented
by Penn being prostrated by
paralysis (1712).

In 1733 the proprietary of
Maryland agreed with the
heirs of Penn that the boun
dary-line between their re
spective provinces and Dela
ware should be as follows:
For the southern boundary of
Delaware, a line commencing
at Cape Henlopen, to be drawn
due west from Delaware Bay
to the Chesapeake. The west
boundary of Delaware was to
be a tangent drawn from the
middle point of this line to a
circle of 12 miles radius
around New Castle. A due

of Lloyd s memorial upon their predecessors, west line, continued northward to a par-
The friends of Penn, headed by Logan, allel of latitude 15 miles south of Phil-
secured a majority the next year, which adelphia, was to be the southern boun-
voted an affectionate address to the pro- dary of Pennsylvania. On his arrival in
prietary. But vexatious troubles soon Maryland, the proprietary, on the plea of
broke out again. Complaints were sent to misrepresentation, refused to be bound by
Penn against Evans and Logan. The former this agreement. He petitioned the King
was dissipated, and had corrupted Will- to be confirmed in possession of the whole
iam, the eldest son of Penn, who became peninsula between the Chesapeake and
a companion of his revels. That son pub- Delaware bays. The boundary was finally
licly renounced Quakerism. Evans was determined (see MASON AND DIXON S
superseded by Charles Gookin. He found LINE) substantially in accordance with
the Assembly in a bad humor, because the original agreement.
Penn sustained Logan, whom they de- In January, 1757, the Assembly of Penn-
nounced as " an enemy to the welfare of sylvania passed a bill granting for his
the province, and abusive of the repre- Majesty s service 100,000, by a tax on all
sentatives of the people." Logan went to the estates, real and personal, " taxable,"

120

A PENNSYLVANIA OIL REFINERY.

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

within the province. The governor
(Denny) refused to sanction it, because it
would heavily tax the proprietaries of the
province. He asked them to frame a bill
providing supplies for the public service,
such as he could, "consistent with his
honor and his engagements to the proprie
taries," subscribe. The Assembly re
monstrated, saying they had framed the
bill consistent with their rights as an
" English representative body," and, in the
name of their sovereign, "and in behalf
of the distressed people whom they repre
sented " unanimously demanded of the

governor that he would give his assent
to the bill they had passed. As it was a
money bill, they demanded that it should
not be altered or amended, " any instruc
tions whatsoever from the proprietaries
notwithstanding," as he would "answer
to the crown for all the consequences of
his refusal at his peril." The governor
persisted in his refusal, grounded upon
parliamentary usage in England, and the
supposed hardship of taxing the unim
proved land of the proprietaries. As the
governor would not sign a bill that did
not exempt the estates of the proprietaries

SCENES IN THE COAL-MIXING REGION, PEX.NSYLVAXIA.

121

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

from taxation, the Assembly sent Benjamin formed on the authority of the people.

Franklin, as agent of the province, to peti- On the afternoon of the 24th, with equal

tion the King for redress. This was the be- unannimity, the delegates declared, for

ginning of protracted disputes between the themselves and their constituents, their

representatives of the people of Pennsyl- willingness to concur in a vote of Con-

vania and the agents of the proprietaries, gress for independence.

An attempt of the Pennsylvania As- After the stirring events at Lexington
sembly, in 1764, to enact a new militia and Concord, a large public meeting was
law brought on another quarrel between held at Philadelphia (April 24, 1775), at
the proprietaries and the representatives which measures were taken for entering
of the people. One of the former, John into a volunteer military association, the
Penn, was now governor. He claimed the spirit of which pervaded the whole prov-
right to appoint the officers of the militia, ince. Many of the young Quakers took
and insisted upon several other provisions, part in the organization, in spite of the
to which the Assembly would not give its remonstrance of their elders, and were
assent. At the same time a controversy disowned. They afterwards formed a so-
arose concerning the interpretation of the ciety called " Free Quakers." Thomas
decision of the Lords of Trade and Plan- Mifflin (afterwards a major-general) was
tations, authorizing the taxation of the a leading spirit among these. JOHN
proprietary estates. At the annual elec- DICKINSON (q. v.) accepted the command
tion (May, 1764) the proprietary party of a regiment; so, also, did Thomas Mc-
in Philadelphia, by great exertions, de- Kean and James Wilson, both afterwards
feated Franklin in that city. Yet the signers of the Declaration of Independence,
anti-proprietary party had a large ma- The Assembly, which met soon afterwards,
jority in the Assembly. The new Assembly voted 1,800 towards the expenses of these
sent Franklin to England again as their volunteers. They also appointed a corn-
agent, authorized to ask for the abrogation mittee of safety, with Dr. Franklin as
of the proprietary authority and the es- chairman, which not only took measures
tablishment of a royal government. The for the defence of Philadelphia, but soon
mutterings of the gathering tempest of afterwards assumed the whole executive
revolution which finally gave independence authority of the province. Timidity mark-
to the Americans were then growing louder ed the course of the legislature of Penn-
and louder, and nothing more was done in sylvania in the autumn of 1775, while the
the matter. The opponents of the pro- people at large, especially in Philadelphia,
prietaries in Pennsylvania were by no were zealously in favor of the martial
means united on this point. The Epis- proceedings of Congress. The Assembly
copalians and Quakers were favorable to was under the influence of John Dickin-
a change, while the Scotch-Irish Presby- son, who opposed independence to the last.
terians were opposed to it, because they When the Assembly met (Oct. 16, 1775),
feared the ascendency of the Church of all of the members present subscribed to
England. The patronage of the proprie- the usual engagement of allegiance to the
taries attached many to their interests, King. In a few days the Quakers pre-
and the pleasant memories of William sented an address in favor of conciliatory
Penn inclined many to favor them. On measures, and deprecating everything
June 18, 1774, there was a general con- " likely to widen or perpetuate the breach
ference of the committees of the several with the parent state." The committee
counties in the State. They assembled at of sixty for the City and Liberties of
Carpenters Hall, in Philadelphia. In this Philadelphia, headed by George Clymer
conference few, if any, of the old Assembly and Thomas McKean, went in procession,
appeared. Thomas McKean was chosen two by two, to the State-house, and de-
president, and on the 10th the 104 mem- livered a remonstrance, calculated to coun-
bers present unanimously approved the teract the influence of Dickinson and the
action of Congress respecting the forma- Quakers. This halting spirit in the Assem-
tion of States. They condemned the pres- bly appeared several months longer, and on
ent government of the colony as incom- the vote for independence (July 2, 1776)
petent, and a new one was ordered to be the Pennsylvania delegates were divided.

122

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

STEEL- WOKKS IN PENNSYLVANIA.

The Assembly, influenced by the pro- in not requiring newly elected members to
prietary government and office-holders in swear allegiance to the King. Finally, on
its own body, as well as by timid patriots, May 24, the committee of inspection of
hoping, like John Dickinson, for peace the city of Philadelphia addressed a me-
and reconciliation, steadily opposed the morial to the Congress, setting forth that
idea of independence. Finally, a town- the Assembly did not possess the confi-
meeting of 4,000 people, held in State- dence of the people, nor truly represent
house Yard, in Philadelphia (May 24, the sentiments of the province; and that
1776), selected for its president Daniel measures had been taken for assembling
Iloberdeau. The meeting voted that the a popular convention. The Assembly be-
instruction of the Assembly for forming came nervous. It felt that its dissolution
a new government (in accordance with was nigh. In the first days of June no
John Adams s proposition) was illegal governor appeared. The members showed
and an attempt at usurpation; and the signs of yielding to the popular pressure;
committee of the City and Liberties of but on the 7th, the very day when Rich-
Philadelphia were directed to summon a ard Henry Lee offered his famous resolu-
conference of the committees of every tion for independence in Congress, John
county in the province to make arrange- Dickinson, in a speech in the Assembly,
ments for a constituent convention to be pledged his word to the proprietary chief-
chosen by the people. Then was prepara- justice (Allen), and to the whole House,
tion made for the fall of the proprietary that he and a majority of the Pennsyl-
charter of Pennsylvania. Dickinson and vania delegates in the Congress would
his friends persisted in opposition to in- continue to vote against independence,
dependence. Concessions were made to Only once again (after June 9, 1776) did
the Continental Congress by the Assembly a quorum of members of the Pennsylvania

123

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

Assembly appear. The proprietary gov- made such violent opposition to this meas-
crnment had expired. urement that those engaged in it were

The gloomy outlook after the fall of compelled to desist. Warrants were is-
Fort Washington and the flight of Wash- sued for the arrest of opposers of the law;
ington and his melting army across New and in the village of Bethlehem the mar-
Jersey in 1776 caused many persons of shal, having about thirty prisoners, was
influence in Pennsylvania., as well as in set upon by a party of fifty horsemen,
New Jersey, to waver and fall away from headed by a man named Fries. The Presi-
the patriot cause. The most conspicuous dent sent troops to maintain the law. No
of these in Pennsylvania were Joseph opposition was made to them, and Fries
Galloway, who had been a member of the and about thirty others were arrested and
first Continental Congress, and Andrew taken to Philadelphia, where their leader-
Allen, also a member of that Congress, was indicted for treason, tried twice, each
and two of his brothers. The brothers time found guilty, but finally pardoned.
Howe having issued a new proclamation Several others were tried for the same
of pardon and amnesty to all who should offence. While these trials were going on,
within sixty days promise not to take up Duane, editor of the Aurora (Bache had
arms against the King, these men availed died of yellow fever), abused the officers
themselves of it, not doubting their speedy and troops, who, finding no law to touch
restoration to their former fortunes and him, sent a deputation of their own num-
political importance. They went over to ber to chastise him, which they did on his
Howe; so did Samuel Tucker, a leader in own premises.

the movements against British oppression Pennsylvania was governed by a code
in New Jersey, and a host of Jerseymen, framed by William Penn, and several
who signed a pledge of fidelity to the times amended, until Sept. 28, 1776, when
British crown. Even John Dickinson, a State constitution was adopted, and
whose fidelity as a patriot may not be Pennsylvania took her place in the Union,
questioned, was so thoroughly convinced In 1790 a new constitution was adopted,
of the folly of the Declaration of Inde- which has since been several times amend-
pendence and the probability of a return ed. In 1838 provision was made for elect-
to the British fold that he discredited the ing, instead of appointing, county officers;
Continental bills of credit, and refused to the right of voting was limited to white
accept an appointment from Delaware as persons, and the term of judicial offices
a delegate in Congress. The State of Avas reduced from life to ten and fifteen
Maryland also showed a willingness at years. In 1850 the judiciary was made
this juncture to renounce the Declaration elective by the people; subscriptions to in-
of Independence for the sake of peace, ternal improvements by municipal authori-
Amid this falling away of civilians and ties was prohibited, and in 1864 the right
the rapid melting of his army, Washing- of suffrage was guaranteed to soldiers in
ton s faith and courage never faltered, th? field. An amended constitution went
From Newark, when he was flying with into force on Jan. 1, 1874. Lancaster was
his shattered and rapidly diminishing the seat of the State government from
forces towards the Delaware River before 1799 till 1812, when Ilarrisburg became
pursuing Cornwallis, he applied to the the State capital. In 1808 a case which
patriotic and energetic William Living- had been in existence since the Revolu-
ston, governor of New Jersey, for aid. tion brought the State of Pennsylvania
To expressions of sympathy from the gov- into collision with the Supreme Court of
ernor he replied (Nov. 30, 1776), "I will the United States. During the disputes
not despair." in the case alluded to about prize-money

Early in 1799 an insurrection broke out David Rittcnhouse, as State treasurer of
due to a singular cause. A direct tax had Pennsylvania, had received certain certifi-
been levied, among other things, on houses, cates of national debt. Rittenhouse set-
arranged in classes. A means for making tied his accounts as treasurer in 1788 and
that classification was by measuring win- resigned his office, but still retained these
dows. The German inhabitants of North- certificates, having given his bond to the
ampton, Bucks, and Montgomery counties judge of the State court to hold him

124

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

harmless as to other claimants. The cer- (1864) the Confederates penetrated to

tificates were held by Rittenhouse to in- Chambersburg, and nearly destroyed the

demnify him against the bond he had town by fire. At the beginning of the

given. When the public debt was funded Civil War Pennsylvania raised a large

he caused these certificates to be funded body of reserve troops, and during the

in his own name, but for the benefit of war furnished to the National army 387,-

whoiu it might concern. Rittenhouse died 284 troops.

in 1801, leaving his three daughters execu- This State has the honor of having sent
tors of his estate. They were called upon the first troops to the national capital
by the State treasurer to deliver the cer- for its defence, in April, 1861. The
tificates to him and pay over the accrued troops comprised five companies from the
interest. They refused to do so, on ac- interior of the state namely, Washing-
count of a pending suit in the State court ton Artillery and National Light Infantry,
by a claimant for the amount. The State of Pottsville; the Ringgold Light Artil-
court finally declined to interfere, on the lery, of Reading; the Logan Guards, of
technical ground that it was an admiralty Lewistown; and the Allen Infantry, of
matter and was not cognizable in a court Allen town. On the call of the President,
of common law. The claimant then ap- the commanders of these companies tele-
plied to the United States district court graphed to Governor Curtin that their
for an order to compel the executors of ranks were full and ready for service.
Rittenhouse to pay over to him the certif- They were assembled at Harrisburg on
icates and accumulated interest, then the evening of April 17. Accompanied by
amounting to about $15,000. Such a de- forty regular soldiers destined for Fort
cree was made in 1803, when the legis- McHenry, they went by rail to Baltimore
lature of Pennsylvania passed a law to the next morning, and while passing from
compel the executors to pay the funds into one railway station to another wore sub-
the State treasury, pledging the faith of jected to gross insults and attacked with
the State to hold them harmless. Finally missiles by a mob. They were without
the Supreme Court of the United States arms, for their expected new muskets
issued a mandamus for the judge of the were not ready when they got to Harris-
district court to carry the decree into ex- burg. They found Maryland a hostile
edition, despite the State law. It was territory to pass through, but they reach-
done (March 12, 1809) ; but the marshal, ed the capital in safety early in the even-
when he went to serve the process of at- ing of April 18. They were received by
tachment, found the houses of the re- the government and loyal people there
spondents protected by an armed guard, with heartfelt joy, for rumors that the
who resisted his entrance by bayonets, minute-men of Maryland and Virginia
These guards were State militia, under were about to seize Washington, D. C.,
General Bright, with the sanction of the had been prevalent all day. The Pennsyl-
governor. The legislature and the govern- vanians were hailed as deliverers. They
or now receded somewhat. The former were marched to the Capitol grounds,
made an appropriation of $18,000 to meet greeted by cheer after cheer, and assign-
any contingency; and finally, after a show ed to quarters in the hall of the House of
of resistance, which, to some, threatened Representatives. The startling rumor
a sort of civil war in the streets of Phila- soon spread over the city that 2,000 Na-
delphia, the governor paid over the sum tional troops had arrived, well armed
to the marshal out of the appropriation, with Minie rifles. The real number w;i.&lt;
This was a blow to the doctrine of State 530. The disunionists and their sym-
supremacy, which still held a large place pathizers were overawed just in time to
in the political creed of the people of all save the capital from seizure,
the States. The supremacy of the nation- GEN. ROBERT PATTERSON (q. v.), then
al judiciary was fully vindicated. commander of the Department of Pennsyl-
In the Civil War Pennsylvania was in- vania, comprehended the wants of govern-
vaded by the Confederates, and on its ment, and, while the capital was cut off
soil the decisive battle of the war oe- from communication with the loyal peo-
curred, at Gettysburg. The next year pie of the State, he took the responsibil-

125

PENNSYLVANIA PENNYMITE AND YANKEE WAR

ity of officially requesting (April 25, 1861)
the governor of Pennsylvania to direct
the organization of twenty-five regiments
of volunteers. It was done. These were
in addition to the sixteen regiments call
ed for by the Secretary of War. The
legislature took the twenty-five regiments
into the service of the State, the Secre
tary of War first declining to receive
them. This was the origin of the fine
body of soldiers known as the Pennsyl
vania Reserves, who were gladly accepted
by the Secretary after the battle of Bull
Run. See UNITED STATES, PENNSYLVANIA,
in vol. ix.

COLONIAL GOVERNORS OF PENNSYLVANIA.

[Under the proprietary government, when there was
no deputy governor the president of the council acted as
such.]
William Penn Proprietor and Governor 1682

STATE GOVERNORS Continued.

Henry M. Hoyt 1879

Robert E. Pattison 1883

James A. Beaver 1887

Robert E. Pattison 1891-1895

Daniel H. Hastings 1895-1899

William A. Stone 1899-1903

Samuel W. Pennypucker 1903-1907

UNITED STATES SENATORS.

Thomas Lloyd

John Blackwell

Benjamin Fletcher.
William Markham.

William Penn

Andrew Hamilton..
Edward Shippen...

John Evans

Charles Gookin. . . .
Sir William Keith..

Patrick Gordon

James Logan

.President 1684

. Deputy Governor 1688

.Governor 1693

.Deputy Governor 1701

.President 1703

. Deputy Governor 1704

" " 1709

" " 1717

" " 1726

. . President 1736

George Thomas Deputy Governor 1738

Anthony Palmer President 1747

James Hamilton Deputy Governor 1748

Robert H, Morris " 1754

William Denny " 1756

James Hamilton " " 1759

John Penn Governor 1763

James Hamilton President 1771

Richard Penn Governor

John Penn " 1773

[Proprietary government ended by the Constitution of
1776. The representatives of the Penn fnmily were paid
for the surrender of their rights, and a government by
the people established.]

STATE GOVERNORS.
Thomas Wharton President (died in office 1778) 1777

Name.

No. of Congress.

Term.

William Maclay

1st to 2d
1st " 4th
3d
3d to 8th
4th " 7th
7th
7th to 9th
8th " 10th
10th " 13th
10th " 13th
13th " 16th
13th " 17th
16th " 19th
17th " 20th
19th " 22d
20th " 22d
22d 23d
22d 23d
23d 26th
23d 29th
26th 32d
29th 31st
31st " 34th
32d 35th
34th 37th
35th 37th

1789 t
1789
1793
1794
1795
1801
1801
1803
1807
1809
1813
1814
1819
1821
1825
1827
1831
1831
1833
1834
1839
1845
1849
1851
1855
1857
1861
1861
1863
1867
1869
1875
1877
1881
1887
1897
1901
1904

31791
1795

1803
1799
1802
1805
1808
1813
1814
1819
1821
1825
1827
1831
1831
1833
1834
1839
1845
1851
1849
1855
1857
1861
1861
1863
1867
1869
1877
1875
1881
1897
1887
1899
t

1904

Albert Gallatin

William Bin^ham

John Peter G. Muhleuberg. .

William Findley

George M. Dallas

William Wilkins

Samuel McKeau

James Buchanan

Daniel Sturgeon

Simon Cameron

David Wilmot

37th 38th
37th 40th
38th 41st
40th 45th
41st 44th
44th 47th
45th 55th
47th 50th
50th 56th
55th
f)7th " SSth
58th " -

Ed"ar Cowan

William A Wallace

James Donald Cameron
John I Mitchell

Matthew S Quav

Philander C. Knox

Pennymite and Yankee War
began in Wyoming Valley between Con
necticut settlers under the auspices of
the Susquehanna Company and the Penn-
sylvanians in 1769, when the former
made a second attempt to clear the way

Joseph Reed"; . . . . . . . . President 1778 for planting a colony in that region. In

1768 the proprietary of Pennsylvania
purchased of the Six Nations the whole
Wyoming Valley, and leased it for seven
years to three Pennsylvanians, who built
a fortified trading-house there. In Febru
ary, 1769, forty pioneers of the Susquehan
na Company entered the Wyoming Valley
and invested the block-house, garrisoned
by ten men, who gave Governor Penn no
tice of the situation. Three of the Con
necticut men were lured into the block
house under pretence of making an adjust-

William Moore 1781

John Dickinson 1782

Benjamin Franklin 1785

Thomas M ifflin Governor* 1 88

Thomas McKean 1799

Simon Snyder J

William Findley 1817

Joseph Hiester

J Andrew Shulze

George Wolf 1829

Joseph Ritner..

1837

"I QQO

David R. Porter 1

Francis R. Shunk Resigned, 1848 1

William F. Johnson.. .Acting 1

William Bigler 1852

James Pollock ]

William F. Packer 1

Andrew G. Curtin 11

John W. Geary ]

John F. Hartranft 18 73

From 1790, under the new State constitution, the executive has
been termed governor instead of president.

ment of difficulties, and were seized by
the sheriff and taken to jail at Easton.
Other immigrants flocked in from Con-

126

PENNYMITE AND YANKEE WAR PENOBSCOT

necticut, and the sheriff called upon the in force, when Stewart fled from the val-
posse of the county to assist in their ar- ley, leaving a garrison of twelve men,
rest. The Connecticut people also had who were made prisoners. Peace reigned
built a block-house, which they named there until near midsummer, when Capt.
Forty Fort. The sheriff broke down its Zebulon Butler, with seventy armed men
duors, arrested thirty of the inmates, and from Connecticut, suddenly descended from
sent them to Easton jail. When admitted the mountains and menaced a new fort
to bail, they returned with about 200 men which Ogden had built. Ogden managed
from Connecticut, who built Fort Durkee, to escape, went to Philadelphia, and in-
just below Wilkesbarre, so named in honor duced the governor (Hamilton) to send a
of their commander, John Durkee. Then detachment of 100 men to Wyoming,
the sheriff reported to the governor that The besiegers kept them at bay, and the
the whole power of the county was in- siege, during which several persons were
sufficient to oppose the "Yankees." killed, was ended Aug. 11. By the terms

Meanwhile the company had sent com- of capitulation, the Pennsylvanians were

missioners to Philadelphia to confer upon to leave the valley. So ended the contest

a compromise. The governor (Penn) for 1771.

refused to receive them, and sent an armed The Yankees, under the advice of the
force, under Colonel Francis, into the Connecticut Assembly, organized civil gov-
valley. The sheriff joined Francis with a eminent there upon a democratic system,
strong armed party, with a 6-pounder The settlement was incorporated with the
cannon. Colonel Durkee and several of colony of Connecticut, and its representa
tive inhabitants were captured, and the tives were admitted into the General As-
fort was surrendered upon conditions sembly. Wilkesbarre was laid out, and for
which were immediately violated. The four years peace smiled upon the beautiful
next year Colonel Durkee, released, took valley. Suddenly, in the autumn of 177"),
command of the Connecticut people, and the Pennsylvanians, encouraged by Gov-
captured the sheriff s cannon; also one ernor Penn, renewed the civil war. The
of the leading Pennsylvanians (Amos Og- Continental Congress interfered in vain;
den), who had fortified his house. Imi- but when the proprietary government was
tating the bad faith of their opponents, abolished this Pennymite and Yankee
the Yankees seized his property and burn- War was suddenly ended. See SUSQUE-
ed his house. Governor Penn now (1770) IIAXNA COMPANY.

called upon General Gage, in command Penny-packer, SAMUEL WHITAKER,

of the British troops at New York, for a jurist; born in Phoenixville, Pa., April 9,

detachment "to restore order in Wy- 1843; served in the Civil War ; was gradu-

oming." He refused. In the autumn Og- ated at the law department of the Uni-

den marched by the Lehigh route, with versity of Pennsylvania in 1866; president

140 men, to surprise the settlers in Wy- of the Law Academy of Philadelphia in

oming. From the mountain-tops he saw 1866; and president judge of the Court of

the farmers in the valley pursuing their Common Pleas of Pennsylvania till 1902,

avocations without suspicion of danger, when he was elected governor of Pennsyl-

He swooped down upon the settlement in vania. He compiled four volumes of the

the night, and assailed Fort Durkee, then Pennsylvania Supreme Court Reports ; and

filled with women and children. The fort is the author of General Weedon s Orderly

and the houses of the settlement were Book at Valley Forge; Capture of Stony

plundered, and many of the chief inhab- Point; The Settlement of Germantoivn;

itants were sent to Easton jail. The Congress Hall; Historical and Biographi-

Yankees left the valley, and the "Penny- cal Sketches; etc.

mites," as the Pennsylvanians were called, Penobscot. The " Company of New

took possession again. France," which had purchased Sir W.

On the night of Dec. 18 the Connecticut Alexander s rights to territory in Nova
people, led by Lazarus Stewart, returned, Scotia through Stephen, Lord of La Tour,
and, attacking Fort Durkee, captured it in 1630, conveyed the territory on the
and drove the Pennymites out of the val- banks of the river St. John to this noble-
ley. In January following they returned man in 1635. Rossellon, commander of a

127

PENOBSCOT PENSACOLA

French fort in Acadia, sent a French man-
of war to Penobscot and took possession
of the Plymouth trading-house there, with
all its goods. A vessel was sent from
Plymouth to recover the property. The
French fortified the place, and were so
strongly intrenched that th? expedition
was abandoned. The Plymouth people
never afterwards recovered their interest
at Penobscot.

The first permanent English occupation
of the region of the Penobscot to which
the French laid claim was acquired in
1759, when Governor Pownall, of Massa-
chusetts, with the consent of the legislat-
nre, caused a fort to be built on the west-
ern bank of the Penobscot (afterwards
Fort Knox), near the village of Prospect,
which was named Fort Pownall. An
armed force from Massachusetts took pos-
session of the region, built the fort, cut
off the communications of the Eastern
Indians (the only ones then hostile to the
English), and so ended the contest for the
Penobscot region by arms.

In 1779 a British force of several hun-
dred men from Nova Scotia entered east-
ern Maine and established themselves in a
tortified place on the Penobscot River.
Massachusetts sent a force to dislodge the
intruders. The expedition consisted of
nineteen armed vessels (three of them
Continental ) , under Captain Saltonstall,
ot Connecticut, and 1,500 militia, com-
manded by General Lovell. These were
borne on the fleet of Saltonstall, and land-
ed (July 26) near the obnoxious post,
with a loss of 100 men. Finding the
works too strong for his troops, Lovell
sent to General Gates, at Boston, to for-
ward a detachment of Continentals. Hear-
ing of this expedition, Sir George Collins,
who had been made chief naval command-
er on the American station, sailed for the
Penobscot with five heavy war-ships. The
Massachusetts troops re-embarked, Aug.
13, when Sir George approached, and, in
the smaller vessels, fled up the river,
When they found they could not escape,
they ran five frigates and ten smaller ves-
sels ashore and blew them up. The others
were captured by the British. The sol-
diers and seamen escaped to the shore, and
suffered much for want of provisions while
traversing an uninhabited country for 100
miles.

Penology. See LIVINGSTON, EDWARD.

Pensacola. When Iberville was 011 his
way to plant a colony at the mouth of the
Mississippi River, he attempted to enter
Pensacola Bay, but found himself con-
fronted by Spaniards in arms, who had
come from Vera Cruz and built a fort
there, under the guns of which lay two
Spanish ships. The Spaniards still elaim-
cd the whole circuit of the Gulf of Mexico,
and, jealous of the designs of the French,
had hastened to occupy Pensacola Harbor,
the best on the Gulf. The barrier there
constructed ultimately established the di-
viding-line between Florida and Louisiana.
In 1696 Don Andre d Arriola was appoint-
ed the first governor of Pensacola, and
took possession of the province. He built
a fort with four bastions, which he called
Fort Charles; also a church and some
houses.

On Feb. 28, 1781, Galvez the Spanish
governor of Louisiana, sailed from New
Orleans with 1,400 men to seize Pensa-
cola. He could effect but little alone; but
finally he was joined (May 9) by an armed
squadron from Havana, and by a rein-
forcement from Mobile. Galvez now gain-
ed possession of the harbor of Pensacola,
and soon afterwards Colonel Campbell,
who commanded the British garrison
there, surrendered. Pensacola and the
rest of Florida had passed into the pos-
session of the British by the treaty of
1763. Two years after Galvez captured
the place (1783) the whole province was
retrocedcd to Spain.

In April, 1814, Andrew Jackson was
commissioned a major-general in the army
of the United States and appointed to the
command of the 7th Military District.
While he was yet arranging the treaty
with the conquered Creeks, he had been
alarmed by reports of succor and refuge
given to some of them by the Spanish
authorities at Pensacola, and of a com-
nmnication opened with them by a British
vessel which had landed arms and agents
at Apalachicola. In consequence of his
report of these doings, he received orders
to take possession of Pensacola. But
these orders were six months on the way.
Meanwhile two British sloops-of-war, with
two or three smaller vessels, had arrived
at Pensacola, and were proclaimed (Aug.
4) as the van of a much larger naval

128

PENSACO&A

force. Col. Edward Nichols had been per-
mitted to land a small body of troops at
1 ensacola, and to draw around him, arm,
and train hostile refugee Creeks. Jack-
eon s headquarters were at Mobile. Late
in Augiist the mask of Spanish neutrality
was removed, when nine British vessels of
war lay at anchor in the harbor of Pensa-
cola, and Colonel Nichols was made a wel-
come guest of the Spanish governor. A
British flag, raised over one of the Spanish
forts there, proclaimed the alliance; and
it was found that Indian runners had been
sent out from Pensacola among the neigh-
boring Seminoles and Creeks, inviting
them to Pensacola, there to be enrolled
in the service of the British. Almost
1,000 of them were gathered there, where
they received arms and ammunition in
abundance from the British officers,
Nichols also sent out proclamations to
the inhabitants of the Gulf region con-
taining inflammatory appeals to the preju-
dices of the French and the discontent of
others ; and he told his troops that they
were called upon to make long and tedious
inarches in the wilderness and to eoncili-
ate the Indians.

At this juncture Jackson acted prompt-
ly and effectively, without the advice of
his tardy government. He caused a beat-
up for volunteers, and very soon 2,000
sturdy young men were ready for the field.
After they arrived Jackson took some time
to get his forces well in hand; and early
in November he marched from Fort Mont-
gomery, which was due north from Pensa-
cola, with 4,000 troops some Mississippi
dragoons in the advance and encamped
within two miles of Pensacola on the
evening of Nov. 6. He sent word to the
Spanish governor that he had come, not to
make war on a neutral power, nor to in-
jure the town, but to deprive the enemies
of the United States of a place of refuge,
His messenger (Major Pierre) was in-
structed to demand the surrender of the
forts. When Pierre approached, under a
Hag of truce, he was fired upon by a 12-
pounder at Fort St. Michael, which was
garrisoned by British troops. Jackson
sent Pierre again at midnight with a
proposition to the governor to allow Amer-
leans to occupy the forts at Pensacola un-
til the Spanish government could send a
sufficient force to maintain neutrality,

This proposition was rejected; and Jack-
son, satisfied that the governor s protesta-
tions of inability to resist the British in-
vasion were only pretexts, marched upon
Pensacola before the dawn with 3,000
men. They avoided the fire of the forts
and the shipping in the harbor, and the
centre of the column made a gallant
charge into the town. They were met by
a two-gun battery in the principal street,
and showers of bullets from the houses and
gardens. The Americans, led by Captain
Laval, captured the battery, when the
frightened governor appeared with a
white flag and promised to comply with
any terms if Jackson would spare the
town. An instant surrender of all the
forts was demanded and promised, and,
after some delay, it was done. The Brit-
ish, also alarmed by this sudden attack,
blew up Fort Barancas, 6 miles from
Pensacola, which they occupied; and early
in the morning, Nov. 7, 1814, their ships
left the harbor, bearing away, besides the
British, the Spanish commandant of the
forts, with 400 men and a considerable
number of Indians. The Spanish govern-
or (Manriquez) was indignant because
of the flight of his British friends, and
the Creeks w r ere deeply impressed with a
feeling that it would be imprudent to
again defy the wrath of General Jackson.
He had, by this expedition, accomplished
three important results namely, the ex-
pulsion of the British from Pensacola, the
scattering of the gathering Indians in
great alarm, and the punishing of the
Spaniards for such perfidy.

At the beginning of the Civil War the
United States had a navy-yard at the
little village of Warrington, 5 miles from
the entrance to Pensacola Bay. It was
under the charge of Commodore Arm-
strong, of the navy. He was surrounded
by disloyal men, and when, on the morn-
ing of Jan. 10, 1861 (when Fort Pickens
was threatened), about 500 Florida and
Alabama troops, and a few from Missis-
sippi, commanded by Colonel Lomax, ap-
peared at the navy-yard and demanded its
surrender, Armstrong found himself pow-
erless. Of the sixty officers and men under
his command, he afterwards said more
than three-fourths were disloyal, and
some were actively so. Commander Far-
rand was actually among the insurgents,

VII. I

129

PENSIONS PEOPLE S PARTY

who demanded the surrender to the gov
ernor of Florida. The disloyal men would
have revolted if the commodore had made
resistance. Lieutenant Renshaw, the flag-
officer, one of the leaders among the dis
loyal men, immediately ordered the Na
tional standard to be lowered. It fell to
the ground, and was greeted with derisive
laughter. The command of the navy-yard
was then given to Capt. V. N. Randolph,
who had deserted his flag; and the post,
with ordnance and stores valued at $156,-
000, passed into the hands of the authori
ties of Florida. See PICKENS, FORT.

Pensions, According to an official state
ment by United States Pension Commis
sioner Ware on Aug. 25, 1904, high-water
mark in the history of the Pension Bureau
was reached on July 31, 1902, when the
number of pensioners on the roll was
1,001,494. On June 30, 1903, there were
996,545 pensioners on the rolls, who were
classified as follows: Survivors, 7,530; in
valids, 721,202; widows, 267,189. These
comprised 12,199 widows and the 7,530
survivors on account of wars prior to
1861; 268,282 invalids and 89,087 widows
on account of general laws, disability in
service, origin, mostly Civil War; 443,-
720 invalids and 162,241 widows on ac
count of the June, 1890, act, Civil War
disability not due to service; 624 army
nurses, and 9,200 invalids and 3,662
widows on account of the war with Spain.

The total amount paid to pensioners as
first payments on the allowance of their
claims in 1903 was $9,359,905.

The disbursements for pensions by the
United States from July 1, 1790, to June
30, 1865, were $96,445,444.23. Since 1865

the disbursements for pensions were $2,-
942,178,145.93, and for cost of mainte
nance and expenses $95,647,934.71, or a
total of $3,037,826,080.64, making the
entire cost of the maintenance of the pen
sion system since the foundation of the
Government $3,134,271,524.87.

Of the amount that has been expended
for pensions since the foundation of the
Government, $70,000,000 was on account of
the War of the Revolution; $45,186,197.22
on account of service in the War of 1812;
$6,234,414.55 on account of service in the
Indian wars; $33,483,309.91 on account of
service in the Mexican War; $5,479,268.31
on account of the war with Spain; and
$2,878,240,400.17 on account of the Civil
War. On March 16, 1904, an order Avas
issued, to take effect April 13, making old
age (beginning with 62 years) a pension
able disability.

The following shows the payments
under recent administrations:

President Grant s first term...

Average per year

President Grant s second term. .

Average per year

President Hayes s administra
tion 145,322,489

Average per year 38,330,622

President Garfield s administra
tion 237,825.070

Average per year 59,456.263

President Cleveland s first term. 305,636,662

Average per year 76,409,165

President Harrison s administra
tion 519.707,726

Average per year 129,926,931

President Cleveland s second

term 557,950,407

Average per year 139.487.602

President McKinley s first term. 560,000,547

Average per year 140.000,137

McKinley-Robsevelt term 561.180,7(&gt;5

Average per year 140,295,191

People, AGREEMENT OF THE. See
AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE.

$116,136,275

29,034,064

114,395,357

28,598,839

PEOPLE S PARTY

People s Party. The Farmer s Alii- President and Adlai E. Stevenson for Vice-
ance may be considered its nucleus. It President; and in 1904 nominated Thomas
was organized at Cincinnati in May, 1891. E. Watson, of Georgia, for President, and
In 1892 it nominated for President Gen. Thomas H. Tibbies, of Nebraska, for Vice-
James B. Weaver, of Iowa, and James G. President. See POLITICAL PARTIES ;
Field, of Virginia, for Vice-President ; in PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS.
1896 it combined with the Democratic The Hon. W. A. Peffer, one of the
party in nominating William J. Bryan leaders of the People s party, wrote as
for President, but nominated Thomas E. follows during the campaign of 1900:
Watson for Vice-President ; in 1900 it

again combined with the Democratic That the People s party is passing must

party in nominating William J. Bryan for be evident to all observers. Why it is go-

130

PEOPLE S PARTY

ing, and where, are obviously questions of
present public concern.

The party has a good and sufficient ex
cuse for its existence. With our great
war old issues were overshadowed and
new forces came into play. The suspen
sion of specie payments forced the gov
ernment to adopt a new monetary policy,

two-thirds of the net average savings of
the whole people.

Charges for services rendered by private
persons or corporations intrusted with
public functions such as railroading and
banking had never before attracted much
attention among the common people; and
as to interest for the use of money and

and the ignorance and prejudices of law- rent for the use of land, they had been

makers afforded bankers a tempting op
portunity, of which they promptly avail
ed themselves, to use the public credit for
purposes of speculation. Our currency
was converted into coin interest-paying
bonds, the word " coin " was construed to
mean gold, and the minting of silver dol
lars was discontinued. The general level of
prices fell to the cost line or below it,
and the people were paying 7 to 10 per
cent, annual interest on an enormous pri
vate debt. Personal property in towns
and cities was rapidly passing beyond the
view of the tax - gatherer. Agriculture
was prostrate. Farmers were at the
mercy of speculators; the earth had come

looked upon as things in the natural
order, and therefore, being unavoidable,
had to be endured. But the gold stand
ard regime had driven the people to think
ing. They saw that while they were pay
ing from 10 to 100 per cent., according
to the pressure of their necessities, for the
use of money, the annual increase of the
country s taxable wealth had but little
exceeded 3 per cent., including the ad
vance of values by reason of settlement
and labor. And rent, they saw, was the
same thing as interest on the estimated
value of the property. If all the people
working together as one cannot save more
than 3 per cent, a year, when in posses-

under the dominion of landlords; forests, sion of a vast area that did not cost them

more than two cents an acre, is it cause
for wonder that they did not thrive when
paying three or four times that rate for
the use of money? And was there not
something radically wrong in conditions
when, in a country so great in extent as
this, so rich and varied in resources and
populated by freemen under a government
of their own choosing, more than half the
people were compelled to pay money or
other property for the use of land to live
on? Why should any man or woman be
required to hire space to live in?

Forests are diminished and coal is used
for fuel. But the coal is found in great
And hence it was that the People s party beds under the earth s surface, and these

and mines were owned by syndicates; rail
way companies were in combination;
wealth and social influence had usurped
power, and the seat of government was
transferred to Wall Street.

These abuses were fruits of our legis
lation. Congress had forgotten the peo
ple and turned their business over to the
money-changers. Both of the great polit
ical parties then active were wedded to
these vicious policies which were despoil
ing the farmers and impoverishing the
working-classes generally. Gold was king
and a new party was needed to shorten
its reign.

was born. It came into being that gov
ernment by the people might not perish
from the earth. It planted itself on the
broad ground of equality of human rights.
It believed the earth is the people s heri
tage and that wealth belongs to him who
creates it ; that the work of distributing
the products and profits of labor ought
to be performed by public agencies; that
money should be provided by the govern
ment and distributed through government
instrumentalities so that borrowers might

sources of fuel are monopolized by a few
men, and the rest of us are forced to pay
them not only a price for the coal, but
for rent of the land and interest on a
fictitious capitalization of corporate fran
chises. By what authority is one man al
lowed to take and possess more of the
resources of nature than are sufficient for
his own use and then demand tribute
from others who are equally with him
entitled to share them? And why shall
one man or company of men be permitted

secure its use at an annual charge not to dictate to other men what wages they
exceeding 2 per cent., which is equal to shall receive for the labor they perform?

131

PEOPLE S PARTY

And why should an employer be favored
by the law rather than the person whom

in private means of transportation on
public highways. They believed that rail-

he employs? And by what rule of law or way and express companies might right-

justice are the working masses required
to use non-legal tender money in their
daily business affairs, while the " pri
mary " money is kept in reserve for the
special use of the speculating classes?
Why have one kind of money for the rich
and another kind for the poor? Why

their patrons enough to pay
on a capitalization equal to

fully tax
dividends

two or three times the actual value of the
property used. They believed that em
ployers might justly dictate the rate of
wages to be paid, and that, in case of
resistance on the part of the employes,

should a stringency in New York City be this right may be enforced by the use of
treated more tenderly than a stringency military power, if need be.

in any other part of the country? Why
pay a premium of 25 per cent, in gold on

On the other hand, Populists do not
believe these things. They believe that

bonds that have many years yet to run? every child has exactly equal rights with

And why pay interest nine to twelve

months before it is due? Why leave

$18,000,000 or more without interest for

years and years in national banks to be

lent by them to their customers at 6 per

cent, and upwards?

Questions like these were suggested by
conditions present when the People s party
was formed. It was the first great body
of men, organized for political purposes,
that took up these matters and put them

those persons who were here when he
came; that he is entitled to a place to
live, and that, equally with his fellow-
men, he is entitled to the use of natural
resources of subsistence, including a parcel
of vacant land where he may earn a liveli
hood. Populists believe that the interests
of all the people are superior to the in
terests of a few of them or of one, and
that no man or company of men should
ever be permitted to monopolize land or

in issue before the country with a view franchises to the exclusion of the common

of ultimately securing relief through rights of all the people or to the detri-

legislation. Its principles were essentially ment of society. They believe that what

different from those of the other great a man honestly earns is his, and that the

parties on every fundamental proposition, workman and his employer ought to have

Republicans and Democrats were given to fair play and an equal showing in all dis-
old ideas in politics and law. Formed for
altogether different purposes, they did not
take kindly to any of the proposed re

forms that would change established poli
tics. Hence they were attached to the

putes about wages. They believe that
railways and canals, like the lakes and
navigable rivers, ought to belong to the
people. They believe that money, like the
highway, is made to serve a public use;

national banking system; they believed that dollars, like ships, are instruments

that the precious metals only are fit for of commerce, and that citizens ought not

use as money, and that all other forms of to be subjected to inconvenience or loss

currency and all debts and pecuniary lia- from a scarcity of money any more than

bilities must be ultimately paid in coin, they should be hindered in their work or

They believed that only private corpora- their business by reason of a shortage in

tions should be intrusted with the func- the supply of wagons, cars, or boats. They

tion of issuing paper to be used as cur
rency, and that the people s fiscal affairs

believe that the people themselves, acting
for themselves through their own agen-
ought to be conducted through the agency cies, should supply all the money required
of private banks. They believed in private for the prompt and easy transaction of
ownership of everything not absolutely
necessary for the government s use in con
ducting its operations. They believed the
coal-mines might properly be owned and
operated by corporations with the accom-

business; that in addition to silver and
gold coin, government paper, and only
that, ought to be issued and used, that
it should be full legal tender, and that
there should be no discrimination in favor
panying privilege of charging what they of or against anything which is allowed
please for the output. They believed in to circulate as money,
unlimited private ownership of land and It will be seen that every proposition

132

PEOPLE S PARTY

in this code is intended to be in the in- avail themselves of whatever strategy
terest of the great body of the people there is then in the situation, cannot, in
and in opposition to class distinctions, the opinion of the Anti-fusionists, be safe-
The monetary scheme proposed gold, sil- ly accepted or allowed. It lacks evidence
ver, and government paper is not a new of party loyalty in the first place, they
departure; but it provides for unlimited say; it lacks good faith in the second
coinage of both metals and an immediate place; and in the third place it is want-
increase of paper money to a limit sum- ing in truth. They are not waiting. On
cient for the people s use in their daily the contrary, they are actively at work
business. It opposes land monopoly, which forming local alliances preparatory to the
is giving us a class of landlords and pau- Congressional campaign in 1898 and the
perizing a million people that are de- Presidential contest in 1900. In every
pendent on those who work in coal-mines, part of the country where they are com-
This new party proposes to get the people paratively strong, as in Iowa, Nebraska,
in the saddle. Summarized, its party and Kansas, they are in hearty accord
platform was this: Equal rights and op- with the fusion Democrats. In Iowa, at
portunities to all : let the people rule, the late election, the regular State con-
On that it went to the country and re- vention of the People s party refused to
ceived more than a million votes. put out a ticket of its own, and personally
A more earnest, enthusiastic, sincere, the fusion members united in support of
and disinterested campaign was never en- the Democratic nominees from governor
tered upon or waged than that of the down. In Nebraska, where the Populists
Populists in 1892, and although the work are largely in majority over Democrats,
was done under a continuing fire of ridi- they united in support of a ticket headed
cule on the part of Republicans and Demo- by a Democrat. In Kansas the patronage
crats alike not before equalled in the his- of the State administration (Populist) is
tory of American politics, the new party divided among the parties to the triple
made a profound impression on the voters, alliance of 18!)6.

But early in 1896 it was agreed among These things indicate the direction of
the men in lead that an alliance should political wind currents. They are signs
be formed with the Democrats for the full of meaning, and none but the blind
campaign of that year, and now the Peo- can fail to comprehend their significance,
pie s party is afflicted with political Mr. Bryan, on his part, has already con-
anaemia. It took too much Democracy. tributed $1,500 to the People s party cam-
Shall the alliance of 1896 be continued? paign fund, and Senator Allen has in-
That is the question at issue. Fusionists vested the money in interest-bearing se-
answer yes, conditionally; Anti-fusionists curities that it may increase unto the
answer no, unconditionally ; and every day day of its use in " promoting the cause of
the question remains open these parties bimetallism."

appear to get farther apart rather than On the other hand, the Anti-fusionists
closer together. Fusionists aver that they wish to maintain their party relations,
have not yet determined in favor of per- and they do not see how they can do that
petual union with another party. That, by supporting some other party, more
they say, can be settled later when they especially one whose principles do not
know what the other parties are going to accord with their own; and the division
do. Right there is the seat of trouble, growing out of this difference is fatal.
If they would only declare against any It is drawn on the dead-line. These Anti-
and every form of alliance or fusion with fnsionists are like Cubans in this respect:
any of the old parties, that declaration they demand the independence of their
alone would settle the question and bring party; they do not desire to be merely
the party together again, while their fail- an attachment to another body, and par-
lire to do so leaves the matter still in ticularly one from which they have once
issue, and the breach widens. This claim separated on account of unsatisfactory
of the Fusionists that they are simply relations. They are affirmatively against
waiting to see what course the other fusion or alliance or federation of any
p:irties will take, that Populists may sort with either the Republican or the

133

PEOPLE S PARTY

Democratic party in any national election.
They are Populists because they believe
in the principles of the People s party,
and they intend and expect to remain
such, at any rate until a greater and bet
ter party is formed out of other existing
political bodies that are aiming at higher
ideals in government.

Nor can it be said that the Anti-fusion-
ists have been wanting in attentions to
their fusion brethren, for they have
warned them from time to time of at
tempts of their national committee to ex
tend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over
them. They have repeatedly asked for a
conference of the disagreeing factions,
with the view of a friendly adjustment of
their differences, but no attention is paid
to these requests. And that their number
and temper might not be underestimated
or their motives and wishes misunder
stood, they called a conference themselves,
held at Nashville, Tenn., July 4, 1897,
and on that occasion it was unanimous
ly resolved by them to have no further
union or alliance with other parties, and
a committee was appointed to reor
ganize the Anti-fusion Populists of the
country.

Several independent suggestions have
been submitted by individual Anti-fusion-
ists on their own responsibility, proposing
plans to bring the members of the party
together on new lines. One of these is
to call a conference of delegates repre
senting all political bodies that are op
posed to the present gold-standard regime,
to consider whether it be not practicable,
out of many, to form one great party
with a single creed embodying everything
regarded as essential by each of the
parties represented. Such a conference, it
is urged, would bring together the strong
est and best men among the members of
all parties. If, upon full and free con
ference, such a body should agree upon a
common declaration of principles and a
new name for the new body, the trouble
which is now so threatening among Popu
lists would be disposed of. Such a move
ment, if successful, would bring into be
ing the most splendid body of men ever
organized for any purpose, and they could
gain possession of the government by the
use of a freeman s safeguard the ballot.
This proposition, however, wise and pa

triotic as it is, brings no response from
the other side.

Two things may be taken as facts:
First, that as long as Mr. Bryan is in the
field as the Democratic candidate for the
Presidency, Fusion Populists will co
operate with the Democracy. Second, that
the Anti-fusion, or Middle-of-the-road,
Populists will not again ally themselves
either individually or as a body with the
Democratic party, no matter who is its
candidate.

These facts show icJiy the People s
party is passing. It now remains to con
sider where it is going.

It will not go to the Republicans, be
cause its leading doctrines are diametri
cally opposed to the principles and policies
of the present Republican party. Every
thing of importance favored by Populists
is opposed by Republicans, and everything
cardinal in the Republican creed is op
posed by Populists ; hence the latter are
not headed for the Republican camp. This
is enough on that part of the subject.

If the People s party be merged, it will
be in a new body that shall include ad
vanced Democrats, like Altgeld and
Bryan, Silver Republicans, and men of re
form views in every other body that has
been organized to promote political re
forms. And that would be a wise and
practicable ending of these disastrous
party antagonisms. But old party names
would have to be dropped and a now
name and creed adopted for the new
party. If they could agree on doctrines,
surely they would not fail to agree on a
name by which they should wish to be
known. This course Avould bring into one
army all the forces that are now march
ing in the same direction voters who
ought to be together and who must be
together before final victory is achieved
over class rule. United in one party un
der a new name, with one creed and one
leader, every member would feel the
warmth of new friendships and be en
couraged by the stimulus of a large com
panionship; for, together they would be
able soon to re-establish popular govern
ment in the United States, and the people
would be in power again.

Such a party could be easily formed if
Democrats were not opposed to it. And
they would not be opposed if the Popu-

134

PEOPLE S PABTY

lists, united, should declare against fusion If it be inquired why they are op-
and merging and all sorts of co-operation, posed to Democracy, let the record an-
with any existing party. And that is just swer. They believe the people of the
what they ought to do. Let Populists United States constitute a nation; they
but rise to the level of the occasion, shake believe the government is an agency cre-
off the hypnotic stupor of Democracy and ated by the people for their use and
assert themselves as party men, announc- benefit, and hence that all great national
ing the end of all unions and alliances instrumentalities and franchises ought to
with other parties, except such as shall be owned and operated by the government,
relate to the formation of one great new This principle they hold to be vital. The
party made up of voters opposed to the Democratic party is always, and always
present Republican regime, and Demo- has been, opposed to this theory. It has
cratic leaders, seeing that alone they are uniformly opposed internal improvement
lost, would take counsel of their fears by the general government except for mili-
and hasten to the newer and securer fold, tary or naval purposes. That party be
lt is the readiness of Fusion Populists to lieves in metallic money as the only real
train with their Democratic brethren that money; it is a "hard money" party, and
encourages them and turns their heads it favors State bank-notes for currency,
upward. If Mr. Bryan could not win for And while from the Populist doctrine
his party when he had virtually the united on silver coinage, " sixteen to one " w r as
Populist support, how can he succeed made the Bryan battle-cry in 1896, there
with half that vote? The candidate of i s no evidence that his party had then or
the Democratic party in 1900 will not get has since changed front on the theory of
the vote of the Anti-fusion Populists, and Senate bill No. 2,642, introduced by Sena-
without this support the chances for that tor Jones, of Arkansas, on Jan. 23, 1895,
party s success will be greatly lessened, of which the ninth section is as follows:
But a union of all reformers in one body

would be invincible " From and after the P a3sa S e of this act

the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby au-

It is no answer to these suggestions to thorized and directed to receive at any Unit-
question the loyalty or patriotism of the ed Slates mint, from any citizen of the United
Anti-fusionists/ for they will retort bv States, silver bullion of standard fineness, and
saying that if Democrats are in sym- ^J^ The selSorage^ the^
pathy with Populism, their disinter- bullion shall belong to the United States,
estedness would be more apparent if they and shall be the difference between the coin-
would come over and help the People s age value thereof and the price of the bulliou

m London on the day the deposit is made,
party, seeing that it had occupied and ap- etc

propriated this reform ground long before

it was discovered by the followers of Mr. The Democrats are now everywhere try-
Bryan, ing to get together on the silver question,
Unless some new alignment of voters is and they can readily effect a union by
effected soon, the People s party will per- agreeing to a law which shall have this
manently separate into two parts. One section nine as one of its provisions. It
faction will go backward to the Demo- is proverbially a party of compromise,
crats, and it will not have to go far, as A party with Bryan and Croker working
the distance between the rear of the harmoniously together in it need not
People s party and the vanguard of De- struggle hard or long over so trifling a
inocracy is so short that they readily matter as the ratio between silver and
mingle in the same camp and one counter- gold. There is nothing in any of the pub-
sign answers for both. The other faction lie utterances of Mr. Bryan to indicate
will go forward to still higher ground, that, after securing the Populist vote, he
Those men having nothing in common with would not consent to any ratio that would
Democracy except their views on the in- save to his party its conservative silver
come tax and silver coinage, and these, element.

even if they be taken as leading issues, Our coin debts were all contracted when

are Populist doctrines, announced long be- the coin of the country consisted of silver

fore they appeared in the Chicago platform, and gold at the sixteen-to-one ratio, and

135

PEOPLE S PARTY

every United States bond now out ex-
pressly declares on its face that it is " re-
deemable, principal and interest, in coin
of the standard value of July 14, 1870,"
and the ratio was sixteen to one at that
time. Besides, the greenbacks and treas-
ury notes are all redeemable in that kind
of coin, and for these reasons Populists
are not willing to change the ratio.

Nor can they agree with the Democrats
on the subject of government paper money.
The Chicago platform says:

" We demand that all paper which is made
legal tender for public and private debts,
or which is receivable for duties to the Unit-
ed States, shall be issued by the government

n 1 *^ StateS and ShaU ^ redeemable

That is to say, not that we demand or
favor that kind of paper; but that, if
any of it is issued, it " shall be redeemable
in coin." The truth is, the Democratic
party is now, as it has always been, op-
posed to government legal-tender paper
money. Otherwise, it would not demand
redemption in coin.

The Populist platform puts it this way:
" We demand a national currency, safe,
sound, and flexible, issued by the general
government only, a full legal tender for all
debts" a demand quite different from
that of the Democrats.

As a further matter of difference, at-
tention is called to the fact that there is
no evidence tending to show that the
Democratic party has changed its position
on the subject of retiring government
paper money. Section 1 of Senator
Jones s bill, above cited, provides as fol-
lows:

"That authority is hereby given to the
Secretary of the Treasury to issue bonds of
the United States to the amount of $500,-
000,000, coupon or registered, at the option
of the buyer payable, principal and interest,
in coin of the present standard value, and
bearing interest at the rate of 3 per cent,
per annum, payable quarterly, and not to
be sold at less than par, the bonds to mature
thirty years from date, and be redeemable at
the option of the government after twenty
years ; and that the Secretary of the Treas-

Seven sections following this section
provide details, including authority to
national banks to enlarge their circula-
tion to the full limit of their bonds de-
posited. No Populist could endorse a
measure like that; yet when the bill was
reported favorably to the Senate by Mr.
Jones every Democrat in Congress at the
time, with the possible exception of a few
monometallists, stood ready to support it.

There are still other matters of differ-
ence. Populists regard the land question
as of supreme importance. The people s
homes are slipping away from them. We
are fast becoming a nation of renters.
\y e have a jniHion or more unemployed
men and women all the time, some of
whom, at least, could earn a living on the
pu bli c lands if they could only get to
tnem with mea ns to start. Populists
tl]in k the national and State governments
ought to take hold of the i abor pro blem
and get the people at work again. Strikes
and i oc k-outs, and consequent disturb-
arces j n trade, can be prevented by keep-
i ng people employed at fair remunera-
tion. There is nothing in the Democratic
platform or in that party s history which
j s i n anv way res ponsive to these ad-
vances o f Populism. So, too, Populists
believe that the present capitalization of
our g re at railway system is a standing
me nace to the commercial peace of the
COU ntry, and that final government owner-
s })j p and management is the only safe
and certain cure for the accumulating
embarrassments attending present meth-
ods o f handling the business of these
powerful corporations. Democracy is op-
posed to such a policy. And if there is
anything on which the Populist heart is
chiefly set, it is the right of the people

to pro pose legislation and to pass on im-

, , ,, , , .
portant measures before they take effect

as laws. But this doctrine has not found
favor in any body of orthodox Democrats.

Fina n y as to all matte rs which Popu-
,. , "

Iists 4 regard as fundamental and of sur-

passing importance, the two parties are
not on l y not in accord, but are positively

defray current expenses of the government, party was formed for present duties, while

and for the redemption of United States that of the Democracy came from divis-

legal-tender notes and of treasury notes iong th founders of t he republic.
Issued under the act of July fourteenth,

eighteen hundred and ninety, as hereinafter The doctrines of this young party are, in

provided." brief, the equal rights of men; its creed

136

PEOPLE S PARTY PEPPEBELL

is the golden rule; its idea of law is jus- of gravitation. While the factors are being
tice, and its theory of government is the arranged in equations of the next cen-
rule of the people. tury, and during the siftings and winnow-

If the scheme to organize a new body is ings of the time, these devoted Populists
left untried, or, if tried, it is found to be will gravitate to their proper places among
impracticable and the People s party is the leaders of thought and action in the
finally separated into two wings, the work of the trying days to come. To
Fusionists will have no difficulty in find- them, and to such as they, will be given
ing a resting-place; but the work for truths of the future to reveal to others
which the party was born and which it as they can bear them, and they shall
bravely commenced will be left for their have at least the reward of the faithful,
old associates and new co-workers who Pepperell, SIP. WILLIAM, military offi-
shall be found in other bodies men and cor; born in Kittery, Me., June 27, IfiOG.
women who believe good government can His father, a Welshman, came to New
be maintained only through social order England as apprentice to a fisherman,
and just laws, citizens who believe in where he married. The son became a
doing good because they love their fellow- merchant, amassed a large fortune, and
men, reformers whose faces have always became an influential man. Fitted by
been to the front, veterans who draw the temperament for military life, he was fre-
enemy s fire and who fight better in the quently engaged against the Indians, and
field than in the camp. attained much distinction. About 1727

There will be plenty of work for them he was appointed one of his Majesty s
to do. Conditions will not improve un- council for the province of Massachusetts,
der the present regime. Times will get and held the office, by re-election, thirty-
no better. Stringency and panic will be tAvo consecutive years. Appointed chiof-
here on time again and again as of old, justice of common pleas in 1730, he be-
for neither Repub
licans nor "Demo
crats offer a pre
ventive. They do
not seem to know
what ails the coun
try and the Avorld.
High tariff is but
heavy taxation,
and free silver
alone Avill not give
work to the idle
nor bread to the
poor. The case
needs heroic treat
ment just such as
the People s party
proposed.

Yes, the work
will be delayed, but
it Avill be done.
Justice Avill be re
established in the
land and the peo
ple s rights will be
restored to them.
The law of prog
ress will not be
suspended any

more than the law SIR WILLIAM PEPPERELL S HOUSE AT KITTERY, ME.

137

PEQUOD WAB

came eminent as a jurist. In 1745 he Sassacus undertook the task alone. First
commanded the successful expedition his people kidnapped children, murdered
against Louisburg, and was knighted. On men alone in the forests or on the waters,

Visiting England in 1749, he was com- and
missioned colonel in the British army;

swept away fourteen families. A

SIR WILLU.M

Massachusetts trading-vessel was seized
by the Indians at Block Island, plundered,
and its commander, John Oldham, mur
dered. They were allies of the Pequods,
who protected them. The authorities at
Boston sent Endicott and Captain Gar
diner to chastise them. With a small mili
tary force in three vessels they entered
Long Island Sound. They killed some Ind
ians at Block Island, and left the domain
a blackened desolation. Then they went
over to the mainland, made some demands
which they could not enforce; desolated
fields, burned wigwams, killed a few
people, and departed.

The exasperated Pequods sent ambas
sadors to the Narragansets urging them
to join in a war of extermination.
Through the influence of Roger Williams,
who rendered good for evil, the Narragan
sets were not only kept from joining the
Pequods, but became allies of the English
in making war upon them. All through
the next winter the Pequods harassed the
settlements in the Connecticut Valley, and
in the spring of 1637 the colonists deter-

became major-general in 1755; and lieu- mined to make war upon the aggressors,
tenant-general in 1759. From 1756 to They had slain more than thirty English-
1758 Sir William was acting governor of men. Massachusetts sent troops to assist
Massachusetts before the arrival of Pow- the Connecticut people. The English were
nail. He died in Kittery, Me., July 6, joined by the Mohegans under Uncas, and
1759. the entire army was under the command

Pequod War, THE. The most power- of Capt. John Mason, who had been a
ful of the New England tribes were the soldier in the Netherlands. The little
Pequods, whose territory extended from army proceeded by water to the Narragan-
Narraganset Bay to Hudson River, and .set country, whence the Pequods would
over Long Island. Sassacus, their em- least expect attack, and marched upon
peror, ruled over twenty-six native princes, their rear. The Indians, seeing them sail
lie was bold, cruel, cool, calculating, eastward, concluded the English had aban-
treacherous, haughty, fierce, and malig- doned the expedition and the Connecticut
nant. Jealous of the friendship of the Valley. It was a fatal mistake. The
English for the Mohegans, and believing white people were joined by many Narra-
the garrison at the mouth of the Con- gansets and Niantics, and while Sassacus
necticut River would soon be strengthened was dreaming of the flight of the Euro-
and endanger his dominions, Sassacus de- peans more than fifty warriors, pale and
termined in 16,36 to exterminate the white dusky, were marching swiftly to attack
people. He tried to induce the Narragan- his stronghold near the waters of the
sets and the Mohegans to join him. The Mystic River. Mason was accompanied
united tribes might put 4,000 braves on by Captain Underbill, another brave sol-
the war-path at once, while there were dier.

not more than 250 Englishmen in the Con- When the invaders reached the foot of
necticut Valley capable of bearing arms, the hill on which the fort of Sassacus

138

PEQUOD WAB PERCY

slood a circular structure strongly pali
saded, embracing seventy wigwams covered
with matting and thatch they were yet
undiscovered. The sentinels could hear
the sounds of revelry among the savages
within the fortress. At midnight all was
still. Two hours before the dawn (May
2(5) the invaders marched upon the fort
in two columns. The Indian allies grew
fearful, for Sassacus was regarded as all
but a god. Uncas was firm. The dusky
warriors lingered behind, and formed a
cordon in the woods around the fortress
to kill any who might attempt to escape.
The moon shone brightly. Stealthily the
little army crept up the hill, when an
aroused sentinel awakened the sleepers

and they threatened his life if he did not
immediately lead them against the in
vaders. Just then the blast of a trumpet
was heard. The white invaders were near,
fully 200 strong. The Indians fled with
their women and children across the
Thames, through the forest and over green
savannas westward, closely pursued. The
fugitives took refuge in Sasco Swamp,
near Fairfield, where they all surrendered
to the English excepting Sassacus and a
few followers, who escaped. A nation had
perished in a day. That blow gave peace
to New England for forty years. The last
representative of the pure blood of the
Pequods, probably, was Eunice Manwee,
who died in Kent, Conn., about 1860, aged

WHERE MASON S ARMY LANDED.

within the fort. Mason and Underbill,
approaching from opposite directions,
burst in the sally-ports. The terrified Ind
ians rushed out, but were driven back by
swords and musket-balls. Their thatched
wigwams were fired, and within an hour
about 600 men, women, and children were
slain. The bloodthirsty and the innocent
shared the same fate. Only seven of the
Pequods escaped death, and Cotton Mather
afterwards wrote : " It was supposed that
no less than five or six hundred Pequod
souls were brought down to hell that day."
Sassacus was not there ; he was at an
other fort near the Thames, opposite the
site of New London. Sassacus sat stately
and sullen when told of the massacre at
the Mystic. His warriors were furious,

100 years. Sassacus took refuge with the
Mohawks, who, at the request of the
Narragansets, cut off his head. The
Puritans, who believed themselves to be
under the peculiar care of Divine Provi
dence, and the Indians to be the children
of the devil, exulted in this signal instance
of the favor of Heaven. " The Lord was
pleased," wrote Captain Mason, " to smite
our enemies in the hinder parts and give
us their land for an inheritance." See
MASON, JOHN.

Percy, GEORGE, born in Syon House,
England, Sept. 4, 1586; succeeded Capt.
John Smith as governor of Virginia in
KilO. He was the author of A History of
the Plantations of the Southern Colonie
of Virginia, which is a history of the voy-

139

PERCY PERRIN DU LAC

HUGH PERCY.

age and all their explorations during the perfected steam-engines, and for many
first year of the existence of the colony, years carried on a large manufactory in
He died in England in March, 1632. London. He originated the process used

Percy, HUGH, Duke of Northumberland ; by bank-note engravers for transfer-
born in England, Aug. 25, 1742. Entering ring an engraving from one steel plate
the army in his youth, he first saw service to another, and perfected many other
under Prince Ferdinand in Germany. He inventions, for which he received the gold
commanded as brigadier-general against medal of the Society of Arts in London.

He died in London, England, July 30,
1849.

Perkins, JAMES HANDASYD, author;
born in Boston, Mass., July 31, 1810; re
ceived an academic education; settled in
Cincinnati, O., in 1832; later became a
Unitarian minister; deeply interested him
self in prison reform; and was first presi
dent of the Cincinnati Historical Society.
His publications include Digest of the
Constitutional Opinions of Chief-Justice
John Marshall; Christian Civilization ;
and Ann-als of the West. He died in Cin
cinnati, 0., Dec. 14, 1849.

Perkins, SAMUEL, author; born in
Lisbon, Conn., in 1767; graduated at Yale
College in 1785; studied theology, and for
a time preached, but afterwards became
a lawyer. His publications included His
tory of the Political and Military Events
of the Late War between the United

the Americans in 1775-76. To Lexing- States and Great Britain; General Jack-
Ion, on the morning of the affray there, son s Conduct in the Seminole War; and
ho led a timely reinforcement, and in the Historical Sketches of the United States,
fall of 1776 he assisted in the reduction 1815-30. He died in Windham, Conn., in
of Fort Washington. The next month his September, 1850.

mother died, when he succeeded to the Perrein, JEAN, naturalist; born near
baronetcy of Percy, and returned to Eng- Mont de Marsan, France, in 1750; visited
land. He became Duke of North umber- North America in 1794, and travelled in
land in June, 1786, and died July 10, the Rocky Mountains, in all the New Eng-
1817. land States, and in Quebec, Ontario, and

Perfectionists. See NOTES, JOHN other parts of British America. He was
HUMPHREY. the author of a valuable work entitled

Perkins, JACOB, inventor; born in New- Travel among the Indians of North AIIKT-
buryport, Mass., July 9, 176C. As early ica, with a Sketch of the Customs and
as his fifteenth year he carried on the Character of the People. He died in New
business of a goldsmith in Newburyport, York in October, 1805.
and early invented a method for plating Perrin Du Lac, FRANCOIS MARIE, trav-
shoe-buckles. He made dies for coining eller; born in Chaux-de-Fonds, France, in
money when the United States Mint was 1766; came to the United States in 1791,
under consideration. He was then twenty- and travelled through Louisiana, Missis-
one, and when he was twenty-four he in- sippi, Illinois, Ohio, Maryland, Pennsyl-
vented a machine for making nails at one vania, and other sections ; returned to
operation, and steel plates for bank-notes, France in 1803. He wrote Journey in the
which, it was supposed, could not be Tico Louisianas, and among the Savage
counterfeited. After living in Boston, Nations of Missouri, through the United
New York, and Philadelphia, he went States. Ohio, and the Border Provinces,
to England in the year 1815, where he in 1801, 1802, and 1803, with a Sketch

1-10

PERRY

of the Manners, Practices, Character, and way for, and accelerated an introduc-
thc Reliyious Customs and Civil Laws of tion of a new order of things; an event
the People of the Various Regions. He that enabled the country to enter upon
died in Rambouillet, France, July 22, the unprecedented era in national pros-
1824. perity in which we now live. Japan has

Perry, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, lawyer; not forgotten nor will she ever forget
born in Pendleton District, S. C., Nov. 20, that next to her reigning and most be-
1805; was admitted to the bar in 1827; loved sovereign, whose rare virtue and
was a strong Unionist, and was instru- great wisdom is above all praise, she owes
mental in organizing a Union party in her present prosperity to the United
South Carolina ; founded a Union paper States of America. After a lapse of forty-
iu Greenville, S. C., in 1850, entitled The eight years the people of Japan have come
Southern Patriot. In 1860 he made to entertain but an uncertain memory of
strenuous efforts to prevent the secession Kurihama, and yet it was there that
of the State, but, being unsuccessful, em- Commodore Perry first trod on the soil
braced the Southern cause. His publica- of Japan, and for the first time awoke the
tions include Reminiscences of Public country from three centuries of slumberous
Men; and Sketches of Eminent American seclusion, and there first gleamed the rays
Statesmen, with Speeches and Letters of of her new era of progress." He died in
Governor Perry, prefaced by an Outline New York City, March 4, 1858.
of the Author s Life. He died in Green- Perry, OLIVER HAZARD, naval officer;
ville, S. C., Dec. 3, 1886. born in South Kingston, R. I., Aug. 23,

Perry, MATTHEW CALBRAITH, naval 1785; entered the navy as midshipman in
officer; born in Newport, R. I., April 10, 1799; served in the Tripolitan War; had
1794; was a brother of Commodore Oliver charge of a flotilla of gunboats in New
11. Perry, and entered the navy as mid- York Harbor in 1812; and in 1813 was
shipman in 1809. In command of the called to the command of a fleet on Lake
Cyane, in 1819, he fixed the locality of Erie. On the evening of Sept. 9, 18l;J,
the settlement of Liberia. He captured Perry called around him the officers of his
several pirate vessels in the West Indies squadron and gave instructions to each in
from 1821 to 1824, and was employed on writing, for he had determined to attack
shore from 1833 to 1841, when he
again, as commodore, went to sea
in command of squadrons for sev
eral years, engaging in the siege of
Vera Cruz in 1847. From 1852 to
1S54 he commanded the expedition
to Japan, and negotiated a very im
portant treaty with the rulers of
that empire, which has led to won
derful results in the social and re
ligious condition of that people,
and secured great advantages to
America.

A monument commemorating
Commodore Perry s visit to Japan
was erected at Kurihama, Japan,
in 1901. In a circular sent out by
the " American Association of
Japan," of which the Japanese
Minister of Justice is president,
the following language is used:
" Commodore Perry s visit was, in a
word, the turn of the key which
opened the doors of the Japanese
Empire, an event which paved the

OLIVER HAZAKD PEKKY.

141

PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD

Queen Charlotte andtfohnnij Bull jot their dose of &erru.

the British squadron at its anchorage the
next day. The conference ended at about
10 P.M.. The unclouded moon was at its
full. Just before the officers departed,
Perry brought out a square battle-flag
which had been privately prepared for
him at Erie. It was blue, and bore in
large white letters made of muslin the al
leged dying words of Lawrence " Don t
give up the ship."

" When this flag shall be hoisted at the
main-yard," said Perry, " it shall be your
signal for going into action." On the fol
lowing day he gained a complete victory
over the British squadron (see ERIE, LAKE,
BATTLE OF). When Perry had fought the
battle and his eye saw at a glance that
victory was secure, he wrote in pencil on
the back of an old letter, resting the paper
on his navy cap, the following despatch to
General Harrison, the first clause of which
has often been quoted:

" We have met the enemy and they are
ours: two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and
one sloop.

" Yours, with great respect and esteem,

" O. II. PERKY."

Many songs were written and sung in
commemoration of Perry s victory. One of
the most popular of these was " Amer
ican Perry," beginning:

142

Bold Barclay one day to Proctor did say,

I m tired of Jamaica and cherry :
So let us go down to that new floating town
And get some American Perry.
Oh, cheap American Perry !
Most pleasant American Perry !
We need only bear down, knock and call,
And we ll have the American Perry."

PBRRY S MONUMENT, NEWPORT, K. i.

PEBBY

Among the caricatures of the day was one
by Charles, of Philadelphia, representing
John Bull, in the person of the King, seat
ed, with his hand pressed upon his stom
ach, indicating pain, which the fresh juice
of the pear, called perry, will produce.
Queen Charlotte, the King s wife (a fair
likeness of whom is given), enters with
a bottle labelled " Perry," out of which
the cork has flown, and in the foam are
seen the names of the vessels composing
the American squadron. She says,
" Johnny, won t you take some more
perry?" John Bull replies, while writh
ing in pain produced by perry, " Oh !
Perry! Curse that Perry! One disaster
after another I have not half recovered
of the bloody nose I got at the boxing-
match ! " This last expression refers to
the capture of the Boxer by the American
schooner Enterprise. This caricature is
entitled " Queen Charlotte and Johnny
Bull got their dose of Perry." The point
will be better perceived by remembering
that one of the principal vessels of the
British squadron was named the Queen
Charlotte, in honor of the royal consort.
In a ballad of the day occur the following
lines :

" On Erie s wave, while Barclay brave,

With Charlotte making merry,
He chanced to take the belly-ache,
We drenched him so with Perry."

At the time of his great victory Perry
was only master-commander, but was im
mediately promoted to captain, and re
ceived the thanks of Congress and a medal.
He assisted Harrison in retaking Detroit
late in 1813. In 1815 he commanded the
Java in Decatur s squadron in the Mediter
ranean, and in 1819 was sent against the
pirates in the West Indies. He died in
Port Spain, Trinidad, Aug. 23, 1819. The
name and fame of Perry is held in loving
remembrance by all Americans. In 1860 a
fine marble statue of him by Walcutt was
erected in a public square in Cleveland,
0., with imposing ceremonies, and a monu
ment to his memory has been erected in
Newport, E. I. At the unveiling of the
statue at Cleveland, George Bancroft de
livered an address; Dr. Usher Parsons,
Perry s surgeon in the fight on Lake
Erie, read an historical discourse, and,
at a dinner afterwards, about 300 sur-

PERRY S STATUE, CLEVELAND, o.

viving soldiers of the War of 1812-15 sat
down.

Perry, WILLIAM STEVENS, clergyman;
born in Providence, K. I., Jan. 22, 1832;
graduated at Harvard College in 1854;
ordained in the Protestant Episcopal
Church in 1858; held pastorates in various
parts of New England; and was conse
crated bishop of Iowa, Sept. 10, 1876.
His publications include Journals of the
General Conventions of the Protestant
Episcopal Church of the United States of
America; Documentary History of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in the Unit-

PERRYVILLE

ed States of America; Historical Collec
tions of the American Colonial Church;
The History of the American Episco
pal Church, 1581-1883; The American
Church and the American Constitution,
etc. He died in Dubuque, la., May 13,
1898.

Perryville, BATTLE AT. Bragg s troops
formed a junction with those of Gen. E.
Kirby Smith at Frankfort, Ky., on Oct. 1,
18G2, when they made Bichard Hawes
" provisional governor of Kentucky "
while Bragg s plundering bands were
scouring the State and driving away
southward thousands of hogs and cattle

command, had charge of the right wing,
and soon began to feel the Confederates.
Bragg, outflanked, fell slowly back towards
Springfield, when Buell, informed that he
was moving to concentrate his army at
Harrodsburg or Perryville, ordered the
central division of his army under Gilbert
to march for the latter place. The head
of this division, under Gen. R. B. Mitchell,
fell in with a heavy force of Confederates
(Oct. 7) within 5 miles of Perryville,
drawn up in battle order. These were
pressed back about 3 miles, when General
Sheridan s division was ordered up to an
eligible position. Buell was there, and,

PEKRVV1LLK.

and numerous trains bearing bacon, bread-
stuffs, and store-goods taken from mer
chants in various large towns. As a show
ot honesty, these raiders gave Confederate
scrip in exchange. Regarding Kentucky
as a part of the Confederacy, conscription
was put in force by Bragg at the point
of the bayonet. The loyal people cried for
help. The cautious Buell made a tardy
response. He had been engaged in a race
for Louisville with Bragg, and, on Oct.
1, turned to strike his opponent. His
army, 100,000 strong, was arranged in
three corps, commanded respectively by
Generals Gilbert, Crittenden, and McCook.
Gen. George H. Thomas, Buell s second in

expecting a battle in the morning, he sent
for the flank corps of Crittenden and Mc
Cook to close up on his right, and, if pos
sible, surround the Confederates. There
was a delay in the arrival of Crittenden,
and Bragg, perceiving his peril, had be
gun to retreat. He was anxious to secure
the exit of the plunder-trains from the
State.

As Crittenden did not speedily arrive,
Bragg resolved to give battle in his ab
sence. His army was immediately com
manded by General Polk. There had been
a sharp engagement on the morning of the
8th, when the Confederates were repulsed
and driven back by troops under Col. D.

144

PERRYVILLE PERSONAL LIBERTY LAWS

MeC ook, of Sheridan s division, with they retired to Harrodsburg, where Bragg

Barnett s battery, some Michigan cavalry, was joined by Kirby Smith and General

and a Missouri regiment. The Confeder- Withers. All fled towards east Tennessee,

ates were repulsed, and so ended the pre- leaving 1,200 of their sick and wounded

liminary battle of that day. Mitchell, at Harrodsburg, and about 25,000 barrels

Sheridan, Rousseau, and Jackson advanced of pork at various points. The retreat

with troops to secure the position, and was conducted by General Polk, covered

a Michigan and an Indiana battery were by Wheeler s cavalry. Buell s effective

planted in commanding positions. A re- force that advanced on Perryville was

connoisance in force was now made. 58,000, of whom 22,000 were raw troops.

Bragg was stealthily approaching, being He lost in the battle 4,348 men, of whom

well masked, and Cheatham s division fell 916 were killed. The Confederate loss was

suddenly and heavily upon McCook s flank estimated at about the same. Bragg

with hoi-rid yells, when the raw and out- claimed to have captured fifteen guns and

numbered troops of General Terrell broke 400 prisoners. It is believed that the Con-

and fled. General Jackson had been kill- federates lost more than they gained by

ed. In an attempt to rally his troops, their plundering raid. Buell was soon

Terrell was mortally wounded. When superseded in command by General Rose-

TerrelPs force was scattered, the Confed- crans, and the name of the Army of the

erates fell with equal weight upon Rous- Ohio was changed to the Army of the

seau s division. An attempt to destroy it Cumberland.

was met by Starkweather s brigade and Personal Liberty Laws. The provi-

the batteries of Bush and Stone, who sions of the fugitive slave law, and the

maintained their positions for nearly danger to the liberty of free colored citi-

three hours, until the ammunition of zens, caused several States to pass laws

both infantry and artillery was nearly ex- for their protection. The laws of Maine

hausted. Biish s battery had lost thirty- provided that no public officer of the State

five horses. Meanwhile, Rousseau s troops should arrest or aid in so doing, or in

fought stubbornly, and held their position detaining in any building belonging to the

while resisting Confederates commanded State, or any county or town within it,

by Bragg in person. The Confederates a-ny alleged fugitive slaves ; so that duty

finally made a fierce charge on the brigade was left to the United States officers,

of Lytle, hurling it back with heavy loss. The laws of New Hampshire provided that

They pressed forward to Gilbert s flank, any slave coming into that State by the

held by Mitchell and Sheridan. The lat- consent of the master should be free, and

ter held the king-point of the Union declared that an attempt to hold any

position. He quickly turned his guns person as a slave within the State was

on the assailants, Avhen Mitchell sent a felony, unless done by an officer of the

Carlin s brigade to the support of Sheri- United States in the execution of legal

dan s right. This force charged at the process. This was to relieve the people

double-quick, broke the Confederate line, of the duty of becoming slave-catchers

and drove them through Perryville to the by command of the United States officers,

protection of their batteries on the bluff The law in Vermont provided that ju-

licyond. dieial officers of the State should take no

Meanwhile, Colonel Gooding s brigade cognizance of any warrant or process un-

had been sent to the aid of McCook, and der the fugitive slave law, and that no

fought with great persistence for two person should assist in the removal of any

hours against odds, losing fully one-third alleged fugitive from the State, except-

of its number, its commander being made ing United States officers. It also or-

prisoner. General Buell did not know the dered that the privilege of the writ of

magnitude of the battle until 4 P.M., when habeas corpus, and a trial of facts by a

MsCook sent a request for reinforcements, jury, should be given to the alleged fitgi-

They were promptly sent. The conflict tive, with the State s attorney for coun-

ended at dark in a victory for the Na- sel. This was a nullification of the

tionals, the Confederates having been re- fugitive slave law. The law in Massa-

pulsed at all points, and during the night chusetts provided for trial by jury of al-
VII. K 145

PETERS

leged fugitive slaves, who might have the
services of any attorney. It forbade the
issuing of any process under the fugitive
^slave law by any legal officer in the
State, or " to do any official act in fur
therance of the execution of the fugitive
slave law of 1793 or that of 1850." It
forbade the use of any prison in the State
for the same purpose. All public offi
cers were forbidden to assist in the arrest
of alleged fugitive slaves, and no officer in
the State, acting as United States com
missioner, was allowed to issue any war
rant, excepting for the summoning of
witnesses, nor allowed to hear and try
any cause under the law. This, also, was
a virtual nullification of the fugitive
slave law. The law in Connecticut was
intended only to prevent the kidnapping
of free persons of color within its borders,
by imposing a heavy penalty upon those
who should cause to be arrested any free
colored person with the intent to reduce
him or her to slavery. The law in Rhode
Island forbade the carrying away of any
person by force out of the State, and pro
vided that no public officer should official
ly aid in the execution of the fugitive
slave law, and denied the use of the
jails for that purpose. Neither New
York, New Jersey, nor Pennsylvania pass
ed any laws on the subject, their statute-
books already containing acts which they
deemed sufficient to meet the case. The
law in Michigan secured to the person
arrested the privilege of the writ of habeas
corpus, a trial by jury, and the employ
ment of the State s attorney as counsel.
It denied the use of the jails in the execu
tion of the fugitive slave law, and im
posed a heavy penalty for the arrest of
free colored persons as fugitive slaves.
The law in Wisconsin was precisely like
that of Michigan. The remainder of the
free-labor States refrained from passing
any laws on the subject.

Peters, HUGH, clergyman; born in
Fowey, Cornwall, England, in 1599; was
both a clergyman and politician, and after
imprisonment for non-conformity he went
to Rotterdam, where he preached several
years. He came to New England in 1G35,
succeeded Roger Williams as pastor at
Salem, and excommunicated his adherents.
In politics and commerce he was equally
active. In 1G41 he sailed for England, to

procure an alteration in the navigation
laws, and had several interviews with
Charles I. He preached to and commanded
a regiment of Parliamentary troops in
Ireland in 1649, and afterwards held civil
offices. After the restoration he was com
mitted to the Tower, and on Oct. 16, 1660,
was beheaded for high treason, as having
been concerned in the death of Charles I.
He wrote a work called A Good Work for
a Good Magistrate, in 1651, in which he
recommended burning the historical rec
ords in the Tower.

Peters, RICHARD, jurist; born near
Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. 22, 1744; was a
distinguished lawyer, a good German
scholar, and a bright wit. At the begin
ning of the Revolutionary War he com
manded a company, but Congress placed
him with the board of war, of which he
was made secretary in June, 1776, and
served as such until December, 1781. In
1782-83 he was a member of Congress,
and from 1789 until his death he was
United States district judge of Penn
sylvania. The country is indebted to
Judge Peters for the introduction of
gypsum as a fertilizer. In 1797 he pub
lished an account of his experience with
it on his own farm. He was president
of the Philadelphia Agricultural So
ciety. He died at his birthplace, Aug.
22, 1828.

Peters, SAMUEL ANDREW, clergyman;
born in Hebron, Conn., Dec. 12, 1735;
graduated at Yale College in 1757; be
came a clergyman of the Church of Eng
land; and in 1762 took charge of the
Episcopal churches at Hebron and Hart
ford. He opposed the movements of the
patriots; became exceedingly obnoxious
to them; and in 1774 was obliged to flee
to England. In 1781 he published A
General History of Connecticut, which
has been characterized as the " most un
scrupulous and malicious of lying narra
tives." In it he gave pretended extracts
from the " blue laws," and the whole
narrative shows an " independence of time,
place, and probabilities." In 1794 he was
chosen bishop of Vermont, but was never
consecrated. In 1805 he returned to the
United States, and towards the latter
years of his life he lived in obscurity in
New York City, where he died, April 19,
1826.

146

PETERSBURG

Petersburg. This city, on the south
side of the Appomattox River, about 20
miles from Richmond, and 15 from City
Point, was occupied, in the summer of
1864, by a large Confederate force, who
cast up strong intrenchments upon its ex
posed sides. When the Army of the Po
tomac was led to the south side of the
James River (June 14-16), it began imme
diate operations against Petersburg, which
was then the strong defence of Richmond.
Butler, at Bermuda Hundred, was very
securely intrenched. Grant sent General
Smith s troops quickly back to him after
the battle at COLD HARBOR (q. v.) , and
directed him to co-operate with the Army
of the Potomac in an attempt to capture
Petersburg. On June 10 Butler sent
10,500 men, under Gillmore, and 1,500
cavalry, under Kautz, to attack the Con
federates at Petersburg; at the same time
two gunboats went up the Appomattox to
bombard an earthwork a little below the
city. The troops crossed the Appomattox

4 miles above City Point, and marched on
Petersburg, while Kautz swept round to
attack on the south. The enterprise was
a failure, and the Nationals retired. Five
days later there was another attempt to
capture Petersburg. Smith arrived at
Bermuda Hundred with his troops on
June 14, and pushed on to the front of the
defences of Petersburg, northeastward of
the city. These were found to be very
formidable and, ignorant of what forces
lay behind these Avorks, he proceeded so
cautiously that it was near sunset (June
15), before he was prepared for an assault.
The Confederates were driven from their
strong line of rifle-pits.

Pushing on, Smith captured a powerful
salient, four redoubts, and a connecting
line of intrenchments about 2 1 /, miles in
extent, with 15 guns and 300 prisoners.
Two divisions of Hancock s corps had come
up, and rested upon their arms within the
works just captured. While these troops
were reposing, nearly the whole of Lee s

A.TTACK.1XU TUB CONFEDERATE ISTREJiCHMESTS.

147

PETEESBUBG

army were crossing the James River at
Richmond, and troops were streaming
down towards Petersburg to assist in its
defence, and during the night (June 15-
16) very strong works were thrown up.
The coveted prize was lost. Twenty-four
hours before, Petersburg might have been
easily taken; now it defied the Nationals,
and endured a most distressing siege for
ten months longer. At the middle of June,
a large portion of the Army of Northern
Virginia was holding the city and the sur
rounding intrenchments, and a great part
of the Army of the Potomac, with the com
mand of Smith upon its right, confronted
the Confederates. On the evening of the
16th a heavy bombardment was opened
I .pon the Confederate works, and was kept
up until 6 A.M. the next day. Birney, of
Hancock s corps, stormed and carried a
redoubt on his front, but Burnside s corps
could make no impression for a long time,
in the face of a murderous fire. There
was a general advance of the Nationals,
but at a fearful cost of life. At dawn
General Potter s division of Burnside s
corps charged upon the works in their
front, carried them, and captured four
guns and 400 men. He was relieved by
General Ledlie s column, which advanced
to within half a mile of the city, and held

Beauregard s lines, and destroy and hold,
if possible, the railway in that vicinity.
He had gained possession of the track, and
was proceeding to destroy it, when he was
attacked by a division of Longstreet s
corps, on its way from Richmond to Peters
burg. Terry was driven back to the in-
trenchments at Bermuda Hundred before
aid could reach him. On the morning of
the 17th the 7th and 9th Corps renewed
the attack upon the works at Petersburg,
when the hill upon which Fort Steadman
was afterwards built was carried and held
by the former. Another attack was made
by the 9th Corps in the afternoon, and a
severe battle began, and continued until
night, with great slaughter. Desperate
attempts had been made to recapture what
the Confederates had lost, and that night
a heavy Confederate force drove back the
9th (Burnside s) Corps. A general as
sault was made on the 18th, with dis
aster to the Nationals, who were repulsed
at every point.

Then, after a loss of nearly 10,000 men,
further attempts to take Petersburg by
storm were abandoned for a while, and
Grant prepared for a regular siege. He
at once began intrenching, and to extend
his left in the direction of the Peters
burg and Weldon Railway, which he de-

TEARING UP THE RAILROAD.

a position from which shells might be cast sired to seize, and thus envelop Peters-
into the town. They were driven back burg with his army. He moved the corps
with great loss. of Hancock and Wright stealthily to the

On the same day (June 16) General left, to attempt to turn the Confederate
Butler sent out General Terry to force right. The former was pushed back.

148

PETERSBURG

SCENE AT THE SIEGE OF PETERSBURG.

On the following morning (June 22) the a cavalry force under Fitzhugh Lee.
Nationals were attacked by divisions of Kautz pushed on, and tore up the track
the corps of A. P. Hill, driving back a of the Southside and Danville railways,
portion of them with heavy loss. At sun- at and near their junction. The united
set Meade came up and ordered both forces destroyed the Danville road to the
corps to advance and retake what had Staunton River, where they were con-
been lost. It was done, when Hill retired fronted by a large force of Confederates,
with 2,500 prisoners. The next morning They were compelled to fight their way
Hancock and Wright advanced, and reach- back to Reams s Station, on the Weldon
ed the Weldon road without much oppo- road, which they had left in the posses-
sition, until they began to destroy it, sion of the Nationals; but they found the
when a part of Hill s corps drove off the cavalry of Wade Hampton there, and a
destroyers. The National line had now considerable body of Confederate infan-
been extended to the Weldon road. Mean- try.

while a cavalry expedition. 8,000 strong, In attempting to force their way
under Kautz and Wilson, had been raid- through them, the Nationals were de-
ing upon the railways leading southward feated, with heavy loss, and they made
from Petersburg, the latter being in chief their way sadly back to camp with their
command. They destroyed the buildings terribly shattered army of troopers,
at Reams s Station, 10 miles south of Their estimated loss during the raid was
Petersburg, and the track for a long nearly 1,000 men.

distance. They then struck the South- Now, after a struggle for two months,

side Railway, and destroyed it over a both armies were willing to seek repose,

space of 20 miles, fighting and defeating and for some time there was a lull in

149

PETERSBURG

the storm of strife. The Union army fully 50 feet in width, and from 20 to 30
lay in front of a formidable line of re- feet in depth. The fort, its guns, and
dans and redoubts, with lines of intrench- other munitions of war, with 300 men,
ments and abatis, altogether 40 miles were thrown high in air and annihilated,
in length, extending from the left bank Then the great guns of the Nationals open-
of the Appomattox around to the west- ed a heavy cannonade upon the remainder
ern side of Petersburg, and to and across of the Confederate works, with precision
the James to the northeastern side of and fatal effect, all along the line; but,
Richmond. Within eight or nine weeks, owing partly to the slowness of motion of
the Union army, investing Petersburg, a portion of the assaulting force, the re-
had lost, in killed, wounded, and prison- suit was a most disastrous failure on the
ers, about 70,000 men. Reinforcements part of the assailants.
had kept up its numbers, but not the A fortnight later General Grant sent
quality of its materials. Many veterans another expedition to the north side of
remained, but a vast number were raw the James, at Deep Bottom, composed of
troops. The Nationals continued building the divisions of Birney and Hancock, with
fortifications and preparing for an effect- cavalry under Gregg. They had sharp
ive siege. Butler, by a quick movement, engagements with the Confederates on
had thrown Foster s brigade across the Aug. 13, 10, and 18, in which the Nation-
James River at Deep Bottom, and form- als lost about 5,000 men without gaining
ed an intrenched camp there, within 10 any special advantage excepting the in-
miles of Richmond, and connected with cidental one of giving assistance to troops
the army at Bermuda Hundred by a pon- sent to seize the Weldon Railway south
toon bridge. By this movement a way of Petersburg. This General Warren ef-
was provided to move heavy masses of fected on Aug. 18. Three days afterwards
troops to the north side of the James lie repulsed a Confederate force which at-
at a moment s warning, if desired. Lee tempted to recapture the portion of the
met this by laying a similar bridge at road held by the Unionists; and on the
Drury s Bluff. By the close of July, 1SG4, same day (Aug. 21) General Hancock,
Grant was in a position to choose his who had returned from the north side of
method of warfare whether by a di- the James, struck the Weldon road at
rect assault, by the slower process of a Reams s Station and destroyed the track
regular siege, or by heavy operations on for some distance. The Nationals were
the flanks of the Confederates. finally driven from the road with consider-

The regular siege of Petersburg began able loss .

in July. On June 25 operations were For a little more than a month after
started for mining under the Confederate this there was comparative quiet in the
forts so as to blow them up. One of these vicinity of Petersburg and Richmond,
was in charge of Lieutenant-Colonel The National troops were moved simul-
Pleasants, who completed it on July 22. taneously towards each city. General
When the mine was ready Grant sent Butler, with the corps of Birney and
Hancock to assist Foster to flank the Con- Ord, moved upon and captured Fort Har-
federates at Deep Bottom, and, pushing rison on Sept. 29. These troops charged
on to Chapin s Bluff, below Drury s upon another fort near by, but were re-
Bluff, to menace Lee s line of communi- pulsed with heavy loss. Among the slain
cations across the river. It was done; was General Burnham, and Ord was
and, to meet the seeming impending dan- severely wounded. In honor of the slain
ger to Richmond, Lee withdrew five of his general the captured works were named
eight remaining divisions on the south Fort Burnham. In these assaults the gal-
side of the James, between the 27th and lantry of the colored troops was con-
the 29th. Grant s opportunity for a grand spicuous. Meanwhile, Meade had sent
assault now offered. The mine under one Generals Warren and Parke, with two
of the principal forts was exploded early divisions of troops each, to attempt the
on the morning of July 30, with terrible extension of the National left to the
effect. In the place of the fort was left Weldon road and beyond. It was a feint
a crater of loose earth, 200 feet in length, in favor of Butler s movement on the

150

PETERSBURG

north side of the James, but it resulted sum would be fully 100,000 men. The

in severe fighting on Oct. 1 and 2, with Army of the Potomac had captured 15,-

varying fortunes for both parties. Then 378 prisoners, sixty-seven colors, and

there was another pause, but not a set- thirty-two guns. They had lost twenty-

THE KETURX OP THE CAVALRY.

tied rest, for about two nnonths, when the five guns. The Confederates had lost, in-
greater portion of the Army of the eluding 15,000 prisoners, about 40,000
Potomac was massed on the Confederate men.

right, south of the James. On Oct. 27 The Army of the Potomac had its win-
they assailed Lee s works on Hatcher s ter quarters in front of the Army of
Run, westward of the Weldon road, where Northern Virginia in 18(54-05. The left
a severe struggle ensued. The Nationals of the former held a tight grasp upon
were repulsed, and, on the 29th, they the Weldon road, while the Army of the
withdrew to their intrenchments in front James, on the north side of that river,
of Petersburg. Very little was done by and forming the right of the besiegers of
the Army of the Potomac until the open- Petersburg and Richmond, had its pick
ing of the spring campaign of 1865. The ets within a few miles of the latter city.
losses of that army had been fearful dur- Sheridan, at the same time, was at Kerns-
ing six months, from the beginning of May town, near Winchester, full master of the
until November, 1804. The aggregate Shenandoah Valley from Harper s Ferry
number in killed, wounded, missing, and to Staunton. Grant s chief business dur-
prisoners was over 80,000 men, of whom ing the winter was to hold Lee tightly
nearly 10,000 were killed in battle. Add while Sherman, Thomas, and Canby were
to these the losses of the Army of the making their important conquests, in ac-
James during the same period, and the cordance with the comprehensive plan of

151

PETEBSBUBG

the lieutenant-general. The leaders in the Confederacy to obtain a law to that
the Confederate government at Richmond effect. Viewing the situation calmly, he
contemplated the abandonment of Vir- saw no hope for the preservation of his
ginia and the concentration of the troops army from starvation or capture, nor for
of Lee and Johnson south of the Roanoke. the existence of the Confederacy, except in
The politicians of Virginia would not breaking through Grant s lines and form-
allow such a movement, nor would Lee ing a junction with Johnston in North
have led the Army of Northern Virginia Carolina. He knew such a movement
out of that State; so President Davis would be perilous, but lie resolved to at-
and his advisers had to abandon their tempt it; and he prepared for a retreat
project. Besides, Grant held Lee so firm- from the Appomattox to the Roanoke.
ly that he had no free choice in the mat- Grant saw symptoms of such a movement,
ter - and, on March 24, 1805, issued an order

It was near the close of March, 18G5, for a general forward movement on the
before Grant was ready for a general 29th. On the 25th Lee s army attempted
movement against Lee. Early in Decem- to break the National line at the strong
ber Warren had seized the Weldon road point of Fort Steadman, in front of the
farther south than had yet been done. 9th Corps. They also assailed Fort lias-
He destroyed it (Dec. 7) all the way to kcll, on the left of Fort Steadman, but
the Meherin River, meeting with little were repulsed. These were sharp but
opposition. A few weeks later there fruitless struggles by the Confederates to
was some sharp skirmishing between Con- break the line. The grand movement of
federate gunboats and National batteries the whole National army on the 29th was
near Dutch Gap Canal. A little later a begun by the left, for the purpose of turn-
movement was made on the extreme left ing Lee s right, with an overwhelming
of the Nationals to seize the Southside force. At the same time Sheridan was
Railway and to develop the strength of approaching the Southside Railway to de-
Lee s right. The entire army in front of stroy it. Lee s right intrenched lines ex-
Petersburg received marching orders, and, tended beyond Hatcher s Run, and against
on Feb. G, the flanking movement began, these and the men who held them the
After a sharp fight near Hatcher s Run, turning column marched. General Ord,
the Nationals permanently extended their with three divisions of the Army of the
left to that stream. Grant now deter- James, had been drawn from the north
mined to cut off all communication with side of that river and transferred to the
Richmond north of that city. The op- left of the National lines before Peters-
portunity offered towards the middle of burg. The remainder of Ord s command
February. Lee had drawn the greater por- was left in charge of General Weitzel, to
tion of his forces from the Shenandoah hold the extended lines of the Nationals,
Valley, and Sheridan, under instructions, fully 35 miles in length,
made a grand cavalry raid against the Sheridan reached Dinwiddie Court-house
northern communications with the Con- towards the evening of March 29. Early
federate capital, and especially for the that morning the corps of Warren (5th)
seizure of Lynchburg. It was a most de- and Humphreys (2d) moved on parallel
structive march, and very bewildering to roads against the Hank of the Confed-
the Confederates. crates, and, when within 2 miles of

This raid, the junction of the National their works, encountered a line of battle,
armies in North Carolina, and the opera- A sharp fight occurred, and the Confed-
tions at Mobile and in Central Alabama erates were repulsed, with a loss of many
satisfied Lee that he could no longer killed and w T ounded and 100 made prison-
maintain his position, unless, by some ers. Warren lost 370 men. Lee now fully
means,his army might be vastly increased comprehended the perils that menaced
and new and ample resources for its sup- him. The only line of communication
ply obtained. He had recommended the with the rest of the Confederacy might
emancipation of the slaves and making be cut at any hour. He also perceived the
soldiers of them, but the slave interest necessity of strengthening his right to
was too powerful in the civil councils of avert the impending shock of battle; like.-

152

PETEBSBUBG

wise of maintaining his extended line of
works covering Petersburg and Kichmond.
Not aware of the withdrawal of troops
from the north side of the James, he left
Longstreet s corps, 8,000 strong, to defend
Richmond. Lee had massed a great body
of his troops some 15,000 at a point in
front of the corps of Warren and Hum
phreys, the former on the extreme right of
the Confederates. There Lee attempted
(March 30) to break through the National
linos, and for a moment his success seem
ed assured. A part of the line was pushed
back, but Griffin s division stood firm and
stemmed the fierce torrent, while Ayres
and Crawford reformed the broken col
umn. Warren soon assumed the offensive,

break. Parke carried the outer line of
the Confederate works in his front, but
was checked at an inner line. Wright
drove everything before him to the Boyd-
ton plank-road, where he turned to the
left towards Hatcher s Run, and, pressing
along the rear of the Confederate in-
trenchments, captured several thousand
men and many guns. Ord s division broke
the Confederate division on Hatcher s
Run, when the combined forces swung
round to the right and pushed towards
Petersburg from the southwest. On the
same day the Southside Railway was first
struck at three points by the Nationals,
who had driven the Confederates from
their intrenchments and captured many.

EVACUATION OF PETERSBURG.

made a countercharge, and, by the aid of This achievement effectually cut off one

a part of Hancock s corps, drove back the of Lee s most important communications.

Confederates. Lee then struck another Gibbon s division of Ord s command

blow at a supposed weak point on the captured two strong redoubts south of

extreme left of the Nationals, held by Petersburg. In this assault Gibbon lost

Sheridan. A severe battle ensued (see about 500 men. The Confederates were

FIVE FORKS, BATTLE OF). Both parties now confined to an inner line of works

lost heavily. close around Pete-rsMirg. Longstreet went

On the evening of the same day all to the help of Lee&gt; a,nd the latter, or,deredi

the National guns in front of Petersburg a charge to be made to recover some oft

opened on the Confederate lines from the lost intrenchments. It failed;; a#ct

Appomattox to Hatcher s Run. Wright, so ended the really last blow struck for

Parke, and Ord, holding the intrenchments the defence of Richmond by Lee s army,

at Petersburg, were ordered to follow up Gen. A. P. Hill, one of Lee s best offi-

thc bombardment with an assault. The ccrs, was shot dead while reconnoitring,

bombardment was kept up until 4 A.M. Lee now perceived that he could no longer

(t April 2), and, the assault began at day- hold Petersburg or the capital with safety

153

PETERSON PETITION OF RIGHT

to his army. At 10.30 on Sunday morn- but in each case an early dissolution had

ing (April 2) he telegraphed to the gov- hindered its consideration, and the long

ernment at Richmond : " My lines are debates on the Petition of Right now made

broken in three places; Richmond must it impossible to proceed further with it

be evacuated this evening." Then Lee s in the existing session. Yet, for three

troops withdrew from Petersburg, and the years the King had been collecting ton-

struggle there ended.

Peterson, CHARLES JACOBS, author;

nage and poundage, just as he collected
the impositions that is to say, as if he

born in Philadelphia, Pa., July 20, 1819. had no need of a Parliamentary grant.
His publications include The Military The Commons therefore proposed to save
Heroes of the Revolution, with a Narra- the right of Parliament bv voting ton-

tive of the War of Independence; The
Military Heroes of the War of 1812 and
of the War with Mexico ; Grace Dudley, or

n age and poundage for a single year, and
to discuss the matter at length the follow-

session. When the

King

refused to

Arnold at Saratoga; Cruising in the Last accept this compromise they had recourse

to the bold assertion that the Petition of
Right had settled the question in their
favor. Charles answered by proroguing
Parliament, and took occasion in so doing
to repudiate the doctrine which they ad
vanced. Gardiner.

War; The Naval Heroes of the United
States, etc. He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
March 4, 1887.

Petigrn, JAMES LEWIS, statesman; born
in Abbeville district, S. C., March 10,
1789; graduated at the University of
South Carolina in 1809; admitted to the
bar in 1811. He was an opponent of nulli-

June 7, 1028.

fication in 1830, and of secession in 18GO. The Petition exhibited to His Majesty by

the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and
Commons in this present Parliament as
sembled, concerning divers Rights and
Liberties of the Subjects, with the
King s Majesty s Royal Answer there^
unto in full Parliament.
To the King s Most Excellent Majesty.
Humbly show unto our Sovereign Lord

A Memoir of his life was written by
William J. Grayson and published in 1866,
He died in Charleston, S. C., March 3,
1863.

Petition of Right, THE. The Petition
of Right is memorable as the first statu
tory restriction of the powers of the
crown since the accession of the Tudor

dynasty. Yet, though the principles laid the King, the Lords Spiritual and Tern-

down in it had the widest possible bear- poral, and Commons in Parliament as-

ing, its remedies were not intended to sembled, that whereas it is declared and

apply to all questions which had arisen or enacted by a statute made in the time of

might arise between the crown and the the reign of King Edward the First, coin-

Parliament, but merely to those which had inonly called, Statutum de Tallagio non

arisen since Charles s accession. Parlia- concedendo* that no tallage or aid shall

ment had waived, for the present at least, be laid or levied by the King or his heirs

the consideration of Buckingham s mis- in this realm, without the goodwill and

conduct. It had also waived the considera- assent of the Archbishops, Bishops, Earls,

tion of the question of impositions. Barons, Knights, Burgesses, and other the

The motives of the Commons in keeping freemen of the commonalty of this realm;

silence on the impositions were probably and by authority of Parliament holden in

twofold. In the first place, they probably the five and twentieth year of the reign

wished to deal separately with the new of King Edward the Third, it is declared

grievances, because in dealing with them and enacted, that from thenceforth no per-

they would restrain the King s power to son shall be compelled to make any loans

make war without Parliamentary consent, to the King against his will, because such

The refusal, of tonnage and poundage loans were against reason and the fran-

\vould restrain his power to govern in chise of the land; and by other laws of

time of peace. In the second place, they this realm it is provided, that none should
had a tonnage and poundage bill before
them. Such a bill had been introduced

into each of the preceding Parliaments, p ur itan Revolution, page 1.

154

PETITION OF EIGHT, THE

be charged by any charge or imposition,
called a Benevolence, or by such like
charge, by which the statutes before-men
tioned, and other the good laws and stat
utes of this realm, your subjects have in
herited this freedom, that they should not
be compelled to contribute to any tax,
tullage, aid, or other like charge, not set
by common consent in Parliament:

Yet nevertheless, of late divers com
missions directed to sundry Commissioners
in several counties with instructions have
issued, by means whereof your people have
been in divers places assembled, and re
quired to lend certain sums of money
upon your Majesty, and many of them
upon their refusal so to do, have had an
oath administered unto them, not war
rantable by the laws or statutes of this
realm, and have been constrained to be
come bound to make appearance and give
attendance before your Privy Council, and
in other places, and others of them have
been therefore imprisoned, confined, and
sundry other ways molested and dis
quieted: and divers other charges have
been laid and levied upon your people in
several counties, by Lords Lieutenants,
Deputy Lieutenants. Commissioners for
Musters, Justices of Peace and others, by
command or direction from your Majesty
or your Privy Council, against the laws
and free customs of this realm:

And where also by the statute called,
" The Great Charter of the Liberties of
England," it is declared and enacted, that
no freeman may be taken or imprisoned
or be disseised of his freeholds or liber
ties, or his free customs, or be outlawed
or exiled; or in any manner destroyed,
but by the lawful judgment of his peers,
or by the law of the land:

And in the eight and twentieth year of
the reign of King Edward the Third, it
was declared and enacted by authority of
Parliament, that no man of what estate
or condition that he be, should be put out
of his lands or tenements, nor taken, nor
imprisoned, nor disinherited, nor put to
death, without being brought to answer
by due process of law:

Nevertheless, against the tenor of the
said statutes, and other the good laws and
statutes of your realm, to that end pro
vided, divers of your subjects have of late
been imprisoned without anv cause show-

ed, and when for their deliverance they
were brought before your Justices, by
your Majesty s writs of Habeas Corpus,
there to undergo and receive as the Court
should order, and their keepers command
ed to certify the causes of their detainer ;
no cause was certified, but that they were
detained by your Majesty s special com
mand, signified by the Lords of your
Privy Council, and yet were returned back
to several prisons, without being charged
with anything to which they might make
answer according to the law:

And whereas of late great companies of
soldiers and mariners have been dispersed
into divers counties of the realm, and the
inhabitants against their wills have been
compelled to receive them into their
houses, and there to suffer them to so
journ, against the laws and customs of
this realm, and to the great grievance and
vexation of the people:

And whereas also by authority of Par
liament, in the 25th year of the reign of
King Edward the Third, it is declared
and enacted, that no man shall be fore
judged of life or limb against the form
of the Great Charter, and the law of the
land: and by the said Great Charter and
other the laws and statutes of this your
realm, no man ought to be adjudged to
death; but by the laws established in this
your realm, either by the customs of the
same realm or by Acts of Parliament: and
whereas no offender of what kind soever
is exempted from the proceedings to be
used, and punishments to be inflicted by
the laws and statutes of this your realm:
nevertheless of late divers commissions
under your Majesty s Great Seal have
issued forth, by which certain persons
have been assigned and appointed Com
missioners with power and authority to
proceed within the land, according to the
justice of martial law against such sol
diers and mariners, or other dissolute
persons joining with them, as should com
mit any murder, robbery, felony, mutiny,
or other outrage or misdemeanour whatso
ever, and by such summary course and
order, as is agreeable to martial law, and
is used in armies in time of war, to pro
ceed to the trial and condemnation of
such offenders, and them to cause to be
executed and put to death, according to
the law martial:
55

PETITION OF BIGHT, THE

By pretext whereof, some of your Maj- into consequence or example: and that
esty s subjects have been by some of the your Majesty would be also graciously
said Commissioners put to death, when pleased, for the further comfort and safety
and where, if by the laws and statutes of your people, to declare your royal will
oi the land they had deserved death, by the and pleasure, that in the things afore-
same laws and statutes also they might, said all your officers and ministers shall
and by no other ought to have been, ad- serve you, according to the laws and stat-
judged and executed: utes of this realm, as they tender the

And also sundry grievous offenders by honour of your Majesty, and the pros-
colour thereof, claiming an exemption, perity of this kingdom,
have escaped the punishments due to [Which Petition being read the 2nd of
them by the laws and statutes of this your June 1G28, the King s answer was thus
realm, by reason that divers of your offi- delivered unto it.

cers and ministers of justice have un- The King willeth that right be done ae-
justly refused, or forborne to proceed cording to the laws and customs of the
against such offenders according to the realm; and that the statutes be put in
same laws and statutes, upon pretence due execution, that his subjects may have
that the said offenders were punishable no cause to complain of any wrong or
only by martial law, and by authority of oppressions, contrary to their just rights
such commissions as aforesaid, which com- and liberties, to the preservation whereof
missions, and all other of like nature, are he holds himself as well obliged as of his
wholly and directly contrary to the said prerogative,
laws and statutes of this your realm: On June 7 the answer was given in the

They do therefore humbly pray your accustomed form, Soit droit fait cotiunc
Most Excellent Majesty, that no man il est desire.]
hereafter be compelled to make or yield

any gift, loan, benevolence, tax, or such TlIE REMONSTRANCE AGAINST TONNAGE
like charge, without common consent by AXD POUNDAGE.

Act of Parliament; and that none be June 25, 1028.

called to make answer, or take such oath, Most Gracious Sovereign, your Maj
or to give attendance, or be confined, or esty s most loyal and dutiful subjects, the
otherwise molested or disquieted concern- Commons in this present Parliament as-
ing the same, or for refusal thereof; and fsi mbled, being in nothing more careful
that no freeman, in any such manner as than of the honour and prosperity of your
is before-mentioned, be imprisoned or dc- Majesty, and the kingdom, which they
tained ; and that your Majesty will be know do much depend upon that happy
pleased to remove the said soldiers and union and relation betwixt your Majesty
mariners, and that your people may not and your people, do with much sorrow
be so burdened in time to come; and that apprehend, that by reason of the incer-
the foresaid commissions for proceeding tainty of their continuance together, the
by martial law, may be revoked and an- unexpected interruptions which have been
nulled; and that hereafter no commissions cast upon them, and the shortness of time
of like nature may issue forth to any per- in which your Majesty hath determined to
son or persons whatsoever, to be executed end this Session, they cannot bring to ma-
s aforesaid, lest by colour of them any of turity and perfection divers businesses of
your Majesty s subjects be destroyed or weight, which they have taken into their
put to death, contrary to the laws and consideration and resolution, as most im-
franchise of the land. portant for the common good: amongst

All which they most humbly pray of other things they have taken into especial
your Most Excellent Majesty, as their cure the preparing of a Bill for the grant-
lights and liberties according to the laws ing of your Majesty such a subsidy of
and statutes of this realm : and that your Tonnage and Poundage, as might uphold
Majesty would also vouchsafe to declare, your profit and revenue in as ample a
that the awards, doings, and proceedings manner as their just care and respect of
to the prejudice of your people, in any of trade (wherein not only the prosperity,
the premises, shall not be drawn hereafter but even the life of the kingdom doth con-

156

PETITION OF BIGHT, THE

sist) would permit: but being a work dent. At other times it hath been grant-
which will require much time, and prep- ed upon occasion of war, for a certain
aration by conference with your Majesty s number of years, with proviso, that if the
officers, and with the merchants, not only war were ended in the meantime, then the
of London, but of other remote parts, grant should cease; and of course it hath
they find it not possible to be accomplish- been sequestered into the hands of some
ed at this time: wherefore considering it subjects to be employed for the guarding
will be much more prejudicial to the right of the seas. And it is acknowledged by
of the subject, if your Majesty should the ordinary answers of your Majesty s
continue to receive the same without au- predecessors in their assent to the Bills
thority of law, after the determination of of subsidies of Tonnage and Poundage,
a Session, than if there had been a recess that it is of the nature of other subsidies,
by adjournment only, in which case that proceeding from the goodwill of the sub-
intended grant would have related to the ject. Very few of your predecessors had
first day of the Parliament; and assuring it for life, until the reign of Henry VII,*
themselves that your Majesty is resolved who was so far from conceiving he had
to observe that your royal answer, which any right thereunto, that although he
you have lately made to the Petition of granted commissions for collecting cer-
Kight of both Houses of Parliament; yet tain duties and customs due by law, yet
doubting lest your Majesty may be mis- he made no commissions for receiving the
informed concerning this particular case, subsidy of Tonnage and Poundage, until
as if you might continue to take those the same was granted unto him in Parlia-
subsidies of Tonnage and Poundage, and ment. Since his time all the Kings and
other impositions upon merchants, with- Queens of this realm have had the like
out breaking that answer, they are forced grants for life by the free love and good-
by that duty which they owe to your Maj- will of the subjects. And whensoever the
esty, and to those whom they represent, people have been grieved by laying any
to declare, that there ought not any im- impositions or other charges upon their
position to be laid upon the goods of mer- goods and merchandises without authority
chants, exported or imported, without of law (which hath been very seldom),
common consent by Act of Parliament, yet upon complaint in Parliament they
which is the right and inheritance of your have been forthwith relieved; saving in
subjects, founded not only upon the most the time of your royal father, who having
ancient and original constitution of this through ill counsel raised the rates and
kingdom, but often confirmed and de- charges upon merchandises to that height
clared in divers statute laws. at which they now are, yet he was pleased
And for the better manifestation there- so far forth to yield to the complaint of
of, may it please your Majesty to under- his people, as to offer that if the value of
stand, that although your royal prede- those impositions which he had set might
cessors the Kings of this realm have often be made good unto him, he would bind
had such subsidies, and impositions grant- himself and his heirs by Act of Parliament
ed unto them, upon divers occasions, espe- never to lay any other; which offer the
cially for the guarding of the seas, and Commons at that time, in regard of the
safe-guard of merchants; yet the subjects great burden, did not think fit to yield
have been ever careful to use such cau- unto. Nevertheless, your loyal Commons
tions, and limitations in those grants, as in this Parliament, out of their especial
might prevent any claim to be made, that zeal to your service, and especial regard
such subsidies do proceed from duty, and of your pressing occasions, have taken
not from the free gift of the subjects: into their consideration, so to frame a
and that they have heretofore used to limit grant of subsidy of Tonnage or Poundage
a time in such grants, and for the most to your Majesty, that both you might have
part but short, as for a year or two, and been the better enabled for the defence of
if it were continued longer, they have your realm, and your subjects, by being
sometimes directed a certain space of Tonnage and pounda ge was granted for
cessation, or intermission, that so the jjf e ^ Kdward IV. in 1464. It was also
right of the subject might be more evi- granted in 1483 to Richard III. for life.

157

PETITION OF RIGHT PETREL

secure from all undue charges, be tlie nances of my Crown, by alleging I have

more encouraged cheerfully to proceed given away my right thereto by my an-

in their course of trade; by the increase swer to your Petition:

whereof your Majesty s profit, and like- This is so prejudicial unto me, that I

wise the strength of the kingdom would am forced to end this Session some few

be very much augmented. hours before I meant, being not willing

But not now being able to accomplish to receive any more Remonstrances, to
this their desire, there is no course left which 1 must give a harsh answer. And
unto them, without manifest breach of since I see that even the House of Com-
their duty, both to your Majesty and mons begins already to make false con-
their country, save only to make this structions of what I granted in your Peti-
humble declaration, " That the receiving tion, lest it be worse interpreted in the
of Tonnage and Poundage, and other im- country, I will now make a declaration
positions not granted by Parliament, is a concerning the true intent thereof:
breach of the fundamental liberties of this The profession of both Houses in the
kingdom, and contrary to your Majesty s time of hammering this Petition, was no
royal answer to the said Petition of ways to trench upon my Prerogative, say-
Eight." And therefore they do most ing they had neither intention or power
humbly beseech your Majesty to forbear to hurt it. Therefore it must needs be
any further receiving of the same, and not conceived that I have granted no new,
to take it in ill part from those of your but only confirmed the ancient liberties of
Majesty s loving subjects, who shall re- my subjects: yet to show the clearness of
fuse to make payment of any such my intentions, that I neither repent, nor
charges, without warrant of law demanded, mean to recede from anything I have

And as by this forbearance, your Most promised you, I do here declare myself,

Excellent Majesty shall manifest unto the that those things which have been done,

world your royal justice in the observa- -whereby many have had some cause to ex-

tion of your laws: so they doubt not, but pect the liberties of the subjects to be

hereafter, at the time appointed for their trenched upon, which indeed was the first

coming again, they shall have occasion and true ground of the Petition, shall

to express their great desire to advance not hereafter be drawn into example for

your Majesty s honour and profit. your prejudice, and from time to time;

in the word of a king, ve shall not have

THE KING S SPEECH AT THE PROROGATION the like cause to com p lain . but as for

PARLIAMENT AT THE END OF THE Tonnage and Poundage, it is a thing I

cannot want, and was never intended by

June 26, 1G28. ^ ou t o ag ]^ nor mean t by me I am sure

It may seem strange, that I came so to grant.

suddenly to end this Session ; before I give To conclude, I command you all that
my assent to the Bills, I will tell you the are here to take notice of what I have
cause, though I must avow, that I owe spoken at this time, to be the true intent
the account of my actions to God alone. an d meaning of what I granted you in
It is known to every one, that a while ago your Petition; but especially, you my
the House of Commons gave me a Re- Lords the Judges, for to you only under
monstrance,* how acceptable every man me belongs the interpretation of laws, for
may judge; and for the merit of it, I none of the Houses of Parliament, either
will not call that in question, for I am j o j n t or separate, (what new doctrine so-
sure no wise man can justify it. ever may be raised) have any power either
Now since I am truly informed, that a to make or declare a law without my
second Remonstrance is preparing for me consent.

to take away the profit of my Tonnage and Petrel, THE. The United States rev-
Poundage, one of the chiefest mainte- enue-cutter Aikcn, which had been sur
rendered to the insurgents at Charleston,

? B^tf^S** 1 ?** J e n ml ?? ov ?- in December, I860, was converted into a

ment of the kingdom, in which Buckingham . ., . ,

was named as the author of abuses, had been privateer, manned by a crew of thirty-six

presented to the King OB June 17. men, mostly Irish, and called the Petrel.

158

PETROLEUM PHELPS

On July 28, 1861, she went to sea, and duction in 1902 was 89,275,302 barrels.
soon fell in with the National frigate tit. valued at $71,397,739. The largest pro-
Lawrencc, which she mistook for a iner- ducing States were Ohio, 21,014,231 bar-
chantman. She was regarded as a rich rels; West Virginia, 13,513,345 barrels;
pri/e, and the Petrel bore down upon her, and Pennsylvania, 12,063,880 barrels,
while she appeared to be trying to escape. Petticoat Insurrection. See Nl-
\Vhen the latter came within fair range, VELLES, CHARLES ETIENNE DE.
the St. Lawrence opened her ports and Pettit, CHARLES, legislator; born in
gave her the contents of three heavy guns. Amwell, N. J., in 1736; admitted to the
One of these sent a shell known as the bar in 1770; appointed secretary to Gov-
" Thunderbolt," which exploded in the ernor Franklin of New Jersey in 1772;
hold of the Petrel, while a 32-pound shot was also secretary to Governor Living-
struck her amidships, below the water- ston, Franklin s successor. He served as
mark. In an instant she was made a quartermaster during the War of the Rev-
total wreck, and went to the bottom of olution. He was elected to Congress in
the ocean, leaving the foaming waters over 1785, and was instrumental in obtaining
her grave thickly strewn with splinters Pennsylvania s adoption of the United
and her struggling crew. Four of these States Constitution. He died in Phila-
were drowned; the remainder were saved, delphia, Pa., Sept. 4, 1806.
They were so dazed that they did not Peyton, BALIE, legislator; born in Sum-
known what had happened. A flash of n er county, Tenn., Nov. 26, 1803; elected
fire, a thunder-peal, the crash of timbers, to Congress in 1833; served four years,
and engulfment in the sea had been the when he removed to Louisiana. He served
incidents of a moment of their experience, during the war with Mexico, and in 1849
Her surviving crew were sent to prison to -was appointed United States minister to
answer the charge of piracy, but received Chile. He died in Gallatin county, Tenn.,
the same treatment as those of the Aug. 19, 1878.

SAVANNAH (q. v.). Peyton, JOHN LEWIS, author; born in
Petroleum. The early settlers around Staunton, Va., Sept. 15, 1824; graduated
the headwaters of the Allegheny River, a t the University of Virginia Law School
in Pennsylvania and New York, were ac- i n 1845; removed to Chicago, 111., about
quainted with the existence of petroleum 1855. He was made agent for the South-
there, where it oozed out of the banks of era Confederacy in Europe in 1861, and
streams. Springs of petroleum were soon afterwards ran the blockade at Char-
struck in Ohio, in 1820, where it so nuich leston, S. C. He was the author of A.
interfered with soft-water wells that it Statistical View of the State of Illinois;
was considered a nuisance. Its real value Pacific Railway Communication and the
was suspected by S. P. Hildreth, who Trade of China; The American Crisis;
wrote, in 1826: "It affords a clear, brisk Over the Alleghanies and Across the
light when burned in this way [in lamps Prairies; History of Augusta County, Va.;
in workshops], and it will be a valuable etc. He died in 1896.
article for lighting the street-lamps in Phelps, EDWARD JOHN, diplomatist;
the future cities of Ohio." It remained born in Middlebury, Vt., July 11, 1822;
unappreciated until 1859, when Messrs, graduated at Middlebury College in 1840;
Bowditch & Drake, of New Haven, Conn., admitted to the bar in 1843, and began
bored through the rock at Titusville, on practice in his native tow 7 n ; removed to
Oil Creek, Pa., and struck oil at the depth Burlington, Vt., in 1845 and practised
of 70 feet. They pumped 1,000 gallons there till 1851 ; was Professor of Law in
a day, and so the regular boring for pe- Yale Law School in 1881-85; United
troleum was begun. From 1861 until 1876 States minister to England in 1885-89;
the average daily product of all the wells and senior counsel for the United States
was about 11,000 barrels. The total yield on the Bering Sea Court of Arbitration,
within that period was about 2,250,000,- He died in New Haven, Conn., March 9,
000 gallons of crude oil. The first export 1900.

of petroleum was in 1861, of 27,000 bar- Phelps, JOHN WOLCOTT, military offi-

rels, valued at $1,000,000. The total pro- cer; born in Guilford, Vt., Nov. 13, 1813;

159

PHELPS PHILADELPHIA

graduated at West Point in 1836; and United States to the international con
served in the artillery in the Seminole ference on Samoa in Berlin, and also ap-
War. He fought in the war against pointed minister to Germany, retiring
Mexico, and accompanied the Utah expedi- in 1893 and being appointed a judge of
tion in 1858. He resigned in 1859. In the court of errors and appeals of New
May, 1861, he became colonel of a Ver- Jersey. He died in Tea.neck, N. J., June
mont volunteer regiment, with which he 17, 1894.

established an intrenched camp at New- Philadelphia, the metropolitan city of
port News, and was soon afterwards made Pennsylvania; popularly known as the
brigadier-general. Attached to General " City of Brotherly Love " and the " City
Butler s expedition against New Orleans, of Homes"; ranking among American
he landed on Ship Island, Miss., on Dec. cities third in area, population, product
4, 1861, when he issued a proclamation of manufactures, and foreign trade ton-
hostile to slavery. It was disavowed by nage. The city is coextensive with the
his superiors, and the temporizing policy county of the same name; is situated at
which he believed was to rule caused his the junction of the Delaware and Schuyl-
resignation. He was the first officer who kill rivers, and on three main lines of
enlisted and disciplined negro soldiers in railroads, the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore
the Civil War. He died in Guilford, Vt., & Ohio, and the Philadelphia & Read-
Feb. 2 1885. -^ n S&lt; controlling 28,000 miles of direct

Phe lps, OLIVER, jurist; born in Wind- trackage; and is the terminus of nine
sor, Conn., in 1749; was a successful mer- transatlantic steamship lines, one Pacific
chant, and during the Revolutionary War line, three West-Indian lines, and five
was in the Massachusetts commissary de- coastwise lines. Population ( 1900) , 1,293,-
partment. In 1788 he, with Nathaniel 697; 1905 (estimated), 1,408,150.
Gorham, purchased a large tract of land Government. Philadelphia is a mu-
(2,200,000 acres) in the State of New nicipality with three local governmental
York, and at Canandaigua opened the first departments, viz. : Executive, with au-
land-office established in America. In thority vested in a mayor; legislative,
1795 he and William Hart bought the comprising select and common councils;
Connecticut Western Reserve, in Ohio, and judicial, with magistrates and civil,
comprising 3,300,000 acres. Mr. Phelps criminal, and orphans courts. The di-
afterwards settled with his family at rectors of the Departments of Public
Canandaigua, then a wilderness; repre- Safety, Public Works, Supplies, and Pub-
sented that district in Congress from He Health and Charities constitute the
1803 to 1805 ; and was judge of a circuit mayor s cabinet, and each of these de-
court. He died in Canandaigua, N. Y., partments embraces a number of bureaus.
Feb. 21 1809. Other executive functions, largely finan-

Phelps, THOMAS STOWELL, naval offi- cial, are vested in officers or boards elected

cer; born in Buckfield, Me., Nov. 2, 1822; by the people or appointed by officials

graduated at the United States Naval other than the mayor, and besides immici-

Academy in 1846; promoted lieutenant in pal officers proper there are a number of

1855; distinguished himself in the Civil county executive officers, acting for and

War at Fort Fisher, on blockading duty, representing the State, and independent

and during the battle of West Point: was of the mayor.

promoted rear-admiral in 1884; and re- Public Interests. The city embraces

tired in 1885. He wrote Reminiscences of an area of 129.5 square miles, divided for

Washington Territory. He died in New administrative purposes into forty - two

York City, Jan. 10, 1901. wards, and in its general arrangement fol-

Phelps, WILLIAM WALTER, diplomatist; lows the plans laid down by William Penn.
born in New York City, Aug. 24, 1839; There are 3,000 miles of highways, 1,142
graduated at Yale in 18GO; elected to Con- of which are paved: 1,860 miles of side-
gress in 1872; appointed United States walks; 350 bridges belonging to the city,
minister to Austria in 1881; re-elected and valued at $20,500,000; 299,474 build-
to Congress in 1882. In the same year he ings, of which 271,482 are dwellings; a
was appointed a commissioner of the water - works system, utilizing the two

ino

PHILADELPHIA

rivers, which cost over $43,000,000, and is
being supplemented by a sand - filtration
system to cost $26,000,000; a sewer sys
tem, having 979 miles of main, branch,
and private sewers, of which the public
sewers cost $23,330,450; and gas and
electric lighting plants leased to a private
corporation. The police force aggregates
nearly 3,100 men, and costs annually
about $3,198,000; and the fire department
has 880 men, and costs about $1,242,220.

The city is justly proud of its system
of public parks and squares, which com
prises 4,329 acres, the principal park, the
magnificent Fairmount, having an area of

558 persons, exclusive of proprietors and
firm members; paid in salaries and wages,
$132,001,912, and for materials used in
manufacturing, $326,877,441; and had a
combined product valued at $603,466,526.
In the period 1880-1900 the increase of
capital was 166.5 per cent.; of wages,
82.9; of materials, 71.6; and of gross
products, 95. Among cities of the United
States Philadelphia ranks first in the
manufacture of carpets and rugs, woollen
goods, leather, locomotives, hosiery and
knit goods, chemicals, dentists materials,
bricks and tiles, car and carriage springs,
dyeing and finishing textiles, and saws.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN PHILADELPHIA IN 1790.

The buildings, from left to right, are : l.back part of Protestant Episcopal Academy, not entirely finished. 2, County Court-house,
bowing west side on Sixth Street, and the back part extending into State-house Square. 3, State-house, built 1735 ; its original lofty

itetple has been removed.

4, Hall of the American Philosophical Society. 5, Library Company of Philadelphia.
( Reduced from a plate in the " Columbian Magazine," January, 1790.)

6, Carpenter s Hall.

3,411 acres, and being the largest munici
pal park in the United States. In 1904
the assessed real and personal valuations
aggregated $1,162,074,023; tax rate, $15
per $1,000. The real estate owned by the
city had a value of $66,787,369. On Jan.
1, 1905, the gross funded debt was $69,-
851,820; the revenue of the calendar year
1904 was $45,992,209; expenditure, $35,-
270,684; general cash balance, $22,809,-
081; liabilities, $22,174,205; surplus,
$634,875.

Industrial Affairs. According to the
United States census of 1900, Philadelphia
had 15,887 manufacturing and mechanical
industries, which were operated on a total
capital of $476,529,407; employed 265,-

Eleven per cent, of all textiles made in
the United States are produced here.

No city in the world shows a wider
range in production of iron and steel than
Philadelphia, and its locomotive plants,
ship - yards, rolling - mills, machine - tool
plants, and saw-factories lead all similar
establishments in the world. The Bald
win Locomotive Works have an output
equal to the gross production of the re
maining twenty-seven plants operating in
the United States. The largest oil-refinery
in the world is located at Point Breeze,
Philadelphia, and several pipe-lines, sup
plemented by lines of tank-cars connect
ing the oil regions with the seaboard, have
their terminals here.

VII. L

161

PHILADELPHIA

FIRST Clil HCII IN FlULAUKl.rillA.

business of $500,000,000, conducted by
1,000 wholesale and jobbing houses, many
~ having a capital in excess of $1,000,000.
Four organizations represent the coui-
bined interests of the city: the Board of
Trade, Manufacturers Club, Merchants
and Travellers Association, and Trades
League; the others are interested gen
erally in a single industry. Many of the
commercial organizations, as well as ex
changes, are housed in the Philadelphia
Bourse, a magnificent structure in the
business section.

The Philadelphia Commercial Museum
^ is a unique institution, known all over
the world, supported by municipal appro
priations and membership subscriptions,
and having for its specific purpose the de
velopment of foreign trade. One inter-

Foreign Trade. Measured by the ton- national and two Pan-American com-
nage engaged in foreign trade, Philadel- mercial congresses have been held under
phia ranks third among American sea- its auspices, and it has also conducted a
ports, with a total shipping, both inward National Export Exposition,
and outward, of more than 3,870,000 gross Financial Interests. The citizens of
tons. The value of the foreign trade in Philadelphia have been noted for their
merchandise in the fiscal year ending June thrift for generations, and this quality
30, 1904, was: Imports, $53,890,106, of has not only built up the wealth of the
which $34,211,068 was dutiable; exports, city, but has made it more distinctively
$71,393,254, of which all excepting $155,- than any other in the United States a
770 was of domestic production; total for- city of home-builders and home-owners,
eign trade, $125,283,360. Despite its rela- the latter feature being a noteworthy in-
tive inland location, the city has the ad- dication of the distribution of the aggre-
vantages of a great seaport. Situated 100 gate wealth. In 1904 the city had eighty-
miles from the ocean, at the junction of six banks, trust companies, and saving-
the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, the fund societies, possessing a combined cap-
former offers clear passage to the ocean ital of $56,000,000, surplus and undivided
for vessels drawing up to twenty-six feet, profits of $79,000,000, and deposits reach-
and dredging under way early in 1905 ing the great total of $494,000,000. Thir-
promised a thirty-foot channel to the sea, ty-four of the banks were national, and
to be deepened later to thirty-five feet, had capital of $21,905,000; deposits.
Three large ship-yards afford ample fa- $224,635,754; surplus, $24,830,000; and
dlities for repairing disabled merchant- annual clearings of about $6,000.000,000.
vessels; there are three commodious dry Forty-three trust and safe deposit corn-
docks along the Delaware, and a fourth, panics had capital of $34,142,115; sur-
capable of holding the largest vessel afloat, plus and undivided profits, $39,189,759;
is being built at the League Island navy- and deposits, $152,804,450. Six saving-
yard; and the port also has three patent fund societies and savings-banks had de-
slip-railways, a floating derrick with lift- posits of $102,949,427, equal to nearly $70
ing capacity of 125 tons, and four grain for every man, woman, and child in the
elevators on the water-front. city.

Domestic Trade. Seventy - one com- No exposition of the thrift of Phila-
mercial organizations, sixty-one of which delphia would be adequate without a rec-
are purely local, promote the foreign and ognition of the great work of the build-
domestic trade of the city, and its value ing and loan associations. In the latest
as a distributing centre in the domestic year of record there were 480 such asso-
field is attested by a wholesale annual ciations, having 107,000 members, over

162

PHILADELPHIA

$45,000,000 in assets, $22,750,000 in an
nual receipts, and $11,000,000 in annual
membership dues; and upward of 2,000
houses were purchased or built through
their aid in a single year. The various
lines of insurance are represented by
forty-five local companies, and by a large
number of agents of foreign corporations.
It is worthy of note that many of the
financial institutions have been in unin
terrupted operation for 150 years and up
ward.

Educational Activities. The public-

161,000 pupils, Avith more than 3,800
teachers. The cost of maintaining the
public-school system is about $4,722,500
per annum, and its property is valued at
upward of $15,000,000. Among the higher
public institxvtions are a Central High
School for boys, Central and Northeast
.Manual-training schools for boys, Girls
High School, Girls Commercial High
School, Girls Normal School, and a school
of pedagogy connected with the Boys
High School.

Private and denominational institutions

r - \
*
&gt;

xx^

&gt;

CARPENTER S HALL, PHILADELPHIA.

school system of to-day is marked by sev- include the William Penn Charter School
eral features inaugurated by the Pro- (1689), the oldest school of its kind in
vincial Assembly in 1083, which provided the country; Cheltenham Military Acad-
for general, compulsory, and industrial emy (1760); Protestant Episcopal Acad-
education, and the night school may trace emy (1785); Roman Catholic High
its birth in an unbroken line back to School; La Salle and St. Joseph s col-
1(598. The Model School, established in leges; Drexel Institute; Temple College;
1818, was the first institution in the Franklin and Spring Garden institutes;
country organized expressly for the train- Philadelphia Textile School ; Builders
ing of teachers. To-day Philadelphia Exchange School of Trades ; School of De-
spends about one-sixth of its total in- sign for Women; School of the Academy
come for public education, for which there of Fine Arts; Girard College; and the
are 277 schools, accommodating more than Williamson Free School of Mechanical

163

PHILADELPHIA

Trades. The University of Pennsylvania,
with its fourteen departments, heads the
higher institutions of learning, and there
are many legal, medical, dental, pharma
ceutical, and theological schools of high
repute. Public and private educational
systems are supplemented by thirty scien
tific associations, twenty-two museums,
nine historical societies, thirty-one art,
and thirty-three specific associations.

The library w y as early recognized as an
essential adjunct to the public-school sys
tem, and to-day there are 146 public and
subscription libraries, with more than
2,000,000 bound volumes, while libraries in
private homes probably contain 10,000,000
volumes more. The largest circulating
library is the Free Library of Philadel
phia, consisting of a main and seventeen
branch houses. Already the city has ap
propriated $1,000,000 for a central build
ing, and Andrew Carnegie has given $1,-
500,000 for thirty branches. The Phila
delphia Library, organized in 1731, is the

oldest subscription library in the United
States.

Religious Work. Practically every re
ligious denomination has a place of wor
ship in the city, the aggregate of churches
being 848, with 325,000 communicants or
members, of which the Methodist Episco
pal Church predominates, with 146 edi
fices. The oldest religious organization is
that of the Old Swedes Church, founded
in 1673, and the oldest church building is
that of this congregation, begun in 1698
and finished in 1700. Christ Protestant
Episcopal Church, established in 1695, is
the second oldest, and Trinity Protestant
Episcopal (1698) the third.

Besides the individual church agencies,
religious interests are promoted by five
Deaconesses Training-houses ; twenty-six
religious communities; forty-two general
religious associations, guilds, leagues, and
social unions; twenty-two Bible and tract
societies; eighteen Sunday-school associa
tions; eighty-three church conferences and

A BIT OF PHILADELPHIA AS IT IS TO-DAY

164

PHILADELPHIA

ministerial associations; thirty-five church is not only the largest building in the
extension, education, publication, and his- United States, but it is the most striking
torical associations; twenty-six home and in boldness of architectural treatment. It
foreign missionary associations; and is built of granite and marble; has a cen-
eighteen city missionary societies. The tral tower rising to a height of 547 feet,
Young Men s Christian Association, its 11 inches above the pavement, and sup-
railroad branch, and the Young Women s porting a statue of William Penn 36
Christian Association are exerting a pow- feet in height; measures 486 feet, 6 inches
erful influence for good in special fields from north to south, and 470 feet from
of endeavor. east to west; covers an area of 4y 2 acres;
Benevolent Agencies. At the head of and cost upward of $20,000,000. The
philanthropic enterprises is the Citizens building accommodates the various mu-
Permanent Relief Committee, the only or- nicipal offices. Historically, the most in-
ganization of its kind in the country; teresting buildings are Independence Hall,
founded to relieve suffering and destitu- where the Continental Congress adopted
tion caused by great calamities in any the Declaration of Independence, and
part of the world. Started in 1877, it where the famous Liberty Bell may yet
had distributed upward of $5,000,000 in be seen, and Carpenter s Hall, near by,
money and materials in the United States, where the first congress of the United
Canada, Cuba, India, Armenia, and the Colonies assembled.

South Sea Islands, up to 1905. Alto- Other buildings of note are the new
gether the city has 1,200 agencies for the United States Mint, Masonic Temple, Odd
sole or secondary object of human relief, Fellows Hall, new Bourse, Commercial
the majority being supported by indi- Museum, United States Custom-house
vidual subscriptions and endowments, the (copied after the famous Parthenon),
others by State or municipal appropria- Pennsylvania Hospital, Historical Society,
tions. Pennsylvania and Philadelphia & Read-
Public relief was first extended in 1713, ing railroad stations, Jefferson Medical
and has never since been permitted to lag. College, Academy of Fine Arts, Philadel-
The city maintains the Philadelphia, In- phia Library, Cathedral of SS. Peter and
digent, Insane, General, and Municipal Paul, Girard College, Drexel Institute,
hospitals, the last for contagious dis- Williamson Free School of Mechanical
eases; and there are twenty- three other Trades, University of Pennsylvania, Unl-
general hospitals, racial, sectarian, and ted States Naval Asylum, League Island
memorial, and twenty-seven special hos- navy -yard group, Eastern Penitentiary,
pitals. All of these institutions have dis- and several reminders of the Centennial
pensaries connected with them, and there Exposition in Fairmount Park, especially
are also twenty independent ones. Memorial Hall, the Horticultural Build-
Philadelphia is rich in charitable homes, ing, William Penn s cottage, the Belmont
For adults there are twenty-four tern- Mansion, and General Grant s City Point
porary and sixty-two permanent homes, log cabin.

Similar provisions for children of both History. A few Swedes settled on the

sexes number thirty-five; for boys and site of the city in 1638, but the permanent

girls six each; and there are twenty day settlement dates from the spring of 1682,

nurseries. Homes for children have a when three ships sent out from England

wide scope; many are for orphans; some by WILLIAM PENN (q. v.) landed their

notable ones for cripples. Relief of pov- human and material freight. Penn had

erty and general out-door relief are car- inherited a claim against the British

ried on by the churches and many so- crown of 16,000, and had accepted in lieu

cieties, all co-operating with the Philadel- thereof the grant of 26,000,0000 acres of

phia Society for Organizing Charity, a land which later became the STATE OF

most active and effective agency, supported PENNSYLVANIA (q. v.) . A feature of

entirely by subscriptions. Penn s grant, which is highly suggestive

Notable Buildings. The great struct- to-day, is that it placed him under obliga-

&gt; at the intersection of Broad and Mar- tion to pay the British crown annually

ket streets, known as the Public Buildings, two beaver skins and one-fifth of all the

165

PHILADELPHIA

gold and silver found within the limits accompanied the famous 6th Massachu-

of the grant. Had other natural pro- setts Regiment to Washington. As they

ductions been included or substituted, the were wholly unarmed, they had to remain

crown would still be in receipt of an enor- in the President Street depot in Balti-

mous revenue from the yield of coal, iron, more while their comrades were fighting

and petroleum. the mob in the streets. While in their

Penn himself arrived in October of the cars they were attacked by a body of
same year with a large number of Qua- rioters, when many of them sprang out,
kers, and soon afterwards he made the and, aided by some sympathizing Union-
first treaty with the Indians at Sliacka- ists, had a hand-to-hand fight with their
maxon. Hie site of Chester and another assailants for about two hours, when order
twelve miles above Philadelphia at first was restored, and they resumed their
appealed to Penn as possessing the ad- journey to the national capital,
vantages he had in mind for his projected Chief among the later historical events
city; but the junction of the two rivers, of the city were the celebration of the
affording a double water-front, and the centennial of American independence by
underlying deposit of clay that was proved the great CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION (1876)
to be well adapted to building purposes, ( q. v.) ; the gift by the city to the Penn-
settled the question. sylvania Society of Colonial Dames of the

One year after the landing of the first building in which Washington was in-
party, Philadelphia was described as a augurated the second time ( 1893) ; the or-
town of 357 houses; but in three years ganization by the manufacturers and mer-
after its foundation it contained 600 chants of the Commercial Museum
houses. In 1683-4 the population was (1897), and the National Export Expo-
largely increased by immigration from sition held under its auspices (1899).
England, Wales, Germany, and Holland. Philadelphia, THE, a frigate of the
The city was incorporated in 1691; re- United States navy. On Oct. 3, 1803, the
ceived its charter in 1701; and was active ship, under command of Captain Bain-
in resisting British aggression in 1763-4. bridge, chased a corsair into the harbor
The First Continental Congress met here of Tripoli. In endeavoring to beat off,
on Sept. 5, 1774; the second on May 10, the Philadelphia struck a sunken rock not
1775; and Col. George Washington w r as laid down in the charts. In that helpless
appointed Commander-in-Chief of the condition Bainbridge and his men were
American army in the State-house here on made prisoners, and the vessel was final-
June 15, 1775. ly released and taken into the harbor

Here the immortal DECLARATION OF Ix- of Tripoli. Bainbridge found means to

DEPENDENCE ( q. v.) was adopted on July inform Preble, at Malta, of his misfort-

4, 1776, arid proclaimed four days later, une, and suggested the destruction of the

The city, being the seat of authority of Philadelphia, which the Tripolitans w r ere

the revolted colonies, became a focal point fitting for sea. The Americans had capt-

of British military operations, and Avas ured a ketch, which was taken into the

occupied by the enemy from September, service and named Intrepid. She was

1777, to June, 1778. During this period assigned to the service of cutting out,

(Oct. 4, 1777) the GERMANTOWN (q. v.) or destroying, the Philadelphia. Lieut,

section of the city of to-day w r as the scene Stephen Decatur was placed in command,

of a battle in which the Americans were and, with seventy determined young men,

defeated, with losses about equal on both sailed for Tripoli, accompanied by the

sides. In the summer of 1787 delegates brig Siren, Lieut. Charles Stewart. On

from the various States assembled here a moonlight evening (Feb. 16, 1804) the

and framed the Federal Constitution, and Intrepid sailed into the harbor, and was

on March 4, 1793, Washington s second warped alongside the Philadelphia, without

inauguration took place in the building exciting suspicion, for she seemed like an

adjoining Independence Hall. innocent merchant - vessel with a small

On the call for volunteers at the begin- crew, as most of the officers and men were

ning of the Civil War ten companies of concealed below. At a signal given, offi-

the Washington Brigade of Philadelphia cers and men rushed from their conceal-

166

PHILIP

ment, sprang on board the Philadelphia, MASSASOIT (q. v.) ; became sachem in
and, after a desperate struggle, drove her 1662.

turbaned defenders into the sea. She was In 1671 the English Avere alarmed by
immediately burned, and the Intrepid and warlike preparations made by Philip. A
Siren departed for Syracuse. conference Avas held with him at Plym-

Philip, JOHN WOODWARD, naval officer; outh, when he averred that his warlike
born in New York City, Aug. 26, 1840; preparations were against the Xarragan-
entered the navy in 1861 ; served with dis- sets. This, however, it is said, he con-
tinction during the Civil \Var and Avas fessed was false. Subsequently he was
wounded in the action on Stone River; compelled to pay the expenses of the col-
was on duty in various capacities till ony caused by his conduct. This, and espe-
placed in command of the battle - ship cially the disarming of the Wampanoags,
Texas, Oct. 18, 1897. In the Avar with caused great indignation in the tribe.
Spain he greatly distinguished himself by Philip made open war in July, 1675, and
his conduct in the action at Santiago. His perished at its close, Aug. 12, 1676.

ship, with the Oregon, forced the Almi-

rante Oquendo of the Spanish fleet to run

ashore. It was on that occasion that he King Philip s War. Massasoit kept his
uttered the memorable words: "Don t treaty of friendship faithfully until his
cheer, boys. The poor devils are dying." death. Philip assumed the covenants on
He was promoted commodore, Aug. 10, the death of his father and kept them in-
1898, and rear-admiral, March 3, 1899; violate many years. As he saw spreading
and at the time of his death, in Brooklyn, settlements reducing his domains, his
N. Y., June 30, 1900, was commandant of hunting-grounds broken up, his fisheries
the Brooklyn naA r y-yard. diminished, and his nation menaced Avith

Philip, KING, sachem of the Wampa- annihilation, his patriotism was so vio-
noag Indians; Indian name Pometacom, lently aroused that he listened to his war-
or Meta comet; was the youngest son of riors, who counselled the extermination

of the Avhites. His capital was at Mount
Hope, 300 feet high, not far from the
eastern shore of Narraganset Bay. There
he reigned over the Pokanokets and Wam
panoags, and there he planned a confed
eracy of several Xew England tribes, com
prising about 5,000 souls. It Avas done
secretly and with great skill. John Sas-
samon, who had been educated at Har
vard, and was a sort of secretary for
Philip, betrayed him. Philip sent his
women and children to the Xarragansets
for protection, and proclaimed Avar. He
struck the first blow at Swanzey, July 4,
1675, 35 miles southwest of Plymouth,
when the people were just returning from
public worship. The surrounding settle
ments were aroused. The men of Boston,
under Major SaA-age, joined the Plymouth
forces, and all pressed towards Mount
Hope. Philip had fled to a swamp at
Pocasset (Tiverton). There he
was besieged many days, but
finally escaped and took refuge
\vith the Nipmucks, an interior
tribe in Massachusetts, who
espoused his cause ; and, with

PORTRAIT AND SIGN MANUAL OF KING PHILIP. 1,500 Avarriors, Philip hastened

167

PHILIP PHILIPPI

towards the settlements in the valley of mucks. During the winter he vainly

the Connecticut. asked the Mohawks to join him, but tribes

Meanwhile, the little colonial army had eastward of Massachusetts became his
reached Narraganset and extorted a allies. In the spring of 1676 the work of
treaty of friendship from Canonchet, the destruction began. In the course of a few
chief sachem. The news of this discour- weeks the war extended over a space of
aged Philip, and he saw that only in ener- almost 300 miles. Weymouth, Groton,
getic action was there hope for him. He Medfield, Lancaster, and Marlborough, in
aroused other tribes, and attempted a war Massachusetts, were laid in ashes. War-
of extermination by the secret and efficient wick and Providence, in Rhode Island,
methods of treachery, ambush, and sur- were burned, and isolated dwellings of set-
prise. It seemed at one time as if the tiers were everywhere laid waste. About
whole European population would be anni- 600 inhabitants of New England were
hilated. Twenty Englishmen sent to treat killed in battle or murdered; twelve towns
with the Nipmucks were nearly all treach- were destroyed entirely, and about 600
erously slain (Aug. 12, 1675) near Brook- buildings were burned. The colonists had
field, which was burned. Sept. 12, Deerfield contracted an enormous debt for that pe-
was laid in ashes. On the same day Hadley riod. Quarrels at length weakened the
was attacked while the people were wor- Indians. The Nipmucks and Narragan-
shipping. A venerable-looking man, with sets charged their misfortunes to the am-
white hair and beard, suddenly appeared, bition of Philip, and they deserted him.
with a glittering sword, and led the peo- Some of the tribes surrendered to avoid
pie to a charge that dispersed the Indians, starvation; others went to Canada, while
and then suddenly disappeared ( see GOFFE, Captain Church chased Philip from one
WILLIAM). Over other settlements the hiding-place to another, until he was kill-
scourge swept mercilessly. Many valiant ed at Mount Hope. See SWAMP FIGHT.
young men, under Captain Beers, were Philippi. One of the earliest contests
slain in Northfield (Sept. 23), and others in the Civil War occurred June 3, 1861,
" the flower of Essex " under Captain at Philippi, Va. Ohio and Indiana vol-
Lathrop, were butchered by 1,000 Indians unteers and loyal armed Virginians gath-
near Deerfield. Encouraged by these sue- ered at Graf ton (on the Baltimore &
cesses, Philip now determined to attack Ohio Railroad). They were divided into
Hatfield, the chief settlement above two columns, one commanded by Col.
Springfield. The Springfield Indians join- Benjamin F. Kelley, the other by Col. E.
ed him, and with 1,000 warriors he fell Dumont. Colonel Porterfield, with 1,500
upon the settlement (Oct. 29); but the Virginians, one-third of them mounted,
English being prepared, he was repulsed was at Philippi. The two Union columns
with great loss. marched against him, by different routes,

Alarmed, he moved towards Rhode Isl- to make a simultaneous attack. Kelley
and, where the Narragansets, in violation was misled by a treacherous guide, and
of their treaty, joined him on the war- Dumont approached Philippi first. His
path. Fifteen hundred men from Massa- troops were discovered by a woman, who
chusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut fired a pistol at Colonel Lander, and sent
marched to chastise Canonchet for his her boy to alarm Porterfield. The lad
perfidy. They found the treacherous Ind- was caught, but Porterfield s camp was
ians with Philip, 3,000 in number, in aroused. Dumont s cannon commanded a
a fort within a swamp (South Kingston, bridge, the village, and the insurgent
R. I.). The English began a siege (Dec. camp. Colonel Lander had taken com-
19), and in a few hours 500 wigwams mand of the artillery, and, without wait-
were in flames. Hundreds of men, women, ing for the arrival of Kelley, he opened
and children perished in the fire. Fully heavy guns upon the Confederates. At
1,000 warriors were slain or wounded, and the same time Dumont s infantry swept
several hundred were made prisoners. The down to the bridge, where the Confederates
English lost 86 killed and 150 wounded, had gathered to dispute their passage.
Canonchet was slain, but Philip escaped The latter were panic-stricken, and fled.
and took refuge again with the Nip- Kelley, approaching rapidly, struck the

168

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

flank of the flying force, which was driven some of his soldiers. For a long time his
in wild confusion through the village and recovery was doubtful, but, under the
up the Beverly Road. The two columns watchful care of a devoted daughter, he
pursued them about 2 miles, when the finally recovered, and was commissioned a
fugitives, abandoning their baggage-train, brigadier-general. Colonel Dumont as-
escaped. Colonel Kelley was severely sumed the command of the combined
wounded by a pistol-shot that passed columns. Lacking transportation, the
through his right breast, and, fainting Indiana troops were recalled to Grafton by
from loss of blood, fell into the arms of the chief-commander, T. A. Morris.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Philippine Islands, an archipelago be
tween the Pacific Ocean and the China
Sea; formerly belonging to Spain, and
ceded to the United States for $20,000,000
by the treaty of peace between the United
States and Spain in 1898.

Location. They occupy the most north
ern part of the east end of the geograph
ical grand division known as the Eastern
Archipelago in eastern Asia. Through the
capital and chief emporium, Manila, they
are the key to the commerce of the islands
that border the steam routes between
Japan and China and the Philippines, the
Sulu Archipelago, the islands of the South
Pacific, the coasts of Borneo, Celebes Sea
and Islands, Molucca and Gillolo passages,
Banda and Arafura seas, the coasts of
Papua, or New Guinea, and Australia to
the southeast and south; and Indo-China,
Siam, Malay Peninsula, Java, and India,
and countries beyond to the southwest
and west. They lie entirely within the
north torrid zone. They received their
present name from Ruiz Lopez de Villalo-
bos, one of the early discoverers, in honor
of the Prince of Asturias, afterwards
King Philip of Spain. The archipelago is
bounded on the north by the China Sea,
on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the
south by the Celebes Sea and Borneo, and
on the west by the China Sea. The nearest
land on the north is the island of For
mosa, a dependency of Japan, 93 miles
northwest of Y Ami, the most northern of
the Batanes group; on the east the Pelew
Islands (German), 510 miles off Minda
nao; on the south Ariaga (de la Silla
Island) , the most northern of the Carcara-
long group (Dutch), 37 miles south of
the Saranganis, off Mindanao ; on the
southwest the extreme east point of
Borneo, 24 miles southwest of Sibutu; on

the south Belambangan, an island off the
extreme north coast of Borneo, 31 miles
south of Balabac, and on the west Cochin
China, 515 miles west of Palawan. The
nearest approach of the international di
viding line between Asia and Oceania
passes about 15 (900 nautical miles) east
of Batac Island, off the northeast coast of
Samar, in about latitude 12 40 N.
Spain also relinquished to the United
States all title and claim to the islands
of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu and their de
pendencies, and all others belonging to the
Philippine Archipelago and lying outside
the lines described in Article III. of the
treaty, the United States paying the sum
of $100,000 in consideration thereof.

Area. The Philippine Islands within
the treaty lines of boundary have an ag
gregate area of 724,329 geographical
miles, or, in statute miles:

Land 127,853

Water 705,115

169

Total land and water 832,968

The land area lies between parallels
21 10 N. (Y Ami Island, the most
northern of the Batanes group) and 4 40
N. (the extreme south point of Balut Isl
and of the Sarangani Islands, south of
Mindanao), and meridians 116 40 (west
coast of Balabac Islands) and 126 34
(Sanco Point) longitude east of Green
wich, or a total of 1,010 nautical or 1,152
statute miles from north to south, and
594 nautical or 682 statute miles from
west to east. The land superficies within
the limits defined is greater than the com
bined area of the States of New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware,
nearly twice as large as the five States of
New England, and larger than the New
England States, New York, and New Jer-

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

sey. The area of the archipelago is 7,000
square miles larger than that of the
British Isles, within 20,000 square miles of
that of the islands of Japan. Within
this expansive area of the earth s surface,
in general, in the northern part lie the
Batanes and Babuyanes groups, eight of
them important, separated by the Bachi
channel from the Japanese island of For
mosa, at a distance of 93 miles to the
northwest; to the south lies the great
island of Luzon, with the adjacent large
islands of Polillo and Catanduanes on the
Pacific side and Marinduque, Burias, Ticao,
and Masbate off its Visayan seashores; to
the southwest of Luzon extends the large
island of Mindoro, forming, with the
islands of Busuanga, the Calamianes, Pala
wan (Paragua), and Balabac, the great
western chain of the archipelago between
Luzon and the continental island of
Borneo; to the southeast of Luzon lies
the island of Samar, to the west of which
is Leyte, and continuing towards the west
the other great islands of the Visayan
group, Bohol, Cebu, Negros, and Panay,
and the smaller islands of Sibuyan, Rom-
blon, Tablas, Guimaras, the last named
near Panay, and Siquijor, south of Negros.
Continuing south along the east side of
the archipelago is Mindanao, in area one
of the two most important islands of the
entire group. To the southwest of Min
danao and very close to its shore is Ba-
silan, the connecting link in the impor
tant chain between the mainland of the
Philippine Archipelago and the east coast
of the great island of Borneo through the
Sulu and Tawi Tawi and other groups of
the American Sulu Archipelago. Be
tween this east-and-west chain, scattered
over the northern waters of the Sulu Sea,
are the Cuyos and Cagaynes groups and
the Palawan islands of Dumaran. The
following shows the areas by divisions:

Physical Features. In general, the
physical structure of the Philippine Archi
pelago as to mountains belongs to the
succession of lofty ranges of volcanic
origin which form the circuit and water
sheds of the Pacific basin of the earth s
surface. Mount Irada, 3,667 feet in
height, in Bataan of the Batanes, and
Camiguin, 2,793 feet, in Babuyanes, are
the outlying summits of the Cordillera
del Norte on the north. The summits of
Marinduque, Burias, Masbate, and Ticao
are the outcropping of the hidden connect
ing group, continued in the lofty Cor
dilleras of Mindanao, to the southeast, and
with less elevation in the hills of Basilan
and the larger islands of the Sulu Archi
pelago, to the southwest. From Mindoro
through the Calamianes and the long, nar
row mainland of Palawan another series
terminates in the Sierra Empinada, with
its peaks of Balabac in the extreme south
west of the possessions of the United
States. The distribution of the igneous
rocks of the Philippine Islands indicates
the prevalence of a number of volcanic
belts. There are 50 volcanoes in the
Philippine Islands, 20 of these being more
or less active and 30 extinct or dormant.
The islands abound in minero-medicinal
waters, of temperatures from cold to ther
mal, of all degrees to boiling. Of these 50
have been analyzed in Abra, Albay, Ambos
Camarines, Bataan, Batangas, Benguet,
Bulacan, Ilocos Sur, Laguna, Lepanto,
Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan, Rizal, Tarlac,
Tayabas, in Luzon; Cebu in Visayas, and
Cottabato in Mindanao. Besides these 117
are well known, but not analyzed, in all
parts of Luzon, Mindoro, Marinduque, Sa
mar, Calamianes, Panay, Leyte, Cebu, Ne
gros, Bohol, Panglao, Siquijor, and Min
danao. The medicinal properties and
curative effects of these waters are well
known and patronized by the natives.

Aren.

Mainland.

Dependen

t Islands.

Sq. M.

Number.

Luzon

44 235

43 075

1 160

311

Marinduque

G81

667

Mindanao

46,721

45 !".."&gt;!&gt;

1 162

258

Mindoro

4,108

4,050

Palawan t I aragua)

r&gt; 037

4 579

458

135

Sulu Archipelago

1 029

520

509

188

Visayan Islands

25,302

23,411

1 891

507

TTnassigned

740

145

Total

127 853

121 861

5 992

1,583

170

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

The large islands of the archipelago have ous gulfs, bays, coves, ports, and harbors,
extensive fluvial systems, determined by affording commercial and coastwise ad-
the great mountain ranges. That of Luzon vantages unsurpassed in the Far East.
is represented by four streams and their Among the larger gulfs and bays, in
drainage basins: the Grande de Cagayan, their order of importance, Manila, the
the Agno Grande, the Abra, and the principal bay of the archipelago, and one
Grande de la Pampanga. The lakes of the finest in the East, occupies a
Laguna de Bay, draining three provinces, strategic position, in peace or war, about
having its sea outlet through the Pasig, the centre of the western, or China Sea,
the Bombon or Taal, with its drainage coast of Luzon. It is beautiful, expan-
th rough the Pansipit form a distinct sys- sive, and clear of obstruction, with excel-
tem between the Pacific Ocean and Manila lent anchorage. The capital of the United
Bay. States possessions in the Far East is
Climate. The climate of the Philip- situated on its shore, as also Cavite, the
pine Islands is temperate in the months United States naval headquarters in the
of November, December, January, and Philippines. It is surrounded by five
February, the monthly mean oscillating be- provinces. Subic Bay lies immediately
tween 25 C. and 26.5 C. It is exces- north of Manila Bay. It is 6 miles be-
sively hot in the months of April, May, tween heads and 8 miles inland, forming
and June, when the monthly mean ranges two safe harbors, with 7 to 10 fathoms,
between 27.5 and 28.5 C., and is inter- and sheltered from all winds. Lingayen,
mediate in the months of March, July, a gulf, is north of Subic Bay, on the same
August, September, and October. Accord- coast, with an entrance 20 miles wide,
ing to these variations of temperature, the extending inland 31 miles, and having a
year is divided into three seasons: (1) depth and shelter for the fleets of the
Dry and temperate (November, December, world. It washes the shores of three
January, and February) ; (2) hot (April, provinces, and its chief landmark, Mount
May, and June) ; and (3) intermediate Sto. Tomas, to the east, is 7,418 feet
(March, July, August, September, and high. Lamon, on the north coast of Taya-
October). bas; South Luzon, 45 miles wide at the
Rainfall. The maximum of days of mouth, and 35 miles inland, with a good
rain is during July, August, and Septem- depth of 10 to 75 fathoms, well sheltered
ber, and the minimum in February and by Polillo and other islands of some size,
March. From the maximum rainfall ob- capable of accommodating a large fleet;
served in the first-named three months Tayabas, on the opposite shore, 50 miles
until the minimum in the last-named two between heads and 18 miles inland re-
months, the number of rainy days gradu- duce the peninsula of Luzon to a narrow
ally diminishes; and the number of rainy neck of but 5 miles from bay to bay.
clays increases gradually from the mini- Ragay, another large indentation of the
mum in February to the maximum in south coast, forms between the peninsula
July. On account of this distribution of of Tayabas and Ambos Camarines, being
rain, two seasons are recognized in the 26 miles between heads and extending 52
Philippines, namely, the dry season, which miles inland. Balayan and Batangas,
lasts from November to May, inclusive, separated from it by a narrow peninsula
and the humid or rainy season, which on the south coast of Batangas, Luzon,
continues from June to October, both in- also afford spacious facilities for vessels
elusive. This division, however, can only of all sizes. On the same coast, Sorsogon,
be applied to the interior, and principally in the province of the same name, extends
to the occidental coasts of the archipelago, 10 miles inland to Sorsogon, the capital,
but not to the oriental regions. On the On the opposite, or Pacific, shore is the ex-
east coasts the season from November pansive bay of Lagonoy, which is 26 miles
to May is distinguished by much pre- between heads and lies along the coast of
cipitation, and the season from June to Ambos Camarines and Albay. Albay is
October is far from being as wet as on the also an important bay in the province of
west coasts. the same name immediately south of La-
Bays and Harbors. There are numer- tjonov. Asid forms a deep bight on the

171

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

south coast of Masbate, 20 miles between
heads and 23 miles inland. Carigara, on
the north coast of Leyte, is connected by
means of the Janabatas channel on the
strait of San Juanico, between Leyte and
Samar, with the Pacific, Bay of San Pedro
and San Pablo. Sogod is an important
bay on the south coast of Leyte, 11 miles
between heads and 20 miles inland. Sin-
dangan, Iligan, Macajalar, and Butuan on
the north, and Davao, Sarangani, Illana,
and Sibuguey on the south coasts of
Mindanao, are among the finest of the
landlocked coast waters of the archi
pelago.

Roadvxiys. The means of communica
tion between the provinces, towns, and vil
lages on the different islands are by cart
road, horse trail, or foot-path. On the
island of Luzon, Manila is the centre of
a system of intercourse by highways con
structed with an idea to continuous lines
of trade and transportation. Among the
great lines of intercourse by land may be
mentioned the main highway which
leaves Manila, and, passing through Bula-
can and Bacolor, divides a short distance
beyond the latter point, one line follow
ing the course of the Grande Pampanga
River towards the northeast after entering
Nueva Vizcaya, crossing to the head
waters of the Grande Cagayan River, the
course of which stream it follows to the
north to Aparri on the north coast of
Luzon. At the point north of Bacolor an
other main line extends in a northwest
direction to Lingayen, whence another
main highway parallels the entire north
stretch of Chinese Sea coast to Cape
Bojeador, the extreme northwest corner of
the island, thence by horse path following
the north coast to Aparri. From these
trunk lines extend branch roads, horse
trails, and foot-paths to the towns in the
interior, or into the adjacent provinces.
Another main line, leaving Manila to the
south, parallels the coast of Laguna de
Bay, making almost the entire circuit of
that inland body of water. At Binang a
highway leaves the main line and extends
to the southwest of the Balayan Bay on
the south coast. At Calamba another
road branches off and connects Laguna
de Bay with Batangas, on the bay of that
name, on the south shore. At Santa Cruz
another branch road extends into Taya-

bas, and continues as a highway, horse
path, or trail the entire length of the
peninsula of southeast Luzon, terminating
at Sorsogon in the extreme southeast.
From this central line roads, paths, or
trails branch in every direction to the
towns on the different bays, ports, and
harbors on the Pacific and Visayan sea
sides.

Railroads. Manila is connected with
Dagupan by railroad, the only one in the
island. From this point an extension was
projected in 1902 paralleling the China
Sea coast to Laoag, the capital of Ilocos
Norte, the extreme northwest province of
Luzon, and another from Dagupan to
Baguio Benguet. Another line was plotted
from Manila along the Pasig River and
Laguna de Bay to Santa Cruz in Laguna.
At Calamba a branch was proposed to
connect with Batangas on that bay on
the south side. A steam tramway extends
from Manila to Malabon. In Cebu two
private lines connect certain mines. An
expert estimate gives 1,000 miles of rail
roads as sufficient to meet all requirements
of the islands for some years, at a cost of
$35,000,000. This project includes a
trunk line 600 miles through the Rio
Grande de Cagayan valley and the entire
length of Luzon, an extension of the exist
ing Manila and Dagupan railroad to the
north, along the China Sea coast provinces
of Union, Ilocos Sur, and Norte, 200
miles, to Laoag, the capital of the latter;
a cross-island (east and west) line with
Manila as its starting-point, about 100
miles; an extension of the Manila and
Dagupan railroad to Baguio Benguet, the
proposed sanitarium, 55 miles; and short
feeders to the main line as the productive
development of the country will warrant.

Telegraphs. The signal corps of the
army has constructed and laid approxi
mately 9,000 miles of telegraph, tele
phone, and submarine cable lines in the
Philippines since the occupancy by the
United States forces. About one-third of
this mileage was for extensive temporary
field lines erected for the purpose of main
taining communication between flying mili
tary columns and their bases, the latter
being always in communication by means
of permanent lines with division head
quarters, and lines destroyed through
hostile operations of the insurgents. The

172

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

permanent system embraces 1,327 miles of
military cables and 5,000 miles of mili
tary telegraph lines, the whole aggre
gating 6,327 miles. These afford the
means of prompt communication, and
consequent executive control, from Appari
and Bangui, on the north of Luzon, to the
island of Siassi, in the extreme south, and
connecting all the important islands of
the archipelago except Palawan and Rom-
blon. In addition to the signal corps
telegraph and cable systems, the islands
of Luzon, Panay, Negros, and Cebu are
connected by the cables of the Eastern
Extension Australasia and China Tele
graph Company, approximately 610 miles
in length, with stations at Manila, Iloilo,
Bacolod, and Cebu ; and the United States
is now connected directly by cable, opened
by President Roosevelt on July 4, 1903,
extending from San Francisco to Hawaii,
Midway Island, Guam, and thence to
Luzon and Manila City.

Agriculture. Although agriculture is
the chief occupation of the Philippines,
yet only one-ninth of the surface is under
cultivation. The soil is very fertile, and
even after deducting the mountainous
areas it is probable that the area of culti
vation can be very largely extended and
that the islands can support a population
equal to that of Japan (42,000,000). The
chief products are rice, corn, hemp, sugar,
tobacco, cocoanuts, and cacao. Coffee and
cotton were formerly produced in large
quantities the former for export and the
latter for home consumption; but the
coffee plant has been almost exterminated
by insects and the home-made cotton cloths
have been driven out by the competition of

Visayas; hemp is produced in southern
Luzon, Mindoro, the Visayas, and Min
danao, and is nearly all exported in bales.
Tobacco is raised in all the islands, but
the best quality and greatest amount in
Luzon. A large amount is consumed in
the islands, smoking being universal
among the women as well as the men, but
the best quality is exported. Cocoanuts are
grown in southern Luzon, and are used in
various ways. The products are largely
consumed in the islands. Cattle, goats,
and sheep have been introduced from
Spain, but they are not numerous. Do
mestic pigs and chickens are seen every
where in the farming districts. The
principal beast of burden is the carabao,
or water-buffalo, which is used for
ploughing rice - fields, as well as draw
ing heavy loads on sledges or on carts.
Large horses are almost unknown, but
there are great numbers of native ponies
from 9 to 12 hands high, possessing
strength and endurance far beyond their
size.

Commerce. The extraordinary increase
in exports during the year ending June 30,
1903, established a new record in the
commercial history of the Philippines, and
for the first time since American occupa
tion a balance of trade in favor of the
islands was shown, in addition to the fact
that their total foreign commerce was con
siderably larger than ever before. The
following figures show the value of the
archipelago s trade, exclusive of gold and
silver and government supplies, during
each of the five fiscal years of American
administration, as compared with the aver
age annual trade for periods prior thereto.

Yeari.

Imports.

Exports.

Total Imports
and
Exports.

Excess of
Exports.

Excess of
Imports.

Average annual, 1880-1884..

$19 500,274

$20,838,325

$40,338,599

$1 338 051

Average annual, 1885-1889..

15,789,165

20,991,265

36,780,430

5 202 100

Average annual, 1890-1894. .

15,827,694

19,751,293

35,578,987

3 923 599

1899

13 113 010

12,366,912

25,479,922

$746 098

1900

20 601 436

19,751,068

40 452,504

850 368

1901

30,279,406

23,214,948

53,494,354

7,064,458

1902

32 141 842

23,927,679

56,069,521

8 214 163

1903

32 971 882

33,121,780

66,093,662

149 898

those imported from England. Rice and
corn are principally produced in Luzon and
Mindoro, and are consumed in the islands.
Cacao is raised in the southern islands and
all made into chocolate and consumed

in the islands. Sugar-cane is raised in the

The value of goods imported from the
United States during 1903, inclusive of
coin shipments amounting to $164,862,
was $4,108,960, and the Philippine exports
to the United States approximated $14,-
000,000 in value.

173

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Revenue, etc. In the following state
ment, covering revenues and expenditures
of the insular government in 1899-1903,
the figures included audited accounts,
with the exception of returns for the fis
cal year ending June 30, 1903, which were
estimated:

FISCAL YEAR

in 1898, 6,559,998 souls were distributed
among 746 regular parishes, 105 mission
parishes, 116 missions total, 967. Of the
regular parishes all but 150 were admin-
istered by Spanish friars of the Domini
can, Augustinian, or Franciscan order.
By the revolutions of 1896 and 1898 mem-

ENDING JUNE 30

1899.

1900.

1901.

1902.

1903.

Total

Revenues.
Customs

$3,097,864.15

$5,739,297.40

$9,105,754.67

18,550,758.49

$9,686,533.29

$36,180,208.00

Postal . ....

42 954 87

104 282 54

122 816 83

137 811 99

146 659 44

554 525 67

Internal

240 754 00

561 993 18

966 400 47

225 505 09

222 980.40

2 217 633 14

1 993 270 97

2 559 601.94

4 552 872 91

1 199 590 01

1,561,473.61

2 761 063.62

JI iscellaneous

127 109.81

357,954.61

491,217.00

624 482 97

1 148 877.05

2,649 641.44

Total

$3,508 G82.83

$6 763 527 73

$10,686 188 97

$12 631 419 52

$15 326 125 73

$48 915 944 78

Expenditures.

Customs

$28 817 90

$100 194 09

$207 446 88

$490 126 40

$587 142 89

$1 473 728 13

Postal

30 410 75

89 149 51

155*347 77

175 156 57

226 730 33

676 794 96

Provincial

746 586.80

1 163 585 01

1 910 171 81

Loans and refunds to
provinces.

324 479 35

1 760 563 87

2 085 043.22

City of Manila

1,744 344 56

1 813 118 10

3 557 462.66

Other expenditures. . .

2,316,779.97

4,569,334.15

5,650,971.79

6,564,426.64

8,711,363.27

27,812,875.82

Total

$2,376,008.62

$4,758 677 75

$6 073 766 44

$10 045 120 32

$14 26 503 47

$37 516 076 60

Finance. The ordinary receipts (ex
pressed in United States currency) of the
insular government during the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1903, were $9,964,472, and
the ordinary disbursements aggregated
$7.514,161. Including extraordinary rev
enues the total receipts w 7 ere $12,074,730,
and including extraordinary expenditures
the payments aggregated $12,557,116. Of
the total receipts $9,215,551 was from
customs duties.

On March 2, 1903, the Congress of the
United States passed " an act to establish
a standard of value and to provide for a
coinage system in the Philippine Islands,"
which made the unit of value a gold peso
of twelve and nine-tenths grains of gold,
nine-tenths fine, equal to 50 cents, United
States currency, and also for the coinage
of 75,000,000 subsidiary silver coins of
four denominations. The act also provided
for the issue of certificates of indebtedness
to maintain the parity of silver pesos for
the unit of value, to be limited to $10,-
000,000.

Religion. The establishment of re
ligious freedom was guaranteed under the
treaty of peace of 1898. Except the
Moros (Moslem) and wild tribes (pagans),
the people of the islands are Roman Cath
olics. As shown by the church registry,

bers of the orders were obliged to take
refuge in Manila; of the number, 40
were killed and 403 imprisoned until re
lieved by the American troops; of 1,124 in
the islands in 1896, but 246 remained in
1903. There were at that time missions
and missionaries 42 Jesuits, 16 Capu
chins, 6 Benedictines, and 150 native secu
lar clergymen with small parishes. The
American members of the commission
who negotiated the treaty of peace, in
their deliberations in Paris, became con
vinced that one of the most important
steps in tranquillizing the islands and in
reconciling the Filipinos to the American
government would be the governmental
purchase of the so-called friars agricult
ural lands in the Philippines, and the
sale of these lands to the tenants on long
and easy payments. This policy was
recommended by the first, or Schurman,
commission, and was approved by both
the Secretary of War and the President.
After a series of negotiations between
Governor Taft and the authorities of the
Roman Catholic Church, the most im
portant part of which was conducted in
Rome with the aid of the late Pope Leo,
the purchase of upward of 410,000 acres
for $7,239,000 gold was consummated in
December, 1903.

174

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

As soon as it was evident that the Amer
ican occupation of the Philippines would
be permanent the leading denominations
in the United States undertook the estab
lishment of various religious institutions
on the islands based on American methods
so far as local conditions would permit.
Archbishop Chapellc of New Orleans was
appointed by the Pope apostolic delegate
in 1899, and in 1903 the Rev. Jeremiah
J. Harty was appointed archbishop of
Manila, the Rev. Frederick Z. Rooker,
bishop of Nueva Caceres, the Rev. Dennis
J. Dougherty bishop of Nueva Segovia,
and the Rev. Thomas A. Hendrick, bishop
of Cebu. In 1901 the Rev. Charles H.
Brent, of Boston, Mass., was appointed
Protestant Episcopal bishop of the Philip
pine Islands. Experienced teachers and
missionaries were also sent out from the
Presbyterian, Congregational, Methodist,
and other denominations.

Public Instruction. One of the first
concerns of the American military au
thorities after the occupation of the
islands was the establishment of an educa
tional system based on that of the United
States. Men and women trained in the
profession of teaching were sent out
from the United States, and without
understanding a word of Spanish or of
the local dialects, they set to work to im
part information in an unknown tongue.
In 1903 the islands were divided into 35
school divisions, and 681 municipal and
384 barrio (outlying districts) primary
schools were in operation. In addition
to the primary schools there were a
nautical school, a trade school, 2 normal
schools, 3 high - schools, and 38 sec
ondary schools. The teaching force was
composed of 691 American and 2,496 na
tive teachers. The Christian population
of the islands was estimated at 6,967,000,
and the school population at 1,424,776, of
which 182,202 were enrolled in the day
schools and 11,429 in the night schools,
making a total of 193,631 who had been
brought within the sphere of educational
influence. The average attendance in the
day schools was 131,371, and in the
night schools 8,595, a total attendance
of 139,966, or about seventy-three per
cent, of the enrolment. The total ap
propriation for the bureau of education
for the year ending June 30, 1903,

was $1,562,161, and the expenditure was
$1,128,433.

Population. The first systematic census
of the Philippine Islands was taken
March 2, 1903, under the direction of Gen.
J. P. Sanger, U. S. A., assisted by Henry
Gannett and Victor II. Olmsted.

Province or Military District.

Total
Population.

Civilized.

Wild.

Philippine Islands

7,635,426

6,987,686

647,740

Abra

51,860

37 823

14,037

Albav

240,326

239 434

892

Atnbos Camarines. . . .

239,405

233 472

5,933

Antique

134,166

131 245

2,921

Basilan

30,179

1 331

28,848

Bataan

46,787

45 166

1,621

Batangas

257,715

257 715

Benguet ,

22,745

917

21,828

Bohol

269,223

269 223

Bulacan

223,742

223 327

415

Cagayan

156,239

142 825

13,414

Capiz

230,721

225 092

5, 699

Cavite

134,779

134 779

Cebu

653,727

653 727

Cottabato

125,875

2 313

123,562

Papital

23,577

17 154

6,423

Davao

65,496

20 224

45,272

Ilocos Norte

178,995

176 785

2,210

Ilocos Sur

187 411

173 800

13,611

Iloilo

410 315

403 932

6,383

Isabela

76,431

68 793

7,638

Jolo

51,389

1 270

50,119

La Laguna

148 606

La Union

137,839

127,789

10,050

Lepauto-Bontoc...

72,750

2,467

70,283

Leyte

388,922

388 922

Manila Citv

219 928

Marinduque

51 674

M asbate .... ...

43 675

Mindoro

39,582

32,318

7,264

Misamis

175,683

135,473

40,210

Kegros Occidental

308,272

303,660

4,612

Negros Oriental

201,494

184,889

16.605

Nueva Kcija

134,147

132,999

1,148

Nueva Vizcaya

62,541

16,026

46,515

Pampanga

223,754

222,656

1,098

Pangasinan

397,902

394.516

3,386

Paragua

29,351

27,493

1,858

Paragua Sur

6,345

1,359

4,986

Rizal

150 023

148,502

2,421

RornbloD

52,848

Samar

266,237

265,549

688

24,562

297

24,265

120,495

120,454

115,112

99,298

15,814

Tarlac

135,107

133,513

1,594

14.638

14,545

153,065

150,262

2,803

104,549

101,381

3,168

Zaraboanea. . ,

44,322

20,692

23,630

GOVERNORS.

Military.

Appointed.

Maj.-Gen. Wesley Merritt, U.S. A May 11, 1898

Maj. -Gen. Elwell S. Otis, U. S. A Aug. 29, 1898

Maj.-Gen. Adna R. Chaffee, U.S. A July 4, 1901

Civil.

William H. Taft June 5, 1901

Luke E. Wright Aug. 25, 1903

Americanizing the Islands. On Jan. 17,
1899, President McKinley announced to

175

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

his Cabinet the appointment of the fol- prescribed their duties in the following

lowing commission to visit and report on letter of instructions:
the affairs of the archipelago: Messrs. Ja
cob G. Schurman, president of Cornell Uni- EXECUTIVE MANSION, April, 7, 1900.

versity; Admiral George Dewey, U. S. N. ; The Secretary of War, Washington.
Maj.-Gen. Elwell S. Otis, U. S. A.; Col. SIR, In the message transmitted to the

Charles Denby, ex-minister to China; and Congress on Dec. 5, 1899, I said, speak-

Prof. Dean C. Worcester, of the University ing of the Philippine Islands: "As long

of Michigan. The report of this commission as the insurrection continues the military

was sent to Congress in February, 1900. arm must necessarily be supreme. But

After reviewing the situation the com- there is no reason why steps should not be

mission reached the following conclusions: taken from time to time to inaugurate

1. The United States cannot withdraw governments essentially popular in their
from the Philippine Islands. We are there form as fast as territory is held and con-
and duty binds us to remain. There is trolled by our troops. To this end I am
no escape from our responsibility to the considering the advisability of the return
Filipinos and to mankind for the govern- of the commission, or such of the members
ment of the archipelago and the amelio- thereof as can be secured, to aid the exist-
ration of the condition of the inhabitants, ing authorities and facilitate this work

2. The Filipinos are wholly unprepared throughout the islands."

for independence, and if independence were To give effect to the intention thus ex-
given to them they could not maintain it. pressed, I have appointed Hon. William

3. Under the third head is included a H. Taft, of Ohio ; Prof. Dean C. Worcester,
copy of Admiral Dewey s letter to Senator of Michigan ; Hon. Luke E. Wright, of
Lodge, which was read in the Senate the Tennessee; Hon. Henry C. Ide, of Ver-
other day, denying Aguinaldo s claim that mont; and Prof. Bernard Moses, of Cali-
he was promised independence. fornia, commissioners to the Philippine

4. There being no Philippine nation, but Islands to continue and perfect the work
only a collection of different peoples, there of organizing and establishing civil govern-
is no general public opinion in the archi- ment already commenced by the military
pelago; but the men of property and edu- authorities, subject in all respects to any
cation, who alone interest themselves in laws which Congress may hereafter enact,
public affairs, in general recognize as in- The commissioners named will meet and
dispensable American authority, guidance, act as a board, and the Hon. William H.
and protection. Taft is designated as president of the

5. Congress should, at the earliest prac- board. It is probable that the transfer
ticable time, provide for the Philippines the of authority from military commanders to
form of government herein recommended civil officers will be gradual and will oc-
or another equally liberal and beneficent, cupy a considerable period. Its successful

6. Pending any action on the part of accomplishment and the maintenance of
Congress, the commission recommends that peace and order in the mean time will re-
the President put in operation this scheme quire the most perfect co-operation be-
of civil government in such parts of the tween the civil and military authorities in
archipelago as are at peace. the islands, and both should be directed

7. So far as the finances of the Philip- during the transition period by the same
pines permit, public education should be executive department. The commission
promptly established, and, when establish- will therefore report to the Secretary of
ed, free to all. War, and all their action will be subject

8. The greatest care should be taken in to your approval and control.

the selection of officials for administration. You will instruct the commission to pro-

They should be men of the highest char- ceed to the city of Manila, where they will

acter and fitness, and partisan politics make their principal office, and to commu-

should be entirely separated from the nicate with the military governor of the

government of the Philippines. Philippine Islands, whom you will at the

On the return of this commission the same time direct to render to them every

President appointed a second one, and assistance within his power in the perform-

176

\ sf, 2." ^"r* i 1 I

if^4&W- :

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

ance of their duties. Without hampering islands, the establishment of a system
them by too specific instructions, they to secure an efficient civil service, the or-
should in general be enjoined, after mak- ganization and establishment of courts,
ing themselves familiar with the condi- the organization and establishment of
tions and needs of the country, to devote municipal and departmental governments,
their attention in the first instance to the and all other matters of a civil nature for
establishment of municipal governments, which the military governor is now corn-
in which the natives of the islands, both petent to provide by rules or orders of a
in the cities and in the rural communities, legislative character.

shall be afforded the opportunity to man- The commission will also have power

age their own local affairs to the fullest during the same period to appoint to

extent of which they are capable, and sub- office such officers under the judicial, edu-

ject to the least degree of supervision and cational, and civil service systems, and in

control which a careful study of their ca- the municipal and departmental govern-

pacities and observation of the workings of ments, as shall be provided for. Until the

native control show to be consistent with complete transfer of control the military

the maintenance of law, order, and loyalty, governor will remain the chief executive

The next subject in order of importance head of the government of the islands, and
shoirid be the organization of government will exercise the executive authority now
in the larger administrative divisions cor- possessed by him and not herein expressly
responding to counties, departments, or assigned to the commission, stibject, how-
provinces, in which the common interests ever, to the rules and orders enacted by
of many or several municipalities falling the commission in the exercise of the
within the same tribal lines or the same legislative powers conferred upon them,
natural geographical limits, may best be In the mean time the municipal and de-
subserved by a common administration, partmental governments will continue to
Whenever the commission is of the opinion report to the military governor and be
that the condition of affairs in the islands is subject to his administrative supervision
such that the central administration may and control, under your direction, but that
safely be transferred from military to civil supervision and control will be confined
control, they will report that conclusion to within the narrowest limits consistent
you, with their recommendations as to the with the requirement that the powers of
form of central government to be established government in the municipalities and de-
for the purpose of taking over the control, partments shall be honestly and effectively

Beginning with Sept. I, 1900, the au- exercised and that law and order and

thority to exercise, subject to my approval, individual freedom shall be maintained,
through the Secretary of War, that part All legislative rules and orders, estab-

of the power of government in the Philip- lishments of government and appoint-

pine Islands which is of a legislative ments to office by the commission will

nature is to be transferred from the mili- take effect immediately, or at such times

tary governor of the islands to this com- as they shall designate, subject to your

mission, to be thereafter exercised by it approval and action upon the coming in

in the place and stead of the military of the commission s reports, which are

governor, under such rules and regula- to be made from time to time as their

tions as you shall prescribe, until the action is taken. Wherever civil govern-

establishment of the civil central govern- ments are constituted under the direction

ment for the islands contemplated in the of the commission, such military posts,

last foregoing paragraph, or until Con- garrisons, and forces will be continued for

gress shall otherwise provide. Exercise of the suppression of insurrection and brig-

this legislative authority will include the andage, and the maintenance of laAV and

making of rules and orders, having the order, as the military commander shall

effect of law, for the raising of revenue deem requisite, and the military forces

by taxes, customs duties, and imposts; the shall be at all times subject under his

appropriation and expenditure of public orders to the call of the civil authorities

funds of the islands, the establishment of for the maintenance of law and order and

an educational system throughout the the enforcement of their authority,
vn. M 177

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

In the establishment of municipal gov- preclude very definite instruction as to the

ernments the commission will take as the part which the people shall take in the se-

basis of their work the governments estab- lection of their own officers; but these gen-

lished by the military governor under his eral rules are to be observed: That in all

order of Aug. 8, 1891), and under the report cases the municipal officers, who adminis-

of the board constituted by the military ter the local affairs of the people, are to be

governor by his order of Jan. 29, 1900, to selected by the people, and that, wherever

formulate and report a plan of municipal officers of more extended jurisdiction are

government, of which his Honor Cayetano to be selected in any way, natives of the

Arellano, president of the Audiencia, was islands are to be preferred, and, if they

chairman, and they will give to the con- can be found competent and willing to per-

clusions of that board the weight and con- form the duties, they are to receive the

sideration which the high character and offices in preference to any others,
distinguished abilities of its members jus- It will be necessary to fill some offices

tify.

for the present with Americans, Avhich,

In the constitution of departmental or after a time, may well be filled by natives
provincial governments they will give spe- of the islands. As soon as practicable a
cial attention to the existing government system for ascertaining the merit and fit-
of the island of Negros, constituted, with ness of candidates for civil office should be
the approval of the people of that island, put in force. An indispensable qualification
under the order of the military governor for all offices and positions of trust and
of July 22, 1899, and after verifying, so authority in the islands must be absolute
far as may be practicable, the reports of and unconditional loyalty to the United
the successful working of that government, States, and absolute and unhampered au-
they will be guided by the experience thus thority and power to remove and punish
acquired, so far as it may be applicable any officer deviating from that standard
to the condition existing in other portions must at all times be retained in the hands
of the Philippines. They will avail them- of the central authority of the islands,
selves to the fullest degree practicable of In all the forms of government and ad-
the conclusions reached by the previous ministrative provisions which they are au-
commission to the Philippines. thorized to prescribe, the commission should

In the distribution of powers among bear in mind that the government which
the governments organized by the commis- they are establishing is designed not for
sion, the presumption is always to be in our satisfaction, or for the expression of
favor of the smaller subdivision, so that our theoretical views, but for the happi-
all the powers which can properly be ex- ness, peae, and prosperity of the people
ercised by the municipal government shall of the Philippine Islands, and the meas-
be vested in that government, and all the ures adopted should be made to conform
powers of a more general character which to their customs, their habits, and even
can be exercised by the departmental gov- their prejudices, to the fullest extent con-
ernment shall be vested in that govern- sistent with the accomplishment of the
ment, and so that in the governmental indispensable requisites of just and ef-
system, which is the result of the process, fective government.

the central government of the islands, At the same time the commission should
following the example of the distribution bear in mind, and the people of the
of the powers between the States and the islands should be made plainly to under-
national government of the United States, stand, that there are certain great prin-
shall have no direct administration except ciples of government which have been
of matters of purely general concern, and made the basis of our governmental sys-
shall have only such supervision and con- tern which we deem essential to the rule of
trol over local governments as may be nee- law and the maintenance of individual
essary to secure and enforce faithful and freedom, and of which they have, unfortu
nately, been denied the experience possess
ed by us; that there are also certain prac-

efficient administration by local officers.

The many different degrees of civiliza
tion and varieties of custom and capacity

tical rules of government which we have
among the people of the different islands found to be essential to the preservation

178

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

of these great principles of liberty and It is evident that the most enlightened

law, and that these principles and these thought of the Philippine Islands fully

rules of government must be established appreciates the importance of these prin-

and maintained in their islands for the ciples and rules, and they will inevitably

sake of their liberty and happiness, how- within a short time command universal

ever much they may conflict with the cus- assent. Upon every division and branch

toms or laws of procedure with which of the government of the Philippines,

they are familiar. therefore, must be imposed these invio-

It will be the duty of the commission lable rules:

to make a thorough investigation into the That no person shall be deprived of life,

titles to the large tracts of land held or liberty, or property without due process of

claimed by individuals or by religious law; that private property shall not be

orders; into the justice of the claims and taken for public use without just compen-

complaints made against such landholders sation; that in all criminal prosecutions

by the people of the island or any part of the accused shall enjoy the right to a

the people, and to seek by wise and peace- speedy and public trial, to be informed of

able measures a just settlement of the the nature and cause of the accusation,

controversies and redress of wrongs which to be confronted with the witnesses against

have caused strife and bloodshed in the him, to have compulsory process for ob-

past. In the performance of this duty taining witnesses in his favor, and to have

the commission are enjoined to see that the assistance of counsel for his defence;

no injustice is done; to have regard for that excessive bail shall not be required,

substantial rights and equity, disregarding nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and

technicalities so far as substantial right unusual punishment inflicted; that no

permits, and to observe the following rules, person shall be put twice in jeopardy for

That the provision of the treaty of the same offence, or be compelled in any
Paris, pledging the United States to the criminal case to be a witness against him-
protection of all rights of property in the self; that the right to be secure against
islands, and as well the principle of our unreasonable searches and seizures shall
own government which prohibits the tak- not be violated; that neither slavery nor
ing of private property without due proc- involuntary servitude shall exist, except
ess of law, shall not be violated; that the as a punishment for crime; that no bill
welfare of the people of the islands, which of attainder, or ex-post-facto law shall be
should be a paramount consideration, passed; that no law shall be passed
shall be attained consistently with this abridging the freedom of speech or of the
rule of property right; that if it becomes press, or the rights of the people to peace-
necessary for the public interest of the ably assemble and petition the govern-
people of the islands to dispose of claims ment for a redress of grievances; that no
to property which the commission find to law shall be made respecting an establish-
be not lawfully acquired and held, disposi- ment of religion, or prohibiting the fret
tion shall be made thereof by due legal exercise thereof, and that the free exercise
procedure, in which there shall be full and enjoyment of religious profession and
opportunity for fair and impartial hearing worship without discrimination or prefer-
and judgment; that if the same public ence shall forever be allowed,
interests require the extinguishment of It will be the duty of the commission
property rights lawfully acquired and to promote and extend, and as they find
held, due compensation shall be made out occasion, to improve, the system of edu-
of the public treasury therefor; that no cation already inaugurated by the military
form of religion and no minister of relig- authorities. In doing this they should re-
ion shall be forced upon any community gard as of first importance the extension
or upon any citizen of the islands; that of a system of primary education which
upon the other hand no minister of relig- shall be free to all, and which shall tend
ion shall be interfered with or molested to fit the people for the duties of citizen-
in following his calling, and that the ship and for the ordinary avocations of
separation between State and Church a civilized community. This instruction
shall be real, entire, and absolute. should be given in the first instance in

179

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

every part of the islands in the language active effort should be exercised to prevent

of the people. In view of the great num- barbarous practices and introduce civilized

ber of languages spoken by the different customs.

tribes, it is especially important to the Upon all officers and employes of the

prosperity of the islands that a common United States, both civil and military,

medium of communication may be estab- should be impressed a sense of the duty

lished, and it is obviously desirable that to observe not merely the material but the

this medium should be the English Ian- personal and social rights of the people

guage. Especial attention should be at of the islands, and to treat them with the

once given to affording full opportunity to same courtesy and respect for their per-

all the people of the islands to acquire the sonal dignity which the people of the

use of the PJnglish language. United States are accustomed to require

It may be well that the main changes from each other.

which should be made in the system of The articles of capitulation of the city

taxation and in the body of the laws under of Manila on Aug. 13, 1898, concluded

which the people are governed, except such with these words:

changes as have already been made by the " This city, its inhabitants, its churches

military government, should be relegated and religious worship, its educational es-

to the civil government which is to be es- tablishments, and its private property of

tablished under the auspices of the com- all descriptions are placed under the spe-

mission. It will, however, be the duty of cial safeguard of the faith and honor of

the commission to inquire diligently as to the American army."

whether there are any further changes I believe that this pledge has been faith-

which ought not to be delayed, and, if so, fully kept. As high and sacred an ob-

they are authorized to make such changes, ligation rests upon the government of the

subject to your approval. In doing so United States to give protection for prop-

they are to bear in mind that taxes which erty and life, civil and religious freedom,

tend to penalize or repress industry and and wise, firm, and unselfish guidance in

enterprise are to be avoided; that provi- the paths of peace and prosperity to all

sions for taxation should be simple, so that the people of the Philippine Islands. I

theymay be understood by the people; that charge this commission to labor for the

they should affect the fewest practicable full performance of this obligation, which

subjects of taxation which will serve for concerns the honor and conscience of their

the general distribution of the burden. country, in the firm hope that through

The main body of the laws which regu- their labors all the inhabitants of the

late the rights and obligations of the peo- Philippine Islands may come to look back

pie should be maintained with as little with gratitude to the day when God gave

interference as possible. Changes made victory to American arms at Manila and

should be mainly in procedure, and in the set their land under the sovereignty and

criminal laws to secure speedy and impar- the protection of the people of the United

tial trials, and at the same time effective States. WILLIAM McKiNLEV.
administration and respect for individual

rights. Code of Civil Government. On Jan. 31,

In dealing with the uncivilized tribes of 1901, the Taft Commission enacted into

the islands the commission should adopt law a code of civil government for the isl-

the same course followed by Congress in ands, thus outlined in the official report of

permitting the tribes of our North Ameri- the commission:

can Indians to maintain their tribal or- The pueblos of these islands some-

ganization and government, and under times include a hundred or more square

which many of those tribes are now living miles. They are divided into so-called

in peace and contentment, surrounded by barrios, or wards, which are often very

a civilization to which they are unable or numerous and widely separated. In order

unwilling to conform. Such tribal govern- that the interests of the inhabitants of

ments should, however, be subjected to each ward may be represented in the coun-

wise and firm regulation; and, without un- oil, on the one hand, and that the body

due or petty interference, constant and may not become so numerous as to be un-

180

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h
a

2
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H
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a
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PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

\vieldy, on the other, it is provided that ever, that this opposition will be transient

the councillors shall be few in number and will disappear as the people come to

(eighteen to eight, according to the nuin- realize that the payment of taxes results

ber of inhabitants ) , and shall be elected in direct benefit to the communities in

at large; that where the wards are more which they live and to themselves indi-

numerous than are the councillors the vidually.

wards shall be grouped into districts, and The exact rate of taxation on land and

that one councillor shall be in charge of improvements is left to the several munic-

each ward or district with power to ap- ipal councils, within certain limits. They

point a representative from among the may reduce it to one-fourth of 1 per cent,

inhabitants of every ward thus assigned of the assessed valuation or raise it to

to him, so that he may the more readily one-half of 1 per cent.; but in any event

keep in touch with conditions in that por- they must spend the amount accruing

tion of the township which it is his duty from a tax of at least one-fourth of 1 per

to supervise and represent. cent, on free public schools. Education is

The subject of taxation has been made the crying need of the inhabitants of this

the object of especially careful attention, country, and it is hoped and believed that

The effect of the old Spanish system was the funds resulting from the land tax

to throw practically the whole burden will be sufficient to enable us to establish

on those who could least afford to bear it. an adequate primary-school system. Care-

The poor paid the taxes, and the rich, in ful and, it is believed, just provisions have

many instances, went free, or nearly so, been made for the determination of values

unless they were unfortunate enough to and for the protection of the rights of

hold office and thus incur responsibility for property owners.

the taxes of others which they failed to col- In the matter of collection of revenues

lect. There was a considerable number of a complete innovation has been introduced,

special taxes, many of which were irritating which, it is believed, will be productive of

and offensive to the people, and yielded at satisfactory results. It is intended to cre-

the best a pitifully small revenue. ate for the islands a centralized system

In dealing with the question of taxation for the collection and disbursement of rev-
it has been our purpose, first, to do away envies, the head officer of which shall be the
with all taxes which, through irritating insular treasurer at Manila. It is pro-
tliose from whom they were collected or posed to establish subordinate offices in
through the small amount of resulting the several departments, and others, sub-
revenue, were manifestly objectionable: ordinate in turn to the several department
second, to remove the so-called industrial al offices, in the various provinces. All
taxes, except where levied on industries re- revenues within any given province, wheth-
quiring police supervision; third, to abol- er for the municipal, provincial, depart-
ish special taxes, such as the tax for light- mental, or insular treasury, will be collect
ing and cleaning the municipality and the ed by deputies of the provincial treasurer,
tax for the repair of roads and streets; who will immediately turn over to the
fourth, to provide abundant funds for the several municipalities all funds collected
legitimate needs of the township by a for them. It is believed that by this
system which should adjust the burden means a much higher degree of honesty
of contribution with some reference to the and efficiency can be secured than would bo
resources of those called upon to bear it. the case were the collectors appointed by
To this end provision has been made for a the municipalities or chosen by suffrage,
moderate tax on land and improvements while it will be of great convenience to
thereon. the taxpayer to be able to meet his obliga-

It is reasonably certain that at the out- tions to all departments of the government

set there will be more or less opposition at one time, and thus escape annoyance at

to this tax. This opposition will come the hands of a multiplicity of officials,

from the rich, who have thus far escaped each of whom is collecting revenue for a

their fair share of the burden of taxation, different end. Furthermore, the provin-

and who will naturally be more or less un- cial treasurer will know the exact amount

willing to assume it. It is believed, how- paid in to each municipal treasury, and

181

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

will thus have a valuable check on the
finances of every one in his province.

In order to meet the situation presented
by the fact that a number of the pueblos
have not as yet been organized since the
American occupation, while some 250
others are organized under a comparative
ly simple form of government and fifty-
five under a much more complicated form

rection, and who have rendered our forces
valuable service by furnishing them with
information, serving as carriers, and aid
ing them in other ways. They certainly
deserve well of us. They are, however,
illiterate pagans, and it is stated on good
authority that there are not three Igor-
rotes in the province who can read or
write. They are uncomplaining, and,

on which the new law is based, the course when wronged, fly to the mountain fast-
of procedure which must be followed in nesses in the centre of the island, instead

of seeking redress.

The conditions in Benguet may be taken

order to bring these various towns un
der the provisions of the new law has

been prescribed in detail, and every effort as fairly typical of those which prevail in

has been made to provide against unneces- many other provinces, populated in whole

sary friction in carrying out the change, or in part by harmless and amiable but

In view of the disturbed conditions ignorant and superstitious wild tribes.

The commission has already passed an

which still prevail in some parts of the
archipelago it has been provided that the
military government should be given con-

commission lias already passed
act for the establishment of township
governments in this province, and it is

trol of the appointment and arming of the believed that this measure will serve as

municipal police, and that in all provinces a model for other acts necessitated by

where civil provincial government has not

been established by the commission the

duties of the provincial

governor, pro
vincial treasurer, and provincial " fiscal "
(prosecuting attorney) shall be performed
by military officers assigned by the mili
tary governor for these purposes.

The law does not apply to the city of
Manila or to the settlements of non-
Christian tribes, because it is believed that
in both cases special conditions require
special legislation.

The question as to the best methods of
dealing with the non-Christian tribes is
one of no little complexity. The number
of these tribes is greatly in excess of the
number of civilized tribes, although the
total number of Mohammedans and pagans
is much less than the number of Chris-
tanized natives. Still, the non-Christian
tribes are very far from forming an insig
nificant element of the population. They
differ from each other widely, both in
their present social, moral, and intellectual
state and in the readiness with which they
adapt themselves to the demands of mod
ern civilization.

The necessity of meeting this problem

similar conditions in other provinces.
The division of the province into town
ships and wards is provided for. The
government of each township is nominally
vested in a president and council, the
latter composed of one representative from
each ward of the township. The president
and vice-president are chosen at large by
a viva voce vote of the male residents of
the township eighteen or more years of age,
and the councillors are similarly chosen
by the residents of the several barrios.

The difficulties arising from the com
plete illiteracy of the people are met by
providing for the appointment of a secre
tary for each town, who shall speak and
write Ilocano. which the Igorrotes under
stand, and English or Spanish. He is
made the means of communication be
tween the people and the provincial gov
ernor, makes and keeps all town records,
and does all clerical work.

The president is the chief executive of
the township, and its treasurer as well.
He is also the presiding officer of a court
consisting of himself and two councillors
chosen by the council to act with him.
This court has powev to hear and adjudge

has been brought home to the commission violations of local ordinances.

by conditions in the province of Benguet.
The Igorrotes, who inhabit this prov
ince, arc a pacific, industrious, and rela
tively honest and truthful people, who
have never taken any part in the insur-

182

It is believed that, by encouraging the
municipal councils to attempt to make
ordinances, and then giving them the bene
fits of the criticism and suggestions of the
provincial governor with reference to such

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

attempts, they may be gradually taught postal and revenue departments. In con-
much-needed lessons in self-government, nection with educational efforts, Governor
while sufficient power is given to the gov- Taft said that adults should be educated
ernor to enable him to nullify harmful by an observation of American methods,
measures and to take the initiative when He said that there was a reasonable hope
a council fails to act. that Congress would provide a tariff that

The Igorrotes are tillers of the soil, and would assist in the development of the
a few of the inhabitants of each township Philippines instead of an application of
have acquired very considerable wealth. the United States tariff. According to the

Civil Government Inaugurated. On civil governor, there was an unexpended
July 4, 1901, the authorities in Manila balance in the insular treasury of $3,700,-
ceremoniously inaugurated civil govern- 000, and an anual income of $10,000,000.
ment in the Philippines. The President The reading of President McKinley s
had previously appointed Judge Taft civil message of congratulation was enthusias-
governor of the islands, and GEN. ADNA tically cheered. The entire front of the
R. CHAFFEE (q. v.) military governor in Tribuna, a block long, was decorated with
succession to GEN. ARTHUR MACARTHUR flags, and several hundred officers, with
(l- ") . their families and friends, were seated

Commissioner Taft was escorted by Gen- therein. General MacArthur, Civil Gov-
crals MacArthur and Chaffee from the pal- ernor Taft, and Military Governor Chaffee,
ace to a great temporary tribune opposite with the other generals. Rear-Admiral
the Plaza Palacio. Standing on a pro- Kempff and his staff, the United States
jecting centre of the Tribuna, Judge Taft commissioners and the justices of the Su-
took the oath of office, which was adminis- preme Court and the Filipino leaders were
tered by Chief-Justice Arellano. Governor there, but there were more Americans
Taft was then introduced by General Mac- than Filipinos present. The transfer of
Arthur, a salute being fired by the guns the military authority was carried out
of Fort Santiago. without any formality.

A feature of the inaugural address of On March 16, 1905, Secretary Taft an-
Governor Taft was the announcement that nounced the retention of the Philippines
on Sept. 1, 1901, the Philippine Commis- as the policy of the administration,
sion would be increased by the appoint- Military and Naval Operations. For an
ment of three native members, Dr. Wardo account of the principal operations of the
Detavera, Benito Legarda, and Jose Luzu- United States forces against Spain and
riaga. Before Sept. 1 departments would the Filipino insurgents the reader is re-
exist as follows, heads having been ar- ferred to AGUINALDO, DEWEY, MACARTHUR,
ranged thus: Interior Commissioner, Wor- MANILA, MERRITT; SPAIN, WAR WITH, and
cester; Commerce and Police Commis- other readily suggested titles. In his last
sioner, Wright; Justice and Finance Com- annual report as military commander of
missioner, Ide; Public Instruction Com- the Division of the Philippines, General
missioner, Moses. Of the twenty-seven MacArthur gave the Mowing statistics of
provinces organized, Governor Taft said military operations from May 5, 1900, to
the insurrection still existed in five. This June 30, 1901: 1,062 contacts between
would cause the continuance of the mili- American troops and insurgents, involving
tary government in these provinces. Six- the following casualties: Americans kill-
teen additional provinces were reported ed, 245; wounded, 400; captured, 118;
without insurrection, but as yet they had missing, 20. Insurgents killed, 2,854;
not been organized. Four provinces were wounded. 1.193; captured, 6,572; surren-
not ready for civil government. dered, 23,095. During the same period the

Governor Taft predicted that with the following material was captured from or
concentration of troops into larger garri- surrendered by the insurgents: rifles, 15,-
sons it would be necessary for the people 093: rifle ammunition, 296,363 rounds;
to assist the police in the preservation of revolvers, 868; bolos, 3,510; cannon, 122;
order. Fleet launches would be procured, cannon ammunition, 10,270 rounds,
which would facilitate communication Chronology of the War. The following
among the provinces as well as aid the is a list of the more important events from

183

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

the outbreak of the insurrection to July,

1902:

Feb. 4, 1899. The Filipinos, under Agui-
naldo, attacked the American defences at
Manila. The Americans assumed the
offensive the next day, and in the fight
ing which ensued for several days the
American loss was fifty-seven killed
and 215 wounded. Five hundred Fili
pinos were killed, 1,000 wounded, and
500 captured.

Feb. 10. Battle of Caloocan.

March 13-19. General Wheaton attacked
and occupied Pasig.

March 21-30. General MacArthur ad
vanced towards and captured Malolos.

Military operations were partially sus
pended during the rainy season.

Meanwhile the southern islands were oc
cupied by the American forces; Iloilo
by General Miller, Feb. 11; Cebu by the
Navy, March 27 ; and Negros, Mindanao,
and the smaller islands subsequently.

A treaty was concluded with the Sultan
of Sulu, in which his rights were guar
anteed, and he acknowledged the su
premacy of the United States.

With the advance of the dry season mili
tary operations on a much larger scale
than heretofore were begun, the army of
occupation having been reinforced by
30,000 men.

April 4. The commission issued a proc
lamation promising " The amplest lib
erty of self-government, reconcilable with
just, stable, effective, and economical
administration, and compatible with the
sovereign rights and obligations of the
United States.

April 22-May 17. General Lawton led an
expedition to San Isidro.

April 25 -May 5. General MacArthur
captured Calumpit and San Fernando.

June 10-19. Generals Lawton and Whea
ton advanced south to Imus.

June 26. General Hall took Calamba.

Aug. 16. General MacArthur captured
Angeles.

Sept. 28. General MacArthur, after sev
eral days fighting, occupied Porac.

Oct. 1-10. General Schwan s column
operated in the southern part of Luzon
and captured Rosario and Malabon.

Nov. 2. The Philippine commission ap
pointed by the President, consisting of
J. G. Schurman, Prof. Dean Worcester,

Charles Denby, Admiral Dewey, and
General Otis, which began its labors at
Manila, March 20, and returned to the
United States in September, submitted
its preliminary report to the President.

Nov. 7. A military expedition on board
transports, under General Wheaton,
captured Dagupan.

Dec. 25. Gen. S. B. M. Young appoint
ed military governor of northwestern
Luzon.

Dec. 26. The Filipino general Santa Ana,
with a force of insurgents, attacked the
garrison at Subig; the Americans suc
cessfully repelled the attack.

Dec. 27. Colonel Lockett, with a force of
2,500 men, attacked a force of insur
gents near Montalban; many Filipinos
were killed.

Jan. 1, 1900. General advance of the
American troops in southern Luzon;
Cabuyac, on Laguna de Bay, taken by
two battalions of the 39th Infantry;
two Americans killed and four wounded.

Jan. 7. Lieutenant Gillmore and the
party of Americans held as prisoners by
the Filipinos arrive at Manila.

Jan. 12. A troop of the 3d Cavalry de
feated the insurgents near San Fer
nando de la Union; the Americans lose
two killed and three wounded. Gen
eral Otis reports all of Cavite prov
ince as occupied by General Wheaton.

Jan. 17. Lieutenant McRae, with a com
pany of the 3d Infantry, defeated an
insurgent force under General Hizon
and captured rifles and ammunition
near Mabalacat.

Feb. 5. Five thousand Filipino insur
gents attacked American garrison at
Duroga and were repulsed.

Feb. 16. Expedition under Generals Bates
and Bell leave Manila to crush rebellion
in Camarines.

March. Civil commission appointed by
President McKinley (Wm. H. Taft, Dean
C. Worcester, Luke E. Wright, Henry
C. Ide, Bernard Moses). They reached
the Philippines in April.

April 7. General Otis relieved. General
MacArthur succeeds him.

May 5. Gen. Pantelon Garcia, the chief
Filipino insurgent in central Luzon, is
captured.

May 29. Insurgents capture San Miguel
de Mayamo, five Americans killed, seven

184

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS PHILLIPS

wounded, and Capt. Charles D. Reports Jan. 22, 1901. Treaty with Spain for tho

made a prisoner. purchase of the island of Cibutu and

June 8. Gen. Pio del Filar is captured Cagayan for $100,000 ratified by United

at San Pedro Macati. States Senate.

June 12. General Grant reports the capt- Jan. 28. Petition from Filipino federal

ure of an insurgent stronghold near party praying for civil government pre-

San Miguel. sented to the Senate.

June 21. General MacArthur issues a March 1. Twenty-one officers and 120

proclamation of amnesty. bolomen surrender.

Nov. 14. Major Bell entered Tarlac. March 23. Aguinaldo captured by Gen-

Nov. 14. Brisk fighting near San Jacinto. eral Funston.

Maj. John A. Logan killed. April 2. Aguinaldo takes oath of alle-

Nov. 24. General Otis announced to the giance.

War Department that the whole of cen- April 20. General Tinio surrendered,
tral Luzon was in the hands of the June 15. United States Philippine Corn-
United States authorities; that the mission appoints Arellano, chief-justice,
president of the Filipino congress, the and six other Supreme Court judges.
Filipino secretary of state, and treas- June 21. Promulgation of President Mc-
urer were captured, and that only small Kinley s order establishing civil govern-
bands of the enemy were in arms, re- ment and appointing William H. Taft
treating in different directions, while the first governor.

Aguinaldo, a fugitive with a small June 23. General MacArthur is succeeded

escort, was being pursued towards the by General Chaffee.

mountains. July 4. Civil government established.

Nov. 24. Bautista, president of the Fili- July 24. General Zunbano, with 547 men,

pino congress, surrenders to General surrenders at Zabayas.

MacArthur. Sept. 29. Massacre of forty-eight Amer-

Nov. 26. The navy captured Vigan on icans at Balangiga, Samar.

the coast. Jan. 14, 1902. Twenty-two officers and 245

Nov. 26. At Pavia, island of Panay, the men surrendered to the United States.

18th and 19th Regiments drive the Fili- July, 1902. Despite fresh outbreaks the

pinos out of their trenches; a captain rebellion is dying out, and the number

and one private killed. of U.S. troops is being gradually reduced.

Nov. 28. Colonel Bell disperses the in- Phillips, HENRY, author; born in Phila-
surgents in the Dagupan Valley. Bay- delphia, Pa., Sept. 6, 1838; was admitted
ombong, in the province of Nueva Vis- to the bar in his native city in 1859; be-
caya, defended by 800 armed Filipinos, came an authority on archaeology, philol-
surrenders to Lieutenant Monroe and ogy, and numismatics. His publications
fifty men of the 4th Cavalry. include History of American Colonial Pa-
Dec. 3. Gen. Gregorio del Pilar, one of per Currency; History of American Con-
the Filipino insurgent leaders, is killed tinental Paper Money; Pleasures of ]Vu-
in a fight near Cervantes. mismatic Science; etc. He died in 1895.

Dec. 4. Vigan, held by American troops Phillips, JOHN, philanthropist; born in

under Lieutenant-Colonel Parker, at- Andover, Mass., Dec. G, 1719; graduated

tacked by 800 Filipinos; they are driven at Harvard College in 1735. He founded

off, leaving forty killed and thirty-two Phillips Academy at Andover and Phillips

prisoners ; the Americans lose eight men. Academy at Exeter. He died in Exeter,

Dec. 11. General Tierona, the Filipino N. H., April 21, 1795. His nephew,

insurgent commander in Cagayan, sur- SAMUEL PHILLIPS, was born in Andover,

renders the entire province to Captain Feb. 7, 1751; graduated at Harvard

McCalla, of the Newark. College in 1771; was a member of the

Dec. 11. The President directed General Massachusetts Provincial Congress four

Otis to open the ports of the Philip- years; State Senator twenty years; and

pines to commerce. president of the Senate fifteen years; a

Dec. 19. General Lawton was killed in judge of the court of common pleas;

attacking San Mateo. commissioner of the State to deal with

185

PHILLIPS

Shays s insurrection, and was lieutenant- educational purposes. He was one of the

governor of the State at his death. He founders of the Academy of Arts and

left $5,000 to the town of Andover, the Sciences at Boston. He died in Andover.

interest of which was to be applied to Mass., Feb. 10, 1802.

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

Phillips, WENDELL, orator and re- need not curiously investigate. While Mr.

former; born -in Boston, Mass., Nov. 29, Everett on one side, and Mr. Sumner on

1811; son of John Phillips, the first the other, agree, you and I may take for

mayor of Boston; graduated at Harvard granted the opinion of two such opposite

College in 1831, and at the Cambridge statesmen the result of the common-sense

Law School in 1833, and was admitted to of this side of the water and the other

the bar in 1834. At that time the agita- that slavery is the root of this war. I

tion of the slavery question was violent know some men have loved to trace it

and wide-spread, and in 1836 Mr. Phillips to disappointed ambition, to the success

joined the abolitionists. He conceived it of the Republican party, convincing 300,-

such a wrong in the Constitution of the 000 nobles at the South, who have hith-

United States in sanctioning slavery that erto furnished us the most of the Presi-

he could not conscientiously act under his dents, generals, judges, and ambassadors

attorney s oath to that Constitution, and we needed, that they would have leave to

he abandoned the profession. From that stay at home, and that 20,000,000 of

time until the emancipation of the slaves Northerners would take their share in

in 1863 he did not cease to lift up his public affairs. I do not think that cause

voice against the system of slavery and in equal to the result. Other men before

condemnation of the Constitution of the Jefferson Davis and Governor Wise have

United States. His first great speech been disappointed of the Presidency,

against the evil was in Faneuil Hall, in Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and Stephen

December, 1837, at a meeting " to notice A. Douglas were more than once disap-

in a suitable manner the murder, in the pointed, and yet who believed that either

city of Alton, 111., of Kev. Elijah P. Love- of these great men could have armed the

joy, who fell in defence of the freedom of North to avenge his wrong? Why, then,

the press." Mr. Phillips was an eloquent, should these pygmies of the South be

logical, and effective speaker. He con- able to do what the giants I have named

scientiously abstained from voting under could never achieve? Simply because

the Constitution, and was ever the most there is a radical difference between the

earnest of " Garrisonian abolitionists." two sections, and that difference is sla-

Ile was an earnest advocate of other re- very. A party victory may have been the

forms temperance, labor, and other social occasion of this outbreak. So a tea-chest

relations. He was president of the Amer- was the occasion of the Revolution, and it

ican Anti-slavery Society at the time of went to the bottom of Boston Harbor on

its dissolution, April 9, 1870. He died in the night of December 16, 1773; but that

Boston, Mass., Feb. 2, 1884. tea-chest was not the cause of the^Revo-

The War for the Union. In December, lution, neither is Jefferson Davis the

1861, Mr. Phillips delivered a patriotic cause of the rebellion. If you will look

address in Boston, which is here reprinted, upon the map, and notice that every slave

somewhat abridged. State has joined or tried to join the re-

bell ion, and no free State has done so, T

Ladies and Gentlemen, It Avould be think you will not doubt substantially the

impossible for me fitly to thank you for origin of this convulsion. . . .
this welcome; you will allow me, there- I know the danger of a political proph-

fore, not to attempt it, but to avail my- ecy a kaleidoscope of which not even a

self of your patience to speak to you, as Yankee can guess the next combination

I have been invited to do, upon the war. but for all that, I venture to offer

Whence came this war? You and I my opinion, that on this continent the

186

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

WENDKLI, PHILLIPS.

system of domestic slavery has received 600,000 men idle for two or three years,

its death-blow. Let me tell you why I at a cost of $2,000,000 a day; after that

think so. Leaving out of view the war Hag lowered at Sumter; after Baker, and

with England, which I do not expect, Lyon, and Ellsworth, and Winthrop, and

there are but three paths out of this war. Putnam, and Wesselhoeft have given their

One is, the North conquers; the other ir:, lives to quell the rebellion; after our

the South conquers ; the third is, a com- Massachusetts boys, hurrying through

promise. Now, if the North conquers, or ploughed fields and workshops to save the

there be a compromise, one or the other of capital, have been foully murdered on the

two things must come either the old Con- pavements of Baltimore I cannot believe

stitution or a new one. I believe that, so in a- North so lost, so craven as to put

far as the slavery clauses of the Constitu- back slavery where it stood on March 4

tion of 89 are concerned, it is dead. It last. But if there be reconstruction

seems to me impossible that the thrifty without those slave clauses, then in a

and painstaking North, after keeping little while, longer or shorter, slavery

187

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

dies indeed, on other basis but the basis meant chains around Boston court-house,

of 89 she has nothing else to do but to a gag on the lips of statesmen, and the

die. On the contrary, if the South no, slave sobbing himself to sleep in curses.

I cannot say conquers my lips will not No more such peace for me; no peace that

form the word but if she balks xis of is not born of justice, and does not recog-

victory; the only way she can do it is to nize the rights of every race and every

write Emancipation on her banner, and man. . . .

thus bribe the friends of liberty in Eu- Now, how do we stand? In a war-
rope to allow its aristocrats and trad- not only that, but a terrific war not a
ers to divide the majestic republic whose war sprung from the caprice of a woman,
growth and trade they fear and envy, the spite of a priest, the flickering am-
Piither way, the slave goes free. Unless bition of a prince, as wars usually have;
England flings her fleets along the coast, but a war inevitable; in one sense no-
the South can never spring into separate body s fault; the inevitable result of past
existence, except from the basis of negro training, the conflict of ideas, millions of
freedom; and I for one cannot yet be- people grappling each other s throat, every
lieve that the North will consent again soldier in each camp certain that he
to share his chains. Exclusively as an is fighting for an idea which holds the
abolitionist, therefore, I have little more salvation of the world every drop of his
interest in this war than the frontiers- blood in earnest. Such a war finds no
man s wife had, in his struggle with the parallel nearer than that of the Catholic
bear, when she didn t care which whipped, and Huguenot of France, or that of
But before I leave the abolitionists let aristocrat and republicans in 1790, or
me say one word. Some men say we are of Cromwell and the Irish, when victory
the cause of this war. Gentlemen, you meant extermination. Such is our war.
do us too much honor! If it be so, we I look upon it as the commencement of
have reason to be proud of it; for in my the great struggle between the disgusted
heart, as an American, I believe this year aristocracy and the democracy of America,
the most glorious of the republic since You are to say to-day whether it shall
76. The North, craven and contented un- last ten years or seventy, as it usually
til now, like Mammon, saw nothing even has done. It resembles closely that strug-
in heaven but the golden pavement; to- gle between aristocrat and democrat which
day she throws off her chains. We have began in France in 1789, and continues
a North, as Daniel Webster said. This still. While it lasts it will have the
is no epoch for nations to blush at. Eng- same effect on the nation as that war
land might blush in 1G20, when English- between blind loyalty, represented by the
men trembled at a fool s frown, and were Stuart family, and the free spirit of the
silent when James forbade them to think; English constitution, which lasted from
but not in 1649, when an outraged people 1660 to 1760, and kept England a second-
cut off his son s head. Massachusetts rate power almost all that century,
might have blushed a year or two ago, Such is the era on which you are enter-
when an insolent Virginian, standing ing. I will not speak of war in itself
on Bunker Hill, insulted the Common- 1 have no time; I will not say with
wealth, and then dragged her citizens to Napoleon, that it is the practice of bar-
Washington to tell what they knew about barians; I will not say that it is good.
John Brown; but she has no reason to It is better than the past. A thing
blush to-day, when she holds that same may be better, and yet not good. This
impudent Senator an acknowledged felon war is better than the past, but there is
in her prison - fort. In my view, the not an element of good in it. I mean,
bloodiest wa-r ever waged is infinitely there is nothing in it which we might
better than the happiest slavery which not have gotten better, fuller, and more
ever fattened man into obedience. And perfectly in other ways. And yet it is
yet I love peace. But it is real peace; better than the craven past, infinitely
not peace such as we have had, not peace better than a peace which had pride for
that meant lynch -law in the Carolinas and its father and subserviency for its mother,
mob-law in New York; not peace that Neither will I speak of the cost of war.

188

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

although you know we shall never get
out of this one without a debt of at least
$2,000,000,000 or $3,000,000,000. . . .

You know that the writ of habeas
corpus, by which government is bound
to render a reason to the judiciary
before it lays its hands upon a citizen,
has been called the high-water mark of
English liberty. Jefferson, in his calm
moments, dreaded the power to suspend
it in any emergency whatever, and wished
to have it in " eternal and unremitting
force." The present Napoleon, in his
treatise on the English constitution, calls
it the gem of English institutions. Lieber
says that the habeas corpus, free meetings
like this, and a free press are the three
elements which distinguish liberty from
despotism. All that Saxon blood has
gained in the battles and toils of 200
years are these three things. But to
day, Mr. Chairman, every one of them
habeas corpus, the right of free meet
ing, and a free press is annihilated
in every square mile of the republic.
We live to-day, every one of us, under
martial law. The Secretary of State puts
into his bastile, with a warrant as irre
sponsible as that of Louis, any man whom
he pleases. And you know that neither
press nor- lips may venture to arraign
the government without being silenced.
At this moment 1,000 men, at least,
are " bastiled " by an authority as des
potic as that of Louis three times
as many as Eldon and George III. seized
when they trembled for his throne. Mark
me, I am not complaining. I do not say
it is not necessary. It is necessary to
do anything to save the ship. It is neces
sary to throw everything overboard in
order that we may float. It is a mere
question whether you prefer the despotism
of Washington or that of Richmond. I
prefer that of Washington. But, never
theless, I point out to you this tendency
because it is momentous in its significance.
We are tending with rapid strides, you
say inevitably I do not deny it; neces
sarily I do not question it ; we are tend
ing towards that strong government which
frightened Jefferson ; towards that un
limited debt, that endless army. We have
already those alien and sedition laws
which, in 1798, wrecked the Federal
party, and summoned the Democratic into

existence. For the first time on this con
tinent we have passports, which even
Louis Napoleon pronounces useless and
odious. For the first time in our his
tory government spies frequent our great
cities. And this model of a strong gov
ernment, if you reconstruct on the old
basis, is to be handed into the keeping
of whom? If you compromise it by re
construction, to whom are you to give
these delicate and grave powers? To com
promisers? Reconstruct this government,
and for twenty years you can never elect
a Republican. Presidents must be wholly
without character or principle, that two an
gry parties, each hopeless of success, con
temptuously tolerate them as neutrals. . . .
What shall we do? The answer to that
question comes partly from what we think
has been the cause of this convulsion.
Some men think some of your editors
think many of ours, too that this war
is nothing but the disappointment of
1,000 or 2,000 angered politicians, who
have persuaded 8,000,000 of Southern
ers, against their convictions, to take
up arms and rush to the battle-field; no
great compliment to Southern sense!
They think that, if the Federal army
could only appear in the midst of this
demented mass, the 8,000,000 will find
out for the first time in their lives
that they have got souls of their own,
tell us so, and then we shall all be piloted
back, float back, drift back into the good
old times of Franklin Pierce and James
Buchanan. There is a measure of truth
in that. I believe that if, a year ago, when
the thing first showed itself, Jefferson
Davis and Toombs and Keitt and Wise,
and the rest, had been hung for traitors
at Washington, and a couple of frigates
anchored at Charleston, another couple
in Savannah, and a half-dozen in New
Orleans, with orders to shell those cities
on the first note of resistance, there never
would have been this outbreak, or it would
have been postponed at least a dozen
years; and if that interval had been used
to get rid of slavery, we never should
have heard of the convulsion. ... I do
not consider this a secession. It is no
secession. I agree with Bishop-General
Polk it is a conspiracy, not a secession.
There is no wish, no intention to go peace
ably and permanently off. It is a con-

189

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

spiracy to make the government do the as to keep it what it has been for thirty
will and accept the policy of the slave- years, according to John Quincy Adams-
holders. Its root is at the South, but it a plot for the extension and perpetuation
has many a branch at Wall Street and in of slavery. As the world advances, fresh
State Street^ It is a conspiracy, and on guarantees are demanded. The nineteenth
the one side is every man who still thinks century requires sterner gags than the
that he that steals his brother is a gentle- eighteenth. Often as the peace of Virginia
man, and he that makes his living is not. is in danger, you must be willing that a
; is the aristocratic element which sur- Virginian Mason shall drag your citizens
vived the Constitution, which our fathers to Washington, and imprison them at his
thought could be safely left under it, and pleasure. So long as Carolina needs it,
the South to-day is forced into this war you must submit that your ships be
by the natural growth of the antagonistic searched for dangerous passengers, and
principle. You may pledge whatever sub- every Northern man lynched. No more
mission and patience of Southern instittt- Kansas rebellions. It is a conflict between
tions you please it is not enough. South the two powers, aristocracy and democ-
Carolina said to Massachusetts in 1835, racy, which shall hold this belt of the
when Edward Everett was governor, continent. You may live here, New York
" Abolish free speech it is a nuisance." men, but it must be in submission to such
She is right from her stand-point it is. rules as the quiet of South Carolina re-
That is, it is not possible to preserve the quires. That is the meaning of the oft-
quiet of South Carolina consistently with repeated threat to call the roll of one s
free speech; but you know the story Sir slaves on Bunker Hill and dictate peace
Walter Scott told of the Scotch laird, in Faneuil Hall. Now, in that fight, I go
who said to his old butler, "Jock, you for the North for the Union,
and I can t live under this roof." " And In order to make out this theory of " ir-
where does your honor think of going?" repressible conflict" it is not necessary to
So free speech says of South Carolina to- suppose that every Southerner hates every
day. ^ Now I say you may pledge, com- Northerner (as the Atlantic Monthly
promise, guarantee what you please. The urges). But this much is true: some
South well knows that it is not your pur- 300,000 slave - holders at the South,
pose it is your character she dreads. It holding 2,000,000,000 of so-called prop-
is the nature of Northern institutions, erty in their hands, controlling the
the perilous freedom of discussion, the blacks and befooling the 7,000,000 of
flavor of our ideas, the sight of our poor whites into being their tools into
growth, the very neighborhood of such believing that their interest is opposed
States, that constitutes the danger. It is to ours this order of nobles, this privileged
like the two vessels launched on the stormy class, has been able for forty years to keep
seas. The iron said to the crockery, " I the government in dread, dictate terms
won t come near you." "Thank you," by threatening disunion, bring us to its
said the weaker vessel ; " there is just as verge at least twice, and now almost break
much danger in my coming near you." the Union in pieces. . . .
This the South feels; hence her determina- Now some Eepublicans and some Demo
tion; hence, indeed, the imperious neces- crats not Butler and Bryant and Coch-
sity that she should rule and shape our rane and Cameron ; not Boutwell and Ban-
government, or of sailing out of it. I croft and Dickinson and others but the
do not mean that she plans to take posses- old set the old set say to the Repub-
sion of the North, and choose our Northern licans, " Lay the pieces carefully to-
mayors; though she has done that in Bos- gether in their places; put the gunpowder
ton for the last dozen years, and here and the match in again, say the Consti-
till this fall. But she conspires and aims tution backward instead of your prayers,
to control just so much of our policy, and there never will be another rebel-
trade, offices, presses, pulpits, cities, as is lion!" I doubt it. It seems to me that
sufficient to insure the undisturbed exist- like causes will produce like effects. If
ence of slavery. She conspires with the the reason of the war is because we are
full intent so to mould this government two nations, then the cure must be to

190

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

make us one nation, to remove that cause send our stock down 50 per cent., and
which divides us, to make our institutions cost thousands of lives. Reconstruction
homogeneous. If it \vere possible to subju- is but making chronic what now is trail-
gate the South, and leave slavery just sient. What that is, this week shows,
as it is, where is the security that we What that is, Ave learn from the tone Eng-
should not have another war in ten land dares to assume towards this divid-
years? Indeed, such a course invites an- ed republic. I do not believe reconstruction
other Avar, AvheneA er demagogues please, possible. I do not belieA T e that the cabinet
I belieA-e the policy of reconstruction is intend it. True, I should care little if
impossible. If it were possible, it Avould they did, since I belieA e the administration
be the greatest mistake that Northern can IIOAV more resist the progress of
men could commit. I Avill not stop to events than a spear of grass can retard
remind you that, standing as Ave do to- the step of an avalanche. But if they
day, with the full constitutional right to , do, alloAV me to say, for one, that every
abolish slavery a right Southern trea- dollar spent in this war is worse than
son has just given us a right, the use wasted, that eA ery life lost is a public
of which is enjoined by the sternest neces- * murder, and that eA ery statesman Avho
sity if after that, the North goes back leads States back to reconstruction will
to the Constitution of 89, she assumes, a be damned to an infamy compared with
second time, afresh, unnecessarily, a crira- which Arnold was a saint, and James
inal responsibility for slavery. Hereafter Buchanan a public benefactor. I said re-
no old excuse Avill avail us. A second construction is not possible. I do not
time Avith open eyes, against our honest in- belieA r e it is, for this reason; the moment
terests AA-e clasp bloody hands Avith tyrants these States begin to appear victorious,
to uphold an acknoAvledged sin, whose evil the moment our armies do anything that
we have fully proved. evinces final success, the Avily statesman-

Reconstruction is but another name for ship and unconquerable hate of the South
the submission of tha North. It is her AA T ill Avrite "Emancipation" on her ban-
subjugation under a mask. It is nothing ner, and welcome the protectorate of a
but the confession of defeat. Every mer- European poAver. And if you read the
chant, in such a case, puts everything he European papers of to-day, you need not
has at the bidding of Wigfall and Toombs doubt that she Avill have it. ...
in every cross-road bar-room at the South. The value of the English neAvs this
For, you see, never till noAV did anybody Aveek is the indication of the nation s
but a feAV abolitionists believe that this mind. No one doubts noAV that should the
nation could be marshalled, one section South emancipate, England AA ould make
against the other, in arms. But the secret haste to recognize and help her. In
is out. The Aveak point is discovered, Why ordinary times, the government and
does the London press lecture us like a aristocracy of England dread American
school-master his seven-year-old boy? Why example. They may Avell admire and envy
does England use a tone such as she has the strength of our government, Avhen,
not used for half a century to any poAver? instead of England s impressment and
Because she knows us as she knoAvs Mexico, pinched levies, patriotism marshals 600,-
as all Europe knoAvs Austria that we 000 A olunteers in six months. The Eng-
have the cancer concealed in our very lish merchant is jealous of our groAvth;
vitals. Slavery, left where it is, after only the liberal middle classes sympathize
having created such a war as this, AA ould Avith us. When the tAvo other classes
leave our commerce and all our foreign are divided, this middle class rules. But
relations at the mercy of any Keitt, Wig- HOAV Herod and Pilate are agreed. The
fall, Wise, or Toombs. Any demagogue has aristocrat, Avho usually despises a trader,
only to stir up a pro-slavery crusade, Avhether of Manchester or Liverpool, as
point back to the safe experiments of the South does a negro, now is secession-
1861; and lash the passions of the ist from sympathy, as the trader is from
aristocrat, to coA er the sea with privateers, interest. Such a union no middle class
put in jeopardy the trade of tAventy States, can checkmate. The only danger of war
plunge the country into millions of debt, with England is, that, as soon as England

191

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

declared war with us, she would recognize the government announcing a policy in
the Southern Confederacy immediately, South Carolina. What is it? Well, Mr.
just as she stands, slavery and all, as a Secretary Cameron says to the general
military measure. As such, in the heat of in command there: "You are to welcome
passion, in the smoke of war, the English into your camp all comers; you are to
people, all of them, would allow such a organize them into squads and companies;
recognition even of a slave-holding empire, use them any way you please but there
War with England insures disunion, is to be no general arming." That is a
When England declares war, she gives very significant exception. The hint is
slavery a fresh lease of fifty years. Even broad enough for the dullest brain. In
if we had no war with England, let an- one of Charles Reade s novels, the heroine
other eight or ten months be as little sue- flies away to hide from the hero, an-
cessful as the last, and Europe will nouncing that she never will see him again,
acknowledge the Southern Confederacy, Her letter says: "I will never see you
slavery, and all, as a matter of course, again, David. You, of course, won t come
Further, any approach towards victory on to see me at my old nurse s little cottage,
our part, without freeing the slave, gives between eleven in the morning and four
him free to Davis. So far, the South is in the afternoon, because I sha n t see
sure to succeed, either by victory or de- you." So Mr. Cameron says there is to
feat, unless we anticipate her. Indeed, be no general arming. But I suppose there
the only way, the only sure way, to break ia to be a very particular arming. But he
this Union, is to try to save it by pro- goes on to add: "This is no greater in-
tecting slavery. " Every moment lost," as terference with the institutions of South
Napoleon said, " is an opportunity for mis- Carolina than is necessary, than the war
fortune." Unless we emancipate the slave, will cure." Does he mean he will give
we shall never conquer the South without the slaves back after the war is over? I
her trying emancipation. Every South- don t know. All I know is, that the Port
erner, from Toombs up to Fremont, has Royal expedition proved one thing it laid
acknowledged it. Do you suppose that forever that ghost of an argument, that
Davis and Beauregard, and the rest, meant the blacks loved their masters it set-
to be exiles, wandering contemned in every tied forever the qiiestion whether the
great city in Europe, in order that they blacks were with us or the South. My
may maintain slavery and the Constitution opinion is that the blacks are the key of
of 89? They, like ourselves, will throw our position. He that gets them wins,
everything overboard before they will sub- and he that loses them goes to the wall.
mit to defeat defeat from Yankees. I Port Royal settled one thing the blacks
do not believe, therefore, that reconcilia- are with us and not with the South. At
tion is possible, nor do I believe that the present they are the only Unionists. I
cabinet have any such hopes. Indeed, I know nothing more touching in history,
do not know where you will find the evi- nothing that art will immortalize and
dence of any purpose in the administration poets dwell upon more fondly I know
at Washington. If we look to the West, no tribxite to the stars and stripes more
if we look to the Potomac, what is the impressive than that incident of the blacks
policy? If, on the Potomac, with the aid coming to the water-side with their little
of twenty governors, you assemble an army bundles, in that simple faith which had
and do nothing but return fugitive slaves, endured through the long night of so
that proves you competent and efficient, many bitter years. They preferred to be
If, on the banks of the Mississippi, un- shot rather than driven from the sight
aided, the magic of your presence summons of that banner they had so long prayed
an army into existence, and you drive to see. And if that was the result when
your enemy before you a hundred miles nothing but General Sherman s equivocal
farther than your second in command proclamation was landed on the Caro-
thought it possible for you to advance, linas, what should we have seen if there
that proves you incompetent, and entitles had been 18,000 veterans with Fremont,
your second in command to succeed you. the statesman-soldier of this war, at their
Looking in another direction, you see head, and over them the stars and stripes,

192

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

gorgeous with the motto, " Freedom for
all, freedom forever !" If that had gone be
fore them, in my opinion they would have
marched across the Carolinas and joined
Brownlow in east Tennessee. The bul
wark on each side of them would have been
100,000 grateful blacks; they would have
cut this rebellion in halves, and while
our fleets fired salutes across New Orleans,
Beauregard would have been ground to
powder between the upper millstone of Mc-
Clellan and the lower of a quarter-million
of blacks rising to greet the stars and
stripes. McClellan may drill a better army
more perfect soldiers. He will never
marshal a stronger force than those grate
ful thousands. . . .

When Congress declares war, says John
Quincy Adams, Congress has all the power
incident to carrying on war. It is not
an unconstitutional power it is a power
conferred by the Constitution; but the
moment it comes into play it rises be
yond the limit of constitutional checks.
I know it is a grave power, this trusting
the government with despotism. But
what is the use of government, except
just to help us in critical times? All
the checks and ingenuity of our institu
tions are arranged to secure for us men
wise and able enough to be trusted with
grave powers bold enough to use them
when the times require. Lancets and
knives are dangerous instruments. The
use of the surgeon is, that when lancets
are needed somebody may know how to
use them, and save life. One great merit
of democratic institutions is, that, rest
ing as they must on educated masses,
the government may safely be trusted in
a great emergency, with despotic power,
without fear of harm or of wrecking the
State. No other form of government can
venture such confidence without risk of
national ruin. Doubtless the war power
is a very grave power; so are some or
dinary peace powers. I will not cite ex
treme cases Louisiana and Texas. We
obtained the first by treaty, the second
by joint resolutions; each case an exercise
of power as grave and despotic as the
abolition of slavery would be, and unlike
that, plainly unconstitutional one which
nothing but stern necessity and subsequent
acquiescence by the nation could make
valid. Let me remind you that seventy

years practice has incorporated it as a
principle in our constitutional law, that
what the necessity of the hour demands,
and the continued assent of the people
ratifies, is law. Slavery has established
that rule. We might surely use it in the
cause of justice. But I will cite an un
questionable precedent. It was a grave
power, in 1807, in time of peace, when
Congress abolished commerce; when, by
the embargo of Jefferson, no ship could
quit New York or Boston, and Congress
set no limit to the prohibition. It an
nihilated commerce. New England asked,
" Is it constitutional ?" The Supreme
Court said, " Yes." New England sat
down and starved. Her wharfs were
worthless, her ships rotted, her merchants
beggared. She asked no compensation.
The powers of Congress carried bank
ruptcy from New Haven to Portland; but
the Supreme Court said, " It is legal,"
and New England bowed her head. We
commend the same cup to the Carolinas
to-day. We say to them that, in order
to save the government, there resides
somewhere despotism. It is in the war
powers of Congress. That despotism can
change the social arrangement of the
Southern States, and has a right to do it.

Now, this government, which abolishes
my right of habeas corpus which strikes
down, because it is necessary, every Sax
on bulwark of liberty which proclaims
martial law, and holds every dollar and
every man at the will of the cabinet do
you turn round and tell me that this
same government has no rightful power
to break the cobweb it is but a cobweb
which binds a slave to his master to
stretch its hands across the Potomac and
root up the evil which for seventy years
has troubled its peace and now culminates ,
in rebellion? I maintain, therefore, the
power of the government itself to inau
gurate such a policy; and I say in order
to save the Union, do justice to the black.

I would claim of Congress in the
exact language of Adams, of the " govern
ment " a solemn act abolishing slavery
throughout the Union, securing compen
sation to the loyal slave-holders. As the
Constitution forbids the States to make
and allow nobles, I would now, by equal
authority, forbid them to make slaves
or allow slave-holders.

VII. N

193

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

People may say this is a strange Ian- erations have been given for this purpose,
guage for me a disunionist. Well, I was To break up that Union now is to de-
a disunionist, sincerely, for twenty years; fraud us of mutual advantages relating
I did hate the Union, when Union meant to peace, trade, national security, which
lies in the pulpit and mobs in the streets, cannot survive disunion. The right of
when Union meant making white men disunion is not matter of caprice. " Gov-
hypocrites and black men slaves. I did ernments long established," says our
prefer purity to peace I acknowledge it. Declaration of Independence, " are not to
The child of six generations of Puritans, be changed for light and transient causes."
knowing well the value of Union, I did When so many important interests and
prefer disunion to being the accomplice of benefits, in their nature indivisible and
tyrants. But now, when I see what the which disunion destroys, have been secured
Union must mean in order to last, when by common toils and cost, the South must
I see that you cannot have Union with- vindicate her revolution by showing that
out meaning justice, and when I see our government has become destructive
20,000,000 of people, with a current of its proper ends, else the right of revo-
as swift and as inevitable as Niagara, lution does not exist. Why did we steal
determined that this Union shall mean Texas? Why have we helped the South
justice, why should I object to it? I en- to strengthen herself? Because she said
deavored honestly, and am not ashamed that slavery within the girdle of the Con-
of it, to take nineteen States out of this stitution would die out through the in-
Union, and consecrate them to liberty, fluence of natural principles. She said:
and 20,000,000 of people answer me " We acknowledge it to be an evil ; but
back, " We like your motto, only we mean at the same time it will end by the spread
to keep thirty-four States under it." Do of free principles and the influence of
you suppose I am not Yankee enough to free institutions." And the North said:
buy Union when I can have it at a fair "Yes; we will give you privileges on that
price? I know the value of Union; and account, and we will return your slaves
"the reason why I claim that Carolina has for you." Every slave sent back from a
no right to secede is this: we are not a Northern State is a fresh oath of the
partnership, we are a marriage, and we South that she would secede. Our fathers
have done a great many things since we trusted to the promise that this race
were married in 1789, which render it un- should be left under the influence of the
just for a State to exercise the right of Union, until, in the maturity of time,
revolution on any ground now alleged, the day should arrive when they would
I admit the right. I acknowledge the be lifted into the sunlight of God s
great principles of the Declaration of equality. I claim it of South Carolina.
Independence, that a State exists for the By virtue of that pledge she took Boston
liberty and happiness of the people, that and put a rope round her neck in that
these are the ends of government, and infamous compromise which consigned to
that, when government ceases to promote slavery Anthony Burns. I demand the
those ends, the people have a right to fulfilment on her part even of that in-
remodel their institutions. I acknowledge famous pledge. Until South Carolina
the right of revolution in South Carolina, allows me all the influence that 19,-
but at the same time I acknowledge that 000,000 of Yankee lips, asking infinite
right of revolution only when govern- questions, have upon the welfare of those
ment has ceased to promote those ends. 4,000,000 of bondsmen, I deny her right
Now, we have been married for seventy to secede. Seventy years has the Union
years. We have bought Florida. We postponed the negro. For seventy years
rounded the Union to the Gulf. We has he been beguiled with the prom-
bought the Mississippi for commercial ise, as she erected one bulwark after
purposes. We stole Texas for slave pur- another around slavery, that he should
poses. Great commercial interests, great have the influence of our common in-
interests of peace, have been subserved by stitutions.

rounding the Union into a perfect shape; I know how we stand to-day, with the

and the money and sacrifices of two gen- frowning cannon of the English fleet

194

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

ready to be thrust out of the port-holes
against us. But I can answer England
with a better answer than William H. Sew-
ard can write. I can answer her with
a more statesmanlike paper than Simon
Cameron can indite. I would answer her
with the stars and stripes floating over
Charleston and New Orleans, and the itin
erant cabinet of Richmond packing up
archives and wearing apparel to ride back
to Montgomery. There is one thing and
only one, which John Bull respects, and
that is success. It is not for us to give
counsel to the government on points of
diplomatic propriety, but I suppose we
may express our opinions, and my opin
ion is, that, if I were the President of
these thirty-four States, while I was, I
should want Mason and Slidell to sta-y
with me. I say, then, first, as a matter
of justice to the slave, we owe it to him ;
the day of his deliverance has come. The
long promise of seventy years is to be ful
filled. The South draws back from the
pledge. The North is bound in honor of
the memory of her fathers, to demand its
exact fulfilment, and in order to save this
Union, which now means justice and peace,
to recognize the rights of 4,000,000 of its
victims. And if I dared to descend to a
lower level, I should say to the merchants
of this metropolis, Demand of the govern
ment a speedy settlement of this question.
Every hour of delay is big with risk. Re
member, as Governor Boutwell suggests,
that our present financial prosperity comes
because we have corn to export in place of
cotton, and that another year, should
Europe have a good harvest and we an
ordinary one, while an inflated currency
tempts extravagance and large imports,
general bankruptcy stares us in the face.
Do you love the Union? Do you really
think that on the other side of the Po
tomac are the natural brothers and cus
tomers of the manufacturing ingenuity
of the North? I tell you, certain as fate,
God has written the safety of that rela
tion in the same scroll with justice to the
negro. The hour strikes. You may win
him to your side; you may anticipate the
South; you may save 12,000,000 of cus
tomers. Delay it, let God grant McClel-
lan victory, let God grant the stars and
stripes over New Orleans, and it is too
late.

195

It is not power that we should lose, but
it is character. How should we stand
when Jeff Davis has turned that corner
upon us abolished slavery, won European
sympathy, and established his Confeder
acy? Bankrupt in character outwitted
in statesmanship. Our record would be,
as we entered the sisterhood of nations
" Longed and struggled and begged to be
admitted into the partnership of tyrants,
and they were kicked out!" And the
South would spring into the same arena,
bearing on her brow " She flung away
what she thought gainful and honest, in
order to gain her independence!" A rec
ord better than the gold of California or
all the brains of the Yankee.

Righteousness is preservation. You
who are not abolitionists do not come to
this question as I did from an interest
in these 4,000,000 of black men. I came
on this platform from sympathy with the
negro. I acknowledge it. You come to
this question from an idolatrous regard
for the Constitution of 89. But here we
stand. On the other side of the ocean is
England, holding out, not I think a threat
of war I do not fear it but holding out
to the South the intimation of a. willing
ness, if she will but change her garments,
and make herself decent, to take her in
charge, and give her assistance and pro
tection. There stands England, the most
selfish and treacherous of modern govern
ments. On the other side of the Potomac
stands a statesmanship, urged by personal
and selfish interests, which cannot be
matched, and between them they have
but one object it is in the end to divide
the Union.

I do not forget the white man, the
8,000,000 of poor whites, thinking them
selves our enemies, but who are really
our friends. Their interests are identi
cal with our own. An Alabama slave
holder, sitting with me a year or two
ago, said : " In our northern counties they
are your friends. A man owns one slave
or two slaves, and he eats with them, and
sleeps in the same room (they have but
one), much as a hired man here eats
with the farmer he serves. There is no dif
ference. They are too poor to send their
sons north for education. They have no
newspapers, and they know nothing but
what they are told by us. If you could

PHILLIPS, WENDELL

get at them, they would be on your side,
but we mean you never shall."

In Paris there are 100,000 men whom
caricature or epigram can at any time
raise to barricade the streets. Whose
fault is it that such men exist? The gov
ernment s ; and the government under
which such a mass of ignorance exists de
serves to be barricaded. The government
under which 8,000,000 of people exist, so
ignorant that 2,000 politicians and 100,-

000 aristocrats can pervert them into
rebellion, deserves to be rebelled against.
In the service of those men I mean, for
one, to try to fulfil the pledge my
fathers made when they said, " We will
guarantee to every State a republican
form of government." A privileged class,
grown strong by the help and forbearance
of the North, plots the establishment of
aristocratic government in form as well
as essence conspires to rob the non-
slave-holders of their civil rights. This is
just the danger our national pledge was
meant to meet. Our fathers honor, na
tional good faith, the cause of free institu
tions, the peace of the continent, bid us
fulfil this pledge insist on using the right
it gives us to preserve the Union.

I mean to fulfil the pledge that free in
stitutions shall be preserved in the several
States, and I demand it of the government.

1 woxild have them, therefore, announce to
the world what they have never yet done.
I do not wonder at the want of sympathy
on the part of England with us. The
South says, " I am fighting for slavery."
The North says " I am not fighting against
it." Why should England interfere? The
people have nothing on which to hang their
sympathy.

I would have government announce to
the world that we understand the evil
which has troubled our peace for seventy
years, thwarting the natural tendency of
our institutions, sending ruin along our
wharves and through our workshops every
ten years, poisoning the national con
science. We well know its character. But
democracy, unlike other governments, is
strong enough to let evils work out their
own death strong enough to face them
when they reveal their proportions. It
was in this sublime consciousness of
strength, not of weakness, that our fathers
submitted to the well-known evil of

slavery, and tolerated, until the viper we
thought we could safely tread on, at the
touch of disappointment starts up a fiend
whose stature reaches the sky. But our
cheeks do not blanch. Democracy ac
cepts the struggle. After this forbearance
of three generations, confident that she
has yet power to execute her will, she
sends her proclamation down to the Gulf
freedom to every man beneath the stars,
and death to every institution that dis
turbs our peace or threatens the future
of the republic.

The following is an extract from his
oration on Garrison:

196

His was an earnestness that would
take no denial, that consumed opposition
in the intensity of its convictions, that
knew nothing but right. As friend after
friend gathered slowly, one by one, to
his side, in that very meeting of a dozen
heroic men to form the New England
Anti slavery Society, it was his com
pelling hand, his resolute unwillingness to
temper or qualify the utterance, that
finally dedicated that first organized
movement to the doctrine of immediate
emancipation. He seems to have under
stood this boy without experience he
seems to have understood by instinct that
righteousness is the only thing which will
finally compel submission; that one, with
God, is always a majority. He seems to
have known it at the very outset, taught
of God, the herald and champion, God-
endowed and God-sent to arouse a nation,
that only by the most absolute asser
tion of the uttermost truth, without
qualification or compromise, can a nation
be waked to conscience or strengthened
for duty. No man ever understood so
thoroughly not O Connell nor Cobden
the nature and needs of that agitation
which alone, in our day, reforms states.
In the darkest hour he never doubted the
omnipotence of conscience and the moral
sentiment.

And then look at the unquailing cour
age with which he faced the successive-
obstacles that confronted him! Modest,,
believing at the outset that America
could not be as corrupt as she seemed, he
waits at the door of the churches, im
portunes leading clergymen, begs for a
voice from the sanctuary, a consecrated

PHIPPS PICKENS

protest from the pulpit. To his utter treasure to the amount of about $1,400,-
amazement, he learns, by thus probing it, 000, of which his share amounted to about
that the Church will give him no help, $75,000. The King knighted him, and he
but, on the contrary, surges into the was appointed high sheriff of New Eng-
niovement in opposition. Serene, though land. In 1690, in command of a fleet, he
astounded by the unexpected revelation, captured Port Royal (Acadia), and late
he simply turns his footsteps, and an- in the same year he led an unsuccessful
nounces that " a Christianity which keeps expedition against Quebec. Phipps went
peace with the oppressor is no Christi- to England in 1692 to solicit another ex-
anity," and goes on his way to supplant pedition against Canada. There he was
the religious element which the Church appointed captain-general and governor
had allied with sin by a deeper religious of Massachusetts under a new royal char-
faith. Yes, he sets himself to work ter, just issued, and he returned in May
this stripling with his sling confronting of that year, bringing the charter with
the angry giant in complete steel, this him. In 1694 he was summoned to Eng-
solitary evangelist to make Christians land to answer charges preferred against
of 20,000,000 of people! I am not exag- him, and there he died of a malignant
gerating. You know, older men, who fever, Feb. 18, 1695. Sir William was a
can go back to that period; I know that member of the congregation over which
when one, kindred to a voice that you Cotton Mather preached. He was dull of
have heard to-day, whose pathway Gar- intellect, rudely educated, egotistical,
rison s bloody feet had made easier for superstitious, headstrong, and patriotic,
the treading, when he uttered in a pulpit but totally unfitted for statesmanship or
in Boston only a few strong words, in- to be a leader in civil or military affairs,
jected in the course of a sermon, his Pickens, ANDREW, military officer ; born
venerable father, between seventy and in Paxton, Bucks co., Pa., Sept. 19, 1739.
eighty years, was met the next morning His parents, who were of Huguenot de-
and his hand shaken by a much-moved scent, went to South Carolina in 1752.
friend. " Colonel, you have my sym
pathy. I cannot tell you how much I
pity you." " What," said the brusque
old man, "what is your pity?" "Well,
I hear your son went crazy at Church
Green yesterday." Such was the utter
indifference. At that time bloody feet had
smoothed the pathway for other men to
tread. Still, then and for years after-
w;irds, insanity was the only kind-hearted
excuse that partial friends could find for
sympathy with such a madman!

Phipps, SIR WILLIAM, royal governor;
born in Pemaquid (now Bristol), Me.,
Feb. 2, 1631; was one of twenty-six
children by the same father and mother,
twenty-one of whom were sons. Nurtured
in comparative poverty in childhood and
youth, he was at first a shepherd-boy, and
at eighteen years of age became an ap
prentice to a ship-carpenter. He went to
Boston in 1673, where he learned to read
and write. In 1684 he went to England
to procure means to recover a treasure- Andrew served in the Cherokee War in
ship wrecked near the Bahamas. With a 1761, and at the beginning of the Rev-
ship furnished by the government, he was olutionary War was made a captain of
unsuccessful ; but with another furnished militia and soon rose to the rank of briga-
bv the Duke of Albemarle, he recovered dier-general. He, with Marion and Sum-

197

JlNDRKW P1CKEXS.

PICKENS

ter, by their zeal and boldness, kept alive
the spirit of resistance in the South when
Cornwallis overran South Carolina. He
performed excellent service in the field
during the war, and for his conduct at the
battle of the Cowpens Congress voted him
a sword. He led the Carolina militia in
the battle of Eutaw Springs, and, in 1782,
a successful expedition against the Chero-
kees. From the close of the war till 1793
he was in the South Carolina legislature,
and was in Congress from 1793 to 1795.
In the latter year he was made major-gen
eral of militia, and was in the legislature
from 1801 to 1812. A treaty made by him
with the Cherokees obtained from the lat
ter the region of South Carolina now
known as Pendleton and Greenville dis
tricts, and he settled in the former dis
trict, where he died Aug. 17, 1817.

Pickens, FRANCIS WILKINSON, diplo
matist; born in St. Paul s parish, S. C.,
April 1, 1805; became a lawyer, and was

FRANCIS WILKINSON PICKKNS.

a distinguished debater in the South Caro
lina legislature during the nullification
excitement. He spoke and wrote much
against the claim that Congress might
abolish slavery in the District of Colum
bia. He was minister to Russia ( 1857-
60) ; and when South Carolina declared its
secession from the Union, he was elected
the first governor, or president, of that
" sovereign nation." He held the office un
til 1862. Governor Pickens was a suc
cessful planter, of great wealth, and was
popular in his State as a speaker before

colleges and literary institutions. He died
in Edgefield, S. C., Jan. 25, 1869.

Pickens, FORT, a defensive work on
Santa Rosa Island, commanding the en
trance to the harbor of Pensacola Bay.
At the beginning of the Civil War, nearly
opposite, but a little farther seaward, on a
low sand-pit, was Fort McRae. Across
from Fort Pickens, on the main, was Fort
Barrancas, built by the Spaniards, and
taken from them by General Jackson.
Nearly a mile eastward of the Barrancas
was the navy-yard, then in command of
Commodore Armstrong. Before the Flori
da ordinance of secession was passed
(Jan. 10, 1861) the governor (Perry)
made secret preparations with the govern
or of Alabama to seize all the national
property within the domain of Florida
namely, Fort Jefferson, at the Garden
Key, Tortugas; Fort Taylor, at Key West;
Forts Pickens, McRae, and Barrancas, and
the navy-yard near Pensacola. Early in
January the commander of Fort Pickens
(Lieut. Adam J. Slemmer), a brave Penn-
sylvanian, heard rumors that the fort
was to be attacked, and he took immediate
measures to save it and the other forts
near. He called on Commodore Arm
strong (Jan. 7) and asked his co-opera
tion, but having no special order to do so,
he declined. On the 9th Slemmer received
instructions from his government to use
all diligence for the protection of the forts,
and Armstrong was ordered to co-operate
with Slemmer. It was feared that the
small garrison could not hold more than
one fort, and it was resolved that it should
be Pickens. It was arranged for Arm
strong to send the little garrison at
the Barrancas on a vessel to Fort
Pickens. Armstrong failed to do his
part, but Slemmer, with great exertions,
had the troops of Barrancas carried over
to Pickens, with their families and much
of the ammunition. The guns bearing
upon Pensaeola Bay at the Barrancas were
spiked; but the arrangement for the ves
sels of war Wyandotte and Supply to an
chor near Fort Pickens was not carried out.
To Slemmer s astonishment, these vessels
were ordered away to carry coal and stores
to the home squadron on the Mexican
coast. On the 10th the navy-yard near
Pensacola was surrendered to Florida and
Alabama troops, and these prepared to

198

PICKENS, FORT

bring guns to bear upon Pickens and Fort a new line of policy was adopted. The

Barrancas. Slemmer was now left to his government resolved to reinforce with

own resources. His was the strongest fort in men and supplies both Sumter and Pick-

the Gulf, but his garrison consisted of only ens. Between April 6 and 9 the steamers

eighty-one officers and men. These labored A tlantic and Illinois and the United

unceasingly to put everything in working States steam frigate Powhatan left New

FORTS PICKENS AND McRAE.

order. Among the workers were the he- York for Fort Pickens with troops and
roic wives of Lieutenants Slemmer and supplies. LIEUT. JOHN L. WORDEN (q. v.)
Gilmore, refined and cultivated women, was sent by land with an order to Cap-
whose labors at this crisis form a part of tain Adams, of the Sabine, then in com-
the history of Fort Pickens. On the 12th mand of a little squadron off Port Pickens,
Captain Randolph, Major Marks, and to throw reinforcements into that work
Lieutenant Rutledge appeared, and, in the at once. Braxton Bragg was then in corn-
name of the governor of Florida, demand- mand of all the Confederate forces in the
ed a peaceable surrender of the fort. It vicinity, with the commission of briga-
was refused. " I recognize no right of any dier-general ; and Captain Ingraham, late
governor to demand the surrender of Unit- of the United States navy, was in corn
ed States property," said Slemmer. On mand of the navy-yard near Pensacola.
the 15th Col. William H. Chase, a native Bragg had arranged with a sergeant of
of Massachusetts, in command of all the the garrison to betray the fort on the
insurgent troops in Florida., accompanied night of April 11, for which service he
by Farrand, of the navy-yard near Pensa- was to be rewarded with a large sum of
cola, appeared, and, in friendly terms, money and a commission in the Con-
begged Slemmer to surrender, and not be federate army. He had seduced a few of
" guilty of allowing fraternal blood to his companions into complicity in his
flow." On the 18th Chase demanded the scheme. A company of 1,000 Confederates
surrender of the fort, and it was refused, were to cross over in a steamboat and
Then began the siege. escalade the fort when the sergeant and
When President Lincoln s administra- his companions would be on guard. The
tion came into power (March 4, 1861) plot was revealed to Slemmer by a loyal

199

PICKENS PICKERING

man in the Confederate camp named
Richard Wilcox, and the catastrophe was
averted by the timely reinforcement of the
fort by marines and artillerymen under
Captain Vogdes. A few days afterwards
the Atlantic and Illinois arrived with sev
eral hundred troops under the command
of Col. Henry Brown, with ample supplies
of food and munitions of war; and Lieu
tenant Slemmer and his almost exhausted
little garrison were sent to Fort Hamil
ton, New York, to rest. By May 1 there
was a formidable force of insurgents
menacing Fort Pickens, numbering nearly
7,000, arranged in three divisions. The
first, on the right, was composed of Missis-
sippians, under Col. J. R. Chalmers; the
second was composed of Alabamians and a
Georgia regiment, under Colonel Clayton;
and the third was made up of Louisian-
ians, Georgians, and a Florida regiment
the whole commanded by Colonel Gladdin.
There were also 500 troops at Pensacola,
and General Bragg was commander-in-
chief. Reinforcements continued to be
sent to Fort Pickens, and in June Wilson s
/ ouaves, from New York, were encamped
on Santa Rosa Island, on which Fort

MAP OP PKNSACOLA BAY.

Pickens stands. During the ensuing sum
mer nothing of great importance occurred
in connection with Fort Pickens, and
other efforts afterwards made by the Con=
federates to capture it failed.

Pickering, TIMOTHY, statesman; born
in Salem, Mass., July 17, 1745; graduated
at Harvard College in 1763; and admit
ted to the bar in 1768. He was the leader

TIMOTHY PICKERING.

of the Essex Whigs in the controversy pre
ceding the Revolutionary War; was on
the committee of correspondence; and
wrote and delivered the address of the
people of Salem to Governor Gage, on the
occasion of the Boston port bill in 1774.
The first armed resistance to British
troops was by Pickering, as colonel of
militia, in February, 1775, at a draw
bridge at Salem, where the soldiers were
trying to seize military stores. He was a
judge in 1775, and in the fall of 1776
joined Washington, in New Jersey, with
his regiment of 700 men. In May, 1777,
he was made adjutant-general of the army,
and after he had participated in the
battles of Brandywine and Germantown,
he was appointed a member of the board
of war. He succeeded Greene as quarter
master-general in August, 1780, and after
the war resided in Philadelphia. In 1786
he was sent to the Wyoming settlement,
to adjust difficulties there (see SUSQTJE-
HANNA COMPANY; PENNYMITE AND
YANKEE WAR), where he was personally
i\ bused, imprisoned, and put. in jeopardy
of his life. He was an earnest advocate
of the national Constitution, and suc
ceeded Osgood as United States Postmas
ter-General. In 1794-95 he was Secretary
of War and from 1795 to 1800 Secretary
of State. Pickering left office poor, and

200

PICKETT PIEDMONT

settling on some wild land in Pennsyl- the National army June 25, 1861; and was
vania, lived there with his family, in a appointed a colonel of Virginia State
log hut; but the liberality of friends en- troops. He was promoted brigadier-gen-
abled him to return to Salem in 1801. eral under Longstreet in 1862, and soon
He was made chief judge of the Essex afterwards major-general. He became
county court of common pleas in 1802; famous by leading the charge, named after
was United States Senator from 1803 to him, in the battle of Gettysburg, July 3,
1811; and then was made a member of the 1863. On that day he carried a hill and
council. During the War of 1812-15 he entered the lines of the National troops,
was a member of the Massachusetts board Though his command was nearly anni-
of war, and from 1815 to 1817 of Con- hilated, his feat is considered the most
gress. He died in Salem, Mass., Jan. 29, brilliant one in the history of the Confed-
1829. erate army. In May, 1864, when General

Pickett, ALBERT JAMES, historian; born Butler tried to take Petersburg, that city
in Anson county, N. C., Aug. 13, 1810; was saved by Pickett s brave defence. He
settled with his parents in Autauga died in Norfolk, Va., July 30, 1875. See
county, Ala., in 1818; devoted his time GETTYSBURG, BATTLE OF.
mainly to literature; and participated Pico, Pio, governor; born in Los Ange-
in the Creek War in 1836. He published les, Cal., May 5, 1801; appointed governor
a History of Alabama (2 volumes), of Northern and Southern California in
He died in Montgomery, Ala., Oct. 28, 1832, and reappointed in 1846. At this
1858. time the United States was at war with

Pickett, GEORGE EDWARD, military offi- Mexico, and Pio Pico had instituted a
cer; born in Richmond, Va., Jan. 25. revolution against Mexico in connection
1825 ; graduated at the United States with his brothers, Jesus and Andres. Fr&lt;5-
Military Academy in 1846; distinguished mont advanced from Northern California

and captured Gen. Jesus Pico, who was
paroled. While under parole he took part
in an insurrection, was discovered, and
he was condemned to death, but, at the
solicitation of his mother and wife, was
pardoned by Fremont. This action on
the part of Fremont converted the Picos
to the American cause. Pio Pico was
the last Mexican governor of Califor
nia. He died in Los Angeles, Sept. 11,
1894.

Pidansat de Mairobert, MATHIEU
FRANCOIS, author; born in Chaource.
France, Feb. 20, 1727; began his literary
career at an early age. His publications
relating to the United States include Let
ters on the True Boundaries of the Eng
lish and French Possessions in America;
Some Discussions on the Ancient Boun
daries of Acadia; English Observations,
etc. He died in Paris, France, March 29,
1779.

Piedmont, BATTLE AT. General Hunt
er, with 9,000 men, advanced on Staunton,
Va., early in June, 1864. At Piedmont,
not far from Staunton, he encountered
(June 5) an equal force of Confeder-

himself in the Mexican War, taking part ates, under Generals Jones and Mc-
in most of the important actions; was Causland. An obstinate and hard-fought
promoted captain in 1855; resigned from battle ensued, which ended with the day,

201

PIEGAN INDIANS PIERCE

and resulted in the complete defeat of prisoners. The spoils of victory were
the Confederates. Their leader, General battle-flags, three guns, and 3,000 small-
Jones, was killed by a shot through the arms,
head, and 1,500 Confederates were made Piegan Indians. See BLACKFEET.

PIERCE, FRANKLIN

Pierce, FRANKLIN, fourteenth President The act to organize the Territories of

of the United States, from 1853 to 1857; Nebraska and Kansas was a manifesta-

Democrat; born in Hillsboro, N. H., Nov. tion of the legislative opinion of Congress

23, 1804; graduated at Bowdoin College on two great points of constitutional con-
in 1824; became a lawyer; was admitted struction: One, that the designation of the
to the bar in 1827, and made his perma- boundaries of a new Territory and provi-
nent residence at Concord in 1838. He sion for its political organization and ad-
was in Congress from 1833 to 1837; ministration as a Territory are measures
United States Senator from 1837 to 1842; which of right fall within the powers of
served first as colonel of United States the general government; and the other,
Infantry in the war against Mexico, and that the inhabitants of any such Territory,
as brigadier-general, under Scott, in 1847, considered as an inchoate State, are en-
leading a large reinforcement for that titled, in the exercise of self-government,
general s army on its march for the Mexi- to determine for themselves what shall be
can capital. In June, 1852, the Demo- their own domestic institutions, subject
cratic Convention nominated him for only to the Constitution and the laws duly
President of the United States, and he enacted by Congress under it, and to the
was elected in November (see CABINET, power of the existing States to decide ac-
PRESIDENT S) . President Pierce favored cording to the provisions and principles
the pro-slavery party in Kansas, and in of the Constitution, at what time the Ter-
January, 1856, in a message to Congress, ritory shall be received as a State into
he denounced the formation of a free-State the Union. Such are the great political
government in Kansas as an act of rebel- rights which are solemnly declared and
lion. During the Civil War ex-President affirmed by that act.

Pierce was in full sympathy with the Based upon this theory, the act of Con-
Confederate leaders. He died in Concord, gress defined for each Territory the outlines
N. H., Oct. 8, 1869. of republican government, distributing
Special Message on Kansas. On Jan. public authority among lawfully created

24, 1856, President Pierce sent the fol- agents executive, judicial, and legisla-
lowing message to the Congress on the af- tive to be appointed either by the general
fairs in Kansas: government or by the Territory. The leg
islative functions were intrusted to a

WASHINGTON, Jan. 24, 1856. council and a House of Representatives,
To the Senate and House of Representa- duly elected, and empowered to enact all
tives, Circumstances have occurred to the local laws which they might deem
disturb the course of governmental or- essential to their prosperity, happiness,
ga.nization in the Territory of Kansas, and and good government. Acting in the same
produce there a condition of things which spirit, Congress also defined the persons
renders it incumbent on me to call your who were in the first instance to be con-
attention to the subject and urgently to sidered as the people of each Territory,
recommend the adoption by you of such enacting that every free white male in-
measures of legislation as the grave exi- habitant of the same above the age of
gencies of the case appear to require. twenty-one years, being an actiial resident
A brief exposition of the circumstances thereof and possessing the qualifications
referred to and of their causes will be nee- hereafter described, should be entitled to
essary to the full understanding of the vote at the first election, and be eligible
recommendations which it is proposed to to any office within the Territory, but that
submit. the qualification of voters and holding

202

PIERCE, FRANKLIN

office at all subsequent elections should be
such as might be prescribed by the legisla
tive Assembly; provided, however, that the
right of suffrage and of holding office
should be exercised only by citizens of the
United States and those who should have
declared on oath their intention to become
such, and have taken an oath to support
the Constitution of the United States and
the provisions of the act; and provided
further, that no officer, soldier, seaman, or
marine, or other person in the army or
navy of the United States, or attached
troops in their service, should be allowed
to vote or hold office in either Territory by
reason of being on service therein.

Such of the public officers of the Terri
tories as by the provisions of the act were
to be appointed by the general government,
including the governors, were appointed
and commissioned in due season, the law
having been enacted on May 30, 1854,
and the commission of the governor of the
Territory of Nebraska, being dated Aug.
2, 1854, and of the Territory of Kansas on
June 29, 1854. Among the duties imposed
by the act on the governors was that of
directing and superintending the political
organization of the respective Territo
ries.

The governor of Kansas was required
to cause a census or enumeration of the
inhabitants and qualified voters of the sev
eral counties and districts of the Territory
to be taken by such persons and in such
mode as he might designate and appoint :
to appoint and direct the time and places
of holding the first elections, and the man
ner of conducting them, both as to the
persons to superintend such elections and
the returns thereof; to declare the number
of the members of the council and the
House of Representatives for each county
or district ; to declare what persons might
appear to be duly elected, and to appoint
the time and place of the first meeting
of the legislative Assembly. In substance,
the same duties were devolved on the gov
ernor of Nebraska..

While by this act the principle of con
stitution for each of the Territories was
one and the same, and the details of or
ganic legislation regarding both were as
nearly as could be identical, and while the
Territory of Nebraska was tranquilly and
successfully organized in the due course of

law, and its first legislative Assembly met
on Jan. 16, 1855, the organization of Kan
sas was long delayed, and has been at
tended with serious difficulties and embar
rassments, partly the consequence of local
maladministration, and partly of the un
justifiable interference of the inhabitants
of some of the States, foreign by residence,
interests, and rights to the Territory.

The governor of the Territory of Kan
sas, commissioned as before stated, on
June 29, 1854, did not reach the desig
nated seat of his government until the 7th
of the ensuing October, and even then
failed to make the first step in its legal
organization, that of ordering the census
or enumeration of its inhabitants, until
so late a day that the election of the mem
bers of the legislative Assembly did not
take place until March 30, 1855, nor its
meeting until July 2, 1855. So that for a
year after the Territory was constituted
by the act of Congress and the officers to
be appointed by the federal executive had
been commissioned it was without a com
plete government, without any legislative
authority, without local law, and, of
course, without the ordinary guarantees of
peace and public order.

In other respects the governor, instead
of exercising constant vigilance and put
ting forth all his energies to prevent or
counteract the tendencies to illegality
which are prone to exist in all imperfectly
organized and newly associated communi
ties, allowed his attention to be diverted
from official obligations by other objects,
and himself set an example of the viola
tion of law in the performance of acts
which rendered it my duty in the sequel
to remove him from the office of chief
executive magistrate of the Territory.

Before the requisite preparation was ac
complished for election of a Territorial
legislature, an election of delegate to Con
gress had been held in the Territory on
Nov. 29, 1854, and the delegate took his
seat in the House of Representatives with
out challenge. If arrangements had been
perfected by the governor so that the
election for members of the legislative
Assembly might be held in the several pre
cincts at the same time as for delegate to
Congress, any question appertaining to the
qualifications of the persons voting as
people of the Territory would have passed

203

PIERCE, FRANKLIN

necessarily and at once under the super- Under these inauspicious circumstances

vision of Congress, as the judge of the the primary elections for members of the

validity of the return of the delegate, and legislative Assembly were held in most,

would have been determined before con- if not all, of the precincts at the time

flicting passions had become inflamed by and the places and by the persons desig-

time, and before opportunity could have nated and appointed by the governor ac-

been afforded for systematic interference cording to law.
of the people of individual States. Angry accusations that illegal votes had

This interference, in so far as concerns been polled abounded on all sides, and
its primary causes and its immediate com- imputations were made both of fraud and
mencement, was one of the incidents of violence. But the governor, in the exer-
that pernicious agitation- on the subject cise of the power and the discharge of
of the condition of the colored persons the duty conferred and imposed by law
held to service in some of the States which on him alone, officially received and con-
has so long disturbed the repose of our sidered the returns, declared a large ma-
country and excited individuals, other- jority of the members of the council and
wise patriotic and law-abiding, to toil with the house of representatives " duly elect-
misdirected zeal in the attempt to propa- ed," withheld certificates from others be-
gate their social theories by the perver- cause of alleged illegality of votes, ap-
sion and abuse of the powers of Con- pointed a new election to supply the
gress. places of the persons not certified, and

The persons and the parties whom the thus at length, in all the forms of stat-
tenor of the act to organize the Terri- ute, and with his own official authentica-
tories of Nebraska and Kansas thwarted tion, complete legality was given to the
in the endeavor to impose, through the first legislative Assembly of the Territory,
agency of Congress, their particular views Those decisions of the returning officers
of social organization on the people of and of the governors are final, except
the future new States, now perceiving that that by the parliamentary usage of the
the policy of leaving the inhabitants of country applied to the organic law it may
each State to judge for themselves in be conceded that each house of the As-
this respect was ineradicably rooted in the sembly must have been competent to de-
convictions of the people of the Union, termine in the last resort the qualifications
then had recourse, in the pursuit of their and the election of its members. The sub-
general object, to the extraordinary meas- ject was by its nature one appertaining
ure of propagandist colonization of the exclusively to the jurisdiction of the local
Territory of Kansas to prevent the free authorities of the Territory. Whatever
and natural action of its inhabitants irregularities may have occurred in the
in its internal organization, and thus elections, it seems too late now to raise
to anticipate or to force the determi- that question. At all events, it is a ques-
nation of that question in this inchoate tion as to which, neither now nor at any
State. previous time, has the least possible legal

With such views associations were or- authority been possessed by the President

ganized in some of the States, and their of the United States. For all present

purposes were proclaimed through the purposes the legislative body thus consti-

press in language extremely irritating and tuted and elected was the legitimate legis-

offensive to those of whom the colonists lative assembly of the Territory,
were to become the neighbors. Those de- Accordingly the governor by proclama-

eigns and acts had the necessary conse- tion convened the Assembly thus elected

quence to awaken emotions of intense to meet at a place called Pawnee City;

indignation in States near to the Terri- the two houses met and were duly organ-

tory of Kansas, and especially in the ized in the ordinary parliamentary form ;

adjoining State of Missouri, whose do- each sent to and received from the govern-

mestic peace was thus the most directly or the official communications usual on

endangered ; but they are far from jus- such occasions ; an elaborate message open-

tifying the illegal and reprehensible coun- ing the session was communicated by the

ter movements which ensued. governor, and the general business of

204

PIERCE, FRANKLIN

legislation was entered upon by the legis
lative Assembly.

But after a few days the Assembly re
solved to adjourn to another place in the
Territory. A law was accordingly passed,
against the consent of the governor, but
in due form otherwise, to remove the seat
of government temporarily to the " Shaw-
nee Manual Labor School" (or mission),
and thither the Assembly proceeded. After
this, receiving a bill for the establishment
of a ferry at the town of Kickapoo, the
governor refused to sign it, and by special
message assigned for reason of refusal
not anything objectionable in the bill itself
nor any pretence of the illegality or in-
competency of the Assembly as such, but
only the fact that the Assembly had by
its act transferred the seat of government
temporarily from Pawnee City to the
Shawnee Mission. For the same reason
he continued to refuse to sign other bills,
until, in the course of a few days, he by
official message communicated to the As
sembly the fact that he had received notifi
cation of the termination of his functions
as governor, and that the duties of the
office were legally devolved on the secre
tary of the Territory; thus to the last
recognizing the body as a duly elected
and constituted legislative Assembly.

It will be perceived that, if any consti
tutional defect attached to the legislative
acts of the Assembly, it is not pretended
to consist in irregularity of election or
want of qualification of the members, but
only in the change of its place of session.
However trivial this objection may seem
to be, it requires to be considered, because
upon it is founded all that superstructure
of acts, plainly against law, which now
threaten the peace, not only of the Terri
tory of Kansas, but of the Union.

Such an objection to the proceedings
of the legislative Assembly was of excep
tionable origin, for the reason that by the
express terms of the organic law the seat
of government of the Territory was " lo
cated temporarily at Fort Leavenworth";
and yet the governor himself remained
there less than two months, and of his
own discretion transferred the seat of
government to the Shawnee Mission, where
it in fact was at the time the Assembly
were called to meet at Pawnee City. If
the governor had any such right to change

205

temporarily the seat of government, still
more had the legislative Assembly. The
objections are of exceptionable origin, for
the further reason that the place indicated
by the governor, without having any ex
clusive claim of preference in itself, was
a proposed town site only, which he and
others were attempting to locate unlaw
fully upon land within a military reserva
tion, and for participation in which il
legal act the commandant of the post,
a superior officer in the army, has been
dismissed by sentence of court - martial.
Nor is it easy to see why the legislative
Assembly might not with propriety pass
the Territorial act transferring its sittings
to the Shawnee Mission. If it could not,
that must be on account of some pro
hibitory or incompatible provision of act
of Congress; but no such provision exists.
The organic act, as already quoted, says
" the seat of government is hereby located
temporarily at Fort Leavenworth " ; and
it then provides that certain of the pub
lic buildings there " may be occupied and
used under the direction of the governor
and legislative Assembly." These ex
pressions might possibly be construed to
imply that when, in a previous section
of the act, it was enacted that " the first
legislative Assembly shall meet at such
place and on such day as the governor
shall appoint," the word " place " means
place at Fort Leavenworth, not place any
where in the Territory. If so, the govern
or would have been the first to err in
this matter, not only in himself having
removed the seat of government to the
Shawnee Mission, but in again removing
it to Pawnee City. If there was any de
parture from the letter of the law, there
fore, it was his in both instances. But
however this may be, it is most unreason
able to suppose that by the terms of the
organic act Congress intended to do im-
plicdly what it has not done expressly
that is, to forbid to the legislative Assem
bly the power to choose any place it might
see fit as the temporary seat of its delib
erations. This is proved by the significant
language of one of the subsequent acts
of Congress on the subject that of March
3, 1855 which, in making appropriation
for public buildings of the Territory,
enacts that the same shall not be ex
pended " until the legislature of said

PIERCE, FRANKLIN

Territory shall have fixed by law the and has nevertheless been admitted into
permanent seat of government." Congress the Union as a State, It lies with Con-
in these expressions does not profess to gress to authorize beforehand or to con-
be granting the power to fix the perma- firm afterwards, in its discretion. But
nent seat of government, but recognizes the in no instance has a State been admitted
power as one already granted. But how? upon the application of persons acting
Undoubtedly by the comprehensive pro- against authorities duly constituted by act
vision of the organic act itself, which of Congress. In every case it is the peo-
declares that " the legislative power of pie of the Territory, not a party among
the Territory shall extend to all rightful them, who have the power to form a con-
subjects of legislation consistent with the stitution and ask for admission as a State.
Constitution of the United States and the No principle of public law, no practice or
provisions of this act." If in view of this precedent under the Constitution of the
act the legislative Assembly had the large United States, no rule of reason, right,
power to fix the permanent seat of gov- or common-sense, confers any such power
ernment at any place in its discretion, as that now claimed by a mere party in
of course by the same enactment it had the Territory. In fact, what has been
the less and the included power to fix it done is of revolutionary character. It is
temporarily. avowedly so in motive and in aim . as

Nevertheless, the allegation that the respects the local law of the Territory,
acts of the legislative Assembly were il- It will become treasonable insurrection
legal by reason of this removal of its if it reach the length of organized re
place of session was brought forward to sistance by force to the fundamental or
justify the first great movement in dis- any other federal law and to the authority
regard of law within the Territory. One of the general government. In such an
of the acts of the legislative Assembly event the path of duty for the ex-
provided for the election of a delegate ecutive is plain. The Constitution re-
to the present Congress, and a delegate quiring him to take care that the laws
was elected under that law. But sub- of the United States be faithfully ex-
sequently to this a portion of the people ecuted, if they be opposed in the Territory
of the Territory proceeded without au- of Kansas he may, and should, place at
thority of law to elect another delegate. the disposal of the marshal any public

Following upon this movement was an- force of the United States which happens
other and more important one of the to be within the jurisdiction, to be used
same general character. Persons con- as a portion of the posse comitatus; and
fessedly not constituting the body politic if that do not suffice to maintain order,
or all the inhabitants, but merely a party then he may call forth the militia of one
of the inhabitants, and without law, have or more States for that object, or employ
undertaken to summon a convention for for the same object any part of the land
the purpose of transforming the Territory or naval force of the United States. So,
into a State, and have framed a constitu- also, if the obstruction be to the laws of
tion, adopted it, and under it elected a the Territory, and it be duly presented
governor and other officers and a Eepre- to him as a case of insurrection, he may
sentative to Congress. In extenuation of employ for its suppression the militia
these illegal acts it is alleged that the of any State or the land or naval force
States of California, Michigan, and others of the United States. And if the Terri-
were self-organized, and as such were ad- tory be invaded by the citizens of other
mitted into the Union without a previous States, whether for the purpose of de-
enabling act of Congress. It is true that ciding elections or for any other, and the
while in a majority of cases a previous local authorities find themselves unable
act of Congress has been passed to au- to repel or withstand it, they will be en-
thorize the Territory to present itself as titled to, and upon the fact being fully
a State, and that this is deemed the most ascertained they shall most certainly re-
regular course, yet such an act has not been ceive, the aid of the general government,
held to be indispensable, and in some cases But it is not the duty of the President
the Territory has proceeded without it, of the United States to volunteer inter-

206

PIERCE, FRANKLIN

position by force to preserve the purity of tion which is at this time of such dis-

elections either in a State or Territory, turbing character.

To do so would be subversive of public But we are constrained to turn our at-

freedom. And whether a law be wise or tention to the circumstances of embarrass-

unwise, just or unjust, is not a question ment as they now exist. It is the duty of

for him to judge. If it be constitutional the people of Kansas to discountenance

that is, if it be the law of the land every act or purpose of resistance to its

it is his duty to cause it to be executed, laws. Above all, the emergency appeals to

or to sustain the authorities of any State the citizens of the States, and especially

or Territory in executing it in opposition of those contiguous to the Territory,

to all insurrectionary movements. neither by intervention of non-residents

Our system affords no justification of in elections nor by unauthorized military

revolutionary acts, for the constitutional force to attempt to encroach upon or

means of relieving the people of unjust usurp the authority of the inhabitants of

administration and laws, by a change of the Territory.

public agents and by repeal, are ample, No citizen of our country should permit

and more prompt and effective than il- himself to forget that he is a part of

legal violence. These means must be its government and entitled to be heard in

scrupulously guarded, this great preroga- the determination of its policy and its

tive of popular sovereignty sacredly re- measures, and that therefore the highest

spected. considerations of personal honor and

It is the undoubted right of the peace- patriotism require him to maintain, by

able and orderly people of the Territory whatever of power or influence he may

of Kansas to elect their own legislative possess, the integrity of the laws of the

body, make their own laws, and regu- republic.

late their own social institutions, without Entertaining these views, it will be my
foreign or domestic molestation. Inter- imperative duty to exert the whole power
ference on the one hand to procure the of the federal executive to support public
abolition or prohibition of slave labor in order in the Territory; to vindicate its
the Territory has produced mischievous laws, whether federal or local, against
interference on the other for its main- all attempts of organized resistance, and
tenance or introduction. One wrong be- so to protect its people in the establish-
gets another. Statements entirely un- ment of their own institutions, undis-
founded, or grossly exaggerated, concern- turbed by encroachment from without,
ing events within the Territory are and in the full enjoyment of the rights
sedulously diffused through remote States of self-government assured to them by the
to feed the flame of sectional animosity Constitution and the organic act of Con-
there, and the agitators there exert them- gress.

selves indefatigably in return to encour- Although serious and threatening dis-

age and stimulate strife within the Ter- turbances in the Territory of Kansas, an-

ritory. nounced to me by the governor in Decem-

The inflammatory agitation, of which ber last, were speedily quieted without the

the present is but a part, has for twenty effusion of blood and in a satisfactory

years produced nothing save unmitigated manner, there is, I regret to say, reason

evil, North and South. But for it the to apprehend that disorders will continue

character of the domestic institutions of to occur there, with increasing tendency

the future new State would have been a to violence, until some decisive measure

matter of too little interest to the in- be taken to dispose of the question itself

habitants of the contiguous States, person- which constitutes the inducement or oc-

ally or collectively, to produce among them casion of internal agitation and of ex-

any political emotion. Climate, soil, pro- ternal interference.

duction, hopes of rapid advancement, and This, it seems to me, can best be ac-

the pursuit of happiness on the part of complished by providing that when the

the settlers themselves, with good wishes, inhabitants of Kansas may desire it and

but with no interference from without, shall be of sufficient number to constitute

would have quietly determined the ques- a State, a convention of delegates, duly

2P7

PIERCE PIKE

elected by the qualified voters, shall as- Pike, ALBERT, lawyer; born in Boston,

semble to frame a constitution, and thus Mass., Dec. 29, 1809. At the age of six-

to prepare through regular and lawful teen years he entered Harvard College,

means for its admission into the Union but, unable to support himself there, he

as a State. taught school at Newburyport and Fair-

I respectfully recommend the enactment haven, and in 1831 travelled (mostly on

of a law to that effect. foot) to St. Louis, where he joined an ex-

I recommend also that a special appro- pedition to New Mexico, acting as mer-

priation be made to defray any expense chant s clerk and peddler in Santa Fe.

which may become requisite in the ex- Roving with trappers awhile, he became

ecution of the laws for the maintenance of editor and proprietor of a newspaper in

public order in the Territory of Kansas. Arkansas in 1834, and in 1836 was admit-

Pierce, FREDERICK CLIFTON, author; ted to the bar. He was an advocate for

born in Worcester county, Mass., July 30, State supremacy; served in the war

1858; received an academic education; set- against Mexico in command of Arkansas

tied in Illinois in 1880; was connected in cavalry; and in the Civil War he organized

various capacities with Chicago newspa- and led a body of Cherokee Indians in the

pers. His publications include History battle of PEA RIDGE (q. v.). After the

of Graf ton, Mass.: History of Barre, war he edited the Memphis Appeal for a

Mass.; History of Rockford, III.; and nu- while. A collection of his poems wag

merous family genealogies. printed in Philadelphia, in 1854. He was

Pierrepont, EDWARDS, diplomatist; a Free Mason of high degree. He died in
born in North Haven, Conn., March 4, Washington, D. C., April 2, 1891.
1817; graduated at Yale in 1837; re- Pike, JAMES SHEPERD, diplomatist;
moved to New York in 1845; elected judge born in Calais, Me., Sept. 8, 1811; received
of the Superior Court of New York in a common school education; was associ-
1857; appointed one of the counsel for ate editor of the New York Tribune in
the prosecution of John H. Surratt, in- 1850-60; exercised a strong influence in
dieted for complicity in the assassination uniting the anti - slavery parties in his
of President Lincoln. General Grant ap- native State; and was minister to Hoi-
pointed him United States attorney for land in 1861-66. His publications include
the Southern District of New York in A Prostrate State; The Restoration of the
1869. In 1875 he was appointed Attorney- Currency; The Financial Crisis, its Evils
General of the United States, which office and their Remedy; Horace Greeley in
he resigned in 1876, on his appointment 1872; The New Puritan; and The First
as minister to Great Britain, where he re- Blows of the Civil War. He died in
mained till 1878. He died in New York Calais, Me., Nov. 24, 1882.
City, March 6, 1892. Pike, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY, military

Pierron, JEAN. See JESUIT Mis- officer; born in Lamberton, N. J., Jan. 5,

SIGNS. 1779; was appointed a cadet in the regi-

Pierson, ABRAHAM, first president of ment of his father (a captain in the army
Yale College; born in Lynn, Mass., in of the Revolution) and brevet lieutenant-
1641 ; graduated at Harvard College in colonel United States army when twenty
1668; ordained a colleague of his father, years of age. He was made captain in
at Newark, N. J., in March, 1672; and 1806, and was appointed to lead an expe-
from 1694 till his death was minister of dition in search of the sources of the
Killingworth, Conn. He was president of Mississippi River, which performed the
Yale College in 1700-7. He died in required duties satisfactorily in eight
Killingworth, Conn., March 7, 1707. His months and twenty days of most fati-
father, ABRAHAM (born in Yorkshire, Eng- guing explorations. In 1806-7 he was en-
land, in 1608; died in Newark, N. J., Aug. gaged in a geographical exploration of
9, 1678), was one of the first settlers of Louisiana, when he was seized by the
Newark (1667), and was the first minis- Spaniards, taken to Santa Fe, and, after
ter in that town. He also preached to the a long examination and the seizure of his
Long Island Indians in their own Ian- papers, was escorted to Natchitoches (July
guage. 1, 1807) and dismissed. The government

20S

PIKEVILLE PILGRIM FATHERS

rewarded him with a major s commission Pilgrim Fathers, THE. At the middle
(May, 1808). Passing through the vari- of the sixteenth century the social condi-
ous grades, he was commissioned briga- tion of the people of England was very
dier-general March 12, 1813. Early in primitive, and their wants were few. The

common people lived in cottages built of
wooden frames filled in with clay; their
houses were without wooden floors; and
in many of them the fireplaces were con
structed in the middle of the rooms with
out chimneys, a hole being left in the
roof for the escape of the smoke. The
windows were not glazed, and were closed
against the weather, and the light was
allowed to enter by means of oiled paper.
Such was the plain condition of the houses
of the Puritans of New England. In Eng
land in the early part of Queen Eliza
beth s reign pallets of straw served for
beds of the common people, who had cover
ings made of rough mats, and their pil
lows were logs. This was regarded as a
good bed, for many slept in straw alone.
Very few vegetables were then cultivated,
for gardening had not yet been generally
introduced from Holland, and gardens
were cultivated only for the rich, and
these chiefly for ornament. The common
material for bread was the unbolted flour
of oats, rye, and barley; and sometimes,

that year he had been appointed adjutant when these were scarce (afterwards in
and inspector-general of the army on the New England), they were mixed with
northern frontier. He was killed in an ground acorns. Even this black bread
attack upon York, Upper Canada, April was sometimes denied them, and flesh was
27, 1813. the principal diet. Their forks and

Pikeville, BATTLE NEAR. Gen. William ploughs were made of wood, and these,
Nelson was in command of about 3,000 with a hoe and spade, constituted the bulk
loyalists in eastern Kentucky in Novem- of their agricultural implements. Their
ber, 1861. About 1,000 Confederates, un- spoons and platters were made chiefly of
der Col. J. S. Williams, were at Pike- wood, and table-forks were unknown. It
ville, the capital of Pike county, Ky. Nel- is said that glazed windows were so scarce,
son sent Colonel Sill, with Ohio and Ken- and regarded as so much of a luxury,
tucky troops, to gain the rear of Williams, that noblemen, when they left their coun-
while, with the remainder, he should at- try-houses to go to court, had their glazed
tack his front. A battalion of Kentucky windows packed away carefully with oth-
volunteers, under Col. C. A. Marshall, er precious furniture. Chimneys had been
moved in advance of Nelson. On the 9th introduced into England early in the six-
these were attacked by Confederates in teenth century.

ambush, and a battle ensued, which lasted The non-conformist English refugees in
about an hour and a half, when the Con- Holland under the pastorate of Rev. Mr.
federates fled, leaving thirty of their num- Robinson, yearning for a secluded asylum
ber dead on the field. Nelson lost six kill- from persecution under the English gov-
ed and twenty-four wounded. He did not ernment, proposed to go to Virginia and
pursue, as he had no cavalry. Williams settle there in a distinct body under the
fled to the mountains at Pound Gap, car- general government of that colony. They
rying with him a large number of cattle sent Robert Cushman and John Carver
and other spoils. to England in 1617 to treat with the Lon-

vii. o 209

ZEBCI.ON MONTGOMERY PIKE.

PILGRIM FATHERS, THE

don Company, and to ascertain whether
the King would grant them liberty of con-
| science in that distant country. The
company were anxious to have these peo
ple settle in Virginia, and offered them
ample privileges, but the King would not
promise not to molest them. These agents
returned to Ley den. The discouraged
refugees sent other agents to England in
February, 1619, and finally made an ar
rangement with the company and with
London merchants and others for their
settlement in Virginia, and they at once
prepared for the memorable voyage in the
Mayflower in 1620. Several of the congre
gation at Leyden sold their estates and
made a common bank, which, with the
aid of their London partners, enabled them
to purchase the Speedwell, a ship of 60
tons, and to hire in England the May
flower, a ship of 180 tons, for the intend
ed voyage. They left Delft Haven for Eng
land in the Speedwell (July, 1620), and in
August sailed from Southampton, but, on
account of the leakiness of the ship, were
twice compelled to return to port. Dis
missing this unseaworthy vessel, 101 of
the number who came from Leyden sailed
in the Mayflower, Sept. 6 (0. S.). These
included the " Pilgrim Fathers," so called.

The following are the names of the
forty-one persons who signed the constitu
tion of government on board the May
flower, and are known as the Pilgrim
Fathers: John Carver, William Brad
ford, Edward Winslow, William Brew-
ster, Isaac Allerton, Myles Standish, John
Alden, Samuel Fuller, Christopher Mar
tin, William Mullins, William White,
Richard Warren, John Rowland, Stephen
Hopkins, Edward Tilley, John Tilley,
Francis Cook, Thomas Rogers, Thomas
Tinker, John Ridgedale, Edward Fuller,
John Turner, Francis Eaton, James Chil-
ton, John Crackston, John Billington,
Moses Fletcher, John Goodman, Degory
Priest, Thomas Williams, Gilbert Wins-
low, Edward Margeson, Peter Brown,
Richard Britteridge, George Soule, Rich
ard Clarke, Richard Gardiner, John Aller
ton, Thomas English, Edward Doty, Ed
ward Lister. Each subscriber placed op
posite his name the number of his family.

The following is the text of the agree
ment which was signed on the lid of
Elder Brewster s chest (see BREWSTER,
WILLIAM ) :

" In the name of God, Amen. We whose
names are hereunto written, the loyal
subjects of our dread sovereign lord. King

DELFT HAVES.

210

PILGRIM FATHERS, THE

James, by the grace of God, of Great have long safely lain. Nearly all the

Britain, France, and Ireland, King, De- company went ashore, glad to touch land

fender of the Faith, etc., having under- after the long voyage. They first fell on

taken for the glory of God and advancement their knees, and thanked God for the pres-

HANDWRITING OF THE PILGRIMS.

of the Christian Faith, and honor of our ervation of their lives. The waters were
King and Country, a voyage to plant the shallow, and they had waded ashore the
first colony in the northern parts of Vir- men to explore the country, the women
ginia, do by these presents solemnly and
mutually, in the presence of God and of
one another, covenant and combine our
selves together into a civil body politic
for our better ordering and preservation
and furtherance of the ends aforesaid;
and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute,
and frame such just and equal laws, or
dinances, acts, constitution, and offices,
from time to time, as shall be thought
most meet and convenient for the general
good of the colony, unto which we promise
all due submission and obedience. In wit
ness whereof we have hereunto subscribed
our names, at Cape Cod, the llth of
November [O. S.], in the year of the
reign of our sovereign lord, King James,
of England, France, and Ireland, the
eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-
fourth, Anno Domini 1620."

The Mayflower first anchored in Cape OLD RELIC FROM THK MAYFLOWER.

Cod Bay, just within the cape, on Nov.

21 (N. S.), in what is now the harbor to wash their clothes after the long voy-
of Provincetown, the only windward port age.

for many a league where the vessel could The spot chosen by a party of explorers

211

PILGRIM FATHERS, THE

for the permanent landing-place of the
passengers on the Mayflower was selected
about Dec. 20, 1620, where New Plymouth
was built. From about the middle of
December until the 25th the weather was
stormy, and the bulk of the passengers
remained on the ship, while some of the
men built a rude shelter to receive them.
On the 25th a greater portion of the pas
sengers went on shore to visit the spot
chosen for their residence, when, tradition

PLYMOUTH

BAY

Scale 2* Miles

says, Mary Chilton and John Alden, both
young persons, first sprang upon Plym
outh Rock from the boat that conveyed
them.

Most of the women and children re
mained on board the Mayflower until suit
able log huts were erected for their re
ception, and it was March 21, 1G21, before
they were all landed. Those on shore were
exposed to the rigors of winter weather
and insufficient food, though the winter
was a comparatively mild one. Those on

the ship were confined in foul air, with un
wholesome food. Scurvy and other dis
eases appeared among them, and when,
late in March, the last passenger landed
from the Mayflower, nearly one-half the
colonists were dead.

The lands of the Plymouth Colony were
held in common by the " Pilgrims " and
their partners, the London merchants. In
1627 the "Pilgrims" sent Isaac Allerton
to England to negotiate for the purchase
of the shares of the London
adventurers, with their stock,
merchandise, lands, and chat
tels. He did so for $9,000,
payable in nine years in equal
annual instalments. Some of
the principal persons of the
colony became bound for the
rest, and a partnership was
formed, into which was ad
mitted the head of every fam
ily, and every young man of
age and prudence. It was
agreed that every single free
man should have one share ;
and every father of a family
have leave to purchase one
share for himself, one for his
wife, and one for every child
living with him ; that every
one should pay his part of the
public debt according to the
number of his shares. To ev
ery share twenty acres of ara
ble land were assigned by lot;
to every six shares, one cow
and two goats, and swine in
the same proportion. This
agreement was made in full
court, Jan. 3, 1628. The joint-
stock or community system
was then abandoned, a di
vision of the movable prop
erty was made, and twenty acres of
land nearest to the town were assigned in
fee to each colonist. See PLYMOUTH,
NEW.

Gov. WILLIAM BRADFORD (q. v.) wrote
a History of the Plymouth Plantation, of
which the following is an extract:

The Pilgrims Arrival at Cape God.
Being thus arived in a good harbor and
brought safe to land, they fell upon their
knees & blessed ye God of heaven, who had

t-H

J-H

W
B
H

PILGRIM FATHERS PILLOW

brought

from all ye civill parts of ye world. If
it be said they had a ship to sucour them,
it is trew; but what heard they daly from
ye mr. & company? but yt with speede
they should looke out a place with their
shallop, wher they would be at some near
distance; for ye season was shuch as he
would not stirr from thence till a safe
he affirmed, that he had rather remaine harbor was discovered by them wher they
twentie years on his way by land, then would be, and he might goe without dan-

them over ye vast and furious
ocean, and delivered them from all ye
periles & miseries thereof, againe to set
their feete on ye firme and stable earth,
their proper elemente. And no marvell if
they were thus joyefull, seeing wise Sen
eca was so affected with sailing a few
miles on ye coast of his owne Italy; as

pass by sea to any place in a short time;
so tedious & dreadful was ye same
him.

But hear I cannot but stay and make a
pause, and stand half amased at this
poore peoples presente condition; and so I
thinke will the reader too, when he well
considers ye same. Being thus passed ye
vast ocean, and a sea of troubles before
in their preparation (as may be remem
bered by yt which wente before ) , they had
now no friends to wellcome them, nor inns
to entertaine or refresh their weather-
beaten bodys, no houses or much less
townes to repaire too, to seeke for suc-
coure. It

mercie to ye apostle & his shipwraked
company, yt the barbarians shewed them

ger ; and that victells consumed apace,
unto but he must & would keepe sufficient for
them selves & their returne. Yea, it was
muttered by some, that if they gott not
a place in time, they would turne them &
their goods ashore & leave them. Let it
also be considered what weake hopes of
supply & succoure they left behinde them,
yt might bear up their minds in this sade
condition and trialls they were under;
and they could not but be very smale. It
is true, indeed, ye affections & love of their
brethren at Leyden was cordiall & entire
towards them, but they had litle power to
help them, or them selves ; and how ye

is recorded in scripture as a case stode betweene them & ye marchants

at their coming away, hath allready been
declared. What could now sustaine them

no smale kindnes in refreshing them, but but ye spirite of God & his grace? May not

these savage barbarians, when they mette
with them (as after will appeare) were
readier to fill their sids full of arrows
then otherwise. And for ye season it was
winter, and they that know ye winters of
yt cuntrie know them to be sharp & vio-

& ought not the children of these fathers
rightly say: Our faithers were Eng
lishmen which came over this great ocean,
and were ready to perish in this willder
nes; but they cried unto ye Lord, and he
heard their voyce, and looked on their ad-

lent, & subjecte to cruell & feirce stormes, versitie, &c. Let them therefore praise ye
deangerous to travill to known places, Lord, because he is good, & his mercies
to

much more to serch an unknown coast.
Besids, what could they see but a hidious
& desolate wildernes, full of wild beasts &
willd men? and what multituds ther might
be of them they knew not. Nether could
they, as it were, goe up to ye tope of
Pisgah, to vew from this willdernes a
more goodly cuntrie to feed their hops ;
for which way soever they turned their
eys (save upward to ye heavens) they
could have litle solace or content in re-
specte of any outward objects. For sumer
being done, all things stand upon them
with a weatherbeaten face; and ye whole
rountrie, full of woods & thickets, repre
sented a wild & savage heiw. If they
looked behind them ; ther was ye mighty eluding 200
ocean which they had passed, and was now command of
as a maine barr & goulfe to seperate them

213

endure for ever. Yea, let them which have
been redeemed of ye Lord, shew how he
hath delivered them from ye hand of ye
oppressour. When they wandered in ye
deserte willdernes out of ye way, and
found no citie to dwell in, both hungrie,
d thirstie, their sowle was overwhelmed
in them. Let them confess before ye Lord
his loving kindnes, and his wonderful
works before ye sons of men.

Pillow, FORT, a defensive work erected
by the Confederates on the Mississippi
River at Chickasaw Bluff, above Mem
phis, Tenn. It was occupied by a
National force on June 5, 1862. In 1864
it was garrisoned by about 550 men, in-
colored soldiers, under the
Maj. L. F. Booth. Forrest
approached the fort on the morning of

PILLOW PINCKNEY

April 13, drove in the pickets, and began fight means kill we want but few prison-
an assault. A sharp battle ensued. About ers."

nine o clock Major Booth was killed, and Pillow, GIDEON JOHNSON, military offi-
the command devolved on Major Bradford, cer ; born in Williams county, Tenn., June
The whole force was then called within 8, 1806; graduated at the University of
the fort, and the fight was maintained Nashville; studied law, and rose to the
until past noon. Meanwhile the gunboat front rank in his profession. At the
AVw Era, of the Mississippi squadron, head of a brigade of Tennessee volunteers
lying near, had taken part in the defence he joined General Scott at Vera Cruz
of the fort, but the height of the bank in 1847, and performed gallant service
prevented her doing much execution. For- throughout the war against Mexico. Scott
rest, sent a flag to demand an instant sur- made serious charges against him, but a
render. While negotiations were going on court of inquiry acquitted him and left
Forrest sent large numbers of his troops his fame untarnished. In 1861 he was
to favorable positions for attack, which commissioned a major-general of Tennes-
could not have been gained while the gar- see militia, and also a brigadier-general
rison was free to fight. By this trick he in the Confederate army; but his military
gained a great advantage. Bradford re- career was cut short early in 1862 by
fused to surrender, and Forrest gave a his conduct at Fort Donelson. He died
signal, when his men sprang from their in Lee county, Ark., Oct. 6, 1878. See
hiding-places, which they had gained by DONELSON, FORT.

treachery, and, with a cry of " No quar- Pinckney, CHARLES, statesman ; born
ter!" pounced upon the fort at different in Charleston, S. C., in 1758; was made
points, and in a few moments were in prisoner at the capture of Charleston
possession of it. (1780), and sent to St. Augustine; was

Generals Forrest and Chalmers entered a member of Congress from 1784 to 1787;
the fort simultaneously from opposite and a member of the convention that
sides. The surprised and overwhelmed framed the national Constitution in the
garrison threw down their arms. Some of latter year. He was governor of South
them attempted to escape down the steep Carolina (1789-92, 1796-98, and 1806-8) ;
bank of the river or to find concealment in United States Senator from 1798 to 1801,
the bushes. The conquerors followed and and minister to Spain from 1802 to 1805,
butchered the defenceless men, who begged when he negotiated a release from that
for quarter. Within the fort like scenes power of all claims to the territory pur-
were exhibited. Soldiers and civilians chased by the United States from France,
men, women, and children, white and In Congress, from 1819 to 1821, he was
black were indiscriminately slaughtered, an opponent of the Missouri Compromise.
The massacre continued until night, and He died in Charleston, S. C., Oct. 29,
was renewed in the morning. Fully 300 1824. See LOUISIANA.
were murdered in cold blood. Major Brad- Pinckney, CHARLES COTESWORTH,
ford, who w r as a native of a slave-labor statesman; born in Charleston, S. C.,
State, was a special object of Forrest s Feb. 25, 1746; son of Chief- Justice
hatred. He regarded him as " a traitor to Charles Pinckney ; educated in England ;
the South." While on his way towards read law in London: passed nine months
Jackson, Tenn., as a prisoner of war, in a military academy in France, and re-
the day after the Confederates left Fort turning in 1769 began the practice of law.
Pillow, the major was taken from the line He was a member of the first Provincial
of march and deliberately murdered. So Congress of South Carolina, and was made
testified one of Forrest s cavalry before a colonel of a regiment. After the defence
congressional committee. Forrest had de- of Fort Sullivan he joined the army in
termined to strike terror in the minds the North, and was aide to Washington
of colored troops and their leaders. This in the battles of Brandywine and German-
seemed to be his chosen method. Maj. town. He was engaged in the unsuccess-
Charles W. Gibson, of Forrest s command, ful expedition into Florida in 1778, and
eaid to the late Benson J. Lossing-, " For- the next year presided over the State
rest s motto was, War means fight, and Senate of South Carolina. On the surren-

214

PINCKNEY PINE BLUFF

THOMAS PIXCKNEY.

der of Charleston (May, 1780), he was sent as minister to Great Britain, and
made a prisoner, and suffered cruel treat- in 1794 to Spain, where he negotiated
ment until exchanged early in 1782. He the treaty of St. Ildefonso, which secured
was made brigadier-general in November,
1783, and in 1787 was a member of the
convention that framed the national Con
stitution. In July, 1796, he was ap
pointed minister to the French Republic,
but the French Directory, failing to bribe
him into a compliance with their de
mands, ordered him to leave the coun
try, when he withdrew to Amsterdam
in February, 1797. While abroad he ut
tered the phrase, "Millions for defence;
not one cent for tribute!" General Wash
ington created him a major-general on
his return home. In 1800 he was a can
didate for the Vice-Presidency of the Unit
ed States; and in 1804 and 1808 for the
Presidency, each time as a Federalist.
He died in Charleston, S. C., Aug. 10,
1825.

Pinckney, THOMAS, diplomatist ; born
in Charleston, S. C., Oct. 23, 1750; edu
cated in England, and was admitted to
the bar in 1770. He joined the army in

1775; became a major and aide to General to the United States the free navigation of
Lincoln, and afterwards to Count d Es- the Mississippi River. In 1799 he was
taing in the siege of Savannah. He was a member of Congress, and in March,
distinguished in the battle at Stono Fer- 1812, President Madison appointed him

commander of the Sixth Military District.
His last military service was under Gen
eral Jackson at the last decisive bat
tle with the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend.
He died in Charleston, S. C., Nov. 2, 1828.
Pine, ROBERT EDGE, painter; born in
London, England, in 1730 or 1742; gained
considerable reputation in England before
he came to America at the close of the
Revolution. In Philadelphia he exhibited
the first cast of the Venus de Medici
ever seen in America. He was befriended
by Francis Hopkinson, and painted from
life, at Mount Vernon, a portrait of
Washington. He also painted portraits
of other worthies of the period of the
Revolution. He died in Philadelphia, Pa.,
Nov. 19, 1788.

Pine Bluff, BATTLE AT. Fifty miles
below Little Rock, on the south side of
the Arkansas River, is Pine Bluff, the
county seat of Jefferson county. Ark. In
October, 1863, it was occupied by Col.
ry, and was aide to General Gates in the Powell Clayton, with about 350 men and
battle near Camden, where he was wound- four guns. Marmaduke attempted to capt-
ed and made prisoner. In 1792 he was ure it with over 2,000 men and twelve

215

CHARLES COTKSWORTH PINCKSET.

PINE-TREE FLAO PINZON

guns. He advanced upon the post in three that ratified the national Constitution,
columns. Clayton had just been rein- After serving a term in the Maryland
forced by Indiana cavalry, making the legislature, he was elected to a seat in
number of his fighting men about 600. Congress, but declined the honor on ac-
About 200 negroes had built barricades count of the state of his private affairs,
of cotton-bales in the streets. The attack In 1796 he was appointed one of the corn-
was made (Oct. 25) by Marmaduke, and missioners in London under Jay s treaty,
was kept up for about five hours. The and obtained for the State of Maryland
Confederates were repulsed with a loss a claim on the Bank of England for
of 183 men killed, wounded, and prison- $800,000. Pinkney was made attorney-
ers; the Nationals lost 57, of whom 17 general of his State in 1805, and the next
were killed. The town was badly shat- year he was sent to England as commis-
tered, and the court-house and many dwell- sioner to treat with the British govern-
ings were laid in ashes. ment in conjunction with James Monroe.

Pine-tree Flag, a flag with a pine- He was minister there from 1807 to 1811,
tree in a white centre, used by New Eng- and in the autumn of the latter year was
land at the commencement of the Revolu- chosen to his State Senate from Baltimore,
tion. From December, 1811, until 1814, he was

Pine-tree Money. The earliest rude United States Attorney - General. In the
coinage of sixpence and shillings was made latter year he entered the military service
in Massachusetts. The pieces bore on one to repel a British invasion of his State,
side a representation of a pine-tree. and was severely wounded in the battle

Pinkney, WILLIAM, statesman; born of Bladensburg. Again in Congress (1815-
in Annapolis, Md., March 17, 1764. His 16), he took a leading part. In 1816 he
father, an Englishman, was a loyalist in went to Naples as special minister there,
the Eevolution, but the son espoused its *md became minister at St. Petersburg,
principles. He studied law with Judge whence he returned home in 1818. From
Chase, and was admitted to practice in 1820 until his death he held a seat in the

United States Senate. In that body he
opposed with all his powers of oratory
the admission of Missouri into the Union
under the terms of the compromise. His
death Avas occasioned by overexertion in
a case in the Supreme Court of the United
States, in Washington, D. C., Feb. 25,
1822.

Pinzon, MAKTIN ALONZO, navigator;
born in Palos de Moguer, Spain, in 1441;
accompanied Columbus on his first voyage
across the Atlantic, and was led by his
ambition to attempt to deprive that navi
gator of the honor of his great discovery.
He commanded the Pinta, one of the three
vessels of the squadron of Columbus.
When he heard of the wreck of the A 7 essel
in which Columbus sailed, on the northern
shores of Cuba, instead of going to his
relief, he kidnapped some natives of the
West India Islands and sailed for Spain.
Columbus, having lost all confidence in
the honor of Pinzon, immediately followed

WILLIAM I-INKXKY. hi m in the Nina. He saw the Pinta, but

the two vessels soon parted company.

1786, in which he acquired great reputa- Terrible storms swept over the Atlantic;
tion for his impassioned oratory. He was and when the Pinta reached the port of
a delegate in the Maryland convention Bayonne, Pinzon, believing the Nina had

216

PINZON PIRATES

gone to the bottom of the sea, sent a let- Ohio region (population in 1900, 9,090).
ter to the Spanish monarchs recounting On Feb. 21 the treaty was concluded, and
his adventures and discoveries, hoping just as it was signed some Ottawas came
thereby to gain honors and rewards, with presents from the governor of
Meanwhile the Nina had reached the Canada. They were admitted to the conn-
mouth of the Tagus, and Columbus sent cil, and expressed a desire for a renewal
a courier to the Court of Spain to an- of friendship with the French. A sachem
nounce his great discoveries. Then he put arose, and, setting up the colors of the
to sea, and soon afterwards entered the English and the French, denounced the
port of Palos, where he was received with latter as enemies of the Miamis. Having
delight. The same evening the Pinto, en- delivered his speech, he strode out of the
tered that harbor, and when Pinzon saw council, when an Ottawa chief, the envoy
the flag of the Nina his heart failed him. of the French, wept and howled, pretending
He was in expectation of being greeted great sorrow for the Miamis. After one
with great honors by the citizens and his or two more speeches by braves in favor
sovereigns. He hastened into seclusion, of the English, the great war-chief of the
filled with mortification and fear. Then Miamis, in the presence of the Ottawa
came a letter from the monarchs, in an- ambassadors, spoke as if to the French,
swer to his, rilled with reproaches for at- saying, " Fathers, you have desired we
tempting to defraud the admiral of his should go home to you; but I tell you it
just fame, and forbidding Pinzon to ap- is not our home, for we have made a path
pear at Court. The blow was fatal. Pin- to the sun-rising, and have been taken by
zon died of mortified pride and ambition the hand by our brothers, the English,
a few days after reading the royal epistle, the Six Nations, the Delawares, the Shaw-
in 1493. nees, and the Wyandottes; and, we assure

Pinzon, VINCENT YANEZ, navigator; you, in that road we shall go. d as

born in Palos de Moguer, Spain, about you threaten us with war in the s-pring,

1460; brother of Martin Alonzo Pinzon; we tell you, if you are angry we are ready

commanded the Nina in the first voyage to receive you, and resolve to die here be-

of Columbus (1492); in 1499 led an ex- fore we will go to you. That ycu may

pedition composed of four caravels, which know this is our mind, we send you this

sailed from Palos in December, and first string of black wampum. Brothers, the

saw the continent of South America at Ottawas, you hear what I say. Tell that

Cape Augustine, Brazil. There he took to your fathers, the French; for that is

possession of the country in the name of our mind, and we speak it from our

the crown of Castile. Sailing northward, hearts." The colors of the French were

he explored the coasts of Brazil, and dis- taken down and their ambassadors were

covered and named the River Amazon, dismissed. On March 1 Gist took his leave,

He lost two or three of his ships on the bearing this message to the English

homeward voyage. He died at his birth- beyond the Alleghanies : " Our friendship

place about 1524. shall stand like the loftiest mountain."

Piqua, COUNCIL AT. Late in 1750 the In the spring the French and Indians
Ohio Land Company sent Christopher from Sandusky struck the Miamis a
Gist, a dweller near the Yadkin, to ex- stunning blow. Piqua was destroyed, and
plore the Ohio region as far as the falls the great chief of the Miami Confederacy
at Louisville. He arrived at the Scioto was taken captive, sacrificed, and eaten
Valley early in 1751, and was kindly re- by the savage allies of the French,
ceived by the great sachem of the Miami Piquet, FRANCIS. Sea JESUIT Mis-
Confederacy, rivals of the Six Nations, SIGNS.

with whom they were at peace. Agents Pirates. For a long time merchants

of Pennsylvania and Virginia were there, and ship-masters suffered from the dep-

intending to make a treaty of friendship redations of pirates on the southern coasts

and alliance; and there, also, were white of what are now the United States and

traders. The council was held at Piqua, in the West Indies. In 1718 King George

far up the Scioto Valley. It was then a I. ordered a naval force to suppress them,

town of 400 families, the largest in the At the same time he issued a proclama-

217

PIRATES

tion promising pardon to all pirates who built forts, and had a military establish-
should surrender themselves in the space nient. From that time the West Indies
of twelve months. Capt. Woods Rogers, were fairly protected from the pirates,
with a few vessels, took the island of New They yet infested the coast of the Caroli-
Providence, the chief rendezvous of the nas. About thirty of them took posses
sion of the mouth of
the Cape Fear River.
Governor Johnson
determined to extir
pate them. He sent
out an armed vessel
under the command
of William Rhett,
who captured a pi
ratical sloop with
its commander and
about thirty men,
and took them to
Charleston. Johnson
soon afterwards em
barked in person,
and sailed after and
captured another
armed sloop. All
the pirates excepting
two were killed dur
ing the despeni te
fight that occurred,
and those two were
hanged. Those first
taken into Charles
ton were also hang
ed, excepting one
man. Altogether,
forty-two pirates
were executed at
Charleston.

Privateersmen
cruising under the
Spanish - American
flags degenerated
into downright
pirates. In 1819
Commodore Perry
was sent to the
West Indies in the
frigate John Adams
to cruise against the
pirates who swarm
ed there; but before
he had accomplished

much he was smitten by yellow fever, and
died just as his ship was entering the port
of Trinidad. Two other small vessels were
sent to cruise against them. Many con
victions and executions for piracy had

PIRATES ON A CAPTURED SHIP.

pirates, in the name of the crown of
England. All the pirates, excepting about
ninety who escaped in a sloop, took advan
tage of the King s proclamation. Rogers
was made governor of the island. He

218

PIRATES PITT

taken place; but as there had been many federates. The former was found conceal-
escapes through loop-holes in the law, the ed in a closet in the ladies cabin of the
act of Congress on that subject was revised boat. He was taken out, and with his ac-
and strengthened. In one of the sections complices, lodged in Fort McHenry.
of the new act the name of piracy and the Pitcairn, JOHN, military officer; born in
punishment of death were extended to the Fifeshire, Scotland, about 1740; was made
detention or transportation of any free major in the British army in 1771. Lead-
negro or mulatto in any vessel as a slave, ing troops to seize stores at Concord, he
On June 28, 1861, the steamer St. engaged in the fight at Lexington, and
Nicholas, Captain Kirwan, that plied be- was shot dead on entering the redoubt on
tween Baltimore and Point Lookout, at Bunker (Breed s) Hill, June 17, 1775.
the mouth of the Potomac River, left the Pitcher, MOLLY. In the BATTLE OF
former place with forty or fifty passengers, MONMOUTII (q. v. ) a shot from the Brit-
including about twenty who passed for ish artillery instantly killed an American
mechanics. There were a few women gunner while working his piece. His wife,
among them one who professed to be a Mary, a young Irishwoman twenty-two
young Frenchwoman. When, on the fol- years of age, and a sturdy camp-follower,
lowing morning, the steamer was near had been fetching water to him constantly
Point Lookout, the Frenchwoman was sud- from a spring near by. When he fell there
denly transformed into a stout young man, appeared no one competent to fill his
and the twenty mechanics into well-armed place, and the piece was ordered to be re-
Marylanders, who demanded the surrender moved. Mary heard the order, and, drop-
of the St. Nicholas. Kirwan had no ping her bucket and seizing a rammer,
means for resistance, and yielded. The vowed that she would fill her husband s
other passengers were landed on the Vir- place at the gun and avenge his death,
ginia shore, and the captain and crew She did so with skill and courage. The
kept as prisoners. Then 150 armed ac- next morning she was presented to Wash-
complices of the pirates went on board ington by General Greene, who was so
the steamer, which was destined for the pleased with her bravery that he gave her
Confederate navy. She cruised down the a commission as sergeant and had her
Chesapeake, captured three brigs, and, name placed on the pay-list for life. The
with her prizes, went up the Rappahan- fame of " Sergeant Mary," or Molly Pitch-
nock River to Fredericksburg, where the er, as she was more generally known,
pirates sold their plunder, divided the spread throughout the army,
prize-money, and were entertained at a Pitman, BENN, author; born in Trow-
public dinner by the citizens. There the bridge, England, July 22, 1822; came to
young Marylander produced much merri- the United States in 1853, and settled in
ment by appearing in the costume of a Cincinnati, where he taught stenography;
Frenchwoman. A few days afterwards discovered a method of making relief cop-
some of Kenly s Baltimore police were on per - plates of engravings in 1855 ; was
the steamer Mary Washington, going home the official stenographer in the trial of
from a post on the Chesapeake. On board the assassins of President Lincoln, and in
were Captain Kirwan and his crew; also the " Ku-klux Klan," the "Sons of Lib-
Thomas and his associates, who had erty," and other noted causes, in 1865-67.
captured the St. Nicholas, evidently in- His publications include Trials for Trea-
tending to repeat their operation on the son at Indianapolis; and The Assa-ssina-
Mary Washington. The captain was di- tion of President Lincoln, and the Trial
rected to land at Fort McHenry. When of the Conspirators.

the pirates perceived the destination of the Pitt, FORT, the most important military
vessel young Thomas remonstrated. Final- post of the English in the American
ly he drew his revolver, and calling his colonies west of the Alleghanies. The gar-
fellow-pirates around him, he threatened rison had launch-boats to bear the Eng-
to throw the officers overboard and seize lishmen to the country of the Illinois. For
the vessel. The pirates were overcome by some time the bitter foes of the English
numbers. General Banks sent a squad of the Mingoes and Delawares had been
men on board to seize Thomas and his con- seen hovering around the post. On May

219

PITT

27, 1763, they exchanged a large quantity
of skins with the English traders for
powder and lead, and then suddenly dis
appeared. Towards midnight the Delaware
chiefs warned the garrison that danger
hovered around them, and warned them
to fly, offering to keep the property safe;
but the garrison preferred to remain in
their strong fort, and the Indians, after
murdering a whole family near the fort
and leaving a tomahawk as a declaration
of war, withdrew and threatened Fort
Ligonier. See PONTIAC; DTJ QUESNE.

Pitt, WILLIAM, the " Great Com
moner " ; born in Westminster, England,
Nov. 15, 1708; educated at Eton and
Oxford, he entered Parliament in 1735,
where he was the most formidable oppo
nent of Robert Walpole. In 1744 the fa
mous Duchess of Marlborough bequeathed
him $50,000 " for having defended the laws
of his country and endeavoring to save it
from ruin." Afterwards Sir William
Pynsent left him the whole of his fortune,
lie held the office of vice-treasurer of Ire
land (1746), and soon afterwards was
made paymaster of the army and one of
the privy council. In 1755 he was dis

service, placing England in the front rank
of nations. By his energy in pressing the
war in America (see FRENCH AND INDIAN
WAT?) he added Canada to the British
Empire and decided for all time the
future of the Mississippi Valley. All
through the progress of the disputes be
tween Great Britain and its American
colonies he advocated a conciliatory and
righteous policy towards the Americans.
In 1766 he was called to the head of affairs
again; was created Earl of Chatham; but
quitted office forever in 1768. In the
House of Lords he opposed coercive meas
ures towards the Americans, in speeches
remarkable for their vigor and eloquence.
He was opposed to the political indepen
dence of the Americans, for he deprecated
a dismemberment of the empire, and,
while opposing a motion to that effect,
in an earnest speech in the House of Lords
(April, 1778), he swooned, and was car
ried to his home so much exhausted that
he never rallied. He had risen from a sick
bed to take his place in Parliament on
that occasion, and the excitement over
came him. He died in Hayes, Kent, May
11, 1778. His funeral was a public one,
at the national expense. He was buried
in Westminster Abbey, and a handsome
marble monument was erected to his mem
ory.

When he became the first minister of
the realm, he saw, with enlightened vision,
the justice and the policy of treating the
American colonies with generosity and
confidence. This treatment gained their
affections, and, under his guidance, they
gave such generous support to the govern
ment in the war with the French and Ind
ians that the conquest of Canada was
achieved, and the French dominion in
America was destroyed. At the same time
Halifax, with the sanction of the spirit
less and undiscerning George II., was urg
ing schemes of taxation which irritated
the colonists and alienated their regard.
The project of an American Stamp Act
was pressed (1757), which Pitt disdained
to favor in the day of the distress of the
colonists. He was tlvwarted in his desire
to be just to all, and, through the efforts
of the Duke of Cumberland, Pitt and

missed from office, but in 1757 was made Temple were both driven from office in
secretary of state, and soon infused his April, 1757, leaving the government in a
own energy into every part of the public state of anarchy in the hands of incom-

220

WILLIAM PITT.

PITT, WILLIAM

petent and very unscrupulous men. The stitutional right of giving and granting
immense energies of the British govern- their own money. They would have been
ment were paralyzed by a haughty aris- slaves," he said, " if they had not. . . .
tocracy. Affairs in America were in a The colonies acknowledge your authority
wretched condition. The laziness and stu- in all things, with the sole exception that
pidity of Lord Loudoun were leading to you shall not take their money out of
ruin by his inefficiency and his zeal in their pockets without their consent." This
overawing colonial assemblies. In this avowal of the great commoner made a
strait the confused aristocracy turned profound impression on the House. Gren-
to Pitt (then suffering from gout, out ville arose to vindicate the Stamp Act,
of office, and physically feeble but morally and, looking steadily at Pitt, he said,
strong), as the only man who could save with great emphasis: " The seditious spirit
the nation from ruin. Like a giant, he of the colonies owes its birth to factions
directed the affairs of the nation in Eng- in this House. Gentlemen are careless of
land, on the Continent, and in America the consequences of what they say, pro-
with so much wisdom that in two short vided it answers the purpose of opposi-
years that country was placed at the head tion!" This challenge brought Pitt to
of nationalities in power and glory. his feet, and he declared that he would

When Pitt resigned the seals of office fight him (Grenville) on every foot of
(1761) there was great public discontent, the field of combat. He made a powerful
Bute soon felt it, and he said to a friend, speech against the Stamp Act, to which
" I am no stranger to the language held the new ministry were compelled to give
in this city Our darling s resignation heed. Franklin was summoned to the bar
is owing to Lord Bute, and he must an- of the House to testify. He gave reasons
swer for all the consequences. " The King, why the Stamp Act could not be en-
too, felt unpleasant forebodings. He forced in America, and a bill for its
showered kind words upon the retiring repeal was carried (March 18, 1766), by
statesman, and offered to confer a title a large majority; and the non-importation
of honor upon him, but it was then de- leagues in America were dissolved,
clined. He accepted for his wife the hon- In January, 1775, Pitt introduced Dr.
orary title of Baroness of Chatham, with Franklin on the floor of the House of
a pension for her, her husband, and their Lords, when the former made an eloquent
eldest son, of $15,000 a year. In 1766 plea for justice towards the Americans,
he was created Viscount Pitt and Earl This was in support of a measure which
of Chatham, and was then called to the he proposed. Lord Sandwich, speaking for
head of public affairs. He formed a the majority in the House of Lords, grew
cabinet of heterogeneous materials, which very petulant. He declared that the meas-
Burke wittily described as " a piece of ure ought to be instantly rejected. " I
diversified mosaic, a tessellated pavement can never believe it to be the production
without cement here a bit of black stone, of a British peer," he said. " It appears
there a bit of white patriots and cour- to me rather the work of some American " ;
tiers, King s friends and republicans, and, turning his face towards Franklin,
Whigs and Tories, treacherous friends and who stood leaning on the bar, " I fancy,"
open enemies a very curious show, but he continued, " I have in my eye the per-
utterly unsafe to touch and unsure to son who drew it up, one of the bitterest
stand upon." Pitt s elevation to the peer- and most mischievous enemies this coun-
age injured his popularity. Chesterfield try ever had." The eyes of the peers were
said, "Pitt has gone to the hospital of turned on Franklin, when Pitt retorted:
incurable statesmen" the House of "The plan is entirely my own; but if I
Lords. were the first minister, and had the care

In January, 1766, Pitt appeared in his of settling this momentous business, I
place in the House of Commons, and de- should not be ashamed of publicly calling
clared that "the King had no right to to my assistance a person so perfectly
levy a tax on the colonies," and said they acquainted with the whole of American
had invariably, by their representatives in affairs, one whom all Europe ranks with
their several assemblies, exercised the con- our Boyles and Newtons, as an honor, not

221

PITT, WILLIAM

to the English nation only, but to human who gloriously exerted himself in defend-

nature." ing the freedom of Americans, the true

After his long absence from Parliament, sons of England, by promoting a repeal

Pitt appeared early in the year 1775, of the Stamp Act, in the year 1766.

and proposed an address to the King Time shall sooner destroy this mark

advising the recall of the troops from of their esteem than erase from their

Boston. It was rejected; but petitions minds the just sense of his patriotic

for conciliation flowed in from all the virtue."

great trading and manufacturing towns The statue ordered by the citizens of
in the kingdom, for they felt the severe New York was of marble, natural size,
pressure of the operations of the Ameri- and was set up at the intersection of
can Association. In February, 1775, Pitt Wall and William streets in the summer
brought forward a bill which required of 1770. The figure was in the habit of a
a full acknowledgment on the part of the Roman orator, and in one hand was a
colonists of the supremacy and superin- partly open scroll, on which was inscribed
tending power of Parliament, but provided " Articuli May nee Chartce Libertatum."
that no tax should ever be levied on the The left hand was extended in oratorical
Americans except by consent of the co- attitude. On the pedestal was the follow-
lonial assemblies. It also contained a ing inscription: " This statue of the Right
provision for a congress of the colonies Honorable William Pitt, Earl of Chat-
to make the required acknowledgment; ham, was erected as a public testimony of
and to vote, at the same time, a free grant the grateful sense the colony of New
to the King of a certain perpetual revenue, York retains of the many services he ren-
to be placed at the disposal of Parlia- dered to America, particularly in pro-
ment. It was rejected, two to one, at the moting the repeal of the Stamp Act.
first reading. Anno Domini 1770." When the British

In token of their gratitude to Pitt for occupied the city, this statue was muti-

his successful efforts in procuring a repeal lated by the soldiery. After the war it

of the Stamp Act, in 1766, the Americans was removed, and lay for many years

ordered two statues of their friend to be among rubbish in the corporation yard,

erected, one in New York and the other Then it was set up at the corner of West

in Charleston. The legislature of South Broadway and Franklin Street, where it

Carolina caused a statue of marble to be remained many years.

erected at the intersection of Broad and Pitt, WILLIAM, statesman; born in

Meeting streets, Charleston. During the Hayes, England, May 28, 1759; son of

siege of that city in 1780, a cannon-ball William Pitt, Earl of Chatham; educated

from the British besiegers broke off one at Cambridge University; studied law; be-

of the arms. Regarding the mutilated came a member of the House of Commons

statue as an obstruction in the streets, it in 1781 when the Tory ministry of Lord

was removed many years afterwards. North was tottering under the disasters

Dragging it from its pedestal with ropes, in America. In an address before

its head was broken off when it fell. The that body, while explaining his father s

fragments were stored away until the position regarding American affairs, he

Orphan-house in Charleston was built, said, referring to Lord Westcote: "A

when the commissioners had the statue noble lord has called the American war

restored, as far as possible, excepting the a holy war. I affirm that it is a most ac-

dissevered arm, and placed it upon a ped- cursed war, barbarous, cruel, and unnat-

estal in front of their building. Judge ural ; conceived in injustice, it was

Grimke, of Charleston, had preserved the brought forth and nurtured in folly; its

original marble tablet, bearing the in- footsteps are marked with slaughter and

scription, as follows: "In grateful mem- devastation, while it meditates destruc-

ory of his services to his country in gen- tion to the miserable people who are the

eral and to America in particular, the devoted objects of the resentments which

Commons House of Assembly of South produced it. Where is the Englishman

Carolina unanimously voted this statue who can refrain from weeping on what-

of the Right Hon. William Pitt, Esq., ever side Tictory may be declared?" He

222

PITTSBTJFvG PIZARRO

became prime minister in 1783, and was er illiterate adventurer named Almagro,
a party to arrange the peace treaty with he explored the southern coast, in 1524,
the United States. He died in Putney, with 100 followers in one vessel and
England, Jan. 23, 1806. seventy in another, under the last-named
Pittsburg, city, port of entry, and person. Their explorations were fruit-
county-seat of Allegheny county, Pa.; at less, except in information of Peru, the
the head of the Ohio River, and on several land of gold. He went as far as the
railroads; 353 miles from Philadelphia; borders of that land, plundered the peo-
area twenty-nine square miles. The city pie, carried some of them away, and
is the centre of the largest natural gas took them to Spain in the summer of
field and petroleum territory in the United 1528. His creditors imprisoned him at
States; has water-works, gas and electric Seville, but the King ordered his release
lights, many notable buildings, including and received him at Court with distinc-
the Allegheny Court House, erected at a tion.

cost of $2,500,000, the Carnegie Library From the monarch (Charles V.) he re-
and Institute, and the United States Gov- ceived a commission to conquer Peru, with
ernment Building; over 200 churches, the title of governor or captain-general
many charitable institutions, 36 na- of the province when he had subdued it.
tional banks, and many public and With four of his brothers he crossed the
private schools and colleges. It is popu- Atlantic early in 1530. The following
larly known as the " Iron City," the chief year he left Panama with 180 men and
industries being the manufacture of iron twenty-seven horses, on an expedition
and steel, but it has many other flourish- against Peru, leaving Almagro behind to
ing industries, including the manufacture procure provisions and reinforcements,
of foundry and machine-shop products, After a voyage of about fourteen days,
glass, malt liquors, and marble and stone, he landed on the shores of a bay in lat.
The city also has extensive cork factories, 1 N., and plundered a town on the bor-
tanneries, electrical works, and lumber ders of the empire of the Incas, which
and pork-packing industries. According to was then distracted by civil war. There
the census of 1900 there were 1,938 manu- he was reinforced by 130 men, and
factories, employing $196,162.900 capital marched to meet Atahualpa, who had con-
and 69,977 persons, paying $116,833,174 tended with his brother for the kingdom,
for materials used and $36,684,563 for and had just made the latter a prisoner,
wages, and yielding products valued at With 177 men Pizarro went with pretend-
$203,261,251. On May 1, 1904, the bonded ed friendship to the successful Inca., in
debt was $20,178,201 ; sinking fund, $6,- September, 1532, and treacherously made
958,118; net debt, $13,220,083. The assess- him prisoner. The Inca s army fled in dis-
ed valuations in 1904 aggregated $457,- may. Atahualpa offered for his own
219,484; and the tax rate was $12.50 per ransom to fill the room he was in with
$1,000. It was incorporated as a city gold. The precious metals and golden or-
March 18, 1816. Population, (1890) 238,- naments of the temples, worth, when
617; (1900) 321,616. melted down, more than $17,000,000, were
Pittsburg Landing. See SHILOH. laid at Pizarro s feet, when the treach-
Pizarro, FRANCISCO, military officer ; erous Spaniard caused his royal captive
born in Estremadura, Spain, in 1476. to be murdered, Aug. 29, 1533. March-
Low-born, he received little care from his ing to Cuzco, in November, Pizarro pro-
parents, and was a swineherd in his ear- claimed the half-brother of the dead Inca,
lier years. He went \vith Ojeda from Manco Capac, his successor, and then
Santo Domingo to Central America in founded a new capital nearer the coast,
1510, and assisted Vasco de Balboa Xunez now Lima. The new Inca escaped, re
in establishing the settlement at Darien. belled, slaughtered many Spaniards, and
Trafficking with the natives on the Isth- laid siege to Lima, which they soon raised,
mus of Panama, in 1515, he settled near A dispute between Pizarro and Almagro
the city of Panama founded there, and led to open warfare. Almagro was de-
engaged in the cultivation of land by feated and slain in 1538. The empire of
Indian slaves. With a priest and anoth- the Incas lay prostrate at the feet of the

223

PLAGUE IN NEW ENGLAND PLATT

Spaniards, with Pizarro as ruler. The
latter married a daughter of Atahualpa.
The son of Almagro, continuing the war
begun by his father, led a faction to at
tack the Spanish ruler in his palace, and
the latter was slain, June 26, 1541. Pi
zarro never learned to read or write. He
was cunning, treacherous, and cruel, his
chief merits being courage and fortitude.

Plague in New England. About four
years before the landing of the Pilgrims
a devastating plague had destroyed a
greater portion of the Indians of that
region where they founded New Plymouth.
Indeed, they were informed by a friend
ly Indian that, for a long distance
along the coast and far back into the
forest, not " a man, woman, or child
remained." So it was that in taking pos
session of the land the " Pilgrims " did
not displace any people to make room for
the English. English navigators had
made known in England the effects of
this plague before King James gave a
charter to the Plymouth Company, Nov.
3, 1020. And he gave, in the charter it
self, as a reason for granting it, that the
country had been desolated " so that there
is not left, for many leagues together on
the main, any that doe claime or chal
lenge any kind of interest therein."

Plains of Abraham. See QUEBEC.

Plantations, CONTEMPT FOB THE. On
the accession of James II. that monarch
declared, without the formality of law,
the charter of Massachusetts to be void,
and appointed Joseph Dudley president of
the country from Rhode Island to Nova
Scotia. The people of England, misin
formed by their rulers, approved the meas
ure, and the tone of society there was one
of contempt for the plantations. The poet
Dryden, who was then a supple servant
of the crown, in a dramatic prologue,
wrote as follows:

" Since faction ebbs, and rogues go out of
fashion,

Their penny scribes take care to inform the
nation

How well men thrive in this or that planta
tion.

" How Pennsylvania s air agrees with

Quakers,

And Carolina s with Associators ;
Both e en too good for madmen and for
traitors.

224

" Truth is, our land with saints is so run o er,
And every age produces such a store,
That now there s need of two New Eng-
lands more."

Planter, THE. Robert Small was an
intelligent slave, and pilot of the little
steamer Planter, in Charleston Harbor.
Small and eight of his dusky companions,
on the evening of May 11, 1863, after the
white officers of the vessel had gone ashore
to spend the night, went out of the harbor
with the Planter. When out of the range
of Confederate batteries, Small raised a
white flag and went out to Dupont s block
ading squadron, where he gave up the
vessel to the captain of the Augusta. She
was sent to the Wabash, the flag-ship,
where Small gave Commodore Dupont
valuable information.

Platt, ORVILLE HITCHCOCK, legislator;
born in Washington, Conn., July 19, 1827;
admitted to the bar in 1849; elected State
Senator in 1861; member of the State
Assembly in 1864; United States Senator in
1879, 1885, 1890, and 1897. He is the au
thor of the Platt amendment. See CUBA.

Platt, THOMAS COLLIER, legislator;
born in Owego, N. Y., July 15, 1833;
elected Representative in Congress in
1873; United States Senator Jan. 18, 18S1 ;
resigned May 16, 1881, with ROSCOE
CONKLING (q. v.} ; became president of
the United States Express Company, and

PLATT PLATTSBURG

president of New York Quarantine Com
missioners in 1880; re-elected to the
United States Senate in 1896 and 1903.

Platt, ZEriiANiAH, legislator; born in
Dutchcss county, N. Y., in 1740; preach
ed law; delegate from New York to the
Continental Congress, 1784-86; judge of
the circuit court for many years; founder
of Plattsburg, N. Y., where he died Sept.
12, 1807.

Platt Amendment. See CUBA.

Plattsburg, BATTLES AT. When Gen
eral Izard inarched from Champlain for
Sackett s Harbor, N. Y., with 4,000 men
in August, 1814, he left 1,500 soldiers
there, under the command of Gen. Alex
ander Macomb. During the spring and

with about 14,000 men, assisted by Gen
eral de Rottenburg as his second, and at
the same time the British flotilla, under
Captain Pringle, came out of the Sorel
Kiver, the outlet of Lake Champlain.
Prevost announced his intention to seize
and hold northern New York as far down
as Ticonderoga, and he called upon the
inhabitants to cast off their allegiance and
furnish him with supplies.

In the mean time Macomb, with untiring
energy, prepared for a defence of the
threatened region. He had completed re
doubts and block-houses at Plattsburg, to
prevent the invaders crossing the Saranac
Kiver. The militia were under the com
mand of Gen. Benjamin Mooers. He had

BATTLE OP PLATTSBURG (From an old print).

summer of that year both parties had been been very active in gathering them, and
busy in the preparation of war-vessels for when Prevost advanced he was at the head
Lake Champlain, and the command of the of about 5,000 men. Prevost arrived at
American squadron there was held byCapt. Champlain on Sept. 3, and two days after-
Thomas Macdonough. Released from duty wards pushed to a point within 8 miles
in Europe by the downfall of Napoleon, a of Plattsburg. At the same time Macomb
number of Wellington s troops had arrived divided his troops into detachments, to
in Canada. There were about 15,000 complete fortifications already begun.
British troops (chiefly these veterans) at Small forces were sent northward, to
Montreal at the close of August, and Sir watch the movements of the British. On
George Prevost, governor of Canada and the 6th Prevost moved upon Plattsburg
fenoral-in-chief of the forces there, pro- with his whole force, in two columns, the
ceeded to invade New York. Izard had right crossing on to the Beekmantown
made a requisition for militia and light road. Informed of this, Macomb sent
dragoons, and at the beginning of Sep- Maj. John E. Wool (who volunteered for
tember Macomb found himself at the head the purpose ) . with some regulars, to sup-
of about 3,500 men. These he gathered at port the militia under Mooers, who was
Plattsburg, to repel an expected invasion, out in that direction, and to oppose the
Prevost advanced from the St. Lawrence advance of the foe. His force was 280
vii. P 225

PLATTSBUBG, BATTLES AT

strong. At Beekirantown he encountered Downie, had approached Cumberland
Prevost s advanced guard. The militia Head. His flag-ship was the Confiancc,
broke, and lied towards Plattsburg, but thirty-eight guns, and with it were one
the regulars stood firm. He fought the brig, two sloops-of-war, and twelve gun-
invaders, inch by inch, all the way to boats. Macdonough s squadron lay in
Plattsburg. His and other detachments Plattsburg Bay, and consisted of the Sara
toga, twenty-six
guns (his flag
ship), with one
brig, two schoon
ers, and ten gun
boats, or galleys.
The British
came around
Cumberland
Head, with a fair
w i n d, on the
morning of the
llth, and at the
same time the
British land
forces were mov
ing for a com-
b i n e d attack
upon the Ameri
cans by land and
water. Macdon-
ough had skilful
ly prepared his
vessels for action,
and when all was
in readiness he
knelt on the deck
of the Saratoga,
and offered up a
fervent prayer to
God, imploring
divine aid. His

were pushed back by the overwhelming officers were around him, and very soon
force of the British, and retired to the after he arose the guns of both squad-
south side of the Saranac, tearing up the rons opened, and a sharp naval action
bridges behind them, and using the tim- began. A shot from one of the British
bers for breastworks. The invaders tried vessels demolished a hen - coop on the
to force a passage across the stream, but deck of the Saratoga, in which was a
were repulsed by a small company of young game-cock. The released fowl,
volunteers in a stone mill near the site startled by the noise of cannon, flew upon
of the lower bridge, who fired sharp vol- a gun-slide, and, flapping his wings, crow-
leys of musketry upon them from that ed lustily and defiantly. The sailors
strong citadel. Prevost now perceived that cheered, and the incident was regarded by
he had serious work before him, and em- them as ominous of victory. Their cour-
ployed the time from the 7th to the llth age was strengthened. The Confiance and
in bringing up his batteries and supply- Saratoga fought desperately. A broadside
trains, and constructing works to com- from the former had a terrible effect upon
inand those of the Americans on the south the latter. Forty of the Saratoga s people
side of the Saranac. Meanwhile the naval were disabled. This stunning blow was
force, under the command of Commodore felt only for a moment. The battle be-

226

OLD STONE MILL ON THE SARAXAC.

FLATTSBURG, BATTLES AT

came general, and lasted about two hours
and twenty minutes. The vessels were all
terribly shattered. " There was not a
mast in either squadron," wrote Mac-
donough, " that could stand to make sail
on." One of the officers of the Confiance
wrote : " Our masts, yards, and sails were
so shattered that one looked like so many
bundles of matches and the other like so
many bundles of rags." The contest was
witnessed by hundreds of spectators on
the headlands of the Vermont shore. It
ended with victory for the Americans.
The British commodore (Downie) was kill
ed and his remains were buried at Platts-
burg. The Americans lost 110 men; the
British loss was over 200 men.

While this naval battle was raging,
there was a sharp conflict on the land.
The British troops had attempted to force
their way across the Saranac at two
places, but after a short and desperate
struggle they were repulsed by the gallant
regulars and militia led by Macomb and
Mooers. Some of the British had crossed
the stream near the site of the upper
bridge, and the Americans were driving
them back, when tidings came that the
British fleet had just surrendered. The
Americans gave three hearty cheers. The
British took them as indications of good

news for their antagonists, and their line
wavered. Soon Prevost was notified of
the disaster on the water, and, naturally
timid in the presence of danger, saw with
alarm the rapid gathering of the neigh
boring militia, who menaced his flanks and
rear. At twilight (Sept. 11, 1814) he
ceased fighting, and prepared for flight
back to Canada. At midnight, something
having given him greater alarm, he re
treated in such haste that he left his sick
and wounded and a vast amount of stores
behind. Light troops, militia, and volun
teers started in pursuit, but a heavy fall
of rain compelled them to give it up.
Prevost halted and encamped at Cham-
plain, and on the 24th he left the United
States territory, and returned to Mon
treal with the main army. The loss of
Prevost, after he crossed the international
boundary, in killed, wounded, missing,
and deserters, did not fall much short of
2,000. The loss of the Americans on the
land was less than 150. The whole coun
try rang with the praises of Macomb and
Macdonough, the chief leaders in the
battles at Plattsburg. In almost every vil
lage and city in the land there were bon
fires and illuminations. Governor Tomp-
kins presented Macomb with a sword in
the name of the people of the State of

THEATRE OF NAVAL ENGAGEMENT, PLATTSBURO BAY (Adirondack Jlountains in toe distance.)

227

PLEASANT GROVE PLEASONTON

New York, and De Witt Clinton, mayor of distance on the road towards Grand Ecore.
New York, presented him, in the name Towards noon (April 9), the Confederate
of the corporation, with the freedom of advance appeared, and between 5 and 6
the city. Congress gave him the thanks of P.M. a furious battle began. The assail-
the nation, and voted him a gold medal, ants fell heavily on Emory s left, held by
The State of New York gave Macdonough Benedict s brigade, with crushing force,
2,000 acres of land. The State of Vermont and pushed it back. At the first onseti
purchased 200 acres on Cumberland Head, and while trying to rally his men to
and presented them to him, the house charge, Benedict was slain by a bullet
upon it overlooking the scene of his gal- which passed through his head. While the
lant exploits. Thus," said Macdonough left was giving way, and the Confederates
to a friend, while tears filled his eyes, had captured four guns, Emory s right
" from a poor lieutenant I became a rich stood firm until enveloped on three sides
man." Congress gave him the thanks of by a superior force, when it fell back a
the nation and a gold medal. little. Then the tide was changed by a

Pleasant Grove, BATTLE AT. At Pleas- heavy countercharge by Smith s veterans,
ant Grove, 3 miles from Sabine Cross- under General Mower. The right of the
roads, La., General Emory, advancing Confederates was driven more than a mile
with his corps, halted on April 8, 1864, by this charge. Then the whole of Smith s
when the Nationals, defeated at the Cross- reserves were ordered up, when the Con-
roads, were retreating. Across the road federates were routed and pursued until
along which the fugitives and their pur- dark. General Banks reported his losses
suers were advancing General Dwight in the battles of April 7, 8, and 9, at
formed his brigade, and on his left was 3,909, of whom 289 were killed and 2,150
another brigade, commanded by Col. missing, most of the latter taken prison-
Lewis Benedict. Another was held in re- ers. The Nationals had also lost, thus
serve. Their ranks were opened to receive far, twenty pieces of artillery, 160 wagons,
the flying columns, which passed through and 1,200 horses and mules. They had
to the rear, the Confederates close upon captured 2,300 prisoners, twenty-five can-
their heels. In strong force they assailed non (chiefly by the fleet), and 3,000 bales
Emory s troops. A severe battle ensued, of cotton. The Confederate losses were
which lasted an hour and a half, the Con- never reported.

federates making the most desperate Pleasonton, ALFRED, military officer;
efforts to turn the National left, firmly born in Washington, D. C., June 7, 1824;
held by Benedict. The assailants were re- graduated at West Point in 1844, enter-
pulsed, and very soon the battle ceased on ing the dragoons. He served in the war
that part of the field. Everywhere else against Mexico, and afterwards in Cali-
the Confederates were thrown back, with fornia, New Mexico, and Texas. For
great slaughter. Then the Nationals re- several years he was assistant adjutant-
tired to Pleasant Hill, 15 miles distant, general and adjutant-general to General
followed by the Confederates. See RED Harney, and in the fall of 1861 was acting
RIVER EXPEDITION. colonel of the 2d Cavalry. He was made

Pleasant Hill, BATTLE AT. When it brigadier-general of volunteers in July,
was discovered that the Confederates were 1862, and took command of Stoneman s.
following the Nationals in strong force cavalry brigade, leading the van when Mc-
after the battle at Pleasant Grove, Banks Clellan ci ossed the Potomac, in October,
formed a battle-line at Pleasant Hill, 15 Pleasonton was in the battles at Fred-
miles east of the latter place, with Emory s ericksburg, Chancellorsville, and Gettys-
division in the front, the right occupied by burg, and was afterwards efficient in driv-
Dwight s brigade, another, under General ing Price out of Missouri, in 1864. In
Millan, in the centre, and a third, under March, 1865, he was brevetted major-gen-
Colonel Benedict, on the left. A New York era! United States army for " meritorious
battery was planted on a commanding hill, services during the rebellion." He resigned
The army trains, guarded by Lee s cav- his commission in 1868, and was placed on
airy, a brigade of colored troops, and Ran- the retired list as colonel in 1888. He died
som s shattered columns, were sent some in Washington, D. C., Feb. 17, 1897.

228

PLYMOUTH PLYMOUTH COMPANY

Plymouth, CAPTURE OF. About 7,000 wards known as Parker s Island, where,

Confederates, under Gen. R. F. Hoke, at- after a sermon had been delivered, and

tacked Plymouth, N. C., at the mouth of the patent and other laws read, they dug

the Roanoke River, April 17, 1864. The a well, built a stone house, a few log-huts,

post was fortified, and garrisoned by and a stockade, which they called Fort

2,400 men, under Gen. H. W. Wessells. St. George. They experienced the bitter

Hoke was assisted by the powerful ram fruit of Weymouth s kidnapping in the

Albemarle. The town was closely be- hostility of the natives, who refused to

sieged. A gunboat that went to the as- furnish them with maize or other food,

sistance of the garrison was soon disabled The season was too far advanced to raise

and captured. On April 20 the Confed- food for the colony, so, on Dec. 5, two of

erates made a general assault, and the the ships returned to England, leaving

town and Fort Williams were compelled forty-five persons, with sufficient stores,

to surrender. There were 1,600 men sur- Popham being president of the colony, and

rendered, with twenty-five cannon, 2,000 Raleigh Gilbert admiral. During the

small-arms, and valuable stores. severe winter their storehouse was burned

Plymouth Company. The domain in by accident. The next spring a vessel
America assigned to this company ex- arrived at Fort St. George with supplies,
tended from lat. 41 to 45 N. Mem- and with the intelligence of the death of
bers of the company were in the field of Chief-Justice Popham and Sir John Gil-
adventure before it was organized. Ad- bert, two of the most influential members
venturers from England had been on the of the company. Discouraged and dis-
coast of New England, but had failed to heartened by the severity of the winter,
plant a permanent settlement. The prin- during which their houses were almost
cipal members of the company were Sir covered with snow, their losses by disease,
John Popham (then chief-justice of Eng- and the death of their governor, Henry
land, who had, with scandalous injustice, Popham, the colonists forsook their new
condemned Raleigh to die on the scaf- abode and returned to England,
fold), his brother George Popham, Sir For a few years the operations of the
Ferdi nando Gorges, Sir John and Raleigh company were confined to fishing voyages
Gilbert (sons of Sir Humphrey Gilbert), and a little traffic with the natives. Their
William Parker, and Thomas Hanham. prospects brightened by the first success-
In 1606 Justice Popham sent a vessel at ful voyage of Captain Smith, but wore
his own cost, commanded by Henry Chal- again darkened by subsequent misfortunes.
Ions, to make further discoveries of the The company had indignantly dismissed
north Virginia region. Challons and his Hunt from their service on hearing of
crew of about thirty persons were capt- his conduct, and when they found Squanto
ured by the Spaniards, and the vessel was had escaped from Spain and made his way
confiscated. Soon after the departure of to England, they sought him out, loaded
Challons, Thomas Hanham, afterwards him with presents, and sent him to New
one of the company, sailed in a small ves- England with Captain Dermer to pacify
sel for America, accompanied by Martin the natives. But they were still too in-
Pring, to discover a good place for a set- dignant to listen, and they attacked and
tlement; and his report was so favorable, dangerously wounded Dermer and several
so confirmatory of Gosnold s statements of his party. The company now abandon-
(see GOSNOI.I). BARTHOLOMEW), that the ed all thoughts of establishing colonies in
above-named irontlemon and others formed New England at that time, and looked
an association called the Plymouth Com- forward to receiving large profits by the
pany, and received a charter from King fisheries and by traffic. The London Com-
James late in that year. pany had by its second charter obtained

In the spring of 1607 they sent three neAV territory. The Plymouth Company

small vessels to" the domain with 100 emi- desired to secure greater privileges by a

grants, and George, Popham as governor distinct and separate grant, by which they

of the colony. They landed, late in might have the monopoly of the fisheries

August, at a rather sterile place near on the New England coast. The London

the mouth of the Kennebec, Maine, after- Company and private traders warmly op-

229

PLYMOUTH COMPANY

posed them, for they wished to keep these George Calvert, a supporter of the
fisheries free; but they obtained a charter monopoly. "You therefore have no right
from the King, Nov. 3, 1G20, known as to interfere." " We make laws for Vir-
the " Great Patent," and the popular name ginia," retorted another member; " a bill
of the association was changed to " The passed by the Commons and the Lords-,
Council of Plymouth." if it receives the King s assent, will con-
By the new charter all North America, trol the patent." Coke argued (referring
from lat. 40 to 48 N., excepting to many statutes of the realm) that, as
places possessed by " any Christian prince the charter was granted without regard
or people," was granted in full property, to pre-existing rights, it was necessarily
with exclusive rights of jurisdiction, set- void. This attack upon his prerogative
tlement, and traffic, to forty wealthy and stirred the anger of the monarch, who was
influential persons, incorporated as " The sitting near the speaker s chair, and he
Council established at Plymouth, in the blurted out some silly words about the
County of Devon, for the Planting, Rul- " divine right of kings," when the Com
ing, Ordering, and Governing of New Eng- mons, in defiance of his wrath, passed a
land, in America." The line between the bill giving freedom to commerce in spite
London and Plymouth colonies was nearly of the charter.

coincident with that between the late Before the bill had passed through the

slave-labor and free-labor States. But form of legislation the King dissolved the

that powerful organization was not per- Parliament, and forbade by proclamation

mitted to make the first permanent Eng- any vessel to approach the shores of New

lish settlement within its domain ; it was England without the special consent of

done by a handful of feeble liberty-loving the Council of Plymouth. He also caused

people fleeing from persecution in Eng- the imprisonment of Coke, Pym, and other

land. The pretences of the council to an leaders of the Commons, after adjourn-

exclusive right of fishing on the New Eng- ment, for their alleged factious behavior,

land coast were denounced in the House of The next Parliament proceeded to perfect

Commons (1621), soon after the granting what the former one had begun. Under

of the charter, as a " grievance," and a the King s proclamation, the council sent

committee reported that the charter was out Francis West as admiral of New Eng-

vitiated by the clause in it which for- land, to impose a tribute upon fishing-

feited the ships of intruders without the vessels on the northeast coast; but the

sanction of Parliament. final decision of Parliament took away his

That body had not met for seven years, occupation, and virtually destroyed the

and were strongly tinctured with the idea power of the council. Many of the parties

that the people had " divine rights " as withdrew their interests in the company,

well as the King, and acted accordingly, and those who remained, like Gorges, did

Sir Ferdinando Gorges appeared before it little more than issue grants of domain

in defence of the charter. So also was the in the northeastern parts of America.

King there to defend his prerogative if it After the accession of Charles I. (1625)

should be assailed. Sir Edwin Sandys, there was much restiveness concerning

the wise statesman and friend of Virginia, the monopoly, even in its weakened state,

opposed Gorges. Sir Edward Coke, a and the merchants prayed for a revocation

member of Parliament and of the privy of the charter. The Commons, growing

council (who had been lord chief-justice more and more democratic, regarded it as

of England), also opposed the monopo- a royal instrument; churchmen looked

lists; and then began his famous contest upon it as a foe to prelacy, because Puri-

with King James which resulted in a tans were sheltered on its domain ; and

notable exhibition of wrath and despotism Charles, as bigoted a believer in the doc-

on the part of the sovereign. Sandys trine of the " divine right of kings " as his

pleaded for freedom in fishing and in gen- father, suspected the New England eolo-

eral commerce, which was then the staple nists were enjoying liberties inconsistent

source of wealth for England. " America with the royal prerogative. The company

is not annexed to the realm, nor within prepared for its dissolution by dividing

the jurisdiction of Parliament," said north Virginia into twelve royal prov-

230

PLYMOUTH DECLARATION OF BIGHTS PLYMOUTH BOCK

inces, assigning each to persons named, Mayflower had unkindly refused to let the
and at their last meeting (April, 1635) passengers have a variety by sharing their
they caused to be entered upon their own coarse food with them. At times
minutes the following record: "We have that winter the huts at New Plymouth
been bereaved of friends; oppressed by were half buried in snow-drifts. The
losses, expenses, and troubles; assailed Tilgrims trembled in fear of the surround-
before the privy council again and again ing Indians, but felt comforted by the
with groundless charges; weakened by the voice of one of them as he went through
French and other foes without and with- the new village, crying, " Welcome,^ Eng-
in the realm; and what remains is only li?hmen! Welcome, Englishmen!
a breathless carcass. We therefore now was Samoset, who had learned a few Eng-
resign the patent to the King, first re- lish words from English sailors at Mohe-
serving all grants by us made and all gan. He afterwards brought to New
vested rights a patent we have holdcn Plymouth Sqtianto, whom Hunt kid-
about fifteen years." See PLYMOUTH, NEW. napped. Squanto had returned, and

Plymouth Declaration of Bights. In through him an acquaintance and friend-
1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted a body ship were formed with Massasoit. The
of laws called " The General Fundamen- town lay on a slope ; and when, six years
tals." The first article declared " That after the arrival of the Mayflower, it was
re act, imposition, law, or ordinance be visited by Dutch commissioners, the houses
made or imposed upon us at present or to were built of hewn timber, and the whole
come but such as shall be enacted by the village was surrounded by a palisade of
consent of the body of freemen or asso- timbers driven into the ground and point-
ciates, or their representatives legally as- ed at the top, a mile in circuit, and at the
sembled; which is according to the free end of the streets were three gates made
liberties of the freeborn people of Eng- of strong beams. In the centre of the
land." The second article read : " And village was the governor s house, before
for the well governing of this colony, it which was a square enclosure bearing four
is also ordered that there be free elec- mounted swivels. Upon an eminence was
tions annually of governor, deputy gov- a square house, with a flat roof, made of
ernor, and assistants by the vote of the thick sawed planks, stayed with oak
freemen of this corporation." These and beams, upon which were mounted six
other fundamentals are dated 1636, and 5-pounder cannon. The lower part of this
were revised in 1671. The style of enact- building was used for a church, where
mentis: " We, the associates of the colony worshippers were seen with loaded mus-
of New Plimouth, coming hither as free- kets. See PILGRIM: FATHERS.
born subjects of the kingdom of England, Plymouth Bock. The passengers on
endowed with all and singular the privi- the Mayflower, on account of great priva-
leges belonging to each, being assembled, tions and exposure in their winter houses
do enact," etc. The seal adopted by the at New Plymouth, sickened, and a large
Plymouth Colony was called the " Old number of them died before the warm
Colony" seal, because Plymouth Colony spring weather of 1621 arrived. They
was established before Massachusetts Bay were buried near the rock on which
Colony. the great body of the Pilgrims landed.

Plymouth, NEW, universally known as Lest the Indians who might come there
the Plymouth Settlement, was founded should see their weakness by the great
by Pilgrims from Holland in 1620. Their mortality, the graves were seeded over,
first care on landing from the May- und the rock remained the enduring monu-
flower was to build a rude fort and plant ment and guide. Thomas Faunce, who died
five cannon upon it which theyhad brought in 1746, was a ruling elder in the first
with them. Tlien they " fell to building church at New Plymouth, and knew some
houses." Distributed into nineteen fami- of the Mayflower s passengers, who showed
lies, they all worked diligently until near- him the rock on which they landed. On
ly all were prostrated by sickness. There hearing that it was about to be covered
were no delicacies for the sick and very by the erection of a wharf, the venerable
iittle wholesome food. The sailors of the man was so affected that he wept. His

231

POCAHONTAS

tears probably saved that rock from ob- him, one on each side of the "throne. 5
livion, a fragment of which was carefully One of these was Matoa, or Pocahontas,
preserved at New Plymouth. Before the who subsequently made a conspicuous fig-
Kevolution the sea had washed up sand ure in Virginia history. When Smith was

brought before Powhatan, the scene that
ensued was impressive. There were at
least 200 warriors present. The emperor
wore a mantle of raccoon skins and a head
dress of eagle s feathers. The room was
a long house, or arbor, made of boughs.
The warriors stood in rows on each side
in their gayest attire, and back of them as
many women, with their necks painted
red, their heads covered with the white
down of birds, and strings of white beads
falling over their bosoms. The captive
was received with a shout, when the
" Queen of Appomattox " brought water
for him to wash his hands, and another
woman a bunch of feathers to dry them
with. Then he was feasted, and after
wards a solemn council was held, by which
he was doomed to die. Two large stones
were brought before the emperor, when
Smith was dragged to them, his arms were
pinioned, and his head placed upon them.
Pocahontas petitioned her father to spare
the captive s life, but in vain. Huge
clubs were raised by strong men to beat
out his brains, when Pocahontas, the

PLYMOUTH ROCK AND MONUMENT.

and buried the rock. This sand was re
moved, and in attempting to move the rock
it split asunder. The upper half, or shell,
was taken to the middle of the village.
In 1834 it was removed from the town
square to a position in front of Pilgrim
Hall, where it was enclosed in an iron
railing, lost all its historical interest, and
was reduced to a vulgar stone. In Sep
tember, 1880, the citizens wisely took the
fragment back and reunited it to the other
portion, when it resumed its original dig
nity and significance.

Pocahontas. When Capt. John Smith

was on trial before Powhatan, two of the " king s dearest daughter," who, Smith
emperor s daughters occupied seats near says in his narrative, was " sixteen or

232

TOCAIIOXTAS.

POCAHONTAS

POCAHONTAS SAVING THE LIFE OF JOHN SMITH.

eighteen

years " old, sprang from her was ruthlessly torn from her kindred by a
father s side, clasped the prisoner s head rude sea captain and kept a prisoner sev-
\vith her arms, and laid her own head eral months ( see ARGALL, SAMUEL ). That
upon his. wicked act proved a blessing to the colony.
Powhatan yielded to his daughter, and While she was a captive mutual love was
consented to spare Smith, who was released engendered between Pocahontas and John
and sent with an Indian escort to James- Eolfe, a young Englishman of good family
town. The emperor and his people prom- and education. He was a Christian, she
ised to be friends of the English. Two was a pagan. "Is it not my duty," he
years after this event the Indians con- said, "to lead the blind into light?" He
fcpired to exterminate the white people, labored for her enlightenment and conver-
Again Pocahontas was an angel of deliver- sion, and succeeded. The young princess
ance to them. She heard of the plan, and on was baptized at a font " hollowed out like
a dark and stormy night left her father s a canoe" in the little chapel at James-
cabin, sped to Jamestown, informed Smith town, whose columns were rough pine-
of the danger, and was back to her couch trees; its rude pews were of " sweet-
before the dawn. The English regarded smelling cedar," and the rough com-
the gentle Indian princess with great af- munion-table and pulpit of black walnut,
f ection ; and yet, when Smith had left the She received the Christian name of
colony, and the Indians, offended, would Rebecca the first Christian convert in
help them to food no longer, that kind girl Virginia.

233

POCAHONTAS POE

MARRIAGE OF POCAHO\TAS.

Not long afterwards on a charming The " Lady Rebecca " received great at-
day in April, 1613 Pocahontas, with her tentions at Court and from all below it.
father s consent, stood before the chancel She was entertained by the Lord Bishop
of the chapel with Rolfe, a young widower, of London, and at Court she was treated
her affianced, and was married to him by with the respect due to the daughter of a

monarch. The silly
King James was
angry because one
of his subjects
dared marry a lady
of royal blood !
And Captain
Smith, for fear of
displeasing the
royal bigot, would
not allow her to
call him "father/"
as she desired to
do, and her loving
heart was grieved.
The King, in his
absurd dreams of
the divinity of the
royal prerogative,
imagined Rolfe or
his descendants
might claim the
crown of V i r-

the Rev. Mr. Whittaker, the rector. All ginia on behalf of his royal wife; and
the people of Jamestown were pleased spec- he asked the privy council if the hus-
tators. The chapel was trimmed with ever- band had not committed treason! Poca-
greens, wild flowers, and scarlet-berried hontas remained in England about a year ;
holly. Pocahontas was dressed in a sim- and when, with her husband and son,
pie tunic of white muslin from the looms she was about to return to Virginia, with
of Dacca. On her head was a long and her father s chief councillor, she was seized
flowing veil, and hanging loosely to her with small-pox at Gravesend, and died
feet w r as a robe of rich stuff presented by in June, 1617. Her remains lie within
the governor, Sir Thomas Dale, fancifully the parish church-yard at Gravesend. Her
embroidered by herself and her maidens, son, Thomas Rolfe, afterwards became a
A gaudy fillet encircled her head, and distinguished man in Virginia, and his
held the plumage of birds of gorgeous descendants are found among the most
colors, while her wrists and ankles were honorable citizens of that commonwealth,
adorned with the simple jewelry of the Poe, EDGAR ALLAN, poet; born in Bos-
native workshops. When the ceremony ton, Mass., Jan. 19, 1809. His father
was ended, the eucharist was administered, was a lawyer, and his mother was an
with bread from the wheat-fields around English actress. They both died early.
Jamestown and wine from the grapes of The son was adopted by John Allan, a
the adjacent forest. Her brothers and sis- rich merchant, who had no children of
ters and forest maidens were present; also his own, and Edgar was educated partly
the governor and council, and five English- at an academy in Richmond, Va., and at
women all that were in the colony who the University of Virginia. In 1829 he
afterwards returned to England. Rolfe published a volume of his poems. Tlis
and his spouse " lived civilly and lovingly foster-father procured him a cadetship
together " until Governor Dale returned to at West Point. There he neglected his
England (161(5), when they and the Eng- studies, drank to excess, and was expelled,
lishwomen in Virginia accompanied him. After that young Poe s conduct seems

234

POINSETT POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES

to have boon so obnoxious to Mr. Allan Pokanoket Indians. See WAMPANOAG

that he was left unmentioned in that INDIANS.

gentleman s will. Thrown upon his own Poland, LUKE POTTER, jurist; born in
resources, young Poe turned to literature West ford. Vt., Nov. 1, 1815; acquired an
as a means for earning a livelihood, and academic education; was admitted to the
was successful as a writer of both prose bar in 1830; judge of the Supreme Court
and poetry; but his dissipated habits of Vermont 1848-1865, becoming chief-
kept him poor. He married a, charming justice in 1800; and resigned in 1865
young girl, and removed to New York to become United States Senator. He
in 1837. His wife died in 1848. Poe s was a member of Congress in 1867-75 and
most remarkable literary production, The in 1883-85, and chairman of the Ku-Klux
Raven, was published in 1845. At Balti- Klan and Credit Mobilier Investigating
more in October, 1849, he was discover- Committees. He died in Waterville, Vt.,
ed in the streets insensible. He w r as taken July 2, 1887.

to Baltimore, where he died in a hoapi- Political Parties in the United States,

tal, Oct. 7, 1849. Before the Revolution the two political

Poinsett, JOEL ROBERTS, legislator ; parties in America were the Whigs and
born in Charleston, S. C., March 2, 1779; Tories. The latter favored royalty, and
educated at Timothy Dwight s school, the former, including Sons of Liberty,
Greenfield, Conn., at Edinburgh Univer- Liberty Men, and Patriots, advocated in-
sity, and the Woolwich Academy, Eng- dependence. At the close of the Revolu-
land. In 1809 he was sent to the South tion the Whig party divided into Particu-
American states by the President for the larists, favoring State sovereignty and
purpose of inquiring into the prospects advocating confederation ; and Strong Gov-
of the Spanish colonies winning their in- ernment, favoring a constitution. In 1787
dependence. He was a member of Congress the Particularists became Anti-federalists
in 1821-25, and in the latter year was ap- and the Strong Government party Federal-
pointed United States minister to Mexi- ists. Since this, the history of the vari-
co. President Van Buren appointed him ous political parties in the United States
Secretary of War in 1837. He published has been as follows:
his notes on Mexico, made in 1822, with

a historical sketch of the revolution. PRINCIPAL PARTIES.

He died in Statesburg, S. C., Dec. 12, Federal, 1787-1816. Formed from the

1851. Strong Government or Constitutional

Point Pleasant, BATTLE AT. Col. An- party. Elected two Presidents: Washing-
drew Lewis led the left wing of the Vir- ton, two terms, and Adams, one term,
ginia forces in Dunmore s War in the Advocated a tariff; internal revenue;
summer and autumn of 1774. He had funding the public debt; a United States
about 1,200 men, and, crossing the nioun- bank; a militia; assumption of State
tain-ranges, struck the Great Kanawha debt by the government; favored England
and followed it to the Ohio, and there as against France; opposed a war with
encamped, Oct. 6. Expecting Dunmore England and a protective tariff. Wash-
with the right wing, he did not cast up ington, John Adams, Hamilton, Madison,
intrenchments, and in this exposed situ- and Jay were among its principal sup-
ation was attacked (Oct. 10) by 1,000 porters.

chosen warriors of the Western Confed- Democratic - Republican, 1793-1828.

eiacy, led by the giant chief Cornstalk, Formed from the Anti-federal (1787-93),

who came from Pickaway Plains, and the Republican or Jeffersonian party

Logan, the Mingo chief. Fire was kept up (1791-93), and Democrats or sympathiz-

until sunset; and during the night the ers with the French Revolutionists (1791-

Indians retreated, having lost, in killed 93). Elected three Presidents: Jefferson,

and wounded, about 150 men. The Vir- two tenns; Madison, two terms; Monroe,

ginians lost about one-half their commis- two terms. Favored State rights; en-

sioned officers. Their entire loss was larged freedom; France as against Eng-

about seventy killed and a large number land; war with England; internal im-

wounded. provement; purchase of Louisiana; pur-

235

POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES

chase of Florida; Missouri Compromise, tariff; free ballot; generous pension legis-
1820; Monroe doctrine; free-trade in lation; decided increase of the navy and
1800 and a protective tariff in 1828. coast defence. Opposed the free coinage
Democratic, 1828. The Democratic-Re- of silver. This party, while showing
publican party divided into four parts in many able men, has never had a
the Presidential campaign of 1824 and leader. It has maintained its na-
nover reappeared again in a national con- tional position through the principles it
test. The Democratic (and Whig) party has advocated. Remark: Both the Demo-
was constructed out of its ruins. Has cratic and Republican, as the chief parties,
elected six Presidents: Jackson, two recognize and assume to legislate on all
terms; Van Buren, Polk, Pierce, Buchan- questions of national importance viz.,
an, one term; Cleveland, two terms. Fa- civil-service reform; woman s suffrage;
vored internal improvements; State free ballot; justice to the laboring classes;
banks; removal of deposits; sub-treasury; private interests as against monopolies;
State rights; free-trade; tariff for revenue the general finances of the country; tern-
only; annexation of Texas; Mexican War; perance, etc.
compromise of 1850; Monroe doctrine;

...... i MINOR PARTIES.

Dred Scott decision; fugitive slave law;

acquisition of Cuba; frugal public ex- Anti-federalist. A contimiation of the

pcnse; free coinage of silver at the ratio Particularists. See Democratic - Republi-

of 1C to 1. Opposed agitation of the can on page 235.

slavery question in any form or place; co- Peace Party, 1812-15. Composed of

ercion of the seceded States; the amelio- Democratic-Republicans and Federalists,

ration of the condition of the freed nc- mostly in New England. Opposed the

groes; freedmen s bureau; Chinese immi- War of 1812. See HARTFORD CONVENTION.

gration; strong government; opposes in OUwtonions, 1812. An offshoot of the

general the policy of the other party in Democratic-Republican party who opposed

power. l oll g terms of office, caucus nominations, a-

\\ hig, 1834-54. Formed from a union Virginia President, and an official regency.
of the National Republicans and disrupted United with the Federalists. Nominated De
Democratic - Republicans. Elected two Witt Clinton, of New York, for President.
Presidents: Harrison and Taylor. Fa- People s Party, 1824. An offshoot of
vored non-extension of slavery; slavery the Democratic-Republicans in New York,
agitation i. e., right of petition and free who favored the choosing of electors by the
circulation of anti-slavery documents; a people instead of State legislatures. Sup-
United States bank ; protective tariff; vig- ported William H. Crawford for Presi-
orous internal improvements; compromise dent.

of 1850. Opposed the Seminole War; an- Coalition, 1825. So called from the

riexation of Texas; Mexican War; State union of the supporters of Clay with those

rights; Democratic policy towards sla- of John Quincy Adams in the House, thus

very. Principal leaders of this party, giving the Presidency to Adams.

Webster and Clay. Anti-masonic, 1827-34. Consisted of

Republican, 1854. Formed from other those who believed the members of the

parties, principally from the Whig party, Masonic fraternity held their civil obliga-

on the issues of the slavery question. Has tions subordinate to their fraternal, hence

elected six Presidents: Lincoln, two unworthy to hold office. See MORGAN,

terms; "Grant, two terms; Hayes, Gar- WILLIAM.

field, and Harrison, one term; McKinley, National - Republican, 1828-34. The

two terms. Favored the suppression of broad-construction wing of the Demo-

slavery; suppression of the rebellion; all cratic-Republican party. For internal im-

constitutional means to accomplish it, provements, protection, and a United

financial and otherwise; emancipation of States bank; for dividing proceeds of land

slaves; prohibition of slavery throughout sales among States. Opposed to the spoils

the United States; full citizenship to the system. United to form the Whig party,

emancipated slaves; Monroe doctrine; full 1834. Supported John Quincy Adams,

payment of the national debt; protective 1828. and Henry Clay, 1832.

230

POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES

.V unification, 1831-33. A South Caro- tion of local temperance organizations, be-

lina party organized by Calhoun. See came
SOUTH CAROLINA. Prohibition, 1876. For legal prohibi-

Libcral Parly, 1840-48. Founded at a tion; female suffrage; direct Presidential

national convention of abolitionists at vote; currency convertible into coin.

Albany, N. Y., deriving additional strength Nominated James Black from Pennsyl-

froin Whigs and Democrats. For the im- vania for President, 1872; Green Clay

mediate abolition of slavery, and equal Smith, 1876; Neal Dow, 1880; John P.

rights. Against the fugitive-slave clause St. John, 1884; C. B. Fisk, 1888; John

of the Constitution. Nominated James Bidwell, 1892; Joshua Levering, 1896;

G. Birney for President, 1839, and again John G. Woolley, 1900.
in 1843. Withdrew their candidates and Greenback, 1874; became National,

joined the Free-soil party in 1848. Greenback, 1878; became Union Labor,

Free-soil Party, 1848-54. Formed from 1887. Unlimited coinage of gold and sil-

the Liberty party, Democrats, and Whigs, ver; substitution of greenbacks for na-

Chief cause of its appearance, opposition tional bank notes; suffrage without re-

lo slavery. Merged into the Republican gard to sex; legislation in the interest of

party. Nominated Martin Van Buren the laboring classes, etc. Nominated

for President, 1848, and John P. Hale, Peter Cooper for President, 1876; James

1852. B. Weaver, 1880; Benjamin F. Butler,

American, 1852-60. Generally known 1884; Alson J. Streeter, 1888. These vari-

as the " Know-nothing party." Formed ous elements, uniting with the " Farmers

from members of other parties dissatisfied Alliance," form the

with the influx and power of the foreign People s or Populists Party, 1891. A
element. Favored more stringent natural- meeting was held at St. Louis, December,
ization laws; reserved rights of States. 1889, of the "Farmers and Laborers
Opposed foreign immigration; suffrage Union of America," for the purpose of
and office-holding by foreign-born citizens; consolidating the various bodies of organ-
efforts to reject the Bible from the public ized farmers in the United States, which
schools, etc. Nominated Millard Fillmore had at different times and places formed
for President in 1856. Merged into the since 1867, and known under the gen-
Constitutional Union party in 1860. eral term of " The Granger Movement."
See KNOW-NOTHING PARTY. This meeting was a success, and the con-

Douglas Democrats, I860. Northern solidated body was called the "Farmers

Democrats, supporters of Stephen A. Alliance and Industrial Union." Dec. 2,

Douglas in the disruption of the Demo- 1890, a national convention was held at

cratic party in 1860. Ocala, Fla. ; thirty-five States and Terri-

Breckinridge Democrats, 1860. South- tories were represented by 163 delegates:

ern Democrats, supporters of Breckinridge at this convention independent political

in 1860. action was decided upon, and a platform

Constitutional Union Party, 1860. adopted embracing the following prin-

Democrats, for the Union, the Constitu- ciples: (1) The abolition of the national

tion, and the enforcement of law; sup- banks, establishment of sub-treasuries to

porters of Bell and Everett. loan money to the people at 2 per cent.,

Liberal Republicans, 1S72. Formed by increase of circulation to $50 per capita;
dissatisfied Republicans, formerly mostly (2) laws to suppress gambling in agricult-
w;ir Democrats. Favored greater leniency ural products; (3) unlimited coinage of
towards the Confederates. Nominated silver; (4) laws prohibiting alien owner-
Horace Greeley for President, 1872. ship of land, and to permit the ownership

"Straight-out" Democrats, 1872. The of land in actual use only: (5) restricting
"Tap-root" Democrats, displeased by the tariff; (6) government to control rail-
nomination of Greeley by the Regular roads, telegraphs, etc.; (7) direct vote of
Democrats, nominated Charles O Conor for the people for President, Vice-President,
President; declined, but received about and United States Senators. Second con-
30,000 popular votes. vention held at Cincinnati, May 19, 1891 ;

Temperance, 1872. A national combina- thirty States and Territories represented

237

POLK

with 1,418 delegates; at this convention United Christian Party, in 1900 nomi-

the platform of Ocala, Fla., 1890, was nated J. F. R. Leonard, of Iowa, for Presi

heartily endorsed and the party given the dent.

name of " People s party." Third national

meeting at St. Louis, Feb. 22, 1892. Na- LOCAL PABTIES AND POUTICAL NAMES -

tional convention for the nominating of Abolitionists. Abolitionists.

President and Vice-President held at Anti-Renters. Anti-Rentism.

Omaha, July 4, 1892; James B. Weaver, Anti-Nebraska. Opposers of the Kan-

of Iowa, nominated for President, and sas-Nebraska bill, 1854.

James G. Field, of Virginia, for Vice-Presi- Barnburners. Barnburners.

dent. United with the Democrats in 1896 Bucktails. Democratic followers of

and 1900 in nominating William J. Bryan. Madison in 1816.

Socialist Labor. First national con- Doughfaces. Doughfaces,

vention held in New York City, Aug. 28, Half-breeds. A term of contempt be-

1892, and nominated Simon Wing, of stowed by the Stalwarts upon those who

Massachusetts for President, and Charles supported the administration of President

H. Matchett, of Brooklyn, N. Y., for Vice- Hayes and opposed the nomination of

President. Nominated Charles H. Match- Grant for a third term, etc. MUGWUMPS.

ett in 1896. Joseph F. Malloney in 1900. Hunkers. Barnburners.

National Democrats, 1896. Formed by Independent Republicans. Started in

Democrats who opposed free silver. Nomi- 1879 in opposition to Senator Conkling s

nated John N. Palmer, of Illinois, for leadership of the party. MUGWUMPS.

President; Simon B. Buckner, of Ken- Ku-klux Klan. Ku-klux Klan.

tucky, for Vice-President. Loco-foco. Loco-foco.

Silver Republican. United with the Readjusters, 1878. A division of the

Democratic party in nominating William Democratic party in Virginia advocating

J. Bryan for President. the funding of the State debt at 3 per

National Party, 1896. For prohibition cent.; under the leadership of General

and free silver. Nominated Charles E. Mahone.

Bentley, of Nebraska, for President; James Silver Grays. Silver Grays.

H. Southgate, of North Carolina, for Vice- Stahvarts. A branch of the Republican

President. Name was changed to Liberty party, followers of Conkling, Cameron, and

party in 1897. Logan, opposed to the reconciling course

Middle-of-the-road, or Anti-fusion Peo- of President Hayes towards the South.

pie s Party, in 1900 nominated Wharton Favored the nomination of Grant for a

Barker, of Pennsylvania, for President. third term. Opposers of Blaine, etc.

Union Reform Party, nominated Seth Tammany. Tammany.

II. Ellis, of Ohio, for President in 1900. Woman s Rights. Belva Lockwood con-

Social Democratic, nominated Eugene stituted herself a candidate for President

V. Debs for President in 1900. in 1876.

POLK, JAMES KNOX

Polk, JAMES KNOX, eleventh President tion of John Quincy Adams. He was
of the United States; from 1845 to 1849; speaker of the House of Representatives
Democrat; born in Mecklenburg county, from 1835 to 1837, and in 1839, having
N. C., Nov. 2, 1795. His ancestral name served fourteen years in Congress, he de-
was Pollock, and he was of Scotch-Irish clined a re-election. He was a candidate
descent. He graduated at the Uni- for the Vice-Presidency in 1840, but was
versity of North Carolina in 1818; ad- defeated. In 1844 the Democratic Nation-
mitted to the bar in 1820. Three years al Convention at Baltimore nominated
afterwards he was a member of the legis- him for the Presidency, chiefly becaiise
lature of Tennessee and was sent a dele- he was strongly in favor of the annexa-
gate to Congress in 1825, where he was tion of Texas, a favorite measure of the
a conspicuous opponent of the administra- Southern politicians, and he was elected,

238

POLK, JAMES KNOX

his opponents being Henry Clay and Omnipotence to sustain and direct me in

James G. Birney (see CABINET, PRESI- the path which I am appointed to pursue,

DENT S). During his administration, the I stand in the presence of this assembled

most important event was a war with multitude of my countrymen to take upon

Mexico from 1840 to 1848. The other myself the solemn obligation " to the best of

chief events of his administration were my ability to preserve, protect, and defend

the establishment of an independent treas- the Constitution of the United States."

ury system, the enactment of a low tariff A concise enumeration of the principles

system, and the creation of the Depart- which will guide me in the administrative

ment of the Interior. Three months after policy of the government is not only in

he retired from office, he was seized with accordance with the examples set me by

illness and died in Nashville, Tenn., June all my predecessors, but is eminently be-

15, 1849. fitting the occasion.

Inaugural Address. On March 4, 1845, The Constitution itself, plainly written

President Polk delivered the following as it is, the safeguard of our federative

inaugural address: compact, the offspring of concession and

compromise, binding together in the bonds

Fellow - citizens, Without solicitation of peace and union this great and increas-

on my part, I have been chosen by the ing family of free and independent States,

free and voluntary suffrages of my coun- will be the chart by which I shall be di-

trymen to the most honorable and most rected.

responsible office on earth. I am deeply It will be my first care to administer

impressed with gratitude for the con- the government in the true spirit of that

fidence reposed in me. Honored with this instrument, and to assume no powers not

distinguished consideration at an earlier expressly granted or clearly implied in

period of life than any of my predecessors, its terms.

I cannot disguise the diffidence with which The government of the United States

I am about to enter on the discharge of is one of delegated and limited powers,

my official duties. and it is by a strict adherence to the clear -

If the more aged and experienced men ly granted powers and by abstaining from

who have filled the office of President of the exercise of doubtful or unauthorized

the United States even in the infancy of implied powers that we have the only

the republic distrusted their ability to dis- sure guarantee against the recurrence of

charge the duties of that exalted station, those unfortunate collisions between the

what ought not to be the apprehensions of federal and State authorities which have

one so much younger and less endowed occasionally so much disturbed the har-

now that our domain extends from ocean mony of our system and even threatened

to ocean, that our people have so greatly the perpetuity of our glorious Union,

increased in numbers, and at a time when " To the States, respectively, or to the

so great diversity of opinion prevails in people " have been reserved " the powers

regard to the principles and policy which not delegated to the United States by the

should characterize the administration of Constitution nor prohibited by it to the

our government? Well may the boldest States." Each State is a complete sover-

fear and the wisest tremble when incur- eignty within the sphere of its reserved

ring responsibilities on which may depend powers. The government of the Union, act-

our country s peace and prosperity, and in ing within the sphere of its delegated au-

some degree the hopes and happiness of thority, is also a complete sovereignty,

the whole human family. while the general government should ab-

In assuming responsibilities so vast I stain from the exercise of authority not

fervently invoke the aid of that Almighty clearly delegated to it, the States should

Ruler of the Universe in whose hands are be equally careful that in the maintenance

the destinies of nations and of men to of their rights they do not overstep the

guard this heaven-favored land against limits of powers reserved to them. One

the mischiefs which without His guidance of the most distinguished of my predeces-

might arise from an unwise public policy, sors attached deserved importance to " the

With a firm reliance upon the wisdom of support of the State governments in all

239

POLK, JAMES KNOX

their rights, as the most competent ad
ministration for our domestic concerns
and the surest bulwark against anti-re
publican tendencies," and to the " preser
vation of the general government in its
whole constitutional vigor as the sheet-
anchor of our peace at home and safety
abroad."

To the government of the United States
has been intrusted the exclusive manage
ment of our foreign affairs. Beyond that
it wields a few general enumerative powers.
It does not force reform on the States. It
leaves individuals, over whom it casts its
protecting influence, entirely free to im
prove their own condition by the legiti
mate exercise of all their mental and
physical powers. It is a common protec
tor of each and all the States; of every
man who lives upon our soil, whether of
native or foreign birth; of every religious
sect, in their worship of the Almighty ac
cording to the dictates of their own con
science; of every shade of opinion, and
the most free inquire; of every art, trade,
and occupation consistent with the laws of
the States. And we rejoice in the general
happiness, prosperity, and advancement
of our country, which have been the off
spring of freedom, and not of power.

This most admirable and wisest system
of well-regulated self-government among
men ever devised by human minds has
been tested by its successful operation for
more than half a century, and if preserved
from the usurpations of the federal gov
ernment on the one hand and the exercise
by the States of powers not reserved to
them on the other, will, I fervently hope
and believe, endure for ages to come and
dispense the blessings of civil and relig
ious liberty to distant generations. To
effect objects so dear to every patriot I
shall devote myself with anxious solici
tude. It will be my desire to guard
against that most fruitful source of dan
ger to the harmonious action of our sys
tem which consists in substituting the
mere discretion and caprice of the ex
ecutive or of majorities in the legislative
department of the government for powers
which have been withheld from the federal
government by the Constitution. By the
theory of our government majorities rule,
but this right is not an arbitrary or un
limited one. It is a right to be exercised

in subordination to the Constitution, and
in conformity to it. One great object of
the Constitution was to restrain majorities
from oppressing minorities or encroach
ing upon their just rights. Minorities
have a right to appeal to the Constitution
as a shield against such oppression.

That the blessings of liberty which our
Constitution secures may be enjoyed alike
by minorities and majorities, the ex
ecutive has been wisely invested with a
qualified veto upon the acts of the legis
lature. It is a negative power, and is con
servative in its character. It arrests for
the time hasty, inconsiderate, or uncon
stitutional legislation, invites reconsider
ation, and transfers questions at issue be
tween the legislative and executive depart
ments to the tribunal of the people. Like
all other powers, it is subject to be abused.
When judiciously and properly exercised,
the Constitution itself may be saved from
infraction, and the rights of all preserved
and protected.

The inestimable value of our federal
Union is felt ami acknowledged by all. By
this system of united and confederated
States our people are permitted collective
ly and individually to seek their own hap
piness in their own way, and the con
sequences have been most auspicious.
Since the Union was formed the number
of the States has increased from thirteen
to twenty-eight; two of these have taken
their positions as members of the confed
eracy within the last week. Our popu
lation has increased from 3,000,000 to 20,-
000,000. New communities and States are
seeking protection under its *gis, and mul
titudes from the Old World are flocking
to our shores to participate in its bless
ings. Beneath its benign sway peace and
prosperity prevail. Freed from the bur
dens and miseries of war, our trade and
intercourse have extended throughout the
world. Mind, no longer tasked in devising
means to accomplish or resist schemes of
ambition, usurpation, or conquest, is de
voting itself to man s true interests in de
veloping his faculties and powers, and the
capacity of nature to minister to his en
joyments. Genius is free to announce its
inventions and discoveries, and the hand is
free to accomplish whatever the head con
ceives not incompatible with the rights of
a fellow-being. All distinctions of birth or

240

POLK, JAMES KNOX

rank have been abolished. All citizens, It is a source of deep regret that in

whether native or adopted, are placed upon some sections of our country misguided

terms of precise equality; all are entitled persons have occasionally indulged in

to equal rights and equal protection. No schemes and agitations whose object is the

union exists between Church and State, destruction of domestic institutions exist-

and perfect freedom of opinion is guaran- ing in other sections institutions which

teed to all sects and creeds. existed at the adoption of the Constitu-

These are some of the blessings secured tion and were recognized and protected

to our happy land by our federal union, by it. All must see that if it were pos-

To perpetuate them it is our sacred duty sible for them to be successful in attaining

to preserve it. Who shall assign limits to their object the dissolution of the Union

the achievements of free minds and free and the consequent destruction of our

hands under the protection of this glorious happy form of government must speedily

Union? No treason to mankind since the follow.

organization of society would be equal I am happy to believe that at every
in atrocity to that of him who would period of our existence as a nation there
lift his hand to destroy it. He would has existed, and continues to exist, among
overthrow the noblest structure of human the great mass of our people a devotion
wisdom, which protects himself and his to the Union of the States which will
fellow-man. He would stop the progress shield and protect it against the moral
of free government and involve his coun- treason of any who would seriously con-
try either in anarchy or despotism. He template its destruction. To secure a
would extinguish the fire of liberty, which continuance of that devotion the corn-
warms and animates the hearts of happy promises of the Constitution must not
millions and invites all the nations of the only be preserved, but sectional jealousies
earth to imitate our example. If he say and heart-burnings must be discounte-
that error and wrong are committed in nanced, and all should remember that
the administration of the government, let they are members of the same political
him remember that nothing human can be family, having a common destiny. To
perfect, and that under no other system increase the attachment of our people to
of government revealed by heaven or de- the Union, our laws should be just. Any
vised by man has reason been allowed so policy which shall tend to favor monopo-
free and broad a scope to combat error, lies or the peculiar interests of sections or
Has the sword of the despots proved to be classes must operate to the prejudices of
a safer or surer instrument of reform in the interests of their fellow-citizens, and
government than enlightened reason? should be avoided. If the compromises of
Does he expect to find among the ruins the Constitution be preserved, if sectional
of this Union a happier abode for our jealousies and heart-burnings be discoun-
swarming millions than they now have tenanced, if our laws be just and the
under it? Every lover of his country government be practically administered
must shudder at the thought of the pos- strictly within the limits of power pre-
sibility of its dissolution, and will be scribed to it, we may discard all appre-
ready to adopt the patriotic sentiment, hensions for the safety of the Union.
" Our Federal Union it must be pre- With these views of the nature, char-
served." To preserve it the compromises acter, and objects of the government, and
which alone enabled our fathers to form the value of the Union, I shall steadily op-
a common constitution for the government pose the creation of those institutions and
and protection of so many States and dis- systems which in their nature tend to per-
tinct communities, of such diversified vert it from its legitimate purposes and
habits, interests, and domestic institutions, make it the instrument of sections, classes,
must be sacredly and religiously observed, and individuals. We need no national
Any attempt to disturb or destroy these banks or other extraneous institutions
compromises, being terms of the compact planted around the government to control
of union, can lead to none other than or strengthen it in opposition to the will
the most ruinous and disastrous con- of its authors. Experience has taught us
sequences. how unnecessary they are as auxiliaries of
VIT. Q 241

POLK, JAMES KNOX

the public authorities how impotent for One of the difficulties which we have had

good and how powerful for mischief. to encounter in the practical administra-

Ours was intended to be a plain and tion of the government consists in the ad-
frugal government, and I shall regard it justment of our revenue laws, and the levy
to be my duty to recommend to Congress of the taxes necessary for the support of
and, as far as the executive is concerned, the government. In the general proposi-
to enforce by all the means within my tion that no more money shall be collected
power the strictest economy in the ex- than the necessities of an economical ad-
penditure of the public money which may ministration shall require all parties seem
be compatible with the public interests. to acquiesce. Nor does there seem to bo
A national debt has become almost an any material difference of opinion as to
institution of European monarchies. It is the absence of right in the government to
viewed in some of them as an essential tax one section of country, or one class
prop to existing governments. Melancholy of citizens, or one occupation, for the mere
is the condition of that people whose gov- profit of another. " Justice and sound
ernment can be sustained only by a system policy forbid the federal government to
which periodically transfers large amounts foster one branch of industry to the detri-
from the labor of the many to the coffers ment of another, or to cherish the inter-
of the few. Such a system is Incompatible ests of one portion to the injury of an-
with the ends for which our republican other portion of our common country."
government was instituted. Under a wise I have heretofore declared to my fellow-
policy the debts contracted in our Rev- citizens that " in my judgment it is the
olution and during the War of 1812 have duty of the government to extend, as
been happily extinguished. By a judicious far as it may be practicable to do so, by
application of the revenues not required its revenue laws and all other means
for other necessary purposes, it is not within its power, fair and just protection
doubted that the debt which has grown to all the great interests of the whole
out of the circumstances of the last few Union, embracing agriculture, manufact-
years may be speedily paid off. ures, the mechanic arts, commerce, and

I congratulate my fellow-citizens on the navigation." I have also declared my

entire restoration of the credit of the opinion to be " in favor of a tariff for

general government of the Union, and that revenue," and that " in adjusting the de-

of many of the States. Happy would it tails of such a tariff I have sanctioned

be for the indebted States if they were such moderate discriminating duties as

freed from their liabilities, many of which would produce the amount of revenue

were incautiously contracted. Although needed, and at the same time afford rea-

the government of the Union is neither in sonable incidental protection to our home

a legal nor a moral sense bound for the industry," and that I was " opposed to a

debts of the States, and it would be a tariff for protection merely, and not for

violation of our compact of union to as- revenue."

sume them, yet we cannot but feel a deep The power " to lay and collect taxes,
interest in seeing all the States meet their duties, imposts, and excises " was an in-
public liabilities and pay off their just dispensable one to be conferred on the
debts at the earliest practicable period, federal government, which without it
That they will do so as soon as it can be would possess no means of providing for
done without imposing too heavy burdens its own support. In executing this power
on their citizens there is no reason to by levying a tariff of duties for the sup-
doubt. The sound moral and honorable port of the government, the raising of rev-
feeling of the people of the indebted enue should be the object and protection
States cannot be questioned, and we are the incident. To reverse this principle
happy to perceive a settled disposition and make protection the object and reve-
on their part, as their ability returns after nue the incident would be to inflict in-
a season of unexampled pecuniary em- justice upon all other than the protected
barrassment, to pay off all just demands interests. In levying duties for revenue it
and to acquiesce in any reasonable meas- is doubtless proper to make such discrim-
ures to accomplish that object. inations within the revenue principle as

242

POLK, JAMES KNOX

will afford incidental protection to our tribute the burdens as equally as possible

home interests. Within the revenue limit among them.

there is a discretion to discriminate; be- The republic of Texas has made known
yond that limit the rightful exercise of the her desire to come into our Union, to form
power is not conceded. The incidental a part of our confederacy and enjoy with
protection afforded to our home interests us the blessings of liberty secured and
by discriminations within the revenue guaranteed by our Constitution. Texas
range it is believed will be ample. In was once a part of our country was un
making discriminations all our home in- wisely ceded away to a foreign power
terests should as far as practicable be is now independent, and possesses an un
equally protected. The largest portion of doubted right to dispose of a part or the
our people are agriculturists. Others are whole of her territory and to merge her
employed in manufactures, commerce, sovereignty as a separate and independent
navigation, and the mechanic arts. They State in ours. I congratulate my country
are all engaged in their respective pur- that by an act of the late Congress of the
suits, and their joint labors constitute the United States the assent of this govern-
national or home industry. To tax one ment has been given to the reunion, and it
branch of this home industry for the bene- only remains for the two countries to
fit of another would be unjust. No one agree upon the terms to consummate an
of these interests can rightfully claim an object so important to both,
advantage over the others, or to be en- I regard the question of annexation as
riched by impoverishing the others. All belonging exclusively to the United States
are equally entitled to the fostering care and Texas. They are independent powers
and protection of the government. In ex- competent to contract, and foreign na-
ercising a sound discretion in levying dis- tions have no right to interfere with them
criminating duties within the limit pre- or to take exceptions to their reunion,
scribed, care should be taken that it be Foreign powers do not seem to appreciate
done in a manner not to benefit the the true character of our government,
wealthy few at the expense of the toiling Our Union is a confederation of indepen-
millions by taxing lowest the luxuries of dent States, whose policy is peace with
life, or articles of superior quality and each other and all the world. To enlarge
high price, which can only be consumed its limits is to extend the dominions of
by the wealthy, and highest the necessa- peace over additional territories and in-
ries of life, or articles of coarse quality creasing millions. The world has nothing
and low price, which the poor and great to fear from military ambition in our
mass of our people must consume. The government. While the chief magistrate
burdens of government should as far as and the popular branch of Congress are
practicable be distributed justly and elected for short terms by the suffrages
equally among all classes of our popula- of those millions who must in their own
tion. These general views, long entertain- persons bear all the burdens and miseries
ed on this subject, I have deemed it prop- of war, our government cannot be other-
er to reiterate. It is a subject upon wise than pacific. Foreign powers should
which conflicting interests of sections and therefore look on the annexation of Texas
occupations are supposed to exist, and a to the United States, not as the conquest
spirit of mutual concession and compro- of a nation seeking to extend her domin-
mise in adjusting its details should be ions by arms and violence, but as the
cherished by every part of our wide- peaceful acquisition of a territory once
spread country as the only means of her own, by adding another member to
preserving harmony and a cheerful ac- our confederation, with the consent of that
quiescence of all in the operation of our member, thereby diminishing the chances
revenue laws. Our patriotic citizens in of war, and opening to them new and
every part of the Union will readily ever-increasing markets for their prod-
submit to the payment of such taxes ucts.

as shall be needed for the support of To Texas the reunion is important, be-

their government, whether in peace or cause the strong protecting arm of our

in war, if they are so levied as to dis- government would be extended over her,

243

POLK, JAMES KNOX

and the vast resources of her fertile soil tier obstructions which must occur if she
and genial climate should be speedily de- remains out of the Union? Whatever is
veloped, while the safety of New Orleans good or evil in the local institutions of
and of our whole Southwestern frontier Texas will remain her own whether an-
against hostile aggression, as well as the nexed to the United States or not. None
interests of the whole Union, would be of the present States will be responsible
promoted by it. for them any more than they are for

In the earlier stages of our national the local institutions of each other. They
existence the opinion prevailed with some have confederated together for certain
that our system of confederated States specified objects. Upon the same prin-
could not operate successfully over an ex- ciple that they would refuse to form a
tended territory, and serious objections perpetual union with Texas because of
have at different times been made to the her local institutions our forefathers would
enlargement of our boundaries. These ob- have been prevented from forming our
jections were earnestly urged when we present Union. Perceiving no valid objec-
acquired Louisiana. Experience has shown tion to the measure, and many reasons
that they were not well founded. The for its adoption vitally affecting the peace,
title of numerous Indian tribes to vast the safety, and the prosperity of both
tracts of country has been extinguished; countries, I shall on the broad principle
new States have been admitted into the which formed the basis and produced the
Union; new Territories have been created adoption of our Constitution, and not in
and our jurisdiction and laws extended any narrow spirit of sectional policy, en-
over them. As our population has ex- deavor by all constitutional, honorable,
panded, the Union has been cemented and and appropriate means to consummate
strengthened. As our boundaries have been the expressed will of the people and gov-
enlarged and our agricultural population ernment of the United States by the re-
has been spread over a large surface, our annexation of Texas to our Union at the
federative system has acquired addition- earliest practicable period,
al strength and security. It may well Nor will it become in a less degree my
be doubted whether it would not be in duty to assert and maintain by all con-
greater danger of overthrow if our pres- stitutional means \ he right of the United
ent population were confined to the com- States to that portion of our territory
paratively narrow limits of the original which lies beyond the Rocky Mountains,
thirteen States than it is now that they Our title to the country of the Oregon
are sparsely settled over a more expand- is " clear and unquestionable," and already
ed territory. It is confidently believed are our people preparing to perfect that
that our system may be safely extended title by occupying it with their wives
to the utmost bounds of our territorial and children. But eighty years ago our
limits, and that as it shall be extended population was confined on the west by
the bonds of our Union, so far from being the ridge of the Alleghanies. Within that
weakened, will become stronger. period within the lifetime, I might say,

None can fail to see the danger to our of some of my hearers our people, in-
safety and future peace if Texas remains creasing to many millions, have filled the
an independent State, or becomes an ally eastern valley of the Mississippi, advent-
or dependency of some foreign nation more urously ascended the Missouri to its head-
powerful than herself. Is there one among springs, and are already engaged in estab-
our citizens who would not prefer per- lishing the blessings of self-government in
petual peace with Texas to occasional wars, valleys of which the rivers flow to the
which so often occur between bordering Pacific. The world beholds the peaceful
independent nations ? Is there one who triumphs of the industry of our emigrants,
would not prefer free intercourse with To us belongs the duty of protecting them
her to high duties on all our products adequately wherever they may be upon
and manufactures which enter her ports our soil. The jurisdiction of our laws
or cross her frontiers? Is there one who and the benefits of our republican insti-
would not prefer an unrestricted com- tutions should be extended over them in
munication with her citizens to the fron- the distant regions which they have se-

244

POLK, JAMES KNOX

lected for their homes. The increasing ions and judgments, and that the rights
facilities of intercourse will easily bring of all are entitled to respect and regard,
the States, of which the formation in that Confidently relying upon the aid and
part of our territory cannot be long de- assistance of the co-ordinate departments
layed, within the sphere of our federative of the government in conducting our pub-
Union. In the mean time, every obligation He affairs, I enter upon the discharge of
imposed by treaty or conventional stipula- the high duties which have been assigned
tions should be sacredly respected. me by the people, again humbly suppli-

In the management of our foreign re- eating that Divine Being who has watched
lations it will be my aim to observe a over and protected our beloved country
careful respect for the rights of other na- from its infancy to the present hour to
tions, while our own will be the subject of continue His gracious benedictions upon
constant watchfulness. Equal and exact us, that we may continue to be a pros-
justice should characterize all our inter- perous and happy people,
course with foreign countries. All alliances Special Message on Mexico. Qn May
having a tendency to jeopard the welfare H, 1846, President Polk sent the follow-
and honor of our country, or sacrifice any ing special message, on the Mexican situa-
one of the national interests, will be stu- lion to the Congress:
diously avoided, and yet no opportunity will

be lost to cultivate a favorable understand- WASHINGTON, Nay 11, 18J t 6.

ing with foreign governments by which our To the Senate and House of Representa-

navigation and commerce may be extend- tives, The existing state of the relations

ed, and the ample products of our fertile between the United States and Mexico

soil, as well as the manufactures of our renders it proper that 1 should bring the

skilled artisans, find a ready market and subject to the consideration of Congress,

remunerating prices in foreign countries. In my message at the commencement of

In taking " care that the laws be faith- your present session the state of these
fully executed," a strict performance of relations, the causes which led to the
duty will be exacted from all public offi- suspension of diplomatic intercourse be-
cers. From those officers, especially, who tv/een the two countries in March, 1S45,
are charged with the collection and dis- and the long-continued and unredressed
bursement of the public revenue will wrongs and injuries committed by the
prompt and rigid accountability be re- Mexican government on citizens of the
quired. Any culpable failure or delay on United States in their persons and prop-
their part to account for the moneys in- crty were briefly set forth.
trusted to them at the times and in the As the facts and opinions which were
manner required by law will in every then laid before you were carefully con-
instance terminate the official connection sidered, I cannot better express my present
of such defaulting officer with the gov- convictions of the condition of affairs up
eminent. to that time than by referring you to that

Although in our country the chief communication.

magistrate must almost of necessity be The strong desire to establish peace
chosen by a party and stand pledged to with Mexico on liberal and honorable
its principles and measures, yet in his terms, and the readiness of this govern-
official action he should not be the Presi- ment to regulate and adjust our boundary
dent of a part only but of the whole and other causes of difference with that
people of the United States. While he power on such fair and equitable prin-
executes the laws with an impartial ciples as would lead to permanent rela-
hand, shrinks from no proper responsi- tions of the most friendly nature, induced
bility, and faithfully carries out in the me in September last to seek the reopen-
executive department of the government ing of diplomatic relations between the
the principles and policy of those who two countries. Every measure adopted
have chosen him, he should not be un- on our part had for its object the further-
mindfol that our fellow-citizens who have ance of these desired results. In corn-
differed with him in opinion are entitled municating to Congress a succinct state-
to the full and free exercise of their opin- ment of the injuries which we have suf-

245

POLK, JAMES KNOX

fered from Mexico, and which have been much-injured and long-suffering citizens,

accumulating during a period of more many of which had existed for more than

than twenty years, ever.y expression that twenty years, should be postponed or

could tend to inflame the people of Mexico separated from the settlement of the

or defeat or delay a pacific result was boundary question.

carefully avoided. An envoy of the United Mr. Slidell arrived at Vera Cruz on
States repaired to Mexico with full powers Nov. 30, and was courteously received by
to adjust every existing difference. But the authorities of that city. But the
though present on the Mexican soil by government of General Herrera was then
agreement between the two governments, tottering to its fall. The revolutionary
invested with full powers, and bearing party had seized upon the Texas question
evidence of the most friendly dispositions, to effect or hasten its overthrow. Its de-
his mission has been unavailing. The termination to restore friendly relations
Mexican government not only refused to with the United States, and to receive
receive him or listen to his propositions, our minister to negotiate for the settle-
but after a long-continued series of men- nient of this question was violently as-
aces have at last invaded our territory sailed, and was made the great theme
and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens of denunciation against it. The govern-
on our own soil. ment of General Herrera, there is good
It now becomes my duty to state more reason to believe, was sincerely desirous
in detail the origin, progress, and failure to receive our minister; but it yielded to
of that mission. In pursuance of the in- the storm raised by its enemies, and upon
structions given in September last, an Dec. 21 refused to accredit Mr. Slidell
inquiry was made on Oct. 13, 1845, in the upon the most frivolous pretexts. These
most friendly terms, through our consul are so fully and ably exposed in the note
in Mexico, of the minister for foreign of Mr. Slidell of Dec. 24 last, to the Mex-
affairs, whether the Mexican government ican minister of foreign relations, here-
" would receive an envoy from the United with transmitted, that I deem it unneces-
States intrusted with full powers to ad- sary to enter into further detail on this
just all the questions in dispute between portion of the subject,
the two governments," with the assur- Five days after the date of Mr. Slidell s
ance that " should the answer be in the note General Herrera yielded the govern-
affirmative such an envoy would be im- ment to General Paredes without a strug-
mediately despatched to Mexico." The gle, and on Dec. 30 resigned the Presi-
Mexican minister, on Oct. 15, gave an dency. This revolution was accomplished
affirmative answer to this inquiry, re- solely by the army, the people having
questing at the same time that our naval taken little part in the contest; and thus
force at Vera Cruz might be withdrawn, the supreme power in Mexico passed into
lest its continued presence might assume the hands of a military leader,
the appearance of menace and coercion Determined to leave no effort untried to
pending the negotiations. This force was effect an amicable adjustment with Mex-
immediately withdrawn. On Nov. 10, ico, I directed Mr. Slidell to present his
1845, Mr. John Slidell, of Louisiana, was credentials to the government of General
commissioned by me as envoy extraor- Paredes and ask to be officially received
dinary and minister plenipotentiary of by him. There would have been less
the United States to Mexico, and was in- ground for taking this step had General
trusted with full powers to adjust both Paredes come into power by a regular
the questions of the Texas boundary and constitutional succession. In that event
of indemnification to our citizens. The his administration would have been con-
redress of the wrongs of our citizens sidered but a mere constitutional con-
naturally and inseparably blended itself tinuance of the government of General
with the question of boundary. The Herrera, and the refusal of the latter to
settlement of the one question in any cor- receive our minister would have been
rect view of the subject involves that of deemed conclusive unless an intimation
the other. I could not for the moment had been given by General Paredes of his
entertain the idea that the claims of our desire to reverse the decision of his prede-

246

POLK, JAMES KNOX

cessor. But ihe government of General to meet a threatened invasion of Texas
Faredes owes its existence to a military by the Mexican forces, for which exten-
revolution, by which the existing consti- sive military preparations had been made,
tutional authorities had been subverted. The invasion was threatened solely be-
The form of government was entirely cause Texas had determined, in accord-
changed, as well as all the high function- ance with a solemn resolution of the
aries by whom it was administered. Congress of the United States, to annex

Under these circumstances, Mr. Slidell, herself to our Union, and under these

in obedience to my direction, addressed a circumstances it was plainly our duty to

note to the Mexican minister of foreign re- extend our protection over her citizens

lations, under date of March 1 last, asking and soil.

to be received by that government in the This force was concentrated at Corpus

diplomatic character to which he had Christi, and remained there until after

been appointed. This minister in his re- 1 had received such information from

ply, under date of March 12, reiterated Mexico as rendered it probable, if not cer-

the arguments of his predecessor, and in tain, that the Mexican government would

terms that may be considered as giving refuse to receive our envoy,

all grounds of offence to the government Meantime Texas, by the final action of

and people of the United States denied our Congress, had become an integral part

the application of Mr. Slidell. Nothing, of our Union. The Congress of Texas,

therefore, remained for our envoy but to by its act of Dec. 19 3 1836, had declared

demand his passports and return to his the Rio del Norte to be the boundary of

own country. that republic; its jurisdiction had been

Thus the government of Mexico, though extended and exercised beyond the Nueces.
solemnly pledged by official acts in Oc- The country between that river and the
tober last to receive and accredit an Amer- Del Norte had been represented in the
ican envoy, violated their plighted faith Congress and in the convention of Texas,
and refused the offer of a peaceful ad- had thus taken part in the act of an-
justment of our difficulties. Not only was nexation itself, and is now included with-
the offer rejected, but the indignity of its in one of our congressional districts,
rejection was enhanced by the manifest Our own Congress had, moreover, with
breach of faith in refusing to admit the great unanimity, by the act approved
envoy who came because they had bound Dec. 31, 1845, recognized the country be-
themselves to receive him. Nor can it be yond the Nueces as a part of our terri-
said that the offer was fruitless from the tory by including it within our own
want of opportunity of discussing it; our revenue system, and a revenue officer to
envoy was present on their own soil. Nor reside within that district has been ap-
can it be ascribed to a want of sufficient pointed by and with the advice and con-
powers; our envoy had full powers to sent of the Senate. It became, therefore,
adjust every question of difference. Nor of urgent necessity to provide for the de-
was there room for complaint that our fence of that portion of our country. Ac-
propositions for settlement were unreason- cordingly, on Jan. 13 last, instructions
able; permission was not even given our were issued to the general in command of
envoy to make any proposition whatever, these troops to occupy the left bank of the
Nor can it be objected that we, on our Del Norte. This river, which is the south-
part, would not listen to any reasonable western boundary of the State of Texas,
terms of their suggestion; the Mexican is an exposed frontier. From this quar-
government refused all negotiation, and ter invasions were threatened; upon it
have made no proposition of any kind, and in its immediate vicinity, in the

In my message at the commencement judgment of high military experience,
of the present session I informed you are the proper stations for the protect-
that upon the earnest appeal both of the ing forces of the government. In addition
Congress and convention of Texas I had to this important consideration, several
ordered a sufficient military force to take others occurred to induce this movement,
a position " between the Nueces and the Among these are the facilities afforded by
Del Norte." This had become necessary the ports at Brazos Santiago and the

247

POLK, JAMES KNOX

mouth of the Del Norte for the reception
of supplies by seas, the stronger and more
healthful military positions, the con
venience for obtaining a ready and a more
abundant supply of provisions, water,
fuel, and forage, and the advantages
which are afforded by the Del Norte in
forwarding supplies to such posts as may
be established in the interior and upon
the Indian frontier.

The movement of the troops to the Del
Norte was made by the commanding gen
eral under positive instructions to abstain
from all aggressive acts towards Mexico
or Mexican citizens, and to regard the
relations between that republic and the
United States as peaceful unless she
should declare war or commit acts of
hostility indicative of a state of war.
He was specially directed to protect prop
erty and respect personal rights.

The army moved from Corpus Christi
on March 11, and on the 28th of that
month arrived on the left bank of the
Del Norte opposite to Matamoras, where
it encamped on a commanding position,
which has since been strengthened by the
erection of field - works. A depot has
also been established at Point Isa
bel, near the Brazos Santiago, 30 miles
in rear of the encampment. The selec
tion of his position was necessarily con
fided to the judgment of the general in
command.

The Mexican forces at Matamoras as
sumed a belligerent attitude, and on April
12 General Ampudia, then in command,
notified General Taylor to break up his
camp within twenty-four hours, and to re
tire beyond the Nueces River, and in the
event of his failure to comply with these
demands announced that arms, and arms
alone, must decide the question. But no
open act of hostility was committed until
April 24. On that day General Arista,
who had succeeded to the command of
the Mexican forces, communicated to Gen
eral Taylor that " he considered hostili
ties commenced, and should prosecute
them." A party of dragoons of sixty-three
men and officers were on the same day
despatched from the American camp up
the Rio del Norte, on its left bank, to
ascertain whether the Mexican troops had
crossed or were preparing to cross the
river, " became engaged with a large body

of these troops, and after a short affair,
in which some sixteen were killed and
wounded, appear to have been surrounded
and compelled to surrender."

The grievous wrongs perpetrated by
Mexico upon our citizens throughout a
long period of years remain unredressed,
and solemn treaties pledging her public
faith for this redress have been disregard
ed. A government either unable or un
willing to enforce the execution of such
treaties fails to perform one of its plain
est duties.

Our commerce with Mexico has been
almost annihilated. It was formerly
highly beneficial to both nations, but
our merchants have been deterred from
prosecuting it by the system of out
rage and extortion which the Mexi
can authorities have pursued against
them, while their appeals through their
own government for indemnity have been
made in vain. Our forbearance has gone
to such an extreme as to be mistaken in
its character. Had we acted with vigor
in repelling the insults and redressing
the injuries inflicted by Mexico at the
commencement, we should doubtless have
escaped all the difficulties in which we
are now involved. Instead of this, how
ever, we have been exerting our best
efforts to propitiate her good- will. Upon
the pretext that Texas, a nation as inde
pendent as herself, thought proper to unite
its destinies with our own, she has affected
to believe that we have severed her right
ful territory, and in official proclamations
and manifestoes has repeatedly threatened
to make war upon us for the purpose of
reconquering Texas. In the mean time
we have tried every effort at reconciliation.
The cup of forbearance had been exhaust
ed even before the recent information from
the frontier of the Del Norte. But now,
after reiterated menaces, Mexico has pass
ed the boundary of the United States, has
invaded our territory, and shed American
blood upon the American soil. She has
proclaimed that hostilities have com
menced, and that the two nations are now
at war.

As war exists and, notwithstanding all
our efforts to avoid it, exists by the act
of Mexico herself we are called upon by
every consideration of duty and patriot
ism to vindicate with decision the honor,

248

POLK

the rights, and the interests of our coun- taining our entire military force and fur-
try, nishing it with supplies and munitions of

Anticipating the possibility of a crisis war.

like that which has arrived, instructions The most energetic and prompt measures
were given in August last, " as a precau- and the immediate appearance in arms of
tionary measure " against invasion or a large and overpowering force are recom-
threatened invasion, authorizing General mended to Congress as the most certain
Taylor, if the emergency required, to ac- and efficient means of bringing the exist-
cep t volunteers, not from Texas only, but ing collision with Mexico to a speedy and
from the States of Louisiana, Alabama, successful termination.

Mississippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky, and In making these recommendations,! deem
corresponding letters were addressed to it proper to declare that it is my anxious
the respective governors of those States, desire not only to terminate hostilities
These instructions were repeated, and in speedily, but to bring all matters in dis-
January last, soon after the incorporation pute between this government and Mexico
of "Texas into our Union of States," to an early and amicable adjustment; and
General Taylor was further " authorized in this view I shall be prepared to renew
by the President to make a requisition negotiations whenever Mexico shall be
upon the executive of that State for such ready to receive propositions or to make
of its militia, force as may be needed to propositions of her own.
repel invasion or to secure the country I transmit herewith a copy of the cor-
against apprehended invasion." On March respondence between our envoy to Mexico
2 he was again reminded, "in the event and the Mexican minister for foreign
of the approach of any considerable Mex- affairs, and so much of the correspondence
ican force, promptly and efficiently to use between that envoy and the Secretary of
the authority with which he was clothed State, and between the Secretary of War
to call to him such auxiliary force as and the general in command on the Del
he might need." War actually existed, Norte as is necessary to a full understand-
and our territory having been invaded, ing of the subject.

General Taylor, pursuant to authority Polk, LEONIDAS, military officer; born
vested in him by my direction, has called in Raleigh, N. C., April 10, 1806; gradu-
on the governor of Texas for four regi- ated at West Point in 1827; ordained in
ments of State troops, two to be mounted the Protestant Episcopal Church ; and was
and two to serve on foot, and on the
governor of Louisiana for four regiments
of infantry to be sent to him as soon as
practicable.

In further vindication of our rights and
defence of our territory, I invoke the
prompt action of Congress to recognize
the existence of the war, and to place
at the disposition of the executive the
means of prosecuting the war with vigor,
and thus hastening the restoration of
peace. To this end I recommend that
authority should be given to call into
the public service a large body of volun
teers to serve for not less than six or
twelve months, unless sooner discharged.
A volunteer force is beyond question more
efficient than any other description of

citizen soldiers, and it is not to be doubt- chosen bishop of the diocese of Louisiana
ed that a number far beyond that required in 1841. In 1861 he became a major-
would readily rush to the field upon the general in the Confederate army, in which
call of their country. I further recommend capacity he was distinguished for his zeal
that a liberal provision be made for sus- and activity. He first appeared con-

249

LEOXIDAS POLK.

POLLARD PONCE

spicuous as a soldier in the occupation Contract; A Treatise on Equity Juris-
of Columbus, Ky., late in 1861. He com- prudence; and a Treatise on Riparian
manded a division at the battle of Shiloh Rights. He died in San Francisco, Cal.,
(April, 1862), and was in the great bat- Feb. 15, 1885.

tie at Stone River at the close of that Pomeroy, SAMUEL CLARKE, legislator;
year, when he was lieutenant-general. He born in Southampton, Mass., Jan. 3, 1816;
led a corps at the battle of Chickamauga educated at Amherst; elected to the
(September, 1863). For disobedience of Massachusetts legislature in 1852; led a
orders in this battle he was relieved of colony to Kansas in 1852, locating in Law-
command and placed under arrest. In rence, but afterwards removed to Atchi-
the winter and spring of 1864 he was in son. He was a member of the Free-State
temporary charge of the Department of convention which met in Lawrence, Kan.,
the Mississippi. With Johnston when op- in 1859, and was elected to the United
posing Sherman s march on Atlanta, he States Senate in 1861 and 1867, but failed
was killed by a cannon-shot, June 14, 1864, of re-election in 1873 on account of charges
on Pine Knob, not many miles from Mari- of bribery, which were afterwards ex-
etta, Ga. amined by a committee of the State legis-

Pollard, EDWARD ALBERT, journalist; lature, which found them not sustained,
born in Nelson county, Va., Feb. 27, 1828: Mr. Pomeroy was nominated for Vice-
graduated at the University of Virginia President of the United States on the
in 1849; studied law in Baltimore, Md., American ticket in 1880.
and was editor of the Richmond Examiner Pomeroy, SETH, military officer; born
in 1861-67. He was a stanch advocate in Northampton, Mass., May 20, 1706; be-
of the Confederacy during the Civil War, came a gunsmith ; was a captain in the
but bitterly opposed Jefferson Davis s pol- provincial army of Massachusetts in 1744;
icy; was captured near the end of the and was at the capture of Louisburg in
war and held a prisoner for eight months. 1745. In 1775 he took command of Colonel
His publications include Letters of the Williams s regiment, after his death, in
Southern Spy in Washington and Else- the battle of Lake George. In 1774-75
where; Southern History of the War; he was a delegate to the Provincial Con-
Obscrvations in the North; Eight Months gress, and was chosen a brigadier-general
in Prison and on Parole; The Lost Cause; of militia in February, 1775, but fought
A New Southern History of the War of as a private soldier at the battle of Bunker
the Confederates; Lee and his Lieuten- (Breed s) Hill. On his appointment as
ants; The Lost Cause Regained; Life of senior brigadier-general of the Continental
Jefferson Davis, with the Secret History army, some difficulty arose about rank,
of the Southern Confederacy; Black Dia- when he resigned and retired to his farm;
monds Gathered in the Darky Homes of but when, late in 1776. New Jersey was
the South; and The Virginia Tourist, invaded by the British, he again took the
He died in Lynchburg, Va., Dec. 12, field, and at the head of militia marched
1872. to the Hudson River, at Peekskill, where

Polygamy. See MORMONS. he died, Feb. 19, 1777.

Pomeroy, JOHN NORTON, lawyer; born Ponce, a department, district, and city
in Rochester, N. Y., April 12, 1828; grad- on the south coast of the island of Porto
uated at Hamilton College in 1847; ad- Rico. The city is regularly built the
mitted to the bar in 1851 ; became Profes- central part almost exclusively of brick
sor of Law in the New York University houses and the suburbs of wood. It is
in 1864-69; practised in Rochester in the residence of the military commander
1869-78; and was Professor of Law in the and the seat of an official chamber of corn-
University of California in 1878-85. He merce. There is an appellate criminal
was the author of An Introduction to court, besides other courts; two churches
Municipal Law; An Introduction to the one Protestant, said to be the only one
Constitutional Law of the United States : in the Spanish West Indies two hos-
Remedics and Remedial Rights according pitals besides the military hospitals, a
to the Reformed American Procedure; A home of refuge for the old and poor, a
Treatise on the Specific Performance of perfectly equipped fire department, a bank,

250

PONCE PONCE DE LEON

SUGAR-MILL NEAR PONCE.

a theatre, three first-class hotels, and gas
works. The inhabitants are principally
omipied in mercantile pursuits ; but car
penters, bricklayers, joiners, tailors, shoe
makers, and barbers find good employ
ment. The chief occupations of the people
are the cultivation of sugar, cocoa, to
bacco, and oranges, and the breeding of
cattle. Commercially, Ponce is the second
city of importance on the island. A fine
road leads to the port ( Playa ) , where all
the import and export trade is transacted.
At Playa are the custom-house, the office
of the captain of the port, and all the
consular offices. The port is spacious and
will hold vessels of 25 feet draft. The
climate, on account of the sea-breezes dur
ing the day and land-breezes at night, is
not oppressive, though warm; and, as
water for all purposes, including the fire
department, is amply supplied by an
aqueduct, it may be said that the city of
Ponce is perhaps the healthiest place in
the whole island. According to the census
taken by the United States military au
thorities in 1899, the department had a

population of 203,191; the district, 55,477;
the city, 27,952; and Playa, 4,660.

Ponce de Leon, JUAN, discoverer of
Florida; born in San Servas, Spain, in
1460; was a distinguished cavalier in the
wars with the Moors in Granada. Ac
companying Columbus on his second
voyage, Ponce was made commander of a
portion of Santo Domingo, and in 1509 he
conquered and was made governor of
Porto Rico, where he amassed a large
fortune. There he was told of a fountain
of youth a fountain whose waters would
restore youth to the aged. It was situated
in one of the Bahama Islands, surround
ed by magnificent trees, and the air was
laden with the delicious perfumes of
flowers; the trees bearing golden fruit
that was plucked by beautiful maidens,
who presented it to strangers. It was the
old story of the Garden of the Hesperides,
and inclination, prompted by his credulity,
made Ponce go in search of the miracu
lous fountain, for his hair was white and
his face was wrinkled with age. He sailed
north from Porto Rico in March, 1513,

251

PONCE DE LEON PONTIAC

and searched for the wonderful spring but leaving one of his vessels to continue
among the Bahama Islands, drinking and it, he returned to Porto Rico a wiser and
bathing in the waters of every fountain an older man, but bearing the honor of
that fell in his way. But he experienced discovering an important portion of the
no change, saw no magnificent trees with continent of America. In 1514 Ponce re-
golden fruit plucked by beautiful maidens, turned to Spain and received permission
and, disappointed but not disheartened, he from Ferdinand to colonize the " Island of
sailed towards the northwest until wester- Florida," and was appointed its governor ;
ly winds came laden with the perfumes of but he did not proceed to take possession
sweet flowers. Then he landed, and in the until 1521, having in the mean time con-
imperial magnolia-trees, laden with fra- ducted an unsuccessful expedition against
grant blossoms, he thought he beheld the in- the Caribs. On going to Florida with two
troduction to the paradise he was seeking. &3ups and many followers, he met the de-
It was on the morning of Easter Sunday termined hostilities of the natives, and
when he landed on the site of the present after a sharp conflict he was driven back
St. Augustine, in Florida, and he took to his ships mortally wounded, and died
possession of the country in the name of in Cuba in July, 1521. Upon his tomb
the Spanish monarch. Because of its was placed this inscription: "In this

Sepulchre rest the Bones of a Man who was
Leon by Name and still more by Nature."
Poncet, JOSEPH ANTHONY. See JESUIT
MISSIONS.

Pond, GEORGE EDWARD, journalist;
born in Boston, Mass., March 11, 1837;
graduated at Harvard College in 1858;
served in the National army in 1862-63;
was associate editor of the Army and Navy
Journal in 1864-68; afterwards was on
the staff of the New York Times till 1870;
editor of the Philadelphia Record in 1870-
77; and next became connected with the
New York Sun. He is the author of The
Shenandoah Valley in 1864; and Drift
wood Essays in the Galaxy Magazine.

Pontiac, Ottawa chief; born on the
Ottawa River in 1720; became an early
ally of the French. With a body of Ot-
tawas he defended the French trading-
post of Detroit against more northerly
tribes, and it is supposed he led the Ot-
tawas who assisted the French in defeat
ing Braddock on the Monongahela. In
1760, after the conquest of Canada, Major
Rogers was sent to take possession of the

wealth of Mowers, or because of the holy Western posts. Pontiac feigned friend-
day when he first saw the land (Pascua ship for the. English for a while, but in
de Flores), he gave the name of Florida 1763 he was the leader in a conspiracy
to the great island (as he supposed) he of many tribes to drive the English from
had discovered. There he sought the the Ohio country back beyond the Al-
fountain of youth in vain Sailing along leghany Mountains.

the coast southward, he discovered and The French had won the affection and
named the Tortugas (Turtle) islands. At respect of the Indian tribes with whom
another group he found a single inhabi- they came in contact, by their kindness,
tant a wrinkled old Indian woman not sociability, and religious influence; and
one of the beautiful maidens he expected when the English, formidable enemies of
to find. Abandoning the search himself, the red men, supplanted the French in

252

JUAN PO.N CE DE LEON.

PONTIAC

POMIAC.

to him in a vision, saying, " I am the
Lord of life; it is I who made all men; I
wake for their safety. Therefore I give you
warning, that if you suffer the Englishmen
to dwell in your midst, their diseases and
their poisons shall destroy you utterly, and
you shall die." The chief preached a
crusade against the English among the
Western tribes, and so prepared the way
for Pontiac to easily form his conspiracy.
After the capture of Fort Duquesne,
settlers from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and
Virginia went over the mountains into
the Ohio region in large numbers. They
were not kindly disposed towards the Ind
ians, and French traders fanned the
embers of hostility between the races.
The Delawares and Shawnces, who had
lately emigrated from Pennsylvania, and
were on the banks of the Muskingum,
Scioto, and Miami, nursed hatred of the
English and stirred up the Western tribes
against the white people. Pontiac took
the lead in a widespread conspiracy, and
organized a confederacy for the purpose of
driving the English back beyond the Al-
the alleged possession of the vast domain leghanies. The confederacy was composed
acquired by the treaty of Paris, expelled of the Ottawas, Miamis, Wyandottes,
the Roman Catholic priests, and haughtily Delawares, Shawnees, Ontagamies, Chip-
assumed to be absolute lords of the Ind- pewas, Pottawattomies, Mississagas, Foxes,
ians country, the latter were exasperated, and Winnebagoes. These had been allies
and resolved to stand firmly in the way of of the French. The Senecas, the most
English pretensions. "Since the French westerly of the Six Nations, joined the
must go, no other nation should take their confederacy, but the other tribes of the
place." The conspiracy known as Pontiac s TROQUOIS CONFEDERACY (q. v.) were kept
began with the lower nations. The quiet by Sir William Johnson. It was
Senecas, of the Six Nations, the Dela- arranged for a simultaneous attack to be
wares and Shawnees, had for some time made along the whole frontier of Penn-
urged the Northwestern Indians to take sylvania and Virginia. The conspiracy
up arms against the English. They said: was unsuspected until it was ripe and
The English mean to make slaves of us, the first blow was struck, in June, 1703.
by occupying so many posts in our coun- English traders scattered through the
try." The British had erected log forts frontier regions were plundered and slain,
liere and there in the Western wilderness. At almost the same instant they attacked
" We had better attempt something now all of the English outposts taken from
to recover our liberty, than to wait till the French, and made themselves masters
they are better established," said the na- of nine of them, massacring or dispersing
tions, and their persuasions had begun the garrisons. Forts Pitt, Niagara, and
to stir up the patriotism of the North- Detroit were saved. Colonel Bouquet
western barbarians, when an Abenake saved Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg) ; Niagara
prophet from eastern New Jersey appear- was not attacked; and Detroit, after a
ed among them. Re was a chief, and had long siege by Pontiac in person, was re-
first satisfied his own people that the lieved by Colonel Bradstreet in 1764. The
Great Spirit had given him wisdom to Indians were speedily subdued, but
proclaim war against the new invaders. Pontiac remained hostile until his death
He said the great Manitou had appeared in Cahokia, 111., in 1769. He was an able

253

PONY EXPRESS POPE

sachem and warrior, and, like King Philip, after the evacuation of Boston his regi-

was doubtless moved by patriotic impulses ; ment was ordered to join the troops in

for the flow of emigration over the moun- New York that invaded Canada. In

tains threatened his race with displacement February, 1777, he was appointed briga-

if not with destruction. See DETROIT. dier-general, and as such commanded

Pony Express, an express service es- troops in the campaign against Burgoyne,

tablished in April, 1860. It was part of after whose surrender he joined the army

a mail line between New York and San under Washington in Pennsylvania. He

Francisco by way of St. Joseph, Mo., and was in the movements near Philadelphia

Sacramento. Between the two last-named late in the year; spent the winter amid

places the distance was traversed by fleet the snows of Valley Forge, and in June,

horsemen, each of whom went 60 miles. 1778, was engaged in the battle of Mon-

The weight carried was not to exceed 10 mouth. He accompanied Sullivan on his

pounds, and the charge was $5 in gold expedition against the Indians in 1779.

for each quarter of an ounce. The riders When the corps of light infantry was

were paid $1,200 a month. The distance formed (August, 1780), Poor was given

between New York and San Francisco by command of one of the two brigades. He

the aid of this express was made in four- was killed in a duel with a French officer

teen days. The pony express lasted two near Hackensack, N. J., Sept. 8, 1780. In

years, being given up when the telegraph announcing his death, Washington said he

line across the continent was completed. " was an officer of distinguished merit,

Poole, WILLIAM FREDERICK, librarian; who, as a citizen and a soldier, had every
born in Salem, Mass., Dec. 24, 1821 ; grad- claim to the esteem of his country,
uated at Yale College in 1849; librarian Poor Richard, a fictitious name as-
of the Boston Athenaeum in 1856-69; or- sumed by Benjamin Franklin. In 1732 he
ganized the public library of Cincinnati, began the publication in Philadelphia of
O., in 1869, and that of Chicago in 1874. an almanac, with the name of Richard
His publications include Cotton Mather Saunders as author. It continued twen-
and Salem Witchcraft; The Popham Col- ty-five years. Sometimes the author call-
ony; The Ordinance of 1787; Anti-sla- ed himself "Poor Richard," and the pub-
very Opinions before 1800; the chapter lication was generally known as Poor Rich-
on Witchcraft in the Memorial History of ard s Almanac. It was distinguished for
Boston; Index to Periodic Literature; and its numerous maxims on temperance, fru-
The Battle of Dictionaries. He died gality, order, justice, cleanliness, chastity,
in Evanston, 111., March 1, 1894. and the like. It has been said that its

Poor, CHARLES HENRY, naval officer ; precepts are " as valuable as any that

born in Cambridge, Mass., June 11, 1808; have descended from Pythagoras."

joined the navy in 1825; participated with Poore, BENJAMIN PERLEY, journalist;

distinction in numerous important actions born near Newburyport, Mass., Nov. 2,

during the Civil War. While in command 1820; learned the printer s trade; was at-

of the sloop-of-war Saranac, in the Pacific tache of the American legation in Brus-

fleet in 1863-65, he forced the government sels in 1841-48; became a Washington

at Aspinwall to let a United States mail- newspaper correspondent in 1854, and con-

Bteamer proceed on her way after it had tinned as such during the remainder of

been held to pay illegal dues. He also his life. His publications include Cam-

compelled the authorities at Rio Hocha, j-aign Life of Gen. Zachary Taylor; Aqri-

New Granada, who had insulted the Amer- cultural History of Essex County, Mass. ;

ican flag to raise and salute it. He was The Conspiracy Trial for the Murder of

promoted rear-admiral in 1868 and retired Abraham Lincoln; Federal and State

in 1870. He died in Washington, D. C., Charters; The Political Register and Con,-

Nov. 5, 1882. grcssional Directory; Life of Burnside,^

Poor, ENOCH, military officer; born in Perley s Reminiscences of Sixty Tears in

Andover, Mass., June 21, 1736; became the National Metropolis, etc. He died in

a merchant in Exeter, N. H. After the Washington, D. C., May 30, 1887.

fight at Lexington he was appointed Pope, JOHN, military officer; born in

colonel by the Provincial Congress, and Louisville, Ky., March 16, 1822; graduated

254

POPE POREY

at West Point in 1842, entering the corps Popham, GEORGE, colonist; born in
of topographical engineers. He served Somersetshire, England, about 1550; be-
under General Taylor in the war against came a patentee of a grant in the present

State of Maine; and sailed from Plym
outh, England, May 31, 1007, with two
ships and 100 men. Popham commanded
one of the vessels and Raleigh Gilbert the
other. The expedition was a failure.
Popham died Feb. 5, 1608. His brother,
SIR JOHN, who was lord chief-justice of
the king s bench, and an earnest pro
moter of settlements in America, was born
in Somersetshire, England, in 1531; be
came chief-justice in 1592; and died in
June, 1607.

Popular Sovereignty. See SQUATTER
SOVEREIGNTY.

Popular Vote for President. Previous
to 1824 no returns were preserved of the
popular vote for President, for the reason
that in the earier elections the legislat-
ures of the different States chose the
Presidential electors. Even as late as

Mexico. In 1849-50 he conducted explora- 1824 six States viz., Delaware, Georgia,
tions in Minnesota, and from 1854 to 1859 Louisiana, New York, South Carolina,
he was exploring the Rocky Mountains. In and Vermont, thus voted, and one State,
1856 he was made captain, and in 1860, in South Carolina, so continued to vote until
an address at Cincinnati on " Fortifica- 1868. See PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS.
tions," he boldly denounced the policy of Population, CENTRE OF. See CENSUS;
President Buchanan, for which offence he CENTRE OF POPULATION.
was court-martialled, but the matter was Populists. See PEOPLE S PARTY.
dropped. Captain Pope was one of the Porcupine s Gazette. William Cob-
officers who escorted Mr. Lincoln to Wash- bett, British soldier; born in 1762; emi-
ington (February, 1861), and in May was grated to America in 1792. He published
made brigadier-general of volunteers and a small daily paper called Porcupine s Ga-
appointed to a. command in Missouri, zctte, which was a formidable and dread-
where he operated successfully until the ed adversary of the "French" (or Re
capture of Island Number Ten, in 1862. publican) party; and the Gazette fought
In March, 1862, he became major-general the Aurora with the keen and effective
of volunteers, and in April he took com- weapons of scathing satire. But he did
mand of a division of Halleck s army, not spare the other side, and often
Late in June he was summoned to Wash- came in sharp collision with the Mi-
ington to take command of the Army of nerva, the leading Federalist paper of
Virginia, where, for fifteen days from Aug. New York, edited by Noah Webster, after-
18, he fought the Confederate army under wards the lexicographer. Cobbett assailed
Lee continuously; but finally was compell- leading citizens in his Gazette, and was
ed to take refuge behind the defences of prosecuted for libels. He was fined $5,000
Washington. At his own request, he was for a libel on Dr. Rush, and this caused
relieved of the command of the Army of the death of the Gazette. See COBBETT,
Virginia and assigned to that of the North- WILLIAM.

west. In March, 1865, he was brevetted Porey, JOHN, author and traveller ; edu-
major -general; in 1882 was promoted ma- cated at Cambridge. While in Italy, in 1813,
jor-general ; and in 1886 was retired. He he was imprisoned for debt, from whicr
died in Sandusky, O., Sept. 23, 1892. See he was released by Sir Dudley Carleton
GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON ; LOGAN, JOHN who wrote to a friend : " I fear he has
ALEXANDER; PORTER, FITZ-JOHN. fallen too much in love with the pot to be

255

POUTER

much esteemed." At about the same time
another wrote of Porey : " He must have
both meat and money: for drink he will
iind out himself, if it be above ground, or
no deeper than the cellar." Porey was
made secretary of the Virginia colony in
1(519, but. on account of his exactions, was
recalled in 1622. Early in that year he,
with some friends, penetrated the country
southward beyond the Koanoke River, with
a view to making a settlement (see NORTH
CAROLINA). On his arrival in London,
Porey joined the disaffected members of
the London Company, which so excited the
mind of the King against the corporation
that, in 1624, he deprived them of their
charter. He had been sent early in that
year as one of the commissioners to inquire
into the state of the Virginia colony,
and while there he bribed the clerk of the
council to give him a copy of their pro
ceedings, for which offence the poor scribe
was made to stand in the pillory and lose
one of his ears.

Porter, ANDREW, military officer; born
in Worcester, Montgomery co., Pa., Sept.
24, 1743; was made captain of marines in
1776 and ordered on board the frigate
Effingham, but was soon transferred to the
artillery service. He served with great
distinction, and at the end of the war was
colonel of the Pennsylvania artillery. In
the battle of Germantown nearly all his
company were killed or made prisoners.
He was with Sullivan in his expedition in
1779, when he rendered important service
by the exercise of his scientific knowledge.
Jn 1784 he was a commissioner to run the
State boundary-lines, and in 1800 was
made major-general of the State militia.
He was appointed surveyor-general of
Pennsylvania in 1809, and on account of
his age and infirmities he declined a seat
in Madison s cabinet as Secretary of War.
He died in Harrisburg, Pa., Nov. 16, 1813.

Porter, DAVID, naval officer ; born in
Boston, Mass., Feb. 1, 1780; was appoint
ed a midshipman, April 16, 1798, and, as
lieutenant on the frigate Constellation,
fought L Insiurgente in Febmary, 1799,
and was promoted soon afterwards. He
was wounded in an engagement with a
pirate (January, 1800) off Santo Do
mingo, and was first lieutenant of the En
terprise, which captured a Tripolitan cor
sair. He afterwards commanded an expe

dition that destroyed some feluccas, laden
with wheat, under the batteries at Tripoli,
where he was wounded. In October, 1803,

DAVID PORTKR.

he was captured in the Philadelphia when
she grounded in the harbor of Tripoli, and
was a prisoner and slave for eighteen
months. In 1806, in command of the En
terprise, he fought and severely handled
twelve Spanish gunboats near Gibraltar.
In 1812 he was commissioned captain and
placed in command of the Essex, in which
he made a long and successful cruise in
the Pacific Ocean.

This cruise was one of the most re
markable recorded in history. He had
swept around the southern cape of South
America, and up its western coast, and on
March 14, 1813, after being enveloped in
thick fogs several days, he saw the city
and harbor of Valparaiso, the chief sea
port town of Chile. There he learned, for
the first time, that Chile had become an
independent state, and that the Spanish
viceroy of Peru had sent out cruisers
against the American vessels in that
region. Porter s appearance with a strong
frigate was very opportune, for American
commerce then lay at the mercy of Eng
lish whale-ships armed as privateers and
of Peruvian corsairs. The Essex was
cordially welcomed by the Chilean authori-

256

PORTER

ties. She put to sea on the 25th; pressed
up the coast; and soon overhauled a Peru
vian corsair which had captured two
American vessels. He took from her all
the captured Americans, cast her arma
ment overboard, and sent her into Callao,
with a letter to the viceroy, in which he
denounced the piratical conduct of her
commander. Recapturing one of the
American vessels, Porter sailed for the
Galapagos Islands, the resort of English
whalers. There were over twenty of them
in that region, most of them armed, and
bearing letters-of-marque. Porter cruised
among the islands for nearly a fortnight
without meeting a vessel. On April 20
he discovered two or three English whale-
sliips. He first captured the Montezuma.
He had made a flotilla of small boats,
which he placed under the command of
Lieutenant Downes. These pushed for
ward and captured the Georgiana and
Policy. From these Porter procured ample
supplies of provisions and naval stores.
With the guns of the Policy added to
those of the Georgiana, the latter, fitted
up as a cruiser, became a worthy consort
of the Essex. Her armament now con
sisted of sixteen guns, and she was placed
under the command of Lieutenant Downes.
Other English vessels were soon captured
and fitted up as cruisers; and at the end
of eight months after he sailed from the
Delaware in the solitary Essex, Porter
found himself in command of a squadron
of nine armed vessels, prepared for formid
able naval warfare. In July he captured
the Scringapatam, an English vessel built
for a cruiser for Sultan Tippoo Sahib.
She was the most formidable enemy of
American ships on the Pacific.

Porter now released a large number of
his prisoners on parole, and sent them to
Rio Janeiro. With his squadron he then
sailed for the Marquesas Islands, captur
ing other English vessels on the way, and
late in October he anchored in the bay of
Nooaheevah with his prizes. The Essex
was the first vessel that carried the Amer
ican pennant to these far-distant seas.
She was more than 10,000 miles from
home, with no friendly port to steer to.
She had swept the Pacific of her enemies,
and now lay, surrounded by her trophies,
in the quiet waters of an almost unfre
quented island on the mighty ocean. The

Essex had just cast anchor, when a canoe
&hot out from the shore containing three
white men one an Englishman who had
been there twenty years. The other two
were Americans one of them Midship
man John Maury, of the navy. They in
formed Porter that a war was raging on
the island between native tribes, and that,
in order to obtain supplies, he would have
to take part with the Taeehs, who dwelt
in the valley that opened out upon the
bay. Porter sent a message to the ene
mies of the Taeehs that he had a force
sufficient to subdue the whole island, and
that if they ventured into the valley of
the Taeehs while he remained he would
punish them severely. He gave them per
mission to bring hogs and fruit to the
ship to sell, and promised them protection
while trafficking. In an interview with
the king of the Taeehs, Porter agreed to
assist him in his wars. With muskets
and a cannon, Porter s men drove the ene
mies of the king from hill to hill, until
they made a stand, 4,000 strong, and sent
stones and javelins against their assail
ants. The hostile tribes soon sued for
peace, and on Nov. 19, Porter took posses
sion of the island in the name of the
United States. One tribe had remained
hostile. This Porter subdued. On Dec.
12 he started for home in the Essex, tak
ing with him the three white men. They
reached Valparaiso, Feb. 3, 1814. In that
harbor the Essex was captured by the Brit
ish ship Phoebe, and the great conqueror
on the Pacific Ocean became a prisoner.

Porter was one of the naval commis
sioners from 1815 to 1823, and in the
latter year made a successful cruise
against pirates in the Gulf of Mexico. In
consequence of some irregularity, he was
suspended from command for six months ;
and in 182G he resigned, and entered the
Mexican navy as its commander-in-chief.
He was appointed United States consul
at Algiers in 1829; and when that coun
try fell into the hands of the French he
was made charge d affaires at Constan
tinople, where he afterwards, as American
minister, negotiated several important
treaties. He was minister there at the
time of his death, March 3, 1843.

Porter, DAVID DIXON, naval officer; born
in Chester, Pa., June 8, 1813; a son of
David Porter; entered the navy as mid-

VII. B

257

POUTER

shipman, Feb. 2, 1829. He was attached command of a division. In May. 1SG2, he
to the coast survey from 1836 to 1840. took command of the 5th Army Corps;
Then he cruised in Brazilian waters, and directed the siege of Yorktown, Va., and
served in the Naval Observatory at Wash- was one of McClellaifs most efficient com-
ington for a while. He engaged in the war nmnders during the Peninsular campaign
against Mexico on land and on water, and ending with the battle of MALVERN HILL
in 1861 joined the Gulf Squadron, in com- (q. v.). For services in that campaign
mand of the Powliatan. He was in the he was promoted to major-general of
expedition up the Mississippi against New volunteers. Temporarily attached to the
Orleans in 1862, in command of twenty- Army of Virginia (Pope s), and formal
one mortar-boats and several steamers, charges having been made against him, he
Porter did important service on the Mis- was deprived of his command. At the re-
sissippi and Red rivers in 1863-64, and quest of General McClellan, he was re-
was conspicuous in the siege of Vicksburg. stored, and accompanied that general in
For the latter service he was promoted the campaign in Maryland. Jn November
rear-admiral, July 4, 1863. In 1864 he was he was ordered to Washington for trial
in command of the North Atlantic block- by court-martial, on charges preferred by
ading squadron, and rendered efficient General Pope, and on Jan. 21, 1863, he
service in the capture of Fort Fisher in was cashiered for violation of the 9th and
January, 1865. He was made vice-ad- 52d Articles of War. In 1870 he appealed
miral in July, 1866; admiral, Oct. 17, to the President for a reversal of this
1870; and was superintendent of the sentence, and in 1878 a commission of
Naval Academy from 1866 to 1870. He inquiry was instituted to determine
died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 13, 1891. whether there was new evidence in his
Porter, FITZ-JOHN, military officer; favor sufficient to warrant ordering a new
born in Portsmouth, N. H., June 13, trial. He was finally in 1886 restored to
1822; a cousin of David Dixon Porter; his rank of colonel and retired. After
graduated at West Point in 1845, enter- leaving the army he was superintendent of
ing the artillery corps. He was adjutant the building of the New Jersey Asylum
of that post in 1853-54, and assistant in- for the Insane; commissioner of public
structor of cavalry and artillery in 1854- works and police commissioner in New
55. In 1856 he was made assistant ad- York City; and was offered, but declined,
jutant-general. In May, 1861, he was the command of the Egyptian army. He
made brigadier-general of volunteers and died in Morristown, N. J., May 21, 1901.
chief of staff to Generals Patterson and See GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON; LOGAN,
Banks until August, when he was as- JOHN ALEXANDER; POPE, JOHN.
signed to the Army of the Potomac, in Porter, HORACE, diplomatist, born in

Huntingdon, Pa., April 15, 1837; gradu
ated at the United States Military Acad
emy in 1860; served with distinction
through the Civil War ; brevetted briga
dier-general in 1865; was private secretary
to President Grant in 1869-77; and be
came ambassador to France in 1897. He
is the author of Campaigning iritJi Grant.
Porter, JAMES MADISON, jurist; born
in Selma, Pa., Jan. 6, 1793; served in the
army during the War of ]812: afterwards
studied law and was admitted to the bar
in 1813. He was appointed Secretary of
War by President Tyler, but the nomina
tion was rejected by the Senate. He died
in Easton, Pa., Nov. 11, 1862.

Porter, MOSES, military officer; born in
Danvers, Mass., in 1755; was in the bat
tle of Bunker (Breed s) Hill, and many of
258

FIT/ JOHN POKTKR.

ADMIRAL DAVID D. PORTER

PORTER

the prominent battles of the Revolution,
and was one of the few old officers select
ed for the first peace establishment. In
1791 he was promoted to captain, and
served under Wayne in 1794. In March,
1812, he was colonel of light artillery,
and was distinguished at the capture of
Fort George, in May, 1813. He accom
panied Wilkinson s army on the St. Law
rence, and in the autumn of 1814 was
brevetted brigadier - general, and ordered
to the defence of Norfolk, Va. He died in
Cambridge, April 14, 1822.

Porter, NOAH, educator; born in Farm-
ington, Conn., Dec. 14, 1811; graduated at
Yale College in 1831; Professor of Mathe
matics and Moral Philosophy in Yale
College in 1846-71; and president of the
same in 1871-86. His publications in
clude Historical Discourse at Farmington,
JVoy. -}, 1840; The Educational System of
flic Puritans and Jesuits Compared;
American Colleges and the American Pub
lic, etc. He died in New Haven, Conn.,
March 4, 1892.

Porter, PETER BUEL, military officer;
born in Salisbury, Conn., Aug. 4, 1773;
studied law, and began practice at Canan-
daigua, N. Y., in 1795; was a member of
Congress from 1809 to 1813, and again in
1815-16. He settled at Black Rock, near

for his skill and bravery, and received the
thanks of Congress and a gold medal.
President Madison offered him the position

PETEK HI EL 1 OKTER.

of commander-in-chief of the army in 1815,
which he declined. He was secretary of
state of New York (1815-16), and was
Secretary of War, under President John
Quincy Adams, in 1828. General Porter

GENERAL PORTER S MEDAL.

Buffalo, where he and his brothers made was one of the early projectors of the
large purchases of land along the Niagara Erie Canal, and one of the first board of
River. A leader of volunteers on the commissioners. He died at Niagara Falls,
Niagara frontier, he became distinguished March 20, 1844,

259

PORTER POUT HUDSON

Porter, ROBEKT P., journalist; born in
Markham Hall, England, June 30, 1852;
received a common school education, and
came to the United States early in life.
He became connected with the Chicago
Inter-Ocean in 1872; was a member of the
tariff commission in 1882; later estab
lished the New York Press; was superin
tendent of the eleventh census, in 1889-93 ;
and special United States commissioner
to Cuba and Porto Rico in 1898-99. He
is the author of The West in 1880; Life
of William McKinley; Municipal Owner
ship at Home and Abroad; and Industrial
Cuba.

Porter, WILLIAM DAVID, naval officer;
born in New Orleans, La., March 10, 1809 ;
a son of David Porter; entered the navy
in 1823. In the sloop-of-Avar St. Mary,
on the Pacific Station, when the Civil
War broke out, he was wrongly suspected
of disloyalty. He was ordered to duty on
the Mississippi River, in fitting out a
gunboat fleet, and was put in command
of the Essex, which took part in the at
tacks on Forts Henry and Donelson, when
he was severely scalded. He fought his
way past all the batteries between Cairo
and New Orleans, taking part in the at
tack on Vicksburg. He caused the de
struction of the Confederate ram Ar
kansas, near Baton Rouge, and assisted
in the attack on Port Hudson. For these
services he was made commodore in July,
18G2. His feeble health prevented his
doing much afterwards. He died in New
York City, May 1, 1864.

Port Gibson, BATTLE AT. Grant cross
ed the Mississippi at Bruinsburg on the
gunboats and transports which had run
by Grand Gulf in 1803. His troops con
sisted chiefly of General McClernand s
13th Army Corps. These troops pushed
forward and were met (May 1), 8 miles

brigade of General Logan s division of the
advance of McPherson s corps, and others
were sent to help McClernand. Late in the
afternoon the Confederates were repulsed
and pursued to Port Gibson. Night ended
the conflict, and under its cover the Con
federates fled across a bayou, burning the
bridges behind them, and retreated tow
ards Vicksburg. The Nationals lost in
this battle 840 men, of whom 130 were
killed. They captured guns and flags and
580 prisoners.

Port Hudson, CAPTURE OF. Port Hud
son, or llickey s Landing, was on a high
bluff on the left bank of the Mississippi, in
Louisiana, at a very sharp bend in the
stream. At the foot of the bluff was
llickey s Landing. The Confederates had
erected a series of batteries, extending
along the river from Port- Hudson to
Thompson s Creek above, a distance of
about 3 miles. They were armed with very
heavy guns. They were field batteries
that might be moved to any part of the
line. Immediately after Banks took com
mand of the Department of the Gulf (Dec.
18, 1862), he determined to attempt to re
move this obstruction to the navigation of
the Mississippi. He sent General Grover
with 10,000 men to occupy Baton Rouge,
but the advance on Port Hudson was de
layed, because it would require a larger
force than Banks could then spare. So
he operated for a while among the rich
sugar and cotton regions of Louisiana,
west of the river.

In March, 1863, he concentrated his
forces nearly 25,000 strong at Baton
Rouge. At the same time Commodore Far-
ragut had gathered a small fleet at a point
below Port Hudson, with a determination
to run by the batteries there and recover
the control of the river between that place
and Vicksburg. To make this movement,

from Bruinsburg, by a Confederate force, Banks sent towards Port Hudson (March

which was pushed back to a point 4 miles
from Port Gibson. There McClernand was
confronted by a strong force from Vicks-

13) 12,000 men, who drove in the pickets,
while two gunboats and some mortar-boats
bombarded the works. That night Far-

burg, under General Bowen, advantageous- ragut attempted to pass, but failed, and

ly posted. The Nationals were divided
for the occasion. On McClernand s right
w r ere the divisions of Generals Hovey, Carr,
and Smith, and on his left that of Oster-
haus. The former pressed the Confeder
ates steadilv back to Port Gibson. The

Banks returned to Baton Rouge. After
more operations in Louisiana, Banks re
turned to the Mississippi and began the in
vestment of Port Hudson, May 24, 1803.
His troops were commanded by Generals
Weit/el, Auger, Grover, Dwight, and T.

troops of Osterhaus were reinforced by a W. Sherman, and the beleaguered garrison

260

PORT HUDSON, CAPTURE OP

tvas under ihc command of Gen. Frank K.
Gardner. 1 arragut, with his flag-ship
(Hartford) and one or two other vessels,
was now above Port Hudson, holding the
river, while four other gunboats and some
mortar-boats, under Commander C. H. B.
Caldwell, held it below.

On May 27 Banks opened his cannon on
the works in connection with those on the

in which the Nationals lost 1,842 men, of
whom 293 were killed. The Confederate
loss did not exceed 300 in killed and
wounded.

Banks, undismayed by this disastrous
failure, continued the siege. His great guns
and those of Farragut hurled destruc
tive missiles upon the works daily, wear
ing out the garrison by excessive watch-

FARRAGUT PASSING THE BATTKRIES AT PORT HUDSON.

water, preparatory to a general assault, ing and fatigue. Their provisions and

The attack was made at 10 A.M. by a por- medical stores were failing, and famine

tion of the troops, but others did not threatened the brave defenders of the post.

come up in time to make the assault gen It was closely hemmed in, and so, also,

eral. A very severe battle was fought, was the besieging force of about 12,000

the Nationals making desperate charges, men by a hostile population and concen-

from time to time, and gaining ground t rat ing Confederate cavalry in its roar,

continually. In this contest was the first while Gen. Richard Taylor was gathering

fair trial of the mettle of negro troops, a new army in Louisiana, west of the

The Confederates were driven to their river. A speedy reduction of the fort had

fortifications, and, at sunset, they were become a necessity for Banks, and on June

all behind their works. Close up to them 11 another attempt was made, and failed.

the Nationals pressed, and they and their This was followed by an attempt to take

antagonists held opposite sides of the the fort by storm on the 14th. At that

parapet. This position the Nationals on time the Nationals lay mostly in two

the right continued to hold, but those on lines, forming a right angle, with a right

the left, exposed to a flank fire, withdrew and left but no centre. When a final dis-

to a belt of woods not far off. So ended position for assault was made. General

the first general assault on Port Hudson, Gardner was entreated to surrender and

261

POUT REPUBLICPORT ROYAL

stop the effusion of blood, but he refused, lie. The vanguard of Shields s force, under

hoping, as did Pemberton, at Vicksburg, General Carroll less than 1,000 infantry,

that Johnston would come to his relief. ]50 cavalry, and a battery of six guns

The grand assault began at dawn (June had arrived there almost simultaneously

14) by Generals Grover, Weitxel, Auger, with Jackson. With his cavalry and five

and Dwight. A desperate battle ensued, pieces of artillery, Carroll dashed into

and the Nationals were repulsed at all the village, drove Jackson s cavalry out

points, losing about 700 men. Again the of it, and took possession of the bridge

siege went on as usual. The fortitude of that spanned the river. Had he burned

the half-starved garrison, daily enduring that structure, he might have ruined Jack-

the affliction of missiles from the land and
water, was wonderful. Gun after gun on

son, for he would have cut him off from
Ewell at Cross Kevs. But he waited for

the Confederate works was disabled, until his infantry to come up, and was attacked

only fifteen remained on the land side; by a superior force and driven to a point

and only twenty rounds of ammunition 2 miles from the town, where he was

for small-arms were left. Famine was afterwards joined by Gen. E. B. Tyler

about to do what the National arms could and his brigade, 2,000 strong, Tyler taking

rot effect compel a surrender when the command. Meanwhile, Ewell had escaped
garrison was startled (July 7) by the
thunder of cannon along the whole line

from Fremont, crossed the bridge, and
reinforced Jackson. A flanking move-

of their assailants, and shouts from the ment was now begun by the Confederates,

That which Tyler resisted with his whole force,

pickets, "Vicksburg is taken!"

night Gardner sent a note to Banks, ask-

about 3,000 in number. With these he

ing if the report were true, and if so, re- drove 8,000 Confederates into the woods.

At the same time an augmented force at-
tacked Tyler s right, and a severe battle

questing a cessation of hostilities. The
surrender of the post and all its men and

property was completed on July 9, when ensued. Gen. Dick Taylor s Louisiana

6,408 men, including 455 officers, were brigade made a sudden dash through the

made prisoners of war. The little hamlet woods and captured a National battery,

of Port Hudson was in ruins. The loss when Colonel Candy, with Ohio troops,

of Banks during the siege of forty-five made a countercharge and recaptured it,

days was about 3,000 men, and that of with one of the guns of the Confederates.

Gardner, exclusive of prisoners, about 800. The artillery-horses having been killed,

The spoils of victory were the important he could not carry off the battery; but he

post, two steamers, fifty-one pieces of took back with him sixty-seven Confeder-

artillery, 5,000 small-arms, and a large ates. So overwhelming was Jackson s

amount of fixed ammunition. Banks re- force that Tyler was compelled to retreat,

ported that his winnings in Louisiana up and was pursued about 5 miles, covered

to that time were the partial repossession by Carroll s cavalry. The battle was dis-

of large areas of territory, 10,584 prison- astrous to the Nationals, but it was rec-

ers, seventy-three great guns, 0,000 small- ognized by both sides as one of the most

arms, three gunboats, eight transports, brilliant of the war. In the engagement

and a large amount of cotton and cattle, and retreat the Confederates captured

This conquest gave the final blow to the 450 prisoners and SOO muskets. The Na-

obstruction of the navigation of the Mis- tional army then fell back to Harrison-
sissippi River. On July 1C, 1803, the
steamer Imperial, from St. Louis, arrived
at New Orleans, the first communication

of the kind between the two cities in two

burg (June 0, 1804), when Fremont went
on to Mount Jackson, and Shields to New
market.

Port Royal, CAPTURE OF. In lfi!)0,
years. Then the waters of the Mississippi, the Indians having taken the fort at
as President Lincoln said, " went unvexed Pemaquid, and French privateers from
to the sea."

Port Republic,

Acadia infesting the coasts of New Eng-

BATTLE AT. Before land, the General Court of Massachusetts
the battle of CROSS KEYS ( q. v. ) , " Stone- determined to seize Port Eoyal, N. S.
wall " Jackson had crossed the Shenandoah A fleet of eight small vessels, bearing about
River, and was encamped at Port Eepub- 800 men, under the command of Sir Will-

202

PORT ROYAL FERRY PORT ROYAL SOUND

iam Phipps, sailed for that purpose on Presbyterians were persecuted. Some of
April 28. The weak fort was surrendered their agents went to England to treat
without resistance, and the whole sea- with the proprietaries of Carolina for a
coast from that town to the northeast lodgment there. It is believed that one
settlements was taken possession of by of these agents was Lord Cardross, and
Sir William. that his colony were Presbyterians, who

Port Royal Ferry, BATTLE AT. After preferred exile in peace to their native
an expedition from Hampton Roads, under land, where they were continually harass-
Admiral Dupont and Gen. T. W. Sherman, ed. When Cardross arrived there were
had taken possession of Port Royal Sound instant premonitions of trouble. In puv-
a)id the neighboring islands (Nov. 7, suance of some agreement or understand-
1861), the only stand made by the Con- ing with the proprietaries, Lord Cardross
federates in defence of the South Caro- claimed for himself and associates co-
lina coast islands was at Port Royal ordinate authority with the governor and
Ferry, on the Coosa, at the close of the grand council at Charleston. This claim
year. Gen. 11. S. Ripley, formerly of the the provincial government disallowed,
National army, who had joined the Con- and the colony at Port Royal was corn-
federates, was in command of that sea- pelled to acknowledge submission. Soon
coast district, and had established a for- afterwards Lord Cardross returned home,
tified post at the ferry. When the Some time afterwards his colonists were
Nationals landed at Beaufort it had a dislodged by the Spaniards at St. Au-
garrison estimated to be 8,000 strong, gustine (1686), who accused them of in-
under Generals Gregg and Pope. The Na- citing the Indians to invade their terri-
tionals proceeded to expel them. For this tory.

purpose a joint land and naval force, the In 1779, when Prevost joined Campbell
former commanded by Brigadier-General at Savannah, the British commanders de-
Stevens, and the latter by Commodore termined to extend a part of their forces
C. R. P. Rogers, proceeded to attack into South Carolina. Major Gardiner
them. Stevens had about 4,000 troops was detached, with 200 men, to take pos-
of New York, Pennsylvania, and Michi- session of Port Royal Island; but soon
gan ; and the naval force consisted of four after he landed, General Moultrie, with
gunboats, an armed ferry-boat, and four the same number of men (only nine of
large row-boats, each carrying a 12- whom were regulars), attacked and drove
pounder howitzer. The expedition moved him off the island. Two field-pieces, well
on the evening of Dec. 31. The land and served by some militia under Captains
naval forces were joined 3 miles below Heyward and Rutledge, were principally
the ferry on the morning of Jan. 1, 1862, gainers of this advantage. A small body
and pressed forward to the attack. The of horsemen, under Capt. John Barnwell,
first onset was sharp and quick. A con- who gained the rear of the British, were
cealed battery near the ferry, that was also efficient in contributing to the re
opened upon the Nationals was soon suit.

silenced by a close encounter, in which Port Royal Sound, EXPEDITION TO.
the 8th Michigan bore the brunt. But On the morning of Oct. 29, 1861, a land
very little fighting occurred afterwards, and naval armament left Hampton Roads
The Confederates, seeing the gunboats for a destination known only to the offi-
coming forward, abandoned their works cers. It was composed of fifty ships-of-
and fled, and the Pennsylvania " Round- war and transports, commanded by Ad-
heads " passed over the ferry and oc- miral S. F. Dupont, and 15,000 troops
cupied them. The works were demolished, under Gen. T. W. Sherman. Dupont s
and the houses in the vicinity were burned, flag-ship Waltash led the way out to sea,
Stevens had nine men wounded, one mor- and each ship sailed under sealed orders,
tally. to be opened in case of the dispersion of

Port Royal Island, SETTLEMENT ON. the fleet. Off Cape Hatteras the fleet was
In 1692 Lord Cardross (afterwards Earl so terribly smitten by a tempest that very
of Buchan ) , a Scotch nobleman, led a soon only one vessel could be seen from
colony from his native land, where the the deck of the flag-ship. The sealed

263

PORT ROYAL SOUND, EXPEDITION TO

MAP SHOWING TUB POSITION OF PORT ROYAL.

orders were opened, and each commander little bundles containing all their worldly
was ordered to rendezvous at Port Royal possessions, ready to go on board the
Sound, on the coast of South Carolina, ships of the invaders, who, they had been
There all but four transports that were told, were coming to steal or sell the
lost were gathered on the evening of negroes in Cuba, or to kill and bury them
Nov. 4. No human life on the perished in the sound. In the conflict with the
transports had been lost. The entrance forts at the entrance of the sound Dupont
to the sound, between Hilton Head and
Phillip s Island, was guarded by the Con
federates with a strong battery on each
side Forts Walker and Beauregard.
Within the sound was a small Confederate
flotilla, commanded by the veteran Com
modore Tatnall, formerly of the United
States navy. It was called the "Mos
quito Fleet." The guns of the guarding
forts were silenced, and on the morning
of Nov. 7 Dupont s fleet passed into the
sound and drove Tatnall s vessels into
shallow water. The National forces took
possession of Port Royal Island and the
neighboring ones, and found them desert
ed by the planters and their families.
Most of the slaves remained. They re
fused to follow their masters. Groups of

them actually stood upon the shore with PLAN- OF BATTLE AT PORT KOVAU

364

PORTO RICO

had lost eight killed and twenty-three sion of Hilton Head also, General Sher-
wounded. The Confederate officers re- man went vigorously to work to strength-
ported their loss in both forts (Walker en the position. The Nationals held the
and Beauregard) at ten killed and forty islands and controlled Port Royal Sound
wounded. Troops having taken posses- until the end of the war.

PORTO RICO

Porto Rico, an island in the West
Indies, one of the Greater Antilles; for
merly belonging to Spain, but occupied by
the United States as a conquest of war in
1898. The Spanish spelling of the first
word is Puerto, and this form was fol
lowed by United States authorities till an
act of Congress, approved April 12, 1900,
established the form Porto.

Location. The island is the easternmost
and smallest of the Greater Antilles; is
within the tropics, between latitudes 17 50
and 18 30 N. and longitudes 65 30 and
67 15 W. ; lies east of Haiti, being sepa
rated from it by Mona Passage; is in shape
rudely rectangular, its longest axis lying
east and west; is a trifle over 100 miles
long and about 36 miles wide; area ap
proximately 3,600 square miles, three-
fourths the size of Connecticut. The isl
and is divided into seven departments,
viz., Aguadilla, Arecibo, Bayamon, Gua-
yama, Humacao, Mayaguez, and Ponce.
At the time of the American occupation
the departments were subdivided into 69
municipal districts, and these in turn into
barrios, or outlying tracts. Besides the
main island the United States has juris
diction over the islands of Vieques and
Celubra, lying to the eastward, and Isla
Mona to the west, in the Mona Passage,
together with a few other islets in their
neighborhood. Since the occupation the
municipalities have been reduced to 46
in number, the others having been consoli
dated with their larger and more prosper
ous neighbors.

Physical Features. The structure of the
island is simple. Passing across it from
east to west, a little south of the middle
of its breadth, is a broken, irregular range
of hills or low mountains, which towards
the eastern end trends northeastward, and
terminates near the northeastern corner of
the island, where it culminates in the peak
of El Yunque, 3,609 feet in altitude. Else
where it ranges in altitude from 2,000 to

3,000 feet, with occasional summits slight
ly above 3,000 feet and gaps slightly be
low 2,000 feet. This range is known in dif
ferent parts of the island by various
names, Cordillera Central, Sierra de
Cayey, and in the northeast Sierra de Lu-
quilla. From its crest the land slopes
northward and sovithward in broad undu
lations, deeply cut by streams, giving
most of the interior of the island a steep,
hilly surface, gradually becoming more
nearly level, until near the coast it spreads
into broad level playas. This range
forms the water divide of the island, and
from it streams flow northward and
southward, those flowing north having
much the longer courses and gentler
slopes. None of these streams are navi
gable, excepting for a very few miles near
their mouths, where they are in effect
estuaries. The largest are the Rios,
Loiza, Bayamon, Morovis, Arecibo, and
Blanco, all on the north of the dividing
ridge. On the south the dividing ridge
descends steeply, with short spurs and a
narrow coastal plain. Here the streams
are short, with very steep descents. The
coast is low and for the most part simple,
with few good harbors, the best being that
of San Juan, on the north coast. Ponce
and Guanica are the only harbors on the
south coast into which vessels of ordinary
draft can enter, but the island of Vieques
has several commodious ports where the
largest ships can ride at anchor. The
coast of Porto Rico, unlike that of Cuba,
is not bordered by fringing reefs or islets.
Climate. Lying in the tropics, the isl
and is within the region of the southwest
trades, which blow with great regularity.
The annual temperature at San Juan, on
the north coast, ranges in different years
from 78 to 82 F. The mean monthly
temperature ranges from 75 in January
to 82 in August. The maximum tem
perature on record is 99, and the mini
mum 57, indicating a very slight range
65

PORTO RICO

and a uniform climate. The only dif
ference of temperature to be observed
throughout the island is due to altitude,
the highlands of the interior having a
mean annual temperature as low as 72 F.
Serious storms occur and occasional earth
quakes, but the latter are not violent,
doing but little damage. The annual rain
fall at San Juan averages sixty inches,
about the same as at New Orleans, and
nearly two-thirds of this falls in the sum
mer and autumn. The annual relative
humidity at the capital is very high,
averaging not far from eighty per cent.
The annual rainfall increases eastward
from San Juan, until near the northeast
corner of the island it exceeds 100 inches.

are sugar, tobacco, cotton, coffee, and
fruits. In the fiscal year 1902-03 the ex
portation of sugar was the largest on
record, reaching 233,070,000 pounds, and
the same may be said of molasses, the
quantity being 3,537,000 gallons. The ex
port of tobacco in leaf was valued at $135,-
080; as cigars and cigarettes, $1,755,311.
An improvement in quality and increase
in yield were features of the year s crop.
The coffee crop was about 39,650,000
pounds, and the value of its export, $718,-
531. Cotton-growing was greatly stimu
lated during the year. The variety is the
famous and valuable Sea Island cotton,
and the Department of Agriculture at
Washington is liberally promoting in-

STREET SCENE IN SAN JUAN.

It increases also upon the highlands of the creased acreage and the highest grade of
interior, reaching a maximum upon the cultivation. Fruit culture has advanced
dividing ridge of nearly 100 inches. The decidedly. Within three or four years
south slope of the island, on the other about 10,000 acres of land have been plant-
hand, is much drier, both rainfall and ed with oranges. The superior flavor of
atmospheric moisture being less, so much the native wild orange is such that many
so that in some regions irrigation is neces- planters have budded with them, expect-
sary for cultivation of crops. ing to produce the very best fruit in this
Agriculture. The principal productions way. The value of oranges exported in

266

PORTO RICO

1902-03, mostly from wild trees, was $230,- Finances. Official reports of the Treas-

589, as against $51,364 in 1901-02. Much ury Department on June 30, 1903,

larger attention also is being given to the showed: Balance from previous year,

growing of the pineapple. 358,408.86; receipts from customs, $771,-

Mineralogy. T\\G mineral deposits have 447.90; from internal revenue, $1,609,-

not attracted particular attention as yet, 433.69; from other sources, $69,111.35;

although it is known that there are con- repayments and transfers,

sidcrable deposits of iron and copper, and trust funds deposited, $1,004,624.80; re-

that gold and silver have been found in payments and transfers, $20,100.61-

the mountains. During 1902-03 there total receipts, $4,885,875.34. The expendi-

were fifty-three claims prosecuted in the tures were: Legislative, $116,205.13; ex-

bureau of mines, and at the end of the year ecutive, $1,902,317.12; judicial, $204,-

there were eighty mining claims in force. 891.83; settlement payments of sundry

Commerce. Yor the first time since the claims, $234,598.38; transfers to trust

American occupation the foreign trade funds, $14,598.43; advanced from trust

yielded a balance in favor of the island funds to the Department of the Interior,

in the year ending June 30, 1903. The $429,274.03, to the Department of Educa-

total imports were $14,179,575; total ex- tion, $94,486.96; payment of claims, $602,-

ports, $14,866,644. The imports from the 856.01 ; transfer to insular revenues from

United States amounted to $11,976,134, trust funds, $1,244.29 total expenditures,

principally rice, cotton manufactures, pro- $3,600,832.18, leaving a balance of $1,285,-

visions, iron and steel manufactures, 043.16. Of the balance $344,310 only was

breadstuffs, and wood and leather manu- available for ordinary insular expendi-

factures; and the exports to the United tures, the remainder belonging to trust

States, $10,909,147, made up of sugar, to- funds, viz., $887,939.28 representing the

bacco, cigars and cigarettes, molasses, balance of the funds set aside by Congress

fruits and coffee. for permanent improvements, and $52,793.-

Under the Spanish regime the total ex- 30 money due municipalities or held in

ports to the United States and total im- trust for other purposes. The receipts for

ports from the United States were as the year exceeded the expenditures by

follows: $29,710.18.

NON-AGRICUI.TURAT, IMPORTS FROM THE PMic Instruction. Tte system of

UNITED STATICS. schools of the island is built upon the

For 1893 .............................. ^o~^- ! common public school, which takes a child

" 1894 . 879,725 - . i

,i J895 781 751 a t ^ ve or S1X y ears f a " e an carries him

" 1896. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 868 .504 through eight years of school life. All the

" 1897 .............................. 794,323 town schools are graded and in many of

Chiefly manufactures of iron, steel, and wood. them eight gvades are succes sfully main-

AGRlCur/TURAL IMPORTS FROM THE UNITED tained. The grading has been found very

*i AAQ *f.R difficult, because many children entering

r or low) .................... ....... i,u*j7,oj ."

" 1894.. ............ 1,825,931 school, even of sufficiently advanced age

" 1895 ............................ 1,038,452 to do high-school work, had never had any

is ; f ji ............................ i 77n W7 educational advantages whatever and were

Chiefly i"i^dMdbrek"dVtuffs. not able to read or write. Official report*

for the year ending June 30, 1903, showed:

NQN-ASWCULTOBAL ^XPORTS TO THE UNITED Estimated popula tion of school age. 377,-

For 1803 ............................... $15,905 200; enrolled in the public schools, 70,-

S ( -- f ............................... 13,588 216; maximum number of schools in

) jg; 1 ^! ............................... 34 400 P era tion, 1,014, of which 427 were graded

" 1897 ! . 86,705 or town schools; school buildings, 717;

AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS TO THE UNITED STATES.

maximum number of teachers, 1,354;

. . , , . , ,. . ,. ,

1UOQ 4 o noo 718 special schools, 89, including 10 kmder-

roi lava ............................. 55o,vw;v, &lt; 10 . 3 L i

" 1894.. ................ 3,122,046 gartens, 44 night schools, 6 industrial

1895 . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .". . . .......... l ,482il71 schools, 23 high-schools ; 2 practice schools ;

^ 094319 anc * 4 normal schools; total expenditure

Chiefly sugar and molasses. for public education from all sources,

267

PORTO RICO

$817,814, or $7.99 per pupil enrolled. Of across the island in a northwesterly direo-
the expenditures, $14,804 was for the edu- tion, a distance of about eighty miles, and

the connecting San Juan with Ponce; the road
leading from Cayey, on the military road,

the to Guayama, on the coast, a distance of

students in

cation of Porto-Rican
United States.

Religion. Under Spanish rule
Roman Catholic was the only recognized about twenty-eight miles; and the roads

A NATIVE VILLAGE!, PORTO RICO.

form of religion on the island, with the from Toa Alta to Bayamon, from Baya-
exception that by a special decree the mon to Rio Piedras, from Bayamon to
Protestant Episcopal Church had been per- Catano, and from Ponce to Guayama, the
initted to establish itself in Ponce. The last group being only fairly good. The
latter church has since consecrated a military road is a stone macadam, very
bishop, the Rev. James H. Van Buren, carefully built, with a most complete sys-
for Cuba and Porto Rico jointly. As tern of bridges and culverts, and is con-
freedom of worship is now guaranteed sidered one of the finest roads in the
throughout the island, other denomina- Western World. From the trust funds
tions are rapidly acquiring establishments allotted for internal improvements a lib-
there, eral amount was set aside for road-making
Communications. At the time of the and repairs in 1902-03, and at the end of
American occupation the roads and high- that year the Ponce-Arecibo road was well
ways, with few exceptions, were in the advanced in construction; the Manaubo-
worst possible condition. The exceptions Yabucoa road was nearing completion ; re-
were the military road extending entirely pairs had been made on the Camuy-Agua-

268

PORTO RICO

dilla and the Caguas-Humacao roads; and gust, 1899, on the recommendation of the
appropriations had been made to recon- judicial board, Military-Governor Davis
struct the Ponce-Guayama, the Fajardo- reorganized the courts, reduced the num.-
Mameyes, the Yabucoa-Sabana Grande, and ber of judicial districts from twelve to five,
the Lares-San Sebastian roads, to build and gradually introduced many American
bridges across the Aflasco and Portugues rules of procedure, and the system ob-
rivers, and to proceed with the Bayamo- served generally in the courts of the
Comerio road. United States. The organic act of the

The experiment of the governmental civil government established a Supreme
ownership of telegraph lines is meeting Court of five justices having the same
with satisfactory results. About thirty- powers and duties as were assigned to that
eight miles were added to the total length tribunal by the military orders. This left
in 1902-03 ; the receipts of the service it a court of cassation rather than a court
were $49,114; expenditures, $35,199; net of appeals. The territorial assembly by
earnings, $13,914. On Oct. 18, 1903, the act of March 12, 1903, made the Supreme
first passenger train over the line of the Court a court of appeals and eliminated
American railroad was run from San Juan all the elements of cassation,
to Ponce, excepting the incomplete sec- Population. The people of Porto Rico
tion between Camuy and Aguadilla. This are, in the main, a rural community,
improvement cost over $1,000,000, extends There are no large cities in the island, the
through the most fertile part of the island, largest two being San Juan, which, re-
and will be of incalculable service in pro- garding the entire municipal district as a
moting agriculture and internal trade, city, had a population, according to the
The scheme of railroad development has censn s of 1899, of 32,048, and Ponce, which,
in view the encircling of the entire island, with its port, constituted practically one

Judiciary. Prior to 1832 the laws and city, with a population of 27,952. These
modes of procedure were the same as in are the only two cities exceeding 25,000
Cuba and other Spanish colonies. The inhabitants. The next city in magnitude
courts were limited, however, to the judges is Mayaguez, on the west coast, with a
of first instance and the municipal judges, population of 15,187. The only other city
By a royal decree of June 19, 1831, a exceeding 8,000 inhabitants is Arecibo,
territorial audiencia was established in with a population of 8,008. The total
San Juan, and appeals were then made urban population of the island contained
direct to the Supreme Court in Madrid, in cities exceeding 8,000 inhabitants each
At the date of American occupation, each was 83,195, or only 8.7 per cent, of the
municipal district had a municipal judge, population of the island. There were in
and there were twelve judicial districts Porto Rico fifty-seven cities, each having
each having a judge of first instance and a population of 1,000 or more. The total
instruction. There were three audicncias, urban population of the island, under this
one territorial of six judges, having its definition, numbered 203,792, or 21.4 per
seat in San Juan, with both civil and cent, of the total number of inhabitants
criminal jurisdiction, and two criminal of the island. The number of urban in-
audiencias of three judges each, located habitants in each department of Porto
in Ponce and Mayaguez, respectively. All Rico, with the proportion it bears to the
judges were appointed by the captain- total population of the department, is
general. Since the American occupation shown in the following table:
many salutary and important changes
have been made in the Spanish system, as
established in Porto Rico, including the Department.
discontinuance of the theory of the guilt

of an accused person, ex parte investiga- Arecibo! 3 . . . ..

tions, and the incomunicado. For these, Bayamon

speedy and impartial trials, by jury, or Hmnacao . .

otherwise, have been substituted, while the Mayaguez

writ of habeas corpus protects those who

may have been unjustly confined. In Au- Total ....

Total

Population.

99,645
162,308
160,046
111,986

88,501
127,566
203,191

953,243

Urban
Population
(1,000+).

15,518
21,166
46.728
26.829
18,219
29,462
45.869

260

203,79]

Percentage

Urban to

Total.

15.6
13.0

29.2
24.0
20.6
23.1
22.6

21.4

PORTO RICO

The People. The people of Porto Rico he sailed along the south and east coast to
have proven themselves loyal in their de- Aguada, where he landed Nov. 19. He
votion to their new country, and have took possession of the island in the name
shown much solicitation to be regarded in of the reigning sovereigns of Spain and
all essentials as citizens of the United named it Juan Bautista, in honor of St.
States. Immediately after the American John the Baptist. Its Indian name was
occupation expressions were heard on Borinquen. Columbus remained for sev-
every hand and from all classes of a eral days and then returned to Santo Do-
readiness and willingness to accept Amer- mingo. It does not appear that he ever
ican institutions to the fullest extent, as visited the island again. During the next
well as a desire to be relieved as quickly fourteen years numerous vessels stopped
as possible of the oppressive laws to at the island, usually for water, but it
which they had been so long subjected by remained unexplored and uninhabited by
Spanish rule. Compulsory education white men until 1508, when Nicolas de
being unknown, and thousands of parents, Ovando, Governor of Santo Domingo, hav-
not having themselves received any educa- ing learned that the mountains and
tion, seeing no need of requiring their streams abounded in gold, sent Juan
children to attend such schools as existed Ponce de Leon to explore the island. He
in their neighborhood, an educational con- embarked with a small party of Spaniards
dition was encountered by the Americans and a few Indian guides and landed near
which at first seemed exceedingly dis- Aguadilla, the home of the principal
couraging; but within a short time the cacique, Aqueybana, by whom he was
people began to manifest an intense desire kindly received and conducted to different
to have their children educated, and ac- parts of the island. In the course of the
cordingly became enthusiastic in the be- journey Ponce de Leon verified the reports
ginnings of the present American public- of the Indians in regard to the presence
school system. It was estimated at one of gold, and returned to Santo Domingo,
time that in a population of approximately leaving a few of his companions as guests
800.000 only from ten to twenty per cent, of Aqueybana. Ovando now determined
could read and write. There is consider- to subjugate and colonize the island, and
able wealth and certainly superior intelli- Ponce de Leon was selected to conduct the
gence among the more favored classes, enterprise. Before Organizing the expedi-
and the hospitality of the Porto-Rican is tion, however, Ponce de Leon resolved on
without bounds. His house is open to another friendly visit for the purpose of
every proper person, and a most cordial a more thorough reconnoissance, and ac-
greeting is assured. The people generally cordingly returned to Porte Rico. He
are peaceful and law-abiding. In the in- found that his companions had been
terior of the island there is in many places kindly treated and that the Indians were
considerable poverty, especially since the friendly, and believing he could get pos-
hurricane of Aug. 8, 1899, and many of session of the island peaceably he returned
the homes are constructed almost alto- to Santo Domingo to solicit the appoint-
gether of palm trees with a covering of ment of governor. He found, however,
palm leaves and straw thatch. The people that during his absence Ovando had been
are very industrious and willing to work superseded by Don Diego Columbus, and
if given an opportunity; and in nearly that Cristoval de Sotomayor, a Spanish
every instance those employing them speak cavalier, had been appointed governor of
in terms of commendation of them as Porto Rico by the Crown. But Don
workmen. Diego Columbus would not confirm his ap-

Eistory. The history of Porto Rico pre- pointment or appoint Ponce de Leon, and

sents but few points of interest as com- sent Juan Ceron as governor and Miguel

pared with Cuba or the other colonies of Diaz as his second. Prompted by a love

Spain in this hemisphere. The island of adventure and the hope of bettering

was discovered by Columbus, Nov. 16, their fortunes, Ponce de Leon and Soto-

1493, during his second voyage. He ap- mayor joined the expedition. In the

preached it from Santo Domingo and first mean time Ovando returned to Spain,

sighted Cape Mala Paseua. From there where he gave such a favorable account

270

PORTO IlICO

of the character and services of Juan for twenty-eight days, but were finally

Ponce de Leon in Porto Rico, that the forced to withdraw with considerable loss.

King appointed him governor of the In 1020 the French attempted a landing,

island and intimated plainly to Don but were repulsed. Between this and 1797

Diego Columbus that lie must not pre- several minor and unsuccessful attacks

sume to displace him. Ponce de Leon took were made. In April of that year, a

charge in 1500, and founded the town of British squadron and a detachment of

Caparra, about three miles inland from G,500 soldiers, under Lord Ralph Aber-

the bay of San Juan. It was afterwards crombie, attacked San Juan, but withdrew

named Puerto Rico and transferred to the after an investment of two weeks. From

present site of San Juan. Subsequently this time to the date of the American

the island and the city exchanged names, occupation of the island (1898) Porto

although by what process does not appear. Rico was exempt from outside attack.
The site of Caparra, the first town found
ed, is now known as Pueblo Viejo. Hav- GOVERNORS.

ing fixed the seat of government at Ca-

jHHitsrj .

parra, Juan Ponce de Leon began the Appointed.

pacification and colonization of the island Maj. -Gen. Jobn R. Brooke, A.S.A Oct. 18, 1898

in the usual manner. A conspiracy J[ a J- Gen - Guy V. Henry, U.S. A nee. 6, if

.... , , . J Maj. -Gen. George M. Davis, U.S.A May 9,1899

among the native caciques, led by Aquey-

bana, the brother and successor of him Civil.

who had first welcomed the Spaniards to Charles H. Allen April 12, 1900

the island, was exposed and suppressed, William H. Hunt Aug. 30, 1901

but not without desperate efforts on the Beekman Winthrop ..April 23, 1904

part of the Spaniards, the death of Soto-

mayor, and the destruction of such Span- Government. By the act of April 12,
ish settlements as then existed. It does 1900, which took effect May 1, Congress
not appear that the colonists had any made provision for a civil government
serious trouble with the n