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HARPER'S      ENCYCLOPEDIA 

of 

UNITED    STATES    HISTORY 

From   458    a.d.   to    1906 


BASED  UPON  THE  PLAN  OF 


BENSON  JOHN   LOSSING,  LL.D. 

SOMETIME    EDITOR    OF    "  THE    AMERICAN    HISTORICAL    RECORD  "    AND    AUTHOR    OF 
"  THE  PICTORIAL  FIELD-BOOK  OF  THE  REVOLUTION  "    "  THE  PICTORIAL  FIELD- 
BOOK    OF    THE    WAR     OF     l8l2"     ETC.,      ETC.,      ETC. 

WITH  SPECIAL  CONTRIBUTIONS  COVERING   EVERY  PHASE   OF  AMERICAN   HISTORY  AND 
DEVELOPMENT   BY  EMINENT   AUTHORITIES,    INCLUDING  ■    . 

JOHN  FISKE.  WOODROW  WILSON,  Ph.D4,  LL.D. 

THE  AMERICAN  HISTORIAN  PRESIDENT  OF  PRINCE  TO  A  \  UNIVERSITY' 

WM.  R.  HARPER,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  D.D.         GOLDWIN  SMITH,  D.C.L,  U.D. 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PROF.  OF  HISTORY  UNIV.   OFtOROMO 

ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,  Ph.D.  MOSES  COIT  TYLER,  LL,D„. 

PROF.  OF  HISTORY  AT  HARVARD  PROF.  OF  HISTORY  AT  CORNELL 

JOHN  B.  MOORE.  EDWARD  G.  BOURNE,  Ph.D. 

PROF.  OF  INTERNATIONAL  LAW  AT  COLUMBIA  PROF.  OF  HISTORY  AT  YALE 

JOHN  FRYER,  A.M.,  LL.D.  R.  J.  H.  GOTTHEIL,  Ph.D. 

PROF.  OF  LITERATURE  AT  UNIV.  OF  CALIFORNIA  PROF.  OF  SEMITIC  LANGUAGES  AT  COLUMBIA 

WILLIAM  T.  HARRIS,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.  ALFRED  T.  MAHAN,  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 

U.  S.  COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION  CAPTAIN  UNITED  STATES  NAVY  (Rcti~e<l) 

ETC.,    ETC.,    ETC.,   ETC. 

WITH     A     PREFACE     ON     THE     STUDY    OF      AMERICAN     HISTORY     BY 

WOODROW  WILSON,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

PRESIDENT  OF  PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY 
AUTHOR   OF 

"A    HISTORY     OF    THE    AMERICAN    PEOPLE,"     ETC.,     ETC. 

WITH  ORIGINAL  DOCUMENTS,  PORTRAITS,  MAPS,  PLANS,  &*c. 

COMPLETE  IN  TEN  VOLUMES 
VOL.  VII 


HARPER    &    BROTHERS    PUBLISHERS 
NEW    YORK         =  1907         =         LONDON 


■^u 


^ 


Copyright,  1905,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 

Copyright,  1901,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 

All  rights  reserved. 


V 

J 

/ 

0\ 


LIST     OF     PLATES 


I  President  Theodore  Roosevelt 
I  Scene  on  the  Luneta,  Manila 
v  President  Franklin  Pierce 
I  The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims  . 
I  President  James  K.  Polk     .     . 
Admiral  David  D.  Porter     .     . 


Frontispiece 
Facing  page  180 
"  202 
"  212 
u  240 
"     258 


MAPS 


Philippine  Islands 
^orto  Rico  .     .     . 


Facing  page  176 
272 


35331 


HARPERS'  ENCYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

UNITED    STATES    HISTORY 


o. 


Oak  Woods,  Battle  of.  In  the  Civil 
War  the  siege  of  Richmond  had  gone  on 
quietly  until  near  the  close  of  June,  1862, 
v/hen  General  Heintzel man's  corps,  with 
a  part  of  Keyes's  and  Sumner's,  was  order- 
ed to  move  forward  on  the  Williamsburg 
road,  through  a  swampy  wood,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  the  nature  of  the 
ground  beyond,  and  to  place  Heintzelman 
and  Sumner  in  a  position  to  support  a 
proposed  attack  upon  the  Confederates  at 
a  certain  point  by  General  Franklin.  They 
met  a  Confederate  force,  and  a  fight  en- 
sued, in  which  the  brigades  of  Sickles 
and  Grover,  of  Hooker's  division,  bore  the 
brunt.  The  Confederates  were  driven  from 
their  encampment,  and  the  point  aimed  at 
was  gained.  The  National  loss  was  516 
men  killed  and  wounded. 

Oaths,  solemn  appeals  to  God  for  the 
truth  of  an  affirmation.  There  are  two 
classes  of  oaths :  ( 1 )  assertatory,  when 
made  as  to  a  fact,  etc.;  (2)  promissory, 
oaths  of  allegiance,  of  office,  etc.  Taken  by 
Abraham,  1892  B.C.  (Gen.  xxi.  24),  and 
authorized  1491  B.C.  (Exod.  xxii.  11). 
The  administration  of  an  oath  in  judicial 
proceedings  was  introduced  by  the  Saxons 
into  England,  600. 

Of  supremacy,  first  administered  to 
British  subjects,  and  ratified  by  Par- 
liament, 26  Henry  VIII 1535 

Oaths  were  taken  on  the  Gospels  so 
early  as  528 ;  and  the  words,  "  So 
help  me  God  and  all  saints,"  conclud- 
ed  an   oath   until 1550 

Ancient  oath  of  allegiance  in  England, 
"  to  be  true  and  faithful  to  the  King 
and  his  heirs,  and  truth  and  faith  to 
VTI. — A 


bear  of  life  and  limb  and  terrene 
honor ;  and  not  to  know  or  hear  of 
any  ill  or  damage  intended  him  with- 
out defending  him  therefrom."  to 
which  James  I.  added  a  declaration 
against  the  pope's  authority 1603 

It  was  again  altered p. 1689 

Affirmation  of  a  Quaker  authorized  in- 
stead of  an  oath,  by  statute,  in  1696 
et  seq. 

Of  abjuration,  being  an  obligation  to 
maintain  the  government  of  King, 
lords,  and  Commons,  the  Church  of 
England,  and  toleration  of  Protestant 
Dissenters,  and  abjuring  all  Roman 
Catholic  pretenders  to  the  crown,  13 
William    III 1701 

Affirmation,  instead  of  oath,  was  per- 
mitted to  Quakers  and  other  Dis- 
senters by  acts  passed  in  1833,  1837, 
1838,  and  1863. 

In  1858  and  I860  Jews  elected  members 
of  Parliament  were  relieved  from  part 
of  the  oath  of  allegiance. 

New  oath  of  allegiance  by  31  and  32 
Victoria  c.  72  (1868),  for  members  of 
the  new  Parliament :  "I  do  swear 
that  I  will  be  faithful  and  bear  true 
allegiance  to  her  Majesty  Queen  Vic- 
toria, her  heirs  and  successors,  ac- 
cording to  law,  so  help  me  God." 
(Bradlaugh  case,  Parliament,  1880.) 

Following  is  the  form  of  the  oath  of 
allegiance  Washington  was  directed  by 
Congress  to  administer  to  the  officers 
of  the  army  before  leaving  Valley 
Forge:  "I  [name  and  office],  in  the- 
armies  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica, do  acknowledge  the  United  States 
of  America  to  be  free,  independent,  and 
sovereign  States,  and  declare  that 
the  people  thereof  owe  no  allegiance 
or  obedience  to  George  III.,  King 
of  Great  Britain  ;  and  I  renounce,  re- 
fuse,   and    abjure    any    allegiance    or 

obedience  to  him :  and  I  do  that 

I  will  to  the  utmost  of  my  power  sup- 
port,  maintain,   and   defend   the  said 


OBER— O'BRIEN 


United  States  against  the  said  King 
George  III.,  his  heirs  and  successors, 
and  his  or  their  abettors,  assistants, 
and  adherents,  and  will  serve  the  said 

United    States    in    the   office   of  

which  I  now  hold,  with  fidelity  ac- 
cording to  the  best  of  my  skill  and 

understanding  "    June,  1778 

[By  act  of  Congress,  Aug.  3,  1861, 
the  oath  of  allegiance  for  the  cadets 
at  West  Point  was  amended  so  as  to 
abjure  all  allegiance,  sovereignty,  or 
fealty  to  any  State,  county,  or  coun- 
try whatsoever,  and  to  require  un- 
qualified support  of  the  Constitution 
and  the  national  government.] 
"  Iron-clad "  or  "  test "  oath,  pre- 
scribed by  Congress  July  2,  1862,  to 
be  taken  by  persons  in  the  former 
Confederate  States  appointed  to  office 
under  the  national  government.  The 
text  was  as  follows :  I,  A.  B.,  do 
solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I 
have  never  voluntarily  borne  arms 
against  the  United  States  since  I 
have  been  a  citizen  thereof ;  that 
I  have  voluntarily  given  no  aid, 
countenance,  counsel,  or  encourage- 
ment to  persons  engaged  in  armed 
hostility  thereto  ;  that  I  have  neither 
sought,  nor  accepted,  nor  attempted 
to  exercise  the  functions  of  any  office 
whatever,  under  any  authority  or  pre- 
tended authority  in  hostility  to  the 
United  States ;  that  I  have  not  yield- 
ed a  voluntary  support  to  any  pre- 
tended government,  authority,  power, 
or  constitution  within  the  United 
States,  hostile  or  inimical  thereto. 
And  I  do  further  swear  (or  affirm) 
that,  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge 
and  ability,  I  will  support  and  defend 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
against  all  enemies,  foreign  and 
domestic  ;  that  I  will  bear  true  faith 
and  allegiance  to  the  same ;  that  I 
take  this  obligation  freely,  without 
any  mental  reservation  or  purpose  of 
evasion,  and  that  I  will  well  and 
faithfully  discharge  the  duties  of  the 
office  on  which  I  am  about  to  enter, 
so  help  me  God." 

For  another  form  of  special  oath,  see 
Aguinaldo,  Emilio. 

Ober,  Frederick  Albion,  author;  born 
in  Beverly,  Mass.,  Feb.  13,  1849 ;  now  con- 
nected as  ornithologist  with  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  for  which  he  has  trav- 
elled extensively.  Among  his  works  are 
Puerto  Rico  and  its  Resources;  Brief  His- 
tories of  Spain,  Mexico,  and  the  West 
Indies,  etc. 

Oberlin  College,  a  non-sectarian,  co- 
educational institution  in  Oberlin,  O., 
founded  in  1833  by  the  Rev.  John  J.  Ship- 
herd  and  Philo  P.  Stewart,  and  so  named 


in  honor  of  J.  F.  Oberlin  (1740-1826),  a 
Protestant  pastor  of  VValdbach,  Alsace. 
In  1903  it  reported  96  professors  and  in- 
structors; 1,509  students;  3,856  grad- 
uates; 68,000  volumes  in  the  library; 
grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $716,000; 
and  productive  funds,  $1,576,153.  Henry 
C.  King,  D.D.,  president. 

Obiong,  The.  In  1731  the  long-disputed 
boundary  between  New  York  and  Connecti- 
cut seemed  to  be  settled  by  mutual  con- 
cessions. A  tract  of  land  lying  within 
the  claimed  boundary  of  Connecticut,  580 
rods  in  width,  consisting  of  61,440  acres, 
and  called  from  its  figure  "  The  Oblong," 
was  ceded  to  New  York  as  an  equivalent 
for  lands  near  Long  Island  Sound  sur- 
rendered to  Connecticut.  That  tract  is 
now  included  in  the  Connecticut  towns  of 
Greenwich.  Stamford,  New  Canaan,  and 
Darien.  This  agreement  was  subscribed 
by  the  respective  commissioners  at  Dover, 
then  the  only  village  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Oblong.  The  dividing  -  line  was 
not  run  regularly,  and  this  gave  rise 
to  a  vexatious  controversy,  which  was  set- 
tled in  1880. 

O'Brien,  Jeremiah,  naval  officer;  born 
in  Scarboro,  Me.,  in  1740.  On  hearing  of 
the  affair  at  Lexington  (April,  1775),  he 
and  four  brothers,  and  a  few  volunteers, 
captured  a  British  armed  schooner  in 
Machias  Bay,  May  11,  1775.  Jeremiah 
was  the  leader.  It  was  the  first  naval 
victory,  and  the  first  blow  struck  on  the 
water,  after  the  war  began.  O'Brien  soon 
afterwards  made  other  captures,  and  he 
was  commissioned  a  captain  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts navy.  He  commanded  a  privateer, 
but  was  captured,  and  suffered  six  months 
in  the  Jersey  Prison-ship  (q.  v.).  He 
was  also  confined  in  Mill  Prison, England, a 
year,  when  he  escaped  and  returned  home. 
At  the  time  of  his  death,  Oct.  5,  1818, 
O'Brien  was  collector  of  customs  at  Machias. 

O'Brien,  Richard,  naval  officer ;  born  in 
Maine  in  1758:  commanded  a  privateer  in 
the  Revolutionary  War,  and  was  an  officer 
on  the  brig  Jefferson  in  1781;  was  capt- 
ured by  the  Dey  of  Algiers,  and  enslaved 
for  many  years,  carrying  a  ball  and  chain 
until  a  s  service  performed  for  his  mas- 
ter's daughter  alleviated  his  condition. 
Thomas  Jefferson,  while  Secretary  of  State 
(1797),  procured  his  emancipation,  and 
appointed  him  an  agent  for  the  United 
2 


OBSERVATORY— O'CONOR 


States.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Feb.  14,  1824. 

Observatory.  The  first  observatory  in 
Europe  was  erected  at  Nuremberg,  1472, 
by  Walthers.  The  two  most  celebrated  of 
the  sixteenth  century  were  the  one  erect- 
ed by  Landgrave  William  IV.  at  Cassel, 
1561,  and  Tj'oho  Brahe's  at  Uranienborg, 
156£.  The  first  attempt  in  the  United 
States  was  at  the  University  of  North 
Carolina,  1824;  and  the  first  permanent 
one  at  Williams  College,  1836.  The  lead- 
ing observatories  in  the  United  States  are 
those  of  the  Naval  Observatory  in  Wash- 
ington, the  Princeton  University,  Harvard 
University,  Dudley  Observatory  at  Albany, 
Michigan  University,  Chicago  University, 
Hamilton  College,  and  the  Lick  Observa- 
tory in  California. 

Ocala  (Fla.)  Platform,  of  the  Farm- 
ers' Alliance,  was  adopted  Dec.  8,  1890. 
It  favored  free  silver,  a  low  tariff,  an 
income  tax,  the  abolition  of  national 
banks,  and  the  establishment  of  sub- 
treasuries,  which  should  lend  money  to  the 
people  at  a  low  interest. 

O'Callaghan,  Edmund  Bailey,  histo- 
rian; born  in  County  Cork,  Ireland,  Feb. 
29,  1797.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Parliament  of  Lower  Canada  in  1836. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1837,  and  was  for  many  years  ( 1848— 
70)  keeper  of  the  historical  manuscripts 
in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  of 
New  York.  He  translated  the  Dutch  rec- 
ords obtained  from  Holland  by  Mr.  Brod- 
head,  contained  in  several  published  vol- 
umes. O'Callaghan  wrote  and  edited  very 
valuable  works,  such  as  the  Documentary 
History  of  Neic  York  (4  volumes)  ;  Docu- 
ments relating  to  the  Colonial  History  of 
New  York  (11  volumes)  ;  Journals  of  the 
Legislative  Councils  of  Neio  York  (2  vol- 
umes) ;  Historical  Manuscripts  relating 
to  the  War  of  the  Revolution ;  Laics  and 
Ordinances  of  Neic  Netherland  (2  volumes, 
1638-74).  In  1845-48  he  prepared  and 
published  a  History  of  Xeio  Netherland 
(2  volumes).  At  the  time  of  his  death, 
May  27,  1880.  he  was  engaged  in  translat- 
ing the  Dutch  records  of  the  citv  of  New 
York. 

Occom,  Samson,  Indian  preacher;  born 
in  Mohegan,  New  London  co.,  Conn.,  about 
1723;  entered  the  Indian  school  of  Mr. 
Wheelock  at  Lebanon  when  he  was  nine- 


teen years  of  age,  and  remained  there 
four  years.  Teaching  school  awhile  at 
Lebanon,  he  removed  to  Montauk,  L.  I., 
where  he  taught  and  preached.  Sent  to 
England  (1766)  as  an  agent  for  Whee- 
lock's  Indian  school,  he  attracted  great 
attention,  for  he  was  the  first  Indian 
preacher  who  had  visited  that  country. 
Occum  was  employed  in  missionary  labors 
among  the  Indians,  and  acquired  much 
influence  over  them.  He  died  in  New 
Stockbridge,  N.   Y.,  July    14,    1792. 

Oconastoto,  Indian  Chief,  elected  head 
chief  of  the  Cherokees  in  1738.  In  the 
French  and  Indian  War  he  sided  at  first 
with  the  English,  but  in  consequence  of  a 
dispute  between  the  Indians  and  some  Eng- 
lish settlers,  he  made  a  general  attack  on 
the  frontier  settlements  of  the  Carolinas. 
At  the  head  of  10,000  Creeks  and  Chero- 
kees he  forced  the  garrison  of  Fort  Loudon 
to  surrender,  and  in  violation  of  his  prom- 
ise, treacherously  killed  all  his  prison- 
ers, over  200  in  number.  Three  men 
only  escaped — Capt.  John  Stuart,  and  two 
soldiers.  Stuart's  life  was  saved  by  one 
of  the  chiefs,  who  assisted  him  in  returning 
to  Virginia.  As  a  result  of  the  massacre 
the  colonists  burned  the  Cherokee  towns, 
and  forced  Oconastoto  into  an  alliance 
which  lasted  until  the  war  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, when  Captain  Stuart,  who  had  been 
made  British  Indian  agent,  induced  Ocon- 
astoto to  head  an  attack  on  the  colonists 
with  20,000  Indians.  John  Sevieb 
(q.  v.)  after  a  five  years'  struggle  succeed- 
ed in  permanently  crushing  the  power  of 
the  allied  Indians.  Oconastoto  was  re- 
ported alive  in  1809  by  Return  J.  Meigs, 
United  States  Indian  agent,  although 
eighty  years  previously  (1730)  he  had 
reached  manhood  and  had  represented  the 
Cherokee  nation  in  a  delegation  sent  to 
England. 

O'Conor,  Charles,  lawyer;  born  in 
New  York  City,  Jan.  22,  1804;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1824.  He  was  connected 
with  many  of  the  most  prominent  legal 
cases,  the  most  famous  of  which  were 
the  suits  against  the  Tammany  ring  in 
1871,  in  which  William  M.  Evarts,  James 
Emmot.  and  Wheeler  H.  Peckham  were 
associated  with  him.  In  1872  Mr. 
O'Conor  was  nominated  for  the  Presi- 
dency by  that  portion  of  the  Democratic 
party  which  was  opposed  to  the  election 


ODD-FELLOWS— OGBEN 


of  Horace  Greeley.  Mr.  O'Conor  was  one 
of  the  counsel  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden  be- 
fore the  electoral  commission  in  1876.  He 
died  in  Nantucket,  Mass.,  May  12,  1884. 

Odd-fellows,  a  name  adopted  by  mem- 
bers of  a  social  institution  having  signs 
of  recognition,  initiatory  rites  and  cere- 
monies, grades  of  dignity  and  honor; 
object  purely  social  and  benevolent,  con- 
fined to  members.  The  independent  order 
of  odd-fellows  was  formed  in  Manchester, 
England,  in  1813.  Odd-fellowship  was  in- 
troduced into  the  United  States  from  Man- 
chester in  1819;  and  the  grand  lodge  of 
Maryland  and  the  United  States  was  con- 
stituted Feb.  22,  1821.  In  1842  the  Ameri- 
can branch  severed  its  connection  with  the 
Manchester  unity.  In  1843  it  issued  a 
dispensation  for  opening  the  Prince  of 
Wales  Lodge  No.  1,  at  Montreal,  Canada. 
American  odd  -  fellowship  has  its  head- 
quarters at  Baltimore  and  branches  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  world,  the  su- 
preme body  being  the  sovereign  grand 
lodge  of  the  world.  In  1903  its  member- 
ship was  1,031,399;  total  relief  paid, 
$4,068,510. 

Odell,  Benjamin  B.,  Jr.,  governor; 
born  in  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  14,  1854; 
member  of  Congress  in  1895-99;  elected 
governor  of  the  State  of  New  York  in 
1900. 

O'Dell,  Jonathan,  clergyman;  born  in 
Newark,  N.  J.,  Sept.  25,  1737;  grad- 
uated "  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey 
in  1754;  took  holy  orders  in  1767,  and 
became  pastor  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in 
Burlington,  N.  J.  During  the  Revolution 
he  .was  in  frequent  conflict  with  the 
patriots  in  his  parish,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  war  he  went  to  England,  but  returned 
to  America  and  settled  in  New  Brunswick, 
Nova  Scotia.  He  died  in  Fredericton, 
N.  B.,  Nov.  25,  1818. 

Odell,  Moses  Fowler,  statesman;  born 
in  Tarrytown,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  24,  1818;  elected 
to  Congress  in  1861  as  a  fusion  Democrat 
from  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1863  as  a 
war  Democrat.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
committee  on  the  conduct  of  the  war.  In 
1865  he  was  appointed  naval  officer  of  the 
port  of  New  York,  and  subsequently  was 
offered  the  post  of  collector  of  the  port, 
which  he  declined  on  account  of  failing 
health.  Mr.  Odell  was  a  prominent  mem- 
ber  of   the   Methodist   Episcopal    Church, 


and  widely  known  as  the  superintendent 
of  the  Sunday  -  school  of  Sands  Street 
Church.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  June 
13,  1866. 

Ogden,  Aaron,  military  officer;  born 
in  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  Dee.  3,  1756; 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1773;  taught 
school  in  his  native  village;  and  in  the 
winter  of  1775-76  assisted  in  capturing, 
near  Sandy  Hook,  a  British  vessel  laden 
with  munitions  of  war  for  the  army  in 
Boston.      Early    in    1777    he    entered    the 


AARON    OGDEN. 


army  as  captain  under  his  brother  Mat- 
thias, and  fought  at  Brandy  wine.  He  was 
brigade-major  under  Lee  at  Monmouth, 
and  assistant  aide-de-camp  to  Lord  Stir- 
ling; aid  to  General  Maxwell  in  Sullivan's 
expedition;  was  at  the  battle  of  Spring- 
field (June,  1780)  ;  and  in  1781  was  with 
Lafayette  in  Virginia.  He  led  infantry 
to  the  storming  of  a  redoubt  at  Yorktown,, 
and  received  the  commendation  of  Wash- 
ington. After  the  war  he  practised  law, 
and  held  civil  offices  of  trust  in  his  State. 
He  was  United  States  Senator  from  1801 
to  1803,  and  governor  of  New  Jersey  from 
1812  to  1813.  In  the  War  of  1812-15  he 
commanded  the  militia  of  New  Jersey. 
At  the  time  of  his  death,  in  Jersey  City 
N.  J.,  April  19,  1839,  he  was  president 
general  of  the  Society  of  the  Cincinnati. 

Ogden,  David,  jurist;  born  in  Newark, 
N.  J.,  in  1707;  graduated  at  Yale  in  1728; 
appointed  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
New  Jersey  in  1772,  but  was  obliged  to 
resign  at  the  beginning  of  the  War  of  the 
Revolution.  He  was  in  England  the  great- 
er portion  of  the  time  until  1789,  acting  as 


OGDEN— OGDENSBURG 


agent  for  the  loyalists  who  had  claims  on 
Great  Britain^  and  he  secured  a  com- 
pensation of  $100,000  for  his  own  losses. 
He  settled  in  Whitestone,  N.  Y.,  in  1789, 
and  died  there  in  June,  1800. 

Ogden,  Herbert  Gouverneur,  topog- 
rapher; born  in  New  York,  April  4, 
1846;  served  in  the  Civil  War;  connected 
with  the  United  States  coast  survey; 
took  part  in  the  Nicaragua  expedition, 
1865;  exploration  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  1870;  Alaskan  boundary  ex- 
pedition,   1893,   etc. 

Ogden,  Matthias,  military  officer ;  born 
in  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  Oct.  22,  1754; 
joined  the  army  at  Cambridge  in  1775, 
accompanied  Arnold  in  his  expedition  to 
Quebec  (q.  v.),  and  commanded  the  1st 
New  Jersey  Regiment  from  1776  until  the 
close  of  the  war,  when  he  was  bre vetted 
brigadier-general.  He  died  in  Elizabeth- 
town,  N.  J.,  March  31,  1791. 

Ogdensburg,   Battles   at.     The  pres- 


of  northern  New  York  from  that  quarter 
caused  Gen.  Jacob  Brown  to  be  sent  to 
Ogdensburg  to  garrison  old  Fort  Presenta- 
tion, or  Oswegatehie,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Oswegatchie  River.  Brown  arrived  on  Oct. 
1,  and  the  next  day  a  British  flotilla,  com- 
posed of  two  gunboats  and  twenty-fivp 
bateaux,  bearing  about  750  armed  men, 
left  Prescott  to  attack  Ogdensburg.  At 
the  latter  place  Brown  had  about  1,20(7 
effective  men,  regulars  and  militia,  and 
a  party  of  riflemen,  under  Captain  For- 
syth, were  encamped  near  Fort  Presents 
tion,  on  the  margin  of  the  river.  The 
latter  were  drawn  up  in  battle  order  to 
dispute  the  landing  of  the  invaders.  Brown 
had  two  field-pieces,  and  when  the  British 
were  nearly  in  mid-channel  these  were 
opened  upon  them  with  such  effect  that 
the  enemy  were  made  to  retreat  precipi- 
tately and  in  great  confusion.  This  re- 
pulse gave  Brown  much  credit,  and  he 
was  soon  regarded  as  one  of  the  ablest 
men  in  the  service. 

The  British  again  attacked  Ogdensburg 
in  the  winter  of  1813.  On  Feb.  22  about 
800  British  soldiers,  under  Colonel  Mc- 
Donell,  appeared  on  the  ice  in  front  of  the 
town,  approaching  in  two  columns.  It 
was  early  in  the  morning,  and  some  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  village  were  yet  in  bed. 
Colonel  Forsyth  and  his  riflemen  were  sta- 
tioned at  Fort  Presentation,  and  against 
them  the  right  column  of  the  invaders, 
300  strong,  moved.       Forsyth's  men  were 


PRESENT   SITE   OP    FOliT    PRESENTATION. 


ent  city  of  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y.,  was  a  little  partially  sheltered  by  the  ruins  of  the 
village  in  1812,  at  the  mouth  of  the  fort.  Waiting  until  the  column  landed, 
Oswegatchie  River.  The  British  village  the  Americans  attacked  them  with  great 
of  Prescott  was  on  the  opposite  side  of  energy  with  rifle-shot  and  cannon-balls 
the  St.  Lawrence.     A  threatened  invasion    from  two  small  field-pieces.     The  invaders 

5 


OGDENSBURG— OGILVIE 

were  repulsed  with  considerable  loss,  and  syth,  seeing  his  peril,  gave  orders  for  a  re- 
fled  in  confusion  over  the  frozen  bosom  of  treat  to  Black  Lake,  8  or  9  miles  distant, 
the  St.  Lawrence.  Meanwhile  the  left  col-  There  he  wrote  to  the  War  Department, 
umn,  500  strong,  had  marched  into  the  giving  an  account  of  the  aflair,  and  say- 
town  and  captured  a  12-pounder  cannon  ing,  "  If  you  can  send  me  300  men,  all 
and    its    custodians    without    resistance,  shall  be  retaken,  and  Prescott  too,  or  X 


MAP  OP  THE  OPERATIONS  AT  OGDENSBUKG 


They  then  expected  an  easy  conquest  of 
the  town,  but  were  soon  confronted  by 
cannon  under  Captain  Kellogg  and  Sher- 
iff York.  The  gun  of  the  former  became 
disabled,  and  he  and  his  men  fled  across 
the  Oswegatchie  and  joined  Forsyth,  leav- 
ing the  indomitable  York  to  maintain  the 
fight  alone,  until  he  and  his  band  were 
made  prisoners.  The  village  was  now  in 
complete  possession  of  the  British,  and 
McDonell  proceeded  to  dislodge  Forsyth 
and  his  party  at  the  fort.  He  sen+,  a  mes- 
sage to  that  commander  to  surrender,  say- 
ing, "  If  you  surrender,  it  shall  be  well ;  if 
not,  every  man  shall  be  r^t  to  the  bayo- 
net." "  Tell  Colonel  McDonell,"  said  For- 
syth to  the  messenger,  "  there  must  be 
more  fighting  done  first."  Then  the  two 
cannon  near  the  ruins  of  the  fort  gave 
heavy  discharges  of  grape  and  canister 
shot,  which  'hrew  the  invaders  into  con- 
fusion. It  was  only  momentary.  An 
overwhelm^  ig  party  of  the  British  were 
preparing  to  make  an  assault,  when  For- 


will  lose  my  life  in  the  attempt."  The 
town,  in  possession  of  the  enemy,  was 
plundered  by  Indians  and  camp-followers 
of  both  sexes,  who  came  over  from  Canada, 
and  by  resident  miscreants.  Every  house 
in  the  village  but  three  was  entered,  and 
the  public  property  carried  over  to  Cana- 
da. Two  armea  schooners,  fast  in  the  ice, 
were  burned,  and  the  barracks  near  the 
river  were  laid  in  ashes.  Fifty-two  pris- 
oners were  taken  to  Prescott.  The  Amer- 
icans lost  in  the  affair,  besides  the  prison- 
ers, five  killed  and  fifteen  wounded;  the 
British  loss  was  six  killed  and  forty-eight 
wounded.  They  immediately  evacuated  the 
place,  and  the  fugitive  citizens  returned. 
Ogilvie,  John,  clergyman ;  born  in  New 
York  City  in  1722;  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1748;  missionary  to  the  Indians  in  1749; 
chaplain  to  the  Royal  American  Regiment 
during  the  French  and  Indian  War;  as- 
sistant minister  of  Trinity  Church,  New 
York  City,  in  1764.  He  died  in  New  York 
City,  Nov.  26,  1774. 


G 


OGLESBY— OGLETHORPE 


Oglesby,  Richard  James,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Oldham  county,  Ky.,  July  25, 
1824;  settled  in  Decatur,  111.,  in  183G. 
When  the  Mexican  War  broke  out  he  en- 
tered the  army  as  lieutenant  in  the  8th 
Illinois  Infantry  and  participated  in  the 
siege  of  Vera  Cruz  and  in  the  action  at 
Cerro  Gordo.  Resigning  in  1847  he 
studied  law,  and  began  practice  in  1851. 
He  was  elected  to  the  State  Senate  in 
1860,  but  when  the  Civil  War  began  re- 
signed his  seat  and  became  colonel  of  the 
8th  Illinois  Volunteers;  won  distinction 
in  the  battles  of  Pittsburg  Landing  and 
Corinth;  and  was  promoted  major-general 
in  1862.  He  was  elected  governor  of  Il- 
linois in  1864  and  1872,  but  in  his  second 
term  served  a  few  days  only  when  he  was 
elected  United  States  Senator.  In  1878  he 
was  again  elected  governor.  He  died  in 
Elkhart,  111.,  April  24,  1899. 

Oglethorpe,  James  Edward,  "  father  " 
of  Georgia;  born  in  London,  England,  Dec. 
21,  1698.  Early  in  1714  he  was  commis- 
sioned one  of  Queen  Anne's  guards,  and 
was  one  of  Prince  Eugene's  aids  in  the 
campaign  against  the  Turks  in  1716-17. 
At  the  siege  and  capture  of  Belgrade  he 
was  very  active,  and  he  attained  the  rank 
of  colonel  in  the  British  army.  In  1722 
he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  Parliament, 
which  he  held  thirty-two  years.  In  that 
body  he  made  a  successful  effort  to  relieve 
the  distresses  of  prisoners  for  debt,  who 
crowded  the  jails  of  England,  and  projected 
the  plan  of  a  colony  in  America  to  serve 
as  an  asylum  for  the  persecuted  Protes- 
tants in  Germany  and  other  Continental 
countries,  and  "  for  those  persons  at  home 
who  had  become  so  desperate  in  circum- 
stances that  they  could  not  rise  and  hope 
again  without  changing  the  scene  and  mak- 
ing trial  of  a  different  country."  Thom- 
son, alluding  to  this  project  of  transporting 
and  expatriating  the  prisoners  for  debt  to 
America,  wrote  this  half-warning  line,  "  0 
great  design!  if  executed  well."  It  was 
proposed  to  found  the  colony  in  the  coun- 
try between  South  Carolina  and  Florida. 
King  George  II.  granted  a  charter  for  the 
purpose  in  June,  1732.  which  incorporated 
twenty-one  trustees  for  founding  the  col- 
ony of  Georgia. 

.Oglethorpe  accompanied  the  first  com- 
pany of  emigrants  thither,  and  early  in 
1733    founded   the   town   of   Savannah   on 


Yamacraw  Bluff.  A  satisfactory  confer- 
ence with  the  surrounding  Indians,  with 
Mary  Musgrove  (q.  v.)  as  interpreter, 
resulted  in  a  treaty  which  secured  sov- 
ereignty to  the  English  over  a  large  ter- 
ritory. Oglethorpe  went  to  England  in 
1734,  leaving  the  colony  in  care  of  others, 
and  taking  natives  with  him.  He  did  not 
return  to  Georgia  until  1736,  when  he 
took  with  him  several  cannon  and  about 
150  Scotch  Highlanders  skilled  in  the  mili- 
tary art.  This  was  the  first  British  army 
in  Georgia.  With  him  also  came  Rev. 
John  Wesley  (q.  v.)  and  his  brother 
Charles,  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
spiritual  instruction  to  the  colonists. 
The  elements  of  prosperity  were  now 
with  the  colonists,  who  numbered  more 
than  500  souls;  but  the  unwise  re- 
strictions of  the  trustees  were  a  serious 
bar  to  advancement.  Many  Germans,  also, 
now  settled  in  Georgia,  among  them  a 
band  of  Moravians;  and  the  Wesleys  were 
followed  by  George  Whitefield  ( q.  v. ) ,  a 


JAMES  EDWARD  OGLETHORPE. 

zealous  young  clergyman  burning  with  zeal 
for  the  good  of  men,  and  who  worked  lov- 
ingly with  the  Moravians  in  Georgia. 

With  his  great  guns  and  his  Highland- 
ers, Oglethorpe  was  prepared  to  defend  his 
colony  from  intruders;  and  they  soon 
proved  to  be  useful,  for  the  Spaniards  at 
St.  Augustine,  jealous  of  the  growth  of 
the  new  colony,  menaced  them.  With  his 
martial  Scotchmen,  Oglethorpe  went  on 
an  expedition  among  the  islands  off  the 
coast  of  Georgia,  and  on  St.  Simon's  he 
founded  Frederica  and  built  a  fort.  At 
Darien,   where   a   few   Scotch   people   had 


OGLETHORPE— OHIO 


planted  a  settlement,  he  traced  out  a  forti- 
fication. Then  he  went  to  Cumberland 
Island,  and  there  marked  out  a  fort  that 
would  command  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Mary's  River.  On  a  small  island  at  the 
entrance  of  the  St.  John's  River  he 
planned  a  small  military  work,  which  he 
named  Fort  George.  He  also  founded  Au- 
gusta, far  up  the  Savannah  River,  and 
built  a  stockade  as  a  defence  against  hos- 
tile Indians. 

These  hostile  preparations  caused  the 
Spaniards  at  St.  Augustine  to  threaten 
war.  Creek  tribes  oifered  their  aid  to 
Oglethorpe,  and  the  Spaniards  made  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  the  English.  It  was 
disapproved  in  Spain,  and  Oglethorpe  was 
notified  that  a  commissioner  from  Cuba 
would  meet  him  at  Frederica.  They  met. 
The  Spaniard  demanded  the  evacuation  of 
all  Georgia  and  a  portion  of  South  Caro- 
lina by  the  English,  claiming  the  territory 
to  the  latitude  of  Port  Royal  as  Spanish 
possessions.  Oglethorpe  hastened  to  Eng- 
land to  confer  with  the  trustees  and  seek 
military  strength.  He  returned  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1738,  a  brigadier-general,  author- 
ized to  raise  troops  in  Georgia.  He  found 
the  colonists  languishing  and  discontented. 
Idleness  prevailed,  and  they  yearned  for 
the  privilege  of  employing  slave-labor. 
Late  the  next  year  war  broke  out  between 
England  and  Spain.  St.  Augustine  had 
been  strengthened  with  troops,  and  Ogle- 
thorpe resolved  to  strike  a  blow  before  the 
Spaniards  should  be  well  prepared;  so  he 
led  an  unsuccessful  expedition  into  Flori- 
da. Two  years  later  the  Spaniards  pro- 
ceeded to  retaliate,  but  were  frustrated  by 
a  stratagem.  Oglethorpe  had  successfully 
settled,  colonized,  and  defended  Georgia, 
spending  a  large  amount  of  his  own  fort- 
une in  the  enterprise,  not  for  his  own 
glory,  but  for  a  benevolent  purpose.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1743,  where,  after 
performing  good  military  service  as  major- 
general  against  the  "  Young  Pretender  " 
(1745),  and  serving  a  few  years  longer 
in  Parliament,  he  retired  to  his  seat  in 
Essex.  When  General  Gage  returned  from 
America,  in  1775,  Oglethorpe  was  offered 
the  general  command  of  the  British  troops 
in  this  country,  though  he  was  then  about 
seventy-seven  years  of  age.  He  did  not 
approve  the  doings  of  the  ministry,  and 
declined.     He    was    among    the    first    to 


offer  congratulations  to  John  Adams, 
because  of  American  independence,  when 
that  gentleman  went  as  minister  to 
England  in  1784.  He  died  in  Essex, 
England,  Jan.  30,  1785.  See  Florida; 
Georgia. 

O'Hara,  Charles,  military  officer;  born 
in  1730;  was  a  lieutenant  of  the  Cold- 
stream Guards  in  1756,  and,  as  colonel 
of  the  Foot  Guards,  came  to  America  in 
1780  in  command  of  them.  He  served 
under  Cornwallis,  and  commanded  the 
van  in  the  famous  pursuit  of  Greene  in 
1781.  He  was  badly  wounded  in  the  battle 
of  Guilford  (q.  v.),  and  was  commander 
of  the  British  right,  as  brigadier-general, 
at  the  surrender  at  Yorktown,  when  he 
gave  to  General  Lincoln  the  sword  of  Corn- 
wallis, the  latter  too  ill,  it  was  alleged, 
to  appear  on  the  field.  After  serving  as 
governor  of  several  English  colonies,  he 
was  lieutenant-governor  of  Gibraltar  in 
1787,  and  governor  in  1795.  In  1797  he 
was  made  general.  He  died  in  Gibraltar, 
Feb.  21,  1802. 

O'Hara,  Theodore,  poet;  born  in  Dan- 
ville, Ky.,  Feb.  11,  1820;  graduated  at 
St.  Joseph  Academy,  Bardstown,  Ky. ;  and 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1845.  He  was  ap- 
pointed captain  and  assistant  quarter- 
master in  the  army  in  June,  1846,  and 
served  with  distinction  throughout  the 
Mexican  War.  After  the  remains  of  the 
Kentucky  soldiers  who  fell  at  Buena  Vista 
were  reinterred  in  their  native  State  he 
wrote  for  that  occasion  the  well-known 
poem,  The  Bivouac  of  the  Dead,  the  first 
stanza  of  which  is: 


'The  muffled  drum's  Bad  roll  has  beat 

The  soldier's  lust  tattoo. 
No  more  on  life's  parade  shall  meet 

That  brave  and  fallen  few. 
On  Fame's  eternal  camping  ground 

Their  silent  tents  are  spread; 
And  Glor}'  guards,  with  solemn  round, 

The  bivouac  of  the  dead." 


During  the  Civil  War  he  enlisted  in  the 
Confederate  army  and  became  colonel  of 
the  12th  Alabama  Regiment.  He  died  near 
Guerryton,  Ala.,  June  6,  1867. 

Ohio,  State  of,  was  first  explored  by 
La  Salle  about  1680,  his  object  being  trade 
and  not  settlement.  Conflicting  claims 
to  territory  in  that  region  led  to  the 
French  and  Indian  War    (q.  v.).     The 


S 


OHIO,   STATS   OF 


French  held  possession  of  the  region  north 
of  the  Ohio  River  until  the  conquest  of 
Canada  in  17G0  and  the  surrender  of  vast 
territory  by  the  French  to  the  English  in 
1763.    After  the  Revolution  disputes  arose 


SEAL  OP  THE  STATE  OF  OHIO. 


between  several  States  as  to  their  respec- 
tive rights  to  the  soil  in  that  region. 
These  were  settled  by  the  cession  of  the 
territory  to  the  United  States  by  the  re- 
spective States,  Virginia  reserving  3,709,- 
848  acres  near  the  rapids  of  the  Ohio, 
and  Connecticut  a  tract  of  3,666,921  acres 


near  Lake  Erie.  In  1800  jurisdiction 
over  these  tracts  was  relinquished  to 
the  national  government,  the  States 
retaining  the  right  to  the  soil,  while 
the  Indian  titles  to  the  rest  of  the  State 
were  bought  up  by  the  national  govern- 
ment. 

In  the  autumn  of  1785  United  States 
troops  began  the  erection  of  a  fort  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Muskingum,  at  its 
mouth.  The  commander  of  the  troops 
was  Maj.  John  Doughty,  and  he  named 
it  Fort  Harmar,  in  honor  of  his  com- 
mander, Col.  Josiah  Harmar.  It  was  the 
first  military  post  of  the  kind  built  in 
Ohio.  The  outlines  formed  a  regular 
pentagon,  embracing  three-fourths  of  an 
acre.  United  States  troops  occupied  Fort 
Harmar  until  1790,  when  they  left  it  to 
construct  Fort  Washington,  on  the  site  of 
Cincinnati.  After  the  treaty  of  Green- 
ville it  was  abandoned. 

In  1788  Gen.  Rufus  Putnam,  at  the 
head  of  a  colony  from  Massachusetts, 
founded  a  settlement  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Muskingum  River,  and  named  it  Marietta, 
in  honor  of  Marie  Antoinette,  the  Queen  of 
Iouis  XVI.  of  France.  A  stockade  fort 
was  immediately  built  as  a  protection 
against  hostile  Indians,  and  named  Cam- 
pus Martius.     In  the  autumn  of  the  same 


OHIO,    STATE    OF 


CAMPLS    MART1CS. 

year  a  party  of  settlers  seated  themselves 
upon  Symmes's  Purchase  {q.  v.)  and 
founded  Columbia,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Little  Miami.  Fort  Washington  was  soon 
afterwards  built,  a  little  below,  on 
the  site  of  Cincinnati. 

Ohio  was  soon  afterwards  organ- 
ized into  a  separate  territorial  gov- 
ernment. The  settlers  were  annoy- 
ed by  hostile  Indians  until  Wayne's 
victories  in  1794  and  the  treaty  at 
Greenville  gave  peace  to  that  re- 
gion. In  1799  the  first  territorial 
legislature  assembled,  and  Ohio  was 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State 
April  30,  1802.  From  1800  to  1810 
the  seat  of  government  was  at 
Chillicothe.  For  a  while  it  was  at 
Zanesville,  then  again  at  Chilli- 
cothe, and  finally,  in  1816,  Colum- 
bus was  made  the  permanent  seat 
of  the  State  government. 

Its    people    were    active    on    the 
frontiers  in  the  War  of  1812.     The 
President     called     on     Gov.     P.     J. 
Meigs  for   1,200  militia  to  be  pre- 
pared  to  march   to   Detroit.     Gov. 
William    Hull,    of    Michigan,    was 
persuaded  to  accept  the  commission 
of  brigadier-general  and  take  command  of 
them.     Governor    Meigs's    call    was    gen- 
erously  responded   to,   and   at   the   mouth 
of    the    Mad    River,    near    Dayton,    O., 


the  "full  number 
had  assembled  at 
the  close  of  April, 
1812.  They  were 
organized  into 
three  regiments, 
and  elected  their 
field  -  officers  be- 
fore the  arrival 
of  Hull.  The  colo- 
nels of  the  re- 
spective reg- 
iments were 
Duncan  McAr- 
thur,  James 
Fincllay,  and 
Lewis  Cass.  The 
4th  Regiment  of 
regulars,  station- 
ed at  Vincennes, 
under  Lieut.-Col. 
James  Miller, 
had  been  ordered 
to  join  the  militia  at  Dayton.  The  com- 
mand of  the  troops  was  surrendered  to 
Hall  by  Governor  Meigs  on  May  25,  1812. 
They  began  their  march  northward  June 


SEAT   OF   GOVERNMENT   AT   CHILLICOTHE    IN   1S00. 

1 ;  and  at  Urbana  they  were  joined  by 
Miller's  4th  Regiment,  which,  under  Colo- 
nel Boyd,  had  participated  in  the  battle 
of  Tippecanoe  (q.  v.).    They  encountered 


10 


OHIO,   STATE   OF 

heavy  rains  and  terrible  fatigue  all  the  army  during  the  war  317,133  soldiers.  Pop- 
way  to  Detroit,  their  destination.  See  ulation  in  1890,  3,672,316;  in  1900,  4,157,- 
Hull,  William.  545.    See  United  States,  Ohio,  in  vol.  ix. 


THE  STATE   CAPITOL,  COLUMBl'S. 


In  March,  1851,  a  convention  revised  the 
State  constitution,  and  it  was  ratified  in 
June;  but  a  new  constitution,  framed  by 
a  convention  in  1873,  was  rejected  by  the 
people  at  an  election  in  1874. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  the 
governor  of  Ohio,  William  Dennison,  Jr., 
was  an  avowed  opponent  of  the  slave 
system.  The  legislature  met  on  Jan.  7, 
1861.  In  his  message  the  governor  ex- 
plained his  refusal  to  surrender  alleged 
fugitive  slaves  on  the  requisition  of  the 
authorities  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee; 
denied  the  right  of  secession ;  affirmed  the 
loyalty  of  his  State;  suggested  the  repeal 
of  the  fugitive  slave  law  as  the  most 
effectual  way  of  procuring  the  repeal  of 
the  personal  liberty  acts;  and  called  for 
the  repeal  of  the  laws  of  the  Southern 
States  which  interfered  with  the  consti- 
tutional rights  of  the  citizens  of  the  free- 
labor  States.  "  Determined  to  do  no 
wrong,"  he  said,  "  we  will  not  contentedly 
submit  to  wrong."  The  legislature  de- 
nounced (Jan.  12)  the  secession  move- 
ments; promised  for  the  people  of  Ohio 
their  firm  support  of  the  national  govern- 
ment; and,  on  the  14th,  pledged  "the  en- 
tire power  and  resources  of  the  State  for 
a  strict  maintenance  of  the  Constitution 
and  laws  of  the  general  government  by 
whomsoever  administered."  These  prom- 
ises and  pledges  were  fulfilled  to  the  ut- 
most, the  State  furnishing  to  the  National 


territorial  governors. 


Name. 

Terra 
began. 

Term     1        t>„r.- 
expired.   |       Pohtlcs-     . 

Arthur  St.  Clair 

1788 
1802 

1802             .... 

Charles  W.  Byrd 

1803     1 

STATE 
Edward  Tiffin 

GOVERN 
1803 
1807 
1808 
1810 
1814 
1814 
1818 
1822 
1822 
1826 
1830 
1832 
1836 
1838 
1840 
1842 
1844 
1S44 
1846 
1849 
1850 
1853 
1856 
1860 
1802 
18C4 
1865 
1866 
1868 
1872 
1874 
1876 
1878 
1880 
1884 
1886 
1890 
1892 
1896 
laou 
1904 

ORS. 

1807 
1808 
1810 
1814 
1814 
1818 
1822 
1822 
1826 
1830 
1832 
1836 
1838 
1840 
1842 
1844 
1844 
1846 
1849 
1850 
1853 
1856 
1860 
1862 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1868 
1872 
1874 
1876 
1878 
1880 
1884 
1886 
1890 
1892 
1896 
1900 
1904 

Return  Jonathan  Meigs. . 

Othniel  Looker 

Thomas  Worthington... 

.... 

Duncan  McArthur 

Whig. 

Democrat 

Whig. 

Democrat 

Whig. 

William  Bebb 

it 

William  Medill 

Salmon  P.  Chase 

David  Tod 

Republican. 

ii 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes 

Richard  M.  Bishop 

Republican 

Democrat. 
Republican 

James  E  Campbell 

William  McKinley,  Jr 

Republican. 

Democrat. 
Republican. 

tc 

11 


OHIO— OHIO  COMPANY 


UNITED  STATES  SENATORS. 


Name. 

No.  of  CongTess. 

Term. 

8th  to  10th 

8th   "  luth 

10th   "  11th 

10th    "  11th 

11th 
11th  to  13th 
11th    "  13th 
13th    "  14th 
13th    "  16th 
14th    "  23d 
16th    "  17th 
17th    "  19th 
19th    "  20th 
20th    "  23d 
22d     "  25th 
23d     ««  26th 
25th   "  31st 
26th    "  29th 
29th   "  31st 

31st 
31st   to  34th 
32d     "  41st 
34th   "  37th 

37  th 
37th  to  45th 
41st    "  47th 
45th   "  46th 
46th   "  4'Jth 

47th 
47th  to  54th 
49th   "  52d 
52d     "  65th 

55th    "  

55th  "  58th 
58th   "  

1803  to  1808 

Thomas  Worthington 

Return  Jonathan  .Meigs 

Edward  Tiffin 

1803  "  1807 
18U9  "  1810 
1807  "  1809 

1809 

1810  to  1813 

1811  il  1814 
1814  "  1815 

1813  "  1819 

Benjamin  Ruggles 

William  A.Trimble 

Ethan  Allen  Brown 

William  Henry  Harrison. . . 

1815  "  1833 
1819  "  1821 
1822  "  1825 
1825  "  1828 
1828  "  1831 

1831  "  1837 

1833  "  1839 

1837  "  1849 

1839  "  1845 

1845  "  1850 

1850 

1849  to  1855 

1851  "  1869 
1855  "  1861 

1861 

1861  to  1877 

Allen  G.  Thnrman 

1869  "  1880 

1877  "  1879 

1879  "  1885 
1880 

1881  to  1897 

1885  "  1891 
1891  "  1896 

1«<17  «' 

1897  "  1904 

1904  "  

Ohio  Company,  The.  When,  by  treaty, 
the  Indians  had  ceded  the  lands  of  the 
Northwestern  Territory,  the  thoughts  of 
enterprising  men  turned  in  that  direc- 
tion as  a  promising  field  for  settlements. 
On  the  night  of  Jan.  9,  178G,  Gen.  Rufus 
Putnam  and  Gen.  Benjamin  Tupper  form- 
ed a  plan  for  a  company  of  soldiers  of  the 
Revolution  to  undertake  the  task  of  settle- 
ment on  the  Ohio  River.  The  next  day 
they  issued  a  call  for  such  persons  who 
felt  disposed  to  engage  in  the  enter- 
prise to  meet  at  Boston  on  March  1( 
by  delegates  chosen  in  the  several 
counties  in  Massachusetts.  They  met, 
and  formed  "  The  Ohio  Company." 
It  was  composed  of  men  like  Rufus 
Putnam,  Abraham  Whipple,  J.  M.  Var- 
num,  Samuel  Holden  Parsons,  Benja- 
min Tupper,  R.  J.  Meigs,  whom  Amer- 
icans think  of  with  gratitude.  They 
purchased  a  large  tract  of  land  on  the 
Ohio  River;  and  on  April  7,  1788,  the 
first  detachment  of  settlers  sent  by  the 
company,  forty-eight  in  number  —  men, 
women,    and    children — seated    themselves 


SITE  OF  MARIETTA  IN  1781. 

12 


OHIO    LAND    COMPANY 


hear  the  confluence  of 
the    Muskingum    and 
Ohio    rivers,    athwart 
the  great  war-path  of 
the    fierce   Northwest- 
ern tribes  when  they 
made  their  bloody  in- 
cursions to   the   fron- 
tiers of  Virginia  and 
Pennsylvania.        They 
named  the  settlement 
Marietta,  in  honor  of 
Marie      Antoinette, 
Queen  of  France,  the 
ally  of  the  Americans. 
This     was     the     seed 
from  which  sprang  the 
great    State    of    Ohio. 
It    was    composed    of 
the    choice    materials 
of    New    England    society.     At    one    time 
— in    1789  —  there     were     no     less     than 
ten    of    the    settlers    there    who    had    re- 
ceived a  college  education.     During  that 
year  fully  20,000  settlers  from  the  East 
were  on  lands  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio. 
At  the  beginning  of  1788  there  was  not  a 
white  family  within   the  bounds  of  that 
commonwealth. 

Ohio  Land  Company,  The.  Soon 
after  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  an 
association  of  London  merchants  and  Vir- 
ginia   land    speculators,    known    as    "  The 


GENERAL  PUTNAM'S   LAND  OFFICE   AT  MARIETTA. 

and,  at  their  own  cost,  to  build  and  gar- 
rison a  fort.  The  government  was  anx- 
ious to  carry  out  this  scheme  of  coloniza- 
tion west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  to 
counteract  the  evident  designs  of  the 
French  to  occupy  that  country. 

The  French  took  immediate  measures 
to  countervail  the  English  movements. 
Galissoniere,  who  had  grand  dreams  of 
French  empire  in  America,  fitted  out  an 
expedition  under  Celeron  de  Bienville  in 
1749  to  proclaim  French  dominion  at 
various  points  along  the  Ohio.  The  com- 
Ohio  Land  Company,"  obtained  from  the  pany  took  measures  for  defining  and  occu- 
crown  a  grant  of  500,000  acres  of  land  on  pying  their  domain.  Thomas  Lee,  two  of 
the  east  bank  of  the  Ohio  River,  with  the  the  Washingtons,  and  other  leading  Vir- 
exclusive  privilege  of  the  Indian  traffic,  ginia  members  ordered  goods  suitable  for 
International,  or  at  least  intercolonial,  the  Indian  trade  to  be  sent  from  London, 
disputes  immediately  occurred.  •  The  The  company  sent  an  agent  to  explore  the 
French  claimed,  by  right  of  discovery,  the  country  and  confer  with  the  Indian  tribes ; 
whole  region  watered   by  the  tributaries    and  in  June,  1752,  a  conference  was  held 


of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  English  set 
up  a  claim,  in  the  name  of  the  Six  Na- 
tions, as  under  British  protection,  and 
which  was  recognized  by  the  treaties  of 
Utrecht  (1713)  and  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1748),  to  the  region  which  they  had 
formerly  conquered,  and  which  included 
the  whole  eastern  portion  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  and  the  basin  of  the  lower 
lakes,  Erie  and  Ontario.  These  conflict- 
ing claims  at  once  embarrassed  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Ohio  Land  Company.  It  was 
provided  by  their  charter  that  they  were  to 
pay  no  quit-rent  for  ten  years:  to  colonize 
at  least  100  families  within  seven  years; 


at  Logstown,  near  the  Ohio,  and  friendly 
relations  were  established  between  the 
English  and  the  Indians.  But  the  West- 
ern tribes  refused  to  recognize  the  right 
of  either  the  English  or  the  French  to 
lands  westward  of  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains. A  Delaware  chief  said  to  Gist,  the 
agent  of  the  company,  "  The  French  claim 
ail  the  land  on  one  side  of  the  river,  and 
the  English  claim  all  the  land  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river:  where  is  the  Indian's 
land?"  This  significant  question  was  an- 
swered by  Gist:  "Indians  and  white  men 
are  subjects  of  the  British  King,  and  all 
have  an  equal  privilege  in  taking  up  and 


13 


OJEDA— OKEMOS 


possessing  the  land."     The  company  sent  ened,  in  case  of  their  refusal,  to  make  war 

surveyors    to    make    definite    boundaries,  upon  them,  and  subdue  them  "  to  the  yoke 

Fnglish  settlers  and  traders  went  into  the  and  obedience  of  the  Church  and  his  Maj- 

country.     The  jealousy  of  the  French  was  esty";    that    he    would    make    slaves    of 

aroused.       They     seized    and    imprisoned  their   wives   and   children,  take  all  their 

some   of  the  surveyors   and   traders,   and  possessions,  and  do  them  all  the  harm  he 


built  forts.  The  French  and  Indian  War 
that  broke  out  soon  afterwards  put  a 
stop  to  the  operations  of  the  company. 
See  French  and  Indian  War;  Ohio 
Company. 

Ojeda,  Alonzo  de,  adventurer;  born  in 
Cuenca,  Spain,  in  1465;  was  among  the 
earliest  discoverers  in  America  after 
Columbus  and  Cabot.     He  was  with  Co- 


could,  protesting  that  they  alone  would 
be  to  blame  for  all  deaths  and  disasters 
which  might  follow  their  disobedience. 
See  Alexander  VI. 

This  proclamation,  which  justified  mur- 
der and  robbery  under  the  sanction  of 
the  Church  and  State,  indicated  the  spirit 
of  most  of  the  Spanish  conquerors.  The 
natives     delayed,     and     slaughter     began. 


lumbus  in  his  first  voyage.     Aided  by  the  Captives    were    carried    to    the    ships    as 

Bishop  of  Badajos,  he  obt.iined  royal  per-  slaves.      The    outraged    Indians    gathered 

mission  to  go  or    a  voyage  of  discovery,  in  bands  and  slew  many  of  the  Spanish 

and   the  merchants   of   Seville   fitted   out  soldiers     with     poisoned     arrows.      Ojeda 

four  ships  for  him,  in  which  he  sailed  for  took  shelter  from  their  fury  among  mat- 

St.  Mary's  on  May  20,  1499,  accompanied  ted  roots  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  where 


by  Americus  Vespucius  as  geographer 
Following  the  track  of  Columbus  in  his 
third  voyage  (see  Columbus,  Christo- 
pher), they  reached  the  northeastern 
coast  of  South  America,  and  discovered 
mountains  on  the  continent.  Coasting 
along  the  northern  shore  of  the  continent 
(naming  the  country  Venezuela),  Ojeda 
crossed  the  Caribbean  Sea,  visited  Santo 
Domingo,  and  returned  to  Spain  in  Sep- 
tember. In  1509  the  Spanish  monarch  di- 
vided Central  America  into  two  provinces, 
and  made  Ojeda  governor  of  one  of  them 
and  Nicuessa  of  the  other.  Ojeda  sailed 
from  Santo  Domingo  late  in  the  autumn, 
accompanied  by  Pizarro  and  some  Spanish 
friars,  whose  chief  business  at  the  outset 
seems  to  have  been  the  reading  aloud  to 
the  natives  in  Latin  a  proclamation  by  the 
Spanish  leader,  prepared  by  eminent 
Spanish  divines  in  accordance  with  a  de- 
cree of  the  Pope  of  Rome,  declaring  that 
trod,  who  made  them  all,  had  given  in 
charge  of  one  man  named  St.  Peter,  who 
had  his  seat  at  Rome,  all  the  nations  on 
the  earth,  with  all  the  lands  and  seas  on 
the  globe;  that  his 
popes,    were    endowed 


his  followers  found  him  half  dead.  At 
that  moment  Nicuessa,  governor  of  the 
other  province,  arrived,  and  with  rein- 
forcements they  made  a  desolating  war  on 
the  natives.  This  was  the  first  attempt 
to  take  possession  of  the  mainland  in 
America.  Ojeda  soon  retired  with  some 
cf  his  followers  to  Santo  Domingo.  The 
vessel  stranded  on  the  southern  shore 
of  Cuba,  then  under  native  rule,  and  a 
refuge  for  fugitive  natives  from  Santo 
Domingo.  The  pagans  treated  the  suffer- 
ing Christians  kindly,  and  were  reward- 
ed with  the  fate  of  those  of  Hispaniola 
(see  Santo  Domingo).  The  pious  Ojeda 
had  told  of  the  wealth  of  the  Cubans, 
and  avaricious  adventurers  soon  made  that 
paradise  a  pandemonium.  He  built  a 
chapel  there,  and  so  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  that  island.  He  died 
in  Hispaniola  in  1515. 

Ojibway  Indians.  See  Chippewa  Ind- 
ians. 

Okeechobee  Swamp,  Battle  of,  an  en- 
gagement in  Florida  in  which  General 
Taylor  defeated  the  Seminoles  and  capt- 

successors,     called    ured  Osceola,  Dec.  25,  1837. 

by    God    with    the        Okemos,  Indian  chief;  nephew  of  Pon- 


same  rights;   that  one  of  them  had  given  tiac    (q.  v.).     When  a  boy  he  fought  the 

to  the  monarchs  of  Spain  all  the  islands  Americans    under    Arthur    St.    Clair    and 

and  continents  in  the  Western  Ocean,  and  Anthony  Wayne,  and  took  an  active  part 

that  the  natives  of  the  land  he  was  on  in   the   War   of    1812,   receiving   a    severe 

were  expected  to  yield  implicit  submission  wound  in  the  attack  on  Fort  Meigs.     He 

to  the  servants  of  the  King  and  Ojeda,  his  died   in   Lansing,   Mich.,   December,    1886, 

representative.     The  proclamation  threat-  probably  much  over  100  years  of  age. 

14 


OKLAHOMA 

Oklahoma,  Territory  of.     During  the  the  Indians  were  permitted  to  sell  to  the 

Civil  War  many  of  the  Indians  belonging  United    States    a    vast    tract    of    unused 

_to  the  Five  Civilized  Nations  in  the  Ind-  lands  in  the  central  and  western  part  of 

ian   Territory   espoused   the   cause   of  the  their  territory.     Several  millions  of  acres 

Confederacy  and  took  up  arms  against  the  were  bought  by  the  government,   for  the 

1  United  States.     At  the  close  of  the  war  purpose  of  making  a  place  of  settlement 

I  the  government  declared  that  by  these  acts  for    freedmen    and   several   Indian   tribes. 


THE   RUSH   OF    SETTLERS   INTO   OKLAHOMA. 


of    hostility    the    grants    and    patents    by  Included    in    this    tract    was    Oklahoma, 

which  the  tribes  held  their  extensive  do-  which  originally  consisted  of  about  2,000,- 

mains   had   become    invalid,    and    a    read-  000  acres  in  the   centre  of  the  territory, 

jjustment  of  the  treaty  acts  under  which  It  remained  for  several  years  unoccupied, 

these  grants  had  been  made  was  ordered,  being  closed  to  white  immigrants  because, 

By  the  conditions  of  this  new  adjustment  as  its  former  owners,  the  Creeks,  claimed, 

15 


OKLAHOMA— OLD    PROBABILITIES 

it   had   been   purchased   for   another   pur-  thrown  open  to  settlers,  and  again  there 

pose,  was  a  wild  rush  of  home-seekers;  in  July, 

In    1889    the    government    bought    it    a  1901,  the  same  scenes  were  enacted  in  the 

second   time   from    the    Creeks,    paying    a  Kiowa    ana    Comanche   country.      Popula- 

much  higher  price,  but  obtaining  it  with-  tion  in  1890,  61,834;  in  1900,  398,331.    See 

out   any  restrictive   conditions.     For   ten  United  States — Oklahoma,  in  vol.  ix. 
years    companies    of    adventurers,    called 

"  boomers,"  under  the  lead  of  Capt.  David  territorial  governors. 

L.  Payne,  had  been  hovering  on  the  out-  ^^^......^.^  •;.•""."  JSSSS 

skirts  of  the  territory,  and  now  and  then    William  c.  Renfrew Democrat 1893-1S97 

stealing   across   the   border   for   the   pur-  J*  to^^.-i^Wo^..........  1897-1901 

pose  of  making  settlements  on  the  forbid- 
den lands.  As  often -as  they  had  thus  Old  Dominion,  a  title  often  given  to 
trespassed,  however,  they  were  promptly  the  State  of  Virginia.  The  vast,  unde- 
driven  out  again  by  the  United  States  fined  region  named  Virginia  by  Queen 
troops.  A  proclamation  was  issued  by  Elizabeth  was  regarded  by  her  as  a  fourth 
the  President,  April  22,  1889,  opening  kingdom  of  her  realm.  Spenser,  Raleigh's 
1,900,000  acres  of  land  for  settlement,  firm  friend,  dedicated  his  Faery  Queene 
There  was  immediately  a  grand  rush  into  (1590)  to  Elizabeth,  "Queen  of  England, 
the  territory  by  the  "boomers,"  and  by  France,  Ireland,  and  Virginia."  When 
thousands  of  home-seekers  and  specula-  James  VI.  of  Scotland  came  to  the  Eng- 
tors.  In  a  single  day  the  city  of  Guth-  lish  throne  (1603),  Scotland  was  added, 
rie,  with  a  population  of  10,000,  sprang  and  Virginia  was  called,  in  compliment, 
into  existence,  and  all  the  valuable  land  the  fifth  kingdom.  On  the  death  of 
was  taken  up.  By  subsequent  proclama-  Charles  I.  on  the  scaffold  (1649),  his  son 
tions  other  lands  were  opened,  and  the  Charles,  heir  to  the  throne,  was  in  exile, 
bounds  of  the  territory  were  extended  un-  Sir  William  Berkeley  (q.  v.),  a  stanch 
til,  in  1891,  it  embraced  39,030  square  miles,  royalist,  was  then  governor  of  Virginia, 
A  large  portion  of  Oklahoma,  however,  and  a  majority  of  the  colony  were  in  sym- 
remained  under  the  occupancy  of  Indian  pathy  with  him.  He  proclaimed  that  son, 
tribes,  who  were  under  the  control  of  the  '"'  Charles  the  Second,  King  of  England, 
Indian  bureau,  and  received  regular  sup-  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Virginia " ;  and 
plies  of  clothing  and  food  from  the  gov-  when,  in  1652,  the  Virginians  heard  that 
ernment.  Among  these  tribes  were  about  the  republican  government  of  England 
500  Sacs  and  Foxes,  400  Kickapoos,  2,000  was  about  to  send  a  fleet  to  reduce  them 
Cheyennes,  and  1,200  Arapahoes.  to  submission,  they  sent  a  message  to 
Oklahoma  when  settled  was  a  richly  Breda,  in  Flanders,  where  Charles  then 
wooded  country,  except  in  the  west,  where  resided,  inviting  him  to  come  over  and  be 
there  were  extensive  prairies.  The  climate  King  of  Virginia.  He  was  on  the  point  of 
is  delightful,  and  the  soil  fertile  and  well  sailing  for  America,  when  circumstances 
adapted  to  agriculture.  The  first  territo-  foreshadowed  his  restoration  to  the  throne 
rial  governor  was  appointed  by  the  Pres-  of  his  father.  When  that  act  was  accom- 
ident  in  1890.  The  name  Oklahoma  means  plished,  the  grateful  monarch  caused  the 
"  Beautiful  Country."  The  Cherokee  Strip  arms  of  Virginia  to  be  quartered  with 
or  Outlet  towards  Kansas  was  acquired  those  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
from  the  Cherokee  nation,  and  on  Sept.  as  an  independent  member  of  the  empire. 
16,  1893,  it  was  opened  to  settlers.  The  From  this  circumstance  Virginia  received 
scenes  attending  the  opening  resembled  the  title  of  The  Dominion.  Coins  with  such 
those  in  18S9  and  1891.  Ninety  thou-  quarterings  were  struck  as  late  as  1773. 
sand  intending  settlers  registered,  and  Old  Ironsides,  a  name  given  to  the 
20,000,  it  was  estimated,  encamped  on  the  frigate  Constitution  (q.  v.). 
site  selected  for  the  chief  town.  The  Old  Probabilities,  a  title  familiarly 
Strip  contains  about  6,000,000  acres,  part  given  to  the  head  of  the  United  States 
of  which  is  good  farming  land.  On  May  weather  bureau,  first  applied  to  Professor 
23,  1896,  another  great  section  of  terri-  Abbe  by  Gen.  Albert  J.  Myer,  the  chief 
tory,    called    the    Kiekapoo    Strip,    was  signal-officer  of  the  bureau. 

18 


OLD    SOUTH    CHURCH- OLIPHANT 

Old  South  Church,  Boston.    The  oppo-  tion  in  church  and  commonwealth."     Be- 

sition  to  the  requirement  of  church-mem-  fore    these    disclosures    Oldham    had    be- 

bership  for  the  exercise  of  political  rights  haved  with   much   insolence,   abusing  the 

(see  Half-way  Covenant)    led  to  the  es-  governor    and    Captain    Standish,    calling 

tablishment,  in  1669,  of  the  "  Third  Church  them    "  rebels    and    traitors,"    and,    when 

in  Boston,"  known  as  "  The  Old  South  "  proved  guilty,   he   attempted  to  excite  a 

since  1717,  of  which  Mr.  Fiske  says:     "It  mutiny  on   the   spot.     Lyford  burst   into 

is  a  building  with  a  grander  history  than  tears   and   confessed   that  he   "  feared  he 

any    other    on    the    American    continent,  was  a  reprobate."     Both  were  ordered  to 

unless  it  be  that  other  plain  brick  build-  leave    the    colony,    but    Lyford,    humbly 

ing    in    Philadelphia   where    the   Declara-  begging   to   stay,   asking   forgiveness   and 

tion  of  Independence  was  adopted  and  the  promising  good  behavior,  was   reinstated, 

federal  Constitution  framed."  Oldham  went  to  Nantasket,  with  some  of 

Old     Style,     dates     according    to    the  his  adherents,  and  engaged  in  traffic  with 

Julian  calendar,  which  was  supplanted  by  the   Indians.      Lyford  was   soon   detected 

the  Gregorian  calendar  in   1582,  but  not  again  in  seditious  work  and  expelled  from 

accepted  by  Great  Britain  until  1752.  the    colony.      He    joined    Oldham.      They 

Oldham,  John,  Pilgrim;  born  in  Eng-  afterwards  lived  at  Hull  and  Cape  Anne, 

land  about   1600.     In   1623  the  Pilgrims,  and  Oldham  represented  Watertown  in  the 

regarding  Robinson,  in  Holland,  as  their  popular  branch  of  the  Massachusetts  gov- 

pastor,   and  expecting  him   over,   had  no  ernment  in  1634.     He  made  an  exploring 

other  spiritual  guide  than  Elder  Brewster,  journey   to   the   site   of  Windsor,   on   the 

Because  of  this  state  of  things  at  Plym-  Connecticut  River,   the  next  year,  which 

outh,  the  London   partners  were   taunted  was   followed  by   the   emigration   to   that 

with    fostering    religious    schism.     To    re-  region    in    1635.     While    in    a    vessel    at 

lieve  themselves  of  this  stigma,  they  sent  Block  Island,  in  July,  1636,  Oldham  was 

a   minister   named   Lyford   to   be   pastor,  murdered   by   some   Indians,   who   fled  to 

He  was  kindly  received,  and,  with  John  the  Pequods,  on  the  mainland,  and  were 

Oldham,  who  went  to  Plymouth  at  about  protected  by  them.     This  led  to  the  war 

the  same  time,  was  invited  to  the  consul-  with  the  Pequod  Indians  (q.  v.). 

tations  of  the  governor  with  his  council.  Oldmixon,     John,     author;     born     in 

It  was  soon  discovered  that  Lyford  and  Bridgewater,  England,  in   1673;   and  died 

Oldham  were  plotting  treason  against  the  in   London,   July   9,    1742.      He   was   the 

Church  and  State.     Several  letters  written  author  of  The  British  Empire  in  Amer- 

by  Lyford  to  the  London  partners,  breath-  ica    (2  volumes),  published  in  1708. 

ing  sedition,  were  discovered  by  Bradford  Oligarchy.     See  Aristocracy. 

a3   they   were    about   to   be   sent   abroad.  Olin,     Stephen,     clergyman;     born    in 

The  governor  kept  quiet  for  a  while,  but  Leicester,  Vt.,  March  2,   1797;   graduated 

when  Lyford  set  up  a  separate  congrega-  at   Middlebury    College    in    1820;    became 

tion,  with  a  few  of  the  colonists  whom  he  a    Methodist    clergyman    in    1824;    presi- 

had   seduced,   and   held   meetings    on    the  dent  of  Randolph-Macon  College  in  1834; 

Sabbath,    Bradford    summoned   a   General  president  of  Wesleyan  University  in  1839. 

Court   (1624),  before  whom  the  offending  He  died  in  Middletown,  Conn.,  Aug.   16, 

clergyman   and   his   companions  were   ar-  1851. 

raigned   on   a   charge   of   seditious    corre-  Oliphant,   Laurence,  author;   born  in 

spondence.     They    denied    the    accusation,  Cape  Town,  Africa,  in  1829.     Lord  Elgin 

when  they  were  confronted  by  Lyford's  let-  made  him  his   private   secretary  in   1853, 

ters,  in  which  he  defamed  the  settlers,  ad-  and  in  1865  he  was  elected  to  Parliament, 

vised  the  London  partners  to  prevent  Rob-  but  he  resigned  in   1868  in  obedience  to 

inson    and    the   rest   of    his    congregation  instructions     from     Thomas     L.     Harris, 

coming  to  America,  as  they  would  inter-  leader    of    the    Brotherhood    of    the    New 

fere  with  his  church  schemes,  and  avowed  Life  a  spiritualistic  society  of  which  both 

his  intention  of  removing  the  stigma  of  Oliphant    and    his    wife    were    members, 

schism  by  a  regularly  organized  church.  Among  his  publications  are  Minnesota,  or 

A  third   conspirator   had   written   that  the  Far  West  in  1855 ;  and   The  Tender 

Lyford  and  Oldham  "  intended  a  reforma-  Recollections  of  Irene  Ma-cgillicuddy,  a  sa- 
VH. — B                                                      17 


OLIVER— OLMSTEAD 


tire    on    American    society.     He   died    in 
Twickenham,    England,    Dec.    23,    1888. 

Oliver,  Andrew,  governor;  born  in 
Boston,  March  28,  1706;  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1724;  a  representative  in  the 
General  Court  from  1743  to  174G;  one  of 
his  Majesty's  council  from  1746  to  1765; 
secretary  of  the  provincefrom  1756  to  1770; 
and  succeeded  Hutchinson  (his  brother-in- 
law)  as  lieutenant-governor.  In  1765  he 
was  hung  in  effigy  because  he  was  a  stamp 
distributer,  and  his  course  in  opposition 
to  the  patriotic  party  in  Boston  caused 
him  to  share  the  unpopularity  of  Hutchin- 
son. His  letters,  with  those  of  Hutchin- 
son, were  sent  by  Franklin  to  Boston,  and 
created  great  commotion  there.  He  died 
in  Boston,  March  3,  1774.  See  Hutchin- 
son, Thomas. 

Oliver,  Benjamin  Ltnde,  author;  born 
in  Marblehead,  Mass.,  in  1788;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  His  publications  in- 
clude The  Rights  of  an  American  Cit- 
izen; Laio  Summary;  Forms  of  Practice, 
or  American  Precedents  in  Personal  and 
Real  Actions;  Forms  in  Chancery,  Ad- 
miralty, and  Common  Law,  etc.  He  died 
in   1843. 

Oliver,  Henry  Kemele,  musician ;  born 
in  Beverly,  Mass.,  Nov.  24,  1800;  gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1818; 
taught  music  for  many  years;  elected 
mayor  of  Lawrence,  Mass.,  1859;  State 
treasurer  of  Massachusetts,  1861;  mayor 
of  Salem,  Mass.,  1866.  Mr.  Oliver  is  best 
known  as  organist,  director  of  choirs, 
and  composer.  He  wrote  Federal  Street; 
Beacon  Street,  and  many  other  well- 
known  hymn-tunes,  and  published  a  num- 
ber of  church  tune  -  books.  He  died  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Aug.  10,  1885. 

Oliver,  Peter,  author;  born  in  Han- 
over, N.  H,  in  1822;  studied  law  and  be- 
gan practice  in  Suffolk  county,  Mass.  He 
was  the  author  of  The  Puritan  Common- 
wealth: An  Historical  Review  of  the  Puri- 
tan Government  in  Massachusetts  in  Us 
Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  Relations,  from 
its  Rise  to  the  Abrogation  of  the  First 
Charter;  together  with  some  General  Re- 
flections on  the  English  Colonial  Policy 
and  on  the  Character  of  Puritanism.  In 
this  book,  which  revealed  much  literary 
skill  as  well  as  great  learning,  he  em- 
phasized the  unfavorable  side  of  the 
Puritan  character,  and  severely  criticised 


the  Puritan  policy.     He  died  at  sea  in 
1855. 

Oliver,  Peter,  jurist;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  March  26,  1713;  was  a  brother 
of  Andrew  Oliver,  and  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1730.  After  holding  several 
offices,  he  was  made  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Massachusetts  in  1756,  and  in 
1771  chief-justice  of  that  court.  His 
course  in  Boston  in  opposition  to  the  pa- 
triots made  him  very  unpopular,  and  he 
was  one  of  the  crowd  of  loyalists  who  fled 
from  that  city  with  the  British  army  in 
March,  1776.  He  went  to  England,  where 
lie  lived  on  a  pension  from  the  British 
crown.  He  was  an  able  writer  of  both 
prose  and  poetry.  Chief-Justice  Oliver,  on 
receiving  his  appointment,  refused  to  ac- 
cept his  salary  from  the  colony,  and  was 
impeached  by  the  Assembly  and  declared 
suspended  until  the  issue  of  the  impeach 
ment  was  reached.  The  Assembly  of  Mas 
sachusetts  had  voted  the  five  judges  of  the 
Superior  Court  ample  salaries  from  the 
colonial  treasury,  and  called  upon  them  to 
refuse  the  corrupting  "pay  from  the  crown. 
Only  Oliver  refused,  and  he  shared  the 
fate  of  Hutchinson.  He  died  in  Birming- 
ham, England,  Oct.  13,  1791. 

Oliver,  Robert,  military  officer;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1738;  served  through 
the  War  of  the  Revolution,  and  was  one  of 
the  earliest  settlers  in  Ohio,  locating  in 
Marietta.  He  filled  various  State  offices, 
and  died  in  Marietta,  O.,  in  May,  1810. 

Oliver,  Thomas,  royal  governor;  born 
in  Dorchester,  Mass.,  Jan.  5,  1734;  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1753;  succeeded 
Lieut.-Gov.  Andrew  Oliver  (of  another 
family)  in  March,  1774,  and  in  September 
following  was  compelled  by  the  people  of 
Boston  to  resign.  He  took  refuge  with 
the  British  troops  in  Boston,  and  fled 
with  them  to  Halifax  in  1776,  and  thence 
to  England.  He  died  in  Bristol,  England, 
Nov.  29,  1815. 

Olmstead,  Case  of.  During  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  Capt.  Gideon  Olmstead, 
with  some  other  Connecticut  men,  was 
captured  at  sea  by  a  British  vessel  and 
taken  to  Jamaica,  where  the  captain  and 
three  others  of  the  prisoners  were  com- 
pelled or  persuaded  to  enter  as  sailors  on 
the  British  sloop  Active,  then  about  to 
sail  for  New  York  with  stores  for  the 
British    there.      When    off    the    coast    of 


18 


OLMSTED— OLITSTES    STATION 


Delaware  the  captain  and  the  other  three 
Americans  contrived  to  secure  the  rest  of 
the  crew  and  officers  (fourteen  in  number) 
below  the  hatches.  They  then  took  pos- 
session of  the  vessel  and  made  for  Little 
Egg  Harbor.  A  short  time  after,  the 
Active  was  boarded  by  the  sloop  Conven- 
tion of  Philadelphia,  and,  with  the  priva- 
teer Girard,  cruising  with  her,  was  taken 
io  Philadelphia.  The  prize  was  there 
libelled  in  the  State  court  of  admiralty. 
Here  the  two  vessels  claimed  an  equal 
share  in  the  prize,  and  the  court  decreed 
one-fourth  to  the  crew  of  the  Convention, 
one-fourth  to  the  State  of  Pennsylvania 
as  owner  of  the  Convention,  one-fourth  to 
the  Girard,  and  the  remaining  one-fourth 
only  to  Olmstead  and  his  three  com- 
panions. Olmstead  appealed  to  Congress, 
and  the  committee  of  appeals  decided  in 
his  favor.  The  Pennsylvania  court  re- 
fused to  yield,  and  directed  the  prize  sold 
and  the  money  paid  into  court  to  await 
its  further  order.  This  contest  continued 
until  1809,  when  the  authorities  of  Penn- 
sylvania offered  armed  resistance  to  the 
United  States  marshal  at  Philadelphia, 
upon  which  he  called  to  his  assistance  a 
posse  comitatus  of  2,000  men.  The  mat- 
ter was,  however,  adjusted  without  an 
actual  collision,  and  the  money,  amounting 
to  $18,000,  paid  to  the  United  States 
marshal. 

Olmsted,  Dentson,  scientist;  born  in 
East  Hartford,  Conn.,  June  18,  1791; 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1813;  taught  in  New 
London  schools,  Yale  College,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina.  He  published 
the  Geological  Survey  of  North  Carolina; 
Text-books  on  Astronomy  and  Natural 
Philosophy ;  and  Astronomical  Observa- 
tions in  the  Smithsonian  Collections.  He 
died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  May  13,  1859. 
I  Olmsted,  Frederick  Law,  landscape 
architect;  born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  April 
26,  1822;  chief  designer  (with  Calvert 
Vaux)  of  Central  Park,  New  York  City, 
1857;  and,  with  others,  of  many  public 
parks  in  Brooklyn,  Boston,  Buffalo,  Chi- 
cago (including  World's  Fair),  Milwau- 
kee, Louisville,  Washington,  etc.  He  died 
in  Waverly,  Mass.,  Aug.  28,  1903. 

Olney,  Jeremiah,  military  officer;  born 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1750;  was  made 
lieutenant-colonel  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Revolutionary     War     (afterwards     made 


colonel),  and  was  often  the  chief  officer 
of  the  Rhode  Island  forces.  He  fought 
conspicuously  at  Red  Bank,  Springfield, 
Monmouth,  and  Yorktown,  and  after  the 
war  he  was  collector  of  the  port  of  Provi- 
dence, and  president  of  the  Rhode  Island 
Society  of  Cincinnati.  He  died  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  Nov.   10,   1812. 

Olney,  Jesse,  geographer;  born  in 
Union,  Conn.,  Oct.  12,  1798;  taught  school 
for  some 'years;  then  devoted  himself  to 
the  preparation  of  text-books,  geographies, 
a  history  of  the  United  States,  arithme- 
tics, readers,  etc.  He  died  in  Stratford, 
Conn.,  July  31,   1872. 

Olney,  Biciiard,  lawyer;  born  in 
Oxford,  Mass.,  Sept.  15,  1835;  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1856;  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1859;  member  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts legislature;  appointed  United 
States  Attorney-General  by  President 
Cleveland  in  1893,  and  Secretary  of  State 
in  1895. 

Olney,  Stephen,  military  officer;  born 
in  North  Providence,  R.I.,  in  October,  1755 ; 
brother  of  Jeremiah  Olney;  entered  the 
army  as  a  lieutenant  in  his  brother's  com- 
pany in  1775,  and  served  with  distinction 
in  several  of  the  principal  battles  of  the 
Revolutionary  War.  He  served  under  La- 
fayette in  Virginia,  and  was  distinguished 
in  the  capture  of  a  British  redoubt  at 
Yorktown  during  the  siege,  where  he  was 
severely  wounded  by  a  bayonet-thrust. 
Colonel  Olney  held  many  town  offices,  and 
for  twenty  years  represented  his  native 
town  in  the  Assembly.  He  died  in  North 
Providence,  R.  I.,  Nov.  23,  1832. 

Olustee  Station,  Battle  at.  Early  in 
1864  the  national  government  was  in- 
formed that  the  citizens  of  Florida,  tired 
of  the  war,  desired  a  reunion  with  the 
national  government.  The  President  com- 
missioned his  private  secretary  (John 
Hay)  a  major,  and  sent  him  to  Charleston 
to  accompany  a  military  expedition  which 
General  Gillmore  was  to  send  to  Florida, 
Hay  to  act  in  a  civil  capacity  if  required. 
The  expedition  was  commanded  by  Gen. 
Truman  Seymour,  who  left  Hilton  Head 
(Feb.  5,  1864)  in  transports  with  6,000 
troops,  and  arrived  at  Jacksonville,  Fla., 
on  the  7th.  Driving  the  Confederates  from 
there,  the  Nationals  pursued  them  into 
the  interior.  General  Finnegan  was  in 
command   of   a   considerable   Confederate 


19 


OMAHA— OMAHA    INDIANS 

force  in  Florida,  and  stoutly  opposed  this  the  best  of  the  material  resources  of  their 

movement.     At  Olustee  Station,  on  a  rail-  commonwealths;  and  while  art  and  music 

way    that    crossed    the    peninsula    in    the  and  all   phases  of  the  aesthetic  were  not 

heart  of  a  cypress  swamp,  the  Nationals  neglected,  it  was  the  fine  panorama  »f  the 

encountered  Finnegan,  strongly  posted.    A  material    West    which    afforded   the    most 

sharp    battle    occurred     (Feb.    20),    when  interest.     Cast  in  a  different  figure,  this 

Seymour   was   repulsed   and   retreated   to  Trans-Mississippi  Exposition  was  an  epit- 

Jacksonville.     The  estimated  loss  to   the  ome  of  the  wealth — and  not  only  of  the 

Nationals    in    this    expedition    was    about  wealth,  but  of  the  progress — of  the  great 

2,000  men;  the  Confederate  loss,  1,000  men  central  region  of  the  nation, 
and  several  guns.     Seymour  carried  with        One  of  the  speakers  at  the  opening  of 

him  about  1,000  of  the  wounded,  and  left  the  exposition  put  the  progress  of  the  re- 

250  on  the  field,   besides  many  dead  and  gion  in  a  nutshell  when  he  made  note  of 

dying.    The  expedition  returned  to  Hilton  the  fact  that  in  the  land  where  only  fifty 

Head.      The    Nationals    destroyed     stores  years   ago  the   Indians  wandered   at  will, 

valued  at  $1,000,000.     At  about  the  same  there  are  now  22,000,000  people,  with  an 

time  Admiral  Bailey  destroyed  the  Confed-  aggregate  wealth  of  $22,000,000,000. 
erate  salt-works  on  the  coast  of  Florida,        Many  of  the  States  contributed  liberally 

valued  at  $3,000,000.  to  the  exposition  in  the  way  of  suitable 

Omaha,  the  metropolis  of  Nebraska;  buildings,  while  the  general  government 
county  seat  of  Douglas  county;  military  appropriated  $200,000  for  its  building,  and 
headquarters  of  the  Department  of  the  in  it  placed  exhibits  of  great  interest. 
Platte;  has  extensive  machine,  car,  and  The  government  took  official  notice  of  the 
repair  shops,  smelting  and  refining  works,  exposition  by  issuing  a  series  of  postage- 
large  trade,  seven  national  banks,  and  an  stamps,  from  one  cent  to  $2,  inclusive, 
assessed  property  valuation  of  $101,256,-  commemorative  of  the  event.  Over  three 
290.  Population  in  1890,  140,452;  in  1900,  hundred  millions  of  these  stamps  were 
102,555.  The  city  was  the  seat  of  ordered  for  the  first  instalment.  The  de- 
the  Trans-Mississippi  Exposition.  The  signs  on  the  stamps  are  appropriate  to 
corner-stone  of  the  exhibition  was  laid  the  great  West  and  its  progress,  illustra- 
on  Arbor  Day,  1897,  and  the  opening  ting  phases  of  pioneer  life, 
ceremonies  were  held  June  1,  1898.  In  The  officers  of  the  exposition  were:  Gor- 
the  telegram  which  President  McKinley  don  W.  Wattles,  president;  Alvin  Saunders, 
sent  to  the  exposition,  after  setting  resident  vice-president;  Herman  Kountze, 
in  motion  its  machinery,  he  paid  a  treasurer;  John  A.  Wakefield,  secretary; 
tribute,  for  which  the  success  of  this  Major  T.  S.  Clarkson,  general  manager, 
exposition  will  give  warrant,  when  he  said  with  an  executive  committee  of  seven, 
that  nowhere  have  the  unconquerable  de-  and  vice-presidents  for  each  of  the  twen- 
termination,  the  self-reliant  strength,  and  ty-four  Trans-Mississippi  States.  The 
the  sturdy  manhood  of  American  citizen-  exposition  covered  a  tract  of  more  than  ' 
Bhip  been  more  forcibly  illustrated  than  in  200  acres,  containing  a  water  amphi- 
the  achievements  of  the  people  from  be-  theatre  and  many  handsome  buildings, 
yond  the  Mississippi.  Despite  the  fact  that  the  country  was  at 

It  would  not  be  easy  to  estimate  the  war  with  Spain,  the  exposition  was  well 
value  of  such  an  exposition  as  this  in  attended  and  a  great  success  in  every  way. 
illustrating  to  the  nation  at  large  the  Omaha  Indians,  a  tribe  of  Indians  of 
immense  resources  of  the  region  which  the  Dakota  family.  They  are  represented 
lies  in  the  great  Mississippi  basin  and  in  Marquette's  map  in  1673.  They  were 
contiguous  to  it.  The  exhibits  of  the  divided  into  clans,  and  cultivated  corn  and 
mining,  the  manufacturing,  the  agricult-  beans.  One  of  their  customs  was  to  pro- 
ure,  the  forestry,  the  horticulture,  the  hibit  a  man  from  speaking  to  his  father- 
commerce  were  an  epitome  of  the  business  in-law  and  mother-in-law.  They  were  re- 
of  this  vast  region  extending  from  the  duced,  about  the  year  1800,  by  small-pox, 
Canadian  line  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  from  a  population  capable  of  sending  out 
States  themselves,  through  appropriations,  700  warriors  to  about  300.  They  then 
provided  the  funds  to  show  to  the  world  burned  their  villages  and  became  wander- 

20 


O'MAHONY— "  ON    TO    RICHMOND  I" 


ers.  They  were  then  relentlessly  pursued 
by  the  Sioux.  They  had  increased  in  num- 
ber, when  Lewis  and  Clarke  found  them 
on  the  Quicoure  in  1805,  to  about  600. 
They  have  from  time  to  time  ceded  lands 
to  the  United  States,  and  since  1855  have 
been  settled,  and  have  devoted  themselves 
exclusively  to  agriculture.  In  1899  they 
numbered  1,202,  and  were  settled  on  the 
Omaha  and  Winnebago  agency,  in  Ne- 
braska. 

O'Mahony,  John  Francis,  Fenian 
leader;  born  in  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  in 
1816;  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in 
1854;  organized  the  Fenian  Brotherhood 
in  1860;  issued  bonds  of  the  Irish  Repub- 
lic, which  were  purchased  by  his  followers 
to  the  amount  of  nearly  a  million  dollars. 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  Feb.  7,  1877. 

Omnibus  Bill,  The.  The  subject  of  the 
admission  of  California  as  a  State  of  the 
Union,  in  1850,  created  so  much  sectional 
ill-feeling  that  danger  to  the  integrity  of 
the  Union  was  apprehended.  Henry  Clay, 
feeling  this  apprehension,  offered  a  plan 
of  compromise  in  the  United  States 
Senate,  Jan.  29,  1850,  in  a  series  of 
resolutions,  providing  for  the  admission 
of  California  as  a  State;  the  organization 
of  new  territorial  governments;  fixing  the 
boundary  of  Texas;  declaring  it  to  be  in- 
expedient to  abolish  slavery  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  while  that  institution 
existed  in  Maryland,  without  the  consent 
of  the  people  of  the  District,  and  without 
just  compensation  to  the  owners  of  slaves 
within  the  District;  that  more  effectual 
laws  should  be  made  for  the  restitution  of 
fugitive  slaves;  and  that  Congress  had  no 
power  to  prohibit  or  obstruct  the  trade 
in  slaves  between  the  several  States.  Clay 
spoke  eloquently  in  favor  of  this  plan. 
Mr.  Webster  approved  it,  and  Senator 
Foote,  of  Mississippi,  moved  that  the 
whole  subject  be  referred  to  a  committee 
of  thirteen — six  Southern  members  and 
six  Northern  members — they  to  choose  the 
thirteenth.  This  resolution  was  adopted 
April  18;  the  committee  was  appointed, 
and  Mr.  Clay  was  made  chairman  of  it. 
On  May  8,  Mr.  Clay  reported  a  plan  of 
compromise  in  a  series  of  bills  substantial- 
ly the  same  as  that  of  Jan.  29.  It  was  call- 
ed an  "  omnibus  bill."  Long  debates  en- 
sued, and  on  July  31  the  whole  batch  was 
rejected  except  the  proposition  to  establish 


a  territory  in  the  Mormon  settlements  in 
Deseret,  called  Utah.  Then  the  com- 
promise measures  contained  in  the  omni- 
bus bill  were  taken  up  separately.  In 
August  a  bill  for  the  admission  of  Cali- 
fornia passed  the  Senate;  also  for  provid- 
ing a  territorial  government  for  New 
Mexico.  In  September  a  fugitive  slave 
bill  passed  the  Senate;  also  a  bill  for  the 
suppression  of  the  slave-trade  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia.  All  of  these  bills  were 
adopted  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
in  September,  and  received  the  signature 
of  President  Fillmore.     See  Clay,  Heney. 

"  On  to  Richmond!"  At  the  beginning 
of  1862  the  loyal  people  became  very 
impatient  of  the  immobility  of  the  im- 
mense Army  of  the  Potomac,  and  from 
every  quarter  was  heard  the  cry,  "  Push 
on  to  Richmond!"  Edwin  M.  Stanton 
succeeded  Mr.  Cameron  as  Secretary  of 
War,  Jan.  13,  1862,  and  the  President 
issued  a  general  order,  Jan.  27,  in  which 
he  directed  a  general  forward  movement 
of  all  the  land  and  naval  forces  on  Feb. 
22  following.  This  order  sent  a  thrill 
of  joy  through  the  heart  of  the  loyal  peo- 
ple, and  it  was  heightened  when  an  order 
directed  McClellan  to  move  against  the 
inferior  Confederate  force  at  Manassas. 
McClellan  remonstrated,  and  proposed  to 
take  his  great  army  to  Richmond  by  the 
circuitous  route  of  Fort  Monroe  and  the 
Virginia  peninsula.  The  President  finally 
yielded,  and  the  movement  by  the  longer 
route  was  begun.  After  the  Confederates 
had  voluntarily  evacuated  Manassas,  the 
army  was  first  moved  in  that  direction, 
not,  as  the  commander-in-chief  said,  to 
pursue  them  and  take  Richmond,  but  to 
give  his  troops  "  a  little  active  experience 
before  beginning  the  campaign."  The 
'"  promenade,"  as  one  of  his  French  aides 
called  it,  disappointed  the  people,  and  the 
cry  was  resumed,  "  On  to  Richmond ! " 
The  Army  of  the  Potomac  did  not  begin 
its  march  to  Richmond  until  April.  The 
President,  satisfied  that  General  McClel- 
lan's  official  burdens  were  greater  than 
he  could  profitably  bear,  kindly  relieved 
him  of  the  chief  care  of  the  armies, 
and  gave  him,  March  11,  the  command 
of  only  the  Department  of  the  Potomac. 

While  Hooker  and  Lee  were  contending 
near  Chancellorsville  (q.  v.),  a  great- 
er  part   of  the   cavalry  of   the  Army   of 


21 


u  ON   TO    RICHMOND  I"—"  ON    TO    WASHINGTON  !" 

the  Potomac  was  raiding  on  the  communi-  Rapidan.  For  a  while  the  opposing  armies 
cations  of  Lee's  army  with  Richmond,  rested.  Meade  advanced  cautiously,  and 
Stoneman,  with  10,000  men,  at  first  per-  at  the  middle  of  September  he  crossed 
formed  this  service.  He  rode  rapidly,  cross-  the  Rappahannock,  and  drove  Lee  beyond 
ing  rivers,  and  along  rough  roads,  and  the  Rapidan,  where  the  latter  took  a 
struck  the  Virginia  Central  Railway  near  strong  defensive  position.  Here  ended 
Louisa  Court-house,  destroying  much  of  it  the  race  towards  Richmond.  Meanwhile 
before  daylight.  They  were  only  slightly  the  cavalry  of  Buford  and  Kilpatrick 
opposed,  and  at  midnight  of  May  2,  1863,  had  been  active  between  the  two  rivers, 
the  raiders  were  divided  for  separate  work,  and  had  frequent  skirmishes  with  Stuart's 
On  the  morning  of  the  3d  one  party  de-  mounted  force.  Troops  had  been  drawn 
stroyed  canal  -  boats,  bridges,  and  Con-  from  each  army  and  sent  to  other  fields 
federate  supplies  at  Columbia,  on  the  of  service,  and  Lee  was  compelled  to 
James  River.  Colonel  Kilpatrick,  with  take  a  defensive  position.  His  defences 
another  party,  struck  the  Fredericksburg  were  too  strong  for  a  prudent  commander 
Railway  at  Hungary  Station  and  destroy-  to  assail  directly.  See  Richmond,  Cam- 
ed    the    depot    and    railway    there,    and,    paign  against. 

sweeping  down  within  2  miles  of  Rich-  "  On  to  Washington!"  The  seizure  of 
mond,  captured  a  lieutenant  and  eleven  the  national  capital,  with  the  treasury  and 
men  within  the  Confederate  works  of  that  archives  of  the  government,  was  a  part 
capital.  Then  he  struck  the  Virginia  Cen-  of  the  plan  of  the  Confederates  everywhere 
tral  Railway  at  Meadows  Bridge,  on  the  and  of  the  government  at  Montgomery. 
Chickahominy ;  and  thence  pushed  on,  de-  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  the  Vice-Presi- 
stroying  Confederate  property,  to  Glou-  dent  of  the  Confederacy,  was  sent  by  Jef- 
cester  Point,  on  the  York  River.  Another  ferson  Davis  to  treat  with  Virginia  for  its 
party,  under  Lieutenant  -  Colonel  Davis,  annexation  to  the  league,  and  at  various 
destroyed  the  station  and  railway  at  Han-  points  on  his  journey,  whenever  he  made 
over  Court-house,  and  followed  the  road  speeches  to  the  people,  the  burden  was,  "  On 
to  within  7  miles  of  Richmond,  and  also  to  Washington!"  That  cry  was  already  re- 
pushed  on  to  Gloucester  Point.  Another  sounding  throughout  the  South.  It  was  an 
party,  under  Gregg  and  Buford,  destroyed  echo  of  the  prophecy  of  the  Confederate 
the  railway  property  at  Hanover  Junction.  Secretary  of  War.  "  Nothing  is  more 
They  all  returned  to  the  Rappahannock  probable,"  said  the  Richmond  Inquirer, 
by  May  8;  but  they  had  not  effected  the  in  1861,  "than  that  President  Davis  will 
errand  they  were  sent  upon — namely,  the  soon  march  an  army  through  North  Caro- 
complete  destruction  of  Lee's  communica-  lina  and  Virginia  to  Washington  " ;  and 
tions  with  Richmond.  it  called  upon  Virginians  who  wished  to 

Three  days  after  General  Lee  escaped  "  join  the  Southern  army "  to  organize  at 
into  Virginia,  July  17-18,  1863,  General  once.  "The  first  fruits  of  Virginia  seces- 
Meade  crossed  the  Potomac  to  follow  his  sion,"  said  the  New  Orleans  Picayune,  on 
flying  antagonist.  The  Nationals  marched  the  18th,  "  will  be  the  removal  of  Lincoln 
rapidly  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Blue  and  his  cabinet,  and  whatever  he  can 
Ridge,  while  the  Confederates  went  rapidly  carry  away,  to  the  safer  neighborhood  of 
up  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  after  trying  to  Harrisburg  or  Cincinnati — perhaps  to  Buf- 
check  Meade  by  threatening  to  re-enter  falo  or  Cleveland."  The  Vicksburg  (Miss.) 
Maryland.  Failing  in  this,  Lee  hastened  Whig  of  the  20th  said:  "Maj.  Ben  Mc- 
to  oppose  a  movement  that  menaced  his  Culloch  has  organized  a  force  of  5,000  men 
front  and  flank,  and  threatened  to  cut  off  to  seize  the  Federal  capital  the  instant 
his  retreat  to  Richmond.  During  that  ex-  the  first  blood  is  spilled."  On  the  evening 
citing  race  there  were  several  skirmishes  of  the  same  day,  when  news  of  bloodshed 
in  the  mountain-passes.  Finally  Lee,  by  in  Baltimore  reached  Montgomery  (see 
a  quick  and  skilfxil  movement,  while  Meade  Baltimore)  ,  bonfires  were  built  in  front  of 
was  detained  at  Manassas  Gap  by  a  heavy  the  Exchange  Hotel,  and  from  its  balcony 
skirmish,  dashed  through  Chester  Gap,  Roger  A.  Pryor,  of  Virginia,  in  a  speech 
and,  crossing  the  Rappahannock,  took  a  to  the  multitude,  said  that  he  was  in  "  favor 
position    between    that    stream    and    the    of  an  immediate  march  on  Washington." 

22 


"  ON    TO    WASHINGTON  !»—  ONEIDA 


At  the  departure  of  the  2d  Regi- 
ment of  South  Carolina  Infantry  for 
Richmond,  the  colonel,  as  he  handed 
the  flag  just  presented  to  it  to  the  color- 
sergeant,  said:  "  To  your  particular  charge 
is  committed  this  noble  gift.  Plant  it 
where  honor  calls.  If  opportunity  offers, 
let  it  be  the  first  to  kiss  the  breezes  of 
heaven  from  the  dome  of  the  Capitol  at 
Washington."  The  Richmond  Examiner 
said,  on  April  23 — the  day  when  Stephens 
arrived  in  that  city:  "The  capture  of 
Washington  City  is  perfectly  within  the 
power  of  Virginia  and  Maryland,  if  Vir- 
ginia will  only  make  the  proper  effort 
by  her  constituted  authorities.  There 
never  was  half  the  unanimity  among  the 
people  before,  nor  a  tithe  of  the  zeal  upon 
any  subject  that  is  now  manifested  to 
take  Washington  ard  drive  from  it  every 
Black  Republican  who  is  a  dweller  there. 
From  the  mountain-tops  and  valleys  to  the 
shores  of  the  sea  there  is  one  wild  shout 
of  fierce  resolve  to  capture  Washington 
City  at  all  and  every  human  hazard." 

On  the  same  day  Governor  Ellis,  of 
North  Carolina,  ordered  a  regiment  of 
State  troops  to  march  for  Washington; 
and  the  Goldsboro  (N.  C.)  Tribune  of  the 
24th,  speaking  of  the  grand  movement  of 
Virginia  and  a  rumored  one  in  Maryland, 
said:  "  It  makes  good  the  words  of  Secre- 
tary Walker,  of  Montgomery,  in  regard 
to  the  Federal  metropolis.  It  transfers 
the  lines  of  battle  from  the  Potomac  to 
the  Pennsylvania  border."  The  Raleigh 
(N.  C.)  Standard  of  the  same  date  said: 
"  Our  streets  are  alive  with  soldiers " 
(North  Carolina  was  then  a  professedly 
loyal  State);  and  added,  "Washington 
City  will  be  too  hot  to  hold  Abraham  Lin- 
coln and  his  government.  North  Carolina 
has  said  it,  and  she  will  do  all  she  can  to 
make  good  her  declaration."  The  Eufaula 
(Ala.)  Express  said,  on  the  25th:  "Our 
policy  at  this  time  should  be  to  seize  the 
old  Federal  capital,  and  take  old  Lincoln 
and  his  cabinet  prisoners  of  war."  The 
Milledgeville  (Ga.)  Southern  Recorder 
said:  "The  government  of  the  Confeder- 
ate States  must  possess  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington. It  is  folly  to  think  it  can  be  used 
any  longer  as  the  headquarters  of  the  Lin- 
coln government,  as  no  access  can  be  had 
to  it  except  by  passing  through  Virginia 
and  Maryland.     The  District  of  Columbia 


cannot  remain  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  United  States  Congress  without  humil- 
iating Southern  pride  and  disputing 
Southern  rights.  Both  are  essential  to 
gieatness  of  character,  and  both  must  co- 
operate in  the  destiny  to  be  achieved."  A 
correspondent  of  the  Charleston  Courier, 
writing  from  Montgomery,  said :  "  The  de- 
sire for  taking  Washington,  I  believe,  in- 
creases every  hour;  and  all  things,  to  my 
thinking,  seem  tending  to  this  consumma- 
tion. We  are  in  lively  hope  that  before 
three  months  roll  by  the  [Confederate] 
government — Congress,  departments,  and 
all — will  have  removed  to  the  present  Fed- 
eral capital."  Hundreds  of  similar  ex- 
pressions were  uttered  by  Southern  poli- 
ticians and  Southern  newspapers;  and 
Alexander  H.  Stephens  brought  his  logic 
to  bear  upon  the  matter  in  a  speech  at  At- 
lanta, Ga.,  April  30,  1861,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  "  A  general  opinion  prevails 
that  Washington  City  is  soon  to  be  at- 
tacked. On  this  subject  I  can  only  say, 
our  object  is  peace.  We  wish  no  aggres- 
sions on  any  man's  rights,  and  will  make 
none.  But  if  Maryland  secedes,  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  will  fall  to  her  by  re- 
versionary right — the  same  as  Sumter  to 
South  Carolina,  Pulaski  to  Georgia,  and 
Pickens  to  Florida.  When  we  have  the 
right,  we  will  demand  the  surrender  of 
Washington,  just  as  we  did  in  the  other 
cases,  and  will  enforce  our  demand  at  ev- 
ery hazard  and  at  whatever  cost."  At  the 
same  time  went  forth  from  the  free-labor 
States,  "On  to  Washington!"  for  its  pres- 
ervation; and  it  was  responded  to  effectu- 
ally by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  loyal 
citizens. 

Onderdonk,  Henry,  author;  born  in 
North  Hempstead,  N.  Y.,  June  11,  1804; 
graduated  at  Columbia  in  1827.  Among 
his  publications  are  Revolutionary  His- 
tories of  Queens;  Neio  York;  Suffolk; 
and  Kings  Counties;  Long  Island  and 
New  York  in  the  Olden  Times;  The  An- 
nals of  Hempstead,  N.  Y.,  etc.  He  died 
in  Jamaica,  N.  Y.,  June  22,  1886. 

Oneida,  The.  The  first  warlike  meas- 
ure of  the  Americans  previous  to  the  hos- 
tilities begun  in  1812  was  the  construction, 
at  Sackett's  Harbor,  N.  Y.,  of  the  brig 
Oneida,  16  guns,  by  Christian  Berg  and 
Henry  Eckford.  She  was  launched  in 
1809,  and  was  intended  for  a  twofold  pur- 


23 


ONEIDA    COMMUNITY— ONONDAGA  INDIANS 

pose — to  enforce  the  revenue  laws  under  titude  they  were  largely  held  by  the  in- 
the  embargo  act,  and  to  be  in  readiness  fluence  of  Samuel  Kirkland,  a  Protestant 
to  defend  American  property  afloat  on  missionary,  and  Gen.  Philip  Schuyler. 
Lake  Ontario  in  case  of  war  with  Great  Because  of  this  attitude  they  were  sub- 
Britain.  Her  first  duty  in  that  line  was  jected  to  great  losses  by  the  ravages  of 
performed  in  1812,  when  she  was  com-  Tories  and  their  neighbors,  for  which  the 
manded  by  Lieut.  Melancthon  T.  Woolsey.  United  States  compensated  them  by  a 
The  schooner  Lord  Nelson,  laden  with  treaty  in  1794.  They  had  previously  ceded 
flour  and  merchandise,  and  owned  by  their  lands  to  the  State  of  New  York, 
British  subjects  at  Niagara,  was  found  in  reserving  a  tract,  now  in  Oneida  county, 
American  waters  in  May,  1812,  on  her  where  some  of  them  still  remain.  They 
way  to  Kingston,  and  was  captured  by  the  had  been  joined  by  the  Stockbridge  and 
Oneida  and  condemned  as  lawful  prize.  Brotherton  Indians.  Some  of  them  emi- 
About  a  month  later  (June  14)  another  grated  to  Canada,  and  settled  on  the 
British  schooner,  the  Ontario,  was  capt-  Thames;  and  in  1821  a  large  band  pur- 
ured  at  St.  Vincent,  but  was  soon  dis-  chased  a  tract  on  Green  Bay,  Wis.  They 
charged.  At  about  the  same  time  still  an-  have  all  advanced  in  civilization  and  the 
other  offending  schooner,  the  Niagara,  was  mechanic  arts,  as  well  as  in  agriculture, 
seized  and  sold  as  a  violator  of  the  and  have  schools  and  churches.  In  1899 
revenue  laws.  These  events  soon  led  to  there  were  270  Oneidas  at  the  New  York 
retaliation.  agency,    and    1,945    at    the    Green    Bay 

Oneida  Community.    See  Notes,  John  agency. 
Humphreys.  O'Neill,  John,  military  officer;  born  in 

Oneida  Indians,  the  second  of  the  five  Ireland  in  1834;  served  in  the  National 
nations  that  composed  the  original  Iro-  army  during  the  Civil  War;  commanded 
quois  Confederacy  (q.  v.).  Their  domain  a  force  of  1,200  Fenians  who  invaded  Can- 
extended  from  a  point  east  of  Utica  to  ada  in  1866,  most  of  whom  were  arrested 
Deep  Spring,  near  Manlius,  south  of  by  the  United  States  authorities.  He 
Syracuse,  in  Onondaga  county,  N.  Y.  again  invaded  Canada  in  1870,  was  capt- 
Divided  into  three  clans — the  Wolf,  Bear,  ured  and  imprisoned.  He  died  in  Omaha, 
and  Turtle — their  tribal  totem  was  a  stone  Neb.,  Jan.  7,  1878. 

in  a  forked  stick,  and  their  name  meant  Onondaga  Indians,  the  third  nation 
"tribe  of  the  granite  rock."  Tradition  of  the  Iroquois  Confederacy;  their  name 
says  that  when  the  great  confederacy  was  means  "  men  of  the  great  mountain."  Tra- 
formed,  Hiawatha  said  to  them:  "You,  dition  says  that  at  the  formation  of  the 
Oneidas,  a  people  who  recline  your  bodies  confederacy  Hiawatha  said  to  them:  "You, 
against  the  '  Everlasting  Stone,'  that  can-  Onondagas,  who  have  your  habitation  at 
not  be  moved,  shall  be  the  second  nation,  the  '  Great  Mountain,'  and  are  overshad- 
because  you  give  wise  counsel."  Very  soon  owed  by  its  crags,  shall  be  the  third 
after  the  settlement  of  Canada  they  be-  nation,  because  you  are  greatly  gifted 
came  involved  in  wars  with  the  French  with  speech,  and  are  mighty  in  war." 
and  their  Huron  and  Montagnais  allies.  Their  seat  of  government,  or  "  castle," 
In  1653  they  joined  their  neighbors,  the  was  in  the  hill  country  southward  from 
Onondagas,  in  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Syracuse,  where  was  the  great  council- 
French,  and  received  missionaries  from  fire  of  the  confederacy,  or  meeting  -  place 
the  latter.  At  that  time  they  had  been  of  their  congress.  The  Atatarho,  or  great 
so  reduced  by  war  with  southern  tribes  sachem  of  the  tribe,  was  chosen  to  be 
that  they  had  only  150  warriors.  In  the  the  first  president  of  the  confederacy, 
general  peace  with  the  French,  in  1700,  They  were  divided  into  fourteen  clans, 
they  joined  their  sister  nations;  and  when  with  a  sachem  for  each  clan,  and  their 
the  Revolutionary  War  was  kindling  they  domain  extended  from  Deep  Spring,  near 
alone,  of  the  then  Six  Nations  in  the  great  Manlius,  Onondaga  co.,  west  to  a  line 
council,  opposed  an  alliance  with  the  Eng-  between  Cross  and  Otter  lakes.  This  na- 
lish.  tion    carried    on    war    with    the    Indians 

They  remained  faithful  to  the  English-  in    Canada,    and    also    with    the    French, 

American  colonists  to  the  end.    In  this  at-  after  their  advent  on  the  St.  Lawrence; 

24 


ONONDAGA    INDIANS— ONTARIO 


AN    ONONDAGA    COUNCIL. 


and  they  were  prominent  in  the  destruc-  was  weakened,  and  finally,  in  1777,  the 
tion  of  the  Hurons.  In  1653  they  made  council-fire  at  Onondaga  (as  the  confed- 
peace  with  the  French,  and  received  Jesuit  erate  government  was  familiarly  called) 
missionaries  among  them.  The  peace  was  was  formally  extinguished.  The  Onon- 
not  lasting,  and  in  1662  a  large  force  of  dagas  joined  the  English,  and  the  war 
Onondagas  ravaged  Montreal  Island.  They  left  them  helpless,  and  in  1778  they  ceded 
again  made  peace,  and  in  1668  the  French  all  their  lands  to  the  State  of  New  York, 
mission  was  re-established.  except  a  reservation  set  apart  for  their 
As  the  English  extended  their  influence  remnant,  which  they  continue  to  hold, 
among  the  Five  Nations,  the  Iroquois  were  In  1899  they  numbered  549.  There  are 
won  to  their  interest,  and  the  Onondagas  about  400  Onondagas  in  Canada,  making- 
permitted  them  to  erect  a  fort  in  their  the  total  number  of  the  once  powerful 
domain;  but  when,  in  1696,  Frontenac  nation  less  than  1,000.  It  is  said  that 
invaded  their  territory,  the  Onondagas  the  Onondaga  dialect  is  the  purest  one 
destroyed  the  fort  and  their  village,  and  of  the  Iroquois. 

returned  to  the  forests.  The  French  sent  Ontario,  Lake,  Operations  on.  Com- 
deputies  to  the  Onondaga  sachems,  and  modore  Isaac  Chauncey  was  in  command 
then,  in  1700,  signed  the  general  treaty  of  a  little  squadron  of  armed  schooners, 
of  peace  at  Montreal.  This  was  broken  hastily  prepared,  on  Lake  Ontario  late 
in  1709,  when  the  Onondagas  again  made  in  1812.  The  vessels  were  the  Oneida  (his 
war  on  the  French,  and  were  alternately  flag- ship),  Conquest,  Growler,  Pert, 
hostile  and  neutral  towards  them  until  Scourge,  Governor  Tompkins,  and  Hamil- 
the  overthrow  of  the  French  power,  in  ton.  He  sailed  from  Sackett's  Harbor 
1763.  When  the  war  for  independence  (Nov.  8)  to  intercept  the  British  squad- 
was  kindling,  a  general  council  of  the  ron,  under  Commodore  Earl,  returning  to 
confederacy  was  held  at  Onondaga  Castle.  Kingston  from  Fort  George,  on  the  Niag- 
The  Oneidas  and  Tuscaroras  opposed  an  ara  River,  whither  they  had  conveyed 
alliance  with  the  English,  and  each  na-  troops  and  prisoners.  Chauncey  took 
tion  was  left  to  act  as  it  pleased  in  the  his  station  near  the  False  Ducks,  a  group 
matter.     By  this  decision  the  confederacy  of  islands  nearly  due  west  from  Sackett'3 

25 


ONTARIO,  LAKE,  OPERATIONS  ON 

Harbor.  On  the  afternoon  of  Nov.  9  he  of  a  cannon.  He  would  not  leave  the 
fell  in  with  Earl's  flag-ship,  the  Royal  deck,  and  was  knocked  overboard  and 
George.     He  chased  her  into  the  Bay  of    drowned. 

Quint6,  where  he  lost  sight  of  her  in  After  the  capture  of  Fort  George  Chaun- 
the  darkness  of  night.  On  the  following  cey  crossed  the  lake,  looked  into  York, 
morning  (Nov.  10)  he  captured  and  burn-  and  then  ran  for  Kingston  without  meet- 
ed  a  small  armed  schooner,  and  soon  after-  ing  a  foe.  He  retired  to  Sackett's  Harbor, 
wards  espied  the  Royal  George  making  where  he  urged  forward  the  completion 
her  way  towards  Kingston.  Chauncey  of  a  new  corvette,  the  General  Pike,  26 
gave  chase  with  most  of  his  squadron  guns.  She  was  launched  June  12,  1813, 
(which  had  been  joined  by  the  Julia),  and  placed  in  command  of  Capt.  Arthur 
and  followed  her  into  Kingston  Harbor,  Sinclair.  It  was  late  in  the  summer  be- 
where  he  fought  her  and  five  land-batter-  fore  she  was  ready  for  a  cruise.  Mean- 
ies  for  almost  an  hour.  These  batteries  while,  the  keel  of  a  fast-sailing  schooner 
were  more  formidable  than  he  supposed,  was  laid  by  Eckford  at  Sackett's  Harbor, 
A  brisk  breeze  having  arisen,  and  the  and  named  the  Sylph,  and  a  small  vessel 
night  coming  on,  Chauncey  withdrew  and  was  kept  constantly  cruising,  as  a  scout, 
anchored.  The  next  morning  the  breeze  off  Kingston,  to  observe  the  movements 
had  become  almost  a  gale,  and  Chauncey  of  the  British  squadron  there.  This  little 
weighed  anchor  and  stood  out  lakeward.  vessel  (Lady  of  the  Lake)  captured  the 
The  Tompkins  (Lieutenant  Brown),  the  British  schooner  Lady  Murray  (June  16), 
Hamilton  (Lieutenant  McPherson),  and  laden  with  provisions,  shot,  and  fixed 
Julia  (Sailing-master  Trant)  chased  the  ammunition,  and  took  her  into  the  har- 
Simcoe  over  a  reef  of  rocks  (Nov.  11),  bor.  Sir  James  L.  Yeo  was  in  command 
and  riddled  her  so  that  she  sank  before  of  the  British  squadron  on  the  lake.  He 
she  reached  Kingston.  Soon  afterwards  made  a  cruise  westward,  and  on  July  7 
the  Hamilton  captured  a  large  schooner  appeared  with  his  squadron  off  Niagara, 
from  Niagara.  This  prize  was  sent  past  Chauncey  and  Scott  had  just  returned 
Kingston  with  the  Growler  (Sailing-mas-  from  the  expedition  to  York.  Chauncey 
ter  Mix),  with  a  hope  of  drawing  out  immediately  went  out  and  tried  to  get 
the  Royal  George;  but  Chauncey  had  so  the  weather-gage  of  Sir  James.  He  had 
bruised  her  that  she  was  compelled  to  thirteen  vessels,  but  only  three  of  them 
haul  on  shore  to  keep  from  sinking.  A  had  been  originally  built  for  war  pur- 
number  of  her  crew  had  been  killed,  poses.  His  squadron  consisted  of  the 
The  wind  had  increased  to  a  gale  on  the  Pike,  Madison,  Oneida,  Hamilton,  Scourge, 
nights  of  the  11th  and  12th,  and  during  Ontario,  Fair  American,  Governor  Tomp- 
the  nio-ht  of  the  12th  there  was  a  snow-  kins,  Conquest,  Growler,  Julia,  Asp,  and 
storm.  Undismayed  by  the  fury  of  the  Pert.  The  British  squadron  now  consist- 
elements,  Chauncey  continued  his  cruise,  ed  of  two  ships,  two  brigs,  and  two  large 
for  his  heart  was  set  on  gaining  the  su-  schooners.  These  had  all  been  consti'ucted 
premacy  of  the  Lakes.  Learning  that  for  war,  and  were  very  efficient  in  arma- 
the  Earl  of  Moira  was  off  the  Keal  Ducks  ment  and  shields.  The  belligerents  ma- 
Islands,  he  attempted  to  capture  her.  She  roeuvred  all  day,  and  when  at  sunset  a 
was  on  the  alert  and  escaped,  but  a  dead  calm  fell  they  took  to  sweeps.  When 
schooner  that  she  was  convoying  was  darkness  came,  the  American  squadron 
made  captive.  On  the  same  day  Chauncey  was  collected  by  signal.  The  wind  finally 
saw  the  Royal  George  and  two  other  armed  freshened,  and  at  midnight  was  blowing 
vessels,  but  they  kept  out  of  his  way.  a  fitful  gale.  Suddenly  a  rushing  sound 
In  this  short  cruise  he  captured  three  was  heard  astern  of  most  of  the  fleet,  and 
merchant  vessels,  destroyed  one  armed  it  was  soon  ascertained  that  the  Hamil- 
schooner,  disabled  the  British  flag-ship,  ton  and  Scourge  had  disappeared.  They 
and  took  several  prisoners,  with  a  loss,  had  been  capsized  by  a  terrible  squall, 
on  his  part,  of  one  man  killed  and  four  and  all  of  the  officers  and  men,  excepting 
wounded.  Among  the  latter  was  Sailing-  sixteen  of  the  latter,  had  perished.  These 
master  Arundel,  commander  of  the  Pert,  two  vessels  carried  nineteen  guns  between 
who   was  badly   injured  by  the  bursting    them.     All   the   next  day   the   squadrons 

26 


ONTARIO,    LAKE,    OPERATIONS    ON 


manoeuvred  for  advantage,  and  towards 
evening  Chauncey  ran  into  the  Niagara 
River.  All  that  night  the  lake  was  swept 
by  squalls.  On  the  morning  of  the  9th 
Chauncey  went  out  to  attack  Sir  James, 
and  the  day  was  spent  in  fruitless  manoeu- 
vres. At  six  o'clock  on  the  10th,  having 
the  weather-gage,  Chauncey  formed  his 
fleet  in  battle  order,  and  a  conflict  seemed 
imminent;  but  his  antagonist  being  un- 
willing to  fight,  the  day  was  spent  as 
others  had  been.  Towards  midnight  there 
was  a  contest,  when  the  Growler  and 
Julia,  separating  from  the  rest  of  the 
fleet,  were  captured.  Returning  to  Sack- 
ett's  Harbor,  Chauncey  prepared  for  an- 
other cruise  with  eight  vessels.  Making 
but  a  short  cruise,  on  account  of  sickness 
prevailing  in  the  fleet,  he  remained  in  the 
harbor  until  Aug.  28,  when  he  went  out 
in  search  of  his  antagonist.  He  first  saw 
him  on  Sept.  7,  and  for  a  week  tried  to 
get  him  into  action,  but  Sir  James  strict- 
ly obeyed  his  instructions  to  "  risk  noth- 
ing." On  the  11th  Chauncey  bore  down 
upon  Sir  James  off  the  mouth  of  the 
Genesee  River,  and  they  had  a  running 
fight  for  three  hours.  The  Pike  was 
somewhat  injured,  but  the  British  vessels 
suffered  most.  The  latter  fled  to  King- 
ston, and  Chauncey  went 
into  Sackett's  Harbor.  On 
the  18th  he  sailed  for  the 
Niagara  for  troops,  and 
was  chased  by  Yeo.  After  a 
few  days  Chauncey  cross- 
ed over  to  York  with  the 
Pike,  Madison,  and  Sylph, 
where  the  British  fleet  lay, 
when  the  latter  fled,  fol- 
lowed by  the  American 
vessels  in  battle  order. 
The  baronet  was  now  com- 
pelled to  fight  or  stop 
boasting  of  unsatisfied  de- 
sires to  measure  strength 
with  the  Americans.  An 
action  commenced  at  a 
little  past  noon,  and  the 
Pike  sustained  the  desper- 
ate assaults  of  the  heavi- 
est British  vessels  for  twenty  min 
utes,  at  the  same  time  delivering  destruC' 
tive  broadsides  upon  her  foes.  She  was 
assisted  by  the  Tompkins,  Lieutenant 
Finch;    and    when    the    smoke    of    battle 


floated  away  it  was  found  that  the  Wolfe 
(Sir  James's  flag-ship)  was  too  much  in- 
jured to  continue  the  conflict  any  longer. 
She  pushed  away  dead  before  the  wind, 
gallantly  protected  by  the  Royal  George. 
A  general  chase  towards  Burlington  Bay 
immediately  ensued.  Chauncey  could 
doubtless  have  captured  the  whole  British 
fleet,  but  a  gale  was  threatening,  and 
there  being  no  good  harbors  on  the  coast, 
if  he  should  be  driven  ashore  certain 
capture  by  land  troops  would  be  the  con- 
sequence. So  he  called  off  his  ships  and 
returned  to  the  Niagara,  where  he  lay 
two  days  while  a  gale  was  skurrying 
over  the  lake.  The  weather  remaining 
thick  after  the  gales,  Sir  James  left  Bur- 
lington Bay  for  Kingston.  Chauncey  was 
returning  to  Sackett's  Harbor,  whither 
all  his  transports  bearing  troops  had  gone, 
and  at  sunset,  Oct.  5,  when  pear  the 
Ducks,  the  Pike  captured  three  British 
transports — the  Confiance,  Hamilton  (the 
Growler  and  Julia  with  new  names),  and 
Mary.  The  Sylph  captured  the  cutter 
Drummond  and  the  armed  transport  Lady 
Gore.  The  number  of  prisoners  captured 
on  these  five  vessels  was  264.  Among  the 
prisoners  were  ten  array  officers.  Sir  James 
remained    inactive    in    Kingston    Harbor 


DESTRUCTION  AT  BODC8  BAY. 

during  the  remainder  of  the  season,  and 
Chauncey  was  busied  in  watching  his 
movements  and  assisting  the  army  in  its 
descent  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  He  did  not, 
however,    sufficiently    blockade    Kingston 


27 


ONTARIO— OPECHANCANOUGH 


Harbor  to  prevent  marine  scouts  from  slip- 
ping out  and  hovering  near  Wilkinson's 
flotilla  on  the  St.  Lawrence. 

A  British  squadron  on  the  lake  hovered 
along  its  southern  shores  in  the  summer 
ot  1813  and  seriously  interfered  with  sup- 
plies on  their  way  to  the  American  camp 
on  the  Niagara.  They  captured  (June  12, 
1813)  two  vessels  laden  with  hospital 
stores  at  Eighteen-mile  Creek,  eastward 
of  the  Niagara  River.  They  made  a  de- 
scent upon  the  village  of  Charlotte,  situ- 
ated at  the  mouth  of  the  Genesee  River, 
on  the  15th,  and  carried  off  a  large  quan- 
tity of  stores.  On  the  18th  they  appeared 
off  Sodus  Bay,  and  the  next  evening  an 
armed  party,  100  strong,  landed  at  Sodus 
Point  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  Amer- 
ican stores  known  to  have  been  deposited 
there.  These  had  been  removed  to  a  place 
of  concealment  a  little  back  of  the  village. 
The  invaders  threatened  to  destroy  the 
village  if  the  hiding-place  of  the  stores 
was  not  revealed.  The  women  and  chil- 
dren fled  from  their  homes  in  alarm.  A 
negro,  compelled  by  threats,  gave  the  de- 
sired information ;  and  they  were  march- 
ing in  the  direction  of  the  stores  when 
they  were  confronted  at  a  bridge  over  a 
ravine  by  forty  men  under  Captain  Turner. 
A  sharp  skirmish  ensued.  The  British 
were  foiled,  and  as  they  returned  to  their 
vessels  they  burned  the  public  storehouses, 
five  dwellings,  and  a  hotel.  The  property 
destroyed  at  Sodus  was  valued  at  $25,000. 
The  marauders  then  sailed  eastward,  and 
looked  into  Oswego  Harbor,  but  Sir  James 
Yeo,  their  cautious  commander,  did  not 
venture  to  go  in. 

Chauncey  was  unable  to  accomplish 
much  with  his  squadron  during  1814. 
Early  in  the  season  he  was  taken  sick, 
and  in  July  his  squadron  was  blockaded 
at  Sackett's  Harbor,  and  it  was  the  last 
of  that  month  before  it  was  ready  for  sea. 
On  the  31st  Chauncey  was  carried,  in  a 
convalescent  state,  on  board  the  Superior 
(his  flag-ship),  and  the  squadron  sailed 
on  a  cruise.  It  blockaded  the  harbor  of 
Kingston,  and  Chauncey  vainly  tried  to 
draw  out  Sir  James  Yeo  for  combat.  At 
the  close  of  September  Chauncey  was  in- 
formed that  the  St.  Lawrence,  pierced  for 
112  guns,  which  had  been  built  at  Kings- 
ton, was  ready  for  sea,  when  the  commo- 
dore   prudently   raised    the    blockade    and 


returned  to  Sackett's  Harbor.  The  St.  Law- 
icnce  sailed  in  October  with  more  than 
1,000  men,  accompanied  by  other  vessels 
of  war;  and  with  this  big  ship  Sir  James 
was  really  lord  of  the  lake.  The  Amer- 
icans determined  to  match  the  St.  Laiv- 
rcnce,  and  at  Sackett's  Harbor  the  keels 
of  two  first-class  frigates  were  laid.  One 
of  them  was  partly  finished  when  peace 
was  proclaimed,  early  in  1815.  Chaun- 
cey expected  that  Yeo  would  attack 
his  squadron  in  the  harbor,  but  he  did 
not;  and  when  the  lake  was  closed  by 
ice  the  war  had  ended  on  the  northern 
frontier. 

Opechancanough,  brother  of  Powhat- 
an, was  "  King  of  Pamunkey  "  when  the 
English  first  landed  in  Virginia.  He  was 
born  about  1552,  and  died  in  1644.  He 
first  became  known  to  the  English  as  the 
captor  of  John  Smith  in  the  forest.  Ope- 
chancanough would  have  killed  him  imme- 
diately, but  for  Smith's  presence  of  mind. 
He  drew  from  his  pocket  a  compass,  and 
explained  to  the  savage  as  well  as  he  could 
its  wonderful  nature ;  told  him  of  the  form 
of  the  earth  and  the  stars — how  the  sun 
chased  the  night  around  the  earth  con- 
tinually. Opechancanough  regarded  him  as 
a  superior  being,  and  women  and  children 
stared  at  him  as  he  passed  from  village 
to  village  to  the  Indian's  capital,  until 
he  was  placed  in  the  custody  of  Pow- 
hatan. Opechancanough  attended  the  mar- 
riage of  his  niece,  Pocahontas,  at  James- 
town. After  the  death  of  his  brother 
(1019)  he  was  lord  of  the  empire,  and 
immediately  formed  plans  for  driving  the 
English  out  of  his  country. 

Gov.  Sir  Francis  Wyatt  brought  the 
constitution  with  him,  and  there  was  evi- 
dence of  great  prosperity  and  peace  every- 
where. But  just  at  that  time  a  fearful 
cloud  of  trouble  was  brooding.  Opechan- 
canough could  command  about  1,500  war- 
riors. He  hated  _the  English  bitterly, 
and  inspired  his  people  with  the  same 
feeling,  yet  he  feigned  friendship  for  them 
until  a  plot  for  their  destruction  was  per- 
fected. 

Believing  the  English  intended  to  seize 
his  domains,  his  patriotism  impelled  him 
to  strike  a  blow.  In  an  affray  with  &<  set- 
tler, an  Indian  leader  was  shot,  and  the 
wily  emperor  made  it  the  occasion  for  in- 
flaming   the    resentment    of    his    people 


28 


OPECHANCANOUGH— OPEQUAJf 


against  the  English.  He  visited  the  gov- 
ernor in  war  costume,  bearing  in  his  belt 
a  glittering  hatchet,  and  demanded  some 
concessions  for  his  incensed  people.  It 
was  refused,  and,  forgetting  himself  for 
a  moment,  he  snatched  the  hatchet  from 
his  belt  and  struck  its  keen  blade  into  a 
log  of  the  cabin,  uttering  a  curse  upon 
the  English.  Instantly  recovering  himself, 
he  smiled,  and  said :  '*  Pardon  me,  govern- 
or; I  was  thinking  of  that  wicked  Eng- 
lishman (see  Argall,  Samuel)  who  stole 
my  niece  and  struck  me  with  his  sword. 
I  love  the  English  who  are  the  friends 
of  Powhatan.  Sooner  will  the  skies  fall 
than  that  my  bond  of  friendship  with  the 
English  shall  be  dissolved."  Sir  Francis 
warned  the  people  that  treachery  was 
abroad.  They  did  not  believe  it.  They  so 
trusted  the  Indians  that  they  had  taught 
them  to  hunt  with  fire-arms. 

A  tempest  suddenly  burst  upon  them. 
On  April  1  (March  22,  O.  S.),  1622,  the 
Indians  rushed  from  the  forests  upon  all 
the  remote  settlements,  at  a  preconcerted 
time,  and  in  the  space  of  an  hour  350  men, 
women,  and  children  were  slain.  At  Hen- 
rico, the  devoted  Thorpe,  who  had  been 
like  a  father  to  the  children  and  the  sick 
of  the  savages,  was  slain.  Six  members  of 
the  council  and  several  of  the  wealthier 
inhabitants  were  made  victims  of  the 
treachery. 

On  the  very  morning  of  the  massacre 
the  Indians  ate  at  the  tables  of  those 
whom  they  intended  to  murder  at  noon. 
The  people  of  Jamestown  were  saved  by 
Chanco,  a  Christian  Indian,  who  gave 
them  timely  warning,  and  enabled  them  to 
prepare  for  the  attack.  Those  on  remote 
plantations  who  survived  beat  back  the 
savages  and  fled  to  Jamestown.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  days  eighty  of  the  in- 
habited plantations  were  reduced  to  eight. 
A  large  part  of  the  colony  were  saved,  and 
these  waged  an  exterminating  war.  They 
struck  such  fearful  retaliating  blows  that 
the  Indians  were  beaten  back  into  the 
forest,  and  death  and  desolation  were 
spread  over  the  peninsula  between  the 
York  and  James  rivers.  The  emperor  fled 
to  the  land  of  the  Pamunkeys,  and  by  a 
show  of  cowardice  lost  much  of  his  influ- 
ence. The  power  of  the  confederacy  was 
broken.  Before  the  war  there  were  6,000 
Indians  within   60  miles   of  Jamestown; 


at  its  close  there  were,  probably,  not  1,000 
within  the  territory  of  8,000  square  miles. 
The  colony,  too,  was  sadly  injured  in 
number  and  strength.  A  deadly  hostility 
between  the  races  continued  for  more  than 
twenty  years.  Opechancanough  lived,  and 
had  been  nursing  his  wrath  all  that  time, 
prudence  alone  restraining  him  from  war. 
His  malice  remained  keen,  and  his  thirst 
for  vengeance  was  terrible. 

When,  in  1643,  Thomas  Rolfe,  son  of 
his  niece  Pocahontas,  came  from  England, 
and  with  Cleopatra,  his  mother's  sister, 
visited  the  aged  emperor,  and  told  him  of 
the  civil  war  between  the  English  factions, 
the  old  emperor  concluded  it  was  a  favor- 
able time  for  him  to  strike  another  blow 
for  his  country.  He  was  then  past  ninety 
years  of  age,  and  feeble  in  body.  He  sent 
runners  through  his  empire.  A  confed- 
eration of  the  tribes  for  the  extermination 
of  the  English  was  formed,  and  the  day 
fixed  to  begin  the  work  in  the  interior  and 
carry  it  on  to  the  sea.  Early  in  April, 
1644,  they  began  the  horrid  work.  The  old 
emperor  was  carried  on  a  litter  borne  by 
his  warriors.  In  the  space  of  two  days 
they  slew  more  than  300  of  the  settlers, 
sparing  none  who  fell  in  their  way.  The 
region  between  the  Pamunkey  and  York 
rivers  was  almost  depopulated.  Governor 
Berkeley  met  the  savages  with  a  com- 
petent armed  force,  and  drove  them  back 
with  great  slaughter.  Opechancanough 
was  made  a  prisoner,  and  carried  in 
triumph  to  Jamestown.  He  was  so  much 
exhausted  that  he  could  not  raise  his  eye- 
lids, and  in  that  condition  he  was  fatally 
wounded  by  a  bullet  from  the  gun  of  an 
English  soldier  who  guarded  him,  and  who 
had  suffered  great  bereavements  at  the 
hands  of  the  savages.  The  people,  curious, 
gathered  around  the  dying  emperor. 
Hearing  the  hum  of  a  multitude,  he  asked 
an  attendant  to  raise  his  eyelids.  When 
he  saw  the  crowd  he  haughtily  demanded 
a  visit  from  the  governor.  Berkeley  came, 
when  the  old  man  said,  with  indignation, 
"  Had  it  been  my  fortune  to  have  taken 
Sir  William  Berkeley  prisoner,  I  would 
not  meanly  have  exposed  him  as  a  show 
to  my  people."  He  then  stretched  him- 
self upon  the  earth  and  died. 

Open  Door.  See  China  and  the 
Powers. 

Opequan,  Battle  of.    See  Winchester. 


29 


ORANGE— ORDERS    IN    COUNCIL 


Orange,  Foet,  a  defensive-  work  at  employed  in  coast-survey  duty,  when  he 
Albany,  N.  Y.  In  1614  Captain  Chris-  was  sent  to  California.  He  took  part  in 
tiansen,  who,  in  the  interest  of  trade,  expeditions  against  the  Indians,  and,  in 
went  up  the  Hudson  River  to  the  head  of  September,  18G1,  was  made  brigadier-gen- 
navigation,  built  a  fortified  trading-house  eral  of  volunteers,  commanding  a  brigade 
on  an  island  just  below  the  site  of  Albany,  of  the  Pennsylvania  Reserves  near  the 
which  he  called  Castle  Island.  The  spring  Potomac.  In  May,  1862,  he  was  made 
floods  made  the  place  untenable,  and  in  major-general  of  volunteers,  and  ordered 
1617  a  new  fort  was  built  at  the  mouth  to  the  Army  of  the  Mississippi,  where  he 
of  the  Tawasentha  ("place  of  many  did  good  service  while  in  command  at 
dead"),  or  Norman's  Kill,  on  the  west  Corinth.  He  commanded  the  13th  Army 
side  of  the  river.  There  a  treaty  of  Corps  at  the  siege  and  capture  of  Jackson 
friendship  and  alliance  was  made  with  the  and  Vicksburg.  In  the  campaign  against 
Five  Nations,  the  first  ever  made  between  Richmond,  in  1864,  he  commanded  the 
the  Indians  and  Hollanders.  The  situa-  18th  Corps  from  July  to  September,  when 
tion  of  the  new  fort  proving  to  be  in-  he  was  severely  wounded  in  the  assault  on 
convenient,  a  more  permanent  fortification  Fort  Harrison.  He  commanded  the  De- 
was  built  a  few  miles  farther  north,  and  partment  of  Virginia  from  January  to 
called  Fort  Orange,  in  compliment  to  the  June,  1865,  and  was  a  participant  in  the 
Stadtholder,  or  chief  magistrate,  of  Hoi-  capture  of  Lee's  army  in  April.  General 
land.  Some  of  the  Walloons  settled  there,  Ord  was  brevetted  major-general  in  the 
and  held  the  most  friendly  relations  with  United  States  army,  and  commissioned 
the  Indians.  Near  the  fort  Kilian  Van  a  brigadier-general,  July  26,  1866;  and 
Rensselaer,  a  wealthy  pearl  merchant  of  was  retired  Dec.  6,  1880.  He  died  in 
Amsterdam,  purchased  from  the  Indians  a  Havana,  Cuba,  July  22,  1883. 
large  tract  of  land  in  1630,  sent  over  a  col-  Orders  in  Council.  On  Nov.  6,  1793, 
ony  to  settle  upon  it,  and  formed  the  "  Col-  a  British  Order  in  Council  was  issued,  but 
onie  of  Rensselaerswyck."  A  settlement  was  not  made  public  until  the  end  of  the 
soon  grew  around  Fort  Orange,  and  so  the  year,  directing  British  cruisers  to  stop, 
foundations  of  Albany  (q.  v.)  were  laid,  detain,  and  bring  in  for  legal  adjudication 
Ord,  Edward  Otho  Ceesap,  military  all  ships  laden  with  goods  the  production 
officer;    born    in    Cumberland,    Md.,    Oct.    of   any   French   colony,   or   carrying   pro* 

visions  or  other  supplies  for  the  use  of 
such  colony.  The  order,  which  was  cal- 
culated to  destroy  all  neutral  trade  with 
the  French  colonies,  even  that  which  had 
been  allowed  in  times  of  peace,  was  issued 
simultaneously  with  the  despatch  of  a 
great  expedition  for  the  conquest  of  the 
French  West  Indies.  Martinique,  Guada- 
loupe,  and  St.  Lucia  all  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  English.  The  news  of  the  British 
order  produced  great  excitement  at  Phila- 
delphia, where  Congress  was  in  session, 
and  public  feeling  against  Great  Britain 
ran  high.  It  was  manifested  in  and  out 
of  Congress  by  debates  and  discussions, 
and  while  these  were  in  progress  the  feel- 
ing against  the  British  was  intensified  by 
the  publication  in  New  York  papers  of 
what  purported  to  be  a  speech  of  Lord 
Dorchester  to  a  certain  Indian  deputation 
from  a  late  general  council  at  the  Maumee 
18,  1818;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  Rapids,  in  which  he  suggested  the  prob- 
1839,  entering  the  3d  Artillery.  He  was  ability  of  a  speedy  rupture  between  the 
in  the  Seminole  War,  and  in  1845-46  was   United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

Id 


EDWARD  OTHO  CRESAP  ORD. 


ORDERS    IN    COUNCIL— ORDINANCE    OF    1787 


The  British  order  and  Dorchester's 
speech  caused  resolutions  to  be  introduced 
by  Sedgwick,  March  12,  1794,  into  the 
House  of  Representatives  for  raising 
fifteen  regiments  of  1,000  men  each,  for 
two  years,  and  the  passage  of  a  joint  res- 
olution, March  26,  laying  an  embargo  for 
thirty  days,  afterwards  extended  thirty 
days  longer,  having  in  view  the  obstruct- 
ing of  the  supply  of  provisions  to  the 
British  fleet  and  army  in  the  West  Indies. 
Sedgwick's  resolutions  were  rejected,  but 
a  substitute  was  passed  suggesting  a  draft 
of  militia.  It  was  proposed  to  detach 
from  this  body  80,000  minute-men,  enlist 
a  regiment  of  artillery,  and  raise  a  stand- 
ing force  of  25,000  men.  While  debates 
were  going  on,  news  came  that  a  second 
Order  in  Council  had  been  issued,  Jan. 
8,  1794,  superseding  that  of  Nov.  6,  re- 
stricting the  capture  of  French  produce  in 
neutral  vessels  to  cases  in  which  the  prod- 
uce belonged  to  Frenchmen,  or  the  vessel 
was  bound  for  France;  also,  that  no 
confiscations  were  to  take  place  under  the 
first  order.  This  allayed  the  bitterness 
of  feeling  in  the  United  States  against 
Great  Britain. 

In  1807  and  1810  Orders  in  Council  were 
issued  to  meet  the  effects  of  the  French 
decrees  (Berlin  and  Milan).  These  re- 
mained in  force,  and  bore  heavily  upon 
American  commerce  until  after  the  dec- 
laration of  war  in  1812.  Joel  Barlow, 
who  had  been  appointed  American  ambas- 
sador to  France  in  1811,  had  urged  the 
French  government  to  revoke  the  decrees 
as  to  the  Americans.  This  was  done, 
April  28,  1811,  and  a  decree  was  issued 
directing  that,  in  consideration  of  the  re- 
sistance of  the  United  States  to  the  Orders 
in  Council,  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees 
were  to  be  considered  as  not  having  exist- 
ed, as  to  American  vessels,  since  Nov.  1, 
1810.  Barlow  forwarded  this  decree  to 
Russell,  American  minister  at  the  British 
Court.  It  arrived  there  just  in  time  to 
second  the  efforts  of  the  British  manu- 
facturers, who  were  pressing  the  govern- 
ment for  a  revocation  of  the  Orders  in 
Council.  A  new  ministry,  lately  seated, 
being  in  danger  of  the  desertion  of  a  por- 
tion of  their  supporters,  yielded,  and  on 
June  23,  1812,  they  revoked  the  orders 
of  1807  and  1810,  with  a  proviso,  how- 
ever, for  their  renewal  in  case  the  United 


States  government,  after  due  notice,  should 
still  persist  in  its  non-importation  and 
other  hostile  acts.  Efforts  were  imme- 
diately made  by  both  governments  for  a 
settlement  of  existing  difficulties,  but 
failed.  The  British  minister  (Lord  Castle- 
reagh)  declined  to  make  any  stipulation, 
formal  or  informal,  concerning  impress- 
ments. The  war  finally  proceeded  on  the 
matter  of  impressments  alone.  See  Berlin 
Decree  ;   Embargo  Acts. 

Ordinance  of  1787.  The  title  of  this 
important  act  of  Congress  is  "  An  ordi- 
nance for  the  government  of  the  territory 
of  the  United  States  northwest  of  the 
River  Ohio,"  and  the  text  is  as  follows: 

Be  it  ordained  by  the  United  States  in 
Congress  assembled,  that  the  said  terri- 
tory, for  the  purposes  of  temporary  gov- 
ernment, be  one  district,  subject,  however, 
to  be  divided  into  two  districts,  as  future 
circumstances  may,  in  the  opinion  of  Con- 
gress, make  it  expedient. 

Be  it  ordained  by  the  authority  afore- 
said, that  the  estates,  both  of  resident 
and  non-resident  proprietors  in  the  said 
territory,  dying  intestate,  shall  descend 
to,  and  be  distributed  among,  their  chil- 
dren, and  the  descendants  of  a  deceased 
child,  in  equal  parts;  the  descendants  of 
a  deceased  child  or  grandchild  to  take  the 
share  of  their  deceased  parent  in  equal 
parts  among  them:  And  where  there 
shall  be  no  children  or  descendants,  then 
in  equal  parts  to  the  next  of  kin  in  equal 
degree;  and,  among  collaterals,  the  chil- 
dren of  a  deceased  brother  or  sister  of  the 
intestate  shall  have,  in  equal  parts  among 
them,  their  deceased  parents'  share;  and 
there  shall,  in  no  case,  be  a  distinction 
between  kindred  of  the  whole  and  half 
blood;  saving,  in  all  cases,  to  the  widow 
of  the  intestate  her  third  part  of  the  real 
estate  for  life,  and  one-third  part  of  the 
personal  estate;  and  this  law,  relative  to 
descents  and  dower,  shall  remain  in  full 
force  until  altered  by  the  legislature  of 
the  district.  And,  until  the  governor  and 
judges  shall  adopt  laws  as  hereinafter 
mentioned,  estates  in  the  said  territory 
may  be  devised  or  bequeathed  by  wills  in 
writing,  signed  and  sealed  by  him  or  her, 
in  whom  the  estate  may  be  (being  of  full 
age),  and  attested  by  three  witnesses; 
and  real  estates  may  be  conveyed  by  lease 
and  release,  or  bargain  and  sale,  signed, 


31 


ORDINANCE    OF    1787 


sealed,  and  delivered  by  the  person,  being 
of  full  age,  in  whom  the  estate  may  be, 
and  attested  by  two  witnesses,  provided 
such  wills  be  duly  proved,  and  such  con- 
veyances be  acknowledged,  or  the  execu- 
tion thereof  duly  proved,  and  be  recorded 
within  one  year  after  proper  magistrates, 
courts,  and  registers  shall  be  appointed 
for  that  purpose;  and  personal  property 
may  be  transferred  by  delivery;  saving, 
however,  to  the  French  and  Canadian  in- 
habitants, and  other  settlers  of  the  Kas- 
kaskias,  St.  Vincents,  and  the  neighbor- 
ing villages  who  have  heretofore  profess- 
ed themselves  citizens  of  Virginia,  their 
laws  and  customs  now  in  force  among 
them,  relative  to  the  descent  and  convey- 
ance of  property. 

Be  it  ordained  by  the  authority  afore- 
said, that  there  shall  be  appointed,  from 
time  to  time,  by  Congress,  a  governor, 
whose  commission  shall  continue  in  force 
for  the  term  of  three  years,  unless  sooner 
revoked  by  Congress ;  he  shall  reside  in 
the  district,  and  have  a  freehold  estate 
therein  in  1,000  acres  of  land,  while  in  the 
exercise  of  his  office. 

There  shall  be  appointed,  from  time  to 
time,  by  Congress,  a  secretary,  whose  com- 
mission shall  continue  in  force  for  four 
years  unless  sooner  revoked;  he  shall  re- 
side in  the  district,  and  have  a  freehold 
estate  therein  in  500  acres  of  land,  while 
in  the  exercise  of  his  office;  it  shall  be  his 
duty  to  keep  and  preserve  the  acts  and 
laws  passed  by  the  legislature,  and  the 
public  records  of  the  district,  and  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  governor  in  his  executive 
department ;  and  transmit  authentic  copies 
of  such  acts  and  proceedings,  every  six 
months,  to  the  secretary  of  Congress: 
There  shall  also  be  appointed  a  court  to 
consist  of  three  judges,  any  two  of  whom 
to  form  a  court,  who  shall  have  a  common- 
law  jurisdiction,  and  reside  in  the  district, 
and  have  each  therein  a  freehold  estate  in 
oOO  acres  of  land  while  in  the  exercise  of 
their  offices:  and  their  commissions  shall 
continue  in  force  during  good  behavior. 

The  governor  and  judges,  or  a  majority 
of  them,  shall  adopt  and  publish  in  the 
district  such  laws  of  the  original  States, 
criminal  and  civil,  as  may  be  necessary 
and  best  suited  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  district,  and  report  them  to  Congress 
from  time  to  time:   which  laws  shall  be 


in  force  in  the  district  until  the  organi- 
zation of  the  General  Assembly  therein, 
unless  disapproved  of  by  Congress;  but, 
afterwards,  the  legislature  shall  have 
authority  to  alter  them  as  they  shall  think 
fit. 

The  governor,  for  the  time  being,  shall 
be  commander-in-chief  of  the  militia,  ap- 
point and  commission  all  officers  in  the 
same  below  the  rank  of  general  officers; 
all  general  officers  shall  be  appointed  and 
commissioned  by  Congress. 

Previous  to  the  organization  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  the  governor  shall  appoint 
such  magistrates  and  other  civil  officers, 
in  each  county  or  township,  as  he  shall 
find  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the 
peace  and  good  order  in  the  same:  After 
the  General  Assembly  shall  be  organized, 
the  powers  and  duties  of  the  magistrates 
and  other  civil  officers  shall  be  regulated 
and  defined  by  the  said  Assembly;  but  all 
magistrates  and  other  civil  officers,  not 
herein  otherwise  directed,  shall,  during 
the  continuance  of  this  temporary  gov- 
ernment, be  appointed  by  the  governor. 

For  the  prevention  of  crimes  and  in- 
juries, the  laws  to  be  adopted  or  made 
shall  have  force  in  all  parts  of  the  dis- 
trict, and  for  the  execution  of  process, 
criminal  and  civil,  the  governor  shall  make 
proper  divisions  thereof;  and  he  shall 
proceed,  from  time  to  time,  as  circum- 
stances may  require,  to  lay  out  the  parts 
of  the  district  in  which  the  Indian  titles 
shall  have  been  extinguished,  into  coun- 
ties and  townships,  subject,  however,  to 
such  alterations  as  may  thereafter  be  made 
by  the  legislature. 

So  soon  as  there  shall  be  5,000  free 
male  inhabitants  of  full  age  in  the  dis- 
trict, upon  giving  proof  thereof  to  the 
governor,  they  shall  receive  authority, 
with  time  and  place,  to  elect  representa- 
tives from  their  counties  or  townships  to 
represent  them  in  the  General  Assembly: 
Provided,  that  for  every  500  free  male 
inhabitants,  there  shall  be  one  represent- 
ative, and  so  on  progressively  with  the 
number  of  free  male  inhabitants,  shall  the 
right  of  representation  increase,  until  the 
number  of  representatives  shall  amount  to 
twenty-five;  after  which  the  number  and 
proportion  of  representatives  shall  be  regu- 
lated by  the  legislature:  Provided,  that 
no  person  shall  be  eligible  or  qualified  to 


32 


ORDINANCE   OF    178? 

act  as  a  representative  unless  he  shall  of  the  council  five  years,  unless  sooner 
have  been  a  citizen  of  one  of  the  United  removed.  And  the  governor,  legislative 
States  three  years,  and  be  a  resident  in  council,  and  House  of  Representatives  shall 
the  district,  or  unless  he  shall  have  re-  have  authority  to  make  laws  in  all  cases 
sided  in  the  district  three  years;  and,  in  for  the  good  government  of  the  district, 
either  case,  shall  likewise  hold  in  his  own  not  repugnant  to  the  principles  and  ar- 
right,  in  fee  -  simple,  200  acres  of  land  tides  in  this  ordinance  established  and 
within  the  same:  Provided,  also,  that  a  declared.  And  all  bills,  having  passed 
freehold  in  50  acres  of  land  in  the  dis-  by  a  majority  in  the  House,  and  by  a 
trict,  having  been  a  citizen  of  one  of  majority  in  the  council,  shall  be  referred 
the  States,  and  being  resident  in  the  dis-  to  the  governor  for  his  assent;  but  no 
trict,  or  the  like  freehold  and  two  years'  bill,  or  legislative  act  whatever,  shall  be 
residence  in  the  district,  shall  be  neces-  -  of  any  force  without  his  assent.  The  gov- 
sary  to  qualify  a  man  as  an  elector  of  a  ernor  shall  have  power  to  convene,  pro- 
representative,  rogue,    and   dissolve   the    General    Assem- 

The   representatives   thus    elected    shall  bly,    when,    in    his    opinion,    it    shall    be 

serve  for  the  term  of  two  years;   and,  in  expedient. 

case  of  the  death  of  a  representative,  or  The  governor,  judges,  legislative  coum 

removal    from    office,    the    governor    shall  oil,   secretary,  and   such   other  officers  as 

issue   a   writ  to   the  county  or   township  Congress    shall    appoint    in    the    district, 

for  which  he  was  a  member,  to  elect  an-  shall  take  an  oath  or  affirmation  of  fidel- 

other  in  his  stead,  to  serve  for  the  residue  ity  and  of  office;  the  governor  before  the 

of  the  term.  president  of  Congress,  and  all  other   offi- 

The    General    Assembly,    or    legislature,  cers  before,  the  governor.     As  soon  as  a 

shall   consist  of  the  governor,   legislative  legislature    shall    be    formed    in    the    dis- 

council,  and  a  House  of  Representatives,  trict,   the    council    and    House,    assembled 

The  legislative  council  shall  consist  of  five  in    one    room,    shall    have    authority,    by 

members,  to  continue  in  office  five  years,  joint  ballot,   to  elect  a  delegate  to  Con- 

unless  sooner  removed  by  Congress;   any  gress,  who  shall  have  a  seat  in  Congress, 

three  of  whom  to  be  a  quorum ;   and  the  with  a  right  of  debating  but  not  of  voting 

members    of    the    council    shall    be   nomi-  during  this  temporary  government, 

nated  and  appointed  in  the  following  man-  And,    for    extending    the    fundamental 

ner,   to   wit:    As   soon   as   representatives  principles   of   civil    and    religious   liberty, 

shall  be  elected,  the  governor  shall  appoint  which   form   the  basis   whereon   these   re- 

a   time  and   place   for   them   to   meet   to-  publics,  their  laws  and  constitutions,  are 

gether;   and,  when  met,  they  shall  nomi-  erected;    to  fix  and  establish  those  prin- 

nate  ten  persons,  residents  in  the  district,  ciples  as  the  basis  of  all  laws,  constitu- 

and  each  possessed  of  a  freehold  in   500  tions,    and    governments,    which    forever 

acres    of    land,    and    return    their    names  hereafter    shall    be    formed    in    the    said 

to  Congress;  five  of  whom  Congress  shall  territory:    to  provide  also  for  the  estab- 

appoint  and  commission  to  serve  as  afore-  lishment   of   States,    and   permanent   gov- 

said;  and,  whenever  a  vacancy  shall  hap-  ernment  therein,  and  for  their  admission 

pen  in  the  council,  by  death  or  removal  to  a  share  in  the  federal  councils  on  an 

from  office,  the  House  of  Representatives  equal    footing    with    the    original    States, 

shall  nominate  two  persons,  qualified  as  at  as  early  periods  as  may  be  consistent 

aforesaid,   for   each   vacancy,    and   return  with  the  general   interest: 

their  names  to  Congress ;  one  of  whom  Con-  It  is  hereby  ordained  and  declared  by 

gress    shall    appoint    and    commission    for  the  authority  aforesaid,  that  the  follow- 

the  residue  of  the  term.     And  every  five  ing  articles  shall  be  considered  as  articles 

years,    four    months    at    least    before    the  of    compact    between    the    original    States 

expiration  of  the  time  of  service  of  the  and  the  people  and  States  in  the  said  ter- 

members  of  council,  the  said  House  shall  ritory,  and  forever  remain  unalterable,  un- 

nominate  ten  persons,  qualified  as  afore-  less  by  common  consent,  to  wit: 

6aid,    and    return    their    names    to    Con-  Art.    1.   No  person,   demeaning  himself 

gress;    five   of   whom   Congress   shall    ap-  in  a  peaceable  and  orderly  manner,  shall 

point  and  commission  to  serve  as  members  ever  be  molested  on  account  of  his  mode 
vii.— o                                                  S3 


ORDINANCE    OF    1787 

of  worship  or  religious  sentiments,  in  the  the  federal  debts  contracted  or  to  be  con- 
said  territory.  tracted,   and   a  proportional   part  of   the 

Art.  2.  The  inhabitants  of  the  said  ter-  expenses  of  government,  to  be  apportioned 
ritory  shall  always  be  entitled  to  the  ben-  on  them  by  Congress  according  to  the 
efits  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  and  of  same  common  rule  and  measure  by  which 
the  trial  by  jury;  of  a  proportionate  rep-  apportionments  thereof  shall  be  made  on 
resentation  of  the  people  in  the  legislat-  the  other  States;  and  the  taxes,  for  paying 
ure;  and  of  judicial  proceedings  according  their  proportion,  shall  be  laid  and  levied 
to  the  course  of  the  common  law.  All  per-  by  the  authority  and  direction  of  the  legis- 
sons  shall  be  bailable,  unless  for  capital  latures  of  the  district  or  districts,  or  new 
offences,  where  the  proof  shall  be  evident  States,  as  in  the  original  States,  within 
or  the  presumption  great.  All  fines  shall  the  time  agreed  upon  by  the  United  States 
be  moderate ;  and  no  cruel  or  unusual  pun-  in  Congress  assembled.  The  legislatures 
ishments  shall  be  inflicted.  No  man  shall  of  those  districts  or  new  States  shall 
be  deprived  of  his  liberty  or  property  but  never  interfere  with  the  primary  disposal 
by  the  judgment  of  his  peers  or  the  lav/  of  of  the  soil  by  the  United  States  in  Con- 
the  land;  and,  should  the  public  exi-  gress  assembled,  nor  with  any  regulations 
gencies  make  it  necessary,  for  the  common  Congress  may  find  necessary  for  securing 
preservation,  to  take  any  person's  prop-  the  title  in  such  soil  to  the  bona  fide  pur- 
erty,  or  to  demand  his  particular  services,  chasers.  No  tax  shall  be  imposed  on  lands 
full  compensation  shall  be  made  for  the  the  property  of  the  United  States;  and, 
■jame.  And,  in  the  just  preservation  of  in  no  case,  shall  non-resident  proprietors 
rights  and  property,  it  is  understood  and  be  taxed  higher  than  residents.  The 
declared  that  no  law  ought  ever  to  be  navigable  waters  leading  into  the  Missis- 
made,  or  have  force  in  the  said  territory,  sippi  and  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  carrying- 
that  shall,  in  any  manner  whatever,  inter-  places  between  the  same,  shall  be  common 
fere  with  or  affect  private  contracts  or  en-  highways,  and  forever  free,  as  well  to  the 
gagements,  bona  fide,  and  without  fraud,  inhabitants  of  the  said  territory  as  to  the 
previously  formed.  citizens  of   the  United   States,   and  those 

Art.  3.  Religion,  morality,  and  knowl-  of  any  other  States  that  may  be  admitted 
edge,  being  necessary  to  good  government  into  the  confederacy,  without  any  tax,  inl- 
and the  happiness  of  mankind,  schools  and  post,  or  duty  therefor, 
the  means  of  education  shall  forever  be  en-  Art.  5.  There  shall  be  formed  in  the 
couraged.  The  utmost  good  faith  shall  al-  said  territory  not  less  than  three  nor 
ways  be  observed  towards  the  Indians;  more  than  five  States;  and  the  boundaries 
their  lands  and  property  shall  never  be  of  the  States,  as  soon  as  Virginia  shall 
taken  from  them  without  their  consent;  alter  her  act  of  cession,  and  consent  to  the 
and,  in  their  property,  rights,  and  liberty,  same,  shall  become  fixed  and  established 
they  shall  never  be  invaded  or  disturbed,  as  follows,  to  wit:  The  Western  State  in 
unless  in  just  and  lawful  wars  authorized  the  said  territory  shall  be  bounded  by  the 
by  Congress;  but  laws  founded  in  justice  Mississippi,  the  Ohio,  and  Wabash  rivers; 
and  humanity  shall,  from  time  to  time,  a  direct  line  drawn  from  the  Wabash  and 
be  made  for  preventing  wrongs  being  done  Post  St.  Vincent's,  due  north,  to  the  terri- 
to  them,  and  for  preserving  peace  and  torial  line  between  the  United  States  and 
friendship  with  them.  Canada;  and,  by  the  said  territorial  line, 

Art.    4.    The    said    territory,    and    the  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  Mississippi. 

States  which  may  be  formed  therein,  shall  The  middle  State  shall  be  bounded  by  the 

forever  remain  a  part  of  this  confederacy  said   direct  line,   the  Wabash   from   Post 

of  the  United  States  of  America,  subject  Vincent's,  to  the  Ohio;  by  the  Ohio,  by  a 

to  the  Articles   of  Confederation,   and   to  direct    line,    drawn    due    north    from    the 

such   alterations   therein  as   shall  be  con-  mouth  of  the  Great  Miami,  to  the  said  ter- 

stitutionally   made;    and   to   all    the   acts  ritorial   line,   and  by  the   said   territorial 

and   ordinances   of   the   United    States   in  line.     The  Eastern  State  shall  be  bounded 

Congress  assembled,  comformable  thereto,  by    the    last-mentioned    direct    line,    the 

The  inhabitants  and  settlers   in  the  said  Ohio,    Pennsylvania,    and    the    said    terri- 

territory  shall  be  subject  to  pay  a  part  of  torial  line:    Provided,  however,  and  it  is 

34 


ORDNANCE— OREGON 


further  understood  and  declared,  that  the 
boundaries  of  these  three  States  shall  be 
subject  so  far  to  be  altered,  that,  if  Con- 
gress shall  hereafter  find  it  expedient, 
they  shall  have  authority  to  form  one  or 
two  States  in  that  part  of  the  said  terri- 
tory which  lies  north  of  an  east  and 
west  line  drawn  through  the  southerly 
bend  or  extreme  of  Lake  Michigan.  And, 
whenever  any  of  the  said  States  shall 
have  60,000  free  inhabitants  therein,  such 
State  shall  be  admitted,  by  its  delegates, 
into  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  on 
an  equal  footing  with  the  original  States 
in  all  respects  whatever,  and  shall  be  at 
liberty  to  form  a  permanent  constitution 
and  State  government:  Provided,  the 
constitution  and  government  so  to  be 
formed,  shall  be  republican,  and  in  con- 
formity to  the  principles  contained  in 
these  articles;  and,  so  far  as  it  can 
be  consistent  with  the  general  inter- 
est of  the  confederacy,  such  admission 
shall  be  allowed  at  an  earlier  period, 
and  when  there  may  be  a  less  number 
of  free  inhabitants  in  the  State  than 
60,000. 

Art.  6.  There  shall  be  neither  slavery 
nor  involuntary  servitude  in  the  said  ter- 
ritory, otherwise  than  in  the  punishment 
of  crimes,  whereof  the  party  shall  have 
been  duly  convicted;  Provided,  always, 
that  any  person  escaping  into  the  same, 
from  whom  labor  or  service  is  lawful- 
ly claimed  in  any  one  of  the  original 
States,  such  fugitive  may  be  lawfully 
reclaimed  and  conveyed  to  the  person 
claiming  his  or  her  labor  or  service  as 
aforesaid. 

Be  it  ordained  by  the  authority  afore- 
said, that  the  resolutions  of  the  23d 
of  April,  1784,  relative  to  the  subject 
of  this  ordinance,  be,  and  the  same  are 
hereby  repealed,  and  declared  null  and 
void. 

Done  by  the  United  States,  in  Congress 
assembled,  the  13th  day  of  July,  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord  1787,  and  of 
their  independence  the  twelfth. 

See  Northwestern  Territory,  The. 

Ordnance.  The  whole  train  of  artil- 
lery possessed  by  the  English-American 
colonies  when  the  war  for  independence 
broke  out  (April  19,  1775)  was  com- 
posed of  four  field-pieces,  two  belonging 
to    citizens    of    Boston,    and    two    to    the 


province  of  Massachusetts.  In  1788  the 
Secretary  of  War  called  the  attention  of 
Congress  to  the  fact  that  there  were  in 
the  arsenals  of  the  United  States  "  two 
brass  cannon,  which  constituted  one 
moiety  of  the  field  artillery  with  which 
the  late  war  was  commenced  on  the  part 
of  the  Americans."  Congress  by  resolu- 
tion directed  the  Secretary  to  have  suitable 
inscriptions  placed  on  them;  and,  as  they 
belonged  to  Massachusetts,  he  was  in- 
structed to  deliver  them  to  the  order  of 
the  governor  of  that  State.  The  two 
cannon  belonging  to  citizens  of  Boston 
were  inscribed,  respectively,  "  The  Han- 
cock, Sacred  to  Liberty,"  and  "The 
Adams,  Sacred  to  Liberty " ;  with  the 
additional  words  on  each,  "  These  were 
used  in  many  engagements  during  the 
war." 

Ordnance  Department,  a  bureau  of 
the  War  Department,  under  the  direction 
of  a  chief  of  ordnance.  The  duties  of  the 
department  consist  in  providing,  preserv- 
ing, distributing,  and  accounting  for  every 
description  of  artillery,  small  -  arms,  and 
all  the  munitions  of  war  which  may  be 
required  for  the  fortifications  of  the  coun- 
try, the  armies  in  the  field,  and  for  the 
whole  body  of  the  militia  of  the  Union. 
In  these  duties  are  comprised  that  of  de- 
termining the  general  principles  of  con- 
struction, and  of  prescribing  in  detail  the 
models  and  forms  of  all  military  weapons 
employed  in  war.  They  comprise  also  the 
duty  of  prescribing  the  regulations  for  the 
inspection  of  all  these  weapons,  for  main- 
taining uniformity  and  economy  in  their 
fabrication,  for  insuring  their  quality,  and 
for  their  preservation  and  distribution. 

Ordnance  Survey.     See  Coast  Survey. 

Oregon,  State  of.  The  history  of  this 
State  properly  begins  with  the  discovery 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River  by 
Captain  Gray,  of  Boston,  in  the  ship 
Columbia,  May  7,  1792,  who  gave  the 
name  of  his  vessel  to  that  river.  His  re- 
port caused  President  Jefferson  to  send 
the  explorers  Lewis  and  Clarke  (qq.  v.) 
across  the  continent  to  the  Pacific  ( 1804- 
6).  In  1811  John  J.  Astor  and  others 
established  a  fur-trading  post  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  Paver,  and  called 
it  Astoria.  The  British  doctrine,  always 
practised  and  enforced  by  them,  that  the 
entrance  of  a  vessel  of  a  civilized  nation, 


3r> 


OREGON,    STATE    OP 


STATE  SEAL  OF  OREGON. 

for  the  first  time,  into  the  mouth  of  a 
river,  gives  title,  by  right  of  discovery,  to 
the  territory  drained  by  that  river  and  its 
tributaries,  clearly  gave  to  the  Americans 
the  domain  to  the  lat.  of  54°  40'  N., 
for  the  discovery  of  the  Columbia  River 
by  Captain  Gray,  in  1792,  was  not  dis- 
puted.    In   181S   it  was  mutually  agreed 


that  each  nation  should  equally  enjoy  the 
privileges  of  all  the  bays  and  harbors  on 
that  coast  for  ten  years.  This  agreement 
was  renewed,  in  1827,  for  an  indefinite 
time,  with  the  stipulation  that  either 
party  might  rescind  it  by  giving  the  other 
party  twelve  months'  notice.  This  notice 
was  given  by  the  United  States  in  1846, 
and  also  a  proposition  to  adjust  the  ques- 
tion by  making  the  boundary  on  the  par- 
allel of  49°.  This  was  rejected  by  the 
British,  who  claimed  the  whole  of  Oregon. 
The  President  then  directed  the  proposi- 
tion of  compromise  to  be  withdrawn,  and 
the  title  of  the  United  States  to  the 
whole  territory  of  54°  40'  N.  lat.  to  be 
asserted.  The  question  at  one  time 
threatened  war  between  the  two  nations, 
but  it  was  finally  settled  by  a  treaty  ne- 
gotiated at  Washington,  June  15,  1S46,  by 
James  Buchanan  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  and  Mr.  Pakenham  for  Great 
Britain,  by  which  the  boundary-line  was 
fixed  at  49°  N.  lat. 

In    1833    immigration    to    this    region, 


SOEKE  ON  THE  00MTM&JA  RIVER.  DISCOVERED  BY  CAPTAIN  GRAY. 
36 


OEEGON,    STATE    OF 


OREGON"    INDIANS. 


overland,  began,  and  in  1850  many  thou-  don  the  country.  Major-General  Wool,  sta- 
sands  had  reached  Oregon;  but  very  soon  tioned  at  San  Francisco,  went  to  Port- 
many  of  the  settlers  were  drawn  to  Cali-  land,  Ore.,  and  tnere  organized  a  cam- 
fornia  by  the  gold  excitement  there.  To  paign  against  the  Indians.  The  latter 
encourage  immigration  the  Congress,  in  had  formed  a  powerful  combination,  but 
1850,  passed  the  "  donation  law,"  giving  to  Wool  brought  hostilities  to  a  close  during 
every  man  who  should  settle  on  land  there  the  summer  of  1856.  The  bad  conduct  of 
before  Dec.  1  of  that  year  320  acres  of  Indian  agents,  and  possibly  encouragement 
land,  and  to  his  wife  a  like  number  of  given  the  Indians  by  employes  of  the 
acres;  also,  to  every  man  and  his  wife  who  Hudson  Bay  Company,  were  the  chief 
should  settle  on  such  land  between  Dec.  1,  causes  of  the  trouble. 
1850,  and  Dec.  1,  1853,  160  acres  of  land  In  1841  the  first  attempt  to  organize 
each.  Under  this  law  8,000  claims  were  a  government  was  made.  In  1843  an  ex- 
registered  in  Oregon.  Settlers  in  Oregon  ecutive  and  legislative  committee  was  es- 
and  in  Washington  Territory,  in  1855,  suf-  tablished;  and  in  1845  the  legislative  com- 
fered  much  from  Indians,  who  went  in  mittee  framed  an  organic  law  which  the 
bands  to  murder  and  plunder  the  white  settlers  approved,  and  this  formed  the 
people.  The  savages  were  so  well  organ-  basis  of  a  provisional  government  until 
ized  at  one  time  that  it  was  thought  the  1848,  when  Congress  created  the  Territory 
white  settlers  would  be  compelled  to  aban-  of  Oregon,  which  comprised  all  the  United 

37 


OREGON 


States  territory  west  of  the  summit  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  north  of  the  forty- 
second  parallel.  The  territorial  government 
went  into  operation  on  March  3,  1849, 
with  Joseph  Lane  as  governor.  In  1853 
Washington  Territory  was  organized,  and 
took  from  Oregon  all  its  domain  north  of 
the  Columbia  River.  In  1857  a  convention 
framed  a  State  constitution  for  Oregon, 
which  was  ratified,  in  November  of  that 
year,  by  the  people.  By  the  act  of  Feb.  14, 
1859,  Oregon  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
as  a  State,  with  its  present  limits.  Many 
Indian  wars  have  troubled  Oregon,  the 
last  one  of  importance  being  the  Modoc 
War,  1872-73  (see  Modoc  Indians).  Pop- 
ulation in  1890,  313,767;  in  1900,  413,536. 
See  United  States,  Oregon,  in  vol.  ix. 


UNITED  STATES  SENATORS. 


Name* 


Delazon  Smith. 

Joseph  Lane 

Edward  D.  Baker 

Beujamln  Statk...... 

Benjamin  F.  Harding. 
James  \V.  Nesmilh... 
George  H.  Williams... 

Henry  W.  Corbett 

James  K.  Kelly 

John  H.  Mitchell 

Lafayette  P.  G rover. . . 

James  H.  Slater 

Joseph  N.  Dolph 

John  H.  Mitchell 

George  W.  McBrlde. . . 

Joseph  Simon 

John  H   Mitchell 

Charles  W.  Fulton. . .. 


No.  of  Congress. 


SCth 
35th  to  37th 

86th 

37  th 
37th  to  39th 
37th  "  40th 


Tern 


39th 
40th 
42d 
43d 
45th 
40th 

47  th 

48  th 
54  th 
55th 

57  th 

58  th 


42d 
43d 

45th 
40th 
47  th 
4!>th 
54th 
55th 
57th 
57th 


1859  to  1860 

1859  "  1861 

1860  "  1861 
1862 

1862  to  1865 

1861  "  1867 
18G5  "  1871 
1867  "  1873 


1871 
1873 
1877 
1879 
1883 
1885 
18'.»5 
1898 
1901 
1903 


1877 
1879 
1883 
1885 
1895 
1897 
1901 
1903 


TERRITORIAL  GOVERNORS. 


George  Abernethy appointed. 

Joseph  Lane " 

J.P.Gaines " 

Joseph  Lane " 

George  L.  Curry " 

John  W.  Davis " 

George  L.  Curry " 


1845 

1849 


1853 


1854 


STATE   GOVERNORS. 

John  Whiteaker assumes  office 1859 

Addison  C.  Gibbs "  «     1862 

George  L.  Woods "  "     1866 

Lafiiyette  G  rover "  "     1870 

S   F.  Chadwick acting        ...Feb.  1,  1877 

W.  W.Thayer assumes  office 1878 

Zenas  Ferry  Moody '•         "    1882 

Sylvester  Pennoyer,  Dem..        "         "     ...Janl,  1887 

William  Paine  Lord "  <*     1895 

Theodore  T  Geer "  "     1899 

(ieorge  E.  Chamberlain. ...        "         "    1903 


Oregon,  battle-ship;  carries  four  13- 
inch  guns,  eight  8-inch,  four  6-inch,  and 
thirty-one  rapid-fire  machine  guns.  At  the 
outbreak  of  hostilities  with  Spain,  the  Ore- 
gon was  ordered  from  San  Francisco,  where 
she  was  built,  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  She 
left  San  Francisco  March  19,  and  arrived 
at  Callao,  Peru,  April  4,  where  she  took  on 
coal;  reached  Sandy  Point  April  18,  and 
again  took  on  coal;  reached  Rio  de 
Janeiro  April  30,  Bahia  May  8,  Barba- 
does  May  18,  and  Jupiter  Inlet,  Florida, 
May  24.  The  entire  distance  run  was 
14,706  knots,  at  an  expenditure  of  4,155 
tons  of  coal.  While  in  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Captain  Clark  received  word  that  the 
Spanish  torpedo-boat  Temerario  had  sailed 
from    Montevideo    with    the    intention    of 


UNITED  STATES  BATTLE-SHIP  ORKGOS. 

38 


OREGON    BOUNDARY— ORISKANY 

destroying  the  Oregon.  Captain  Clark  stitutional  Association,  which  was  the 
notified  the  Brazilian  authorities  that  if  means  of  bringing  about  the  reforms  in 
the  Temerario  entered  the  harbor  with  the  constitution  of  the  State  of  New  York 
hostile  intention,  she  would  be  attacked;  in  184:6.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out 
and  at  the  same  time  left  orders  with  the  he  was  one  of  the  most  active  promoters 
commander  of  the  United  States  cruiser  of  measures  for  the  preservation  of  the 
Marietta  to  keep  a  search-light  on  the  Union,  and  was  secretary  of  the  Society 
entrance  to  the  harbor,  and  in  case  the  for  Promoting  the- Enlistment  of  Colored 
Temerario  appeared,  to  notify  her  com-  Troops.  He  originated,  in  1867,  an  or- 
mander  that  if  she  approached  within  half  ganized  movement  for  reforming  and 
a  mile  of  the  Oregon  she  would  be  cheapening  the  operations  of  the  railroad 
destroyed.  In  the  battle  of  Santiago  the  system  of  the  United  States.  He  was  au- 
speed  of  the  Oregon  enabled  her  to  thor  of  Sketches  of  Rochester,  with  No- 
take  a  front  position  in  the  chase  in  tices  of  Western  New  York,  and  Ameri- 
which  she  forced  the  Cristobal  Colon  to  can  Political  Anti-Masonry.  He  died  in 
run  ashore  to  avoid  destruction  from  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  17,  1886. 
the  Oregon's  13 -inch  shells.  Probably  O'Reilly,  John  Boyle,  author;  born  in 
the  presence  of  the  Oregon  prevented  Dowth  ^astle,  Ireland,  June  28,  1844;  be- 
the  escape  of  the  Colon  and,  perhaps,  the  came  a  Fenian,  and  was  sentenced  to  death 
Yizcaya.  After  the  conclusion  of  peace  for  high  treason,  but  sentence  was  com- 
ihe  Oregon  was  ordered  from  New  York  muted  to  transportation.  He  escaped  from 
to  Manila.  Australia  in  1869,  was  picked  up  on  the 
Oregon  Boundary.  See  Oregon.  high  seas  by  an  American  ship  and  taken 
O'Reilly,  Henry,  journalist;  born  in  to  America.  He  was  editor  and  proprie- 
Carrickmacross,  Ireland,  Feb.  6,  1806.  tor  of  the  Boston  Pilot.  He  died  in  Bos- 
His  father  emigrated  to  America  in  1816,  ton,  Mass.,  Aug.  10,  1890. 
and  soon  afterwards  this  son  was  appren-  Original  Package.  Dealers  in  spirit- 
ticed  to  the  publisher  of  the  New  York  uous  liquors  claimed  the  right  of  import- 
Columbian  (newspaper)  to  learn  the  art  ing  such  articles  in  original  packages  into 
of  printing.  The  Columbian  was  a  stanch  States  which  had  prohibitory  laws.  The 
advocate  of  the  Erie  Canal,  and  a  political  United  States  Supreme  Court  in  1890  held 
supporter  of  De  Witt  Clinton  as  its  able  that  they  had  such  power,  as  Congress 
champion.  The  mind  of  the  apprentice  alone  could  control  inter  -  State  traffic, 
was  thus  early  impressed  with  the  impor-  Congress  then  passed  an  act  giving  the 
tance  of  measures  for  the  development  of  States  control,  even  though  such  merchan- 
the  vast  resources  of  the  United  States,  dise  was  imported  in  the  original  package. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  years  he  became  Oriskany,  Battle  of.  Brant,  the  Mo- 
assistant  editor  of  the  New  York  Patriot,  hawk  chief,  came  from  Canada  in  the 
the  organ  of  the  People's  party,  which  spring  of  1777,  and  in  June  was  at  the 
elected  De  Witt  Clinton  governor  of  New  head  of  a  band  of  Indian  marauders  on 
Y^ork  in  1824.  When,  in  1826,  Luther  the  upper  waters  of  the  Susquehanna. 
Tucker  &  Co.  established  the  Rochester  Brig.-Gen.  Nicholas  Herkimer  was  at  the 
Daily  Advertiser,  O'Reilly  was  chosen  its  head  of  the  militia  of  Tryon  county,  N.  Y., 
editor,  but  after  four  years  he  retired.  He  and  was  instructed  by  General  Schuyler 
resumed  editorial  work  there  in  1831.  In  to  watch  and  check  the  movements  of  the 
1834  he  wrote  the  first  memorial  presented  Mohawk  chief,  whose  presence  had  put  an 
to  the  legislature  and  the  canal  board,  end  to  the  neutrality  of  his  tribe  and  of 
in  favor  of  rebuilding  the  failing  struct-  other  portions  of  the  Six  Nations.  Hear- 
ures  of  the  Erie  Canal.  He  then  proposed  ing  of  the  siege  of  Fort  Schuyler  by 
a  plan  for  the  enlargement  of  the  canal,  Colonel  St.  Leger  (Aug.  3),  Herkimer 
and  was  chairman  of  the  committee  ap-  gathered  a  goodly  number  of  Tryon  county 
pointed  by  the  first  Canal  Enlargement  militia,  and  marched  to  the  relief  of  the 
Association  in  1837.  In  1838  he  was  ap-  garrison.  He  and  his  little  army  were 
pointed  postmaster  of  Rochester,  and  after-  marching  in  fancied  security  on  the  morn- 
wards  engaged  in  journalism.  ing  of  Aug.  6  at  Oriskany,  a  few  miles 
He  was  tne  originator  of  the  State  Con-  west  of  the  present  city  of  Utiea,  when 

39 


ORLEANS— O'RORKE 


Tories  and  Indians  from  St.  Leger's  camp, 
lying  in  ambush,  fell  upon  the  patriots  at 
all  points  with  great  fury.  Herkimer's 
rear-guard  broke  and  tied;  the  remainder 
bravely    sustained    a    severe    conflict    for 


GENERAL   HERKIMER  8    RESIDENCE. 

more  than  an  hour.  General  Herkimer 
had  a  horse  shot  dead  under  him,  and  the 
bullet  that  killed  the  animal  shattered  his 
own  leg  below  the  knee.  Sitting  on  his 
saddle  at  the  foot  of  a  beech-tree,  he  con- 
tinued to  give  orders.  A  thunder-shower 
caused  a  lull  in  the  fight,  and  then  it  was 
renewed  with  greater  vigor,  when  the  Ind- 
ians, hearing  the  sound  of  firing  in  the  di- 
rection of  Fort  Schuyler,  fled  to  the  deep 
woods  in  alarm,  and  were  soon  followed 
by  the  Tories  and  Canadians.  The  pa- 
triots remained  masters  of  the  field,  and 
their  brave  commander  was  removed  to 
his  home,  where  he  died  from  loss  of 
blood,  owing  to  unskilful  surgery.  See 
Herkimer,  Nicholas. 

Orleans,  Duke  of,  son  of  "Philippe 
Egalite,"  was  in  the  French  Revolution- 
ary army,  but  becoming  involved  with  Du- 
mouriez  in  1793;  fled  from  France  to 
Switzerland;  and  in  1796  came  to  America, 
where  he  travelled  extensively,  visiting 
Washington  at  Mount  Vernon  in  1797. 
He  was  elected  King  of  the  French  in 
1830,  and  reigned  until  his  abdication  in 
1848.  He  died  in  Claremont,  England, 
Aug.  26,  1S50. 


Orleans,  Franco^  Ferdinand  Louis 
Marie,  Prince  de  Joinville,  son  of  Louis 
Philippe,  King  of  the  French;  born  in 
Neuilly,  Aug.  14,  1818;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1861,  and  with  his  two  nephews, 
the  Count  of  Paris  and  the  Duke  of 
Chartres,  served  on  the  staff  of  Gene.al 
McClellan  for  a  year,  when  they  returned 
to  France.  His  son,  the  Duke  of  Pen- 
thievre,  was  at  the  same  time  a  cadet 
in  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis.  He 
wrote  La  Guerre  d'Amerique;  Campagne 
du  Potomac;  etc.  He  died  in  Paris. 
France,  June  17,  1900. 

Orleans,  Louis  Philippe,  Count  of 
Paris;  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  24,  1838; 
served  on  General  McClellan's  staff  (1861- 
62)  ;  wrote  a  History  of  the  Civil  War  in 
America,  which  has  been  translated  into 
English  and  published  in  the  United 
States  (4  volumes).  He  died  in  London, 
England,  Sept.  8,  1894. 

Orleans,  Territory  of.  Louisiana,  by 
act  of  Congress,  was  divided  into  two  ter- 
ritories, the  southern  one  being  called  Or- 
leans Territory.  The  line  between  them 
was  drawn  along  the  thirty-third  parallel 
of  north  latitude.  This  territory  then  pos- 
sessed a  population  of  50,000  souls,  of 
whom  more  than  half  were  negro  slaves. 
Refugee  planters  from  Santo  Domingo  had 
introduced  the  sugar-cane  into  that 
region,  and  the  cultivation  of  cotton  was 
beginning  to  be  successful.  So  large  were 
the  products  of  these  industries  that  the 
planters  enjoyed  immense  incomes.  The 
white  inhabitants  were  principally  French 
Creoles,  descendants  of  the  original  French 
colonists. 

Orne,  Azor,  military  officer;  born  in 
Marblehead,  Mass.,  July  22,  1731;  was  a 
successful  merchant  and  an  active  patriot, 
a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Provincial 
Congress,  and  long  one  of  the  committee 
of  safety.  In  organizing  the  militia,  and 
in  collecting  arms  and  ammunition,  he  was 
very  active.  In  January,  1776,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  three  Massachusetts 
major-generals,  but  did  not  take  the  field. 
For  many  years  he  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Senate  and  council  of  Massachusetts, 
and  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  education. 
He  died  in  Boston,  June  6,  1796. 

O'Rorke,  Patrick  Henry,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  County  Cavan,  Ireland, 
March  25,  1837;  came  to  the  United  States 


40 


ORR— OSAGE    INDIANS 


in  1842;  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1861;  served  on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Daniel 
Tyler,  and  afterwards  on  that  of  Gen. 
Thomas  W.  Sherman.  In  1862  he  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  of  the  140th  New  York 
Volunteers,  and  in  the  Chancellorsville 
campaign  temporarily  commanded  a  bri- 
gade. At  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July 
2,  1S63,  he  charged  at  the  head  of  his  men 
at  Little  Round  Top,  and  was  killed  as  ha 
reached  the  top  of  the  hill. 

Orr,  Alexander  Ector,  merchant;  born 
in  Strabane,  Ireland,  March  2,  1831 ;  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1851;  has  been 
president  of  the  New  York  Produce  Ex- 
change and  of  the  New  York  Chamber  of 
Commerce  several  times ;  president  of  the 
New  York  Rapid  Transit  Commission. 

Orr,  James  Lawrence,  statesman;  born 
in  Craytonville,  S.  C,  May  12,  1822; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia 
in  1842;  became  a  lawyer  at  Anderson, 
S.  C. ;  and  edited  a  newspaper  there  in 
1843.  After  serving  in  the  State  legislat- 
ure, he  became  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1849,  and  remained  such  by  re-election 
until  1859.  He  was  speaker  of  the  Thirty- 
fifth  Congress.  In  the  South  Carolina  con- 
vention of  Dec.  20,  1860,  he  voted  for  seces- 
sion, and  was  appointed  one  of  three  com- 
missioners to  treat  with  the  national  gov- 
ernment for  the  surrender  of  the  United 
States  forts  in  Charleston  Harbor  to  the 
Confederates.  He  was  a  Confederate  Sen- 
ator from  1862  to  1865,  and  provisional 
governor  of  South  Carolina  from  1866  to 
18G8,  under  the  appointment  of  the  Presi- 
dent. He  afterwards  acted  with  the  Re- 
publican party,  and  in  1870  was  made 
judge  of  the  United  States  circuit  court. 
In  1873  he  was  appointed  United  States 
minister  to  Russia,  and  died  soon  after 
his  arrival  there,  May  5. 

Orr,  John  William,  artist;  born  in 
Ireland,  March  31,  1815;  came  to  the 
United  States  with  his  parents  while  a 
child ;  studied  wood-engraving  and  ma- 
terially advanced  the  art.  He  died  in 
Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  March  4,  1887. 

Orth,  Godlove  Stoxer,  statesman;  born 
in  Lebanon,  Pa,  April  22,  1817;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1839,  practising  in 
Indiana.  He  was  elected  State  Senator  in 
1842;  member  of  Congress  in  1863,  serving 
till  1871;  re-elected  to  Congress  in  1873. 
He  favored  the  annexation  of  Santo  Do- 


mingo in  1868;  and  was  the  author  of  the 
"  Orth  "  bill  which  regulated  the  United 
States  diplomatic  and  consular  system.  In 
1875  he  was  appointed  minister  to  Austria. 
He  died  in  Lafayette,  lnd.,  Dec.  16,  1882. 

Ortiz,  Juan.  Soon  after  De  Soto  enter- 
ed Florida  he  was  met  by  a  Spaniard  who 
was  a  captive  among  the  Indians.  He 
had  been  captured  when  on  the  expedition 
with  Narvaez,  and  preparations  had  been 
made  to  sacrifice  him.  He  was  bound  hand 
and  foot  and  laid  upon  a  scaffold,  under 
which  a  fire  was  kindled  to  roast  him 
alive.  The  flames  were  about  reaching 
his  flesh  when  a  daughter  of  Ucita,  the 
chief,  besought  her  father  to  spare  his  life, 
saying,  "  If  he  can  do  no  good,  he  can  do 
no  harm."  Though  greatly  incensed  by 
the  conduct  of  the  Spaniards,  Ucita  grant- 
ed the  petition  of  his  daughter,  and  Ortiz 
was  lifted  from  the  scaffold,  and  thence- 
forth was  the  slave  of  the  chief.  Three 
years  later  Ucita  was  defeated  in  battle; 
and,  believing  that  the  sparing  of  Ortiz 
had  brought  the  misfortune  upon  him,  re- 
solved to  sacrifice  the  young  Spaniard. 
The  daughter  of  Ucita  again  saved  his  life. 
She  led  him  at  night  beyond  the  bounds 
of  her  father's  village,  and  directed  him 
to  the  camp  of  the  chief  who  had  defeated 
L'cita,  knowing  that  he  would  protect  the 
Christian.  When,  years  afterwards,  he 
was  with  some  hostile  Indians  fighting  De 
Soto,  and  a  horseman  was  about  to  slay 
him,  he  cried  out,  "  Don't  kill  me,  I  am  a 
Christian."  The  astonishel  Castilians 
stayed  their  firing,  and  Ortiz  became  of 
great  use  to  De  Soto  as  an  interpreter. 

Orton,  Edward,  geologist;  born  in  De- 
posit, N.  Y.,  March  9,  1829;  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College  in  1848;  became  State 
geologist  of  Ohio  in  1869;  president  of  the 
Ohio  "State  University,  1873-81.  He  was 
the  author  of  Geology  of  Ohio;  Petroleum, 
in  United  States  Geological  Reports;  etc. 
He  died  in  Columbus,  0.,  Oct.  16,  1899. 

Osage  Indians.  In  1825  a  treaty  was 
made  at  St.  Louis  by  Gen.  William  Clark 
with  the  Great  and  Little  Osage  Indians 
for  all  their  lands  in  Arkansas  and  else- 
where. These  lands  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States  in  consideration  of  an  an- 
nual payment  ot  $7,000  for  twenty  years, 
and  an  immediate  contribution  of  600 
head  of  cattle,  600  hogs,  1,000  fowls,  10 
yoke  of  oxen,  6  carts,  with  farming  uten- 

41 


OSBORN— OSCEOLA 


CHIEF  OSCEOLA. 

sils,  and  other  provisions  similar  to  those 
in  the  treaty  with  the  Kansas  Indians. 
It  was  also  agreed  to  provide  a  fund  for 
the  support  of  schools  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Osage  children.  Provision  was  made 
for  a  missionary  establishment;  also  for 
the  United  States  to  assume  the  payment 
of  certain  debts  due  from  Osage  chiefs  to 
those  of  other  tribes,  and  to  deliver  to  the 
Osage  villages,  as  soon  as  possible,  $4,000 
in  merchandise  and  $2,600  in  horses  and 
their  equipments.  In  1899  the  Osage  Ind- 
ians numbered  1,761,  and  were  located  in 
Oklahoma. 

Osborn,  Herbert,  scientist;  born  in 
Lafayette,  Wis.,  March  19,  1856;  grad- 
uated at  Iowa  State  College  in  1879;  State 


entomologist  of  Iowa 
in  1898;  connected 
with  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agri- 
culture, 1885-94;  mem- 
ber of  many  scientific 
societies. 

Osceola  (  Black 
Drink),  Seminole  Ind- 
ian chief;  born  on  the 
Chattahoochee  River, 
Ga.,  in  1804;  was  a 
half  -  breed,  a  son  of 
Willis  Powell,  an  Eng- 
lishman and  trader, 
by  a  Creek  Indian 
woman.  In  1808  his 
mother  settled  in  Flor- 
ida, and  when  he  grew 
up  he  became  by  emi- 
nent ability  the  govern- 
ing spirit  of  the  Semi- 
noles.  In  all  their 
sports  he  was  foremost, 
and  was  always  inde- 
pendent and  self  -  pos- 
sessed. From  the  be- 
ginning Osceola  op- 
posed the  removal  of 
the  Seminoles  from 
Florida,  and  he  led 
them  in  a  war  which 
began  in  1835  and  con- 
tinued about  seven 
years.  Treacherously 
seized  while  under  the 
protection  of  a  flag  of 
truce,  Oct.  22,  1837, 
he  was  sent  to  Fort 
he    was    prostrated    by 


Moultrie,    where 

grief  and  wasted  by  a  fever,  and   finally 


OSCEOLA'S   GRAVE. 


42 


0SG003>— OSTEOPATHY 

died,  Jan.  30,  1838.  A  monument  was  Ostend  Manifesto.  In  July,  1853, 
erected  to  his  memory  near  the  main  en-  William  L.  Marcy,  the  Secretary  of  State, 
trance-gate  of  Fort  Moultrie.  His  loss  wrote  to  Pierre  Soul6,  American  minis- 
was  a  severe  blow  to  the  Seminoles,  who  ter  at  Madrid,  directing  him  to  urge 
continued  the  war  feebly  four  or  five  upon  the  Spanish  government  the  sale  or 
years  longer.  cession    of    Cuba    to    the    United    States. 

Osgood,  Helen  Louise  Gibson,  philan-  Nothing  more  was  done  until  after  the 
tliropist;  born  in  Boston  about  1835.  Left  affair  of  the  Black  Warrior  in  the  winter 
an  orphan,  she  was  well  educated  by  her  of  1S54.  In  April,  1854,  Mr.  Soul6  was 
guardian,  Francis  B.  Fay,  of  Chelsea,  and  instructed  and  clothed  with  full  power  to 
was  endowed  with  talents  for  music  and  negotiate  for  the  purchase  of  the  island, 
conversation.  She  was  among  the  first  to  In  August  the  Secretary  suggested  to 
oiganize  soldiers'  aid  societies  when  the  Minister  Buchanan  in  London,  Minister 
Civil  War  began,  and  provided  work  for  Mason  at  Paris,  and  Minister  Soule  at 
the  wives  and  daughters  of  soldiers  who  Madrid  the  propriety  of  holding  a  con- 
reeded  employment.  Early  in  1802  she  ference  for  the  purpose  of  adopting  meas- 
went  to  the  army  as  a  nurse,  where  her  ures  for  a  concert  of  action  in  aid  of  nego- 
gentleness  of  manner  and  executive  ability  tiations  with  Spain.  They  accordingly 
made  her  eminently  successful.  jShe  ad-  met  at  Ostend,  a  seaport  town  in  Belgium, 
ministered  relief  and  consolation  to  thou-  Oct.  9,  1854.  After  a  session  of  three 
sands  of  the  wounded,  and  organized  and  days  they  adjourned  to  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
conducted  for  many  months  a  hospital  for  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  thence  they  ad- 
1.000  patients  of  the  sick  and  wounded  of  dressed  a  letter,  Oct.  18,  to  the  United 
the  colored  soldiers  of  the  Army  of  the  States  government  embodying  their  views. 
Potomac.  In  1866  she  was  married  to  Mr.  In  it  they  suggested  that  an  earnest  effort 
Osgood,  a  fellow-laborer  among  the  sol-  io  purchase  Cuba  ought  to  be  immediately 
diers,  but  her  constitution  had  been  over-  made  at  a  price  not  to  exceed  $120,000,- 
tasked,  and  she  died  a  martyr  to  the  great  COO,  and  that  the  proposal  should  be  laid 
cause,  in  Newton  Centre,  Mass.,  April  20,  before  the  Spanish  Cortes  about  to  as- 
1868.  semble.     They  set  forth  the  great  advan- 

Osgood,  Samuel,  statesman;  born  in  tage  that  such  a  transfer  of  political 
Andover,  Mass.,  Feb.  14,  1748;  gradu-  jurisdiction  would  be  to  all  parties  con- 
ated  at  Harvard  University  in  1770;  cerned;  that  the  oppression  of  the  Spanish 
studied  theology,  and  became  a  merchant,  authorities  in  Cuba  would  inevitably  lead 
An  active  patriot,  he  was  a  member  of  to  insurrection  and  civil  war;  and,  in 
the  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  conclusion,  recommended  that,  in  the  event 
and  of  various  committees;  was  a  captain  cf  the  absolute  refusal  of  Spain  to  sell 
at  Cambridge  in  1775,  and  aide  to  General  the  island,  it  would  be  proper  to  take  it 
Artemas  Ward,  and  became  a  member  of  away  from  its  "  oppressors "  by  force, 
the  Massachusetts  board  of  war.  He  left  In  that  event,  the  ministers  said,  "  we 
the  army  in  1776  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  should  be  justified  by  every  law,  human 
and  served  in  his  provincial  and  State  and  divine,  in  wresting  it  from  Spain,  if 
legislature.  He  was  a  member  of  Con-  \?e  possess  the  power."  President  Pierce 
gress  from  1780  to  1784;  first  commis-  did  not  think  it  prudent  to  act  upon  the 
sioner  of  the  United  States  treasury  from  advice  of  these  ministers,  and  Mr.  Soule. 
1785  to  1789,  and  United  States  Post-  dissatisfied  with  his  prudence,  resigned  his 
master-General  from  1789  to  1791.  He  office.  See  Soule,  Pierre. 
afterwards  served  in  the  New  York  legis-  Osteopathy,  a  method  by  which  dis- 
lature,  and  was  speaker  of  the  Assembly  eases  of  the  human  body  are  treated  with- 
from  1801  to  1803.  From  1803  until  his  out  medicines.  In  1874  Dr.  A.  T.  Still,  of 
death,  in  New  York  City,  Aug.  12,  1813,  Baldwin,  Kan.,  discovered  what  he  de- 
he  was  naval  officer  of  the  port  of  New  clared  a  more  natural  system  of  healing 
York.  Mr.  Osgood  was  well  versed  in  than  that  universally  accepted.  He  held 
science  and  literature.  that  inasmuch  as  the  human  body  was  so 

Ossawatomie     Brown.       See     Brown,  perfectly  constructed  it  ought  without  any 

John.  external  aid  excepting  food  to  protect  itself 

43 


OSTERHAUS— OSWEGATCHIE    INDIAN    MISSION 


against  disease,  and  further  reasoned  that  in  18G4  he  was  in  the  Atlanta  campaign. 
"a  natural  flow  of  blood  is  health,  and  In  command  of  the  15th  Corps,  he  was 
disease  is  the  effect  of  local  or  general  with  Sherman  in  his  march  through 
disturbance  of  blood."  After  various  ex-  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  In  July, 
periments  he  became  convinced  that  the  1864,  he  was  made  major-general,  and  in 
different  organs  of  the  body  depend  for  1865  he  was  General  Canby's  chief  of  staff, 
their  health  on  nerve  centres  which  are  After  the  war  he  was  appointed  consul  at 
principally  located  along  the  spine.  These  Lyons,  France;  then  made  his  home  in 
he  declared  could  be  controlled  and  stimu-  Mannheim,  Germany;  revisited  the  United 
lated    by    certain    finger    manipulations,    States  in  1904. 

which  would  not  only  cause  the  blood  to  Oswald,  Eleazar,  military  officer; 
circulate  freely,  but  would  produce  an  born  in  England  about  1755;  came  to 
equal  distribution  of  the  nerve  forces.  By  America  in  1770  or  1771;  served  under 
this  treatment  the  diseased  part  would  Arnold  in  the  expedition  against  Ticon- 
be  readjusted  and  would  have  "perfect  deroga  and  became  his  secretary;  and  at 
freedom  of  motion  of  all  the  fluids,  forces,  the  siege  of  Quebec  he  commanded  with 
and  substances  pertaining  to  life,  thus  re-  great  skill  the  forlorn  hope  after  Arnold 
establishing  a  condition  known  as  health.*'  was  wounded.  In  1777  he  was  made  lieu- 
Since  the  promulgation  of  this  theory  a  tenant-colonel  of  Lamb's  artillery  regi- 
number  of  institutions  for  the  training  of  ment,  and  for  his  bravery  at  the  battle  of 
practitioners  have  been  founded  in  various  Monmouth  General  Knox  highly  praised  " 
sections  of  the  country,  principally  in  the  him.  Soon  after  that  battle  he  left  the 
West,  where  several  States  have  placed  service  and  engaged  in  the  printing  and 
osteopathy  on  the  same  legal  basis  as  other  publishing  business  in  Philadelphia,  where 
schools  of  medicine.  he  was  made  public  printer.     Oswald  chal- 

Osterhaus,  Peter  Joseph,  military  offi-  lenged  General  Hamilton  to  fight  a  duel  in 
cer;  born  in  Coblentz,  Germany,  about  1789,  but  the  quarrel  was  adjusted.  In 
1820;  served  as  an  officer  in  the  Prussian  business  in  England  in  1792,  he  went  to 
army;  removed  to  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  where  France,  joined  the  French  army,  and  com- 
he  entered  the  National  service  in  1861  as  manded  a  regiment  of  artillery.  He  died 
major  of  volunteers.  He  served  under  in  New  York,  Sept.  30,  1795. 
Lyon  and  Fremont  in  Missouri,  command-  Oswegatchie  Indian  Mission.  To  in- 
ing  a  brigade  under  the  latter.     He  com-    sure   the   friendship   of   the   Six  Nations, 

Galissoni&re, 
governor      of 
Canada,  in  1754 
established      an 
Indian    mission 
on  the  southern 
bank      of      the 
St.       Lawrence. 
For    this    work 
the  Abb§  Fran- 
cis   Piquet   was 
chosen,    and    he 
selected        the 
mouth     of     the . 
Oswegatch  i  e 
for  the  station, 
on    the    site    of    Ogdensburg,    where   -he 
hoped     to     draw     in     so     many     Iroquois 
converts    as    would    bind    all    their    kin- 
dred   to    the    French    alliance.     By   order 
of    General    Brown    a    redoubt    was    be- 
gun in  1812  at  the  site  of  old  Fort  Pres- 


FORT   OSWEGATCHIE   IN   1812. 


manded  a  division  in  the  battle  of  Pea 
Bidge,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself. 
In  June,  1S62,  he  was  made  brigadier-gen- 
eral, and,  commanding  a  division,  he  help- 
ed to  capture  Arkansas  late  in  January, 
1863.  He  was  in  the  campaign  against 
Vicksburg  and  in  northern  Georgia,  and    entation,    which    was    not    finished    when 

44 


Oswego 

Ogdensburg  was  attacked  the  second  time  their  weakness  through  sickness  and  lack 

by  the  British  in  1813.     See  Ogdensburg.  of  provisions    (of  which  he  was  informed 

Oswego,    a    city    and    county    seat    of  by  spies),   collected   about   5,000   French- 

Oswego  co.,  N.  Y. ;  now  noted  for  its  man-  men,  Canadians,  and  Indians  at  Frontenac 

ufactures  and  for   its  large  shipments  of  (now  Kingston),  at  the  foot  of  Lake  On- 

grain    and    lumber;    population    in    1900,  tario,  crossed  that  lake,  and  appeared  be- 


\\ 


StjfiiSr1-:^- 


ATTACK    ON    FORT  ONTARIO,  OSWEGO,  MAY   6,  1814. 


22,199.  The  following  are  among  its 
points  of  historical  interest:  Governor 
Burnet,  of  New  York,  wisely  concluding 
that  it  would  be  important  for  the  Eng- 
lish to  get  and  maintain  control  of  Lake 
Ontario,  as  well  for  the  benefits  of  trade 
and  the  security  of  the  friendship  of  the 
Six  Nations  as  to  frustrate  the  designs  of 
the  French  to  confine  the  English  colonies 
to  narrow  limits,  began  to  erect  a  trading- 
house  at  Oswego  in  1722.  This  pleased  the 
Indians,  for  they  saw  in  the  movement  a 
promise  of  protection  from  incursions  of 
the  French.  Soon  afterwards,  at  a  con- 
vention of  governors  and  commissioners 
held  at  Albany,  the  Six  Nations  renounced 
their  covenant  of  friendship  with  the  Eng- 
lish. 

In  1756  Dieskau  was  succeeded  by  the 
Marquis  de  Montcalm,  who,  perceiving 
the  delay  of  the  English  at  Albany  and 


fore  Oswego  in  force  on  Aug.  11.  He  at- 
tacked Fort  Ontario,  on  the  east  side  of 
the  river,  commanded  by  Colonel  Mercer, 
who,  with  his  garrison,  after  a  short  but 
brave  resistance,  withdrew  to  an  older  fort 
on  the  west  side  of  the  stream.  The  English 
were  soon  compelled  to  surrender  the  fort. 
Their  commander  was  killed,  and  on  the 
14th  Montcalm  received,  as  spoils  of  vic- 
tory, 1,400  prisoners,  a  large  quantity  of 
ammunition  and  provisions  and  other 
stores,  134  pieces  of  artillery,  and  several 
vessels  lying  in  the  harbor.  The  Six  Na- 
tions had  never  been  well  satisfied  with 
the  building  of  these  forts  by  the  English 
in  the  heart  of  their  territory.  To  please 
them,  Montcalm  demolished  the  forts,  and 
by  this  act  induced  the  Six  Nations  to 
take  a  position  of  neutrality.  The  capture 
of  this  fort  caused  the  English  com- 
mander-in-chief to  abandon  all  the  expedi- 


45 


OSWEGO— OTIS 


tions  lie  had  planned  for  the  campaign  of  the  7th  the  invaders  withdrew,  after  hav- 
1756.  ing  embarked  the  guns  and  a  few  stores 
During  the  winter  and  spring  of  1813-  found  in  Oswego,  dismantled  the  fort,  and 
14  the  Americans  and  British  prepared  burned  the  barracks.  They  also  raised 
to  make  a  struggle  for  the  mastery  of  and  carried  away  the  Growler;  also  sev-" 
Lake  Ontario.  When  the  ice  in  Kingston  eral  citizens  who  had  been  promised  pro- 
Harbor  permitted  vessels  to  leave  it,  Sir  tection  and  exemption  from  molestation. 
James  L.  Yeo,  commander  of  the  British  In  this  affair  the  Americans  lost,  in  killed, 
squadron  in  those  waters,  went  out  upon  wounded,  and  missing,  sixty-nine  men; 
the  lake  with  his  force  of  about  3,000  the  British  lost  nineteen  killed  and 
land  troops  and  marines.  On  May  5,  181 1,  seventy-five  wounded.  See  Ontario,  Lake, 
he  appeared  off  Oswego  Harbor,  which  was  Operations  on. 

defended  by  Fort  Ontario,  on  a  bluff  on        Otis,  Elwell  Stephen,  military  officer 

the  east  side  of  the  river,  with  a  garrison  born   in   Frederick   City,  Md.,  March   25, 

of  about  300  men  under  Lieut.-Col.  George  1838;  removed  with  his  parents  to  Roches- 

E.  Mitchell.     Chauncey,  not  feeling  strong  ter,  N.  Y.,  early  in  life;  graduated  at  the- 

enough  to  oppose  Yeo,  prudently  remained  University  of   Rochester   in   1858,   and  at 

with    his    squadron    at    Sackett's    Harbor,  the  Harvard  Law  School  in  1861.     In  the 


The  active  cruising  force  of  Sir  James  con- 
sisted of  eight  vessels,  carrying  an  aggre- 
gate of  222  pieces  of  ordnance.  To  op- 
pose these  at  Oswego  was  the  schooner 
Growler,  Captain  Woolsey.  She  was  in 
the  river  for  the  purpose  of  conveying 
guns  and  naval  stores  to  Sackett's  Harbor. 
To  prevent  her  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  British,  she  was  sunk,  and  a  part  of 
her  crew,  under  Lieutenant  Pearce,  joined 
the  garrison  at  the  fort.  The  latter 
then  mounted  only  six  old  guns,  three  of 
which  were  almost  useless,  because  they 
had  lost  their  trunnions.  Mitchell's  force 
was  too  small  to  defend  both  the  fort  and 
the  village,  on  the  west  side  of  the  river, 
so  he  pitched  all  his  tents  near  the  town 
and  gathered  his  whole  force  into  the  fort. 
Deceived  by  the  appearance  of  military 
strength  at  the  village,  the  British  pro- 
ceeded to  attack  the  fort,  leaving  the 
defenceless  town  unmolested.  The  land 
troops,  in  fifteen  large  boats,  covered  by 
the  guns  of  the  vessels,  moved  to  the  shore 
near  the  fort  early  in  the  afternoon.  They 
were  repulsed  by  a  heavy  cannon  placed 
near  the  shore.  The  next  day  (May  6) 
the  fleet  again  appeared,  and  the  larger 
vessels  of  the  squadron  opened  fire  on  the 
fort.  The  troops  landed  in  the  afternoon, 
and,  after  a  sharp  fight  in  the  open  field, 
the  garrison  retired,  and  the  British  took 
possession  of  the  fort.  The  main  object 
of  the  British  was  1he  seizure  of  naval 
stores  at  the  falls  of  the  Oswego  River 
(now  Fulton),  and  Mitchell,  after  leaving 
the  fort,  took  position  up  the  river   for 


summer  of  1862  he  recruited  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  a  company  of  the  140th  New  York 


ELWELL    STEPHEN'    OTIS. 

Infantry,  with  which  he  served  throughout 
the  Civil  War,  and  was  promoted  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, Oct.  24,  1863.  When  the 
regular  army  was  reorganized  he  was  com- 
missioned lieutenant-colonel  of  the  22d  In- 
fantry, July  28,  1866;  served  against  the 
Indians  in  1867-81;  established  the  school 
of  cavalry  and  infantry  at  Fort  Leaven- 
worth, Kan.,  in  1881;  and  commanded  it 
till  1885.  He  was  promoted  brigadier- 
general  U.  S.  A.,  Nov.  28,  1893;  appoint- 


their  defence.     Early  on  the  morning  of    ed  a  major-general  of  volunteers,  May  4, 

46 


OTIS 


1898;  succeeded  Gen.  Wesley  Merritt  as  Writs  of  Assistance  (q.  v.)  called  forth 
military  governor  of  the  Philippine  Isl-  popular  discussion  in  1761.  He  denounced 
ands  in  August  following;  returned  to  the  writs  in  unmeasured  terms.  At  a 
the  United  States  and  was  promoted  town-meeting  in  Boston  in  1761,  when 
major-general,  June  16,  1900;  retired  this  government  measure  was  discussed  by 
March  25,  1902.  He  is  the  author  of  Mr.  Gridley,  the  calm  advocate  of  the 
The  Indian  Question.  crown,  and  the  equally  calm  lawyer  Oxen- 

Otis,  George  Alexander,  surgeon;  born  bridge  Thacher,  the  fiery  Otis  addressed 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  12,  1830;  graduated  the  multitude  with  words  that  thrilled  ev- 
at  Princeton  in  1849;  appointed  army  sur-  cry  heart  in  the  audience  and  stirred  every 
geon   in    1861;    assigned   to   duty   in   the 

surgeon  -  general's    office,    Washington,    in  _-— a 

1866.  Dr.  Otis  was  the  author  of  Report 
on  Surgical  Cases  treated  in  the  Army  of 
the  United  States  from  1867-71;  Plans  for 
the  Transport  of  the  Sick  and  Wounded, 
etc.;  and  was  the  compiler  of  the  surgical 
portion  of  the  Medical  and  Surgical  His- 
tory of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion.  He  died 
in  Washington.  D.  C.  Feb.  23,  1881. 

Otis,  Harrison  Gray,  statesman;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  8,  1765;  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1783,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1786,  where  his  fine 
oratory  and  varied  acquirements  soon  gain- 
ed him  much  fame.  In  Shays's  insurrec- 
tion (see  Shays,  Daniel)  he  was  aide  to 
Governor  Brooks;  served  in  the  Massachu- 
setts legislature;  was  member  of  Congress 
from  1797  to  1801;  United  States  district 
attorney  in  1801 ;  speaker  of  the  Assembly 
from  1803  to  1805;  president  of  the  State 
Senate  from  1805  to  1811;  judge  of  com- 
mon pleas  from  1814  to  1818;  and  mayor 
of  Boston  from  1829  to  1S32.     In  1814  he 

was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Hartford  patriotic  feeling  of  his  hearers  into  earnest 
Convention,  and  wrote  a  series  of  letters    action.     Referring  to  the  arbitrary  power 


JAMES    OTIS. 


upon  it.  In  1804  he  pronounced  an  elo- 
quent eulogy  of  General  Hamilton.  Many 
of  his  occasional  addresses  have  been  pub- 
lished. His  father  was  Samuel  Alleyn 
Otis,  brother  of  James.  He  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Oct.  28,  1848. 


of  the  writ,  he  said,  "  A  man's  house  is 
his  castle;  and  while  he  is  quiet,  he  is  as 
well  guarded  as  a  prince  in  his  castle. 
This  writ,  if  it  should  be  declared  legal, 
would  totally  annihilate  this  privilege. 
Custom-house  officers  may  enter  our  houses 


Otis,  James,  statesman;  born  in  West  when  they  please;  we  are  commanded  to 
Barnstable,  Mass.,  Feb.  5,  1725;  graduated  permit  their  entry.  Their  menial  servants 
at  Harvard  University  in  1743,  and  stud-  may  enter — may  break  locks,  bars,  every- 
ied  law  with  Jeremiah  Gridley.  He  began  thing  in  their  way;  and  whether  they 
the  practice  of  his  profession  at  Plymouth,  break  through  malice  or  revenge,  no  mar, 
but  settled  in  Boston  in  1750,  where  he  no  court  can  inquire.  ...  I  am  deter- 
soon  obtained  a  high  rank  as  a  lawyer  and  mined  to  sacrifice  estate,  ease,  health,  ap- 
an  advocate  at  the  bar.  Fond  of  literary  plause,  and  even  life,  to  the  sacred  calls 
pursuits,  and  a  thorough  classical  scholar,  of  my  country,  in  opposition  to  a  kind  of 
he  wrote  and  published  Rudiments  of  Latin  power  the  exercise  of  which  cost  one  king 
Prosody  in  1760,  which  became  a  text-book  his  head  and  another  his  throne."  The 
at  Harvard.  He  entered  public  life  as  a  same  year  he  was  chosen  a  representative 
zealous  patriot  and  gifted  orator  when  the  in  the  Massachusetts  Assembly,  and  there- 

47 


OTIS,    JAMES 

in  became  a  leader  of  the  popular  party,  fore  them  concerning  Writs  of  assistance. 
In  1764  he  published  a  pamphlet  enti-  I  have  accordingly  considered  it;  and  now 
tied  The  Rights  of  the  Colonies  Vindi-  appear,  not  only  in  obedience  to  your  order, 
cated,  which  attracted  great  attention  in  but  likewise  in  behalf  of  the  inhabitants 
England  for  its  finished  diction  and  mas-  of  this  town,  who  have  presented  another 
terly  arguments.  Otis  proposed,  June  6,  petition,  and  out  of  regard  to  the  liberties 
1765,  the  calling  of  a  congress  of  delegates  of  the  subject.  And  I  take  this  oppor- 
to  consider  the  Stamp  Act.  He  was  chosen  tunity  to  declare  that,  whether  under  a  fee 
a  delegate,  and  was  one  of  the  committee  or  not  (for  in  such  a  cause  as  this  I  de- 
to  prepare  an  address  to  the  Commons  of  spise  a  fee),  I  will  to  my  dying  day  op- 
England  ( see  Stamp  Act  Congress  ) .  pose,  with  all  the  powers  and  faculties  God 
Governor  Bernard  feared  the  fiery,  orator,  has  given  me,  all  such  instruments  of 
and  when  Otis  was  elected  speaker  of  the  slavery  on  the  one  hand  and  villany  on  the 
Assembly  the  governor  negatived  it.  But  other  as  this  writ  of  assistance  is. 
he  could  not  silence  Otis.  When  the  min-  It  appears  to  me  the  worst  instrument 
istry  required  the  legislature  to  rescind  of  arbitrary  power,  the  most  destructive  of 
its  circular  letter  to  the  colonies,  re-  English  liberty  and  the  fundamental  prin- 
questing  them  to  unite  in  measures  for  re-  ciples  of  law,  that  ever  was  found  in  an 
dress  (see  Massachusetts),  Otis  made  a  English  law-book.  I  must,  therefore,  beg 
speech  which  his  adversaries  said  was  "  the  your  honors'  patience  and  attention  to 
most  violent,  abusive,  and  treasonable  dec-  the  whole  range  of  an  argument  that 
laration  that  perhaps  was  ever  uttered."  may,  perhaps,  appear  uncommon  in  many 
He  carried  the  House  with  him,  and  it  things,  as  well  as  to  points  of  learning 
refused  to  rescind  by  a  vote  of  92  to  that  are  more  remote  and  unusual;  that 
17.  In  the  summer  of  1769  he  publish-  the  whole  tendency  of  my  design  may  the 
ed  an  article  in  the  Boston  Gazette  more  easily  be  perceived,  the  conclusions 
which  greatly  exasperated  the  custom-  better  descend,  and  the  force  of  them  be 
house  officers.  He  was  attacked  by  one  better  felt.  I  shall  not  think  much  of  my 
of  them  ( Sept.  9 ) ,  who  struck  him  on  pains  in  this  cause,  as  I  engaged  in  it  from 
the  head  with  a  cane,  producing  a  severe  principle.  I  was  solicited  to  argue  this 
wound  and  causing  a  derangement  of  the  cause  as  advocate-general ;  and,  because  I 
brain,  manifested  at  times  ever  after-  would  not,  I  have  been  charged  with  deser- 
wards.  Otis  obtained  a  verdict  against  tion  from  my  office.  To  this  charge  I 
the  inflicter  of  the  wound  (Robinson)  can  give  a  very  sufficient  answer.  I  re- 
for  $5,000,  which  he  gave  up  on  receiving  nounced  that  office,  and  I  argue  this  causo 
a  written  apology.  In  1777  Otis  withdrew  from  the  same  principles;' and  I  argue  it 
to  the  country  on  account  of  ill-health.  He  with  the  greater  pleasure,  as  it  is  in  favor 
was  called  into  public  life  again,  but  was  of  British  liberty,  at  a  time  when  we  hear 
unable  to  perform  the  duties;  and  finally,  the  greatest  monarch  upon  earth  declaring 
when  the  war  for  independence  (which  his  from  his  throne  that  he  glories  in  the. 
trumpet-voice  had  heralded)  had  closed,  he  name  of  Briton,  and  that  the  privileges  of 
attempted  to  resume  the  practice  of  his  his  people  are  dearer  to  him  than  the  most 
profession.  But  his  death  was  nigh.  He  valuable  prerogatives  of  his  crown;  and 
had  often  expressed  a  wish  that  his  death  as  it  is  in  opposition  to  a  kind  of  power 
might  be  by  a  stroke  of  lightning.  Stand-  the  exercise  of  which  in  former  periods  of 
ing  at  his  door  at  Andover  during  a  thun-  history  cost  one  king  of  England  his  head, 
der-shower,  he  was  instantly  killed  by  a  and  another  his  throne.  I  have  taken 
lightning-stroke  on  May  23,  1783.  more  pains  in  this  cause  than  I  ever  will 

Writs  of  Assistance. — The  following  is  take  again;  although  my  engaging  in  this 
the  substance  of  an  address  by  Mr.  Otis  and  another  popular  cause  has  raised 
before  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachu-  much  resentment.  But  I  think  I  can  sin- 
setts  in  February,  1761:  cerely  declare  that  I  cheerfully  submit  my- 
self to  every  odious  name  for  conscience' 


May  it  please  your  honors, — I  was  de-  sake;  and  from  my  soul  I  despise  all  those 
sired  by  one  of  the  court  to  look  into  the  whose  guilt,  malice,  or  folly,  has  made 
books  and  consider  the  question  now  be-    them  my  foes.     Let  the  consequences  be 

48 


OTIS,    JAMES 

what  they  will,  I  am  determined  to  pro-  with  this  writ,  in  the  daytime,  may  enter 
ceed.  The  only  principles  of  public  con-  all  the  houses,  shops,  etc.A  at  will,  and 
duct  that  are  worthy  of  a  gentleman  or  a  command  all  to  assist  him.  Fourthly, 
man  are  to  sacrifice  estate,  ease,  health,  by  this  writ,  not  only  deputies,  etc.,  but 
and  applause — and  even  life — to  the  sacred  even  their  menial  servants,  are  allowed 
calls  of  his  country.  to  lord  it  over  us.     What  is  this  but  to 

These  manly  sentiments,  in  private  life,  have  the  curse  of  Canaan  with  a  wit- 
make  the  good  citizen;  in  public  life,  ness  on  us;  to  be  the  servant  of  servants, 
the  patriot  and  the  hero.  I  do  not  say  the  most  despicable  of  God's  creation? 
that,  when  brought  to  the  test,  I  shall  Now  one  of  the  most  essential  branches 
be  invincible.  I  pray  God  I  may  never  of  English  liberty  is  the  freedom  of  one's 
be  brought  to  the  melancholy  trial;  but  house.  A  man's  house  is  his  castle;  and, 
if  ever  I  should,  it  will  be  then  known  while  he  is  quiet,  he  is  as  well  guarded 
how  far  I  can  reduce  to  practice  princi-  as  a  prince  in  his  castle.  This  writ, 
pies  which  I  know  to  be  founded  in  truth,  if  it  should  be  declared  legal,  would 
In  the  mean  time,  I  will  proceed  to  the  totally  annihilate  this  privilege.  Custom- 
Bubject  of  this  writ.  house  officers  may  enter  our  houses  when 

Your  honors  will  find  in  the  old  books,  they  please;  and  we  are  commanded  to 
concerning  the  office  of  a  justice  of  the  permit  their  entry.  Their  menial  ser- 
peace,  precedents  of  general  warrants  to  vants  may  enter,  may  break  locks,  bars, 
search  suspected  houses.  But  in  more  and  everything  in  their  way;  and  whether 
modern  buoks  you  will  find  only  special  they  break  through  malice  or  revenge, 
warrants  to  search  such  and  such  houses,  no  man,  no  court  can  inquire.  Bare  sus- 
specially  named,  in  which  the  complain-  picion  without  oath  is  sufficient.  This 
ant  has  before  sworn  that  he  suspects  wanton  exercise  of  this  power  is  not  a 
his  goods  are  concealed;  and  will  find  chimerical  suggestion  of  a  heated  brain. 
it  adjudged  that  special  warrants  only  I  will  mention  some  facts.  Mr.  Pew  had 
are  legal.  In  the  same  manner,  I  rely  one  of  these  writs,  and  when  Mr.  Ware 
on  it  that  the  writ  prayed  for  in  this  succeeded  him,  he  endorsed  this  writ  ovor 
petition,  being  general,  is  illegal.  It  is  to  Mr.  Ware;  so  that  these  writs  ahe  ue- 
a  power  that  places  the  liberty  of  every  gotiable  from  one  officer  to  another;  arid 
man  in  the  hands  of  every  petty  officer,  so  your  honors  have  no  opportunity*  of 
I  say  I  admit  that  special  writs  of  as-  judging  the  persons  to  whom  this"  vast 
sistance,  to  search  special  places,  may  be  power  is  delegated.  Another  instance 
granted  to  certain  persons  on  oath;  but  is  this:  Mr.  Justice  Walley  had  called 
I  deny  that  the  writ  now  prayed  for  can  this  same  Mr.  Ware  before  him,  by"  a 
be  granted,  for  I  beg  leave  to  make  some  constable,  to  answer  for  a  breach  of  the 
observations  on  the  writ  itself,  before  I  Sabbath-day  acts,  or  that  of  profane  swear- 
proceed  to  other  acts  of  Parliament.  In  ing.  As  soon  as  he  had  finished,  Mr.  "Ware 
the  first  place,  the  writ  is  universal,  being  asked  him  if  he  had  done.  He  replied, 
directed  "  to  all  and  singular  justices,  "  Yes."  "  Well,  then,"  said  Mr.  War-e, 
sheriffs,  constables,  and  all  other  officers  "  I  will  show  you  a  little  of  my  pOwer. 
and  subjects";  so  that,  in  short,  it  is  I  command  you  to  permit  me  to  search 
directed  to  every  subject  in  the  King's  your  house  for  uncustomed  goods";"  and 
dominions.  Every  one  with  this  writ  went  on  to  search  the  house  from  the 
may  be  a  tyrant;  if  this  commission  be  garret  to  the  cellar;  and  then  served 
legal,  a  tyrant  in  a  legal  manner;  also,  the  constable  in  the  same  manner!  But 
may  control,  imprison,  or  murder  any  one  to  show  another  absurdity  in  this  writ: 
within  the  realm.  In  the  next  place,  it  if  it  should  be  established,  I  insist  upon 
i«  perpetual;  there  is  no  return.  A  man  it  every  person,  by  the  14th  Charles  II., 
is  accountable  to  no  person  for  his  doings,  has  this  power  as  well  as  the  custom- 
Every  man  may  reign  secure  in  his  petty  house  officers.  The  words  are :  "  It  shall 
tyranny,  and  spread  terror  and  desolation  be  lawful  for  any  person  or  persons  au- 
around  him,  until  the  trump  of  the  arch-  thorized,"  etc.  What  a  scene  does  this 
angel  shall  excite  different  emotions  in  open!  Every  man  prompted  by  revenge, 
his  soul.  In  the  third  place,  a  person  ill  •  humor,  or  wantonness  to  inspect  the 
vii, — a  40 


OTTAWA    INDIANS— OTJVRIER 


inside  of  his  neighbor's  house  may  get 
a  writ  of  assistance.  Others  will  ask  it 
from  self-defence;  one  arbitrary  exertion 
will  provoke  another,  until  society  be  in- 
volved in  tumult  and  in  blood. 

Ottawa  Indians,  a  tribe  of  the  Algon- 
quian  family,  seated  on  the  northern  part 
of  the  Michigan  peninsula  when  discov- 
ered by  the  French.  When  the  Iroquois 
overthrew  the  Hurons  in  1649  the  fright- 
ened Ottawas  fled  to  the  islands  in  Green 
Bay,  and  soon  afterwards  joined  the  Sioux 
beyond  the  Mississippi.  They  were  speed- 
ily expelled,  when  they  recrossed  the  great 
river;  and  after  the  French  settled  at  De- 
troit a  part  of  the  Ottawas  became  seat- 
ed near  them.  Meanwhile  the  Jesuits 
had  established  missions  among  them. 
Finally  the  part  of  the  nation  that  was 
at  Mackinaw  passed  over  to  Michigan; 
and  in  the  war  that  resulted  in  the  con- 
quest of  Canada  the  Ottawas  joined  the 
French.  Pontiac  (q.  v.),  who  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Detroit  family,  engaged  in 
a  great  conspiracy  in  1763,  but  was  not 
jairied  by  those  in  the  north  of  the  penin- 
svH.,  ',  At  that  time  the  whole  tribe  num- 
bered1 about  1,500.  In  the  Revolution  and 
suferequent  hostilities  they  were  opposed 
toP«the  Americans,  but  finally  made  a 
treaty  of  peace  at  Greenville,  in  1795, 
widen  .one  band  settled  on  the  Miami  River. 
In. ,  conjunction  with  other  tribes,  they 
ceded "  their  lands  around  Lake  Michigan 
to  thfe  United  States  in  1833  in  exchange 
for  Jaaads  in  Missouri,  where  they  flourish- 
ed for  a  time.  After  suffering  much 
trouble,  this  emigrant  band  obtained  a 
reservation  in  the  Indian  Territory,  to 
which  the  remnant  of  this  portion  of  the 
f^rilifv  emigrated  in  1870.  The  upper 
Michigan  Ottawas  remain  in  the  North, 
in  <thb  vicinity  of  the  Great  Lakes.  There 
are  some  in  Canada,  mingled  with  other 
Indians.  Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant 
missions  have  been  established  among 
them.  Their  own  simple  religion  em- 
braces a  belief  in  a  good  and  evil  spirit. 
In  1899  there  were  162  Ottawas  at  the 
Quapaw  agency,  Indian  Territory,  and  a 
larger  number  at  the  Mackinac  agency, 
Michigan,  where  6,000  Ottawas  and  Chip- 
pewas  were  living  on  the  same  reservation. 

Ottendorfer,  Oswald,  journalist;  born 
in  Zwittau,  Moravia,  Feb.  26,  1826; 
studied  in  the  universities  of  Prague  and 


Vienna;  took  part  in  thf  Aiiwtmm  Revolu- 
tion of  1848;  the  Schleswig-Holstein  war 
against  Denmark;  and  in  the  revolutions 
in  Baden  and  Saxony;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1850;  was  proprietor  of  the 
Slaats-Zeitung,  New  York;  and  gave  large 
sums  of  money  to  educational  and  chari- 
table institutions.  He  was  an  active 
Democrat,  but  opposed  to  Tammany  Hall. 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  Dec.  15,  1900. 

Otterbein,  Philip  William,  clergy- 
man ;  born  in  Germany,  June  4,  1726 ; 
ordained  in  1749;  removed  to  America  in 
1752,  where  he  ministered  to  the  Germans 
in  Pennsylvania,  among  whom  he  labored 
until  his  death  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Nov. 
17,  1813. 

Ouatanon,  Fort,  a  defensive  work  on 
the  Wabash,  just  below  the  present  city 
of  Lafayette,  Ind.  At  8  p.m.  on  May  31, 
1763,  a  war-belt  reached  the  Indian  village 
near  the  fort.  The  next  morning  the  com- 
mandant was  lured  into  an  Indian  cabin 
and  bound  with  cords.  On  hearing  of  this 
his  garrison  surrendered.  The  French  liv- 
ing near  saved  the  lives  of  the  men  by 
paying  ransom  and  receiving  the  English- 
men into  their  houses.     See  Pontiac. 

Ouray,  Indian  chief  of  the  Uncompah- 
gre  Utes;  born  about  1820;  always 
friendly  to  civilization,  and  generally 
known  as  the  "  White  man's  friend." 
Through  his  influence  the  Utes  were  re- 
strained in  1879  from  hostilities.  He  died 
at  Los  Pinos  agency,  Aug.  27,  1880. 

Oureouhare,  Indian  chief  of  the  Cayu- 
gas;  was  treacherously  captured  by  the 
French  in  1687  and  sent  to  France,  but 
was  sent  back  to  Canada  in  1789  with  , 
Frontenac,  for  whom  he  conceived  a  friend- 
ship. He  was  employed  by  the  French  to 
effect  an  alliance  with  the  Iroquois,  but 
was  unsuccessful.  In  the  ensuing  war  he 
led  the  Christian  Huron  Indians  against 
the  Iroquois.     He  died  in  Quebec  in  1697. 

Ouvrier,  Pierre  Gustave,  historian; 
born  in  Calais,  France,  in  1765;  was  ap- 
pointed chancellor  to  the  French  consulate 
in  Philadelphia  in  1795;  later  he  descend- 
ed the  Mississippi  River  to  New  Orleans, 
and  also  explored  the  Missouri  and 
Arkansas  rivers.  In  1796-1804  he  ex- 
plored Missouri,  Louisiana,  northern 
Texas,  both  Carolinas,  Georgia,  Ohio, 
Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and 
southern  Illinois.    He  returned  to  France 


50 


OVANDO— OWEN 

on  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  His  Owen,  Robert,  social  reformer;  born  in 
publications  include  The  Political  and  Newtown,  North  Wales,  May  14,  1771. 
Civil  History  of  the  United  States  of  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  was  part  pro- 
North  America;  and  Critical  Studies  on  prietor  of  a  cotton-mill,  and  became  a 
the  Political  Constitution  of  the  United  proprietor  of  cotton-mills  at  Lanark,  Scot- 
States  of  North  America  and  the  Con-  land,  where  he  introduced  reforms.  In 
traductions  which  exist  oeticeen  it  and  the  1812  he  published  his  New  Vieics  of  So- 
Civil  Laics  of  the  Various  States  of  the  ciety,  etc.,  and  afterwards  his  Book  of 
Union.  He  died  in  Calais,  France,  in  1822.  the  New  Moral  World,  in  which  he  main- 
uvanao,  Nicholas  de,  military  officer;  tained  a  theory  of  modified  communism, 
born  in  Valladolid,  Spain,  in  1460 ;  was  Immensely  wealthy,  he  distributed  tracts 
sent  by  Queen  Isabella  to  supplant  Bobadil-  inculcating  his  views  very  widely,  and  soon 
la  as  governor  of  Santo  Domingo  in  1501,  had  a  host  of  followers.  In  1823  he  came 
charged  by  the  Queen  not  to  allow  the  to  the  United  States  and  bought  20,000 
enslavement  of  the  natives,  but  to  pro-  acres  of  land — the  settlement  at  New  Har- 
tect  them  as  subjects  of  Spain,  and  to  mony,  Ind. — with  dwellings  for  1,000  per- 
carefully  instruct  them  in  the  Christian  sons,  where  he  resolved  to  found  a  com- 
faith.  Ovando  sailed  for  the  West  Indies,  munist  society.  This  was  all  done  at  his 
Feb.  13,  1502,  with  thirty-two  ships,  bear-  own  expense.  It  was  an  utter  failure.  He 
ing  2,500  persons  to  become  settlers  in  that  returned  in  1827,  and  tried  the  same 
country.  By  command  of  the  Queen,  the  experiment  in  Great  Britain,  and  after- 
Spaniards  and  natives  were  to  pay  tithes;  wards  in  Mexico,  with  the  same  result, 
none  but  natives  of  Castile  were  to  live  Yet  he  continued  during  his  life  to  ad- 
in  the  Indies;  none  to  go  on  discoveries  vocate  his  peculiar  social  notions  as  the 
without  royal  permission;  no  Jews,  Moors,  founder  of  a  system  of  religion  and  so- 
nor  new  converts  were  to  be  tolerated  ciety  according  to  reason.  During  his 
there;  and  all  the  property  that  had  latter  years  he  was  a  believer  in  spiritual- 
been  taken  from  Columbus  and  his  brother  ism,  and  became  convinced  of  the  im- 
was  to  be  restored  to  them.  In  Ovando's  mortality  of  the  soul.  He  was  the  origi- 
fleet  were  ten  Franciscan  friars,  the  first  nator  of  the  "  labor  leagues,"  from  which 
of  that  order  who  came  to  settle  in  the  sprang  the  Chartist  movement.  He  died 
Indies.  Ovando,  like  Bobadilla,  treated  in  Newtown,  North  Wales,  Nov.  19,  1858. 
Columbus  with  injustice.    He  was  recalled  See  New  Harmony. 

in  1508,  and  was  succeeded  in  office  by  Owen,  Robert  Dale,  author;  born  in 
Diego  Columbus,  son  of  the  great  ad-  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Nov.  9,  1801 ;  son  of 
miral.  Ovando  died  in  Madrid,  Spain,  Robert  Owen;  educated  in  Switzerland; 
in  1518.  came  with  his  father  to  the  United  States 
Ovenshine,  Samuel,  military  officer;  in  1825,  settled  at  New  Harmony,  Ind., 
born  in  Pennsylvania,  April  2,  1843;  and,  with  Madame  d'Arusmont  (nee 
served  through  the  Civil  War,  advancing  Frances  Wright),  edited  the  New  Har- 
from  second  lieutenant  to  major;  appoint-  mony  Gazette,  afterwards  published  in 
ed  brigadier-general  United  States  volun-  New  York  and  called  the  Free  Inquirer 
teers  in  1898,  and  ordered  on  duty  in  the  (1825-34).  He  returned  to  New  Har- 
Philippine  Islands;  promoted  brigadier-  mony,  and  was  elected,  first  to  the  Indi- 
general  United  States  army,  and  retired,  ana  legislature,  and  then  to  Congress, 
both  in  October,  189&.  wherein  he  served  from  1843  to  1847,  tak- 
Overland  Express.  See  Pony  Express,  ing  a  leading  part  in  settling  the  north- 
Owen,  Griffith,  pioneer;  born  in  western  boundary  question.  He  introduced 
Wales,  where  he  was  educated  as  a  physi-  the  bill  (1845)  organizing  the  Smithso- 
cian.  In  1684  he  induced  William  Penn  nian  Institution,  and  became  one  of  its 
to  set  apart  40,000  acres  in  Pennsylvania  regents.  He  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
for  a  Welsh  settlement,  the  land  to  be  vention  that  amended  the  constitution  of 
sold  to  Welsh-speaking  persons  only.  Indiana  in  1850,  and  secured  for  the 
Griffith  and  his  family  led  the  settlers  to  women  of  that  State  rights  of  property, 
this  tract  of  land,  which  he  called  Merion.  In  1853  he  was  sent  to  Naples  as  charge 
He  died  in  Philadelphia  in  1717.  d'affaires,  and  was  made  minister  in  1855. 

fl 


OWSLEY— OXNARD 

He  published,   in   pamphlet  form,  a   dis-  lather  in  1783,  where  h«  became  a  lawyer 

cus&ion   he   had   with   Horace   Greeley   la  and  a  member  of  the  State  legislature.  He 

1860  on  divorce,  and  it  had  a  circulation  served  as  a  judge  of  the  Kentucky  Supreme 

of   60,000  copies.     During  the  Civil  War  Court  from  1812  to  1828;  elected  governor 

he  wrote  much  in  favor  of  emancipating  of  the  State  in  1844,  serving  two  terms, 

the   slaves,   and   pleaded   for   a   thorough  He  died  in  Danville,  Ky.,  December,  1862. 
union  of  all  the  States.     Mr.  Owen  was       Oxnard,   Benjamin  A.,  manufacturer; 

a  firm  believer  in  spiritualism,  and  wrote  born  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  Dec.  10,  1855; 

much  on  the  subject.     He  died  at  Lake  graduated  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 

George,  N.  Y.,  June  25,  1877.  of  Technology  in  1875;  became  the  founder 

Owsley,  William,  jurist;  born  in  Vir-  of    the   beet-root    sugar    industry    in    the 

ginia  in  1782;  taken  to  Kentucky  by  his  United  States. 


p. 


Paca,  William,  a  signer  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence;  born  in  Wye  Hall, 
Harford  co.,  Md.,  Oct.  31,  1740;  studied 
law  in  London;  and  began  its  practice  in 
Annapolis,  where  he  became  a  warm  op- 
ponent to  the  obnoxious  measures  of  Par- 
liament. He  was  a  member  of  the  commit- 
tee of  correspondence  in  1774,  and  was  a 
delegate  in  Congress  from  1774  to  1779. 
He  was  State  Senator  from  1777  to  1779; 
chief-justice  from  1778  to  1780,  and  gov- 
ernor fiom  1782  to  1786.  From  1789 
until  his  death  he  was  United  States  dis- 
trict judge.  From  his  private  wealth  he 
gave  liberally  to  the  support  of  the  patriot 
cause.    He  died  in  Wye  Hall,  in  1799. 

Pacific  Exploring  Expedition.  The 
acquisition  of  California  opened  the  way 
for  an  immense  commercial  interest  on 
the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1853  Congress  sent  four 
armed  vessels,  under  the  command  of 
Captain  Ringgold,  of  the  navy,  to  the 
eastern  shores  of  Asia,  by  way  of  Cape 
Horn,  to  explore  the  regions  of  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  which,  it  was  evident,  would 
soon  be  traversed  by  American  steam- 
ships plying  between  the  ports  of  the 
western  frontier  of  the  United  States  and 
V  Japan  and  China.  The  squadron  left  Nor- 
folk May  31,  with  a  supply-ship.  The  ex- 
pedition returned  in  the  summer  of  1856. 
It  made  many  very  important  explora- 
tions, among  them  of  the  whaling  and 
scaling  grounds  in  the  region  of  the  coast 
of  Kamtehatka  and  Bering  Strait. 

Pacific  Ocean.  See  Cabeza  de  Vaca; 
Nuxez  de;  Magellan,  Ferdixando. 

Pacific  Railway.  The  greatest  of 
American  railroad  enterprises  undertaken 
up  to  that  time  was  the  construction  of 
a  railway  over  the  great  plains  and  lofty 
mountain  -  ranges  between  the  Missouri 
River  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  As  early  as 
1846  such  a  work  was  publicly  advocated 
by  Asa  Whitney.     In  1849,  after  the  dis- 


covery of  gold  in  California  promised  a 
rapid  accumulation  of  wealth  and  popula- 
tion on  the  Pacific  coast,  Senator  Thomas 
H.  Benton  introduced  a  bill  into  Congress 
providing  for  preliminary  steps  in  such 
an  undertaking.  In  1853  Congress  passed 
an  act  providing  for  surveys  of  various 
routes  by  the  corps  of  topographical  en- 
gineers. By  midsummer,  1853,  four  ex- 
peditions for  this  purpose  were  organized 
to  explore  as  many  different  routes.  One, 
under  Major  Stevens,  was  instructed  to 
explore  a  northern  route,  from  the  upper 
Mississippi  to  Puget's  Sound,  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast.  A  second  expedition,  under 
the  direction  of  Lieutenant  Whipple,  was 
directed  to  cross  the  continent  from  a  line 
adjacent  to  the  36th  parallel  of  N.  lat. 
It  was  to  proceed  from  the  Missis- 
sippi, through  Walker's  Pass  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  strike  the  Pacific 
near  San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles,  or  San 
Diego.  A  third,  under  Captain  Gunnison, 
was  to  proceed  through  the  Rocky  Moun-. 
tains  near  the  head-waters  of  the  Rio  del 
Norte,  by  way  of  the  Hueferno  River  and 
the  Great  Salt  Lake  in  Utah.  The  fourth 
was  to  leave  the  southern  Mississippi, 
and  reach  the  Pacific  somewhere  in  Lower 
California — perhaps  San  Diego.  These 
surveys  cost  about  $1,000,000.  Nothing 
further,  however,  was  done,  owing  to  po- 
litical dissensions  between  the  North  and 
the  South,  until  1862  and  1S64,  when  Con- 
gress, in  the  midst  of  the  immense  strain 
upon  the  resources  of  the  government  in 
carrying  on  the  war,  passed  acts  granting 
subsidies  for  the  work,  in  the  form  of  6 
per  cent,  gold  bonds,  at  the  rate  of  $16,- 
000  a  mile  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the 
eastern  base  c  £  the  Rocky  Mountains,  $48,- 
000  a  mile  for  300  miles  through  those 
mountains,  $32,000  a  mile  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
and  $16,000  a  mile  from  the  western  slope 
of  the  latter  range  to  the  sea.     In  addi- 


53 


PACIFIC    RAILWAY—"  PACIFICUS 


tion  to  these  subsidies,  Congress  granted 
about  25,000,000  acres  of  land  along  the 
line  of  the  road.  Some  modifications  were 
afterwards  made  in  these  grants.  Work 
was  begun  on  the  railway  in  1863,  by 
two  companies — the  "  Central  Pacific," 
proceeding  from  California  and  working 
eastward,  and  the  "  Union  Pacific,"  work- 
ing westward.  The  road  was  completed 
in  1809,  when  a  continuous  line  of  rail- 
road communication  between  the  Atlantic 


tance  being  about  3,400  miles.  Another 
railroad  with  a  land-grant  from  the  gov- 
ernment, and  called  the  "  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad,"  to  extend  from  Lake  Superior 
to  Puget's  Sound,  on  the  Pacific,  was  be- 
gun in  1870. 

"  Pacificus  "  and  "  Helvidius."  Wash- 
ington's proclamation  of  neutrality  was 
violently  assailed  by  the  Democratic  press 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  adminis- 
tration found  determined  opposition  grow- 


OXK    OF   THE    FIRST    TRAIN'S   ON    THE    PACIFIC    RAILROAD. 


and  Pacific  oceans  was  perfected.  The 
entire  length  of  the  road,  exclusive  of  its 
branches,  is  about  2,000  miles.  It  crosses 
nine  distinct  mountain-ranges,  the  highest 
elevation  in  the  route  being  8,235  feet,  at 
the  crossing  of  the  Black  Hills  at  Evan's 
Pass.  The  route  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco,  by  way  of  Chicago  and  Omaha, 
is  travelled  in  six  or  seven  days,  the  dis- 


ing  more  and  more  powerful.  The  Prssi- 
dent  received  coarse  abuse  from  the  op- 
posing politicians.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, Hamilton  took  the  field  in  defence 
of  the  proclamation,  in  a  series  of  articles 
over  the  signature  of  "  Pacificus."  In 
these  he  maintained  the  President's  right, 
by  its  issue,  to  decide  upon  the  position 
in  which  the  nation  stood.     He  also  de- 


54 


PADTJCAH— PAINE 


fended  the  policy  of  the  measure.  To 
these  articles  a  reply  appeared,  July  8, 
1793,  over  the  signature  of  "  Helvidius," 
which  was  written  by  Madison,  at  the 
special  request  of  Jefferson.  The  latter,  in 
a  letter  urging  Madison  to  answer  Hamil- 
ton, felt  compelled  to  say  that  Genet  (see 
Genest,  Edmond  Charles)  was  a  hot- 
headed, passionate  man,  without  judgment, 
and  likely,  by  his  indecency,  to  excite  pub- 
lic indignation  and  give  the  Secretary  of 
State  great  trouble.  Indeed,  Jefferson 
afterwards  offered  his  resignation,  but 
Washington  persuaded  him  to  withdraw  it. 

Padiicah.  General  Forrest,  the  Con- 
federate cavalry  leader  captured  Jackson, 
Tenn.,  and,  moving  northward,  appeared 
before  Paducah,  held  by  Colonel  Hicks, 
with  700  men.  His  demand  for  a  surrender 
was  accompanied  with  the  threat,  "  If 
you  surrender  you  shall  be  treated  as 
prisoners  of  war^  but  if  I  have  to  storm 
your  works  you  may  expect  no  quarter." 
He  made  three  assaults,  and  then  retired 
after  losing  over  300  men,  and  moved  on 
to  Fort  Pillow. 

Page,  Thomas  Jefferson,  naval  officer ; 
born  in  Virginia  in  1808.  In  1815  he  was 
in  command  of  the  Water  Witch,  which 
was  sent  by  the  United  States  to  explore 
the  La  Plata  River,  and  in  1858  he  was 
authorized  to  continue  his  explorations. 
His  report,  which  was  published  in  New 
York,  was  the  first  definite  source  of  in- 
formation of  the  La  Plata  River  and  its 
tributaries.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
served  in  the  Confederate  navy.  He  died 
in  Rome,  Italy,  Oct.  26,  1899. 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  author;  born 
in  Hanover  county,  Va.,  April  23,  1853; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia ; 
is  the  author  of  In  Old  Virginia;  The  Old 
South:  Essays,  Social  and  Historical: 
Before  the  War;  Red  Rock:  A  Chronicle 
of  Reconstruction,  etc. 

Paige,  Lucius  Robinson,  author;  born 
in  Hardwick,  Mass.,  March  8,  1802;  re- 
ceived an  academic  education;  became  a 
Universalist  minister  in  1823 ;  retired 
from  pastoral  work  in  1S39.  His  publica- 
tions include  Universalism  Defended;  His- 
tory of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1630-1877 ;  His- 
tory of  Hardwick,  Mass.,  etc.  He  died  in 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  Sept.  2,  1896. 

Paine,  John  Knowles,  musician ;  born 
in  Portland,   Me.,   Jan.   9,    1839;    studied 


music  in  Germany;  appointed  Professor 
of  Music  at  Harvard  in  1872.  He  is  the 
author  of  the  music  which  was  sung  at 
the  opening  of  the  World's  Fair  of  1876, 
and  also  of  the  march  and  hymn  for  the 
World's  Fair  of  1893,  etc. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat,  a  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence;  born  in  Bos- 
ton, March  11,  1731;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard University  in  1749;  taught  school 
to  help  support  his  parents,  and  also  made 
a  voyage  to  Europe.  He  studied  theology, 
and  in  1758  was  chaplain  of  provincial 
troops.  Then  he  studied  law,  and  prac- 
tised it  in  Taunton  successfully  for  many 
years.  He  was  the  prosecuting  attorney 
in  the  case  of  Captain  Preston  and  his 
men  after  the  Boston  massacre.  A  dele- 
gate to  the  Provincial  Congress  in  1774, 
he  was  sent  to  the  Continental  Congress 
the  same  year,  where  he  served  until  1778. 
On  the  organization  of  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts, he  was  made  attorney-general,  he 
having  been  one  of  the  committee  who 
drafted  the  constitution  of  that  common- 
wealth. Mr.  Paine  settled  in  Boston  in 
1780,  and  was  judge  of  the  Massachusetts 
Supreme  Court  from  1790  to  1804.  He 
died  in  Boston,  May  11,  1814. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat,  Jr.,  poet,  son  of 
the  signer;  born  in  Taunton,  Mass.,  Dec. 
9,  1773;  graduated  at  Harvard  University 
in  1792;  was  originally  named  Thomas, 
but  in  view  of  the  character  of  Thomas 
Paine,  author  of  Common  Sense,  he  had  it 
changed  by  the  legislature,  he  desiring,  as 
he  said,  to  bear  a  "  Christian  "  name.  He 
became  a  journalist  and  a  poet,  and  was 
the  author  of  the  popular  ode  entitled 
Adams  and  Liberty.  He  became  a  lawyer 
in  1802,  and  retired  from  the  profession 
in  1809.  His  last  important  poem — The 
Steeds  of  Apollo — was  written  in  his 
father's  house  in  Boston.  He  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Nov.   13,   1811. 

Adams  and  Liberty. — In  the  spring 
and  early  summer  of  1798  a  war-spirit  of 
great  intensity  excited  the  American  peo- 
ple. The  conduct  of  France  towards  the 
United  States  and  its  ministers  had  caused 
the  American  government  to  make  prep- 
arations for  war  upon  the  French.  In 
June  Paine  was  engaged  tt  write  a 
patriotic  song  to  be  sung  at  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  Massachusetts  Charitable  Fire 
Society.      He     composed     one     which     he 


55 


PAINE 


entitled     Adams    and    Liberty.      It    was  can  have  none  of  my  port,  Mr.  Paine,  until 

adapted  to  the  spirit  of  the  time,  and  had  you    have    written    another    stanza    with 

a  wonderful   effect  upon   the   people.     It  Washington's  name  in  it."     Paine  walked 

was  really  a  war-song,   in   nine   stanzas,  back  and  forth  a  few  minutes,  called  for 

The  following  verses  expressed  the  temper  a   pen,  and  wrote  the  fifth  verse  in  the 

of  the  people  then:  poem  as  follows: 


"  While  France  her  huge  limbs  bathes  recum- 
bent in  blood. 
And  Society's  base  threats  with  wide  dis- 
solution, 
May    Peace,    like    the    dove,    who    returned 
from  the  flood, 
Find  an  ark  of  abode  In  our  mild  Con- 
stitution. 
But  though  Peace  is  our  aim, 
Yet  the  boon  we  disclaim, 
If   bought   by   our   Sov'reignty,    Justice,   or 
Fame. 

"  'Tis    the    fire    of    the    flint    each    American 
warms  ; 
L«t    Rome's    haughty    victors    beware    of 
collision, 
Let  them  bring  all  the  vassals  of  Europe  in 
arms — 
We're  a  world  by  ourselves,  and  disclaim 
a  division. 
While  with  patriot  pride 
To  our  laws  we're  allied, 
No  foe  can  subdue  us,  no  faction  divide. 

"  Oar  mountains  are  crowned  with  Imperial 
oak, 
Whose  roots,  like  our  liberties,  ages  have 
nourished  ; 
But  long  ere  our  nation  submits  to  the  yoke, 
Not  a  tree  shall  be  left  on  the  field  where 
it  flourished. 
Should  invasion  impend, 
Every  grove  would  descend 
From  the  hill-tops    they  shaded,  our  shores 
to  defend. 

"  Let  our  patriots  destroy  Anarch's  pestilent 
worm, 
Lest    our    Liberty's    growth    should    be 
checked  by  corrosion, 
Then  let  clouds  thicken  round  us,  we  heed 
not  the  storm, 
Our  realm  fears  no  shock  but  the  earth's 
own  explosion. 
Foes  assail  us  in  vain, 
Though  their  fleets  bridge  the  main, 
For  our  altars  and  laws  with  our  lives  we'll 
maintain. 
For  ne'er  shall  the  sons  of  Columbia  be 

slaves 
While  the  earth  bears  a  plant  or  the  sea 
rolls  Its  waves." 

At  the*  home  of  Major  Russell,  editor 
of  the  Boston  Centinel,  the  author  offered 
it  to  that  gentleman.  "It  is  imperfect," 
said  Russell,  "  without  the  name  of  Wash- 
ington in  it."  Mr.  Paine  was  about  to 
take  some  wine,  when  Russell  politely  and 
good-naturedly    interfered,    saying,    "  You 


"  Should  the  tempest  of  war  overshadow  our 
laDd, 
Its    bolts    could    ne'er    rend    Freedom's 
temple  asunder ; 
For,  unmoved,   at  its  portal,   would  Wash- 
ington stand, 
And  repulse  with  his  breast  the  assaults 
of  the  thunder ! 
His  sword  from  the  sleep 
Of  its  scabbard  would  leap, 
And  conduct  with  its  point  ev'ry   flash  to 
the  deep  ! 
For  ne'er  shall  the  sons  of  Columbia  be 

slaves 
While  the  earth  bears  a  plant  or  the  sea 
rolls  its  waves." 

This  song  became  immensely  popular, 
and  was  sung  all  over  the  country — in 
theatres  and  other  public  places,  in  draw- 
ing-rooms and  work-shops,  and  by  the 
boys  in  the  streets. 

Paine,  Thomas,  patriot;  born  in  Thet- 
ford,  England,  Jan.  29,  1737.  His  father 
was  a  Quaker,  from  whom  he  learned  the 
business  of  stay-making.  He  went  on  a 
privateering    cruise    in    1755,    and    after- 


56 


wards  worked  at  his  trade  and  preached 
as  a  Dissenting  minister.  He  was  an  ex- 
ciseman at  Thetford,  and  wrote  (1772)  a 
pamphlet  on  the  subject.  Being  accused 
of  smuggling,  he  was  dismissed  from  office. 


PAINE,    THOMAS 

Meeting  Dr.  Franklin,  the  latter  advised  Greene.  In  December,  1776,  he  published 
him  to  go  to  America.  He  arrived  in  the  first  number  of  his  Crisis,  and  con- 
Philadelphia  in  December,  1774,  and  was  tinued  it  at  intervals  during  the  war. 
employed  as  editor  of  the  Pennsylvania  In  1777  he  was  elected  secretary  to  the 
Magazine.  In  that  paper  he  published,  committee  on  foreign  affairs.  Silas 
October,  1775,  Serious  Thoughts,  in  which  Deane  (q.  v.),  who  acted  as  mercantile  as 
he  declared  his  hope  of  the  abolition  of  well  as  diplomatic  agent  of  the  Conti- 
slavery.  At  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Benja-  nental  Congress  during  the  earlier  portion 
min  Rush,  of  Philadelphia,  it  is  said,  he  of  the  war,  incurred  the  enmity  of  Arthur 
put  forward  a  powerfully  written  pam-  Lee  and  his  brothers,  and  was  so  misrep- 
phlet,  at  the  beginning  of  1776,  in  favor  resented  by  them  that  Congress  recalled 
of  the  independence  of  the  colonies.  It  him  from  France.  It  had  been  insinuated 
opened  with  the  often-quoted  words,  by  Carmichael  that  Deane  had  appropri- 
"  These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  ated  the  public  money  to  his  private  use. 
souls."  Its  terse,  sharp,  incisive,  and  Two  violent  parties  arose,  in  and  out  of 
vigorous  sentences  stirred  the  people  with  Congress,  concerning  the  doings  of  the 
irrepressible  aspirations  for  independence,  agents  of  Congress  abroad.  Robert  Mor- 
A  single  extract  will  indicate  its  char-  ris,  and  others  acquainted  with  financial 
acter:  "The  nearer  any  government  ap-  matters,  took  the  side  of  Deane.  The  pow- 
proaches  to  a  republic,  the  less  business  erful  party  against  him  was  led  by  Rich- 
there  is  for  a  king;  in  England  a  king  ard  Henry  Lee,  brother  of  Arthur,  and 
hath  little  more  to  do  than  to  make  war  chairman  of  the  committee  on  foreign 
and  give  away  places.  Arms  must  decide  affairs.  Deane  published  (1779)  An  Ad' 
the  contest  [between  Great  Britain  and  dress  to  the  People  of  the  United  States, 
America] ;  the  appeal  was  the  choice  of  in  which  he  commented  severely  on  the 
the  King,  and  the  continent  hath  escaped  conduct  of  the  Lees,  and  justly  claimed 
the  challenge.  The  sun  never  shone  on  a  credit  for  himself  in  obtaining  supplies 
cause  of  greater  worth.  'Tis  not  the  affair  from  France  through  Beaumarchais. 
of  a  city,  a  county,  a  province,  or  a  king-  Paine,  availing  himself  of  documents  in 
dom,  but  of  a  continent — of  at  least  one-  his  custody,  published  a  reply  to  Deane's 
eighth  part  of  the  habitable  globe.  'Tis  address,  in  which  he  asserted  that  the  sup- 
not  the  concern  of  a  day,  a  year,  or  an  plies  nominally  furnished  through  a  mer- 
age;  posterity  are  virtually  involved  in  it  cantile  house  came  really  from  the  French 
even  to  the  end  of  time.  .  .  .  Freedom  government.  This  avowal,  which  the 
hath  been  hunted  round  the  globe:  Asia  French  and  Congress  both  wished  to  con- 
and  Africa  hath  long  expelled  her;  Eu-  ceal,  drew  from  the  French  minister,  Ge- 
rope  regards  her  like  a  stranger ;  and  Eng-  rard,  a  warm  protest,  as  it  proved  duplic- 
land  hath  given  her  warning  to  depart,  ity  on  the  part  of  the  French  Court;  and, 
Oh,  receive  the  fugitive,  and  prepare  an  to  appease  the  minister,  Congress,  by  reso- 
asylum  for  mankind."  The  effect  of  Com-  lution,  expressly  denied  that  any  present 
mon  Sense  was  marvellous.  Its  trumpet  of  supplies  had  been  received  from  France 
tones  awakened  the  continent,  and  made  previous  to  the  treaty  of  alliance.  Paine 
every  patriot's  heart  beat  with  intense  was  dismissed  from  office  for  his  impru- 
emotion.  It  was  read  with  avidity  every-  dence  in  revealing  the  secrets  of  diplo- 
where;    and    the    public    appetite    for    its  macy. 

solid  food  was  not  appeased  until  100,000  Late  in  November,  1779,  he  was  made 
copies  had  fallen  from  the  press.  The  clerk  of  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly;  and 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania  voted  to  the  in  that  capacity  read  a  letter  to  that  body 
author  $2,500.  Washington,  in  a  letter  from  General  Washington,  intimating  that 
written  at  Cambridge,  highly  applauded  a  mutiny  in  the  army  was  imminent  be- 
lt, and  all  over  the  colonies  there  were  im-  cause  of  the  distresses  of  the  soldiers.  The 
mediate  movements  in  favor  of  absolute  Assembly  was  disheartened.  Paine  wrote 
independence.  a  letter  to  Blair  McClenaghan,  a  Phila- 
For  a  short  time  after  ,the  Declaration  delphia  merchant,  stating  the  case,  and 
of  Independence  Paine  was  in  the  military  enclosing  $500  as  his  contribution  to  a 
service,  and  was  aide-de-camp  to  General  relief   fund.     A   meeting   of   citizens   was 

57 


%  : 


PAINE— PAKENHAM 


PAINE'S    MONUMENT. 


called,    when    a    subscription    was    circu-    in   London   he   was   indicted   for   sedition 
lated,  and  very  soon  the  sum  of  £300,000    and  afterwards  outlawed.     Paine  assisted. 
(Pennsylvania    currency)     was    collected,    in    framing    the    French    constitution    in 
With  this  capital  a  bank   (afterwards  the    1793;  and  the  same  year  he  opposed  the 

execution  of  the  King,  and  proposed  his 
banishment  to  America.  This  action 
caused  his  imprisonment  by  the  Jaco- 
bins, and  he  had  a  narrow  escape  from 
the  guillotine.  It  was  at  that  period 
that  he  wrote  his  Age  of  Reason.  James 
Monroe,  then  American  minister  to  France, 
procured  his  release  from  prison  in  1794. 
After  an  absence  from  the  United  States 
of  fifteen  years,  he  returned  in  a  govern- 
ment vessel  in  1802.  His  admirers  hon- 
ored him  with  public  dinners;  his  political 
opponents  insulted  him.  Settled  in  New 
York,  he  died  there,  June  8,  1809,  and  wag 
buried  on  his  farm  at  New  Rochelle,  the 
Quakers,  for  peculiar  reasons,  having  de- 
nied his  request  to  be  interred  in  one  of 
their  burying-grounds.  Near  where  he 
was  buried  a  neat  monument  was  erected 
in  1839.  In  1819  William  Cobbett  took 
his  bones  to  England.  In  1875  a  me* 
Bank  of  North  America)  for  the  relief  of  morial  building  was  dedicated  in  Boston, 
the  army  was  established.  With  Colonel  having  over  the  entrance  the  inscription, 
Laurens,  Paine  obtained  a  loan  of  6,000,-  "  Paine  Memorial  Building  and  Home  of 
000  livres  from  France  in  1781.  In  1786  the  Boston  Investigator."  See  Ingersoll, 
Congress  gave  him  $3,000  for  his  services    Rorert  Green. 

during  the  war,  and  the  State  of  New  Pakenham,  Sir  Edward  Michael,  mili- 
York  granted  him  a  farm  of  300  acres  of  tary  officer;  born  in  County  Westmeath, 
land  at  New  Rochelle,  the  confiscated  es-  Ireland,  March  19,  1778.  At  the  age  of 
tate  of  a  loyalist.  about  fifteen  years  he  was  appointed  ma- 

Sailing  for  France  in  April,  1787,  his  jor  of  light  dragoons,  and  at  twenty 
fame  caused  him  to  be  cordially  received  lieutenant-colonel  of  foot.  In  1812  he 
by  distinguished  men.  In  1788 
he  was  in  England,  superin- 
tending the  construction  of 
an  iron  bridge  (the  first  of 
its  kind)  which  he  had  in- 
vented. It  now  spans  the 
Wear,  at  Sunderland.  He 
wrote  the  first  part  of  his 
Rights  of  Man  in  1791,  in 
reply  to  Burke's  Reflections 
on  the  Revolution  in  France. 
It  had  an  immense  sale,  and 
the  American  edition  had  a 
preface  by  Thomas  Jefferson. 
An  active  member  of  the  rev- 
olutionary society  in  England, 
he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the 
French  National  Convention 
in  1792.  He  had  a  trium- 
phant reception  in  Paris,  but 


THE   PECAN-TREES    AT    VILLERE'S 

58 


NEW   ORLEANS- 


PALATINES— PALMER 

I  was  made  major-general;  served  with  dis-  Palfrey,   John   Gorham,  author;   born 

tinction  under   Wellington   in   the   Penin-  in  Boston,  Mass.,  May  2,  1796;   grandson 

{  sular  campaign;  and  in  1814  was  intrusted  of    William     Palfrey     (1741-80);     gradu- 

I  with  the  expedition  against  New  Orleans  ated  at  Harvard  College  in  1815;  minister 


(q.  v.),  where  he  was  killed,  Jan.  8,  1815. 
The  body  of  Sir  Edward  was  conveyed  to 
Villere's,  when  the  viscera  were  removed 
and  buried  between  two  pecan-trees  near 
the  mansion.     The  rest  of  the  body  was 


of  Brattle  Street  Church,  Boston,  from 
1818  to  1830;  Dexter  Professor  of  Sacred 
Literature  in  Hazard;  editor  of  the 
North  American  Revicio  from  1835  to 
1843;  member  of  the  legislature  of  Massa- 


placed  in  a  cask  of  rum  and  conveyed  to  chusetts;  and  from  1844  to  1848  was 
England  for  interment.  Such  was  the  dis-  secretary  of  state.  Mr.  Palfrey  is  distin- 
positionof  the  bodies  of  two  or  three  other    guished  as  a  careful  historian,  as  evinced 


officers.   It  is  said  the  pecan-trees  never  bore 
fruit  after  that  year,  and  the  negroes  look- 
j  ed  upon  the  spot  with  superstitious  awe. 
Palatines.      Early    in    the    eighteenth 
century   many   inhabitants   of   the   Lower 
I  Palatinate,    lying    on    both    sides    of    the 
i  Rhine,    in    Germany,    were    driven    from 
their  homes  by  the  persecutions  of  Louis 
I XVI.   of   France,   whose   armies   desolated 
:  their  country.     England  received  many  of 
i  the  fugitives.     In  the  spring  of   1708,  on 
the  petition  of  Joshua  Koekerthal,  evan- 
gelical minister  of  a  body  of  Lutherans, 
for  himself  and   thirty-nine  others  to  be 
transported    to    America,    an    order    was 
issued  by  the  Queen  in  Council   lor  such 
!  transportation    and    their    naturalization 
i  before  leaving  England.     The  Queen  pro- 
vided for  them  at  her  own  expense.     This 
first  company  of  Palatines  was  first  land- 
ed  on  Governor's  Island,  New  York,  and 
afterwards  settled  near  the  site  of  New- 
burg,  Orange  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  the  spring  of 
i  1709.      In    1710    a    larger    emigration    of 
!  Palatines  to  America  occurred,  under  the 


by  his  History  of  New  England  to  1GS8 
{'3  volumes,  1858-64).  He  delivered 
courses  of  lectures  before  the  Lowell  In- 
stitute, and  was  an  early  and  powerful 
anti-slavery  writer.  He  died  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  April  26,  1881. 

Palnia,  Tomas  Estrada,  patriot;  born 
in  Bayamo,  Cuba ;  studied  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Seville,  Spain.  He  was  active  in 
the  Cuban  insurrection  of  1867-78,  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  which  he  was  Presi- 
dent of  the  Cuban  Republic.  He  repre- 
sented the  Cuban  Republic  during  the  last 
revolution  as  plenipotentiary.  He  was 
olccted  President  of  the  Cuban  Republic  in 
1901,  and  sailed  for  Cuba  from  New  York 
on  April  17,  1902.  He  was  inaugurated 
May  20,  1902. 

Palmer,  Erastus  Dow,  sculptor;  born 
in  Pompey,  Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y.,  AprH 
2,  1817.  Until  he  was  twenty-nine 
years  of  age  he  was  a  carpenter,  when  he 
began  cameo-cutting  for  jewelry,  which 
was  then  fashionable.  This  business  in- 
jured   his    eyesight,     and    he    attempted 


guidance   of   Robert   Hunter,   governor   of    sculpture,   at   which   he   succeeded   at   the 


New  York.  These,  about  3,000  in  number, 
went  farther  up  the  Hudson.  Some  set- 
tled on  Livingston's  Manor,  at  German- 
town,  where  a  tract  of  6,000  acres  was 
bought  from  Livingston  by  the  British 
government  for  their  use.  Some  soon 
afterwards  crossed  the  Hudson  into  Greene 


age  of  thirty-five.  His  first  work  in 
marble  was  an  ideal  bust  of  the  infant 
Ceres,  which  was  exhibited  at  the  Academy 
of  Design,  ^Tew  York.  It  was  followed 
by  two  exquisite  bas-reliefs  representing 
the  morning  and  evening  star.  Mr.  Pal- 
mer's   works    in    bas-relief    and    statuary 


county  and  settled  at  West  Camp;  others    are  highly  esteemed.     He  produced   more 


went  far  up  the  Mohawk  and  settled  the 
I  district  known  as  the  German  Flats; 
I  while  a  considerable  body  went  to  Berks 
I  county,  Pa.,  and  were  the  ancestors  of 
[  many  patriotic  families  in  that  State. 
I  Among  the  emigrants  with  Hunter  a  vio- 
I  lent  sickness  broke  out,  and  470  of  them 
I  died.  With  this  company  came  John 
J  Peter  Zenger  (q.  v.)  and  his  widowed 
1  mother,  Johanna. 


than  100  works  in  marble.  His  Angel 
of  the  Resurrection,  at  the  entrance  to 
the  Rural  Cemetery  at  Albany,  and 
The  White  Captive,  in  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum,  New  York  City,  com- 
mand the  highest  admiration.  He  went 
to  Europe  in  1873,  and  in  1873-74  com- 
pleted a  statue  of  Robert  R.  Livingston  for 
the  national  Capitol.  He  died  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  March  9,  1904. 


59 


PALMER— PALO    ALTO 


Palmer,  Innes  Newton,  military 
officer ;  born  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Mareh  30, 
1824;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846; 
served  in  the  war  against  Mexico;  and 
in  August,  1861,  was  made  major  of 
cavalry.  In  September  he  was  made 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  having 
been  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  in 
July  previous.  He  commanded  a  brigade 
in  the  Peninsular  campaign  in  1862;  a 
division  in  North  Carolina  the  first  half 
cf  1863;  and  from  August  of  that  year 
until  April,  1864,  he  commanded  the  de- 
fences of  the  North  Carolina  coast.  He 
was  in  command  of  the  District  of  North 
Carolina  until  March,  1865,  participating 
in  Sherman's  movements.  In  1865  he  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  U.  S.  A. ;  in 
1868  commissioned  colonel  of  the  2d 
United  States  Cavalry;  and  in  1879  was 
retired. 

Palmer,  James  Shedden,  naval  officer; 
born  in  New  Jersey  in  1810;  entered  the 
navy  as  midshipman  in  1825,  and  was 
promoted  rear-admiral  in  1866.  He  served 
in  the  East  India  seas  in  1838,  and  in 
blockading  the  coast  of  Mexico  from  1846 
to  1848.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  in  the  blockade  fleet  under 
Dupont.  In  the  summer  of  1863  he  led  the 
advance  in  the  passage  of  the  Vicksburg 
batteries,  and  later  in  the  same  year  per- 
formed the  same  service.  Palmer  was 
Farragut's  flag-captain  in  the  expedition 
against  New  Orleans  and  Mobile,  and 
fought  the  Confederate  ram  Arkansas. 
In  1865  he  was  assigned  to  the  command 
of  the  North  Atlantic  squadron.  He  died 
in  St. -Thomas,  W.  I.,  Dec.  7,  1867. 

Palmer,  John  McCatjley,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Eagle  Creek,  Scott  co.,  Ky., 
Sept.  13,  1817;  became  a  resident  of  Il- 
linois in  1832;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1840;  member  of  the  State  Senate  from 
1852  to  1854;  and  a  delegate  to  the  peace 
convention  in  1861.  He  was  colonel  of 
ihe  14th  Illinois  Volunteers  in  April, 
1861;  served  under  Fremont  in  Missouri; 
and  in  December  was  made  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  was  at  the  capt- 
ure of  New  Madrid  and  Island  Number 
Ten,  and  commanded  a  brigade  in  the 
Army  of  the  Mississippi.  He  commanded 
a  division  under  Grant  and  Rosecrans  in 
1862,  and  was  with  the  latter  at  the  battle 
of  Stone  River.     For  his  gallantry  there 


PALMETTO  COCKADE. 


he  was  promoted  major-general.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Chickamauga,  and 
commanded  the  14th  Corps  in  the  Atlanta 
campaign.  He  was  governor  of  Illinois 
in  1868-72;  United  States  Senator  in 
1891-97;  and  candidate  of  the  gold 
standard  Democrats  for  President  in 
1896.  He  died  in  Springfield,  111.,  Sept. 
25,    1900. 

Palmetto    Cockades,    ornaments   made 
of     blue     silk     ribbon, 
with    a    button    in    the 
centre       bearing       the 
image    of    a    palmetto- 
tree.      They   were   also 
called     Secession    cock- 
ades.      Secession     bon- 
nets, made  by  a  North- 
ern milliner  in  Charles- 
ton, were  worn  by  the 
ladies   of  that   city  on 
the  streets  immediately 
after  the  passage  of  the 
ordinance  of  secession. 
Palmetto  State,  a  popular  name  given 
to  the  State  of  South  Carolina,  its  coat- 
ot-arms  bearing  the  figure  of  a  palmetto- 
tree. 

Palo  Alto,  Battle  of.  On  a  part  of 
a  prairie  in  Texas,  about  8  miles  north- 
east of  Matamoras,  Mexico,  flanked  by 
ponds  and  beautified  by  tall  trees  (which 
gave  it  its  name),  General  Taylor,  march- 
ing with  less  than  2,300  men  from  Point 
Isabel  towards  Fort  Brown,  encountered 
about  6,000  Mexicans,  led  by  General 
Arista,  in  1846.  At  a  little  past  noon  a 
furious  battle  was  begun  with  artillery  by 
the  Mexicans  and  a  cavalry  attack  with 
the  lance.  The  Mexicans  were  forced  back, 
and,  after  a  contest  of  about  five  hours, 
they  retreated  to  Resaca  de  la  Palma  and 
encamped.  They  fled  in  great  disorder, 
having  lost  in  the  engagement  100  men 
killed  and  wounded.  The  Americans  lost 
fifty-three  men.  During  the  engagement 
Major  Ringgold,  commander  of  the  Amer- 
ican Flying  Artillery,  which  did  terrible 
work  in  the  ranks  of  the  Mexicans,  wag 
mortally  wounded  by  a  small  cannon- 
ball  that  passed  through  both  thigbs 
and  through  his  horse.  Rider^and  horse 
both  fell  to  the  ground.  The  latter 
was  dead;  the  major  died  at  Point  Isabel 
four  days  afterwards.  See  Mexico,  War 
with. 


60 


PANAMA— PANAMA  CANAL 

Panama,  Congress  at.    In  1823  Simon  Canal    Company   of   America   was    incor- 

Bolivar,  the  liberator  of  Colombia,  South  porated  with  a  capital  of  $30,000,000.  The 

America,  and  then  President  of  that  re-  Colombian  government  extended  the  limit 

public,  invited  the  governments  of  Mexico,  of  its  concessions  several  times,  the  last 

Peru,   Chile,   and   Buenos   Ayres   to   unite  one  till  Oct.  31,  1910. 

with  him  in  forming  a  general  congress  at  In  1897  President  McKinley  appointed 
Panama.  Arrangements  to  that  effect  an  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  to  ex- 
were  made,  but  the  congress  was  not  held  amine  available  routes;  in  1900  the  com- 
until  July,  1826.  The  object  was  to  settle  mission  recommended  the  Nicaragua 
upon  some  line  of  policy  having  the  force  route;  and  soon  afterwards  the  French 
of  international  law  respecting  the  rights  Panama  Canal  Company  offered  to  sell 
of  those  republics,  and  to  adopt  measures  its  unfinished  canal,  franchises,  and  rights 
for  preventing  further  colonization  by  Eu-  to  the  United  States  for  $40,000,000.  The 
ropean  powers  on  the  American  continent.  Isthmian  Commission  then  recommended 
They  fully  accepted  the  Monroe  doctrine  the  purchase  of  the  Panama  canal,  esti- 
(see  Monroe,  James).  In  the  spring  of  mating  that  it  could  be  completed  in  ten 
1825  the  United  States  was  invited  to  send  years,  that  it  would  cost  $45,630,700  less 
commissioners  to  the  congress.  These  to  complete  it  than  to  construct  the  Nica- 
were  appointed  early  in  1826,  and  ap-  ragua  canal,  and  that  the  annual  cost  of 
peared  at  the  congress  early  in  July;  but  maintenance  and  operation  would  be 
its  results  were  not  important  to  any  of  $1,300,000  less.  On  June  28,  1902,  Presi- 
the  parties  concerned.  dent    Roosevelt    approved    an    act    which 

Panama  Canal.  The  first  exploration  authorized  the  President  to  acquire,  for 
for  an  interoceanic  canal  at  the  isthmus  $40,000,000,  all  the  rights,  privileges, 
was  made  by  H.  de  la  Serna  in  1527-28,  franchises,  etc.,  of  the  French  Panama 
and  a  canal  was  proposed  by  Lopez  de  Canal  Company.  Also  to  acquire  from 
Gomarfa  in  1551,  William  Paterson  in  Colombia  perpetual  control  of  a  strip  of 
1698,  Gogonche,  the  Spaniard,  in  1799,  land  not  less  than  six  miles  wide,  and  to 
and  Humboldt  in  1803.  Naval  officers  of  construct  and  perpetually  operate  and 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  maintain  the  canal,  the  control  to  include 
France  made  a  number  of  independent  sur-  the  right  to  maintain  and  operate  the 
veys  in  the  ensuing  fifty  years.  A  ship-  Panama  Railroad,  also  jurisdiction  over 
canal  was  proposed  in  the  Clayton-Bulwer  said  strip  and  the  ports  at  the  ends  there- 
treaty  in  1850;  the  United  States  and  of.  Failing  to  secure  such  title  and  such 
Colombia  signed  a  treaty  for  the  con-  control,  he,  having  obtained  for  the  United 
struction  of  a  canal  in  1870;  an  inter-  States  perpetual  control  of  the  necessary 
national  canal  congress  was  held  in  Paris  territory  from  Costa  Pica  and  Nicaragua, 
in  1879;  and  French  engineers  began  work  should  construct  a  canal  from  Greytown 
on  the  Panama  route  in  1881.  In  the  on  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  Brito  on  the 
meantime  a  canal  through  Nicaragua  was  Pacific.  The  act  appropriated  $10,000,- 
proposed  by  Americans  and  favored  by  000  and  authorized  additional  appropria- 
General  Grant.  The  de  Lesseps  company,  tions,  not  to  exceed  $135,000,000  should 
organized  with  a  capital  of  $100,000,000,  the  Panama  route  be  adopted,  or  $180,- 
continued  work  till  December,  1888,  when  000,000  should  the  Nicaragua  route  be 
it  was  compelled  to  suspend  payments,  adopted.  The  act  also  requested  the  Presi- 
By  that  time  the  canal  had  been  exca-  dent  to  open  negotiations  with  Great 
vated  for  about  fourteen  miles  only  on  Britain  for  the  abrogation  of  the  canal 
the  first  section.  The  French  government  clause  in  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  and 
ordered  an  investigation  of  the  canal  on  Nov.  18,  1901,  a  convention  was  signed 
company's  affairs ;  amazing  evidences  of  in  Washington,  D.  C,  to  this  effect. 
fraud  and  bribery  were  discovered;  and  After  the  approval  of  this  act  the  United 
by  1894  the  costly  plant  and  works  had  States  sought  to  secure  from  Colombia  the 
reached  the  stage  of  decay  and  ruin.  In  rights  and  privileges  enumerated  in  the 
1897  a  new  company  was  organized  in  act,  and  a  treaty  to  this  effect  was  nego- 
France,  with  a  capital  of  $10,000,000,  to  tiated,  but  was  not  ratified  by  Colombia. 
•ontinue  the  w«rk,  and  in  1809  the  Panama  On  Nov.  3,   1903,  th«  Colombian  D«part- 

61 


PANAMA    RAILWAY— PAN-AMERICAN  EXPOSITION,   1901 


ment  of  Panama  seceded  and  proclaimed  of  the  United  States.  Questions  of  inter- 
its  independence  of  Colombia.  On  Nov.  18  national  importance  were  discussed,  and 
a  treaty  between  the  new  republic  and  the  ten  republics  signed  an  arbitration  treaty. 
United  States  was  signed,  in  which  the  Another  conference  was  held  in  Mexico 
latter  secured  all  the  desired  rights  and  City     in     1901-02,     when     the     following 


privileges.  On  Feb.  29,  1904,  the  Presi- 
dent appointed  a  Panama  Commission 
consisting  of  the  following:  Pear-Admiral 
John    G.    Walker;    Maj.-Gen.    George    W. 


measures  affecting  the  United  States  were 
endorsed  : 

A  pan-American  railway;   a  pan-Amer- 
ican bank;   the  St.  Louis  Exposition;  the 


Davis,  William  Barclay  Parsons,  William  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum;  the 
H.  Burr,  Benjamin  M.  Harrod,  Carl  E.  Olympian  games  at  Chicago;  adhesion  to 
Grunsky,  and  Frank  J.  Hecker.  General  The  Hague  conference;  compulsory  arbitra- 
Davis  was  appointed  governor  of  the  tion  between  seventeen  states  (the  United 
Canal  Zone.  The  purchase-price  of  $40,-  States  refused  to  endorse  this  measure)  ; 
000,000  was  paid  to  the  French  company  an  interoceanic  ship-canal;  the  reorgan- 
in  April,  1904.  ization   of   the   Bureau   of   American   Re- 

The  engineering  committee  of  the  Pana-  publics;  improved  maritime  communica- 
ma  Canal  Commission  recommended  a  tion;  the  exchange  of  official  and  other 
sea-level  canal  at  cost  of  $230,500,000  on  publications;  the  codification  of  the  pub- 
Feb.  26,  1905.  lie   and    private    international    law;    con- 

The  members  of  the  Canal  Commission  ventions  as  to  patents,  trade-marks,  copy- 
resigned,  March  29,  1905,  and  the  Presi-  rights,  and  extradition;  the  appointment 
dent  appointed  a  new  commission,  con-  of  coffee  experts  to  meet  in  New  York 
sisting  of  Theodore  P.  Shonts,  chairman;  City  to  study  the  coffee  crisis;  the  preser- 
Charles  E.  Magoon,  governor  of  Canal  vation  of  archaeological  remains.  These 
Zone;  John  F.  Wallace,  chief  engineer;  measures  are  to  be  submitted  to  the  sep- 
M.  T.  Endicott,  Pear-Admiral,  U.S.N. ;  arate  governments  for  ratification. 
Peter  C.  Hains,  Brigadier-General,  U.S.A.,  Pan-American  Exposition  in  Buffalo, 
retired;  Oswald  H.  Ernst,  Colonel,  U.  S.  N.  Y.,  held  May  1-Nov.  3,  1901;  one  of 
Engineers;  and  Benjamin  M.  Harrod — on  the  most  important  expositions  in  the 
April  3,  1905.  United  States,  as  it  confined  itself  to  the 

A  few  days  later  the  President  invited  productions  of  North  and  South  Amer- 
Germany,  England,  and  France  to  nomi-  ica.  Entirely  novel  architectural,  elec- 
nate  one  engineer  each  to  serve  on  the  trical,  and  landscape  effects  were  de- 
Panama   Canal  Commission.  veloped,  the  electrical  exhibition  particu- 

A  force  of  about  8,000  men  were  en-  larly  being  far  superior  to  that  of  any 
gaged    in   the   active   work   of   excavation    other  world's  fair.    The  electric  tower  was 


in  May,  1905,  but  several  thousand  addi- 
tional men  will  be  put  to  work  on  the 
completion  of  the  surveys    and  the  arrival 


the  centre  of  the  exposition  and  was  375 
feet  high,  the  main  structure  being  80 
square    feet    and    200    feet    high.      This 


of  new  and  improved  machinery  from  the  tower  and  the  surrounding  buildings  and 

United   States.  grounds  were  most  brilliantly  illuminated 

Panama    Railway,    The.      A    railway  by  electric  lights,  on  a  scale  never  before 

extending  from   the   Atlantic   to   the   Pa-  attempted,  and  with  a  result  never  before 

cific    side    of    the    isthmus    that   connects  approached.      The    general    style    of    the 

North  and  South  America;   completed  in  architecture  was  the  Spanish  Renaissance, 

1855.      It    extends    from    Colon    on    the  making  a  general  use  of  many  brilliant 

Caribbean  Sea  to  Panama  on  the  Pacific  tints  and  colors.     The  popular  name  for 


Ocean.      The    railway   was    purchased   by 
the  United  States,  March  29,  1905. 

Pan-American  Conference,  a  confer- 
ence of  representatives  of  the  American 
republics    inspired    by    James    G.    Blaine, 


the  exposition  was  the  Landscape  City. 
A  portion  of  Delaware  Park,  Buffalo,  em- 
bracing 350  acres,  was  selected  as  the 
site  for  the  fair,  the  total  cost  of  which 
was  estimated  at  $10,000,000.     Buffalo  is 


opened  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Oct.  2.  1889,  the  chief  gateway  between  the  East  and  the 
and  extended  into  1890,  during  which  time  West.  Within  a  radius  of  500  miles  there 
the  delegates  visited  the  principal   cities   is  a  population  of  over  40,000,000  people, 

62 


PAN-AMERICAN    UNION— PAPINEAU 


In  addition  to  the  classified  and  special  ex-  1  A.M.  (Sept.  21)  leaped  from  the  gloom 
hibit  was  the  Midway  Pleasure  Ground,  like  tigers  from  a  jungle,  and  began  the 
comprising  many  interesting  and  novel  ex-  work  of  death  at  different  points.  The 
hibits.  patriots,  not  knowing  at  what  point  was 

While  holding  a  public  reception  in  the  the  chief  attack,  fired  a  few  volleys,  and, 
Temple  of  Music  on  Sept.  6,  President  breaking  into  fragments,  fled  in  confu- 
McKinley  was  shot  by  an  anarchist  named  sion  towards  Chester.  The  British  and 
Leon  Czolgosz,  and  died  of  the  wounds  Hessians  killed  150  Americans,  some  of 
Saturday,  Sept.  14,  1901.  See  McKinley,  them  in  cold  blood,  after  they  had  sur- 
William.  rendered  and  begged  for  quarter.     A  Hes- 

Pan- American  Union.  See  Adams,  sian  sergeant  afterwards  said:  "  We  killed 
John  Quincy.  300   of   the    rebels   with    the   bayonet.      I 

Panics,  exceptional  disturbances  in  stuck  them  myself  like  so  many  pigs,  one 
financial  and  commercial  affairs.  Periods  after  another,  until  the  blood  ran  out  of 
of  prosperity  generally  run  a  course  of  the  touch-hole  of  my  musket."  This  event 
ten  years  in  England,  as,  lblG,  1825,  1837,  has  been  pi-operly  spoken  of  as  a  massacre. 
1847,  1857,  1866,  1875,  and  1885,  in  each  The  dead  were  buried  on  the  site  of  the 
of  which  years  there  was  a  commercial  encampment.  The  spot  is  enclosed  by  a 
crisis  in  that  country.  In  the  United  wall,  and  a  monument  of  marble  within 
States  the  periodical  return  has  been  less  commemorates  the  dead, 
regular  and  less  frequent,  the  most  notable  Paper  Money  in  America.  To  defray 
panics  that  were  followed  by  crises  being  the  expenses  of  De  Nonville's  expedition, 
those  of  1819,  1S37,  1857,  1873,  and  1893.  a  paper  currency,  similar  to  the  Conti- 
Of  these  that  of  1837  was  caused  by  ex-  rental  bills  of  credit,  was  issued  by  the 
cessive  land  speculations  and  the  opera-  government  of  Canada  in  1684,  which  was 
tions  of  '"wild-eat"  banks  (see  Banks,  called  "card  money."  It  was  redeemable 
Wild-cat)  ;  that  of  1857,  in  large  measure  in  bills  on  France.  Levies  for  the  French 
also  due  to  land  speculations,  causing  sus-  and  Indian  War  were  raised  in  Virginia, 
pension  of  many  banks,  and  5,123  com-  and  in  1755  the  Virginia  Assembly,  having 
mercial  failures  with  liabilities 
exceeding  $300,000,000;  that  of 
1873,  caused  by  over-speculation 
and  the  suspension  of  specie  pay- 
ments, was  precipitated  by  the 
failure  of  Jay  Cooke  &  Co. ;  and 
that  of  1893,  attributed  both  to 
silver  legislation  in  Congress  and 
a  fear  of  changes  in  the  tariff. 

Paoli  Tavern.  Near  this  build- 
ing, on  the  Lancaster  road,  Gen- 
eral Wayne  lay  encamped,  with 
1,500  men  and  two  cannon,  in 
a  secluded  spot,  on  the  night  of 
Sept.  20.  1777.  A  Tory  inform- 
ed Howe  of  this  encampment,  and 
he  sent  General  Grey,  with  a  con- 
siderable force,  to  attack  it  at 
midnight.     The  night  was   dark 

and  stormy.  Grey  gave- orders  to  use  only  voted  £20,000  towards  their  support,  au- 
the  bayonet,  and  give  no  quarter.  He  ap-  thorized  the  issue  of  treasury  notes — the 
proached  stealthily,  murdering  the  pickets  first  paper  money  of  that  province.  See 
near     the     highway.      Warned     by     this,    Currency. 

Wayne  immediately  paraded  his  men,  but,  Papineau,  Louis  Joseph,  politician; 
unfortunately,  in  the  light  of  his  camp-  born  in  Montreal,  Canada,  in  October, 
fires.  Towards  midnight  Grey's  force,  in  1789;  educated  at  the  Seminary  of  Que- 
two  divisions,  crept  up  a  ravine,  and  at    bee;  admitted  to  the  bar;  and  entered  the 

68 


PAOLI    MONTMEXT. 


PAREDES   Y   ARRILLAGA— PARKER 

Lower  Canadian  Parliament  in  1809,  be-  When  Santa  Ana  reappeared  in  Mexico, 
coming  speaker  in  1815.  He  became  a  Pared.es  was  seized  and  confined,  but  es- 
leader  of  the  radical,  or  opposition,  party  caped  to  Havana.  Going  to  Europe,  he 
at  the  beginning  of  his  public  life.  He  op-  sought  to  place  a  Spanish  or  French  prince 
posed  the  union  of  the  two  Canadas,  at  at  the  head  of  the  Mexicans.  He  after- 
which  the  English  party  aimed,  and  in  wards  returned  to  Mexico  City,  where  he 
1823  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  London,  died  on  Sept.  11,  1849. 
to  remonstrate  against  that  measure.  In  Parke,  John  Grubb,  military  officer; 
1827  he  was  again  a  member  of  the  House,  born  in  Chester  county,  Pa.,  Sept.  22,  1827; 
and  elected  its  speaker;  and  in  1834  he  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1849.  Entering 
introduced  to  that  body  a  list  of  the  de-  the  engineer  corps,  he  became  brigadier- 
mands  and  grievances  of  the  Lower  Cana-  general  of  volunteers  Nov.  23,  1861.  He 
dians,  known  as  the  "  Ninety-two  Resolu-  commanded  a  brigade  under  Burnside  in 
tions."  He  supported  the  resolutions  with  his  operations  on  the  North  Carolina 
great  ability,  and  recommended  constitu-  coast  early  in  1862,  and  with  him  joined 
tional  resistance  to  the  British  govern-  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He  served  in 
ment  and  commercial  non-intercourse  with  McClellan's  campaigns,  and  when  Burn- 
England.  Matters  were  brought  to  a  crisis  side  became  its  commander  he  was  that 
in  1837,  when  the  new  governor  (Lord  general's  chief  of  staff.  In  the  campaign 
Gosford)  decided  to  administer  the  gov-  against  Vieksburg  he  was  a  conspicuous 
ernment  without  the  assistance  of  the  actor.  He  was  with  Sherman,  command- 
colonial  Parliament.  The  Liberal  party  ing  the  left  wing  of  his  army  after  the 
flew  to  arms.  Papineau  urged  peaceful  fall  of  Vieksburg.  He  was  also  engaged 
constitutional  opposition,  but  an  insurrec-  in  the  defence  of  Knoxville;  and  in  the 
tion  was  begun  that  could  not  be  allayed  Richmond  campaign,  in  1864,  he  command- 
by  persuasion,  and  he  took  refuge  in  the  ed  the  9th  Corps,  and  continued  to  do  so 
United  States  at  the  close  of  that  year,  until  the  surrender  of  Lee.  In  1865  he  was 
In  1839  he  went  to  France,  where  he  en-  brevetted  major-general;  in  1889  was  re- 
gaged  in  literary  pursuits  about  eight  tired.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Dec. 
years.     After  the  union  of  the  Canadas,  16,  1900. 

in  1841,  and  a  general  amnesty  for  po-  Parker,  Alton  Brooks,  jurist;  born  in 
litical  offences  was  proclaimed,  in  1844,  Cortland,  N.  Y.,  May  14,  1852;  acquired  a 
Papineau  returned  to  his  native  coun-  public-school  education;  taught  school  in 
try  (1847),  and  was  made  a  member  of  Virgil,  Binghamton,  and  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
the  Canadian  Parliament.  After  1854  he  and  later  attended  the  Albany  Law  School, 
took  no  part  in  public  affairs.  He  where  he  was  graduated  in  1872.  Admit- 
died  in  Montebello,  Quebec,  Sept.  23,  ted  to  the  bar  in  1872,  practising  in  Kings- 
1871.  ton,  N.  Y. ;  became  clerk  of  the  board  of 
Paredes  y  Arrillaga,  Mariano,  mili-  supervisors  of  Ulster  county  in  1873, 
tary  officer;  born  in  Mexico  City  in  1797;  surrogate  in  1877,  and  was  re-elected  in 
became  an  active  participant  in  the  polit-  1883;  elected  justice  of  the  Supi'eme 
ical  events  in  Mexico  in  1820.  When,  Court  of  New  York  in  1885  to  fill  a 
upon  the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  Unit-  vacancy,  and  was  re-elected;  was  a 
ed  States  (1845),  President  Herrera  en-  member  of  the  Second  Division  of  the 
deavored  to  gain  the  acquiescence  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  New  York  in  1889- 
Mexicans  to  the  measure,  Paredes  assist-  93,  and  of  the  General  Term  of  the 
ed  him,  and  with  25,000  men  defeated  First  District  in  1893-96;  elected  chief- 
Santa  Ana.,  who  was  banished.  After-  justice  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  New 
wards  Paredes,  with  the  assistance  of  York  in  1897;  and  Democratic  nominee 
Arista,  defeated  Herrera,  and  was  installed  for  President  of  the  United  States,  in 
President  of  Mexico  June  12,  1845.     The  1904. 

next  day  he  took  command  of  the  army,  Gold-Standard    Telegram. — Immediately 

leaving  civil  affairs  in  the  hands  of  Vice-  after  his  nomination  he  broke  his  silence 

President  Bravo.     He  was  at  the  head  of  as  to  his  political  views  by  sending  to  the 

the    government    on    the    breaking-out    of  national    convention    the    following    tolt- 

war  with  tha  United  States  (May,  1846).  gram: 

64 


PARKER 


"  Esopus,  N.  Y.,  July  9,  1904- 

"  I  regard  the  gold  standard  as  firmly 
and  irrevocably  established  and  shall  act 
accordingly  if  the  action  of  the  conven- 
tion to-day  shall  be  ratified  by  the  people. 

"  As  the  platform  is  silent  on  the  sub- 
ject, my  view  should  be  made  known  to 
the  convention,  and  if  it  is  proved  to  be 
unsatisfactory  to  the  majority  I  request 
you  to  decline  the  nomination  for  me  at 
once,  so  that  another  may  be  nominated 
before  adjournment. 

"  Alton  B.  Parker." 

After  the  election  Judge  Parker  re- 
moved to  New  York  City  and  engaged  in 
active  law  practice. 

Parker,  Edward  Grtfftn,  lawyer;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov-  16,  1825;  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1847;  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1849,  and  practised  in  Boston 
till  1861,  when  he  entered  the  National 
army  as  an  aide  on  the  staff  of  Gen. 
Benjamin  F.  Butler.  After  the  war 
he  removed  to  New  York  City.  His 
publications  include  The  Golden  Age  of 
American  Oratory  and  Reminiscences  of 
Rufus  Choate.  He  died  in  New  York  City, 
March  30,  1868. 

Parker,  Ely  Samuel,  military  officer; 
born  on  the  Seneca  Indian  reservation, 
Tonawanda,  N.  Y.,  in  1828;  became  chief 
of  the  Six  Nations;  was  educated  for  a 
civil  engineer ;  was  a  personal  friend  of 
Gen.  U.  S.  Grant,  and  during  the  Civil 
War  was  a  member  of  his  staff,  and  mili- 
tary secretary.  In  the  latter  capacity  he 
drew  up  the  first  copy  of  the  terms  of 
capitulation  of  General  Lee's  army.  He 
was  commissioned  a  first  lieutenant  of 
U.  S.  cavalry  in  1866;  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  U.  S.  A.  in  1867;  and  was  com- 
missioner of  Indian  affairs  in  1869-71. 
He  died  in  Fairfield,  Conn.,  Aug.  31,  1895. 

Parker,  Foxhall  Alexander,  nara.1 
officer;  born  in  New  York  City,  Aug.  5, 
1S21 ;  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  in 
1843;  served  through  the  Civil  War  with 
distinction ;  was  promoted  commodore  in 
1872.  His  publications  include  Fleet 
Tactics;  Squadron  Tactics;  The  Naval 
Howitzer ;  The  Battle  of  Mobile  Bay;  etc. 
He  died  in  Annapolis,  Md.,  June  10, 
1879. 

Parker,  Sir  Hyde,  naval  officer;  born 
in  England  in  1739;  was  in  command  of 
one  of  the  ships  which  attacked  New  York 


City  in  1776.  He  also  participated  in  the 
capture  of  Savannah  in  1778.  He  died  in 
Copenhagen,  Denmark,  March  7,   1807. 

Parker,  Joel,  jurist;  born  in  Jaffrey, 
N.  H.,  Jan.  25,  1795;  graduated  at  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1811;  admitted  to  the 
bar  and  began  practice  in  Keene,  N.  H.,  in 
1815;  became  chief-justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  New  Hampshire  in  1836;  was 
Professor  of  Medical  Jurisprudence  in 
Dartmouth  College  in  1847-57.  His  pub- 
lications include  Daniel  Webster  as  a 
Jurist;  The  Non-Extension  of  Slavery; 
Personal  Liberty  Laics  and  Slavery  in  the 
Territories ;  The  Right  of  Secession;  Con- 
stitutional Laic;  The  War  Powers  of  Con- 
gress and  the  President;  Revolution  and 
Construction;  The  Three  Poicers  of  Gov- 
ernment; Conflict  of  Decisions ;  etc.  He 
died  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  17,  1875. 

Parker,  Sir  Peter,  naval  officer;  born 
in  England  in  1721;  became  a  post-cap- 
tain in  the  British  navy  in  1747.  As  com- 
mander of  a  fleet,  he  co-operated  with  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  in  an  unsuccessful  attack 
on  Charleston,  June  28,  1776.  He  after- 
wards assisted  both  Viscount  General 
Howe  and  Admiral  Lord  Howe  in  the 
capture  of  New  York,  and  commanded  the 
squadron  which  took  possession  of  Rhode 
Island  late  in  that  year.  He  died  in 
England,  Dec.  21,  1811. 

Parker,  Sir  Peter,  grandson  of  the 
above;  born  in  England  in  1786;  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  commanded 
the  Menelaus  in  the  War  of  1812.  On  a 
plundering  expedition,  Aug.  30,  1814,  he 
met  a  band  of  Maryland  militia,  and  in 
the  fight  Sir  Peter  was  killed. 

Parker,  Theodore,  clergyman;  born  in 
Lexington,  Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1810.  His 
grandfather,  Capt.  John  Parker,  command- 
ed the  company  of  minute-men  in  the  skir- 
mish at  Lexington.  In  1829  he  entered 
Harvard  College,  but  did  not  graduate; 
taught  school  until  1837,  when  he  wa9 
settled  over  a  Unitarian  society  at  West 
Roxbury.  In  1846  he  became  minister 
of  the  28th  Congregational  Society  in 
Boston.  Parker  became  the  most  famous 
preacher  of  his  time.  He  urgently  op- 
posed the  war  with  Mexico  as  a  scheme 
for  the  extension  of  slavery;  was  an  early 
advocate  of  temperance  and  anti-slavery 
measures;  and  after  the  passage  of  the 
fugitive    slave    law    he    was    one    of    its 


65 


PARKER,    THEODORE 


most  uncompromising  opponents.  So  mark-  ruled — as  it  is  commonly  thought — either 
ed  was  his  sympathy  for  Anthony  Burns,  by  the  mass  of  men  who  follow  their  na- 
the  seized  fugitive  slave  at  Boston  (Janu-  tional,  ethnological,  and  human  instincts, 
ary,  1854),  as  to  cause  his  indictment  and  or  by  a  few  far-sighted  men  of  genius  for 
trial  for  a  violation  of  the  fugitive  slave  politics,  who  consciously  obey  the  law  of 
law.  It  was  quashed.  In  1859  hemor-  God  made  clear  in  their  own  masterly  mind 
rhage  of  the  lungs  terminated  his  public  and  conscience,  and  make  statutes  in  ad- 
career.  He  sailed  first  to  Santa  Cruz,  vance  of  the  calculation  or  even  the  in- 
thence    to    Europe,    spending    the    winter    stincts  of  the  people,  and  so  manage  the 

ship  of  state  that  every  occasional   tack 

r- - "1        is    on    a   great   circle   of   the   universe,   a 

'        right    line    of    justice,    and    therefore    the 

V-  -  shortest  way  to  welfare;  but  by  two  very 

T  ^"^  different    classes    of    men — by    mercantile 

men,  who  covet  money,  actual  or  expectant 
,.-.  _,  capitalists;    and    by    political    men,    who 

want  power,  actual  or  expectant  office- 
holders. These  appear  diverse;  but  there 
is  a  strong  unanimity  between  the  two — 
for  the  mercantile  men  want  money  as  a 
means  of  power  and  the  political  men 
power  as  a  means  of  money.  There  are 
noble  men  in  both  classes,  exceptional,  not 
instantial,  men  with  great  riches  even, 
and  great  office.  But,  as  a  class,  these 
men  are  not  above  the  average  morality 
of  the  people,  often  below  it ;  they  have 
no  deep  religious  faith,  which  leads  them 
to  trust  the  higher  law  of  God.  They  do 
not  look  for  principles  that  are  right,  con- 
formable to  the  constitution  of  the  uni- 
verse, and  so  creative  of  the  nation's 
permanent  welfare,  but  only  for  expedient 
measures,  productive  to  themselves  of  self- 
ish money  or  selfish  power.  In  general, 
they  have  the  character  of  adventurers, 
the  aims  of  adventurers,  the  morals  of  ad- 
venturers ;  they  begin  poor,  and  of  course 
obscure,  and  are  then  "  democratic,"  and 
hurrah  for  the  people:  "Down  with  the, 
powerful  and  the  rich,"  is  the  private 
maxim  of  their  heart.  If  they  are  suc- 
cessful and  become  rich,  famous,  attaining 
high  office,  they  commonly  despise  the 
I.  Will  there  be  a  separation  of  the  two    people:    "Down  with  the  people!"  is  the 


THKODORK    PARKER. 


of  1859-60  in  Rome,  whence,  in  April, 
he  set  out  for  home,  but  only  reached 
Florence,  where  he  died,  May  10,  1860. 
He  bequeathed  13,000  valuable  books  to 
the  Public  Library  of  Boston. 

The  following  are  extracts  from  Parker's 
oration  en  the  dangers  of  slavery: 


elements,  and  a  formation  of  two  distinct 
states — freedom  with  democracy,  and  sla- 
very with  a  tendency  to  despotism  ?  That 
may  save  one-half  the  nation,  and  leave 
the  other  to  voluntary  ruin.  Certainly, 
it  is  better  to  enter  into  life  halt  or  maim- 
ed rather  than  having  two  hands  and  two 
feet  to  be  cast  into  everlasting  fire.  .  .  . 
But  I  do  not  think  this  "  dissolution  of 


axiom  of  their  heart — only  they  dare  not 
say  it;  for  there  are  so  many  others  with 
the  same  selfishness,  who  have  not  yet 
achieved  their  end,  and  raise  the  oppo- 
site cry.  The  line  of  the  nation's  course 
is  a  resultant  of  the  compound  selfishness 
of  these  two  classes. 

From  these  two,  with  their  mercantile 
and  political  selfishness,  we  are  to  expect 


the  Union  "   will   take   place   immediately    no  comprehensive  morality,  which  will  se- 
or  very  soon.     For  America  is  not  now    cure  the  rights  of  mankind;    no  compre- 

66 


PARKER,  THEODORE 

hensive  policy  which  will  secure  expedient  Mexico,    to    get    more   slave    soil.      Ninth, 

measures  for  a  long  time.    Both  will  unite  America   gave   ten   millions   of    money   to 

in    what    serves    their    apparent    interest,  Texas  to  support  slavery,  passed  the  fugi- 

brings  money  to  the  trader,  power  to  the  tive   slave   bill,   and   has   since   kidnapped 

politician — whatever    be    the    consequence  men    in    New    England,    New    York,    New 

to  the  country.  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wis- 

As   things   now   are,   the   Union    favors  consin,  Illinois,  Indiana,  in  all  the  East, 

the   schemes   of   both   of   these   classes   of  in  all  the  West,  in  all  the  Middle  States, 

men;    thereby   the   politician   gets   power,  All  the  great  cities  have  kidnapped  their 

the  trader  makes  money.  own    citizens.      Professional    slave-hunters 

If  the  Union  were  to  be  dissolved  and  a  are  members  of  New  England  churches; 
great  Northern  commonwealth  were  to  be  kidnappers  sit  down  at  the  Lord's  table 
organized,  with  the  idea  of  freedom,  three-  in  the  city  of  Cotton,  Chauncey,  and  May- 
quarters  of  the  politicians,  federal  and  hew.  In  this  very  year,  before  it  is  half 
State,  would  pass  into  contempt  and  ob-  through,  America  has  taken  two  more 
livion;  all  that  class  of  Northern  dema-  steps  for  the  destruction  of  freedom.  The 
gogues  who  scoff  at  God's  law,  such  as  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  and  the 
filled  the  offices  of  the  late  Whig  admin-  enslavement  of  Nebraska:  that  is  the  tenth 
istration  in  its  day  of  power  or  as  fill  the  step.  Here  is  the  eleventh :  the  Mexican 
offices  of  the  Democratic  administration  treaty,  giving  away  $10,000,000  and  buy- 
to-day — they  would  drop  down  so  deep  ing  a  little  strip  of  worthless  land,  solely 
that  no  plummet  would  ever  reach  them;  that  it  may  serve  the  cause  of  slavery. 
you  would  never  hear  of  them  again.  .  .  .  Here  are  eleven  great  steps  openly  taken 

II.  The  next  hypothesis  is,  freedom  may  towards  the  ruin  of  liberty  in  America, 
triumph  over  slavery.  That  was  the  ex-  Are  these  the  worst?  Very  far  from  it! 
pectation  once,  at  the  time  of  the  Declara-  Yet  more  dangerous  things  have  been  done 
tion  of  Independence;   nay,  at  the  forma-  in  secret. 

tion   of  the  Constitution.      But  only  two  I.  Slavery  has  corrupted  the  mercantile 

national    steps   have   beeen   taken   against  class.     Almost  all  the  leading  merchants 

slavery  since  then — one  the  ordinance  of  of  the  North  are  pro-slavery  men.     They 

1787,  the  other  the  abolition  of  the  Afri-  hate    freedom,    hate    your    freedom    and 
can  slave-trade;   really  that  was  done  in  mine!    This  is  the  only  Christian  country 

1788,  formally  twenty  years  after.  In  in  which  commerce  is  hostile  to  freedom, 
the  individual  States  the  white  man's  free-  II.  See  the  corruption  of  the  political 
dom  enlarges  every  year ;  but  the  federal  class.  There  are  40,000  officers  of  the 
government  becomes  more  and  more  ad-  federal  government.  Look  at  them  in 
dieted  to  slavery.  This  hypothesis  does  Boston — their  character  is  as  well  known 
not  seem  very  likely  to  be  adopted.  as  this  hall.     Read  their  journals  in  this 

III.  Shall  slavery  destroy  freedom?  It  city — do  you  catch  a  whisper  of  freedom 
looks  very  much  like  it.  Here  are  nine  in  them?  Slavery  has  sought  its  menial 
great  steps,  openly  taken  since  '87,  in  servants  —  men  basely  born  and  basely 
favor  of  slavery.  First,  America  put  sla-  bred:  it  has  corrupted  them  still  further, 
very  into  the  Constitution.  Second,  out  and  put  them  in  office.  America,  like  Rus- 
of  old  soil  she  made  four  new  slave  States,  sia,  is  the  country  for  mean  men  to  thrive 
Third,  America,  in  1793,  adopted  slavery  in.  Give  him  time  and  mire  enough — 
as  a  federal  institution,  and  guaranteed  a  worm  can  crawl  as  high  as  an  eagle 
her  protection  for  that  kind  of  property  flies.  State  rights  are  sacrificed  at  the 
as  for  no  other.  Fourth,  America  bought  North  ;  centralization  goes  on  with  rapid 
the  Louisiana  territory  in  1803,  and  put  strides;  State  laws  are  trodden  under  foot, 
slavery  into  it.  Fifth,  she  thence  made  The  Northern  President  is  all  for  slavery. 
Louisiana,  Missouri,  and  then  Arkansas  The  Northern  members  of  the  cabinet  are 
slave  States.  Sixth,  she  made  slavery  for  slavery;  in  the  Senate,  fourteen  North- 
perpetual  in  Florida.  Seventh,  she  an-  ern  Democrats  were  for  the  enslavement 
nexed  Texas.  Eighth,  she  fought  the  Mexi-  of  Nebraska;  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
can  War,  and  plundered  a  feeble  sister  tives,  forty-four  Northern  Democrats  voted 
republic    of    California,    Utah,    and    New  for  the  bill — fourteen  in  the  Senate,  forty- 

67 


BARKER,    THEODORE 


four  in  the  House;  fifty-eight  Northern 
men  voted  against  the  conscience  of  the 
North  and  the  law  of  God.  Only  eight 
men  out  of  all  the  South  could  be  found 
friendly  to  justice  and  false  to  their  own 
local  idea  of  injustice.  The  present  ad- 
ministration, with  its  supple  tools  of  tyr- 
anny, came  into  office  while  the  cry  of 
"  No  higher  law  "  was  echoing  through  the 
land! 

III.  Slavery  has  debauched  the  press. 
How  many  leading  journals  of  commerce 
and  politics  in  the  great  cities  do  you 
know  that  are  friendly  to  freedom  and 
opposed  to  slavery?  Out  of  the  five  large 
daily  commercial  papers  in  Boston,  Whig 
or  Democratic,  I  know  of  only  one  that 
has  spoken  a  word  for  freedom  this  great 
while.  The  American  newspapers  are  poor 
defenders  of  American  liberty.  Listen  to 
one  of  them,  speaking  of  the  last  kidnap- 
ping in  Boston:  "  We  shall  need  to  employ 
the  same  measures  of  coercion  as  are  neces- 
sary in  monarchical  countries."  There  is 
always  some  one  ready  to  do  the  basest 
deeds.  Yet  there  are  some  noble  jour- 
nals, political  and  commercial,  such  as  the 
New  York  Tribune  and  Evening  Post. 

IV.  Then  our  colleges  and  schools  are 
corrupted  by  slavery.  I  do  not  know  of 
five  colleges  in  all  the  North  which  pub- 
licly appear  on  the  side  of  freedom. 
What  the  hearts  of  the  presidents  and 
professors  are,  God  knows,  not  I.  The 
great  crime  against  humanity,  practical 
atheism,  found  ready  support  in  Northern 
colleges  in  1850  and  1851.  Once  the  com- 
mon reading-books  of  our  schools  were  full 
of  noble  words.  Head  the  school-books  now 
made  by  Yankee  peddlers  of  literature,  and 
what  liberal  ideas  do  you  find  there? 
They  are  meant  for  the  Southern  market. 
Slavery  must  not  be  offended! 

V.  Slavery  has  corrupted  the  churches! 
There  are  28,000  Protestant  clergymen  in 
the  United  States.  There  are  noble 
hearts,  true  and  just  men  among  them, 
who  have  fearlessly  borne  witness  to  the 
truth.  I  need  not  mention  their  names. 
Alas !  they  are  not  very  numerous ;  I 
should  not  have  to  go  over  my  fingers 
many  times  to  count  them  all.  I  honor 
these  exceptional  men.  Some  of  them  are 
old,  far  older  than  I  am,  older  than  my 
father  need  have  been ;  some  of  them  are 
far  younger  than  I;    nay,   some  of  them 


younger  than  my  children  might  be:  and 
I  honor  these  men  for  the  fearless  testi- 
mony which  they  have  borne — the  old, 
the  middle-aged,  and  the  young.  But 
they  are  very  exceptional  men.  Is  there 
a  minister  in  the  South  who  preaches 
against  slavery?  How  few  in  all  the 
North ! 

At  this  day  600,000  slaves  are  directly 
and  personally  owned  by  men  who  are 
called  "  professing  Christians,"  "  members 
in  good  fellowship "  of  the  churches  of 
this  land ;  80,000  owned  by  Presbyterians, 
225,000  by  Baptists,  250,000  owned  by 
Methodists — 600,000  slaves  in  this  land 
owned  by  men  who  profess  Christianity, 
and  in  churches  sit  down  to  take  the 
Lord's  Supper,  in  the  name  of  Christ  and 
God!  There  are  ministers  who  own  their 
fellow-men — "  bought  with  a  price." 

Does  this  not  look  as  if  slavery  were  to 
triumph  over  freedom? 

VI.  Slavery  corrupts  the  judicial  class. 
In  America,  especially  in  New  England, 
no  class  of  men  has  been  so  much  respected 
as  the  judges;  and  for  this  reason:  we 
have  had  wise,  learned,  excellent  men  for 
our  judges;  men  who  reverenced  the  high- 
er law  of  God,  and  sought  by  human 
statutes  to  execute  justice.  You  all  know 
their  venerable  names,  and  how  reveren- 
tially we  have  looked  up  to  them.  Many 
of  them  are  dead ;  some  are  still  living, 
and  their  hoary  hairs  are  a  crown  of 
glory  on  a  judicial  life,  without  judicial 
blot.  But  of  late  slavery  has  put  a  dif- 
ferent class  of  men  on  the  benches  of  the 
federal  courts — mere  tools  of  the  govern- 
ment ;  creatures  which  get  their  appoint- 
ment as  pay  for  past  political  service, 
and  as  pay  in  advance  for  iniquity  not  yet 
accomplished.  You  see  the  consequences. 
Note  the  zeal  of  the  federal  judges  to 
execute  iniquity  by  statute  and  destroy 
liberty.  See  how  ready  they  are  to  sup- 
port the  fugitive  slave  bill,  which  tram- 
ples on  the  spirit  of  the  Constitution, 
and  its  letter,  too;  which  outrages  jus- 
tice and  violates  the  most  sacred  prin- 
ciples and  precepts  of  Christianity.  Not 
a  United  States  judge,  circuit  or  district, 
has  uttered  one  word  against  that  "  bill 
of  abominations."  Nay,  how  greedy 
they  are  to  get  victims  under  it!  No 
wolf  loves  better  to  rend  a  lamb  into 
fragments    than    these    judges    to    kidnap 


PARKER— PARKMAN 


a  fugitive  slave,  and  punish  any  man 
who  dares  to  speak  against  it.  You  know 
what  has  happened  in  fugitive  slave  bill 
courts.  You  remember  the  "  miraculous  " 
rescue  of  Shadrach:  the  peaceable  snatch- 
ing of  a  man  from  the  hands  of  a  coward- 
ly kidnapper  was  "  high  treason  " ;  it  was 
"  levying  war."  You  remember  the 
"  trial  "  of  the  rescuers !  Judge  Sprague's 
charge  to  the  grand  jury  that,  if  they 
thought  the  question  was  which  they  ought 
to  obey,  the  law  of  man  or  the  law  of  God, 
then  they  must  "obey  both!"  serve  God 
and  mammon,  Christ  and  the  devil,  in  the 
same  act !  You  remember  the  "  trial,"  the 
"  ruling "  of  the  bench,  the  swearing  on 
the  stand,  the  witness  coming  back  to 
alter  and  "  enlarge  his  testimony "  and 
have  another  gird  at  the  prisoner!  You 
have  not  forgotten  the  trials  before  Judge 
Kane  at  Philadelphia,  and  Judge  Grier  at 
Christiana  and  Wilkesbarre. 

These  are  natural  results  of  causes  well 
known.  You  cannot  escape  a  principle. 
Enslave  a  negro,  will  you? — you  doom  to 
bondage  your  own  sons  and  daughters  by 
your  own  act.  .  .  . 

All  this  looks  as  if  the  third  hypothesis 
would  be  fulfilled,  and  slavery  triumph 
over  freedom ;  as  if  the  nation  would 
expunge  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
from  the  scroll  of  time,  and,  instead  of 
honoring  Hancock  and  the  Adamses  and 
Washington,  do  homage  to  Kane  and  Grier 
and  Curtis  and  Hallett  and  Loring.  Then 
the  preamble  to  our  Constitution  might 
read  "  to  establish  justice,  insure  domestic 
strife,  hinder  the  common  defence,  dis- 
turb the  general  welfare,  and  inflict  the 
curse  of  bondage  on  ourselves  and  our 
posterity."  Then  we  shall  honor  the  Puri- 
tans no  more,  but  their  prelatical  tor- 
mentors, nor  reverence  the  great  reform- 
ers, only  the  inquisitors  of  Rome.  Yea,  we 
may  tear  the  name  of  Jesus  out  of  the 
American  Bible;  yes,  God's  name.    .    .    . 

See  the  steady  triumph  of  despotism! 
Ten  years  more  like  the  ten  years  past, 
and  it  will  be  all  over  with  the  liberties 
of  America.  Everything  must  go  down, 
and  the  heel  of  the  tyrant  will  be  on  our 
neck.  It  will  be  all  over  with  the  rights 
of  man  in  America,  and  you  and  I  must 
go  to  Austria,  to  Italy,  or  to  Siberia  for 
our  freedom;  or  perish  with  the  liberty 
which  our  fathers  fought  for  and  secured 


to  themselves — not  to  their  faithless  sons! 
Shall  America  thus  miserably  perish? 
Such  is  the  aspect  of  things  to-day! 

Parkhurst,  Charles  Henry,  clergy- 
man ;-  born  in  Framingham,  Mass.,  April 
17,  1842;  graduated  at  Amherst  in  1866; 
studied  at  Halle  and  Leipzig;  became 
pastor  of  the  Madison  Square  Presbyte- 
rian Church,  New  York  City,  in  1880.  In 
1891  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Prevention  of  Crime.  The 
revelations  made  by  the  society  led  to  an 
investigation  of  the  New  York  police  by 
the  State  authorities  in  1894.  Among 
Dr.  Parkhurst's  publications  is  Our  Fight 
xcith  Tammany. 

Parkman,  Francis,  author;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  16,  1823;  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1844,  and  fitted  him- 
self for  the  legal  profession,  but  soon  aban- 
doned it.  He  made  a  tour  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  lived  for  some  time  among 
trie    Dakota    Indians.      The   hardships    he 


FRANCIS    PARKMAN. 


there  endured  caused  a  permanent  im- 
pairment of  his  health,  and  through  life 
he  suffered  from  a  chronic  disease  and 
partial  blindness.  Notwithstanding  these 
disabilities  he  long  maintained  a  fore- 
most rank  among  trustworthy  and  accom- 
plished American  historians.  His  chief 
literary  labors  were  in  the  field  of  in- 
quiry concerning  the  power  of  the  French, 
political  and  ecclesiastical,  in  North  Amer- 
ica.    So  careful  and  painstaking  were  his 


PARKS    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES— PARLIAMENT 

labors  that  he  was  regarded  as  authority  crown;  it  can  alter  and  establish  the  re- 
on  those  subjects  which  engaged  his  ligion  of  the  country, 
pen.  Mr.  Parkman's  first  work  was  The  The  first  act  of  the  British  Parliament 
California  and  Oregon  Trail,  in  which  relating  to  the  American  colonies  was 
he  embodied  his  experience  in  the  Far  passed  in  1548,  and  prohibited  the  ex- 
West.  His  first  work  on  the  French  in  action  of  any  reward  by  an  officer  of 
America  was  The  Conspiracy  of  Pon-  the  English  admiralty  from  English 
tiac  (1851).  It  was  followed  by  Pioneers  fishermen  and  mariners  going  on  the 
of  France  in  the  New  World  (1865);  The  service  of  the  fishery  at  Newfoundland. 
Jesuits  in  North  America;  The  Discovery  The  next  of  importance,  and  the  first  that 
of  the  Great  West.  (1869);  The  Old  Re-  elicited  debate,  was  in  1621,  when  the 
gime  in  Canada  (1874);  Montcalm  and  House  of  Commons  denounced  the  new 
Wolfe  (1883).  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  charter  given  to  the  Plymouth  Company 
Nov.  8,  1893.  {q.  v.)  as  a  "  grievance."  The  King,  anger- 
Parks  in  the  United  States.  The  de-  ed  by  what  he  regarded  as  an  attack  upon 
velopment  of  the  park  system,  national,  his  prerogative,  had  Sir  Edward  Coke, 
state,  and  civic,  in  the  United  States,  is  Pym,  and  other  members  imprisoned,  or 
recent,  though  Boston  had  its  "  Common,"  virtually  so,  for  what  he  called  "  factious 
part  of  a  purchase  for  a  cow  pasture  in  conduct."  The  debates  involved  the  dec- 
1634,  and  since  1878  protected  from  en-  laration  of  the  right  of  Parliament  to 
croachment  by  law.  Interest  in  public  absolutely  rule  colonial  affairs  and  a  flat 
parks  was  created  by  the  papers  of  A.  J.  denial  of  the  right — the  course  of  debate 
Downing  in  1849,  and  led  to  the  establish-  followed  before  the  War  of  the  Bevolu- 
ment  of  Central  Park  (862  acres)  in  the  tion  began.  At  that  session  King  James 
city  of  New  York  in  1857.  The  most  im-  took  high-handed  measures  against  the 
portant  national  parks  or  reservations  in  representatives  of  the  people.  He  declared 
the  United  States  are:  the  proceedings  of  the  House  of  Commons 

the  work  of  "  fiery,   popular,  and  turbu- 

Yosemite  Park  and  Mariposa  Grove,  on  lent  spirits,"  to  which  they  replied  by  in- 

thc  Merced  River  in  Mariposa  county,  , .          .       ,,    .       .             ■,             ■.     ■,        , . 

Cal.,   discovered   in   1851,    and   estab-  serting    m    their    journals    a    declaration 

lished  by  Congress 1864  that  they  had  the  right  of  discussing  all 

Yellowstone  National  Park,  3,575  square  subjects  in  such  order  as  they  might  think 

miles,     nearly     all     in     northwestern  proper,  and  asserting  that  they  were  not 

Wyoming,  established  by  act  of  Con-  ., ,       ,       ,,       %r.          ,.         ,,    . 

gress                                              May  1,  1872  responsible    to    the    King    for    their    con- 

&.State forestry  commission  was  appointed  duct.     James  sent  for  the  book,  tore  out 

by  New  York  State  for  the  preservation  the  obnoxious   entry  with  his  own  hand, 

of  the  Adirondack  forest 1885  „    i     „„„„„j„j  «.„;,.  „:j.a:„,,„ 

State  reservation  at  Niagara  Falls  opened  and  suspended  their  sittings. 

to  the  public July  15,  1885  In    1763    the   extent    of    the   powers    of 

Parliament  over  the  colonies  began  to 
Parliament,  English.  The  Teutonic  be  seriously  questioned.  A  certain  su- 
Witenagemot  or  assembly  of  the  wise,  the  premacy  was  admitted.  For  a  long  time 
noble,  and  the  great  men  of  the  nation  the  colonies,  especially  of  New  England, 
was  the  origin  of  parliament.  Coke  de-  bad  carried  on  a  struggle  with  Parliament 
clared  that  the  term  parliament  was  used  concerning  its  interference  with  colonial 
in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  manufactures,  trade,  and  commerce.  It 
a.d.  1041.  The  first  regular  parliament,  had  interfered  with  their  currency,  with 
according  to  many  historians,  was  that  joint-stock  companies,  the  collection  of 
of  Edward  I.  in  1294.  The  first  speaker  debts,  laws  of  naturalization,  assumed  to 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  Peter  De  La  legislate  concerning  the  administration  of 
Mare,  was  elected  in  1377.  The  powers  oaths,  and  to  extend  the  operations  of 
and  jurisdiction  of  Parliament  are  abso-  the  mutiny  act  to  the  colonies.  Against 
lute,  and  cannot  be  confined  either  by  these  and  other  interferences  in  their  local 
causes  or  persons  within  bounds.  It  has  affairs  the  colonists  had  protested.  Par- 
sovereign  and  uncontrollable  authority  in  liament  had  persisted,  and,  by  a  sort  of 
making  and  repealing  laws;  it  can  regu-  forced,  though  partial,  acquiescence,  these 
late  and  new-model  the  succession  to  the  interferences  came  to  be  regarded  as  vest- 

70 


PARLIAMENT,    ENGLISH 


ed  rights.  The  Parliament  had  never  vent- 
ured to  impose  direct  taxes  on  the  col- 
onies— a  supereminent  power — but  the  in- 
direct taxation,  by  means  of  custom-house 
officers,  was  regarded  as  an  equivalent  by 
the  colonists,  and  watched  with  jealous  vig- 
ilance. When,  in  1765,  schemes  of  indirect 
taxation  were  put  in  operation  to  increase 
the  imperial  revenue,  and  not  for  the  mere 
regulation  of  trade,  the  colonists  rebelled. 
The   second  Parliament  of   George   III. 


adjustment.  The  mercantile  and  trading 
interests  of  every  kind,  whose  business  was 
seriously  menaced  by  the  American  Associ- 
ation, formed  a  powerful  class  of  outside 
opponents  of  the  ministers.  The  English 
Dissenters,  also,  were  inclined,  by  relig- 
ious sympathies,  to  favor  the  Americans. 
In  the  House  of  Commons,  the  papers  re- 
ferring to  America  were  referred  to  a 
committee  of  the  whole;  while  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  Chatham   (William  Pitt), 


opened  in  December,  1768.     All  the  papers    after  long  absence,  appeared  and  proposed 


relating  to  the  American  colonies  were 
laid  before  it.  The  House  of  Lords  se- 
verely denounced  the  public  proceedings 
in  Massachusetts.  Approving  the  conduct 
of  the  ministry,  they  recommended  instruc- 
tions to  the  governor  of  Massachusetts  to 
obtain  full  information  "  of  all  treasons," 
and  to  send  the  offenders  to  England 
for  trial,  under  an   unrepealed  statute  of 


an  address  to  the  King  advising  a  recall 
of  the  troops  from  Boston.  This  proposi- 
tion was  rejected  by  a  decisive  majority. 
Petitions  for  conciliation,  which  flowed 
into  the  House  of  Commons  from  all  the 
trading  and  manufacturing  towns  in  the 
kingdom,  were  referred  to  another  com- 
mittee, which  the  opposition  called  the 
"  committee  of  oblivion."     Among  the  pe- 


Henry  VIII.  for  the  punishment  of  treason    titions  to  the  King  was  that  of  the  Conti- 


committed  out  of  the  kingdom.  These  rec- 
ommendations met  powerful  opposition  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  which  Barre. 
Burke,  and  Pownall  took  the  lead.  But 
Parliament,  as  a  body,  considered  the  pro- 
ceedings in  the  colonies  as  indicative  of  a 
factious  and  rebellious  spirit,  and  the  rec- 
ommendations of  the  House  of  Lords  were 


nental  Congress,  presented  by  Franklin, 
Bollan,  and  Lee,  three  colonial  agents,  who 
asked  to  be  heard  upon  it,  by  counsel,  at 
the  bar  of  the  House.  Their  request  was 
refused  on  the  ground  that  the  Congress 
was  an  illegal  assembly  and  the  alleged 
grievances  only  pretended. 

On    Feb.    1,    Chatham   brought   forward 


adopted  by  a  very  decided  majority;   for  a  bill  for  settling  the  troubles  in  America, 

each  member   seemed   to   consider  himself  which  provided  for  a  full  acknowledgment 

insulted  by  the  independent  spirit  of  the  on  the  part  of  the  colonies  of  the  suprem- 

Americans.       "  Every    man    in    England,"  acy  and  superintending  power  of  Parlia- 

wrote    Franklin,    "  regards    himself    as    a  ment,  but  that  no  tax  should  ever  be  levied 

piece  of  a  sovereign  over  America — seems  except  by  consent  of  the  colonial  assem- 

to  jostle  himself  into  the  throne  with  the  blies.     It  provided  for  a   congress  of  the 


King,   and   talks   of   our   subjects   in   the 
colonies." 

The  election  for  members  of  a  new  Par- 
liament that  took  place  in  November, 
1774,  resulted  in  a  large  ministerial  ma- 
jority, which  boded  no  good  for  the  Amer- 
ican colonies.     The  King,  in  his  opening 


colonies  to  make  the  acknowledgment,  and 
to  vote,  at  the  same  time,  a  free  grant  to 
the  King  of  a  certain  perpetual  revenue  to 
be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Parliament. 
His  bill  was  refused  the  courtesy  of  lying 
on  the  table,  and  was  rejected  by  a  vote 
of  two  to  one  at  the  first  reading.     The 


speech  (Nov.  30),  spoke  of  the  "daring  ministry,  feeling  strong  in  their  large  ma- 
spirit  of  resistance  in  the  colonies,"  and  jority  of  supporters,  presented  a  bill  in 
assured  the  legislature  that  he  had  taken  the  House  of  Commons  (Feb.  3)  for  cut- 
measures  and  given  orders  for  the  restora-  ting  off  the  trade  of  New  England  else- 
tion  of  peace  and  order,  which  he  hoped  where  than  to  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and 
would  be  effectual.  A  large  majority  of  the  British  West  Indies.  This  was  intend- 
both  Houses  were  ready  to  support  the  ed  to  offset  the  American  Association.  It 
King  and  his  ministers  in  coercive  meas-  also  provided  for  the  suspension  of  these 
ures;  but  there  was  a  minority  of  able  colonies  from  the  prosecution  of  the  New- 
men,  in  and  out  of  Parliament,  utterly  op-  foundland  fisheries,  a  principal  branch  of 
posed  to  subduing  the  colonies  by  force  of  their  trade  and  industry.  In  an  address 
arms,  and  anxious  to  promote  an  amicable  to  the  throne  proposed  by  ministers  (Feb. 

71 


PAELIAMENT,    ENGLISH 

7),  it  was  declared  tnat  rebellion  existed  colonies,"  and  entreating  the  King,  as  a 
in  Massachusetts,  countenanced  and  fo-  first  step  towards  the  redress  of  givev- 
mented  by  unlawful  combinations  in  other  ances,  to  dismiss  his  present  ministry.  In 
colonies.  Effectual  measures  were  recom-  tliese  debates  the  speakers  exhibited  vari- 
mended  for  suppressing  the  rebellion.  The  ous  phases  of  statesmanship,  from  the  sa- 
support  of  Parliament  was  pledged  to  the  gacious  reasoner  to  the  flippant  optimist, 
King.  who,  believing  in  the  omnipotence  of  Great 
Then  Lord  North  astonished  his  party  Britain  and  the  cowardice  and  weakness 
and  the  nation  by  proposing  a  scheme  for  of  the  Americans,  felt  very  little  concern, 
conciliation,  not  much  unlike  that  of  Charles  James  Fox  advised  the  administra- 
Chatham.  It  proposed  that  when  any  tion  to  place  the  Americans  where  they 
colony  should  offer  to  make  a  provision  stood  in  1763,  and  to  repeal  every  act 
for  raising  a  sum  of  money  disposable  passed  since  that  time  which  affected 
by  Parliament  for  the  common  defence,  either  their  freedom  or  their  commerce, 
and  should  provide  for  the  support  of  civil  Lord  North  said  if  such  a  scheme  should 
government  and  the  administration  of  be  effected  there  would  be  an  end  to  the 
justice  within  its  own  limits,  and  such  dispute.  His  plan  was  to  send  an  arma- 
offer  should  be  approved  by  the  King,  Par-  ment  to  America,  accompanied  by  commis- 
liament  should  forbear  the  levy  of  any  sioners  to  offer  mercy  upon  a  proper 
duties  or  taxes  within  such  colony,  so  submission,  for  he  believed  the  Americans 
long  as  it  should  be  faithful  to  its  prom-  were  aiming  at  independence.  This  belief 
ises,  excepting  such  as  might  be  required  and  its  conclusion  were  denied  by  Gen- 
for  the  regulation  of  trade.  The  bill  was  eral  Conway,  who  asked,  "  Did  the  Ameri- 
warmly  opposed  by  the  ultra  advocates  of  cans  set  up  a  claim  for  independence  pre- 
parliamentary  supremacy,  until  North  ex-  vious  to  1763?"  and  answered,  "No,  they 
plained  that  he  did  not  believe  it  would  were  then  dutiful  and  peaceable  subjects, 
be  acceptable  to  all  the  colonies,  and  that  and  they  are  still  dutiful."  He  declared 
it  was  intended  to  divide  and  weaken  that  the  obnoxious  acts  of  Parliament  had 
them.  Then  the  bill  passed.  With  a  simi-  forced  them  into  acts  of  resistance, 
lar  design,  a  bill  with  the  features  of  "  Taxes  have  been  levied  upon  them,"  he 
the  New  England  "restraining  bill"  was  said;  "their  charters  have  been  violated, 
passed,  after  hearing  of  the  general  sup-  nay,  taken  away;  administration  has  at- 
port  given  by  the  colonial  assemblies  to  tempted  to  overawe  them  by  the  most 
the  proceedings  of  the  Congress.  It  ex-  cruel  and  oppressive  laws."  Edmund 
tended  similar  restrictions  to  all  the  colo-  Burke  condemned  the  use  of  discretionary 
nies  excepting  New  York,  North  Carolina,  power  made  by  General  Gage  at  Boston, 
and  Georgia,  the  first  and  last  named  James  Grenville  deprecated  the  use  of 
having  declined  to  adopt  the  American  force  against  the  Americans,  because  they 
Association,  and  the  ministers  entertain-  did  not  aim  at  independence;  while  Mr. 
ing  hope  of  similar  action  by  the  Assembly  Adam  thought  it  absolutely  necessary  to  ' 
of  North  Carolina.  reduce  them  to  submission  by  force,  be- 
Finally  Burke  offered  a  series  of  resolu-  cause,  if  they  should  be  successful  in  their 
tions  to  abandon  all  attempts  at  parlia-  opposition,  they  would  certainly  "  proceed 
mentary  taxation  and  to  return  to  the  old  to  independence."  He  attempted  to  show 
method  of  raising  American  supplies  by  that  their  subjugation  would  be  easy,  be- 
the  free  grant  of  the  colonial  assemblies,  cause  there  would  be  no  settled  form  of 
His  motion  was  voted  down.  Soon  after-  government  in  America,  and  all  must  be 
wards  John  Wilkes  (then  Lord  Mayor  of  anarchy  and  confusion. 
London,  as  well  as  member  of  the  House  of  Mr.  Burke  asked  leave  to  bring  in  a, 
Commons),  whom  the  ministry  had  tried  bill  for  composing  the  troubles  in  Amer- 
to  crush,  and  whom  they  regarded  as  their  ica,  and  for  quieting  the  minds  of  the  - 
mortal  enemy,  presented  to  the  King,  in  his  colonists.  He  believed  concession  to  be 
official  capacity,  a  remonstrance  from  the  the  true  path  to  pursue  to  reach  the  happy 
City  authorities  expressing  "  abhorrence "  result.  He  proposed  a  renunciation  of 
of  the  measures  in  progress  for  "  the  op-  the  exercise  of  taxation,  but  not  the  right ; 
pression    of    their    fellow-subjects    in    the  to  preserve  the  power  of  laying  duties  for 

72 


PARLIAMENT    OF    RELIGIONS— PARROTT 


the  regulation  of  commerce,  but  the  money 
raised  was  to  be  at  the  disposal  of  the 
several  general  assemblies.  He  proposed 
to  repeal  the  tea  duty  of  1767,  and  to  pro- 
claim a  general  amnesty.  His  speech  on 
that  occasion  embraced  every  considera- 
tion of  justice  and  expediency,  and  warn- 
ed ministers  that  if  they  persisted  in  vex- 
ing the  colonies  they  would  drive  the 
Americans  to  a  separation  from  the 
mother-country.  The  plan  was  rejected. 
Mr.  Luttrell  proposed  to  ask  the  King  to 
authorize  commissioners  to  receive  pro- 
posals for  conciliation  from  any  general 
convention  of  Americans,  or  their  Con- 
gress, as  the  most  effectual  means  for  pre- 
venting the  effusion  of  blood.  It  was  re- 
jected. In  the  House  of  Lords  the  Duke 
of  Grafton  proposed  to  bring  in  a  bill  for 
repealing  every  act  which  had  been  passed 
by  Parliament  relative  to  America  since 
1763.  It  was  not  acted  upon.  Lord 
Lyttelton  severely  condemned  the  meas- 
ures of  the  administration,  and  united 
with  the  Duke  of  Grafton  in  his  proposi- 
tion for  a  repeal  of  the  obnoxious  acts. 
He,  with  others,  had  believed  that  a  show 
of  determination  to  reduce  the  colonies  to 
submission  would  cause  them  to  quail. 
He  now  knew  he  was  mistaken.  The 
valiant  declaration  went  forth,  backed  by 
10,000  men,  but  it  had  not  intimidated  a 
single  colony.  Notwithstanding  the  strong 
reasons  given  by  the  opposition  for  minis- 
ters to  be  conciliatory  towards  the  Amer- 
icans, the  majority  of  Parliament  were  in 
favor  of  attempting  coercion  with  a  strong 
hand.  Towards  the  end  of  the  session 
Burke  asked  leave  to  lay  before  the  Com- 
mons the  remonstrance  lately  voted  by 
the  Assembly  of  New  York.  The  ministry 
and  their  friends  had  counted  largely  on 
Ihe  defection  of  that  province;  and  they 
were  so  sorely  disappointed  when  they 
found  the  document  so  emphatic  in  its 
claims  of  the  rights  of  Englishmen  that 
Lord  North  opposed  and  prevented  its  re- 
ception by  the  House.  The  acts  of  that 
session  of  Parliament  greatly  widened  the 
breach  between  Great  Britain  and  her 
American  colonies. 

Parliament  of  Religions,  held  at  the 
World's  Fair  in  Chicago,  Sept.  11-27, 
1893.  The  objects  proposed  were:  (1) 
To  bring  together  in  conference  the  lead- 
ing representatives  of  different  religions; 


(2)  to  define  and  expound  the  important 
truths  they  hold   and   teach   in   common; 

( 3 )  to  promote  and  deepen  human  brother- 
hood; (4)  to  strengthen  the  foundations 
of  theism  and  the  faith  in  immortality; 
(5)  to  hear ~  from  scholars,  Brahman, 
Buddhist,  Confucian,  Parsee,  Mohammedan, 
Jewish,  and  other  faiths,  and  from  all 
sects  and  denominations  of  the  Christian 
Church,  accounts  of  the  influence  of  each 
belief  on  literature,  art,  science,  commerce, 
government,  social  life,  etc. ;  ( 6 )  to  record 
the  present  condition  and  outlook  of  the 
various  religions  of  the  world. 

Parmentier,  Auguste  Henry,  histo- 
rian; born  in  Sancerre,  France,  in  1752, 
ordained  a  priest  in  1791.  He  wrote  The 
History  of  the  French  Provinces  in  'North 
America;  The  History  of  the  French  Col- 
ony of  Louisiana,  etc.  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  in  1816. 

Parnell,  Charles  Stewart,  Irish 
leader,  born  in  Avondale,  Ireland,  in  1846; 
entered  Parliament  in  1875;  and  died  in 
Brighton,  England,  Oct.  2,  1891.  His 
father,  John  Henry  Parnell,  visited  the 
United  States  in  1824  and  married  Delia 
Tudor  Stewart,  daughter  of  Admiral 
Charles  Stewart,  "  Old  Ironsides." 

Parris,  Samuel,  clergyman;  born  in 
London,  England,  in  1653;  was  first  a 
merchant  and  then  a  minister.  It  was  in 
his  family  that  Salem  witchcraft  began 
its  terrible  work,  and  he  was  the  most 
zealous  prosecutor  of  persons  accused  of 
the  "black  art."  In  April,  1693,  his 
church  brought  charges  against  him.  He 
acknowledged  his  error  and  was  dismissed. 
He  preached  in  various  places  afterwards, 
but  was  an  unhappy  wanderer,  and  died 
in  Sudbury,  Mass.,  Feb.  27,  1720. 

Parrott,  Enoch  Greenleaf,  naval  offi- 
cer; born  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Dec.  10, 
1814;  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman 
in  1831,  and  was  with  Commodore  Perry 
on  the  coast  of  Africa  in  1843.  In  the 
frigate  Congress  he  assisted  at  the  capt- 
ure of  Guaymas  and  Mazatlan  on  the 
Mexican  Pacific  coast,  and  in  1861  was 
made  commander.  He  assisted  in  the  de- 
struction of  the  war-vessels  at  Norfolk 
and  the  navy-yard  opposite,  in  April,  1861, 
and  was  at  the  capture  of  the  Savannah. 
In  active  service  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
from  the  Chesapeake  to  Georgia,  and  on 
the  James  River,  he  was  in  command  of 


73 


PARROTT— PARSONS 


the  Monadnock  in  the  two  attacks  on  Fort  1756;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1759;  was 
Fisher,  and  was  at  the  surrender  of  a  representative  in  the  Connecticut  Assem- 
Charleston.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in  bly  for  eighteen  sessions.  He  was  an  ac- 
1873;  retired  in  1874.  He  died  in  New  tive  patriot  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revo- 
York  City,  May  10,  1879.  lution.     He  was  made  colonel  of  a  Con- 

Parrott,  Robert  Parker,  military  offl-  irectieut  regiment  in  1775,  and  engaged 
cer;  born  in  Lee,  N.  H.,  Oct.  5,  1804;  in  the  siege  of  Boston.  In  August,  1776, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1824;  served  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general,  and  as 
in  the  army  until  1836,  when  he  resigned  such  engaged  in  the  battle  on  Long  Island, 
to  accept  the  superintendency  of  the  West  In  1779  Parsons  succeeded  General  Put- 
Point  foundry.  He  invented  a  system  of  nam  in  command  of  the  Connecticut  line, 
casting  and  rifling  cannon  which  he  placed  and  in  1780  was  commissioned  a  major- 
at the  disposition  of  the  United  States  general.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  re- 
government.  This  system  was  used  in  sumed  the  practice  of  law,  and  was  ap- 
the  United  States  during  the  Civil  War.  pointed  by  Washington  first  judge  of  the 
He  died  in  Cold  Spring,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  24,  Northwestern  Territory.  He  was  also  em- 
1877.  ployed  to  treat  with  the  Indians  for  the 

Parry,  Sir  William  Edward,  Arctic  extinguishment  of  their  titles  to  the  Con- 
navigator;  born  in  Bath,  England,  Dec.  19,  necticut    Western    Reserve,    in    northern 


1790;  entered  the  royal  navy  at  thirteen. 
Being  engaged  in  blockading  the  New  Eng- 
land coast  in  1813,  he  ascended  the  Con- 
necticut River  about  20  miles,  and  de- 
stroyed twenty-seven  privateers  and  other 


Ohio.     He  went  to   the  new  territory  in 
1787;    settled    there;    and    was    drowned 
in  the  Big  Beaver  River,  Ohio,  Nov.   17, 
1789. 
Parsons,   Theophiltjs,  jurist;   born  in 


vessels.  In  1818  he  joined  Sir  John  Ross's  Byfield,  Mass.,  Feb.  24,  1750;  graduated 
expedition  to  the  Polar  seas,  and  the  next  at  Harvard  College  in  1769;  admitted  to 
year  he  commanded  a  second  expedition,  the  bar  in  1774;  and  was  at  the  head 
penetrating  to  lat.  70°  44' 20"  N.  and  long,  of  a  grammar-school  in  Falmouth  (now 
110°  W.,  which  entitled  him  to  receive  the  Portland),  Me.,  when  it  was  destroyed, 
reward  of  $20,000  offered  by  Parlia-  He  began  practice  in  Newburyport  in 
inent  for  reaching  thus  far  west  within  1777,  and  in  1780  was  one  of  the  principal 
the  Arctic  Circle.  He  was  promoted  to  framers  of  the  State  constitution  of 
commander  on  his  return,  in  1820,  and  Massachusetts.  He  removed  to  Boston  in 
was  knighted  in  1829.  He  made  another  1800,  where,  until  his  death,  he  was  re- 
expedition  in  1821-23;  and  in  another,  in  garded  as  the  brightest  of  the  legal  lights 
1826,  he  reached  the  lat.  of  82°  45'  in  of  New  England.  He  had  been  a  zealous 
boats  and  sledges,  the  nearest  point  to  advocate  of  the  national  Constitution 
the  north  pole  which  had  then  been  reach-  in  1788,  and  in  1806  was  made  chief- 
ed.  Parry  was  made  rear-admiral  of  the  justice  of  Massachusetts.  His  decisions 
white  in  1852,  and  in  1853  lieutenant-  are  embraced  in  six  volumes.  His  mem- 
governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital.  He  died  ory  was  wonderful,  and  he  was  elo- 
in  Ems,  Germany,  July  8,  1855.  quent   as   a   speaker.     His   Opinions   were 

Parsons,  Frank,  lawyer ;  born  in  Mount  published  in  New  York  in  1836,  under 
Holly,  N.  J.,  Nov.  14,  1854;  graduated  the  title  of  Commentaries  on  Ameri- 
at  Cornell  in  1873;  lecturer  on  law  in  the  can  Law.  He  died  in  Boston,  Oct.  30, 
Boston  University  in   1892;    Professor  of    1813. 

History  and  Political  Science  in  the  Kan-  Parsons,  Theophiltjs,  lawyer;  born  in 
sas  Agricultural  College  in  1897.  He  is  Newburyport,  Mass.,  May  17,  1797;  grad- 
the  author  of  a  large  number  of  articles  uated  at  Harvard  College  in  1815;  studied 
on  economics  in  the  public  press,  and  law;  was  Professor  of  Law  in  Harvard  in 
among  his  books  are  Our  Country's  Need;  1847-82.  His  publications  include  Ele- 
Rational  Money;  The  Drift  of  Our  Time,  ments  of  Mercantile  Law;  Laws  of  Busi- 
etc.  ness   for   Business   Men;   Maritime   Law; 

Parsons,  Samuel  Holden,  military  Notes  on  Bills  of  Exchange;  Shipping  and 
officer;  born  in  Lyme,  Conn.,  May  14,  Admiralty ;  The  Political,  Personal,  and 
1737 ;    graduated    at   Harvard    College    in    Property  Rights  of  a  Citizen  of  the  Unit- 

74 


PARSONS'    CASE— PASTORIUS 

ed   States,   etc.      He   died    in    Cambridge,  of  Aaron  Burr;  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson; 

Mass.,  Jan.  22,  1882.  Life    and    Times   of   Benjamin    Franklin; 

Parsons'  Case,  The.     A  short  crop  of  Manual  for  the  Instruction  of  Rings,  Rail- 

tobacco  in   Virginia  having  enhanced   the  road  and  Political,  and  How  New  York  is 

value  of   that  staple,   and   the   issuing  of  Governed;   Famous   Americans   of  Recent 

bills  of  credit    (1755)    for  the  first  time  Times;   The  Words  of  Washington;  Life 

in   that   province   having   depreciated   the  of   Thomas  Jefferson,   Third  President   of 

currency,   the   Assembly   passed   a   tempo-  the  United  States,  etc.     He  died  in  New- 

rary  act  authorizing  the  payment  of  all  buryport,  Mass.,  Oct.  17,  1891. 

tobacco  debts  in  the  depreciated  currency,  Parvin,     Theodore     Sutton,     author; 

at  a  stipulated  price.     Three  years  later  born  in  Cedarville,  N.  J.,  Jan.  15,  1817; 

(175S)     an    expected    short    crop    caused  removed  to  Ohio  and  later  to  Iowa.    In  the 

the  re-enactment  of  this  tender-law.     The  latter   State  he   served  in   the   legislature 

salaries  of  the  parish  ministers,  sixty-five  and   also   filled   many   public   offices.      He 

in  number,  were  payable  in  tobacco,  and  was  the  author  of  a  History  of  Iowa  and 

they  were  likely  to  become  losers  by  this  a    History    of    the    Knights    Templar    in 

tender-law.     The  clergy  sent  an  agent  to  A  merica.      For    fifty-five    years    he    was 

England,  who  obtained  an  Order  in  Coun-  grand  secretary  of   the  Knights   Templar 

cil  pronouncing  the  law  void.     Suits  were  in  Iowa.     He  died  in  11)01. 

brought  to  recover  the  difference  between  Paschal,  George  Washington,  lawyer; 

twopence   per    pound    in    depreciated    cur-  born  in  Skull  Shoals,  Ga.,  Nov.  23,  1812; 

reney  and  the  tobacco,  to  which,  by  law,  received  an  academic  education;   was  ad- 

the   ministers   were   entitled.      In   defend-  mitted   to   the   bar   in    1832;    removed   to 

ing    one    of    these    suits    the     rare     elo-  Texas  in  1847.     During  the  Civil  War  he 

quence  of  Patrick  Henry  was  first  devel-  earnestly   supported   the   National    cause; 

oped.  settled  in  Washington,  D.  C,  in  1869.    His 

Parton,  James,  author;  born  in  Canter-  publications  include  Annotated  Digest  of 

bury,  England,  Feb.  9,  1822;  was  brought  the  Laivs  of  Texas;  Annotated  Constitu- 

to  the   United   States   when   a   child;    re-  Hon   of   the   United   States;   Decisions   of 

ceived  a  common  school  education  in  New  the  Supreme  Court  of  Texas;  Sketch   of 

York     City;     removed     to     Newburyport,  the  Last   Years  of  Samuel   Houston,  etc. 

Mass.,  in   1875.     His  publications  include  He   died   in    Washington,   D.   C,   Feb.    16, 

Life  of  Horace  Greeley;  Life  and  Times  1S78. 


PASTOBIUS,    FRANCIS    DANIEL 

Pastorius,  Francis  Daniel,  author  of  the  fourteenth,  gathered  about  the  pastor 

A  Particular  Geographical  Description  of  Spener,    and    the    young    and    beautiful 

the  Lately  Discovered  Province  of  Penn-  Eleonora   Johanna   von   Merlau.      In   this 

sylvania,  Situated  on  the  Frontiers  of  this  circle  originated  the  Frankfort  Land  Com- 

Westem    World,    America;    published    in  pany,  which  bought  of  William  Penn,  the 

Frankfort  and  Leipzig  in  1700;  translated  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  a  tract  of  land 

from    the   original    German   by   Lewis   H.  near  the  new  city  of  Philadelphia. 
Weiss.  "  The    company's    agent    in    the    New 

John   G.   WTiittier,   in   an   introductory  World  was  a  rising  young  lawyer,  Francis 

note  to  his  poem,   The  Pennsylvania  Pit-  Daniel  Pastorius,  son  of  Judge  Pastorius, 

grim,  wrote :    "  The  beginning  of  German  of  Windsheim,  who  studied  law  at  Stras- 

emigration  to  America  may  be  traced  to  burg,  Basle,  and  Jena,  and  at  Ratisbon, 

the   personal   influence   of   William   Penn,  and  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Law, 

who   in   1677   visited   the   Continent,   and  at  Nuremberg,  in   1676.     In   1679  he  be- 

made   the   acquaintance   of   an   intelligent  came   deeply   interested   in   the   teachings 

and  highly  cultivated  circle  of  Pietists,  or  of  Dr.  Spener.    In  1680-81  he  travelled  in 

Mystics,  who,  reviving  in  the  seventeenth  France,  England,  Ireland,  and  Italy  with 

century   the   spiritual   faith   and   worship  his  friend  Herr  von  Rodeck.     '  I  was,'  he 

of  Tauler   and  the  '  Friends  of   God '   in  says,  '  glad  to  enjoy  again  the  company 

75 


PASTORIUS,    FRANCIS    DANIEL 

of  ray  Christian  friends  rather  than  be  colonies  had  arisen  in  this  Western  World, 
with  Von  Rodeck,  feasting  and  dancing.'  such  as  Nova  Hispania,  Nova  Gallia, 
In  1683,  in  company  with  a  small  number  Brasilia,  Peru,  Golden  Castilia,  His- 
of  German  Friends,  he  emigrated  to  Amer-  paniola,  Cumana,  Jamaica,  Nova  Anglia, 
ica,  settling  upon  the  Frankfort  Company's  Florida,  Virginia,  etc.,  it  so  happened, 
tract.  The  township  was  divided  into  anno  1065  [!],  by  means  of  the  skilful  and 
four  hamlets — namely,  Germantown,  Kris-  enterprising  navigators  sent  out  under  the 
heim,  Crefield,  and  Sommerhausen.  He  auspices  of  Caroli  Stuardus  I.,  King  of 
united  with  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  England,  a  new  and  large  country  was  dis- 
became  the  recognized  head  and  law-  covered,  lying  far  beyond  the  above-men- 
giver  of  the  settlement.  He  married,  two  tioned  colonies.  For  the  time  being,  how- 
years  after  his  arrival,  Anneke,  daughter  ever,  no  name  was  given  to  it,  inasmuch 
of  Dr.  Klosterman,  of  Muhlheim.  as  tlie  natives  roamed  about  the  forests, 

"  In  the  year  1688  he  drew  up  a  memorial  not  having  any  fixed  residences  or  towns 

against  slave-holding,  which  was  adopted  from  which  any  name  could  have  been  de- 

by  the  Germantown  Friends,  and  sent  up  rived;    but   they  lived  here   and   there   in 

to  the  monthly  meeting,  and  thence  to  the  the  wilderness  in  Tuguriis,  or  huts  made 

yearly    meeting    at    Philadelphia.      It    is  of  the  bark  of  trees. 

noteworthy  as   the   first  protest  made  by  About   the   time   of   this   discovery   the 

a    religious    body    against    negro    slavery.  Duke   of  York,   having  great  numbers  of 

The  original  document  wTas  discovered  in  Swedes  and  others  under  his  control,  com- 

1844,    by    the    Philadelphia    antiquarian,  manded  that  a  town  should  be  commenced 

Nathan  Kite,  and  published  in  The  Friend,  on     the     Dellavarra     Eiver,     which     was 

It  is  a  bold  and  direct  appeal  to  the  best  fortified;    and    he    called    the    place    New 

instincts    of    the    heart.      '  Have    not,'    he  Castle.    He  likewise  granted  to  the  Swedes 

asks,    '  those    negroes    as    much    right    to  large  privileges  to  induce  them  to  remain 

fight   for   their    freedom   as   you   have   to  there,  and  to  cultivate  the  lands,  intend- 

keep  them  slaves?'  ing  to   settle   it,   also,  with   English  emi- 

"  Under  the  wise  direction  of  Pastorius,  grants.     The  Swedes  began  to  clear  away 

the  Germantown  settlement  grew  and  pros-  the  forests,  and  soon  became  a  flourishing 

pered.     The  inhabitants  planted  orchards  community. 

and  vineyards,  and  surrounded  themselves  About  this  time  the  unheard-of  tragedy 
with  souvenirs  of  their  old  home.  A  large  was  enacted  in  England,  that  the  King 
number  of  them  were  linen-weavers,  as  was  taken  by  his  own  subjects  and  behead- 
well  as  small  farmers.  The  Quakers  were  ed;  his  son,  the  heir  to  the  throne,  pur- 
the  principal  sect;  but  men  of  all  re-  sued  for  his  life;  but  he  managed  to  make 
ligions  were  tolerated,  and  lived  together  his  escape  through  the  instrumentality 
in  harmony.  In  1692  Richard  Frame  pub-  of  his  general,  Lord  Penn,  who  carried 
lished,  in  what  he  called  verse,  a  De-  him  to  France  in  disguise,  for  which 
scription  of  Pennsylvania,  in  which  he  goodly  service  Penn's  entire  estates  were 
alludes  to  the  settlement:  confiscated  or  destroyed;    and  he  himself 

uirrur.  *  ^ri-i-T  i  i.  r  died  in  exile,  before  the  restoration  of  the 
"  '  ine  German  town  of  which  I  spoke  before, 

Which    is   at    least   in    length   one   mile   or  prince. 

more,  Upon  the  reinstating  of  Carolus  II.  on 
WDut  hiV6S  H!Sh  °Srman  Pe°ple  and  L°W  the  throne  of  his   father,   he  was  visited 
WhoV  trade    in    weaving    linen    cloth    is  V   William   Penn,   the   only   son   of   Lord 
much —  Penn ;  and  he  received  him  very  gracious- 
There  grows  the  flax,  as  also  you  may  know  ly.      In    consideration    of    the    services    of 

^SS.^-*^  -fme  ne£  d-°  diV^6  ^e  t0W'  his  father>  he  presented  to  him  this  entire 

Their  trade  suits  well  their  habitation —  .          .        .,-           .,,     ,,           ,              -   ,T 

We  find  convenience  for  their  occupation.'  »  reg!°n,  together  with   the  colony  of  New 

Castle,  forever.     This  royal  bounty  bears 

the  date  April  21,  1681.     Penn  now  pub- 

OF  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  PENNSYLVANIAN  Hshed    ft    fc    the    dty    of    London,    that    he 

regions.  intended     to    establish     a     colony    there, 

^  Although,    after    the   successful    expedi-  and   offered   to   sell   lands   to   all   such   as 

tions  of   Columbus   and  Americus,   many  wished    to    emigrate.     Upon    this    many 

76 


PASTORIUS,    FBAttCIS    DAUIEL 


persons  offered  to  go,  and  Penn  accom- 
panied them  thither,  where  he  founded  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  in  1682.  A  Ger- 
man society  also  contracted  with  his 
agents  in  London  for  several  thousand 
acres  of  land  to  establish  a  German  colony 
there.  The  entire  region  was  named 
Pennsylvania,  which  signifies  Penn's  forest 
lands. 

[Here  follow  Penn's  charter  and  plans 
of  settlement,  which  are  already  well 
known  and  are  therefore  omitted.] 

CONCERNING  THE  GERMAN   SOCIETY. 

The  German  society  commissioned  my- 
self, Francis  Daniel  Pastorius,  as  their 
licensed  agent,  to  go  to  Pennsylvania  and 
to  superintend  the  purchase  and  survey 
of  their   lands. 

I  set  out  from  Franckfort  -  on  -  the- 
Mayne,  went  to  London,  where  I  made 
the  purchase,  and  then  embarked  for 
America. 

Under  the  protection  of  the  Almighty, 
I  arrived  safely  at  Philadelphia ;  and  I 
was  enabled  to  send  my  report  home  to 
Germany  on  the  7th  of  March,  1684. 

The  lands  I  purchased  were  to  be  as 
follows:  fifteen  thousand  acres  in  one 
tract  on  some  navigable  stream. 

Three  hundred  acres  in  the  City  Liber- 
ties, which  is  the  strip  of  land  lying  be- 
tween the  rivers  Dellavarra  and  Scol- 
kill,   above   Philadelphia. 

Three  lots  in  the  city  proper  for  the 
purpose  of  building  thereon. 

Upon  my  arrival  I  applied  to  the 
governor,  William  Penn,  for  warrants, 
so  as  to  survey  and  take  possession  of 
the  aforesaid  lands. 

His  first  answer,  concerning  the  three 
hundred  acres  in  the  Liberties  and  the 
three  lots  in  the  city,  was  this:  "That 
these  could  by  right  not  be  claimed  by  the 
German  Company,  because  they  had  been 
purchased  after  he  had  left  London,  the 
books  closed,  and  all  the  lots  previously 
disposed  of."  He,  however,  had  three  lots 
in  the  city  surveyed  for  me,  out  of  his 
youngest  son's  portion,  instead  of  those 
above  mention*  d, 

Beginning  to  number  the  houses  from 
the  Dellavarra  River,  our  trading-house 
is  the  ninth  in  order. 

Our  first  lot  in  the  city  is  of  the  fol- 
lowing dimensions.     It  has   one  hundred 


feet  front,  and  is  four  hundred  feet  deep. 
Next  to  it  is  to  be  a  street.  Adjoining 
it  lies  the  second  lot  of  the  same  size 
as  No.  1.  Then  another  street.  Lot  No. 
3  joins  this  street,  its  size  being  the  same 
as  the  other  two.  On  these  lots  we  can 
build  two  dwellings  at  each  end,  making 
in  all  twelve  buildings  with  proper  yards 
and  gardens,  and  all  of  them  fronting  on 
the   streets. 

For  the  first  few  years,  little  or  no 
profit  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  ac- 
crue from  these  lots,  on  account  of  thtf 
great  scarcity  of  money  in  this  prov- 
ince, and,  also,  that  as  yet  this  coun- 
try has  no  goods  or  productions  of 
any  kind  to  trade  with  or  export  to  Eu- 
rope. 

Our  governor,  William  Penn,  intends  to 
establish  and  encourage  the  growing  and 
manufactory  of  woollens;  to  introduce  the 
cultivation  of  the  vine,  for  which  this 
country  is  peculiarly  well  adapted,  so  that 
our  company  had  better  send  us  a  quantity 
of  wine  barrels  and  vats  of  various  sorts, 
also  all  kinds  of  farming  and  gardening 
implements.  Item,  several  iron  boilers  of 
various  sizes,  and  copper  and  brass  ket- 
tles. Item,  an  iron  stove,  several  blankets 
and  •  mattresses,  also  a  few  pieces  of 
Bardlet  and  white  linens,  which  might  be 
sold  in  our  trading-house  here  to  good  ad- 
vantage. 

On  the  16th  of  November  last  a  fair  had 
been  held  at  Philadelphia;  but  we  only 
sold  about  ten  dollars'  worth  at  our  trad- 
ing-house, owing  altogether  to  the  scarc- 
ity of  money,  as  has  been  already  men- 
tioned. 

As  relating  to  our  newly  laid  out  town, 
Germanopolis,  or  Germantown,  it  is  situ- 
ated on  a  deep  and  very  fertile  soil,  and 
is  blessed  with  an  abundance  of  fine 
springs  and  fountains  of  fresh  water.  The 
main  street  is  sixty  and  the  cross  street 
forty  feet  in  width.  Every  family  has 
a  plot  of  ground  for  yard  and  garden 
three  acres  in  size. 

[Here  follow  William  Penn's  laws, 
which  are  already  well  known  and  there- 
fore omitted.] 

OF    THE    SITUATION    OF    THE    COUNTRY    AND 
THE    RIVERS    THEREOF. 

The  situation  of  Pennsylvania  is  like 
unto  that  of  Naples  in  Italy.    This  region 


77 


PASTORIUS,    FRANCIS    DANIEL 

lies  in  the  fortieth  degree  of  north  lati-  The  town  of   Uplandt  is  twenty  miles 

tude,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Del-  above  New  Castle  on  the  river,  and  is  a 

lavarra   River,   and  extends  in  length   75  fine    large    place,     inhabited    mostly    by 

miles,  in  breadth  45.*  Swedes. 

The   islands   bordering  upon   this   prov-  On  the  twenty-fourth  day  of  Octobriis, 

ince  are  New  Jersey,  Marieland,  and  Vir-  anno    1685,    I,    Francis   Daniel    Pastorius, 

ginia.     In  these  regions,  several  new  and  with    the    wish    and    concurrence    of    our 

beautiful     stars     and     constellations     are  governor,    laid    out    and    planned    a    new 

visible,    which    have    heretofore    been    en-  town,    which    we    called    Germantown    or 

tirely  unknown  to  the  European  astrologi  Germanopolis,   in   a  very  fine   and  fertile 

and  learned  ones.  district,   with  plenty  of   springs   of   fresh 

The  river  Dellavarra  is  so  beautiful  a  water,  being  well  supplied  with  oak,  wal- 
stream  as  not  to  have  its  equal  among  nut,  and  chestnut  trees,  and  having  be- 
all  the  rivers  of  Europe.  sides    excellent    and    abundant    pasturage 

It  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  one  hun-  for  the  cattle.  At  the  commencement 
dred  tons  thirty  miles  beyond  Philadelphia,  there  were  but  twelve  families  of  forty- 
It  separates  Pennsylvania  from  New  Jer-  one  individuals,  consisting  mostly  of 
sey.  At  Philadelphia  it  is  two  and  at  German  mechanics  and  weavers.  The 
New  Castle  three  miles  wide;  is  abun-  principal  street  of  this,  our  town,  I  made 
dantly  stocked  with  the  finest  fish,  as  is  sixty  feet  in  width,  and  the  cross  street, 
likewise  the  river  Scolkill.  forty    feet.      The    space    or    lot    for    each 

The  springs  and  fountains  of  water  are  house  and  garden  I  made  three  acres  in 

innumerable.  size;   for  my  own  dwelling,  however,  six 

The  woods   and   copses   are  filled  with  acres, 

beautiful    birds    of    great   variety,    which  Before  my  laying  out  of  this  town,  I 

proclaim  their  Creator's  praises,  in  their  had    already    erected    a    small    house    in 

pleasantest  manner.     There  is,  besides,  a  Philadelphia,    thirty    feet    by    fifteen    in 

great  abundance  of  wild  geese,  ducks,  tur-  size.      The    windows,     for     the    want     of 

keys,  quails,  pigeons,  partridges,  and  many  glass,   were   made   of    oiled   paper.      Over 

other  sorts  of  game.  the   door   I   had   placed  the   following  in- 
scription: 


TOWNS      AND      CITIES      IN 
PROVINCE. 


THIS         Parva  domus,  sed  arnica  bonis,  procul  este 
prophani, 


The  governor,  William  Penn,  laid  out 
the  city  of  Philadelphia,  between  the  two 
rivers  Dellavarra  and  Scolkill,  naming 
it  with  the  pious  wish  and  desire  that  its 
inhabitants  might  dwell  together  in 
brotherly  love  and  unity. 

The  Dellavarra  is  deep  enough  so  that 
the  largest  vessels  can  come  up  close  to 
the  bank,  which  is  but  about  a  stone's 
cast  from  the  city. 

Another  English  company  have  laid  out 
the  new  town  of  Frankfort,  five  miles 
above  Philadelphia,  at  which  now  so 
flourishing  and  pleasant  place  they  have 
already  established  several  good  mills, 
a  glass-house,  pottery,  and  some  stores 
and  trading-houses. 

New  Castle  lies  forty  miles  from  the 
ocean  on  the  Dellavarra,  and  has  a  very 
good  harbor. 

*  German  miles,  one  of  which  Is  equal  to 
5  English  miles. 


at  which  our  governor,  when  he  paid  me 
a  visit,  laughed  heartily,  at  the  same 
time  encouraging  me  to  build  more. 

I  have  also  obtained  15,000  acres 
of  land  for  our  company,  in  one  tract, 
with  this  condition — that  within  one' 
year  at  least  thirty  families  should 
settle  on  it;  and  thus  we  may,  by  God's 
blessing,  have  a  separate  German  prov- 
ince,  where  we  can  all  live  together  in 
one. 


OF   THE   PRODUCTIONS    OF   THE    COUNTRY. 

Inasmuch  as  this  region  lies  in  the  same 
degree  of  latitude  as  Montpelier  and 
Naples,  but  has  a  much  richer  soil,  and 
that  better  watered  by  its  many  springs 
and  rivulets,  it  is  but  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  such  a  country  must  be  well 
calculated  to  produce  all  kinds  of  fruit. 
The  air  is  pure  and  serene,  the  summer  is 

rs 


PASTORIUS,    FRANCIS    DANIEL 


longer  and  warmer  than  it  is  in  Germany, 
and  we  are  cultivating  many  kinds  of 
fruits  and  vegetables,  and  our  labors  meet 
with  rich  reward. 

Of  cattle  we  have  a  great  abundance, 
but  for  want  of  proper  accommodation 
they  roam  at  large  for  the  present. 

Sugar  and  syrup  we  import  from  Bar- 
bados, and  he  that  has  not  money  bar- 
ters with  such  articles  of  produce  as  he 
may  have.  The  articles  of  trade  be- 
tween the  Indians  and  the  Christians 
consist  of  fish,  birds,  deer-skins,  and  the 
furs  of  beavers,  otters,  foxes,  etc.  They 
usually  exchange  these  things  for  liquor 
or  else  for  their  own  kind  of  money, 
which  they  call  wampum,  and  consists 
of  red  and  white  sea  -  shells,  which  are 
neatly  prepared,  and  strung  like  beads. 
These  strings  of  wampum  they  make 
use  of  to  decorate  themselves  with. 
Their  king  wears  a  crown  made  of  the 
same. 

Twelve  strings  of  the  red  are  valued  as 
much  as  twenty-four  white  ones.  They 
like  this  kind  of  money  much  better  than 
our  silver  coin,  because  they  are  so  often 
deceived  by  it,  not  being  able  to  dis- 
tinguish the  counterfeit  from  the  genuine, 
and,  as  they  cannot  well  calculate  the 
difference  in  its  value,  they  do  not  much 
like  to  take  it. 

The  money  in  circulation  among  our- 
selves is  Spanish  and  English  coin.  Gems 
and  precious  stones  we  have  none,  neither 
do  we  desire  any.  We  would  not  give 
him  any  great  thanks  who  would  dig 
them  out  of  the  earth;  for  these  things 
Which  God  has  created  for  good  and  wise 
purposes  have  been  most  shamefully 
abused  by  man,  and  have  become  the  ser- 
vants of  human  pride  and  ostentation 
rather  than  being  conducive  to  the 
Creator's  glory. 

OF     THE     GROWTH     AND     IMPROVEMENT     OF 
THIS    COLONY. 

Although  this  far-distant  land  was  a 
dense  wilderness — and  it  is  only  quite  re- 
cently that  it  has  come  under  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  Christians — there  is  much 
cause  of  wonder  and  admiration  how 
rapidly  it  has  already,  under  the  blessing 
of  God,  advanced,  and  is  still  advancing, 
day  by  day.     The  first  part  of  the  time 


we  were  obliged  to  obtain  our  provisions 
from  the  Jerseys  for  money,  and  at  a 
high  price;  but  now  we  not  only  have 
enough  for  ourselves,  but  a  considerable 
surplus  to  dispose  of  among  our  neighbor- 
ing colonies.  Of  the  most  needful  me- 
chanics we  have  enough  now;  but  day- 
laborers  are  very  scarce,  and  of  them 
we  stand  in  great  need.  Of  mills,  brick- 
kilns, and  tile-ovens  we  have  the  necessary 
number. 

Our  surplus  of  grain  and  cattle  we 
trade  to  Barbados  for  rum,  syrup,  sugar, 
and  salt.  The  furs,  however,  we  ex- 
port to  England  for  other  manufactured 
goods. 

We  are  also  endeavoring  to  introduce 
the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  and  also  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  cloths  and  linens, 
so  as  to  keep  our  money  as  much  as  pos- 
sible in  the  country.  For  this  reason 
we  have  already  established  fairs  to  be 
held  at  stated  times,  so  as  to  bring  the 
people  of  different  parts  together  for 
the  purposes  of  barter  and  trade,  and 
thereby  encourage  our  own  industry 
and  prevent  our  little  money  from  going 
abroad. 


OF    THE    INHABITANTS    OF    THIS    LAND. 

The  inhabitants  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes:  (1)  the  Aborigines,  or,  as 
they  are  called,  the  savages;  (2)  those 
Christians  who  have  been  in  the  country 
for  years,  and  are  called  old  settlers;  (3) 
the  newly  arrived  colonists  of  the  different 
companies. 

1.  The  savages,  or  Indians,  are  in  gen- 
eral strong,  nimble,  and  well-shaped  peo- 
ple, of  a  dark,  tawny  complexion,  and 
wore  no  clothing  whatever  when  the  first 
Europeans  came  to  this  country.  Now, 
however,  they  hang  a  blanket  about  their 
shoulders,  or  some  of  them  also  have 
shirts. 

They  have  straight  black  hair,  which 
they  cut  off  close  to  the  head,  save  one 
tuft,  which  they  leave  stand  on  the  right 
side.  Their  children  they  anoint  with  the 
fat  of  the  bears  and  other  animals,  so 
as  to  make  their  skin  dark,  for  by  nature 
they  would  be  white  enough.  They  cul- 
tivate among  themselves  the  most  scrupu- 
lous honesty,  are  unwavering  in  keeping 
promises,  defraud  and  insult  no  one,  are 


PASTORIUS,    FRANCIS    DANIEL 


very  hospitable  to  strangers,  obliging  to 
their  guests,  and  faithful  even  to  death 
towards  their  friends. 

Their  huts,  or  wigwams,  they  make  by 
bending  down  several  young  trees,  and 
covering  them  with  bark. 

They  use  neither  tab'es  nor  chairs 
nor  furniture  of  any  kind,  except,  per- 
haps, a  single  pot  or  kettle  to  cook  their 
food. 

I  once  saw  four  of  them  dining  together 
in  great  enjoyment  of  their  feast.  It  con- 
sisted in  nothing  more  than  a  pumpkin, 
simply  boiled  in  water,  without  salt, 
butter,  or  spice  of  any  kind.  Their  seat 
and  table  was  the  bare  ground,  their 
spoons  were  sea-shells,  wherewith  they 
supped  the  warm  water,  and  their  plates 
were  the  leaves  of  the  nearest  tree,  which, 
after  they  were  done  their  meal,  they  had 
no  occasion  of  washing  or  any  need  of 
carefully  preserving  for  future  use.  I 
thought  to  myself  on  witnessing  this 
scene  how  these  poor  savages,  who  have 
never  heard  of  the  Saviour's  doctrines  and 
maxims  of  contentment  and  temperance, 
how  far  superior  they  are  to  ourselves, 
so-called  Christians,  at  least  so  far  as 
these  virtues  are  concerned. 

They  are  otherwise  very  grave  and  re- 
served, speak  but  little,  and  in  few 
words,  and  are  greatly  surprised  when 
they  hear  much  needless  and  even  foolish 
talking  and  tale-bearing  among  us  Chris- 
tians. 

They  are  true  and  faithful  in  their 
matrimonial  relations,  abhorring  licen- 
tiousness in  the  extreme.  Above  all  do 
they  despise  deception  and  falsehood. 
They  have  no  idols,  but  adore  one  great, 
good  Spirit,  who  keeps  the  devil  in  sub- 
jection. They  believe  in  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  and,  according  as 
they  have  lived  in  this  world,  do  they 
expect  a  reward  or  punishment  in  the 
future. 

Their  peculiar  mode  of  worship  con- 
sists principally  in  singing  and  dancing, 
during  which  they  make  use  of  the  most 
singular  contortions  and  positions  of  the 
body:  and,  when  the  remembrance  of  the 
death  of  parents  or  dear  friends  is  brought 
to  their  mind,  they  break  forth  into  the 
most  piteous  cries  and  lamentations. 

They  are  fond  of  hearing  us  speak  about 
the  Creator  of  heaven  and  the  earth,  and 


of  his  wisdom  and  divine  power,  and  par- 
ticularly do  they  listen  with  emotion  to 
the  narrative  of  the  Saviour's  life  and 
sufferings;  but  it  is  greatly  to  be  re- 
gretted that  we  are  not  yet  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  their  language,  so  as  to 
explain  the  great  plan  of  salvation  to 
them  fully. 

They  behave  with  the  greatest  respect 
and  decorum  whenever  they  attend  public 
worship  in  our  churches ;  and  it  is  my 
firm  belief  that  many  of  these  poor  Amer- 
ican savages  will  in  the  great  day  rise 
up  in  judgment  with  those  of  Tyre  and 
Sidon  against  our  own  wicked  and  per- 
verse generation.  As  regards  their  domes- 
tic arrangements,  the  men  attend  to  the 
chase,  hunting,  and  fishing,  the  women 
bring  up  their  children,  instructing  them 
in  virtue  and  honor.  They  raise  some 
few  vegetables,  such  as  corn  and  beans; 
but,  as  to  any  extensive  farming  and  cul- 
tivation, they  concern  themselves  nothing 
about  it,  but  are  rather  surprised  that 
we,  as  Christians,  should  have  so  many 
cares  and  anxieties  as  to  our  support  and 
nourishment,  just  as  if  we  did  not  believe 
that  God  will  and  can  sustain  and  provide 
for  us. 

They  speak  a  most  beautiful  and  grave 
language,  which  sounds  very  much  like 
the  Italian,  although  it  has  entirely  dif- 
ferent words. 

They  are  in  the  habit  of  painting  their 
faces  with  various  colors,  and  the  women 
as  well  as  the  men  are  very  fond  of 
tobacco. 

2.  The  earlier  European  or  old  settlers. 
These  never  had  the  proper  motives  in 
settling  here;  for,  instead  of  instructing 
the  poor  Indians  in  the  Christian  virtues, 
their  only  desire  was  gain,  without  ever 
scrupling  about  the  means  employed  in 
obtaining  it. 

By  these  means  they  have  taught  those 
natives  who  had  dealings  with  them 
nothing  but  deception  and  many  other 
evil  habits,  so  that  there  is  very  little 
of  virtue  or  honesty  remaining  on  either 
side. 

These  wicked  people  make  it  a  custom 
to  pay  the  savages  in  rum  and  other 
liquors  for  the  furs  they  bring  to  them, 
so  that  these  poor  deluded  Indians  have 
become  very  intemperate,  and  sometimes 
drink  to  such  excess  that  they  can  neither 


80 


PASTOMTJS,    FRANCIS    DANIEL 


walk  nor  stand.     On  such  occasions  they 
often  commit  thefts  and  other  vices. 

3.  The  newly  arrived  colonists  of  our 
and  other  companies.  We  who  have  come 
over  to  this  land  with  good  and  honest 
intentions  have  purchased  considerable 
tracts  of  land  where  we  will  settle,  and 
endeavor  to  live  in  happiness  and  content- 
ment; and  we  are  living  in  the  hope  and 
expectation  that  we  can  in  time  do  some- 
thing for  the  eternal  welfare  and  salvation 
of  the  aborigines.  May  our  God  prosper 
and  bless  our  undertakings! 


OF    THE    GOVERNMENTS    OF    THIS    LAND. 

The  aborigines  of  this  country  had  their 
own  chiefs  and  kings. 

We  Christians  acknowledge  as  our  gov- 
ernor and  chief  magistrate  the  oft-named 
and  excellent,  the  Hon.  William  Penn,  to 
whom  this  region  was  granted  and  given 
as  his  own  by  his  Majesty  of  England, 
Carolus  II.,  with  the  express  command 
that  all  the  previous  and  future  colonists 
should  be  subject  to  Penn's  laws  and  juris- 
diction. 

This  wise  and  truly  pious  ruler  and  gov- 
ernor did  not,  however,  take  possession  of 
the  province  thus  granted  without  hav- 
ing first  conciliated,  and  at  various  coun- 
cils and  treaties  duly  purchased  from, 
the  natives  of  this  country  the  various 
regions  of  Pennsylvania.  He,  having  by 
these  means  obtained  good  titles  to  the 
province,  under  the  sanction  and  signature 
of  the  native  chiefs,  I  therefore  have  pur- 
chased from  him  some  thirty  thousand 
acres  for  my  German  colony. 

Now,  although  the  oft-mentioned  Will- 
iam Penn  is  one  of  the  sect  of  Friends, 
or  Quakers,  still  he  will  compel  no  man 
to  belong  to  his  particular  society;  but 
he  has  granted  to  every  one  free  and  un- 
trammelled exercise  of  their  opinions  and 
the  largest  and  most  complete  liberty  of 
conscience. 


OF  THE  VARIOUS  RELIGIOUS  DENOMINATIONS 
OF  THESE  PARTS. 

The  native  Indians  have  no  written  re- 
ligious belief  or  creed;  and  their  own 
peculiar  ideas,  which  are  by  no  means 
so  rude  or  so  barbarous  as  those  of  many 
other  heathens,  have  to  be  transmitted 
vn. — f  81 


from  the  parents  to  their  children  only 
per  traditionem. 

The  English  and  the  Dutch  adhere  to 
the  Calvinistic  persuasion. 

The  colonists  of  William  Penn  are  near- 
ly all  Quakers. 

The  Swedes  and  Germans  are  Evangeli- 
cal Lutherans,  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Bishop  of  Upsala.  The  Swedes  have 
their  own  churches.  The  name  of  their 
clergyman  is  Fabricius,  of  whom  I  must 
say  with  deep  regret  that  he  is  an  intem- 
perate man,  and,  as  regards  spiritual 
things,  very  dark  and  ignorant.  We  in 
Germantown  built  a  little  chapel  for  our- 
selves in  1686,  but  did  not  so  much  care 
for  a  splendid  stone  edifice  as  for  having 
an  humble  but  true  temple  devoted  to  the 
living  God,  in  which  true  believers  might 
be  edified  to  the  salvation  of  their  souls. 
The  ministers  here  might  have  an  excel- 
lent opportunity  to  obey  and  practise  the 
command  of  the  Saviour,  "  Go  ye  into  all 
the  world  and  preach  the  gospel " ;  but, 
unfortunately,  they  seek  more  their  own 
comfort  and  ease  than  they  do  the  glory  of 
the  Redeemer. 


OF  THE  GERMAN  SOCIETY  FOR  THE  SETTLING 
IN  PENNSYLVANIA. 

The  principal  participants  in  this  so- 
ciety of  ours  are  the  following-named 
gentlemen : 

Jacob  von  De  Walle,  Dr.  John  Jacob 
Schuetz,  and  Daniel  Behagel,  all  of 
Franckfort-on-the-Mayne. 

Gerhard  von  Mastricht,  of  Duisburg; 
Thomas  von  Wylich,  and  John  Lebrunn,  of 
Wesel. 

Benjamin  Furly,  of  Rotterdam;  Philip 
Fort,  of  London. 

These  persons  will  attend  to  and  care 
for  all  letters  and  papers  for  our  colony, 
and  will  also  assist  and  give  advice  to 
all  such  as  desire  to  emigrate,  if  such 
applicants  be  of  good  moral  character 
and  standing,  and  their  motives  and  in- 
tentions for  emigrating  are  honest  and 
good. 

In  Pennsylvania  the  whole  direction 
and  management  of  the  colony  has  been 
intrusted  to  my  humble  abilities,  for  the 
time  being;  and  may  the  Almighty  give 
me  the  proper  wisdom  and  strength  to 
fulfil  all  my  arduous  duties. 


PASTOKITJS,    FRANCIS    DANIEL 


OF  THE  OPPORTUNITIES   AND   WAYS   OF  EMI- 
GRATING TO   THIS   COUNTRY. 

From  the  month  of  April  until  in  the 
fall  of  every  year  there  are  vessels  sailing 
to  Pennsylvania,  at  frequent  times,  from 
England,  principally  from  the  port  of 
Deal,  although  there  is  no  fixed  time  or 
day  set  for  sailing,  and  persons  are 
therefore  compelled  to  watch  their  op- 
portunity. Whenever  there  is  a  company 
of  thirty-five  or  forty  passengers  together, 
exclusive  of  the  ship's  crew,  a  vessel  is 
despatched.  Every  grown-up  man  pays 
for  hi3  passage  the  sum  of  £6  sterling, 
or  thirty-six  rix  dollars.  For  a  female 
or  servant,  twenty-two  rix  dollars.  One 
round  sterling  is  equal  to  six  rix  dol- 
lars. 

OF    MY    OWN    VOYAGE    HITHER. 

After  I  had  left  London,  where  I  had 
made  all  my  arrangements  with  Penn's 
agent,  and  arrived  at  Deal,  I  hired  four 
male  and  two  female  servants,  and  on  the 
7th  of  June,  1683,  set  sail  with  a  com- 
pany of  eighty  passengers.  Our  ship  drew 
thirteen  feet  of  water.  Our  fare  on  board 
was  poor  enough.  The  allowance  of  pro- 
vision for  ten  persons  per  week  was  as 
follows:  three  pounds  of  butter;  daily, 
four  cans  of  beer  and  one  can  of  water; 
every  noon,  two  dishes  of  pease;  four  times 
per  week  salt  meat,  and  three  times  salt 
fish,  which  we  were  obliged  to  cook,  each 
man  for  himself,  and  had  daily  to  save 
enough  from  dinner  to  serve  for  our  sup- 
pers also.  And,  as  these  provisions  were 
usually  very  poor,  and  the  fish  sometimes 
tainted,  we  were  all  compelled  to  make 
liberal  use  of  liquors  and  other  refresh- 
ments of  a  similar  nature  to  preserve  the 
health  amid  such  hard  fare.  Moreover, 
it  is  the  practice  of  the  masters  of  these 
vessels  to  impose  upon  their  passengers 
in  a  shameful  manner  by  giving  them  very 
short  allowances.  It  is  therefore  advisable 
not  to  pay  the  passage  in  full  in  England, 
but  to  withhold  a  part  until  the  arriving 
in  America,  so  that  they  are  obliged  to 
fulfil  their  part  of  the  contract.  Fur- 
thermore, it  is  advisable  to  endeavor  to 
obtain  passage  in  vessels  bound  to  Phila- 
delphia direct,  inasmuch  as  those  who 
come  in  such,  landing  at  Upland,  are 
subjected  to  many  and  grievous  molesta- 
tions. 


On  the  sixteenth  day  of  August,  1683, 
we  came  in  sight  of  the  American  conti- 
nent, but  did  not  enter  the  Capes  of  Dela- 
ware until  the  18th  ejusdem.  The  20th 
ejusdem  we  passed  by  New  Castle  and 
Upland,  and  arrived  toward  evening  at 
Philadelphia,  in  perfect  health  and  safety, 
where  we  were  all  welcomed  with  great 
joy  and  love  by  the  governor,  William 
Penn,  and  his  secretary.  He  at  once  made 
me  his  confidential  friend,  and  I  am  fre- 
quently requested  to  dine  with  him,  where 
I  can  enjoy  his  good  counsel  and  edify- 
ing conversations.  Lately  I  could  not 
visit  him  for  eight  days,  when  he  waited 
upon  me  himself,  requesting  me  to  dine 
with  him  in  future  twice  in  each  week, 
without  particular  invitation,  assuring 
me  of  his  love  and  friendship  toward 
myself  and  the  German  nation,  hoping 
that  all  the  rest  of  the  colonists  would 
do  the  same. 

OF  THE  DUTIES  AND  LABORS  OF  THE  GERMAN 
COLONIST. 

Our  German  society  have  in  this  place 
now  established  a  lucrative  trade  in 
woollen  and  linen  goods,  together  with  a 
large  assortment  of  other  useful  and 
necessary  articles,  and  have  intrusted  this 
extensive  business  to  my  own  direction. 
Besides  this  they  have  now  purchased  and 
hold  over  thirty  thousand  acres  of  land, 
for  the  sake  of  establishing  an  entirely 
German  colony.  In  my  newly  laid  out 
Germantown  there  are  already  sixty-four 
families  in  a  very  prosperous  condition. 
Such  persons,  therefore,  and  all  those 
who  still  arrive,  have  to  fall  to  work  and 
swing  the  axe  most  vigorously;  for  wher-  ' 
ever  you  turn  the  cry  is,  Itur  in  antiquam 
si/lvam,  nothing  but  endless  forests.  So 
that  I  have  been  often  wishing  for  a  num- 
ber of  stalwart  Tyrolians.  to  throw  down 
these  gigantic  oak  and  other  forest  trees, 
but  which  we  will  be  obliged  to  cut  down 
ourselves  by  degrees  and  with  almost  in- 
credible labor  and  exertion,  during  which 
we  can  have  a  very  forcible  illustration 
of  the  sentence  pronounced  upon  our  poor 
old  father  Adam,  that  in  the  sweat  of  his 
brow  he  should  eat  his  bread.  To  our 
successors,  and  others  coming  after  us,  we 
would  say  that  they  must  not  only  bring 
over  money,  but  a  firm  determination  to 
labor  and  make  themselves  useful  to  our 


82 


PATCH— PATRONS  OF  HUSBANDRY 

infant  colony.  Upon  the  whole,  we  may  In  1870  the  Patent  Office  was  made  a 
consider  that  man  blessed  whom  the  devil  branch  of  the  State  Department;  it  after- 
does  not  find  idling.  In  the  mean  time  wards  became  a  bureau  of  the  Interior 
we  are  employing  the  wild  inhabitants  as  Department.  During  the  fiscal  year  1903- 
day-laborers,  for  which  they  are,  however,  04  there  were  56,023  applications  for 
not  much  inclined;   and  we  ourselves  are  patents,  re-issues,  etc. 

gradually  learning  their  language,  so  to  Paterson,  John,  military  officer;  born 
instruct  them  in  the  religion  of  Christ,  in  New  Britain,  Conn.,  in  1744;  graduated 
inviting  them  to  attend  our  church  ser-  at  Yale  College  in  17G2;  became  a  lawyer, 
vices,  and  therefore  have  the  pleasing  and  was  an  active  patriot  in  Massa- 
liope  that  the  spirit  of  God  may  be  the  chusetts  at  the  breaking-out  of  the  Revolu- 
means  of  enlightening  many  of  these  poor  tion,  being  a  member  of  the  Provincial 
heathens  unto  their  souls'  salvation.  To  Congress.  After  the  affair  at  Lexington  he 
Him  be  honor,  praise,  thanks,  and  glory,  hastened  with  a  regiment  of  minute-men 
forevermore.  Amen.  to  Cambridge,  where  he  cast  up  the  first 
Patch,  Samuel,  diver;  born  in  Rhode  redoubt  of  the  fortifications  around  Bos- 
Island  in  1807.  As  an  athlete  he  became  ton.  After  the  evacuation  of  that  city 
known  as  a  diver,  making  his  first  cele-  he  was  sent  to  Canada,  and  a  part  of  his 
brated  leap  from  the  bridge  over  the  regiment  was  engaged  at  the  Cedars. 
Passaic  River  at  Paterson,  N.  J.  He  met  When  the  army  left  Canada  he  joined 
his  death  Nov.  13,  1829,  in  jumping  from  Washington,  and  was  engaged  in  the  bat- 
a  bridge  over  the  Genesee  River  at  Roches-  ties  of  Trenton  and  Princeton ;  and  in 
ter,  N.  Y.,  at  a  height  of  125  feet  above  the  February,  1777,  he  was  made  brigadier- 
water,  general  and  attached  to  the  Northern  De- 
Patent  Laws.  Clause  8,  section  8,  partment,  where  he  rendered  important 
article  3  of  the  national  Constitution  gives  services  in  the  events  which  ended  in  the 
to  Congress  power  to  "  promote  the  prog-  capture  of  Burgoyne.  At  the  battle  of 
ress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing,  Monmouth,  the  next  year,  he  was  very 
for  a  limited  time,  to  authors  and  in-  efficient,  and  remained  in  the  service  until 
ventors,  the  exclusive  right  to  their  re-  the  close  of  the  war.  In  1786  he  com- 
spective  writings  and  discoveries."  The  manded  a  detachment  of  Berkshire  mili- 
first  law  framed  under  this  provision  was  tia  which  was  sent  to  suppress  Shays's 
approved  April  10,  1790,  and  secured  to  insurrection.  He  removed  to  Lisle,  N.  Y., 
authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  rights  after  that,  where  he  became  a  member  of 
in  the  use  of  their  productions  for  four-  the  legislature,  member  of  the  convention 
teen  years.  It  remained  in  force  three  that  revised  the  State  constitution  in 
years,  when  it  was  repealed.  Only  three  1801,  and  member  of  Congress  from  1803 
patents  were  granted  the  first  year,  thirty-  to  1805.  He  died  in  Lisle,  N.  Y.,  July 
three    the   second,    and    eleven    the    third.  I95  1808. 

A  new  law  was  passed  in  1793.  It  was  Paterson,  William,  jurist;  born  at 
amended  from  time  to  time,  and  remained  sea  in  1745;  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
in  force  until  1836,  when  all.  existing  1763;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1769;  at- 
patent  laws  were  repealed,  and  a  new  one  torney-general  for  New  Jersey  in  1776; 
was  approved.  During  the  ten  years  from  elected  to  the  Continental  Congress  in 
1790  to  1800  the  number  of  patents  grant-  1780;  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  in 
m  was  276.  The  matter  of  infringement  1787:  elected  United  States  Senator  in 
of  patents  was  first  brought  under  the  1789;  governor  of  New  Jersey,  1791;  ap- 
cquity  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  pointed  justice  of  the  United  States 
courts  in  1819,  and  in  1832  provision  was  Supreme  Court  in  1793.  He  died  in  Al- 
made  by  Congress  for  the  re-issue  of  bany.  N.  Y.,  Sept.  9,  1806. 
patents  under  certain  conditions.  Prior  Patrons  of  Husbf  ndry,  a  secret  order 
to  the  new  law  of  1836,  only  10,020  patents  organized  in  the  United  States,  Di  j.  4, 
had  been  issued.  From  1837  to  1890,  the  1867,  by  O.  H.  Kelly,  of  the  United  States 
number  of  patents  issued  was  475,785.  In  bureau  of  agriculture,  for  the  purpose 
1861  the  time  for  which  patents  were  of  promoting  the  social  and  material  in- 
issued   was   extended   to   seventeen   years,  terests  of  persons  engaged  directly  or  indi- 

83 


PATROONS 

rectly  in  the  agricultural  and  allied  indus-  manufacture  cloth  of  any  kind,  on  pain 
tries.  The  unit  of  organization  is  the  of  banishment  from  the  colony;  and  the 
local  grange,  subordinate  to  the  State  company  agreed  to  furnish  them  with 
grange,  and  that  in  turn  under  the  juris-  as  many  African  slaves  "  as  they  con- 
diction  of  the  national  grange.  Although  veniently  could";  also,  to  protect  them 
the    order    is    non-political,    the    national    against  foes. 

grange  has  expressed  favor  towards  the  Each  colony  was  bound  to  support  a 
following  subjects  of  reform:  minister  of  the  Gospel  and  a  school-master, 

1.  Postal  savings-banks.  2.  Enactment  and  so  provide  a  comforter  of  the  sick  and 
of  pure  food  laws.  3.  Rural  free-mail  de-  a  teacher  of  the  illiterate.  Such  was  the 
livery.  4.  Additional  powers  to  the  Inter-  modified  feudalism  introduced  into  the 
state  Commerce  Commission.  5.  Speedy  young  Dutch  colony,  which  naturally  fos- 
construction  of  the  Nicaragua  Canal  by  tered  aristocratic  ideas.  It  recognized  the 
the  United  States.  6.  To  prevent  the  right  of  the  Indians  to  the  soil  by  corn- 
pooling  of  railroads.  7.  Impartial  inves-  pelling  its  purchase  from  them;  it  invited 
tigation  of  foreign  trade  relations.  8.  independent  farmers,  to  whom  a  homestead 
Election  of  United  States  Senators  by  should  be  secured,  and  promised  protection 
popular  vote.  9.  Settlement  of  interna-  to  all  in  case  of  war,  and  encouraged  re- 
tional  differences  by  arbitration.  ligion   and   learning.      Yet   the    free   New 

In  1901  the  national  grange  had  estab-  England  system  was  far  better  for  the  de- 
lished  27,689  subordinate  granges  in  forty-  velopment  and  growth  of  popular  liberty. 
four  States  and  Territories.  See  Farm-  Several  of  these  patroon  domains  were 
ees'  Alliance;  People's  Party.  secured   by   directors    of    the    Amsterdam 

Patroons.  To  induce  private  capital-  Chamber.  The  patroons  began  vigorously 
ists  to  engage  in  making  settlements  in  to  make  settlements  on  the  Hudson  and 
New  Netherland  (q.  v.),  the  West  India  Delaware  rivers,  and  so  construed  the 
Company,  in  1629,  resolved  to  grant  charter  of  privileges  and  exemptions  that 
lands  and  manorial  privileges  to  such  as  they  claimed  a  right  to  traffic  with  the 
should  accept  the  conditions  of  a  proposed  Indians.  This  brought  them  into  collision 
charter  of  privileges  and  exemptions,  with  the  other  directors,  whose  jealousy 
Reserving  the  island  of  Manhattan,  they  was  aroused.  The  patroons  persisted,  and 
offered  to  grant  lands  in  any  part  of  New  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  States-General, 
Netherland,  to  the  extent  of  16  miles  which  prudently  postponed  a  decision,  "in 
along  any  navigable  stream  (or  4  miles  order  to  enable  the  parties  to  come  to 
if  on  each  shore),  and  indefinitely  in  an  amicable  settlement."  So  ended  the 
the  interior,  to  any  person  who  should  action  of  the  Dutch  government  in  the 
agree   to   plant   a   colony  of   fifty   adults    matter. 

within  four  years;  or,  if  he  should  bring  The  patroon  system  discouraged  indi- 
more,  his  domain  to  be  proportionately  vidual  enterprise.  Private  persons  who 
enlarged.  He  was  to  be  absolutely  lord  of  wished  to  emigrate  dared  not  attempt  it. , 
the  manor,  politically  and  otherwise,  hold-  Some  of  the  best  tracts  of  land  in  the 
ing  inferior  courts  for  the  jurisdiction  of  colony  were  appropriated  by  the  patroons. 
petty  civil  cases;  and,  if  cities  should  The  latter,  ambitious  and  grasping,  at- 
grow  up  on  his  domain,  he  was  to  have  tempted  to  enlarge  their  privileges,  and 
power  to  appoint  the  magistrates  and  boldly  presented  to  the  States-General  a 
other  officers  of  such  municipalities,  and  new  plan  for  the  purpose,  in  which  they 
have  a  deputy  to  confer  with  the  governor,  demanded  that  they  should  monopolize 
These  lords  of  manors  were  called  pa-  more  territory;  have  longer  time  to  settle 
troons,  or  patrons,  and  the  settlers  under  colonists ;  be  invested  with  larger  feudal 
them  were  to  be  exempted  from  all  taxa-  powers;  be  made  entirely  independent  of 
tion  and  tribute  for  the  support  of  the  the  control  of  the  company  with  respect 
provincial  government  for  ten  years;  and  to  the  internal  government  of  the  colonies j 
for  the  same  period  every  man,  woman,  enjoy  free-trade  throughout  and  around 
and  child  was  bound  not  to  leave  the  ser-  New  Netherland;  have  a  vote  in  the  coun- 
vice  of  the  patroon  without  his  written  cil  of  the  director-general;  be  supplied 
consent.     The  colonists  were  forbidden  to    with  convicts  from  Holland   as  servants, 

84 


PATROONS— PATTERSON 

and  with  negro  slaves;  and,  finally,  that  form  a  political  party  favorable  to  their 
all  private  persons  and  poor  immigrants  cause.  It  succeeded  in  1842,  and  several 
should  be  forbidden  to  purchase  lands  years  afterwards,  in  electing  one-eighth 
from  the  Indians,  and  should  be  required  of  the  legislature  who  favored  the  anti- 
to  settle  themselves  within  the  established  renters;  and  in  1846  a  clause  was  in- 
colonies  and  under  the  control  of  the  serted  in  the  revised  constitution  of  the 
manorial  lords.  These  extravagant  de-  State,  abolishing  all  feudal  tenures  and 
mands  caused  their  existing  privileges  to  incidents,  and  forbidding  the  leasing  of 
be  curtailed  by  a  new  charter  of  privileges  agricultural  lands  for  a  longer  term  than 
and  exemptions,  issued  in  1640.  A  host  twelve  years.  The  same  year  Governor 
of  smaller  "  masters  of  colonies "  was  Wright,  who  was  a  candidate  for  re- 
created, and  the  legal  powers  of  the  old  election  as  chief  magistrate,  was  defeated 
patroons  were  abridged.  Quarrels  between  by  10,000  majority  given  to  John  Young, 
these  lords  of  manors  and  the  civil  gov-  the  anti-rent  candidate,  who  afterwards 
eminent  of  New  Netherland  continued  released  all  offenders  of  the  law  who 
nntil  the  province  passed  from  the  pos-  were  in  prison.  The  excitement  gradually 
session  of  the  Dutch  to  that  of  the  subsided,  and  only  in  courts  of  law  were 
English.  the    anti-rent    associations    actively    seen. 

These  feudal  tenures  having  been  abol-  The  last  proprietor  of  the  Van  Rensselaer 
ished,  the  proprietors  of  manor  grants  manor  sold  his  interests  in  his  lands  to 
contrived  a  form  of  deed  by  which  the  a  person  who  made  amicable  arrangements 
grantees  agreed  to  pay  rents  and  dues  al-  with  all  the  tenants  for  the  rent,  sale,  and 
most  precisely  as  before.  This  tenure  be-  purchase  of  the  farms, 
came  burdensome  and  odious  to  the  tillers;  Patten,  George  Washington,  military 
and  in  1839  associations  of  farmers  were  officer;  born  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  Dec.  25, 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  devising  a  1808;  graduated  at  Brown  University  in 
scheme  of  relief  from  the  burdens.  The  1824,  and  at  West  Point  in  1830.  He 
movement  was  soon  known  as  anti-rent-  served  in  the  war  against  the  Seminoles 
ism,  and  speedily  manifested  itself  in  open  and  in  Mexico  and  was  brevetted  major 
resistance  to  the  service  of  legal  processes  for  gallantry  at  Cerro  Gordo,  where  he 
for  the  collecting  of  manorial  rents.  The  lost  a  hand.  He  was  made  lieutenant- 
first  overt  act  of  lawlessness  that  attract-  colonel  of  the  2d  Infantry,  June  7,  1862, 
ed  public  attention  was  in  the  town  of  and  retired  Feb.  17,  1864.  Colonel  Patten 
Grafton,  Rensselaer  county,  where  a  band  was  a  contributor  of  poetical  pieces  for 
of  anti-renters,  disguised,  killed  a  man,  yet  periodicals  from  his  youth,  and  a  volume 
the  criminal  was  never  discovered.  In  of  his  poems  was  published  in  1867.  He 
1841  and  1842  Governor  Seward  in  his  was  also  author  of  an  Army  Manual 
messages  recommended  the  reference  of  the  (1863);  and  Tactics  and  Drill  for  In- 
alleged  grievances  and  matters  in  dispute  fantry,  Artillery,  and  Cavalry  (3  volumes, 
on  both  sides  to  arbitrators,  and  appoint-  1861-63).  He  died  in  Houlton,  Me.,  April 
ed  three  commissioners  to  investigate  and  28,  1882. 

report  to  the  legislature.  Nothing  was  ac-  Patterson,  Daniel  Tod,  naval  officer; 
complished,  and  the  disaffection  increased,  born  in  New  York,  March  6,  1786;  enter- 
So  rampant  was  the  insubordination  to  ed  the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1800;  was 
law  in  Delaware  county  that  Governor  with  Bainbridge  at  Tripoli,  and  master- 
Wright,  in  1845,  recommended  legislation  commander  in  1813.  In  1814  he  command- 
for  its  suppression,  and  he  declared  the  ed  the  naval  force  at  and  near  New 
county  in  a  state  of  insurrection.  Finally,  Orleans  that  co-operated  with  General 
the  trial  and  conviction  of  a  few  persons  Jackson  in  defence  of  that  city.  Patterson 
for  conspiracy  and  resistance  to  law,  and  was  active,  afloat  and  ashore,  for  nearly 
their  confinement  in  the  State  prison,  forty  years.  He  died  in  Washington, 
caused  a  cessation  of  all  operations  by  D.  C.,  Aug.  15,  1839. 
ma..'..  i  Lands.  Patterson,     Robert,     military     officer; 

There    was    so    much    public    sympathy  born  in  Tyrone  county,  Ireland,  Jan.  12, 

manifested  for  the  cause  of  the  anti-rent-  1792:  was  brought  to  America  by  his  par- 

ers    that    the    association    determined    to  ents  in  his  early  youth;  engaged  in  mer- 

85 


PATTISON— PAULDING 


ROBERT  PATTERSON. 


cantile  pursuits;  but  entered  the  army  in  New  York  in  1846-87.  His  publica- 
1813;  was  made  full  captain  in  1814,  and  Hons  include  Four  Hundred  Years  of 
served  to  the  end  of  the  war.  He  resumed  American  History;  Natural  Resources  of 
mercantile  life  and  became  largely  in-  the  United  States;  Yorktown,  1181-1S81; 
terested  in  manufactures.  Commissioned  The  Democratic  Party,  its  History  and  In- 
major-general  of  volunteers  when  the  war  fluence;  A  Brief  History  of  the  Presby- 
with  Mexico  broke  out,  he  took  an  active  terian  Church  in  the  United  States; 
part   in   the   campaign   under    Scott   from    Political    Parties    in    the    United    States, 

etc. 

Paulding,  Hiram,  naval  officer;  born 
in  New  York  City,  Dee.  11,  1797;  entered 
the  United  States  navy  as  midshipman  in 
September,  1811;  was  under  Macdonough, 
on  Lake  Champlain,  and  received  a  sword 
from  Congress  for  his  services  there.  He 
accompanied  Porter  against  the  pirates 
in  the  West  Indies  in  1823,  and  became 
master-commander  in  1837.  He  was  com- 
missioned captain  in  1844,  and  was  in 
active  service  in  the  West  Indies  and  on 
the  Pacific  coast;  and  for  the  important 
services  which  he  rendered  the  State  of 
Nicaragua  in  suppressing  the  filibuster 
Walker,  that  republic  gave  him  a  sword. 
He  was  made  a  rear-admiral  on  the  retired 
list  (1861).  In  command  of  the  navy- 
yard  at  Brooklyn  (1862-65)  he  did  ex- 
Vera  Cruz  to  the  city  of  Mexico.  When  cellent  service  in  preparing  ships  for  the 
the  Civil  War  broke  out,  he  was  placed  different  squadrons,  and  in  1866  was  gov- 
in  command  of  a  division  of  three  months'  ernor  of  the  Philadelphia  Naval  Asylum, 
men.  In  command  of  troops  watching  the  Admiral  Paulding  was  a  son  of  John 
forces  under  the  Confederate  General  Paulding,  one  of  the  captors  of  Major 
Johnston  at  Winchester,  Va.,  the  fail- 
ure of  General  Scott  to  send  him  or- 
ders caused  him  to  fail  to  co-operate 
with  McDowell  in  his  movements  that 
resulted  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run 
(q.  v.).  For  this  failure  he  was  un- 
justly dismissed  from  the  service, 
and  he  was  under  a  cloud  for  some 
time.  He  did  not  re-enter  the  serv- 
ice. He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Aug.  7,  1881. 

Pattison,  Robert  Emory,  states- 
man; born  in  Quantico,  Md.,  Dec.  8, 
1850;  comptroller  of  Philadelphia, 
1877-82;  governor  of  the  State,  1883- 
86  and  1891-94;  United  States  Pacific 
Railway  commissioner,  1887-90.  He 
died  in  Overbrook,  Pa.,  Aug.  1,  1904. 
Patton,  Jacob  Harris,  author; 
born  in  Fayette  county,  Pa.,  May  20, 
1812;  graduated  at  Jefferson  College, 
Pa.,  in  1839;  and  at  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1846;  was  prin- 
cipal of  a  private  classical  school  in 


PAULDING— PAULUS'S  HOOK 


Andr6.    He  died  in  Huntington,  L.  I.,  Oct.    gress  a  silver  medal  each,  and  were  award- 
20,  1878.  ed  an  annuity  of  $200.     In  1827  a  marble 

Paulding,  James  Kirke,  author;  born  monument  was  erected  by  the  corpora- 
in  Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  22,  1779; 
was  a  son  of  an  active  Revolutionary 
soldier,  who  was  commissary-general  of 
New  York  troops  in  the  Continental 
service,  and  was  ruined  by  the  non-ac- 
ceptance by  the  government  of  his  drafts, 
or  non-redemption  of  his  pledges,  and  he 
was  imprisoned  for  debt.  James  went  to 
New  York  City,  and  in  early  life  became 
engaged  in  literary  pursuits  with  Wash- 
ington Irving,  whose  brother  William  mar- 
ried Paulding's  sister.  They  began,  in  1807, 
the  popular  publication  Salmagundi.  He 
was  introduced  to  the  government  through 
his  pamphlet  on  The  United  States  and 
England,  and,  in  1814,  was  made  secre- 
tary of  the  board  of  naval  commissioners. 
Afterwards  he  was  navy  agent  at  New 
York,  and,  from  1839  to  1841,  was  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy.  Mr.  Paulding  was  a 
facile  and  elegant  writer  of  essays  and 
stories,  and  was  possessed  of  a  fund  of 
humor  that  pervaded  his  compositions. 
He  contributed  to  the  periodicals  of  the 
day,  and  wrote  and  published  several 
volumes.  He  died  in  Hyde  Park,  N.  Y., 
April  6,  1860.  tion    of    New    York    City    in    St.    Peter's 

Paulding,  John,  patriot,  and  one  of  church-yard  near  Peekskill,  as  a  memorial 
the  captors  of  Andre;  born  in  New  York  of  him.  He  died  in  Staatsburg,  N.  Y., 
City  in  1758.     Three  times  he  was  made    Feb.  18,  1818. 


JOHN   PAULDING. 


a  prisoner  during  the  Revolutionary  War, 


Paulus's  Hook,  Surprise  of.  In  1779 
there  was  a  British  military 
work  at  Paulus's  Hook  (now 
Jersey  City),  garrisoned  by  500 
men,  under  Major  Sutherland. 
A  plan  was  formed  for  taking  it 
by  surprise,  and  its  execution 
was  intrusted  to  Maj.  Henry 
Lee,  then  back  of  Bergen.  With 
300  picked  men,  followed  by  a 
strong  detachment  under  Lord 
Stirling  as  a  reserve,  at  3.30 
a.m.  on  Aug.  19,  he  passed  the 
unguarded  outer  works  and  en- 
tered the  main  works  undiscov- 
ered ;  for  the  garrison,  feeling 
secure,  had  not  barred  the  sally- 
port, and  the  sentinels  were  all 
absent  or  asleep.  The  surprise 
was  most  complete.  He  captured 
and  had  escaped,  the  second  time,  only  159  of  the  garrison,  including  officers.  The 
four  days  before  the  capture  of  Andre,  remainder  retreated  to  a  circular  redoubt. 
He  and  his  associates  received  from  Con-    It  was  too  strong  to  be  affected  by  small- 

87 


PAULDING'S    MONUMENT. 


PAUNCEFOTE— PAUPERISM    IN"    THE    UNITED    STATES 


MEDAL   AWARDED   TO.   HENRY   LEE. 


arms,  and  Lee  retreated,  with  his  prison- 
ers, back  to  camp.  His  loss  was  only 
two  killed  and  three  wounded.  In  Sep- 
tember following  Congress  voted  thanks 
and  a  gold  medal  to  Lee  for  this  exploit. 

Pauncefote,  Lord  Julian  of  Preston, 
diplomatist;  born  in  Preston  Court,  Eng- 
land, in  1828;  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1852;  appointed  attorney-general  of  Hong- 
Kong  in  1865;  acting  chief -justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  in  1869-72;  became  per- 
manent foreign  under  secretary  in   1882; 


minister  to  the  United  States  in  1889;  and 
ambassador  in  1893.  He  represented 
Great  Britain  at  the  Suez  Canal  confer- 
ence in  1885,  and  at  the  peace  conference 
at  The  Hague  in  1899,  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  created  first  Lord  Pauncefote. 
Since  his  official  residence  in  the  United 
States  he  won  the  esteem  of  the  United 
States  government  and  people.  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  May  24,  1902.  His 
body  was  sent  to  England  in  a  United 
States  man-of-war. 


PAUPERISM    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

Pauperism  in  the  United  States.  Pro-  lected  in  the  same  year  in  different  States, 
fessor  Richard  T.  Ely,  formerly  of  Johns  nor  have  they  been  collected  according  to 
Hopkins  University,  now  of  the  Univer-  similar  methods.  The  word  pauper  in  one 
sity  of  Wisconsin,  contributes  the  fol-  State  means  one  thing,  and  in  another 
lowing  to  the  study  of  this  question:  State  something  else.  For  example,  de- 
pendent  children  are  in  one  place  classed 

While  we  may  deplore  the  lack  of  care-  among  the  paupers,  and  in  another  place 
ful  statistical  information  concerning  they  are  put  in  a  category  by  themselves, 
pauperism  in  this  and  other  countries,  The  only  authority  competent  to  gather 
there  are  certain  facts  which  we  do  know,  the  facts  which  we  ought  to  know  for 
First  of  all  is  this  fact:  there  exists  in  the  whole  country  is  the  federal  govern- 
the  United  States  an  immense  mass  of  ment,  and  it  has  attempted  to  do  some- 
pauperism.  No  one  knows  either  how  thing  in  the  various  censuses.  The  census 
great  this  mass  is,  or  whether  it  is  rela-  reports,  however,  have  been  heretofore  in- 
tively,  or  even  absolutely,  larger  than  in  complete  and  unsatisfactory.  Mr.  Fred- 
former  times.  Several  States  in  the  erick  H.  Wines,  a  high  authority,  was  the 
Union,  as  New  York,  Massachusetts,  Penn-  special  agent  of  the  tenth  census  ap- 
sylvania,  and  Ohio,  publish  statistics  con-  pointed  to  gather  the  statistics  concern- 
cerning  the  defective,  delinquent,  and  de-  ing  pauperism,  and  he  reported  altogether 
pendent  classes,  but  many  of  the  States  about  500,000.  This,  however,  is  an  un- 
gather  no  statistics  at  all,  or  very  inade-  derestimate.  .  Only  a  little  over  21,000 
quate  ones.  Such  statistics  as  we  have  out-door  paupers  were  reported,  where- 
cannot  well  be  brought  together  and  com-  as  a  single  city  undoubtedly  has  a 
pared,    because    they   have   not   been    col-  larger  number  receiving  public  relief  out- 

88 


PAUPERISM    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

side  of  public  institutions.  It  is  admitted  the  direct  and  indirect  cost  of  pauperism 
in  the  report  that  "  the  attempt  to  se-  to  this  country.  The  direct  pauper  ex- 
cure  anything  like  a  complete  or  adequate  penditures  of  the  United  States  may  be 
enumeration  of  them  in  the  present  census  placed  at  $25,000,000  at  least;  indeed,  this 
was  a  failure."  "  The  present  census "  must  be  an  underestimate,  for  New  York 
means  the  census  of  1S80.  State   alone    expends   for    charitable   pur- 

At   the    sixteenth    conference   of    chari-  poses  through  its  various  institutions  over 

ties   and   correction,   in    Omaha,   in    1889,  $13,000,000.     If  we  place  the  average  num- 

the  committee  on  reports  from  States  ex-  ber  of  persons  in  the  country  supported 

pressed  the  opinion  that  it  was  safe  to  by  charity  at  500,000,   and   estimate  the 

estimate   the    number   of    persons    in   the  loss  of  productive  power  for  each  one  of 

United  States  receiving  out-door  relief  at  these  at  $100  per  year,  we  shall  have  an  in- 

an  average  of  250,000  during  the  year,  in-  direct  loss  of  $50,000,000  to  be  added  to 

eluding  at  least  600,000  different  persons,  the  direct  expenditures.     One  hundred  mil- 

This    same    committee,    including   Messrs.  lions  of  dollars  a  year  must  be  regarded 

F.  B.  Sanborn  and  H.  H.  Hart,  did  not  as   a    conservative   estimate   of    the   total 

regard    110,000    persons    as    an    overesti-  direct   or   indirect   pecuniary   loss   to   the 

mate  of  the  population  of  the  almshouses  country  on  account  of  pauperism.     A  far 

of  the  country.     Five  States  of  the  Union  more  serious  loss,  however,  is  the  loss  in 

alone    report    nearly    half    that    number,  manhood  and  womanhood. 

These  are  New  York,  with'  19,500  inmates  In    contrast   to   this   first   fact   of    the 

of    almshouses;    Pennsylvania,    with    13,-  great    mass    of   pauperism,    we   have    the 

500;     Massachusetts,    with    9,000;     Ohio,  second   equally   indisputable   fact   that   it 

with  8,000 ;  and  Illinois,  with  5,000.  These  is   for   the   most    part   a    curable   disease. 

States,  however,  do  not  include  much  over  Wherever  there  has  been  any  earnest  and 

one-third  of  the  population  of  the  country,  intelligent    attempt    to    remedy   the    evil, 

Mr.  Charles  D.  Kellogg,  the  able  and  de-  the    success    has    been    equal    to    all    the 

voted  secretary  of  the  New  York  Charity  most   sanguine   could   anticipate.     I  have 

Organization  Society,  has  estimated  that  read  accounts  of  many  such  attempts  to 

3,000,000    people    in    the    United    States  lessen  pauperism,  and  everything  that  I 

were    wholly    or    partially    supported    by  have  read  has  confirmed  in  my  mind  the 

alms  during  a  recent  year,  and  that  the  belief  that   it  is  a   curable  evil.     A   few 

support  received  by  this  number  was  equal  illustrations    out    of   a   great    number    at 

to   the  total   support  of   500,000   paupers  hand    must    suffice    for    present    purposes, 

during    the    entire    year.     This    estimate  The  Elberfeld  system  of  charitable  relief 

is  based  upon  such  facts  as  he  had  been  is   well   known.     About    1850   an   earnest 

able  to  gather,  and  even  a  guess  from  one  attempt  was  made  in   that  city  to   deal 

situated  as  he  is  has  some  weight.  .  .  .  with  the  question  of  pauperism.     At  that 

The  number  of  paupers  varies  greatly  time    the     number    of     inhabitants    was 

from  year  to  year,  according  to  the  gen-  50,000;    in   18S0   it  was  90,000;    but  the 

eral  prosperity  of  the  country  and  other  number  of  friendly  visitors  required  had 

causes,   and   even  within  the   same  year,  not  increased.     The  number  needing  help 

according    to    the    season.     The    estimate  fell  from  2,948  in  the  year  1853  to  1,287 

of    3,000,000    cannot    be    regarded    as    an  in  1876,  or  from  fifty-seven  in  the  thou- 

extravagant    one    for    the    United    States  sand  of  population  to  between  fifteen  and 

during  hard  times.     We  have,  then,  that  sixteen  in  the  thousand.   The  city  of  Leip- 

number    of    persons    who    at    some    time  sic    introduced    the    Elberfeld    system    in 

or  another  are  compelled  to  ask  support  1881,  and  in  a  single  year  tlfe  number  of 

which  they  will  not  or  cannot  obtain  for  paupers    fell    off    2,000.     Even    England 

themselves.     If  we  should  cut  down  this  seems  to  have  met  with  some  success  in 

number  to  500,000,  it  would  be  sufficient  dealing  with   pauperism,   for  the  paupers 

to     cause     distress     to     every     lover     of  comprised   58/io  per  cent,   of  the  popula- 

his    kind,    and    to    justify    inquiry    into  tion  in   1863,   46/10   in    1871,   and   only  2 

the  nature  of  pauperism,  its  causes  and  per  cent,  in  1882. 

its  cure.  The     experience     of     Buffalo,     in     this 

Numerous  estimates  have  been  made  of  country,  has  been  as  instructive  as  it  is 

89 


PAUPERISM    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

gratifying.  During  the  first  ten  years  of  children  belong  to  the  redeemable  portion 
the  existence  of  the  Buffalo  Charity  Or-  of  humanity.  This  second  fact  states, 
ganization  Society — namely,  from  1877  to  then,  this  proposition:  pauperism  as  now 
1887 — the  pauperism  of  the  city  decreased,  known  may  be  considered  a  needless  evil; 
so  far  as  statistics  indicate,  at  least  50  in  other  words,  in  modern  society  there 
per  cent.  Of  7(33  families  dealt  with  by  are  sufficient  resources  to  cure  it  if  men 
that  society  in  1878-79,  Mr.  Rosenau,  the  would  but  apply  them, 
secretary,  was  able  to  state  that,  so  far  The  third  indisputable  fact  observed  i3 
as  he  knew,  458  families  had  never  been  that  only  slight  effort  is  put  forth  by 
applicants  for  charity  since  1879,  and  the  community  at  large  to  cure  the  evil 
only  81  were  met  with  in  1887.  Mr.  of  pauperism.  Mr.  Rosenau  has  shown 
Eosenau  further  said  that,  if  the  citizens  that  only  one  in  713  persons,  in  thirty- 
of  Buffalo  would  furnish  the  society  with  two  cities  where  there  are  charity  or- 
funds  and  workers,  the  close  of  1897  ganization  societies  which  reported,  con- 
would  see  the  city  practically  free  from  tributed  to  their  funds.  These  cities 
pauperism,  and,  he  hoped,  with  very  little  represented  a  population  of  about  7,250,- 
abject  poverty  within  her  limits.  Mr.  000,  and  the  number  of  contributors  was 
Kellogg,  of  the  New  York  society,  in  his  only  a  little  over  10,000.  When  we  put 
fifth  annual  report,  claims  that  of  4,280  this  in  contrast  with  the  church-mem- 
cases  treated  during  the  preceding  year,  bership  of  the  country,  which  comprises 
697  became  self-supporting  by  securing  something  like  one  -  third  of  the  pop- 
employment  for  them,  by  training  them  ulation,  or,  if  we  count  only  adult 
in  industry,  or  by  starting  them  in  busi-  members,  one  -  fourth,  we  are  remind- 
ness.  During  the  same  year  1,508  cases  ed  of  the  conclusion  reached  by  Mr. 
treated  during  the  first  year  of  the  Frederic  Harrison  and  others  that  for 
society's  existence  were  re-examined,  and  social  regeneration  Christianity  is  a  fail- 
over  20  per  cent,  of  these  cases  were  ure.  Of  course  many  cannot  contribute 
known  to  continue  self-supporting.  Of  money,  but  there  is  equal  complaint  of  a 
course  some  of  the  others  treated  during  lack  of  persons  who  are  willing  to  con- 
the  first  year  who  could  not  be  traced  con-  tribute  their  time  and  sympathy  as 
tinued  self-supporting.  friendly  visitors.  Those  who  have  read 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  there  are  Tolstoi's  book,  What  to  Do,  will  find 
adult  paupers  who  can  never  be  rendered  there  described  the  experience  of  every 
entirely  independent  and  self-supporting,  sincere  friend  of  humanity  who  has  at- 
Some  of  these  are  willing  to  work,  but  tempted  to  secure  genuine  co-operation 
have  simply  not  been  furnished  with  among  the  fortunate  classes  to  help  ele- 
qualities  requisite  for  success  in  the  com-  vate  the  less  fortunate  classes  out  of  their 
petitive  world  of  to-day,  or  their  latent  economic,  physical,  and  moral  wretched- 
faculties,  which  might  once  have  been  ness — namely,  general  but  vague  expres- 
developed,  have  been  allowed  to  remain  un-  sions  of  interest,  with  a  final  refusal  of1 
used  so  long  that  their  present  develop-  the  aid  needed.  As  in  the  parable  of  the 
ment  is  practically  impossible.  These  re-  New  Testament,  they  all  begin  to  make 
quire   permanent   treatment    in   establish-  excuses.  .  .  . 

ments  adapted  to  them,  where  such  powers        What    are    the    causes    of    pauperism? 

as    they   have    can    be    utilized    for    their  These  causes  are  many,  and  they  cannot 

own    good    and    the    benefit    of    society,  be    stated    in    any    single    sentence.     The 

With   some   others   the   trouble   is   not   so  most   general    statement   possible   is   that 

much   mental   or  physical   as   moral,   and  the   causes   of   poverty   are   heredity   and 

these  require  permanent  treatment,  severe  environment,     producing    weak     physical, 

but     kind,     in     separate     establishments,  mental,      and      moral      constitutions.      If 

The    first    of    these    permanently    helpless  sociological   investigations  have  made  one 

classes  belongs  to  a  certain  extent  to  the  thing    clearer    than    another,    it    is    that 

imbeciles,  while  the  second  belongs  rather  paupers    are    a    class    into    which    one   is 

to    the    criminal     class.     Both    of    these  often   born,   and   from   which,   when   born 

classes,  however,  are  few  in  number,  and  into  it,  one  can  be  rescued,  as  a  rule,  only 

all   others   can  be  redeemed.     Nearly   all  by  a  change  of  environment.     These  in- 

90 


PAUPERISM    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 


vestigations  show  likewise  that  paupers  McCulloch,  who  is  a  clergyman  in  In- 
are  a  class  of  inferior  men.  Inquiry  was  dianapolis,  found  the  poor  and  degraded 
made  at  the  Prison  Association  two  years    in  that  part  of  the  country  closely  con- 


ago  as  to  the  chief  cause  of  crime,  and 
every  expert  in  criminal  studies  was  re- 
ported to  have  replied,  "  Bad  homes  and 
heredity."  The  same  reply  may  be  given 
as  to  the  causes  of  pauperism.  Four  dif- 
ferent careful  studies  of  the  causes  of 
pauperism  have  been  made,  two  in  New 


nected  by  ties  of  blood  and  marriage. 
This  band  of  paupers  and  criminals  takes 
its  name  from  one  Ben  Ishmael,  who  can 
be  traced  as  far  back  as  1790,  when  he 
was  living  in  Kentucky.  The  descendants 
of  this  family  have  intermarried  with 
thirty  other  families.     In  the  first  genera- 


York  State,  one  in  Indiana,  and  one  in    tion   we   know   the   history   of   3,    in   the 


Berlin. 

The  first  which  I  have  in  mind  was 
made  by  Mr.  Richard  L.  Dugdale,  and  was 
called  "  The  Jukes."  The  ancestor  of  the 
Jukes  is  called  "  Margaret,  the  mother  of 
criminals."  Mr.  Dugdale  estimated  that 
1,200  of  this  family  in  seventy-five  years 


second  of  84,  in  the  third  of  283,  in  the 
fourth  of  640,  in  the  fifth  of  679,  and  in 
the  sixth  of  57.  We  have  a  total  of 
1.750  individuals,  with  but  scant  records 
previous  to  1840.  Among  these  we  find 
121  prostitutes.  Several  murders  can  be 
traced   to   the  Tribe   of   Ishmael.     Thiev- 


cost  the  community  directly  and  indirectly  ing  and  larceny  are  common  among  them, 
not  less  than  $1,250,000.  and  they  are  nearly  all  beggars.  Look- 
The  second  study  was  made  in  New  ing  back  into  the  history  of  the  family 
York  State  under  the  direction  of  the  of  Ben  Ishmael,  we  find  that  three  of 
legislature  by  the  State  board  of  chari-  his  grandchildren  married  three  sisters 
ties.  The  investigation  occupied  the  sec-  from  a  pauper  family.  Death  is  frequent 
retary  of  this  board  and  various  assistants  among  them,  and  they  are  physically  un- 
for  nearly  two  years,  and  the  antecedents  able  to  endure  hard  work  or  bad  climate, 
of  every  inmate  of  the  poor-houses  of  the  They  break  down  early  and  go  to  the  poor- 
State  were  examined.  Mrs.  C.  R.  Lowell,  house  or  hospital.  .  .  . 
who  has  been  so  active  in  the  charities  The  fourth  of  the  studies  is  that  made 
of  New  York  State,  and  who  has  achieved  by  city  missionaries  in  Berlin  a  few  years 
a  well-merited  reputation,  read  a  report  ago,  and  reported  by  Court  Pastor 
on  the  results  of  this  investigation.  She  Stocker.  The  ancestors  of  this  criminal 
describes  typical  women.  The  description  and  pauper  family  were  two  sisters,  of 
of  two  cases  may  be  quoted,  and  they  will  whom  the  older  died  in  1825.     Their  pos- 


6erve  for  all. 

"  In  the  Herkimer  county  poor-house  a 
single  woman,  aged  sixty-four  years,  twenty 
of  which  have  been  spent  in  the  poor-house : 
has  had  six  illegitimate  children,  four  of 
whom  have  been  paupers." 

"  In  the  Montgomery  county  poor-house  a 
woman  twenty  years  of  age,  illegitimate,  un- 
educated, and  vagrant ;  has  two  children  in 
the  house,  aged,  respectively,  three  years  and 
six  months,  both  illegitimate,  and  the  latter 
born  in  the  institution ;  recently  married 
an  intemperate,  crippled  man,  formerly  a 
pauper." 

Mrs.  Lowell  says :  "  These  mothers  are 
women  who  began  life  as  their  own  children 
have  begun  it — inheriting  strong  passions 
and  weak  wills,  born  and  bred  in  the  poor- 
house,  taught  to  be  wicked  before  they  could 
speak  plain,  all  the  strong  evil  in  their  nat- 
ures strengthened  by  their  surroundings,  and 
the  weak  good  trampled  out  of  life." 

The  third  study  to  which  I  referred  is 
that  made  by  Mr.  Oscar  McCulloch,  and 
is    called    The    Tribe    of    Ishmael.      Mr. 


terity  numbers  834  persons.  The  crim- 
inalists are  able  to  trace  the  history  of 
709  with  tolerable  accuracy.  Among 
these  there  were  106  illegitimate  children, 
164  prostitutes,  17  pimps,  142  beggars, 
64  inmates  of  poor-houses,  and  76  guilty 
of  serious  crimes,  who  together  had  passed 
116  years  in  prison.  It  is  estimated  that 
this  single  family  cost  the  State  over 
$500,000.  It  is  worthy  of  note  in  this 
connection  that  the  members  of  the  Tribe 
of  Ishmael  are,  as  a  rule,  temperate,  and 
total  abstainers  are  found  among  the  worst 
classes.  .  .  . 

There  are  those,  undoubtedly,  whose 
pauperism  can  be  traced  neither  to  hered- 
ity nor  unfavorable  environment,  but  they 
are  comparatively  few.  Well-brought- 
up  children  of  morally  and  physical- 
ly sound  parents  seldom  become  pau- 
pers. 

Perhaps   the   most    careful    analysis   of 


91 


PAUPERISM    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 


the  causes  of  pauperism  has  been  made  by  6.000,000,  and  in  the  United  States  at  over 
Professor  AniwS  G.  Warner,  of  the  Uni-  1,000,000,  and  an  extremely  small  percent- 
versity  of  Nebraska.  He  presents  the  fol-  age  is  due  to  strikes  or  lockouts.  Child- 
lowing  analysis  of  the  more  immediate  or  labor,  which  has  assumed  terrible  propor- 


tions m  recent  years,  and  the  employment 
of  women  must  be  placed  among  the  causes 
of  poverty,  both  of  them  tending  to  break 
up  the  home.  Industrial  crises  are  a 
chief  cause  of  modern  pauperism,  it  having 
been  observed  in  every  modern  nation 
that  the  number  of  tramps  and  paupers 
increases  immensely  during  a  period  of 
industrial  depression.  Many  men,  while 
seeking  work  during  these  periods,  fall 
hopelessly  into  vagabondage  and  pauper- 
ism, and  those  dependent  upon  them  are 
thrown  upon  the  public. 

What  has  been  said  about  causes  of 
pauperism  makes  it  easy  to  understand  the 
nature  of  the  remedies  required.  It  is 
necessary  to  go  back  of  the  phenomena 
which  lie  on  the  surface  to  underlying 
causes.  Things  which  are  not  seen  are  of 
more  importance  than  things  which  are 
seen.  I  have  said  that  the  two  chief 
causes  of  pauperism  are  heredity  and  en- 
vironment, and  the  question  arises,  How 
change  these  for  the  better?  Fortunately 
the  more  powerful  is  environment,  and 
that   is   the   more   easilv   controlled.     The 


proximate  causes  of  poverty: 

ANALYSIS   OF  THE   CAUSES   OF  POVERTY. 

Characteristics  : 

1.  Undervitalization  and  indolence. 

2.  Lubricity. 

3.  Specific  disease. 

4.  Lack  of  judgment. 

5.  Unhealthy  appetites. 

S.     Habits   producing   and    produced   by    the 
above : 

1.  Shiftlessness. 

2.  Self-abuse  and  sexual  excess. 

3.  Abuse  of  stimulants  and  narcotics. 

4.  Unhealthy  diet. 

5.  Disregard  of  family  ties. 

'  1.  Inadequate  natural   resources. 

2.  Bad  climatic   conditions. 

3.  Defective  sanitation,  etc. 

4.  Evil  associations  and  surroundings. 

5.  Defective  legislation  and  defective  ju- 
dicial and  punitive  machinery. 

6.  Misdirected  or  inadequate  education. 

7.  Bad  industrial  conditions  : 

a.  Variations  in  value  of  money. 

b.  Changes  in  trade. 

c.  Excessive  or  ill-managed  taxation. 

d.  Emergencies  unprovided  for. 

e.  Undue  power  of  class  over  class. 

f.  Immobility  of  labor. 

8.  Unwise  philanthropy. 

remedy  is  to  break  up  these  pauper  and 

According  to  all  careful  investigations,  criminal  bands,  and  at  the  earliest  age 
intemperance  plays  a  minor,  although  an  to  remove  the  children  from  their  poison- 
important,  role,  the  returns  under  this  ous  atmosphere.  Wherever  an  attempt  has 
head  depending  largely  upon  the  preju-  been  made  to  improve  the  children  of  the 
dices  of  the  person  making  the  investi-  lowest  classes  by  placing  them  in  whole- 
gation.  One  Prussian  table  of  causes  of  some  environment,  the  results  have  been 
destitution  attributes  less  than  2  per  cent,  eminently  satisfactory.  Not  all,  but  a 
to  intemperance.  The  tenth  report  of  large  majority,  grow  up  to  be  indepen- 
the  Buffalo  Charity  Organization  Society  dent,  self-respecting,  and  respected  citizens, 
shows  that  during  the  period  of  its  exist-  Less  may  be  done  for  adults  who  have 
ence'over  11  per  cent,  of  the  cases  of  pau-  once  become  thoroughly  identified  with  the 
perism  were  traced  by  its  secretary  to  "  lost  and  lapsed  classes,"  but  even  for 
intemperance.  In  London  Mr.  Charles  most  of  these  much  can  be  accomplished 
Booth  —  not  General  Booth  —  attributes  by  bringing  wholesome  influences  to  bear, 
from  13  to  14  per  cent,  of  the  cases  to  in-  The  class  regarded  as  most  helpless  of  all 
temperance.  There  are  others  who  attrib-  is  that  of  fallen  women,  but  the  Salvation 
ute  a  much  larger  percentage  of  pauper-  Army's  "  Slum  Sisterhood,"  consisting  of 
ism  to  intemperance,  but  nearly  if  not  young  women  of  character  who  go  anions 
quite  always  a  minority.  Lack  of  em-  the  most  degraded,  have  secured  success 
ployment,  or  involuntary  idleness,  is  a  even  among  these.  The  secret  is  to 
more  prominent  cause  of  pauperism,  and  among  these  people  of  the  submerged  tenth 
undoubtedly  many  cases  of  intemperance  as  Christ  went  among  men,  sharing  their 
may  be  traced  back  to  a  period  of  involun-  sorrows  and  helping  them  with  the  per- 
tary  idleness.  The  number  of  unemployed  sonal  contact  of  superior  natures.  Self- 
in  England  and  Wales  has  been  placed  at  sacrifice,  enjoined  by  true  Christianity,  is 

92 


PAUPERISM    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 


the  neglected  social  force  which  solves 
social  problems. 

Germany  has  a  large  number  of  "  labor- 
ers' colonies "  for  the  dependent  classes, 
and  these  colonies  have  succeeded  well,  on 
the  whole.  It  seems  clear  that  there  is  a 
class  which  must  be  kept  permanently  iso- 
lated in  asylums  and  subjected  to  kind 
but  firm  discipline.  They  are  called  by 
General  Booth  the  "  morally  incurable," 
and  include  those  who  "  will  not  work  and 
will  not  obey."  These  are  to  be  regard- 
ed, from  the  stand-point  of  competitive 
society,  as  social  refuse,  but  they  are  not 
entirely  useless  on  that  account.  Their 
own  good  requires  strong  government, 
which  will  utilize  whatever  powers  they 
possess,  and  only  in  case  improvement  is 
seen  in  individuals  among  them  should 
greater  liberty  be  allowed  to  these  relative- 
ly more  hopeful  cases.  It  is  felt  by  all 
specialists  in  sociology  that  these  hope- 
lessly lost  and  lapsed  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  propagate  their  kind. 

The  analysis  of  applicants  for  relief 
made  by  American  charity  organization 
societies  shows  that  the  number  of  poor 
and  worthy  people  is  much  larger  than 
one  would  gather  from  superficial  news- 
paper articles.  Nearly  28,000  cases  were 
analyzed,  with  this  result : 

Worthy  of  continuous  relief.  . .  10.3  per  cent. 

Worthy  of  temporary  relief.  .  .  26.6     "        " 
Needing  relief   in   the  form  of 

work    40.4     "        " 

Unworthy  of  relief 22.7     "        " 

It  is  difficult  to  say  who  ought  to  be  called 
unworthy  of  relief,  but  evidently  those 
are  placed  in  that  category  whose  trouble 
is  above  everything  else  moral,  and  among 
these  are  some  who  ought  most  of  all  to 
excite  our  compassion. 

Turning  now  to  more  specific  remedies, 
we  may  instance  two  which  have  been 
tried  and  failed.  One  is  miscellaneous 
alms-giving,  which  has  been  a  social  curse, 
producing  the  very  evil  which  we  want  to 
cure.  Every  time  money  is  given  on  the 
street  to  a  beggar  without  inquiry  harm 
is  done.  The  other  remedy  which  has 
been  tried  is  still  advocated  by  some,  and 
that  is  tract-distribution  and  preaching. 
Social  reformers  have  long  said  that  con- 
ditions must  first  be  changed  before  we 
can  work  upon  the  individual  by  appeals 
to    his    moral    nature.     Social    reformers 


93 


have  been  much  abused  for  emphasizing 
external  circumstances,  but  they  seem  at 
last  to  have  carried  conviction  to  those 
actually  at  work  among  the  poor.  The 
late  Mr.  Charles  Loring  Brace,  who  work- 
ed successfully  among  the  poor  of  New 
York  City,  although  himself  a  religious 
man,  warned  us  against  the  effort  to  cure 
the  worst  evils  of  the  slums  of  cities  by 
technical  religious  means.  Mr.  Brace 
speaks  of  a  too  great  confidence  in  "  the 
old  technical  methods,  such  as  distribut- 
ing tracts,  holding  prayer-meetings,  and 
scattering  Bibles,"  and  assures  us  that 
"  the  neglected  and  ruffian  classes  are  in 
no  way  affected  directly  by  such  influences 
as  these."  But  if  the  testimony  of  a  lay- 
man is  doubted,  we  may  quote  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Barnett,  rector  of  St.  Jude's,  in  Lon- 
don, who  tells  us  that  "  the  social  reform- 
er must  go  alongside  the  Christian  mis- 
sionary." The  Methodists  have  generally 
as  much  confidence  as  any  denomination 
in  these  technically  religious  methods,  but 
the  well-known  Methodist  minister,  the 
Rev.  Hugh  Price  Hughes,  of  London,  says: 
"  I  have  had  almost  as  much  experience  of 
evangelistic  work  as  any  man  in  this 
country,  and  I  have  never  been  able  to 
bring  any  one  who  was  actually  starving 
to  Christ."  Let  us  hear  the  chief  of  the 
Salvation  Army,  who  certainly  does  not 
underrate  religious  exhortation.  General 
Booth  says: 

"  I  have  had  some  experience  on  this  sub- 
ject, and  have  been  making  observations  with 
respect  to  it  ever  since  the  day  I  made  my 
first  attempt  to  reach  these  starving,  hungry 
crowds — just  over  forty-five  years  ago — and  I 
am  quite  satisfied  that  these  multitudes  will 
not  be  saved  in  their  present  circumstances. 
All  the  clergymen,  home  missionaries,  tract- 
distributers,  sick-visitors,  and  every  one  else 
who  cares  about  the  salvation  of  the  poor, 
may  make  up  their  minds  as  to  that.  The 
poor  must  be  helped  out  of  their  present  social 
miseries." 

Some  specific  remedies  must,  on  account 
of  lack  of  space,  be  merely  mentioned.  A 
prominent  cause  of  misery  in  all  cities 
is  found  to  be  early  and  thoughtless  mar- 
riages. A  public  sentiment  must  be 
formed  on  this  subject.  The  results  are 
weak  and  feeble  children,  and  often  ulti- 
mate discouragement  and  pauperism  on 
the  part  of  parents  unable  to  carry  the 
burdens  which  they  have  taken  upon  them- 
selves.    A  further  development  of  charity 


PAUPERISM   IN    THE    UNITED  STATES— PAXTON   MASSACRE 

organization     societies     will     he    helpful,  to  such  an  extent  conform  to  their  proud 

Friendly     societies     and     trades  -  unions  professions   that   the   slums   of  cities  will 

should  be  encouraged  in  every  way,  and  disappear  and  be  replaced  by  wholesome 

the  example  of  a  few  educated  and  cult-  dwellings,    permitting    in    these    quarters 

ured  people  not  of  the  wage-earning  class,  once  more  to  spring  up  that  old  and  benef- 

who  have  joined  societies  like  the  Knights  icent  institution — the  Home, 

of  Labor,  ought  to  be  more  generally  fol-  Pavonia.      Michael    Pauw,    one    of    the 

lowed.     The   close   association   with   one's  directors  of   the  Dutch   West  India  Com- 

fellows  in  these  societies  is  most  helpful,  pany,    bought    of    the    Indians     (1630)    a 

and  this  keeps  their  members  from  pauper-  large  tract  of  land  in  the  present  limits 

ism.     Very   few   paupers   are  members  of  of   New   Jersey,   including  what   are   now 

any  trades-union.   When  in  a  time  of  great  Jersey    City    and    Hoboken,    to    which    he 

distress  a  large  fund  was  raised  in  London  presently  added,  by  purchase,  Staten  Isl- 

for  distribution,  in  one  district  1,000  men  and    and    neighboring    districts,    and    be- 

applied  for  help  before  one  mechanic  came,  came  a  patroon.     This  region  was  called 

and   among  all   the   applicants   there  was  Pavonia,   and  one   of   the  ferries   to   New 

only  one  member  of  a  trades-union.  York  City  now  bears  that  name. 

The   chief   agency  of   reform,   however,  Pawnee    Indians,    a    warlike    tribe   of 

must   be   sought   in   the  helpful   co-opera-  North   American   Indians,   which   lived   in 

tion   of   citizens   with   public   authorities,  villages  of  earth-covered  logs,  on  the  bor- 

particularly  with  those  of  the  city.     Pri-  ders  of  the  Platte  River,  in  Nebraska  and 

vate    societies    have    made    a    failure    of  Kansas.     They  appear  to  be  of  the  Illinois 

efforts  to  improve  social  conditions.    The  family,    divided    into    several    bands,    and 

Elberfeld  system,  so  often  quoted,  means  were   continually  at  war  with  the   Sioux 

precisely  this   co-operation   of   private   ef-  and  other  surrounding  tribes.     Hostile  to 

fort  with  municipal  authorities.     This  or-  the  Spaniards,  they  have  ever  been  friend- 

ganization  of  charities  is  a  municipal  one,  ly  to  the  Americans.     Sometimes  they  sac- 

which    drafts    into    its    service    the    best  rificed  prisoners  to  the  sun;   cultivated  a 

citizens  as  friendly  visitors  in  such  num-  few  vegetables;    and   shaved  their   heads, 

bers  that  there  is  one  to  every  four  poor  excepting     the     scalp-lock.      The     women 

families.  dressed  decently,  and  the  men  went  on  a 

Finally,  every  social  improvement  tends  hunt  regularly  to  the  plains  for  buffalo, 
to  diminish  the  number  of  paupers,  and  At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  question  of  pauperism  thus  involves  they  numbered  about  6,000,  with  2,000 
the  whole  of  social  science.  Remedies  are  warriors.  In  1833  they  were  seated  upon 
of  two  kinds,  positive  and  preventive —  a  reservation  north  of  the  Nebraska  River, 
namely,  those  which  seek  to  cure  the  and  made  rapid  progress  towards  civil- 
evil  and  those  which  aim  to  prevent  ization,  when  the  fierce  Sioux  swept  down 
its  coming  into  existence.  The  num-  upon  them,  ravaged  their  country,  and 
ber  of  our  almshouses,  asylums,  and  char-  killed  many  of  their  people.  Driven  south 
itable  institutions  of  all  sorts,  of  which  of  the  Nebraska,  they  lost  nearly  half  their 
we  boast  so  much,  is  really  our  shame,  number  by  disease.  In  1861  they  num- 
They  show  that  we  are  but  half-Chris-  bered  3,414,  and  assisted  the  government 
tians.  As  we  progress  in  real  Christian-  in  a  war  with  the  Sioux.  As  soon  as  the 
ity,  preventive  measures  will  be  more  and  latter  made  peace  with  the  government, 
more  emphasized.  They  will  include,  they  fell  upon  the  Pawnees  and  slaughter- 
among  other  things,  improved  education  ed  them  without  mercy.  In  1872  their 
of  every  grade,  better  factory  legislation,  crops  were  destroyed  by  locusts,  and  they 
including  employers'-liability  acts,  means  removed  to  another  section,  where  they 
for  the  development  of  the  physical  man,  were  placed  under  charge  of  the  Quakers, 
like  gymnasiums,  play-grounds,  and  parks,  with  a  perpetual  annuity  of  $30,000.  In 
increased  facilities  for  making  small  sav-  1899  there  were  706  of  them  on  a  reser- 
ings,  like  postal  savings-banks,  and  more  vation  in  Oklahoma. 

highly  developed  sanitary  legislation  and  Paxton  Massacre,  The.    The  atrocities 

administration.     We  may  hope  to  see  the  of  Pontiac's  confederates  on  the  frontiers 

time  when  the  practice  of  Christians  will  of   Pennsylvania    aroused   the   ferocity  of 

94 


PAYNE 


the  Scotch-Irish  settlers  there,  and  on  the  Payne,  John  Howard,  dramatist;  born 

night  of  Dec.  14,  1763,  nearly  fifty  of  them  in  New  York  City,  June  9,  1792;  was  very 

fell  upon  some  peaceful  and  friendly  Ind-  precocious,    editing   The    Thespian   Mirror 

ians   at   Conestoga,   on   the    Susquehanna,  when  only  thirteen  years  of  age.     Hja  be- 

who  were  living  quietly  there,  under  the  came  a  poet,  a  dramatist,  and  an  actor  of 

guidance  of  Moravian  missionaries.    These  renown.      At   the   age   of   fifteen   and   six- 


Indians  were  wrongly  suspected  of  har- 
boring or  corresponding  with  hostiles. 
Very  few  of  the  Indians  were  ever  at 
Conestoga,  and  all  who  remained — men, 
women,  and  children — were  murdered  by 
the  "  Paxton  Boys,"  as  they  called  theni- 


teen  he  published  twenty-five  numbers  of 
a  periodical  called  The  Pastime,  and  in 
1S09,  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  made  a 
successful  entrance  upon  the  theatrical 
profession  at  the  Park  Theatre,  New  York, 
as    Young    Norval.     In    1810    he    played 


selves.  The  village,  with  the  winter  Hamlet  and  other  leading  parts  with  great 
stores,  was  laid  in  ashes.  The  citizens  of  success,  and,  at  the  age  of  twenty  and 
Lancaster  collected  the  scattered  sur-  twenty-one,  he  played  with  equal  success 
vivors  into  the  workhouse  for  protection,  at  Drury  Lane,  London.  While  there  he 
The  "  Paxton  Boys  "  burst  into  it,  and  be-  produced  many  dramas,  chiefly  adapta- 
fore  the  citizens  could  assemble,  murdered  tions  from  the  French.  In  one  of  these 
all  the  Indians  and  fled.  The  Moravian  occurs  Ihe  song  Home,  Sweet  Home,  by 
Indians  at  Wyalusing  and  Nain  hurried  to  which  he  is  chiefly  known.  Payne  be- 
Philadelphia  for  protection, 
but  the  "  Paxton  Boys " 
threatened  to  go  there  in 
large  numbers  and  kill  them, 
and  they  were  sent  to  Prov- 
ince Island,  put  under  the 
charge  of  the  garrison  there, 
and  were  saved.  The  govern- 
ment offered  a  reward  for 
the  arrest  of  the  murder- 
ers, but  such  was  the  state 
of  feeling  in  the  interior  of 
Pennsylvania  that  no  one 
dared  to  move  in  the  matter. 
It  assumed  a  political  and 
religious  aspect.  The  par- 
ticipators in  the  crime  were 
not  ignorant  and  vulgar 
borderers,  but  men  of  such 
high  standing  and  conse- 
quence that  the  press,  in 
denouncing  their  acts,  for- 
bore to  give  their  names. 

Payne.  Henry  B.,  states- 
man; born  in  Hamilton, 
N.  Y.,  Nov.  30,  1810;  re- 
moved to  Cleveland,  0.,  in 
1834;   State  Senator,   1849; 

member     of     Congress,     1875-77;     United    came    a    correspondent    of    Coleridge    and 
States     Senator,     1885-91.       He    died    in    Lamb;  and,  in  1818,  when  he  was  twenty- 


JOH.V    HOWARD    PAYNE. 


Cleveland,  0.,  Sept,  9,  1896. 

Payne,  Henry  C,  statesman;  born  in 
Ashfield,  Mass.,  Nov.  23,  1843;  removed  to 
Wisconsin  in  1863;  postmaster  of  Mil- 
waukee, 1876-86;  appointed  Postmaster- 
General,  Jan.  8,  1902. 


95 


six  years  of  age,  his  tragedy  of  Brutus  was 
successfully  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane. 
He  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1832. 
He  was  appointed  consul  at  Tunis,  and 
died  in  office  there.  April  10,  1852.  His 
remains  were  brought  to  Washington  late 


PAYSON— PEACE    COMMISSION 

in  March,  1883,  and  interred  at  George-  Conference  of  1864)    there  were  in  the 

town.  year    1864    two   semi-official   attempts   to 

Payson,  Phillips,  clergyman;  born  in  bring  about  peace  between  the  North  and 
Walpole,  Mass.,  Jan.  18,  1736;  gradu-  the  South.  General  Grant,  under  date  of 
ated  at  Harvard  College  in  1754;  studied  July  8,  wrote  a  letter  to  Gen.  Robert  E. 
theology,  and  was  pastor  of  the  Congrega-  Lee,  requesting  that  Col.  James  S.  Jacques, 
tional  Church  in  Chelsea,  Mass.,  in  1757-  78th  Illinois  Infantry,  and  James  R. 
1801.  His  publications  include  Transac-  Gilmour  be  allowed  to  meet  Col.  Robert 
tions  of  ■  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  Ould,  Confederate  commissioner  for  the 
and  Sciences;  Battle  of  Lexington ;  Death  exchange  of  prisoners.  The  reply  was 
of  Washington,  etc.  He  died  in  Chelsea,  satisfactory,  and  the  two  Northern  corn- 
Mass.,  Jan.  11,  1801.  missioners,    after    meeting    Colonel    Ould, 

Peabody,  George,  philanthropist;  born  had  an  interview  with  President  Davis, 
at  Danvers,  Mass.,  Feb.  18,  1795.  After  The  plan  proposed  by  the  Northern  corn- 
serving  as  a  clerk  in  his  uncle's  store  in  missioners  was  declared  by  President/ 
Georgetown,  D.  C,  in  1812-13,  he  became  Davis  to  be  altogether  impracticable, 
a  partner  with  Elisha  Riggs,  in  New  York  Mr.  Benjamin,  Confederate  Secretary  of 
City,  and  afterwards  in  Baltimore.  In  State,  in  an  official  letter  to  James  M. 
July,  1843,  he  became  a  banker,  in  Lon-  Mason,  commissioner  in  Europe,  states 
don,  and  amassed  an  immense  fortune,  "  it  was  proposed  that  there  should  be  a 
which  he  used  in  making  princely  benefac-  general  vote  of  all  the  people  of  both  fed- 
tions,  as  follows:  To  his  native  town,  erations,  the  majority  of  the  vote  thus 
$200,000,  to  establish  a  lyceum  and  libra-  taken  to  determine  all  disputed  questions, 
ry;  to  the  first  Grinnell  expedition  in  President  Davis  replied  that  as  these  pro- 
search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  $10,000;  to  posals  had  been  prefaced  by  the  remark  ' 
found  an  institute  of  science,  literature,  that  the  people  of  the  North  were  in  the 
and  the  fine  arts,  in  Baltimore,  $1,400,-  majority,  and  that  the  majority  ought 
000;  and,  in  1862,  to  the  city  of  London,  to  govern,  the  offer  was  in  effect  a  pto- 
$2,500,000,  for  the  benefit  of  its  poor.  In  posal  that  the  Confederate  States  should 
1866  he  gave  to  Harvard  University  $150,-  surrender  at  discretion,  admit  that  thoy 
000  to  establish  a  professorship  of  Amer-  had  been  wrong  from  the  beginning,  sub- 
ican  archaeology,  and,  the  same  year,  to  mit  to  the  mercy  of  their  enemies,  and 
the  Southern  Educational  Fund,  $2,000,-  avow  themselves  to  be  in  need  of  pardon; 
000.  The  trustees  dissolved  the  fund,  that  extermination  was  preferable  to  dis- 
Jan.  24,  1905,  giving  $1,000,000  to  found  honor." 

the  Peabody   School  at   Nashville,    Tenn.  Later  in  the  year,  Messrs.  Clement  C. 

He  also  gave  to  Yale  College,  to  found  a  Clay,    of    Alabama,    Jacob    Thompson,    of 

chair   of   geology,    $150,000.      He   died    in  Mississippi,    Prof.    James    P.    Holcombe, 

London,     England,     Nov.     4,     1869,     and  of   Virginia,   and   George  N.    Sanders,   of 

his    remains    were    sent    to    the    United  Kentucky,  arrived  in  Canada  via  the  Ber- 

States     on     the     British     man  -  of  -  war  mudas,  and  opened  communications  with  a 

Monarch,     and     received     by     an     Amer-  view  to  a  conference.    Horace  Greeley  wrote 

ican  squadron  under  command  of  Admiral  I'resident  Lincoln  urging  him  to  invite  the 

Farragut.  Confederate  commissioners  to  Washington, 

Peabody,  Selim  Hobart,  scientist;  there  to  submit  their  propositions.  The 
born  in  Rockingham,  Vt.,  Aug.  20,  1829;  President  acquiesced  in  Mr.  Greeley's  re- 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Vermont  quest,  but  directed  that  Mr.  Greeley  should 
in  1852;  was  connected  with  a  number  proceed  to  Niagara  and  accompany  the 
of  colleges  as  professor  of  physics,  math-  Confederate  commissioners  to  Washing- 
cmatics,    civil    engineering,    etc.      He    was  ton. 

the    chief    of    the    department    of    liberal  In  an  exchange  of  letters  between  Mr. 

arts  in  the  World's  Fair  of  1893,  and  first  Greeley  and  Messrs.   Clay  and  Holcombe, 

editor-in-chief  of  the  International  Cyclo-  the   latter    stated    that   the    safe    conduct 

pcedia.     He  died  May  26,  1903.  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  had 

Peace  Commission.    In  addition  to  the  been  tendered  them  under  a  misapprehen- 

Hampton    Roads    Conference    (see    Peace  sion  of  the  facts;  that  they  were  not  ac- 

06 


PEACE    COMMISSIONERS 


credited  by  the  Confederacy  as  bearers 
of  propositions  looking  to  the  establish- 
ment of  peace;  that  they  were,  however, 
in  the  confidential  employ  of  their  gov- 
ernment, and  entirely  familiar  with  its 
wishes  and  opinions.  Under  the  circum- 
stances, Mr.  Greeley  declined  to  meet 
Messrs.  Clay  and  Holcombe  without 
further  instructions  from  the  President 
of  the  United  States.  July  20  Mr.  Greeley 
and  Major  Hay,  President  Lincoln's  pri- 
vate secretary,  crossed  the  Niagara  and 
met  Messrs.  Clay  and  Holcombe,  to  whom 
the   following  letter   was   handed: 


"  Executive  Mansion, 

"  Washington,  July  18,  1864. 
"  To  Whom  It  May  Concern: 

"Any  proposition  wliich  embraces  the  res- 
toration of  peace,  the  integrity  of  the  whole 
Union,  and  the  abandonment  of  slavery,  and 
which  comes  by  and  with  an  authority  that 
can  control  the  armies  now  at  war  against 
the  United  States,  will  be  received  and  con- 
sidered by  the  executive  government  of  the 
United  States,  and  will  be  met  by  liberal 
terms  on  other  substantial  and  collateral 
points  ;  and  the  bearer  thereof  shall  have  safe 
conduct  both  ways. 

"  Abraham  Lincoln." 


In  the  absence  of  any  official  authority 
on  the  part  of  Messrs.  Clay,  Holcombe, 
Sanders,  and  Thompson,  all  negotiations 
ceased. 

Peace  Commissioners.  Viscount  Gen- 
eral Howe  and  Admiral  Lord  Howe,  who 
arrived  at  New  York  almost  simultane- 
ously (July,  1776),  were  authorized  as 
joint  commissioners  to  treat  with  the 
Americans  for  reconciliation,  pursuant  to 
a  recent  act  of  Parliament.  They  had 
very  limited  powers.  They  were  not  al- 
lowed to  recognize  the  validity  of  any  con- 
gress, or  of  the  commission  of  any  military 
officer  among  the  colonies ;  they  could  only 
treat  with  persons  as  individuals;  grant 
pardons  to*  individuals  or  communities 
which  should  lay  down  their  arms  or  dis- 
sol  /e  their  governments,  but  they  might 
not  be  judges  of  any  complaints,  nor  prom- 
ise any  redress.  They  began  the  business 
of  their  mission  in  the  spirit  of  these  in- 
structions by  addressing  the  American 
commander-in-chief  as  "  Mr.  Washington, 
Esq.,"  in  superscribing  a  note  which  they 
sent  by  a  flag,  accompanied  with  a  copy  of 
the  declaration  of  the  royal  clemency. 
vii. — G  9 


Washington  refused  to  receive  it.  An 
officer  who  bore  a  second  note  (which  also 
was  not  received)  assured  Washington 
that  the  commissioners  were  invested  with 
large  powers  to  effect  reconciliation.  "  They 
seem  to  have  power  only  to  grant  pardons," 
said  Washington — "  having  committed  no 
fault,  we  need  no  pardon." 

The  admiral  addressed  a  letter  to  Dr. 
Franklin,  whom  he  had  known  person- 
ally in  England,  and  received  a  reply,  cour- 
teous in  tone,  but  in  nowise  soothing  to 
his  feelings  as  a  statesman  or  a  Briton. 
As  they  had  equal  power  to  negotiate 
peace  or  wage  war,  the  commissioners  now 
prosecuted  the  latter,  and  not  long  after- 
wards the  battle  on  Long  Island  occurred,, 
in  which  the  Americans  were  defeated. 
General  Sullivan  was  among  the  prisoners. 
Thinking  it  to  be  a  favorable  time  to  try 
their  peace  measures  again,  the  commis- 
sioners sent  Sullivan,  on  his  parole,  to 
Congress,  to  induce  that  body  to  designate 


THE    BILLOP    HOUSE. 


some  person  with  whom  the  admiral 
might  hold  a  conference.  They  appoint- 
ed Messrs.  Franklin,  Adams,  and  Rutledge 
a  committee  to  meet  him,  informally,  at 
a  place  on  Staten  Island  (which  he  had 
indicated)  opposite  Amboy.  They  met 
there,  Sept.  11,  1776,  at  the  house  of  the 
loyalist  Colonel  Billop.  Both  parties 
were  very  courteous.  Lord  Howe  told 
them  he  could  not  receive  them  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Congress,  but  as  private 
gentlemen,  and  that  the  independence  of 
the  colonists,  lately  declared,  could  not  be 
considered  for  a  moment.  "  You  may  call 
us  what  you  please,"  they  said,  "  we  are 
nevertheless  the  representatives  of  a  free 
and  independent  people,  and  will  entertain 
no   proposition  which   does  not   recognize 


PEACE    COMMISSIONERS— PEACE   CONFERENCE    OF    1864 


our  independence."  Further  conference  trusted  to  the  discretion  of  the  negotiators 
was  unnecessary.  for  peace  who  might  be  appointed,  former 
On  June  4,  177S,  the  Earl  of  Carlisle,  instructions  indicating  the  wishes  of  Con- 
George  Johnstone,  and  William  Eden,  com-  gress.  These  concessions  were  opposed  by 
missioners  appointed  by  the  King  under  the  New  England  delegates,  but  were 
Lord  North's  conciliatory  bills,  arrived  at  adopted  by  the  votes  of  Southern  mem- 
Philadelphia.  The  brothers  Howe,  who  bers,  who  were  anxious  for  peace.  It 
were  to  be  of  the  commission,  could  not  was  proposed  to  have  five  commission- 
join  them,  but  Sir  Henry  Clinton  took  the  ers  who  should  represent  the  differ- 
place  of  Sir  William.  The  commissioners  ent  sections  of  the  Union,  and  John 
sent  their  credentials  and  other  papers  by  Adams,  John  Jay,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
their  secretary  to  the  Congress  at  York,  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  Henry  Laurens 
Pa.,  with  a  flag.  That  body  and  the  Amer-  were  appointed.  The  Russian  and  German 
ican  people,  having  already  perused  the  mediation  resulted  in  nothing,  and  Great 
bills  and  found  in  them  no  word  about  in-  Britain  haughtily  refused  to  acknowledge 
dependence,  had  resolved  to  have  nothing  the  independence  of  the  United  States  in 
to  do  with   commissioners  that  might  be  any  form. 

sent,  and  to  meet  no  advance  on  the  part  Peace  Conference  of  1864.  Francis 
of  the  government  of  Great  Britain  unless  P.  Blair,  Sr.,  conceived  the  idea  that 
the  fleets  and  armies  should  be  withdrawn  through  his  personal  acquaintance  with 
and  the  independence  of  the  United  States  most  of  the  Confederate  leaders  at  Rich- 
be  declared.  Their  papers  were  returned  mond  he  might  be  able  to  effect  a  peace, 
to  them  with  a  letter  from  the  president  So,  without  informing  the  President  of 
of  the  Congress  saying  they  cou'd  not  his  purpose,  he  asked  Mr.  Lincoln  for  a 
treat  excepting  on  a  basis  of  acknowledged  pass  through  the  National  lines  to  the 
independence.  The  commissioners  tried  by  Confederate  capital.  On  Dec.  26,  the 
various  arts  to  accomplish  their  purpose,  President  handed  Mr.  Blair  a  card  on^ 
but  failed,  and,  after  issuing  an  angry  which  was  written,  "Allow  Mr.  F.  P. 
and  threatening  manifesto,  sailed  for  Eng-  Blair,  Sr.,  to  pass  our  lines  to  go  South 


land  in  October. 

After  the  total  destruction  of  the  South- 
ern army  near  Camden,  in  August,  1780, 
some   of    the    Southern    members    of    Con- 


and  return,"  and  signed  his  name  to  it. 
This  self-constituted  peace  commissioner 
went  to  Richmond,  had  several  interviews 
with  President  Davis,  and  made  his  way 


gress,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  Brit-  back    to    Washington    in    January,    1805, 

ish,    became    so    anxious    for    the    aid    of  with  a  letter  written   to  himself  by  Jef- 

Spain    that    they    proposed,    in    October,  ferson  Davis,  in  which  the  latter  express- 

1780,  to  abandon  all  claims  to  the  naviga-  ed  a  willingness  to  appoint  a  commission 

tion  of  the  Mississippi  as  the  price  of  a  "  to  renew  the  effort  to  enter  into  a  ccn- 

Spanish  subsidy  and  alliance.     Meanwhile  ference  with  a  view  to  secure  peace  to  the 

(January,    17S1)    the   Empress   of   Russia  two    countries."      This    letter    Mr.    Blair 

had  been  joined  by  the  Emperor  of  Ger-  placed    in    the    hands    of    the    President, 

many    in    an    offer    of    mediation.     Great  when    the   latter   wrote    a    note   to    Blair 


Britain,  getting  wearied  of  the  war,  had 
accepted  the  offer.  These  facts  being  com- 
municated to  Congress  by  the  French 
minister,   a    committee   was   appointed   to 


which  he  might  show  to  Davis,  in  which 
he  expressed  a  willingness  now,  as  he  had 
ever  had,  to  take  proper  measures  for 
"  securing  peace  to  the  people  of  our  com^ 


confer  with  him.     Their  report,  the  opin-  mon  country."     With  this  letter  Blair  re- 
ions  of  the   French   ambassador,  and   the  turned  to  Richmond. 

financial  pressure  made  Congress  greatly        Mr.  Lincoln's  expression,  "  our  common 

modify  its  terms  of  peace  on  which  they  country,"  as  opposed  to  Davis's  "  the  two 

had  so  strenuously  insisted.     They  waived  countries,"  deprived  the  latter  of  all  hope 

an    express    acknowledgment    of    indepen-  of  a  negotiation  on  terms  of  independence 

dence.     They  were  willing  to  accept  any-  for    the    Confederate    States.      But    there 

thing  which  substantially  amounted  to  it.  was  an  intense  popular  desire  for  the  war 

The  treaty  with  France  was  to  be  main-  to  cease  which  he  dared  not  resist,  and  he 

tained  in  full  force,  but  all  else  was  in-  appointed  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  John  A. 

98 


PEACE    CONFERENCE 


Campbell,  and  R.  M.  T.  Hunter  commis- 
sioners to  proceed  to  Washington. 
They  were  "permitted  to  go  on  a  steamer 
only  as  far  as  Hampton  Roads,  without 
the  privilege  of  landing,  and  there,  on 
board  the  vessel  that  conveyed  them,  they 
held  a  conference  (Feb.  3,  18G5)  of  several 
hours  with  President  Lincoln  and  Secre- 
tary of  State  Seward.  That  conference 
clearly  revealed  the  wishes  of  both  parties. 
The  Confederates  wanted  an  armistice  by 
which  an  immediate  peace  might  be 
secured,  leaving  the  question  of  the  separa- 
tion of  the  Confederate  States  from  the 
Union  to  be  settled  afterwards.  The  Presi- 
dent told  them  plainly  that  there  would 
be  no  suspension  of  hostilities  and  no 
negotiations,  except  on  the  basis  of  the 
disbandment  of  the  Confederate  forces  and 
the  recognition  of  the  national  authority 
throughout  the  republic.  He  declared, 
also,  that  he  should  not  recede  from  his 
position  on  the  subject  of  slavery,  and  the 
commissioners  were  informed  of  the  adop- 
tion by  Congress  three  days  before  of  the 
Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitu- 
tion.    So  ended  the  peace  conference. 

In  a  speech  at  a  public  meeting  in  Rich- 
mond on  Jan.  6,  Davis,  in  reference  to  the 
words  of  President  Lincoln — "  our  com- 
mon country " — said,  "  Sooner  than  we 
should  ever  be  united  again,  I  would  be 
willing  to  yield  up  everything  I  hold  on 
earth,  and,  if  it  were  possible,  would 
sacrifice  my  life  a  thousand  times  before 
I  would  succumb."  The  meeting  passed 
resolutions  spurning  with  indignation  the 
terms  offered  by  the  President  as  a  "  gross 
insult  "  and  "  premeditated  indignity  "  to 
the  people  of  the  "  Confederate  States." 
Davis  declared  that  in  less  than  twelve 
months  they  would  "  compel  the  Yankees 
to  petition  them  for  peace  upon  their  own 
!  terms."  He  spoke  of  "  his  Majesty  Abra- 
I  ham  the  First,"  and  said  that  "  before  the 
|  campaign  was  over,  Lincoln  and  Seward 
,  might  find  they  had  been  speaking  to  their 
{ masters."  At  a  war-meeting  held  a  few 
jdays  afterwards  at  Richmond,  it  was  re- 
solved that  they  would  never  lay  down 
I  their  arms  until  their  independence  was 
(won.     See  Peace  Commission. 

Peace  Conference,  Universal.  Count 
iMouravieff,  the  Russian  minister  for  for- 
leign  affairs,  on  Aug.  24,  189S,  suggested  a 
I  conference  of  the  powers  with  a  view  to 


the  maintenance  of  universal  peace,  and 
the  limiting  of  excessive  armaments.  As 
the  suggestion  met  with  general  favor,  the 
Emperor  of  Russia,  on  Jan.  11,  1S99,  pro- 
posed a  congress  to  be  held  at  The  Hagus, 
May  IS,  1S99,  in  which  each  power,  what- 
ever the  number  of  its  delegates,  would 
have  only  one  vote.  The  subjects  to  be 
submitted  for  international  discussion  at, 
the  congress  could  be  summarized  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  An  understanding  not  to  increase 
for  a  fixed  period  the  present  effective 
of  the  armed  military  and  naval  forces, 
and  at  the  same  time  not  to  increase  the 
budgets  pertaining  thereto;  and  a  prelim- 
inary examination  of  the  means  by  which 
a  reduction  might  even  be  effected  in 
future  in  the  forces  and  budgets  above- 
mentioned. 

2.  To  prohibit  the  use  in  the  armies  and 
fleets  of  any  new  kind  of  fire-arms  what- 
ever and  of  new  explosives,  or  any  pow- 
ders more  powerful  than  those  now  in  use 
either  for  rifles  or  cannon. 

3.  To  restrict  the  use  in  military  war- 
fare of  the  formidable  explosives  already 
existing,  and  to  prohibit  the  throwing  of 
projectiles  or  explosives  of  any  kind  from 
balloons  or  by  any  similar  means. 

4.  To  prohibit  the  use  in  naval  warfare 
of  submarine  torpedo-boats  or  plungers, 
or  other  similar  engines  of  destruction; 
to  give  an  undertaking  not  to  construct 
vessels  with  rams  in  the  future. 

5.  To  apply  to  naval  warfare  the  stipu- 
lations of  the  Geneva  Convention  of  18G4, 
on  the  basis  of  the  Additional  Articles  of 
1868. 

G.  To  neutralize  ships  and  boats  em- 
ployed in  saving  those  overboard  during 
or  after  an  engagement. 

7.  To  revise  the  declaration  concerning 
the  laws  and  customs  of  war  elaborated 
in  1874  by  the  conference  of  Brussels, 
which  has  remained  unratified  to  the  pres- 
ent day. 

8.  To  accept  in  principle  the  employment. 
of  good  offices,  of  mediation  and  faculta- 
tive arbitration  in  cases  lending  themselves 
thereto,  with  the  object  of  preventing  arm- 
ed conflicts  between  nations;  to  come  to 
an  understanding  with  respect  to  the  mode 
of  applying  these  good  offices,  and  to  es- 
tablish a  uniform  practice  in  using  them. 

The  following  governments  were  repre- 


99 


i 


PEACE    CONFERENCE— PEACE    CONGRESSES 

sented:  Austria-Hungary,  Belgium,  Bui-  dent  Roosevelt  announced  his  intention 
garia,  China,  Denmark,  France,  Germany,  of  inviting  at  an  early  day  the  leading 
Great  Britain,  Greece,  Italy,  Japan,  Lux-  nations  to  join  in  a  second  peace  con- 
embourg,  Mexico,  Montenegro,  the  Nether-  ference  at  The  Hague.  The  members  of 
lands,  Persia,  Portugal,  Rumania,  Rus-  the  Union  assembled  in  Boston,  Oct.  3, 
sia,  Servia,  Siam,  Spain,  Sweden  and  following,  to  hold  the  thirteenth  annual 
Norway,  Switzerland,  Turkey,  and  the  convention  of  the  International  Peace  Con- 
United  States  of  America.  gress.     See  Arbitration,  International. 

The  United  States  were  represented  by  Peace  Congresses.    In  1782  Prince  Kau- 

the   Hon.   Andrew   D.   White,   ambassador  nitz  agreed  with  Vergennes  that,  in  a  pro- 

to  Berlin;   the  Hon.   Seth  Low,   president  posed  peace  congress  at  Vienna,  the  United 

of   Columbia   University;    the   Hon.   Stan-  States  government  should  be  represented, 

ford  Newel,  minister  to  The  Hague;  Capt.  so  that  direct  negotiations  between  it  and 

Alfred  T.  Mahan,  U.  S.  N. ;  Capt.  William  Great    Britain    might    proceed    simultane- 

Crozier,  U.  S.  A.,  and  the  Hon.  Frederick  ously  with  those  of  the  European  powers. 

W.  Holls,  of  New  York.  The  proposition  was   pronounced   by   the 

At  the  opening  of  the  conference,  May  able  Queen  of  France  to  be  a  masterpiece 
18,  M.  de  Staal,  the  Russian  ambassador,  of  political  wisdom.  But  England  re- 
was   elected   President.  fused  to  negotiate  for  peace  Avith  France 

The  subjects  suggested  in  the  Russian  until  that  power  should  give  up  its  con- 
circular  of  Jan.  11  were  referred  to  three  nection  with  the  American  "rebels." 
committees,  the  reports  of  which  were  This  proposition  was  embodied  by  Kau- 
submitted  July  29  and  signed  by  all.  Ac-  nitz  in  the  preliminary  articles  which  he 
eompanying  the  report  were  the  follow-  prepared  for  the  peace  congress.  He  cast 
ing  proposed  conventions:  the   blame   of    its    ill-success    on   the   un- 

I.  Convention  for  the  pacific  settlement  reasonable  pretensions  of  the  British 
of  international  conflicts.  ministry. 

II.  Convention  regarding  the  laws  and  On  Jan.  19,  1861,  a  series  of  resolutions 
customs  of  war  by  land.  were  adopted  by  the  Virginia  legislature 

III.  Convention    for    the    adaptation    to  recommending  a  national  peace  convention 
maritime    warfare    of    the    principles    of  or  congress  to  be  held  in  the  city  of  Wash- 
the  Geneva  Convention  of  Aug.  22,  1864.  ington  on  Feb.  4,  for  the  purpose  of  effect- 
Added    to    the    convention    relative    to  ing  a  general  and  permanent  pacification; 

laws  and  customs  of  war  were  three  dec-  commending    the    Crittenden    compromise 

larations,  separately  signed  as  follows:  as    a    just   basis    of   settlement;    and   ap- 

1.  The  contracting  powers  agree  to  pro-  pointing    two    commissioners,    one    to    go 
hibit,  for  a  term  of  five  years,  the  launch-  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and 
ing  of  projectiles  and  explosives  from  bal-  the  other  to  the  governors  of  the  seceding 
loons,    or    by    other    new    methods    of    a  States,   to  ask  them  to  abstain  from  all  i 
similar  nature.  hostile  action  pending  the  proceedings  of  j 

2.  The  contracting  parties  agree  to  the  proposed  convention.  The  proposition  j 
abstain  from  the  use  of  bullets  which  for  such  a  convention  was  received  with 
expand  or  flatten  easily  in  the  human  body,  great  favor.  President  Buchanan  laid  it  i 
such  as  bullets  with  a  hard  envelope  which  before  Congress  with  a  commendatory  [ 
does  not  entirely  cover  the  core,  or  is  message,  but  the  Virginians  had  accom-  j 
pierced  with   incisions.  panied    this    proposition   with    a   menace. 

3.  The  contracting  parties  agree  to  ab-  On  the  same  day  the  legislature  resolved,  j 
stain  from  the  use  of  projectiles  the  ob-  "  That  if  all  efforts  to  reconcile  the  un-  J 
ject  of  which  is  the  diffusion  of  asphyxi-  happy  differences  between  the  sections  ( 
ating  or  deleterious  gases.  of  our  country  shall  prove  abortive,  then  ; 

The   United   States   signed   the   first   of  every  consideration  of  honor  and  interest 

these   declarations,    but    declined    to    sign  demands  that  Virginia  shall  unite  her  des- 

the  second  and  third.  tinies     with     the     slave-holding     States."  I 

On  receiving  the  members  of  the  Inter-  Delegates    to    the    peace    convention   were 

national    Parliamentary    Peace    Union    at  chosen   from   nearly   every   State   but  thei 

the   White   House,   Sept.    24,    1904,   Presi-  seven   seceding   ones.      They   met   at   Wil- 

100 


PEACE    CONGBESSES 


lard's  Hotel,  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  4. 
The  convention  was  permanently  organized 
by  the  appointment  of  ex-President  John 
Tyler,  of  Virginia,  to  preside,  and  Crafts 
J.  Wright,  of  Ohio,  as  secretary.  The  con- 
vention was  opened  with  prayer  by  Rev. 
Dr.  P.  D.  Gurley.  Mr.  Guthrie,  of  Ken- 
tucky, opened  the  business  by  offering  a 
resolution  for  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mittee consisting  of  one  from  each  State 
represented,  to  whom  all  resolutions  and 
jiropositions  for  the  adjustment  of  diffi- 
culties might  be  referred,  with  authority 
to  report  a  plan  to  "  restore  harmony  and 
preserve  the  Union/'  The  committee  was 
appointed,  and  Mr.  Guthrie  was  chosen  its 
chairman.  He  made  a  report  on  the  15th., 
in  which  several  amendments  to  the  Con- 
stitution were  offered.    It  proposed: 

First.  The  re  -  establishment  of  the 
boundary  between  slavery  and  freedom 
on  the  line  fixed  by  the  Missouri  Com- 
promise— lat.  36°  30'  N.  It  also  pro- 
posed that  when  any  territory  north  or 
south  of  that  line  should  contain  the  req- 
uisite number  of  inhabitants  to  form  a 
State,  it  should  be  admitted  into  the 
Union  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  orig- 
inal States,  either  with  or  without  slavery, 
as  the  constitution  of  the  new  State  may 
determine. 

Second.  That  territory  should  not  be  ac- 
quired by  the  United  States  unless  by 
treaty,  nor,  except  for  naval  or  commercial 
stations,  unless  such  treaty  should  be  rati- 
fied by  four-fifths  of  all  the  members  of 
the  Senate. 

Third.  That  neither  the  Constitution 
nor  any  amendment  thereof  should  be  con- 
strued to  give  power  to  Congress  to  inter- 
fere with  slavery  in  any  of  the  States  of 
the  Union,  nor  in  the  District  of  Columbia, 
without  the  consent  of  Maryland  and  the 
slave-holders  concerned,  compensation  to 
be  made  for  slaves  emancipated  to  owners 
who  refuse  their  consent ;  nor  to  interfere 
with  slavery  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States,  such  as  in  arsenals,  navy- 
yards,  etc.,  in  States  where  it  was  recog- 
nized ;  nor  to  interfere  with  the  trans- 
portation    of     slaves     from     one     slave- 

|  labor  State  to  another;   nor  to  authorize 

I  any   higher    taxation    on    slaves    than    on 

i  land. 

Fourth.  That  the  clause  in  the  Constitu- 

|  tion    relating   to    the    rendition    of    slaves 


should  not  be  construed  to  prevent  any 
of  the  States,  by  appropriate  legislation, 
and  through  the  action  of  their  judicial 
and  ministerial  officers,  from  enforcing  the 
delivery  of  fugitives  from  labor  to  the 
person  to  whom  such  service  or  labor 
should  be  due. 

Fifth.  That  the  foreign  slave  -  trad3 
should  be  forever  prohibited. 

Sixth.  That  the  first,  second,  third,  and 
fifth  of  the  foregoing  propositions,  when 
in  the  form  of  ratified  amendments  to  the 
Constitution,  and  the  clause  relating  to 
the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves,  should  not 
be  amended  or  abolished  without  the  con- 
sent of  all  the  States. 

Seventh.  That  Congress  should  provide 
by  law  that  the  United  States  should  pay 
to  the  owner  the  full  value  of  his  fugi- 
tive slave  in  all  cases  where  the  law-officer 
whose  duty  it  was  to  arrest  such  fugitive 
should  be  prevented  from  doing  so  by  vio- 
lence or  intimidation,  or  where  such  fugi- 
tive should  be  rescued,  after  arrest,  and 
the  claimant  thereby  should  lose  his  prop- 
erty. 

This  was  the  majority  report,  and  was 
substantially  the  Crittenden  compromise 
then  before  the  Senate.  Two  members  of 
the  committee — Baldwin,  of  Connecticut, 
and  Seddon,  of  Virginia — each  presented 
a  minority  report.  The  former  proposed 
a  general  convention  of  all  the  States  to 
consider  amendments  to  the  Constitution : 
the  latter  objected  to  the  majority  report 
because  it  fell  short  of  the  demands  of 
Virginia.  He  proposed  an  amendment  to 
the  Constitution  that  would  protect  the 
slave-holder  in  transporting  his  slaves  any- 
where, as  property;  also  that  should  for- 
ever exclude  from  the  ballot-box  and  pub- 
lic office  "  persons  who  are  in  Avhole  or  in 
part  of  the  African  race."  He  also  pro- 
posed an  amendment  recognizing  the  right 
of  peaceable  secession.  Other  propositions 
were  submitted  by  members  in  open  con- 
vention, among  them  one  from  Salmon 
P.  Chase,  of  Ohio,  proposing  an  adjourn- 
ment of  the  convention  to  April  4,  to  en- 
able all  the  States  to  be  represented.  The 
various  propositions  were  earnestly  dis- 
cussed for  several  days.  David  Dudley 
Field,  of  New  York,  proposed,  Feb.  26,  to 
amend  the  majority  report  by  striking 
out  the  seventh  section  and  inserting  the 
words,  "  No  State  shall  withdraw  from  the 


101 


PEACE    CONGRESSES— PEACE    ESTABLISHMENT 

Union  without  the  consent  of  all  the  rejected.  The  peace  convention  was  a  fail- 
States  convened  in  pursuance  of  an  act  ure.  It  was  a  vain  attempt  to  conciliate 
passed   by   two-thirds   of    each    House    of  the  slave  power. 

Congress."     This  was  rejected  by  a  vote  Peace  Establishment.    When  the  evac- 

of  11   States  against  10.     The  votes  were  nation    of    the    seaboard    by    the    British 

by  States.     When,  on  the  same  day,  the  was    completed    in    November,    1783,    the 

majority  report  was  taken  up  for  final  ac-  northern  and  western  frontier  posts  con- 

tion,   Baldwin's   proposition,   offered   as   a  tinued   to   be   held   by    British   garrisons, 

substitute,  was  rejected  by  a  vote  of   13  These    were    Oswegatchie     (now    Ogdens- 

States    against    8.      Seddon    then    offered  burg),     Oswego,    Niagara,     Presque     Isle 

his    substitute,    and    it    was    rejected — 16  (now  Erie) ,  Sandusky,  Detroit,  Mackinaw, 

States  against  4.     James  B.   Clay,   a   son  and  some  of  lesser  importance.     The  occu- 

of  Henry  Clay,   then   offered   Crittenden's  pation  of  these  posts  by  garrisons  did  not 

compromise.     It  was  rejected  by  14  States  enter  into  the  calculations  for  an  immedi- 

against    5.      Guthrie's    report    was    then  ate  peace  establishment  at  the  close  of  the 

taken    up,    and    after    some    modifications  Revolution,  and  the  military  force  retain- 

was  adopted.  ed   was   less   than   700   men.     These   were 

Following  this,   T.   E.   Franklin  moved,  under  the  command  of  Knox,  and  placed 

as  the   sense  of  the   convention,  that  the  in  garrison  at  West  Point  and  Pittsburg, 

highest  political  duty  of  every  citizen  of  Even    these    were    discharged    very    soon 

the    United    States    is    allegiance    to    the  afterwards,   excepting  twenty- five  men  to 

national   government,    and   that   no   State  guard  the  stores  at  Pittsburg  and  fifty-five 

has  a  constitutional  right  to  secede  there-  for  West  Point.     No  officer  above  the  rank" 

from.     It     was     rejected     by     10     States  of  captain  was  retained  in  the  service.     It 

against  7.     Mr.  Guthrie  offered  a  preamble  was  provided,  however,  that  whenever  the 

to  his  propositions,  which  was  agreed  to,  western    posts    should   be    surrendered   by 

and  Mr.  Tyler  was  requested  to  present  the  the  British,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New 

plan   to   Congress   forthwith.     This   ended  Jersey,   and   Pennsylvania   should   furnish 

the  business  of  the  convention,  when  Rev-  their  quota  of  700  twelve-months'  men  to 

erdy  Johnson,  of  Maryland,  obtained  leave  do  garrison  duty. 

to  place  on  record  and  have  printed  with  At  the  close  of  the  War  of  1812  Presi- 
the  proceedings  of  the  convention  a  resolu-  dent  Madison  proposed  a  military  peace 
tion  deploring  the  secession  of  some  of  the  establishment  of  20,000  men.  When  Con- 
States;  expressing  a  hope  that  they  would  gress  considered  it,  the  House  of  Repre- 
return;  that  "the  republican  institutions  sentatives  proposed  0,000,  and  the  Senate 
guaranteed  each  State  cannot  and  ought  proposed  15,000.  There  was  a  compro- 
not  to  be  maintained  by  force,"  and  that  mise,  and  10,000  was  the  number  agreed 
therefore  the  convention  deprecated  any  to.  Two  major-generals,  four  brigadier- 
effort  of  the  federal  government  to  coerce,  generals,  and  the  necessary  staff,  regimen- 
in  any  form,  the  said  States  to  reunion  tal,  and  company  officers,  were  selected  by 
or  submission,  as  tending  to  an  irrepara-  the  President  from  those  in  the  service, 
ble  breach,  and  leading  to  incalculable  ills.  The  supernumerary  officers  and  men,  ac? 
The  proceedings  of  the  convention  were  cording  to  the  original  terms  of  enlist- 
laid  before  the  Senate,  March  2,  1861.  ment,  were  to  be  discharged,  with  three 
After  a  long  debate  on  that  and  several  months'  extra  pay.  The  naval  establish- 
other  propositions,  it  was  finally  decided  ment  was  left  as  it  was,  with  an  addition- 
by  a  vote  of  25  to  11  to  postpone  the  al  appropriation  of  $200,000  annually  for 
"  Guthrie  plan  "  in  favor  of  a  proposition  three  years  for  its  gradual  increase.  A 
of  amendment  adopted  by  the  House  of  board  of  three  naval  officers  was  created 
Representatives,  which  provided  that  "  no  to  exercise,  under  the  Secretary  of  the 
amendment  shall  be  made  to  the  Constitu-  Navy,  the  general  superintendence  of  the 
tion  which  will  authorize  or  give  to  Con-  Navy  Department.  The  grade  of  officers 
gress  the  power  to  interfere  within  any  in  the  naval  service  remained  unaltered, 
State  with  the  domestic  institutions  there-  a  proposition  to  create  the  offices  of  ad- 
of."  The  Senate  concurred,  and  the  Crit-  miral  and  vice-admiral  having  failed.  See| 
tendon  compromise  being  called  up,  it  was  Army. 

102 


PEACE    MEDALS— PEACE    PARTY 


Peace  Medals. 
There  was  rejoicing 
in  Great  Britain  as 
well  as  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  on  the 
conclusion  of  peace 
in  1814,  particular- 
ly among  the  manu- 
facturing and  mer- 
cantile classes.  A 
medal  was  struck  in 
commemoration  of 
the  great  event, 
which  bore  upon 
one  side  the  words, 
"  Treaty     of     Peace 

and  Amity  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  of  America.  Signed 
at  Ghent,  Dec.  24,  1814";  and  upon  the 
other  a  feminine  figure  standing  on  the 
segment  of  a  globe,  holding  in  one  hand  the 
olive  branch  of  peace.  Another  was  struck, 
which  is  represented  in  the  accompanying 
engraving.  The  British  government,  grate- 
ful for  the  loyalty  of  Canada  during  the 
war,  caused  a  medal  of  gratitude  to  be 
struck,  as  seen  below. 


MEDAL   COMMEMORATIVE   OF   Tllti   TREATY  OF   PEACE. 


members  of  the  Congressional  minority, 
whose  protest  against  the  war  had  been 
conscientiously  made,  this  peace  faction 
endeavored — by  attempting  to  injure  the 
public  credit,  preventing  enlistments  into 
the  armies,  spreading  false  stories  con- 
cerning the  strength  of  the  British  and 
the  weakness  of  the  Americans,  and  public 
speeches,  sermons,  pamphlets,  and  news- 
paper essays — to  compel  the  government  to 
sheathe     the     sword     and     hold     out    the 


MEDAL    OP    GRATITUDE. 


Peace  Party.  On  the  declaration  of 
war  in  June,  1812,  an  organization  known 
as  the  peace  party  soon  appeared,  com- 
posed of  the  more  violent  opposers  of  the 
administration  and  disaffected  Democrats, 
whose  partisan  spirit  held  their  patriot- 
ism in  complete  subordination.  Lacking 
the  sincerity  and  integrity  of  the  patriotic 


olive  branch  of  peace  at  the  cost  of  na- 
tional honor  and  independence.  Their  un- 
scrupulous, and  sometimes  treasonable, 
machinations  were  kept  up  during  the 
whole  war,  and  prolonged  it  by  embar- 
rassing their  government.  The  better 
portion  of  the  Federal  party  discounte- 
nanced these  acts.     With  a  clear  percep- 


103 


PEACE  PARTY— PEACE  RESOLUTIONS 

tion  of  duty  to  the  country,  rather  than  jecting  or  holding  as  a  conquered  province 

to  their  party,  leaders  like  Quincy,  Emott,  any  sovereign  State  now  or  lately  one  of 

and  a  host  of  others  gave  their   support  the    United    States."      To    this    John    C. 

to  the  government  in  its  hour  of  need.  Breckinridge    added,    "  or    to    abolish    sla- 

The  first  call  for  the  marshalling  of  very  therein."  From  the  beginning  of 
the  hosts  of  the  peace  party,  so  conspicu-  the  Civil  War  there  was  a  faction,  com- 
ous  during  the  Civil  War,  was  sounded  in  posed  of  the  disloyal  politicians  of  the 
Congress  when  (July  10,  1861),  a  loan  opposition,  who  used  every  means  in  their 
bill  was  introduced  authorizing  the  Sec-  power  to  embarrass  the  government.  They 
retary  of  the  Treasury  to  borrow  $250,-  affiliated  with  the  Knights  of  th*:  Gold- 
000,000  for  the  support  of  the  govern-  en  Circle  (q.  v.),  and,  like  the  peace 
ment  and  to  prosecute  a  war  in  its  defence,  faction  in  1812-15,  they  were  practical 
Clement  L.  Vallandigham,  Representative  enemies  of  their  country.  Matthew  F. 
in  Congress  from  Ohio,  made  an  elabo-  Maury,  formerly  superintendent  of  the 
rate  speech  against  the  measure  and  the  National  Observatory,  in  a  letter  to  the 
entire  policy  of  the  administration  in  its  London  Times  (Aug.  17,  1863),  said,  in 
vindication  of  the  national  authority  by  proof  that  there  was  no  chance  for  the 
force  of  arms.  He  charged  the  President  preservation  of  the  Union,  "  There  is  al- 
with  usurpation  in  calling  out  and  in-  ready  a  peace  party  in  the  North.  All 
creasing  the  military  and  naval  forces  of  the  embarrassments  with  which  that  party 
the  country;  in  blockading  ports;  in  sus-  can  surround  Mr.  Lincoln,  and  all  the 
pending  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  difficulties  that  it  can  throw  in  the  way 
corpus;  and  other  acts  which  the  safety  of  the  war  party  in  the  North,  operate 
of  the  government  seemed  to  require—  directly  as  so  much  aid  and  comfort  to 
and  all  done  without  the  express  author-  the  South."  The  faction  issued  many  pub- 
ity  of  Congress.  He  declared  that  the  lications  in  furtherance  of  their  views, 
denunciation  of  slavery  and  slave-holders  and  never  ceased  their  operations  until 
was  the  cause  of  the  war;  denounced  the  the  close  of  the  war  which  they  had  pro- 
revenue  laws  as  injurious  to  the  cotton-  longed. 

growers;    charged  his  political   opponents        Peace   Resolutions.      During  the  holi- 

with    being    anxious    for    war    instead    of  day  recess  of  Parliament  in  1781-82,  the 

peace,  and  of  having  adopted  a  war  policy  people  and  legislators  of  England  had  the 

for  partisan  purposes;   warned  the   coun-  surrender   of   Cornwallis   to   reflect   upon, 

try  that  other  usurpations  would  follow,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  further 

such    as    the    denial    of    the    right    of    pe-  efforts  to  subdue  the  colonies  were  useless, 

tition  and  the  freedom  of  conscience;  and  On  Feb.  22,  1782,  a  motion  was  offered  by 

pronounced  the  war  for  the  "  coercion  of  Conway,     in     the     House     of     Commons, 

sovereign  States  "  to  be  "  unholy  and  un-  against   continuing   the   war   in   America, 

just."     From  that  time  until  the  close  of  It  was  then  negatived  by  a  majority  of 

the  war,  and  even  afterwards,  Mr.  Vallan-  cne.     Five  days  later,  Conway's  resolution 

digham  used  all  his  powers  in  giving  "  aid  for  an  address  to  the  King  on  the  subject 

and    comfort "    to    the    Confederates.      He  was  carried  by  a  majority  of  19.     To  this 

and  the  peace  party  opposed  every  meas-  address   the  King  gave   an   equivocal   an- 

ure  of  the  administration  for  ending  the  swer.     On  March  4  Conway  brought  for- 

war.      They   were    doubtless    sincere;    but  ward  an  address  to   the  King  to  declare 

the  friends  of  the  republic  regarded  them  that  the  House  would  consider  as  enemies 

as  mistaken  and  mischievous.  to   the  King   and   country  all   those  who 

Benjamin    Wood,    Representative    from  should    further    attempt    the    prosecution 

New  York,  proposed   (July  15)   that  Con-  of  a  war  on  the  continent  of  America  for 

gress  should  take  measures  for  assembling  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  revolted  colo- 

a  border-State  convention  to  devise  means  iries  to  obedience.    It  was  adopted  without 

for  securing  peace.     Mr.  Powell,  of  Ken-  a  division.     The  next  day,  with  like  unan- 

tucky,  introduced    (July   18)    an  addition  imity,   leave  was  given  by  the  House  to 

to    a    bill    for    the   reorganization    of    the  bring  in  an  "  enabling  bill,"  allowing  the 

army,  which  declared  that  no  part  of  the  King  to  make  a  peace  or  truce  with  Amer- 

army  or  navy  should  be  employed  in  "  sub-  ica.     It  was  accordingly  brought  in,  but 

104 


PEACH-TREE  CREEK— PEACOCK 


it  was  ten  weeks  before  it  became  a  law 
under  a  new  administration.  The  North 
administration  was  no  more.  Of  it  Dr. 
Johnson  said :  "  Such  a  bunch  of  imbecility 
never  disgraced  the  country.  It  was  com- 
posed of  many  corrupt  and  greedy  men, 
who  yielded  to  the  stubbornness  of  the 
King  for  the  sake  of  the  honors  and  emolu- 
ments of  office." 

Peach-tree  Creek,  Battle  of.  See  At- 
lanta. 

Peacock,  The,  a  notable  war-vessel  of 
the  United  States  in  the  War  of  1812, 
mounting  eighteen  guns.  In  March,  1814, 
under  command  of  Captain  Warrington, 
she  sailed  from  New  York  on  a  cruise.   She 


were  killed  or  wounded.  Only  two  of  the 
Peacock's  men  were  wounded ;  and  so  little 
was  she  injured  that  an  hour  after  the 
battle  ^she  was  in  perfect  fighting  order. 
The  Epervier  sold  for  $55,000,  and  on 
board  of  her  was  found  $118,000  in  specie. 
She  was  such  a  valuable  prize  that  War- 
rington determined  to  take  her  into  Sa- 
vannah himself.  On  the  way,  when  abreast 
of  Amelia  Island,  on  the  coast  of  Florida, 
the  Epervier,  in  charge  of  Lieut.  John  B. 
Nicholson,  came  near  being  captured  by 
two  English  frigates.  She  entered  the  Sa- 
vannah River  in  safety  on  May  1,  1814. 
The  Peacock  reached  the  same  port  on 
May  4.     This  capture  produced  much  ex- 


WARRINGTON    MEDAL. 


was  off  the  coast  of  Florida  for  some  time 
without  encountering  any  conspicuous  ad- 
venture. On  April  29,  Warrington  dis- 
covered three  sails  to  the  windward,  under 
convoy  of  an  armed  brig  of  large  dimen- 
sions. The  two  war-vessels  made  for  each 
other,  and  very  soon  a  close  and  severe 
battle  ensued.     The  Peacock  was  so  badly 


ultation.  Congress  thanked  Warrington 
in  the  name  of  the  nation,  and  gave  him  a 
gold  medal.  In  another  cruise  to  the 
shores  of  Portugal  soon  afterwards,  the 
Peacock  captured  fourteen  vessels,  and 
returned  to  New  York  at  the  end  of  Octo- 
ber. 

In  1815,  after  parting  with  Biddle,  Cap- 


injured   in   her   rigging   at   the   beginning    tain  Warrington  pursued  his  cruise  in  the 


that  she  was  compelled  to  fight  "  run- 
ning at  large,"  as  the  phrase  is.  She 
could  not  manoeuvre  much,  and  the  con- 
test became  one  of  gunnery.  The  Peacock 
wen  the  game  at  the  end  of  forty  minutes. 
Her  antagonist,  which  proved  to  be  the 
Epervier,  eighteen  guns,  Captain  Wales, 
struck  her  colors.    She  was  badly  injured, 


Peacock,  and  on  June  30,  when  off  Anjer, 
in  the  Strait  of  Sunda,  between  Sumatra 
and  Java,  he  fell  in  with  the  East  India 
cruiser  Nautilus,  fourteen  guns,  Lieut. 
Charles  Boyce.  Broadsides  were  exchanged, 
when  the  Nautilus  struck  her  colors.  She 
had  lost  six  men  killed  and  eight  wounded. 
The   Peacock   lost   none.      This   event   oe- 


no  less  than  forty-five  round-shot  having    curred  a  few  days  after  the  period  set  by 
struck  her  hull.    Twenty-two  of  her  men    the  treaty  of  peace   for   the   cessation  of 

105 


PEALE— PEA    RIDGE 


hostilities.  Warrington  was  ignorant  of  Mr.  Peale  painted  several  portraits  of 
any  such  treaty,  but,  being  informed  the  Washington,  among  them  one  for  Houdon's 
next  day  of  its  ratification,  he  gave  up  use  in  making  his  statue  of  the  patriot, 
the  Nautilus  and  did  everything  in  his  He  labored  long  for  the  establishment  of 
power  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  her  an  academy  of  fine  arts  in  Philadelphia, 
wounded  crew.  He  then  returned  home,  and  when  it  was  founded  he  co-operated 
bearing  the  distinction  of  having  fired  the  faithfully  in  its  management,  and  con- 
last  shot  in  the  second  war  for  indepen-  tributed  to  seventeen  annual  exhibitions, 
dence.  When  the  Peacock  reached  the  Most  of  his  family  inherited  his  artistic 
United  States  every  cruiser,  public  and  and  philosophical  tastes.  He  died  in 
private,  that  had  been  out  against  the  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Feb.  22,  1827.  Rem- 
British  had  returned  to  port,  and  the  war  brandt,  his  son,  born  in  Bucks  county,  Pa., 
was  over.  Feb.  22,   1778;   died  in  Philadelphia,  Oct. 

Peale,  Charles  Wilson,  painter;  born  3,  1860;  painted  a  portrait  of  Washing- 
in  Chestertown,  Md.,  April  16,  1741;  was  ton  from  life,  which  is  now  in  the  Senate 
at  first  apprenticed  to  a  saddler,  and  after-  chamber  in  Washington,  and  was  corn- 
wards  carried  on  that  business,  as  well  mended  by  personal  friends  of  the  patriot 
as  silversmith,  watch-maker,  and  carver,  as  the  best  likeness  of  him  (excepting 
He  finally  became  a  portrait-painter,  and  Houdon's  statue)  ever  made.  He  studied 
was  a  good  sportsman,  naturalist,  pre-  under  West  in  London,  and,  going  to 
server  of  animals,  an  inventor,  and  was  Paris,  painted  portraits  of  many  eminent 
the  first  dentist  in  the  country  who  made  men  for  his  father's  museum.  Charles 
sets  of  artificial  teeth.  He  took  instruc-  Wilson  Peale's  youngest  son,  Titian  Ram- 
sey, born  in  Philadelphia  in  1800;  died 
there,  March  13,  1S85,  was  also  a  painter 
and  naturalist.  He  was  painter  and 
naturalist  to  the  South  Sea  Surveying 
and  Exploring  Expedition. 

Pearce,  James  Alfred,  statesman; 
born  in  Alexandria,  Va.,  Dec.  14,  1805 ; 
graduated  at  Princeton  in  1822;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1824;  elected  to  the  Mary- 
land legislature  in  1831;  elected  member 
of  Congress  in  1835;  elected  United  States 
Senator  in  1843.  President  Fillmore 
nominated  Senator  Pearce  as  Secretary  of 
the  Interior.  The  nomination  was  con- 
firmed but  declined.  He  died  in  Chester- 
town,  Md.,  Dee.  20,  1862. 

Pea  Ridge,  Battle  at.  When  the  Con- 
federates under  General  Price  fled  into 
Arkansas  in  February,  1861,  General  Cur- 
tions  from  Copley,  in  Boston,  in  1770-71;  tis  and  a  strong  force  of  Nationals  pur- 
studied  at  the  Boyal  Academy  in  London;  sued  him.  Curtis  crossed  the  Arkansas 
and  in  1772  painted  the  first  portrait  of  line  on  Feb.  18  and  drove  Price  and  his 
Washington  ever  executed,  in  the  costume  followers  over  the  Boston  Mountains.  He 
of  a  Virginia  colonel,  and  at  the  same  then  fell  back  and  took  a  position  near 
time  painted  a  miniature  of  Mrs.  Wash-  Pea  Ridge,  a  spur  of  the  Ozark  Mountains, 
ington.  He  did  military  service  and  car-  Meanwhile  Price  had  been  joined  by  Gen. 
ried  on  portrait-painting  during  the  Revo-  Earl  Van  Dorn,  a  dashing  young  officer 
lutionary  War,  and  for  fifteen  years  he  was  who  was  his  senior  in  rank,  and  now  took 
the  only  portrait-painter  in  America.  He  chief  command  of  the  Confederates.  Forty 
made  a  portrait  gallery  of  Revolutionary  heavy  guns  thundered  a  welcome  to  the 
worthies,  and  opened,  in  Philadelphia,  the  young  general.  "  Soldiers!"  cried  the  gen- 
first  museum  in  the  country,  and  was  the  eral,  "behold  your  leader!  He  comes  to 
first  to  give  lectures  on  natural  historv.    show  you  the  way  to  glory  and  immortal 

*106 


CHARLKS    WILSON    PEALE. 


PEA    RIDGE,  BATTLE    AT 

renown.     He    comes    to    hurl    back    the  were    in    battle    order.      His    1st    and    2d 

minions    of    the    despots    at    Washington,  divisions,  on  the  left,  were  commanded  re- 

whose  ignorance,   licentiousness,  and  bru-  spectively  by  Generals  Asboth  and  Sigel; 

tality   are   equalled  only  by  their   craven  the  3d  was  under  Gen.  J.   C.  Davis,  and 

natures.     They  come  to  free  your  slaves,  composed  the  centre,  and  the  4th,  on  the 


BATTLE   OF   PEA    RIDGE. 


lay  waste  your  plantations,  burn  your  vil- 
lages, and  abuse  your  loving  wives  and 
beautiful  daughters."  Van  Dorn  came 
from  western  Arkansas  with  Generals  Mc- 
Culloch,  Mcintosh,  and  Pike.  The  lat- 
ter was  a  New  England  man  and  a  poet, 
and  came  at  the  head  of  a  band  of  Indians 
whom  he  had  lured  into  the  service.  The 
whole  Confederate  force  then  numbered 
25,000  men;  the  National  troops,  led  by 
Curtis,  did  not  exceed  11,000  men,  with  50 
pieces  of  artillery. 

On  March  5  Curtis  was  informed  by  his 
scouts  of  the  swift  approach  of  an  over- 
whelming force  of  Confederates;  he  con- 
centrated his  army  in  the  Sugar  Creek 
Valley.  He  was  compelled  to  fight  or 
make  a  disastrous  retreat.  Choosing  the 
former,  he  prepared  for  the  struggle. 
Meanwhile  Van  Dorn,  by  a  qiiick  move- 
ment, had  flanked  Curtis  and  gained  his 
rear,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  7th  he 
moved  to  attack  the  Nationals,  not  doubt- 
ing his  ability  to  crush  him  and  capture 
his  train  of  200  wagons.     Curtis's  troops 


107 


right,  was  commanded  by  Colonel  Carr. 
His  line  of  battle  extended  about  4  miles, 
and  there  was  only  a  broad  ravine  be- 
tween his  troops  and  the  heavy  Confed- 
erate force.  Towards  noon  the  battle 
was  opened  by  a  simultaneous  attack  of 
Nationals  and  Confederates.  A  very 
severe  conflict  ensued,  and  continued  a 
greater  part  of  the  day,  with  varying  fort- 
unes to  each  party,  the  lines  of  strife 
swaying  like  a  pendulum.  At  11  A.M.  the 
pickets  on  Curtis's  extreme  right  under 
Major  Weston  were  violently  assailed,  and 
Colonel  Osterhaus,  with  a  detachment  of 
Iowa  cavalry  and  Davidson's  Peoria  Bat- 
tery, supported  by  Missouri  cavalry  and 
Indiana  infantry,  attacked  a  portion  of 
Van  Dorn's  troops  before  he  was  fairly 
ready  for  battle.  Colonel  Carr  went  to  the 
assistance  of  Weston,  and  a  severe  engage- 
ment ensued.  Thus  the  battle  near  Pea 
Eidge  was  opened. 

Osterhaus  met  with  a  warm  reception, 
for  the  woods  were  swarming  with  Con- 
federates.    His  cavalry  were  driven  back, 


PEA   RIDGE— PEARSON 


when   General   Davis   came  to  his   rescue  (March    8),    when   the   Nationals   hurled 

with  General  Sigel,  who  attacked  the  Con-  such   a   destructive   tempest   of   shot   and 

federate    flank.      Soon    afterwards    Davis  shell  upon  the  Confederates  that  the  lat- 

fought  severely  with  McCulloch,  Mcintosh,  ter  soon  broke  and  fled  in  every  direction 

and   Pike.      Then   the   battle   raged   most  in  the  wildest  confusion.     Van  Dorn,  who 

fiercely.      The  issue   of   the   strife   seemed  had  been  a  greater  part  of  the  day  with 

doubtful,  when  the  18th  Indiana  attacked  the  troops  that  fought  Carr,  concentrated 

the  Confederate  flank  and  rear  so  vigor-  his  whole  available  force  on  Curtis's  right, 

ously   with    ball    and    bayonet    that    they  The   latter   had   been   vigilant,    and   at    2 

were  driven  from  that  part  of  the  field,  a.m.  he  had  been  joined  by  Sigel  and  his 

when  it  was  strewn  with  the  dead  bodies  command.    The  whole  four  divisions  of  the 

of  Texans  and  Indians.     The  Confederates  army  were  in  position  to  fight  Van  Dorn 

now  became  fugitives,  and  in  their  flight  at  daylight.    With  batteries  advantageous- 

they  left  their  dead  and  wounded  on  the  ly   planted,   and   infantry   lying   down   in 

field.     Among    the    latter    were    Generals  front   of   them,   Curtis   opened   a    terrible 

McCulloch   and   Mcintosh,   mortally  hurt,  cannonade.     Battery  after  battery  of  the 

Osterhaus,  and  Sigel  with  his  heavy  guns,  Confederates  was  silenced  in  the  course  of 

two  hours,  and  so  horrible  was 


Infantry  u  b 
Artillery  *  +  +  ♦ 
Ttoads  ===== 
Woods 


the  tempest  of  iron  that  Van 
Dorn  and  his  followers  were 
compelled  to  fly  to  the  shelter 
of  the  ravines  of  Cross  Tim- 
ber Hollow.  At  the  same  time, 
Sigel's  infantry,  with  the 
troops  of  the  centre  and  right, 
engaged  in  the  battle.  Van 
Dorn  fled  suddenly,  and  Gen 
eral  Price,  who  had  been  post- 
ed some  distance  off,  was  forced 
to  participate  in  the  flight. 
The  Confederate  army,  made  so 
strong  and  hopeful  by  Van 
Dorn's  speech  twenty-four  hours 
before,  was  now  broken  into 
fragments.  This  conflict,  call- 
ed the  battle  of  Elkhorn  by  the 
Confederates,  was  a  sanguinary 
one.  The  Nationals  lost  1.351 
killed,  wounded,  and  missing. 
The  loss  of  the  Confederates 
was  never  reported. 

Pearl.  See  Schooner  Pearl. 
Pearson,  Alfred  L.,  mil- 
itary officer;  born  in  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.,  Dec.  28,  1838;  en- 
tered the  United  States  army 
as  captain  in  1862;  retired  as 
major-general  in  1865;  re- 
now  went  to  the  assistance  of  Colonel  Carr  ceived  the  congressional  medal  of  honor ; 
on  the  right.  But  Carr  had  held  his  commander  of  the  Nation?1  Union 
ground.  There  were  no  indications  that  Veteran  Legion  in  1888.  He  died  in  Pitts- 
the  Confederates  wished  to  renew  the  burg,  Pa.,  Jan.  6,  1903. 
fight,  for  it  was  now  sunset.  The  Na-  Pearson,  George  Frederick,  naval  offi- 
tionals  bivouacked  on  the  battle-field  that  cer;  born  in  Exeter,  N.  H,  Feb.  6,  1796; 
night  among  the  dead  and  dying.  entered   the  navy  as   midshipman,   March 

renewed     at     dawn     11,    1815,    and    rose    to    captain    in    1855 
108 


MAP    OP    BATTLE   OF   PEA    RIDGE. 


The     contest     was 


PEARSON— PEFFER 


While  he  was  at  Constantinople,  in  1837, 
the  Sultan  offered  to  give  him  command  of 
,  the  Turkish  navy,  with  the  rank  of  ad- 
miral, and  the  salary  of  $10,000  a  year. 
It  was  declined.  He  effectually  cleared 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  of  pirates.  In  1865- 
66  he  was  in  command  of  the  Pacific 
squadron.  Retired  in  1861;  promoted 
commodore  in  1862,  and  rear-admiral  in 
1866  on  the  retired  list.  He  died  in  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  June  30,  1867. 

Pearson,  Jonathan,  educator;  born  in 
Chichester,  N.  H.,  Feb.  23,  1813;  grad- 
uated at  Union  College  in  1835;  was 
instructor  there  in  1835-39;  assistant 
professor  of  chemistry  and  natural 
philosophy  in  1839-49;  professor  of  nat- 
ural history  in  1849-73;  and  was  then 
given  the  chair  of  agriculture  and 
botany. 

Peary,  Robert  Edwin,  explorer;  born 
in  Cresson,  Pa.,  May  6,  1856;  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  College  in  1877;  appointed 
civil  engineer  United  States  navy  in  1881; 
assistant  engineer  Nicaragua  ship  -  canal 
in  1884.  He,  Peary,  made  voyages  to  the 
Polar  regions  in  1886,  1891,  1893-95, 
1896,  1897,  and  1898-1902,  and  in  1904 
was  preparing  for  another  voyage  in  the 
summer  of  1905.  He  was  president  of 
the  American  Geographical  Society  in 
1903-05.  He  is  the  author  of  Over  the 
Great  Ice;  A  Complete  Narrative  of  Arc- 
tic Work. 

Peck,  George,  clergyman;  born  in  Mid- 
dlefield,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  8,  1797;  was  ordain- 
ed in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
1816;  was  editor  of  the  Methodist  Quar- 
terly Review  in  1840-48,  and  of  the  Chris- 
tian Advocate  in  1848-52.  His  publica- 
tions include  Reply  to  Dr.  Bascom  on 
Slavery;  History  of  Wyoming;  Our  Coun- 
try, Its  Trials  and  its  Triumphs;  etc. 
He  died  in  Scranton,  Pa.,  July  29,  1876. 

Peck,  John  James,  military  officer; 
born  in  Manlius,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  4,  1821; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843,  enter- 
ing the  2d  Artillery.  He  served  in  the 
war  against  Mexico,  and  resigned  in  1853, 
settling  in  Syracuse  as  a  banker.  In  Au- 
gust, 1861,  he  was  made  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers,  and,  July  4,  1862,  ma- 
jor-general. He  performed  excellent  ser- 
vice during  the  whole  Civil  War,  espe- 
cially in  defence  of  Suffolk.  He  was  mus- 
tered  out   in   August,    1865,    after   which 


he  was  president  of  a  life-insurance  com- 
pany in  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  where  he  died, 
April  21,  1878.     See  Suffolk,  Siege  of. 

Peck,  John  Mason,  clergyman;  born  in 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  Oct.  31,  1789;  was  or- 
dained in  the  Baptist  Church  in  1813; 
was  an  itinerant  preacher  in  the  West  in 
1817-26;  settled  in  Rock  Spring,  111.,  in 
1826.  His  publications  include  A  Guide 
for  Emigrants;  Gazetteer  of  Illinois; 
Father  Clark,  or  the  Pioneer  Preacher; 
and  Life  of  Daniel  Boone.  He  died  in 
Rock  Spring,  111.,  March  15,  1858. 

Peckham,  Rufits  William,  jurist ; 
born  in  Albany,  Nov.  8,  1838 ;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1859;  elected  justice  of  the 
State  Supreme  Court,  New  York,  in  1883: 
appointed  associate  justice  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  in  1895. 

Peculiar  Institution.  A  phrase  ap- 
plied in  the  South  to  slavery. 

Peet,  Harvey  Prindle.  educator;  born 
in  Bethlehem,  Conn.,  Nov.  19,  1794; 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1822;  be- 
came instructor  in  the  deaf  -  and  -  dumb 
asylum  in  Hartford  in  the  same  year,  and 
soon  after  was  made  superintendent  of  that 
institution.  In  1831-68  he  was  principal 
of  the  New  York  Institution  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb.  His  publications  include 
Course  of  Instruction  for  the  Deaf  and 
Dumb;  Statistics  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb; 
Legal  Rights,  etc.,  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb; 
History  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
etc.  He  died  in  New  York  City,  Jan.  1, 
1873. 

Peet,  Stephen  Denison,  clergyman; 
born  in  Euclid,  O.,  Dec.  2,  1830;' grad- 
uated at  Beloit  College  in  1851  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1854; 
was  active  in  the  ministry  of  the  Congre- 
gational Church  in  1855-66;  later  became 
known  as  an  archaeologist.  In  1878  he 
founded  and  became  editor  of  The  Amer- 
ican Antiquarian,  the  first  journal  in  the 
United  States  devoted  entirely  to  archaeol- 
ogy. His  publications  include  History  of 
Ashtabula  County,  Ohio;  Ancient  Archi- 
tecture in  America;  History  of  Early  Mis- 
sions in  Wisconsin ;  Primitive  Symbolism; 
Mound  Builders;  Animal  Effigies;  Cliff 
Dwellers;  The  Effigy  Mounds  of  Wiscon- 
sin, etc. 

Peffer,  William  Alfred,  legislator; 
born  in  Cumberland  county,  Pa.,  Sept.  10, 
1831;    enlisted   as   a   private   in   the   83d 


109 


PEGBAM— PEMAQUID 


Illinois  Infantry  in  1862;  mustered  out  in 
1865  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant;  then 
removed  to  Kansas  and  established  the 
Fredonia  Journal.  He  was  elected  to  the 
State  Senate  in  1874;  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1891;  and  was  the  un- 
successful candidate  for  governor  of  Kan- 
sas in  1898  on  the  Prohibition  ticket.  See 
Imperialism  ;  People's  Party  ;  Senate. 

Pegram,  John,  military  officer;  born 
in  Petersburg,  Va.,  Jan.  24,  1832;  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1856;  left  the 
army,  and  took  command  of  a  Confed- 
erate regiment,  which  he  led  when  made 
a  prisoner  by  General  McClellan.  In  1862 
he  was  made  a  brigadier-general,  was  a 
noted  leader  in  all  the  campaigns  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
ablest  of  the  Confederate  division  com- 
manders. Wounded  in  a  battle  at  Hatch- 
er's Run,  he  died  there,  Feb.   6,   1865. 

Peirce,  Benjamin,  scientist;  born  in 
Salem,  Mass.,  April  4,  1809;  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1829;  became  tutor 
in  mathematics  there  in  1831,  and  from 
1842  to  1867  was  Perkins  Professor  of 
Astronomy  and  Mathematics,  and  was 
also  consulting  astronomer  to  The  Ephem- 
eris  and  Nautical  Almanac  from  its  estab- 
lishment in  1849.  Dr.  Peirce  was  a  pupil  of 
Dr.  Bowditch's,  and  read  the  proof-sheets 
of  his  translation  of  the  Mecanique  Celeste. 
In  September,  1867,  he  was  appointed 
superintendent  of  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey,  which  post  he  held  until  his 
death  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Oct.  6,  1880. 
He  was  a  member  of  leading  scientific 
societies  at  home  and  abroad;  an  as- 
sociate of  the  Royal  Astronomical  So- 
ciety of  London,  1842;  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London,  1852;  president 


of  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science  in  1853;  and  one 
of  the  scientific  council  that  established, 
the  Dudley  Observatory  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
in  1855.  Dr.  Peirce  published  many  sci- 
entific essays;  and  in  1S51  discovered 
and  announced  the  fluidity  of  Saturn's 
rings. 

Pelagic  Seal  Killing.  See  Bering  Sea 
Arbitration. 

Pemaquid.  On  Feb.  29,  1631,  the  Presi- 
dent and  Council  for  New  England  grant- 
ed to  Robert  Aldworth  and  Giles  Elbridge 
100  acres  of  land  for  every  person  whom 
they  should  transport  to  the  province  of 
Maine  within  seven  years,  who  should 
continue  there  three  years,  and  an  abso- 
lute grant  of  12,000  acres  of  land  as 
"  their  proper  inheritance  forever,"  to  be 
laid  out  near  the  Pemaquid  River.  In 
1677  Governor  Andros  sent  a  sloop,  with 
some  forces,  to  take  possession  of  the  ter- 
ritory in  Maine  called  Cornwall,  which 
had  been  granted  to  the  Duke  of  York. 
He  caused  Fort  Frederick  to  be  built  at 
Pemaquid  Point,  a  headland  of  the  south- 
west entrance  to  Bristol  Bay.  The  East- 
ern Indians,  who,  ever  since  King  Philip's 
War,  had  been  hostile,  then  appeared 
friendly,  and  a  treaty  was  made  with 
them  at  Casco,  April  12,  1678,  by  the 
commissioners,  which  put  an  end  to  a 
distressing  war.  In  1692  Sir  William 
Phipps,  with  450  men,  built  a  large  stone 
fort  there,  which  was  superior  to  any 
structure  of  the  kind  that  had  been  built 
by  the  English  in  America.  It  was  called 
Fort  William  Henry,  and  was  garrisoned 
by  sixty  men.  There,  in  1693,  a  treaty 
was  made  with  the  Indians,  by  which 
they  acknowledged  subjection  to  the  crown 


PEMACJUID. 

110 


PEMBERTON— PENINSULAR    CAMPAIGN 

of  England,   and   delivered  hostages   as   a  was    a   leading    member    of    the    Virginia 

pledge    of    their    fidelity;    but,    instigated  House  of  Burgesses  when  the  Revolution- 

by    the    French,    they    violated    the    trea-  ary  War  broke  out,  and,  as  a  conservative 

ty  the  next  year.  patriot,   Avas    opposed    to    radical    Patrick 

The  French,  regarding  the  fort  at  Pema-  Henry.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Conti- 
quid  as  "  controlling  all  Acadia,"  de-  nental  Congress  in  1774-75,  and  president 
termined  to  expel  the  English  from  it.  of  the  Virginia  conventions  of  December, 
An  expedition  against  it  was  committed  1775,  and  May,  1776,  the  latter  instruct- 
to  Iberville  and  Bonaventure,  who  anchor-  ing  their  representatives  in  Congress  to 
ed  at  Pentagoet,  Aug.  7,  1696,  where  they  vote  for  independence.  Mr.  Pendleton  was 
were  joined  by  the  Baron  de  Castine,  with  a  member  of  the  committee  of  correspon- 
200  Indians.  These  auxiliaries  went  for-  denee  and  of  the  committee  of  safety, 
ward  in  canoes,  the  French  in  their  ves-  which  controlled  the  military  affairs  of 
sels,  and  ._i vested  the  fort  on  the  14th.  Virginia.  On  the  organization  of  the  State 
Major  Chubb  was  in  command.  To  a  sum-  he  was  appointed  speaker  of  the  Assembly, 
mons  from  Iberville  to  surrender,  the  ma-  and,  with  Wythe  and  Jefferson,  revised 
jor  replied,  "  If  the  sea  were  covered  with  the  colonial  laws.  He  was  president  of 
French  vessels  and  the  land  with  Indians,  both  the  court  of  chancery  and  court  of 
yet  I  would  not  give  up  the  fort."  Some  appeals,  and  in  1788  he  presided  over  the 
skirmishing  occurred  that  day,  and,  hav-  convention  that  ratified  the  national  Con- 
ing completed  a  battery,  the  next  day  stitution.  He  died  in  Richmond,  Va.,  Oct. 
Iberville  threw  some  bombs  into  the  fort,  23,  1803. 

which  greatly  terrified  the  garrison.  Cas-  Pendleton,  George  Hunt,  statesman; 
tine  sent  a  letter,  assuring  the  garrison  born  in  Cincinnati,  0.,  July  25,  1825; 
that,  if  the  place  should  be  taken  by  as-  member  of  Congress  from  Ohio,  1857-65; 
sault,  they  would  be  left  to  the  Indians,  United  States  Senator,  1879-85.  He  was 
who  would  give  no  quarter;  he  had  seen  the  author  of  the  civil  -  service  -  reform 
the  King's  letter  to  that  effect.  The  gar-  measure  known  as  the  Pendleton  act. 
rison,  compelling  Chubb  to  surrender,  were  During  President  Cleveland's  first  ad- 
sent  to  Boston,  to  be  exchanged  for  French  ministration,  1885-89,  Senator  Pendleton 
and  Indian  prisoners,  and  the  costly  fort  represented  the  United  States  at  Berlin, 
was  demolished.  He   died   in   Brussels,    Belgium,    Nov.    24, 

Pemberton,    John    Clifford,    military  1889. 

officer;    born    in    Philadelphia,    Pa.,    Aug.  Penick,  Charles  Clifton,  clergyman; 

10,    1814;    graduated    at    West    Point    in  born    in    Charlotte    county,    Va.,    Dec.    9, 

1837;    served   in   the   Seminole   War,   and  1843;   graduated  at  Alexandria  Seminary 

was    aide-de-camp    to    General    Worth    in  in  1869.     During  the  Civil  War  he  served 

the  war  against  Mexico.     He  entered  the  the    Confederacy    in    the    38th    Virginia 

Confederate    service    in    April,     1861,    as  Regiment;  was  ordained  in  the  Protestant 

colonel  of  cavalry  and  assistant  adjutant-  Episcopal  Church  in  1870,  and  was  conse- 

general  to  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston.     He  rose  crated     bishop     of     Cape     Palmas,     West 

to  lieutenant-general,   and  was   the  oppo-  Africa,  in  1877.     His  publications  include 

nent  of  Grant  in  northern  Mississippi  in  Hopes,   Perils,   and   Struggles   of   the   ATc- 

1863,   to  whom   he   surrendered,   with   his  groes  in  America;  What  Can  the  Church 

army,  at  Vicksburg   (q.  v.).     He  died  in  Do  for  the  Negro  in   the   United  States, 

Penllyn,  Pa.,  July  13,  1881.  etc. 

Pendergrast,  Garrett  Jesse,  naval  of-  Peninsular  Campaign,  the  name  of  the 

ficer;  born  in  Kentucky,  Dec.  5,  1802;  en-  campaign    conducted    by    General    McClel- 

tered  the  United  States  navy  in  1812.     He  Ian  in  1862  on  the  Virginia  peninsula,  be- 

commanded  the  Cumberland  in  1861,  which  tween  the  York  River  and  its  tributaries 

he  saved   by  threatening   to   fire  on   Nor-  and  the  James  River,  which  rivers  empty 

folk   unless  the   harbor  obstructions  were  into     Chesapeake     Bay     or     its     adjacent 

removed.     He   died   in   Philadelphia,  Nov.  waters.     On  the  extremity  of  the  point  of 

V  18(1)2-  land  between  them   stands   Fort  Monroe. 

Pendleton,    Edmund,    statesman ;    born  The  campaign  continued  from  the  landing 

in  Caroline   county,   Va.,   Sept.   9,   1721;  of    General    Heintzelman's    corps    of    the 

111 


PENINSULAR    CAMPAIGN— PENN 


12  3  5  6  11  12 

badges  or  designation  of  the  army  of  the  potomac  (The  numbers  designate  the  different  army  corps). 


Army  of  the  Potomac  at  Fort  Monroe, 
March  22,  1862,  until  the  departure  of 
the  army  from  Harrison's  Landing,  in 
August  of  the  same  year,  including  the 
famous  seven  days'  battle  before  Rich- 
mond. 


Heintzelman's  corps  embarks  for  For- 
tress Monroe March  17, 

Headquarters  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac transferred  to  vicinity  of  Por- 
tress Monroe April  1, 

McDowell's  corps  detached  from  the 
army April  4, 

Yorktown  and  its  line  of  defence,  about 
13  miles  in  length,  occupied  by  11,000 
Confederates  under  Magruder,  is  at- 
tacked by  the  Nationals;  repulsed.. 
April  4, 

Siege,  so-called,  of  Yorktown 

April  4-May  5, 

Confederates  evacuate  Yorktown. May  5, 

Battle  of  Williamsburg  (q.  v.) 

May  5, 
[General  Hooker  attacked  the  Con- 
federates with  his  division  alone  un- 
til reinforced  by  Kearny's  division 
about  4  p.m.  The  Confederates  re- 
tired towards  Richmond  during  the 
night.  The  National  loss  in  killed, 
wounded,   and   missing,   2,228.] 

General  Franklin's  division  lands  at 
West  Point May   6, 

Norfolk  evacuated  by  the  Confederates. 

May  10, 

Iron-clad  Herrimac  blown  up  by  the 
Confederates May  11, 

Com.  John  Rodgers,  moving  up  the 
James  to  within  8  miles  of  Richmond 
with  his  fleet,  retires  after  an  unequal 
contest  with  batteries  on  Drury's 
Bluff  or  Fort  Darling May  15, 

McClellan's  headquarters  established  at 

the    "  White    House "     (belonging    to 

Mrs.  Robt.  B.  Lee)  on  the  Pamunkey. 

May  16, 

McDowell,   with  a  corps  of  40,000  men 

and  100  pieces  of  artillery,  instructed 

to   co-operate  with   the   Army   of   the 

Potomac  advancing  on  Richmond.  . .  . 

May  17, 

To  frustrate  this  union  "  Stonewall " 
Jackson  assumes  the  offensive  by 
threatening  Washington.  The  Na- 
tional forces  in  northern  Virginia 
at  this  time  were :  Banks,  20,000, 
Milroy  and  Schenck,  6,000,  Fremont, 
10,000,  and  McDowell's  corps  at 
Fredericksburg,  40,000.     Jackson  suc- 


1862 

1862 
1862 

1862 

1862 
1862 

1862 


1862 
1862 
1S62 

1862 
1862 

1862 


ceeds,  and  McDowell  is  retained  to  de- 
fend Washington    by  an  order  issued 

May  24,   1862 
[This  order  saved  the  Confederate  capital.  | 

Jackson  drives  Banks  out  of  Win- 
chester (see  Cross  Keys.,  Action 
at) May  25,   1862 

Hauover  Court-house May  27,  1862 

[Fitz-John  Porter,  with  a  corps  of 
12,000  men,  is  ordered  by  McClellan 
to  destroy  the  bridges  over  the  South 
Anna,  as  instructed  to  do  from  Wash- 
ington ;  opposed  by  the  Confederates 
under  Branch  at  Hanover  Court- 
house, he  defeats  them.] 

Porter  returns  to  his  former  position 
at  Gaines's  Mills May  29,   1862 

Battle  of  Fair  Oaks  (q.  v.)  or  Seven 

Pines May  31-June  1,  1862 

Robt.  E.  Lee  assumes  command  of  the 

Confederates June   3,  1862 

Gen.  J.  E.  B.  Stuart,  with  a  small 
cavalry  division,  passes  around  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac June  12-13,   1862 

Battle  of  Mechanics ville  (q.  v.) . . . . 

June  26,  1862 

Battle  of  Gaines's  Mills   (q.  v.).... 

June  27,  1862 

First  siege  of  Richmond  abandoned ; 
Keyes's   corps  ordered   to  the   James 

on  the  evening  of June  27,   1862 

[Lee,  failing  to  comprehend  Mc- 
Clellan's plans,  loses  the  whole  of 
June  28  in  false  movements.] 

Battle  of  Savage's  Station;  Sumner  re- 
pulses Magruder June  29,   1862 

Entire  Army  of  the  Potomac  safely 
across  "  White  Oak  Swamp  "  on  the 
morning  of June  30,  1862 

Battle  of  Glendale   (q.  v.).. June  30,  1862 

Army  of  the  Potomac,  with  its  immense 
trains,  concentrated  on  and  around 
Malvern   Hill  on   the  morning  of.... 

July  1,  1862 

Battle  of  Malvern  Hill  (q.   v.).... 

July  1,  1862 

President  visits  McClellan  at  Har- 
rison's  Landing July   7,  1862 

Hooker    reoccupies    Malvern    Hill 

Aug.  4,  1862 

McClellan  ordered  to  withdraw  to  Aquia 
Creek Aug.   4,  1862 

Harrison's  Landing  entirely  vacated... 

Aug.  16,  1862 

McClellan   reaches   Aquia   Creek 

Aug.  24,   1802 

Reports  at  Alexandria Aug.   26,  1862 


112 


Penn,  John,  a  signer  of  the  Declara-    I 
tion    of    Independence;    born    in    Caroline 


PENN 


county,  Va.,  May  17,  1741;  studied  law  onciled  them,  and  the  youth  was  sent  to 
Avith  Edmund  Pendleton;  was  an  eloquent  France,  with  the  hope  that  gay  society  in 
and  effective  speaker ;  and  possessed  a  high  Paris  might  redeem  him  from  his  almost 
order  of  talent.  In  1774  he  settled  in  morbid  soberness.  It  failed  to  do  so, 
Greenville  county,  N.  C,  and  was  a  dele-  and,  on  his  return,  in  1664,  in  compliance 
gate  in  the  Continental  Congress  from  with  the  wishes  of  his  father,  he  became 
there  in  1775-76  and  1778-80.  Mr.  Penn  a  student  of  law.  The  great  fire  in  Lon- 
was  placed  in  charge  of  public  affairs  in  don,  in  1665,  drove  him  from  the  city  and 
North  Carolina  when  Cornwallis  invaded  deepened  his  serious  convictions.  Then 
the  State  in  1781.  He  died  in  North  Caro-  he  was  sent  to  the  management  of  his 
lina  in  September,  1788.  father's  estates,  near  Cork,  Ireland,  where 

Penn,  John,  the  "  American  Penn,"  he  again  fell  in  with  Thomas  Loe,  and 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Feb.  29,  1700;  became  a  Quaker  in  all  but  garb, 
son  of  William  Penn  by  his  second  wife;  On  returning  to  England,  his  father 
was  the  only  male  descendant  of  the  tried  to  persuade  him  to  conform  to  the 
founder  who  remained  a  Quaker.  He  died  customs  of  polite  society,  but  he  steadily 
in  England  in  October,  1746.  refused.       He     soon     became     a     Quaker 

Penn,  William,  founder  of  Pennsyl-  preacher  and  a  powerful  controversial 
vania;  born  in  London,  England,  Oct.  14,  writer,  producing  several  notable  pam- 
1644.  His  father 
was  Admiral  Sir 
William  Penn,  of 
the  royal  navy,  and 
his  mother  was  an 
excellent  Dutch- 
woman of  Rotter- 
dam. He  received 
very  strong  relig- 
i  o  u  s  impressions 
while  he  was  yet  a 
child.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  years  he 
entered  Christ 
Church  College,  Ox- 
ford, where,  through 
the  preaching  of 
Thomas  Loe,  he  be- 
came a  convert  to 
the  doctrine  of  the 
Quakers.  He,  with 
two  or  three  others, 
refused  to  conform 
to  the  worship  of 
the  Established 
Church,  or  to  wear 
the  surplice,  or 
gown,  of  the  stu- 
dent. He  and  his 
companions  even 
went  so  far  as  to 
strip  some  of  the 
students  of  their 
robes,   for  which  he 

was  expelled   from  the  college.     For  this    phlets.    He  attacked  the  generally  received 
offence   his    father   beat   him   and    turned    doctrines   of   the  Trinity,   but   afterwards 
him  out  of  the  house.     The  mother  ree-    partially  retracted,  when  it  had  produced 
VII. — H  113 


WILLIAM    PENN. 


PENN,    WILLIAM 


great  excitement  in  the  religious  society  conformity.  He  travelled  in  Holland  and 
of  England.  He  was  confined  in  the  Germany  to  propagate  the  doctrines  of 
Tower  nine  months,  during  which  he  wrote  Friends,  and  there  interceded  in  behalf 
his  principal  work,  entitled  No  Cross,  no    of  his  persecuted  brethren.     In  1672  Penn 

married  a  daugh- 
ter of  Sir  Will- 
iam Springett, 
and,  the  next  few 
years,  devoted 
his  time  to 
preaching  and 
writing. 

In  1674  he  be- 
came umpire  in 
a  dispute  be- 
tween Fenwick 
and  Byllinge, 
both  Quakers, 
concerning  their 
property  rights 
in  New  Jersey. 
Penn  decided  in 
favor  of  Byl- 
linge, and  after- 
wards  bought 
the  domain  from 
him.  Penn  at 
once  became  zeal- 
ously engaged  in 
the  work  of  col- 
onization, and, 
desiring  to  have 
a  safe  asylum 
from  persecution 
for  his  brethren, 
he  obtained  a 
grant  of  a  large 
domain  in  Amer- 
ica from  Charles' 
II.,  in  1681,  in 
payment  of  a 
debt  of  about 
$80,000  due  to 
his  father  from 
the  crown.  The  charter  vested  the  per- 
petual proprietorship  of  the  vast  region 
(with  Delaware,  which  was  then  annexed 
to  it),  containing  45,000  square  miles,  in 
him  and  his  heirs,  in  the  fealty  of  an  an- 
nual payment  of  two  beaver-skins.  Penn 
to    call    the    domain   New   Wales, 


DEPARTURE    OP   THE   WELCOME 


Crown.  The  Duke  of  York,  under  whom 
Admiral  Penn  had  served,  procured  his  re- 
lease. Penn  was  arrested  for  preaching 
in  the  streets  in  London,  charged  with 
creating  a  tumult  and  disturbing  the 
peace.  His  trial  took  place  in  the  mayor's 
court.     The  jury  declared  him  not  guilty,    wished 


but  the  court  determined  to  convict  him, 
snd  ordered  the  jury  to  bring  in  a  verdict 
ot  guilty.  They  refused,  and  were  fined 
and  sent  to  Newgate  Prison.  Afterwards 
he  suffered  much  persecution  for  his  non- 


114 


and  afterwards,  on  account  of  extensive 
forests,  he  suggested  Sylvania.  The  King 
ordered  it  to  be  called  Penn  Sylvania, 
because  he  had  great  admiration  for 
Penn's  father.    Penn  tried  to  get  the  sec- 


PENN,    WILLIAM 


retary  to  change  the  name,  but  could  not,    Indians,  and  that  the  person  of  an  Indian 


and    it   was    called    Pennsylvania    in    the 
charter. 

When  he  had  secured  his  charter  Penn 
issued  an  advertisement  which  contained 
inducements  for  persons  to  emigrate  to 
the  new  province,  and  a  scheme  of  admin- 
istration of  justice  suited  to  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  Quakers.  He  declared  that  his 
object  was  to  establish  a  just  and  right- 
eous government  in  the  province,  that 
would  be  an  example  for  others.  He  as- 
sumed  that  government   is  a   part  of  re- 


should  be  held  as  sacred  as  that  of  a  white 
man.  Penn  advertised  his  land  at  40s. 
an  acre,  and  servants  could  hold  50  acres 
in  fee-simple.  Penn  was  so  well  known 
in  his  own  country  and  on  the  Continent 
that  perfect  confidence  was  placed  in  his 
declarations.  English  Friends,  in  large 
numbers,  proposed  to  come  over,  and  a 
German  company, led  by  Pastorius  (q.  v.), 
bought  15,000  acres.  This  was  the  com- 
mencement of  German  emigration  to 
Pennsylvania.    The  colony  flourished.    The 


ligion  itself,  as  sacred  in  its  institution  motto  on  Penn's  seal — "  Mercy  and  Jus- 
and  end ;  that  any 
government  is  free 
to  the  people  under 
it,  whatever  be  its 
frame,  where  the 
laws  rule  and  the 
people  are  a  party 
to  the  laws.  He 
declared  that  gov- 
ernments depend 
upon  men,  not  men 
upon  governments; 
and  he  guaranteed 
liberty  of  con- 
science. He  de- 
clared that  none 
should  be  molested 
or  prejudiced  in 
matters  of  faith 
and  worship,  and 
that  nobody  should 
be  compelled,  at 
any  time,  to  fre- 
quent or  maintain 
any  religious  place 
of  worship  or 
ministry  whatso- 
ever. He  said  that 
prisons  must  be 
converted  into 
schools  of  reforma- 
tion and  edu- 
cation ;  that  liti- 
gation ought  to 
give  way  to  arbi- 
tration; that  an 
oath  was  a  super- 
fluity, and  made 
lying  punishable  as  a  crime, 
jury  was  established,  and,  in 
where  an  Indian  was  involved 
should  consist  of  six  white  men  and  six 


LANDING   OF   PENN    AT   PHILADELPHIA. 


Trial  by 
all  cases 
the  jury 


tice  " — expressed  prominent  traits  of  his 
character. 

Penn,  with  others,  purchased  east  Jer- 
sey,   which    was    already    a     flourishing 


115 


PENN,    WILLIAM 


colony.  In  September,  1682,  he  embarked 
for  America  on  the  ship  Welcome,  and,  at 
the  end  of  six  weeks,  landed   (Oct.  28,  O. 


PENN  S    SEAL. 

S.)  near  the  site  of  New  Castle,  Del., 
where  he  was  joyfully  received  by  the 
settlers.  After  conferring  with  Indian 
chiefs*  and  making  some  unimportant  trea- 
ties, he  went  up  the  Delaware  to  the  site 
of  a  portion  of  Philadelphia,  and  there 
made  a  famous  treaty.  It  was  to  be  an 
everlasting  covenant  of  peace  and  friend- 
ship between  the  two  races.  "  We  meet," 
said  Penn,  "  on  the  broad  pathway  of  good 
faith  and  good-will;  no  advantage  shall 
be  taken  on  either  side,  but  all  shall  be 
openness  and  love.  I  will  not  call  you 
children,  for  parents  sometimes  chide 
their  children  too  severely;  nor  brothers 
only,  for  brothers  differ.  The  friendship 
between  me  and  you  I  will  not  compare 
to  a  chain,  for  that  the  rains  might  rust, 
or  a  falling  tree  might  break.  We  are 
the  same  as  if  one  man's  body  was  to  be 
divided  into  two  parts;  we  are  all  one 
flesh  and  blood."  Then  Penn  gave  the 
chiefs  presents,  and  they,  in  turn,  handed 
him  a  belt  of  wampum,  a  pledge  of  their 
fidelity.  Delighted  with  his  words,  and 
with  implicit  faith  in  his  promises,  they 
said:  "We  will  live  in  love  with  William 
Penn  and  his  children  as  long  as  the  sun 
and  moon  shall  endure." 

This  promise  was  kept;  not  a  drop  of 
the  blood  of  a  Quaker  was  ever  shed  by 
an  Indian.  Penn  had  achieved  a  mighty 
victory  by  the  power  of  justice  and  love. 
There  is  no  written  record  of  that  treaty 
extant;  it  seemed  an  ineradicable  tradi- 
tion among  both  races.  Of  the  personal 
character    of   the   European   actors    in    it 

1 


we  have  more  information.  Penn  was 
then  thirty-eight  years  of  age.  Most  of 
his  companions — the  deputy-governor  and 
a  few  others — were  younger  than  he,  and 
were  dressed  in  the  garb  of  Friends — the 
fashion  of  the  more  simple  Puritans  dur- 
ing the  protectorate  of  Cromwell.  The 
Indians  were  partly  clad  in  the  skins  of 
beasts,  for  it  was  on  the  verge  of  winter 
(Nov.  4,  1682),  and  they  had  brought 
their  wives  and  children  to  the  council,  as 
was  their  habit.  The  scene  must  have 
been  a  most  interesting  one — Europeans 
and  Indians  mingling  around  a  great  fire, 
kindled  under  the  high  branches  of  the 
elm,  and  the  contracting  parties  smoking 
the  calumet.  That  tree  was  blown  down 
in  1810;  it  was  estimated  to  be  233  years 
old.  Upon  its  site  the  Penn  Society,  of 
Philadelphia,  erected  a  commemorative 
monument.  It  stands  near  the  intersec- 
tion of  Beach  and  Hanover  streets. 

After    visiting    New    York    and    New 
Jersey,  and  meeting  a  general   assembly, 


TKEATV    MONUMENT. 

Penn  sailed  for  England  in  August,  1684. 
The  King  died  a  few  months  after  Penn's 
arrival.  He  was  succeeded  by  James, 
Duke  of  York,  who  was  a  warm  friend  of 
Penn's.  The  latter  took  lodgings  near  the 
court,  where  he  constantly  used  his  in- 
fluence in  obtaining  relief  for  his  suffer- 
ing brethren,  who  thronged  his  house  by 
hundreds,  seeking  his  aid.  He  finally  ob- 
tained a  royal  decree,  by  which  more  than 
1,200  Quakers  were  released  from  prison. 
16 


PENN,    WILLIAM 


This  was  followed  by  a  proclamation  of 
the  King  (April,  1687),  declaring  liberty 
of  conscience  to  all,  and  removing  tests 
and  penalties.  Meanwhile  Penn  had  made 
a  tour  on  the  Continent,  and,  by  order  of 
James,  had  a  conference  with  the 
monarch's  son-in-law,  William  of  Orange, 
and  tried  to  persuade  him  to  adopt  the 
principles  of  universal  toleration.  Be- 
cause Penn  had  been  personally  intimate 
with  James,  soon  after  the  Revolution 
(1688)     he    was     summoned     before     the 


of  the  King's  Bench,  and  acquitted.  The 
charge  was  renewed,  in  1691,  by  a  man 
who  was  afterwards  branded  by  the  House 
of  Commons  as  a  cheat,  a  rogue,  and  a 
false  accuser. 

In  the  mean  time  Pennsylvania  had  been 
much  disturbed  by  civil  and  religious  quar- 
rels, and,  in  1692,  the  monarchs  deprived 
Penn  of  his  authority  as  governor  of  the 
province,  and  directed  Governor  Fletcher. 
of  New  York,  to  assume  the  adminis- 
tration.     Powerful    friends    interceded    in 


y^vwH 


TREE  UNDER  WHICH  THE  TREATY  WAS  MADE. 


privy  council  to  answer  a  charge  of  trea- 
son. No  evidence  appearing  against  him, 
he  was  discharged.  Not  long  afterwards, 
a  letter  from  the  exiled  monarch  to  Penn, 
asking  him  to  come  to  France,  having  been 
intercepted,  he  was  again  brought  before 
the  council,  in  presence  of  King  William. 
Penn  declared  his  friendship  for  James, 
but  did  not  approve  his  policy,  and  he  was 
again  discharged.  In  1690  he  was  a  third 
time  accused,  and  was  arrested  on  a 
charge  of  conspiracy,  tried  by  the  court 

I 


Penn's  behalf,  and  he  was  honorably  ac- 
quitted (November,  1693)  by  the  King  and 
council.  Three  months  later  his  wife, 
Gulielma  Maria,  died,  and,  within  two 
years,  he  married  Hannah  Callowhill,  a 
Quaker  lady  of  great  excellence.  His 
proprietary  rights  having  been  fully  re- 
stored to  him  (August,  1694),  he  sailed 
for  Pennsylvania  with  his  wife  and 
daughter  in  September,  1699.  He  was 
soon  recalled  by  tidings  that  the  House 
of  Lords  was  considering  a  measure  for 
Z7 


PENN,    WILLIAM 


bringing  all  the  proprietary  governments 
in  America  under  the  crown.  Penn  hast- 
ened  to   England,   giving   to   Philadelphia 


kt^ 


PENX  S    CHAIK. 


a  city  charter,  dated  Oct.  25,  1701.  It  was 
one  of  his  last  official  acts.  The  measure 
which  hastened  his  departure  from  Amer- 
ica was  soon  abandoned ;  but  he  was  deeply 
moved  with  anxiety  about  his  affairs  in 
Pennsylvania,  where  Lis  son,  whom  he  had 
sent  as  his  deputy,  had  been  guilty  of  dis- 
graceful conduct.  At  the  same  time  his 
confidential  agent  in  London,  who  was  a 
Friend,  had  left  to  his  executors  false 
charges  against  Penn  to  a  very  large 
amount.  To  avoid  extortion,  Penn  suffer- 
ed himself  to  be  confined  in  Fleet  Prison 
for  a  long  time  (170S),  until  his  friends 
compromised  with  his  creditors.  In  1712 
Penn  made  arrangements  for  the  transfer 
of  his  proprietary  rights  to  the  crown  for 
$60,000,  when  he  was  prostrated  by 
paralysis.  He  lived  till  July  30,  1718, 
much  of  the  time  unable  to  move,  and 
never  regained  his  mental  vigor.  Penn's 
remains  were  buried  in  Jordan's  Ceme- 
tery, near  the  village  of  Chalfont  St.  Giles, 
in  Buckinghamshire. 

William  Penn's  character  was  frequent- 
ly assailed  by  the  wicked  and  envious  dur- 
ing his  life,  but  always  without  success, 


and  Lord  Macaulay  was  equally  unsuc- 
cessful in  his  assaults  upon  the  honor, 
honesty,  purity,  and  integrity  of  the 
founder  of  Pennsylvania,  for  official  rec- 
ords have  proved  the  falsity  of  the  allega- 
tions made  by  contemporaries  and  the 
eminent  historian.  Penn  had  a  fine  coun- 
try residence,  sometimes  called  "  The  Pal- 
ace," on  the  bank  of  the  Delaware  River, 
nearly  opposite  Bordentown.  It  was  con- 
structed in  1083,  at  an  expense  of  about 
$35,000.  In  1700  his  city  residence  in 
Philadelphia  was  the  "  Slate-roof  House," 
on  the  northeast  corner  of  Second  Street 
and  Norris's  Alley.  It  was  a  spacious 
building  for  the  time,  constructed  of  brick 
and  covered  with  slate.  It  was  built  for 
another  in  1690.  Penn  occupied  it  while 
he  remained  in  America,  and  there  his 
son,  John  Penn,  governor  of  Pennsylvania 
when  the  Revolution  broke  out,  was  born. 
In  that  house  the  agent  of  Penn  (James 
Logan)  entertained  Lord  Cornbury,  of 
New  York,  and  his  suite  of  fifty  persons. 
The  house  was  purchased  by  William 
Trent,  the  founder  of  Trenton.  Arnold 
occupied  it  as  his  headquarters  in  1778, 
and  lived  there  in  extravagant  style. 

Essay  toicards  the  Present  and  Future 
Peace  of  Europe.  This  was  published  by 
Penn  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1693- 
94,  while  war  was  raging  on  the  Conti- 
nent. Penn  sought  to  show  "  the  desirable- 
ness of  peace  and  the  truest  means  of  it" 
at  that  time  and  for  the  future.  His 
essay  consisted  of  a  scheme  for  a  general 
alliance,  or  compact  among  the  different 
states  of  Europe,  whereby  they  should 
agree  to  constitute  a  "  General  Diet "  or 


SLATE-ROOF   (PENN'S), HOUSE   IN   PHILADELPHIA. 


118 


PENNINGTON— PENNSYLVANIA 


congress  of  nations,  wherein  each  should 
be  represented  by  deputies,  and  all  dif- 
ferences should  be  settled  on  equitable 
terms  ancTwithout  recourse  to  arms.  The 
tract  was  printed  twice  in  1693.  It  is  not 
included  in  the  original  folio  edition  of 
Penn's  works,  but  finds  place  in  one  of 
the  later  editions.  It  is  reprinted  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Historical  Society  of 
Pennsylvania,  vol.   vi. 

Penn's  plan  for  the  federation  and  peace 
of  Europe,  doubly  interesting  to  us  as  the 
work  of  one  whose  relation  to  American 
history  was  so  conspicuous,  is  noteworthy 
as  the  first  essay  of  such  an  international 
character  known  to  us  which  is  free  from 
every  suspicion  of  ulterior  motive  and 
inspired  purely  by  the  love  of  humanity. 
The  one  great  plan  of  earlier  date  is  the 
"  Great  Design  "  of  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
to  which  Penn  himself  refers  in  his  essay. 
The  original  account  of  this  is  in  Sully's 
Memoirs.  It  is  a  matter  of  controversy 
how  much  this  design  was  really  Henry's; 
and   those  interested   in   the  matter   may 


find  a  careful  discussion  of  it  in  Kitchin't 
History  of  France,  vol.  ii.,  p.  472.  A  most 
interesting  and  stimulating  article  based 
upon  the  "  Great  Design "  is  Edward 
Everett  Hale's  The  United  States  of  Eu- 
rope, first  published  in  Old  and  New, 
1871,  and  republished  in  Lend  a  Hand, 
July,  1896.  The  most  famous  and  impor- 
tant modern  essay  on  international  arbi- 
tration and  the  federation  of  the  world 
is  Kant's  Eternal  Peace,  of  which  there 
are  two  good  English  translations,  one  by 
Morell,  the  other  by  Hastie,  included  in 
a  little  volume  of  translations  of  Kant's 
political  essays,  entitled  Kant's  Principles 
of  Politics. 

Pennington,  William,  statesman;  born 
in  Newark,  N.  J.,  May  4,  1796;  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  in  1813;  admitted  to 
the  bar  of  New  Jersey  in  1815;  elected 
governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1837 ;  elected 
member  of  Congress  in  1859,  and  was 
chosen  speaker  of  the  House,  February, 
IS 60.  He  died  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Feb.  16, 
1862. 


hard  and  exacting  landlord;  with  keep- 
ing the  constitution  of  the  courts  and  the 
administration     of     justice     in     his     own 


PENNSYLVANIA,    STATE    OF 

Pennsylvania,  State  of,  one  of  the  negative  on  the  Assembly  which  he  had 
original  thirteen  States  of  the  American  once  yielded;  with  playing  the  part  of  a 
Union,  and  a  former  colony;  named  in 
honor  of  William  Penn,  in  the  sketch  of 
whose  life  much  of  its  early  history  has 
been  given. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen 
tury  a  Church  of  England  party  had 
grown  up  in  Pennsylvania,  towards  which 
the  Christian  Quakers  gravitated.  These 
Episcopalians  jealously  watched  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Quaker  magistrates  of  the 
province,  and  represented  them  as  unfit 
to  rule,  especially  in  time  of  war.  Penn's 
governor  (Evans)  having  thrown  out  a 
hint  that  the  proprietor  "  might  throw 
off  a  load  he  had  found  too  heavy  " — the 
political  interference  of  the  Assembly — 
that  body  became  very  angry,  and,  headed 
by  David  Lloyd,  a  lawyer,  and  their  speak- 
er (who  had  been  at  one  time  Penn's  at- 
torney-general ) ,  they  agreed  to  nine  res- 
olutions, which  Lloyd  embodied  in  a 
memorial  addressed  to  the  proprietary. 
In  it  Penn  was  charsred  with  an  evasion 
of  the  fulfilment  of  his  original  promises 


STATE   SEAL   OF    PENNSYLVANIA. 


hands;  with  appointing  oppressive  offi- 
cers: and,  finally,  with  a  downright  be- 
trayal of  the  colonists  in  his  present 
negotiation  for  parting  with  the  govern- 
to  the  colonists,  by  artfully  securing  that    ment — a  matter  in  which  he  was  charged 

119 


PENNSYLVANIA,    STATE    OF 


to  proceed  no  further,  lest  it  should  look 
like  a  "  first  fleecing  and  then  selling." 

Penn  demanded  the  punishment  of  Lloyd. 
The  new  Assembly  shifted  the  responsibility 


A   PENNSYLVANIA   OIL     REFINERY. 

of  Lloyd's  memorial  upon  their  predecessors. 
The  friends  of  Penn,  headed  by  Logan, 
secured  a  majority  the  next  year,  which 
voted  an  affectionate  address  to  the  pro- 
prietary. But  vexatious  troubles  soon 
broke  out  again.  Complaints  were  sent  to 
Penn  against  Evans  and  Logan.  The  former 
was  dissipated,  and  had  corrupted  Will- 
iam, the  eldest  son  of  Penn,  who  became 
a  companion  of  his  revels.  That  son  pub- 
licly renounced  Quakerism.  Evans  was 
superseded  by  Charles  Gookin.  He  found 
the  Assembly  in  a  bad  humor,  because 
Penn  sustained  Logan,  whom  they  de- 
nounced as  "  an  enemy  to  the  welfare  of 
the  province,  and  abusive  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  people."     Logan  went  to 


England,  and,  returning,  brought  a  letter 
from  Penn  to  the  Assembly,  giving  an  out- 
line history  of  his  efforts  in  settling  his 
province,  and  intimating  that,  unless  a 
change  should  take  place,  and 
quiet  be  restored,  he  might 
find  it  necessary  to  dispose  of 
so  troublesome  a  sovereignty. 
An  entirely  new  Assembly  was 
chosen  at  the  next  election, 
and  nearly  all  the  points  in 
dispute  were  arranged.  But 
Penn,  wearied  with  conten- 
tions, made  an  arrangement 
to  cede  the  sovereignty  of  his 
province  to  the  Queen  for  the 
consideration  of  about  $60,- 
000,  reserving  to  himself  the 
quit-rents  and  property  in  the 
soil.  The  consummation  of 
this  bargain  was  prevented 
by  Penn  being  prostrated  by 
paralysis  (1712). 

In  1733  the  proprietary  of 
Maryland  agreed  with  the 
heirs  of  Penn  that  the  boun- 
dary-line between  their  re- 
spective provinces  and  Dela- 
ware should  be  as  follows: 
For  the  southern  boundary  of 
Delaware,  a  line  commencing 
at  Cape  Henlopen,  to  be  drawn 
due  west  from  Delaware  Bay 
to  the  Chesapeake.  The  west 
boundary  of  Delaware  was  to 
be  a  tangent  drawn  from  the 
middle  point  of  this  line  to  a 
circle  of  12  miles  radius 
around  New  Castle.  A  due 
west  line,  continued  northward  to  a  par- 
allel of  latitude  15  miles  south  of  Phil- 
adelphia, was  to  be  the  southern  boun- 
dary of  Pennsylvania.  On  his  arrival  in 
Maryland,  the  proprietary,  on  the  plea  of 
misrepresentation,  refused  to  be  bound  by 
this  agreement.  He  petitioned  the  King 
to  be  confirmed  in  possession  of  the  whole 
peninsula  between  the  Chesapeake  and 
Delaware  bays.  The  boundary  was  finally 
determined  (see  Mason  and  Dixon's 
Line)  substantially  in  accordance  with 
the  original  agreement. 

In  January,  1757,  the  Assembly  of  Penn- 
sylvania   passed   a   bill    granting    for   his 
Majesty's  service  £100,000,  by  a  tax  on  all 
the  estates,  real  and  personal,  "  taxable," 
20 


PENNSYLVANIA,    STATE    OF 


within,  the  province.  The  governor 
(Denny)  refused  to  sanction  it,  because  it 
would  heavily  tax  the  proprietaries  of  the 
province.  He  asked  them  to  frame  a  bill 
providing  supplies  for  the  public  service, 
such  as  he  could,  "  consistent  with  his 
honor  and  his  engagements  to  the  proprie- 
taries," subscribe.  The  Assembly  re- 
monstrated, saying  they  had  framed  the 
bill  consistent  with  their  rights  as  an 
"  English  representative  body,"  and,  in  the 
name  of  their  sovereign,  "  and  in  behalf 
of  the  distressed  people  whom  they  repre- 
sented "    unanimously    demanded    of    the 


governor  that  he  would  give  his  assent 
to  the  bill  they  had  passed.  As  it  was  a 
money  bill,  they  demanded  that  it  should 
not  be  altered  or  amended,  "  any  instruc- 
tions whatsoever  from  the  proprietaries 
notwithstanding,"  as  he  would  "  answer 
to  the  crown  for  all  the  consequences  of 
his  refusal  at  his  peril."  The  governor 
persisted  in  his  refusal,  grounded  upon 
parliamentary  usage  in  England,  and  the 
supposed  hardship  of  taxing  the  unim- 
proved land  of  the  proprietaries.  As  the 
governor  would  not  sign  a  bill  that  did 
not  exempt  the  estates  of  the  proprietaries 


SCENES  IN  THE   COAL-MINING  REGION,  PENNSYLVANIA. 

121 


PENNSYLVANIA,    STATE    OF 


from  taxation,  the  Assembly  sent  Benjamin 
Franklin,  as  agent  of  the  province,  to  peti- 
tion the  King  for  redress.  This  was  the  be- 
ginning of  protracted  disputes  between  the 
representatives  of  the  people  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  agents  of  the  proprietaries. 
An  attempt  of  the  Pennsylvania  As- 
sembly, in  1764,  to  enact  a  new  militia 
law  brought  on  another  quarrel  between 
the  proprietaries  and  the  representatives 
of  the  people.  One  of  the  former,  John 
Penn,  was  now  governor.  He  claimed  the 
right  to  appoint  the  officers  of  the  militia, 
and  insisted  upon  several  other  provisions, 
to  which  the  Assembly  would  not  give  its 
assent.  At  the  same  time  a  controversy 
arose  concerning  the  interpretation  of  the 
decision  of  the  Lords  of  Trade  and  Plan- 
tations, authorizing  the  taxation  of  the 
proprietary  estates.  At  the  annual  elec- 
tion (May,  1764)  the  proprietary  party 
in  Philadelphia,  by  great  exertions,  de- 
feated Franklin  in  that  city.  Yet  the 
anti-proprietary  party  had  a  large  ma- 
jority in  the  Assembly.  The  new  Assembly 
sent  Franklin  to  England  again  as  their 
agent,  authorized  to  ask  for  the  abrogation 
of  the  proprietary  authority  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  royal  government.  The 
mutterings  of  the  gathering  tempest  of 
revolution  which  finally  gave  independence 
to  the  Americans  were  then  growing  louder 
and  louder,  and  nothing  more  was  done  in 
the  matter.  The  opponents  of  the  pro- 
prietaries in  Pennsylvania  were  by  no 
means  united  on  this  point.  The  Epis- 
copalians and  Quakers  were  favorable  to 
a  change,  while  the  Scotch-Irish  Presby- 
terians were  opposed  to  it,  because  they 
feared  the  ascendency  of  the  Church  of 
England.  The  patronage  of  the  proprie- 
taries attached  many  to  their  interests, 
a,nd  the  pleasant  memories  of  William 
Penn  inclined  many  to  favor  them.  On 
June  18,  1774,  there  was  a  general  con- 
ference of  the  committees  of  the  several 
counties  in  the  State.  They  assembled  at 
Garpenters'  Hall,  in  Philadelphia.  In  this 
conference  few,  if  any,  of  the  old  Assembly 
appeared.  Thomas  McKean  was  chosen 
president,  and  on  the  19th  the  104  mem- 
bers present  unanimously  approved  the 
action  of  Congress  respecting  the  forma- 
tion of  States.  They  condemned  the  pres- 
ent government  of  the  colony  as  incom- 
petent, and  a  new  one  was  ordered  to  be 

1 


formed  on  the  authority  of  the  people. 
On  the  afternoon  of  the  24th,  with  equal 
unannimity,  the  delegates  declared,  for 
themselves  and  their  constituents,  their 
willingness  to  concur  in  a  vote  of  Con- 
gress for  independence. 

After  the  stirring  events  at  Lexington 
and  Concord,  a  large  public  meeting  was 
held  at  Philadelphia  (April  24,  1775),  at 
which  measures  were  taken  for  entering 
into  a  volunteer  military  association,  the 
spirit  of  which  pervaded  the  whole  prov- 
ince. Many  of  the  young  Quakers  took 
part  in  the  organization,  in  spite  of  the 
remonstrance  of  their  elders,  and  were 
disowned.  They  afterwards  formed  a  so- 
ciety called  "  Free  Quakers."  Thomas 
Mifflin  (afterwards  a  major-general)  was 
a  leading  spirit  among  these.  John 
Dickinson  (q.  v.)  accepted  the  command 
of  a  regiment;  so,  also,  did  Thomas  Mc- 
Kean and  James  Wilson,  both  afterwards 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
The  Assembly,  which  met  soon  afterwards, 
voted  £1,800  towards  the  expenses  of  these 
volunteers.  They  also  appointed  a  com- 
mittee of  safety,  with  Dr.  Franklin  as 
chairman,  which  not  only  took  measures 
for  the  defence  of  Philadelphia,  but  soon 
afterwards  assumed  the  whole  executive 
authority  of  the  province.  Timidity  mark- 
ed the  course  of  the  legislature  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  the  autumn  of  1775,  while  the 
people  at  large,  especially  in  Philadelphia, 
were  zealously  in  favor  of  the  martial 
proceedings  of  Congress.  The  Assembly 
was  under  the  influence  of  John  Dickin- 
son, who  opposed  independence  to  the  last. 
When  the  Assembly  met  (Oct.  16,  1775),  ' 
all  of  the  members  present  subscribed  to 
the  usual  engagement  of  allegiance  to  the 
King.  In  a  few  days  the  Quakers  pre- 
sented an  address  in  favor  of  conciliatory 
measures,  and  deprecating  everything 
"  likely  to  widen  or  perpetuate  the  breach 
with  the  parent  state."  The  committee 
of  sixty  for  the  City  and  Liberties  of 
Philadelphia,  headed  by  George  Clymer 
and  Thomas  McKean,  went  in  procession, 
two  by  two,  to  the  State-house,  and  de- 
livered a  remonstrance,  calculated  to  coun- 
teract the  influence  of  Dickinson  and  the 
Quakers.  This  halting  spirit  in  the  Assem- 
bly appeared  several  months  longer,  and  on 
the  vote  for  independence  (July  2,  1776) 
the  Pennsylvania  delegates  were  divided. 
22 


PENNSYLVANIA,    STATE    OF 


STEELWORKS   JN    PENNSYLVANIA. 


The  Assembly,  influenced  by  the  pro-  in  not  requiring  newly  elected  members  to 
prietary  government  and  office-holders  in  swear  allegiance  to  the  King.  Finally,  on 
its  own  body,  as  well  as  by  timid  patriots,  May  24,  the  committee  of  inspection  of 
hoping,  like  John  Dickinson,  for  peace  the  city  of  Philadelphia  addressed  a  me- 
and  reconciliation,  steadily  opposed  the  morial  to  the  Congress,  setting  forth  that 
idea  of  independence.  Finally,  a  town-  the  Assembly  did  not  possess  the  confi- 
meeting  of  4,000  people,  held  in  State-  dence  of  the  people,  nor  truly  represent 
house  Yard,  in  Philadelphia  (May  24,  the  sentiments  of  the  province;  and  that 
1776),  selected  for  its  president  Daniel  measures  had  been  taken  for  assembling 
Pioberdeau.  The  meeting  voted  that  the  a  popular  convention.  The  Assembly  be- 
instruction  of  the  Assembly  for  forming  came  nervous.  It  felt  that  its  dissolution 
a,  new  government  (in  accordance  witb#  was  nigh.  In  the  first  days  of  June  no 
John  Adams's  proposition)  was  illegal  governor  appeared.  The  members  showed 
and  an  attempt  at  usurpation;  and  the  signs  of  yielding  to  the  popular  pressure; 
committee  of  the  City  and  Liberties  of  but  on  the  7th,  the  very  day  when  Rich- 
Philadelphia  were  directed  to  summon  a  ard  Henry  Lee  offered  his  famous  resolu- 
.conference  of  the  committees  of  every  tion  for  independence  in  Congress,  John 
county  in  the  province  to  make  arrange-  Dickinson,  in  a  speech  -in  the  Assembly, 
ments  for  a  constituent  convention  to  be  pledged  his  word  to  the  proprietary  chief- 
chosen  by  the  people.  Then  was  prepara-  justice  (Allen),  and  to  the  whole  House, 
tion  made  for  the  fall  of  the  proprietary  that  he  and  a  majority  of  the  Pennsyl- 
charter  of  Pennsylvania.  Dickinson  and  vania  delegates  in  the  Congress  would 
his  friends  persisted  in  opposition  to  in-  continue  to  vote  against  independence, 
dependence.  Concessions  were  made  to  Only  once  again  (after  June  9,  1776)  did 
the  Continental  Congress  by  the  Assembly  a  quorum  of  members  of  the  Pennsylvania 

123 


PENNSYLVANIA,    STATE    OF 


Assembly  appear.  The  proprietary  gov- 
ernment had  expired. 

The  gloomy  outlook  after  the  fall  of 
Fort  Washington  and  the  flight  of  Wash- 
ington and  his  melting  army  across  New 
Jersey  in  1776  caused  many  persons  of 
influence  in  Pennsylvania',  as  well  as  in 
New  Jersey,  to  waver  and  fall  away  from 
the  patriot  cause.  The  most  conspicuous 
of  these  in  Pennsylvania  were  Joseph 
Galloway,  who  had  been  a  member  of  the 
first  Continental  Congress,  and  Andrew 
Allen,  also  a  member  of  that  Congress, 
and  two  of  his  brothers.  The  brothers 
Howe  having  issued  a  new  proclamation 
of  pardon  and  amnesty  to  all  who  should 
within  sixty  days  promise  not  to  take  up 
arms  against  the  King,  these  men  availed 
themselves  of  it,  not  doubting  their  speedy 
restoration  to  their  former  fortunes  and 
political  importance.  They  went  over  to 
Howe;  so  did  Samuel  Tucker,  a  leader  in 
the  movements  against  British  oppression 
in  New  Jersey,  and  a  host  of  Jerseymen, 
who  signed  a  pledge  of  fidelity  to  the 
British  crown.  Even  John  Dickinson, 
whose  fidelity  as  a  patriot  may  not  be 
questioned,  was  so  thoroughly  convinced 
of  the  folly  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence and  the  probability  of  a  return 
to  the  British  fold  that  he  discredited  the 
Continental  bills  of  credit,  and  refused  to 
accept  an  appointment  from  Delaware  as 
a  delegate  in  Congress.  The  State  of 
Maryland  also  showed  a  willingness  at 
this  juncture  to  renounce  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  for  the  sake  of  peace. 
Amid  this  falling  away  of  civilians  and 
the  rapid  melting  of  his  army,  Washing- 
ton's faith  and  courage  never  faltered. 
From  Newark,  when  he  was  flying  with 
his  shattered  and  rapidly  diminishing 
forces  towards  the  Delaware  River  before 
pursuing  Cornwallis,  he  applied  to  the 
patriotic  and  energetic  William  Living- 
ston, governor  of  New  Jersey,  for  aid. 
To  expressions  of  sympathy  from  the  gov- 
ernor he  replied  (Nov.  30,  1776),  "I  will 
not  despair." 

Early  in  1799  an  insurrection  broke  out 
due  to  a  singular  cause.  A  direct  tax  had 
been  levied,  among  other  things,  on  houses, 
arranged  in  classes.  A  means  for  making 
that  classification  was  by  measuring  win- 
dows. The  German  inhabitants  of  North- 
ampton, Bucks,  and  Montgomery  counties 


made  such  violent  opposition  to  this  meas- 
urement that  those  engaged  in  it  were 
compelled  to  desist.  Warrants  were  is- 
sued for  the  arrest  of  opposers  of  the  law; 
and  in  the  village  of  Bethlehem  the  mar- 
shal, having  about  thirty  prisoners,  was 
set.  upon  by  a  party  of  fifty  horsemen, 
headed  by  a  man  named  Fries.  The  Presi- 
dent sent  troops  to  maintain  the  law.  No 
opposition  was  made  to  them,  and  Fries 
and  about  thirty  others  were  arrested  and 
taken  to  Philadelphia,  where  their  leader 
was  indicted  for  treason,  tried  twice,  each 
time  found  guilty,  but  finally  pardoned. 
Several  others  were  tried  for  the  same 
offence.  While  these  trials  were  going  on, 
Duane,  editor  of  the  Aurora  (Bache  had 
died  of  yellow  fever),  abused  the  officers 
and  troops,  who,  finding  no  law  to  touch 
him,  sent  a  deputation  of  their  own  num- 
ber to  chastise  him,  which  they  did  on  his 
own  premises. 

Pennsylvania  was  governed  by  a  code 
framed  by  William  Penn,  and  several 
times  amended,  until  Sept.  28,  1776,  when 
a  State  constitution  was  adopted,  and 
Pennsylvania  took  her  place  in  the  Union. 
In  1790  a  new  constitution  was  adopted, 
which  has  since  been  several  times  amend- 
ed. In  1838  provision  was  made  for  elect- 
ing, instead  of  appointing,  county  officers ; 
the  right  of  voting  was  limited  to  white 
persons,  and  the  term  of  judicial  offices 
was  reduced  from  life  to  ten  and  fifteen 
years.  In  1850  the  judiciary  was  made 
elective  by  the  people;  subscriptions  to  in- 
ternal improvements  by  municipal  authori- 
ties was  prohibited,  and  in  1864  the  right 
of  suffrage  was  guaranteed  to  soldiers  in 
the  field.  An  amended  constitution  went 
into  force  on  Jan.  1,  1S74.  Lancaster  was 
the  seat  of  the  State  government  from 
c1799  till  1812,  when  Harrisburg  became 
the  State  capital.  In  1808  a  case  which 
had  been  in  existence  since  the  Revolu- 
tion brought  the  State  of  Pennsylvania 
into  collision  with  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States.  During  the  disputes 
in  the  case  alluded  to — about  prize-money 
— David  Rittenhouse,  as  State  treasurer  of 
Pennsylvania,  had  received  certain  certifi- 
cates of  national  debt.  Rittenhouse  set- 
tled his  accounts  as  treasurer  in  1788  and 
resigned  his  office,  but  still  retained  these 
certificates,  having  given  his  bond  to  the 
judge    of    the    State    court    to    hold    him 


124 


fENNSYLVAtfIA,    SttATE    OF 

harmless  as  to  other  claimants.     The  cer-  (1864)     the    Confederates    penetrated    to 

tificates  were  held  by  Rittenhouse  to  in-  Chambersburg,   and  nearly   destroyed   the 

demnify    him    against    the    bond    he    had  town   by   fire.      At   the   beginning   of   the 

given.     When  the  public  debt  was  funded  Civil    War    Pennsylvania    raised    a    large 

lie  caused  these  certificates  to  be  funded  body    of    reserve    troops,    and    during   the 

in   his  own  name,  but   for   the  benefit  of  war  furnished  to  the  National  army  387,- 

whom  it  might  concern.     Rittenhouse  died  284  troops. 

in  1801,  leaving  his  three  daughters  execu-  This  State  has  the  honor  of  having  sent 
tors  of  his  estate.  They  were  called  upon  the  first  troops  to  the  national  capital 
by  the  State  treasurer  to  deliver  the  cer-  for  its  defence,  in  April,  1861.  The 
tificates  to  him  and  pay  over  the  accrued  troops  comprised  five  companies  from  the 
interest.  They  refused  to  do  so,  on  ac-  interior  of  the  state — namely,  Washing- 
count  of  a  pending  suit  in  the  State  court  ton  Artillery  and  National  Light  Infantry, 
by  a  claimant  for  the  amount.  The  State  of  Pottsville;  the  Ringgold  Light  Artil- 
court  finally  declined  to  interfere,  on  the  lery,  of  Reading;  the  Logan  Guards,  of 
technical  ground  that  it  was  an  admiralty  Lewistown;  and  the  Allen  Infantry,  of 
matter  and  was  not  cognizable  in  a  court  Allentown.  On  the  call  of  the  President, 
of  common  law.  The  claimant  then  ap-  the  commanders  of  these  companies  tele- 
plied  to  the  United  States  district  court  graphed  to  Governor  Curtin  that  their 
for  an  order  to  compel  the  executors  of  ranks  were  full  and  ready  for  service. 
Rittenhouse  to  pay  over  to  him  the  certif-  They  were  assembled  at  Harrisburg  on 
icates  and  accumulated  interest,  then  the  evening  of  April  17.  Accompanied  by 
amounting  to  about  $15,000.  Such  a  de-  forty  regular  soldiers  destined  for  Fort 
cree  was  made  in  1803,  when  the  legis-  McHenry,  they  went  by  rail  to  Baltimore 
lature  of  Pennsylvania  passed  a  law  to  the  next  morning,  and  while  passing  from 
compel  the  executors  to  pay  the  funds  into  one  railway  station  to  another  were  sub- 
the  State  treasury,  pledging  the  faith  of  jected  to  gross  insults  and  attacked  with 
the  State  to  hold  them  harmless.  Finally  missiles  by  a  mob.  They  were  without 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  arms,  for  their  expected  new  muskets 
issued  a  mandamus  for  the  judge  of  the  were  not  ready  when  they  got  to  Harris- 
district  court  to  carry  the  decree  into  ex-  burg.  They  found  Maryland  a  hostile 
eeution,  despite  the  State  law.  It  was  territory  to  pass  through,  but  they  reach- 
done  (March  12,  1809)  ;  but  the  marshal,  ed  the  capital  in  safety  early  in  the  even- 
when  he  went  to  serve  the  process  of  at-  ing  of  April  18.  They  were  received  by 
taehment,  found  the  houses  of  the  re-  the  government  and  loyal  people  there 
spondents  protected  by  an  armed  guard,  with  heartfelt  joy,  for  rumors  that  the 
who  resisted  his  entrance  by  bayonets,  minute-men  of  Maryland  and  Virginia 
These  guards  were  State  militia,  under  were  about  to  seize  Washington,  D.  C, 
General  Bright,  with  the  sanction  of  the  had  been  prevalent  all  day.  The  Pennsyl- 
governor.  The  legislature  and  the  govern-  vanians  were  hailed  as  deliverers.  They 
or  now  receded  somewhat.  The  former  were  marched  to  the  Capitol  grounds, 
made  an  appropriation  of  $18,000  to  meet  greeted  by  cheer  after  cheer,  and  assign- 
any  contingency;  and  finally,  after  a  show  ed  to  quarters  in  the  hall  of  the  House  of 
of  resistance,  which,  to  some,  threatened  Representatives.  The  startling  rumor 
a  sort  of  civil  war  in  the  streets  of  Phila-  soon  spread  over  the  city  that  2,000  Na- 
delphia,  the  governor  paid  over  the  sum  tional  troops  had  arrived,  well  armed 
to  the  marshal  out  of  the  appropriation,  with  Minie  rifles.  The  real  number  was 
This  was  a  blow  to  the  doctrine  of  State  530.  The  disunionists  and  their  sym- 
supremacy,  which  still  held  a  large  place  pathizers  were  overawed  just  in  time  to 
in  the  political  creed  of  the  people  of  all  save  the  capital  from  seizure, 
the  States.  The  supremacy  of  the  nation-  Gen.  Robert  Patterson  (q.  v.),  then 
al  judiciary  was  fully  vindicated.  commander  of  the  Department  of  Pennsyl- 
In  the  Civil  War  Pennsylvania  was  in-  vania,  comprehended  the  wants  of  govern- 
vaded  by  the  Confederates,  and  on  its  ment,  and,  while  the  capital  was  cut  off 
soil  the  decisive  battle  of  the  war  oc-  from  communication  with  the  loyal  peo- 
curred,    at    Gettysburg.      The    next   year  pie  of  the  State,  he  took  the  responsibil- 

125 


PENNSYLVANIA— PENNYMITE    AND    YANKEE    WAR 


ity  of  officially  requesting  (April  25,  1861) 
the  governor  of  Pennsylvania  to  direct 
the  organization  of  twenty-five  regiments 
of  volunteers.  It  was  done.  These  were 
in  addition  to  the  sixteen  regiments  call- 
ed for  by  the  Secretary  of  War.  The 
legislature  took  the  twenty-five  regiments 
into  the  service  of  the  State,  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  first  declining  to  receive 
them.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  fine 
body  of  soldiers  known  as  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Reserves,  who  were  gladly  accepted 
by  the  Secretary  after  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run.  See  United  States,  Pennsylvania, 
in  vol.  ix. 

COLONIAL  GOVERNORS  OF  PENNSYLVANIA. 
[Under  the  proprietary  government,  when  there  was 
no  deputy  governor  the  president  of  the  council  acted  as 
such.] 

William  Penn Proprietor  and  Governor. ...  1682 

Thomas  Lloyd President 1084 

John  Black  well Deputy  Governor 1688 

Benjamin  Fletcher. ..  .Governor 1693 

Will  am  Markham. ...        "        " 

William  Penn "         " 

Andrew  Hamilton Deputy  Governor 1701 

Edward  Shippen President 1703 

John  Evans Deputy  Governor 1704 

Charles  Gookin "  "         1709 

Sir  William  Keith "  "         1717 

Patrick  Gordon "  "         1726 

James  Logan President 1736 

George  Thomas Deputy  Governor 1738 

Anthony  Palmer President 1747 

James  Hamilton Deputy  Governor 1748 

Robert  H   Morris "  "         1754 

William  Denny "  "         1756 

James  Hamilton "  "         1759 

John  Penn ~T'. Governor 1763 

James  Hamilton President 1771 

Richard  Penn Governor " 

John  Penn "        1773 

[Proprietary  government  ended  by  the  Constitution  of 
1776.  The  representatives  of  the  Penn  family  were  paid 
for  the  surrender  of  their  rights,  and  a  government  by 
the  people  established.] 

STATE  GOVERNORS. 

Thomas  Wharton President  (died  in  office  1778)  1777 

George  Bryan Acting. 

Joseph  Reed President 1778 

William  Moore "        , 1781 

John  Dickinson "       1782 

Benjamin  Franklin....        "        1785 

Thomas  Mifflin Governor* 1 788 

Thomas  McKean 1799 

Simon  Snvder 1808 

William  Finriley  1817 

Joseph  Hiester 1820 

J.  Andrew  Shulze... 1S23 

George  Wolf 1829 

Joseph  Ritner 18:i7 

David  It.  Porter 1839 

Francis  R.  Shunk Resigned,  1848 1845 

William  F.  Johnson.  ..Acting 1849 

William  Rigler 1852 

James  Pollock 1855 

William  F.  Packer 1.X58 

Andrew  G.  Curtin 1861 

John  W.  Gearv   1867 

John  F.  Hartranft 1873 

*  From  1790,  nndi>r  the  new  State  constitution,  the  executive  has 
been  termed  governor  instead  of  president. 


STATE  GOVERNORS— Continued. 

Henry  M.  Hoyt 1879 

Robert  E.  Pattison 1883 

James  A.  Beaver 1887 

Robert  E.  Pattison 1891-1895 

Daniel  H.  Hastings 1895-1808 

William   A.  Stone 1899-1903 

Samuel  W.  Pennypacker 1903-1907 

UNITED  STATES  SEXATOP.S. 


Name. 

No.  of 

Congress. 

Term. 

1st 

1st 

3d 
4th 

7th 
8th 
10th 
10th 
13th 
13th 
IGth 
17th 
19th 
20th 
22d 
22d 
23d 
23d 
26th 
29th 
31st 
32d 
34th 

37th 
37  th 
38th 
40th 
41st 
44th 
45th 
47th 
50th 
55th 
57  th 

to    2d 
"     4th 
3d 

to    8th 
"    7th 
tth 

to    9th 
"  10th 
"  13th 
"  13th 
"  16th 
"  17th 
"  19  th 
"  20th 
"  22d 
"  22d 
"  23d 
"  23d 
"  26th 
"  29th 
"  32d 
"  31st 
"  34th 
"  35th 
"  37th 
"  37th 
"  38th 
"  40th 
"  41st 
"  45th 
"  44th 
"  47th 
"  55th 
"  50th 
"  56th 

"  5Mh 

1789  t 

1789 

1793 

1794 

1795 

1801 

1801 

1803 

1807 

1809 

1813 

1814 

1819  ' 

1821 

1825 

1827 

1831 

1831 

1833 

1834 

1839 

1845 

1849 

1851  ' 

1855  ' 

1857  ' 

1861  ' 

1861  ' 

1S63 

1867  ' 

1869  ■ 

1875  ' 

1877  ' 

1881  ' 

1887  ' 

1897  ' 

1901  ' 

1904  ' 

0  1791 

'  1795 

Albert  Gallatin 

'  1803 

'  1799 

John  Peter  G.  Muhlenberg.. 

'  1802 
'  1805 

Samuel  Maclay 

'  1808 
'  1813 

'1814 
'  1819 

'  1821 

'  1825 

'  1827 

'  1831 

'  1831 

George  M.  Dallas 

'  1833 
'  1834 

Samuel  McKean 

James  Buchanan 

'  1839 
'1845 
'  1851 

'  1849 

'1855 

'1857 
'  1861 

David  Wilmot 

'1861 
'  1863 

'  1867 

Charles  R.  Buckalew 

'  1869 
'  1877 

'  1875 

James  Donald  Cameron.... 
John  I.  Mitchell 

'1881 
'1897 
'  1887 

Matthew  S.  Quay 

'  1899 

Matthew  S.  Quay 

'  1904 

Pennymite  and  Yankee  War.  Trouble 
began  in  Wyoming  Valley  between  Con- 
necticut settlers  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Susquehanna  Company  and  the  Penn- 
sylvanians  in  1769,  when  the  former 
made  a  second  attempt  to  clear  the  way 
for  planting  a  colony  in  that  region.  In 
1768  the  proprietary  of  Pennsylvania 
purchased  of  the  Six  Nations  the  whole 
Wyoming  Valley,  and  leased  it  for  seven 
years  to  three  Pennsylvanians,  who  built 
a  fortified  trading-house  there.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1769,  forty  pioneers  of  the  Susquehan- 
na Company  entered  the  Wyoming  Valley 
and  invested  the  block-house,  garrisoned 
by  ten  men,  who  gave  Governor  Penn  no- 
tice* of  the  situation.  Three  of  the  Con- 
necticut men  were  lured  into  the  block- 
house under  pretence  of  making  an  adjust- 
ment of  difficulties,  and  were  seized  by 
the  sheriff  and  taken  to  jail  at  Easton. 
Other    immigrants    flocked    in    from    Con- 


126 


PENNYMITE    AND    YANKEE    WAR— PENOBSCOT 


nectieut,  and  the  sheriff  called  upon  the 
posse  of  the  county  to  assist  in  their  ar- 
rest. The  Connecticut  people  also  had 
built  a  block-house,  which  they  named 
Forty  Fort.  The  sheriff  broke  down  its 
doors,  arrested  thirty  of  the  inmates,  and 
sent  them  to  Easton  jail.  When  admitted 
to  bail,  they  returned  with  about  200  men 
from  Connecticut,  w,ho  built  Fort  Durkee, 
just  below  Wilkesbarre,  so  named  in  honor 
of  their  commander,  John  Durkee.  Then 
the  sheriff  reported  to  the  governor  that 
the  whole  power  of  the  county  was  in- 
sufficient to  oppose  the  "  Yankees." 

Meanwhile  the  company  had  sent  com- 
missioners to  Philadelphia  to  confer  upon 
a  compromise.  The  governor  (Penn) 
refused  to  receive  them,  and  sent  an  armed 
force,  under  Colonel  Francis,  into  the 
valley.  The  sheriff  joined  Francis  with  a 
strong  armed  party,  with  a  6-pounder 
cannon.  Colonel  Durkee  and  several  of 
the  inhabitants  were  captured,  and  the 
fort  was  surrendered  upon  conditions 
which  were  immediately  violated.  The 
next  year  Colonel  Durkee,  released,  took 
command  of  the  Connecticut  people,  and 
captured  the  sheriff's  cannon;  also  one 
of  the  leading  Pennsylvanians  (Amos  Og- 
den),  who  had  fortified  his  house.  Imi- 
tating the  bad  faith  of  their  opponents, 
the  Yankees  seized  his  property  and  burn- 
ed his  house.  Governor  Penn  now  (1770) 
called  upon  General  Gage,  in  command 
of  the  British  troops  at  New  York,  for  a 
detachment  "  to  restore  order  in  Wy- 
oming." He  refused.  In  the  autumn  Og- 
den  marched  by  the  Lehigh  route,  with 
140  men,  to  surprise  the  settlers  in  Wy- 
oming. From  the  mountain-tops  he  saw 
the  farmers  in  the  valley  pursuing  their 
avocations  without  suspicion  of  danger. 
He  swooped  down  upon  the  settlement  in 
the  night,  and  assailed  Fort  Durkee,  then 
filled  with  women  and  children.  The  fort 
and  the  houses  of  the  settlement  were 
plundered,  and  many  of  the  chief  inhab- 
itants were  sent  to  Easton  jail.  The 
Yankees  left  the  valley,  and  the  "  Penny- 
mites,"  as  the  Pennsylvanians  were  called, 
took  possession  again. 

On  the  nisrht  of  Dec.  18  the  Connecticut 
people,  led  by  Lazarus  Stewart,  returned, 
and,  attacking  Fort  Durkee,  captured  it 
and  drove  the  Pennymites  out  of  the  val- 
ley.    In  January  following  they  returned 


in  force,  when  Stewart  fled  from  the  val- 
ley, leaving  a  garrison  of  twelve  men, 
who  were  made  prisoners.  Peace  reigned 
there  until  near  midsummer,  when  Capt. 
Zebulon  Butler,  with  seventy  armed  men 
from  Connecticut,  suddenly  descended  from 
the  mountains  and  menaced  a  new  fort 
which  Ogden  had  built.  Ogden  managed 
to  escape,  went  to  Philadelphia,  and  in- 
duced the  governor  (Hamilton)  to  send  a 
detachment  of  100  men  to  Wyoming. 
The  besiegers  kept  them  at  bay,  and  the 
siege,  during  which  several  persons  were 
killed,  was  ended  Aug.  11.  By  the  terms 
of  capitulation,  the  Pennsylvanians  were 
to  leave  the  valley.  So  ended  the  contest 
for  1771. 

The  Yankees,  under  the  advice  of  the 
Connecticut  Assembly,  organized  civil  gov- 
ernment there  upon  a  democratic  system. 
The  settlement  was  incorporated  with  the 
colony  of  Connecticut,  and  its  representa- 
tives were  admitted  into  the  General  As- 
sembly. Wilkesbarre  was  laid  out,  and  for 
four  years  peace  smiled  upon  the  beautiful 
valley.  Suddenly,  in  the  autumn  of  1775, 
the  Pennsylvanians,  encouraged  by  Gov- 
ernor Penn,  renewed  the  civil  war.  The 
Continental  Congress  interfered  in  vain; 
but  when  the  proprietary  government  was 
abolished  this  Pennymite  and  Yankee 
War  was  suddenly  ended.  See  Susque- 
hanna Company. 

Pennypacker,  Samuel  Wiiitaker, 
jurist;  born  in  Phoenixville,  Pa.,  April  9, 
1843;  served  in  the  Civil  War;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  law  department  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  1866;  president 
of  the  Law  Academy  of  Philadelphia  in 
1866;  and  president  judge  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  of  Pennsylvania  till  1902, 
when  he  was  elected  governor  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. He  compiled  four  volumes  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Supreme  Court  Reports;  and 
is  the  author  of  General  Weedon's  Orderly 
Book  at  Valley  Forge;  Capture  of  Stony 
Point;  The  Settlement  of  Germantoion ; 
Congress  Ball;  Bistorical  and  Biographi- 
cal Sketches;  etc. 

Penobscot.  The  "  Company  of  New 
France,"  which  had  purchased  Sir  W. 
Alexander's  rights  to  territory  in  Nova 
Scotia  through  Stephen,  Lord  of  La  Tour, 
in  1630,  conveyed  the  territory  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  St.  John  to  this  noble- 
man in  1635.     Rossellon,  commander  of  a 


127 


PENOBSCOT— PENSACOLA 


French  fort  in  Acadia,  sent  a  French  man- 
of-war  to  Penobscot  and  took  possession 
of  the  Plymouth  trading-house  there,  with 
all  its  goods.  A  vessel  was  sent  from 
Plymouth  to  recover  the  property.  The 
French  fortified  the  place,  and  were  so 
strongly  intrenched  that  th?  expedition 
was  abandoned.  The  Plymouth  people 
never  afterwards  recovered  their  interest 
at  Penobscot. 

The  first  permanent  English  occupation 
of  the  region  of  the  Penobscot — to  which 
the  French  laid  claim — was  acquired  in 
1759,  when  Governor  Pownall,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, with  the  consent  of  the  legislat- 
ure, caused  a  fort  to  be  built  on  the  west- 
ern bank  of  the  Penobscot  (afterwards 
Fort  Knox),  near  the  village  of  Prospect, 
which  was  named  Fort  Pownall.  An 
armed  force  from  Massachusetts  took  pos- 
session of  the  region,  built  the  fort,  cut 
off  the  communications  of  the  Eastern 
Indians  (the  only  ones  then  hostile  to  the 
English),  and  so  ended  the  contest  for  the 
Penobscot  region  by  arms. 

In  1779  a  British  force  of  several  hun- 
dred men  from  Nova  Scotia  entered  east- 
ern Maine  and  established  themselves  in  a 
fortified  place  on  the  Penobscot  River. 
Massachusetts  sent  a  force  to  dislodge  the 
intruders.  The  expedition  consisted  of 
nineteen  armed  vessels  (three  of  them 
Continental ) ,  under  Captain  Saltonstall, 
ot  Connecticut,  and  1,500  militia,  com- 
manded by  General  Lovell.  These  were 
borne  on  the  fleet  of  Saltonstall,  and  land- 
ed (July  26)  near  the  obnoxious  post, 
with  a  loss  of  100  men.  Finding  the 
works  too  strong  for  his  troops,  Lovell 
sent  to  General  Gates,  at  Boston,  to  for- 
ward a  detachment  of  Continentals.  Hear- 
ing of  this  expedition,  Sir  George  Collins, 
who  had  been  made  chief  naval  command- 
er on  the  American  station,  sailed  for  the 
Penobscot  with  five  heavy  war-ships.  The 
Massachusetts  troops  re-embarked,  Aug. 
13,  when  Sir  George  approached,  and,  in 
the  smaller  vessels,  fled  up  the  river. 
When  they  found  they  could  not  escape, 
they  ran  five  frigates  and  ten  smaller  ves- 
sels ashore  and  blew  them  up.  The  others 
were  captured  by  the  British.  The  sol- 
diers and  seamen  escaped  to  the  shore,  and 
suffered  much  for  want  of  provisions  while 
traversing  an  uninhabited  country  for  100 
miles. 


123 


Penology.    See  Livingston,  Edward. 

Pensacola.  When  Iberville  was  on  his 
way  to  plant  a  colony  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  he  attempted  to  enter 
Pensacola  Bay,  but  found  himself  con- 
fronted by  Spaniards  in  arms,  who  had 
come  from  Vera  Cruz  and  built  a  fort 
there,  under  the  guns  of  which  lay  two 
Spanish  ships.  The  Spaniards  still  claim- 
ed the  whole  circuit  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and,  jealous  of  the  designs  of  the  French, 
had  hastened  to  occupy  Pensacola  Harbor, 
the  best  on  the  Gulf.  The  barrier  there 
constructed  ultimately  established  the  di- 
viding-line between  Florida  and  Louisiana. 
In  1696  Don  Andre  d'Arriola  was  appoint- 
ed the  first  governor  of  Pensacola,  and 
took  possession  of  the  province.  He  built 
a  fort  with  four  bastions,  which  he  called 
Fort  Charles;  also  a  church  and  some 
houses. 

On  Feb.  28,  1781,  Galvez  the  Spanish 
governor  of  Louisiana,  sailed  from  New 
Orleans  with  1,400  men  to  seize  Pensa- 
cola. He  could  effect  but  little  alone;  but 
finally  he  was  joined  (May  9)  by  an  armed 
squadron  from  Havana,  and  by  a  rein- 
forcement from  Mobile.  Galvez  now  gain- 
ed possession  of  the  harbor  of  Pensacola, 
and  soon  afterwards  Colonel  Campbell, 
who  commanded  the  British  garrison 
there,  surrendered.  Pensacola  and  the 
rest  of  Florida  ha<$  passed  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  British  by  the  treaty  of 
1763.  Two  years  after  Galvez  captured 
the  place  (1783)  the  whole  province  was 
retrocedcd  to  Spain. 

In  April,  1814,  Andrew  Jackson  was 
commissioned  a  major-general  in  the  arnvy 
of  the  United  States  and  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  7th  Military  District. 
While  he  was  yet  arranging  the  treaty 
with  the  conquered  Creeks,  he  had  been 
alarmed  by  reports  of  succor  and  refuge 
given  to  some  of  them  by  the  Spanish 
authorities  at  Pensacola,  and  of  a  com- 
munication opened  with  them  by  a  British 
vessel  which  had  landed  arms  and  agents 
at  Apalachicola.  In  consequence  of  his 
report  of  these  doings,  he  received  orders 
to  take  possession  of  Pensacola.  But 
these  orders  were  six  months  on  the  way. 
Meanwhile  two  British  sloops-of-war,  with 
two  or  three  smaller  vessels,  had  arrived 
at  Pensacola,  and  were  proclaimed  (Aug. 
4)    as   the  van   of  a   much   larger   naval 


PENSACOLA 

force.  Col.  Edward  Nichols  had  been  per-  This  proposition  was  rejected;  and  Jack- 
mitted  to  land  a  small  body  of  troops  at  son,  satisfied  that  the  governor's  protesta- 
Pensacola,  and  to  draw  around  him,  arm,  tions  of  inability  to  resist  the  British  in- 
and  train  hostile  refugee  Creeks.  Jack-  vasion  were  only  pretexts,  marched  upon 
son's  headquarters  were  at  Mobile.  Late  Pensacola  before  the  dawn  with  3,000 
in  August  the  mask  of  Spanish  neutrality  men.  They  avoided  the  fire  of  the  forts 
was  removed,  when  nine  British  vessels  of  and  the  shipping  in  the  harbor,  and  the 
war  lay  at  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  Pensa-  centre  of  the  column  made  a  gallant 
cola,  and  Colonel  Nichols  was  made  a  wel-  charge  into  the  town.  They  were  met  by 
come  guest  of  the  Spanish  governor.  A  a  two-gun  battery  in  the  principal  street, 
British  flag,  raised  over  one  of  the  Spanish  and  showers  of  bullets  from  the  houses  and 
forts  there,  proclaimed  the  alliance;  and  gardens.  The  Americans,  led  by  Captain 
it  was  found  that  Indian  runners  had  been  Laval,  captured  the  battery,  when  the 
sent  out  from  Pensacola  among  the  neigh-  frightened  governor  appeared  with  a 
boring  Seminoles  and  Creeks,  inviting  white  flag  and  promised  to  comply  with 
them  to  Pensacola,  there  to  be  enrolled  any  terms  if  Jackson  would  spare  the 
in  the  service  of  the  British.  Almost  town.  An  instant  surrender  of  all  the 
1,000  of  them  were  gathered  there,  where  forts  was  demanded  and  promised,  and, 
they  received  arms  and  ammunition  in  after  some  delay,  it  was  done.  The  Brit- 
abundance  from  the  British  officers,  ish,  also  alarmed  by  this  sudden  attack, 
Nichols  also  sent  out  proclamations  to  blew  up  Fort  Barancas,  6  miles  from 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Gulf  region  con-  Pensacola,  which  they  occupied;  and  early 
taining  inflammatory  appeals  to  the  preju-  in  the  morning,  Nov.  7,  1814,  their  ships 
dices  of  the  French  and  the  discontent  of  left  the  harbor,  bearing  away,  besides  the 
others;  and  he  told  his  troops  that  they  British,  the  Spanish  commandant  of  the 
were  called  upon  to  make  long  and  tedious  forts,  with  400  men  and  a  considerable 
marches  in  the  wilderness  and  to  concili-  number  of  Indians.  The  Spanish  govern- 
atc  the  Indians.  or  (Manriquez)  was  indignant  because 
At  this  juncture  Jackson  acted  prompt-  of  the  flight  of  his  British  friends,  and 
ly  and  effectively,  without  the  advice  of  the  Creeks  were  deeply  impressed  with  a 
his  tardy  government.  He  caused  a  beat-  feeling  that  it  would  be  imprudent  to 
up  for  volunteers,  and  very  soon  2,000  again  defy  the  wrath  of  General  Jackson, 
sturdy  young  men  were  ready  for  the  field.  He  had,  by  this  expedition,  accomplished 
After  they  arrived  Jackson  took  some  time  three  important  results — namely,  the  ex- 
to  get  his  forces  well  in  hand;  and  early  pulsion  of  the  British  from  Pensacola,  the 
in  November  he  marched  from  Fort  Mont-  scattering  of  the  gathering  Indians  in 
gomery,  which  was  due  north  from  Pensa-  great  alarm,  and  the  punishing  of  the 
cola,  with  4,000  troops — some  Mississippi  Spaniards  for  such  perfidy, 
dragoons  in  the  advance — and  encamped  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  the 
within  two  miles  of  Pensacola  on  the  United  States  had  a  navy-yard  at  the 
evening  of  Nov.  6.  He  sent  word  to  the  little  village  of  Warrington,  5  miles  from 
Spanish  governor  that  he  had  come,  not  to  the  entrance  to  Pensacola  Bay.  It  was 
make  war  on  a  neutral  power,  nor  to  in-  under  the  charge  of  Commodore  Arm- 
jure  the  town,  but  to  deprive  the  enemies  strong,  of  the  navy.  He  was  surrounded 
of  the  United  States  of  a  place  of  refuge,  by  disloyal  men,  and  when,  on  the  morn- 
His  messenger  (Major  Pierre)  was  in-  ing  of  Jan.  10,  1861  (when  Fort  Pickens 
structed  to  demand  the  surrender  of  the  was  threatened),  about  500  Florida  and 
forts.  When  Pierre  approached,  under  a  Alabama  troops,  and  a  few  from  Missis- 
flag  of  truce,  he  was  fired  upon  by  a  12-  sippi,  commanded  by  Colonel  Lomax,  ap- 
pounder  at  Fort  St.  Michael,  which  was  peared  at  the  navy-yard  and  demanded  its 
garrisoned  by  British  troops.  Jackson  surrender,  Armstrong  found  himself  pow- 
sent  Pierre  again  at  midnight  with  a  erless.  Of  the  sixty  officers  and  men  under 
proposition  to  the  governor  to  allow  Amer-  his  command,  he  afterwards  said  more 
icans  to  occupy  the  forts  at  Pensacola  un-  than  three-fourths  were  disloyal,  and 
til  the  Spanish  government  could  send  a  some  were  actively  so.  Commander  Far- 
sufficient  force  to  maintain  neutrality,  rand  was  actually  among  the  insurgents, 
vii.— l                                                     129 


PENSIONS— PEOPLE'S    PARTY 

who  demanded  the  surrender  to  the  gov-  the  disbursements  for  pensions  were  $2,- 
ernor  of  Florida.  The  disloyal  men  would  942,178,145.93,  and  for  cost  of  mainte- 
have  revolted  if  the  commodore  had  made  nance  and  expenses  $95,647,934.71,  or  a 
resistance.  Lieutenant  Renshaw,  the  flag-  total  of  $3,037,826,080.64,  making  the 
officer,  one  of  the  leaders  among  the  dis-  entire  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  the  pen- 
loyal  men,  immediately  ordered  the  Na-  sion  system  since  the  foundation  of  the 
tional  standard  to  be  lowered.  It  fell  to  C4overnment  $3,134,271,524.87. 
the  ground,  and  was  greeted  with  derisive  Of  the  amount  that  has  been  expended 
laughter.  The  command  of  the  navy-yard  for  pensions  since  the  foundation  of  the 
was  then  given  to  Capt.  V.  N.  Randolph,  Government,  $70,000,000  was  on  account  of 
who  had  deserted  his  flag;  and  the  post,  the  War  of  the  Revolution;  $45,186,197.22 
with  ordnance  and  stores  valued  at  $156,-  on  account  of  service  in  the  War  of  1812; 
000,  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  authori-  $6,234,414.55  on  account  of  service  in  the 
ties  of  Florida.    See  Pickens,  Fort.  Indian  wars;  $33,483,309.91  on  account  of 

Pensions.  According  to  an  official  state-  service  in  the  Mexican  War;  $5,479,268.31 

ment  by  United  States  Pension  Commis-  on  account  of  the  war  with  Spain;   and 

sioner  Ware  on  Aug.  25,  1904,  high-water  $2,878,240,400.17  on  account  of  the  Civil 

mark  in  the  history  of  the  Pension  Bureau  War.     On  March  16,  1904,  an  order  was 

was  reached  on  July  31,  1902,  when  the  issued,  to  take  effect  April  13,  making  old 

number    of    pensioners    on    the    roll    was  age  (beginning  with  62  years)  a  pension- 

1,001,494.     On  June  30,   1903,  there  were  able  disability. 

996,545  pensioners  on  the  rolls,  who  were  The     following     shows     the     payments 

classified  as  follows:   Survivors,  7,530;  in-  under  recent  administrations: 

valids,    721,202;    widows,    267,189.      These  President  Grant's  first  term...   $116,136,275 

comprised    12,199    widows    and    the    7,530  ^Sfn^GraK 'second  term '. '.     llliU'Ml 

survivors    on    account    of    wars    prior    to    Average  per  year 28,598,839 

1861;  268,282  invalids  and  89,087  widows  ^J?"*.  °f f f f .". .  ^/f^     145,322,489 

on  account  of  general  laws,  disability  in    Average  per  year 38,330,622 

service,   origin,    mostly   Civil   War;    443,-  Prt^one?!.Ga.rfi?!d'f.fd.mi.n.i!t.r.a.'     237.825.070 

720    invalids   and    162,241    widows   on   ac-    Average  per  year 59i456,263 

count  of  the  June,   1890,  act,  Civil  War  £*w\Se^^?^^:     ^SlSoSilSi 

disability   not   due   to    service;    624   army  President  Harrison's  administra- 

nurses,     and     9,200     invalids     and     3,662  Av^ 'per' year! !  I !  \  I  \ ! !  \  \  \  \     V8W& 

widows  on  account  of  the  war  with  Spain.  President      Cleveland's      second 

The  total  amount  paid  to  pensioners  as  Av*^  'p'eV  year! '. ! ! ". ! ! ! ! ! '. ! !     liSiSSI 

first  payments  ou  the  aFowance  of  their  President  Mckinley's  first  term.     560.000.547 

claims  in  1903  was  $9,359,905.  #3K$gSJE£iLt  U^l  \ '/.  \  \     i&BStfS 

The  disbursements   for  pensions  by  the    Average  per  year 140,295,191 

United  States  from  July  1,  1790,  to  June  People,     Agreement     op     the.       See 

30,  1865,  were  $96,445,444.23.    Since  1865  Agreement  of  the  People. 


PEOPLE'S    PARTY 

People's  Party.  The  Farmer's  Alii-  President  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  for  Vice- 
ance  may  be  considered  its  nucleus.  It  President;  and  in  1904  nominated  Thomas 
was  organized  at  Cincinnati  in  May,  1891.  E.  Watson,  of  Georgia,  for  President,  and 
In  1892  it  nominated  for  President  Gen.  Thomas  H.  Tibbies,  of  Nebraska,  for  Vice- 
James  B.  Weaver,  of  Iowa,  and  James  G.  President.  See  Political  Parties; 
Field,  of  Virginia,  for  Vice-President;  in  Presidential  Elections. 
1896  it  combined  with  the  Democratic  The  Hon.  W.  A.  Peffer,  one  of  the 
party  in  nominating  William  J.  Bryan  leaders  of  the  People's  party,  wrote  as 
for  President,  but  nominated  Thomas   E.    follows  during  the  campaign  of  1900: 

Watson    for    Vice-President;     in    1900    it  

again     combined     with     the     Democratic       That  the  People's  party  is  passing  must 
party  in  nominating  William  J.  Bryan  for   be  evident  to  all  observers.    Why  it  is  go- 

130 


PEOPLE'S    PARTY 

ing,  and  where,  are  obviously  questions  of  two-thirds  of  the  net  average  savings  of 

present  public  concern.  the  whole  people. 

The  party  has  a  good  and  sufficient  ex-  Charges  for  services  rendered  by  private 
cuse  for  its  existence.  With  our  great  persons  or  corporations  intrusted  with 
war  old  issues  were  overshadowed  and  public  functions — such  as  railroading  and 
new  forces  came  into  play.  The  suspen-  banking — had  never  before  attracted  much 
sion  of  specie  payments  forced  the  gov-  attention  among  the  common  people;  and 
eminent  to  adopt  a  new  monetary  policy,  as  to  interest  for  the  use  of  money  and 
and  the  ignorance  and  prejudices  of  law-  rent  for  the  use  of  land,  they  had  been 
makers  afforded  bankers  a  tempting  op-  looked  upon  as  things  in  the  natural 
portunity,  of  which  they  promptly  avail-  order,  and  therefore,  being  unavoidable, 
ed  themselves,  to  use  the  public  credit  for  had  to  be  endured.  But  the  gold  stand- 
purposes  of  speculation.  Our  currency  ard  regime  had  driven  the  people  to  think- 
was  converted  into  coin  interest-paying  ing.  They  saw  that  while  they  were  pay- 
bonds,  the  word  "  coin "  was  construed  to  ing  from  10  to  100  per  cent.,  according 
mean  gold,  and  the  minting  of  silver  dol-  to  the  pressure  of  their  necessities,  for  the 
lars  was  discontinued.  The  general  level  of  use  of  money,  the  annual  increase  of  the 
prices  fell  to  the  cost  line  or  below  it,  country's  taxable  wealth  had  but  little 
and  the  people  were  paying  7  to  10  per  exceeded  3  per  cent.,  including  the  ad- 
cent,  annual  interest  on  an  enormous  pri-  vance  of  values  by  reason  of  settlement 
vate  debt.  Personal  property  in  towns  and  labor.  And  rent,  they  saw,  was  the 
and  cities  was  rapidly  passing  beyond  the  same  thing  as  interest  on  the  estimated 
view  of  the  tax  -  gatherer.  Agriculture  value  of  the  property.  If  all  the  people 
was  prostrate.  Farmers  were  at  the  working  together  as  one  cannot  save  more 
mercy  of  speculators;  the  earth  had  come  than  3  per  cent,  a  year,  when  in  posses- 
under  the  dominion  of  landlords;  forests  sion  of  a  vast  area  that  did  not  cost  them 
and  mines  were  owned  by  syndicates;  rail-  more  than  two  cents  an  acre,  is  it  cause 
way  companies  were  in  combination;  for  wonder  that  they  did  not  thrive  when 
wealth  and  social  influence  had  usurped  paying  three  or  four  times  that  rate  for 
power,  and  the  seat  of  government  was  the  use  of  money?  And  was  there  not 
transferred  to  Wall  Street.  something   radically  wrong   in   conditions 

These  abuses  were  fruits  of  our   legis-  when,  in  a  country  so  great  in  extent  as 

lation.     Congress   had   forgotten   the  peo-  this,  so  rich  and  varied  in  resources  and 

pie  and  turned  their  business  over  to  the  populated  by  freemen  under  a  government 

money-changers.     Both  of  the  great  polit-  of  their  own  choosing,  more  than  half  the 

ical   parties   then   active  were  wedded   to  people   were   compelled   to   pay  money  or 

these  vicious  policies  which  were  despoil-  other  property  for  the  use  of  land  to  live 

ing    the    farmers    and    impoverishing    the  on?     Why  should  any  man  or  woman  be 

working-classes  generally.     Gold  was  king  required  to  hire  space  to  live  in? 

and  a  new  party  was  needed  to   shorten  Forests  are  diminished  and  coal  is  used 

its  reign.  for  fuel.     But  the  coal  is  found  in  great 

And  hence  it  was  that  the  People's  party  beds  under  the  earth's  surface,  and  these 

was  born.     It  came  into  being  that  gov-  sources  of  fuel  are  monopolized  by  a  few 

eminent  by  the  people  might  not  perish  men,  and  the  rest  of  us  are  forced  to  pay 

from  the  earth.     It  planted  itself  on  the  them  not  only  a  price  for   the   coal,  but 

broad  ground  of  equality  of  human  rights,  for   rent   of   the   land   and   interest   on   a 

It  believed  the  earth  is  the  people's  heri-  fictitious  capitalization  of  corporate  fran- 

tage  and  that  wealth  belongs  to  him  who  chises.     By  what  authority  is  one  man  al- 

creates  it;   that  the  work  of  distributing  lowed   to   take   and   possess   more   of   the 

the  products  and  profits  of  labor   ought  resources  of  nature  than  are  sufficient  for 

to  be  performed  by  public  agencies;  that  his    own    use    and    then    demand    tribute 

money  should  be  provided  by  the  govern-  from   others   who    are   equally   with   him 

ment  and  distributed  through  government  entitled  to  share  them?     And  why  shall 

instrumentalities  so  that  borrowers  might  one  man  or  company  of  men  be  permitted 

secure  its  use  at  an   annual   charge  not  to  dictate  to  other  men  what  wages  they 

exceeding  2  per  cent.,  which  is  equal  to  shall  receive  for  the  labor  they  perform? 

131 


PEOPLE'S    PARTY 


And  why  should  an  employer  be  favored 
by  the  law  rather  than  the  person  whom 
he  employs?  And  by  what  rule  of  law  or 
justice  are  the  working  masses  required 
to  use  non-legal  tender  money  in  their 
daily  business  affairs,  while  the  "  pri- 
mary "  money  is  kept  in  reserve  for  the 
special  use  of  the  speculating  classes? 
Why  have  one  kind  of  money  for  the  rich 
and  another  kind  for  the  poor?  Why 
should  a  stringency  in  New  York  City  be 
treated  more  tenderly  than  a  stringency 
in  any  other  part  of  the  country?  Why 
pay  a  premium  of  25  per  cent,  in  gold  on 
bonds  that  have  many  years  yet  to  run? 
And  why  pay  interest  nine  to  twelve 
months  before  it  is  due?  Why  leave 
$18,000,000  or  more  without  interest  for 
years  and  years  in  national  banks  to  be 
lent  by  them  to  their  customers  at  6  per 
cent,  and  upwards? 

Questions  like  these  were  suggested  by 
conditions  present  when  the  People's  party 
was  formed.  It  was  the  first  great  body 
of  men,  organized  for  political  purposes, 
that  took  up  these  matters  and  put  them 
in  issue  before  the  country  with  a  view 
of  ultimately  securing  relief  through 
legislation.  Its  principles  were  essentially 
different  from  those  of  the  other  great 
parties  on  every  fundamental  proposition. 
Republicans  and  Democrats  were  given  to 
old  ideas  in  politics  and  law.  Formed  for 
altogether  different  purposes,  they  did  not 
take  kindly  to  any  of  the  proposed  re- 
forms that  would  change  established  poli- 
tics. Hence  they  were  attached  to  the 
national  banking  system;  they  believed 
that  the  precious  metals  only  are  fit  for 
use  as  money,  and  that  all  other  forms  of 
currency  and  all  debts  and  pecuniary  lia- 
bilities must  be  ultimately  paid  in  coin. 
They  believed  that  only  private  corpora- 
tions should  be  intrusted  with  the  func- 
tion of  issuing  paper  to  be  used  as  cur- 
rency, and  that  the  people's  fiscal  affairs 
ought  to  be  conducted  through  the  agency 
of  private  banks.  They  believed  in  private 
ownership  of  everything  not  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  government's  use  in  con- 
ducting its  operations.  They  believed  the 
coal-mines  might  properly  be  owned  and 
operated  by  corporations  with  the  accom- 
panying privilege  of  charging  what  they 
please  for  the  output.  They  believed  in 
unlimited  private  ownership  of  land  and 


132 


in  private  means  of  transportation  on 
public  highways.  They  believed  that  rail- 
way and  express  companies  might  right- 
fully tax  their  patrons  enough  to  pay 
dividends  on  a  capitalization  equal  to 
two  or  three  times  the  actual  value  of  the 
property  used.  They  believed  that  em- 
ployers might  justly  dictate  the  rate  of 
wages  to  be  paid,  and  that,  in  case  of 
resistance  on  the  part  of  the  employes, 
this  right  may  be  enforced  by  the  use  of 
military  power,  if  need  be. 

On  the  other  hand,  Populists  do  not 
believe  these  things.  They  believe  that 
every  child  has  exactly  equal  rights  with 
those  persons  who  were  here  when  he 
came;  that  he  is  entitled  to  a  place  to 
live,  and  that,  equally  with  his  fellow- 
men,  he  is  entitled  to  the  use  of  natural 
resources  of  subsistence,  including  a  parcel 
of  vacant  land  where  he  may  earn  a  liveli- 
hood. Populists  believe  that  the  interests 
of  all  the  people  are  superior  to  the  in- 
terests of  a  few  of  them  or  of  one,  and 
that  no  man  or  company  of  men  should 
ever  be  permitted  to  monopolize  land  or 
franchises  to  the  exclusion  of  the  common 
rights  of  all  the  people  or  to  the  detri- 
ment of  society.  They  believe  that  what 
a  man  honestly  earns  is  his,  and  that  the 
workman  and  his  employer  ought  to  have 
fair  play  and  an  equal  showing  in  all  dis- 
putes about  wages.  They  believe  that 
railways  and  canals,  like  the  lakes  and 
navigable  rivers,  ought  to  belong  to  the 
people.  They  believe  that  money,  like  the 
highway,  is  made  to  serve  a  public  use; 
that  dollars,  like  ships,  are  instruments 
of  commerce,  and  that  citizens  ought  not 
to  be  subjected  to  inconvenience  or  loss 
from  a  scarcity  of  money  any  more  than 
they  should  be  hindered  in  their  work  or 
their  business  by  reason  of  a  shortage  in 
the  supply  of  wagons,  cars,  or  boats.  They 
believe  that  the  people  themselves,  acting 
for  themselves  through  their  own  agen- 
cies, should  supply  all  the  money  required 
for  the  prompt  and  easy  transaction  of 
business ;  that  in  addition  to  silver  and 
gold  coin,  government  paper,  and  only 
that,  ought  to  be  issued  and  used,  that 
it  should  be  full  legal  tender,  and  that 
there  should  be  no  discrimination  in  favor 
of  or  against  anything  which  is  allowed 
to  circulate  as  money. 

It  will   be   seen  that   every   proposition 


PEOPLE'S    PARTY 


in  this  code  is  intended  to  be  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  great  body  of  the  people 
and  in  opposition  to  class  distinctions. 
The  monetary  scheme  proposed — gold,  sil- 
ver, and  government  paper — is  not  a  new 
departure;  but  it  provides  for  unlimited 
coinage  of  both  metals  and  an  immediate 
increase  of  paper  money  to  a  limit  suffi- 
cient for  the  people's  use  in  their  daily 
business.  It  opposes  land  monopoly,  which 
is  giving  us  a  class  of  landlords  and  pau- 
perizing a  million  people  that  are  de- 
pendent on  those  who  work  in  coal-mines. 
This  new  party  proposes  to  get  the  people 
in  the  saddle.  Summarized,  its  party 
platform  was  this:  Equal  rights  and  op- 
portunities to  all:  let  the  people  rule. 
On  that  it  went  to  the  country  and  re- 
ceived more  than  a  million  votes. 

A.  more  earnest,  enthusiastic,  sincere, 
and  disinterested  campaign  was  never  en- 
tered upon  or  waged  than  that  of  the 
Populists  in  1892,  and  although  the  work 
was  done  under  a  continuing  fire  of  ridi- 
cule on  the  part  of  Republicans  and  Demo- 
crats alike  not  before  equalled  in  the  his- 
tory of  American  politics,  the  new  party 
made  a  profound  impression  on  the  voters. 

But  early  in  1896  it  was  agreed  among 
the  men  in  lead  that  an  alliance  should 
be  formed  with  the  Democrats  for  the 
campaign  of  that  year,  and  now  the  Peo- 
ple's party  is  afflicted  with  political 
anaemia.     It  took  too  much  Democracy. 

Shall  the  alliance  of  1896  be  continued? 
That  is  the  question  at  issue.  Fusionists 
answer  yes,  conditionally ;  Anti-fusioniets 
answer  no,  unconditionally;  and  every  day 
the  question  remains  open  these  parties 
appear  to  get  farther  apart  rather  than 
closer  together.  Fusionists  aver  that  they 
have  not  yet  determined  in  favor  of  per- 
petual union  with  another  party.  That, 
they  say,  can  be  settled  later — when  they 
know  what  the  other  parties  are  going  to 
do.  Right  there  is  the  seat  of  trouble. 
If  they  would  only  declare  against  any 
and  every  form  of  alliance  or  fusion  with 
any  of  the  old  parties,  that  declaration 
alone  would  settle  the  question  and  bring 
the  party  together  again,  while  their  fail- 
ure to  do  so  leaves  the  matter  still  in 
issue,  and  the  breach  widens.  This  claim 
of  the  Fusionists  that  they  are  simply 
waiting  to  see  what  course  the  other 
parties    will    take,    that    Populists    may 

1 


avail  themselves  of  whatever  strategy 
there  is  then  in  the  situation,  cannot,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  Anti-fusionists,  be  safe- 
ly accepted  or  allowed.  It  lacks  evidence 
of  party  loyalty  in  the  first  place,  they 
say;  it  lacks  good  faith  in  the  second 
place;  and  in  the  third  place  it  is  want- 
ing in  truth.  They  are  not  waiting.  On 
the  contrary,  they  are  actively  at  work 
forming  local  alliances  preparatory  to  the 
Congressional  campaign  in  1898  and  the 
Presidential  contest  in  1900.  In  every 
part  of  the  country  where  they  are  com- 
paratively strong,  as  in  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
and  Kansas,  they  are  in  hearty  accord 
with  the  fusion  Democrats.  In  Iowa,  at 
the  late  election,  the  regular  State  con- 
vention of  the  People's  party  refused  to 
put  out  a  ticket  of  its  own,  and  personally 
the  fusion  members  united  in  support  of 
the  Democratic  nominees  from  governor 
down.  In  Nebraska,  where  the  Populists 
are  largely  in  majority  over  Democrats, 
they  united  in  support  of  a  ticket  headed 
by  a  Democrat.  In  Kansas  the  patronage 
of  the  State  administration  (Populist)  is 
divided  among  the  parties  to  the  triple 
alliance  of  1896. 

These  things  indicate  the  direction  of 
political  wind  currents.  They  are  signs 
full  of  meaning,  and  none  but  the  blind 
can  fail  to  comprehend  their  significance. 
Mr.  Bryan,  on  his  part,  has  already  con- 
tributed $1,500  to  the  People's  party  cam- 
paign fund,  and  Senator  Allen  has  in- 
vested the  money  in  interest-bearing  se- 
curities that  it  may  increase  unto  the 
day  of  its  use  in  "  promoting  the  cause  of 
bimetallism." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Anti-fusionists 
wish  to  maintain  their  party  relations, 
and  they  do  not  see  how  they  can  do  that 
by  supporting  some  other  party,  more 
especially  one  whose  principles  do  not 
accord  with  their  own;  and  the  division 
growing  out  of  this  difference  is  fatal. 
It  is  drawn  on  the  dead-line.  These  Anti- 
fusionists  are  like  Cubans  in  this  respect: 
they  demand  the  independence  of  their 
party;  they  do  not  desire  to  be  merely 
an  attachment  to  another  body,  and  par- 
ticularly one  from  which  they  have  once 
separated  on  account  of  unsatisfactory 
relations.  They  are  affirmatively  against 
fusion  or  alliance  or  federation  of  any 
sort  with  either  the  Republican  or  the 
33 


PEOPLE'S    PARTY 


Democratic  party  in  any  national  election,  triotic  as  it  is,  brings  no  response  from 

They  are  Populists  because  they  believe  the  other  side. 

in  the  principles  of  the  People's  party,  Two  things  may  be  taken  as  facts: 
and  they  intend  and  expect  to  remain  First,  that  as  long  as  Mr.  Bryan  is  in  the 
such,  at  any  rate  until  a  greater  and  bet-  field  as  the  Democratic  candidate  for  the 
ter  party  is  formed  out  of  other  existing  Presidency,  Fusion  Populists  will  co- 
political  bodies  that  are  aiming  at  higher  operate  with  the  Democracy.  Second,  that 
ideals  in  government.  the  Anti-fusion,  or  Middle-of-the-road, 
Nor  can  it  be  said  that  the  Anti-fusion-  Fopulists  will  not  again  ally  themselves 


ists  have  been  wanting  in  attentions  to 
their  fusion  brethren,  for  they  have 
warned  them  from  time  to  time  of  at- 
tempts of  their  national  committee  to  ex- 
tend  an   unwarrantable   jurisdiction  over 


either  individually  or  as  a  body  with  the 
Democratic  party,  no  matter  who  is  its 
candidate. 

These    facts    show    why    the    People's 
party  is  passing.     It  now  remains  to  con- 


them.  They  have  repeatedly  asked  for  a  sider  where  it  is  going, 
conference  of  the  disagreeing  factions,  It  will  not  go  to  the  Republicans,  be- 
with  the  view  of  a  friendly  adjustment  of  cause  its  leading  doctrines  are  diametri- 
their  differences,  but  no  attention  is  paid  eally  opposed  to  the  principles  and  policies 
to  these  requests.  And  that  their  number  of  the  present  Republican  party.  Every- 
and  temper  might  not  be  underestimated  thing  of  importance  favored  by  Populists 
or  their  motives  and  wishes  misunder-  is  opposed  by  Republicans,  and  everything 
stood,  they  called  a  conference  themselves,  cardinal  in  the  Republican  creed  is  op- 
held  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  July  4,  1897,  posed  by  Populists;  hence  the  latter  are 
and  on  that  occasion  it  was  unanimous-  not  headed  for  the  Republican  camp.  This 
ly  resolved  by  them  to  have  no  further  is  enough  on  that  part  of  the  subject, 
union  or  alliance  with  other  parties,  and  If  the  People's  party  be  merged,  it  will 
a  committee  was  appointed  to  reor-  be  in  a  new  body  that  shall  include  ad- 
ganize  the  Anti-fusion  Populists  of  the  vanced  Democrats,  like  Altgeld  and 
country.  Bryan,  Silver  Republicans,  and  men  of  re- 
Several  independent  suggestions  have  form  views  in  every  other  body  that  has 
been  submitted  by  individual  Anti-fusion-  been  organized  to  promote  political  re- 
ists  on  their  own  responsibility,  proposing  forms.  And  that  would  be  a  wise  and 
plans  to  bring  the  members  of  the  party  practicable  ending  of  these  disastrous 
together  on  new  lines.  One  of  these  is  party  antagonisms.  But  old  party  names 
to  call  a  conference  of  delegates  repre-  would  have  to  be  dropped  and  a  new 
senting  all  political  bodies  that  are  op-  name  and  creed  adopted  for  the  new 
posed  to  the  present  gold-standard  regime,  party.  If  they  could  agree  on  doctrines, 
to  consider  whether  it  be  not  practicable,  surely  they  would  not  fail  to  agree  on  a 
out   of   many,    to    form   one   great   party  name   by   which   they   should   wish   to   be 


with  a  single  creed  embodying  everything 
regarded  as  essential  by  each  of  the 
parties  represented.  Such  a  conference,  it 
is  urged,  would  bring  together  the  strong- 


known.  This  course  would  bring  into  one 
army  all  the  forces  that  are  now  march- 
ing in  the  same  direction — voters  who 
ought   to   be   together   and   who   must   be 


est  and  best  men  among  the  members  of  together  before  final  victory  is  achieved 
all  parties.  If,  upon  full  and  free  con-  over  class  rule.  United  in  one  party  un- 
forence,  such  a  body  should  agree  upon  a  der  a  new  name,  with  one  creed  and  one 
common  declaration  of  principles  and  a  leader,  every  member  would  feel  the 
new  name  for  the  new  body,  the  trouble  warmth  of  new  friendships  and  be  en- 
which  is  now  so  threatening  among  Popu-  couraged  by  the  stimulus  of  a  large  com- 
lists  would  be  disposed  of.  Such  a  move-  panionship;  for,  together  they  would  be 
ment,  if  successful,  would  bring  into  be-  able  soon  to  re-establish  popular  govern- 
ing the  most  splendid  body  of  men  ever  ment  in  the  United  States,  and  the  people 
organized  for  any  purpose,  and  they  could  would  be  in  power  again, 
gain  possession  of  the  government  by  the  Such  a  party  could  be  easily  formed  if 
use  of  a  freeman's  safeguard — the  ballot.  Democrats  were  not  opposed  to  it.  And 
This   proposition,   however,   wise  and   pa-  they  would  not  be  opposed  if  the  Popu- 

134 


PEOPLE'S    PARTY 

lists,  united,  should  declare  against  fusion  If  it  be  inquired  why  they  are  op- 
and  merging  and  all  sorts  of  co-operation,  posed  to  Democracy,  let  the  record  an- 
with  any  existing  party.  And  that  is  just  swer.  They  believe  the  people  of  the 
what  they  ought  to  do.  Let  Populists  United  States  constitute  a  nation;  they 
but  rise  to  the  level  of  the  occasion,  shake  believe  the  government  is  an  agency  cre- 
off  the  hypnotic  stupor  of  Democracy  and  ated  by  the  people  for  their  use  and 
assert  themselves  as  party  men,  announc-  benefit,  and  hence  that  all  great  national 
ing  the  end  of  all  unions  and  alliances  instrumentalities  and  franchises  ought  to 
with  other  parties,  except  such  as  shall  be  owned  and  operated  by  the  government, 
relate  to  the  formation  of  one  great  new  This  principle  they  hold  to  be  vital.  The 
party  made  up  of  voters  opposed  to  the  Democratic  party  is  always,  and  always 
present  Republican  regime,  and  Demo-  has  been,  opposed  to  this  theory.  It  has 
cratic  leaders,  seeing  that  alone  they  are  uniformly  opposed  internal  improvement 
lost,  would  take  counsel  of  their  fears  by  the  general  government  except  for  mili- 
and  hasten  to  the  newer  and  securer  fold,  tary  or  naval  purposes.  That  party  be- 
lt is  the  readiness  of  Fusion  Populists  to  lieves  in  metallic  money  as  the  only  real 
train  with  their  Democratic  brethren  that  money;  it  is  a  "hard  money"  party,  and 
encourages  them  and  turns  their  heads  it  favors  State  bank-notes  for  currency, 
upward.  If  Mr.  Bryan  could  not  win  for  And  while  from  the  Populist  doctrine 
his  party  when  he  had  virtually  the  united  on  silver  coinage,  "  sixteen  to  one  "  was 
Populist  support,  how  can  he  succeed  made  the  Bryan  battle-cry  in  1896,  there 
with  half  that  vote?  The  candidate  of  is  no  evidence  that  his  party  had  then  or 
the  Democratic  party  in  1900  will  not  get  has  since  changed  front  on  the  theory  of 
the  vote  of  the  Anti-fusion  Populists,  and  Senate  bill  No.  2,642,  introduced  by  Sena- 
without  this  support  the  chances  for  that  tor  Jones,  of  Arkansas,  on  Jan.  23,  1895, 
party's  success  will  be  greatly  lessened.  0f  which  the  ninth  section  is  as  follows: 
But  a  union  of  all  reformers  in  one  body 

would  be  invincible.  "  From  and  after  the  passage  of  this  aet 
T.    .                                 .,                       ,.  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  hereby  au- 
It  is  no  answer  to  these  suggestions  to  tnoriS5ed  and  directed  to  receive  at  any  Unit- 
question  the  loyalty  or  patriotism  of  the  ed  Slates  mint,  from  any  citizen  of  the  United 
i\nti-fusionists/  for    they   will    retort    bv  States,  silver  bullion  of  standard  fineness,  and 

j.1-    a.     «jr    ta  x  •         "  coin    the    same    into    silver   dollars    of    412  V> 

saying    that    if    Democrats    are    in    sym-  gra,ng    each       The  seigniorage  on    tne    sJa 

pathy  with  Populism,  their  disinter-  bullion  shall  belong  to  the  United  States, 
estedness  would  be  more  apparent  if  they  and  shall  be  the  difference  between  the  coin- 
would   come   over   and   help    the   People's  a=e  vaIue  thereof  and  the  price  of  the  bullion 

x!    x  -x  i     j  -j        j  in  London  on  the  day  the  deposit  is  made, 

party,  seeing  that  it  had  occupied  and  ap-  et 

propriated  this  reform  ground  long  before 

it  was  discovered  by  the  followers  of  Mr.  The  Democrats  are  now  everywhere  try- 
Bryan,  ing  to  get  together  on  the  silver  question, 
Unless  some  new  alignment  of  voters  is  and  they  can  readily  effect  a  union  by 
effected  soon,  the  People's  party  will  per-  agreeing  to  a  law  which  shall  have  this 
manently  separate  into  two  parts.  One  section  nine  as  one  of  its  provisions.  It 
faction  will  go  backward  to  the  Demo-  is  proverbially  a  party  of  compromise, 
crats,  and  it  will  not  have  to  go  far,  as  A  party  with  Bryan  and  Croker  working 
the  distance  between  the  rear  of  the  harmoniously  together  in  it  need  not 
People's  party  and  the  vanguard  of  De-  struggle  hard  or  long  over  so  trifling  a 
mocracy  is  so  short  that  they  readily  matter  as  the  ratio  between  silver  and 
mingle  in  the  same  camp  and  one  counter-  gold.  There  is  nothing  in  any  of  the  pub- 
sign  answers  for  both.  The  other  faction  lie  utterances  of  Mr.  Bryan  to  indicate 
will  go  forward  to  still  higher  ground,  that,  after  securing  the  Populist  vote,  he 
These  men  having  nothing  in  common  with  would  not  consent  to  any  ratio  that  would 
Democracy  except  their  views  on  the  in-  save  to  his  party  its  conservative  silver 
come  tax  and  silver   coinage,   and  these,  element. 

even  if  they  be  taken  as  leading  issues,        Our  coin  debts  were  all  contracted  when 

are  Populist  doctrines,  announced  long  be-  the  coin  of  the  country  consisted  of  silver 

fore  they  appeared  in  the  Chicago  platform,  and  gold  at  the  sixteen-to-one  ratio,  and 

135 


PEOPLE'S    PARTY 

every    United    States    bond   now   out   ex-  Seven    sections    following    this    section 

pressly  declares  on  its  face  that  it  is  "  re-  provide    details,    including    authority    to 

deemable,   principal   and  interest,  in  coin  national    banks   to   enlarge   their   circula- 

of  the  standard  value  of  July  14,   1870,"  tion  to  the  full   limit  of  their  bonds  de- 

and  the  ratio  was  sixteen  to  one  at  that  posited.     No    Populist    could    endorse    a 

time.     Besides,  the  greenbacks  and  treas-  measure  like  that;  yet  when  the  bill  was 

ury  notes  are  all  redeemable  in  that  kind  reported  favorably  to  the  Senate  by  Mr. 

of  coin,   and   for   these  reasons   Populists  Jones  every  Democrat  in  Congress  at  the 

are  not  willing  to  change  the  ratio.  time,  with  the  possible  exception  of  a  few 

Nor  can  they  agree  with  the  Democrats  nionometallists,  stood  ready  to  support  it. 

on  the  subject  of  government  paper  money.  There  are  still  other  matters  of  differ- 

The  Chicago  platform  says:  ence.     Populists  regard  the  land  question 

,,,,,,  ,  .  ,    .  ,  as   of   supreme   importance.     The   people's 

"We  demand  that  all  paper  which  is  made  .  r     ,.      .     L  ,  ,.    r     rTTT 

legal    tender    for    public    and    private    debts,  homes  are  slipping  away  from  them.     We 

or  which  is  receivable  for  duties  to  the  Unit-  are    fast    becoming    a    nation    of    renters. 

ed  States,  shall  be  issued  by  the  government  we  have   a   million   or   more  unemployed 

to  coin™*6*  Stat6S  aDd  ShaU  ^  redeemable  men   and   women    all    the   time,    some    of 

whom,  at  least,  could  earn  a  living  on  the 
That  is  to  say,  not  that  we  demand  or  public  lands  if  they  could  only  get  to 
favor  that  kind  of  paper;  but  that,  if  them  with  means  to  start.  Populists 
any  of  it  is  issued,  it  "  shall  be  redeemable  think  the  national  and  State  governments 
in  coin."  The  truth  is,  the  Democratic  ought  to  take  hold  of  the  labor  problem 
party  is  now,  as  it  has  always  been,  op-  ami  get  the  people  at  work  again.  Strikes 
posed  to  government  legal-tender  paper  an(j  ]0ck-outs,  and  consequent  disturb- 
money.  Otherwise,  it  would  not  demand  arices  in  trade,  can  be  prevented  by  keep- 
redemption  in  coin.  ing  people  employed  at  fair  remunera- 
te Populist  platform  puts  it  this  way:  tion.  There  is  nothing  in  the  Democratic 
"  We  demand  a  national  currency,  safe,  platform  or  in  that  party's  history  which 
sound,  and  flexible,  issued  by  the  general  js  jn  any  way-  reSponsive  to  these  ad- 
government  only,  a  full  legal  tender  for  all  Vances  of  Populism.  So,  too,  Populists 
debts"— a  demand  quite  different  from  believe  that  the  present  capitalization  of 
that  of  the  Democrats.  0ur  great  railway  system  is  a  standing 
As  a  further  matter  of  difference,  at-  menace  to  the  commercial  peace  of  the 
tention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  there  is  COUntry,  and  that  final  government  owner- 
no  evidence  tending  to  show  that  the  ship  and  management  is  the  only  safe 
Democratic  party  has  changed  its  position  an<j  certain  cure  for  the  accumulating 
on  the  subject  of  retiring  government  embarrassments  attending  present  meth- 
paper  money.  Section  1  of  Senator  ods  of  handling  the  business  of  these 
Jones's  bill,  above  cited,  provides  as  fol-  powerful  corporations.  Democracy  is  op- 
lows:  posed  to  such  a  policy.  And  if  there  is 
"That  authority  is  hereby  given  to  the  anything  on  which  the  Populist  heart  is 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  issue  bonds  of  chiefly  set,  it  is  the  right  of  the  people 
the  United  States  to  the  amount  of  $500,-  to  pr0pose  legislation  and  to  pass  on  im- 
000,000,  coupon  or  registered,  at  the  option  *,  \_  ,  ,  ,,  r,  ,  «■  . 
of  the  buyer;  payable,  principal  and  interest,  pcrtant  measures  before  they  take  effect 
in  coin  of  the  present  standard  value,  and  as  laws.  But  this  doctrine  has  not  found 
bearing  interest  at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent,  favor  in  any  body  of  orthodox  Democrats, 
per  annum,  payable  quarterly,  and  not  to  Final]y  as  to  all  matters  which  Popu- 
be  sold  at  less  than  par,  the  bonds  to  mature  *"  j  » 
thirty  years  from  date,  and  be  redeemable  at  llsts_  regard  as  fundamental  and  ot  sur- 
the  option  of  the  government  after  twenty  passing  importance,  the  two  parties  are 
years ;  and  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas-  Rot  onlv  not  in  accord,  but  are  positively 
ury  be,  and  he  is  hereby  authorized  to  use  ^  to  psLoh  ofhpr  Th  PponVs 
the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  said  bonds  to  0PP0se°-  to  eactl  otner.  ine  leop^es 
defray  current  expenses  of  the  government,  party  was  formed  for  present  duties,  while 
and  for  the  redemption  of  United  States  that  of  the  Democracy  came  from  divis- 
legal-tender  notes  and  of  treasury  notes  iong  am  th  founders  of  the  republic, 
issued  under  the  act  of  July  fourteenth,  . &  ,  r  . 
eighteen  hundred  and  ninety,  as  hereinafter  The  doctrines  of  this  young  party  are,  in 
provided."  brief,  the  equal  rights  of  men;   its  creed 

136 


PEOPLE'S    PARTY— PEPPERELL 


is  the  golden  rule;  its  idea  of  law  is  jus-  of  gravitation.   While  the  factors  are  being 

tice,  and  its  theory  of  government  is  the  arranged    in    equations    of    the   next    cen- 

rule  of  the  people.  tury,  and  during  the  sittings  and  winnow- 

If  the  scheme  to  organize  a  new  body  is  ings  of  the  time,  these  devoted  Populists 

left  untried,  or,  if  tried,  it  is  found  to  be  will  gravitate  to  their  proper  places  among 

impracticable   and   the   People's   party   is  the  leaders  of  thought  and  action  in  the 

finally    separated    into    two    wings,    the  work    of    the    trying   days    to    come.      To 

Fusionists  will  have  no  difficulty  in  find-  them,  and  to  such  as  they,  will  be  given 

ing    a    resting-place;    but    the    work    for  truths  of  the  future  to   reveal   to   others 

which  the  party  was  born  and  which  it  as    they   can   bear    them,    and    they    shall 

bravely  commenced  will  be  left  for  their  have  at  least  the  reward  of  the  faithful. 


old  associates  and  new  co-workers  who 
shall  be  found  in  other  bodies — men  and 
women  who  believe  good  government  can 
be  maintained   only  through   social   order 


Pepperell,  Sin  William,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Kittery,  Me.,  June  27,  1696. 
His  father,  a  Welshman,  came  to  New 
England    as    apprentice    to    a    fisherman, 


and  just  laws,  citizens  who  believe  in  where  he  married.  The  son  became  a 
doing  good  because  they  love  their  fellow-  merchant,  amassed  a  large  fortune,  and 
men,  reformers  whose  faces  have  always  became  an  influential  man.  Fitted  by 
been  to  the  front,  veterans  who  draw  the  temperament  for  military  life,  he  was  f re- 
enemy's  fire  and  who  fight  better  in  the  quently  engaged  against  the  Indians,  and 
field  than  in  the  camp.  attained   much    distinction.      About    1727 

There  will  be  plenty  of  work  for  them  he  was  appointed  one  of  his  Majesty's 
to  do.  Conditions  will  not  improve  un-  council  for  the  province  of  Massachusetts, 
der  the  present  regime.  Times  will  get  and  held  the  office,  by  re-election,  thirty- 
no  better.  Stringency  and  panic  will  be  two  consecutive  years.  Appointed  chief- 
here  on  time  again  and  again  as  of  old,  justice  of  common  pleas  in  1730,  he  be- 
for  neither  Repub- 
licans nor  Demo- 
crats offer  a  pre- 
ventive. They  do 
not  seem  to  know 
what  ails  the  coun- 
try and  the  world. 
High  tariff  is  but 
heavy  taxation, 
and  free  silver 
alone  will  not  give 
work  to  the  idle 
nor  bread  to  the 
poor.  The  case 
needs  heroic  treat- 
ment— just  such  as 
the  People's  party 
proposed. 

Yes,  the  work 
will  be  delayed,  but 
it  will  be  done. 
Justice  will  be  re- 
established in  the 
land  and  the  peo- 
ple's rights  will  be 
restored  to  them. 
The  law  of  prog- 
ress will  not  be 
suspended         any 

more  than  the  law  sir  william  pepperell's  house  at  kittery,  me. 

137 


PEQUOD    WAR 


came   eminent   as   a   jurist.     In    1745   he    Sassaeus  undertook  the  task  alone.     First 
commanded      the      successful      expedition    his   people   kidnapped   children,   murdered 


against  Louisburg,  and  was  knighted.  On 
visiting  England  in  1749,  he  was  com- 
missioned   colonel    in    the    British    army; 


SIR   WILLIAM    PKPPKKELL, 


men  alone  in  the  forests  or  on  the  waters, 
and  swept  away  fourteen  families.  A 
Massachusetts  trading- vessel  was  seized 
by  the  Indians  at  Block  Island,  plundered, 
and  its  commander,  John  Oldham,  mur- 
dered. They  were  allies  of  the  Pequods, 
who  protected  them.  The  authorities  at 
Boston  sent  Endicott  and  Captain  Gar- 
diner to  chastise  them.  With  a  small  mili- 
tary force  in  three  vessels  they  entered 
Long  Island  Sound.  They  killed  some  Ind- 
ians at  Block  Island,  and  left  the  domain 
a  blackened  desolation.  Then  they  went 
over  to  the  mainland,  made  some  demands 
which  they  could  not  enforce;  desolated 
fields,  burned  wigwams,  killed  a  few 
people,  and  departed. 

The  exasperated  Pequods  sent  ambas- 
sadors to  the  Narragansets  urging  them 
to  join  in  a  war  of  extermination. 
Through  the  influence  of  Roger  Williams, 
who  rendered  good  for  evil,  the  Narragan- 
sets were  not  only  kept  from  joining  the 
Pequods,  but  became  allies  of  the  English 
in  making  war  upon  them.  All  through 
the  next  winter  the  Pequods  harassed  the 
settlements  in  the  Connecticut  Valley,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1637  the  colonists  deter- 
became  major-general  in  1755;  and  lieu-  mined  to  make  war  upon  the  aggressors, 
tenant-general  in  1759.  From  1756  to  They  had  slain  more  than  thirty  English- 
1758  Sir  William  was  acting  governor  of  men.  Massachusetts  sent  troops  to  assist 
Massachusetts  before  the  arrival  of  Pow-  the  Connecticut  people.  The  English  were 
nail.  He  died  in  Kittery,  Me.,  July  6,  joined  by  the  Mohegans  under  Uncas,  and 
1759.  the  entire  army  was  under  the  command 

Pequod  War,  The.  The  most  power-  of  Capt.  John  Mason,  who  had  been  a 
ful  of  the  New  England  tribes  were  the  soldier  in  the  Netherlands.  The  little 
Pequods,  whose  territory  extended  from  army  proceeded  by  water  to  the  Narragan- , 
Narraganset  Bay  to  Hudson  River,  and  set  country,  whence  the  Pequods  would 
over  Long  Island.  Sassaeus,  their  em-  least  expect  attack,  and  marched  upon 
peror,  ruled  over  twenty-six  native  princes,  their  rear.  The  Indians,  seeing  them  sail 
He  was  bold,  cruel,  cool,  calculating,  eastward,  concluded  the  English  had  aban- 
treacherous,  haughty,  fierce,  and  malig-  doned  the  expedition  and  the  Connecticut 
nant.  Jealous  of  the  friendship  of  the  Valley.  It  was  a  fatal  mistake.  The 
English  for  the  Mohegans,  and  believing  white  people  were  joined  by  many  Narra- 
the  garrison  at  the  mouth  of  the  Con-  gansets  and  Niantics,  and  while  Sassaeus 
necticut  River  would  soon  be  strengthened  was  dreaming  of  the  flight  of  the  Euro- 
and  endanger  his  dominions,  Sassaeus  de-  peans  more  than  fifty  warriors,  pale  and 
termined  in  1636  to  exterminate  the  white  dusky,  were  marching  swiftly  to  attack 
people.  He  tried  to  induce  the  Narragan-  his  stronghold  near  the  waters  of  the 
sets  and  the  Mohegans  to  join  him.  The  Mystic  River.  Mason  was  accompanied 
united  tribes  might  put  4,000  braves  on  by  Captain  Underhill,  another  brave  sol- 
the   war-path   at   once,   while   there   were    dier. 

not  more  than  250  Englishmen  in  the  Con-        When  the  invaders  reached  the  foot  of 
necticut  Valley  capable  of  bearing  arms,    the  hill   on  which   the   fort   of   Sassaeus 

138 


PEQUOD  WAR— PERCY 


stood — a  circular  structure  strongly  pali- 
saded, embracing  seventy  wigwams  covered 
with  matting  and  thatch — they  were  yet 
undiscovered.  The  sentinels  could  hear 
the  sounds  of  revelry  among  the  savages 
within  the  fortress.  At  midnight  all  was 
still.  Two  hours  before  the  dawn  (May 
26)  the  invaders  marched  upon  the  fort 
in  two  columns.  The  Indian  allies  grew 
fearful,  for  Sassacus  was  regarded  as  all 
but  a  god.  Uncas  was  firm.  The  dusky 
warriors  lingered  behind,  and  formed  a 
cordon  in  the  woods  around  the  fortress 
to  kill  any  who  might  attempt  to  escape. 
The  moon  shone  brightly.  Stealthily  the 
little  army  crept  up  the  hill,  when  an 
aroused    sentinel    awakened    the    sleepers 


and  they  threatened  his  life  if  he  did  not 
immediately  lead  them  against  the  in- 
vaders. Just  then  the  blast  of  a  trumpet 
was  heard.  The  white  invaders  were  near, 
fully  200  strong.  The  Indians  fled  with 
their  women  and  children  across  the 
Thames,  through  the  forest  and  over  green 
savannas  westward,  closely  pursued.  The 
fugitives  took  refuge  in  Sasco  Swamp, 
near  Fairfield,  where  they  all  surrendered 
to  the  English  excepting  Sassacus  and  a 
few  followers,  who  escaped.  A  nation  had 
perished  in  a  day.  That  blow  gave  peace 
to  New  England  for  forty  years.  The  last 
representative  of  the  pure  blood  of  the 
Pequods,  probably,  was  Eunice  Manwee, 
who  died  in  Kent,  Conn.,  about  1860,  aged 


WHERE    MASON'S   AKMY   LANDED. 


within  the  fort.  Mason  and  Underhill, 
approaching  from  opposite  directions, 
burst  in  the  sally-ports.  The  terrified  Ind- 
ians rushed  out,  but  were  driven  back  by 
swords  and  musket-balls.  Their  thatched 
wigwams  were  fired,  and  within  an  hour 
about  600  men,  women,  and  children  were 
slain.  The  bloodthirsty  and  the  innocent 
shared  the  same  fate.  Only  seven  of  the 
Pequods  escaped  death,  and  Cotton  Mather 
afterwards  wrote :  "  It  was  supposed  that 
no  less  than  five  or  six  hundred  Pequod 
souls  were  brought  down  to  hell  that  day." 
Sassacus  was  not  there;  he  was  at  an- 
other fort  near  the  Thames,  opposite  the 
site  of  New  London.  Sassacus  sat  stately 
and  sullen  when  told  of  the  massacre  at 
the  Mystic.      His  warriors  were  furious, 


100  years.  Sassacus  took  refuge  with  the 
Mohawks,  who,  at  the  request  of  the 
Narragansets,  cut  off  his  head.  The 
Puritans,  who  believed  themselves  to  be 
under  the  peculiar  care  of  Divine  Provi- 
dence, and  the  Indians  to  be  the  children 
of  the  devil,  exulted  in  this  signal  instance 
of  the  favor  of  Heaven.  "  The  Lord  was 
pleased,"  wrote  Captain  Mason,  "  to  smite 
our  enemies  in  the  hinder  parts  and  give 
us  their  land  for  an  inheritance."  See 
Mason,  John. 

Percy,  George,  born  in  Syon  House, 
England,  Sept.  4,  1586;  succeeded  Capt. 
John  Smith  as  governor  of  Virginia  in 
1610.  He  was  the  author  of  A  History  of 
the  Plantations  of  the  Southern  Colonie 
of  Virginia,  which  is  a  history  of  the  voy- 


139 


PERCY— PERRIN    DTJ    LAC 


HUGH   PERCY. 


age  and  all  their  explorations  during  the  perfected  steam-engines,  and  for  many 
first  year  of  the  existence  of  the  colony,  years  carried  on  a  large  manufactory  in 
He  died  in  England  in  March,  1G32.  London.     He  originated  the  process  used 

Percy,  Hugh,  Duke  of  Northumberland ;  by  bank-note  engravers  for  transfer- 
born  in  England,  Aug.  25,  1742.  Entering  ring  an  engraving  from  one  steel  plate 
the  army  in  his  youth,  he  first  saw  service  to  another,  and  perfected  many  other 
under  Prince  Ferdinand  in  Germany.  He  inventions,  for  which  he  received  the  gold 
commanded    as    brigadier-general    against    medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts  in  London. 

He    died    in    London,    England,    July    30, 
1849. 

Perkins,  James  Handasyd,  author; 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  31,  1810;  re- 
ceived an  academic  education;  settled  in 
Cincinnati,  O.,  in  1832;  later  became  a 
Unitarian  minister;  deeply  interested  him- 
self in  prison  reform;  and  was  first  presi- 
dent of  the  Cincinnati  Historical  Society. 
His  publications  include  Digest  of  the 
Constitutional  Opinions  of  Chief -Justice 
John  Marshall;  Christian  Civilization; 
and  Annals  of  the  West.  He  died  in  Cin- 
cinnati, O.,  Dec.  14,  1849. 

Perkins,  Samuel,  author;  born  in 
Lisbon,  Conn.,  in  1767;  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1785;  studied  theology,  and  for 
a  time  preached,  but  afterwards  became 
a  lawyer.  His  publications  included  His- 
tory of  the  Political  and  Military  Events 
of  the  Late  War  between  the  United 
the  Americans  in  1775-76.  To  Lexing-  States  and  Great  Britain;  General  Jack- 
ion,  on  the  morning  of  the  affray  there,  son's  Conduct  in  the  Seminole  War;  and 
he  led  a  timely  reinforcement,  and  in  the  Historical  Sketches  of  the  United  States, 
fall  of  1776  he  assisted  in  the  reduction  1815-30.  He  died  in  Windham,  Conn.,  in 
of  Fort  Washington.     The  next  month  his    September,  1850. 

mother  died,  when  he  succeeded  to  the  Perrein,  Jean,  naturalist;  born  near 
baronetcy  of  Percy,  and  returned  to  Eng-  Mont  de  Marsan,  France,  in  1750;  visited 
land.  He  became  Duke  of  Northumber-  North  America  in  1794,  and  travelled  in 
land  in  June,  1786,  and  died  July  10,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  all  the  New  Eng- 
1817.  land  States,  and  in  Quebec,  Ontario,  and' 

Perfectionists.  See  Notes,  John  other  parts  of  British  America.  He  was 
Humphrey.  the   author   of   a   valuable   work    entitled 

Perkins,  Jacob,  inventor;  born  in  New-  Travel  among  the  Indians  of  North  Amer- 
buryport,  Mass.,  July  9,  1766.  As  early  iea,  with  a  Sketch  of  the  Customs  and 
as  his  fifteenth  year  he  carried  on  the  Character  of  the  People.  He  died  in  New 
business  of  a  goldsmith  in  Newburyport,  York  in  October,  1805. 
and  early  invented  a  method  for  plating  Perrin  Du  Lac,  Francois  Marie,  trav- 
shoe-buckles.  He  made  dies  for  coining  eller;  born  in  Chaux-de-Fonds,  France,  in 
money  when  the  United  States  Mint  was  1766;  came  to  the  United  States  in  1791, 
under  consideration.  He  was  then  twenty-  and  travelled  through  Louisiana,  Missis- 
one,  and  when  he  was  twenty-four  he  in-  sippi,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Maryland,  Pennsyl- 
vented  a  machine  for  making  nails  at  one  vania,  and  other  sections:  returned  to 
operation,  and  steel  plates  for  bank-notes,  France  in  1803.  He  wrote  Journey  in  the 
which,  it  was  supposed,  could  not  be  Two  Louisianas,  and  among  the  Savage 
counterfeited.  After  living  in  Boston,  Nations  of  Missouri,  through  the  United 
New  York,  and  Philadelphia,  he  went  States,  Ohio,  and  the  Border  Provinces, 
to   England    in   the   year    1815,   where   he    in  1801,   1802,  and  1803,  with  a  Sketch 

140 


PERRY 


of  the  Manners,  Practices,  Character,  and  way  for,  and  accelerated  an  introduc- 
the  Religious  Customs  and  Civil  Laws  of  tion  of  a  new  order  of  things;  an  event 
the  People  of  the  Various  Regions.  He  that  enabled  the  country  to  enter  upon 
died  in  Rambouillet,  France,  July  22,  the  unprecedented  era  in  national  pros- 
1824.  Parity  in  which  we  now  live.     Japan  has 

Perry,  Benjamin  Franklin,  lawyer;  not  forgotten — nor  will  she  ever  forget — 
born  in  Pendleton  District,  S.  C,  Nov.  20,  that  next  to  her  reigning  and  most  be- 
1805;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1827;  loved  sovereign,  whose  rare  virtue  and 
was  a  strong  Unionist,  and  was  instru-  great  wisdom  is  above  all  praise,  she  owes 
mental  in  organizing  a  Union  party  in  her  present  prosperity  to  the  United 
South  Carolina ;  founded  a  Union  paper  States  of  America.  After  a  lapse  of  forty- 
iu  Greenville,  S.  C,  in  1850,  entitled  The  eight  years  the  people  of  Japan  have  come 
Southern  Patriot.  In  1860  he  made  to  entertain  but  an  uncertain  memory  of 
strenuous  efforts  to  prevent  the  secession  Kurihama,  and  yet  it  was  there  that 
of  the  State,  but,  being  unsuccessful,  em-  Commodore  Perry  first  trod  on  the  soil 
braced  the  Southern  cause.  His  publica-  of  Japan,  and  for  the  first  time  awoke  the 
tions  include  Reminiscences  of  Public  country  from  three  centuries  of  slumberous 
Men;  and  Sketches  of  Eminent  American  seclusion,  and  there  first  gleamed  the  rays 
Statesmen,  with  Speeches  and  Letters  of  of  her  new  era  of  progress."  He  died  in 
Governor  Perry,  prefaced  by  an  Outline  New  York  City,  March  4.  1858. 
of  the  Author's  Life.  He  died  in  Green-  Perry,  Oliver  Hazard,  naval  officer; 
ville,  S.  C,  Dec.  3,  1886.  born  in  South  Kingston,  P.   I.,  Aug.   23, 

Perry,  Matthew  Calbraith,  naval  1785;  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in 
officer;  born  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  April  10,  1799;  served  in  the  Tripolitan  War;  had 
1794;  was  a  brother  of  Commodore  Oliver  charge  of  a  flotilla  of  gunboats  in  New 
II.  Perry,  and  entered  the  navy  as  mid-  York  Harbor  in  1S12;  and  in  1813  was 
shipman  in  1809.  In  command  of  the  called  to  the  command  of  a  fleet  on  Lake 
Cyane,  in  1819,  he  fixed  the  locality  of  Erie.  On  the  evening  of  Sept.  9,  1813, 
the  settlement  of  Liberia.  He  captured  Perry  called  around  him  the  officers  of  his 
several  pirate  vessels  in  the  West  Indies  squadron  and  gave  instructions  to  each  in 
from  1821  to  1824,  and  was  employed  on  writing,  for  he  had  determined  to  attack 
shore  from  1833  to  1841,  when  he 
again,  as  commodore,  went  to  sea 
in  command  of  squadrons  for  sev- 
eral years,  engaging  in  the  siege  of 
Vera  Cruz  in  1847.  From  1852  to 
1S54  he  commanded  the  expedition 
to  Japan,  and  negotiated  a  very  im- 
portant treaty  with  the  rulers  of 
that  empire,  which  has  led  to  won- 
derful results  in  the  social  and  re- 
ligious condition  of  that  people, 
and  secured  great  advantages  to 
America. 

A  monument  commemorating 
Commodore  Perry's  visit  to  Japan 
was  erected  at  Kurihama,  Japan, 
in  1901.  In  a  circular  sent  out  by 
the  "  American  Association  of 
Japan,"  of  which  the  Japanese 
Minister  of  Justice  is  president, 
the  following  language  is  used: 
"  Commodore  Perry's  visit  was,  in  a 
word,  the  turn  of  the  key  which 
opened  the  doors  of  the  Japanese 
Empire,  an  event  which  paved  the 

141 


OLIVER    U.lZAKU    PKJtKY. 


PERRY,    OLIVER    HAZARD 


Mmy,  wirti/ou  take  some  more 


Oh  !  Terry  ///  One  thatferryl 

—One  disaster  after  another—  J  nave 

—J-have  rut  half  recovered  of  the  Bloody-nose 


Queen  Charlotte  tmdSohnnu  Bull  jot  their  dose  of  (Terru. 


the  British  squadron  at  its  anchorage  the 
next  day.  The  conference  ended  at  about 
10  P.M..  The  unclouded  moon  was  at  its 
full.  Just  before  the  officers  departed, 
Perry  brought  out  a  square  battle-flag 
which  had  been  privately  prepared  for 
him  at  Erie.  It  was  blue,  and  bore  in 
large  white  letters  made  of  muslin  the  al- 
leged dying  words  of  Lawrence — "  Don't 
give  up  the  ship." 

"  When  this  flag  shall  be  hoisted  at  the 
main-yard,"  said  Perry,  "  it  shall  be  your 
signal  for  going  into  action."  On  the  fol- 
lowing day  he  gained  a  complete  victory 
over  the  British  squadron  (see  Erie,  Lake, 
Battle  of).  When  Perry  had  fought  the 
battle  and  his  eye  saw  at  a  glance  that 
victory  was  secure,  he  wrote  in  pencil  on 
the  back  of  an  old  letter,  resting  the  paper 
on  his  navy  cap,  the  following  despatch  to 
General  Harrison,  the  first  clause  of  which 
lias  often  been  quoted: 

"  We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are 
ours:  two  ships,  two  brigs,  one  schooner,  and 
one   sloop. 

"  Yours,  with  great  respect  and  esteem, 
"  O.  H.  Perry." 

Many  songs  were  written  and  sung  in 
commemoration  of  Perry's  victory.  One  of 
the  most  popular  of  these  was  "  Amer- 
ican Perry,"  beginning: 

142 


Bold  Barclay  one  day  to  Proctor  did  say, 

I'm  tired  of  Jamaica  and  cherry ; 
So  let  us  go  down  to  that  new  floating  town 
And  get  some  American  Perry. 
Oh,  cheap  American  Perry  ! 
Most  pleasant   American   Perry ! 
We  need  only  bear  down,  knock  and  call, 
And  we'll  have  the  American  Perry." 


PERRY'S  MONUMENT,  NEWPORT,  R.  J. 


PERRY 


Among  the  caricatures  of  the  day  was  one 
by  Charles,  of  Philadelphia,  representing 
John  Bull,  in  the  person  of  the  King,  seat- 
ed, with  his  hand  pressed  upon  his  stom- 
ach, indicating  pain,  which  the  fresh  juice 
of  the  pear,  called  perry,  will  produce. 
Queen  Charlotte,  the  King's  wife  (a  fair 
likeness  of  whom  is  given),  enters  with 
a  bottle  labelled  "  Perry,"  out  of  which 
the  cork  has  flown,  and  in  the  foam  are 
seen  the  names  of  the  vessels  composing 
the  American  squadron.  She  says, 
"  Johnny,  won't  you  take  some  more 
perry?"  John  Bull  replies,  while  writh- 
ing in  pain  produced  by  perry,  "  Oh ! 
Perry!  Curse  that  Perry!  One  disaster 
after  another — I  have  not  half  recovered 
of  the  bloody  nose  I  got  at  the  boxing- 
match!"  This  last  expression  refers  to 
the  capture  of  the  Boxer  by  the  American 
schooner  Enterprise.  This  caricature  is 
entitled  "  Queen  Charlotte  and  Johnny 
Bull  got  their  dose  of  Perry."  The  point 
will  be  better  perceived  by  remembering 
that  one  of  the  principal  vessels  of  the 
British  squadron  was  named  the  Queen 
Charlotte,  in  honor  of  the  royal  consort. 
In  a  ballad  of  the  day  occur  the  following 
lines: 

"  On   Erie's  wave,   while  Barclay   brave, 
With  Charlotte  making  merry, 
He  chanced  to  take  the  belly-ache, 
We  drenched  him  so  with  Perry." 

At  the  time  of  his  great  victory  Perry 
was  only  master-commander,  but  was  im- 
mediately promoted  to  captain,  and  re- 
ceived the  thanks  of  Congress  and  a  medal. 
He  assisted  Harrison  in  retaking  Detroit 
late  in  1813.  In  1S15  he  commanded  the 
Java  in  Decatur's  squadron  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  in  1819  was  sent  against  the 
pirates  in  the  West  Indies.  He  died  in 
Port  Spain,  Trinidad,  Aug.  23,  1819.  The 
name  and  fame  of  Perry  is  held  in  loving 
remembrance  by  all  Americans.  In  1860  a 
fine  marble  statue  of  him  by  Walcutt  was 
erected  in  a  public  square  in  Cleveland, 
0.,  with  imposing  ceremonies,  and  a  monu- 
ment to  his  memory  has  been  erected  in 
Newport,  R.  I.  At  the  unveiling  of  the 
statue  at  Cleveland,  George  Bancroft  de- 
livered an  address;  Dr.  Usher  Parsons, 
Perry's  surgeon  in  the  fight  on  Lake 
Erie,  read  an  historical  discourse,  and, 
at  a  dinner   afterwards,   about   300   sur- 


mm 

PERRY'S    STATUE,  CLEVELAND,  0. 

viving  soldiers  of  the  War  of  1812-15  sat 
down. 

Perry,  Wiixiam  Stevens,  clergyman; 
born  in  Providence,  R.  L,  Jan.  22,  1832; 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1854; 
ordained  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  1858;  held  pastorates  in  various 
parts  of  New  England;  and  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Iowa,  Sept.  10,  1876. 
His  publications  include  Journals  of  the 
General  Conventions  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States  of 
America;  Documentary  History  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  Unit- 


US 


PERRYVILLE 


ed  States  of  America;  Historical  Collec- 
tions of  the  American  Colonial  Church; 
The  History  of  the  American  Episco- 
pal Church,  1587-1883;  The  American 
Church  and  the  American  Constitution, 
etc.  He  died  in  Dubuque,  la.,  May  13, 
1898. 

Perryville,  Battle  at.  Bragg's  troops 
formed  a  junction  with  those  of  Gen.  E. 
Kirby  Smith  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  on  Oct.  1, 
1862,  when  they  made  Richard  Hawes 
"  provisional  governor  of  Kentucky " 
while  Bragg's  plundering  bands  were 
scouring  the  State  and  driving  away 
southward   thousands   of   hogs   and   cattle 


command,  had  charge  of  the  right  wing, 
and  soon  began  to  feel  the  Confederates. 
Bragg,  outflanked,  fell  slowly  back  towards 
Springfield,  when  Buell,  informed  that  he 
was  moving  to  concentrate  his  army  at 
Harrodsburg  or  Perryville,  ordered  the 
central  division  of  his  army  under  Gilbert 
to  march  for  the  latter  place.  The  head 
of  this  division,  under  Gen.  R.  B.  Mitchell, 
fell  in  with  a  heavy  force  of  Confederates 
(Oct.  7)  within  5  miles  of  Perryville, 
drawn  up  in  battle  order.  These  were 
pressed  back  about  3  miles,  when  General 
Sheridan's  division  was  ordered  up  to  an 
eligible   position.      Buell   was   there,   and, 


k&*mmm 


PKKRVVILLK. 


and  numerous  trains  bearing  bacon,  bread-  expecting  a  battle  in  the  morning,  he  sent 
stuffs,  and  store-goods  taken  from  mer-  for  the  flank  corps  of  Crittenden  and  Me- 
diants in  various  large  towns.  As  a  show  Cook  to  close  up  on  his  right,  and,  if  pos- 
ot  honesty,  these  raiders  gave  Confederate  sible,  surround  the  Confederates.  There 
scrip  in  exchange.  Regarding  Kentucky  was  a  delay  in  the  arrival  of  Crittenden, 
as  a  part  of  the  Confederacy,  conscription  and  Bragg,  perceiving  his  peril,  had  be- 
was  put  in  force  by  Bragg  at  the  point  gun  to  retreat.  He  was  anxious  to  secure 
of  the  bayonet.  The  loyal  people  cried  for  the  exit  of  the  plunder-trains  from  the 
help.     The   cautious  Buell   made  a  tardy  State. 

response.     He  had  been  engaged  in  a  race        As  Crittenden   did  not   speedily  arrive, 

for   Louisville   with   Bragg,   and,   on   Oct.  Bragg  resolved  to  give  battle  in  his  ab- 

1,    turned    to    strike    his    opponent.      His  sence.     His   army  was   immediately   com- 

army,    100,000    strong,    was    arranged    in  manded  by  General  Polk.     There  had  been 

three    corps,    commanded    respectively    by  a  sharp  engagement  on  the  morning  of  the 

Generals  Gilbert,  Crittenden,  and  McCook.  8th,  when  the  Confederates  were  repulsed 

Gen.  George  H.  Thomas,  Buell's  second  in  and  driven  back  by  troops  under  Col.  D. 

144 


PERRYVILLE— PERSONAL    LIBERTY    LAWS 


McCook,  of  Sheridan's  division,  with 
Harnett's  battery,  some  Michigan  cavalry, 
and  a  Missouri  regiment.  The  Confeder- 
ates were  repulsed,  and  so  ended  the  pre- 
liminary battle  of  that  day.  Mitchell, 
Sheridan,  Rousseau,  and  Jackson  advanced 
with   troops   to    secure   the   position,   and 

a  Michigan  and  an  Indiana  battery  were    by    Wheeler's     cavalry, 
planted   in   commanding  positions.     A  re-    force    that    advanced    on 


they  retired  to  Harrodsburg,  where  Bragg 
was  joined  by  Kirby  Smith  and  General 
Withers.  All  fled  towards  east  Tennessee, 
leaving  1,200  of  their  sick  and  wounded 
at  Harrodsburg,  and  about  25,000  barrels 
of  pork  at  various  points.  The  retreat 
was  conducted  by  General  Polk,  covered 
Buell's  effective 
Perryville    was 


connoisance     in     force     was     now     made.  58,000,  of  whom  22,000  were  raw  troops. 

Bragg  was   stealthily   approaching,   being  He  lost  in  the  battle  4.348  men,  of  whom 

well  masked,  and  Cheatham's  division  fell  016  were  killed.     The  Confederate  loss  was 

suddenly  and  heavily  upon  McCook's  flank  estimated    at    about    the    same.       Bragg 

with  horrid  yells,  when  the  raw  and  out-  claimed  to  have  captured  fifteen  guns  and 

numbered  troops  of  General  Terrell  broke  400  prisoners.  It  is  believed  that  the  Con- 

and  fled.     General  Jackson  had  been  kill-  federates  lost  more  than   they  gained  by 


ed.  In  an  attempt  to  rally  his  troops, 
Terrell  was  mortally  wrounded.  When 
Terrell's  force  was  scattered,  the  Confed- 
erates fell  with  equal  weight  upon  Rous- 


seau's division.     An  attempt  to  destroy  it    Cumberland. 


their  plundering  raid.  Buell  was  soon 
superseded  in  command  by  General  Rose- 
crans,  and  the  name  of  the  Army  of  the 
Ohio   was    changed   to    the   Army  of   the 


was  met  by  Starkweather's  brigade  and 
the  batteries  of  Bush  and  Stone,  who 
maintained  their  positions  for  nearly 
three  hours,  until  the  ammunition  of 
both  infantry  and  artillery  was  nearly  ex- 


Personal  Liberty  Laws.  The  provi- 
sions of  the  fugitive  slave  law,  and  the 
danger  to  the  liberty  of  free  colored  citi' 
zens,  caused  several  States  to  pass  laws 
for  their  protection.     The  laws  of  Maine 


hausted.     Bush's  battery  had  lost  thirty-  provided  that  no  public  officer  of  the  State 

five  horses.    Meanwhile,  Rousseau's  troops  should   arrest   or   aid   in   so   doing,   or   in 

fought  stubbornly,  and  held  their  position  detaining  in  any  building  belonging  to  the 

while    resisting    Confederates    commanded  State,  or  any  county  or  town  within   it, 

by   Bragg  in   person.        The   Confederates  any  alleged  fugitive  slaves;   so  that  duty 

finally  made  a  fierce  charge  on  the  brigade  was    left    to    the    United    States    officers, 

of  Lytle,  hurling  it  back  with  heavy  loss.  The  laws  of  New  Hampshire  provided  that 

They  pressed   forward   to   Gilbert's   flank,  any  slave  coming  into  that  State  by  the 

held  by  Mitchell  and  Sheridan.     The  lat-  consent  of  the  master  should  be  free,  and 


ter  held  the  king-point  of  the  Union 
position.  He  quickly  turned  his  guns 
on  the  assailants,  when  Mitchell  sent 
Carlin's  brigade  to  the  support  of  Sheri-  United 
dan's  right.  This  force  charged  at  the 
double-quick,   broke  the   Confederate   line, 


declared  that  an  attempt  to  hold  any 
person  as  a  slave  within  the  State  was 
a  felony,  unless  done  by  an  officer  of  the 


process, 
of    the 


States   in   the   execution   of   legal 

This  was  to   relieve  the  people 

dutv    of    becoming    slave-catchers 


and  drove  them  through  Perryville  to  the  by  command  of  the  United  States  officers, 

protection  of  their  batteries  on  the  bluff  The    law   in   Vermont   provided    that   ju- 

beyond.  dicial  officers  of  the  State  should  take  no 

Meanwhile,    Colonel    Gooding's    brigade  cognizance  of  any  warrant  or  process  un- 

had  been  sent  to  the  aid  of  McCook,  and  der   the   fugitive   slave   law,   and   that   no 

fought    with    great    persistence    for    two  person  should  assist  in  the  removal  of  any 

hours  against  odds,  losing  fully  one-third  alleged    fugitive    from    the    State,    except- 

of  its  number,  its  commander  being  made  ing    United    States    officers.     It    also    or- 

prisoner.     General  Buell  did  not  know  the  dered   that   the   privilege   of   the   writ   of 

magnitude  of  the  battle  until  4  p.m.,  when  habeas  corpus,  and  a  trial  of  facts  by  a 

McCook  sent  a  request  for  reinforcements,  jury,  should  be  given  to  the  alleged  fugi- 

They   were    promptly    sent.     The    conflict  tive,  with  the  State's  attorney  for  coun- 

ended   at  dark   in   a   victory  for   the   Na-  sel.     This     was     a     nullification     of     the 

tionals,  the  Confederates  having  been  re-  fugitive    slave   law.      The   law   in   Massa- 

pulsed  at  all  points,  and  during  the  night  chusetts  provided  for  trial  by  jury  of  al- 
vn. — k                                               145 


PETERS 

leged  fugitive  slaves,  who  might  have  the  procure  an  alteration  in  the  navigation 
services  of  any  attorney.  It  forbade  the  laws,  and  had  several  interviews  with 
issuing  of  any  process  under  the  fugitive  Charles  I.  He  preached  to  and  commanded 
slave  law  by  any  legal  officer  in  the  a  regiment  of  Parliamentary  troops  in 
State,  or  "  to  do  any  official  act  in  fur-  Ireland  in  1649,  and  afterwards  held  civil 
therance  of  the  execution  of  the  fugitive  offices.  After  the  restoration  he  was  corn- 
slave  law  of  1793  or  that  of  1850."  It  mitted  to  the  Tower,  and  on  Oct.  16,  1660, 
forbade  the  use  of  any  prison  in  the  State  Avas  beheaded  for  high  treason,  as  having 
for  the  same  purpose.  All  public  offi-  been  concerned  in  the  death  of  Charles  I. 
cers  were  forbidden  to  assist  in  the  arrest  Jfe  wrote  a  work  called  A  Good  Work  for 
of  alleged  fugitive  slaves,  and  no  officer  in  a  Good  Magistrate,  in  1651,  in  which  he 
the  State,  acting  as  United  States  com-  recommended  burning  the  historical  rec- 
missioner,  was  allowed  to  issue  any  war-  ords  in  the  Tower. 

rant,  excepting  for  the  summoning  of  Peters,  Richard,  jurist;  born  near 
witnesses,  nor  allowed  to  hear  and  try  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Aug.  22,  1744;  was  a 
any  cause  under  the  law.  This,  also,  was  distinguished  lawyer,  a  good  German 
a  virtual  nullification  of  the  fugitive  scholar,  and  a  bright  wit.  At  the  begin- 
elave  law.  The  law  in  Connecticut  was  ning  of  the  Revolutionary  War  he  corn- 
intended  only  to  prevent  the  kidnapping  manded  a  company,  but  Congress  placed 
of  free  persons  of  color  within  its  borders,  him  with  the  board  of  war,  of  which  he 
by  imposing  a  heavy  penalty  upon  those  was  made  secretary  in  June,  1776,  and 
who  should  cause  to  be  arrested  any  free  served  as  such  until  December,  1781.  In 
colored  person  with  the  intent  to  reduce  1782-83  he  was  a  member  of  Congress, 
him  or  her  to  slavery.  The  law  in  Rhode  and  from  1789  until  his  death  he  was 
Island  forbade  the  carrying  away  of  any  United  States  district  judge  of  Penn- 
person  by  force  out  of  the  State,  and  pro-  sylvania.  The  country  is  indebted  to 
vided  that  no  public  officer  should  official-  Judge  Peters  for  the  introduction  of 
ly  aid  in  the  execution  of  the  fugitive  gypsum  as  a  fertilizer.  In  1797  he  pub- 
slave  law,  and  denied  the  use  of  the  lished  an  account  of  his  experience  with 
jails  for  that  purpose.  Neither  New  it  on  his  own  farm.  He  was  president 
York,  New  Jersey,  nor  Pennsylvania  pass-  of  the  Philadelphia  Agricultural  So- 
ed  any  laAvs  on  the  subject,  their  statute-  ciety.  He  died  at  his  birthplace,  Aug. 
books  already  containing  acts  which  they  22,  1828. 

deemed  sufficient  to  meet  the  case.     The        Peters,    Samuel    Andrew,    clergyman; 

law   in   Michigan    secured    to    the    person  born    in    Hebron,    Conn.,    Dec.    12,    1735; 

arrested  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  graduated   at   Yale   College   in    1757;    be- 

corpus,  a  trial  by  jury,  and  the  employ-  came  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 

ment  of  the  State's  attorney  as   counsel,  land;    and    in    1762    took    charge    of    the 

It  denied  the  use  of  the  jails  in  the  execu-  Episcopal  churches  at  Hebron  and  Hart- 

tion   of   the   fugitive   slave   law,   and   im-  lord.     He  opposed  the  movements  of  the 

posed  a  heavy  penalty  for  the  arrest  of  patriots;     became    exceedingly    obnoxious 

free    colored    persons    as    fugitive    slaves,  to  them;  and  in  1774  was  obliged  to  flee 

The  law  in  Wisconsin  was  precisely  like  to    England.      In    1781    he    published    A 

that  of  Michigan.     The  remainder  of  the  General    History    of    Connecticut,    which 

free-labor    States   refrained   from   passing  has  been  characterized  as  the  "  most  un- 

any  laws  on  the  subject.  scrupulous  and  malicious  of  lying  narra- 

Peters,     Hugh,     clergyman;     born     in  fives."     In  it  he  gave  pretended  extracts 

Fowey,  Cornwall,  England,  in   1599 ;   wa?  from    the    "  blue    laws,"    and    the    whole 

both  a  clergyman  and  politician,  and  after  narrative  shows  an  "  independence  of  time, 

imprisonment  for  non-conformity  he  went  place,  and  probabilities."     In  1794  he  was 

to  Rotterdam,  where  he  preached  several  chosen  bishop  of  Vermont,  but  was  never 

years.     He  came  to  New  England  in  1635,  consecrated.     In   1805  he  returned  to  the 

succeeded    Eoger    Williams    as    pastor    at  I  nited    States,    and    towards    the    latter 

Salem,  and  excommunicated  his  adherents,  years  of  his  life  he  lived  in  obscurity  in 

In  politics  and  commerce  he  was  equally  New  York  City,  where  he  died,  April  19, 

active.    In  1641  he  sailed  for  England,  to  1826. 

146 


PETERSBURG 


Petersburg.  This  city,  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Appomattox  River,  about  20 
iniles  from  Richmond,  and  15  from  City 
Point,  was  occupied,  in  the  summer  of 
1864,  by  a  large  Confederate  force,  who 
cast  up  strong  intrenchments  upon  its  ex- 
posed sides.  When  the  Army  of  the  Po- 
tomac was  led  to  the  south  side  of  the 
James  River  (June  14-16),  it  began  imme- 
diate operations  against  Petersburg,  which 
was  then  the  strong  defence  of  Richmond. 
Butler,  at  Bermuda  Hundred,  was  very 
securely  intrenched.  Grant  sent  General 
Smith's  troops  quickly  back  to  him  after 
the  battle  at  Cold  Harbor  ( q.  v. ) ,  and 
directed  him  to  co-operate  with  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  in  an  attempt  to  capture 
Petersburg.  On  June  10  Butler  sent 
10,500  men,  under  Gillmore,  and  1,500 
cavalry,  under  Kautz,  to  attack  the  Con- 
federates at  Petersburg;  at  the  same  time 
two  gunboats  went  up  the  Appomattox  to 
bombard  an  earthwork  a  little  below  the 
city.     The  troops  crossed  the  Appomattox 


4  miles  above  City  Point,  and  marched  on 
Petersburg,  while  Kautz  swept  round  to 
attack  on  the  south.  The  enterprise  was 
a  failure,  and  the  Nationals  retired.  Five 
days  later  there  was  another  attempt  to 
capture  Petersburg.  Smith  arrived  at 
Bermuda  Hundred  with  his  troops  on 
June  14,  and  pushed  on  to  the  front  of  the 
defences  of  Petersburg,  northeastward  of 
the  city.  These  were  found  to  be  very 
formidable  and,  ignorant  of  what  forces 
lay  behind  these  works,  he  proceeded  so 
cautiously  that  it  was  near  sunset  (June 
15),  before  he  was  prepared  for  an  assault. 
The  Confederates  were  driven  from  their 
strong  line  of  rifle-pits. 

Pushing  on,  Smith  captured  a  powerful 
salient,  four  redoubts,  and  a  connecting 
line  of  intrenchments  about  2V.,  miles  in 
extent,  with  15  guns  and  300  prisoners. 
Two  divisions  of  Hancock's  corps  had  come 
up,  and  rested  upon  their  arms  within  the 
works  just  captured.  While  these  troops 
were  reposing,  nearly  the  whole  of  Lee's 


ATTACKING  THE  CONFEDERATE  INTRENCHMENTS. 

147 


PETERSBURG 


army  were  crossing  the  James  River  at 
Richmond,  and  troops  were  streaming 
down  towards  Petersburg  to  assist  in  its 
defence,  and  during  the  night  (June  15- 
16)  very  strong  works  were  thrown  up. 
The  coveted  prize  was  lost.  Twenty-four 
hours  before,  Petersburg  might  have  been 
easily  taken ;  now  it  defied  the  Nationals, 
and  endured  a  most  distressing  siege  for 
ten  months  longer.  At  the  middle  of  June, 
a  large  portion  of  the  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia  was  holding  the  city  and  the  sur- 
rounding intrenchments,  and  a  great  part 
of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  with  the  com- 
mand of  Smith  upon  its  right,  confronted 
the  Confederates.  On  the  evening  of  the 
16th  a  heavy  bombardment  was  opened 
upon  the  Confederate  works,  and  was  kept 
up  until  6  a.m.  the  next  day.  Birney,  of 
Hancock's  corps,  stormed  and  carried  a 
redoubt  on  his  front,  but  Burnside's  corps 
could  make  no  impression  for  a  long  time, 
in  the  face  of  a  murderous  fire.  There 
was  a  general  advance  of  the  Nationals, 
but  at  a  fearful  cost  of  life.  At  dawn 
General  Potter's  division  of  Burnside's 
corps  charged  upon  the  works  in  their 
front,  carried  them,  and  captured  four 
guns  and  400  men.  He  was  relieved  by 
General  Ledlie's  column,  which  advanced 
to  within  half  a  mile  of  the  city,  and  held 


Beauregard's  lines,  and  destroy  and  hold, 
if  possible,  the  railway  in  that  vicinity. 
He  had  gained  possession  of  the  track,  and 
was  proceeding  to  destroy  it,  when  he  was 
attacked  by  a  division  of  Longstreet's 
corps,  on  its  way  from  Richmond  to  Peters- 
burg. Terry  was  driven  back  to  the  in- 
trenchments at  Bermuda  Hundred  before 
aid  could  reach  him.  On  the  morning  of 
the  17th  the  7th  and  9th  Corps  renewed 
the  attack  upon  the  works  at  Petersburg, 
when  the  hill  upon  which  Fort  Steadman 
was  afterwards  built  was  carried  and  held 
by  the  former.  Another  attack  was  made 
by  the  9th  Corps  in  the  afternoon,  and  a 
severe  battle  began,  and  continued  until 
night,  with  great  slaughter.  Desperate 
attempts  had  been  made  to  recapture  what 
the  Confederates  had  lost,  and  that  night 
a  heavy  Confederate  force  drove  back  the 
9th  (Burnside's)  Corps.  A  general  as- 
sault was  made  on  the  18th,  with  dis- 
aster to  the  Nationals,  who  were  repulsed 
at  every  point. 

Then,  after  a  loss  of  nearly  10,000  men, 
further  attempts  to  take  Petersburg  by 
storm  were  abandoned  for  a  while,  and 
Grant  prepared  for  a  regular  siege.  He 
at  once  began  intrenching,  and  to  extend 
his  left  in  the  direction  of  the  Peters- 
bui-g  and  Weldon  Railway,  which  he  de- 


TEARWG   UP   THE   RAILROAD. 


a  position  from  which  shells  might  be  cast 
^nto  the  town.  They  were  driven  back 
with  great  loss. 

On   the   same   day    (June    16)    General 
Butler    sent   out   General   Terry   to   force 


sired  to  seize,  and  thus  envelop  Peters- 
burg with  his  army.  He  moved  the  corps 
of  Hancock  and  Wright  stealthily  to  the 
left,  to  attempt  to  turn  the  Confederate 
right.      The    former    was     pushed    back. 


148 


PETERSBURG 


SCENE  AT  THE  SIEGE  OF  PETERSBURG. 


On  the  following  morning  (June  22)  the  a  cavalry  force  under  Fitzhugh  Lee. 
Nationals  were  attacked  by  divisions  of  Kautz  pushed  on,  and  tore  up  the  track 
the  corps  of  A.  P.  Hill,  driving  back  a  of  the  Southside  and  Danville  railways, 
portion  of  them  with  heavy  loss.  At  sun-  at  and  near  their  junction.  The  united 
set  Meade  came  up  and  ordered  both  forces  destroyed  the  Danville  road  to  the 
corps  to  advance  and  retake  what  had  Staunton  River,  where  they  were  con- 
been  lost.  It  was  done,  when  Hill  retired  fronted  by  a  large  force  of  Confederates, 
with  2,500  prisoners.  The  next  morning  They  were  compelled  to  fight  their  way 
Hancock  and  Wright  advanced,  and  reach-  back  to  Reams's  Station,  on  the  Weldon 
ed  the  Weldon  road  without  much  oppo-  road,  which  they  had  left  in  the  posses- 
sitiou,  until  they  began  to  destroy  it,  sion  of  the  Nationals;  but  they  found  the 
when  a  part  of  Hill's  corps  drove  off  the  cavalry  of  Wade  Hampton  there,  and  a 
destroyers.  The  National  line  had  now  considerable  body  of  Confederate  infan- 
been  extended  to  the  Weldon  road.    Mean-  try. 

while  a    cavalry  expedition,   8,000   strong,  In     attempting     to     force     their     way 

under  Kautz  and  Wilson,  had  been  raid-  through    them,    the    Nationals    were    de- 

ing  upon  the  railways  leading  southward  feated,    with    heavy   loss,    and   they   made 

from  Petersburg,  the  latter  being  in  chief  their  way  sadly  back  to  camp  with  their 

command.     They   destroyed   the   buildings  terribly      shattered      army     of      troopers, 

at    Reams's    Station,    10    miles    south    of  Their  estimated  loss  during  the  raid  was 

Petersburg,    and    the    track    for    a    long  nearly  1.000  men. 

distance.      They    then    struck    the    South-  Now,  after  a  struggle  for  two  months, 

side    Railway,    and    destroyed    it    over    a  both   armies  were  willing  to   seek  repose, 

space  of  20  miles,  fighting  and  defeating  and   for    some   time   there   was    a   lull    in 

149 


PETERSBURG 

the  storm  of  strife.  The  Union  army  fully  50  feet  in  width,  and  from  20  to  30 
lay  in  front  of  a  formidable  line  of  re-  feet  in  depth.  The  fort,  its  guns,  and 
dans  and  redoubts,  with  lines  of  intrench-  other  munitions  of  war,  with  300  men, 
ments  and  abatis,  altogether  40  miles  were  thrown  high  in  air  and  annihilated, 
in  length,  extending  from  the  left  bank  Then  the  great  guns  of  the  Nationals  open- 
of  the  Appomattox  around  to  the  west-  ed  a  heavy  cannonade  upon  the  remainder 
ern  side  of  Petersburg,  and  to  and  across  of  the  Confederate  works,  with  precision 
the  James  to  -the  northeastern  side  of  and  fatal  effect,  all  along  the  line;  but, 
Richmond.  Within  eight  or  nine  weeks,  owing  partly  to  the  slowness  of  motion  of 
the  Union  army,  investing  Petersburg,  a  portion  of  the  assaulting  force,  the  re- 
had  lost,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prison-  suit  was  a  most  disastrous  failure  on  the 
ers,  about  70,000  men.  Reinforcements  part  of  the  assailants, 
had  kept  up  its  numbers,  but  not  the  A  fortnight  later  General  Grant  sent 
quality  of  its  materials.  Many  veterans  another  expedition  to  the  north  side  of 
remained,  but  a  vast  number  were  raw  the  James,  at  Deep  Bottom,  composed  of 
troops.  The  Nationals  continued  building  the  divisions  of  Birney  and  Hancock,  with 
fortifications  and  preparing  for  an  effect-  cavalry  under  Gregg.  They  had  sharp 
ive  siege.  Butler,  by  a  quick  movement,  engagements  with  the  Confederates  on 
had  thrown  Foster's  brigade  across  the  Aug.  13,  16,  and  18,  in  which  the  Nation- 
James  River  at  Deep  Bottom,  and  form-  als  lost  about  5,000  men  without  gaining 
ed  an  intrenched  camp  there,  within  10  any  special  advantage  excepting  the  in- 
miles  of  Richmond,  and  connected  with  cidental  one  of  giving  assistance  to  troops 
the  army  at  Bermuda  Hundred  by  a  pon-  sent  to  seize  the  Weldon  Railway  south 
toon  bridge.  By  this  movement  a  way  of  Petersburg.  This  General  Warren  ef- 
was  provided  to  move  heavy  masses  of  fected  on  Aug.  18.  Three  days  afterwards 
troops  to  the  north  side  of  the  James  he  repulsed  a  Confederate  force  which  at- 
at  a  moment's  warning,  if  desired.  Lee  tempted  to  recapture  the  portion  of  the 
met  this  by  laying  a  similar  bridge  at  road  held  by  the  Unionists;  and  on  the 
Drury's  Bluff.  By  the  close  of  July,  1864,  same  day  (Aug.  21)  General  Hancock, 
Grant  was  in  a  position  to  choose  his  who  had  returned  from  the  north  side  of 
method  of  warfare — whether  by  a  di-  the  James,  struck  the  Weldon  road  at 
rect  assault,  by  the  slower  process  of  a  Reams's  Station  and  destroyed  the  track 
regular  siege,  or  by  heavy  operations  on  for  some  distance.  The  Nationals  were 
the   flanks   of   the   Confederates.  finally  driven  from  the  road  with  consider- 

The  regular  siege  of  Petersburg  began  able  loss, 
in  July.  On  June  25  operations  were  For  a  little  more  than  a  month  after 
started  for  mining  under  the  Confederate  this  there  was  comparative  quiet  in  the 
forts  so  as  to  blow  them  up.  One  of  these  vicinity  of  Petersburg  and  Richmond. 
Mas  in  charge  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  The  National  troops  were  moved  simul- 
Pleasants,  who  completed  it  on  July  22.  taneously  towards  each  city.  General 
When  the  mine  was  ready  Grant  sent  Butler,  with  the  corps  of  Birney  and 
Hancock  to  assist  Foster  to  flank  the  Con-  Ord,  moved  upon  and  captured  Fort  Har- 
federates  at  Deep  Bottom,  and,  pushing  rison  on  Sept.  29.  These  troops  charged 
on  to  Chapin's  Bluff,  below  Drury's  upon  another  fort  near  by,  but  were  re- 
Bluff,  to  menace  Lee's  line  of  communi-  pulsed  with  heavy  loss.  Among  the  slain 
cations  across  the  river.  It  was  done;  was  General  Burnham,  and  Ord  was 
and,  to  meet  the  seeming  impending  dan-  severely  wounded.  In  honor  of  the  slain 
ger  to  Richmond,  Lee  withdrew  five  of  his  general  the  captured  works  were  named 
eight  remaining  divisions  on  the  south  Fort  Burnham.  In  these  assaults  the  gal- 
side  of  the  James,  between  the  27th  and  lantry  of  the  colored  troops  was  con- 
the  29th.  Grant's  opportunity  for  a  grand  spicuous.  Meanwhile,  Meade  had  sent 
assault  now  offered.  The  mine  under  one  Generals  Warren  and  Parke,  with  two 
of  the  principal  forts  was  exploded  early  divisions  of  troops  each,  to  attempt  the 
on  the  morning  of  July  30,  with  terrible  extension  of  the  National  left  to  the 
effect.  In  the  place  of  the  fort  was  left  Weldon  road  and  beyond.  It  was  a  feint 
a  crater  of  loose  earth,  200  feet  in  length,  in    favor    of    Butler's    movement    on    the 

150 


PETERSBURG 

north  side  of  the  James,  but  it  resulted  sum   would   be    fully    100,000   men.     The 

in  severe  fighting  on  Oct.   1   and  2,  with  Army  of  the   Potomac  had   captured   15,- 

varying  fortunes   for  both  parties.     Then  378     prisoners,     sixty-seven     colors,     and 

there  was  another  pause,  but  not  a  set-  thirty-two  guns.     They  had  lost  twenty- 


THE  KETURN  OP  THE  CAVALRY. 


tied  rest,  for  about  two  months,  when  the 
greater  portion  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  was  massed  on  the  Confederate 
right,  south  of  the  James.  On  Oct.  27 
they  assailed  Lee's  works  on  Hatcher's 
Run,  westward  of  the  Weldon  road,  where 
a  severe  struggle  ensued.  The  Nationals 
were  repulsed,  and,  on  the  29th,  they 
withdrew  to  their  intrenchments  in  front 
of  Petersburg.  Very  little  was  done  by 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  until  the  open- 
ing of  the  spring  campaign  of  1865.  The 
losses  of  that  army  had  been  fearful  dur- 
ing six  months,  from  the  beginning  of  May 
until  November,  1864.  The  aggregate 
number  in  killed,  wounded,  missing,  and 
prisoners  was  over  80,000  men,  of  whom 
nearly  10,000  were  killed  in  battle.  Add 
to  these  the  losses  of  the  Army  of  the 
James   during   the   same   period,   and   the 

1 


five  guns.  The  Confederates  had  lost,  in- 
cluding 15,000  prisoners,  about  40,000 
men. 

The  Army  of  the  Potomac  had  its  win- 
ter quarters  in  front  of  the  Army  of 
Northern  Virginia  in  1864-65.  The  left 
of  the  former  held  a  tight  grasp  upon 
the  Weldon  road,  while  the  Army  of  the 
James,  on  the  north  side  of  that  river, 
and  forming  the  right  of  the  besiegers  of 
Petersburg  and  Richmond,  had  its  pick- 
ets within  a  few  miles  of  the  latter  city. 
Sheridan,  at  the  same  time,  was  at  Kerns- 
town,  near  Winchester,  full  master  of  the 
Shenandoah  Valley  from  Harper's  Ferry 
to  Staunton.  Grant's  chief  business  dur- 
ing the  winter  was  to  hold  Lee  tightly 
while  Sherman,  Thomas,  and  Canby  were 
making  their  important  conquests,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  comprehensive  plan  of 
51 


PETERSBURG 

the  lieutenant-general.  The  leaders  in  the  Confederacy  to  obtain  a  law  to  that 
the  Confederate  government  at  Richmond  effect.  "Viewing  the  situation  calmly,  he 
contemplated  the  abandonment  of  Vir-  saw  no  hope  for  the  preservation  of  his 
ginia  and  the  concentration  of  the  troops  army  from  starvation  or  capture,  nor  for 
of  Lee  and  Johnson  south  of  the  Roanoke,  the  existence  of  the  Confederacy,  except  in 
The  politicians  of  Virginia  would  not  breaking  through  Grant's  lines  and  form- 
allow  such  a  movement,  nor  would  Lee  ing  a  junction  with  Johnston  in  North 
have  led  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  Carolina.  He  knew  such  a  movement 
out  of  that  State ;  so  President  Davis  would  be  perilous,  but  he  resolved  to  at- 
and  his  advisers  had  to  abandon  their  tempt  it;  and  he  prepared  for  a  retreat 
project.  Besides,  Grant  held  Lee  so  firm-  from  the  Appomattox  to  the  Roanoke, 
ly  that  he  had  no  free  choice  in  the  mat-  Grant  saw  symptoms  of  such  a  movement, 
ter.  and,  on  March  24,   18G5,  issued  an  order 

It  was  near  the  close  of  March,  1865,  for  a  general  forward  movement  on  the 
before  Grant  was  ready  for  a  general  29th.  On  the  25th  Lee's  army  attempted 
movement  against  Lee.  Early  in  Decern-  to  break  the  National  line  at  the  strong 
ber  Warren  had  seized  the  Weldon  road  point  of  Fort  Steadman,  in  front  of  the 
farther  south  than  had  yet  been  done.  9th  Corps.  They  also  assailed  Fort  Has- 
He  destroyed  it  (Dec.  7)  all  the  way  to  kell,  on  the  left  of  Fort  Steadman,  but 
the  Meherin  River,  meeting  with  little  were  repulsed.  These  were  sharp  but 
opposition.  A  few  weeks  later  there  fruitless  struggles  by  the  Confederates  to 
was  some  sharp  skirmishing  between  Con-  break  the  line.  The  grand  movement  of 
federate  gunboats  and  National  batteries  the  whole  National  army  on  the  29th  was 
near  Dutch  Gap  Canal.  A  little  later  a  begun  by  the  left,  for  the  purpose  of  turn- 
movement  was  made  on  the  extreme  left  ing  Lee's  right,  with  an  overwhelming 
of  the  Nationals  to  seize  the  Southside  force.  At  the  same  time  Sheridan  was 
Railway  and  to  develop  the  strength  of  approaching  the  Southside  Railway  to  de- 
Lee's  right.  The  entire  army  in  front  of  stroy  it.  Lee's  right  intrenched  lines  ex- 
Petersburg  received  marching  orders,  and,  tended  beyond  Hatcher's  Run,  and  against 
on  Feb.  6,  the  flanking  movement  began,  these  and  the  men  who  held  them  the 
After  a  sharp  fight  near  Hatcher's  Run,  turning  column  marched.  General  Ord, 
the  Nationals  permanently  extended  their  with  three  divisions  of  the  Army  of  the 
left  to  that  stream.  Grant  now  deter-  James,  had  been  drawn  from  the  north 
mined  to  cut  off  all  communication  with  side  of  that  river  and  transferred  to  the 
Richmond  north  of  that  city.  The  op-  left  of  the  National  lines  before  Peters- 
portunity  offered  towards  the  middle  of  burg.  The  remainder  of  Ord's  command 
February.  Lee  had  drawn  the  greater  por-  was  left  in  charge  of  General  Weitzel,  to 
tion  of  his  forces  from  the  Shenandoah  hold  the  extended  lines  of  the  Nationals, 
Valley,  and  Sheridan,  under  instructions,  fully  35  miles  in  length, 
made  a  grand  cavalry  raid  against  the  Sheridan  reached  Dinwiddie  Court-house 
northern  communications  with  the  Con-  towards  the  evening  of  March  29.  Early 
federate  capital,  and  especially  for  the  that  morning  the  corps  of  Warren  (5th) 
seizure  of  Lynchburg.  It  was  a  most  de-  and  Humphreys  (2d)  moved  on  parallel 
structive  march,  and  very  bewildering  to  roads  against  the  flank  of  the  Confed- 
.he  Confederates.  erates,     and,    when    within     2    miles    of 

This  raid,  the  junction  of  the  National  their  works,  encountered  a  line  of  battle, 
armies  in  North  Carolina,  and  the  opera-  A  sharp  fight  occurred,  and  the  Confed- 
tions  at  Mobile  and  in  Central  Alabama  erates  were  repulsed,  with  a  loss  of  many 
satisfied  Lee  that  he  could  no  longer  killed  and  wounded  and  100  made  prison- 
maintain  his  position,  unless,  by  some  ers.  Warren  lost  370  men.  Lee  now  fully 
means, his  army  Might  be  vastly  increased  comprehended  the  perils  that  menaced 
and  new  and  ample  resources  for  its  sup-  him.  The  only  line  of  communication 
ply  obtained.  He  had  recommended  the  with  the  rest  of  the  Confederacy  might 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  and  making  be  cut  at  any  hour.  He  also  perceived  the 
soldiers  of  them,  but  the  slave  interest  necessity  of  strengthening  his  right  to 
was  too  powerful  in  the  civil  councils  of    avert  the  impending  shock  of  battle ;  like- 

152 


PETERSBURG 


wise  of  maintaining  his  extended  line  of 
works  covering  Petersburg  and  Richmond. 
Not  aware  of  the  withdrawal  of  troops 
from  the  north  side  of  the  James,  he  left 
Longstreet's  corps,  8,000  strong,  to  defend 
Richmond.  Lee  had  massed  a  great  body 
of  his  troops — some  15,000 — at  a  point  in 
front  of  the  corps  of  Warren  and  Hum- 
phreys, the  former  on  the  extreme  right  of 
the  Confederates.  There  Lee  attempted 
(March  30)  to  break  through  the  National 
lines,  and  for  a  moment  his  success  seem- 
ed assured.  A  part  of  the  line  was  pushed 
back,  but  Griffin's  division  stood  firm  and 
stemmed  the  fierce  torrent,  while  Ayres 
and  Crawford  reformed  the  broken  col- 
umn.   Warren  soon  assumed  the  offensive, 


break.  Parke  carried  the  outer  line  of 
the  Confederate  works  in  his  front,  but 
was  checked  at  an  inner  line.  Wright 
drove  everything  before  him  to  the  Boyd- 
ton  plank-road,  where  he  turned  to  the 
left  towards  Hatcher's  Run,  and,  pressing 
along  the  rear  of  the  Confederate  in- 
trenchments,  captured  several  thousand 
men  and  many  guns.  Ord's  division  broke 
the  Confederate  division  on  Hatcher's 
Run,  when  the  combined  forces  swung 
round  to  the  right  and  pushed  towards 
Petersburg  from  the  southwest.  On  the 
same  day  the  Southside  Railway  was  first 
struck  at  three  points  by  the  Nationals, 
who  had  driven  the  Confederates  from 
their  intrenchments  and  captured  many. 


EVACUATION  OF  PKTERSBURG. 


made  a  countercharge,  and,  by  the  aid  of 
a  part  of  Hancock's  corps,  drove  back  the 
Confederates.  Lee  then  struck  another 
blow  at  a  supposed  weak  point  on  the 
extreme  left  of  the  Nationals,  held  by 
Sheridan.  A  severe  battle  ensued  (see 
Five  Forks,  Battle  of).  Both  parties 
lost  heavily. 

On  the  evening  of  the  same  day  all 
the  National  guns  in  front  of  Petersburg 
opened  on  the  Confederate  lines  from 
Appomattox  to  Hatcher's  Run.  Wright, 
Parke,  and  Ord,  holding  the  intrenchments 
at  Petersburg,  were  ordered  to  follow  up 
the  bombardment  with  an  assault.  The 
bombardment  was  kept  up  until  4  a.m. 
(April  2),  and  the  assault  began  at  day- 


This  achievement  effectually  cut  off  one 
of  Lee's  most  important  communications. 
Gibbon's  division  of  Ord's  command 
captured  two  strong  redoubts  south  of 
Petersburg.  In  this  assault  Gibbon  lost 
about  500  men.  The  Confederates  were 
now  confined  to  an  inner  line  of  works 
close  around  Petersburg.  Longstreet  went 
to  the  help  of  Lee,  and  the  latter  ordered 
a  charge  to  be  made  to  recover  some  of 
the  lost  intrenchments.  It  failed ;  and 
so  ended  the  really  last  blow  struck  for 
the  defence  of  Richmond  by  Lee's  army. 
Gen.  A.  P.  Hill,  one  of  Lee's  best  offi- 
cers, was  shot  dead  while  reconnoitring. 
Lee  now  perceived  that  he  could  no  longer 
hold  Petersburg  or  the  capital  with  safety 


15C 


PETERSON— PETITION    OF    RIGHT 


to  his  army.  At  10.30  on  Sunday  morn- 
ing (April  2)  he  telegraphed  to  the  gov- 
ernment at  Richmond:  "My  lines  are 
broken  in  three  places;  Richmond  must 
be  evacuated  this  evening."  Then  Lee's 
troops  withdrew  from  Petersburg,  and  the 
struggle  there  ended. 

Peterson,  Chart.es  Jacobs,  author; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  20,  1819. 
His  publications  include  The  Military 
Heroes  of  the  Revolution,  xoith  a  Narra- 
tive of  the  War  of  Independence;  The 
Military  Heroes  of  the  War  of  1812  and 
of  the  War  with  Mexico ;  Grace  Dudley,  or 
Arnold,  at  Saratoga;  Cruising  in  the  Last 
War;  The  Naval  Heroes  of  the  United 
States,  etc.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
March  4,  1887. 

Petigru,  James  Lewis,  statesman ;  born 
in  Abbeville  district,  S.  C,  March  10, 
1789;  graduated  at  the  University  of 
South  Carolina  in  1809;  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1811.  He  was  an  opponent  of  nulli- 
fication in  1830,  and  of  secession  in  I860. 
A  Memoir  of  his  life  was  written  by 
William  J.  Grayson  and  published  in  1866. 
He  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  March  3, 
1863. 

Petition  of  Right,  The.  The  Petition 
of  Right  is  memorable  as  the  first  statu- 
tory restriction  of  the  powers  of  the 
crown  since  the  accession  of  the  Tudor 
dynasty.  Yet,  though  the  principles  laid 
down  in  it  had  the  widest  possible  bear- 
ing, its  remedies  were  not  intended  to 
apply  to  all  questions  which  had  arisen  or 
might  arise  between  the  crown  and  the 
Parliament,  but  merely  to  those  which  had 
arisen  since  Charles's  accession.  Parlia- 
ment had  waived,  for  the  present  at  least, 
the  consideration  of  Buckingham's  mis- 
conduct. It  had  also  waived  the  considera- 
tion of  the  question  of  impositions. 

The  motives  of  the  Commons  in  keeping 
silence  on  the  impositions  were  probably 
twofold.  In  the  first  place,  they  probably 
wished  to  deal  separately  with  the  new 
grievances,  because  in  dealing  with  them 
they  would  restrain  the  King's  power  to 
make  war  without  Parliamentary  consent. 
The  refusal  of  tonnage  and  poundage 
would  restrain  his  power  to  govern  in 
time  of  peace.  In  the  second  place,  they 
had  a  tonnage  and  poundage  bill  before 
them.  Such  a  bill  had  been  introduced 
into   each   of   the   preceding   Parliaments, 


but  in  each  case  an  early  dissolution  had 
hindered  its  consideration,  and  the  long 
debates  on  the  Petition  of  Right  now  made 
it  impossible  to  proceed  further  with  it 
in  the  existing  session.  Yet,  for  three 
years  the  King  had  been  collecting  ton- 
nage and  poundage,  just  as  he  collected 
the  impositions — that  is  to  say,  as  if  he 
had  no  need  of  a  Parliamentary  grant. 
The  Commons  therefore  proposed  to  save 
the  right  of  Parliament  by  voting  ton- 
nage and  poundage  for  a  single  year,  and 
to  discuss  the  matter  at  length  the  follow- 
ing session.  When  the  King  refused  to 
accept  this  compromise  they  had  recourse 
to  the  bold  assertion  that  the  Petition  of 
Right  had  settled  the  question  in  their 
favor.  Charles  answered  by  proroguing 
Parliament,  and  took  occasion  in  so  doing 
to  repudiate  the  doctrine  which  they  ad- 
vanced.— Gardiner. 


June  7,  1628. 
The  Petition  exhibited  to  His  Majesty  by 
the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and 
Commons  in  this  present  Parliament  as- 
sembled, concerning  divers  Rights  and 
Liberties  of  the  Subjects,  with  the 
King's  Majesty's  Royal  Answer  there^ 
unto  in  full  Parliament. 
To  the  King's  Most  Excellent  Majesty. 

Humbly  show  unto  our  Sovereign  Lord 
the  King,  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Tem- 
poral, and  Commons  in  Parliament  as- 
sembled, that  whereas  it  is  declared  and 
enacted  by  a  statute  made  in  the  time  of 
the  reign  of  King  Edward  the  First,  com- 
monly called,  Statutum  de  Tallagio  non 
concedendo*  that  no  tallage  or  aid  shall' 
be  laid  or  levied  by  the  King  or  his  heirs 
in  this  realm,  without  the  goodwill  and 
assent  of  the  Archbishops,  Bishops,  Earls, 
Barons,  Knights,  Burgesses,  and  other  the 
freemen  of  the  commonalty  of  this  realm; 
and  by  authority  of  Parliament  holden  in 
ihe  five  and  twentieth  year  of  the  reign 
of  King  Edward  the  Third,  it  is  declared 
and  enacted,  that  from  thenceforth  no  per- 
son shall  be  compelled  to  make  any  loans 
to  the  King  against  his  will,  because  such 
loans  were  against  reason  and  the  fran- 
chise of  the  land;  and  by  other  laws  of 
this  realm  it  is  provided,  that  none  should 


154 


*  This  is  now  held  not  to  have  been  a 
statute.  See  Gardiner's  Documents  of  the 
Puritan  Revolution,  page   1. 


PETITION    OF    RIGHT,    THE 


be  charged  by  any  charge  or  imposition, 
called  a  Benevolence,  or  by  such  like 
charge,  by  which  the  statutes  before-men- 
tioned, and  other  the  good  laws  and  stat- 
utes of  this  realm,  your  subjects  have  in- 
herited this  freedom,  that  they  should  not 
be  compelled  to  contribute  to  any  tax, 
tallage,  aid,  or  other  like  charge,  not  set 
by  common  consent  in  Parliament: 

Yet  nevertheless,  of  late  divers  com- 
missions directed  to  sundry  Commissioners 
in  several  counties  with  instructions  have 
issued,  by  means  whereof  your  people  have 
been  in  divers  places  assembled,  and  re- 
quired to  lend  certain  sums  of  money 
upon  your  Majesty,  and  many  of  them 
upon  their  refusal  so  to  do,  have  had  an 
oath  administered  unto  them,  not  war- 
rantable by  the  laws  or  statutes  of  this 
realm,  and  have  been  constrained  to  be- 
come bound  to  make  appearance  and  give 
attendance  before  your  Privy  Council,  and 
in  other  places,  and  others  of  them  have 
been  therefore  imprisoned,  confined,  and 
sundry  other  ways  molested  and  dis- 
quieted: and  divers  other  charges  have 
been  laid  and  levied  upon  your  people  in 
several  counties,  by  Lords  Lieutenants, 
Deputy  Lieutenants.  Commissioners  for 
Musters,  Justices  of  Peace  and  others,  by 
command  or  direction  from  your  Majesty 
or  your  Privy  Council,  against  the  laws 
and  free  customs  of  this  realm: 

And  where  also  by  the  statute  called, 
"  The  Great  Charter  of  the  Liberties  of 
England,"  it  is  declared  and  enacted,  that 
no  freeman  may  be  taken  or  imprisoned 
or  be  disseised  of  his  freeholds  or  liber- 
ties, or  his  free  customs,  or  be  outlawed 
or  exiled;  or  in  any  manner  destroyed, 
but  by  the  lawful  judgment  of  his  peers, 
or  by  the  law  of  the  land: 

And  in  the  eight  and  twentieth  year  of 
the  reign  of  King  Edward  the  Third,  it 
was  declared  and  enacted  by  authority  of 
Parliament,  that  no  man  of  what  estate 
or  condition  that  he  be,  should  be  put  out 
of  his  lands  or  tenements,  nor  taken,  nor 
imprisoned,  nor  disinherited,  nor  put  to 
death,  without  being  brought  to  answer 
by  due  process  of  law: 

Nevertheless,  against  the  tenor  of  the 
said  statutes,  and  other  the  good  laws  and 
statutes  of  your  realm,  to  that  end  pro- 
vided, divers  of  your  subjects  have  of  late 
been  imprisoned  without  any  cause  show- 


ed, and  when  for  their  deliverance  they 
were  brought  before  your  Justices,  by 
your  Majesty's  writs  of  Habeas  Corpus, 
there  to  undergo  and  receive  as  the  Court 
should  order,  and  their  keepers  command- 
ed to  certify  the  causes  of  their  detainer; 
no  cause  was  certified,  but  that  they  were 
detained  by  your  Majesty's  special  com- 
mand, signified  by  the  Lords  of  your 
Privy  Council,  and  yet  were  returned  back 
to  several  prisons,  without  being  charged 
with  anything  to  which  they  might  make 
answer  according  to  the  law: 

And  whereas  ol  late  great  companies  of 
soldiers  and  mariners  have  been  dispersed 
into  divers  counties  of  the  realm,  and  the 
inhabitants  against  their  wills  have  been 
compelled  to  receive  them  into  their 
houses,  and  there  to  suffer  them  to  so- 
journ, against  the  laws  and  customs  of 
this  realm,  and  to  the  great  grievance  and 
vexation  of  the  people: 

And  whereas  also  by  authority  of  Par- 
liament, in  the  25th  year  of  the  reign  of 
King  Edward  the  Third,  it  is  declared 
and  enacted,  that  no  man  shall  be  fore- 
judged of  life  or  limb  against  the  form 
of  the  Great  Charter,  and  the  law  of  the 
land:  and  by  the  said  Great  Charter  and 
other  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your 
realm,  no  man  ought  to  be  adjudged  to 
death;  but  by  the  laws  established  in  this 
your  realm,  either  by  the  customs  of  the 
same  realm  or  by  Acts  of  Parliament:  and 
whereas  no  offender  of  what  kind  soever 
is  exempted  from  the  proceedings  to  be 
used,  and  punishments  to  be  inflicted  by 
the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm: 
nevertheless  of  late  divers  commissions 
under  your  Majesty's  Great  Seal  have 
issued  forth,  by  which  certain  persons 
have  been  assigned  and  appointed  Com- 
missioners with  power  and  authority  to 
proceed  within  the  land,  according  to  the 
justice  of  marticl  law  against  such  sol- 
diers and  mariners,  or  other  dissolute 
persons  joining  with  them,  as  should  com- 
mit any  murder,  robbery,  felony,  mutiny, 
or  other  outrage  or  misdemeanour  whatso- 
ever, and  by  such  summary  course  and 
order,  as  is  agreeable  to  martial  law,  and 
is  used  in  armies  in  time  of  war,  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  trial  and  condemnation  of 
such  offenders,  and  them  to  cause  to  be 
executed  and  put  to  death,  according  to 
the  law  martial: 


155 


PETITION    OF    RIGHT,    THE 


By  pretext  whereof,  some  of  your  Maj- 
esty's subjects  have  been  by  some  of  the 
said  Commissioners  put  to  death,  when 
and  where,  if  by  the  laws  and  statutes 
of  the  land  they  had  deserved  death,  by  the 
same  laws  and  statutes  also  they  might, 
and  by  no  other  ought  to  have  been,  ad- 
judged and  executed: 

And  also  sundry  grievous  offenders  by 
colour  thereof,  claiming  an  exemption, 
have  escaped  the  punishments  due  to 
them  by  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your 
realm,  by  reason  that  divers  of  your  offi- 
cers and  ministers  of  justice  have  un- 
justly refused,  or  forborne  to  proceed 
against  such  offenders  according  to  the 
same  laws  and  statutes,  upon  pretence 
that  the  said  offenders  were  punishable 
only  by  martial  law,  and  by  authority  of 
such  commissions  as  aforesaid,  which  com- 
missions, and  all  other  of  like  nature,  are 
wholly  and  directly  contrary  to  the  said 
laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm: 

They  do  therefore  humbly  pray  your 
Most  Excellent  Majesty,  that  no  man 
hereafter  be  compelled  to  make  or  yield 
any  gift,  loan,  benevolence,  tax,  or  such 
like  charge,  without  common  consent  by 
Act  of  Parliament;  and  that  none  be 
called  to  make  answer,  or  take  such  oath, 
or  to  give  attendance,  or  be  confined,  or 
otherwise  molested  or  disquieted  concern- 
ing the  same,  or  for  refusal  thereof;  and 
that  no  freeman,  in  any  such  manner  as 
is  before-mentioned,  be  imprisoned  or  de- 
tained; and  that  your  Majesty  will  be 
pleased  to  remove  the  said  soldiers  and 
mariners,  and  that  your  people  may  not 
be  so  burdened  in  time  to  come;  and  that 
the  foresaid  commissions  for  proceeding 
by  martial  law,  may  be  revoked  and  an- 
nulled; and  that  hereafter  no  commissions 
of  like  nature  may  issue  forth  to  any  per- 
son or  persons  whatsoever,  to  be  executed 
as  aforesaid,  lest  by  colour  of  them  any  of 
your  Majesty's  subjects  be  destroyed  or 
put  to  death,  contrary  to  the  laws  and 
franchise  of  the  land. 

All  which  they  most  humbly  pray  of 
your  Most  Excellent  Majesty,  as  their 
lights  and  liberties  according  to  the  laws 
and  statutes  of  this  realm:  and  that  your 
Majesty  would  also  vouchsafe  to  declare, 
that  the  awards,  doings,  and  proceedings 
to  the  prejudice  of  your  people,  in  any  of 
the  premises,  shall  not  be  drawn  hereafter 


into  consequence  or  example:  and  that 
your  Majesty  would  be  also  graciously 
pleased,  for  the  further  comfort  and  safety 
of  your  people,  to  declare  your  royal  will 
and  pleasure,  that  in  the  things  afore- 
said all  your  officers  and  ministers  shall 
serve  you,  according  to  the  laws  and  stat- 
utes of  this  realm,  as  they  tender  the 
honour  of  your  Majesty,  and  the  pros- 
perity of  this  kingdom. 

[Which  Petition  being  read  the  2nd  of 
June  1628,  the  King's  answer  was  thus 
delivered  unto  it. 

The  King  willeth  that  right  be  done  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  and  customs  of  the 
realm;  and  that  the  statutes  be  put  in 
due  execution,  that  his  subjects  may  have 
no  cause  to  complain  of  any  wrong  or 
oppressions,  contrary  to  their  just  rights 
and  liberties,  to  the  preservation  whereof 
he  holds  himself  as  well  obliged  as  of  his 
prerogative. 

On  June  7  the  answer  was  given  in  the 
accustomed  form,  Soit  droit  fait  comme 
il  est  desire.'] 

TnE  Eemonstrance  against  Tonnage 
and  Poundage. 

June  25,  1628. 
Most  Gracious  Sovereign,  your  Maj- 
esty's most  loyal  and  dutiful  subjects,  the 
Commons  in  this  present  Parliament  as- 
sembled, being  in  nothing  more  careful 
than  of  the  honour  and  prosperity  of  your 
Majesty,  and  the  kingdom,  which  they 
know  do  much  depend  upon  that  happy 
union  and  relation  betwixt  your  Majesty 
and  your  people,  do  with  much  sorrow 
apprehend,  that  by  reason  of  the  incer-1 
tainty  of  their  continuance  together,  the 
unexpected  interruptions  which  have  been 
cast  upon  them,  and  the  shortness  of  time 
in  which  your  Majesty  hath  determined  to 
end  this  Session,  they  cannot  bring  to  ma- 
turity and  perfection  divers  businesses  of 
weig^i-,  which  they  have  taken  into  their 
consideration  and  resolution,  as  most  im- 
portant for  the  common  good:  amongst 
other  things  they  have  taken  into  especial 
care  the  preparing  of  a  Bill  for  the  grant- 
ing of  your  Majesty  such  a  subsidy  of 
lonnage  and  Poundage,  as  might  uphold 
your  profit  and  revenue  in  as  ample  a 
manner  as  their  just  care  and  respect  of 
trade  (wherein  not  only  the  prosperity, 
but  even  the  life  of  the  kingdom  doth  con- 


156 


PETITION    OF    RIGHT,    THE 


sist)  would  permit:  but  being  a  work 
which  will  require  much  time,  and  prep- 
aration by  conference  with  your  Majesty's 
officers,  and  with  the  merchants,  not  only 
of  London,  but  of  other  remote  parts, 
they  find  it  not  possible  to  be  accomplish- 
ed at  this  time:  wherefore  considering  it 
will  be  much  more  prejudicial  to  the  right 
of  the  subject,  if  your  Majesty  should 
continue  to  receive  the  same  without  au- 
thority of  law,  after  the  determination  of 
a  Session,  than  if  there  had  been  a  recess 
by  adjournment  only,  in  which  case  that 
intended  grant  would  have  related  to  the 
first  day  of  the  Parliament;  and  assuring 
themselves  that  yovir  Majesty  is  resolved 
to  observe  that  your  royal  answer,  which 
you  have  lately  made  to  the  Petition  of 
Pight  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament;  yet 
doubting  lest  your  Majesty  may  be  mis- 
informed concerning  this  particular  case, 
as  if  you  might  continue  to  take  those 
subsidies  of  Tonnage  and  Poundage,  and 
other  impositions  upon  merchants,  with- 
out breaking  that  answer,  they  are  forced 
by  that  duty  which  they  owe  to  your  Maj- 
esty, and  to  those  whom  they  represent, 
to  declare,  that  there  ought  not  any  im- 
position to  be  laid  upon  the  goods  of  mer- 
chants, exported  or  imported,  without 
common  consent  by  Act  of  Parliament, 
which  is  the  right  and  inheritance  of  your 
subjects,  founded  not  only  upon  the  most 
ancient  and  original  constitution  of  this 
kingdom,  but  often  confirmed  and  de- 
clared in  divers  statute  laws. 

And  for  the  better  manifestation  there- 
of, may  it  please  your  Majesty  to  under- 
stand, that  although  your  royal  prede- 
cessors the  Kings  of  this  realm  have  often 
had  such  subsidies,  and  impositions  grant- 
ed unto  them,  upon  divers  occasions,  espe- 
cially for  the  guarding  of  the  seas,  and 
safe-guard  of  merchants;  yet  the  subjects 
have  been  ever  careful  to  use  such  cau- 
tions, and  limitations  in  those  grants,  as 
might  prevent  any  claim  to  be  made,  that 
such  subsidies  do  proceed  from  duty,  and 
not  from  the  free  gift  of  the  subjects: 
and  that  they  have  heretofore  used  to  limit 
a  time  in  such  grants,  and  for  the  most 
part  but  short,  as  for  a  year  or  two,  and 
if  it  were  continued  longer,  they  have 
sometimes  directed  a  certain  space  of 
cessation,  or  intermission,  that  so  the 
right  of  the  subject  might  be  more  evi- 

1 


dent.  At  other  times  it  hath  been  grant- 
ed upon  occasion  of  war,  for  a  certain 
number  of  years,  with  proviso,  that  if  the 
war  were  ended  in  the  meantime,  then  the 
grant  should  cease;  and  of  course  it  hath 
been  sequestered  into  the  hands  of  some 
subjects  to  be  employed  for  the  guarding 
of  the  seas.  And  it  is  acknowledged  by 
the  ordinary  answers  of  your  Majesty's 
predecessors  in  their  assent  to  the  Bills 
of  subsidies  of  Tonnage  and  Poundage, 
that  it  is  of  the  nature  of  other  subsidies, 
proceeding  from  the  goodwill  of  the  sub- 
ject. Very  few  of  your  predecessors  had 
it  for  life,  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VII,* 
who  was  so  far  from  conceiving  he  had 
any  right  thereunto,  that  although  he 
granted  commissions  for  collecting  cer- 
tain duties  and  customs  due  by  law,  yet 
he  made  no  commissions  for  receiving  the 
subsidy  of  Tonnage  and  Poundage,  until 
the  same  was  granted  unto  him  in  Parlia- 
ment. Since  his  time  all  the  Kings  and 
Queens  of  this  realm  have  had  the  like 
giants  for  life  by  the  free  love  and  good- 
will of  the  subjects.  And  whensoever  the 
people  have  been  grieved  by  laying  any 
impositions  or  other  charges  upon  their 
goods  and  merchandises  without  authority 
of  law  (which  hath  been  very  seldom), 
yet  upon  complaint  in  Parliament  they 
have  been  forthwith  relieved;  saving  in 
the  time  of  your  royal  father,  who  having 
through  ill  counsel  raised  the  rates  and 
charges  upon  merchandises  to  that  height 
at  which  they  now  are,  yet  he  was  pleased 
so  far  forth  to  yield  to  the  complaint  of 
his  people,  as  to  offer  that  if  the  value  of 
those  impositions  which  he  had  set  might 
be  made  good  unto  him,  he  would  bind 
himself  and  his  heirs  by  Act  of  Parliament 
never  to  lay  any  other;  which  offer  the 
Commons  at  that  time,  in  regard  of  the 
great  burden,  did  not  think  fit  to  yield 
unto.  Nevertheless,  your  loyal  Commons 
in  this  Parliament,  out  of  their  especial 
zeal  to  your  service,  and  especial  regard 
of  your  pressing  occasions,  have  taken 
into  their  consideration,  so  to  frame  a 
grant  of  subsidy  of  Tonnage  or  Poundage 
to  your  Majesty,  that  both  you  might  have 
been  the  better  enabled  for  the  defence  of 
your  realm,   and  your  subjects,  by  being 

*  Tonnage  and  poundage  was  granted  for 
life  to  Edward  IV.  in  1464.  It  was  also 
granted  in  1483  to  Richard  III.  for  life. 

i)7 


PETITION    OF    RIGHT— PETREL 


secure  from  all  undue  charges,  be  the 
more  encouraged  cheerfully  to  proceed 
in  their  course  of  trade;  by  the  increase 
whereof  your  Majesty's  profit,  and  like- 
wise the  strength  of  the  kingdom  would 
be  very  much  augmented. 

But  not  now  being  able  to  accomplish 
this  their  desire,  there  is  no  course  left 
unto  them,  without  manifest  breach  of 
their  duty,  both  to  your  Majesty  and 
their  country,  save  only  to  make  thi3 
humble  declaration,  "  That  the  receiving 
of  Tonnage  and  Poundage,  and  other  im- 
positions not  granted  by  Parliament,  is  a 
breach  of  the  fundamental  liberties  of  this 
kingdom,  and  contrary  to  your  Majesty's 
royal  answer  to  the  said  Petition  of 
Right."  And  therefore  they  do  most 
humbly  beseech  your  Majesty  to  forbear 
any  further  receiving  of  the  same,  and  not 
to  take  it  in  ill  part  from  those  of  your 
Majesty's  loving  subjects,  who  shall  re- 
fuse to  make  payment  of  any  such 
charges,  without  warrant  of  law  demanded. 

And  as  by  this  forbearance,  your  Most 
Excellent  Majesty  shall  manifest  unto  the 
world  your  royal  justice  in  the  observa- 
tion of  your  laws:  so  they  doubt  not,  but 
hereafter,  at  the  time  appointed  for  their 
coming  again,  they  shall  have  occasion 
to  express  their  great  desire  to  advance 
your  Majesty's  honour  and  profit. 

The  King's  Speech  at  the  Prorogation 

of    Parliament   at   the   end    of    the 

Session  of  1628. 

June  26,  1628. 

It  may  seem  strange,  that  I  came  so 
suddenly  to  end  this  Session ;  before  I  give 
my  assent  to  the  Bills,  I  will  tell  you  the 
cause,  though  I  must  avow,  that  I  owe 
the  account  of  my  actions  to  God  alone. 
It  is  known  to  every  one,  that  a  while  ago 
the  House  of  Commons  gave  me  a  Re- 
monstrance,* how  acceptable  every  man 
may  judge;  and  for  the  merit  of  it,  I 
will  not  call  that  in  question,  for  I  am 
sure  no  wise  man  can  justify  it. 

Now  since  I  am  truly  informed,  that  a 
second  Remonstrance  is  preparing  for  me 
to  take  away  the  profit  of  my  Tonnage  and 
Poundage,    one    of    the    chiefest    mainte- 

*  A  general  remonstrance  on  the  misgovern- 
ment  of  the  kingdom,  in  which  Buckingham 
was  named  as  the  author  of  abuses,  had  been 
presented  to  the  King  on  June  17. 


nances  of  my  Crown,  by  alleging  I  have 
given  away  my  right  thereto  by  my  an- 
swer to  your  Petition: 

This  is  so  prejudicial  unto  me,  that  I 
am  forced  to  end  this  Session  some  few 
hours  before  I  meant,  being  not  willing 
to  receive  any  more  Remonstrances,  to 
which  1  must  give  a  harsh  answer.  And 
since  I  see  that  even  the  House  of  Com- 
mons begins  already  to  make  false  con- 
structions of  what  I  granted  in  your  Peti- 
tion, lest  it  be  worse  interpreted  in  the 
country,  I  will  now  make  a  declaration 
concerning  the  true  intent  thereof: 

The  profession  of  both  Houses  in  the 
time  of  hammering  this  Petition,  was  no 
ways  to  trench  upon  my  Prerogative,  say- 
ing they  had  neither  intention  or  power 
to  hurt  it.  Therefore  it  must  needs  be 
conceived  that  I  have  granted  no  new, 
but  only  confirmed  the  ancient  liberties  of 
my  subjects:  yet  to  show  the  clearness  of 
my  intentions,  that  I  neither  repent,  nor 
mean  to  recede  from  anything  I  have 
promised  you,  I  do  here  declare  myself, 
that  those  things  which  have  been  done, 
whereby  many  have  had  some  cause  to  ex- 
pect the  liberties  of  the  subjects  to  be 
trenched  upon, — which  indeed  was  the  first 
and  true  ground  of  the  Petition, — shall 
not  hereafter  be  drawn  into  example  for 
your  prejudice,  and  from  time  to  time; 
in  the  word  of  a  king,  ye  shall  not  have 
the  like  cause  to  complain:  but  as  for 
Tonnage  and  Poundage,  it  is  a  thing  I 
cannot  want,  and  was  never  intended  by 
you  to  ask,  nor  meant  by  me — I  am  sure 
— to  grant. 

To  conclude,  I  command  you  all  that 
are  here  to  take  notice  of  what  I  have 
spoken  at  this  time,  to  be  the  true  intent 
and  meaning  of  what  I  granted  you  in 
your  Petition;  but  especially,  you  my 
Lords  the  Judges,  for  to  you  only  under 
me  belongs  the  interpretation  of  laws,  for 
none  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  either 
joint  or  separate,  (what  new  doctrine  so- 
ever may  be  raised)  have  any  power  either 
to  make  or  declare  a  law  without  my 
consent. 

Petrel,  The.  The  United  States  rev- 
enue-cutter Aiken,  which  had  been  sur- 
rendered to  the  insurgents  at  Charleston, 
in  December,  1860,  was  converted  into  a 
privateer,  manned  by  a  crew  of  thirty-six 
men,  mostly  Irish,  and  called  the  Petrel. 


158 


PETROLEUM— PHELPS 

On  July  28,  1861,  she  went  to  sea,  and  auction  in  1902  was  89,275,302  barrels, 
soon  fell  in  with  the  National  frigate  St.  valued  at  $71,397,739.  The  largest  pro- 
Lawrencc,  which  she  mistook  for  a  rner-  during  States  were  Ohio,  21,014,231  bar- 
chantman.  She  was  regarded  as  a  rich  rels;  West  Virginia,  13,513,345  barrels; 
prize,  and  the  Petrel  bore  down  upon  her,  and  Pennsylvania,  12,063,880  barrels, 
while  she  appeared  to  be  trying  to  escape.  Petticoat  Insurrection.  See  Ni« 
When  the  latter  came  within  fair  range,  yelles,  Charles  Etienne  de. 
the  St.  Lawrence  opened  her  ports  and  Pettit,  Charles,  legislator;  born  in 
gave  her  the  contents  of  three  heavy  guns.  Amwell,  N.  J.,  in  1736;  admitted  to  the 
One  of  these  sent  a  shell  known  as  the  bar  in  1770;  appointed  secretary  to  Gov- 
"  Thunderbolt,"  which  exploded  in  the  ernor  Franklin  of  New  Jersey  in  1772; 
hold  of  the  Petrel,  while  a  32-pound  shot  was  also  secretary  to  Governor  Living- 
struck  her  amidships,  below  the  water-  ston,  Franklin's  successor.  He  served  as 
mark.  In  an  instant  she  was  made  a  quartermaster  during  the  War  of  the  Rev- 
total  wreck,  and  went  to  the  bottom  of  olution.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
the  ocean,  leaving  the  foaming  waters  over  1785,  and  was  instrumental  in  obtaining 
her  grave  thickly  strewn  with  splinters  Pennsylvania's  adoption  of  the  United 
and  her  struggling  crew.  Four  of  these  States  Constitution.  He  died  in  Phila- 
were  drowned;  the  remainder  were  saved,  delphia,  Pa.,  Sept.  4,  1806. 
They  were  so  dazed  that  they  did  not  Peyton,  Balie,  legislator ;  born  in  Sum- 
known  what  had  happened.  A  flash  of  ner  county,  Tenn.,  Nov.  26,  1803;  elected 
fire,  a  thunder-peal,  the  crash  of  timbers,  to  Congress  in  1833;  served  four  years, 
and  engulfment  in  the  sea  had  been  the  when  he  removed  to  Louisiana.  He  served 
incidents  of  a  moment  of  their  experience,  during  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  in  1849 
Her  surviving  crew  were  sent  to  prison  to  was  appointed  United  States  minister  to 
answer  the  charge  of  piracy,  but  received  Chile.  He  died  in  Gallatin  county,  Tenn., 
the    same    treatment    as    those    of    the  Aug.  19,  1878. 

Savannah  (q.  v.).  Peyton,  John  Lewis,  author;  born  in 
Petroleum.  The  early  settlers  around  Staunton,  Va.,  Sept.  15,  1824;  graduated 
the  headwaters  of  the  Alleghany  River,  at  the  University  of  Virginia  Law  School 
in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  were  ac-  in  1845;  removed  to  Chicago,  111.,  about 
quainted  with  the  existence  of  petroleum  1S55.  He  was  made  agent  for  the  South- 
there,  where  it  oozed  out  of  the  banks  of  era  Confederacy  in  Europe  in  1861,  and 
streams.  Springs  of  petroleum  were  soon  afterwards  ran  the  blockade  at  Char- 
struck  in  Ohio,  in  1820,  where  it  so  much  leston,  S.  C.  He  was  the  author  of  A 
interfered  with  soft-water  wells  that  it  Statistical  View  of  the  State  of  Illinois; 
was  considered  a  nuisance.  Its  real  value  Pacific  Railway  Communication  and  the 
was  suspected  by  S.  P.  Hildreth,  who  Trade  of  China;  The  American  Crisis; 
wrote,  in  1826:  "It  affords  a  clear,  brisk  Over  the  Allcyhanies  and  Across  the 
light  when  burned  in  this  way  [in  lamps  Prairies;  History  of  Augusta  County,  Va.; 
in  workshops],  and  it  will  be  a  valuable  etc.  He  died  in  1896. 
article  for  lighting  the  street-lamps  in  Phelps,  Edward  John,  diplomatist; 
the  future  cities  of  Ohio."  It  remained  born  in  Middlebury,  Vt.,  July  11,  1822; 
unappreciated  until  1859,  when  Messrs.  graduated  at  Middlebury  College  in  1840; 
Bowditeh  &  Drake,  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1843,  and  began 
bored  through  the  rock  at  Titusville,  on  practice  in  his  native  town;  removed  to 
Oil  Cr^ek,  Pa.,  r.nd  struck  oil  at  the  depth  Burlington,  Vt.,  in  1845  and  practised 
of  70  feet.  They  pumped  1,000  gallons  there  till  1851;  was  Professor  of  Law  in 
a  day,  and  so  the  regular  boring  for  pe-  Yale  Law  School  in  1881-85;  United 
troleum  was  begun.  From  1861  until  1876  States  minister  to  England  in  1885-89; 
the  average  daily  product  of  all  the  wells  and  senior  counsel  for  the  United  States 
was  about  11,000  barrels.  The  total  yield  on  the  Bering  Sea  Court  of  Arbitration, 
within  that  period  was  about  2,250,000,-  He  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  March  9, 
000  gallons  of  crude  oil.     The  first  export  1900. 

of  petroleum  was  in  1861,  of  27,000  bar-  Phelps,    John   Wolcott,   military  offi- 

rels,  valued  at  $1,000,000.    The  total  pro-  cerj  born  in  Guilford,  Vt.,  Nov.  13,  1813; 

159 


PHELPS— PHILADELPHIA 


graduated  at  West  Point  in  1836;  and 
served  in  the  artillery  in  the  Seminole 
War.  He  fought  in  the  war  against 
Mexico,  and  accompanied  the  Utah  expedi- 
tion in  1858.  He  resigned  in  1859.  In 
May,  1S61,  he  became  colonel  of  a  Ver- 
mont volunteer  regiment,  with  which  he 
established  an  intrenched  camp  at  New- 
port News,  and  was  soon  afterwards  made 
brigadier-general.  Attached  to  General 
Butler's  expedition  against  New  Orleans, 
he  landed  on  Ship  Island,  Miss.,  on  Dec. 
4,  1861,  when  he  issued  a  proclamation 
hostile  to  slavery.  It  was  disavowed  by 
his  superiors,  and  the  temporizing  policy 
which  he  believed  was  to  rule  caused  his 
resignation.  He  was  the  first  officer  who 
enlisted  and  disciplined  negro  soldiers  in 
the  Civil  War.  He  died  in  Guilford,  Vt., 
Feb.  2,  1885. 

Phelps,  Oliver,  jurist;  born  in  Wind- 
sor, Conn.,  in  1749;  was  a  successful  mer- 
chant, and  during  the  Revolutionary  War 
was  in  the  Massachusetts  commissary  de- 
partment. In  1788  he,  with  Nathaniel 
Gorham,  purchased  a  large  tract  of  land 
(2,200,000  acres)  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  and  at  Canandaigua  opened  the  first 
land-office  established  in  America.  In 
1795  he  and  William  Hart  bought  the 
Connecticut  Western  Reserve,  in  Ohio, 
comprising  3,300,000  acres.  Mr.  Phelps 
afterwards  settled  with  his  family  at 
Canandaigua,  then  a  wilderness;  repre- 
sented that  district  in  Congress  from 
1803  to  1805;  and  was  judge  of  a  circuit 
court.  He  died  in  Canandaigua,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  21,  1809. 

Phelps,  Thomas  Stowell,  naval  offi- 
cer; born  in  Buckfield,  Me.,  Nov.  2,  1822; 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  18-16;  promoted  lieutenant  in 
1855;  distinguished  himself  in  the  Civil 
War  at  Fort  Fisher,  on  blockading  duty, 
and  during  the  battle  of  West  Point;  was 
promoted  rear-admiral  in  1884;  and  re- 
tired in  1885.  He  wrote  Reminiscences  of 
Washington  Territory.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  Jan.  10,  1901. 

Phelps,  William  Walter,  diplomatist; 
born  in  New  York  City,  Aug.  24,  1839; 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1860;  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1872;  appointed  United  States 
minister  to  Austria  in  1881;  re-elected 
to  Congress  in  1882.  In  the  same  year  he 
was    appointed    a    commissioner    of    the 


United  States  to  the  international  con- 
ference on  Samoa  in  Berlin,  and  also  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Germany,  retiring 
in  1893  and  being  appointed  a  judge  of 
the  court  of  errors  and  appeals  of  New 
Jersey.  He  died  in  Teaneck,  N.  J.,  June 
17,    1894. 

Philadelphia,  the  metropolitan  city  of 
Pennsylvania;  popularly  known  as  the 
"  City  of  Brotherly  Love  "  and  the  "  City 
of  Homes " ;  ranking  among  American 
cities  third  in  area,  population,  product 
of  manufactures,  and  foreign  trade  ton- 
nage. The  city  is  coextensive  with  the 
county  of  the  same  name;  is  situated  at 
the  junction  of  the  Delaware  and  Schuyl- 
kill rivers,  and  on  three  main  lines  of 
railroads,  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio,  and  the  Philadelphia  &  Read- 
ing, controlling  28,000  miles  of  direct 
trackage;  and  is  the  terminus  of  nine 
transatlantic  steamship  lines,  one  Pacific 
line,  three  West-Indian  lines,  and  five 
coastwise  lines.  Population  (1900),  1,293,- 
697;   1905   (estimated),  1,408,150. 

Government.  —  Philadelphia  is  a  mu- 
nicipality with  three  local  governmental 
departments,  viz.:  Executive,  with  au- 
thority vested  in  a  mayor;  legislative, 
comprising  select  and  common  councils; 
and  judicial,  with  magistrates  and  civil, 
criminal,  and  orphans'  courts.  The  di- 
rectors of  the  Departments  of  Public 
Safety,  Public  Works,  Supplies,  and  Pub- 
lic Health  and  Charities  constitute  the 
mayor's  cabinet,  and  each  of  these  de- 
partments embraces  a  number  of  bureaus. 
Other  executive  functions,  largely  finan- 
cial, are  vested  in  officers  or  boards  elected 
by  the  people  or  appointed  by  officials 
other  than  the  mayor,  and  besides  munici- 
pal officers  proper  there  are  a  number  of 
county  executive  officers,  acting  for  and 
representing  the  State,  and  independent 
of  the  mayor. 

Public  Interests.' — The  city  embraces 
an  area  of  129.5  square  miles,  divided  for 
administrative  purposes  into  forty  -  two 
wards,  and  in  its  general  arrangement  fol- 
lows the  plans  laid  down  by  William  Penn. 
There  are  3,000  miles  of  highways,  1,142 
of  which  are  paved;  1,860  miles  of  side- 
walks ;  350  bridges  belonging  to  the  city, 
and  valued  at  $20,500,000;  299,474  build- 
ings, of  which  271.482  are  dwellings;  a 
water  -  works    system,    utilizing    the    two 


160 


PHILADELPHIA 


rivers,  which  cost  over  $43,000,000,  and  is 
being  supplemented  by  a  sand  -  filtration 
system  to  cost  $26,000,000;  a  system  of 
979  miles  of  sewers,  at  a  cost  of  $23,330,- 
450.  Owing  to  popular  opposition,  an  or- 
dinance passed  by  the  Councils  to  lease 
the  gas  and  electric  lighting  plants  for 
seventy-five  years  for  $25,000,000  was 
withdrawn,  May  27,  1905.  The  police 
force  of  3,100  men  costs  annually  about 
$3,198,000;  and  the  fire  department  of  880 
men  costs  about  $1,242,220. 

The  public  parks  and  squares  comprise 
4,329  acres,  the  principal  park,  the  mag- 
nificent   Fairmount,    having    an    area    of 


558  persons,  exclusive  of  proprietors  and 
firm  members;  paid  in  salaries  and  wages, 
$132,001,912,  and  for  materials  used  in 
manufacturing,  $326,877,441 ;  and  had  a 
combined  product  valued  at  $603,466,526. 
In  the  period  1880-1900  the  increase  of 
capital  was  166.5  per  cent.;  of  wages, 
82.9;  of  materials,  71.6;  and  of  gross 
products,  95.  Among  cities  of  the  United 
States  Philadelphia  ranks  first  in  the 
manufacture  of  carpets  and  rugs,  woollen 
goods,  leather,  locomotives,  hosiery  and 
knit  goods,  chemicals,  dentists'  materials, 
bricks  and  tiles,  car  and  carriage  springs, 
dyeing   and   finishing   textiles,   and   saws. 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS   IN   PHILADELPHIA    IN    1790. 

The  buildings,  from  left  to  right,  are  .  1,  back  pirt  of  Protestant  Episcopal  Academy,  not  entirely  finished.       2,  County  Court-house, 

•howing  west  si'le  on  Sixth  Street,  and  the  hack    part   extending  into  State-house  Square.       3,  State-house,  built  1735  ;    its  original  lofty 

itetple  has  been  removed.      4,  Hall  of  the  Americm  Philosophical   Society.      5,  Library  Company  of  Philadelphia.      6,  Carpenter's  Hall. 

I  Reduced  from  a  plate  in  the  "  Columbian  Magazine,"  January,  1790. ) 


3,411  acres,  and  being  the  largest  munici- 
pal park  in  the  United  States.  In  1904 
the  assessed  real  and  personal  valuations 
aggregated  $1,162,074,023;  tax  rate,  $15 
per  $1,000.  The  real  estate  owned  by  the 
city  had  a  value  of  $66,787,369.  On  Jan. 
1,  1905,  the  gross  funded  debt  was  $69,- 
851,820;  the  revenue  of  the  calendar  year 
1904  was  $45,992,209;  expenditure,  $35,- 
270,684;  general  cash  balance,  $22,809,- 
081;  liabilities,  $22,174,205;  surplus, 
$634,875. 

Industrial  Affairs. — According  to  the 
United  States  census  of  1900,  Philadelphia 
had  15,887  manufacturing  and  mechanical 
industries,  which  were  operated  on  a  total 
capital    of    $476,529,407;    employed    265,- 


Eleven  per  cent,  of  all  textiles  made  in 
the  United  States  are  produced  here. 

No  city  in  the  world  shows  a  wider 
range  in  production  of  iron  and  steel  than 
Philadelphia,  and  its  locomotive  plants, 
ship  -  yards,  rolling  -  mills,  machine  -  tool 
plants,  and  saw-factories  lead  all  similar 
establishments  in  the  world.  The  Bald- 
win Locomotive  Works  have  an  output 
equal  to  the  gross  production  of  the  re- 
maining twenty-seven  plants  operating  in 
the  United  States.  The  largest  oil-refinery 
in  the  world  is  located  at  Point  Breeze, 
Philadelphia,  and  several  pipe-lines,  sup- 
plemented by  lines  of  tank-cars  connect- 
ing the  oil  regions  with  the  seaboard,  have 
their  terminals  here. 


VII. — L 


161 


PHILADELPHIA 


FIRST   CHURCH    IN    PHILADELPHIA. 

Foreign  Trade.  —  Measured  by  the  ton- 
nage engaged  in  foreign  trade,  Philadel- 
phia ranks  third  among  American  sea- 
ports, with  a  total  shipping,  both  inward 
and  outward,  of  more  than  3,870,000  gross 
tons.  The  value  of  the  foreign  trade  in 
merchandise  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1904,  was:  Imports,  $53,890,106,  of 
which  $34,211,068  was  dutiable;  exports, 
$71,393,254,  of  which  all  excepting  $155,- 
770  was  of  domestic  production; — total  for- 
eign trade,  $125,283,360.  Despite  its  rela- 
tive inland  location,  the  city  has  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  great  seaport.  Situated  100 
miles  from  the  ocean,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Delaware  and  Schuylkill  rivers,  the 
former  offers  clear  passage  to  the  ocean 
for  vessels  drawing  up  to  twenty-six  feet, 
and  dredging  under  way  early  in  1905 
promised  a  thirty-foot  channel  to  the  sea, 
to  be  deepened  later  to  thirty-five  feet. 
Three  large  ship-yards  afford  ample  fa- 
cilities for  repairing  disabled  merchant- 
vessels;  there  are  three  commodious  dry 
docks  along  the  Delaware,  and  a  fourth, 
capable  of  holding  the  largest  vessel  afloat, 
is  being  built  at  the  League  Island  navy- 
yard;  and  the  port  also  has  three  patent 
slip-railways,  a  floating  derrick  with  lift- 
ing capacity  of  125  tons,  and  four  grain 
elevators  on  the  water-front. 

Domestic  Trade.  —  Seventy  -  one  com- 
mercial organizations,  sixty-one  of  which 
are  purely  local,  promote  the  foreign  and 
domestic  trade  of  the  city,  and  its  value 
as  a  distributing  centre  in  the  domestic 
field   is   attested   by   a   wholesale   annual 


business  of  $500,000,000,  conducted  by 
1,000  wholesale  and  jobbing  houses,  many 
having  a  capital  in  excess  of  $1,000,000. 
Four  organizations  represent  the  com- 
bined interests  of  the  city:  the  Board  of 
Trade,  Manufacturers'  Club,  Merchants' 
and  Travellers'  Association,  and  Trades 
League;  the  others  are  interested  gen- 
erally in  a  single  industry.  Many  of  the 
commercial  organizations,  as  well  as  ex- 
changes, are  housed  in  the  Philadelphia 
Bourse,  a  magnificent  structure  in  the 
business  section. 

The  Philadelphia  Commercial  Museum 
is  a  unique  institution,  known  all  over 
the  world,  supported  by  municipal  appro 
priations  and  membership  subscriptions 
and  having  for  its  specific  purpose  the  de 
velopment  of  foreign  trade.  One  inter- 
national and  two  Pan-American  com- 
mercial congresses  have  been  held  under 
its  auspices,  and  it  has  also  conducted  a 
National  Export  Exposition. 

Financial  Interests.  —  The  citizens  of 
Philadelphia  have  been  noted  for  their 
thrift  for  generations,  and  this  quality 
has  not  only  built  up  the  wealth  of  the 
city,  but  has  made  it  more  distinctively 
than  any  other  in  the  United  States  a 
city  of  home-builders  and  home-owners, 
the  latter  feature  being  a  noteworthy  in- 
dication of  the  distribution  of  the  aggre- 
gate wealth.  In  1904  the  city  had  eighty- 
six  banks,  trust  companies,  and  saving- 
fund  societies,  possessing  a  combined  cap- 
ital of  $56,000,000,  surplus  and  undivided 
profits  of  $79,000,000,  and  deposits  reach- 
ing the  great  total  of  $494,000,000.  Thir- 
ty-four of  the  banks  were  national,  and 
had  capital  of  $21,905,000;  deposits, 
$224,635,754;  surplus,  $24,830,000;  and 
annual  clearings  of  about  $6,000,000,000. 
Forty-three  trust  and  safe  deposit  com- 
panies had  capital  of  $34,142,115;  rur- 
plus  and  undivided  profits,  $39,189,759; 
and  deposits,  $152,804,450.  Six  saving- 
fund  societies  and  savings-banks  had  de- 
posits of  $102,949,427,  equal  to  nearly  $70 
for  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the 
city. 

No  exposition  of  the  thrift  of  Phila- 
delphia would  be  adequate  without  a  rec- 
ognition of  the  great  work  of  the  build- 
ing and  loan  associations.  In  the  latest 
year  of  record  there  were  486  such  asso- 
ciations,   having    107,000    members,    over 


3 

: 


162 


PHILADELPHIA 


$45,000,000  in  assets,  $22,750,000  in  an- 
nual receipts,  and  $11,000,000  in  annual 
membership  dues;  and  upward  of  2,000 
ltouses  were  purchased  or  built  through 
their  aid  in  a  single  year.  The  various 
lines  of  insurance  are  represented  by 
forty-five  local  companies,  and  by  a  large 
number  of  agents  of  foreign  corporations. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  many  of  the 
financial  institutions  have  been  in  unin- 
terrupted operation  for  150  years  and  up- 
ward. 

Educational     Activities.  —  The     public- 


161,000  pupils,  with  more  than  3,800 
teachers.  The  cost  of  maintaining  the 
public-school  system  is  about  $4,722,500 
per  annum,  and  its  property  is  valued  at 
upward  of  $15,000,000.  Among  the  higher 
public  institutions  are  a  Central  High 
School  for  boys,  Central  and  Northeast 
Manual-training  schools  for  boys,  Girls' 
High  School,  Girls'  Commercial  High 
School,  Girls'  Normal  School,  and  a  school 
of  pedagogy  connected  with  the  Boys' 
High   School. 

Private  and  denominational  institutions 


CARPENTER'S   HALL,   PHILADELPHIA. 

school  system  of  to-day  is  marked  by  sev-  include  the  William  Penn  Charter  School 
end  features  inaugurated  by  the  Pro-  (1G89),  the  oldest  school  of  its  kind  in 
vincial  Assembly  in  1683,  which  provided  the  country;  Cheltenham  Military  Acad- 
for  general,  compulsory,  and  industrial  emy  (1760);  Protestant  Episcopal  Acad- 
education,  and  the  night  school  may  trace  emy  (1785)  ;  Roman  Catholic  High 
its  birth  in  an  unbroken  line  back  to  School;  La  Salle  and  St.  Joseph's  col- 
1698.  The  Model  School,  established  in  leges;  Drexel  Institute;  Temple  College; 
1818,  was  the  first  institution  in  the  Franklin  and  Spring  Garden  institutes; 
country  organized  expressly  for  the  train-  Philadelphia  Textile  School;  Builders' 
ing  of  teachers.  To-day  Philadelphia  Exchange  School  of  Trades;  School  of  De- 
spends  about  one-sixth  of  its  total  in-  sign  for  Women;  School  of  the  Academy 
come  for  public  education,  for  which  there  of  Fine  Arts;  Girard  College;  and  the 
are  277  schools,  accommodating  more  than  Williamson    Free    School    of    Mechanical 

163 


PHILADELPHIA 


Trades.  The  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
with  its  fourteen  departments,  heads  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning,  and  there 
are  many  legal,  medical,  dental,  pharma- 
ceutical, and  theological  schools  of  high 
repute.  Public  and  private  educational 
systems  are  supplemented  by  thirty  scien- 
tific associations,  twenty-two  museums, 
nine  historical  societies,  thirty-one  art, 
and  thirty-three  specific  associations. 

The  library  was  early  recognized  as  an 
essential  adjunct  to  the  public-school  sys- 
tem, and  to-day  there  are  146  public  and 
subscription  libraries,  with  more  than 
2,000,000  bound  volumes,  while  libraries  in 
private  homes  probably  contain  10,000,000 
volumes  more.  The  largest  circulating 
library  is  the  Free  Library  of  Philadel- 
phia, consisting  of  a  main  and  seventeen 
branch  houses.  Already  the  city  has  ap- 
propriated $1,000,000  for  a  central  build- 
ing, and  Andrew  Carnegie  has  given  $1,- 
500,000  for  thirty  branches.  The  Phila- 
delphia Library,  organized  in  1731,  is  the 


oldest  subscription  library  in  the  United 
States. 

Religious  Work. — Practically  every  re- 
ligious denomination  has  a  place  of  wor- 
ship in  the  city,  the  aggregate  of  churches 
being  848,  with  325,000  communicants  or 
members,  of  which  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  predominates,  with  146  edi- 
fices. The  oldest  religious  organization  is 
that  of  the  Old  Swedes'  Church,  founded 
in  1673,  and  the  oldest  church  building  is 
that  of  this  congregation,  begun  in  1698 
and  finished  in  1700.  Christ  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  established  in  1695,  is 
the  second  oldest,  and  Trinity  Protestant 
Episcopal    (1698)    the  third. 

Besides  the  individual  church  agencies, 
religious  interests  are  promoted  by  five 
Deaconesses'  Training-houses;  twenty-six 
religious  communities;  forty-two  general 
religious  associations,  guilds,  leagues,  and 
social  unions;  twenty-two  Bible  and  tract 
societies;  eighteen  Sunday-school  associa- 
tions; eighty- three  church  conferences  and 


A  BIT  OF  PHILADELPHIA  AS   IT   IS  TO-DAY 

164 


PHILADELPHIA 

ministerial  associations;  thirty-five  church  is  not  only  the  largest  building  in  the 
extension,  education,  publication,  and  his-  United  States,  but  it  is  the  most  striking 
torical  associations;  twenty-six  home  and  in  boldness  of  architectural  treatment.  It 
foreign  missionary  associations;  and  is  built  of  granite  and  marble;  has  a  cen- 
eighteen  city  missionary  societies.  The  tral  tower  rising  to  a  height  of  547  feet, 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  its  11  inches  above  the  pavement,  and  sup- 
railroad  branch,  and  the  Young  Women's  porting  a  statue  of  William  Penn  36 
Christian  Association  are  exerting  a  pow-  feet  in  height;  measures  486  feet,  6  inches 
erful  influence  for  good  in  special  fields  from  north  to  south,  and  470  feet  from 
of  endeavor.  east  to  west;  covers  an  area  of  4%  acres; 

Benevolent  Agencies. — At  the  head  of  and  cost  upward  of  $20,000,000.  The 
philanthropic  enterprises  is  the  Citizens'  building  accommodates  the  various  mu- 
Permanent  Relief  Committee,  the  only  or-  nicipal  offices.  Historically,  the  most  in- 
ganization  of  its  kind  in  the  country;  teresting  buildings  are  Independence  Hall, 
founded  to  relieve  suffering  and  destitu-  where  the  Continental  Congress  adopted 
tion  caused  by  great  calamities  in  any  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and 
part  of  the  world.  Started  in  1877,  it  where  the  famous  Liberty  Bell  may  yet 
had  distributed  upward  of  $5,000,000  in  be  seen,  and  Carpenter's  Hall,  near  by, 
money  and  materials  in  the  United  States,  where  the  first  congress  of  the  United 
Canada,    Cuba,    India,    Armenia,    and   the    Colonies  assembled. 

South  Sea  Islands,  up  to  1905.  Alto-  Other  buildings  of  note  are  the  new 
gether  the  city  has  1,200  agencies  for  the  United  States  Mint,  Masonic  Temple,  Odd 
sole  or  secondary  object  of  human  relief,  Fellows'  Hall,  new  Bourse,  Commercial 
the  majority  being  supported  by  indi-  Museum,  United  States  Custom-house 
vidual  subscriptions  and  endowments,  the  (copied  after  the  famous  Parthenon), 
others  by  State  or  municipal  appropria-  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  Historical  Society, 
tions.  Pennsylvania    and    Philadelphia   &    Read- 

Public  relief  was  first  extended  in  1713,  ing  railroad  stations,  Jefferson  Medical 
and  has  never  since  been  permitted  to  lag.  College,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Philadel- 
The  city  maintains  the  Philadelphia,  In-  phia  Library,  Cathedral  of  SS.  Peter  and 
digent,  Insane,  General,  and  Municipal  Paul,  Girard  College,  Drexel  Institute, 
hospitals,  the  last  for  contagious  dis-  Williamson  Free  School  of  Mechanical 
eases;  and  there  are  twenty-three  other  Trades,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Uni- 
general  hospitals,  racial,  sectarian,  and  ted  States  Naval  Asylum,  League  Island 
memorial,  and  twenty-seven  special  hos-  navy  -  yard  group,  Eastern  Penitentiary, 
pitals.  All  of  these  institutions  have  dis-  and  several  reminders  of  the  Centennial 
pensaries  connected  with  them,  and  there  Exposition  in  Fairmount  Park,  especially 
are  also  twenty  independent  ones.  Memorial   Hall,   the   Horticultural    Build- 

Philadelphia  is  rich  in  charitable  homes,  ing,  William  Penn's  cottage,  the  Belmont 
For  adults  there  are  twenty-four  tem-  Mansion,  and  General  Grant's  City  Point 
porary    and    sixty-two    permanent   homes,    log  cabin. 

Similar  provisions  for  children  of  both  History. — A  few  Swedes  settled  on  the 
sexes  number  thirty-five;  for  boys  and  site  of  the  city  in  1638,  but  the  permanent 
girls  six  each;  and  there  are  twenty  day  settlement  dates  from  the  spring  of  1682, 
nurseries.  Homes  for  children  have  a  when  three  ships  sent  out  from  England 
wide  scope;  many  are  for  orphans;  some  by  William  Penn  (q.  v.)  landed  their 
notable  ones  for  cripples.  Relief  of  pov-  human  and  material  freight.  Penn  had 
erty  and  general  out-door  relief  are  car-  inherited  a  claim  against  the  British 
ried  on  by  the  churches  and  many  so-  crown  of  £16,000,  and  had  accepted  in  lieu 
cieties,  all  co-operating  with  the  Philadel-  thereof  the  grant  of  26,000,0000  acres  of 
phia  Society  for  Organizing  Charity,  a  land  which  later  became  the  State  of 
most  active  and  effective  agency,  supported  Pennsylvania  (q.  v.).  A  feature  of 
entirely  by  subscriptions.  Penn's  grant,  which  is  highly  Suggestive 

Notable  Buildings.— The  great  struct-  to-day,  is  that  it  placed  him  under  obliga- 
ure  at  the  intersection  of  Broad  and  Mar-  tion  to  pay  the  British  crown  annually 
ket  streets,  known  as  the  Public  Buildings,   two  beaver  skins  and  one-fifth  of  all  the 

165 


PHILADELPHIA 

^old  and  silver  found  within  the  limits  accompanied  the  famous  6th  Massachu- 
of  the  grant.  Had  other  natural  pro-  setts  Regiment  to  Washington.  As  they 
ductions  been  included  or  substituted,  the  were  wholly  unarmed,  they  had  to  remain 
crown  would  still  be  in  receipt  of  an  enor-  in  the  President  Street  depot  in  Balti- 
mous  revenue  from  the  yield  of  coal,  iron,  more  while  their  comrades  were  fighting 
and  petroleum.  the  mob  in  the   streets.     While  in  their 

Penn  himself  arrived  in  October  of  the  cars  they  were  attacked  by  a  body  of 
same  year  with  a  large  number  of  Qua-  rioters,  when  many  of  them  sprang  out, 
kers,  and  soon  afterwards  he  made  the  and,  aided  by  some  sympathizing  Union- 
first  treaty  with  the  Indians  at  Shacka-  ists,  had  a  hand-to-hand  fight  with  their 
maxon.  The  site  of  Chester  and  another  assailants  for  about  two  hours,  when  order 
twelve  miles  above  Philadelphia  at  first  was  restored,  and  they  resumed  their 
appealed  to  Penn  as  possessing  the  ad-  journey  to  the  national  capital, 
vantages  he  had  in  mind  for  his  projected  Chief  among  the  later  historical  events 
city;  but  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers,  of  the  city  were  the  celebration  of  the 
affording  a  double  water-front,  and  the  centennial  of  American  independence  by 
underlying  deposit  of  clay  that  was  proved  the  great  Centennial  Exposition  (1876) 
to  be  well  adapted  to  building  purposes,  ( q.  v.)  ;  the  gift  by  the  city  to  the  Penn- 
settled  the  question.  sylvania  Society  of  Colonial  Dames  of  the 

One  year  after  the  landing  of  the  first  building  in  which  Washington  was  in- 
party,  Philadelphia  was  described  as  a  augurated  the  second  time  (1893)  ;  the  or- 
town  of  357  houses;  but  in  three  years  ganization  by  the  manufacturers  and  mer- 
after  its  foundation  it  contained  600  chants  of  the  Commercial  Museum 
houses.  In  1683-4  the  population  was  (1897),  and  the  National  Export  Expo- 
largely  increased  by  immigration  from  sition  held  under  its  auspices  (1899). 
England,  Wales,  Germany,  and  Holland.  Philadelphia,  The,  a  frigate  of  the 
The  city  was  incorporated  in  1691;  re-  United  States  navy.  On  Oct.  3,  1803,  the 
ceived  its  charter  in  1701 ;  and  was  active  ship,  under  command  of  Captain  Bain- 
in  resisting  British  aggression  in  1763-4.  bridge,  chased  a  corsair  into  the  harbor 
The  First  Continental  Congress  met  here  of  Tripoli.  In  endeavoring  to  beat  off, 
on  Sept.  5,  1774;  the  second  on  May  10,  the  Philadelphia  struck  a  sunken  rock  not 
1775;  and  Col.  George  Washington  was  laid  down  in  the  charts.  In  that  helpless 
appointed  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  condition  Bainbridge  and  his  men  were 
American  army  in  the  State-house  here  on  made  prisoners,  and  the  vessel  was  final- 
June  15,   1775.  ly    released    and    taken    into    the    harbor 

Here  the  immortal  Declaration  of  In-  of  Tripoli.  Bainbridge  found  means  to 
dependence  (q.  v.)  was  adopted  on  July  inform  Preble,  at  Malta,  of  his  misfort- 
4,  1776,  and  proclaimed  four  days  later,  une,  and  suggested  the  destruction  of  the 
The  city,  being  the  seat  of  authority  of  Philadelphia,  which  the  Tripolitans  were 
the  revolted  colonies,  became  a  focal  point  fitting  for  sea.  The  Americans  had  capt- 
of  British  military  operations,  and  was  ured  a  ketch,  which  was  taken  into  the 
occupied  by  the  enemy  from  September,  service  and  named  Intrepid.  She  was 
1777,  to  June,  1778.  During  this  period  assigned  to  the  service  of  cutting  out, 
(Oct.  4,  1777)  the  Germantown  (q.  v.)  or  destroying,  the  Philadelphia.  Lieut, 
section  of  the  city  of  to-day  was  the  scene  Stephen  Decatur  was  placed  in  command, 
of  a  battle  in  which  the  Americans  were  and,  with  seventy  determined  young  men, 
defeated,  with  losses  about  equal  on  both  sailed  for  Tripoli,  accompanied  by  the 
sides.  In  the  summer  of  1787  delegates  brig  Siren,  Lieut.  Charles  Stewart.  On 
from  the  various  States  assembled  here  a  moonlight  evening  (Feb.  16,  1804)  the 
and  framed  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  Intrepid  sailed  into  the  harbor,  and  was 
on  March  4,  1793,  Washington's  second  warped  alongside  the  Philadelphia  without 
inauguration  took  place  in  the  building  exciting  suspicion,  for  she  seemed  like  an 
adjoining  Independence  Hall.  innocent    merchant  -  vessel    with    a    small 

On  the  call  for  volunteers  at  the  begin-  crew,  as  most  of  the  officers  and  men  were 
ning  of  the  Civil  War  ten  companies  of  concealed  below.  At  a  signal  given,  offi- 
the  Washington  Brigade  of  Philadelphia    eers  and  men  rushed  from  their  conceal- 

166 


PHILIP 


ment,  sprang  on  board  the  Philadelphia,  Massasoit  (q.  v.)  ;  became  sachem  in 
and,  after  a  desperate  struggle,  drove  her    1662. 

turbaned  defenders  into  the  sea.  She  was  In  1671  the  English  were  alarmed  by 
immediately  burned,  and  the  Intrepid  and  warlike  preparations  made  by  Philip.  A 
Siren  departed  for  Syracuse.  conference   was   held   with   him   at  Plym- 

Philip,  John  Woodward,  naval  officer;  outh,  when  he  averred  that  his  warlike 
born  in  New  York  City,  Aug.  26,  1840;  preparations  were  against  the  Narragan- 
entered  the  navy  in  1861 ;  served  with  dis-  sets.  This,  however,  it  is  said,  he  con- 
tinction  during  the  Civil  War  and  was  fessed  was  false.  Subsequently  he  was 
wounded  in  the  action  on  Stone  River;  compelled  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  col- 
was  on  duty  in  various  capacities  till  ony  caused  by  his  conduct.  This,  and  espe- 
placed  in  command  of  the  battle  -  ship  cially  the  disarming  of  the  Wampanoags, 
Texas,  Oct.  18,  1897.  In  the  war  with  caused  great  indignation  in  the  tribe. 
Spain  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  Philip  made  open  war  in  July,  1675,  and 
his  conduct  in  the  action  at  Santiago.  His  perished  at  its  close,  Aug.  12,  1676. 
ship,  with  the  Oregon,  forced  the  Almi- 
rante  Oquendo  of  the  Spanish  fleet  to  run 

ashore.  It  was  on  that  occasion  that  he  King  Philip's  War. — Massasoit  kept  his 
uttered  the  memorable  words:  "Don't  treaty  of  friendship  faithfully  until  his 
cheer,  boys.  The  poor  devils  are  dying."  death.  Philip  assumed  the  covenants  on 
He  was  promoted  commodore,  Aug.  10,  the  death  of  his  father  and  kept  them  in- 
1898,  and  rear-admiral,  March  3,  1899;  violate  many  years.  As  he  saw  spreading 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  Brooklyn,  settlements  reducing  his  domains,  his 
N.  Y.,  June  30,  1900,  was  commandant  of  hunting-grounds  broken  up,  his  fisheries 
the   Brooklyn   navy-yard.  diminished,  and  his  nation  menaced  with 

Philip,  King,  sachem  of  the  Wampa-  annihilation,  his  patriotism  was  so  vio- 
noag  Indians;  Indian  name  Pometacom,  lently  aroused  that  he  listened  to  his  war- 
or   Metacomet;    was   the   youngest  son   of    riors,    who    counselled    the    extermination 

of  the  whites.  His  capital  was  at  Mount 
Hope,  300  feet  high,  not  far  from  the 
eastern  shore  of  Narraganset  Bay.  There 
he  reigned  over  the  Pokanokets  and  Wam- 
panoags, and  there  he  planned  a  confed- 
eracy of  several  New  England  tribes,  com- 
prising about  5,000  souls.  It  was  done 
secretly  and  with  great  skill.  John  Sas- 
samon,  who  had  been  educated  at  Har- 
vard, and  was  a  sort  of  secretary  for 
Philip,  betrayed  him.  Philip  sent  his 
women  and  children  to  the  Narragansets 
for  protection,  and  proclaimed  war.  He 
struck  the  first  blow  at  Swanzey,  July  4, 
1675,  35  miles  southwest  of  Plymouth, 
when  the  people  were  just  returning  from 
public  worship.  The  surrounding  settle- 
ments were  aroused.  The  men  of  Boston, 
under  Major  Savage,  joined  the  Plymouth 
forces,  and  all  pressed  towards  Mount 
Hope.      Philip    had    fled    to   a    swamp    at 

V.    A,v  ^icr/^.ew^Pocasfvet-(Tiverton)-  /herew 

i?  Ctf?iC°f^  was    besieged    many    days,    but 

finally  escaped  and  took  refuge 

)0  with  the  Nipmucks,  an  interior 

tribe      in      Massachusetts,      who 

espoused    his    cause;    and,    with 

portrait  and  sign  manual  op  kino  philip.  j^qo   warriors,   Philip   hastened 

1G7 


jus  ybuttify 


PHILIP— PHILIPPI 

towards  the  settlements  in  the  valley  of  mucks.      During    the    winter    he    vainly 

the  Connecticut.  asked  the  Mohawks  to  join  him,  but  tribes 

Meanwhile,  the  little  colonial  army  had  eastward  of  Massachusetts  became  his 
reached  Narraganset  and  extorted  a  allies.  In  the  spring  of  1676  the  work  of 
treaty  of  friendship  from  Canonchet,  the  destruction  began.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
chief  sachem.  The  news  of  this  discour-  weeks  the  war  extended  over  a  space  of 
aged  Philip,  and  he  saw  that  only  in  ener-  almost  300  miles.  Weymouth,  Groton, 
getic  action  was  there  hope  for  him.  He  Medfield,  Lancaster,  and  Marlborough,  in 
aroused  other  tribes,  and  attempted  a  war  Massachusetts,  were  laid  in  ashes.  War- 
of  extermination  by  the  secret  and  efficient  wick  and  Providence,  in  Rhode  Island, 
methods  of  treachery,  ambush,  and  sur-  were  burned,  and  isolated  dwellings  of  set- 
prise.  It  seemed  at  one  time  as  if  the  tiers  were  everywhere  laid  waste.  About 
whole  European  population  would  be  anni-  600  inhabitants  of  New  England  were 
hilated.  Twenty  Englishmen  sent  to  treat  killed  in  battle  or  murdered;  twelve  towns 
with  the  Nipmucks  were  nearly  all  treach-  were  destroyed  entirely,  and  about  600 
erously  slain  (Aug.  12,  1675)  near  Brook-  buildings  were  burned.  The  colonists  had 
field,  which  was  burned.  Sept.  12,  Deerfield  contracted  an  enormous  debt  for  that  pe- 
was  laid  in  ashes.  On  the  same  day  Hadley  riod.  Quarrels  at  length  weakened  the 
was  attacked  while  the  people  were  wor-  Indians.  The  Nipmucks  and  Narragan- 
shipping.  A  venerable-looking  man,  with  sets  charged  their  misfortunes  to  the  am- 
white  hair  and  beard,  suddenly  appeared,  bition  of  Philip,  and  they  deserted  him. 
with  a  glittering  sword,  and  led  the  peo-  Some  of  the  tribes  surrendered  to  avoid 
pie  to  a  charge  that  dispersed  the  Indians,  starvation ;  others  went  to  Canada,  while 
and  then  suddenly  disappeared  ( see  Goffe,  Captain  Church  chased  Philip  from  one 
William).  Over  other  settlements  the  hiding-place  to  another,  until  he  was  kill- 
scourge  swept  mercilessly.  Many  valiant  ed  at  Mount  Hope.  See  Swamp  Fight. 
young  men,  under  Captain  Beers,  were  Philippi.  One  of  the  earliest  contests 
slain  in  Northfield  (Sept.  23),  and  others  in  the  Civil  War  occurred  June  3,  1861, 
— "the  flower  of  Essex" — under  Captain  at  Philippi,  Va.  Ohio  and  Indiana  vol- 
Lathrop,  were  butchered  by  1,000  Indians  unteers  and  loyal  armed  Virginians  gath- 
near  Deerfield.  Encouraged  by  these  sue-  ered  at  Grafton  (on  the  Baltimore  & 
cesses,  Philip  now  determined  to  attack  Ohio  Railroad).  They  were  divided  into 
Hatfield,  the  chief  settlement  above  two  columns,  one  commanded  by  Col. 
Springfield.  The  Springfield  Indians  join-  Benjamin  F.  Kelley,  the  other  by  Col.  E. 
ed  him,  and  with  1,000  warriors  he  fell  Dumont.  Colonel  Porterfield,  with  1,500 
upon  the  settlement  (Oct.  29);  but  the  Virginians,  one-third  of  them  mounted, 
English  being  prepared,  he  was  repulsed  was  at  Philippi.  The  two  Union  columns 
with  great  loss.  marched  against  him,  by  different  routes, 

Alarmed,  he  moved  towards  Rhode  Isl-  to  make  a  simultaneous  attack.  Kelley 
and,  where  the  Narragansets,  in  violation  was  misled  by  a  treacherous  guide,  and 
of  their  treaty,  joined  him  on  the  war-  Dumont  approached  Philippi  first.  His 
path.  Fifteen  hundred  men  from  Massa-  troops  were  discovered  by  a  woman,  who 
chusetts,  Plymouth,  and  Connecticut  fired  a  pistol  at  Colonel  Lander,  and  sent 
marched  to  chastise  Canonchet  for  his  her  boy  to  alarm  Porterfield.  The  lad 
perfidy.  They  found  the  treacherous  Ind-  was  caught,  but  Porterfield's  camp  was 
ians  with  Philip,  3,000  in  number,  in  aroused.  Dumont's  cannon  commanded  a 
a  fort  within  a  swamp  (South  Kingston,  bridge,  the  village,  and  the  insurgent 
R.  I.).  The  English  began  a  siege  (Dec.  camp.  Colonel  Lander  had  taken  com- 
19),  and  in  a  few  hours  500  wigwams  mand  of  the  artillery,  and,  without  wait- 
were  in  flames.  Hundreds  of  men,  women,  ing  for  the  arrival  of  Kelley,  he  opened 
and  children  perished  in  the  fire.  Fully  heavy  guns  upon  the  Confederates.  At 
1,000  warriors  were  slain  or  wounded,  and  the  same  time  Dumont's  infantry  swept 
several  hundred  were  made  prisoners.  The  clown  to  the  bridge,  where  the  Jonfederates 
English  lost  86  killed  and  150  wounded,  had  gathered  to  dispute  their  passage. 
Canonchet  was  slain,  but  Philip  escaped  The  latter  were  panic-stricken,  and  fled, 
and    took    refuge    again    with    the    Nip-  Kelley,   approaching   rapidly,   struck   the 

168 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


flank  of  the  flying  force,  which  was  driven 
in  wild  confusion  through  the  village  and 
up  the  Beverly  Road.  The  two  columns 
pursued  them  about  2  miles,  when  the 
fugitives,  abandoning  their  baggage-train, 
escaped.  Colonel  Kelley  was  severely 
wounded  by  a  pistol-shot  that  passed 
through  his  right  breast,  and,  fainting 
from  loss  of  blood,  fell  into  the  arms  of 


some  of  his  soldiers.  For  a  long  time  his 
recovery  was  doubtful,  but,  under  the 
watchful  care  of  a  devoted  daughter,  he 
finally  recovered,  and  was  commissioned  a 
brigadier-general.  Colonel  Dumont  as- 
sumed the  command  of  the  combined 
columns.  Lacking  transportation,  the 
Indiana  troops  were  recalled  to  Grafton  by 
the  chief-commander,  T.  A.  Morris. 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 

Philippine  Islands,  an  archipelago  be-  the  south  Belambangan,  an  island  off  the 

tween   the   Pacific   Ocean   and   the    China  extreme  north  coast  of  Borneo,  31  miles 

Sea;    formerly    belonging    to    Spain,    and  south  of  Balabac,  and  on  the  west  Cochin 

ceded  to  the  United  States  for  $20,000,000  China,  515  miles  west  of  Palawan.     The 

by  the  treaty  of  peace  between  the  United  nearest  approach  of  the  international  di- 

States  and  Spain  in  1898.  viding    line    between    Asia    and    Oceania 

Location. — They  occupy  the  most  north-  passes  about  15°  (900  nautical  miles)  east 

em  part  of  the  east  end  of  the  geograph-  of  Batac  Island,  off  the  northeast  coast  of 

ical  grand  division  known  as  the  Eastern  Siimar,    in    about    latitude    12°    40'    N. 

Archipelago  in  eastern  Asia.    Through  the  Spain    also    relinquished    to    the    United 

capital  and  chief  emporium,  Manila,  they  States  all  title  and  claim  to  the  islands 

are  the  key  to  the  commerce  of  the  islands  of  Cagayan  Sulu  and  Sibutu  and  their  de- 

that    border    the    steam    routes    between  pendencies,  and  all  others  belonging  to  the 

Japan  and  China  and  the  Philippines,  the  Philippine  Archipelago  and  lying  outside 

Sulu  Archipelago,  the  islands  of  the  South  the  lines  described  in  Article  III.  of  the 

Pacific,  the  coasts  of  Borneo,  Celebes  Sea  treaty,  the  United  States  paying  the  sum 

and  Islands,  Molucca  and  Gillolo  passages,  of  $100,000  in  consideration  thereof. 
Banda    and    Arafura    seas,    the   coasts    of        Area. — The    Philippine    Islands    within 

Papua,  or  New  Guinea,  and  Australia  to  the  treaty  lines  of  boundary  have  an  ag- 

the  southeast  and  south;  and  Indo-China,  gregate     area     of     724,329     geographical 

Siam,  Malay  Peninsula,  Java,  and  India,  miles,  or,  in  statute  miles: 
and    countries    beyond    to    the    southwest 

and  west.     They  lie  entirely  within   the  water! '.'.'..'.'.'.'.' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.".'.'.  '.7054 15 

north    torrid    zone.      They   received    their  

present  name  from  Ruiz  Lopez  de  Villalo-  Total  land  and  water 832'968 

bos,  one  of  the  early  discoverers,  in  honor       The    land    area    lies    between    parallels 

of    the    Prince    of    Asturias,    afterwards  21°     10'    N.     (Y'Ami    Island,    the    most 

King  Philip  of  Spain.     The  archipelago  is  northern  of  the  Batanes  group)  and  4°  40' 

bounded  on  the  north  by  the  China  Sea,  N.   (the  extreme  south  point  of  Balut  Isl- 

on  the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  and   of   the   Sarangani   Islands,    south   of 

south  by  the  Celebes  Sea  and  Borneo,  and  Mindanao),  and  meridians  116°  40'   (west 

on  the  west  by  the  China  Sea.    The  nearest  coast  of   Balabac   Islands)    and   126°    34' 

land  on  the  north   is   the   island   of   For-  (Sanco   Point)    longitude   east   of   Green- 

mosa,   a    dependency   of   Japan,    93    miles  wich,  or  a  total  of  1,010  nautical  or  1,152 

northwest  of  Y'Ami,  the  most  northern  of  statute   miles   from   north    to    south,    and 

the  Batanes  group;  on  the  east  the  Pelew  594   nautical   or    682   statute   miles   from 

Islands    (German),   510   miles  off   Minda-  west  to  east.     The  land  superficies  within 

nao;    on    the   south    Ariaga    (de   la    Silla  the  limits  defined  is  greater  than  the  com- 

Island),  the  most  northern  of  the  Carcara-  bined   area   of   the   States   of   New  York, 

long  group    (Dutch),   37    miles   south   of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Delaware, 

the    Saranganis,    off    Mindanao;    on    the  nearly  twice  as  large  as  the  five  States  of 

southwest    the     extreme     east    point    of  New  England,  and  larger  than  the  New 

Borneo,  24  miles  southwest  of  Sibutu;  on  England  States,  New  York,  and  New  Jer- 

169 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


sey.  The  area  of  the  archipelago  is  7,000 
square  miles  larger  than  that  of  the 
British  Isles,  within  20,000  square  miles  of 
that  of  the  islands  of  Japan.  Within 
this  expansive  area  of  the  earth's  surface, 
in  general,  in  the  northern  part  lie  the 
Batanes  and  Babuyanes  groups,  eight  of 
them  important,  separated  by  the  Bachi 
channel  from  the  Japanese  island  of  For- 
mosa, at  a  distance  of  93  miles  to  the 
northwest;  to  the  south  lies  the  great 
island  of  Luzon,  with  the  adjacent  large 
islands  of  Polillo  and  Catanduanes  on  the 
Pacific  side  and  Marinduque,  Burias,  Ticao, 
and  Masbate  off  its  Visayan  seashores;  to 
the  southwest  of  Luzon  extends  the  large 
island  of  Mindoro,  forming,  with  the 
islands  of  Busuanga,  the  Calamianes,  Pala- 
wan (Paragua),  and  Balabac,  the  great 
western  chain  of  the  archipelago  between 
Luzon  and  the  continental  island  of 
Borneo;  to  the  southeast  of  Luzon  lies 
the  island  of  Samar,  to  the  west  of  which 
is  Leyte,  and  continuing  towards  the  west 
the  other  great  islands  of  the  Visayan 
group,  Bohol,  Cebu,  Negros,  and  Panay, 
and  the  smaller  islands  of  Sibuyan,  Rom- 
blon,  Tablas,  Guimaras,  the  last  named 
near  Panay,  and  Siquijor,  south  of  Negros. 
Continuing  south  along  the  east  side  of 
the  archipelago  is  Mindanao,  in  area  one 
of  the  two  most  important  islands  of  the 
entire  group.  To  the  southwest  of  Min- 
danao and  very  close  to  its  shore  is  Ba- 
silan,  the  connecting  link  in  the  impor- 
tant chain  between  the  mainland  of  the 
Philippine  Archipelago  and  the  east  coast 
of  the  great  island  of  Borneo  through  the 
Sulu  and  Tawi  Tawi  and  other  groups  of 
the  American  Sulu  Archipelago.  Be- 
tween this  east-and-west  chain,  scattered 
over  the  northern  waters  of  the  Sulu  Sea, 
are  the  Cuyos  and  Cagaynes  groups  and 
the  Palawan  islands  of  Dumaran.  The 
following  shows  the  areas  by  divisions: 


Physical  Features. — In  general,  the 
physical  structure  of  the  Philippine  Archi- 
pelago as  to  mountains  belongs  to  the 
succession  of  lofty  ranges  of  volcanic 
origin  which  form  the  circuit  and  water- 
sheds of  the  Pacific  basin  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Mount  Irada,  3,667  feet  in 
height,  in  Bataan  of  the  Batanes,  and 
Camiguin,  2,793  feet,  in  Babuyanes,  are 
the  outlying  summits  of  the  Cordillera 
del  Norte  on  the  north.  The  summits  of 
Marinduque,  Burias,  Masbate,  and  Ticao 
are  the  outcropping  of  the  hidden  connect- 
ing group,  continued  in  the  lofty  Cor- 
dilleras of  Mindanao,  to  the  southeast,  and 
with  less  elevation  in  the  hills  of  Basilan 
and  the  larger  islands  of  the  Sulu  Archi- 
pelago, to  the  southwest.  From  Mindoro 
through  the  Calamianes  and  the  long,  nar- 
row mainland  of  Palawan  another  series 
terminates  in  the  Sierra  Empinada,  with 
its  peaks  of  Balabac  in  the  extreme  south- 
west of  the  possessions  of  the  United 
States.  The  distribution  of  the  igneous 
rocks  of  the  Philippine  Islands  indicates 
the  prevalence  of  a  number  of  volcanic 
belts.  There  are  50  volcanoes  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  20  of  these  being  more 
or  less  active  and  30  extinct  or  dormant. 
The  islands  abound  in  minero-medicinal 
waters,  of  temperatures  from  cold  to  ther- 
mal, of  all  degrees  to  boiling.  Of  these  50 
have  been  analyzed  in  Abra,  Albay,  Ambos 
Camarines,  Bataan,  Batangas,  Benguet, 
Bulacan,  Ilocos  Sur,  Laguna,  Lepanto, 
Nueva  Ecija,  Pangasinan,  Fuzal,  Tarlac, 
Tayabas,  in  Luzon ;  Cebu  in  Visayas,  and 
Cottabato  in  Mindanao.  Besides  these  117 
are  well  known,  but  not  analyzed,  in  all 
parts  of  Luzon,  Mindoro,  Marinduque,  Sa- 
mar, Calamianes,  Panay,  Leyte,  Cebu,  Ne- 
gros, Bohol,  Panglao,  Siquijor,  and  Min- 
danao. The  medicinal  properties  and 
curative  effects  of  these  waters  are  well 
known    and    patronized    by    the    natives. 


Grand  Territorial  Divisions. 


Luzon 

Marinduque 

Mindanao 

Mindoro 

Palawan  (Paragua) 
Sulu  Archipelago.  . 
Visayan  Islands. .  . 
Unassigned 

Total 


Sq.   M. 


44,235 

681 

46,721 

4,108 

5,037 

1,029 

25,302 

740 


127,853 
170 


Mainlatu 
Sq.  M. 


43,075 

667 

45,559 

4,050 

4,579 

520 

23,411 


121,861 


Dependent  Islands. 


Sq.  M. 


1,160 

14 

1,162 

58 

458 

509 

1,891 

740 


5.992 


311 
13 
258 
26 
135 
188 
507 
145 


1,583 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 

The  large  islands  of  the  archipelago  have  ous  gulfs,  bays,  coves,  ports,  and  harbors, 
extensive  fluvial  systems,  determined  by  affording  commercial  and  coastwise  ad- 
the  great  mountain  ranges.  That  of  Luzon  vantages  unsurpassed  in  the  Far  East, 
is  represented  by  four  streams  and  their  Among  the  larger  gulfs  and  bays,  in 
drainage  basins:  the  Grande  de  Cagayan,  their  order  of  importance,  Manila,  the 
the  Agno  Grande,  the  Abra,  and  the  principal  bay  of  the  archipelago,  and  one 
Grande  de  la  Pampanga.  The  lakes —  of  the  finest  in  the  East,  occupies  a 
Laguna  de  Bay,  draining  three  provinces,  strategic  position,  in  peace  or  war,  about 
having  its  sea  outlet  through  the  Pasig,  the  centre  of  the  western,  or  China  Sea, 
the  Bombon  or  Taal,  with  its  drainage  coast  of  Luzon.  It  is  beautiful,  expan- 
through  the  Pansipit — form  a  distinct  sys-  sive,  and  clear  of  obstruction,  with  excel- 
tem  between  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  Manila  lent  anchorage.  The  capital  of  the  United 
Bay.  States    possessions    in    the    Far    East    is 

Climate. — The  climate  of  the  Philip-  situated  on  its  shore,  as  also  Cavite,  the 
pine  Islands  is  temperate  in  the  months  United  States  naval  headquarters  in  the 
of  November,  December,  January,  and  Philippines.  It  is  surrounded  by  five 
February,  the  monthly  mean  oscillating  be-  provinces.  Subic  Bay  lies  immediately 
tween  25°  C.  and  26.5°  C.  It  is  exces-  north  of  Manila  Bay.  It  is  6  miles  be- 
sively  hot  in  the  months  of  April,  May,  tween  heads  and  8  miles  inland,  forming 
and  June,  when  the  monthly  mean  ranges  two  safe  harbors,  with  7  to  10  fathoms, 
between  27.5°  and  28.5°  C,  and  is  inter-  and  sheltered  from  all  winds.  Lingayen, 
mediate  in  the  months  of  March,  July,  a  gulf,  is  north  of  Subic  Bay,  on  the  same 
August,  September,  and  October.  Accord-  coast,  with  an  entrance  20  miles  wide, 
ing  to  these  variations  of  temperature,  the  extending  inland  31  miles,  and  having  a 
year  is  divided  into  three  seasons:  (1)  depth  and  shelter  for  the  fleets  of  the 
Dry  and  temperate  (November,  December,  world.  It  washes  the  shores  of  three 
January,  and  February)  ;  (2)  hot  (April,  provinces,  and  its  chief  landmark,  Mount 
May,  and  June)  ;  and  (3)  intermediate  Sto.  Tomas,  to  the  east,  is  7,418  feet 
(March,  July,  August,  September,  and  high.  Lamon,  on  the  north  coast  of  Taya- 
October).  bas;    South   Luzon,  45  miles  wide  at  the 

Rainfall. — The    maximum    of    days    of    mouth,  and  35  miles  inland,  with  a  good 
rain  is  during  July,  August,  and  Septem-    depth  of  10  to  75  fathoms,  well  sheltered 
ber,   and   the   minimum   in   February   and    by  Polillo  and  other  islands  of  some  size, 
March.     From  the  maximum   rainfall  ob-    capable   of   accommodating  a   large   fleet; 
served    in    the    first-named    three    months    Tayabas,  on  the  opposite  shore,  50  miles 
until  the  minimum  in  the  last-named  two    between   heads   and    18    miles    inland — re- 
months,  the  number  of  rainy  days  gradu-    duce  the  peninsula  of  Luzon  to  a  narrow 
ally  diminishes;  and  the  number  of  rainy    neck    of    but    5    miles    from    bay    to    bay. 
days   increases   gradually  from   the  mini-    Bagay,   another   large   indentation   of  the 
mum    in    February    to    the    maximum    in    south  coast,  forms  between  the  peninsula 
July.     On  account  of  this  distribution  of    of  Tayabas  and   Ambos  Camarines,  being 
rain,   two    seasons   are   recognized   in    the    26  miles  between  heads  and  extending  52 
Philippines,  namely,  the  dry  season,  which    miles    inland.       Balayan    and     Batangas, 
lasts   from   November   to   May,    inclusive,    separated  from  it  by  a  narrow  peninsula 
and    the    humid    or    rainy    season,    which    on   the   south   coast   of   Batangas,   Luzon, 
continues  from  June  to  October,  both  in-    also   afford   spacious   facilities   for  vessels 
i   elusive.     This  division,  however,  can  only    of  all  sizes.     On  the  same  coast,  Sorsogon, 
]   be  applied  to  the  interior,  and  principally    in  the  province  of  the  same  name,  extends 
|  to  the  occidental  coasts  of  the  archipelago,    19  miles  inland  to  Sorsogon,  the  capital. 
J  but  not  to  the  oriental   regions.     On  the    On  the  opposite,  or  Pacific,  shore  is  the  ex- 
\   east    coasts    the    season    from    November    pansive  bay  of  Lagonoy,  which  is  26  miles 
to    May    is    distinguished    by    much    pre-    between  heads  and  lies  along  the  coast  of 
i  oipitation,   and   the   season   from   June  to    Ambos   Camarines   and   Albay.      Albay   is 
October  is  far  from  being  as  wet  as  on  the    also  an  important  bay  in  the  province  of 
west  coasts.  the  same  name  immediately  south  of  La- 

Bays  and  Harbors. — There  are  numer-    q-onov.     Asid  forms  a  deep  bight  on  the 

171 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 

south  coast  of  Masbate,  20  miles  between  bas,  and  continues  as  a  highway,  horse 
heads  and  23  miles  inland.  Carigara,  on  path,  or  trail  the  entire  length  of  the 
the  north  coast  of  Leyte,  is  connected  by  peninsula  of  southeast  Luzon,  terminating 
means  of  the  Janabatas  channel  on  the  at  Sorsogon  in  the  extreme  southeast, 
strait  of  San  Juanico,  between  Leyte  and  From  this  central  line  roads,  paths,  or 
Samar,  with  the  Pacific,  Bay  of  San  Pedro  trails  branch  in  every  direction  to  the 
and  San  Pablo.  Sogod  is  an  important  towns  on  the  different  bays,  ports,  and 
bay  on  the  south  coast  of  Leyte,  11  miles  harbors  on  the  Pacific  and  Visayan  sea- 
between  heads  and  20  miles  inland.     Sin-    sides. 

dangan,  Iligan,  Macajalar,  and  Butuan  on  Railroads. — Manila  is  connected  with 
the  north,  and  Davao,  Sarangani,  Illana,  Dagupan  by  railroad,  the  only  one  in  the 
and  Sibuguey  on  the  south  coasts  of  island.  From  this  point  an  extension  was 
Mindanao,  are  among  the  finest  of  the  projected  in  1902  paralleling  the  China 
landlocked  coast  waters  of  the  archi-  Sea  coast  to  Laoag,  the  capital  of  Uocos 
pelago.  Norte,  the  extreme  northwest  province  of 

Roadways. — The   means   of   communica-    Luzon,    and    another    from    Dagupan    to 
tion  between  the  provinces,  towns,  and  vil-    Baguio  Benguet.    Another  line  was  plotted 
lages  on  the  different  islands  are  by  cart    from  Manila   along  the   Pasig  River   and. 
road,   horse   trail,   or   foot-path.      On   the    Laguna  de  Bay  to  Santa  Cruz  in  Laguna. 
island  of  Luzon,  Manila  is  the  centre  of    At    Calamba    a    branch    was   proposed   to 
a  system  of  intercourse  by  highways  con-    connect   with    Batangas    on    that   bay    on 
structed  with  an  idea  to  continuous  lines    the  south  side.    A  steam  tramway  extends 
of  trade  and  transportation.     Among  the    from  Manila   to   Malabon.     In   Cebu  two 
great  lines  of  intercourse  by  land  may  be    private  lines   connect   certain   mines.     An 
mentioned      the     main      highway     which    expert  estimate  gives  1,000  miles  of  rail- 
leaves  Manila,  and,  passing  through  Bula-    roads  as  sufficient  to  meet  all  requirements 
can  and  Bacolor,  divides  a  short  distance    of  the  islands  for  some  years,  at  a  cost  of 
beyond  the  latter   point,  one  line  follow-    $35,000,000.       This     project     includes     a 
ing  the  course  of  the  Grande  Pampanga    trunk    line    600    miles    through    the    Rio 
River  towards  the  northeast  after  entering    Grande  de  Cagayan  valley  and  the  entire 
Nueva     Vizcaya,     crossing    to     the    head    length  of  Luzon,  an  extension  of  the  exist- 
waters  of  the  Grande  Cagayan  River,  the    ing  Manila  and  Dagupan  railroad  to  the  | 
course  of  which  stream  it  follows  to  the    north,  along  the  China  Sea  coast  provinces 
north   to   Aparri    on   the  north    coast   of    of    Union,    Ilocos    Sur,    and    Norte,    200  { 
Luzon.    At  the  point  north  of  Bacolor  an-    miles,  to  Laoag,  the  capital  of  the  latter; 
other   main   line   extends   in   a   northwest    a  cross-island    (east  and  west)    line  with1 
direction    to    Lingayen,    whence    another    Manila    as    its    starting-point,    about    100 1 
main  highway  parallels  the  entire  north    miles;    an    extension   of   the   Manila   and 
stretch    of    Chinese    Sea    coast    to    Cape   Dagupan  railroad  to  Baguio  Benguet,  the.1 
Bojeador,  the  extreme  northwest  corner  of    proposed  sanitarium,  55  miles;  and  short 
the  island,  thence  by  horse  path  following    feeders  to  the  main  line  as  the  productive; 
the   north   coast   to   Aparri.      From   these    development  of  the  country  will  warrant, 
trunk    lines    extend    branch    roads,    horse        Telegraphs. — The    signal    corps    of    the' 
trails,  and  foot-paths  to  the  towns  in  the    army  has   constructed   and   laid   approxi-j 
interior,   or   into   the   adjacent   provinces,    mately    9,000    miles    of    telegraph,    tele-i 
Another  main  line,  leaving  Manila  to  the    phone,   and   submarine   cable  lines   in   thfj 
south,  parallels  the   coast  of  Laguna   de    Philippines    since    the   occupancy   by   th<| 
Bay,  making  almost  the  entire  circuit  of    United  States  forces.     About  one-third  o) 
that  inland  body  of  water.     At  Binang  a    this  mileage  was  for  extensive  temporary! 
highway  leaves  the  main  line  and  extends    field  lines  erected  for  the  purpose  of  maim 
to  the  southwest  of  the  Balayan  Bay  on  taining  communication  between  flying  mili 
the    south    coast.      At    Calamba    another    tary  columns  and  their  bases,  the  latte 
road    branches    off    and    connects    Laguna    being  always  in  communication  by  meani 
de  Bay  with  Batangas,  on  the  bay  of  that    of    permanent   lines   with    division    head 
name,  on  the  south  shore.     At  Santa  Cruz    quarters,     and     lines     destroyed     throug 
another  branch   road   extends   into  Taya-    hostile  operations  of  the  insurgents.     Tfc 

172 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


permanent  system  embraces  1,327  miles  of 
military  cables  and  5,000  miles  of  mili- 
tary telegraph  lines,  the  whole  aggre- 
gating 6,327  miles.  These  afford  the 
means  of  prompt  communication,  and 
consequent  executive  control,  from  Appari 
and  Bangui,  on  the  north  of  Luzon,  to  the 
island  of  Siassi,  in  the  extreme  south,  and 
connecting  all  the  important  islands  of 
the  archipelago  except  Palawan  and  Rom- 
blon.  In  addition  to  the  signal  corps 
telegraph  and  cable  systems,  the  islands 
of  Luzon,  Panay,  Negros,  and  Cebu  are 
connected  by  the  cables  of  the  Eastern 
Extension  Australasia  and  China  Tele- 
graph Company,  approximately  610  miles 
in  length,  with  stations  at  Manila,  Iloilo, 
Bacolod,  and  Cebu;  and  the  United  States 
is  now  connected  directly  by  cable,  opened 
by  President  Roosevelt  on  July  4,  1903, 
extending  from  San  Francisco  to  Hawaii, 
Midway  Island,  Guam,  and  thence  to 
Luzon  and  Manila  City. 

Agriculture.  —  Although  agriculture  is 
the  chief  occupation  of  the  Philippines, 
yet  only  one-ninth  of  the  surface  is  under 
cultivation.  The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and 
even  after  deducting  the  mountainous 
areas  it  is  probable  that  the  area  of  culti- 
vation can  be  very  largely  extended  and 
that  the  islands  can  support  a  population 
equal  to  that  of  Japan  (42,000,000).  The 
chief  products  are  rice,  corn,  hemp,  sugar, 
tobacco,  cocoanuts,  and  cacao.  Coffee  and 
cotton  were  formerly  produced  in  large 
quantities — the  former  for  export  and  the 
latter  for  home  consumption ;  but  the 
coffee  plant  has  been  almost  exterminated 
by  insects  and  the  home-made  cotton  cloths 
have  been  driven  out  by  the  competition  of 


Visayasj  hemp  is  produced  in  southern 
Luzon,  Mindoro,  the  Visayas,  and  Min- 
danao, and  is  nearly  all  exported  in  bales. 
Tobacco  is  raised  in  all  the  islands,  but 
the  best  quality  and  greatest  amount  in 
Luzon.  A  large  amount  is  consumed  in 
the  islands,  smoking  being  universal 
among  the  women  as  well  as  the  men,  but 
the  best  quality  is  exported.  Cocoanuts  are 
grown  in  southern  Luzon,  and  are  used  in 
various  ways.  The  products  are  largely 
consumed  in  the  islands.  Cattle,  goats, 
and  sheep  have  been  introduced  from 
Spain,  but  they  are  not  numerous.  Do- 
mestic pigs  and  chickens  are  seen  every- 
where in  the  farming  districts.  The 
principal  beast  of  burden  is  the  carabao, 
or  water-buffalo,  which  is  used  for 
ploughing  rice  -  fields,  as  well  as  draw- 
ing heavy  loads  on  sledges  or  on  carts. 
Large  horses  are  almost  unknown,  but 
there  are  great  numbers  of  native  ponies 
from  9  to  12  hands  high,  possessing 
strength  and  endurance  far  beyond  their 
size. 

Commerce. — The  extraordinary  increase 
in  exports  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1903,  established  a  new  record  in  the 
commercial  history  of  the  Philippines,  and 
for  the  first  time  since  American  occupa- 
tion a  balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  the 
islands  was  shown,  in  addition  to  the  fact 
that  their  total  foreign  commerce  was  con- 
siderably larger  than  ever  before.  The 
following  figures  show  the  value  of  the 
archipelago's  trade,  exclusive  of  gold  and 
silver  and  government  supplies,  during 
each  of  the  five  fiscal  years  of  American 
administration,  as  compared  with  the  aver- 
age annual  trade  for  periods  prior  thereto. 


Years. 


Average  annual,  1880-1884. 
Average  annual,  1885-1889. 
Average  annual,  1890-1894. 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 


Imports. 


519,500.274 
15,789,165 
15,827,694 
13,113,010 
20,601,436 
30,279,406 
32.141,842 
32,971,8S2 


Exports. 


$20,838,325 
20,991,265 
19,751,293 
12,366,912 
19,751,068 
23,214,948 
23,927,679 
33,121,780 


Total  Imports 

and 

Exports. 


$40,338,599 
36,780,430 
35,578,987 
25,479,922 
40.452,504 
53,494,354 
56,069,521 
66,093,662 


Excess  of 
Exports. 


$1,338,051 
5,202,100 
3,923,599 


149,898 


Excess  of 
Imports. 


$746,098 

850,368 

7,064,458 

8,214,163 


those  imported  from  England.  Rice  and 
corn  are  principally  produced  in  Luzon  and 
Mindoro,  and  are  consumed  in  the  islands. 
Cacao  is  raised  in  the  southern  islands  and 
is  all  made  into  chocolate  and  consumed 
in  the  islands.    Sugar-cane  is  raised  in  the 


The  value  of  goods  imported  from  the 
United  States  during  1903,  inclusive  of 
coin  shipments  amounting  to  $164,862, 
was  $4,108,960,  and  the  Philippine  exports 
to  the  United  States  approximated  $14,- 
000,000  in  value. 


173 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


Revenue,    etc. — In    the    following   state-  in   1898,   6,559,998   souls  were  distributed 

ment,  covering  revenues  and  expenditures  among  746  regular  parishes,   105  mission 

of   the  insular  government   in    1899-1903,  parishes,  116  missions — total,  967.    Of  the 

the     figures     included     audited     accounts,  regular  parishes  all  but  150  were  admin- 

with  the  exception  of  returns  for  the  fis-  istered  by  Spanish  friars  of  the  Domini- 

cal  year  ending  June  30,  1903,  which  were  can,    Augustinian,    or    Franciscan    order, 

estimated:  By  the  revolutions  of  1896  and  1898  mem- 

FISCAL  YEAR   ENDING  JUNE  30 


1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

Total 

Revenues. 

$3,097,864.15 
42,954.87 
240,754.00 

$5,739,297.40 
104,282.54 
561,993.18 

$9,105,754.67 
122,816.83 
966,400.47 

$8,550,758.49 

137,811.99 

225,505.09 

1,993,270.97 

1,199,590.01 

524,482.97 

$9,686,533.29 

146,659.44 

222,980.40 

2,559,601.94 

1,561,473.61 

1,148,877.05 

$36,180,208.00 

554,525.67 

2,217,633.14 

4,552,872.91 

2,761,063.62 

127,109.81 

357,954.61 

491,217.00 

2,649,641.44 

Total 

$3,503,682.83 

$6,763,527.73 

$10,686,188.97 

$12,631,419.52 

$15,326,125.73 

$48,915,944.78 

Expenditures. 

$28,817.90 
30,410.75 

$100,194.09 
89,149.51 

$207,446.88 
155,347.77 

$490,126.40 
175,156.57 
746,586.80 

324,479.35 
1,744,344.56 
6,564,426.64 

$587,142.89 

226,730.33 

1,163,585.01 

1,760,563.87 
1,813,118.10 
8,711,363.27 

$1,473,728.13 

Postal 

676,794.96 

1,910,171.81 
2,085,043.22 

Loans  and  refunds  to 

3,557,462.66 

Otlier  expenditures. . . 

2,316,779.97 
$2,376,008.62 

4,569,334.15 

5,050,971.79 

27,812,875.82 

Total 

$4,758,677.75 

$0,073,766.44 

$10,045,120.32 

$14,262,503.47 

$37,516,076.60 

Finance. — The  ordinary  receipts  (ex- 
pressed in  United  States  currency)  of  the 
insular  government  during  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1903,  were  $9,964,472,  and 
the  ordinary  disbursements  aggregated 
$7,514,161.  Including  extraordinary  rev- 
enues the  total  receipts  were  $12,074,730, 
and  including  extraordinary  expenditures 
the  payments  aggregated  $12,557,116.  Of 
the  total  receipts  $9,215,551  was  from 
customs  duties. 

On  March  2,  1903,  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  passed  "  an  act  to  establish 
a  standard  of  value  and  to  provide  for  a 
coinage  system  in  the  Philippine  Islands," 
which  made  the  unit  of  value  a  gold  peso 
of  twelve  and  nine-tenths  grains  of  gold, 
nine-tenths  fine,  equal  to  50  cents,  United 
States  currency,  and  also  for  the  coinage 
of  75,000,000  subsidiary  silver  coins  of 
four  denominations.  The  act  also  provided 
for  the  issue  of  certificates  of  indebtedness 
to  maintain  the  parity  of  silver  pesos  for 
the  unit  of  value,  to  be  limited  to  $10,- 
000,000. 

Religion. — The  establishment  of  re- 
ligious freedom  was  guaranteed  under  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  1898.  Except  the 
Moros  (Moslem)  and  wild  tribes  (pagans), 
the  people  of  the  islands  are  Roman  Cath- 
olics.    As  shown  by  the  church  registry, 

17 


bers  of  the  orders  were  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  Manila ;  of  the  number,  40 
were  killed  and  403  imprisoned  until  re- 
lieved by  the  American  troops;  of  1,124  in 
the  islands  in  1896,  but  246  remained  in 
1903.  There  were  at  that  time  missions 
and  missionaries — 42  Jesuits,  16  Capu- 
chins, 6  Benedictines,  and  150  native  secu- 
lar clergymen  with  small  parishes.  The 
American  members  of  the  commission 
who  negotiated  the  treaty  of  peace,  in 
their  deliberations  in  Paris,  became  con- 
vinced that  one  of  the  most  important 
steps  in  tranquillizing  the  islands  and  in 
reconciling  the  Filipinos  to  the  American 
government  would  be  the  governmental 
purchase  of  the  so-called  friars'  agricult- 
ural lands  in  the  Philippines,  and  the 
sale  of  these  lands  to  the  tenants  on  long 
and  easy  payments.  This  policy  was 
recommended  by  the  first,  or  Schurman, 
commission,  and  was  approved  by  both 
the  Secretary  of  War  and  the  President. 
After  a  series  of  negotiations  between 
Governor  Taft  and  the  authorities  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  which  was  conducted  in 
Rome  with  the  aid  of  the  late  Pope  Leo, 
the  purchase  of  upward  of  410,000  acres 
for  $7,239,000  gold  was  consummated  in 
December,  1903. 
4 


PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


As  soon  as  it  was  evident  that  the  Amer- 
ican occupation  of  the  Philippines  would 
be  permanent  the  leading  denominations 
in  the  United  States  undertook  the  estab- 
lishment of  various  religious  institutions 
on  the  islands  based  on  American  methods 
so  far  as  local  conditions  would  permit. 
Archbishop  Chapelle  of  New  Orleans  was 
appointed  by  the  Pope  apostolic  delegate 
in  1899,  and  in  1903  the  Rev.  Jeremiah 
J.  Harty  was  appointed  archbishop  of 
Manila,  the  Rev.  Frederick  Z.  Rooker, 
bishop  of  Nueva  Caceres,  the  Rev.  Dennis 
J.  Dougherty  bishop  of  Nueva  Segovia, 
and  the  Rev.  Thomas  A.  Hendrick,  bishop 
of  Cebu.  In  1901  the  Rev.  Charles  H. 
Brent,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  was  appointed 
Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  Experienced  teachers  and 
missionaries  were  also  sent  out  from  the 
Presbyterian,  Congregational,  Methodist, 
and  other  denominations. 

Public  Instruction. — One  of  the  first 
concerns  of  the  American  military  au- 
thorities after  the  occupation  of  the 
islands  was  the  establishment  of  an  educa- 
tional system  based  on  that  of  the  United 
States.  Men  and  women  trained  in  the 
profession  of  teaching  were  sent  out 
from  the  United  States,  and  without 
understanding  a  word  of  Spanish  or  of 
the  local  dialects,  they  set  to  work  to  im- 
part information  in  an  unknown  tongue. 
In  1903  the  islands  were  divided  into  35 
school  divisions,  and  681  municipal  and 
384  barrio  (outlying  districts)  primary 
schools  were  in  operation.  In  addition 
to  the  primary  schools  there  were  a 
nautical  school,  a  trade  school,  2  normal 
schools,  3  high  -  schools,  and  38  sec- 
ondary schools.  The  teaching  force  was 
composed  of  691  American  and  2,496  na- 
tive teachers.  The  Christian  population 
of  the  islands  was  estimated  at  6,967,000, 
and  the  school  population  at  1,424,776,  of 
which  182,202  were  enrolled  in  the  day 
schools  and  11,429  in  the  night  schools, 
making  a  total  of  193,631  who  had  been 
brought  within  the  sphere  of  educational 
influence.  The  average  attendance  in  the 
day  schools  was  131,371,  and  in  the 
night  schools  8,595,  a  total  attendance 
of  139,966,  or  about  seventy-three  per 
cent,  of  the  enrolment.  The  total  ap- 
propriation for  the  bureau  of  education 
for    the    year     ending    June     30,     1903, 

1 


was  $1,562,161,  and  the  expenditure  was 
$1,128,433. 

Population. — The  first  systematic  census 
of  the  Philippine  Islands  was  taken 
March  2,  1903,  under  the  direction  of  Gen. 
J.  P.  Sanger,  U.  S.  A.,  assisted  by  Henry 
Gannett  and  Victor  H.  Olmsted. 


Province  or  Military  District 

Philippine  Islands 

Abra 

Albay 

Ambos  Carnarines. . . . 

Antique 

Basilan 

Bataan 

Batangas 

Benguet 

Bohol 

Bulacan 

Cagayan 

Capiz 

Cavite 

Cebu 

Cottabato 

Dapital 

Pavao 

Ilocos  Norte 

Ilocos  Sur 

Ilolo 

Isabela 

Jolo 

La  Laguna 

La  UDion 

Lepanto-Bontoc 

Leyte 

Manila  City 

Marinduque , 

Masbate 

Mindoro 

Misamis 

Negros  Occidental.... 

Negros  Oriental , 

Nueva  Ecija , 

Nueva  Vizcaya , 

Pami'anga 

Pangasinan 

Paragua 

Paragua  Sur 

Rizal 

Romblon 

Samar 

Siassi 

Sorsogon 

Surigao 

Tarlnc 

T;iwi  Tawi 

Tayabas 

Zambales 

Zamboanga 


Total 
Population. 

Civilized. 

Wild. 

7,635,426 

6,987,686 

647,740 

51,860 

37,823 

14,037 

240,326 

239,434 

892 

239,405 

233,472 

5,933 

134,166 

131,245 

2,921 

30,179 

1,331 

28,848 

46,787 

45,166 

1,621 

257,715 

257,715 

22,745 

917 

21,828 

269,223 

269,223 

223,742 

223,327 

415 

156,239 

142,825 

13,414 

230,721 

225.092 

5,629 

134,779 

134,779 

653,727 

653,727 

125,875 

2,313 

123,562 

23,577 

17,154 

6,423 

65,496 

20,224 

45,272 

178,995 

176.785 

2,210 

187,411 

173,800 

13,611 

410.315 

403.932 

6,383 

76,431 

68,793 

7,638 

51.389 

1,270 

60,119 

148,606 

148,606 

137,839 

127,789 

10,050 

72,750 

2,467 

70,283 

388.922 

388,922 

219,928 

219,928 

51,674 

51,674 

43,675 

43,675 

39,582 

32,318 

7.264 

175,683 

135.473 

40,210 

308,272 

303,660 

4,612 

201.494 

184,889 

16.605 

134,147 

132,999 

1,148 

62,541 

16.026 

46,515 

223,754 

222.656 

1,098 

397,302 

394.516 

3,386 

29,351 

27.493 

1,858 

6,345 

1,359 

4,986 

150,023 

148.502 

2,421 

52,848 

52.848 

266,237 

265,549 

688 

24,562 

297 

24,265 

120,495 

120.454 

41 

115,112 

99.298 

15,814 

135.107 

133,513 

1,594 

14.638 

93 

14,545 

153,065 

150,262 

2,803 

104,549 

101,381 

3,168 

44,322 

20,692 

23,630 

GOVERNORS. 

Military. 

Appointed. 

Maj.-Gen.  Wesley  Merritt,  U.S. A May   11,  1898 

Maj.-Gen.  ElwellS.  Otis.  U.S.A Aug.   29,1898 

Maj.-Gen.  Adna  R.  Chaffee,  U.S.A July     4,  1901 

Civil. 

William  H.  Tail June    5,  1901 

Luke  E.  Wright Aug.   25,  1903 

Americanizing  the  Islands. — On  Jan.  17, 
1899,    President   McKinley    announced    to 
75 


Philippine  islands 


liis   Cabinet  the  appointment  of  the  fol-    prescribed   their   duties   in   the   following 
lowing  commission  to  visit  and  report  on    letter  of  instructions: 
the  affairs  of  the  archipelago:  Messrs.  Ja- 


cob G.  Schurman,  president  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity; Admiral  George  Dewey,  U.  S.  N.j 
Maj.-Gen.  Elwell  S.  Otis,  U.  S.  A.;  Col. 
Charles  Denby,  ex-minister  to  China;  and 


Executive  Mansion,  April,  7,  1900. 
The  Secretary  of  War,  Washington. 

Sir, — In  the  message  transmitted  to  the 
Congress  on   Dec.   5,   1899,   I   said,   speak- 


Prof.  Dean  C.  Worcester,  of  the  University  ing  of  the  Philippine  Islands:    "As  long 

of  Michigan.  The  report  of  this  commission  as  the  insurrection  continues  the  military 

was  sent  to  Congress  in   February,   1900.  arm    must    necessarily    be    supreme.     But 

After    reviewing    the    situation    the    com-  there  is  no  reason  why  steps  should  not  be 

mission  reached  the  following  conclusions:  taken   from    time   to    time   to    inaugurate 

1.  The  United  States  cannot  withdraw  governments  essentially  popular  in  their 
from  the  Philippine  Islands.  We  are  there  form  as  fast  as  territory  is  held  and  con- 
and  duty  binds  us  to  remain.  There  is  trolled  by  our  troops.  To  this  end  I  am 
no  escape  from  our  responsibility  to  the  considering  the  advisability  of  the  return 
Filipinos  and  to  mankind  for  the  govern-  of  the  commission,  or  such  of  the  members 
ment  of  the  archipelago  and  the  amelio-  thereof  as  can  be  secured,  to  aid  the  exist- 
ration  of  the  condition  of  the  inhabitants,  ing   authorities   and   facilitate   this   work 

2.  The  Filipinos  are  wholly  unprepared  throughout  the  islands." 

for  independence,  and  if  independence  were        To  give  effect  to  the  intention  thus  ex- 
given  to  them  they  could  not  maintain  it.  pressed,   I   have   appointed   Hon.   William 

3.  Under  the  third  head  is  included  a  H.  Taft,  of  Ohio;  Prof.  Dean  C.  Worcester, 
copy  of  Admiral  Dewey's  letter  to  Senator  of  Michigan;  Hon.  Luke  E.  Wright,  of 
Lodge,  which  was  read  in  the  Senate  the  Tennessee;  Hon.  Henry  C.  Ide,  of  Ver- 
other  day,  denying  Aguinaldo's  claim  that  mont;  and  Prof.  Bernard  Moses,  of  Cali- 
he  was  promised   independence.  fornia,    commissioners    to    the    Philippine 

4.  There  being  no  Philippine  nation,  but  Islands  to  continue  and  perfect  the  work 
only  a  collection  of  different  peoples,  there  of  organizing  and  establishing  civil  govern- 
is  no  general  public  opinion  in  the  archi-  ment  already  commenced  by  the  military 


pelago;  but  the  men  of  property  and  edu- 
cation, who  alone  interest  themselves  in 
public  affairs,  in  general  recognize  as  in- 
dispensable American  authority,  guidance, 
and  protection. 

5.  Congress  should,  at  the  earliest  prac- 


authorities,  subject  in  all  respects  to  any 
laws  which  Congress  may  hereafter  enact. 
The  commissioners  named  will  meet  and 
act  as  a  board,  and  the  Hon.  William  H. 
Taft  is  designated  as  president  of  the 
board.     It   is   probable   that   the   transfer 


ticable  time,  provide  for  the  Philippines  the  of  authority  from  military  commanders  to 

form   of  government   herein   recommended  civil  officers  will  be  gradual  and  will  oc- 

or  another  equally  liberal  and  beneficent,  cupy  a  considerable  period.     Its  successful 

6.  Pending  any  action  on  the  part  of  accomplishment  and  the  maintenance  of 
Congress,  the  commission  recommends  that  peace  and  order  in  the  mean  time  will  re- 
the  President  put  in  operation  this  scheme  quire  the  most  perfect  co-operation  be- 
of  civil  government  in  such  parts  of  the  tween  the  civil  and  military  authorities  in 
archipelago  as  are  at  peace.  the   islands,   and  both   should  be  directed 

7.  So  far  as  the  finances  of  the  Philip-  during  the  transition  period  by  the  same 
pines  permit,  public  education  should  be  executive  department.  The  commission 
promptly  established,  and,  when  establish-  will  therefore  report  to  the  Secretary  of 


ed,  free  to  all. 

8.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in 
the  selection  of  officials  for  administration. 
They  should  be  men  of  the  highest  char- 
acter and  fitness,  and  partisan  politics 
should  be  entirely  separated  from  the 
government  of  the  Philippines. 

On  the  return  of  this  commission  the 
President    appointed    a    second    one,    and 


176 


War,  and  all  their  action  will  be  subject 
to  your  approval  and  control. 

You  will  instruct  the  commission  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  city  of  Manila,  where  they  will 
make  their  principal  office,  and  to  commu- 
nicate with  the  military  governor  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  whom  you  will  at  the 
same  time  direct  to  render  to  them  every 
assistancewithin  his  power  in  the  perform- 


go 


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-V 


PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


ance  of  their  duties.  Without  hampering 
them  by  too  specific  instructions,  they 
should  in  general  be  enjoined,  after  mak- 
ing themselves  familiar  with  the  condi- 
tions and  needs  of  the  country,  to  devote 
their  attention  in  the  first  instance  to  the 
establishment  of  municipal  governments, 
in  which  the  natives  of  the  islands,  both 
in  the  cities  and  in  the  rural  communities, 
shall  be  afforded  the  opportunity  to  man- 
age their  own  local  affairs  to  the  fullest 
extent  of  which  they  are  capable,  and  sub- 
ject to  the  least  degree  of  supervision  and 
control  which  a  careful  study  of  their  ca- 
pacities and  observation  of  the  workings  of 
native  control  show  to  be  consistent  with 
the  maintenance  of  law,  order,  and  loyalty. 

The  next  subject  in  order  of  importance 
should  be  the  organization  of  government 
in  the  larger  administrative  divisions  cor- 
responding to  counties,  departments,  or 
provinces,  in  which  the  common  interests 
of  many  or  several  municipalities  falling 
within  the  same  tribal  lines  or  the  same 
natural  geographical  limits,  may  best  be 
subserved  by  a  common  administration. 
Whenever  the  commission  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  condition  of  aft'airs  in  the  is'ands  is 
such  that  the  central  administration  may 
safely  be  transferred  from  military  to  civil 
control,  they  will  report  that  conclusion  to 
you,  with  their  recommendations  as  to  the 
form  of  central  government  to  be  established 
for  the  purpose  of  taking  over  the  control. 

Beginning  with  Sept.  1,  1900,  the  au- 
thority to  exercise,  subject  to  my  approval, 
through  the  Secretary  of  War,  that  part 
of  the  power  of  government  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  which  is  of  a  legislative 
nature  is  to  be  transferred  from  the  mili- 
tary governor  of  the  islands  to  this  com- 
mission, to  be  thereafter  exercised  by  it 
in  the  place  and  stead  of  the  military 
governor,  under  such  rules  and  regula- 
tions as  you  shall  prescribe,  until  the 
establishment  of  the  civil  central  govern- 
ment for  the  islands  contemplated  in  the 
last  foregoing  paragraph,  or  until  Con- 
gress shall  otherwise  provide.  Exercise  of 
this  legislative  authority  will  include  the 
making  of  rules  and  orders,  having  the 
effect  of  law,  for  the  raisinsr  of  revenue 
bv  taxes,  customs  duties,  and  imposts;  the 
appropriation  and  expenditure  of  public 
funds  of  the  islands,  the  establishment  of 
an    educational    system    throughout    the 


islands,  the  establishment  of  a  system 
to  secure  an  efficient  civil  service,  the  or- 
ganization and  establishment  of  courts, 
the  organization  and  establishment  of 
municipal  and  departmental  governments, 
and  all  other  matters  of  a  civil  nature  for 
which  the  military  governor  is  now  com- 
petent to  provide  by  rules  or  orders  of  a 
legislative  character. 

The  commission  will  also  have  power 
during  the  same  period  to  appoint  to 
office  such  officers  under  the  judicial,  edu- 
cational, and  civil  service  systems,  and  in 
the  municipal  and  departmental  govern- 
ments, as  shall  be  provided  for.  Until  the 
complete  transfer  of  control  the  military 
governor  will  remain  the  chief  executive 
head  of  the  government  of  the  islands,  and 
will  exercise  the  executive  authority  now 
possessed  by  him  and  not  herein  expressly 
assigned  to  the  commission,  subject,  how- 
ever, to  the  rules  and  orders  enacted  by 
the  commission  in  the  exercise  of  the 
legislative  powers  conferred  upon  them. 
In  the  mean  time  the  municipal  and  de- 
partmental governments  will  continue  to 
report  to  the  military  governor  and  be 
subject  to  his  administrative  supervision 
and  control,  under  your  direction,  but  that 
supervision  and  control  will  be  confined 
within  the  narrowest  limits  consistent 
with  the  requirement  that  the  powers  of 
government  in  the  municipalities  and  de- 
partments shall  be  honestly  and  effectively 
exercised  and  that  law  and  order  and 
individual   freedom   shall   be  maintained. 

All  legislative  rules  and  orders,  estab- 
lishments of  government  and  appoint- 
ments to  office  by  the  commission  will 
take  effect  immediately,  or  at  such  times 
as  they  shall  designate,  subject  to  your 
approval  and  action  upon  the  coming  in 
of  the  commission's  reports,  which  are 
to  be  made  from  time  to  time  as  their 
action  is  taken.  Wherever  civil  govern- 
ments are  constituted  under  the  direction 
of  the  commission,  such  military  posts, 
garrisons,  and  forces  will  be  continued  for 
the  suppression  of  insurrection  and  brig- 
andage, and  the  maintenance  of  law  and 
order,  as  the  military  commander  shall 
deem  requisite,  and  the  military  forces 
shall  be  at  all  times  subject  under  his 
orders  to  the  call  of  the  civil  authorities 
for  the  maintenance  of  law  and  order  and 
the  enforcement  of  their  authority. 


177 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 

J  a  the  establishment  of  municipal  gov-  preclude  very  definite  instruction  as  to  the 

eium^nts  the  commission  will  take  as  the  part  which  the  people  shall  take  in  the  se- 

basis  of  their  work  the  governments  estab-  lection  of  their  own  officers;  but  these  gen- 

lished  by  the  military  governor  under  his  eral  rules  are  to  be  observed:  That  in  all 

order  of  Aug.  8,  1899,  and  under  the  report  cases  the  municipal  officers,  who  adminis- 

of  the  board  constituted  by  the  military  ter  the  local  affairs  of  the  people,  are  to  be 

governor  by  his  order  of  Jan.  29,  1900,  to  selected  by  the  people,  and  that,  wherever 

formulate  and  report  a  plan  of  municipal  officers  of  more  extended  jurisdiction  are 

government,  of  which  his  Honor  Cayetano  to  be  selected  in  any  way,  natives  of  the 

Arellano,  president  of  the  Audiencia,  was  islands  are  to  be  preferred,  and,  if  they 

chairman,  and  they  will  give  to  the  con-  can  be  found  competent  and  willing  to  per- 

clusions  of  that  board  the  weight  and  con-  form  the  duties,   they  are  to  receive  the 

sideration   wbich  the  high   character  and  offices  in  preference  to  any  others, 
distinguished  abilities  of  its  members  jus-        It  will  be  necessary  to  fill  some  offices 

tify.  for   the  present  with   Americans,   which, 

In  the  constitution  of  departmental  or  after  a  time,  may  well  be  filled  by  natives 

provincial  governments  they  will  give  spe-  of  the  islands.     As  soon  as  practicable  a 

cial  attention  to  the  existing  government  system  for  ascertaining  the  merit  and  fit- 

of  the  island  of  Negros,  constituted,  with  ness  of  candidates  for  civil  office  should  be 

the  approval  of  the  people  of  that  island,  put  in  force.    An  indispensable  qualification 

under  the  order  of  the  military  governor  for  all  offices  and  positions  of  trust  and 

of  July  22,  1899,  and  after  verifying,  so  authority  in  the  islands  must  be  absolute 

far  as  may  be  practicable,  the  reports  of  and   unconditional   loyalty   to  the  United 

the  successful  working  of  that  government,  States,  and  absolute  and  unhampered  au- 

tbey  will  be  guided  by  the  experience  thus  thority  and  power  to  remove  and  punish 

acquired,  so  far  as  it  may  be  applicable  any  officer  deviating  from   that   standard 

to  the  condition  existing  in  other  portions  must  at  all  times  be  retained  in  the  hands 

of  the  Philippines.     They  will  avail  them-  of  the  central  authority  of  the  islands, 
selves  to  the  fullest  degree  practicable  of        In  all  the  forms  of  government  and  ad- 

the   conclusions   reached   by   the   previous  ministrative  provisions  which  they  are  au- 

commission  to  the  Philippines.  thorized  to  prescribe,  the  commission  should 

In    the    distribution    of    powers    among  bear  in  mind  that  the  government  which 

the  governments  organized  by  the  commis-  they  are  establishing  is  designed  not  for 

sion,  the  presumption  is  always  to  be  in  our  satisfaction,  or  for  the  expression  of 

favor  of  the  smaller  subdivision,  so  that  our  theoretical  views,  but  for  the  happi- 

all  the  powers  which  can  properly  be  ex-  ness,  peace,  and  prosperity  of  the  people 

ercised  by  the  municipal  government  shall  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  the  meas- 

be  vested  in  that  government,  and  all  the  ures  adopted  should  be  made  to  conform 

powers  of  a  more  general  character  which  to  their   customs,   their   habits,   and  even 

can  be  exercised  by  the  departmental  gov-  their  prejudices,  to  the  -fullest  extent  con- 

ernment   shall   be  vested   in  that  govern-  sistent   with    the    accomplishment   of   the 

ment,    and   so    that   in   the   governmental  indispensable    requisites    of    just    and    ef- 

system,  which  is  the  result  of  the  process,  fective  government. 

the  central  government  of  the  islands,  At  the  same  time  the  commission  should 
following  the  example  of  the  distribution  bear  in  mind,  and  the  people  of  the 
of  the  powers  between  the  States  and  the  islands  should  be  made  plainly  to  under- 
national  government  of  the  United  States,  stand,  that  there  are  certain  great  prin- 
shall  have  no  direct  administration  except  ciples  of  government  which  have  been 
of  matters  of  purely  general  concern,  and  made  the  basis  of  our  governmental  sys- 
shall  have  only  such  supervision  and  con-  tem  which  we  deem  essential  to  the  rule  of 
trol  over  local  governments  as  may  be  nee-  law  and  the  maintenance  of  individual 
essary  to  secure  and  enforce  faithful  and  freedom,  and  of  which  they  have,  unfortu- 
efficient  administration  by  local  officers.  nately,  been  denied  the  experience  possess- 
^  The  many  different  degrees  of  civiliza-  ed  by  us;  that  there  are  also  certain  prac- 
tion  and  varieties  of  custom  and  capacity  tical  rules  of  government  which  we  have 
among  the  people  of  the  different  islands  found  to  be  essential  to  the  preservation 

178 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


of  these  great  principles  of  liberty  and 
law,  and  that  these  principles  and  these 
rules  of  government  must  be  established 
and  maintained  in  their  islands  for  the 
sake  of  their  liberty  and  happiness,  how- 
ever much  they  may  conflict  with  the  cus- 
toms or  laws  of  procedure  with  which 
tliey  are  familiar. 

It  will  be  the  duty  of  the  commission 
to  make  a  thorough  investigation  into  the 
titles  to  the  large  tracts  of  land  held  or 
claimed  by  individuals  or  by  religious 
orders;  into  the  justice  of  the  claims  and 
complaints  made  against  such  landholders 
by  the  people  of  the  island  or  any  part  of 
the  people,  and  to  seek  by  wise  and  peace- 
able measures  a  just  settlement  of  the 
controversies  and  redress  of  wrongs  which 
have  caused  strife  and  bloodshed  in  the 
past.  In  the  performance  of  this  duty 
the  commission  are  enjoined  to  see  that 
no  injustice  is  done;  to  have  regard  for 
substantial  rights  and  equity,  disregarding 
technicalities  so  far  as  substantial  right 
permits,  and  to  observe  the  following  rules. 

That  the  provision  of  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  pledging  the  United  States  to  the 
protection  of  all  rights  of  property  in  the 
islands,  and  as  well  the  principle  of  our 
own  government  which  prohibits  the  tak- 
ing of  private  property  without  due  proc- 
ess of  law,  shall  not  be  violated;  that  the 
welfare  of  the  people  of  the  islands,  which 
should  be  a  paramount  consideration, 
shall  be  attained  consistently  with  this 
rule  of  property  right;  that  if  it  becomes 
necessary  for  the  public  interest  of  the 
people  of  the  islands  to  dispose  of  claims 
to  property  which  the  commission  find  to 
be  not  lawfully  acquired  and  held,  disposi- 
tion shall  be  made  thereof  by  due  legal 
procedure,  in  which  there  shall  be  full 
opportunity  for  fair  and  impartial  hearing 
and  judgment ;  that  if  the  same  public 
interests  require  the  extinguishment  of 
property  rights  lawfully  acquired  and 
held,  due  compensation  shall  be  made  out 
of  the  public  treasury  therefor;  that  no 
form  of  religion  and  no  minister  of  relig- 
ion shall  be  forced  upon  any  community 
or  upon  any  citizen  of  the  islands;  that 
upon  the  other  hand  no  minister  of  relig- 
ion shall  be  interfered  with  or  molested 
in  following  his  calling,  and  that  the 
separation  between  State  and  Church 
shall  be  real,  entire,  and  absolute. 


179 


It  is  evident  that  the  most  enlightened 
thought  of  the  Philippine  Islands  fully 
appreciates  the  importance  of  these  prin- 
ciples and  rules,  and  they  will  inevitably 
within  a  short  time  command  universal 
assent.  Upon  every  division  and  branch 
of  the  government  of  the  Philippines, 
therefore,  must  be  imposed  these  invio- 
lable rules: 

That  no  person  shall  be  deprived  of  life, 
liberty,  or  property  without  due  process  of 
law;  that  private  property  shall  not  be 
taken  for  public  use  without  just  compen- 
sation; that  in  all  criminal  prosecutions 
the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial,  to  be  informed  of 
the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation, 
to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against 
him,  to  have  compulsory  process  for  ob- 
taining witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have 
the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence; 
that  excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required, 
nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and 
unusual  punishment  inflicted;  that  no 
person  shall  be  put  twice  in  jeopardy  for 
the  same  offence,  or  be  compelled  in  any 
criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  him- 
self; that  the  right  to  be  secure  against 
unreasonable  searches  and  seizures  shall 
not  be  violated;  that  neither  slavery  nor 
involuntary  servitude  shall  exist,  except 
as  a  punishment  for  crime;  that  no  bill 
of  attainder,  or  ex-post-facto  law  shall  be 
passed;  that  no  law  shall  be  passed 
abridging  the  freedom  of  speech  or  of  the 
press,  or  the  rights  of  the  people  to  peace- 
ably assemble  and  petition  the  govern- 
ment for  a  redress  of  grievances;  that  no 
law  shall  be  made  respecting  an  establish- 
ment of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  fret 
exercise  thereof,  and  that  the  free  exercise 
and  enjoyment  of  religious  profession  and 
worship  without  discrimination  or  prefer- 
ence shall  forever  be  allowed. 

It  will  be  the  duty  of  the  commission 
to  promote  and  extend,  and  as  they  find 
occasion,  to  improve,  the  system  of  edu- 
cation already  inaugurated  by  the  military 
authorities.  In  doing  this  they  should  re- 
gard as  of  first  importance  the  extension 
of  a  system  of  primary  education  which 
shall  be  fret  to  all,  and  which  shall  tend 
to  fit  the  people  for  the  duties  of  citizen- 
ship and  for  the  ordinary  avocations  of 
a  civilized  community.  This  instruction 
should  be  given  in  the   first  instance  v» 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


every  part  of  the  islands  in  the  language 
of  the  people.  In  view  of  the  great  num- 
ber of  languages  spoken  by  the  different 
tribes,  it  is  especially  important  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  islands  that  a  common 
medium  of  communication  may  be  estab- 
lished, and  it  is  obviously  desirable  that 
this  medium  should  be  the  English  lan- 
guage. Especial  attention  should  be  at 
once  given  to  affording  full  opportunity  to 
all  the  people  of  the  islands  to  acquire  the 
use  of  the  English  language. 

It  may  be  well  that  the  main  changes 
which  should  be  made  in  the  system  of 
taxation  and  in  the  body  of  the  laws  under 
which  the  people  are  governed,  except  such 
changes  as  have  already  been  made  by  the 
military  government,  should  be  relegated 
to  the  civil  government  which  is  to  be  es- 
tablished under  the  auspices  of  the  com- 
mission. It  will,  however,  be  the  duty  of 
the  commission  to  inquire  diligently  as  to 
whether  there  are  any  further  changes 
which  ought  not  to  be  delayed,  and,  if  so, 
they  are  authorized  to  make  such  changes, 
subject  to  your  approval.  In  doing  so 
they  are  to  bear  in  mind  that  taxes  which 
tend  to  penalize  or  repress  industry  and 
enterprise  are  to  be  avoided;  that  provi- 
sions for  taxation  should  be  simple,  so  that 
they  may  be  understood  by  the  people;  that 
they  should  affect  the  fewest  practicable 
subjects  of  taxation  which  will  serve  for 
the  general  distribution  of  the  burden. 

The  main  body  of  the  laws  which  regu- 
late the  rights  and  obligations  of  the  peo- 
ple should  be  maintained  with  as  little 
interference  as  possible.  Changes  made 
should  be  mainly  in  procedure,  and  in  the 
criminal  laws  to  secure  speedy  and  impar- 
tial trials,  and  at  the  same  time  effective 
administration  and  respect  for  individual 
rights. 

In  dealing  with  the  uncivilized  tribes  of 
the  islands  the  commission  should  adopt 
the  same  course  followed  by  Congress  in 
permitting  the  tribes  of  our  North  Ameri- 
can Indians  to  maintain  their  tribal  or- 
ganization and  government,  and  under 
which  many  of  those  tribes  are  now  living 
in  peace  and  contentment,  surrounded  by 
a  civilization  to  which  they  are  unable  or 
unwilling  to  conform.  Such  tribal  govern- 
ments should,  however,  be  subjected  to 
wise  and  firm  regulation ;  and,  without  un- 
due  or   petty   interference,   constant   and 


active  effort  should  be  exercised  to  prevent 
barbarous  practices  and  introduce  civilized 
customs. 

Upon  all  officers  and  employes  of  the 
United  States,  both  civil  and  military, 
should  be  impressed  a  sense  of  the  duty 
to  observe  not  merely  the  material  but  the 
personal  and  social  rights  of  the  people 
of  the  islands,  and  to  treat  them  with  the 
same  courtesy  and  respect  for  their  per- 
sonal dignity  which  the  people  of  the 
United  States  are  accustomed  to  require 
from  each  other. 

The  articles  of  capitulation  of  the  city 
of  Manila  on  Aug.  13,  1898,  concluded 
with  these  words: 

"  This  city,  its  inhabitants,  its  churches 
and  religious  worship,  its  educational  es- 
tablishments, ami  its  private  property  of 
all  descriptions  are  placed  under  the  spe- 
cial safeguard  of  the  faith  and  honor  of 
the  American  army." 

I  believe  that  this  pledge  has  been  faith- 
fully kept.  As  high  and  sacred  an  ob- 
ligation rests  upon  the  government  of  the 
United  States  to  give  protection  for  prop- 
erty and  life,  civil  and  religious  freedom, 
and  wise,  firm,  and  unselfish  guidance  in 
the  paths  of  peace  and  prosperity  to  all 
the  people  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  I 
charge  this  commission  to  labor  for  the 
full  performance  of  this  obligation,  which 
concerns  the  honor  and  conscience  of  their 
country,  in  the  firm  hope  that  through 
their  labors  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  may  come  to  look  back 
with  gratitude  to  the  day  when  God  gave 
victory  to  American  arms  at  Manila  and 
set  their  land  under  the  sovereignty  and 
the  protection  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States.  William  McKinley. 

Code  of  Civil  Government. — On  Jan.  31, 
1901,  the  Taft  Commission  enacted  into 
law  a  code  of  civil  government  for  the  isl- 
ands, thus  outlined  in  the  official  report  of 
the  commission: 

The  pueblos  of  these  islands  some- 
times include  a  hundred  or  more  square 
miles.  They  are  divided  into  so-called 
barrios,  or  wards,  which  are  often  very 
numerous  and  widely  separated.  In  order 
that  the  interests  of  the  inhabitants  of 
each  ward  may  be  represented  in  the  coun- 
cil, on  the  one  hand,  and  that  the  body 
may  not  become  so  numerous  as  to  be  un- 


180 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


wieldy,  on  the  other,  it  is  provided  that 
the  councillors  shall  be  few  in  number 
(eighteen  to  eight,  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants),  and  shall  be  elected 
at  large;  that  where  the  wards  are  more 
numerous  than  are  the  councillors  the 
wards  shall  be  grouped  into  districts,  and 
that  one  councillor  shall  be  in  charge  of 
each  ward  or  district  with  power  to  ap- 
point a  representative  from  among  the 
inhabitants  of  every  ward  thus  assigned 
to  him,  so  that  he  may  the  more  readily 
keep  in  touch  with  conditions  in  that  por- 
tion of  the  township  which  it  is  his  duty 
to  supervise  and  represent. 

The  subject  of  taxation  has  been  made 
the  object  of  especially  careful  attention. 
The  effect  of  the  old  Spanish  system  was 
to  throw  practically  the  whole  burden 
on  those  who  could  least  afford  to  bear  it. 
The  poor  paid  the  taxes,  and  the  rich,  in 
many  instances,  went  free,  or  nearly  so, 
unless  they  were  unfortunate  enough  to 
hold  office  and  thus  incur  responsibilityfor 
the  taxes  of  others  which  they  failed  to  col- 
lect. There  was  a  considerable  number  of 
special  taxes,  many  of  which  were  irritating 
and  offensive  to  the  people,  and  yielded  at 
the  best  a  pitifully  small  revenue. 

In  dealing  with  the  question  of  taxation 
it  has  been  our  purpose,  first,  to  do  away 
with  all  taxes  Avhich,  through  irritating 
those  from  whom  they  were  collected  or 
through  the  small  amount  of  resulting 
revenue,  were  manifestly  objectionable: 
second,  to  remove  the  so-called  industrial 
taxes,  except  where  levied  on  industries  re- 
quiring police  supervision ;  third,  to  abol- 
ish special  taxes,  such  as  the  tax  for  light- 
ing and  cleaning  the  municipality  and  the 
tax  for  the  repair  of  roads  and  streets; 
fourth,  to  provide  abundant  funds  for  the 
legitimate  needs  of  the  township  by  a 
system  which  should  adjust  the  burden 
of  contribution  with  some  reference  to  the 
resources  of  those  called  upon  to  bear  it. 
To  this  end  provision  has  been  made  for  a 
moderate  tax  on  land  and  improvements 
thereon. 

It  is  reasonably  certain  that  at  the  out- 
set there  will  be  more  or  less  opposition 
to  this  tax.  This  opposition  will  come 
from  the  rich,  who  have  thus  far  escaped 
their  fair  share  of  the  burden  of  taxation, 
and  who  will  naturally  be  more  or  less  un- 
willing to  assume  it.     It  is  believed,  how- 


ever, that  this  opposition  will  be  transient 
and  will  disappear  as  the  people  come  to 
realize  that  the  payment  of  taxes  results 
in  direct  benefit  to  the  communities  in 
which  they  live  and  to  themselves  indi- 
vidually. 

The  exact  rate  of  taxation  on  land  and 
improvements  is  left  to  the  several  munic- 
ipal councils,  within  certain  limits.  They 
may  reduce  it  to  one-fourth  of  1  per  cent, 
of  the  assessed  valuation  or  raise  it  to 
one-half  of  1  per  cent.;  but  in  any  event 
they  must  spend  the  amount  accruing 
from  a  tax  of  at  least  one-fourth  of  1  per 
cent,  on  free  public  schools.  Education  is 
the  crying  need  of  the  inhabitants  of  this 
country,  and  it  is  hoped  and  believed  that 
the  funds  resulting  from  the  land  tax 
will  be  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  establish 
an  adequate  primary-school  system.  Care- 
ful and,  it  is  believed,  just  provisions  have 
been  made  for  the  determination  of  values 
and  for  the  protection  of  the  rights  of 
property  owners. 

In  the  matter  of  collection  of  revenues 
a  complete  innovation  has  been  introduced, 
which,  it  is  believed,  will  be  productive  of 
satisfactory  results.  It  is  intended  to  cre- 
ate for  the  islands  a  centralized  system 
for  the  collection  and  disbursement  of  rev- 
enues, the  head  officer  of  which  shall  be  the 
insular  treasurer  at  Manila.  It  is  pro- 
posed to  establish  subordinate  offices  in 
the  several  departments,  and  others,  sub- 
ordinate in  turn  to  the  several  department 
al  offices,  in  the  various  provinces.  All 
revenues  within  any  given  province,  wheth- 
er for  the  municipal,  provincial,  depart- 
mental, or  insular  treasury,  will  be  collect- 
ed by  deputies  of  the  provincial  treasurer, 
who  will  immediately  turn  over  to  the 
several  municipalities  all  funds  collected 
for  them.  It  is  believed  that  by  this 
means  a  much  higher  degree  of  honesty 
and  efficiency  can  be  secured  than  would  be 
the  case  were  the  collectors  appointed  by 
the  municipalities  or  chosen  by  suffrage, 
while  it  will  be  of  great  convenience  to 
the  taxpayer  to  be  able  to  meet  his  obliga- 
tions to  all  departments  of  the  government 
at  one  time,  and  thus  escape  annoyance  at 
the  hands  of  a  multiplicity  of  officials, 
each  of  whom  is  collecting  revenue  for  a 
different  end.  Furthermore,  the  provin- 
cial treasurer  will  know  the  exact  amount 
paid  in  to  each  municipal  treasury,  and 


181 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 

will  thus  have  a  valuable  check  on  the  rection,  and  who  have  rendered  our  forces 

finances  of  every  one  in  his  province.  valuable  service  by  furnishing  them  with 

In  order  to  meet  the  situation  presented  information,  serving  as  carriers,  and  aid- 
by  the  fact  that  a  number  of  the  pueblos  ing  them  in  other  ways.  They  certainly 
have  not  as  yet  been  organized  since  the  deserve  well  of  us.  They  are,  however, 
American  occupation,  while  some  250  illiterate  pagans,  and  it  is  stated  on  good 
others  are  organized  under  a  comparative-  authority  that  there  are  not  three  Igor- 
ly  simple  form  of  government  and  fifty-  rotes  in  the  province  who  can  read  or 
five  under  a  much  more  complicated  form  write.  They  are  uncomplaining,  and, 
on  which  the  new  law  is  based,  the  course  when  wronged,  fly  to  the  mountain  fast- 
of  procedure  which  must  be  followed  in  nesses  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  instead 
order   to   bring   these   various    towns    un-  of  seeking  redress. 

der   the   provisions    of   the   new    law   has  The  conditions  in  Benguet  may  be  taken 

been  prescribed  in  detail,  and  every  effort  as  fairly  typical  of  those  which  prevail  in 

has  been  made  to  provide  against  unneces-  many  other  provinces,  populated  in  whole 

sary  friction  in  carrying  out  the  change,  or  in  part  by  harmless  and  amiable  but 

In  view  of  the  disturbed  conditions  ignorant  and  superstitious  wild  tribes, 
which  still  prevail  in  some  parts  of  the  The  commission  has  already  passed  an 
archipelago  it  has  been  provided  that  the  act  for  the  establishment  of  township 
military  government  should  be  given  con-  governments  in  this  province,  and  it  is 
trol  of  the  appointment  and  arming  of  the  believed  that  this  measure  will  serve  as 
municipal  police,  and  that  in  all  provinces  a  model  for  other  acts  necessitated  by 
where  civil  provincial  government  has  not  similar  conditions  in  other  provinces, 
been  established  by  the  commission  the  The  division  of  the  province  into  town- 
duties  of  the  provincial  governor,  pro-  ships  and  wards  is  provided  for.  The 
vincial  treasurer,  and  provincial  "  fiscal  "  government  of  each  township  is  nominally 
(prosecuting  attorney)  shall  be  performed  vested  in  a  president  and  council,  the 
by  military  officers  assigned  by  the  mili-  latter  composed  of  one  representative  from 
tary  governor  for  these  purposes.  each  ward  of  the  township.    The  president 

The  law  does  not  apply  to  the  city  of  and  vice-president  are  chosen  at  large  by 

Manila    or    to    the    settlements    of    non-  a  viva  voce  vote  of  the  male  residents  of 

Christian  tribes,  because  it  is  believed  that  the  township  eighteen  or  more  years  of  age, 

in   both   cases   special   conditions   require  and   the   councillors  are   similarly   chosen 

special  legislation.  by  the  residents  of  the  several  barrios. 

The  question  as  to  the  best  methods  of  The  difficulties  arising  from  the  corn- 
dealing  with  the  non-Christian  tribes  is  plete  illiteracy  of  the  people  are  met  by 
one  of  no  little  complexity.  The  number  providing  for  the  appointment  of  a  secre- 
of  these  tribes  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  tary  for  each  town,  who  shall  speak  and 
number  of  civilized  tribes,  although  the  write  Ilocano.  which  the  Igorrotes  under- 
total  number  of  Mohammedans  and  pagans  stand,  and  English  or  Spanish.  He  is 
is  much  less  than  the  number  of  Chris-  made  the  means  of  communication  be- 
tanized  natives.  Still,  the  non-Christian  tween  the  people  and  the  provincial  gov- 
tribes  are  very  far  from  forming  an  insig-  ernor,  makes  and  keeps  all  town  records, 
nificant  element  of  the  population.  They  and  does  all  clerical  work, 
differ  from  each  other  widely,  both  in  The  president  is  the  chief  executive  of 
their  present  social,  moral,  and  intellectual  the  township,  and  its  treasurer  as  well. 
state  and  in  the  readiness  with  which  they  He  is  also  the  presiding  officer  of  a  court 
adapt  themselves  to  the  demands  of  mod-  consisting  of  himself  and  two  councillors 
em  civilization.  chosen   by   the   council   to   act   with  him. 

The  necessity  of  meeting  this   problem  This  court  has  powev  to  hear  and  adjudge 

has  been  brought  home  to  the  commission  violations  of  local  ordinances, 

by  conditions  in  the  province  of  Benguet.  It  is  believed  that,  by  encouraging  the 

The   Igorrotes,   who   inhabit   this   prov-  municipal    councils    to    attempt   to    make 

ince,  are  a  pacific,  industrious,  and  rela-  ordinances,  and  then  giving  them  the  bene- 

tively    honest    and    truthful    people,    who  fits  of  the  criticism  and  suggestions  of  the 

have  never  taken  any  part  in  the  insur-  provincial  governor  with  reference  to  such 

182 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 

attempts,  they  may  be  gradually  taught  postal  and  revenue  departments.  In  con- 
much-needed  lessons  in  self-government,  nection  with  educational  efforts,  Governor 
while  sufficient  power  is  given  to  the  gov-  Taft  said  that  adults  should  be  educated 
ernor  to  enable  him  to  nullify  harmful  by  an  observation  of  American  methods, 
measures  and  to  take  the  initiative  when  He  said  that  there  was  a  reasonable  hope 
a  council  fails  to  act.  that  Congress  would  provide  a  tariff  that 

The  Igorrotes  are  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  would  assist  in  the  development  of  the 
a  few  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  township  Philippines  instead  of  an  application  of 
have  acquired  very  considerable  wealth.       the  United  States  tariff.    According  to  the 

Civil  Government  Inaugurated.  —  On  civil  governor,  there  was  an  unexpended 
July  4,  1901,  the  authorities  in  Manila  balance  in  the  insular  treasury  of  $3,700,- 
ceremoniously  inaugurated  civil  govern-  000,  and  an  anual  income  of  $10,000,000. 
ment  in  the  Philippines.  The  President  The  reading  of  President  McKinley's 
had  previously  appointed  Judge  Taft  civil  message  of  congratulation  was  enthusias- 
governor  of  the  islands,  and  Gen.  Adna  tically  cheered.  The  entire  front  of  the 
R.  Chaffee  (q.  v.)  military  governor  in  Tribuna,  a  block  long,  was  decorated  with 
succession  to  Gen.  Arthur  MacArthur  flags,  and  several  hundred  officers,  with 
(q.  v.).  their    families    and    friends,    were    seated 

Commissioner  Taft  was  escorted  by  Gen-  therein.  General  MacArthur,  Civil  Gov- 
crals  MacArthur  and  Chaffee  from  the  pal-  ernor  Taft,  and  Military  Governor  Chaffee, 
ace  to  a  great  temporary  tribune  opposite  with  the  other  generals.  Rear-Admiral 
.the  Plaza  Palacio.  Standing  on  a  pro-  Kempff  and  his  staff,  the  United  States 
jecting  centre  of  the  Tribuna,  Judge  Taft  commissioners  and  the  justices  of  the  Su- 
took  the  oath  of  office,  which  was  adminis-  preme  Court  and  the  Filipino  leaders  were 
tered  by  Chief-Justice  Arellano.  Governor  there,  but  there  were  more  Americans 
Taft  was  then  introduced  by  General  Mac-  than  Filipinos  present.  The  transfer  of 
Arthur,  a  salute  being  fired  by  the  guns  the  military  authority  was  carried  out 
of  Fort  Santiago.  without  any  formality. 

A  feature  of  the  inaugural  address  of  On  March  16,  1905,  Secretary  Taft  an- 
Governor  Taft  was  the  announcement  that  nounced  the  retention  of  the  Philippines 
on  Sept.  1,  1901,  the  Philippine  Commis-  as  the  policy  of  the  administration, 
sion  would  be  increased  by  the  appoint-  Military  and  Naval  Operations. — For  an 
ment  of  three  native  members,  Dr.  Wardo  account  of  the  principal  operations  of  the 
Detavera,  Benito  Legarda,  and  Jose  Luzu-  United  States  forces  against  Spain  and 
riaga.  Before  Sept.  1  departments  would  the  Filipino  insurgents  the  reader  is  re- 
exist  as  follows,  heads  having  been  ar-  ferred  to  Agtjinaldo,  Dewey,  MacArthur, 
ranged  thus :  Interior  Commissioner,  Wor-  Manila,  Merritt  ;  Spain,  War  with,  and 
cester;  Commerce  and  Police  Commis-  other  readily  suggested  titles.  In  his  last 
sioner,  Wright;  Justice  and  Finance  Com-  annual  report  as  military  commander  of 
missioner,  Ide;  Public  Instruction  Com-  the  Division  of  the  Philippines,  General 
missioner,  Moses.  Of  the  twenty-seven  MacArthur  gave  the  folowing  statistics  of 
provinces  organized,  Governor  Taft  said  military  operations  from  May  5,  1900,  to 
the  insurrection  still  existed  in  five.  This  June  30,  1901:  1,062  contacts  _  between 
would  cause  the  continuance  of  the  mili-  American  troops  and  insurgents,  involving 
tary  government  in  these  provinces.  Six-  the  following  casualties:  Americans — kill- 
teen  additional  provinces  were  reported  ed,  245;  wounded,  490;  captured,  118; 
without  insurrection,  but  as  yet  they  had  missing,  20.  Insurgents— killed,  2,854; 
not  been  organized.  Four  provinces  were  wounded.  1,193;  captured,  6,572;  surren- 
not  ready  for  civil  government.  dered,  23,095.     During  the  same  period  the 

Governor  Taft  predicted  that  with  the  following  material  was  captured  from  or 
concentration  of  troops  into  larger  garri-  surrendered  by  the  insurgents:  rifles,  15,- 
sons  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  people  693;  rifle  ammunition,  296,365  rounds; 
to  assist  the  police  in  the  preservation  of  revolvers,  868;  bolos,  3,516;  cannon,  122; 
order.  Fleet  launches  would  be  procured,  cannon  ammunition,  10,270  rounds, 
which  would  facilitate  communication  Chronology  of  the  War. — The  following 
among  the  provinces  as  well  as  aid  the    is  a  list  of  the  more  important  events  from 

183 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 


the  outbreak  of  the  insurrection  to  July, 

1902: 

Feb.  4,  1899.  The  Filipinos,  under  Agui- 
naldo,  attacked  the  American  defences  at 
Manila.  The  Americans  assumed  the 
offensive  the  next  day,'  and  in  the  fight- 
ing which  ensued  for  several  days  the 
American  loss  was  fifty-seven  killed 
and  215  wounded.  Five  hundred  Fili- 
pinos were  killed,  1,000  wounded,  and 
500  captured. 

Feb.   10.     Battle  of  Caloocan. 

March  13-19.  General  Wheaton  attacked 
and  occupied  Pasig. 

March  21  -  30.  General  MacArthur  ad- 
vanced  towards   and   captured   Malolos. 

Military  operations  were  partially  sus- 
pended during   the   rainy  season. 

Meanwhile  the  southern  islands  were  oc- 
cupied by  the  American  forces;  Iloilo 
by  General  Miller,  Feb.  11  ;  Cebu  by  the 
Navy,  March  27 ;  and  Negros.  Mindanao, 
and  the  smaller  islands  subsequently. 

A  treaty  was  concluded  with  the  Sultan 
of  Sulu,  in  which  his  rights  were  guar- 
anteed, and  he  acknowledged  the  su- 
premacy of  the  United  States. 

With  the  advance  of  the  dry  season  mili- 
tary operations  on  a  much  larger  scale 
than  heretofore  were  begun,  the  army  of 
occupation  having  been  reinforced  by 
30.000  men. 

April  4.  The  commission  issued  a  proc- 
lamation promising  "  The  amplest  lib- 
erty of  self-government,  reconcilable  with 
just,  stable,  effective,  and  economical 
administration,  and  compatible  with  the 
sovereign  rights  and  obligations  of  the 
United  States. 

April  22-May  17.  General  Lawton  led  an 
expedition  to  San  Isidro. 

April  25  -  May  5.  General  MacArthur 
captured  Calumpit  and  San  Fernando. 

June  10-19.  Generals  Lawton  and  Whea- 
ton advanced  south  to  Imus. 

June  26.     General  Hall  took  Calamba. 

Aug.  16.  General  MacArthur  captured 
Angeles. 

Sept.  28.  General  MacArthur,  after  sev- 
eral days'  fighting,  occupied  Porac. 

Oct.  1  - 10.  General  Schwan's  column 
operated  in  the  southern  part  of  Luzon 
and   captured   Rosario  and  Malabon. 

Nov.  2.  The  Philippine  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  consisting  of 
J.  G.  Schurman,  Prof.  Dean  Worcester, 


Charles  Denby,  Admiral  Dewey,  and 
General  Otis,  which  began  its  labors  at 
Manila,  March  20,  and  returned  to  the 
United  States  in  September,  submitted 
its  preliminary  report  to  the  President. 

Nov.  7.  A  military  expedition  on  board 
transports,  under  General  Wheaton, 
captured  Dagupan. 

Dec.  25.  Gen.  S.  B.  M.  Young  appoint- 
ed military  governor  of  northwestern 
Luzon. 

Dec.  26.  The  Filipino  general  Santa  Ana, 
with  a  force  of  insurgents,  attacked  the 
garrison  at  Subig;  the  Americans  suc- 
cessfully repelled  the  attack. 

Dec.  27.  Colonel  Lockett,  with  a  force  of 
2,500  men,  attacked  a  force  of  insur- 
gents near  Montalban;  many  Filipinos 
were  killed. 

Jan.  1,  1900.  General  advance  of  the 
American  troops  in  southern  Luzon; 
Cabuyac,  on  Laguna  de  Bay,  taken  by. 
two  battalions  of  the  39th  Infantry; 
two  Americans  killed  and  four  wounded. 

Jan.  7.  Lieutenant  Gillmore  and  the 
party  of  Americans  held  as  prisoners  by 
the  Filipinos  arrive  at  Manila. 

Jan.  12.  A  troop  of  the  3d  Cavalry  de- 
feated the  insurgents  near  San  Fer- 
nando de  la  Union;  the  Americans  lose- 
two  killed  and  three  wounded.  Gen- 
eral Otis  reports  all  of  Cavite  prov- 
ince as  occupied  by  General  Wheaton. 

Jan.  17.  Lieutenant  McRae,  with  a  com- 
pany of  the  3d  Infantry,  defeated  an 
insurgent  force  under  General  Hizon 
and  captured  rifles  and  ammunition 
near  Mabalacat. 

Feb.  5.  Five  thousand  Filipino  insur- 
gents attacked  American  garrison  at 
Duroga  and  were  repulsed. 

Feb.  16.  Expedition  under  Generals  Bates 
and  Bell  leave  Manila  to  crush  rebellion 
in  Camarines. 

March.  Civil  commission  appointed  by 
President  McKinley  (Wm.  H.  Taft,  Dean 
C.  Worcester,  Luke  E.  Wright,  Henry 
C.  Ide,  Bernard  Moses).  They  reached 
the  Philippines  in  April. 

April  7.  General  Otis  relieved.  General 
MacArthur  succeeds  him. 

May  5.  Gen.  Pantelon  Garcia,  the  chief 
Filipino  insurgent  in  central  Luzon,  is 
captured. 

May  29.  Insurgents  capture  San  Miguel 
de  Mayamo,  five  Americans  killed,  seven 


184 


PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS— PHILLIPS 


wounded,  and  Capt.  Charles  D.  Reports 
made   a   prisoner. 

June  8.  Gen.  Pio  del  Pilar  is  captured 
at  San  Pedro  Macati. 

June  12.  General  Giant  reports  the  capt- 
ure of  an  insurgent  stronghold  near 
San  Miquel. 

June  21.  General  MacArthur  issues  a 
proclamation   of   amnesty. 

Nov.  14.     Major  Bell  entered  Tarlac. 

Nov.  14.  Brisk  fighting  near  San  Jacinto. 
Maj.  John  A.  Logan  killed. 

Nov.  24.  General  Otis  announced  that 
the  whole  of  central  Luzon  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  United  States  authori- 
ties; that  the  president  of  Filipino  con- 
gress, the  secretary  of  state,  and  treas- 
urer were  captured,  and  that  only  small 
bands  of  the  enemy  were  in  arms,  while 
Aguinaldo  was  being  pursued  towards 
the  mountains. 

Nov.  26.  The  navy  captured  Vigan  on 
the  coast. 

Nov.  20.  At  Pavia,  in  Panay,  the  Fili- 
pinos are  driven  out  of  their  trenches. 

Nov.  28.  Colonel  Bell  disperses  the  in- 
surgents in  the  Dagupan  Valley.  Bay- 
ombong,  in  the  province  of  Nueva  Vis- 
caya,  defended  by  800  armed  Filipinos, 
surrenders  to  Lieutenant  Monroe. 

Dec.  3.  Gen.  Gregario  del  Pilar,  one  of 
the  Filipino  insurgent  leaders,  is  killed 
in  a  fight  near  Cervantes. 

Dec.  4.  Vigan,  he'd  by  American  troops 
Under  Lieutenant-Colonel  Parker,  at- 
tacked by  800  Filipinos;  they  are  driven 
off,  leaving  forty  killed  and  thirty-two 
prisoners ;    the  Americans  lose  eight  men. 

Dec.  11.  General  Tierona,  the  Filipino 
insurgent  commander  in  Cagayan,  sur- 
renders the  entire  province  to  Captain 
McCalla.  of  the  Newark. 

Dec.  11.  The  President  directed  General 
Otis  to  open  the  ports  of  the  Philip- 
pines to  commerce. 

Dec.  19.  General  Lawton  was  killed  in 
attacking;  San  Mateo. 

Jan.  22,  1901.  The  islands  of  Cibutu  and 
Cagayan  bought  for  $100,000  by  United 
States. 

Jan.  28.  Petition  from  Filipinos  pray- 
ing for  civil  government  presented. 

March  1.  Twenty-one  officers  and  120 
bolomen  surrender. 

March  23.  Aguinaldo  captured  by  Gen- 
eral Funston. 


April  2.    Aguinaldo  takes  oath  of  allegiance. 
April   20.     General  Tinio   surrendered. 
June   15.     Arellano,   chief-justice,  and  six 
other  Supreme  Court  judges  appointed. 
June    21.     Promulgation    of    order    estab- 
lishing  civil  government,   and   appoint- 
ing William  H.  Taft  the  first  governor. 
July  4.     Civil  government  established. 
July  24.     General  Zunbano,  with  547  men, 

surrenders  at  Zabayas. 
Sept.    29.     Massacre    of   forty-eight  Amer- 
icans at  Balangiga,  Samar. 
Jan.    14,    1902.     Twenty-two    officers    and 
245    men    surrendered    to    the    United 
States. 

Organized  rebellion  ended  early  in  1902. 
Throughout  the  larger  part  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  the  people  are  peaceable, 
satisfied,  are  learning  English,  and  are 
approaching  self-government  fairly  well. 
The  exceptions  lie  in  the  Sulu  (or  Jolo) 
Archipelago  and  the  island  of  Samar, 
where  the  Moros,  who  are  Mohammedans, 
bitterly  hate  the  civilized  Filipinos. 

Early  in  March,  1906,  a  large  band  of 
insurgent  Moros  intrenched  themselves 
in  the  crater  of  Mt.  Dago.  They  were  at- 
tacked by  Gen.  Wood,  and  600  of  them 
were  killed,  including  some  women  and 
children.  The  Moros  are  bitter  fanatics, 
who  believe  they  merit  heaven  by  dying 
in  battle  with  unbelievers.  The  women, 
dressed  as  men,  fought  as  men.  The  men 
used  their  children  as  shields  when  charg- 
ing upon  the  United  States  troops. 

On  March  24,  1906,  a  band  of  over  100 
Pulajanes,  in  Samar,  offered  to  surrender 
under  a  flag  of  truce.  They  treacherous- 
ly attacked  the  Americans  who  were  to 
receive  their  arms,  forcing  Gov.  Curry, 
Judge  Loebinger,  and  the  constabularv 
to  fly. 

Phillips,  John,  philanthropist;  born 
in  Andover.  Mass.,  Dec.  6,  1719 ;  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1735.  He  founded 
Phillips  Academy  at  Andover,  and  Phi'lips 
Academy  at  Exeter.  He  died  in  Exeter, 
N.  H.,  April  21,  1795.  His  nephew, 
Samuel  Phillips,  was  born  in  Andover, 
Feb.  7,  1751:  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1771;  was  a  member  of  the 
Massachusetts  Provincial  Congress  four 
years;  State  Senator  twenty  years;  and 
president  of  the  Senate  fifteen  years;  a 
judge  of  the  court  of  common  pleas; 
commissioner   of   the   State  to   deal   with 


185 


PHILLIPS 


Shays's  insurrection,  and  was  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  State  at  his  death.  He 
left  $5,000  to  the  town  of  Andover,  the 
interest   of   which   was   to   be   applied    to 


educational  purposes.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  at  Boston.  He  died  in  Andover. 
Mass.,   Feb.    10,    1802. 


PHILLIPS,    WENDELL 


Phillips,  Wendell,  orator  and  re- 
former; born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  29, 
1811;  son  of  John  Phillips,  the  first 
mayor  of  Boston;  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1831,  and  at  the  Cambridge 
Law  School  in  1833,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1834.  At  that  time  the  agita- 
tion of  the  slavery  question  was  violent 
and  wide-spread,  and  in  1836  Mr.  Phillips 
joined  the  abolitionists.  He  conceived  it 
such  a  wrong  in  the  Constitution  of  the 


need  not  curiously  investigate.  While  Mr. 
Everett  on  one  side,  and  Mr.  Sumner  on 
the  other,  agree,  you  and  I  may  take  for 
granted  the  opinion  of  two  such  opposite 
statesmen — the  result  of  the  common-sense 
of  this  side  of  the  water  and  the  other — 
that  slavery  is  the  root  of  this  war.  I 
know  some  men  have  loved  to  trace  it 
to  disappointed  ambition,  to  the  success 
of  the  republican  party,  convincing  300,- 
000  nobles  at  the  South,  who  have  hith- 


TJnited  States  in  sanctioning  slavery  that  erto  furnished  lis  the  most  of  the  Presi- 
he  could  not  conscientiously  act  under  his  dents,  generals,  judges,  and  ambassadors 
attorney's  oath  to  that  Constitution,  and    Ave  needed,  that  they  would  have  leave  to 


he  abandoned  the  profession.  From  that 
time  until  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves 
in  1863  he  did  not  cease  to  lift  up  his 
voice  against  the  system  of  slavery  and  in 
condemnation  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
1'nited  States.  His  first  great  speech 
against  the  evil  was  in  Faneuil  Hall,  in 
December,  1837,  at  a  meeting  "  to  notice 
in  a  suitable  manner  the  murder,  in  the 
city  of  Alton,  111.,  of  Rev.  Elijah  P.  Love- 
,]oy,  who  fell  in  defence  of  the  freedom  of 
the  press."  Mr.  Phillips  was  an  eloquent, 
logical,  and  effective  speaker.  He  con- 
scientiously abstained  from  voting  under 
the  Constitution,  and  was  ever  the  most 
earnest  of  "  Garrisonian  abolitionists." 
lie  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  other  re- 
forms— temperance,  labor,  and  other  social 
lelations.     He  was  president  of  the  Amer- 


stay  at  home,  and  that  20,000,000  of 
Northerners  would  take  their  share  in 
public  affairs.  I  do  not  think  that  cause 
equal  to  the  result.  Other  men  before 
Jefferson  Davis  and  Governor  Wise  have 
been  disappointed  of  the  Presidency. 
Henry  Clay,  Daniel  Webster,  and  Stephen 
A.  Douglas  were  more  than  once  disap- 
pointed, and  yet  who  believed  that  either 
of  these  great  men  could  have  armed  the 
North  to  avenge  his  wrong?  Why,  then, 
should  these  pygmies  of  the  South  be 
able  to  do  what  the  giants  I  have  named 
could  never  achieve?  Simply  because 
there  is  a  radical  difference  between  the 
two  sections,  and  that  difference  is  sla- 
very. A  party  victory  may  have  been  the 
occasion  of  this  outbreak.  So  a  tea-chest 
was  the  occasion  of  the  Revolution,  and  it 


ican  Anti-slavery  Society  at  the  time  of  went  to  the  bottom  of  Boston  Harbor  on 
its  dissolution,  April  9,  1870.  He  died  in  the  night  of  December  16,  1773;  but  that 
Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  2,  1884.  tea-chest  was  not  the  cause  of  the  Revo- 
ke War  for  the  Union. — In  December,  lution,  neither  is  Jefferson  Davis  the 
1861,  Mr.  Phillips  delivered  a  patriotic  cause  of  the  rebellion.  If  you  will  look 
address  in  Boston,  which  is  here  reprinted,  upon  the  map,  and  notice  that  every  slave 
somewhat  abridged.  State  has  joined  or  tried  to  join  the  re- 

bell  ion,  and  no  free  State  has  done  so,  T 

Ladies    and    Gentlemen, — It    would    be  think  you  will  not  doubt  substantially  the 

impossible  for  me  fitly  to  thank  you  for  origin  of  this  convulsion.    .   .   . 
this  welcome;   you  will   allow  me,  there-        I  know  the  danger  of  a  political  proph- 

fore,  not  to  attempt  it,  but  to  avail  my-  ecy — a  kaleidoscope  of  which  not  even  a 

self  of  your  patience  to  speak  to  you,  as  Yankee   can   guess   the   next   combination 

I  have  been  invited  to  do,  upon  the  war.  —but    for    all    that,    I    venture    to    offer 

Whence   came   this   war?      You    and    I  my   opinion,  that  on  this  continent   the 

186 


PHILLIPS,    WENDELL 


- 


WEJfDKLL    PHILLIPS. 


system  of  domestic  slavery  has  received 
its  death-blow.  Let  me  tell  you  why  I 
think  so.  Leaving  out  of  view  the  war 
with  England,  which  I  do  not  expect, 
there  are  but  three  paths  out  of  this  war. 
One  is,  the  North  conquers;  the  other  i  , 
the  South  conquers;  the  third  is,  a  com- 
promise. Now,  if  the  North  conquers,  or 
there  be  a  compromise,  one  or  the  other  of 
two  things  must  come — either  the  old  Con- 
stitution or  a  new  one.  I  believe  that,  so 
far  as  the  slavery  clauses  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  '89  are  concerned,  it  is  dead.  It 
seems  to  me  impossible  that  the  thrifty 
and    painstaking    North,    after    keeping 


G00,000  men  idle  for  two  or  three  years, 
at  a  cost  of  $2,000,000  a  day;  after  that 
Hag  lowered  at  Sumter;  after  Baker,  and 
Lyon,  and  Ellsworth,  and  Winthrop,  and 
Putnam,  and  Wesselhoeft  have  given  their 
lives  to  quell  the  rebellion;  after  our 
Massachusetts  boys,  hurrying  through 
ploughed  fields  and  workshops  to  save  the 
capital,  have  been  foully  murdered  on  the 
pavements  of  Baltimore — I  cannot  believe 
in  a  North  so  lost,  so  craven  as  to  put 
back  slavery  where  it  stood  on  March  4 
last.  But  if  there  be  reconstruction 
without  those  slave  clauses,  then  in  a 
little    while,    longer    or    shorter,    slavery 


187 


PHILLIPS,    WENDELL 


dies — indeed,  on  other  basis  but  the  basis 
of  '89  she  has  nothing  else  to  do  but  to 
die.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  South — no, 
I  cannot  say  conquers — my  lips  will  not 
form  the  word — but  if  she  balks  us  of 
victory;  the  only  way  she  can  do  it  is  to 
write  Emancipation  on  her  banner,  and 
thus  bribe  the  friends  of  liberty  in  Eu- 
rope to  allow  its  aristocrats  and  trad- 
ers to  divide  the  majestic  republic  whose 
growth  and  trade  they  fear  and  envy. 
Either  way,  the  slave  goes  free.  Unless 
England  flings  her  fleets  along  the  coast, 
the  South  can  never  spring  into  separate 
existence,  except  from  the  basis  of  negro 
freedom;  and  I  for  one  cannot  yet  be- 
lieve that  the  North  will  consent  again 
to  share  his  chains.  Exclusively  as  an 
abolitionist,  therefore,  I  have  little  more 
interest  in  this  war  than  the  frontiers- 
man's wife  had,  in  his  struggle  with  the 
bear,  when  she  didn't  care  which  whipped. 
I'.ut  before  I  leave  the  abolitionists  let 
me  say  one  word.  Some  men  say  we  are 
the  cause  of  this  war.  Gentlemen,  you 
do  us  too  much  honor !  If  it  be  so,  we 
have  reason  to  be  proud  of  it;  for  in  my 
heart,  as  an  American,  I  believe  this  year 
the  most  glorious  of  the  republic  since 
'76.  The  North,  craven  and  contented  un- 
til now,  like  Mammon,  saw  nothing  even 
in  heaven  but  the  golden  pavement;  to- 
day she  throws  off  her  chains.  We  have 
a  North,  as  Daniel  Webster  said.  This 
is  no  epoch  for  nations  to  blush  at.  Eng- 
land might  blush-  in  1620,  when  English- 
men trembled  at  a  fool's  frown,  and  were 
silent  when  James  forbade  them  to  think; 
but  not  in  1649,  when  an  outraged  people 
cut  off  his  son's  head.  Massachusetts 
might  have  blushed  a  year  or  two  ago, 
when  an  insolent  Virginian,  standing 
on  Bunker  Hill,  insulted  the  Common- 
wealth, and  then  dragged  her  citizens  to 
Washington  to  tell  what  they  knew  about 
John  Brown;  but  she  has  no  reason  to 
blush  to-day,  when  she  holds  that  same 
impudent  Senator  an  acknowledged  felon 
in  her  prison  -  fort.  In  my  view,  the 
bloodiest  war  ever  waged  is  infinitely 
better  than  the  happiest  slavery  which 
ever  fattened  man  into  obedience.  And 
yet  I  love  peace.  But  it  is  real  peace; 
not  peace  such  as  we  have  had,  not  peace 
that  meant  lynch-law  in  the  Carolinas  and 
mob-law   in   New  York;    not   peace   that 

1 


meant  chains  around  Boston  court-house, 
a  gag  on  the  lips  of  statesmen,  and  the 
slave  sobbing  himself  to  sleep  in  curses. 
No  more  such  peace  for  me;  no  peace  that 
is  not  born  of  justice,  and  does  not  recog- 
nize the  rights  of  every  race  and  every 
man.   .   .   . 

Now,  how  do  we  stand?  In  a  war — 
not  only  that,  but  a  terrific  war — not  a 
war  sprung  from  the  caprice  of  a  woman, 
the  spite  of  a  priest,  the  flickering  am- 
bition of  a  prince,  as  wars  usually  have; 
but  a  war  inevitable ;  in  one  sense  no- 
body's fault;  the  inevitable  result  of  past 
training,  the  conflict  of  ideas,  millions  of 
people  grappling  each  other's  throat,  every 
soldier  in  each  camp  certain  that  he 
is  fighting  for  an  idea  which  holds  the 
salvation  of  the  world — every  drop  of  his 
blood  in  earnest.  Such  a  war  finds  no 
parallel  nearer  than  that  of  the  Catholic 
and  Huguenot  of  France,  or  that  of 
aristocrat  and  republicans  in  1790,  or 
of  Cromwell  and  the  Irish,  when  victory 
meant  extermination.  Such  is  our  war. 
I  look  upon  it  as  the  commencement  of 
the  great  struggle  between  the  disgusted 
aristocracy  and  the  democracy  of  America. 
You  are  to  say  to-day  whether  it  shall 
last  ten  years  or  seventy,  as  it  usually 
has  done.  It  resembles  closely  that  strug- 
gle between  aristocrat  and  democrat  which 
began  in  France  in  1789,  and  continues 
still.  While  it  lasts  it  will  have  the 
same  effect  on  the  nation  as  that  war 
between  blind  loyalty,  represented  by  the 
Stuart  family,  and  the  free  spirit  of  the 
English  constitution,  which  lasted  from 
1660  to  1760,  and  kept  England  a  second- 
rate  power  almost  all  that  century. 

Such  is  the  era  on  which  you  are  enter- 
ing. I  will  not  speak  of  war  in  itself — ■ 
1  have  no  time;  I  will  not  say  with 
Napoleon,  that  it  is  the  practice  of  bar- 
barians; I  will  not  say  that  it  is  good. 
It  is  better  than  the  past.  A  thing 
may  be  better,  and  yet  not  good.  This 
war  is  better  than  the  past,  but  there  is 
not  an  element  of  good  in  it.  I  mean, 
there  is  nothing  in  it  which  we  might 
not  have  gotten  better,  fuller,  and  more 
perfectly  in  other  ways.  And  yet  it  is 
better  than  the  craven  past,  infinitely 
better  than  a  peace  which  had  pride  for 
its  father  and  subserviency  for  its  mother. 
Neither  will  I  speak  of  the  cost  of  war. 
88 


PHILLIPS,    WENDELL 


although  you  know  we  shall  never  get 
out  of  this  one  without  a  debt  of  at  least 
$2,000,000,000   or   $3,000,000,000.   .   .   . 

You  know  that  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus,  by  which  government  is  bound 
to  render  a  reason  to  the  judiciary 
before  it  lays  its  hands  upon  a  citizen, 
has  been  called  the  high-water  mark  of 
English  liberty.  Jefferson,  in  his  calm 
moments,  dreaded  the  power  to  suspend 
it  in  any  emergency  whatever,  and  wished 
to  have  it  in  "  eternal  and  unremitting 
force."  The  present  Napoleon,  in  his 
treatise  on  the  English  constitution,  calls 
it  the  gem  of  English  institutions.  Lieber 
says  that  the  habeas  corpus,  free  meetings 
like  this,  and  a  free  press  are  the  three 
elements  which  distinguish  liberty  from 
despotism.  All  that  Saxon  blood  has 
gained  in  the  battles  and  toils  of  200 
years  are  these  three  things.  But  to- 
day, Mr.  Chairman,  every  one  of  them 
— habeas  corpus,  the  right  of  free  meet- 
ing, and  a  free-  press  —  is  annihilated 
in  every  square  mile  of  the  republic. 
We  live  to-day,  every  one  of  us,  under 
martial  law.  The  Secretary  of  State  puts 
into  his  bastile,  with  a  warrant  as  irre- 
sponsible as  that  of  Louis,  any  man  whom 
he  pleases.  And  you  know  that  neither 
press  nor  lips  may  venture  to  arraign 
the  government  without  being  silenced. 
At  this  moment  1,000  men,  at  least, 
are  "  bastiled "  by  an  authority  as  des- 
potic as  that  of  Louis  —  three  times 
as  many  as  Eldon  and  George  III.  seized 
when  they  trembled  for  his  throne.  Mark 
me,  I  am  not  complaining.  I  do  not  say 
it  is  not  necessary.  It  is  necessary  to 
do  anything  to  save  the  ship.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  throw  everything  overboard  in 
order  that  we  may  float.  It  is  a  mere 
question  whether  you  prefer  the  despotism 
of  Washington  or  that  of  Richmond.  I 
prefer  that  of  Washington.  But,  never- 
theless, I  point  out  to  you  this  tendency 
because  it  is  momentous  in  its  significance. 
We  are  tending  with  rapid  strides,  you 
say  inevitably — I  do  not  deny  it;  neces- 
sarily— I  do  not  question  it ;  we  are  tend- 
ing towards  "that  strong  government  which 
frightened  Jefferson ;  towards  that  un- 
limited debt,  that  endless  army.  We  have 
already  those  alien  and  sedition  laws 
which,  in  1798,  wrecked  the  Federal 
party,  and  summoned  the  Democratic  into 

1 


existence.  For  the  first  time  on  this  con- 
tinent we  have  passports,  which  even 
Louis  Napoleon  pronounces  useless  and 
odious.  For  the  first  time  in  our  his- 
tory government  spies  frequent  our  great 
cities.  And  this  model  of  a  strong  gov- 
ernment, if  j'ou  reconstruct  on  the  old 
basis,  is  to  be  handed  into  the  keeping 
of  whom?  If  you  compromise  it  by  re- 
construction, to  whom  are  you  to  give 
these  delicate  and  grave  powers?  To  com- 
promisers? Reconstruct  this  government, 
and  for  twenty  years  you  can  never  elect 
a  Republican.  Presidents  must  be  wholly 
without  character  or  principle,  that  two  an- 
gry parties,  each  hopeless  of  success,  con- 
temptuously tolerate  them  as  neutrals.  .  .  . 
What  shall  we  do?  The  answer  to  that 
question  comes  partly  from  what  we  think 
has  been  the  cause  of  this  convulsion.  ■ 
Some  men  think — some  of  your  editors 
think — many  of  ours,  too — that  this  war 
is  nothing  but  the  disappointment  of 
1,000  or  2,000  angered  politicians,  who 
have  persuaded  8,000,000  of  Southern- 
ers, against  their  convictions,  to  take 
up  arms  and  rush  to  the  battle-field;  no 
great  compliment  to  Southern  sense! 
They  think  that,  if  the  Federal  army 
could  only  appear  in  the  midst  of  this 
demented  mass,  the  8,000,000  will  find 
out  for  the  first  time  in  their  lives 
that  they  have  got  souls  of  their  own, 
tell  us  so,  and  then  we  shall  all  be  piloted 
back,  float  back,  drift  back  into  the  good 
old  times  of  Franklin  Pierce  and  James 
Buchanan.  There  is  a  measure  of  truth 
in  that.  I  believe  that  if,  a  year  ago,  when 
the  thing  first  showed  itself,  Jefferson 
Davis  and  Toombs  and  Keitt  and  Wise, 
and  the  rest,  had  been  hung  for  traitors 
at  Washington,  and  a  couple  of  frigates 
anchored  at  Charleston,  another  couple 
in  Savannah,  and  a  half-dozen  in  New 
Orleans,  with  orders  to  shell  those  cities 
on  the  first  note  of  resistance,  there  never 
would  have  been  this  outbreak,  or  it  would 
have  been  postponed  at  least  a  dozen 
years;  and  if  that  interval  had  been  used 
to  get  rid  of  slavery,  we  never  should 
have  heard  of  the  convulsion.  ...  I  do 
not  consider  this  a  secession.  It  is  no 
secession.  I  agree  with  Bishop-General 
Polk — it  is  a  conspiracy,  not  a  secession. 
There  is  no  wish,  no  intention  to  go  peace- 
ably and  permanently  off.  It  is  a  con- 
89 


PHILLIPS,    WENDELL 


spiracy  to  make  the  government  do  the 
will  and  accept  the  policy  of  the  slave- 
holders. Its  root  is  at  the  South,  but  it 
has  many  a  branch  at  Wall  Street  and  in 
State  Street.  It  is  a  conspiracy,  and  on 
the  one  side  is  every  man  who  still  thinks 
that  he  that  steals  his  brother  is  a  gentle- 
man, and  he  that  makes  his  living  is  not. 
It  is  the  aristocratic  element  which  sur- 
vived the  Constitution,  which  our  fathers 
thought  could  be  safely  left  under  it,  and 
the  South  to-day  is  forced  into  this  war 
by  the  natural  growth  of  the  antagonistic 
principle.  You  may  pledge  whatever  sub- 
mission and  patience  of  Southern  institu- 
tions you  please — it  is  not  enough.  South 
Carolina  said  to  Massachusetts  in  1835, 
when  Edward  Everett  was  governor, 
"  Abolish  free  speech — it  is  a  nuisance." 
She  is  right — from  her  stand-point  it  is. 
That  is,  it  is  not  possible  to  preserve  the 
quiet  of  South  Carolina  consistently  with 
free  speech;  but  you  know  the  story  Sir 
Walter  Scott  told  of  the  Scotch  laird, 
who  said  to  his  old  butler,  "  Jock,  you 
and  I  can't  live  under  this  roof."  "  And 
where  does  your  honor  think  of  going?" 
So  free  speech  says  of  South  Carolina  to- 
day. Now  I  say  you  may  pledge,  com- 
promise, guarantee  what  you  please.  The 
South  well  knows  that  it  is  not  your  pur- 
pose— it  is  your  character  she  dreads.  It 
is  the  nature  of  Northern  institutions, 
the  perilous  freedom  of  discussion,  the 
flavor  of  our  ideas,  the  sight  of  our 
growth,  the  very  neighborhood  of  such 
States,  that  constitutes  the  danger.  It  is 
like  the  two  vessels  launched  on  the  stormy 
seas.  The  iron  said  to  the  crockery,  "  I 
won't  come  near  you."  "  Thank  you," 
said  the  weaker  vessel ;  "  there  is  just  as 
much  danger  in  my  coming  near  you." 
This  the  South  feels ;  hence  her  determina- 
tion ;  hence,  indeed,  the  imperious  neces- 
sity that  she  should  rule  and  shape  our 
government,  or  of  sailing  out  of  it.  I 
do  not  mean  that  she  plans  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  North,  and  choose  our  Northern 
mayors;  though  she  has  done  that  in  Bos- 
ton for  the  last  dozen  years,  and  here 
till  this  fall.  But  she  conspires  and  aims 
to  control  just  so  much  of  our  policy, 
trade,  offices,  presses,  pulpits,  cities,  as  is 
sufficient  to  insure  the  undisturbed  exist- 
ence of  slavery.  She  conspires  with  the 
full  intent  so  to  mould  this  government 


as  to  keep  it  what  it  has  been  for  thirty 
years,  according  to  John  Quincy  Adams — 
a  plot  for  the  extension  and  perpetuation 
of  slavery.  As  the  world  advances,  fresh 
guarantees  are  demanded.  The  nineteenth 
century  requires  sterner  gags  than  the 
eighteenth.  Often  as  the  peace  of  Virginia 
is  in  danger,  you  must  be  willing  that  a 
Virginian  Mason  shall  drag  your  citizens 
to  Washington,  and  imprison  them  at  his 
pleasure.  So  long  as  Carolina  needs  it, 
you  must  submit  that  your  ships  be 
searched  for  dangerous  passengers,  and 
every  Northern  man  lynched.  No  more 
Kansas  rebellions.  It  is  a  conflict  between 
the  two  powers,  aristocracy  and  democ- 
racy, which  shall  hold  this  belt  of  the 
continent.  You  may  live  here,  New  York 
men,  but  it  must  be  in  submission  to  such 
rules  as  the  quiet  of  South  Carolina  re~ 
quires.  That  is  the  meaning  of  the  oft- 
repeated  threat  to  call  the  roll  of  one's 
slaves  on  Bunker  Hill  and  dictate  peace 
in  Faneuil  Hall.  Now,  in  that  fight,  I  go 
for  the  North — for  the  Union. 

In  order  to  make  out  this  theory  of  "  ir- 
repressible conflict"  it  is  not  necessary  to 
suppose  that  evei-y  Southerner  hates  every 
Northerner  (as  the  Atlantic  Monthly 
urges).  But  this  much  is  true:  some 
300,000  slave-holders  at  the  South, 
holding  2,000,000,000  of  so-called  prop- 
erty in  their  hands,  controlling  the 
blacks  and  befooling  the  7,000,000  of 
poor  whites  into  being  their  tools — into 
believing  that  their  interest  is  opposed 
to  ours — this  order  of  nobles,  this  privileged 
class,  has  been  able  for  forty  years  to  keep 
the  government  in  dread,  dictate  terms 
by  threatening  disunion,  bring  us  to  its 
verge  at  least  twice,  and  now  almost  break 
the  Union  in  pieces.   .   .  . 

Now  some  Republicans  and  some  Demo- 
crats— not  Butler  and  Bryant  and  Coch- 
rane and  Cameron ;  not  Boutwell  and  Ban- 
croft and  Dickinson  and  others — but  the 
old  set — the  old  set  say  to  the  Repub- 
licans, "  Lay  the  pieces  carefully  to- 
gether in  their  places;  put  the  gunpowder 
and  the  match  in  again,  say  the  Consti- 
tution backAvard  instead  of  your  prayers, 
and  there  never  will  be  another  rebel- 
lion!" I  doubt  it.  It  seems  to  me  that 
like  causes  will  produce  like  effects.  If 
the  reason  of  the  war  is  because  we  are 
two   nations,    then   the   cure   must  be   to 


190 


PHILLIPS,    WENDELL 


make  us  one  nation,  to  remove  that  cause 
which  divides  us,  to  make  our  institutions 
homogeneous.  If  it  %vere  possible  to  subju- 
gate the  South,  and  leave  slavery  just 
as  it  is,  where  is  the  security  that  we 
should  not  have  another  war  in  ten 
years?  Indeed,  such  a  course  invites  an- 
other war,  whenever  demagogues  please. 
I  believe  the  policy  of  reconstruction  is 
impossible.  If  it  were  possible,  it  would 
be  the  greatest  mistake  that  Northern 
men  could  commit.  I  will  not  stop  to 
remind  you  that,  standing  as  we  do  to- 
day, with  the  full  constitutional  right  to 
abolish  slavery — a  right  Southern  trea- 
son has  just  given  us — a  right,  the  use 
of  which  is  enjoined  by  the  sternest  neces- 
sity— if  after  that,  the  North  goes  back 
to  the  Constitution  of  '89,  she  assumes,  a 
second  time,  afresh,  unnecessarily,  a  crim- 
inal responsibility  for  slavery.  Hereafter 
no  old  excuse  will  avail  us.  A  second 
time  with  open  eyes,  against  our  honest  in- 
terests we  clasp  bloody  hands  with  tyrants 
to  uphold  an  acknowledged  sin,  whose  evil 
we  have  fully  proved. 

Reconstruction  is  but  another  name  for 
the  submission  of  the  North.  It  is  her 
subjugation  under  a  mask.  It  is  nothing 
but  the  confession  of  defeat.  Every  mer- 
chant, in  such  a  case,  puts  everything  he 
has  at  the  bidding  of  Wigfall  and  Toombs 
in  every  cross-road  bar-room  at  the  South. 
For,  you  see,  never  till  now  did  anybody 
but  a  few  abolitionists  believe  that  this 
nation  could  be  marshalled,  one  section 
against  the  other,  in  arms.  But  the  secret 
is  out.  The  weak  point  is  discovered,  Why 
does  the  London  press  lecture  us  like  a 
school-master  his  seven-year-old  boy?  Why 
does  England  use  a  tone  such  as  she  has 
not  used  for  half  a  century  to  any  power? 
Because  she  knows  us  as  she  knows  Mexico, 
as  all  Europe  knows  Austria  —  that  we 
have  the  cancer  concealed  in  our  very 
vitals.  Slavery,  left  where  it  is,  after 
having  created  such  a  war  as  this,  would 
leave  our  commerce  and  all  our  foreign 
relations  at  the  mercy  of  any  Keitt,  Wig- 
fall,  Wise,  or  Toombs.  Any  demagogue  has 
only  to  stir  up  a  pro-slavery  crusade, 
point  back  to  the  safe  experiments  of 
1861 ;  and  lash  the  passions  of  the 
aristocrat,  to  cover  the  sea  with  privateers, 
put  in  jeopardy  the  trade  of  twenty  States, 
plunge  the  country  into  millions  of  debt, 


191 


send  our  stock  down  50  per  cent.,  and 
cost  thousands  of  lives.  Reconstruction 
is  but  making  chronic  what  now  is  tran- 
sient. What  that  is,  this  week  shows. 
What  that  is,  we  learn  from  the  tone  Eng- 
land dares  to  assume  towards  this  divid- 
ed republic.  I  do  not  believe  reconstruction 
possible.  I  do  not  believe  that  the  cabinet 
intend  it.  True,  I  should  care  little  if 
they  did,  since  I  believe  the  administration 
can  now  more  resist  the  progress  of 
events  than  a  spear  of  grass  can  retard 
the  step  of  an  avalanche.  But  if  they 
do,  allow  me  to  say,  for  one,  that  every 
dollar  spent  in  this  war  is  worse  than 
wasted,  that  every  life  lost  is  a  public 
murder,  and  that  every  statesman  who 
leads  States  back  to  reconstruction  will 
be  damned  to  an  infamy  compared  with 
which  Arnold  was  a  saint,  and  James 
Buchanan  a  public  benefactor.  I  said  re- 
construction is  not  possible.  I  do  not 
believe  it  is,  for  this  reason;  the  moment 
these  States  begin  to  appear  victorious, 
the  moment  our  armies  do  anything  that 
evinces  final  success,  the  wily  statesman- 
ship and  unconquerable  hate  of  the  South 
will  write  "  Emancipation "  on  her  ban- 
ner, and  welcome  the  protectorate  of  a 
European  power.  And  if  you  read  the 
European  papers  of  to-day,  you  need  not 
doubt  that  she  will  have  it.   .   .   . 

The  value  of  the  English  news  this 
week  is  the  indication  of  the  nation's 
mind.  No  one  doubts  now  that  should  the 
South  emancipate,  England  would  make 
haste  to  recognize  and  help  her.  In 
ordinary  times,  the  government  and 
aristocracy  of  England  dread  American 
example.  They  may  well  admire  and  envy 
the  strength  of  our  government,  when, 
instead  of  England's  impressment  and 
pinched  levies,  patriotism  marshals  600,- 
000  volunteers  in  six  months.  The  Eng- 
lish merchant  is  jealous  of  our  growth; 
only  the  liberal  middle  classes  sympathize 
Avith  us.  When  the  two  other  classes 
are  divided,  this  middle  class  rules.  But 
now  Herod  and  Pilate  are  agreed.  The 
aristocrat,  who  usually  despises  a  trader, 
whether  of  Manchester  or  Liverpool,  as 
the  South  does  a  negro,  now  is  secession- 
ist from  sympathy,  as  the  trader  is  from 
interest.  Such  a  union  no  middle  class 
can  checkmate.  The  only  danger  of  war 
with  England  is,  that,  as  soon  as  England 


PHILLIPS,  WENDELL 

ieclared  war  with  us,  she  would  recognize  the  government  announcing  a  policy  in 
the  Southern  Confederacy  immediately,  South  Carolina.  What  is  it?  Well,  Mr. 
just  as  she  stands,  slavery  and  all,  as  a  Secretary  Cameron  says  to  the  general 
military  measure.  As  such,  in  the  heat  of  in  command  there:  "  You  are  to  welcome 
passion,  in  the  smoke  of  war,  the  English  into  your  camp  all  comers;  you  are  to 
people,  all  of  them,  would  allow  such  a  organize  them  into  squads  and  companies; 
recognition  even  of  a  slave-holding  empire,  use  them  any  way  you  please — but  there 
War  with  England  insures  disunion,  is  to  be  no  general  arming."  That  is  a 
When  England  declares  war,  she  gives  very  significant  exception.  The  hint  is 
slavery  a  fresh  lease  of  fifty  years.  Even  broad  enough  for  the  dullest  brain.  In 
if  we  had  no  war  with  England,  let  an-  one  of  Charles  Reade's  novels,  the  heroine 
other  eight  or  ten  months  be  as  little  sue-  flies  away  to  hide  from  the  hero,  an- 
cessful  as  the  last,  and  Europe  will  nouncing  that  she  never  will  see  him  again, 
acknowledge  the  Southern  Confederacy,  Her  letter  says:  "I  will  never  see  you 
slavery,  and  all,  as  a  matter  of  course,  again,  David.  You,  of  course,  won't  come 
Further,  any  approach  towards  victory  on  to  see  me  at  my  old  nurse's  little  cottage, 
our  part,  without  freeing  the  slave,  gives  between  eleven  in  the  morning  and  four 
him  free  to  Davis.  So  far,  the  South  is  in  the  afternoon,  because  I  sha'n't  see 
sure  to  succeed,  either  by  victory  or  de-  you."  So  Mr.  Cameron  says  there  is  to 
feat,  unless  we  anticipate  her.  Indeed,  be  no  general  arming.  But  I  suppose  there 
the  only  way,  the  only  sure  way,  to  break  is  to  be  a  very  particular  arming.  But  he 
this  Union,  is  to  try  to  save  it  by  pro-  goes  on  to  add:  "This  is  no  greater  in- 
tecting  slavery.  "  Every  moment  lost,"  as  terference  with  the  institutions  of  South 
Napoleon  said,  "  is  an  opportunity  for  mis-  Carolina  than  is  necessary,  than  the  war 
fortune."  Unless  we  emancipate  the  slave,  will  cure."  Does  he  mean  he  will  give 
we  shall  never  conquer  the  South  without  the  slaves  back  after  the  war  is  over?  I 
her  trying  emancipation.  Every  South-  don't  know.  All  I  know  is,  that  the  Port 
I  erner,  from  Toombs  up  to  Fremont,  has  Royal  expedition  proved  one  thing — it  laid 
.'acknowledged  it.  Do  you  suppose  that  forever  that  ghost  of  an  argument,  that 
Davis  and  Beauregard,  and  the  rest,  meant  the  blacks  loved  their  masters — it  set- 
to  be  exiles,  wandering  contemned  in  every  tied  forever  the  question  whether  the 
great  city  in  Europe,  in  order  that  they  blacks  were  with  us  or  the  South.  My 
may  maintain  slavery  and  the  Constitution  opinion  is  that  the  blacks  are  the  key  of 
of  '89?  They,  like  ourselves,  will  throw  our  position.  He  that  gets  them  wins, 
everything  overboard  before  they  will  sub-  and  he  that  loses  them  goes  to  the  wall, 
mit  to  defeat — defeat  from  Yankees.  I  Port  Royal  settled  one  thing — the  blacks 
do  not  believe,  therefore,  that  reconcilia-  are  with  us  and  not  with  the  South.  At 
tion  is  possible,  nor  do  I  believe  that  the  present  they  are  the  only  Unionists.  I 
cabinet  have  any  such  hopes.  Indeed,  I  know  nothing  more  touching  in  history, 
do  not  know  where  you  will  find  the  evi-  nothing  that  art  will  immortalize  and 
dence  of  any  purpose  in  the  administration  poets  dwell  upon  more  fondly — I  know 
at  Washington.  If  we  look  to  the  West,  no  tribute  to  the  stars  and  stripes  more 
if  we  look  to  the  Potomac,  what  is  the  impressive  than  that  incident  of  the  blacks 
policy?  If,  on  the  Potomac,  with  the  aid  coming  to  the  water-side  with  their  little 
of  twenty  governors,  you  assemble  an  army  bundles,  in  that  simple  faith  which  had 
and  do  nothing  but  return  fugitive  slaves,  endured  through  the  long  night  of  so 
jthat  proves  you  competent  and  efficient,  many  bitter  years.  They  preferred  to  be 
If,  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi,  un-  shot  rather  than  driven  from  the  sight 
aided,  the  magic  of  your  presence  summons  of  that  banner  they  had  so  long  prayed 
an  army  into  existence,  and  you  drive  to  see.  And  if  that  was  the  result  when 
your  enemy  before  you  a  hundred  miles  nothing  but  General  Sherman's  equivocal 
farther  than  your  second  in  command  proclamation  was  landed  on  the  Caro- 
thought  it  possible  for  you  to  advance,  linas.  what  should  we  have  seen  if  there 
that  proves  you  incompetent,  and  entitles  had  been  18,000  veterans  with  Fremont, 
your  second  in  command  to  succeed  you.  the  statesman-soldier  of  this  war,  at  their 
Looking  in  another  direction,  you  see  head,  and  over  them  the  stars  and  stripes, 

192 


PHILLIPS,  WENDELL 

gorgeous  with  the  motto,  "  Freedom  for  years'  practice  has  incorporated  it  as  a 
all,  freedom  forever!"  If  that  had  gone  be-  principle  in  our  constitutional  law,  that 
fore  them,  in  my  opinion  they  would  have  what  the  necessity  of  the  hour  demands, 
marched  across  the  Carolinas  and  joined  and  the  continued  assent  of  the  people 
Brownlow  in  east  Tennessee.  The  bul-  ratifies,  is  law.  Slavery  has  established 
wark  on  each  side  of  them  would  have  been  that  rule.  We  might  surely  use  it  in  the 
100,000  grateful  blacks;  they  would  have  cause  of  justice.  But  I  will  cite  an  un- 
cut this  rebellion  in  halves,  and  while  questionable  precedent.  It  was  a  grave 
our  fleets  fired  salutes  across  New  Orleans,  power,  in  1807,  in  time  of  peace,  when 
Beauregard  would  have  been  ground  to  Congress  abolished  commerce;  when,  by 
powder  between  the  upper  millstone  of  Mc-  the  embargo  of  Jefferson,  no  ship  could 
Clellan  and  the  lower  of  a  quarter-million  quit  New  York  or  Boston,  and  Congress 
of  blacks  rising  to  greet  the  stars  and  set  no  limit  to  the  prohibition.  It  an- 
stripes.  McClellan  may  drill  a  better  army  nihilated  commerce.  New  England  asked, 
— more  perfect  soldiers.  He  will  never  "  Is  it  constitutional  ?"  The  Supreme 
marshal  a  stronger  force  than  those  grate-  Court  said,  "  Yes."  New  England  sat 
ful  thousands.  .  .  .  down  and  starved.  Her  wharfs  were 
When  Congress  declares  war,  says  John  worthless,  her  ships  rotted,  her  merchants 
Quincy  Adams,  Congress  has  all  the  power  beggared.  She  asked  no  compensation, 
incident  to  carrying  on  war.  It  is  not  The  powers  of  Congress  carried  bank- 
an  unconstitutional  power — it  is  a  power  ruptcy  from  New  Haven  to  Portland;  but 
conferred  by  the  Constitution ;  but  the  the  Supreme  Court  said,  "  It  is  legal," 
moment  it  comes  into  play  it  rises  be-  and  New  England  bowed  her  head.  We 
yond  the  limit  of  constitutional  checks,  commend  the  same  cup  to  the  Carolinas 
I  know  it  is  a  grave  power,  this  trusting  to-day.  We  say  to  them  that,  in  order 
the  government  with  despotism.  But  to  save  the  government,  there  resides 
what  is  the  use  of  government,  except  somewhere  despotism.  It  is  in  the  war 
just  to  help  us  in  critical  times?  All  powers  of  Congress.  That  despotism  can 
the  checks  and  ingenuity  of  our  institu-  change  the  social  arrangement  of  the 
tions  are  arranged  to  secure  for  us  men  Southern  States,  and  has  a  right  to  do  it. 
wise  and  able  enough  to  be  trusted  with  Now,  this  government,  which  abolishes 
grave  powers — bold  enough  to  use  them  my  right  of  habeas  corpus — which  strikes 
when  the  times  require.  Lancets  and  down,  because  it  is  necessary,  every  Sax- 
knives  are  dangerous  instruments.  The  on  bulwark  of  liberty — which  proclaims 
use  of  the  surgeon  is,  that  when  lancets  martial  law,  and  holds  every  dollar  and 
are  needed  somebody  may  know  how  to  every  man  at  the  will  of  the  cabinet — do 
use  them,  and  save  life.  One  great  merit  you  turn  round  and  tell  me  that  this 
of  democratic  institutions  is,  that,  rest-  same  government  has  no  rightful  power 
ing  as  they  must  on  educated  masses,  to  break  the  cobweb — it  is  but  a  cobweb — 
the  government  may  safely  be  trusted  in  which  binds  a  slave  to  his  master — to 
a  great  emergency,  with  despotic  power,  stretch  its  hands  across  the  Potomac  and 
without  fear  of  harm  or  of  wrecking  the  root  up  the  evil  which  for  seventy  years 
State.  No  other  form  of  government  can  has  troubled  its  peace  and  now  culminates 
venture  such  confidence  without  risk  of  in  rebellion?  I  maintain,  therefore,  the 
national  ruin.  Doubtless  the  war  power  power  of  the  government  itself  to  inau- 
is  a  very  grave  power;  so  are  some  or-  gurate  such  a  policy;  and  I  say  in  order 
dinary  peace  powers.  I  will  not  cite  ex-  to  save  the  Union,  do  justice  to  the  black, 
treme  cases — Louisiana  and  Texas.  We  I  would  claim  of  Congress — in  the 
obtained  the  first  by  treaty,  the  second  exact  language  of  Adams,  of  the  "  govern- 
by  joint  resolutions ;  each  case  an  exercise  ment " — a  solemn  act  abolishing  slavery 
of  power  as  grave  and  despotic  as  the  throughout  the  Union,  securing  compen- 
abolition  of  slavery  would  be,  and  unlike  sation  to  the  loyal  slave-holders.  As  the 
that,  plainly  unconstitutional — one  which  Constitution  forbids  the  States  to  make 
nothing  but  stern  necessity  and  subsequent  and  allow  nobles,  I  would  now,  by  equal 
acquiescence  by  the  nation  could  make  authority,  forbid  them  to  make  slaves 
valid.  Let  me  remind  you  that  seventy  or  allow  slave-holders. 
vn.— n                                                193 


PHILLIPS,  WENDELL 

People  may  say  this  is  a  strange  Ian-  erations  have  been  given  for  this  purpose, 
guage  for  me— a  disunionist.  Well,  I  was  To  break  up  that  Union  now  is  to  de- 
a  disunionist,  sincerely,  for  twenty  years ;  fraud  us  of  mutual  advantages  relating 
I  did  hate  the  Union,  when  Union  meant  to  peace,  trade,  national  security,  which 
lies  in  the  pulpit  and  mobs  in  the  streets,  cannot  survive  disunion.  The  right  of 
when  Union  meant  making  white  men  disunion  is  not  matter  of  caprice.  "  Gov- 
hypocrites  and  black  men  slaves.  I  did  ernments  long  established,"  says  our 
prefer  purity  to  peace — I  acknowledge  it.  Declaration  of  Independence,  "  are  not  to 
The  child  of  six  generations  of  Puritans,  be  changed  for  light  and  transient  causes." 
knowing  well  the  value  of  Union,  I  did  When  so  many  important  interests  and 
prefer  disunion  to  being  the  accomplice  of  benefits,  in  their  nature  indivisible  and 
tvrants.  But  now,  when  I  see  what  the  which  disunion  destroys,  have  been  secured 
Union  must  mean  in  order  to  last,  when  by  common  toils  and  cost,  the  South  must 
I  see  that  you  cannot  have  Union  with-  vindicate  her  revolution  by  showing  that 
out  meaning  justice,  and  when  I  see  our  government  has  become  destructive 
20,000,000  of  people,  with  a  current  of  its  proper  ends,  else  the  right  of  revo- 
as  swift  and  as  inevitable  as  Niagara,  lution  does  not  exist.  Why  did  we  steal 
determined  that  this  Union  shall  mean  Texas?  Why  have  we  helped  the  South 
justice,  why  should  I  object  to  it?  I  en-  to  strengthen  herself?  Because  she  said 
deavored  honestly,  and  am  not  ashamed  that  slavery  within  the  girdle  of  the  Con- 
of  it,  to  take  nineteen  States  out  of  this  stitution  would  die  out  through  the  in- 
Union,  and  consecrate  them  to  liberty,  fluence  of  natural  principles.  She  said: 
and  20,000,000  of  people  answer  me  "  We  acknowledge  it  to  be  an  evil ;  but 
back,  "  We  like  your  motto,  only  we  mean  at  the  same  time  it  will  end  by  the  spread 
to  keep  thirty-four  States  under  it."  Do  of  free  principles  and  the  influence  of 
you  suppose  I  am  not  Yankee  enough  to  free  institutions."  And  the  North  said: 
l-uy  Union  when  I  can  have  it  at  a  fair  "  Yes ;  we  will  give  you  privileges  on  that 
price?  I  know  the  value  of  Union;  and  account,  and  we  will  return  your  slaves 
the  reason  why  I  claim  that  Carolina  has  for  you."  Every  slave  sent  back  from  a 
no  right  to  secede  is  this:  we  are  not  a  Northern  State  is  a  fresh  oath  of  the 
partnership,  we  are  a  marriage,  and  we  South  that  she  would  secede.  Our  father 
have  done  a  great  many  things  since  we  trusted  to  the  promise  that  this  racf 
were  married  in  1789,  which  render  it  un-  should  be  left  under  the  influence  of  the 
just  for  a  State  to  exercise  the  right  of  Union,  until,  in  the  maturity  of  time, 
revolution  on  any  ground  now  alleged,  the  day  should  arrive  when  they  would 
I  admit  the  right.  I  acknowledge  the  be  lifted  into  the  sunlight  of  God's 
great  principles  of  the  Declaration  of  equality.  I  claim  it  of  South  Carolina. 
Independence,  that  a  State  exists  for  the  By  virtue  of  that  pledge  she  took  Boston 
liberty  and  happiness  of  the  people,  that  and  put  a  rope  round  her  neck  in  that 
these  are  the  ends  of  government,  and  infamous  compromise  which  consigned  to 
that,  when  government  ceases  to  promote  slavery  Anthony  Burns.  I  demand  the 
those  ends,  the  people  have  a  right  to  fulfilment  on  her  part  even  of  that  in- 
remodel  their  institutions.  I  acknowledge  famous  pledge.  Until  South  Carolina 
the  right  of  revolution  in  South  Carolina,  allows  me  all  the  influence  that  19,- 
but  at  the  same  time  I  acknowledge  that  000,000  of  Yankee  lips,  asking  infinite 
right  of  revolution  only  when  govern-  questions,  have  upon  the  welfare  of  those 
ment  has  ceased  to  promote  those  ends.  4,000,000  of  bondsmen,  I  deny  her  right 
Now,  we  have  been  married  for  seventy  to  secede.  Seventy  years  has  the  Union 
years.  We  have  bought  Florida.  We  postponed  the  negro.  For  seventy  years 
rounded  the  Union  to  the  Gulf.  We  has  he  been  beguiled  with  the  prom- 
bought  the  Mississippi  for  commercial  ise,  as  she  erected  one  bulwark  after 
purposes.  We  stole  Texas  for  slave  pur-  another  around  slavery,  that  he  should 
poses.  Great  commercial  interests,  great  have  the  influence  of  our  common  in- 
interests  of  peace,  have  been  subserved  by  stitutions. 

rounding  the  Union  into  a  perfect  shape;  I  know  how  we  stand  to-day,  with  the 

and  the  money  and  sacrifices  of  two  gen-  frowning    cannon    of    the    English    fleet 

194 


PHILLIPS,  WENDELL 

ready  to  be  thrust  out  of  the  port-holes  It  is  not  power  that  we  should  lose,  but 
against  us.  But  I  can  answer  England  it  is  character.  How  should  we  stand 
with  a  better  answer  than  William  H.  Sew-  when  Jeff  Davis  has  turned  that  corner 
ard  can  write.  I  can  answer  her  with  upon  us — abolished  slavery,  won  European 
a  more  statesmanlike  paper  than  Simon  sympathy,  and  established  his  Confeder- 
Cameron  can  indite.  I  would  answer  her  acy?  Bankrupt  in  character — outwitted 
with  the  stars  and  stripes  floating  over  in  statesmanship.  Our  record  would  be, 
Charleston  and  New  Orleans,  and  the  itin-  as  we  entered  the  sisterhood  of  nations — 
erant  cabinet  of  Richmond  packing  up  "  Longed  and  struggled  and  begged  to  be 
archives  and  wearing  apparel  to  ride  back  admitted  into  the  partnership  of  tyrants, 
to  Montgomery.  There  is  one  thing  and  and  they  were  kicked  out!"  And  the 
only  one,  which  John  Bull  respects,  and  South  would  spring  into  the  same*  arena, 
that  is  success.  It  is  not  for  us  to  give  bearing  on  her  brow — "  She  flung  away 
counsel  to  the  government  on  points  of  what  she  thought  gainful  and  honest,  in 
diplomatic  propriety,  but  I  suppose  we  order  to  gain  her  independence!"  A  rec- 
may  express  our  opinions,  and  my  opin-  ord  better  than  the  gold  of  California  or 
ion  is,  that,  if  I  were  the  President  of  all  the  brains  of  the  Yankee, 
these  thirty- four  States,  while  I  was,  I  Righteousness  is  preservation.  You 
should  want  Mason  and  Slidell  to  stay  who  are  not  abolitionists  do  not  come  to 
with  me.  I  say,  then,  first,  as  a  matter  this  question  as  I  did — from  an  interest 
of  justice  to  the  slave,  we  owe  it  to  him;  in  these  4,000,000  of  black  men.  I  came 
the  day  of  his  deliverance  has  come.  The  on  this  platform  from  sympathy  with  the 
long  promise  of  seventy  years  is  to  be  ful-  negro.  I  acknowledge  it.  You  come  to 
filled.  The  South  draws  back  from  the  this  question  from  an  idolatrous  regard 
pledge.  The  North  is  bound  in  honor  of  for  the  Constitution  of  '89.  But  here  we 
the  memory  of  her  fathers,  to  demand  its  stand.  On  the  other  side  of  the  ocean  is 
exact  fulfilment,  and  in  order  to  save  this  England,  holding  out,  not  I  think  a  threat 
Union,  which  now  means  justice  and  peace,  of  war — I  do  not  fear  it — but  holding  out 
to  recognize  the  rights  of  4,000,000  of  its  to  the  South  the  intimation  of  a,  willing- 
victims.  And  if  I  dared  to  descend  to  a  ness,  if  she  will  but  change  her  garments, 
lower  level,  I  should  say  to  the  merchants  and  make  herself  decent,  to  take  her  in 
of  this  metropolis,  Demand  of  the  govern-  charge,  and  give  her  assistance  and  pro- 
ment  a  speedy  settlement  of  this  question,  tection.  There  stands  England,  the  most 
Every  hour  of  delay  is  big  with  risk.  Re-  selfish  and  treacherous  of  modern  govern - 
member,  as  Governor  Boutwell  suggests,  ments.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Potomac 
that  our  present  financial  prosperity  comes  stands  a  statesmanship,  urged  by  personal 
because  we  have  corn  to  export  in  place  of  and  selfish  interests,  which  cannot  be 
cotton,  and  that  another  year,  should  matched,  and  between  them  they  have 
Europe  have  a  good  harvest  and  we  an  but  one  object — it  is  in  the  end  to  divide 
ordinary  one,   while  an  inflated  currency  the  Union. 

tempts    extravagance    and    large    imports,  I    do    not    forget    the    white    man,    the 

general  bankruptcy  stares  us  in  the  face.  8,000,000   of  poor  whites,   thinking  them- 

Do  you   love  the   Union?     Do  you   really  selves    our    enemies,    but   who    are   really 

think  that  on  the  other   side  of  the   Po-  our   friends.      Their    interests   are   identi- 

tcmac  are  the  natural  brothers  and   cus-  cal    with   our    own.      An    Alabama    slave- 

tcmers    of    the    manufacturing    ingenuity  holder,    sitting   with    me    a   year    or    two 

of  the  North  ?     I  tell  you,  certain  as  fate,  ago,  said :  "  In  our  northern  counties  they 

C4od  has  written  the  safety  of  that  rela-  are  your  friends.     A  man  owns  one  slave 

tion  in  the  same  scroll  with  justice  to  the  or  two  slaves,  and  he  eats  with  them,  and 

negro.     The  hour  strikes.     You  may  win  sleeps  in  the  same  room    (they  have  but 
him  to  your  side;  you  may  anticipate  the.  one),    much    as    a    hired    man    here    eats 

South;   you  may  save   12,000,000   of   cus-  with  the  farmer  he  serves.    There  is  no  dif- 

tomers.     Delay  it,  let  God  giant  McClel-  ference.     They  are  too  poor  to  send  their 

Ian  victory,  let  God  grant  the  stars  and  sons  north  for  education.     They  have  no 

stripes  over  New  Orleans,   and  it  is  too  newspapers,  and  they  know  nothing  but 

late.  what  they  are  told  by  us.     If  you  could 

195 


PKlLLIPfc,    -WfEttfiELl 


get  at  them,  they  Would  be  on  your  side, 
but  we  mean  you  never  shall." 

In  Paris  there  are  100,000  men  whom 
caricature  or  epigram  can  at  any  time 
raise  to  barricade  the  streets.  Whose 
fault  is  it  that  such  men  exist?  The  gov- 
ernment's; and  the  government  under 
which  such  a  mass  of  ignorance  exists  de- 
serves to  be  barricaded.  The  government 
under  which  8,000,000  of  people  exist,  so 
ignorant  that   2,000  politicians  and   100,- 

000  aristocrats  can  pervert  them  into 
rebellion,  deserves  to  be  rebelled  against. 
In  the  service  of  those  men  I  mean,  for 
one,  to  try  to  fulfil  the  pledge  my 
fathers  made  when  they  said,  "  We  will 
guarantee  to  every  State  a  republican 
form  of  government."  A  privileged  class, 
grown  strong  by  the  help  and  forbearance 
of  the  North,  plots  the  establishment  of 
aristocratic  government  in  form  as  well 
as  essence — conspires  to  rob  the  non- 
slave-holders  of  their  civil  rights.  This  is 
just  the  danger  our  national  pledge  was 
meant  to  meet.  Our  fathers'  honor,  na- 
tional good  faith,  the  cause  of  free  institu- 
tions, the  peace  of  the  continent,  bid  us 
fulfil  this  pledge — insist  on  using  the  right 
it  gives  us  to  preserve  the  Union. 

I  mean  to  fulfil  the  pledge  that  free  in- 
stitutions shall  be  preserved  in  the  several 
States,  and  I  demand  it  of  the  government. 

1  would  have  them,  therefore,  announce  to 
the  world  what  they  have  never  yet  done. 
I  do  not  wonder  at  the  want  of  sympathy 
on  the  part  of  England  with  us.  The 
South  says,  "  I  am  fighting  for  slavery." 
The  North  says  "  I  am  not  fighting  against 
it."  Why  should  England  interfere?  The 
people  have  nothing  on  which  to  hang  their 
sympathy. 

I  would  have  government  announce  to 
the  world  that  we  understand  the  evil 
which  has  troubled  our  peace  for  seventy 
years,  thwarting  the  natural  tendency  of 
our  institutions,  sending  ruin  along  our 
wharves  and  through  our  workshops  every 
ten  years,  poisoning  the  national  con- 
science. We  well  know  its  character.  But 
democracy,  unlike  other  governments,  is 
strong  enough  to  let  evils  work  out  their 
own  death — strong  enough  to  face  them 
when  they  reveal  their  proportions.  It 
was  in  this  sublime  consciousness  of 
strength,  not  of  weakness,  that  our  fathers 
submitted    to    the    well-known     evil     of 


slavery,  and  tolerated,  until  the  viper  we 
thought  we  could  safely  tread  on,  at  the 
touch  of  disappointment  starts  up  a  fiend 
whose  stature  reaches  the  sky.  But  our 
cheeks  do  not  blanch.  Democracy  ac- 
cepts the  struggle.  After  this  forbearance 
of  three  generations,  confident  that  she 
has  yet  power  to  execute  her  will,  she 
sends  her  proclamation  down  to  the  Gulf 
— freedom  to  every  man  beneath  the  stars. 
and  death  to  every  institution  that  dis- 
turbs our  peace  or  threatens  the  future 
of  the  republic. 

The   following   is   an   extract   from   his 
oration  on  Garrison: 


His  was  an  earnestness  that  would 
take  no  denial,  that  consumed  opposition 
in  the  intensity  of  its  convictions,  that 
knew  nothing  but  right.  As  friend  after 
friend  gathered  slowly,  one  by  one,  to 
his  side,  in  that  very  meeting  of  a  dozen 
heroic  men  to  form  the  New  England 
Anti  -  slavery  Society,  it  was  his  com- 
pelling hand,  his  resolute  unwillingness  to 
temper  or  qualify  the  utterance,  that 
finally  dedicated  that  first  organized 
movement  to  the  doctrine  of  immediate 
emancipation.  He  seems  to  have  under- 
stood— this  boy  without  experience — he 
seems  to  have  understood  by  instinct  that 
righteousness  is  the  only  thing  which  will 
finally  compel  submission ;  that  one,  with 
God,  is  always  a  majority.  He  seems  to 
have  known  it  at  the  very  outset,  taught 
of  God,  the  herald  and  champion,  God- 
endowed  and  God-sent  to  arouse  a  nation, 
that  only  by  the  most  absolute  asser- 
tion of  the  uttermost  truth,  without 
qualification  or  compromise,  can  a  nation' 
be  waked  to  conscience  or  strengthened 
for  duty.  No  man  ever  understood  so 
thoroughly — not  O'Connell  nor  Cobden — 
the  nature  and  needs  of  that  agitation 
which  alone,  in  our  day,  reforms  states. 
In  the  darkest  hour  he  never  doubted  the 
omnipotence  of  conscience  and  the  moral 
sentiment. 

And  then  look  at  the  unquailing  cour- 
age with  which  he  faced  the  successive 
obstacles  that  confronted  him!  Modest, 
believing  at  the  outset  that  America 
could  not  be  as  corrupt  as  she  seemed,  he 
waits  at  the  door  of  the  churches,  im- 
portunes leading  clergymen,  begs  for  a 
voice   from   the   sanctuary,   a   consecrated 


196 


PHIPPS— PICKENS 


protest  from  the  pulpit.  To  his  utter  treasure  to  the  amount  of  about  $1,400,- 
amazement,  he  learns,  by  thus  probing  it,  000,  of  which  his  share  amounted  to  about 
that  the  Church  will  give  him  no  help,  $75,000.  The  King  knighted  him,  and  he 
but,  on  the  contrary,  surges  into  the  was  appointed  high  sheriff  of  New  Eng- 
movement  in  opposition.  Serene,  though  land.  In  1690,  in  command  of  a  fleet,  he 
astounded  by  the  unexpected  revelation,  captured  Port  Royal  (Acadia),  and  late 
he  simply  turns  his  footsteps,  and  an-  in  the  same  year  he  led  an  unsuccessful 
nounces  that  "  a  Christianity  which  keeps  expedition  against  Quebec.  Phipps  went 
peace  with  the  oppressor  is  no  Christi-  to  England  in  1692  to  solicit  another  ex- 
anity,"  and  goes  on  his  way  to  supplant  pedition  against  Canada.  There  he  was 
the  religious  element  which  the  Church  appointed  captain-general  and  governor 
had  allied  with  sin  by  a  deeper  religious  of  Massachusetts  under  a  new  royal  char- 
faith.  Yes,  he  sets  himself  to  work —  ter,  just  issued,  and  he  returned  in  May 
this  stripling  with  his  sling  confronting  of  that  year,  bringing  the  charter  with 
the  angry  giant  in  complete  steel,  this  him.  In  1694  he  was  summoned  to  Eng- 
solitary  evangelist — to  make  Christians  land  to  answer  charges  preferred  against 
of  20,000,000  of  people!  I  am  not  exag-  him,  and  there  he  died  of  a  malignant 
gerating.  You  know,  older  men,  who  fever,  Feb.  18,  1695.  Sir  William  was  a 
can  go  back  to  that  period ;  I  know  that  member  of  the  congregation  over  which 
when  one,  kindred  to  a  voice  that  you  Cotton  Mather  preached.  He  was  dull  of 
have  heard  to-day,  whose  pathway  Gar-  intellect,  rude'j  educated,  egotistical, 
rison's  bloody  feet  had  made  easier  for  superstitious,  headstrong,  and  patriotic, 
the  treading,  when  he  uttered  in  a  pulpit  but  totally  unfitted  for  statesmanship  or 
in  Boston  only  a  few  strong  words,  in-  to  be  a  leader  in  civil  or  military  affairs, 
jected  in  the  course  of  a  sermon,  his  Pickens,  Andrew,  military  officer ;  born 
venerable  father,  between  seventy  and  in  Paxton,  Bucks  co.,  Pa.,  Sept.  19,  1739. 
eighty  years,  was  met  the  next  morning  His  parents,  who  were  of  Huguenot  de- 
and  his  hand  shaken  by  a  much-moved  scent,  went  to  South  Carolina  in  1752. 
friend.  "  Colonel,  you  have  my  sym- 
pathy. I  cannot  tell  you  how  much  I 
pity  you."  "  What,"  said  the  brusque 
old  man,  "what  is  your  pity?"  "Well, 
I  hear  your  son  went  crazy  at  '  Church 
Green '  yesterday."  Such  was  the  utter 
indifference.  At  that  time  bloody  feet  had 
smoothed  the  pathway  for  other  men  to 
tread.  Still,  then  and  for  years  after- 
wards, insanity  was  the  only  kind-hearted 
excuse  that  partial  friends  could  find  for 
sympathy  with  such  a  madman! 

Phipps,  Sir  William,  royal  governor; 
born  in  Pemaquid  (now  Bristol),  Me., 
Feb.  2,  1631 ;  was  one  of  twenty-six 
children  by  the  same  father  and  mother, 
twenty-one  of  whom  were  sons.  Nurtured 
in  comparative  poverty  in  childhood  and 
youth,  he  was  at  first  a  shepherd-boy,  and 
at  eighteen  years  of  age  became  an  ap- 
prentice to  a  ship-carpenter.  He  went  to 
Boston  in  1673,  where  he  learned  to  read 
and  write.     In  1684  he  went  to  England 

to  procure  means  to  recover  a  treasure-  Andrew  served  in  the  Cherokee  War  in 
ship  wrecked  near  the  Bahamas.  With  a  1761,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Rev- 
ship  furnished  by  the  government,  he  was  olutionary  War  was  made  a  captain  of 
unsuccessful ;  but  with  another  furnished  militia  and  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  briga- 
bv  the  Duke  of  Albemarle,  he  recovered    dier-general.     He,  with  Marion  and  Sum- 

197 


ANDREW    PICKENS. 


PICKENS 


ter,  by  their  zeal  and  boldness,  kept  alive  colleges  and  literary  institutions.  He  died 
the  spirit  of  resistance  in  the  South  when  in  Edgefield,  S.  C,  Jan.  25,  1869. 
Cornwallis  overran  South  Carolina.  He  Pickens,  Fort,  a  defensive  work  on 
performed  excellent  service  in  the  field  Santa  Rosa  Island,  commanding  the  en- 
during the  war,  and  for  his  conduct  at  the  trance  to  the  harbor  of  Pensacola  Bay. 
battle  of  the  Cowpens  Congress  voted  him  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  nearly 
a  sword.  He  led  the  Carolina  militia  in  opposite,  but  a  little  farther  seaward,  on  a 
the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  and,  in  1782,  low  sand-pit,  was  Fort  McRae.  Across 
a  successful  expedition  against  the  Chero-  from  Fort  Pickens,  on  the  main,  was  Fort 
kees.  From  the  close  of  the  war  till  1793  Barrancas,  built  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
he  was  in  the  South  Carolina  legislature,  taken  from  them  by  General  Jackson, 
and  was  in  Congress  from  1793  to  1795.  Nearly  a  mile  eastward  of  the  Barrancas 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  made  major-gen-  was  the  navy-yard,  then  in  command  of 
eral  of  militia,  and  was  in  the  legislature  Commodore  Armstrong.  Before  the  Flori- 
from  1801  to  1812.  A  treaty  made  by  him  da  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed 
with  the  Cherokees  obtained  from  the  lat-  (Jan.  10,  1861)  the  governor  (Perry) 
ter  the  region  of  South  Carolina  now  made  secret  preparations  with  the  govern- 
known  as  Pendleton  and  Greenville  dis-  or  of  Alabama  to  seize  all  the  national 
tricts,  and  he  settled  in  the  former  dis-  property  within  the  domain  of  Florida — 
trict,  where  he  died  Aug.  17,  1817.  namely,    Fort    Jefferson,    at    the    Garden 

Pickens,  Francis  Wilkinson,  diplo-  Key,  Tortugas ;  Fort  Taylor,  at  Key  West ; 
niatist;  born  in  St.  Paul's  parish,  S."  C,  Forts  Pickens,  McRae,  and  Barrancas,  and 
April  7,  1805;  became  a  lawyer,  and  was    the  navy -yard  near   Pensacola.     Early  in 

January  the  commander  of  Fort  Pickens 
(Lieut.  Adam  J.  Slemraer),  a  brave  Penn- 
sylvanian,  heard  rumors  that  the  fort 
was  to  be  attacked,  and  he  took  immediate 
measures  to  save  it  and  the  other  forts 
near.  He  called  on  Commodore  Arm- 
strong (Jan.  7)  and  asked  his  co-opera- 
tion, but  having  no  special  order  to  do  so, 
he  declined.  On  the  9th  Slemmer  received 
instructions  from  his  government  to  use 
all  diligence  for  the  protection  of  the  forts, 
and  Armstrong  was  ordered  to  co-operate 
with  Slemmer.  It  was  feared  that  the 
small  garrison  could  not  hold  more  than 
one  fort,  and  it  was  resolved  that  it  should 
be  Pickens.  It  was  arranged  for  Arm- 
strong to  send  the  little  garrison  at 
the  Barrancas  on  a  vessel  to  Fort 
Pickens.  Armstrong  failed  to  do  his 
part,  but  Slemmer,  with  great  exertions, 
had  the  troops  of  Barrancas  carried  over 
lina  legislature  during  the  nullification  to  Pickens,  with  their  families  and  much 
excitement.  '  He  spoke  *and  wrote  much  of  the  ammunition.  The  guns  bearing 
against  the  claim  that  Congress  might  upon  Pensacola  Bay  at  the  Barrancas  were 
abolish  slavery  in  the  District  of  Colum-  spiked;  but  the  arrangement  for  the  ves- 
bia.  He  was  minister  to  Russia  (1857-  sels  of  war  Wyandotte  and  Supply  to  an- 
60)  ;  and  when  South  Carolina  declared  its  chornear  Fort  Pickens  was  not  carried  out. 
secession  from  the  Union,  he  was  elected  To  Slemmer's  astonishment,  these  vessels 
the  first  governor,  or  president,  of  that  were  ordered  away  to  carry  coal  and  stores 
"sovereign  nation."  He  held  the  office  un-  to  the  home  squadron  on  the  Mexican 
til  1862.  Governor  Pickens  was  a  sue-  coast.  On  the  10th  the  navy-yard  near 
cessful  planter,  of  great  wealth,  and  was  Pensacola  was  surrendered  to  Florida  and 
popular  in  his  State  as  a  speaker  before    Alabama    troops,    and   these   prepared    to 

198 


FRANCIS   WILKINSON    PICKENS. 


a  distinguished  debater  in  the  South  Caro- 


PICKENS,    FORT 

bring  guns  to  bear  upon  Pickens  and  Fort  a  new  line  of  policy  was  adopted.     The 

Barrancas.    Slemmer  was  now  left  to  his  government    resolved    to    reinforce    with 

own  resources.  His  was  the  strongest  fort  in  men  and  supplies  both  Sumter  and  Pick- 

the  Gulf,  but  his  garrison  consisted  of  only  ens.     Between  April  6  and  9  the  steamers 

eighty-one  officers  and  men.     These  labored  A  tlantic    and    Illinois    and    the    United 

unceasingly  to  put  everything  in  working  States  steam  frigate  Powhatan  left  New 


order.  Among  the  workers  were  the  he-  York  for  Fort  Pickens  with  troops  and 
roic  wives  of  Lieutenants  Slemmer  and  supplies.  Lieut.  John  L.  Worden  (q.  v.) 
Gilmore,  refined  and  cultivated  women,  was  sent  by  land  with  an  order  to  Cap- 
whose  labors  at  this  crisis  form  a  part  of  tain  Adams,  of  the  Sabine,  then  in  com- 
the  history  of  Fort  Pickens.  On  the  12th  mand  of  a  little  squadron  off  Port  Pickens, 
Captain  Randolph,  Major  Marks,  and  to  throw  reinforcements  into  that  work 
Lieutenant  Rutledge  appeared,  and,  in  the  at  once.  Braxton  Bragg  was  then  in  corn- 
name  of  the  governor  of  Florida,  demand-  mand  of  all  the  Confederate  forces  in  the 
ed  a  peaceable  surrender  of  the  fort.  It  vicinity,  with  the  commission  of  briga- 
was  refused.  "  I  recognize  no  right  of  any  dier-general ;  and  Captain  Ingraham,  late 
governor  to  demand  the  surrender  of  Unit-  of  the  United  States  navy,  was  in  corn- 
ed States  property,"  said  Slemmer.  On  mand  of  the  navy-yard  near  Pensacola. 
the  15th  Col.  William  H.  Chase,  a  native  Bragg  had  arranged  with  a  sergeant  of 
of  Massachusetts,  in  command  of  all  the  the  garrison  to  betray  the  fort  on  the 
insurgent  troops  in  Florida,  accompanied  night  of  April  11,  for  which  service  he 
by  Farrand,  of  the  navy-yard  near  Pensa-  was  to  be  rewarded  with  a  large  sum  of 
cola,  appeared,  and,  in  friendly  terms,  money  and  a  commission  in  the  Con- 
begged  Slemmer  to  surrender,  and  not  be  federate  army.  He  had  seduced  a  few  of 
"  guilty  of  allowing  fraternal  blood  to  his  companions  into  complicity  in  his 
flow."  On  the  18th  Chase  demanded  the  scheme.  A  company  of  1,000  Confederates 
surrender  of  the  fort,  and  it  was  refused,  were  to  cross  over  in  a  steamboat  and 
Then  began  the  siege.  escalade  the  fort  when  the  sergeant  and 
When  President  Lincoln's  administra-  his  companions  would  be  on  guard.  The 
tion   came   into   power    (March  4,   1861)  plot  was  revealed  to  Slemmer  by  a  loyal 

199 


PICKENS— PICKERING 


man  in  the  Confederate  camp  named 
Richard  Wilcox,  and  the  catastrophe  was 
averted  by  the  timely  reinforcement  of  the 
fort  by  marines  and  artillerymen  under 
Captain  Vogdes.  A  few  days  afterwards 
the  Atlantic  and  Illinois  arrived  with  sev- 
eral hundred  troops  under  the  command 
of  Col.  Henry  Brown,  with  ample  supplies 
of  food  and  munitions  of  war;  and  Lieu- 
tenant Slemmer  and  his  almost  exhausted 
little  garrison  were  sent  to  Fort  Hamil- 
ton, New  York,  to  rest.  By  May  1  there 
was  a  formidable  force  of  insurgents 
menacing  Fort  Pickens,  numbering  nearly 
7,000,  arranged  in  three  divisions.  The 
first,  on  the  right,  was  composed  of  Missis- 
sippians,  under  Col.  J.  R.  Chalmers;  the 
second  was  composed  of  Alabamians  and  a 
Georgia  regiment,  under  Colonel  Clayton ; 
and  the  third  was  made  up  of  Louisian- 
ians,  Georgians,  and  a  Florida  regiment — 
the  whole  commanded  by  Colonel  Gladdin. 
There  were  also  500  troops  at  Pensacola, 
and  General  Bragg  was  commander-in- 
chief.  Reinforcements  continued  to  be 
sent  to  Fort  Pickens,  and  in  June  Wilson's 
Zouaves,  from  New  York,  were  encamped 
on    Santa    Rosa    Island,    on    which    Fort 


Pickering,  Timothy,  statesman;  born 
in  Salem,  Mass.,  July  17,  1745;  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1763;  and  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  1768.    He  was  the  leader 


\      C>Y>V^    o\    \K\."k\^Q 


MAP  OF    PENSACOLA   BAY. 

Pickens  stands.  During  the  ensuing  sum- 
mer nothing  of  great  importance  occurred 
in  connection  with  Fort  Pickens,  and 
other  efforts  afterwards  made  by  the  Con- 
federates to  capture  it  failed. 


200 


YS 


TIMOTHY    PICKERING. 

of  the  Essex  Whigs  in  the  controversy  pre- 
ceding the  Revolutionary  War;  was  on 
the  committee  of  correspondence;  and 
wrote  and  delivered  the  address  of  the 
people  of  Salem  to  Governor  Gage,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Boston  port  bill  in  1774. 
The  first  armed  resistance  to  British 
troops  was  by  Pickering,  as  colonel  of 
militia,  in  February,  1775,  at  a  draw- 
bridge at  Salem,  where  the  soldiers  were 
trying  to  seize  military  stores.  He  was  a 
judge  in  1775,  and  in  the  fall  of  1776 
joined  Washington,  in  New  Jersey,  with 
his  regiment  of  700  men.  In  May,  1777, 
he  was  made  adjutant-general  of  the  army, 
and  after  he  had  participated  in  the 
battles  of  Brandywine  and  Germantown, 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  board 
of  war.  He  succeeded  Greene  as  quarter- 
master-general in  August,  1780,  and  after 
the  war  resided  in  Philadelphia.  In  1786 
he  was  sent  to  the  Wyoming  settlement, 
to  adjust  difficulties  there  (see  Susque- 
hanna Company;  Pennymite  and 
Yankee  War),  where  he  was  personally 
abused,  imprisoned,  and  put  in  jeopardy 
of  his  life.  He  was  an  earnest  advocate 
of  the  national  Constitution,  and  suc- 
ceeded Osgood  as  United  States  Postmas- 
ter-General. In  1794-95  he  was  Secretary 
of  War  and  from  1795  to  1800  Secretary 
of  State.     Pickering  left  office  poor,  and 


PICKETT— PIEDMONT 


settling  on  some  wild  land  in  Pennsyl-  the  National  army  June  25,  1861 ;  and  was 
vania,  lived  there  with  his  family,  in  a  appointed  a  colonel  of  Virginia  State 
log  hut;  but  the  liberality  of  friends  en-  troops.  He  was  promoted  brigadier-gen- 
abled  him  to  return  to  Salem  in  1801.  eral  under  Longstreet  in  1862,  and  soon 
He  was  made  chief  judge  of  the  Essex  afterwards  major-general.  He  became 
county  court  of  common  pleas  in  1802;  famous  by  leading  the  charge,  named  after 
was  United  States  Senator  from  1803  to  him,  in  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  July  3, 
1811;  and  then  was  made  a  member  of  the  1863.  On  that  day  he  carried  a  hill  and 
council.  During  the  War  of  1812-15  he  entered  the  lines  of  the  National  troops, 
was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  board  Though  his  command  was  nearly  anni- 
of  war,  and  from  1815  to  1817  of  Con-  hilated,  his  feat  is  considered  the  most 
gress.  He  died  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Jan.  29,  brilliant  one  in  the  history  of  the  Confed- 
1829.  erate  army.     In  May,  1864,  when  General 

Pickett,  Albert  James,  historian ;  born  Butler  tried  to  take  Petersburg,  that  city 
in  Anson  county,  N.  C,  Aug.  13,  1810;  was  saved  by  Pickett's  brave  defence.  He 
settled  with  his  parents  in  Autauga  died  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  July  30,  1875.  See 
county,  Ala.,  in  1818;  devoted  his  time  Gettysburg,  Battle  of. 
mainly  to  literature;  and  participated  Pico,  Pio,  governor;  born  in  Los  Ange- 
in  the  Creek  War  in  1836.  He  published  les,  Cal.,  May  5,  1801 ;  appointed  governor 
a  History  of  Alabama  (2  volumes),  of  Northern  and  Southern  California  in 
He  died  in  Montgomery,  Ala.,  Oct.  28,  1832,  and  reappointed  in  1846.  At  this 
1858.  time  the  United  States  was  at  war  with 

Pickett,  George  Edward,  military  offi-  Mexico,  and  Pio  Pico  had  instituted  a 
cer;  born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  Jan.  25.  revolution  against  Mexico  in  connection 
1825;  graduated  at  the  United  States  with  his  brothers,  Jesus  and  Andres.  Fre- 
Military  Academy  in   1846;   distinguished    mont  advanced  from  Northern  California 

and  captured  Gen.  Jesus  Pico,  who  was 
paroled.  While  under  parole  he  took  part 
in  an  insurrection,  was  discovered,  and 
he  was  condemned  to  death,  but,  at  the 
solicitation  of  his  mother  and  wife,  was 
pardoned  by  Fremont.  This  action  on 
the  part  of  Fremont  converted  the  Picos 
to  the  American  cause.  Pio  Pico  was 
the  last  Mexican  governor  of  Califor- 
nia. He  died  in  Los  Angeles,  Sept.  11, 
1894. 

Pidansat  de  Mairobert,  Mathieu 
Francois,  author;  born  in  Chaource. 
France,  Feb.  20,  1727;  began  his  literary 
career  at  an  early  age.  His  publications 
relating  to  the  United  States  include  Let- 
ters on  the  True  Boundaries  of  the  Eng- 
lish and  French  Possessions  in  America; 
Some  Discussions  on  the  Ancient  Boun- 
daries of  Acadia;  English  Observations, 
etc.  He  died  in  Paris,  France,  March  29, 
1779. 

Piedmont,  Battle  at.     General  Hunt- 
er, with  9,000  men,  advanced  on  Staunton, 
Va.,  early  in  June,   1864.      At  Piedmont, 
not    far    from    Staunton,   he   encountered 
(June    5)     an    equal    force    of    Confeder- 
himself  in  the  Mexican  War,  taking  part    ates,     under     Generals     Jones     and     Mc- 
in   most   of   the   important   actions;    was    Causland.     An  obstinate  and  hard-fought 
promoted  captain  in  1855;  resigned  from    battle  ensued,  which  ended  with  the  day, 

201 


PIEGAN   INDIANS— PIEECE 

and    resulted    in    the   complete    defeat   of  prisoners.      The    spoils    of    victory    were 
the  Confederates.      Their  leader,  General  battle-flags,  three  guns,  and  3,000  small- 
Jones,  was  killed  by  a  shot  through  the  arms, 
head,  and   1,500  Confederates  were  made  Piegan  Indians.    See  Blackfeet. 


PIERCE,   FRANKLIN 

Pierce,  Franklin,  fourteenth  President  The  act  to  organize  the  Territories  of 

of  the  United  States,  from  1853  to  1857;  Nebraska   and  Kansas  was   a   manifesta- 

Democrat;  born  in  Hillsboro,  N.  H.,  Nov.  tion  of  the  legislative  opinion  of  Congress 

23,  1804;  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  on  two  great  points  of  constitutional  con- 
in  1824;  became  a  lawyer;  was  admitted  struction:  One,  that  the  designation  of  the 
to  the  bar  in  1827,  and  made  his  perma-  boundaries  of  a  new  Territory  and  provi- 
nent  residence  at  Concord  in  1838.  He  sion  for  its  political  organization  and  ad- 
was  in  Congress  from  1833  to  1837;  ministration  as  a  Territory  are  measures 
United  States  Senator  from  1837  to  1842;  which  of  right  fall  within  the  powers  of 
served  first  as  colonel  of  United  States  the  general  government;  and  the  other, 
infantry  in  the  war  against  Mexico,  and  that  the  inhabitants  of  any  such  Territory, 
as  brigadier-general,  under  Scott,  in  1847,  considered  as  an  inchoate  State,  are  en- 
leading  a  large  reinforcement  for  that  titled,  in  the  exercise  of  self-government, 
general's  army  on  its  march  for  the  Mexi-  to  determine  for  themselves  what  shall  be 
can  capital.  In  June,  1852,  the  Demo-  their  own  domestic  institutions,  subject 
cratic  Convention  nominated  him  for  only  to  the  Constitution  and  the  laws  duly 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  he  enacted  by  Congress  under  it,  and  to  the 
was  elected  in  November  (see  Cabinet,  power  of  the  existing  States  to  decide  ac- 
President's)  .  President  Pierce  favored  cording  to  the  provisions  and  principles 
the  pro-slavery  party  in  Kansas,  and  in  of  the  Constitution,  at  what  time  the  Ter- 
January,  1856,  in  a  message  to  Congress,  ritory  shall  be  received  as  a  State  into 
he  denounced  the  formation  of  a  free-State  the  Union.  Such  are  the  great  political 
government  in  Kansas  as  an  act  of  rebel-  rights  which  are  solemnly  declared  and 
lion.     During  the  Civil  War  ex-President  affirmed  by  that  act. 

Pierce    was    in    full    sympathy    with    the  Based  upon  this  theory,  the  act  of  Con- 
Confederate  leaders.     He  died  in  Concord,  gress  defined  for  each  Territory  the  outlines 
N.  H.,  Oct.  8,  1869.  of     republican     government,     distributing 
Special   Message    on   Kansas. — On   Jan.  public   authority   among  lawfully   created 

24,  1856,    President   Pierce   sent   the   fol-  agents  —  executive,    judicial,    and   legisla- 
lowing  message  to  the  Congress  on  the  af-  tive — to  be  appointed  either  by  the  general 
fairs  in  Kansas:   government  or  by  the  Territory.    The  leg- 
islative   functions    were    intrusted    to    a 

Washington,  Jan.  24,  1856.  council  and  a  House  of  Representatives, 
To  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa-  duly  elected,  and  empowered  to  enact  all 
fives, — Circumstances  have  occurred  to  the  local  laws  which  they  might  deem 
disturb  the  course  of  governmental  or-  essential  to  their  prosperity,  happiness, 
ganization  in  the  Territory  of  Kansas,  and  and  good  government.  Acting  in  the  same 
produce  there  a  condition  of  things  which  spirit,  Congress  also  defined  the  persons 
renders  it  incumbent  on  me  to  call  your  who  were  in  the  first  instance  to  be  con- 
attention  to  the  subject  and  urgently  to  sidered  as  the  people  of  each  Territory, 
recommend  the  adoption  by  you  of  such  enacting  that  every  free  white  male  in- 
measures  of  legislation  as  the  grave  exi-  habitant  of  the  same  above  the  age  of 
gencies  of  the  case  appear  to  require.  twenty-one  years,  being  an  actual  resident 
A  brief  exposition  of  the  circumstances  thereof  and  possessing  the  qualifications 
referred  to  and  of  their  causes  will  be  nee-  hereafter  described,  should  be  entitled  to 
essary  to  the  full  understanding  of  the  vote  at  the  first  election,  and  be  eligible 
recommendations  which  it  is  proposed  to  to  any  office  within  the  Territory,  but  that 
submit.  the    qualification    of    voters    and    holding 

202 


PIERCE,    FRANKLIN 


office  at  all  subsequent  elections  should  be 
such  as  might  be  prescribed  by  the  legisla- 
tive Assembly;  provided,  however,  that  the 
right  of  suffrage  and  of  holding  office 
should  be  exercised  only  by  citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  those  who  should  have 
declared  on  oath  their  intention  to  become 
such,  and  have  taken  an  oath  to  support 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  and 
the  provisions  of  the  act;  and  provided 
further,  that  no  officer,  soldier,  seaman,  or 
marine,  or  other  person  in  the  army  or 
navy  of  the  United  States,  or  attached 
troops  in  their  service,  should  be  allowed 
to  vote  or  hold  office  in  either  Territory  by 
reason  of  being  on  service  therein. 

Such  of  the  public  officers  of  the  Terri- 
tories as  by  the  provisions  of  the.  act  were 
to  be  appointed  by  the  general  government, 
including  the  governors,  were  appointed 
and  commissioned  in  due  season,  the  law 
having  been  enacted  on  May  30,  1854, 
and  the  commission  of  the  governor  of  the 
Territory  of  Nebraska,  being  dated  Aug. 
2,  1854,  and  of  the  Territory  of  Kansas  on 
June  29,  1854.  Among  the  duties  imposed 
by  the  act  on  the  governors  was  that  of 
directing  and  superintending  the  political 
organization  of  the  respective  Territo- 
ries. 

The  governor  of  Kansas  was  required 
to  cause  a  census  or  enumeration  of  the 
inhabitants  and  qualified  voters  of  the  sev- 
eral counties  and  districts  of  the  Territory 
to  be  taken  by  such  persons  and  in  such 
mode  as  he  might  designate  and  appoint: 
to  appoint  and  direct  the  time  and  places 
of  holding  the  first  elections,  and  the  man- 
ner of  conducting  them,  both  as  to  the 
persons  to  superintend  such  elections  and 
the  returns  thereof;  to  declare  the  number 
of  the  members  of  the  council  and  the 
House  of  Representatives  for  each  county 
or  district;  to  declare  what  persons  might 
appear  to  be  duly  elected,  and  to  appoint 
the  time  and  place  of  the  first  meeting 
of  the  legislative  Assembly.  In  substance, 
the  same  duties  were  devolved  on  the  gov- 
ernor of  Nebraska. 

While  by  this  act  the  principle  of  con- 
stitution for  each  of  the  Territories  was 
one  and  the  same,  and  the  details  of  or- 
ganic legislation  regarding  both  were  as 
nearly  as  could  be  identical,  and  while  the 
Territory  of  Nebraska  was  tranquilly  and 
successfully  organized  in  the  due  course  of 


law,  and  its  first  legislative  Assembly  met 
on  Jan.  16,  1855,  the  organization  of  Kan- 
sas was  long  delayed,  and  has  been  at- 
tended with  serious  difficulties  and  embar- 
rassments, partly  the  consequence  of  local 
maladministration,  and  partly  of  the  un- 
justifiable interference  of  the  inhabitants 
of  some  of  the  States,  foreign  by  residence, 
interests,  and  rights  to  the  Territory. 

The  governor  of  the  Territory  of  Kan- 
sas, commissioned  as  before  stated,  on 
June  29,  1854,  did  not  reach  the  desig- 
nated seat  of  his  government  until  the  7th 
of  the  ensuing  October,  and  even  then 
failed  to  make  the  first  step  in  its  legal 
organization,  that  of  ordering  the  census 
or  enumeration  of  its  inhabitants,  until 
so  late  a  day  that  the  election  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  legislative  Assembly  did  not 
take  place  until  March  30,  1855,  nor  its 
meeting  until  July  2,  1855.  So  that  for  a 
year  after  the  Territory  was  constituted 
by  the  a«t  of  Congress  and  the  officers  to 
be  appointed  by  the  federal  executive  had 
been  commissioned  it  was  without  a  com- 
plete government,  without  any  legislative 
authority,  without  local  law,  and,  of 
course,  without  the  ordinary  guarantees  of 
peace  and  public  order. 

In  other  respects  the  governor,  instead 
of  exercising  constant  vigilance  and  put- 
ting forth  all  his  energies  to  prevent  or 
counteract  the  tendencies  to  illegality 
which  are  prone  to  exist  in  all  imperfectly 
organized  and  newly  associated  communi- 
ties, allowed  his  attention  to  be  diverted" 
from  official  obligations  by  other  objects, 
and  himself  set  an  example  of  the  viola- 
tion of  law  in  the  performance  of  acts 
which  rendered  it  my  duty  in  the  sequel 
to  remove  him  from  the  office  of  chief 
executive  magistrate  of  the  Territory. 

Before  the  requisite  preparation  was  ac- 
complished for  election  of  a  Territorial 
legislature,  an  election  of  delegate  to  Con- 
gress had  been  held  in  the  Territory  on 
Nov.  29,  1854,  and  the  delegate  took  his 
seat  in  the  House  of  Representatives  with- 
out challenge.  If  arrangements  had  been 
perfected  by  the  governor  so  that  the 
election  for  members  of  the  legislative 
Assembly  might  be  held  in  the  several  pre- 
cincts at  the  same  time  as  for  delegate  to 
Congress,  any  question  appertaining  to  the 
qualifications  of  the  persons  voting  as 
people  of  the  Territory  would  have  passed 


203 


PIERCE,   FRANKLIN 

necessarily  and  at  once  under  the  super-  Under  these  inauspicious  circumstances 

vision   of   Congress,   as   the   judge  of   the  the  primary  elections  for  members  of  the 

validity  of  the  return  of  the  delegate,  and  legislative   Assembly   were   held   in   most, 

would   have   been   determined   before   con-  if   not   all,   of   the   precincts   at   the   time 

flicting  passions  had  become  inflamed  by  and  the  places  and  by  the  persons  desig- 

time,  and  before  opportunity  could   have  nated  and  appointed  by  the  governor  ac- 

been  afforded   for   systematic  interference  cording  to  law. 

of  the  people  of  individual  States.  Angry  accusations  that  illegal  votes  had 

This  interference,  in  so  far  as  concerns  been  polled  abounded  on  all  sides,  and 
its  primary  causes  and  its  immediate  com-  imputations  were  made  both  of  fraud  and 
mencement,  was  one  of  the  incidents  of  violence.  But  the  governor,  in  the  exer- 
that  pernicious  agitation  on  the  subject  cise  of  the  power  and  the  discharge  of 
of  the  condition  of  the  colored  persons  the  duty  conferred  and  imposed  by  law 
held  to  service  in  some  of  the  States  which  on  him  alone,  officially  received  and  con- 
has  so  long  disturbed  the  repose  of  our  sidered  the  returns,  declared  a  large  ma- 
country  and  excited  individuals,  other-  jority  of  the  members  of  the  council  and 
wise  patriotic  and  law-abiding,  to  toil  with  the  house  of  representatives  "  duly  elect- 
misdirected  zeal  in  the  attempt  to  propa-  ed,"  withheld  certificates  from  others  be- 
gate  their  social  theories  by  the  perver-  cause  of  alleged  illegality  of  votes,  ap- 
sion  and  abuse  of  the  powers  of  Con-  pointed  a  new  election  to  supply  the 
gress.  places   of   the   persons   not   certified,    and 

The  persons  and  the  parties  whom  the  thus  at  length,  in  all  the  forms  of  stat- 
tenor  of  the  act  to  organize  the  Terri-  ute,  and  with  his  own  official  authentica- 
tories  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas  thwarted  tion,  complete  legality  was  given  to  the 
in  the  endeavor  to  impose,  through  the  first  legislative  Assembly  of  the  Territory, 
agency  of  Congress,  their  particular  views  Those  decisions  of  the  returning  officers 
of  social  organization  on  the  people  of  and  of  the  governors  are  final,  except 
the  future  new  States,  now  perceiving  that  that  by  the  parliamentary  usage  of  the 
the  policy  of  leaving  the  inhabitants  of  country  applied  to  the  organic  law  it  may 
each  State  to  judge  for  themselves  in  be  conceded  that  each  house  of  the  As- 
this  respect  was  ineradicably  rooted  in  the  sembly  must  have  been  competent  to  de- 
convictions  of  the  people  of  the  Union,  termine  in  the  last  resort  the  qualifications 
then  had  recourse,  in  the  pursuit  of  their  and  the  election  of  its  members.  The  sub- 
general  object,  to  the  extraordinary  meas-  ject  was  by  its  nature  one  appertaining 
ure  of  propagandist  colonization  of  the  exclusively  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local 
Territory  of  Kansas  to  prevent  the  free  authorities  of  the  Territory.  Whatever 
and  natural  action  of  its  inhabitants  irregularities  may  have  occurred  in  the 
in  its  internal  organization,  and  thus  elections,  it  seems  too  late  now  to  raise 
to  anticipate  or  to  force  the  determi-  that  question.  At  all  events,  it  is  a  ques- 
nation  of  that  question  in  this  inchoate  tion  as  to  which,  neither  now  nor  at  any 
State.  previous  time,  has  the  least  possible  legal 

With   such  views  associations  were   or-  authority  been  possessed  by  the  President 

ganized  in  some  of  the  States,  and  their  of    the    United    States.      For    all    present 

purposes    were    proclaimed    through    the  purposes  the  legislative  body  thus  consti- 

press  in  language  extremely  irritating  and  tuted  and  elected  was  the  legitimate  legis- 

offensive  to  those  of  whom   the   colonists  lative  assembly  of  the  Territory, 

were  to  become  the  neighbors.     Those  de-  Accordingly  the  governor  by  proclama- 

signs   and   acts  had   the   necessary   conse-  tion  convened   the  Assembly   thus   elected 

quence    to    awaken    emotions    of    intense  to  meet  at  a   place   called   Pawnee   City; 

indignation   in   States  near  to  the  Terri-  the  two  houses  met  and  were  duly  organ- 

tory    of    Kansas,    and    especially    in    the  ized  in  the  ordinary  parliamentary  form ; 

adjoining    State    of    Missouri,    whose    do-  each  sent  to  and  received  from  the  govern- 

mestic  peace  was  thus  the  most  directly  or   the   official    communications   usual    on 

endangered;    but   they   are   far   from   jus-  such  occasions;  an  elaborate  message  open- 

tifying  the  illegal  and  reprehensible  coun-  ing  the  session  was  communicated  by  the 

ter  movements  which  ensued.  governor,    and    the    general    business    of 

204 


FIERCE,    FRANKLIN 


legislation  was  entered  upon  by  the  legis- 
lative Assembly. 

But  after  a  few  days  the  Assembly  re- 
solved to  adjourn  to  another  place  in  the 
Territory.  A  law  was  accordingly  passed, 
against  the  consent  of  the  governor,  but 
in  due  form  otherwise,  to  remove  the  seat 
of  government  temporarily  to  the  "  Shaw- 
nee Manual  Labor  School"  (or  mission), 
and  thither  the  Assembly  proceeded.  After 
this,  receiving  a  bill  for  the  establishment 
of  a  ferry  at  the  town  of  Kickapoo,  the 
governor  refused  to  sign  it,  and  by  special 
message  assigned  for  reason  of  refusal 
not  anything  objectionable  in  the  bill  itself 
nor  any  pretence  of  the  illegality  or  in- 
competency of  the  Assembly  as  such,  but 
only  the  fact  that  the  Assembly  had  by 
its  act  transferred  the  seat  of  government 
temporarily  from  Pawnee  City  to  the 
Shawnee  Mission.  For  the  same  reason 
he  continued  to  refuse  to  sign  other  bills, 
until,  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  he  by 
official  message  communicated  to  the  As- 
sembly the  fact  that  he  had  received  notifi- 
cation of  the  termination  of  his  functions 
as  governor,  and  that  the  duties  of  the 
office  were  legally  devolved  on  the  secre- 
tary of  the  Territory;  thus  to  the  last 
recognizing  the  body  as  a  duly  elected 
and   constituted  legislative  Assembly. 

It  will  be  perceived  that,  if  any  consti- 
tutional defect  attached  to  the  legislative 
acts  of  the  Assembly,  it  is  not  pretended 
to  consist  in  irregularity  of  election  or 
want  of  qualification  of  the  members,  but 
only  in  the  change  of  its  place  of  session. 
However  trivial  this  objection  may  seem 
to  be,  it  requires  to  be  considered,  because 
upon  it  is  founded  all  that  superstructure 
of  acts,  plainly  against  law,  which  now 
threaten  the  peace,  not  only  of  the  Terri- 
tory of  Kansas,  but  of  the  Union. 

Such  an  objection  to  the  proceedings 
of  the  legislative  Assembly  was  of  excep- 
tionable origin,  for  the  reason  that  by  the 
express  terms  of  the  organic  law  the  seat 
of  government  of  the  Territory  was  "  lo- 
cated temporarily  at  Fort  Leavenworth  " ; 
and  yet  the  governor  himself  remained 
there  less  than  two  months,  and  of  his 
own  discretion  transferred  the  seat  of 
government  to  the  Shawnee  Mission,  where 
it  in  fact  was  at  the  time  the  Assembly 
were  called  to  meet  at  Pawnee  City.  If 
the  governor  had  anv  such  right  to  change 


temporarily  the  seat  of  government,  still 
more  had  the  legislative  Assembly.  The 
objections  are  of  exceptionable  origin,  for 
the  further  reason  that  the  place  indicated 
by  the  governor,  without  having  any  ex- 
clusive claim  of  preference  in  itself,  was 
a  proposed  town  site  only,  which  he  and 
others  were  attempting  to  locate  unlaw- 
fully upon  land  within  a  military  reserva- 
tion, and  for  participation  in  which  il- 
legal act  the  commandant  of  the  post, 
a  superior  officer  in  the  army,  has  been 
dismissed  by  sentence  of  court  -  martial. 
Nor  is  it  easy  to  see  why  the  legislative 
Assembly  might  not  with  propriety  pass 
the  Territorial  act  transferring  its  sittings 
to  the  Shawnee  Mission.  If  it  could  not, 
that  must  be  on  account  of  some  pro- 
hibitory or  incompatible  provision  of  act 
of  Congress ;  but  no  such  provision  exists. 
The  organic  act,  as  already  quoted,  says 
"  the  seat  of  government  is  hereby  located 
temporarily  at  Fort  Leavenworth  " ;  and 
it  then  provides  that  certain  of  the  pub- 
lic buildings  there  "  may  be  occupied  and 
used  under  the  direction  of  the  governor 
and  legislative  Assembly."  These  ex- 
pressions might  possibly  be  construed  to 
imply  that  when,  in  a  previous  section 
of  the  act,  it  was  enacted  that  "  the  first 
legislative  Assembly  shall  meet  at  such 
place  and  on  such  day  as  the  governor 
shall  appoint,"  the  word  "  place "  means 
place  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  not  place  any- 
where in  the  Territory.  If  so,  the  govern- 
or would  have  been  the  first  to  err  in 
this  matter,  not  only  in  himself  having 
removed  the  seat  of  government  to  the 
Shawnee  Mission,  but  in  again  removing 
it  to  Pawnee  City.  If  there  was  any  de- 
parture from  the  letter  of  the  law,  there- 
fore, it  was  his  in  both  instances.  But 
however  this  may  be,  it  is  most  unreason- 
able to  suppose  that  by  the  terms  of  the 
organic  act  Congress  intended  to  do  im- 
pliedly what  it  has  not  done  expressly — 
that  is,  to  forbid  to  the  legislative  Assem- 
bly the  power  to  choose  any  place  it  might 
see  fit  as  the  temporary  seat  of  its  delib- 
erations. This  is  proved  by  the  significant 
language  of  one  of  the  subsequent  acts 
of  Congress  on  the  subject — that  of  March 
3,  1855 — which,  in  making  appropriation 
for  public  buildings  of  the  Territory, 
enacts  that  the  same  shall  not  be  ex- 
pended   "  until    the    legislature    of    said 


205 


PIERCE,    ERANKLI1? 

'Territory  shall  have  fixed  by  law  the  and  has  nevertheless  been  admitted  into 
permanent  seat  of  government."  Congress  the  Union  as  a  State,  It  lies  with  Con- 
in  these  expressions  does  not  profess  to  gress  to  authorize  beforehand  or  to  con- 
be  oranting  the  power  to  fix  the  perma-  firm  afterwards,  in  its  discretion.  But 
nent  seat  of  government,  but  recognizes  the  in  no  instance  has  a  State  been  admitted 
power  as  one  already  granted.  But  how?  upon  the  application  of  persons  acting 
Undoubtedly  by  the  comprehensive  pro-  against  authorities  duly  constituted  by  act 
vision  of  the  organic  act  itself,  which  of  Congress.  In  every  case  it  is  the  peo- 
declares  that  "the  legislative  power  of  pie  of  the  Territory,  not  a  party  among 
the  Territory  shall  extend  to  all  rightful  them,  who  have  the  power  to  form  a  eon- 
subjects  of  legislation  consistent  with  the  stitution  and  ask  for  admission  as  a  State. 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  and  the  No  principle  of  public  law,  no  practice  or 
provisions  of  this  act."  If  in  view  of  this  precedent  under  the  Constitution  of  the 
act  the  legislative  Assembly  had  the  large  United  States,  no  rule  of  reason,  right, 
power  to  fix  the  permanent  seat  of  gov-  or  common-sense,  confers  any  such  power 
ernment  at  any  place  in  its  discretion,  as  that  now  claimed  by  a  mere  party  in 
of  course  by  the  same  enactment  it  had  the  Territory.  In  fact,  what  has  been 
the  less  and  the  included  power  to  fix  it  done  is  of  revolutionary  character.  It  is 
temporarily.  avowedly    so    in    motive    and    in    aim    as 

Nevertheless,  the  allegation  that  the  respects  the  local  law  of  the  Territory, 
acts  of  the  legislative  Assembly  were  il-  It  will  become  treasonable  insurrection 
legal  by  reason  of  this  removal  of  its  if  it  reach  the  length  of  organized  re- 
place of  session  was  brought  forward  to  sistance  by  force  to  the  fundamental  or 
justify  the  first  great  movement  in  dis-  any  other  federal  law  and  to  the  authority 
regard  of  law  within  the  Territory.  One  of  the  general  government.  In  such  an 
of  the  acts  of  the  legislative  Assembly  event  the  path  of  duty  for  the  ex- 
provided  for  the  election  of  a  delegate  ecutive  is  plain.  The  Constitution  re- 
to  the  present  Congress,  and  a  delegate  quiring  him  to  take  care  that  the  laws 
was  elected  under  that  law.  But  sub-  of  the  United  States  be  faithfully  ex- 
sequently  to  this  a  portion  of  the  people  ecuted,  if  they  be  opposed  in  the  Territory 
of  the  Territory  proceeded  without  au-  of  Kansas  he  may,  and  should,  place  at 
thority  of  law  to  elect  another  delegate.        the   disposal   of    the    marshal    any   public 

Following  upon  this  movement  was  an-  force  of  the  United  States  which  happens 
other  and  more  important  one  of  the  to  be  within  the  jurisdiction,  to  be  used 
same  general  character.  Persons  con-  as  a  portion  of  the  posse  comitatus;  and 
fessedly  not  constituting  the  body  politic  if  that  do  not  suffice  to  maintain  order, 
or  all  the  inhabitants,  but  merely  a  party  then  he  may  call  forth  the  militia  of  one 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  without  law,  have  or  more  States  for  that  object,  or  employ 
undertaken  to  summon  a  convention  for  for  the  same  object  any  part  of  the  land 
the  purpose  of  transforming  the  Territory  or  naval  force  of  the  United  States.  So, 
into  a  State,  and  have  framed  a  constitu-  also,  if  the  obstruction  be  to  the  laws  of 
tion,  adopted  it,  and  under  it  elected  a  the  Territory,  and  it  be  duly  presented 
governor  and  other  officers  and  a  Repre-  to  him  as  a  case  of  insurrection,  he  may 
sentative  to  Congress.  In  extenuation  of  employ  for  its  suppression  the  militia 
these  illegal  acts  it  is  alleged  that  the  of  any  State  or  the  land  or  naval  force 
States  of  California,  Michigan,  and  others  of  the  United  States.  And  if  the  Terri- 
were  self-organized,  and  as  such  were  ad-  tory  be  invaded  by  the  citizens  of  other 
mitted  into  the  Union  without  a  previous  States,  whether  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
enabling  act  of  Congress.  It  is  true  that  ciding  elections  or  for  any  other,  and  the 
while  in  a  majority  of  cases  a  previous  local  authorities  find  themselves  unable 
act  of  Congress  has  been  passed  to  au-  to  repel  or  withstand  it,  they  will  be  en- 
thorize  the  Territory  to  present  itself  as  titled  to,  and  upon  the  fact  being  fully 
a  State,  and  that  this  is  deemed  the  most  ascertained  they  shall  most  certainly  re- 
regular  course,  yet  such  an  act  has  not  been  ceive,  the  aid  of  the  general  government, 
held  to  be  indispensable,  and  in  some  cases  But  it  is  not  the  duty  of  the  President 
the  Territory   has   proceeded   without   it,    of  the  United   States  to  volunteer   inter* 

206 


FIERCE,    ERAttKLIN 

position  by  force  to  preserve  the  purity  of  tion   which   is   at   this   time   of   such    dis 

elections   either   in   a   State   or   Territory,  turbing  character. 

To   do   so  would   be   subversive   of   public        But  Ave  are  constrained  to  turn  our  at- 

freedom.     And  whether  a  law  be  wise  or  tention  to  the  circumstances  of  embarrass- 

unwise,  just  or  unjust,  is  not  a  question  ment  as  they  now  exist.     It  is  the  duty  of 

for  him  to  judge.     If  it  be  constitutional  the    people   of    Kansas    to    discountenance 

— that  is,  if  it  be  the  law  of  the  land —  every  act  or  purpose  of  resistance  to  its 

it  is  his  duty  to  cause  it  to  be  executed,  laws.    Above  all,  the  emergency  appeals  to 

or  to  sustain  the  authorities  of  any  State  the  citizens  of  the  States,  and  especially 

or  Territory  in  executing  it  in  opposition  of     those     contiguous     to     the     Territory, 

to  all  insurrectionary  movements.  neither    by    intervention    of   non-residents 

Our   system   affords   no   justification   of  in  elections  nor  by  unauthorized  military 

revolutionary  acts,  for  the  constitutional  force    to    attempt    to    encroach    upon    or 

means   of   relieving   the   people   of   unjust  usurp  the  authority  of  the  inhabitants  of 

administration  and  laws,  by  a  change  of  the  Territory. 

public   agents   and  by  repeal,   are   ample,        No  citizen  of  our  country  should  permit 

and   more   prompt   and   effective   than   il-  himself   to    forget   that   he    is    a    part    of 

legal     violence.      These    means     must    be  its  government  and  entitled  to  be  heard  in 

scrupulously  guarded,  this  great  preroga-  the    determination    of    its    policy   and    its 

five   of   popular    sovereignty    sacredly   re-  measures,  and  that  therefore  the  highest 

spected.  considerations     of     personal     honor     and 

It  is  the  undoubted  right  of  the  peace-  patriotism    require   him    to    maintain,    by 

able  and  orderly  people  of  the  Territory  whatever   of   power   or   influence   he   may 

of  Kansas  to  elect  their  own  legislative  possess,  the  integrity  of  the  laws  of  the 

body,    make    their    own    laws,    and    regu-  republic. 

late  their  own  social  institutions,  without  Entertaining  these  views,  it  will  be  my 
foreign  or  domestic  molestation.  Inter-  imperative  duty  to  exert  the  whole  power 
ference  on  the  one  hand  to  procure  the  of  the  federal  executive  to  support  public 
abolition  or  prohibition  of  slave  labor  in  order  in  the  Territory;  to  vindicate  its 
the  Territory  has  produced  mischievous  laws,  whether  federal  or  local,  against 
interference  on  the  other  for  its  main-  all  attempts  of  organized  resistance,  and 
tenance  or  introduction.  One  wrong  be-  so  to  protect  its  people  in  the  establish- 
gets  another.  Statements  entirely  un-  ment  of  their  own  institutions,  undis- 
founded,  or  grossly  exaggerated,  concern-  turbed  by  encroachment  from  without, 
ing  events  within  the  Territory  are  and  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  rights 
sedulously  diffused  through  remote  States  of  self-government  assured  to  them  by  the 
to  feed  the  flame  of  sectional  animosity  Constitution  and  the  organic  act  of  Con- 
there,  and  the  agitators  there  exert  them-  gress. 

selves   indefatigably  in   return   to   encour-        Although   serious   and   threatening   dis- 

age  and  stimulate  strife  within  the  Ter-  turbances  in  the  Territory  of  Kansas,  an- 

ritory.  nounced  to  me  by  the  governor,  in  Decem- 

The    inflammatory   agitation,    of   which  ber  last,  were  speedily  quieted  without  the 

the  present  is  but  a  part,  has  for  twenty  effusion    of   blood   and    in    a    satisfactory 

years  produced  nothing  save  unmitigated  manner,  there  is,  I  regret  to  say,  reason 

evil,   North   and    South.      But    for   it   the  to  apprehend  that  disorders  will  continue 

character  of  the  domestic   institutions  of  to   occur   there,  with   increasing  tendency 

the  future  new  State  would  have  been  a  to   violence,   until   some   decisive   measure 

matter    of   too    little    interest    to    the    in-  be  taken  to  dispose  of  the  question  itself 

habitants  of  the  contiguous  States,  person-  which   constitutes   the   inducement   or   oc- 

ally  or  collectively,  to  produce  among  them  casion    of    internal    agitation    and    of    ex- 

any  political  emotion.     Climate,  soil,  pro-  ternal  interference. 

duction,  hopes  of  rapid  advancement,  and        This,   it   seems   to  me,  can   best  be   ac- 

the  pursuit  of  happiness  on   the   part  of  complished    by   providing   that   when    the 

the  settlers  themselves,  with  good  wishes,  inhabitants  of  Kansas  may  desire  it  and 

but   with   no   interference    from   without,  shall  be  of  sufficient  number  to  constitute 

would  have  quietly  determined  the  ques-  a   State,   a  convention  of  delegates,  duly 

2P7 


PIERCE— PIKE 


elected  by  the  qualified  voters,   shall  as-  Pike,  Albert,  lawyer;  born  in  Boston, 

semble  to  frame  a  constitution,  and  thus  Mass.,  Dec.  29,  1809.     At  the  age  of  six- 

to    prepare    through    regular    and    lawful  teen    years    he    entered   Harvard    College, 

means   for   its   admission  into  the  Union  but,   unable  to  support  himself  there,  he 

as  a  State.  taught  school  at  Newburyport  and  Fair- 

I  respectfully  recommend  the  enactment  haven,  and  in   1831   travelled    (mostly  on 

of  a  law  to  that  effect.  foot)  to  St.  Louis,  where  he  joined  an  ex- 

I  recommend  also  that  a  special  appro-  pedition  to   New  Mexico,   acting  as  mer- 

priation  be  made  to   defray  any  expense  chant's    clerk   and   peddler    in   Santa   Fe. 

which   may   become   requisite   in    the    ex-  Roving  with   trappers   awhile,  he  became 

ecution  of  the  laws  for  the  maintenance  of  editor  and  proprietor  of  a  newspaper   in 

public  order  in  the  Territory  of  Kansas.  Arkansas  in  1834,  and  in  1836  was  admit- 

Pierce,     Frederick    Clifton,    author;  ted  to  the  bar.     He  was  an  advocate  for 

born  in  Worcester  county,  Mass.,  July  30,  State     supremacy;     served     in     the    war 

1858;  received  an  academic  education ;  set-  against  Mexico  in  command  of  Arkansas 

tied  in  Illinois  in  1880;  was  connected  in  cavalry;  and  in  the  Civil  War  he  organized 

various   capacities   with   Chicago   newspa-  and  led  a  body  of  Cherokee  Indians  in  the 

pers.      His    publications    include    History  battle  of  Pea   Ridge    (q.  v.).     After  the 

of    Grafton,    Mass.;    History    of    Barre,  war  he  edited  the  Memphis  Appeal  for  a 

Mass.;  History  of  Rockford,  III.;  and  nu-  while.      A    collection    of    his    poems    was 

merous   family  genealogies.  printed  in  Philadelphia,  in  1854.     He  was 

Pierrepont,      Edwards,      diplomatist;  a  Free  Mason  of  high  degree.    He  died  in 

born    in    North    Haven,    Conn.,   March    4,  Washington,  D.  C,  April  2,  1891. 

1817;    graduated    at    Yale    in    1837;    re-  Pike,     James     Sheperd,     diplomatist; 

moved  to  New  York  in  1845;  elected  judge  born  in  Calais,  Me.,  Sept.  8,  1811;  received 

of   the   Superior   Court   of   New   York   in  a   common   school   education;    was   associ- 

1857;    appointed   one   of   the   counsel    for  ate   editor   of   the  New  York   Tribune  in 

the   prosecution   of  John   H.    Surratt,   in-  1850-60;    exercised   a   strong   influence   in 

dieted  for  complicity  in  the  assassination  uniting   the   anti  -  slavery   parties    in    his 

of  President  Lincoln.     General  Grant  ap-  native   State;    and   was   minister   to   Hol- 

pointed   him   United   States   attorney   for  land  in  1861-66.    His  publications  include 

the    Southern    District    of    New   York    in  A  Prostrate  State;  The  Restoration  of  the 

1869.    In  1875  he  was  appointed  Attorney-  Currency;  The  Financial  Crisis,  its  Evils 

General  of  the  United  States,  which  office  and    their    Remedy;    Horace    Greeley    in 

he  resigned   in   1876,  on  his  appointment  1812;   The  New  Puritan;  and   The  First 

as  minister  to  Great  Britain,  where  he  re-  Blows    of    the    Civil    War.      He    died    in 

mained  till   1878.     He  died  in  New  York  Calais,  Me.,  Nov.  24,  1882. 

City,  March  6,  1892.  Pike,   Zebulon  Montgomery,  military 

Pierron,     Jean.       See     Jesuit     Mis-  officer;  born  in  Lamberton,  N.  J.,  Jan.  5, 

sions.  1779;   was  appointed  a  cadet  in  the  regi- 

Pierson,  Abraham,  first  president  of  ment  of  his  father  (a  captain  in  the  army 
Yale  College;  born  in  Lynn,  Mass.,  in  of  the  Revolution)  and  brevet  lieutenant- 
1641;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  colonel  United  States  army  when  twenty 
1668;  ordained  a  colleague  of  his  father,  years  of  age.  He  was  made  captain  in 
at  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  March,  1672;  and  1806,  and  was  appointed  to  lead  an  expe- 
from  1694  till  his  death  was  minister  of  dition  in  search  of  the  sources  of  the 
Killingworth,  Conn.  He  was  president  of  Mississippi  River,  which  performed  the 
Yale  College  in  1700-7.  He  died  in  required  duties  satisfactorily  in  eight 
Killingworth,  Conn.,  March  7,  1707.  His  months  and  twenty  days  of  most  fati- 
father,  Abraham  (born  in  Yorkshire,  Eng-  guing  explorations.  In  1806-7  he  was  en- 
land,  in  1608;  died  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Aug.  gaged  in  a  geographical  exploration  of 
9,  1678),  was  one  of  the  first  settlers  of  Louisiana,  when  he  was  seized  by  the 
Newark  (1667),  and  was  the  first  minis-  Spaniards,  taken  to  Santa  Fe,  and,  after 
ter  in  that  town.  He  also  preached  to  the  a  long  examination  and  the  seizure  of  his 
Long  Island  Indians  in  their  own  Ian-  papers,  was  escorted  to  Natchitoches  (July 
g"age.  1,  1807)   and  dismissed.     The  government 

208 


PIKEVILLE— PILGRIM    FATHERS 


rewarded  him  with  a  major's  commission        Pilgrim  Fathers,  The.     At  the  middle 
(May,  1808).     Passing  through  the  vari-    of  the  sixteenth  century  the  social  condi- 


ous   grades,   he   was   commissioned   briga- 
dier-general March   12,    1813.       Early  in 


ZEHCI.ON*   MOXTGOMKRY    PIKE. 


that  year  he  had  been  appointed  adjutant 
and  inspector-general  of  the  army  on  the 


tion  of  the  people  of  England  was  very 
primitive,  and  their  wants  were  few.  The 
common  people  lived  in  cottages  built  of 
wooden  frames  filled  in  with  clay;  their 
houses  were  without  wooden  floors;  and 
in  many  of  them  the  fireplaces  were  con- 
structed in  the  middle  of  the  rooms  with- 
out chimneys,  a  hole  being  left  in  the 
roof  for  the  escape  of  the  smoke.  The 
windows  were  not  glazed,  and  were  closed 
against  the  weather,  and  the  light  was 
allowed  to  enter  by  means  of  oiled  paper. 
Such  was  the  plain  condition  of  the  houses 
of  the  Puritans  of  New  England.  In  Eng- 
land in  the  early  part  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's reign  pallets  of  straw  served  for 
beds  of  the  common  people,  who  had  cover- 
ings made  of  rough  mats,  and  their  pil- 
lows were  logs.  This  was  regarded  as  a 
good  bed,  for  many  slept  in  straw  alone. 
Very  few  vegetables  were  then  cultivated, 
for  gardening  had  not  yet  been  generally 
introduced  from  Holland,  and  gardens 
were  cultivated  only  for  the  rich,  and 
these  chiefly  for  ornament.  The  common 
material  for  bread  was  the  unbolted  flour 
of  oats,  rye,  and  barley;  and  sometimes, 
when  these  were  scarce  (afterwards  in 
New    England),    they    were    mixed    with 


northern  frontier.       He  was  killed  in  an    ground    acorns.     Even    this    black    bread 


ittack   upon  York,   Upper   Canada,  April 
27,  1813. 

Pikeville,  Battle  near.  Gen.  William 
Nelson  was  in  command  of  about  3,000 
loyalists  in  eastern  Kentucky  in  Novem- 
ber, 1861.  About  1,000  Confederates,  un- 
der Col.  J.  S.  Williams,  were  at  Pike- 
ville, the  capital  of  Pike  county,  Ky.  Nel- 
son sent  Colonel  Sill,  with  Ohio  and  Ken- 
tucky troops,  to  gain  the  rear  of  Williams, 
while,  with  the  remainder,  he  should  at- 


was  sometimes  denied  them,  and  flesh  was 
the  principal  diet.  Their  forks  and 
ploughs  were  made  of  wood,  and  these, 
with  a  hoe  and  spade,  constituted  the  bulk 
of  their  agricultural  implements.  Their 
spoons  and  platters  were  made  chiefly  of 
wood,  and  table-forks  were  unknown.  It 
is  said  that  glazed  windows  were  so  scarce, 
and  regarded  as  so  much  of  a  luxury, 
that  noblemen,  when  they  left  their  coun- 
try-houses to  go  to  court,  had  their  glazed 


tack  his  front.     A  battalion  of  Kentucky    windows  packed  away  carefully  with  oth- 


volunteers,  under  Col.  C.  A.  Marshall, 
moved  in  advance  of  Nelson.  On  the  9th 
these  were  attacked  by  Confederates  in 
ambush,  and  a  battle  ensued,  which  lasted 
about  an  hour  and  a  half,  when  the  Con- 
federates fled,  leaving  thirty  of  their  num- 
ber dead  on  the  field.     Nelson  lost  six  kill- 


er precious  furniture.  Chimneys  had  been 
introduced  into  England  early  in  the  six- 
teenth century. 

The  non-conformist  English  refugees  in 
Holland  under  the  pastorate  of  Rev.  Mr. 
Robinson,  yearning  for  a  secluded  asylum 
from  persecution  under  the   English  gov- 


ed  and  twenty-four  wounded.  He  did  not  ernment,  proposed  to  go  to  Virginia  and 
pursue,  as  he  had  no  ^cavalry.  Williams  settle  there  in  a  distinct  body  under  the 
fled  to  the  mountains  at  Pound  Gap,  car-  general  government  of  that  colony.  They 
rying  with  him  a  large  number  of  cattle  sent  Robert  Cushman  and  John  Carver 
and  other  spoils.  to  England  in  1617  to  treat  with  the  Lon- 

vii.— o  200 


PILGRIM    FATHERS,   VHE 


d<«n  Company,  and  to  ascertain  whether 
the  King  would  grant  them  liberty  of  con- 
science in  that  distant  country.  The 
company  were  anxious  to  have  these  peo- 
ple settle  in  Virginia,  and  offered  them 
ample  privileges,  but  the  King  would  not 
promise  not  to  molest  them.  These  agents 
returned  to  Leyden.  The  discouraged 
refugees  sent  other  agents  to  England  in 
February,  1619,  and  finally  made  an  ar- 
rangement with  the  company  and  with 
London  merchants  and  others  for  their 
settlement  in  Virginia,  and  they  at  once 
prepared  for  the  memorable  voyage  in  the 
Mayflower  in  1620.  Several  of  the  congre- 
gation at  Leyden  sold  their  estates  and 
made  a  common  bank,  which,  with  the 
aid  of  their  London  partners,  enabled  them 
to  purchase  the  Speedwell,  a  ship  of  60 
tons,  and  to  hire  in  England  the  May- 
flower, a  ship  of  180  tons,  for  the  intend- 
ed voyage.  They  left  Delft  Haven  for  Eng- 
land in  the  Speedwell  (July,  1620),  and  in 
August  sailed  from  Southampton,  but,  on 
account  of  the  leakiness  of  the  ship,  were 
twice  compelled  to  return  to  port.  Dis- 
missing this  unseaworthy  vessel,  101  of 
the  number  who  came  from  Leyden  sailed 
in  the  Mayflower,  Sept.  6  ( O.  S. ) .  These 
included  the  "  Pilgrim  Fathers,"  so  called. 


The  following  are  the  names  of  the 
forty-one  persons  who  signed  the  constitu- 
tion of  government  on  board  the  May- 
flower, and  are  known  as  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers:  John  Carver,  William  Brad- 
ford, Edward  Winslow,  William  Brew- 
ster, Isaac  Allerton,  Myles  Standish,  John 
Alden,  Samuel  Fuller,  Christopher  Mar- 
tin, William  Mullins,  William  White, 
Richard  Warren,  John  Howland,  Stephen 
Hopkins,  Edward  Tilley,  John  Tilley, 
Francis  Cook,  Thomas  Rogers,  Thomas 
Tinker,  John  Ridgedale,  Edward  Fuller, 
John  Turner,  Francis  Eaton,  James  Chil- 
ton, John  Craekston,  John  Billington, 
Moses  Fletcher,  John  Goodman,  Degory 
Priest,  Thomas  Williams,  Gilbert  Wins- 
low,  Edward  Margeson,  Peter  Brown, 
Richard  Britteridge,  George  Soule,  Rich- 
ard Clarke,  Richard  Gardiner,  John  Aller- 
ton, Thomas  English,  Edward  Doty,  Ed- 
ward Lister.  Each  subscriber  placed  op- 
posite his  name  the  number  of  his  family. 

The  following  is  the  text  of  the  agree- 
ment which  was  signed  on  the  lid  of 
Elder  Brewster's  chest  (see  Brewster, 
William  ) : 

"  In  the  name  of  God,  Amen.  We  whose 
names  are  hereunto  written,  the  loyal 
subjects  of  our  dread  sovereign  lord,  King 


DELPT    HAVEN. 

210 


PILGRIM    FATHER&,    THE 

James,    by    the    grace    of    God,    of    Great  have    long    safely    lain.     Nearly    all    the 

Britain,    France,   and    Ireland,   King,   De-  company  went  ashore,  glad  to  touch  land 

fender   of   the   Faith,   etc.,   having   under-  after  the  long  voyage.     They  first  fell  on 

taken  for  the  glory  of  God  and  advancement  their  knees,  and  thanked  God  for  the  pres- 


HANDWRITING   OF   THE    PILGRIMS. 

of  the  Christian  Faith,  and  honor  of  our  ervation  of  their  lives.  The  waters  were 
King  and  Country,  a  voyage  to  plant  the  shallow,  and  they  had  waded  ashore — the 
first  colony  in  the  northern  parts  of  Vir-  men  to  explore  the  country,  the  women 
ginia,  do  by  these  presents  solemnly  and 
mutually,  in  the  presence  of  God  and  of 
one  another,  covenant  and  combine  our- 
selves together  into  a  civil  body  politic 
for  our  better  ordering  and  preservation 
and  furtherance  of  the  ends  aforesaid; 
and  by  virtue  hereof  to  enact,  constitute, 
and  frame  such  just  and  equal  laws,  or- 
dinances, acts,  constitution,  and  offices, 
from  time  to  time,  as  shall  be  thought 
most  meet  and  convenient  for  the  general 
good  of  the  colony,  unto  which  we  promise 
all  due  submission  and  obedience.  In  wit- 
ness whereof  we  have  hereunto  subscribed 
our  names,  at  Cape  Cod,  the  11th  of 
November  [O.  S.],  in  the  year  of  the 
reign  of  our  sovereign  lord,  King  James, 
of  England,  France,  and  Ireland,  the 
eighteenth,  and  of  Scotland  the  fifty- 
fourth,  Anno  Domini  1620." 

The  Mayflower  first  anchored   in  Cape 
Cod  Bay,  just  within  the  cape,  on  Nov. 

21    (N.  S.),  in  what  is  now  the  harbor    to  wash  their  clothes  after  the  long  voy« 
of  Provincetown,  the  only  windward  port    age. 

for  manv  a  league  where  the  vessel  could       The  spot  chosen  by  a  party  of  explorers 

211 


OLD    RFLIC    FROM   THE    MAYFLOWER. 


PILGRIM    FATHERS,    THE 


PVAPof 

PLYMOUTH 
BAT 

Scale  8s  Jlfilti 
_perJhc7i 


for  the  permanent  landing-place  of  the  the  ship  were  confined  in  foul  air,  with  un- 
passengers  on  the  Mayflower  was  selected  wholesome  food.  Scurvy  and  other  dis- 
about  Dec.  20,  1620,  where  New  Plymouth  eases  appeared  among  them,  and  when, 
was  built.  From  about  the  middle  of  late  in  March,  the  last  passenger  landed 
December  until  the  25th  the  weather  was  from  the  Mayflower,  nearly  one-half  the 
stormy,   and   the   bulk   of   the   passengers    colonists  were  dead. 

remained  on  the  ship,  while  some  of  the  The  lands  of  the  Plymouth  Colony  were 
men  built  a  rude  shelter  to  receive  them,  held  in  common  by  the  "  Pilgrims  "  and 
On  the  25th  a  greater  portion  of  the  pas-  their  partners,  the  London  merchants.  In 
sengers  went  on  shore  to  visit  the  spot  1627  the  "Pilgrims"  sent  Isaac  Allerton 
chosen  for  their  residence,  when,  tradition    to  England  to  negotiate  for  the  purchase 

of  the  shares  of  the  London 
adventurers,  with  their  stock, 
merchandise,  lands,  and  chat- 
tels. He  did  so  for  $9,000, 
payable  in  nine  years  in  equal 
annual  instalments.  Some  of 
the  principal  persons  of  the 
colony  became  bound  for  the 
rest,  and  a  partnership  was 
formed,  into  which  was  ad- 
mitted the  head  of  every  fam- 
ily, and  every  young  man  of 
age  and  prudence.  It  was 
agreed  that  every  single  free- 
man should  have  one  share ; 
and  every  father  of  a  family 
have  leave  to  purchase  one 
share  for  himself,  one  for  his 
wife,  and  one  for  every  child 
living  with  him ;  that  every 
one  should  pay  his  part  of  the 
public  debt  according  to  the 
number  of  his  shares.  To  ev- 
ery share  twenty  acres  of  ara- 
ble land  were  assigned  by  lot; 
to  every  six  shares,  one  cow 
and  two  goats,  and  swine  in 
the  same  proportion.  This 
agreement  was  made  in  full 
court,  Jan.  3,  1628.  The  joint-' 
stock  or  community  system 
was  then  abandoned,  a  di- 
vision of  the  movable  prop- 
says,  Mary  Chilton  and  John  Alden,  both  erty  was  made,  and  twenty  acres  of 
young  persons,  first  sprang  upon  Plym-  land  nearest  to  the  town  were  assigned  in 
outh  Rock  from  the  boat  that  conveyed  fee  to  each  colonist.  See  Plymouth, 
them.  New. 

Most  of  the  women  and  children  re-  Gov.  William  Bradford  (q.  v.)  wrote 
mained  on  board  the  Mayflower  until  suit-  a  History  of  the  Plymouth  Plantation,  of 
able  log  huts  were  erected   for   their   re-    which  the  following  is  an  extract: 

ception,  and  it  was  March  21,  1621,  before  

they  were  all  landed.  Those  on  shore  were  The  Pilgrims'  Arrival  at  Cape  God. — 
exposed  to  the  rigors  of  winter  weather  Being  thus  arived  in  a  good  harbor  and 
and  insufficient  food,  though  the  winter  brought  safe  to  land,  they  fell  upon  their 
was  a  comparatively  mild  one.    Those  on    kneei  &  blessed  ye  God  of  heaven,  who  had 

212 


PILGRIM  FATHERS— PILLOW 


brought  them  over  ye  vast  and  furious 
ocean,  and  delivered  them  from  all  ye 
periles  &  miseries  thereof,  againe  to  set 
their  feete  on  ye  firme  and  stable  earth, 
their  proper  elemente.  And  no  marvell  if 
they  were  thus  joyefull,  seeing  wise  Sen- 
eca was  so  affected  with  sailing  a  few 
miles  on  ye  coast  of  his  owne  Italy;  as 
he  affirmed,  that  he  had  rather  remaine 
twentie  years  on  his  way  by  land,  then 
pass  by  sea  to  any  place  in  a  short  time; 
so  tedious  &  dreadful  was  ye  same  unto 
him. 

But  hear  I  cannot  but  stay  and  make  a 
pause,  and  stand  half  amased  at  this 
poore  peoples  presente  condition;  and  so  I 
thinke  will  the  reader  too,  when  he  well 
considers  ye  same.  Being  thus  passed  ye 
vast  ocean,  and  a  sea  of  troubles  before 
in  their  preparation  (as  may  be  remem- 
bered by  yt  which  wente  before),  they  had 
now  no  friends  to  wellcome  them,  nor  inns 
to  entertaine  or  refresh  their  weather- 
beaten  bodys,  no  houses  or  much  less 
townes  to  repaire  too,  to  seeke  for  suc- 
coure.  It  is  recorded  in  scripture  as  a 
mercie  to  ye  apostle  &  his  shipwraked 
company,  yt  the  barbarians  shewed  them 
no  smale  kindnes  in  refreshing  them,  but 
these  savage  barbarians,  when  they  mette 
with  them  (as  after  will  appeare)  were 
readier  to  fill  their  sids  full  of  arrows 
then  otherwise.  And  for  ye  season  it  was 
winter,  and  they  that  know  ye  winters  of 
yt  cuntrie  know  them  to  be  sharp  &  vio- 
lent, &  subjecte  to  cruell  &  feirce  stormes, 
deangerous  to  travill  to  known  places, 
much  more  to  serch  an  unknown  coast. 
Besids,  what  could  they  see  but  a  hidious 
&  desolate  wildernes,  full  of  wild  beasts  & 
willd  men?  and  what  multituds  ther  might 
be  of  them  they  knew  not.  Nether  could 
they,  as  it  were,  goe  up  to  ye  tope  of 
Pisgah,  to  vew  from  this  willdernes  a 
more  goodly  cuntrie  to  feed  their  hops ; 
for  which  way  soever  they  turned  their 
eys  (save  upward  to  ye  heavens)  they 
could  have  litle  solace  or  content  in  re- 
specte  of  any  outward  objects.  For  sumer 
being  done,  all  things  stand  upon  them 
with  a  weatherbeaten  face;  and  ye  whole 
countrie,  full  of  \v.„  .Is  &  thickets,  repre- 
sented a  wild  &  savage  heiw.  If  they 
looked  behind  them;  ther  was  ye  mighty 
ocean  which  they  had  passed,  and  was  now 
as  a  maine  barr  &  goulfe  to  seperate  them 


from  all  ye  civill  parts  of  ye  world.  If 
it  be  said  they  had  a  ship  to  sucour  them, 
it  is  trew;  but  what  heard  they  daly  from 
ye  mr.  &  company?  but  yt  with  speedo 
they  should  looke  out  a  place  with  their 
shallop,  wher  they  would  be  at  some  near 
distance;  for  ye  season  was  shuch  as  he 
would  not  stirr  from  thence  till  a  safe 
harbor  was  discovered  by  them  wher  they 
would  be,  and  he  might  goe  without  dan- 
ger; and  that  victells  consumed  apace, 
but  he  must  &  would  keepe  sufficient  for 
them  selves  &  their  returne.  Yea,  it  was 
muttered  by  some,  that  if  they  gott  not 
a  place  in  time,  they  would  turne  them  & 
their  goods  ashore  &  leave  them.  Let  it 
also  be  considered  what  weake  hopes  of 
supply  &  succoure  they  left  behinde  them, 
yt  might  bear  up  their  minds  in  this  sade 
condition  and  trialls  they  were  under ; 
and  they  could  not  but  be  very  smale.  It 
is  true,  indeed,  ye  affections  &  love  of  their 
brethren  at  Leyden  was  cordiall  &  entire 
towards  them,  but  they  had  litle  power  to 
help  them,  or  them  selves ;  and  how  ye 
case  stode  betweene  them  &  ye  marchants 
at  their  coming  away,  hath  allready  been 
declared.  What  could  now  sustaine  them 
but  ye  spirite  of  God  &  his  grace?  May  not 
&  ought  not  the  children  of  these  fathers 
rightly  say:  Our  faithers  were  Eng- 
lishmen ichich  came  over  this  great  ocean, 
and  were  ready  to  perish  in  this  willder- 
nes ;  but  they  cried  unto  ye  Lord,  and  he 
heard  their  voyce,  and  looked  on  their  ad- 
versitie,  &c.  Let  them  therefore  praise  ye 
Lord,  because  he  is  good,  <£•  his  mercies 
endure  for  ever.  Yea,  let  them  which  have 
been  redeemed  of  ye  Lord,  shew  how  he 
hath  delivered  them  from  ye  hand  of  ye. 
oppressour.  When  they  wandered  in  ye 
deserte  willdernes  out  of  ye  toay,  and 
found  no  citie  to  dwell  in,  both  hungrir, 
&  thirstie,  their  soicle  was  overwhelmed 
in  them.  Let  them  confess  before  ye  Lord 
his  loving  kindnes,  and  his  wonderful 
works  before  ye  sons  of  men. 

Pillow,  Fort,  a  defensive  work  erected 
by  the  Confederates  on  the  Mississippi 
River  at  Chickasaw  Bluff,  above  Mem- 
phis, Tenn.  It  was  occupied  by  a 
National  force  on  June  5,  1862.  In  1864 
it  was  garrisoned  by  about  550  men,  in- 
cluding 260  colored  soldiers,  under  the 
command  of  Maj.  L.  F.  Booth.  Forrest 
approached  the  fort  on  the  morning  of 
13 


PILLOW— PINCKNEY 


April  13,  drove  in  the  pickets,  and  began 
an  assault.  A  sharp  battle  ensued.  About 
nine  o'clock  Major  Booth  was  killed,  and 
the  command  devolved  on  Major  Bradford. 
The  whole  force  was  then  called  within 
the  fort,  and  the  fight  was  maintained 
until  past  noon.  Meanwhile  the  gunboat 
New  Era,  of  the  Mississippi  squadron, 
lying  near,  had  taken  part  in  the  defence 
of  the  fort,  but  the  height  of  the  bank 
prevented  her  doing  much  execution.  For- 
rest sent  a  flag  to  demand  an.  instant  sur- 
render. While  negotiations  were  going  on 
Forrest  sent  large  numbers  of  his  troops 
to  favorable  positions  for  attack,  which 
could  not  have  been  gained  while  the  gar- 
rison was  free  to  fight.  By  this  trick  he 
gained  a  great  advantage.  Bradford  re- 
fused to  surrender,  and  Forrest  gave  a 
signal,  when  his  men  sprang  from  their 
hiding-places,,  which  they  had  gained  by 
treachery,  and,  with  a  cry  of  "  No  quar- 
ter!" pounced  upon  the  fort  at  different 
points,  and  in  a  few  moments  were  in 
possession  of  it. 

Generals  Forrest  and  Chalmers  entered 
the  fort  simultaneously  from  opposite 
sides.  The  surprised  and  overwhelmed 
garrison  threw  down  their  arms.  Some  of 
them  attempted  to  escape  down  the  steep 
bank  of  the  river  or  to  rind  concealment  in 
the  bushes.  The  conquerors  followed  and 
butchered  the  defenceless  men,  who  begged 
for  quarter.  Within  the  fort  like  scenes 
were  exhibited.  Soldiers  and  civilians — 
men,  women,  and  children,  white  and 
black — were  indiscriminately  slaughtered. 
The  massacre  continued  until  night,  and 
was  renewed  in  the  morning.  Fully  300 
Avere  murdered  in  cold  blood.  Major  Brad- 
ford, who  was  a  native  of  a  slave-labor 
State,  was  a  special  object  of  Forrest's 
hatred.  He  regarded  him  as  "  a  traitor  to 
the  South."  While  on  his  way  towards 
Jackson,  Tenn.,  as  a  prisoner  of  war, 
the  day  after  the  Confederates  left  Fort 
Pillow,  the  major  was  taken  from  the  line 
of  march  and  deliberately  murdered.  So 
testified  one  of  Forrest's  cavalry  before  a 
congressional  committee.  Forrest  had  de- 
termined to  strike  terror  in  the  minds 
of  colored  troops  and  their  leaders.  This 
seemed  to  be  his  chosen  method.  Maj. 
Charles  W.  Gibson,  of  Forrest's  command, 
Raid  to  the  late  Benson  J.  Lossing,  "  For- 
rest's  motto   was,   War  means  fight,   and 

21 


fight  means  kill — we  want  but  few  prison- 
ers." 

Pillow,  Gideon  Johnson,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Williams  county,  Tenn.,  June 
8,  1806;  graduated  at  the  University  of 
Nashville;  studied  law,  and  rose  to  the 
front  rank  in  his  profession.  At  the 
head  of  a  brigade  of  Tennessee  volunteers 
he  joined  General  Scott  at  Vera  Cruz 
in  1847,  and  performed  gallant  service 
throughout  the  war  against  Mexico.  Scott 
made  serious  charges  against  him,  but  a 
court  of  inquiry  acquitted  him  and  left 
his  fame  untarnished.  In  1861  he  was 
commissioned  a  major-general  of  Tennes- 
see militia,  and  also  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  Confederate  army;  but  his  military 
career  was  cut  short  early  in  1862  by 
his  conduct  at  Fort  Donelson.  He  died 
in  Lee  county,  Ark.,  Oct.  6,  1878.  See 
Donelson,  Fort. 

Pinckney,  Charles,  statesman;  born 
in  Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1758;  was  made 
prisoner  at  the  capture  of  Charleston 
(1780),  and  sent  to  St.  Augustine;  was 
a  member  of  Congress  from  1784  to  1787; 
and  a  member  of  the  convention  that 
framed  the  national  Constitution  in  the 
latter  year.  He  was  governor  of  South 
Carolina  (1789-92,  1796-98,  and  1806-8)  ; 
United  States  Senator  from  1798  to  1801, 
and  minister  to  Spain  from  1802  to  1805, 
when  he  negotiated  a  release  from  that 
power  of  all  claims  to  the  territory  pur- 
chased by  the  United  States  from  France. 
In  Congress,  from  1819  to  1821,  he  was 
an  opponent  of  the  Missouri  Compromise. 
He  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Oct.  29, 
1824.    See  Louisiana. 

Pinckney,  Charles  Coteswortu, 
statesman;  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
Feb.  25,  1746;  son  of  Chief-Justice 
Charles  Pinckney;  educated  in  England; 
read  law  in  London;  passed  nine  months 
in  a  military  academy  in  France,  and  re- 
turning in  1769  began  the  practice  of  law. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  first  Provincial 
Congress  of  South  Carolina,  and  was  made 
colonel  of  a  regiment.  After  the  defence 
of  Fort  Sullivan  he  joined  the  army  in 
the  North,  and  was  aide  to  Washington 
in  the  battles  of  Brandywine  and  German- 
town.  He  was  engaged  in  the  unsuccess- 
ful expedition  into  Florida  in  1778,  and 
the  next  year  presided  over  the  State 
Senate  of  South  Carolina.  On  the  surren- 
4 


PINCKNEY— PINE    BLUFF 


der  of  Charleston  (May,  1780),  he  was  sent  as  minister  to  Great  Britain,  and 
made  a  prisoner,  and  suffered  cruel  treat-  in  1794  to  Spain,  where  he  negotiated 
ment  until  exchanged  early  in  1782.  He  the  treaty  of  St.  Ildefonso,  which  secured 
was  made  brigadier -general  in  November, 
1783,  and  in  1787  was  a  member  of  the 
convention  that  framed  the  national  Con- 
stitution. In  July,  1796,  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  the  French  Republic, 
but  the  French  Directory,  failing  to  bribe 
him  into  a  compliance  with  their  de- 
mands, ordered  him  to  leave  the  coun- 
try, when  he  withdrew  to  Amsterdam 
in  February,  1797.  While  abroad  he  ut- 
tered the  phrase,  "  Millions  for  defence ; 
not  one  cent  for  tribute!"  General  Wash- 
ington created  him  a  major-general  on 
his  return  home.  In  1800  he  was  a  can- 
didate for  the  Vice-Presidency  of  the  Unit- 
ed States;  and  in  1804  and  1808  for  the 
Presidency,  each  time  as  a  Federalist. 
He  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Aug.  16, 
1825. 

Pinckney,  Thomas,  diplomatist;  born 
in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Oct.  23,  1750;  edu- 
cated in  England,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1770.  He  joined  the  army  in 
1775;  became  a  major  and  aide  to  General  to  the  United  States  the  free  navigation  of 
Lincoln,    and   afterwards   to   Count    d'Es-    the   Mississippi   River.      In    1799    he   was 


THOMAS    PINCKNEY. 


taing  in  the  siege  of  Savannah.    He  was 
distinguished  in  the  battle  at  Stono  Fer- 


a  member  of  Congress,  and  in  March, 
1812,  President  Madison  appointed  him 
commander  of  the  Sixth  Military  District. 
His  last  military  service  was  under  Gen- 
eral Jackson  at  the  last  decisive  bat- 
tle with  the  Creeks  at  Horseshoe  Bend. 
He  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  Nov.  2,  1828. 
Pine,  Robert  Edge,  painter ;  born  in 
London,  England,  in  1730  or  1742;  gained 
considerable  reputation  in  England  before 
he  came  to  America  at  the  close  of  the 
Revolution.  In  Philadelphia  he  exhibited 
the  first  cast  of  the  Venus  de'  Medici 
ever  seen  in  America.  He  was  befriended 
by  Francis  Hopkinson,  and  painted  from 
life,  at  Mount  Vernon,  a  portrait  of 
Washington.  He  also  painted  portraits 
of  other  worthies  of  the  period  of  the 
Revolution.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Nov.  19,  1788. 

Pine    Bluff,    Battle   at.     Fifty   miles 

below  Little  Rock,  on  the  south  side  of 

the    Arkansas    River,    is    Pine    Bluff,    the 

county  seat  of  Jefferson  county.  Ark.     In 

October,    1863,    it   was    occupied    by    Col. 

ry,  and  was  aide  to  General  Gates  in  the    Powell  Clayton,  with  about  350  men  and 

battle  near  Camden,  where  he  was  wound-    four  guns.    Marmaduke  attempted  to  capt- 

ed   and  made  prisoner.     In   1792   he  was    ure   it  with   over   2,000   men   and   twelve 

215 


CHARLES   COTKSWOKTII    PINCK.NET. 


PINE-TREE    FLAG— PINZON 


guns.  He  advanced  upon  the  post  in  three 
columns.  Clayton  had  just  been  rein- 
forced by  Indiana  cavalry,  making  the 
number  of  his  fighting  men  about  600. 
About  200  negroes  had  built  barricades 
of  cotton-bales  in  the  streets.  The  attack 
was  made  (Oct.  25)  by  Marmaduke,  and 
was  kept  up  for  about  five  hours.  The 
Confederates  were  repulsed  with  a  loss 
of  183  men  killed,  wounded,  and  prison- 
ers; the  Nationals  lost  57,  of  whom  17 
were  killed.  The  town  was  badly  shat- 
tered, and  the  court-house  and  many  dwell- 
ings were  laid  in  ashes. 

Pine-tree  Flag,  a  flag  with  a  pine- 
tree  in  a  white  centre,  used  by  New  Eng- 
land at  the  commencement  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. 

Pine-tree  Money.  The  earliest  rude 
coinage  of  sixpence  and  shillings  was  made 
in  Massachusetts.  The  pieces  bore  on  one 
side  a  representation  of  a  pine-tree. 

Pinkney,  William,  statesman;  born 
in  Annapolis,  Md.,  March  17,  1764.  His 
father,  an  Englishman,  was  a  loyalist  in 
the  Revolution,  but  the  son  espoused  its 
principles.  He  studied  law  with  Judge 
Chase,   and   was   admitted   to   practice   in 


WILLIAM    PINKNEY. 


1786,  in  which  he  acquired  great  reputa- 
tion for  his  impassioned  oratory.  He  was 
a    delegate    in    the    Maryland    convention 


that  ratified  the  national  Constitution. 
After  serving  a  term  in  the  Maryland 
legislature,  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in 
Congress,  but  declined  the  honor  on  ac- 
count of  the  state  of  his  private  affairs. 
In  1796  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  com- 
missioners in  London  under  Jay's  treaty, 
and  obtained  for  the  State  of  Maryland 
a  claim  on  the  Bank  of  England  for 
$800,000.  Pinkney  was  made  attorney- 
general  of  his  State  in  1805,  and  the  next 
year  he  was  sent  to  England  as  commis- 
sioner to  treat  with  the  British  govern- 
ment in  conjunction  with  James  Monroe. 
He  was  minister  there  from  1807  to  1811, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  the  latter  year  was 
chosen  to  his  State  Senate  from  Baltimore. 
From  December,  1811,  until  1814,  he  was 
United  States  Attorney  -  General.  In  the 
latter  year  he  entered  the  military  service 
to  repel  a  British  invasion  of  his  State, 
and  was  severely  wounded  in  the  battle 
of  Bladensburg.  Again  in  Congress  ( 1815— 
16),  he  took  a  leading  part.  In  1816  he 
went  to  Naples  as  special  minister  there, 
and  became  minister  at  St.  Petersburg, 
whence  he  returned  home  in  1818.  From 
1320  until  his  death  he  held  a  seat  in  the 
United  States  Senate.  In  that  body  he 
opposed  the  admission  of  Missouri  into 
the  Union  under  the  terms  of  the  com- 
promise. He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Feb.  25,  1822. 

Pinzon,  Martin  Alonzo,  navigator; 
born  in  Palos  de  Moguer,  Spain,  in  1441; 
accompanied  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage 
across  the  Atlantic.  He  commanded  the 
Pinta,  one  of  the  three  vessels  of  the 
squadron  of  Columbus.  When  he  heard 
of  the  wreck  of  the  vessel  in  which  Colum- 
bus sailed,  instead  of  going  to  his  relief, 
he  sailed  for  Spain.  Columbus,  having  lost 
all  respect  for  Pinzon,  immediately  fol- 
lowed him  in  the  Nina.  He  saw  the  Pinta, 
but  the  two  vessels  soon  parted  company. 
When  the  Pinta  reached  Bayonne,  Pinzon, 
believing  the  Nina  had  gone  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea,  sent  a  letter  to  the  Span- 
ish monarchs  recounting  his  adventures 
and  discoveries.  Meanwhile  the  Nina  had 
reached  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  and  Co- 
lumbus sent  a  courier  to  the  Court  of 
Spain  to  announce  his  great  discoveries. 
Then  he  put  to  sea,  and  soon  afterwards 
entered  the  port  of  Palos.  The  same 
evening    the    Pinta    entered    that    harbor. 


216 


PINZON— PIRATES 


Pinzon  hastened  into  seclusion,  filled  with 
mortification  and  fear.  Then  came  a  let- 
ter from  the  monarchs,  in  answer  to  his, 
rilled  with  reproaches  for  attempting  to  de- 
fraud the  admiral  of  his  just  fame.  Pin- 
zon died  of  mortified  pride  a  few  days 
after  reading  the  royal  epistle,  in  1493. 

Pinzon,  Vincent  Yanez,  navigator; 
horn  in  Palos  de  Moguer,  Spain,  ahout 
1G40;  brother  of  Martin  Alonzo  Pinzon; 
commanded  the  Nina  in  the  first  voyage 
of  Columbus  (1492);  in  1499  led  an  ex- 
pedition composed  of  four  caravels,  which 
s-ailed  from  Palos  in  December,  and  first 
saw  the  continent  of  South  America  at 
Cape  Augustine,  Brazil.  Sailing  north- 
ward, he  discovered  and  named  the  River 
Amazon.  He  died  at  his  birthplace  about 
1524. 

Piqua,  Council  at.  Late  in  1750  the 
Ohio  Land  Company  sent  Christopher 
Gist  to  explore  the  Ohio  region  as  far  as 
the  falls  at  Louisville.  He  arrived  at  the 
Scioto  Valley  early  in  1751,  and  was  kind-, 
ly  received  by  the  great  sachem  of  the 
Miami  Confederacy,  rivals  of  the  Six  Na- 
tions, with  whom  they  were  at  peace. 
Agents  of  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  were 
there,  intending  to  make  a  treaty  of 
friendship  and  alliance.  The  council  was 
held  at  Piqua,  far  up  the  Scioto  Valley. 
It  was  then  a  town  of  400  families,  the 
largest  in  the  Ohio  region.  On  Feb.  21 
the  treaty  was  concluded,  and  just  as  it 
was  signed  some  Ottawas  came  with  pres- 
ents from  the  governor  of  Canada.  They 
were  admitted  to  the  council,  and  ex- 
pressed a  desire  for  a  renewal  of  friend- 
ship with  the  French.  A  sachem  arose, 
and,  setting  up  the  colors  of  the  English 
and  the  French,  denounced  the  latter  as 
enemies  of  the  Miamis.  Having  delivered 
his  speech,  he  strode  out  of  the  council. 
The  colors  of  the  French  were  taken  down 
and  their  ambassadors  were  dismissed. 
On  March  1  Gist  took  his  leave,  bearing 
this  message  to  the  English:  "Our  friend- 
ship shall  stand  like  the  loftiest  moun- 
tain." In  the  spring  the  French  and  Ind- 
ians from  Sandusky  struck  the  Miamis  a 
stunning  blow.  Piqua  was  destroyed,  and 
the  great  chief  of  the  Miami  Confederacy 
was  taken  captive,  sacrificed,  and  eaten 
by  the  savage  allies  of  the  French. 

Piquet,  Francis,  See  Jesuit  Mis- 
sions. 


Pirates.  For  a  long  time  merchants 
and  ship-masters  suffered  from  the  dep- 
redations of  pirates  on  the  southern  coasts 
of  what  are  now  the  United  States  and 
in  the  West  Indies.  In  1718  King  George 
I.  ordered  a  naval  force  to  suppress  them. 
At  the  same  time  he  issued  a  proclama- 
tion promising  pardon  to  all  pirates  who 
should  surrender  in  the  space  of  twelve 
months.  Capt.  Woods  Rogers  took  the 
island  of  New  Providence,  the  chief  ren- 
dezvous of  the  pirates,  in  the  name  of  the 
crown  of  England.  All  the  pirates,  ex- 
cepting about  ninety  who  escaped  in  a 
sloop,  took  advantage  of  the  King's 
proclamation.  Rogers  was  made  governor 
of  the  island,  and  built  forts.  From  that 
time  the  West  Indies  were  fairly  protected 
from  the  pirates.  They  yet  infested  the 
coast  of  the  Carolinas.  About  thirty  of 
them  took  possession  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Cape  Fear  River.  Governor  Johnson  de- 
termined to  extirpate  them.  He  sent  out 
an  armed  vessel  under  the  command  of 
William  Rhett,  who  captured  a  piratical 
sloop  with  its  commander  and  about  thirty 
men,  and  took  them  to  Charleston.  John- 
son soon  afterwards  sailed  after  and  capt- 
ured another  armed  sloop.  All  the  pirates 
excepting  two  were  killed,  and  those  two 
were  hanged.  Those  first  taken  into 
Charleston  were  also  hanged,  excepting 
one  man. 

Privateersmen  cruising  under  the  Span- 
ish-American flags  degenerated  into  down- 
right pirates.  In  1819  Commodore  Perry 
was  sent  to  the  West  Indies  in  the  frigate 
John  Ada)ns  to  cruise  against  the  pirates 
who  swarmed  there;  but  before  he  had  ac- 
complished much  he  was  smitten  by  yel- 
low fever,  and  died  just  as  his  ship  was 
entering  the  port  of  Trinidad.  Many  con- 
victions and  executions  for  piracy  had 
taken  place;  but  as  there  had  been  many 
escapes  through  loop-holes  in  the  law,  the 
act  of  Congress  on  that  subject  was  re- 
vised and  strengthened. 

On  June  28,  1861,  the  steamer  8t 
Nicholas,  Captain  Kirwan,  left  Baltimore 
with  forty  or  fifty  passengers,  including 
about  twenty  who  passed  for  mechanics. 
There  were  a  few  women  among  them — 
one  who  professed  to  be  a  young  French- 
woman. When,  on  the  following  morning, 
the  steamer  was  near  Point  Lookout,  the 
Frenchwoman   was    suddenly   transformed 


217 


PITCAIRN—PITT 

into  a  stout  young  man,  and  the  twenty  next  morning  she  was  presented  to  Wash- 
mechanics  into  well-armed  Marylanders,  ington  by  General  Greene,  who  was  so 
who  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  St.  pleased  with  her  bravery  that  he  gave  her 
Nicholas.  Kirwan  had  no  means  for  re-  a  commission  as  sergeant  and  had  her 
sistance,  and  yielded.  The  passengers  name  placed  on  the  pay-list  for  life.  The 
were  landed  on  the  Virginia  shore,  and  fame  of  "  Sergeant  Mary,"  or  Molly 
the  captain  and  crew  kept  as  prisoners.  Pitcher,  as  she  was  more  generally  known, 
Then  150  armed  accomplices  of  the  pirates  spread  throughout  the  army, 
went  on  board  the  steamer,  which  was  des-  Pitt,  Fort  (Pittsburgh),  the  most  im- 
tined  for  the  Confederate  navy.  She  portant  military  post  in  the  American 
cruised  down  the  Chesapeake,  captured  colonies  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  The  gar- 
three  brigs,  and,  with  her  prizes,  went  rison  had  launch-boats  to  bear  the  Eng- 
up  the  Rappahannock  River  to  Fredericks-  lishmen  to  the  country  of  the  Illinois.  For 
burg,  where  they  were  entertained  at  a  some  time  the  bitter  foes  of  the  English 
public  dinner  by  the  citizens.  A  few  days  — the  Mingoes  and  Delawares — had  been 
afterwards  some  of  Kenly's  Baltimore  seen  hovering  around  the  post.  On  May 
police  were  on  the  steamer  Mary  Wash-  27,  1763,  they  exchanged  a  large  quantity 
ington,  going  home  from  a  post  on  the  of  skins  with  the  English  traders  for 
Chesapeake.  On  board  were  Captain  Kir-  powder  and  lead,  and  then  suddenly  dis- 
wan  and  his  crew;  also  Thomas  and  his  appeared.  Towards  midnight  the  Delaware 
associates,  who  had  captured  the  St.  Nich-  chiefs  warned  the  garrison  to  fly,  offering 
olas,  evidently  intending  to  repeat  their  to  keep  the  property  safe;  but  the  gar- 
operation  on  the  Mary  Washington.  The  rison  preferred  to  remain  in  their  strong 
captain  was  directed  to  land  at  Fort  Mc-  fort,  and  the  Indians  withdrew  and  threat- 
Henry.  Thomas  drew  his  revolver,  and  ened  Fort  Ligonier.  See  Pontiac;  Dtj- 
calling  his  fellow-pirates  around  him,  he  quesne. 

threatened  to  throw  the  officers  over-  Pitt,  William,  the  "  Great  Coin- 
board  and  seize  the  vessel.  The  pirates  moner";  born  in  Westminster,  England, 
were  overcome  by  numbers.  General  Nov.  15,  1708;  entered  Parliament  in 
Banks  sent  a  squad  of  men  on  board  to  1735,  where  he  was  the  most  formidable 
seize  Thomas  and  his  confederates.  The  opponent  of  Robert  Walpole.  He  held  the 
former  was  found  concealed  in  a  closet  in  office  of  vice-treasurer  of  Ireland  (1746), 
the  ladies'  cabin  of  the  boat.  He  was  and  soon  afterwards  was  made  paymaster 
taken  out,  and  with  his  accomplices  of  the  army  and  one  of  the  privy  council, 
lodged  in  Fort  McHenry.  In  1755  he  was  dismissed  from  office,  but 
Pitcairn,  John,  military  officer ;  born  in  in  1757  was  made  secretary  of  state,  and 
Fifeshire,  Scotland,  about  1740;  was  made  soon  infused  his  own  energy  into  every 
major  in  the  British  army  in  1771.  Lead-  part  of  the  public  service,  placing  Eng- 
ing  troops  to  seize  stores  at  Concord,  he  land  in  the  front  rank  of  nations.  By 
engaged  in  the  fight  at  Lexington,  and  his  energy  in  pressing  the  war  in  America 
was  shot  dead  on  entering  the  redoubt  on  (see  French  and  Indian  War)  he  added 
Bunker  (Breed's)  Hill,  June  17,  1775.  Canada  to  the  British  Empire  and  de- 
Pitcher,  Molly.  In  the  Battle  of  cided  for  all  time  the  future  of  the  Mis- 
Monmouth  (q.  v.)  a  shot  from  the  Brit-  sissippi  Valley.  All  through  the  progress 
ish  artillery  instantly  killed  an  American  of  the  disputes  between  Great  Britain 
gunner  while  working  his  piece.  His  wife,  and  its  American  colonies  he  advocated  a 
Mary,  a  young  Irishwoman  twenty  -  two  conciliatory  and  righteous  policy  towards 
years  of  age,  had  been  fetching  water  to  the  Americans.  In  1766  he  was  called 
him  from  a  spring  near  by.  When  he  fell  to  the  head  of  affairs  again;  was  created 
there  appeared  no  one  competent  to  fill  his  Earl  of  Chatham ;  but  quitted  office  for- 
place,  and  the  piece  was  ordered  to  be  re-  ever  in  1768.  In  the  House  of  Lords  he 
moved.  Mary  heard  the  order,  and,  drop-  opposed  coercive  measures  towards  the 
ping  her  bucket  and  seizing  a  rammer,  Americans,  in  speeches  remarkable  for 
vowed  that  she  would  fill  her  husband's  their  vigor  and  eloquence.  He  was  op- 
place  at  the  gun  and  avenge  his  death,  posed  to  the  political  independence  of  the 
She  did  so  with  skill  and  courage.     The    Americans,  for  he   deprecated  a   dismem- 

218 


PITT,  WILLIAM 


WILLIAM   PITT. 


berment  of  the  empire,  and,  while  opposing  made  a  powerful  speech  against  the  Stamp 
a  motion  to  that  effect,  in  an  earnest  Act,  to  which  the  new  ministry  were  corn- 
speech  in  the  House  of  Lords  (April,  pelled  to  give  heed.  Franklin  was  sum- 
1778),  he  swooned,  and  was  carried  to  moned  to  the  bar  of  the  House  to  testify, 
his  home  so  much  exhausted  that  he  never 
rallied.  He  had  risen  from  a  sick-bed  to 
take  his  place  in  Parliament  on  that  occa- 
sion, and  the  excitement  overcame  him. 
He  died  in  Hayes.  Kent,  May  11,  1778. 

When  he  became  the  first  minister  of 
the  realm,  he  saw,  with  enlightened  vision, 
the  justice  and  the  policy  of  treating  the 
American  colonies  with  generosity  and 
confidence.  This  treatment  gained  their 
affections,  and,  under  his  guidance,  they 
gave  such  generous  support  to  the  govern- 
ment in  the  war  with  the  French  and  Ind- 
ians that  the  conquest  of  Canada  was 
achieved,  and  the  French  dominion  in 
America  was  destroyed.  The  project  of 
an  American  Stamp  Act  was  pressed 
(1757),  which  Pitt  disdained  to  favor. 
He  and  Temple  were  both  driven  from 
office  in  April,  1757,  leaving  the  govern- 
ment in  the  hands  of  incompetent  and 
unscrupulous  men.  The  country  turned 
to  Pitt,  as  the  only  man  who  could  save 
the  nation  from  ruin.  Like  a  giant,  he 
directed    the    affairs    of    the    nation    with 

so  much  wisdom  that  in  two  short  years  He  gave  reasons  why  the  Stamp  Act  could 
England  was  placed  at  the  head  of  na-  not  be  enforced  in  America,  and  a  bill 
tionalities  in  power  and  glory.  for    its    repeal    was    carried     (March    18, 

When  Pitt  resigned  the  seals  of  office  1766),  by  a  large  majority. 
(1761)  the  King  offered  to  confer  a  title  In  January,  1775,  Pitt  introduced  Dr. 
upon  him.  He  accepted  for  his  wife  the  Franklin  on  the  floor  of  the  House  of 
honorary  title  of  Baroness  of  Chatham,  Lords,  when  the  former  made  an  eloquent 
with  a  pension  for  her,  her  husband,  and  plea  for  justice  towards  the  Americans, 
their  eldest  son,  of  $15,000  a  year.  In  This  was  in  support  of  a  measure  which 
1766    he   was    created   Viscount    Pitt   and    he  proposed. 

Earl  of  Chatham,  and  was  then  called  to  Pitt  early  in  the  year  1775  proposed 
the  head  of  public  affairs.  an   address  to   the  King  advising  the.  re- 

in January,  1766,  Pitt  appeared  in  his  call  of  the  troops  from  Boston.  It  was  re- 
place in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  de-  jected.  In  February,  1775,  Pitt  brought 
clared  that  "  the  King  had  no  right  to  forward  a  bill  which  required  a  full 
levy  a  tax  on  the  colonies,"  and  said  they  acknowledgment  on  the  part  of  the  col- 
had  invariably,  by  their  representatives  in  onists  of  the  supremacy  and  superintend- 
their  several  assemblies,  exercised  the  con-  ing  power  of  Parliament,  but  provided 
stitutional  right  of  giving  and  granting  that  no  tax  should  ever  be  levied  on  the 
their  own  money.  "  They  would  have  been  Americans  except  by  consent  of  the  co- 
slaves,"  he  said.  "  if  they  had  not.  .  .  .  lonial  assemblies.  It  also  contained  a 
The  colonies  acknowledge  your  authority  provision  for  a  congress  of  the  colonies 
in  all  things,  with  the  sole  exception  that  to  make  the  required  acknowledgment : 
you  shall  not  take  their  money  out  of  and  to  vote,  at  the  same  time,  a  free  grant 
their  pockets  without  their  consent."  This  to  the  King  of  a  certain  perpetual  revenue, 
avowal  of  the  great  commoner  made  a  to  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Parlia- 
profound    impression   on   the   House.      He    ment.  It  was  rejected  at  the  first  reading. 

219 


PITT— PITTSBURGH 

In  token  of  their  gratitude  to  Pitt  for  a  holy  war.    I  affirm  that  it  is  a  most  ae- 

his  successful  efforts  in  procuring  a  repeal  cursed  war,  barbarous,  cruel,  and  unnat- 

of  the  Stamp  Act,  in  1776  the  Americans  ural;      conceived     in     injustice,     it     was 

ordered  two  statues  of  their  friend  to  be  brought  forth  and  nurtured  in  folly;   its 

prected,    in    memory    of    his    services    to  footsteps  are  marked  with  slaughter  and 

America,  one  in  New  York  and  the  other  devastation,    while    it    meditates    destruc- 

in  Charleston.  tion  to  the  miserable  people  who  are  the 

Pitt,     William,     statesman;     born  in  devoted  objects  of  the  resentments  which 

Hayes,    England,    May    28,    1759;    son    of  produced    it.      Where    is    the    Englishman 

William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham;  became  a  who  can  refrain  from  weeping,  on  what- 

member    of    the    House    of    Commons    in  ever  side  victory  may  be  declared?"     He 

1781  when  the  Tory  ministry  was  totter-  became  prime  minister  in   1783,  and  was 

ing  under  the   disasters   in  America.      In  a  party  to  arrange  the  peace  treaty  with 

an  address  before  that  body  he  said:   "A  the   United   States.      He   died   in   Putney, 

noble   lord   has   called   the  American   war  England,  Jan.  23,  1806. 


PITTSBURGH 

Pittsburgh,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  bill  in  equity,  declared  the  act  to  be  uncon- 

county  seat  of  Allegheny  county,  Pa. ;  for-  stitutional     under     the     prohibitions     of 

merly  known  as  the  "  Iron  City,"  from  the  special  legislation.     On  January  15,  1906, 

character  of  its  main  industries,  and  the  the  legislature  met  in  extraordinary  ses- 

"  Smoky  City,"  from  its  use  of  soft  coal;  sion   to   consider   ten   measures   submitted 

now    most   widely    known    as    the    "  Steel  by    the    governor,    one    of    them    being    a 

City";    on   the   Allegheny   and   Mononga-  Greater     Pittsburgh     bill,     framed     with 

hela  rivers,  which  here  unite  and  form  the  special  reference  to  the   Supreme   Court's 

Ohio,  and  on  a  number  of  important  rail-  objections  to  the  former  bill.     On  Feb.  7, 

roads,  including  the  Pennsylvania  system,  1906,   it   became   a   law.      The   two   cities 

the   Baltimore   &  Ohio,   the  Pittsburgh   &  have  long  had  an  incalculable  community 

Lake  Erie ;  the  Wabash ;  and  the  Bessemer  of  interests — in   fact,   have  been  a   single 

&   Lake    Erie.      Population    (1900),    321,-  municipality   in    almost   all    relations   ex- 

616;   1905   (estimated),  365,000.  cepting  those  legally  circumscribed. 

Public  Interests. — The  city  in  1906  had        Combining    the    foregoing    statistics    of 

an  area  of  28%  square  miles,  and  for  ad-  Pittsburgh  with  similar  ones  of  Allegheny 

ministrative    purposes    was    divided    into  City,    a   comprehensive  view   will   be   had 

41  wards.    There  were  730  miles  of  streets,  of  the  strictly  municipal   interests  of  the 

365  miles  of  sewers,  a  water-works  system  Greater      Pittsburgh:      Total      area,      36 

that  cost  $8,000,000  and  had  400  miles  of  square  miles ;  number  of  wards,  55 ;  miles 

mains,  to  which  is  being  added  a  filtration  of  streets,  980 ;  miles  of  sewers,  476 ;  miles 

plant  at  an  estimated  cost  of  $7,000,000;  of  water-mains,  565;   cost  of  water-works 

a  police  department  of  516  men  that  cost  system,  $11,500,000,  exclusive  of  the  cost 

annually  $611,650;  and  a  fire  department  of     Pittsburgh's     uncompleted     filtration 

of  433  men   that  cost  $576,138.     The  as-  plant;  police  department,  men,  656,  annual 

sessed   property  valuations    (1904)    were:  cost,  $783,850;   fire  department,  men,  549, 

Real    estate,    $470,969,360;    personal,    $2,-  annual   cost,   $737,428;    assessed   property 

269,695— total.  $473,239,055;   tax  rate,  $13  valuations,  real  estate,  $565,662,227:   per- 

per  $1,000;  and  net  public  debt,  $13,750,-  sonal,  $2,757,695;  total,  $567,367,380;  net 

000;   and  the  annual  cost  of  maintaining  public   debt,   in   round   numbers,   $19,000.- 

the  city  government  was  about  $6,805,651.  000.     The  tax  rate  in  Allegheny  in   1905 

The  Greater  Pittsburgh. — On  April   20,  for   city  and   school   purposes  was   $15.80 

1905,  Governor  Pennypaeker  signed  a  legis-  per    $1,000.       According    to    the    United 

lative  bill  providing  for  the  consolidation  States  census  of   1900  the  two  cities  had 

of  the  cities  of  Pittsburgh  and  Allegheny  a  combined  population  of  451,512,  which. 

City  under  the  name  of  the  former.     Af-  it    is    officially    estimated,    has    increased 

terwards  the  State  Supreme  Court,  on  a  to   about   600.000.     This  would  make  the 

220 


PITTSBURGH 


Greater  Pittsburgh  the  fifth  city  in  the 
United  States  in  population  on  the  1905 
estimates.  Further  statements  in  this 
article  refer  to  the  individual  city  of  Pitts- 
burgh, except  where  otherwise  indicated. 

Industrial  Affairs. — According  to  the 
last  Federal  census,  Pittsburgh  had  1,938 
manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries 
that  were  operated  on  a  total  capital  of 
$193,162,900;  employed  69,977  wage-earn- 
ers; paid  for  wages,  $36,684,563,  and  for 
materials    used    in    manufacturing,    $110,- 


value  of  the  manufactured  products  of  the 
two  cities  $257,398,218.  The  leading  in- 
dustries were  relatively  the  same  as  those 
of  Pittsburgh,  with  the  addition  of  slaugh- 
tering and  meat-packing,  which  had  a 
product  valued  at  $3,996,807.  All  these 
figures  in  both  cities  have  been  materially 
increased  during  the  past  six  years. 

Pittsburgh's  basic  industry  to-day  is 
steel,  ranging  from  ore  direct  from  the 
mines  to  finished  products  in  almost 
countless    variety,    and    graded    from    the 


A.PLA.nr 

of  the 
2fZW  FORT 
at 

PITTS-BURGH 


Nov.'ij^g . 
Situated  itLXat.4.0.40  Long.8o 


£xbla>iati'on 
Castmttfet  zindtr  tftf  OirtauLr. . . . 
I'oivder JUagazifus.* .,.. ». . .. .  '.. 

Xab(pvto>itsJi>r  thtArtrffay 

TlarraeJLvJvr  .tco  \ftn-. 

_fi 'cunicAsJerO/ficerx..., ...... 

i'alfy  porb/r<mi  the  CurmaXcf. 

1    Low  Town. ..^. .....,-. 

The  Guard  Hocrm .......,...; 


(From  a  set  of  pla 


NEW  FORT  AT  PITTSBTTRGH. 

and  forti  in  America,  reduced  from  actual  surveys,  1763,  publishtd  in  London.) 


833,174;  and  had  a  combined  product 
valued  at  $203,261,251.  The  principal  in- 
dustries, with  the  value  of  output,  were: 
Iron  and  steel,  $90,798,561;  foundry  and 
machine-shop  products,  $15,545,561 ;  elec- 
trical apparatus  and  supplies,  $14,013,- 
450;  architectural  and  ornamental  iron- 
work, $6,111,943;  malt  liquors,  $3,586,- 
393;  and  glass,  $2,778,847.  Allegheny 
City  had  893  manufacturing  industries, 
$50,122,503  capital,  and  20,804  wage- 
earners;  paid  $10,352,502  for  wages  and 
$29,478,781  for  materials;  and  had  prod- 
ucts  valued   at   $54,136,967— making   the 


smallest,  simplest  article  to  the  giant 
constructions  involving  the  highest  me- 
chanical skill.  Here  are  the  greatest 
steel-works  in  the  country,  if  not  in  the 
world,  with  their  affiliated  blast-furnaces, 
rolling-mills,  and  other  technical  depart- 
ments, all  continually  expanding,  crowd- 
ing, and  overflowing  into  the  suburbs,  till 
this  single  industry  has  come  to  cover  a 
very  large  territory  of  which  the  city  is 
the  brain  centre.  Other  fields  in  which 
Pittsburgh  occupies  a  commanding  situa- 
tion are  the  petroleum  and  natural-gas 
industries,   the  manufacture  of  fire-proof 


221 


PITTSBURGH 

buildings  and  materials,  plate,  table,  do-  tered  as  the  Pittsburgh  Academy  in  178?. 
mestic,  and  ornamental  glass,  pottery,  This  became  the  Western  University  of 
manufactures  of  copper,  cork,  white  and  Pennsylvania  in  1808.  The  Carnegie  tech- 
red  lead,  and  the  pickling  and  preserving  nical  schools  are  in  course  of  erection.  The 
of  fruits  and  vegetables.  public-school  system  of  Pittsburgh  accom- 

Commerce. — In  the  fiscal  year  ending  modates  52,730  pupils,  with  1,197  teachers, 
June  30  1905,  Pittsburgh  was  credited  and  cost  for  maintenance  in  1905,  $2,006,- 
with  having  imported  foreign  merchandise  483.25;  that  of  Allegheny  City  has  15,685 
to  the  value  of  $1,750,000.  The  receipts  pupils  and  454  teachers,  and  cost  in  the 
of  the  Custom  House  were  $684,386.86.  year  1905  $805,758.33;  together  there  are 
The  volume  of  business  of  the  city  is  68,415  pupils  and  1,651  teachers,  and  an 
indicated  by  the  receipts  of  the  Pittsburgh  expenditure  in  1905  of  $2,812,241.58. 
Post  Office,  which  were  $1,622,343.13  for  Pittsburgh  has  three  high-school  buildings 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1905.  No  statis-  and  a  fourth  projected;  Allegheny  City 
tics  of  Pittsburgh's  direct  or  indirect  ex-  has  one;  both  cities  give  special  attention 
ports  are  available,  for  its  foreign  ship-  to  industrial  training,  domestic  science, 
ments  are,  from  geographical  necessity,  and  kindergarten  work, 
made  through  convenient  seaports  that  Pennsylvania  College  for  Women,  the 
receive  the  credit  for  this  trade.  The  great  College  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (R.  C),  Bishop 
trunk  lines  of  railroad  that  pass  through  Bowman  Institute  (Meth.),  a  kinder- 
the  city,  the  smaller  ones  that  have  garten  training-school,  several  business 
terminals  here,  and  the  exceptional  facili-  colleges,  and  a  system  of  Roman  Catholic 
ties  afforded  by  the  Allegheny,  Mononga-  parochial  schools  are  located  in  Pitts- 
hela,  and  Ohio  rivers,  give  a  wealth  of  burgh;  the  Western  University  of  Penn- 
shipping  opportunities  remarkable  for  an  sylvania  has  departments  in  both  cities, 
inland  centre,  and  that  will  be  still  more  and  the  theological  seminaries  of  the  Pres- 
noteworthy  when  the  $33,000,000  ship-  byterian,  United  Presbyterian,  and  Re- 
canal  to  connect  the  city  with  Lake  Erie  formed  Presbyterian  Churches  are  in  Alle- 
is  completed.  In  round  numbers  the  gheny  City.  An  Academy  of  Science  and 
railroads  carried  into  and  out  of  Pitts-  Art  was  founded  in  Pittsburgh  in  1890, 
burgh  about  90,000,000  tons  of  freight  in  and  subsequently  its  members  united  with 
1905,  and  freighting-boats  about  12,000,-  those  of  the  Engineers'  Society  of  Western 
000  tons  more.  In  1902  the  receipts  and  Pennsylvania,  the  Botanical  Society,  the 
shipments  of  the  great  ports  of  Antwerp,  Historical  Society  of  Western  Pennsyl- 
Hamburg,  Hong-kong,  Liverpool,  London,  vania,  the  Architects'  Society,  the  Ama- 
and  New  York  aggregated  95,418,590  tons,  teur  Photographers'  Association,  and  the 
while  those  of  Pittsburgh  alone  amounted  Art  Society  in  leasing  the  Thaw  mansion 
to  86,636,680  tons.  for    a    general    headquarters.      These    or- 

Banking. — At  the  close  of  1903  there  ganizations  remained  here  till  the  corn- 
were  ninety-five  banking  institutions,  with  pletion  of  the  Carnegie  Institute,  founded 
a  combined  capital  of  $53,190,220;  sur-  in  1896,  when  they  removed  thither,  the 
plus,  $69,471,849;  deposits,  $261,165,537;  Young  Women's  Christian  Association 
and  resources,  $414,253,161.  On  January  taking  their  former  quarters. 
1,  1906  (many  banks  and  trust  companies  Both  cities  are  amply  supplied  with  pub- 
having  meanwhile  consolidated,  and  new  lie,  school,  collegiate,  professional,  and 
ones  having  been  established ) ,  there  were  special  libraries,  and  each  has  a  free  pub- 
96  banking  institutions  of  all  kinds  in  lie  library  provided  by  Andrew  Carnegie, 
Pittsburgh,  with  total  resources  of  $491,-  that  of  Pittsburgh  comprising  a  main 
490,861.  There  were  at  that  date  32  Na-  library,  combined  with  a  museum,  music- 
tional  banks,  25  State  banks,  and  39  trust  hall,  and  art  -  gallery,  embraced  in  the 
companies.  During  1905  the  exchanges  of  Carnegie  Institute,  and  six  branch  libraries 
the  Pittsburgh  clearing-house  amounted  in  different  parts  of  the  city,  with  a 
to  $2,996,473,438.57.  circulating  branch   in   the  principal   busi- 

Education. — The    first    incorporated    in-  ness     section.       The    completed    Institute 

stitution    of    learning   west    of    the    Alle-  building  will  cost  nearly  $7,000,000.     One 

ghanies  and  north  of  the  Ohio  was  char-  of  the  branch  libraries  cost  $100,000.    The 

222 


PITTSBURGH 


University  Extension  Society  of  Pittsburgh 
is  an  organization  that  is  exerting  a  most 
beneficial  influence  in  both  cities  through 
its  system  of  public  lectures. 

Churches  and  Charities. — Pittsburgh  has 
upward  of  200  churches,  and  Allegheny 
City  over  80.  The  most  noteworthy  in  the 
former  are  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral 
of  St.  Paul,  Trinity,  and  St.  Peter's  and 
Ascension  (P.  E. ),  First  and  Third  Presby- 
terian, First  Baptist,  United  Evangelical, 
and  English  Evangelical ;  and  in  the  latter, 
St.  Peter's  (R.  C),  Trinity  (Evan.  Luth.), 
North  Avenue,  Christ  Church,  Calvary 
(M.  E. ),  Second  United  Presbyterian,  and 
Sandusky  Street  Baptist.  There  are 
Young  Men's  and  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian associations,  both  flourishing. 


Building  of  twenty-two  stories;  and  Alle- 
gheny City  has  a  City  Hall,  the  Allegheny 
Observatory,  and  the  Western  State  Peni- 
tentiary, also  Soldiers',  Washington,  Hum- 
boldt, Armstrong,  and  Hampton  Battery 
monuments.  In  their  vicinity  is  the  inter- 
esting Davis  Island  movable  dam  to  facili- 
tate navigation. 

Pittsburgh  has  the  large  Schenley  Park, 
at  the  entrance  to  which  is  the  group  of 
buildings  presented  to  the  city  by  Andrew 
Carnegie.  This  park  contains  one  of  the 
largest  and  finest  conservatories  in  the 
world,  the  gift  of  Henry  Phipps,  Jr. 
Highland  Park  is  a  beautiful  spot  in  the 
East  End,  with  two  pillars  of  highly 
artistic  design  at  its  entrance.  Alle- 
gheny City  has  a  public  park  system  of  100 


ONE  OF  THE   MODERN  STEEL-PLANTS.      THE   HOMESTEAD   WORKS. 


Among  the  benevolent  institutions  of 
Pittsburgh  are  the  Western  Pennsylvania, 
Municipal,  Homoeopathic,  Mercy,  St.  Fran- 
cis, Passavant's,  South  Side,  St.  Mar- 
garet Memorial,  and  East  End  Charity 
hospitals,  Episcopal  Church  Home,  Con- 
vent of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Home  for 
Incurables,  and  Western  State  Institu- 
tion for  the  Blind.  Allegheny  City  has 
the  Allegheny  General,  Presbyterian, 
United  Presbyterian,  and  St.  John's  hos- 
pitals, Allegheny  Orphan  Asylum,  and 
Home  of  the  Friendless,  and  others. 

Notable  Buildings. — Besides  the  build- 
ings already  mentioned  Pittsburgh  has  a 
handsome  Municipal  Hall,  County  Court 
House,  United  States  Post  Office  and  Cus- 
tom House,  United  States  Arsenal,  and 
Masonic  Temple,  the  Farmer's  Bank  Build- 
ing  twenty-four   stories   high,   the   Friek 


acres  containing  several  small  lakes,  nu- 
merous fountains,  and  the  Humboldt 
Monument,  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  and 
the  Riverview  Park  in  its  suburbs. 

History. — This  entire  region  is  rich  in 
historical  lore.  On  Aug.  3,  1749,  Celoron 
de  Bienville  (q.  v.),  under  orders  from 
the  governor-general  of  New  France  to 
take  possession  of  the  country,  deposited 
a  dated  lead  plate  at  the  forks  of  the 
Ohio,  where  Pittsburgh  now  stands.  Wash- 
ington visited  the  locality  on  Nov.  24, 
1753,  and  with  military  prescience  pro- 
nounced it  extremely  well  situated  for  a 
fort,  as  it  had  absolute  command  of  both 
rivers.  In  the  following  year  the  erection 
of  a  stockade  was  begun  by  Captain 
Trent,  but  before  it  was  finished  it  was 
occupied  by  Ensign  Ward  and  a  garrison 
of  forty  men,  who  were  forced  in  the  same 


223 


PITTSBURGH— PLATT 

year  to  surrender  it  to  the  French  under  tween  Cincinnati  and  Pittsburgh;  whiskey 

Captain  Ccutrecouer.     The  latter  brought  insurgents  assembled  at  Braddocks  to  at- 

with    hirn    60    bateaux,    300    canoes,     18  tack  Pittsburgh.     An  army  of  1,500  men 

pieces    of    cannon,    and    1,000    men,    and  under   General  Lee  was   sent  to   suppress 

immediately  began  the  erection  of  a  strong  the  insurgents.     The  manufacture  of  glass 

military    post,     which    he     named     Fort  was  begun  in  1795;  the  President  Adams, 

Dtjquesne  (q.  v.).     On  Nov.  24,  1758,  the  the  first  sea-going  vessel  built  on  the  Ohio, 

French  burned  and  vacated  the  fort,  and  was  launched  at  Pittsburgh,  May  10,  1798; 

on  the  following  day  the  British  took  pos-  the    first   paper-mill   was   built   the   same 

session      under      General      Forbes.        The  year;    two   more   ships   were   launched   in 

erection  of  Fort  Pitt  on  the  site  of  Fort  1801;   a  branch  of  the  Bank  of  Pennsyl- 

Duquesne    was    begun    by    General    Stan-  vania  was  established,  and  the  first  iron- 

wix   in    September,    1759,    and    was    com-  foundry  erected  in  1804. 

pleted  in  the  following  spring.  Later  events  include  the  building  of  the 

The   year    1764   was   an   important   one  first  steamboat  in  1811;  the  first  rolling- 

in    the   history   of   the   young   town   that  mill  in  1812;  a  steel-furnace  in  1813;  the 

had   grown    up    about    the   fort.      Colonel  United  States  Arsenal  in  1814;  ineorpora- 

Bouquet  erected  a  redoubt  between  Penn  tion  as  a  city  March  18,  1816;  first  manu- 

Street    and    Duquesne    Way;     Col.    John  facture  of  blister  steel   in   1833;   destruc- 

Campbell  laid  out  four  squares  of  village  tion  of  982  buildings  by  fire  on  April  10, 

lots  between  Water  and  Second  and  Ferry  1845;   beginning  of  manufacture  of  cruci- 

and    Market     streets;     and     Col.     George  ble    cast    steel    in    1859;    consolidation   of 

Morgan    erected    the    first    shingle-roofed  eleven    boroughs   with    the   city   in    1872; 

house,    a    two-story,    double-hewn   log,    on  strike  on  Pennsylvania  Railroad  in  1877 ; 

the    corner   of   Water   and    Ferry   streets,  burning    of    the    Exposition    buildings    in 

On    May    19,     1769,    the    survey    of    the  1883  and   again  in   1900;   introduction  ot 

"  Manor    of    Pittsburgh "   was    completed,  natural  gas  as  fuel  in   1884.     There  were 

showing   an   area   of   5,766   acres.      Under  a  number  of  costly  fires  in  recent  years, 

orders    from    General    Gage,    the    British  but  none  involving  public  buildings.     The 

abandoned  Fort  Pitt  in  October,  1772,  and  other  important  events  are,  in  the  main, 

the    post    remained    in    a    quiescent    state  a    record    of    commercial    and    industrial 

till   Sept.   11,  1775,  when  it  was  occupied  progress     and     consolidations,     the     chief 

by  a  body  of  Virginia  troops  under  Capt.  being   the   merger   of   the    Carnegie    Steel 

John  Neville.  Company  in  the  United  States  Steel  Cor- 

In  1784  the  first  sale  of  lots  was  made  poration. 

by   John    Penn,   Jr.,    to   Isaac   Craig   and  Pittsburg  Landing.     See  Shiloh. 

Stephen   Bayard,    comprising   about   three  Pizarro,    Francisco,    military    officer; 

acres    lying   between    Fort    Pitt    and    the  born  in  Estremadura,  Spain,  in  1476.     He 

Allegheny  River,  and  in  the  same  year  the  conquered  Peru  in   1532.     A  Spanish  fac- 

laying  out  of  the  town  was  completed  by  tion  led  by  the  son  of  Almagro  attacked 

Thomas  Vickroy.     John  Scull  and  Joseph  Pizarro  and  killed  him,  June  26,  1541. 

Hall  issued  the  first  number  of  the  Pitts-  Piatt,    Orville   Hitchcock,   legislator; 

burgh  Gazette  on  July  29,  1786,  and  a  post  born  in  Washington,  Conn.,  July  19,  1827; 

route   was   established   between   Washing-  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1849;  elected  State 

ton  and   Pittsburgh  in   September  follow-  Senator    in    1861;    member    of    the    State 

ing.    Allegheny  City  was  laid  out  in  1789.  Assembly  in  1864;  U.  S.  Senator  in  1879- 

The  iron  and  steel  industry  had  its  birth  1905.      He   was   the   author    of   the   Piatt 

in  1792,  when  a  small  blast-furnace  was  amendment.       He     died     in     Washington, 

erected  on  what  is  now  Shady  Point,  but  Conn.,  April  21,  1905.     See  Cuba. 

the  enterprise  was  far  ahead  of  the  times,  Piatt,     Thomas     Collier,     legislator; 

and    was    abandoned    after    a    precarious  born    in    Owego,    N.    Y.,    July    15,    1833; 

existence  of  three  years.  elected     Representative     in     Congress     in 

Pittsburgh  was   incorporated   as  a  bor-  1873;  United  States  Senator,  Jan.  18,  1881 ; 

ough  on  April  22,  1794.     That  year  was  resigned    May     16,     1881,    with     Roscoe 

quite  an  exciting  one  locally.     The  first  Conkling    (q.    v.)  ;    became   president   of 

line    of    keel    boats    was    established    be-  the  United  States  Express  Company,  and 

224 


PLATT— PLATTSBURG 


president  of  New  York  Quarantine  Com- 
missioners in  1880;  re-elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1896  and  1903. 

Piatt,  Zephaniaii,  legislator;  born  in 
Dutchess  county,  N.  Y.,  in  1740;  preach- 
ed law;  delegate  from  New  York  to  the 
Continental  Congress,  1784-86;  judge  of 
the  circuit  court  for  many  years;  founder 
of  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  where  he  died  Sept. 
12,  1807. 

Piatt  Amendment.     See  Cuba. 

Plattsburg,  Battles  at.  When  Gen- 
eral Izard  marched  from  Champlain  for 
Sackett's  Harbor,  N.  Y.,  with  4,000  men 
in  August,  1814,  he  left  1,500  soldiers 
there,  under  the  command  of  Gen.  Alex- 
ander   Macomb.      During   the   spring   and 


with  about  14,000  men,  assisted  by  Gen- 
eral de  Rottenburg  as  his  second,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  British  flotilla,  under 
Captain  Pringle,  came  out  of  the  Sorel 
Kiver,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Champlain. 
Prevost  announced  his  intention  to  seize 
and  hold  northern  New  York  as  far  down 
as  Ticonderoga,  and  he  called  upon  the 
inhabitants  to  cast  off  their  allegiance  and 
furnish  him  with  supplies. 

In  the  mean  time  Macomb,  with  untiring 
energy,  prepared  for  a  defence  of  the 
threatened  region.  He  had  completed  re- 
doubts and  block-houses  at  Plattsburg,  to 
prevent  the  invaders  crossing  the  Saranac 
Kiver.  The  militia  were  under  the  com- 
mand of  Gen.  Benjamin  Mooers.     He  had 


BATTLE   OP   PLAITSBURG 

summer  of  that  year  both  parties  had  been 
busy  in  the  preparation  of  war-vessels  for 
Lake  Champlain,  and  the  command  of  the 
American  squadron  there  was  held  by  Capt. 
Thomas  Macdonough.  Released  from  duty 
in  Europe  by  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  a 
number  of  Wellington's  troops  had  arrived 
in  Canada.  There  were  about  15,000 
British  troops  (chiefly  these  veterans)  at 
Montreal  at  the  close  of  August,  and  Sir 
George  Prevost,  governor  of  Canada  and 
general-in-chief  of  the  forces  there,  pro- 
ceeded to  invade  New  York.  Izard  had 
made  a  requisition  for  militia  and  light 
dragoons,  and  at  the  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember Macomb  found  himself  at  the  head 
of  about  3,500  men.  These  he  gathered  at 
Plattsburg,  to  repel  an  expected  invasion. 
Prevost  advanced  from  the  St.  Lawrence 


(From  an  old  print). 

been  very  active  in  gathering  them,  and 
when  Prevost  advanced  he  was  at  the  head 
of  about  5,000  men.  Prevost  arrived  at 
Champlain  on  Sept.  3,  and  two  days  after- 
wards pushed  to  a  point  within  8  miles 
of  Plattsburg.  At  the  same  time  Macomb 
divided  his  troops  into  detachments,  to 
complete  fortifications  already  begun. 
Small  forces  were  sent  northward,  to 
watch  the  movements  of  the  British.  On 
the  6th  Prevost  moved  upon  Plattsburg 
with  his  whole  force,  in  two  columns,  the 
right  crossing  on  to  the  Beekmantown 
road.  Informed  of  this,  Macomb  sent 
Maj.  John  E.  Wool  (who  volunteered  for 
the  purpose),  with  some  regulars,  to  sup- 
port the  militia  under  Mooers,  who  was 
out  in  that  direction,  and  to  oppose  the 
advance  of  the   foe.     His  force  was   280 


225 


tLATTSBURG,    BATTLES    AT 


strong.  At  Beekrrantown  he  encountered  Downie,  had  approached  Cumberland 
J'revost's  advanced  guard.  The  militia  Head.  His  flag-ship  was  the  Confiance, 
broke,  and  fled  towards  Plattsburg,  but  thirty-eight  guns,  and  with  it  were  one 
the  regulars  stood  firm.  He  fought  the  brig,  two  sloops-of-war,  and  twelve  gun- 
invaders,  inch  by  inch,  all  the  way  to  boats.  Macdonough's  squadron  lay  In 
Plattsburg.  His  and  other  detachments  Plattsburg  Bay,  and  consisted  of  the  Sara- 
toga, twenty-six 
guns  (his  flag- 
ship ) ,  with  one 
brig,  two  schoon- 
ers, and  ten  gun- 
boats, or  galleys. 
The  British 
came  around 
Cumberland 
Head,  with  a  fair 
wind,  on  the 
morning  of  the 
11th,  and  at  the 
same  time  the 
British  land 
forces  were  mov- 
ing for  a  eom- 
b  i  n  e  d  attack 
upon  the  Ameri- 
cans by  land  and 
water.  Macdon- 
ough  had  skilful- 
ly prepared  his 
vessels  for  action, 
and  when  all  was 
in  readiness  he 
knelt  on  the  deck 
of  the  Saratoga, 
and  offered  up  a 
fervent  prayer  to 
God,  imploring 
divine  aid.  His 
were  pushed  back  by  the  overwhelming  officers  were  around  him,  and  very  soon 
force  of  the  British,  and  retired  to  the  after  he  arose  the  guns  of  both  squad- 
south  side  of  the  Saranac,  tearing  up  the  rons  opened,  and  a  sharp  naval  action 
bridges  behind  them,  and  using  the  tim-  began.  A  shot  from  one  of  the  British 
bers  for  breastworks.  The  invaders  tried  vessels  demolished  a  hen  -  coop  on  the 
lo  force  a  passage  across  the  stream,  but  deck  of  the  Saratoga,  in  which  was  a 
were  repulsed  by  a  small  company  of  young  game-cock.  The  released  fowl, 
volunteers  in  a  stone  mill  near  the  site  startled  by  the  noise  of  cannon,  flew  upon 
of  the  lower  bridge,  who  fired  sharp  vol-  a  gun-slide,  and,  flapping  his  wings,  crow- 
leys  of  musketry  upon  them  from  that  ed  lustily  and  defiantly.  The  sailors 
strong  citadel.  Prevost  now  perceived  that  cheered,  and  the  incident  was  regarded  by 
he  had  serious  work  before  him,  and  em-  them  as  ominous  of  victory.  Their  cour- 
ployed  the  time  from  the  7th  to  the  llth  age  was  strengthened.  The  Confiance  and 
in  bringing  up  his  batteries  and  supply-  Saratoga  fought  desperately.  A  broadside 
trains,  and  constructing  works  to  com-  from  the  former  had  a  terrible  effect  upon 
inand  those  of  the  Americans  on  the  south  the  latter.  Forty  of  the  Saratoga's  people 
side  of  the  Saranac.  Meanwhile  the  naval  were  disabled.  This  stunning  blow  was 
force,  under  the  command  of  Commodore    felt  only  for  a  moment.     The  battle  be- 

226 


OLD    STONE    MILL   ON  THE   SAKANAO. 


S'LATTSBTJRG,    BATTLES    Al? 


came  general,  and  lasted  about  two  hours 
and  twenty  minutes.  The  vessels  were  all 
terribly  shattered.  "  There  was  not  a 
mast  in  either  squadron,"  wrote  Mac- 
donough,  "  that  could  stand  to  make  sail 
on."  One  of  the  officers  of  the  Confiance 
wrote :  "  Our  masts,  yards,  and  sails  were 
so  shattered  that  one  looked  like  so  many 
bundles  of  matches  and  the  other  like  so 
many  bundles  of  rags."  The  contest  was 
witnessed  by  hundreds  of  spectators  on 
the  headlands  of  the  Vermont  shore.  It 
ended  with  victory  for  the  Americans. 
The  British  commodore  (Downie)  was  kill- 
ed and  his  remains  were  buried  at  Platts- 
burg.  The  Americans  lost  110  men;  the 
British  loss  was  over  200  men. 

While  this  naval  battle  was  raging, 
there  was  a  sharp  conflict  on  the  land. 
The  British  troops  had  attempted  to  force 
their  way  across  the  Saranac  at  two 
places,  but  after  a  short  and  desperate 
struggle  they  were  repulsed  by  the  gallant 
regulars  and  militia  led  by  Macomb  and 
Mooers.  Some  of  the  British  had  crossed 
the  stream  near  the  site  of  the  upper 
bridge,  and  the  Americans  were  driving 
them  back,  when  tidings  came  that  the 
British  fleet  had  just  surrendered.  The 
Americans  gave  three  hearty  cheers.  The 
British  took  them  as  indications  of  a:ood 


news  for  their  antagonists,  and  their  lir-> 
wavered.  Soon  Prevost  was  notified  of 
the  disaster  on  the  water,  and,  naturally 
timid  in  the  presence  of  danger,  saw  with 
alarm  the  rapid  gathering  of  the  neigh- 
boring militia,  who  menaced  his  flanks  and 
rear.  At  twilight  (Sept.  11,  1814)  he 
ceased  fighting,  and  prepared  for  flight 
back  to  Canada.  At  midnight,  something 
having  given  him  greater  alarm,  he  re- 
treated in  such  haste  that  he  left  his  sick 
and  wounded  and  a  vast  amount  of  stores 
behind.  Light  troops,  militia,  and  volun- 
teers started  in  pursuit,  but  a  heavy  fall 
of  rain  compelled  them  to  give  it  up. 
Prevost  halted  and  encamped  at  Cham- 
plain,  and  on  the  24th  he  left  the  United 
States  territory,  and  returned  to  Mon- 
treal with  the  main  army.  The  loss  of 
Prevost,  after  he  crossed  the  international 
boundary,  in  killed,  wounded,  missing, 
and  deserters,  did  not  fall  much  short  of 
2,000.  The  loss  of  the  Americans  on  the 
land  was  less  than  150.  The  whole  coun- 
try rang  with  the  praises  of  Macomb  and 
Macdonough,  the  chief  leaders  in  the 
battles  at  Plattsburg.  In  almost  every  vil- 
lage and  city  in  the  land  there  were  bon- 
fires and  illuminations.  Governor  Tomp- 
kins presented  Macomb  with  a  sword  in 
the  name  of  the  people  of  the  State  of 


thkatkk  OF  naval  ENGAGEMENT,  PLATTSRDRo  bat  (Adirondack  Mountains  in  Me  distance.) 

227 


PLEASANT  GROVE— PLEASONTON 

New  York,  and  De  Witt  Clinton,  mayor  of  distance  on  the  road  towards  Grand  Ecore. 

New  York,   presented   him,   in   the   name  Towards  noon   (April  9),  the  Confederate 

(»f   the  corporation,  with   the   freedom   of  advance   appeared,   and   between   5   and   6 

the  city.    Congress  gave  him  the  thanks  of  p.m.  a  furious  battle  began.     The  assail- 

the  nation,  and  voted  him  a  gold  medal,  ants  fell  heavily  on  Emory's  left,  held  by 

The  State  of  New  York  gave  Macdonough  Benedict's    brigade,    with    crushing    force, 

2,000  acres  of  land.    The  State  of  Vermont  and  pushed  it  back.     At  the   first  onset, 

purchased  200  acres  on  Cumberland  Head,  and    while    trying    to    rally    his    men    to 

and    presented    them    to    him,    the    house  charge,    Benedict    was    slain   by    a    bullet 

upon  it  overlooking  the  scene  of  his  gal-  which  passed  through  his  head.    While  the 

lant  exploits.     "  Thus,"  said  Macdonough  left  was  giving  way,  and  the  Confederates 

to   a   friend,   while   tears   filled   his   eyes,  had    captured    four    guns,    Emory's    right 

"  from  a  poor  lieutenant  I  became  a  rich  stood  firm  until  enveloped  on  three  sides 

man."     Congress  gave  him  the  thanks  of  by  a  superior  force,  when  it  fell  back  a 

the  nation  and  a  gold  medal.  little.     Then  the  tide  was   changed  by  a 

Pleasant  Grove,  Battle  at.  At  Pleas-  heavy  countercharge  by  Smith's  veterans, 
ant  Grove,  3  miles  from  Sabine  Cross-  under  General  Mower.  The  right  of  the 
roads,  La.,  General  Emory,  advancing  Confederates  was  driven  more  than  a  mile 
with  his  corps,  halted  on  April  8,  1864,  by  this  charge.  Then  the  whole  of  Smith's 
when  the  Nationals,  defeated  at  the  Cross-  reserves  were  ordered  up,  when  the  Con- 
roads,  were  retreating.  Across  the  road  federates  were  routed  and  pursued  until 
along  which  the  fugitives  and  their  pur-  dark.  General  Banks  reported  his  losses 
suers  were  advancing  General  Dwight  in  the  battles  of  April  7,  8,  and  9,  at 
formed  his  brigade,  and  on  his  left  was  3,909,  of  whom  289  were  killed  and  2,150 
another  brigade,  commanded  by  Col.  missing,  most  of  the  latter  taken  prison- 
Lewis  Benedict.  Another  was  held  in  re-  ers.  The  Nationals  had  also  lost,  thus 
serve.  Their  ranks  were  opened  to  receive  far,  twenty  pieces  of  artillery,  160  wagons, 
the  flying  columns,  which  passed  through  and  1,200  horses  and  mules.  They  had 
to  the  rear,  the  Confederates  close  upon  captured  2,300  prisoners,  twenty-five  can- 
their  heels.  In  strong  force  they  assailed  non  (chiefly  by  the  fleet),  and  3,000  bales 
Emory's  troops.  A  severe  battle  ensued,  of  cotton.  The  Confederate  losses  were 
which  lasted  an  hour  and  a  half,  the  Con-  never  reported. 

federates  making  the  most  desperate  Pleasonton,  Alfred,  military  officer; 
efforts  to  turn  the  National  left,  firmly  born  in  Washington,  D.  C,  June  7,  1824; 
held  by  Benedict.  The  assailants  were  re-  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1844,  enter- 
pulsed,  and  very  soon  the  battle  ceased  on  ing  the  dragoons.  He  served  in  the  war 
that  part  of  the  field.  Everywhere  else  against  Mexico,  and  afterwards  in  Cali- 
the  Confederates  were  thrown  back,  with  fornia,  New  Mexico,  and  Texas.  For 
great  slaughter.  Then  the  Nationals  re-  several  years  he  was  assistant  adjutant- 
tired  to  Pleasant  Hill,  15  miles  distant,  general  and  adjutant-general  to  General 
followed  by  the  Confederates.  See  Bed  Harney,  and  in  the  fall  of  1861  was  acting 
Btver  Expedition.  colonel  of  the  2d  Cavalry.     He  was  made 

Pleasant  Hill,  Battle  at.  When  it  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  July, 
was  discovered  that  the  Confederates  were  1862,  and  took  command  of  Stoneman's 
following  the  Nationals  in  strong  force  cavalry  brigade,  leading  the  van  when  Mc- 
after  the  battle  at  Pleasant  Grove,  Banks  Clellan  crossed  the  Potomac,  in  October, 
formed  a  battle-line  at  Pleasant  Hill,  15  Pleasonton  was  in  the  battles  at  Fred- 
miles  east  of  the  latter  place,  with  Emory's  ericksburg,  Chancellor sville,  and  Gettys- 
division  in  the  front,  the  right  occupied  by  burg,  and  was  afterwards  efficient  in  driv- 
Thvight's  brigade,  another,  under  General  ing  Price  out  of  Missouri,  in  1864.  In 
Millan,  in  the  centre,  and  a  third,  under  March,  1865,  he  was  brevetted  major-gen- 
Colonel  Benedict,  on  the  left.  A  New  York  eral  United  States  arauy  for  "  meritorions 
battery  was  planted  on  a  commanding  hill,  services  during  the  rebellion."  He  resigned 
The  army  trains,  guarded  by  Lee's  cav-  his  commission  in  1868,  and  was  placed  on 
airy,  a  brigade  of  colored  troops,  and  Ran-  the  retired  list  as  colonel  in  1888.  He  died 
som's  shattered  columns,  were  sent  some  in  Washington,  D.  C.  Feb.  17,  1897. 

228 


PLYMOUTH— PLYMOUTH  COMPANY 

Plymouth.,   Capture  of.     About  7,000  wards  known  as  Parker's   Island,   where, 

Confederates,  under  Gen.  R.  F.  Hoke,  at-  after  a   sermon   had   been   delivered,   and 

tacked  Plymouth,  N.  C,  at  the  mouth  of  the  patent  and  other  laws  read,  they  dug 

the  Roanoke  River,  April   17,   1864.     The  a  well,  built  a  stone  house,  a  few  log-huts, 

post    was    fortified,    and    garrisoned    by  and   a   stockade,   which   they   called   Fort 

2,400   men,   under   Gen.    H.   W.    Wessells.  St.   George.     They  experienced  the  bitter 

Hoke  was  assisted   by  the   powerful   ram  fruit   of   Weymouth's   kidnapping   in    the 

Albemarle.     The    town    was    closely    be-  hostility   of   the   natives,   who   refused   to 

sieged.     A  gunboat  that  went  to  the  as-  furnish   them   with   maize   or   other   food, 

sistance  of  the  garrison  was  soon  disabled  The  season  was  too  far  advanced  to  raise 

and   captured.     On   April   20   the   Confed-  food  for  the  colony,  so,  on  Dec.  5,  two  of 

erates   made    a    general    assault,    and   the  the    ships    returned    to    England,    leaving 

town  and   Fort   Williams  were   compelled  forty-five   persons,   with    sufficient    stores, 

to  surrender.     There  were  1,600  men  sur-  Popham  being  president  of  the  colony,  and 

rendered,   with   twenty-five   cannon,   2,000  Raleigh     Gilbert     admiral.      During     the 

small-arms,  and  valuable  stores.  severe  winter  their  storehouse  was  burned 

Plymouth  Company.  The  domain  in  by  accident.  The  next  spring  a  vessel 
America  assigned  to  this  company  ex-  arrived  at  Fort  St.  George  with  supplies, 
tended  from  lat.  41°  to  45°  N.  Mem-  and  with  the  intelligence  of  the  death  of 
bers  of  the  company  were  in  the  field  of  Chief- Justice  Popham  and  Sir  John  Gil- 
adventure  before  it  was  organized.  Ad-  bert,  two  of  the  most  influential  members 
venturers  from  England  had  been  on  the  of  the  company.  Discouraged  and  dis- 
coast  of  New  England,  but  had  failed  to  heartened  by  the  severity  of  the  winter, 
plant  a  permanent  settlement.  The  prin-  during  which  their  houses  were  almost 
cipal  members  of  the  company  were  Sir  covered  with  snow,  their  losses  by  disease, 
John  Popham  (then  chief -justice  of  Eng-  and  the  death  of  their  governor,  Henry 
land,  who  had,  with  scandalous  injustice,  Popham,  the  colonists  forsook  their  new 
condemned  Raleigh  to  die  on  the  scaf-  abode  and  returned  to  England, 
fold),  his  brother  George  Popham,  Sir  For  a  few  years  the  operations  of  the 
Ferdinando  Gorges,  Sir  John  and  Raleigh  company  were  confined  to  fishing  voyages 
Gilbert  (sons  of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert),  and  a  little  traffic  with  the  natives.  Their 
William  Parker,  and  Thomas  Hanham.  prospects  brightened  by  the  first  success- 
In  1606  Justice  Popham  sent  a  vessel  at  ful  voyage  of  Captain  Smith,  but  were 
his  own  cost,  commanded  by  Henry  Chal-  again  darkened  by  subsequent  misfortunes. 
Ions,  to  make  further  discoveries  of  the  The  company  had  indignantly  dismissed 
north  Virginia  region.  Challons  and  his  Hunt  from  their  service  on  hearing  of 
crew  of  about  thirty  persons  were  capt-  his  conduct,  and  when  they  found  Squanto 
ured  by  the  Spaniards,  and  the  vessel  was  had  escaped  from  Spain  and  made  his  way 
confiscated.  Soon  after  the  departure  of  to  England,  they  sought  him  out,  loaded 
Challons,  Thomas  Hanham,  afterwards  him  with  presents,  and  sent  him  to  New 
one  of  the  company,  sailed  in  a  small  ves-  England  with  Captain  Dermer  to  pacify 
sel  for  America,  accompanied  by  Martin  the  natives.  But  they  were  still  too  in- 
Pring,  to  discover  a  good  place  for  a  set-  dignant  to  listen,  and  they  attacked  and 
tlement;  and  his  report  was  so  favorable,  dangerously  wounded  Dermer  and  several 
so  confirmatory  of  Gosnold's  statements  of  his  party.  The  company  now  abandon- 
ee Gosnold,"  Bartholomew),  that  the  ed  all  thoughts  of  establishing  colonies  in 
above-named  gentlemen  and  others  formed  New  England  at  that  time,  and  looked 
an  association  called  the  Plymouth  Com-  forward  to  receiving  large  profits  by  the 
pany,  and  received  a  charter  from  King  fisheries  and  by  traffic.  The  London  Coin 
James  late  in  that  year.  pany  had  by  its  second  charter  obtained 

In  the  spring  of   1607   they  sent  three  new   territory.      The   Plymouth   Companv 

small  vessels  to  the  domain  with  100  emi-  desired  to  secure  greater  privileges  by  a 

grants,   and   George  Popham   as  governor  distinct  and  separate  grant,  by  which  they 

of     the     colony.      They     landed,     late     in  might  have  the  monopoly  of  the  fisheries 

August,    at    a    rather    sterile    place   near  on  the  New  England  coast.     The  London 

the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec,  Maine,  after-  Company  and  private  traders  warmly  op- 

229 


PLYMOUTH    COMPANY 


posed  them,  for  they  wished  to  keep  these    George     Calvert,     a     supporter     of     the 
fisheries  free ;  but  they  obtained  a  charter    monopoly.     "  You  therefore  have  no  right 


from  the  King,  Nov.  3.  1620,  known  as 
the  "  Great  Patent,"  and  the  popular  name 
of  the  association  was  changed  to  "  The 
Council  of  Plymouth." 


to  interfere."  "  We  make  laws  for  Vir- 
ginia," retorted  another  member;  "a  bill 
passed  by  the  Commons  and  the  Lords, 
if  it  receives  the  King's  assent,  will  con- 


By  the  new  charter  all  North  America,  trol  the  patent."  Coke  argued  (referring 
from  lat.  40°  to  48°  N.,  excepting  to  many  statutes  of  the  realm)  that,  as 
places  possessed  by  "  any  Christian  prince  the  charter  was  granted  without  regard 
or  people,"  was  granted  in  full  property,  to  pre-existing  rights,  it  was  necessarily 
with  exclusive  rights  of  jurisdiction,  set-  void.  This  attack  upon  his  prerogative 
tlement,  and  traffic,  to  forty  wealthy  and  stirred  the  anger  of  the  monarch,  who  was 
influential  persons,  incorporated  as  "The  sitting  near  the  speaker's  chair,  and  he 
Council  established  at  Plymouth,  in  the  blurted  out  some  silly  words  about  the 
County  of  Devon,  for  the  Planting,  Rul-  "  divine  right  of  kings,"  when  the  Com- 
ing, Ordering,  and  Governing  of  New  Eng-  mons,  in  defiance  of  his  wrath,  passed  a 
land,  in  America."  The  line  between  the  bill  giving  freedom  to  commerce  in  spite 
London  and  Plymouth  colonies  was  nearly  of  the  charter. 

coincident    with    that    between    the    late        Before  the  bill  had  passed  through  the 

slave-labor     and    free-labor     States.      But  form  of  legislation  the  King  dissolved  the 

that  powerful   organization  was  not   per-  Parliament,  and  forbade  by  proclamation 

mitted  to  make  the  first  permanent  Eng-  any  vessel  to  approach  the  shores  of  New 

lish  settlement  within  its  domain;  it  was  England   without    the   special    consent   of 

done  by  a  handful  of  feeble  liberty-loving  the  Council  of  Plymouth.     He  also  caused 

people   fleeing    from    persecution    in    Eng-  the  imprisonment  of  Coke,  Pym,  and  other 

land.     The  pretences  of  the  council  to  an  leaders   of   the   Commons,    after   adjourn- 

exclusive  right  of  fishing  on  the  New  Eng-  ment,  for  their  alleged  factious  behavior, 

land  coast  were  denounced  in  the  House  of  The  next  Parliament  proceeded  to  perfect 

Commons   (1621),  soon  after  the  granting  what  the  former  one  had  begun.     Under 

of  the  charter,   as  a  "  grievance,"   and   a  the  King's  proclamation,  the  council  sent 

committee  reported  that  the  charter  was  out  Francis  West  as  admiral  of  New  Eng- 

vitiated   by   the   clause    in    it   which    for-  land,    to    impose   a   tribute   upon   fishing- 

feited  the  ships  of  intruders  without  the  vessels   on   the   northeast   coast;    but   the 

sanction  of  Parliament.  final  decision  of  Parliament  took  away  his 

That  body  had  not  met  for  seven  years,  occupation,    and    virtually    destroyed    the 

and  were  strongly  tinctured  with  the  idea  power  of  the  council.    Many  of  the  parties 

that  the   people  had   "  divine   rights "   as  withdrew  their  interests  in  the  company, 

well  as  the  King,  and  acted  accordingly,  and  those  who  remained,  like  Gorges,  did 

Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  appeared  before  it  little  more   than   issue  grants  of  domain 

in  defence  of  the  charter.     So  also  was  the  in  the  northeastern  parts  of  America. 
King  there  to  defend  his  prerogative  if  it        After  the  accession  of  Charles  I.   (1625) 

should   be    assailed.      Sir    Edwin    Sandys,  there    was    much    restiveness    concerning 

the  wise  statesman  and  friend  of  Virginia,  the  monopoly,  even  in  its  weakened  state, 

opposed    Gorges.      Sir    Edward    Coke,     a  and  the  merchants  prayed  for  a  revocation 

member  of  Parliament  and  of  the  privy  of   the   charter.     The   Commons,   growing 

council    (who  had  been  lord  chief- justice  more  and  more  democratic,  regarded  it  as 

of   England),    also    opposed    the   monopo-  a    royal    instrument;     churchmen    looked 

lists;  and  then  began  his  famous  contest  upon  it  as  a  foe  to  prelacy,  because  Puri- 

with    King    James    which    resulted    in    a  tans  were   sheltered   on   its   domain;    and 

notable  exhibition  of  wrath  and  despotism  Charles,  as  bigoted  a  believer  in  the  doc- 

on    the    part    of    the    sovereign.      Sandys  trine  of  the  "  divine  right  of  kings  "  as  his 

pleaded  for  freedom  in  fishing  and  in  gen-  father,  suspected  the  New  England  colo- 

eral  commerce,  which  was  then  the  staple  nists  were  enjoying  liberties  inconsistent 

source  of  wealth  for  England.     "  America  with  the  royai  prerogative.    The  company 

is  not  annexed  to  the  realm,  nor  within  prepared   for   its   dissolution  by  dividing 

the    jurisdiction     of    Parliament,"     said  north    Virginia    into   twelve    royal    prov- 

230 


PLYMOUTH    DECLARATION    OF    RIGHTS— PLYMOUTH    ROCK 


inces,  assigning  each  to  persons  named, 
and  at  their  last  meeting  (April,  1635) 
they  caused  to  be  entered  upon  their 
minutes  the  following  record :  "  We  have 
been  bereaved  of  friends;  oppressed  by 
losses,  expenses,  and  troubles;  assailed 
before  the  privy  council  again  and  again 
with  groundless  charges;  weakened  by  the 
French  and  other  foes  without  and  with- 
in the  realm;  and  what  remains  is  only 
a  breathless  carcass.  We  therefore  now 
resign  the  patent  to  the  King,  first  re- 
serving all  grants  by  us  made  and  all 
vested  rights — a  patent  we  have  ho! den 
about  fifteen  years."     See  Plymouth,  New. 

Plymouth  Declaration  of  Rights.  In 
1636  the  Plymouth  Colony  adopted  a  body 
of  laws  called  "  The  General  Fundamen- 
tals." The  first  article  declared  "  That 
no  act,  imposition,  law,  or  ordinance  be 
made  or  imposed  upon  us  at  present  or  to 
come  but  such  as  shall  be  enacted  by  the 
consent  of  the  body  of  freemen  or  asso- 
ciates, or  their  representatives  legally  as- 
sembled; which  is  according  to  the  free 
liberties  of  the  freeborn  people  of  Eng- 
land." The  second  article  read:  "And 
for  the  well  governing  of  this  colony,  it 
is  also  ordered  that  there  be  free  elec- 
tions annually  of  governor,  deputy  gov- 
ernor, and  assistants  by  the  vote  of  the 
freemen  of  this  corporation."  These  and 
other  fundamentals  are  dated  1636,  and 
were  revised  in  1671.  The  style  of  enact- 
ment is :  "  We,  the  associates  of  the  colony 
of  New  Plimouth,  coming  hither  as  free- 
born  subjects  of  the  kingdom  of  England, 
endowed  with  all  and  singular  the  privi- 
leges belonging  to  each,  being  assembled, 
do  enact,"  etc.  The  seal  adopted  by  the 
Plymouth  Colony  was  called  the  "  Old 
Colony "  seal,  because  Plymouth  Colony 
was  established  before  Massachusetts  Bay 
Colony. 

Plymouth,  New,  universally  known  as 
the  Plymouth  Settlement,  was  founded 
by  Pilgrims  from  Holland  in  1620.  Their 
first  care  on  landing  from  the  May- 
flower was  to  build  a  rude  fort  and  plant 
five  cannon  upon  it  which  they  had  brought 
with  them.  Then  they  "  fell  to  building 
houses."  Distributed  into  nineteen  fami- 
lies, they  all  worked  diligently  until  near- 
ly all  were  prostrated  by  sickness.  There 
were  no  delicacies  for  the  sick  and  very 
little  wholesome  food.     The  sailors  of  the 


231 


Mayflower  had  unkindly  refused  to  let  the 
passengers  have  a  variety  by  sharing  their 
own  coarse  food  with  them.  At  times 
that  winter  the  huts  at  New  Plymouth 
were  half  buried  in  snow-drifts.  The 
Pilgrims  trembled  in  fear  of  the  surround- 
ing Indians,  but  felt  comforted  by  the 
voice  of  one  of  them  as  he  went  through 
the  new  village,  crying,  "  Welcome,  Eng- 
lishmen! Welcome,  Englishmen!"  It 
was  Samoset,  who  had  learned  a  few  Eng- 
lish words  from  English  sailors  at  Mohe- 
gan.  He  afterwards  brought  to  New 
Plymouth  Squanto,  whom  Hunt  kid- 
napped. Squanto  had  returned,  and 
through  him  an  acquaintance  and  friend- 
ship were  formed  with  Massasoit.  The 
town  lay  on  a  slope ;  and  when,  six  years 
after  the  arrival  of  the  Mayflower,  it  was 
visited  by  Dutch  commissioners,  the  houses 
were  built  of  hewn  timber,  and  the  whole 
village  was  surrounded  by  a  palisade  of 
timbers  driven  into  the  ground  and  point- 
ed at  the  top,  a  mile  in  circuit,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  streets  were  three  gates  made 
of  strong  beams.  In  the  centre  of  the 
village  was  the  governor's  house,  before 
which  was  a  square  enclosure  bearing  four 
mounted  swivels.  Upon  an  eminence  was 
a  square  house,  with  a  flat  roof,  made  of 
thick  sawed  planks,  stayed  with  oak 
beams,  upon  which  were  mounted  six 
5-pounder  cannon.  The  lower  part  of  this 
building  was  used  for  a  church,  where 
worshippers  were  seen  with  loaded  mus- 
kets.    See  Pilgrim  Fathers. 

Plymouth  Rock.  The  passengers  on 
the  Mayflower,  on  account  of  great  priva- 
tions and  exposure  in  their  winter  houses 
at  New  Plymouth,  sickened,  and  a  large 
number  of  them  died  before  the  warm 
spring  weather  of  1621  arrived.  They 
were  buried  near  the  rock  on  which 
the  great  body  of  the  Pilgrims  landed. 
Lest  the  Indians  who  might  come  there 
should  see  their  weakness  by  the  great 
mortality,  the  graves  were  seeded  over, 
and  the  rock  remained  the  enduring  monu- 
ment and  guide.  Thomas  Faunce,  who  died 
in  1746,  was  a  ruling  elder  in  the  first 
church  at  New  Plymouth,  and  knew  some 
of  the  Mayflower's  passengers,  who  showed 
him  the  rock  on  which  they  landed.  On 
hearing  that  it  was  about  to  be  covered 
by  the  erection  of  a  wharf,  the  venerable 
man  was  so  affected  that   he  wept.     His 


POCAHONTAS 


tears  probably  saved  that  rock  from  ob-  him,  one  on  each  side  of  the  "  throne." 
livion,  a  fragment  of  which  was  carefully  One  of  these  was  Matoa,  or  Pocahontas, 
preserved  at  New  Plymouth.  Before  the  who  subsequently  made  a  conspicuous  fig- 
Jievolution  the  sea  had  washed  up  sand    ure  in  Virginia  history.     When  Smith  was 

brought  before  Powhatan,  the  scene  that 
ensued  was  impressive.  There  were  at 
least  200  warriors  present.  The  emperor 
wore  a  mantle  of  raccoon  skins  and  a  head- 
dress of  eagle's  feathers.  The  room  was 
a  long  house,  or  arbor,  made  of  boughs. 
The  warriors  stood  in  rows  on  each  side 
in  their  gayest  attire,  and  back  of  them  as 
many  women,  with  their  necks  painted 
red,  their  heads  covered  with  the  white 
down  of  birds,  and  strings  of  white  beads 
falling  over  their  bosoms.  The  captive 
was  received  with  a  shout,  when  the 
"  Queen  of  Appomattox "  brought  water 
for  him  to  wash  his  hands,  and  another 
woman  a  bunch  of  feathers  to  dry  them 
with.  Then  he  was  feasted,  and  after- 
wards a  solemn  council  was  held,  by  which 
he  was  doomed  to  die.  Two  large  stones 
were  brought  before  the  emperor,  when 
Smith  was  dragged  to  them,  his  arms  were 
pinioned,  and  his  head  placed  upon  them. 
Pocahontas  petitioned  her  father  to  spare 
the  captive's  life,  but  in  vain.  Huge 
clubs  were  raised  by  strong  men  to  beat 
out    his    brains,    when    Pocahontas,    the 


PLYMOUTH    ROCK  AND   MONUMENT. 

and  buried  the  rock.  This  sand  was  re- 
moved, and  in  attempting  to  move  the  rock 
it  split  asunder.  The  upper  half,  or  shell, 
was  taken  to  the  middle  of  the  village. 
.In  1834  it  was  removed  from  the  town 
square  to  a  position  in  front  of  Pilgrim 
Hall,  where  it  was  enclosed  in  an  iron 
railing,  lost  all  its  historical  interest,  and 
was  reduced  to  a  vulgar  stone.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1880,  the  citizens  wisely  took  the 
fragment  back  and  reunited  it  to  the  other 
portion,  when  it  resumed  its  original  dig- 
nity and  significance. 

Pocahontas.     When  Capt.  John  Smith 
was  on  trial  before  Powhatan,  two  of  the    "  king's    dearest    daughter,"    who,    Smith 
emperor's   daughters  occupied   seats  near    says   in   his   narrative,   was   "  sixteen  or 

232 


POCAHONTAS. 


POCAHONTAS 


POCAHONTAS   SAVING   THE    LIFE   OF   JOHN   SMITH. 


eighteen  years "  old,  sprang  from  her 
father's  side,  clasped  the  prisoner's  head 
with  her  arms,  and  laid  her  own  head 
upon  his. 

Powhatan  yielded  to  his  daughter,  and 
consented  to  spare  Smith,  who  was  released 
and  sent  with  an  Indian  escort  to  James- 
town. The  emperor  and  his  people  prom- 
ised to  be  friends  of  the  English.  Two 
years  after  this  event  the  Indians  con- 
spired to  exterminate  the  white  people. 
Again  Pocahontas  was  an  angel  of  deliver- 
ance to  them.  She  heard  of  the  plan,  and  on 
a  dark  and  stormy  night  left  her  father's 
cabin,  sped  to  Jamestown,  informed  Smith 
of  the  danger,  and  was  back  to  her  couch 
before  the  dawn.  The  English  regarded 
the  gentle  Indian  princess  with  great  af- 
fection; and  yet,  when  Smith  had  left  the 
colony,  and  the  Indians,  offended,  would 
help  them  to  food  no  longer,  that  kind  girl 


was  ruthlessly  torn  from  her  kindred  by  a 
rude  sea  captain  and  kept  a  prisoner  sev- 
eral months  (see  Argall,  Samuel).  That 
wicked  act  proved  a  blessing  to  the  colony. 
While  she  was  a  captive  mutual  love  was 
engendered  between  Pocahontas  and  John 
Polfe,  a  young  Englishman  of  good  family 
and  education.  He  was  a  Christian,  she 
was  a  pagan.  "  Is  it  not  my  duty,"  he 
said,  "  to  lead  the  blind  into  light  ?"  He 
labored  for  her  enlightenment  and  conver- 
sion, and  succeeded.  The  young  princess 
was  baptized  at  a  font  "  hollowed  out  like 
a  canoe"  in  the  little  chapel  at  James- 
town, whose  columns  were  rough  pine- 
trees  ;  its  rude  pews  were  of  "  sweet- 
smelling  cedar,"  and  the  rough  com- 
munion-table and  pulpit  of  black  walnut. 
She  received  the  Christian  name  of 
Pebecca — the  first  Christian  convert  in 
Virginia. 


233 


POCAHONTAS— POE 


Not  long  afterwards— on  a  charming  The  "  Lady  Rebecca  "  received  great  at« 
day  in  April,  1613 — Pocahontas,  with  her  tentions  at  Court  and  from  all  below  it. 
father's  consent,  stood  before  the  chancel  She  was  entertained  by  the  Lord  Bishop 
of  the  chapel  with  Rolfe.  a  young  widower,  of  London,  and  at  Court  she  was  treated 
her  affianced,  and  was  married  to  him  by    with  the  respect  due  to  the  daughter  of  a 

monarch.  The  silly 
King  James  was 
angry  because  one 
of  his  subjects 
dared  marry  a  lady 
of  royal  blood! 
And  Captain 
Smith,  for  fear  of 
displeasing  the 
royal  bigot,  would 
not  allow  her  to 
call  him  "father," 
as  she  desired  to 
do,  and  her  loving 
heart  was  grieved. 
The  King,  in  his 
absurd  dreams  of 
the  divinity  of  the 
royal  prerogative, 
imagined  Rolfe  or 
his  descendants 
marriage  of  pocahontas.  might     claim     the 

crown  of  V  i  r- 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Whittaker,  the  rector.  All  ginia  on  behalf  of  his  royal  wife;  and 
1  he  people  of  Jamestown  were  pleased  spec-  he  asked  the  privy  council  if  the  hus- 
tators.  The  chapel  was  trimmed  with  ever-  band  had  not  committed  treason !  Poca- 
greens,  wild  flowers,  and  scarlet-berried  hontas  remained  in  England  about  a  year; 
holly.  Pocahontas  was  dressed  in  a  sim-  and  when,  with  her  husband  and  son. 
pie  tunic  of  white  muslin  from  the  looms  she  was  about  to  return  to  Virginia,  with 
of  Dacca.  On  her  head  was  a  long  and  her  father's  chief  councillor,  she  was  seized 
flowing  veil,  and  hanging  loosely  to  her  with  small-pox  at  Gravesend,  and  died 
feet  was  a  robe  of  rich  stuff  presented  by  in  June,  1617.  Her  remains  lie  within 
the  governor,  Sir  Thomas  Dale,  fancifully  the  parish  church-yard  at  Gravesend.  Her 
embroidered  by  herself  and  her  maidens,  son,  Thomas  Rolfe,  afterwards  became  a 
A  gaudy  fillet  encircled  her  head,  and  distinguished  man  in  Virginia,  and  his 
held  the  plumage  of  birds  of  gorgeous  descendants  are  found  among  the  most 
f-olors,  while  her  wrists  and  ankles  were  honorable  citizens  of  that  commonwealth, 
adorned  with  the  simple  jewelry  of  the  Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  poet;  born  in  Bos- 
native  workshops.  When  the  ceremony  ton,  Mass.,  Jan.  19,  1809.  His  father 
was  ended,  the  eucharist  was  administered,  was  a  lawyer,  and  his  mother  was  an 
with  bread  from  the  wheat-fields  around  English  actress.  They  both  died  early. 
Jamestown  and  wine  from  the  grapes  of  The  son  was  adopted  by  John  Allan,  a 
the  adjacent  forest.  Her  brothers  and  sis-  rich  merchant,  who  had  no  children  of 
ters  and  forest  maidens  were  present;  also  his  own,  and  Edgar  was  educated  partly 
the  governor  and  council,  and  five  English-  at  an  academy  in  Richmond,  Va.,  and  at 
women — all  that  were  in  the  colony — who  the  University  of  Virginia.  In  1829  he 
afterwards  returned  to  England.  Rolfe  published  a  volume  of  his  poems.  His 
and  his  spouse  "  lived  civilly  and  lovingly  foster-father  procured  him  a  cadetship 
together  "  until  Governor  Dale  returned  to  at  West  Point.  There  he  neglected  his 
England  (1616),  when  they  and  the  Eng-  studies,  drank  to  excess,  and  was  expelled, 
lishwomen   in  Virginia   accompanied   him.    After    that    young    Poe's    conduct    seems 

234 


POINSETT— POLITICAL    PARTIES    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 


to  have  been  so  obnoxious  to  Mr.  Allan 
that  he  was  left  unmentioned  in  that 
gentleman's  will.  Thrown  upon  his  own 
resources,  young  Poe  turned  to  literature 
as  a  means  for  earning  a  livelihood,  and 
was  successful  as  a  writer  of  both  prose 
and  poetry;  but  his  dissipated  habits 
kept  him  poor.  He  married  a  charming 
young  girl,  and  removed  to  New  York 
in  1837.  His  wife  died  in  1848.  Poe's 
most  remarkable  literary  production,  The 
Raven,  was  published  in  1845.  At  Balti- 
more in  October,  1849,  he  was  discover- 
ed in  the  streets  insensible.  He  was  taken 
to  Baltimore,  where  he  died  in  a  hospi- 
tal, Oct.  7,  1849. 

Poinsett,  Joel  Roberts,  legislator; 
born  in  Charleston,  S.  C,  March  2,  1779; 
educated  at  Timothy  Dwight's  school, 
Greenfield,  Conn.,  at  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity, and  the  Woolwich  Academy,  Eng- 
land. In  1809  he  was  sent  to  the  South 
American  states  by  the  President  for  the 
purpose  of  inquiring  into  the  prospects 
of  the  Spanish  colonies  winning  their  in- 
dependence. He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
in  1821-25,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  ap- 
pointed United  States  minister  to  Mexi- 
co. President  Van  Buren  appointed  him 
Secretary  of  War  in  1837.  He  published 
his  notes  on  Mexico,  made  in  1822,  with 
a  historical  sketch  of  the  revolution. 
He  died  in  Statesburg,  S.  C,  Dec.  12, 
1851. 

Point  Pleasant,  Battle  at.  Col.  An- 
drew Lewis  led  the  left  wing  of  the  Vir- 
ginia forces  in  Dunmore's  War  in  the 
summer  and  autumn  of  1774.  He  had 
about  1,200  men,  and,  crossing  the  moun- 
tain-ranges, struck  the  Great  Kanawha 
and  followed  it  to  the  Ohio,  and  there 
encamped,  Oct.  6.  Expecting  Dunmore 
with  the  right  wing,  he  did  not  cast  up 
intrenchments,  and  in  this  exposed  situ- 
ation was  attacked  (Oct.  10)  by  1,000 
chosen  warriors  of  the  Western  Confed- 
eracy, led  by  the  giant  chief  Cornstalk, 
who  came  from  Pickaway  Plains,  and 
Logan,  the  Mingo  chief.  Fire  was  kept  up 
until  sunset;  and  during  the  night  the 
Indians  retreated,  having  lost,  in  killed 
and  wounded,  about  150  men.  The  Vir- 
ginians lost  about  one-half  their  commis- 
sioned officers.  Their  entire  loss  was 
about  seventy  killed  and  a  large  number 
wounded. 

23 


Pokanoket  Indians.  See  Wampanoag 
Indians. 

Poland,  Luke  Potter,  jurist;  born  in 
Westford,  Vt.,  Nov.  1,  1815;  acquired  an 
academic  education;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1836;  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  Vermont  1848-1865,  becoming  chief - 
justice  in  1860;  and  resigned  in  1865 
to  become  United  States  Senator.  Ik- 
was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1867-75  and 
in  1883-85,  and  chairman  of  the  Ku-Klux 
Klan  and  Credit  Mobilier  Investigating 
Committees.  He  died  in  Waterville,  Vt., 
July  2,  1887. 

Political  Parties  in  the  United  States. 
Before  the  Revolution  the  two  political 
parties  in  America  were  the  Whigs  and 
Tories.  The  latter  favored  royalty,  and 
the  former,  including  Sons  of  Liberty. 
Liberty  Men,  and  Patriots,  advocated  in- 
dependence. At  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tion the  Whig  party  divided  into  Particu- 
larists,  favoring  State  sovereignty  and 
advocating  confederation ;  and  Strong  Gov- 
ernment, favoring  a  constitution.  In  1787 
the  Particularists  became  Anti-federalists 
and  the  Strong  Government  party  Federal- 
ists. Since  this,  the  history  of  the  vari- 
ous political  parties  in  the  United  States 
has  been  as  follows: 

PRINCIPAL  PARTIES, 

Federal,  1787-1816.— Formed  from  the 
Strong  Government  or  Constitutional 
party.  Elected  two  Presidents:  Washing- 
ton, two  terms,  and  Adams,  one  term. 
Advocated  a  tariff;  internal  revenue: 
funding  the  public  debt;  a  United  States 
bank;  a  militia;  assumption  of  State 
debt  by  the  government;  favored  England 
as  against  France;  opposed  a  war  with 
England  and  a  protective  tariff.  Wash- 
ington, John  Adams,  Hamilton,  Madison, 
and  Jay  were  among  its  principal  sup- 
porters. 

Democratic  -  Republican,  1793  -  1828. — 
Formed  from  the  Anti-federal  (1787-93), 
the  Republican  or  Jeffersonian  party 
(1791-93),  and  Democrats  or  sympathiz- 
ers with  the  French  Revolutionists  (1791- 
93).  Elected  three  Presidents:  Jefferson, 
two  terms;  Madison,  two  terms;  Monroe, 
two  terms.  Favored  State  rights;  en- 
larged freedom;  France  as  against  Eng- 
land; war  with  England;  internal  im- 
provement; purchase  of  Louisiana;  pur- 
5 


POLITICAL    PARTIES    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 


chase  of  Florida;  Missouri  Compromise, 
1820;  Monroe  doctrine;  free-trade  in 
1800  and  a  protective  tariff  in  1828. 

Democratic,  1828. — The  Democratic-Re- 
publican party  divided  into  four  parts  in 
the  Presidential  campaign  of  1824  and 
never  reappeared  again  in  a  national  con- 
test. The  Democratic  (and  Whig)  party 
was  constructed  out  of  its  ruins.  Has 
elected  six  Presidents:  Jackson,  two 
terms;  Van  Buren,  Polk,  Pierce,  Buchan- 
an, one  term;  Cleveland,  two  terms.  Fa- 
vored internal  improvements;  State 
banks;  removal  of  deposits;  sub-treasury; 
State  rights;  free-trade;  tariff  for  revenue 
only;  annexation  of  Texas;  Mexican  War; 
compromise  of  1850;  Monroe  doctrine; 
Died  Scott  decision;  fugitive  slave  law; 
acquisition  of  Cuba;  frugal  public  ex- 
pense; free  coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio 
of  16  to  1.  Opposed  agitation  of  the 
slavery  question  in  any  form  or  place;  co- 
ercion of  the  seceded  States;  the  amelio- 
ration of  the  condition  of  the  freed  ne- 
groes; freedmen's  bureau;  Chinese  immi- 
gration; strong  government;  opposes  in 
general  the  policy  of  the  other  party  in 
power. 

Whig,  1834-54. — Formed  from  a  union 
of  the  National  Republicans  and  disrupted 
Democratic  -  Republicans.  Elected  two 
Presidents:  Harrison  and  Taylor.  Fa- 
vored non-extension  of  slavery;  slavery 
agitation — i.  e.,  right  of  petition  and  free 
circulation  of  anti-slavery  documents;  a 
United  States  bank;  protective  tariff;  vig- 
orous internal  improvements;  compromise 
of  1850.  Opposed  the. Seminole  War;  an- 
nexation of  Texas;  Mexican  War;  State 
rights;  Democratic  policy  towards  sla- 
very. Principal  leaders  of  this  party, 
Webster  and  Clay. 

Republican,  1854. — Formed  from  other 
parties,  principally  from  the  Whig  party, 
on  the  issues  of  the  slavery  question.  Has 
elected  six  Presidents :  Lincoln,  .  two 
terms;  Grant,  two  terms;  Hayes,  Gar- 
field, and  Harrison,  one  term;  McKinley, 
two  terms.  Favored  the  suppression  of 
slavery;  suppression  of  the  rebellion;  all 
constitutional  means  to  accomplish  it, 
financial  and  otherwise;  emancipation  of 
slaves;  prohibition  of  slavery  throughout 
the  United  States;  full  citizenship  to  the 
emancipated  slaves;  Monroe  doctrine;  full 
payment  of  the  national  debt;   protective 


tariff;  free  ballot;  generous  pension  legis= 
lation;  decided  increase  of  the  navy  and 
coast  defence.  Opposed  the  free  coinage 
of  silver.  This  party,  while  showing 
many  able  men,  has  never  had  a 
leader.  It  has  maintained  its  na- 
tional position  through  the  principles  it 
has  advocated.  Remark:  Both  the  Demo- 
cratic and  Republican,  as  the  chief  parties, 
recognize  and  assume  to  legislate  on  all 
questions  of  national  importance — viz.s 
civil-service  reform ;  woman's  suffrage ; 
free  ballot;  justice  to  the  laboring  classes; 
private  interests  as  against  monopolies; 
the  general  finances  of  the  country;  tem- 
perance, etc. 

MINOR  PARTIES. 

A nti- federalist. — A  continuation  of  the 
Particularists.  See  Democratic  -  Republi- 
can on  page  235. 

Peace  Party,  1812-15. — Composed  of 
Democratic-Republicans  and  Federalists, 
mostly  in  New  England.  Opposed  the 
War  of  1812.    See  Hartford  Convention. 

Clintonians,  1812. — An  offshoot  of  the 
Democratic-Republican  party  who  opposed 
long  terms  of  office,  caucus  nominations,  a 
Virginia  President,  and  an  official  regency. 
United  with  the  Federalists.  Nominated  De 
Witt  Clinton,  of  New  York,  for  President. 

People's  Party,  1824. — An  offshoot  of 
the  Democratic-Republicans  in  New  York, 
who  favored  the  choosing  of  electors  by  the 
people  instead  of  State  legislatures.  Sup- 
ported William  H.  Crawford  for  Presi- 
dent. 

Coalition,  1825. — So  called  from  the 
union  of  the  supporters  of  Clay  with  those 
of  John  Quincy  Adams  in  the  House,  thus 
giving  the  Presidency  to  Adams. 

Anti-masonic,  1827-34.  —  Consisted  of 
those  who  believed  the  members  of  the 
Masonic  fraternity  held  their  civil  obliga- 
tions subordinate  to  their  fraternal,  hence 
unworthy  to  hold  office.  See  Morgan, 
William. 

National  -  Republican,  1828  -  34.— The 
liioad-construction  wing  of  the  Demo- 
cratic-Republican party.  For  internal  im- 
provements, protection,  and  a  United 
States  bank;  for  dividing  proceeds  of  land 
sales  among  States.  Opposed  to  the  spoils 
system.  United  to  form  the  Whig  party, 
1834.  Supported  John  Quincy  Adams, 
1S28,  and  Henry  Clay,  1832. 


236 


POLITICAL   PABTIES  IN  THE    UNITED   STATES 


V unification,  1831-33.— A  South  Caro- 
lina party  organized  by  Calhoun.  See 
South  Carolina. 

Liberal  Party,  1840-48. — Founded  at  a 
national  convention  of  abolitionists  at 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  deriving  additional  strength 
from  Whigs  and  Democrats.  For  the  im- 
mediate abolition  of  slavery,  and  equal 
rights.  Against  the  fugitive-slave  clause 
of  the  Constitution.  Nominated  James 
G.  Birney  for  President,  1839,  and  again 
in  1843.  Withdrew  their  candidates  and 
joined  the  Free-soil  party  in  1848. 

Free-soil  Party,  1848-54. — Formed  from 
the  Liberty  party,  Democrats,  and  Whigs. 
Chief  cause  of  its  appearance,  opposition 
1o  slavery.  Merged  into  the  Republican 
party.  Nominated  Martin  Van  Buren 
for  President,  1848,  and  John  P.  Hale, 
1852. 

American,  1852-60. — Generally  known 
as  the  "  Know-nothing  party."  Formed 
from  members  of  other  parties  dissatisfied 
with  the  influx  and  power  of  the  foreign 
element.  Favored  more  stringent  natural- 
isation laws;  reserved  rights  of  States. 
Opposed  foreign  immigration ;  suffrage 
and  office-holding  by  foreign-born  citizens ; 
efforts  to  reject  the  Bible  from  the  public 
schools,  etc.  Nominated  Millard  Fillmore 
for  President  in  1856.  Merged  into  the 
Constitutional  Union  party  in  1860. 
See  Know-nothing  Party. 

Douglas  Democrats,  1860. — Northern 
Democrats,  supporters  of  Stephen  A. 
Douglas  in  the  disruption  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  in  1860. 

Breckinridge  Democrats,  1860. — South- 
ern Democrats,  supporters  of  Breckinridge 
in  1860. 

Constitutional  Union  Party,  1860. — 
Democrats,  for  the  Union,  the  Constitu- 
tion, and  the  enforcement  of  law;  sup- 
porters of  Bell  and  Everett. 

IAberal  Republicans,  1872. — Formed  by 
dissatisfied  Republicans,  formerly  mostly 
war  Democrats.  Favored  greater  leniency 
towards  the  Confederates.  Nominated 
Horace  Greeley  for  President,  1S72. 

"  Straight-out  "  Democrats,  1872. — The 
"  Tap-root  "  Democrats,  displeased  by  the 
nomination  of  Greeley  by  the  Regular 
Democrats,  nominated  Charles  O'Conor  for 
President;  declined,  but  received  about 
30.000  popular  votes. 

Temperance,  1872. — A  national  combina- 


tion of  local  temperance  organizations,  be- 
came 

Prohibition,  1876. — For  legal  prohibi- 
tion; female  suffrage;  direct  Presidential 
vote;  currency  convertible  into  coin. 
Nominated  James  Black  from  Pennsyl- 
vania for  President,  1872;  Green  Clay 
Smith,  1876;  Neal  Dow,  1880;  John  P. 
St.  John,  1884;  C.  B.  Fisk,  1888;  John 
Bidwell,  1892;  Joshua  Levering,  1890; 
John  G.  Woolley,  1900. 

Greenback,  1874;  became  National 
Greenback,  1878 ;  became  Union  Labor, 
1887. — Unlimited  coinage  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver; substitution  of  greenbacks  for  na- 
tional bank  notes;  suffrage  without  re- 
gard to  sex;  legislation  in  the  interest  of 
the  laboring  classes,  etc.  Nominated 
Peter  Cooper  for  President,  1876;  James 
B.  Weaver,  1880;  Benjamin  F.  Butler, 
1884;  Alson  J.  Streeter,  1888.  These  vari- 
ous elements,  uniting  with  the  "  Farmers' 
Alliance,"  form  the 

People's  or  Populists'  Party,  1891.- — A 
meeting  was  held  at  St.  Louis,  December. 

1889,  of  the  "  Farmers  and  Laborers' 
Union  of  America,"  for  the  purpose  of 
consolidating  the  various  bodies  of  organ- 
ized farmers  in  the  United  States,  which 
had  at  different  times  and  places  formed 
since  1867,  and  known  under  the  gen- 
eral term  of  "  The  Granger  Movement." 
This  meeting  was  a  success,  and  the  con- 
solidated body  was  called  the  "  Farmers' 
Alliance  and  Industrial  Union."     Dec.  2, 

1890,  a  national  convention  was  held  at 
Ocala,  Fla. ;  thirty-five  States  and  Terri- 
tories were  represented  by  163  delegates: 
at  this  convention  independent  political 
action  was  decided  upon,  and  a  platform 
adopted  embracing  the  following  prin- 
ciples: (1)  The  abolition  of  the  national 
banks,  establishment  of  sub-treasuries  to 
loan  money  to  the  people  at  2  per  cent., 
increase  of  circulation  to  $50  per  capita : 
(2)  laws  to  suppress  gambling  in  agricult- 
ural products;  (3)  unlimited  coinage  of 
silver;  (4)  laws  prohibiting  alien  owner- 
ship of  land,  and  to  permit  the  ownership 
of  land  in  actual  use  only;  (5)  restricting 
tariff;  (6)  government  to  control  rail- 
roads, telegraphs,  etc.;  (7)  direct  vote  of 
the  people  for  President,  Vice-President, 
and  United  States  Senators.  Second  con- 
vention held  at  Cincinnati,  May  19,  1891  ; 
thirty  States  and  Territories  represented 


237 


PdLK 


With  1,418  delegates;  at  this  convention 
the  platform  of  Ocala,  Fla.,  1890,  was 
heartily  endorsed  and  the  party  given  the 
name  of  "  People's  party."  Third  national 
meeting  at  St.  Louis,  Feb.  22,  1892.  Na- 
tional convention  for  the  nominating  of 
President  and  A^ice-President  held  at 
Omaha,  July  4,  1892;  James  B.  Weaver, 
of  Iowa,  nominated  for  President,  and 
James  G.  Field,  of  Virginia,  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent. United  with  the  Democrats  in  1896 
and  1900  in  nominating  William  J.  Bryan. 

Socialist  Labor. — First  national  con- 
vention held  in  New  York  City,  Aug.  28, 
1892,  and  nominated  Simon  Wing,  of 
Massachusetts  for  President,  and  Charles 
H.  Matchett,  of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  for  Vice- 
President.  Nominated  Charles  H.  Match- 
ett in  1896.    Joseph  F.  Malloney  in  1900. 

National  Democrats,  1896. — Formed  by 
Democrats  who  opposed  free  silver.  Nomi- 
nated John  N.  Palmer,  of  Illinois,  for 
President;  Simon  B.  Buckner,  of  Ken- 
tucky, for  Vice-President. 

Silver  Republican. — United  with  the 
Democratic  party  in  nominating  William 
J.  Bryan  for  President. 

National  Party,  1896. — For  prohibition 
and  free  silver.  Nominated  Charles  E. 
Bentley,  of  Nebraska,  for  President ;  James 
H.  Southgate,  of  North  Carolina,  for  Vice- 
President.  Name  was  changed  to  Liberty 
party  in  1897. 

Middle-of-the-road,  or  Anti-fusion  Peo- 
ple's Party,  in  1900  nominated  Wharton 
Barker,  of  Pennsylvania,  for  President. 

Union  Reform  Party,  nominated  Seth 
II.  Ellis,  of  Ohio,  for  President  in  1900. 

Social  Democratic,  nominated  Eugene 
V.  Debs  for  President  in  1900. 


United  Christian  Party,  in  1900  nomi* 
nated  J.  F.  R.  Leonard,  of  Iowa,  for  Presi- 
dent. 

LOCAL  PARTIES   AND   POLITICAL   NAMES. 

Abolitionists. — Abolitionists. 

Anti-Ren  ters. — Anti-Rentism. 

Anti-Nebraska. — Opposers  of  the  Kan- 
sas-Nebraska bill,  1854. 

Barnburners. — Barnburners. 

Bucktails.  —  Democratic  followers  of 
Madison  in  1816. 

Doughfaces. — Doughfaces. 

Half-breeds. — A  term  of  contempt  be- 
stowed by  the  Stalwarts  upon  those  who 
supported  the  administration  of  President 
Hayes  and  opposed  the  nomination  of 
Grant  for  a  third  term,  etc.    Mugwumps. 

Hunkers. — Barnburners. 

Independent  Republicans. — Started  in 
1879  in  opposition  to  Senator  Conkling's 
leadership  of  the  party.     Mugwumps. 

Ku-klux  Elan. — Ku-klux  Klan. 

Loco-foco. — Loco-foco. 

Readjusters,  1878.  —  A  division  of  the 
Democratic  party  in  Virginia  advocating 
the  funding  of  the  State  debt  at  3  per 
cent. ;  under  the  leadership  of  General 
Mahone. 

Silver  Grays. — Silver  Grays. 

Stahcarts. — A  branch  of  the  Republican 
party,  followers  of  Conkling,  Cameron,  and 
Logan,  opposed  to  the  reconciling  course 
of  President  Hayes  towards  the  South. 
Favored  the  nomination  of  Grant  for  a 
third  term.     Opposers  of  Blaine,  etc. 

Tammany. — Tammany. 

Woman's  Rights.  Belva  Lockwood  con- 
stituted herself  a  candidate  for  President 
in  1876. 


POLK,    JAMES    KNOX 

Polk,  James  Knox,  eleventh  President  tion  of  John  Quincy  Adams.  He  was 
of  the  United  States;  from  1845  to  1849;  speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
Democrat;  born  in  Mecklenburg  county,  from  1835  to  1837,  and  in  1839,  having 
N.  C,  Nov.  2,  1795:  His  ancestral  name  served  fourteen  years  in  Congress,  he  de- 
was  Pollock,  and  he  was  of  Scotch-Irish  clined  a  re-election.  He  was  a  candidate 
descent.  He  graduated  at  the  Uni-  for  the  Vice-Presidency  in  1840,  but  was 
versity  of  North  Carolina  in  1818;  ad-  defeated.  In  1844  the  Democratic  Nation- 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1820.  Three  years  al  Convention  at  Baltimore  nominated 
afterwards  he  was  a  member  of  the  legis-  him  for  the  Presidency,  chiefly  because 
lature  of  Tennessee  and  was  sent  a  dele-  he  was  strongly  in  favor  of  the  annexa- 
gate  to  Congress  in  1825,  where  he  was  tion  of  Texas,  a  favorite  measure  of  the 
a  conspicuous  opponent  of  the  administra-  Southern  politicians,  and  he  was  elected, 

238 


POLK,    JAMES    KNOX 


his  opponents  being  Henry  Clay  and 
James  G.  Birney  (see  Cabinet,  Presi- 
ijent's).  During  his  administration,  the 
most  important  event  was  a  war  with 
xUexico  from  1846  to  1848.  The  other 
chief  events  of  his  administration  were 
the  establishment  of  an  independent  treas- 
ury system,  the  enactment  of  a  low  tariff 
system,  and  the  creation  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior.  Three  months  after 
lie  retired  from  office,  he  was  seized  with 
illness  and  died  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  June 
15,  1849. 

Inaugural  Address. — On  March  4,  1845, 
President  Polk  delivered  the  following 
inaugural  address: 


Fellow  -  citizens,  —  Without  solicitation 
on  my  part,  I  have  been  chosen  by  the 
free  and  voluntary  suffrages  of  my  coun- 
trymen to  the  most  honorable  and  most 
responsible  office  on  earth.  I  am  deeply 
impressed  with  gratitude  for  the  con- 
fidence reposed  in  me.  Honored  with  this 
distinguished  consideration  at  an  earlier 
period  of  life  than  any  of  my  predecessors, 
I  cannot  disguise  the  diffidence  with  which 
I  am  about  to  enter  on  the  discharge  of 
my  official  duties. 

If  the  more  aged  and  experienced  men 
who  have  filled  the  office  of  President  of 
the  United  States  even  in  the  infancy  of 
the  republic  distrusted  their  ability  to  dis- 
charge the  duties  of  that  exalted  station, 
what  ought  not  to  be  the  apprehensions  of 
one  so  much  younger  and  less  endowed 
now  that  our  domain  extends  from  ocean 
to  ocean,  that  our  people  have  so  greatly 
increased  in  numbers,  and  at  a  time  when 
so  great  diversity  of  opinion  prevails  in 
regard  to  the  principles  and  policy  which 
should  characterize  the  administration  of 
our  government?  Well  may  the  boldest 
fear  and  the  wisest  tremble  when  incur- 
ring responsibilities  on  which  may  depend 
our  country's  peace  and  prosperity,  and  in 
some  degree  the  hopes  and  happiness  of 
the  v/ho)e  human  family. 

In  assuming  responsibilities  so  vast  I 
fervently  invoke  the  aid  of  that  Almighty 
Puler  of  the  Universe  in  whose  hands  are 
the  destinies  of  nations  and  of  men  to 
guard  this  heaven-favored  land  against 
the  mischiefs  which  without  His  guidance 
might  arise  from  an  unwise  public  policy. 
With  a  firm  reliance  upon  the  wisdom  of 


Omnipotence  to  sustain  and  direct  me  in 
the  path  which  I  am  appointed  to  pursue, 
I  stand  in  the  presence  of  this  assembled 
multitude  of  my  countrymen  to  take  upon 
myself  the  solemn  obligation  "  to  the  best  of 
my  ability  to  preserve,  protect,  and  defend 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

A  concise  enumeration  of  the  principles 
which  will  guide  me  in  the  administrative 
policy  of  the  government  is  not  only  in 
accordance  with  the  examples  set  me  by 
all  my  predecessors,  but  is  eminently  be- 
fitting the  occasion. 

The  Constitution  itself,  plainly  written 
as  it  is,  the  safeguard  of  our  federative 
compact,  the  offspring  of  concession  and 
compromise,  binding  together  in  the  bonds 
of  peace  and  union  this  great  and  increas- 
ing family  of  free  and  independent  States, 
will  be  the  chart  by  which  I  shall  be  di- 
rected. 

It  will  be  my  first  care  to  administer 
the  government  in  the  true  spirit  of  that 
instrument,  and  to  assume  no  powers  not 
expressly  granted  or  clearly  implied  in 
its  terms. 

The  government  of  the  United  States 
is  one  of  delegated  and  limited  powers, 
and  it  is  by  a  strict  adherence  to  the  clear- 
ly granted  powers  and  by  abstaining  from 
the  exercise  of  doubtful  or  unauthorized 
implied  powers  that  we  have  the  only 
sure  guarantee  against  the  recurrence  of 
those  unfortunate  collisions  between  the 
federal  and  State  authorities  which  have 
occasionally  so  much  disturbed  the  har- 
mony of  our  system  and  even  threatened 
the  perpetuity  of  our  glorious  Union. 

"  To  the  States,  respectively,  or  to  the 
people "  have  been  reserved  "  the  powers 
not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the 
Constitution  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the 
States."  Each  State  is  a  complete  sover- 
eignty within  the  sphere  of  its  reserved 
powers.  The  government  of  the  Union,  act- 
ing within  the  sphere  of  its  delegated  au- 
thority, is  also  a  complete  sovereignty, 
while  the  general  government  should  ab- 
stain from  the  exercise  of  authority  not 
clearly  delegated  to  it,  the  States  should 
be  equally  careful  that  in  the  maintenance 
of  their  rights  they  do  not  overstep  the 
limits  of  powers  reserved  to  them.  One 
of  the  rnogt  distinguished  of  my  predeces- 
sors attached  deserved  importance  to  "  the 
support  of  the  State  governments   in  all 


239 


POLK,    JAMES   KNOX 


their  rights,  as  the  most  competent  ad- 
ministration for  our  domestic  concerns 
and  the  surest  bulwark  against  anti-re- 
publican tendencies,"  and  to  the  "  preser- 
vation of  the  general  government  in  its 
whole  constitutional  vigor  as  the  sheet- 
anchor  of  our  peace  at  home  and  safety 
abroad." 

To  the  government  of  the  United  States 
has  been  intrusted  the  exclusive  manage- 
ment of  our  foreign  affairs.  Beyond  that 
it  wields  a  few  general  enumerative  powers. 
It  does  not  force  reform  on  the  States.  .  It 
leaves  individuals,  over  whom  it  casts  its 
protecting  influence,  entirely  free  to  im- 
prove their  own  condition  by  the  legiti- 
mate exercise  of  all  their  mental  and 
physical  powers.  It  is  a  common  protec- 
tor of  each  and  all  the  States;  of  every 
man  who  lives  upon  our  soil,  whether  of 
native  or  foreign  birth;  of  every  religious 
sect,  in  their  worship  of  the  Almighty  ac- 
cording to  the  dictates  of  their  own  eon- 
science;  of  every  shade  of  opinion,  and 
the  most  free  inquire;  of  every  art,  trade, 
and  occupation  consistent  with  the  laws  of 
the  States.  And  we  rejoice  in  the  general 
happiness,  prosperity,  and  advancement 
of  our  country,  which  have  been  the  off- 
spring of  freedom,  and  not  of  power. 

This  most  admirable  and  wisest  system 
of  well-regulated  self-government  among 
men  ever  devised  by  human  minds  has 
been  tested  by  its  successful  operation  for 
more  than  half  a  century,  and  if  preserved 
from  the  usurpations  of  the  federal  gov- 
ernment on  the  one  hand  and  the  exercise 
by  the  States  of  powers  not  reserved  to 
them  on  the  other,  will,  I  fervently  hope 
and  believe,  endure  for  ages  to  come  and 
dispense  the  blessings  of  civil  and  relig- 
ious liberty  to  distant  generations.  To 
effect  objects  so  dear  to  every  patriot  I 
shall  devote  myself  with  anxious  solici- 
tude. It  will  be  my  desire  to  guard 
against  that  most  fruitful  source  of  dan- 
ger to  the  harmonious  action  of  our  sys- 
tem which  consists  in  substituting  the 
mere  discretion  and  caprice  of  the  ex- 
ecutive or  of  majorities  in  the  legislative 
department  of  the  government  for  powers 
which  have  been  withheld  from  the  federal 
government  by  the  Constitution.  By  the 
theory  of  our  government  majorities  rule, 
but  this  right  is  not  an  arbitrary  or  un- 
limited one.     It  is  a  riorht  to  be  exercised 


in  subordination  to  the  Constitution,  and 
in  conformity  to  it.  One  great  object  of 
the  Constitution  was  to  restrain  majorities 
from  oppressing  minorities  or  encroach- 
ing upon  their  just  rights.  Minorities 
have  a  right  to  appeal  to  the  Constitution 
as  a  shield  against  such  oppression. 

That  the  blessings  of  liberty  which  our 
Constitution  secures  may  be  enjoyed  alike 
by  minorities  and  majorities,  the  ex- 
ecutive has  been  wisely  invested  with  a 
qualified  veto  upon  the  acts  of  the  legis- 
lature. It  is  a  negative  power,  and  is  con- 
servative in  its  character.  It  arrests  for 
the  time  hasty,  inconsiderate,  or  uncon- 
stitutional legislation,  invites  reconsider- 
ation, and  transfers  questions  at  issue  be- 
tween the  legislative  and  executive  depart- 
ments to  the  tribunal  of  the  people.  Like 
all  other  powers,  it  is  subject  tp  be  abused. 
When  judiciously  and  properly  exercised, 
the  Constitution  itself  may  be  saved  from 
infraction,  and  the  rights  of  all  preserved 
and  protected. 

The  inestimable  value  of  our  federal 
Union  is  felt  anu  acknowledged  by  all.  By 
this  system  of  united  and  confederated 
States  our  people  are  permitted  collective- 
ly and  individually  to  seek  their  own  hap- 
piness in  their  own  way,  and  the  con- 
sequences have  been  most  auspicious. 
Since  the  Union  was  formed  the  number 
of  the  States  has  increased  from  thirteen 
to  twenty-eight;  two  of  these  have  taken 
their  positions  as  members  of  the  confed- 
eracy within  the  last  week.  Our  popu- 
lation has  increased  from  3,000.000  to  20,- 
000,000.  New  communities  and  States  are 
seeking  protection  under  its  aegis,  and  mul- 
titudes from  the  Old  World  are  flocking 
to  our  shores  to  participate  in  its  bless- 
ings. Beneath  its  benign  sway  peace  and 
prosperity  prevail.  Freed  from  the  bur- 
dens and  miseries  of  war,  our  trade  and 
intercourse  have  extended  throughout  the 
world.  Mind,  no  longer  tasked  in  devising 
means  to  accomplish  or  resist  schemes  of 
ambition,  usurpation,  or  conquest,  is  de- 
voting itself  to  man's  true  interests  in  de- 
veloping his  faculties  and  powers,  and  the 
capacity  of  nature  to  minister  to  his  en- 
joyments. Genius  is  free  to  announce  its 
inventions  and  discoveries,  and  the  hand  is 
free  to  accomplish  whatever  the  head  con- 
ceives not  incompatible  with  the  rights  of 
a  fellow-beins:.    All  distinctions  of  birth  or 


240 


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20LK,    JAMES   KNOX 

rank  have  been  abolished.  All  citizens,  It  is  a  source  of  deep  regret  that  in 
whether  native  or  adopted,  are  placed  upon  some  sections  of  our  country  misguided 
terms  of  precise  equality;  all  are  entitled  persons  have  occasionally  indulged  in 
to  equal  rights  and  equal  protection.  No  schemes  and  agitations  whose  object  is  the 
union  exists  between  Church  and  State,  destruction  of  domestic  institutions  exist- 
and  perfect  freedom  of  opinion  is  guaran-  ing  in  other  sections — institutions  which 
teed  to  all  sects  and  creeds.  existed  at  the  adoption  of   the   Constitu- 

These  are  some  of  the  blessings  secured  tion  and  were  recognized  and  protected 
to  our  happy  land  by  our  federal  union,  by  it.  All  must  see  that  if  it  were  pos- 
To  perpetuate  them  it  is  our  sacred  duty  sible  for  them  to  be  successful  in  attaining 
to  preserve  it.  Who  shall  assign  limits  to  their  object  the  dissolution  of  the  Union 
the  achievements  of  free  minds  and  free  and  the  consequent  destruction  of  our 
hands  under  the  protection  of  this  glorious  happy  form  of  government  must  speedily 
Union?    No  treason  to  mankind  since  the    follow. 

organization  of  society  would  be  equal  I  am  happy  to  believe  that  at  every 
in  atrocity  to  that  of  him  who  would  period  of  our  existence  as  a  nation  there 
lift  his  hand  to  destroy  it.  He  would  has  existed,  and  continues  to  exist,  among 
overthrow  the  noblest  structure  of  human  the  great  mass  of  our  people  a  devotion 
wisdom,  which  protects  himself  and  his  to  the  Union  of  the  States  which  will 
fellow-man.  He  would  stop  the  progress  shield  and  protect  it  against  the  moral 
of  free  government  and  involve  his  coun-  treason  of  any  who  would  seriously  con- 
try  either  in  anarchy  or  despotism.  He  template  its  destruction.  To  secure  a 
would  extinguish  the  fire  of  liberty,  which  continuance  of  that  devotion  the  corn- 
warms  and  animates  the  hearts  of  happy  promises  of  the  Constitution  must  not 
millions  and  invites  all  the  nations  of  the  only  be  preserved,  but  sectional  jealousies 
earth  to  imitate  our  example.  If  he  say  and  heart-burnings  must  be  discounte- 
that  error  and  wrong  are  committed  in  nanced,  and  all  should  remember  that 
the  administration  of  the  government,  let  they  are  members  of  the  same  political 
him  remember  that  nothing  human  can  be  family,  having  a  common  destiny.  To 
perfect,  and  that  under  no  other  system  increase  the  attachment  of  our  people  to 
of  government  revealed  by  heaven  or  de-  the  Union,  our  laws  should  be  just.  Any 
vised  by  man  has  reason  been  allowed  so  policy  which  shall  tend  to  favor  monopo- 
free  and  broad  a  scope  to  combat  error,  lies  or  the  peculiar  interests  of  sections  or 
Has  the  sword  of  the  despots  proved  to  be  classes  must  operate  to  the  prejudices  of 
a  safer  or  surer  instrument  of  reform  in  the  interests  of  their  fellow-citizens,  and 
government  than  enlightened  reason?  should  be  avoided.  If  the  compromises  of 
Does  he  expect  to  find  among  the  ruins  the  Constitution  be  preserved,  if  sectional 
of  this  Union  a  happier  abode  for  our  jealousies  and  heart-burnings  be  discoun- 
swarming  millions  than  they  now  have  tenanced,  if  our  laws  be  just  and  the 
under  it?  Every  lover  of  his  country  government  be  practically  administered 
must  shudder  at  the  thought  of  the  pos-  strictly  within  the  limits  of  power  pre- 
sibility  of  its  dissolution,  and  will  be  scribed  to  it,  we  may  discard  all  appre- 
ready  to  adopt  the  patriotic  sentiment,  hensions  for  the  safety  of  the  Union. 
"Our  Federal  Union — it  must  be  pre-  With  these  views  of  the  nature,  char- 
served."  To  preserve  it  the  compromises  acter,  and  objects  of  the  government,  and 
which  alone  enabled  our  fathers  to  form  the  value  of  the  Union,  I  shall  steadily  op- 
a  common  constitution  for  the  government  pose  the  creation  of  those  institutions  and 
and  protection  of  so  many  States  and  dis-  systems  which  in  their  nature  tend  to  per- 
tinct  communities,  of  such  diversified  vert  it  from  its  legitimate  purposes  and 
habits,  interests,  and  domestic  institutions,  make  it  the  instrument  of  sections,  classes, 
must  be  sacredly  and  religiously  observed,  and  individuals.  We  need  no  national 
Any  attempt  to  disturb  or  destroy  these  banks  or  other  extraneous  institutions 
compromises,  being  terms  of  the  compact  planted  around  the  government  to  control 
of  union,  can  lead  to  none  other  than  or  strengthen  it  in  opposition  to  the  will 
the  most  ruinous  and  disastrous  con-  of  its  authors.  Experience  has  taught  us 
sequences.  how  unnecessary  they  are  as  auxiliaries  ot 

vii.— q  241 


POLK,    JAMES    KNOX 

the  public  authorities — how  impotent  for  One  of  the  difficulties  which  we  have  had 

good  and  how  powerful  for  mischief.  to  encounter  in  the  practical  administra- 

Ours  was  intended  to  be  a  plain  and  tion  of  the  government  consists  in  the  ad- 
frugal  government,  and  I  shall  regard  it  justment  of  our  revenue  laws,  and  the  levy 
to  be  my  duty  to  recommend  to  Congress  of  the  taxes  necessary  for  the  support  of 
and,  as  far  as  the  executive  is  concerned,  the  government.  In  the  general  proposi- 
to  enforce  by  all  the  means  within  my  tion  that  no  more  money  shall  be  collected 
power  the  strictest  economy  in  the  ex-  than  the  necessities  of  an  economical  ad- 
penditure  of  the  public  money  which  may  ministration  shall  require  all  parties  seem 
be  compatible  with  the  public  interests.  to  acquiesce.  Nor  does  there  seem  to  bo 
A  national  debt  has  become  almost  an  any  material  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
institution  of  European  monarchies.  It  is  the  absence  of  right  in  the  government  to 
viewed  in  some  of  them  as  an  essential  tax  one  section  of  country,  or  one  class 
prop  to  existing  governments.  Melancholy  of  citizens,  or  one  occupation,  for  the  mere 
is  the  condition  of  that  people  whose  gov-  profit  of  another.  "  Justice  and  sound 
ernment  can  be  sustained  only  by  a  system  policy  forbid  the  federal  government  to 
which  periodically  transfers  large  amounts  foster  one  branch  of  industry  to  the  detri- 
from  the  labor  of  the  many  to  the  coffers  ment  of  another,  or  to  cherish  the  inter- 
of  the  few.  Such  a  system  is  incompatible  ests  of  one  portion  to  the  injury  of  an- 
with  the  ends  for  which  our  republican  other  portion  of  our  common  country." 
government  was  instituted.  Under  a  wise  I  have  heretofore  declared  to  my  fellow- 
policy  the  debts  contracted  in  our  Rev-  citizens  that  "  in  my  judgment  it  is  the 
olution  and  during  the  War  of  1812  have  duty  of  the  government  to  extend,  as 
been  happily  extinguished.  By  a  judicious  far  as  it  may  be  practicable  to  do  so,  by 
application  of  the  revenues  not  required  its  revenue  laws  and  all  other  means 
for  other  necessary  purposes,  it  is  not  within  its  power,  fair  and  just  protection 
doubted  that  the  debt  which  has  grown  to  all  the  great  interests  of  the  whole 
out  of  the  circumstances  of  the  last  few  Union,  embracing  agriculture,  manufact- 
years  may  be  speedily  paid  off.  ures,   the  mechanic   arts,    commerce,    and 

I  congratulate  my  fellow-citizens  on  the  navigation."     I    have    also    declared    my 

entire    restoration    of    the    credit    of    the  opinion  to  be  "  in  favor  of  a  tariff  for 

general  government  of  the  Union,  and  that  revenue,"  and  that  "  in  adjusting  the  de- 

of  many  of  the  States.     Happy  would  it  tails  of  such  a  tariff  I  have   sanctioned 

be  for  the  indebted   States  if  they  were  such    moderate    discriminating    duties    as 

freed  from  their  liabilities,  many  of  which  would    produce    the    amount    of    revenue 

were   incautioxisly    contracted.      Although  needed,  and  at  the  same  time  afford  rea- 

the  government  of  the  Union  is  neither  in  sonable  incidental  protection  to  our  home 

a  legal  nor  a  moral  sense  bound  for  the  industry,"  and  that  I  was  "  opposed  to  a 

debts   of  the   States,  and   it  would  be  a  tariff  for  protection  merely,  and  not  for 

violation  of  our  compact  of  union  to  as-  revenue." 

sume  them,  yet  we  cannot  but  feel  a  deep  The  power  "  to  lay  and  collect  taxes, 
interest  in  seeing  all  the  States  meet  their  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  "  was  an  in- 
public  liabilities  and  pay  off  their  just  dispensable  one  to  be  conferred  on  the 
debts  at  the  earliest  practicable  period,  federal  government,  which  without  it 
That  they  will  do  so  as  soon  as  it  can  be  would  possess  no  means  of  providing  for 
done  without  imposing  too  heavy  burdens  its  own  support.  In  executing  this  power 
on  their  citizens  there  is  no  reason  to  by  levying  a  tariff  of  duties  for  the  sup- 
11  doubt.  The  sound  moral  and  honorable  port  of  the  government,  the  raising  of  rev- 
feeling  of  the  people  of  the  indebted  enue  should  be  the  object  and  protection 
States  cannot  be  questioned,  and  we  are  the  incident.  To  reverse  this  principle 
happy  to  perceive  a  settled  disposition  and  make  protection  the  object  and  reve- 
on  their  part,  as  their  ability  returns  after  nue  the  incident  would  be  to  inflict  in- 
a  season  of  unexampled  pecuniary  em-  justice  upon  all  other  than  the  protected 
barrassment,  to  pay  off  all  just  demands  interests.  In  levying  duties  for  revenue  it 
and  to  acquiesce  in  any  reasonable  meas-  is  doubtless  proper  to  make  such  discrim- 
ures  to  accomplish  that  object.  inations  within   the  revenue  principle  as 

242 


POLK,    JAMES    KNOX 

will   afford    incidental    protection   to   our  tribute  the  burdens  as  equally  as  possible 

home  interests.     Within  the  revenue  limit  among  them. 

there  is  a  discretion  to  discriminate;  be-  The  republic  of  Texas  has  made  known 
yond  that  limit  the  rightful  exercise  of  the  her  desire  to  come  into  our  Union,  to  form 
power  is  not  conceded.  The  incidental  a  part  of  our  confederacy  and  enjoy  with 
protection  afforded  to  our  home  interests  us  the  blessings  of  liberty  secured  and 
by  discriminations  within  the  revenue  guaranteed  by  our  Constitution.  Texas 
range  it  is  believed  will  be  ample.  In  was  once  a  part  of  our  country — was  un- 
making discriminations  all  our  home  in-  wisely  ceded  away  to  a  foreign  power — 
tcrests  should  as  far  as  practicable  be  is  now  independent,  and  possesses  an  un- 
equally protected.  The  largest  portion  of  doubted  right  to  dispose  of  a  part  or  the 
our  people  are  agriculturists.  Others  are  whole  of  her  territory  and  to  merge  her 
employed  in  manufactures,  commerce,  sovereignty  as  a  separate  and  independent 
navigation,  and  the  mechanic  arts.  They  State  in  ours.  I  congratulate  my  country 
are  all  engaged  in  their  respective  pur-  that  by  an  act  of  the  late  Congress  of  the 
suits,  and  their  joint  labors  constitute  the  United  States  the  assent  of  this  govern- 
national  or  home  industry.  To  tax  one  ment  has  been  given  to  the  reunion,  and  it 
branch  of  this  home  industry  for  the  bene-  only  remains  for  the  two  countries  to 
fit  of  another  would  be  unjust.  No  one  agree  upon  the  terms  to  consummate  an 
of  these  interests  can  rightfully  claim  an  object  so  important  to  both, 
advantage  over  the  others,  or  to  be  en-  I  regard  the  question  of  annexation  as 
riched  by  impoverishing  the  others.  All  belonging  exclusively  to  the  United  States 
are  equally  entitled  to  the  fostering  care  and  Texas.  They  are  independent  powers 
and  protection  of  the  government.  In  ex-  competent  to  contract,  and  foreign  na- 
ercising  a  sound  discretion  in  levying  dis-  tions  have  no  right  to  interfere  with  them 
criminating  duties  within  the  limit  pre-  or  to  take  exceptions  to  their  reunion, 
scribed,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  be  Foreign  powers  do  not  seem  to  appreciate 
done  in  a  manner  not  to  benefit  the  the  true  character  of  our  government, 
wealthy  few  at  the  expense  of  the  toiling  Our  Union  is  a  confederation  of  indepen- 
millions  by  taxing  lowest  the  luxuries  of  dent  States,  whose  policy  is  peace  with 
life,  or  articles  of  superior  quality  and  each  other  and  all  the  world.  To  enlarge- 
high  price,  which  can  only  be  consumed  its  limits  is  to  extend  the  dominions  of 
by  the  wealthy,  and  highest  the  necessa-  peace  over  additional  territories  and  in- 
ries  of  life,  or  articles  of  coarse  quality  creasing  millions.  The  world  has  nothing 
and  low  price,  which  the  poor  and  great  to  fear  from  military  ambition  in  our 
mass  of  our  people  must  consume.  The  government.  While  the  chief  magistrate 
burdens  of  government  should  as  far  as  and  the  popular  branch  of  Congress  are 
practicable  be  distributed  justly  and  elected  for  short  terms  by  the  suffrages 
equally  among  all  classes  of  our  popula-  of  those  millions  who  must  in  their  own 
tion.  These  general  views,  long  entertain-  persons  bear  all  the  burdens  and  miseries 
ed  on  this  subject,  I  have  deemed  it  prop-  of  war,  our  government  cannot  be  other- 
er  to  reiterate.  It  is  a  subject  upon  wise  than  pacific.  Foreign  powers  should 
which  conflicting  interests  of  sections  and  therefore  look  on  the  annexation  of  Texas 
occupations  are  supposed  to  exist,  and  a  to  the  United  States,  not  as  the  conquest 
spirit  of  mutual  concession  and  compro-  of  a  nation  seeking  to  extend  her  domin- 
mise  in  adjusting  its  details  should  be  ions  by  arms  and  violence,  but  as  the 
cherished  by  every  part  of  our  wide-  peaceful  acquisition  of  -a  territory  once 
spread  country  as  the  only  means  of  her  own,  by  adding  another  member  to 
preserving  harmony  and  a  cheerful  ac-  our  confederation,  with  the  consent  of  that 
quiescence  of  all  in  the  operation  of  our  member,  thereby  diminishing  the  chances 
revenue  laws.  Our  patriotic  citizens  in  of  war,  and  opening  to  them  new  and 
every  part  of  the  Union  will  readily  ever-increasing  markets  for  their  prod- 
submit    to    the    payment    of    such    taxes  ucts. 

as    shall    be   needed    for    the    support    of  To  Texas  the  reunion  is  important,  be- 

their    government,    whether    in    peace    or  cause  the   strong  protecting  arm   of   our 

in  war,  if  they  are  so  levied  as  to  dis-  government  would  be  extended  over  her, 

243 


POLK,    JAMES    KNOX 

and  the  vast  resources  of  her  fertile  soil  tier  obstructions  which  must  occur  if  she 

and  genial  climate  should  be  speedily  de-  remains  out  of  the  Union?     Whatever  is 

veloped,  while  the  safety  of  New  Orleans  good  or   evil   in   the   local   institutions   of 

and   of' our   whole   Southwestern   frontier  Texas   will   remain   her   own  whether   an- 

acainst  hostile  aggression,  as  well  as  the  nexed  to  the  United  States  or  not.     None 

interests   of   the   whole   Union,   would   be  of  the  present  States  will  be  responsible 

promoted  by  it.  f°r    them    any    more    than    they    are   for 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  our  national  the  local  institutions  of  each  other.  They 
existence  the  opinion  prevailed  with  some  have  confederated  together  for  certain 
that  our  system  of  confederated  States  specified  objects.  Upon  the  same  prin- 
could  not  operate  successfully  over  an  ex-  ciple  that  they  would  refuse  to  form  a 
tended  territory,  and  serious  objections  perpetual  union  with  Texas  because  of 
have  at  different  times  been  made  to  the  her  local  institutions  our  forefathers  would 
enlargement  of  our  boundaries.  These  ob-  have  been  prevented  from  forming  our 
jections  were  earnestly  urged  when  we  present  Union.  Perceiving  no  valid  objec- 
acquired  Louisiana.  Experience  has  shown  tion  to  the  measure,  and  many  reasons 
that  they  were  not  well  founded.  The  for  its  adoption  vitally  affecting  the  peace, 
title  of  numerous  Indian  tribes  to  vast  the  safety,  and  the  prosperity  of  both 
tracts  of  country  has  been  extinguished;  countries,  I  shall  on  the  broad  principle 
new  States  have  been  admitted  into  the  which  formed  the  basis  and  produced  the 
Union;  new  Territories  have  been  created  adoption  of  our  Constitution,  and  not  in 
and  our  jurisdiction  and  laws  extended  any  narrow  spirit  of  sectional  policy,  en- 
over  them.  As  our  population  has  ex-  deavor  by  all  constitutional,  honorable, 
panded,  the  Union  has  been  cemented  and  and  appropriate  means  to  consummate 
strengthened.  As  our  boundaries  have  been  the  expressed  will  of  the  people  and  gov- 
enlarged  and  our  agricultural  population  ernment  of  the  United  States  by  the  re- 
has  been  spread  over  a  large  surface,  our  annexation  of  Texas  to  our  Union  at  the 
federative  system  has  acquired  addition-  earliest  practicable  period, 
al  strength  and  security.  It  may  well  Nor  will  it  become  in  a  less  degree  my 
be  doubted  whether  it  would  not  be  in  duty  to  assert  and  maintain  by  all  con- 
greater  danger  of  overthrow  if  our  pres-  stitutional  means  Ihe  right  of  the  United 
ent  population  were  confined  to  the  com-  States  to  that  portion  of  our  territory 
paratively  narrow  limits  of  the  original  which  lies  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
thirteen  States  than  it  is  now  that  they  Our  title  to  the  country  of  the  Oregon 
are  sparsely  settled  over  a  more  expand-  is  "  clear  and  unquestionable,"  and  already 
ed  territory.  It  is  confidently  believed  are  our  people  preparing  to  perfect  that 
that  our  system  may  be  safely  extended  title  by  occupying  it  with  their  wives 
to  the  utmost  bounds  of  our  territorial  and  children.  But  eighty  years  ago  our 
limits,  and  that  as  it  shall  be  extended  population  was  confined  on  the  west  by 
the  bonds  of  our  Union,  so  far  from  being  the  ridge  of  the  Alleghanies.  Within  that 
weakened,    will    become    stronger.  period — within  the  lifetime,  I  might  say, 

None  can  fail  to  see  the  danger  to  our  of  some  of  my  hearers — our  people,  in- 
safety  and  future  peace  if  Texas  remains  creasing  to  many  millions,  have  filled  the 
an  independent  State,  or  becomes  an  ally  eastern  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  advent- 
or  dependency  of  some  foreign  nation  more  urously  ascended  the  Missouri  to  its  head- 
powerful  than  herself.  Is  there  one  among  springs,  and  are  already  engaged  in  estab- 
our  citizens  who  would  not  prefer  per-  lishing  the  blessings  of  self-government  in 
petual  peace  with  Texas  to  occasional  wars,  valleys  of  which  the  rivers  flow  to  the 
which  so  often  occur  between  bordering  Pacific.  The  world  beholds  the  peaceful 
independent  nations  ?  Is  there  one  who  triumphs  of  the  industry  of  our  emigrants, 
would  not  prefer  free  intercourse  with  To  us  belongs  the  duty  of  protecting  them 
her  to  high  duties  on  all  our  products  adequately  wherever  they  may  be  upon 
and  manufactures  which  enter  her  ports  our  soil.  The  jurisdiction  of  our  laws 
or  cross  her  frontiers?  Is  there  one  who  and  the  benefits  of  our  republican  insti- 
would  not  prefer  an  unrestricted  com-  tutions  should  be  extended  over  them  in 
munication  with  her  citizens  to  the  fron-  the  distant  regions  which   they  have  se- 

244 


POLK,    JAMES   KNOX 

leeted  for  their  homes.  The  increasing  ions  and  judgments,  and  that  the  rights 
facilities  of  intercourse  will  easily  bring  of  all  are  entitled  to  respect  and  regard, 
the  States,  of  which  the  formation  in  that  Confidently  relying  upon  the  aid  and 
part  of  our  territory  cannot  be  long  de-  assistance  of  the  co-ordinate  departments 
layed,  within  the  sphere  of  our  federative  of  the  government  in  conducting  our  pub- 
Union.  In  the  mean  time,  every  obligation  lie  affairs,  I  enter  upon  the  discharge  of 
imposed  by  treaty  or  conventional  stipula-  the  high  duties  which  have  been  assigned 
tions  should  be  sacredly  respected.  me   by  the   people,   again   humbly   suppli- 

In  the  management  of  our  foreign  re-  eating  that  Divine  Being  who  has  watched 
lations  it  will  be  my  aim  to  observe  a  over  and  protected  our  beloved  country 
careful  respect  for  the  rights  of  other  na-  from  its  infancy  to  the  present  hour  to 
tions,  while  our  own  will  be  the  subject  of  continue  His  gracious  benedictions  upon 
constant  watchfulness.  Equal  and  exact  us,  that  we  may  continue  to  be  a  pros- 
justice  should  characterize  all  our  inter-  perous  and  happy  people, 
course  with  foreign  countries.  All  alliances  Special  Message  on  Mexico. — On  May 
having  a  tendency  to  jeopard  the  welfare  H,  1846,  President  Polk  sent  the  follow- 
and  honor  of  our  country,  or  sacrifice  any  ing  special  message  on  the  Mexican  situa- 
one  of  the  national  interests,  will  be  stu-  tion  to  the  Congress: 

diously  avoided,  and  yet  no  opportunity  will  

be  lost  to  cultivate  a  favorable  understand-  Washington,  May  11,  181,6. 

ing  with  foreign  governments  by  which  our  To  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 

navigation  and  commerce  may  be  extend-  tives, — The  existing  state  of  the  relations 

ed,  and  the  ample  products  of  our  fertile  between    the    United    States    and    Mexico 

soil,  as  well  as  the  manufactures  of  our  renders  it  proper  that  1  should  bring  the 

skilled  artisans,  find  a  ready  market  and  subject  to  the  consideration  of  Congress, 

remunerating  prices  in  foreign  countries.  In  my  message  at  the  commencement  of 

In  taking  "  care  that  the  laws  be  faith-  your  present  session  the  state  of  these 
fully  executed,"  a  strict  performance  of  relations,  the  causes  which  led  to  the 
duty  will  be  exacted  from  all  public  offi-  suspension  of  diplomatic  intercourse  be- 
cers.  From  those  officers,  especially,  who  tween  the  two  countries  in  March,  1S45, 
are  charged  with  the  collection  and  dis-  and  the  long-continued  and  unredressed 
bursement  of  the  public  revenue  Avill  wrongs  and  injuries  committed  by  the 
prompt  and  rigid  accountability  be  re-  Mexican  government  on  citizens  of  the 
quired.  Any  culpable  failure  or  delay  on  United  States  in  their  persons  and  prop- 
their  part  to  account  for  the  moneys  in-  erty  were  briefly  set  forth, 
trusted  to  them  at  the  times  and  in  the  As  the  facts  and  opinions  which  were 
manner  required  by  law  will  in  every  then  laid  before  you  were  carefully  con- 
instance  terminate  the  official  connection  sidered,  I  cannot  better  express  my  present 
of  such  defaulting  officer  with  the  gov-  convictions  of  the  condition  of  affairs  up 
eminent.  to  that  time  than  by  referring  you  to  that 

Although  in  our  country  the  chief  communication, 
magistrate  must  almost  of  necessity  be  The  strong  desire  to  establish  peace 
chosen  by  a  party  and  stand  pledged  to  with  Mexico  on  liberal  and  honorable 
its  principles  and  measures,  yet  in  his  terms,  and  the  readiness  of  this  govern- 
official  action  he  should  not  be  the  Presi-  ment  to  regulate  and  adjust  our  boundary 
dent  of  a  part  only  but  of  the  whole  and  other  causes  of  difference  with  that 
people  of  the  United  States.  While  he  power  on  such  fair  and  equitable  prin- 
executes  the  laws  with  an  impartial  ciples  as  would  lead  to  permanent  rela- 
hand,  shrinks  from  no  proper  responsi-  tions  of  the  most  friendly  nature,  induced 
bility,  and  faithfully  carries  out  in  the  me  in  September  last  to  seek  the  reopen- 
executive  department  of  the  government  ing  of  diplomatic  relations  between  the 
the  principles  and  policy  of  those  who  two  countries.  Every  measure  adopted 
have  chosen  him,  he  should  not  be  un-  on  our  part  had  for  its  object  the  further- 
mindful  that  our  fellow-citizens  who  have  ance  of  these  desired  results.  In  corn- 
differed  with  him  in  opinion  are  entitled  munieating  to  Congress  a  succinct  state- 
to  the  full  and  free  exercise  of  their  opin-  ment  of  the  injuries  which  we  have  suf- 

245 


POLK,    JAMES   KNOX 

fered  from  Mexico,  and  which  have  been  much-injured   and   long-suffering  citizens, 

accumulating    during    a    period    of    more  many  of  which  had  existed  for  more  than 

than  twenty  years,  every  expression  that  twenty    years,    should    be    postponed    or 

could  tend  to  inflame  the  people  of  Mexico  separated    from    the    settlement    of    the 

or   defeat   or   delay   a   pacific   result   was  boundary  question. 

carefully  avoided.  An  envoy  of  the  United  Mr.  Slidell  arrived  at  Vera  Cruz  on 
States  repaired  to  Mexico  with  full  powers  Nov.  30,  and  was  courteously  received  by 
to  adjust  every  existing  difference.  But  the  authorities  of  that  city.  But  the 
though  present  on  the  Mexican  soil  by  government  of  General  Herrera  was  then 
agreement  between  the  two  governments,  tottering  to  its  fall.  The  revolutionary 
invested  with  full  powers,  and  bearing  party  had  seized  upon  the  Texas  question 
evidence  of  the  most  friendly  dispositions,  to  effect  or  hasten  its  overthrow.  Its  de- 
li is  mission  has  been  unavailing.  The  termination  to  restore  friendly  relations 
Mexican  government  not  only  refused  to  with  the  United  States,  and  to  receive 
receive  him  or  listen  to  his  propositions,  our  minister  to  negotiate  for  the  settle- 
but  after  a  long-continued  series  of  men-  ment  of  this  question  was  violently  as- 
aces  have  at  last  invaded  our  territory  sailed,  and  was  made  the  great  theme 
and  shed  the  blood  of  our  fellow-citizens  of  denunciation  against  it.  The  govern- 
on  our  own  soil.  ment  of  General  Herrera,  there  is  good 
It  now  becomes  my  duty  to  state  more  reason  to  believe,  was  sincerely  desirous 
in  detail  the  origin,  progress,  and  failure  to  receive  our  minister;  but  it  yielded  to 
of  that  mission.  In  pursuance  of  the  in-  the  storm  raised  by  its  enemies,  and  upon 
structions  given  in  September  last,  an  Dec.  21  refused  to  accredit  Mr.  Slidell 
inquiry  was  made  on  Oct.  13,  1845,  in  the  upon  the  most  frivolous  pretexts.  These 
most  friendly  terms,  through  our  consul  are  so  fully  and  ably  exposed  in  the  note 
in  Mexico,  of  the  minister  for  foreign  of  Mr.  Slidell  of  Dec.  24  last,  to  the  Mex- 
affairs,  whether  the  Mexican  government  ican  minister  of  foreign  relations,  here- 
"  would  receive  an  envoy  from  the  United  with  transmitted,  that  I  deem  it  unneces- 
States  intrusted  with  full  powers  to  ad-  sary  to  enter  into  further  detail  on  this 
just  all  the  questions  in  dispute  between  portion  of  the  subject, 
the  two  governments,"  with  the  assur-  Five  days  after  the  date  of  Mr.  Slidell's 
ance  that  "  should  the  answer  be  in  the  note  General  Herrera  yielded  the  govern- 
affirmative  such  an  envoy  would  be  im-  ment  to  General  Paredes  without  a  strug- 
mediately  despatched  to  Mexico."  The  gle,  and  on  Dec.  30  resigned  the  Presi- 
Mexican  minister,  on  Oct.  15,  gave  an  dency.  This  revolution  was  accomplished 
affirmative  answer  to  this  inquiry,  re-  solely  by  the  army,  the  people  having 
questing  at  the  same  time  that  our  naval  taken  little  part  in  the  contest:  and  thus 
force  at  Vera  Cruz  might  be  withdrawn,  the  supreme  power  in  Mexico  passed  into 
lest  its  continued  presence  might  assume  the  hands  of  a  military  leader, 
the  appearance  of  menace  and  coercion  Determined  to  leave  no  effort  untried  to 
pending  the  negotiations.  This  force  was  effect  an  amicable  adjustment  with  Mex- 
immediately  withdrawn.  On  Nov.  10,  ico,  I  directed  Mr.  Slidell  to  present  his 
1845,  Mr.  John  Slidell,  of  Louisiana,  was  credentials  to  the  government  of  General 
commissioned  by  me  as  envoy  extraor-  Paredes  and  ask  to  be  officially  received 
dinary  and  minister  plenipotentiary  of  by  him.  There  would  have  been  less 
Ihe  United  States  to  Mexico,  and  was  in-  ground  for  taking  this  step  had  General 
trusted  with  full  powers  to  adjust  both  Paredes  come  into  power  by  a  regular 
the  questions  of  the  Texas  boundary  and  constitutional  succession.  In  that  event 
of  indemnification  to  our  citizens.  The  his  administration  would  have  been  con- 
redress  of  the  wrongs  of  our  citizens  sidered  but  a  mere  constitutional  con- 
naturally  and  inseparably  blended  itself  tinuance  of  the  government  of  General 
with  the  question  of  boundary.  The  Herrera,  and  the  refusal  of  the  latter  to 
settlement  of  the  one  question  in  any  cor-  receive  our  minister  would  have  been 
rect  view  of  the  subject  involves  that  of  deemed  conclusive  unless  an  intimation 
the  other.  I  could  not  for  the  moment  had  been  given  by  General  Paredes  of  his 
entertain  the  idea  that  the  claims  of  our  desire  to  reverse  the  decision  of  his  prede- 

246 


POLK.    JAMES    KNOX 

cessor.  But  the  government  of  General  to  meet  a  threatened  invasion  of  Texas 
Faredes  owes  its  existence  to  a  military  by  the  Mexican  forces,  for  which  exten- 
i  evolution,  by  which  the  existing  consti-  sive  military  preparations  had  been  made, 
tutional  authorities  had  been  subverted.  The  invasion  was  threatened  solely  be- 
The  form  of  government  was  entirely  cause  Texas  had  determined,  in  accord- 
changed,  as  well  as  all  the  high  function-  ance  with  a  solemn  resolution  of  the 
aries  by  whom  it  was  administered.  Congress  of  the  United   States,   to  annex 

Under  these  circumstances,  Mr.  Slidell,  herself    to    our    Union,    and    under    these 

in  obedience  to  my  direction,  addressed  a  circumstances  it  was  plainly  our  duty  to 

note  to  the  Mexican  minister  of  foreign  re-  extend    our    protection    over    her    citizens 

lations,  under  date  of  March  1  last,  asking  and  soil. 

to  be  received  by  that  government  in  the  This  force  was  concentrated  at  Corpus 

diplomatic    character    to    which    he    had  Christi,    and    remained    there    until    after 

been  appointed.     This  minister  in  his  re-  1    had    received    such    information    from 

ply,   under   date   of   March    12,   reiterated  Mexico  as  rendered  it  probable,  if  not  cer- 

the  arguments  of  his  predecessor,  and  in  tain,  that  the  Mexican  government  would 

terms   that   may  be   considered  as   giving  refuse  to  receive  our  envoy, 

all  grounds  of  offence  to  the  government  Meantime  Texas,  by  the  final  action  of 

and   people   of   the   United   States   denied  our  Congress,  had  become  an  integral  part 

the  application  of  Mr.  Slidell.     Nothing,  of   our    Union.     The   Congress   of   Texas, 

therefore,  remained  for  our  envoy  but  to  by  its  act  of  Dec.  19,  1836,  had  declared 

demand  his  passports   and   return   to  his  the  Rio  del  Norte  to  be  the  boundary  of 

own  country.  that   republic;    its   jurisdiction    had   been 

Thus  the  government  of  Mexico,  though  extended  and  exercised  beyond  the  Nueces, 
solemnly  pledged  by  official  acts  in  Oc-  The  country  between  that  river  and  the 
tober  last  to  receive  and  accredit  an  Amer-  Del  Norte  had  been  represented  in  the 
iean  envoy,  violated  their  plighted  faith  Congress  and  in  the  convention  of  Texas, 
and  refused  the  offer  of  a  peaceful  ad-  had  thus  taken  part  in  the  act  of  an- 
justment  of  our  difficulties.  Not  only  was  nexation  itself,  and  is  now  included  with- 
the  offer  rejected,  but  the  indignity  of  its  in  one  of  our  congressional  districts, 
rejection  was  enhanced  by  the  manifest  Our  own  Congress  had,  moreover,  with 
breach  of  faith  in  refusing  to  admit  the  great  unanimity,  by  the  act  approved 
envoy  who  came  because  they  had  bound  Dec.  31,  1845,  recognized  the  country  be- 
themselves  to  receive  him.  Nor  can  it  be  yond  the  Nueces  as  a  part  of  our  terri- 
said  that  the  offer  was  fruitless  from  the  tory  by  including  it  within  our  own 
want  of  opportunity  of  discussing  it;  our  revenue  system,  and  a  revenue  officer  to 
envoy  was  present  on  their  own  soil.  Nor  reside  within  that  district  has  been  ap- 
can  it  be  ascribed  to  a  want  of  sufficient  pointed  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
powers;  our  envoy  had  full  powers  to  sent  of  the  Senate.  It  became,  therefore, 
adjust  every  question  of  difference.  Nor  of  urgent  necessity  to  provide  for  the  de- 
was  there  room  for  complaint  that  our  fence  of  that  portion  of  our  country.  Ac- 
piopositions  for  settlement  were  unreason-  cordingly,  on  Jan.  13  last,  instructions 
able;  permission  was  not  even  given  our  were  issued  to  the  general  in  command  of 
envoy  to  make  any  proposition  whatever,  these  troops  to  occupy  the  left  bank  of  the 
Nor  can  it  be  objected  that  we,  on  our  Del  Norte.  This  river,  which  is  the  south- 
part,  would  not  listen  to  any  reasonable  western  boundary  of  the  State  of  Texas, 
terms  of  their  suggestion;  the  Mexican  is  an  exposed  frontier.  From  this  quar- 
government  refused  all  negotiation,  and  ter  invasions  were  threatened;  upon  it 
have  made   no    proposition   of   any   kind,  and    in    its    immediate    vicinity,    in    the 

In  my  message  at  the  commencement  judgment  of  high  military  experience, 
of  the  present  session  I  informed  you  are  the  proper  stations  for  the  protect- 
that  upon  the  earnest  appeal  both  of  the  ing  forces  of  the  government.  In  addition 
Congress  and  convention  of  Texas  I  had  to  this  important  consideration,  several 
ordered  a  sufficient  military  force  to  take  others  occurred  to  induce  this  movement. 
a  position  "between  the  Nueces  and  the  Among  these  are  the  facilities  afforded  by 
Del  Norte."     This  had  become  necessary  the    ports    at    Brazos    Santiago    and    the 

247 


POLK,    JAMES    KNOX 

mouth  of  the  Del  Norte  for  the  reception  of  these  troops,  and  after  a  short  affair, 

of  supplies  by  seas,  the  stronger  and  more  in    which    some    sixteen    were    killed    and 

healthful     military     positions,     the     con-  wounded,  appear  to  have  been  surrounded 

\enience  for  obtaining  a  ready  and  a  more  and  compelled   to   surrender." 
abundant     supply    of     provisions,    water,        The    grievous    wrongs    perpetrated    by 

fuel,     and    forage,     and    the    advantages  Mexico    upon    our    citizens    throughout    a 

which   are   afforded   by  the  Del   Norte  in  long  period  of  years  remain  unredressed, 

forwarding  supplies  to  such  posts  as  may  and   solemn   treaties   pledging   her    public 

be   established   in   the   interior   and   upon  faith  for  this  redress  have  been  disregard- 

the  Indian  frontier.  ed.     A  government   either   unable   or   un- 

The  movement  of  the  troops  to  the  Del  willing   to   enforce  the  execution   of   such 

Norte  was  made  by  the  commanding  gen-  treaties  fails  to  perform  one  of  its  plain- 

eral  under  positive  instructions  to  abstain  est  duties. 

from  all  aggressive  acts  towards  Mexico  Our  commerce  with  Mexico  has  been 
or  Mexican  citizens,  and  to  regard  the  almost  annihilated.  It  was  formerly 
relations  between  that  republic  and  the  highly  beneficial  to  both  nations,  but 
United  States  as  peaceful  unless  she  our  merchants  have  been  deterred  from 
should  declare  war  or  commit  acts  of  prosecuting  it  by  the  system  of  out- 
hostility  indicative  of  a  state  of  war.  rage  and  extortion  which  the  Mexi- 
He  was  specially  directed  to  protect  prop-  can  authorities  have  pursued  against 
erty  and  respect  personal  rights.  them,   while   their   appeals   through   their 

The   army   moved   from   Corpus   Christi  own  government  for  indemnity  have  been 

on   March    11,   and   on   the    28th    of   that  made  in  vain.     Our  forbearance  has  gone 

month    arrived    on    the   left   bank   of    the  to  such  an  extreme  as  to  be  mistaken  in 

Del   Norte  opposite  to  Matamoras,  where  its   character.     Had  we  acted  with  vigor 

it   encamped   on    a   commanding   position,  in    repelling    the    insults    and    redressing 

which  has  since  been  strengthened  by  the  the    injuries    inflicted    by    Mexico    at    the 

erection    of    field  -  works.      A    depot    has  commencement,  we  should  doubtless  have 

also     been     established     at     Point     Isa-  escaped    all    the    difficulties    in   which   we 

bel,   near   the   Brazos    Santiago,    30   miles  are  now  involved.     Instead  of  this,  how- 

in  rear    of    the    encampment.     The    selec-  ever,    we    have    been    exerting    our    best 

tion  of  his   position  was  necessarily  con-  efforts  to  propitiate  her  good-will.     Upon 

tided   to   the  judgment  of   the   general   in  the  pretext  that  Texas,  a  nation  as  inde- 

command.  pendent  as  herself,  thought  proper  to  unite 

The  Mexican  forces  at  Matamoras  as-  its  destinies  with  our  own,  she  has  affected 
sumed  a  belligerent  attitude,  and  on  April  to  believe  that  we  have  severed  her  right- 
12  General  Ampudia,  then  in  command,  ful  territory,  and  in  official  proclamations 
notified  General  Taylor  to  break  up  his  and  manifestoes  has  repeatedly  threatened 
camp  within  twenty-four  hours,  and  to  re-  to  make  war  upon  us  for  the  purpose  of 
tire  beyond  the  Nueces  River,  and  in  the  reconquering  Texas.  In  the  mean  time 
event  of  his  failure  to  comply  with  these  we  have  tried  every  effort  at  reconciliation, 
demands  announced  that  arms,  and  arms  The  cup  of  forbearance  had  been  exhaust- 
alone,  must  decide  the  question.  But  no  ed  even  before  the  recent  information  from 
open  act  of  hostility  was  committed  until  the  frontier  of  the  Del  Norte.  But  now, 
April  24.  On  that  day  General  Arista,  after  reiterated  menaces,  Mexico  has  pass- 
who  had  succeeded  to  the  command  of  ed  the  boundary  of  the  United  States,  has 
the  Mexican  forces,  communicated  to  Gen-  invaded  our  territory,  and  shed  American 
eral  Taylor  that  "  he  considered  hostili-  blood  upon  the  American  soil.  She  has 
ties  commenced,  and  should  prosecute  proclaimed  that  hostilities  have  com- 
them."  A  party  of  dragoons  of  sixty-three  menced,  and  that  the  two  nations  are  now 
men   and   officers   were   on   the   same   day  at  war. 

despatched  from  the  American  camp  up  As  war  exists — and,  notwithstanding  all 
the  Rio  del  Norte,  on  its  left  bank,  to  our  efforts  to  avoid  it,  exists  by  the  act 
ascertain  whether  the  Mexican  troops  had  of  Mexico  herself— we  are  called  upon  by 
crossed  or  were  preparing  to  cross  the  every  consideration  of  duty  and  patriot- 
river,  "became  engaged  with  a  large  body  ism  to  vindicate  with  decision  the  honor, 

248 


POLK 


the  rights,  and  the  interests  of  our  coun- 
try. 

Anticipating  the  possibility  of  a  crisis 
like  that  which  has  arrived,  instructions 
were  given  in  August  last,  "  as  a  precau- 
tionary measure "  against  invasion  or 
threatened    invasion,    authorizing   General 


taining  our  entire  military  force  and  fur- 
nishing it  with  supplies  and  munitions  of 
war. 

The  most  energetic  and  prompt  measures 
and  the  immediate  appearance  in  arms  of 
a  large  and  overpowering  force  are  recom- 
mended  to   Congress   as  the  most  certain 


Taylor,  if  the  emergency  required,  to  ac-  and  efficient  means  of  bringing  the  exist- 

cept  volunteers,  not  from  Texas  only,  but  ing  collision  with  Mexico  to  a  speedy  and 

from   the   States   of   Louisiana,    Alabama,  successful  termination. 
Mississippi,  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky,  and        In  makingthese  recommendations, I  deem 

corresponding    letters    were    addressed    to  it  proper  to  declare  that  it  is  my  anxious 

the  respective  governors   of   those   States,  desire    not    only    to    terminate    hostilities 

These  instructions  were  repeated,   and   in  speedily,  but  to  bring  all  matters  in  dis- 

January  last,  soon  after  the  incorporation  pute  between  this  government  and  Mexico 

of    "Texas    into    our    Union    of    States,"  to  an  early  and  amicable  adjustment;  and 

General   Taylor   was   further   "  authorized  in  this  view  I  shall  be  prepared  to  renew 

by   the   President   to   make    a    requisition  negotiations     whenever     Mexico  shall     be 

upon  the  executive  of  that  State  for  such  ready  to  receive  propositions  or  to  make 

of  its  militia  force  as  may  be  needed  to  propositions  of  her  own. 


repel  invasion  or  to  secure  the  country 
against  apprehended  invasion.''  On  March 
2  he  was  again  reminded,  "  in  the  event 
of  the  approach  of  any  considerable  Mex- 


I  transmit  herewith  a  copy  of  the  cor- 
respondence between  our  envoy  to  Mexico 
and  the  Mexican  minister  for  foreign 
affairs,  and  so  much  of  the  correspondence 


nan  force,  promptly  and  efficiently  to  use  between  that  envoy  and  the  Secretary  of 

the  authority  with  which  he  was  clothed  State,  and  between  the  Secretary  of  War 

to    call    to    him    such    auxiliary    force    as  and  the  general   in   command  on  the  Del 

he    might   need."      War    actually    existed,  Norte  as  is  necessary  to  a  full  understand- 

and    our    territory   having    been    invaded,  ing  of  the  subject. 


General  Taylor,  pursuant  to  authority 
vested  in  him  by  my  direction,  has  called 
on  the  governor  of  Texas  for  four  regi- 
ments of  State  troops,  two  to  be  mounted 
and  two  to  serve  on  foot,  and  on  the 
governor  of  Louisiana  for  four  regiments 
of  infantry  to  be  sent  to  him  as  soon  as 
practicable. 

In  further  vindication  of  our  rights  and 
defence  of  our  territory,  I  invoke  the 
prompt  action  of  Congress  to  recognize 
the  existence  of  the  war,  and  to  place 
at  the  disposition  of  the  executive  the 
aneans  of  prosecuting  the  war  with  vigor, 
and  thus  hastening  the  restoration  of 
peace.  To  this  end  I  recommend  that 
authority  should  be  given  to  call  into 
the  public  service  a  large  body  of  volun- 
teers to  serve  for  not  less  than  six  or 
twelve  months,  unless  sooner  discharged. 
A  volunteer  force  is  beyond  question  more 
efficient  than  any  other  description  of 
citizen  soldiers,  and  it  is  not  to  be  doubt- 
ed that  a  number  far  beyond  that  required 


Polk,  Leonidas,  military  officer;  born 
in  Raleigh,  N.  C,  April  10,  1806;  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1827;  ordained  in 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church;  and  was 


LEONIDAS    POLK. 


chosen  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Louisiana 
1841.      In    1861    he    became    a    major- 


would  readily  rush  to  the  field  upon  the  general  in  the  Confederate  army,  in  which 
call  of  their  country.  I  further  recommend  capacity  he  was  distinguished  for  his  zeal 
that  a  liberal  provision  be  made  for  sus-    and     activity.      He     first     appeared     con- 

249 


POLLABD— PONCE 

spicuous  as  a  soldier  in  the  occupation  Contract;  A  Treatise  on  Equity  Juris- 
of  Columbus,  Ky.,  late  in  1861.  He  com-  prudence;  and  a  Treatise  on  Riparian 
manded  a  division  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh  Rights.  He  died  in  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
(April,  1862),  and  was  in  the  great  bat-    Feb.   15,   1885. 

tie  at  Stone  River  at  the  close  of  that  Pomeroy,  Samuel  Ciarke,  legislator; 
year,  when  he  was  lieutenant-general.  He  born  in  Southampton,  Mass.,  Jan.  3,  1816; 
led  a  corps  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga  educated  at  Amherst;  elected  to  the 
(September,  1863).  For  disobedience  of  Massachusetts  legislature  in  1852;  led  a 
orders  in  this  battle  he  was  relieved  of  colony  to  Kansas  in  1852,  locating  in  Law- 
command  and  placed  under  arrest.  In  rence,  but  afterwards  removed  to  Atchi- 
the  winter  and  spring  of  1864  he  was  in  son.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Free-State 
temporary  charge  of  the  Department  of  convention  which  met  in  Lawrence,  Kan., 
the  Mississippi.  With  Johnston  when  op-  in  1859,  and  was  elected  to  the  United 
posing  Sherman's  march  on  Atlanta,  he  States  Senate  in  1861  and  1867,  but  failed 
was  killed  by  a  cannon-shot,  June  14,  1864,  of  re-election  in  1873  on  account  of  charges 
on  Pine  Knob,  not  many  miles  from  Mari-  of  bribery,  which  were  afterwards  ex- 
etta,  Ga.  amined  by  a  committee  of  the  State  legis- 

Pollard,  Edward  Albert,  journalist;  lature,  which  found  them  not  sustained, 
born  in  Nelson  county,  Va.,  Feb.  27,  1828:  Mr.  Pomeroy  was  nominated  for  Vice- 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia  President  of  the  United  States  on  the 
in  1849;  studied  law  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  American  ticket  in  1880. 
and  was  editor  of  the  Richmond  Examiner  Pomeroy,  Seth,  military  officer;  born 
in  1861-67.  He  was  a  stanch  advocate  in  Northampton,  Mass.,  May  20,  1706;  be- 
of  the  Confederacy  during  the  Civil  War,  came  a  gunsmith;  was  a  captain  in  the 
but  bitterly  opposed  Jefferson  Davis's  pol-  provincial  army  of  Massachusetts  in  1744 ; 
icy;  was  captured  near  the  end  of  the  and  was  at  the  capture  of  Louisburg  in 
war  and  held  a  prisoner  for  eight  months.  1745.  In  1775  he  took  command  of  Colonel 
His  publications  include  Letters  of  the  Williams's  regiment,  after  his  death,  in 
Southern  Spy  in  Washington  and  Else-  the  battle  of  Lake  George.  In  1774-75 
where;  Southern  History  of  the  War;  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  Provincial  Con- 
Ohservations  in  the  North;  Eight  Months  gress,  and  was  chosen  a  brigadier-general 
in  Prison  and  on  Parole;  The  Lost  Cause;  of  militia  in  February,  1775,  but  fought 
'A  New  Southern  History  of  the  War  of  as  a  private  soldier  at  the  battle  of  Bunker 
the  Confedei-ates ;  Lee  and  his  Lieuten-  (Breed's)  Hill.  On  liis  appointment  as 
ants;  The  Lost  Cause  Regained;  Life  of  senior  brigadier-general  of  the  Continental 
Jefferson  Davis,  with  the  Secret  History  army,  some  difficulty  arose  about  rank, 
of  the  Southern  Confederacy;  Black  Dia-  when  he  resigned  and  retired  to  his  farm; 
monds  Gathered  in  the  Darky  Homes  of  but  when,  late  in  1776,  New  Jersey  was 
the  South;  and  The  Virginia  Tourist,  invaded  by  the  British,  he  again  took  the 
He  died  in  Lynchburg,  Va.,  Dec.  12,  field,  and  at  the  head  of  militia  marched 
1872.  to  the  Hudson  River,  at  Peekskill,  where 

Polygamy.     See  Mormons.  he  died,  Feb.  19,  1777. 

Pomeroy,  John  Norton,  lawyer;  born  Ponce,  a  department,  district,  and  city 
in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  April  12,  1828;  grad-  on  the  south  coast  of  the  island  of  Porto 
uated  at  Hamilton  College  in  1847;  ad-  Rico.  The  city  is  regularly  built — the 
mitted  to  the  bar  in  1851;  became  Profes-  central  part  almost  exclusively  of  brick 
sor  of  Law  in  the  New  York  University  houses  and  the  suburbs  of  wood.  It  is 
in  1864-69;  practised  in  Rochester  in  the  residence  of  the  military  commander 
1869-78;  and  was  Professor  of  Law  in  the  and  the  seat  of  an  official  chamber  of  com- 
University  of  California  in  1878-85.  He  merce.  There  is  an  appellate  criminal 
was  the  author  of  An  Introduction  to  court,  besides  other  courts;  two  churches 
Municipal  Law;  An  Introduction  to  the  — one  Protestant,  said  to  be  the  only  one 
Constitutional  Law  of  the  United  States;  in  the  Spanish  West  Indies — two  hos- 
Remedies  and  Remedial  Rights  according  pitals  besides  the  military  hospitals,  a 
to  the  Reformed  American  Procedure ;  A  home  of  refuge  for  the  old  and  poor,  a 
Treatise   on    the   Specific   Performance   of    perfectly  equipped  fire  department,  a  bank, 

250 


PONCE— PONCE    DE   LEON 


Sl'tiAK-.MILL    NEAR    PONOB. 


a  theatre,  three  first-class  hotels,  and  gas-    population  of  203,191;  the  district,  55,477; 
works.      The    inhabitants    are   principally    the  city,  27,952;  and  Playa,  4,660. 


occupied  in  mercantile  pursuits ;  but  car- 
penters, bricklayers,  joiners,  tailors,  shoe- 
makers, and  barbers  find  good  employ- 
ment. The  chief  occupations  of  the  people 
are  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  cocoa,  to- 
bacco,  and   oranges,   and   the  breeding   of 


Ponce  de  Leon,  Juan,  discoverer  of 
Florida;  born  in  San  Servas,  Spain,  in 
1460;  was  a  distinguished  cavalier  in  the 
wars  with  the  Moors  in  Granada.  Ac- 
companying Columbus  on  his  second 
voyage,  Ponce  was  made  commander  of  a 


cattle.     Commercially,  Ponce  is  the  second  portion  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  in  1509  he 

city  of  importance  on  the  island.     A  fine  conquered    and    was    made    governor    of 

road  leads  to  the  port  (Playa),  where  all  Porto    Rico,    where    he    amassed    a    large 

the  import  and  export  trade  is  transacted,  fortune.    There  he  was  told  of  a  fountain 

At  Playa  are  the  custom-house,  the  office  of  youth — a  fountain  whose  waters  would 

of  the  captain  of  the  port,   and  all   the  restore  youth  to  the  aged.    It  was  situated 

consular  offices.     The  port  is  spacious  and  in  one  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  surround- 

will  hold  vessels   of  25   feet  draft.     The  ed  by  magnificent  trees,  and  the  air  was 

climate,  on  account  of  the  sea-breezes  dur-  laden    with     the     delicious     perfumes    of 

ing  the  day  and  land-breezes  at  night,  is  flowers;    the    trees    bearing    golden    fruit 

not    oppressive,    though    warm;    and,    as  that  was   plucked   by  beautiful   maidens, 

water  for  all  purposes,  including  the  fire  who  presented  it  to  strangers.     It  was  the 

department,     is     amply    supplied    by    an  old  story  of  the  Garden  of  the  Hesperides. 

aqueduct,  it  may  be  said  that  the  city  of  and  inclination,  prompted  by  his  credulity, 

Ponce  is  perhaps  the  healthiest  place  in  made  Ponce  go  in  search  of  the  miracu- 

the  whole  island.    According  to  the  census  lous  fountain,  for  his  hair  was  white  and 

taken  by  the  United  States  military  au-  his  face  was  wrinkled  with  age.    He  sailed 

thorities  in   1899,  the  department  had  a  north   from   Porto  Rico   in  March,    1513, 

251 


PtfNCE    DE   LEON— PONTIAC 


and  searched  for  the  wonderful  spring 
among  the  Bahama  Islands,  drinking  and 
bathing  in  the  waters  of  every  fountain 
that  fell  in  his  way.  But  he  experienced 
no  change,  saw  no  magnificent  trees  with 
golden  fruit  plucked  by  beautiful  maidens, 
and,  disappointed  but  not  disheartened,  he 
sailed  towards  the  northwest  until  wester- 
ly winds  came  laden  with  the  perfumes  of 
sweet  flowers.  Then  he  landed,  and  in  the 
imperial  magnolia-trees,  laden  with  fra- 
grant blossoms,  he  thought  he  beheld  the  in- 
troduction to  the  paradise  he  was  seeking. 
It  was  on  the  morning  of  Easter  Sunday 
when  he  landed  on  the  site  of  the  present 
St.  Augustine,  in  Florida,  and  he  took 
possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of 
the    Spanish    monarch.      Because    of    its 


JUAN   PO.NX'E   DE    LKU.V. 


wealth  of  flowers,  or  because  of  the  holy 
day  when  he  first  saw  the  land  (Pascua 
de  Flores),  he  gave  the  name  of  Florida 
to  the  great  island  (as  he  supposed)  he 
had  discovered.  There  he  sought  the 
fountain  of  youth  in  vain  Sailing  along 
the  coast  southward,  he  discovered  and 
named  the  Tortugas  (Turtle)  islands.  At 
another  group  he  found  a  single  inhabi- 
tant— a  wrinkled  old  Indian  woman — not 
one  of  the  beautiful  maidens  he  expected 
to  find.     Abandoning  the  search  himself, 

25 


but  leaving  one  of  his  vessels  to  continue 
it,  he  returned  to  Porto  Rico  a  wiser  and 
an  older  man,  but  bearing  the  honor  of 
discovering  an  important  portion  of  the 
continent  of  America.  In  1514  Ponce  re- 
turned to  Spain  and  received  permission 
from  Ferdinand  to  colonize  the  "  Island  of 
Florida,"  and  was  appointed  its  governor; 
but  he  did  not  proceed  to  take  possession 
until  1521,  having  in  the  mean  time  con- 
ducted an  unsuccessful  expedition  against 
the  Caribs.  On  going  to  Florida  with  two 
ships  and  many  followers,  he  met  the  de- 
termined hostilities  of  the  natives,  and 
after  a  sharp  conflict  he  was  driven  back 
to  his  ships  mortally  wounded,  and  died 
in  Cuba  in  July,  1521.  Upon  his  tomb 
was  placed  this  inscription:  "In  this 
Sepulchre  rest  the  Bones  of  a  Man  who  was 
Leon  by  Name  and  still  more  by  Nature.'' 

Poncet,  Joseph  Anthony.  See  Jesuit 
Missions. 

Pond,  George  Edward,  journalist; 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  11,  1837; 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  185S; 
served  in  the  National  army  in  1862-63; 
was  associate  editor  of  the  Army  and  Navy 
Journal  in  1864-68;  afterwards  was  on 
the  staff  of  the  New  York  Times  till  1870; 
editor  of  the  Philadelphia  Record  in  1870- 
77:  and  next  became  connected  with  the 
New  York  Sun.  He  is  the  author  of  The 
Shenandoah  Valley  in  1864 /  and  Drift- 
icood  Essays  in  the  Galaxy  Magazine. 

Pontiac,  Ottawa  chief;  born  on  the 
Ottawa  River  in  1720;  became  an  early 
ally  of  the  French.  With  a  body  of  Ot- 
tawa s  he  defended  the  French  trading- 
post  of  Detroit  against  more  northerly 
tribes,  and  it  is  supposed  he  led  the  Ot- 
tawas  who  assisted  the  French  in  defeat- 
ing Braddock  on  the  Monongahela.  In 
1760,  after  the  conquest  of  Canada,  Major 
Rogers  was  sent  to  take  possession  of  the 
Western  posts.  Pontiac  feigned  friend- 
ship for  the.  English  for  a  while,  but  in 
1763  he  was  the  leader  in  a  conspiracy 
of  many  tribes  to  drive  the  English  from 
the  Ohio  country  back  beyond  the  Al- 
leghany Mountains. 

The  French  had  won  the  affection  and 
respect  of  the  Indian  tribes  with  whom 
they  came  in  contact,  by  their  kindness, 
sociability,  and  religious  influence;  and 
when  the  English,  formidable  enemies  of 
the   red   men,    supplanted   the   French   in 


PONTIAC 


to  him  in  a  vision,  saying,  "  I  am  the 
Lord  of  life;  it  is  I  who  made  all  men;  I 
wake  for  their  safety.  Therefore  I  give  you 
warning,  that  if  you  suffer  the  Englishmen 
to  dwell  in  your  midst,  their  diseases  and 
their  poisons  shall  destroy  you  utterly,  and 
you  shall  die."  The  chief  preached  a 
crusade  against  the  English  among  the 
Western  tribes,  and  so  prepared  the  way 
for  Pontiac  to  easily  form  his  conspiracy. 
After  the  capture  of  Fort  Duquesne, 
settlers  from  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and 
Virginia  went  over  the  mountains  into 
the  Ohio  region  in  large  numbers.  They 
were  not  kindly  disposed  towards  the  Ind- 
ians, and  French  traders  fanned  the 
embers  of  hostility  between  the  races. 
The  Delawares  and  Shawnees,  who  had 
lately  emigrated  from  Pennsylvania,  and 
were  on  the  banks  of  the  Muskingum. 
Scioto,  and  Miami,  nursed  hatred  of  the 
English  and  stirred  up  the  Western  tribes 
against  the  white  people.  Pontiac  took 
the  lead  in  a  widespread  conspiracy,  and 
pontiac.  organized  a  confederacy  for  the  purpose  of 

driving  the  English  back  beyond  the  Al- 
the  alleged  possession  of  the  vast  domain  leghanies.  The  confederacy  was  composed 
acquired  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  expelled  of  the  Ottawas,  Miamis,  Wyandottes, 
the  Roman  Catholic  priests,  and  haughtily  Delawares,  Shawnees,  Ontagamies,  Chip- 
assumed  to  be  absolute  lords  of  the  Ind-  pewas,  Pottawattomies,  Mississagas,  Foxes, 
ians'  country,  the  latter  were  exasperated,  and  Winnebagoes.  These  had  been  allies 
and  resolved  to  stand  firmly  in  the  way  of  of  the  French.  The  Senecas,  the  most 
English  pretensions.  "  Since  the  French  westerly  of  the  Six  Nations,  joined  the 
must  go,  no  other  nation  should  take  their  confederacy,  but  the  other  tribes  of  the 
place."  The  conspiracy  known  as  Pontiac's  Iroquois  Confederacy  (q.  v.)  were  kept 
began  with  the  lower  nations.  The  quiet  by  Sir  William  Johnson.  It  was 
Senecas,  of  the  Six  Nations,  the  Del  a-  arranged  for  a  simultaneous  attack  to  be 
wares  and  Shawnees,  had  for  some  time  made  along  the  whole  frontier  of  Penn- 
urged  the  Northwestern  Indians  to  take  sylvania  and  Virginia.  The  conspiracy 
up  arms  against  the  English.  They  said:  was  unsuspected  until  it  was  ripe  and 
"  The  English  mean  to  make  slaves  of  us,  the  first  blow  was  struck,  in  June,  1763. 
by  occupying  so  many  posts  in  our  coun-  English  traders  scattered  through  the 
try."  The  British  had  erected  log  forts  frontier  regions  were  plundered  and  slain, 
here  and  there  in  the  Western  wilderness.  At  almost  the  same  instant  they  attacked 
"  We  had  better  attempt  something  now  all  of  the  English  outposts  taken  from 
to   recover  our  liberty,  than  to  wait  till    the  French,  and  made  themselves  masters 


they  are  better  established,"  said  the  na- 
tions, and  their  persuasions  had  begun 
to  stir  up  the  patriotism  of  the  North- 
western   barbarians,     when     an    Abenake 


of  nine  of  them,  massacring  or  dispersing 
the  garrisons.  Forts  Pitt,  Niagara,  and 
Detroit  were  saved.  Colonel  Bouquet 
saved  Fort  Pitt  (now  Pittsburg)  ;  Niagara 


prophet  from  eastern  New  Jersey  appear-  was  not  attacked;  and  Detroit,  after  a 
ed  among  them.  He  was  a  chief,  and  had  long  siege  by  Pontiac  in  person,  was  re- 
first  satisfied  his  own  people  that  the  lieved  by  Colonel  Bradstreet  in  1764.  The 
Great  Spirit  had  given  him  wisdom  to  Indians  were  speedily  subdued,  but 
proclaim  war  against  the  new  invaders.  Pontiac  remained  hostile  until  his  death 
He  said  the  great  Manitou  had  appeared  in  Cahokia,  111.,  in  1769.    He  was  an  able 

253 


£ONY   EXPRESS— POPE 

sachem  and  warrior,  and,  like  King  Philip,  after  the  evacuation  of  Boston  his  regi- 

was  doubtless  moved  by  patriotic  impulses;  ment  was  ordered  to  join  the  troops  in 

for  the  flow  of  emigration  over  the  moun-  New    York    that    invaded    Canada.      In 

tains  threatened  his  race  with  displacement  February,   1777,  he  was  appointed  briga- 

if  not  with  destruction.    See  Detroit.  dier-general,     and     as     such     commanded 

Pony  Express,   an  express   service   es-  troops  in  the  campaign  against  Burgoyne, 

tablished  in  April,  1860.     It  was  part  of  after  whose  surrender  he  joined  the  army 

a  mail  line  between  New  York  and   San  under  Washington   in  Pennsylvania.     He 

Francisco  by  way  of  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  and  was  in  the  movements  near  Philadelphia 

Sacramento.     Between  the  two  last-named  late  in  the  year;    spent  the  winter  amid 

places  the  distance  was  traversed  by  fleet  the  snows  of  Valley  Forge,  and  in  June, 

horsemen,   each   of  whom  went  60   miles.  1778,  was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Mon- 

The  weight  carried  was  not  to  exceed   10  mouth.     He  accompanied  Sullivan  on  his 

pounds,   and  the  charge  was  $5   in  gold  expedition   against    the   Indians   in    1779. 

for  each  quarter  of  an  ounce.     The  riders  When   the    corps    of    light    infantry   was 

were  paid  $1,200  a  month.     The  distance  formed    (August,    1780),   Poor   was   given 

between  New  York  and  San  Francisco  by  command  of  one  of  the  two  brigades.     He 

the  aid  of  this  express  was  made  in  four-  was  killed  in  a  duel  with  a  French  officer 

teen  days.     The  pony  express  lasted  two  near  Hackensack,  N.  J.,  Sept.  8,  1780.    In 

years,  being  given  up  when  the  telegraph  announcing  his  death,  Washington  said  he 

line  across  the  continent  was  completed.  "was    an    officer    of    distinguished    merit, 

Poole,  William  Frederick,  librarian;  who,  as  a  citizen  and  a  soldier,  had  every 
born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Dec.  24,  1821;  grad-  claim  to  the  esteem  of  his  country, 
uated  at  Yale  College  in  1849;  librarian  Poor  Richard,  a  fictitious  name  as- 
of  the  Boston  Athenaeum  in  1856-69;  or-  sumed  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  In  1732  he 
ganized  the  public  library  of  Cincinnati,  began  the  publication  in  Philadelphia  of 
O.,  in  1869,  and  that  of  Chicago  in  1874.  an  almanac,  with  the  name  -of  Richard 
His  publications  include  Cotton  Mather  Saunders  as  author.  It  continued  twen- 
and  Salem  Witchcraft ;  The  Popham  Col-  ty-five  years.  Sometimes  the  author  call- 
ows// The  Ordinance  of  1181 ;  Anti-sla-  ed  himself  "  Poor  Richard,"  and  the  pub- 
very  Opinions  before  1800;  the  chapter  lication  was  generally  known  as  Poor  Rich- 
on  Witchcraft  in  the  Memorial  History  of  ard's  Almanac.  It  was  distinguished  for 
Boston;  Index  to  Periodic  Literature ;  and  its  numerous  maxims  on  temperance,  fru- 
The  Battle  of  Dictionaries.  He  died  gality,  order,  justice,  cleanliness,  chastity, 
in  Evanston,  111.,  March  1,  1894.  and  the  like.     It  has  been  said  that  its 

Poor,  Charles  Henry,  naval  officer;  precepts  are  "as  valuable  as  any  that 
born  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  June  11,  1808;  have  descended  from  Pythagoras." 
joined  the  navy  in  1825;  participated  with  Poore,  Benjamin  Perley,  journalist: 
distinction  in  numerous  important  actions  born  near  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Nov.  2, 
during  the  Civil  War.  While  in  command  1820;  learned  the  printer's  trade;  was  at- 
of  the  sloop-of-war  Saranac,  in  the  Pacific  taehe  of  the  American  legation  in  Brus- 
fleet  in  1863-65,  he  forced  the  government  sels  in  1841-48;  became  a  Washington 
at  Aspinwall  to  let  a  United  States  mail-  newspaper  correspondent  in  1854,  and  con- 
steamer  proceed  on  her  way  after  it  had  tinued  as  such  during  the  remainder  of 
been  held  to  pay  illegal  dues.  He  also  his  life.  His  publications  include  Cam- 
compelled  the  authorities  at  Rio  Hocha,  paigh  Life  of  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor;  Aqri- 
ISIew  Granada,  who  had  insulted  the  Amer-  cultural  History  of  Essex  County,  Mass. ; 
ican  flag  to  raise  and  salute  it.  He  was  The  Conspiracy  Trial  for  the  Murder  of 
promoted  rear-admiral  in  1868  and  retired  Abraham  Lincoln;  Federal  and  State- 
in  1870.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Charters;  The  Political  Register  and  Con- 
Nov.   5,    1882.  gressional   Directory;    Life   of   Burnsidei 

Poor,  Enoch,  military  officer;  born  in  Perley's  Reminiscences  of  Sixty  Years  in 

Andover,  Mass.,   June  21,    1736;    became  the  National  Metropolis,  etc.     He  died  in 

a  merchant  in  Exeter,  N.  H.     After  the  Washington,  D.  C,  May  30,   1887. 

fight    at    Lexington    he    was    appointed  Pope,  John,  military  officer;   born  In 

colonel  by  the  Provincial   Congress,  and  Louisville,  Ky.,  March  16,  1822;  graduated 

234 


POPE— POREY 


at  West  Point  in  1842,  entering  the  corps 
of  topographical  engineers.  He  served 
under  General  Taylor  in  the  war  against 


Mexico.  In  1849-50  he  conducted  explora- 
tions in  Minnesota,  and  from  1854  to  1859 
he  was  exploring  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In 
1S5G  he  was  made  captain,  and  in  1860,  in 
an  address  at  Cincinnati  on  "  Fortifica- 
tions," he  boldly  denounced  the  policy  of 
President  Buchanan,  for  which  offence  he 
was  court-martialled,  but  the  matter  was 
dropped.  Captain  Pope  was  one  of  the 
officers  who  escorted  Mr.  Lincoln  to  Wash- 
ington (February,  1801),  and  in  May  was 
made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  and 
appointed  to  a  command  in  Missouri, 
where  he  operated  successfully  until  the 
capture  of  Island  Number  Ten,  in  1862. 
In  March,  1862,  he  became  major-general 
of  volunteers,  and  in  April  he  took  com- 
mand of  a  division  of  Halleck's  army. 
Late  in  June  he  was  summoned  to  Wash- 
ington to  take  command  of  the  Army  of 
Virginia,  where,  for  fifteen  days  from  Aug. 
18,  he  fought  the  Confederate  army  under 
Lee  continuously;  but  finally  was  compell- 
ed to  take  refuge  behind  the  defences  of 
Washington.  At  his  own  request,  he  was 
relieved  of  the  command  of  the  Army  of 
Virginia  and  assigned  to  that  of  the  North- 
west. In  March,  1865,  he  was  brevetted 
major-general;  in  1882  was  promoted  ma- 
jor-general; and  in  1886  was  retired.  He 
died  in  Sandusky,  O.,  Sept.  23,  1892.  See 
Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson;  Logan,  John 
Alexander;  Porter,  Fitz-John. 


Popham,  George,  colonist;  born  in 
Somersetshire,  England,  about  1550;  be- 
came a  patentee  of  a  grant  in  the  present 
State  of  Maine;  and  sailed  from  Plym- 
outh, England,  May  31,  1G07,  with  two 
ships  and  100  men.  Popham  commanded 
one  of  the  vessels  and  Raleigh  Gilbert  the 
other.  The  expedition  was  a  failure. 
Popham  died  Feb.  5,  1608.  His  brother, 
Sir  John,  who  was  lord  chief-justice  of 
the  king's  bench,  and  an  earnest  pro- 
moter of  settlements  in  America,  was  born 
in  Somersetshire,  England,  in  1531;  be- 
came chief-justice  "dn  1592;  and  died  in 
June,  1607. 

Popular  Sovereignty.  See  Squatter 
Sovereignty. 

Popular  Vote  for  President.  Previous 
to  1824  no  returns  were  preserved  of  the 
popular  vote  for  President,  for  the  reason 
that  in  the  earier  elections  the  legislat- 
ures of  the  different  States  chose  the 
Presidential  electors.  Even  as  late  as 
1824  six  States — viz.,  Delaware,  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  New  York,  South  Carolina, 
and  Vermont,  thus  voted,  and  one  State, 
South  Carolina,  so  continued  to  vote  until 
1868.     See  Presidential  Elections. 

Population,  Centre  of.  See  Census; 
Centre  of  Population. 

Populists.     See  People's  Party. 

Porcupine's  Gazette.  William  Cob- 
bett,  British  soldier;  born  in  1762;  emi- 
grated to  America  in  1792.  He  published 
a  small  daily  paper  called  Porcupine's  Ga- 
zette, which  was  a  formidable  and  dread- 
ed adversary  of  the  "French"  (or  Re- 
publican) party;  and  the  Gazette  fought 
the  Aurora  with  the  keen  and  effective 
weapons  of  scathing  satire.  But  he  did 
not  spare  the  other  side,  and  often 
came  in  sharp  collision  with  the  Mi- 
nerva, the  leading  Federalist  paper  of 
New  York,  edited  by  Noah  Webster,  after- 
wards the  lexicographer.  Cobbett  assailed 
leading  citizens  in  his  Gazette,  and  was 
prosecuted  for  libels.  He  was  fined  $5,000 
for  a  libel  on  Dr.  Rush,  and  this  caused 
the  death  of  the  Gazette.  See  Cobbett, 
William. 

Porey,  John,  author  and  traveller ;  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge.  While  in  Italy,  in  1813. 
he  was  imprisoned  for  debt,  from  which 
he  was  released  by  Sir  Dudley  Carleton 
who  wrote  to  a  friend :  "  I  fear  he  has 
fallen  too  much  in  love  with  the  pot  to  be 


255 


PORTER 


much  esteemed."  At  about  the  same  time 
another  wrote  of  Porey :  "  He  must  have 
both  meat  and  money;  for  drink  he  will 
find  out  himself,  if  it  be  above  ground,  or 
no  deeper  than  the  cellar."  Porey  was 
made  secretary  of  the  Virginia  colony  in 
1019,  but,  on  account  of  his  exactions,  was 
recalled  in  1622.  Early  in  that  year  he, 
with  some  friends,  penetrated  the  country 
southward  beyond  the  Roanoke  River,  with 
a  view  to  making  a  settlement  (see  North 
Carolina).  On  his  arrival  in  London, 
Porey  joined  the  disaffected  members  of 
the  London  Company,  which  so  excited  the 
mind  of  the  King  against  the  corporation 
that,  in  1624,  he  deprived  them  of  their 
charter.  He  had  been  sent  early  in  that 
year  as  one  of  the  commissioners  to  inquire 
into  the  state  of  the  Virginia  colony, 
and  while  there  he  bribed  the  clerk  of  the 
council  to  give  him  a  copy  of  their  pro- 
ceedings, for  which  offence  the  poor  scribe 
vms  made  to  stand  in  the  pillory  and  lose 
one  of  his  ears. 

Porter,  Andrew,  military  officer;  born 
in  Worcester,  Montgomery  co.,  Pa.,  Sept. 
24,  1743;  was  made  captain  of  marines  in 
1776  and  ordered  on  board  the  frigate 
Effingham,  but  was  soon  transferred  to  the 
artillery  service.  He  served  with  great 
distinction,  and  at  the  end  of  the  war  was 
colonel  of  the  Pennsylvania  artillery.  In 
the  battle  of  Germantown  nearly  all  his 
company  were  killed  or  made  prisoners. 
He  was  with  Sullivan  in  his  expedition  in 
1779,  when  he  rendered  important  service 
by  the  exercise  of  his  scientific  knowledge. 
In  1784  he  was  a  commissioner  to  run  the 
State  boundary-lines,  and  in  1800  was 
made  major-general  of  the  State  militia. 
He  was  appointed  surveyor-general  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1809,  and  on  account  of 
his  age  and  infirmities  he  declined  a  seat 
in  Madison's  cabinet  as  Secretary  of  War. 
He  died  in  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Nov.  16,  1813. 

Porter,  David,  naval  officer;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  1,  1780;  was  appoint- 
ed a  midshipman,  April  16,  1798,  and,  as 
lieutenant  on  the  frigate  Constellation, 
fought  L'Insurgente  in  February,  1799, 
and  was  promoted  soon  afterwards.  He 
was  wounded  in  an  engagement  with  a 
pirate  (January,  1800)  off  Santo  Do- 
mingo, and  was  first  lieutenant  of  the  En- 
terprise, which  captured  a  Tripolitan  cor- 
sair.   He  afterwards  commanded  an  expe- 


dition that  destroyed  some  feluccas,  laden 
with  wheat,  under  the  batteries  at  Tripoli, 
where  he  was  wounded.     In  October,  1803, 


DAVID    PORTER. 


he  was  captured  in  the  Philadelphia  when 
she  grounded  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli,  and 
was  a  prisoner  and  slave  for  eighteen 
months.  In  1806,  in  command  of  the  En- 
terprise, he  fought  and  severely  handled 
twelve  Spanish  gunboats  near  Gibraltar. 
In  1812  he  was  commissioned  captain  and 
placed  in  command  of  the  Essex,  in  which 
he  made  a  long  and  successful  cruise  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

This  cruise  was  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable recorded  in  history.  He  had 
swept  around  the  southern  cape  of  South 
America,  and  up  its  western  coast,  and  on 
March  14,  1813,  after  being  enveloped  in 
thick  fogs  several  days,  he  saw  the  city 
and  harbor  of  Valparaiso,  the  chief  sea- 
port town  of  Chile.  There  he  learned,  for 
the  first  time,  that  Chile  had  become  an 
independent  state,  and  that  the  Spanish 
viceroy  of  Peru  had  sent  out  cruisers 
against  the  American  vessels  in  that 
region.  Porter's  appearance  with  a  strong 
frigate  was  very  opportune,  for  American 
commerce  then  lay  at  the  mercy  of  Eng- 
lish whale-ships  armed  as  privateers  and 
of  Peruvian  corsairs.  The  Essex  was 
cordially  welcomed  by  the  Chilean  authori- 


256 


SORTER 

ties.  She  put  to  sea  on  the  25th;  pressed  Essex  had  just  cast  anchor,  when  a  canOe 
np  the  coast;  and  soon  overhauled  a  Peru-  shot  out  from  the  shore  containing  three 
vian  corsair  which  had  captured  two  white  men — one  an  Englishman  who  had 
American  vessels.  He  took  from  her  all  been  there  twenty  years.  The  other  two 
the  captured  Americans,  cast  her  arma-  were  Americans — one  of  them  Midship- 
ment  overboard,  and  sent  her  into  Callao,  man  John  Maury,  of  the  navy.  They  in- 
with  a  letter  to  the  viceroy,  in  which  he  formed  Porter  that  a  war  was  raging  on 
denounced  the  piratical  conduct  of  her  the  island  between  native  tribes,  and  that, 
commander.  Recapturing  one  of  the  in  order  to  obtain  supplies,  he  would  have 
American  vessels,  Porter  sailed  for  the  to  take  part  with  the  Taeehs,  who  dwelt 
Galapagos  Islands,  the  resort  of  English  in  the  valley  that  opened  out  upon  the 
whalers.  There  were  over  twenty  of  them  bay.  Porter  sent  a  message  to  the  ene- 
in  that  region,  most  of  them  armed,  and  mies  of  the  Taeehs  that  he  had  a  force 
bearing  letters-of-marque.  Porter  cruised  sufficient  to  subdue  the  whole  island,  and 
among  the  islands  for  nearly  a  fortnight  that  if  they  ventured  into  the  valley  of 
without  meeting  a  vessel.  On  April  29  the  Taeehs  while  he  remained  he  would 
he  discovered  two  or  three  English  whale-  punish  them  severely.  He  gave  them  per- 
ships.  He  first  captured  the  Montezuma,  mission  to  bring  hogs  and  fruit  to  the 
He  had  made  a  flotilla  of  small  boats,  ship  to  sell,  and  promised  them  protection 
which  he  placed  under  the  command  of  while  trafficking.  In  an  interview  with 
Lieutenant  Downes.  These  pushed  for-  the  king  of  the  Taeehs,  Porter  agreed  to 
ward  and  captured  the  Oeorgiana  and  assist  him  in  his  wars.  With  muskets 
Policy.  From  these  Porter  procured  ample  and  a  cannon,  Porter's  men  drove  the  ene- 
snpplies  of  provisions  and  naval  stores,  mies  of  the  king  from  hill  to  hill,  until 
With  the  guns  of  the  Policy  added  to  they  made  a  stand,  4,000  strong,  and  sent 
those  of  the  Georgiana,  the  latter,  fitted  stones  and  javelins  against  their  assail- 
up  as  a  cruiser,  became  a  worthy  consort  ants.  The  hostile  tribes  soon  sued  for 
of  the  Essex.  Her  armament  now  con-  peace,  and  on  Nov.  19,  Porter  took  posses- 
sisted  of  sixteen  guns,  and  she  was  placed  sion  of  the  island  in  the  name  of  the 
under  the  command  of  Lieutenant  Downes.  United  States.  One  tribe  had  remained 
Other  English  vessels  were  soon  captured  hostile.  This  Porter  subdued.  On  Dec. 
and  fitted  up  as  cruisers;  and  at  the  end  12  he  started  for  home  in  the  Essex,  tak- 
of  eight  months  after  he  sailed  from  the  ing  with  him  the  three  white  men.  They 
Delaware  in  the  solitary  Essex,  Porter  reached  Valparaiso,  Feb.  3,  1814.  In  that 
found  himself  in  command  of  a  squadron  harbor  the  Essex  was  captured  by  the  Brit- 
of  nine  armed  vessels,  prepared  for  formid-  ish  ship  Phoebe,  and  the  great  conqueror 
able  naval  warfare.  In  July  he  captured  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  became  a  prisoner, 
the  Seringapatam,  an  English  vessel  built  Porter  was  one  of  the  naval  commis- 
for  a  cruiser  for  Sultan  Tippoo  Sahib,  sioners  from  1815  to  1823,  and  in  the 
Shq  was  the  most  formidable  enemy  of  latter  year  made  a  successful  cruise 
American  ships  on  the  Pacific.  against  pirates  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     In 

Porter  now  released  a  large  number  of  consequence  of  some  irregularity,  he  was 
his  prisoners  on  parole,  and  sent  them  to  suspended  from  command  for  six  months; 
Pio  Janeiro.  With  his  squadron  he  then  and  in  1826  he  resigned,  and  entered  the 
sailed  for  the  Marquesas  Islands,  captur-  Mexican  navy  as  its  commander-in-chief, 
ing  other  English  vessels  on  the  way,  and  He  was  appointed  United  States  consul 
late  in  October  he  anchored  in  the  bay  of  at  Algiers  in  1829;  and  when  that  coun- 
Nooaheevah  with  his  prizes.  The  Essex  try  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French  he 
was  the  first  vessel  that  carried  the  Amer-  was  made  charge  d'affaires  at  Constan- 
ican  pennant  to  these  far-distant  seas,  tinople,  where  he  afterwards,  as  American 
She  was  more  than  10,000  miles  from  minister,  negotiated  several  important 
home,  with  no  friendly  port  to  steer  to.  treaties.  He  was  minister  there  at  the 
She  had  swept  the  Pacific  of  her  enemies,  time  of  his  death,  March  3,  1843. 
and  now  lay,  surrounded  by  her  trophies,  Porter,  David  Dixon,  naval  officer ;  born 
in  the  quiet  waters  of  an  almost  unfre-  in  Chester,  Pa.,  June  8,  1813;  a  son  o/ 
quented  island  on  the  mighty  ocean.  The  David  Porter;  entered  the  navy  as  mid- 
vn. — B  257 


PORTER 


shipman,  Feb.  2,  1829.  He  was  attached  command  of  a  division.  In  May,  1-862,  he 
to  the  coast  survey  from  1836  to  1840.  took  command  of  the  5th  Army  Corps; 
Then  he  cruised  in  Brazilian  waters,  and  directed  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  Va.,  and 
served  in  the  Naval  Observatory  at  Wash-  was  one  of  McClellan's  most  efficient  com- 
ington  for  a  while.  He  engaged  in  the  war  manders  during  the  Peninsular  campaign 
against  Mexico  on  land  and  on  water,  and  ending  with  the  battle  of  Malvern  Hili 
in  1861  joined  the  Gulf  Squadron,  in  com-  (q.  v.).  For  services  in  that  campaign 
mand  of  the  Powhatan.  He  was  in  the  he  was  promoted  to  major-general  of 
expedition  up  the  Mississippi  against  New  volunteers.  Temporarily  attached  to  the 
Orleans  in  1862,  in  command  of  twenty-  Army  of  Virginia  (Pope's),  and  formal 
one  mortar-boats  and  several  steamers,  charges  having  been  made  against  him,  he 
Porter  did  important  service  on  the  Mis-  was  deprived  of  his  command.  At  the  re- 
sissippi  and  Bed  rivers  in  1863-64,  and  quest  of  General  McClellan,  he  was  re- 
was  conspicuous  in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg.  stored,  and  accompanied  that  general  in 
For  the  latter  service  he  was  promoted  the  campaign  in  Maryland.  In  November 
rear-admiral,  July  4,  1863.  In  1864  he  was  he  was  ordered  to  Washington  for  trial 
in  command  of  the  North  Atlantic  block-  by  court-martial,  on  charges  preferred  by 
ading  squadron,  and  rendered  efficient  General  Pope,  and  on  Jan.  21,  1863,  he 
service  in  the  capture  of  Fort  Fisher  in  was  cashiered  for  violation  of  the  9th  and 
January,    1865.      He    was    made    vice-ad-  52d  Articles  of  War.     In  1870  he  appealed 


miral    in   July,    1866;    admiral,    Oct.    17, 

1870;     and    was    superintendent    of    the    sentence,    and    in    1878    a 
Naval  Academy  from  1866  to   1870.     He 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb.  13,  1891. 
Porter,     Fitz-John,     military     officer; 
born    in    Portsmouth,    N.    H.,    June    13, 
1822;    a   cousin   of   David   Dixon   Porter; 


to  the  President  for  a  reversal  of  this 
commission  of 
inquiry  was  instituted  to  determine 
whether  there  was  new  evidence  in  his 
favor  sufficient  to  warrant  ordering  a  new 
trial.  He  was  finally  in  1886  restored  to 
his   rank    of    colonel    and   retired.      After 


graduated  at  West  Point  in   1845,  enter-  leaving  the  army  he  was  superintendexit  of 

ing  the  artillery  corps.     He  was  adjutant  the  building  of  the  New   Jersey  Asylum 

of  that  post  in  1853-54,  and  assistant  in-  for    the    Insane;    commissioner    of    public 

structor  of  cavalry  and  artillery  in  1854-  works    and    police    commissioner    in    New 

55.     In   1856  he  was  made  assistant  ad-  York  City;  and  was  offered,  but  declined, 

jutant-general.      In    May,    1861,    he    was  the  command  of  the  Egyptian  army.     He 

made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  and  died  in  Morristown,  N.  J.,  May  21,  1901. 

chief  of  staff  to  Generals  Patterson  and  See    Grant,    Ulysses    Simpson;    Logan, 


Banks    until    August,    when    he    was    as- 
signed to  the  Army  of   the  Potomac,  in 


FITZ-JOffS    PORTER. 


John  Alexander;  Pope,  John. 

Porter,  Horace,  diplomatist,  born  in 
Huntington,  Pa.,  April  15,  1837;  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy in  1860;  served  with  distinction 
through  the  Civil  War;  brevetted  briga- 
dier-general in  1865;  was  private  secretary 
to  President  Grant  in  1869-77;  and  be- 
came ambassador  to  France  in  1897.  He 
is  the  author  of  Campaigning  with  Grant. 

Porter,  James  Madison,  jurist;  born 
in  Selma,  Pa.,  Jan.  6,  1793;  served  in  the 
army  during  the  War  of  1812:  afterwards 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1813.  He  was  appointed  Secretary  of 
War  by  President  Tyler,  but  the  nomina- 
tion was  rejected  by  the  Senate.  He  died 
in  Easton,  Pa.,  Nov.  11,  1862. 

Porter,  Moses,  military  officer;  born  in 
Danvers,  Mass.,  in  1755;  was  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Bunker  (Breed's)  Hill,  and  many  of 
258 


ADMIRAL   DAVID    D.    PORTER 


PORTER 


the  prominent  battles  of  the  Revolution, 
and  was  one  of  the  few  old  officers  select- 
ed for  the  first  peace  establishment.  In 
1791  he  was  promoted  to  captain,  and 
served  under  Wayne  in  1794.  In  March, 
1812,  he  was  colonel  of  light  artillery, 
and  was  distinguished  at  the  capture  of 
Fort  George,  in  May,  1813.  He  accom- 
panied Wilkinson's  army  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  in  the  autumn  of  1814  was 
brevetted  brigadier  -  general,  and  ordered 
to  the  defence  of  Norfolk,  Va.  He  died  in 
Cambridge,  April  14,  1822. 

Porter,  Noah,  educator:  born  in  Farm- 
ington,  Conn.,  Dec.  14,  1811;  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1831;  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics and  Moral  Philosophy  in  Yale 
College  in  1846-71;  and  president  of  the 
same  in  1871-86.  His  publications  in- 
clude Historical  Discourse  at  Farmington, 
JVou.  -},  18-kO ;  The  Educational  System  of 
the  Puritans  and  Jesuits  Compared; 
American  Colleges  and  the  American  Pub' 
lie,  etc.  He  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
March  4,  1892. 

Porter,  Peter  Buel,  military  officer; 
born  in  Salisbury,  Conn.,  Aug.  4,  1773; 
studied  law,  and  began  practice  at  Canan- 
daigua,  N.  Y.,  in  1795;  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  1809  to  1813,  and  again  in 
1815-16.     He  settled  at  Black  Rock,  near 


for  his  skill  and  bravery,  and  received  the. 
thanks  of  Congress  and  a  gold  medal. 
President  Madison  offered  him  the  position 


PKTKK    Kt'Kl.    PORTER 


of  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  in  1815, 
which  he  declined.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  of  New  York  (1815-16),  and  was 
Secretary  of  War,  under  President  John 
Quincy   Adams,   in    1828.     General   Porter 


GENERAL  PORTER'S  MEDAL. 

Buffalo,  where  he  and  his  brothers  made  was  one  of  the  early  projectors  of  the 
large  purchases  of  land  along  the  Niagara  Erie  Canal,  and  one  of  the  first  board  of 
River.  A  leader  of  volunteers  on  the  commissioners.  He  died  at  Niagara  Falls, 
Niagara  frontier,  he  became  distinguished    March  20,   1844. 

259 


PORTER— POET    HUDSON" 


Porter,  Robert  P.,  journalist;  born  in 
Markham  Hall,  England,  June  30,  1852; 
received  a  common  school  education,  and 
came  to  the  United  States  early  in  life. 
He  became  connected  with  the  Chicago 
I iiter-Occan  in  1872;  was  a  member  of  the 
tariff  commission  in  1882;  later  estab- 
lished the  New  York  Press;  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  eleventh  census,  in  1889-93; 
and  special  United  States  commissioner 
to  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  in  1898-99.  He 
is  the  author  of  The  West  in  1880;  Life 
of  William  McKinley;  Municipal  Owner- 
ship at  Home  and  Abroad;  and  Industrial 
Cuba. 

Porter,  William  David,  naval  officer; 
born  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  March  10,  1S09; 
a  son  of  David  Porter;  entered  the  navy 
in  1823.  In  the  sloop-of-war  St.  Mary, 
on  the  Pacific  Station,  when  the  Civil 
War  broke  out,  he  was  wrongly  suspected 
of  disloyalty.  He  was  ordered  to  duty  on 
the  Mississippi  River,  in  fitting  out  a 
gunboat  fleet,  and  was  put  in  command 
of  the  Essex,  which  took  pa-rt  in  the  at- 
tacks on  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson.  when 
he  was  severely  scalded.  He  fought  his 
way  past  all  the  batteries  between  Cairo 
and  New  Orleans,  taking  part  in  the  at- 
tack on  Yicksburg.  He  caused  the  de- 
struction of  the  Confederate  ram  Ar- 
kansas, near  Baton  Rouge,  and  assisted 
in  the  attack  on  Port  Hudson.  For  these 
services  he  was  made  commodore  in  July, 
1862.  His  feeble  health  prevented  his 
doing  much  afterwards.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  May  1,  1864. 

Port  Gibson,  Battle  at.  Grant  cross- 
ed the  Mississippi  at  Bruinsburg  on  the 
gunboats  and  transports  which  had  run 
by  Grand  Gulf  in  1863.  His  troops  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  General  MeClernand's 
13th  Army  Corps.  These  troops  pushed 
forward  and  were  met  ( May  1 ) ,  8  miles 
from  Bruinsburg.  by  a  Confederate  force, 
which  was  pushed  back  to  a  point  4  miles 
from  Port  Gibson.  There  McClernand  was 
confronted  by  a  strong  force  from  Vicks- 
burg,  under  General  Bowen,  advantageous- 
ly posted.  The  Nationals  were  divided 
for  the  occasion.  On  McClernand's  right 
were  the  divisions  of  Generals  Hovey,  Carr, 
and  Smith,  and  on  his  left  that  of  Oster- 
haus.  The  former  pressed  the  Confeder- 
ates steadily  back  to  Port  Gibson.  The 
troops  of  Osterhaus  were  reinforced  by  a 


260 


brigade  of  General  Logan's  division  of  the 
advance  of  McPherson*s  corps,  and  others 
were  sent  to  help  McClernand.  Late  in  the 
afternoon  the  Confederates  were  repulsed 
and  pursued  to  Port  Gibson.  Night  ended 
the  conflict,  and  under  its  cover  the  Con- 
federates fled  across  a  bayou,  burning  the 
bridges  behind  them,  and  retreated  tow- 
ards Yicksburg.  The  Nationals  lost  in 
this  battle  840  men,  of  whom  130  were 
killed.  They  captured  guns  and  flags  and 
5S0  prisoners. 

Port  Hudson,  Capture  of.  Port  Hud- 
son, or  Hickey's  Landing,  was  on  a  high 
bluff  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  in 
Louisiana,  at  a  very  sharp  bend  in  the 
stream.  At  the  foot  of  the  bluff  was 
Hickey's  Landing.  The  Confederates  had 
erected  a  series  of  batteries,  extending 
along  the  river  from  Port  Hudson  to 
Thompson's  Creek  above,  a  distance  of 
about  3  miles.  They  were  armed  with  very 
heavy  guns.  They  were  field  batteries 
that  might  be  moved  to  any  part  of  the 
line.  Immediately  after  Banks  took  com- 
mand of  the  Department  of  the  Gulf  (Dec. 
IS,  1S62),  he  determined  to  attempt  to  re- 
move this  obstruction  to  the  navigation  of 
the  Mississippi.  He  sent  General  Grover 
with  10,000  men  to  occupy  Baton  Rouge, 
but  the  advance  on  Port  Hudson  was  de- 
layed, because  it  would  require  a  larger 
force  than  Banks  could  then  spare.  So 
he  operated  for  a  while  among  the  rich 
sugar  and  cotton  regions  of  Louisiana, 
west  of  the  river. 

In  March,  1863,  he  concentrated  his 
forces — nearly  25,000  strong — at  Baton 
Rouge.  At  the  same  time  Commodore  Far- 
ragut  had  gathered  a  small  fleet  at  a  point 
below  Port  Hudson,  with  a  determination 
to  run  by  the  batteries  there  and  recover 
the  control  of  the  river  between  that  place 
and  Vicksburg.  To  make  this  movement, 
Banks  sent  towards  Port  Hudson  (March 
13)  12,000  men,  who  drove  in  the  pickets, 
while  two  gunboats  and  some  mortar-boats 
bombarded  the  works.  That  night  Far- 
ragut  attempted  to  pass,  but  failed,  and 
Banks  returned  to  Baton  Rouge.  After 
more  operations  in  Louisiana.  Banks  re- 
turned to  the  Mississippi  and  began  the  in- 
vestment of  Port  Hudson,  May"  24,  1863. 
His  troops  were  commanded  by  Generals 
Weitzel,  Auger,  Grover.  Dwight,  and  T. 
W.  Sherman,  and  the  beleaguered  garrison 


PORT    HUDSON,    CAPTURE    OF 


was  under  the  command  of  Gen.  Frank  K. 
Gardner.  Farragut,  with  his  flag-ship 
(Hartford)  and  one  or  two  other  vessels, 
was  now  above  Port  Hudson,  holding  the 
river,  while  four  other  gunboats  and  some 
niortar-boats,  under  Commander  C.  H.  B. 
Caldwell,  held  it  below. 

On  May  27  Banks  opened  his  cannon  on 
the  works  in  connection  with  those  on  the 


in  which  the  Nationals  lost  1,842  men,  of 
whom  293  were  killed.  The  Confederate 
loss  did  not  exceed  300  in  killed  and 
mounded. 

Banks,  undismayed  by  this  disastrous 
failure,  continued  the  siege.  His  great  guns 
and  those  of  Farragut  hurled  destruc- 
tive missiles  upon  the  works  daily,  wear- 
ing out  the  garrison  by  eyessive  watch- 


FASRAGUT   PASSING   THE   BATTERIES   AT   PORT   HUDSON-. 


water,  preparatory  to  a  general  assault. 
The  attack  was  made  at  10  a.m.  by  a  por- 
tion of  the  troops,  but  others  did  not 
come  up  in  time  to  make  the  assault  gen- 
eral. A  very  severe  battle  was  fought, 
the  Nationals  making  desperate  charges, 
from  time  to  time,  and  gaining  ground 
continually.  In  this  contest  was  the  first 
fair  trial  of  the  mettle  of  negro  troops. 
The  Confederates  were  driven  to  their 
fortifications,  and,  at  sunset,  they  were 
all  behind  their  works.  Close  up  to  them 
the  Nationals  pressed,  and  they  and  their 
antagonists  held  opposite  sides  of  the 
parapet.  This  position  the  Nationals  on 
the  right  continued  to  hold,  but  those  on 
the  left,  exposed  to  a  flank  fire,  withdrew 
to  a  belt  of  woods  not  far  off.  So  ended 
the  first  general  assault  on  Port  Hudson. 


ing  and  fatigue.  Their  provisions  and 
medical  stores  were  failing,  and  famine 
threatened  the  brave  defenders  of  the  post. 
It  was  closely  hemmed  in,  and  so,  also, 
was  the  besieging  force  of  about  12,000 
men  by  a  hostile  population  and  concen- 
trating Confederate  cavalry  in  its  rear, 
while  Gen.  Richard  Taylor  was  gathering 
a  new  army  in  Louisiana,  west  of  the 
river.  A  speedy  reduction  of  the  fort  had 
become  a  necessity  for  Banks,  and  on  June 
11  another  attempt  was  made,  and  failed. 
This  was  followed  by  an  attempt  to  take 
the  fort  by  storm  on  the  14th.  At  that 
time  the  Nationals  lay  mostly  in  two 
lines,  forming  a  right  angle,  with  a  right 
and  left  but  no  centre.  When  a  final  dis- 
position for  assault  was  made,  General 
Gardner  was  entreated  to  surrender  and 


261 


PORT  REPUBLIC— PORT  ROYAL 


stop  the  effusion  of  blood,  but  he  refused, 
hoping,  as  did  Pemberton,  at  Vicksburg, 
that  Johnston  would  come  to  his  relief. 

The  grand  assault  began  at  dawn  (June 
14)  by  Generals  Grover,  Weitzel,  Auger, 
and  Dwight.  A  desperate  battle  ensued, 
and  the  Nationals  were  repulsed  at  all 
points,  losing  about  700  men.  Again  the 
siege  went  on^as  usual.  The  fortitude  of 
the  half-starved  garrison,  daily  enduring 
the  affliction  of  missiles  from  the  land  and 
water,  was  wonderful.  Gun  after  gun  on 
the  Confederate  works  was  disabled,  until 
only  fifteen  remained  on  the  land  side; 
and  only  twenty  rounds  of  ammunition 
for  small-arms  were  left.  Famine  was 
about  to  do  what  the  National  arms  could 
rot  effect — compel  a  surrender — when  the 
garrison  was  startled  (July  7)  by  the 
thunder  of  cannon  along  the  whole  line 
of  their  assailants,  and  shouts  from  the 
pickets,  "Vicksburg  is  taken!"  That 
night  Gardner  sent  a  note  to  Banks,  ask- 
ing if  the  report  were  true,  and  if  so,  re- 
questing a  cessation  of  hostilities.  The 
surrender  of  the  post  and  all  its  men  and 
property  was  completed  on  July  9,  when 
6,408  men,  including  455  officers,  were 
made  prisoners  of  war.  The  little  hamlet 
of  Port  Hudson  was  in  ruins.  The  loss 
of  Banks  during  the  siege  of  forty-five 
clays  was  about  3,000  men,  and  that  of 
Gardner,  exclusive  of  prisoners,  about  800. 
The  spoils  of  victory  were  the  important 
post,  two  steamers,  fifty-one  pieces  of 
artillery,  5,000  small-arms,  and  a  large 
amount  of  fixed  ammunition.  Banks  re- 
ported that  his  winnings  in  Louisiana  up 
to  that  time  were  the  partial  repossession 
of  large  areas  of  territory,  10,584  prison- 
ers, seventy-three  great  guns,  6,000  small- 
arms,  three  gunboats,  eight  transports, 
and  a  large  amount  of  cotton  and  cattle. 
This  conquest  gave  the  final  blow  to  the 
obstruction  of  the  navigation  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River.  On  July  16,  1863,  the 
steamer  Imperial,  from  St.  Louis,  arrived 
at  New  Orleans,  the  first  communication 
of  the  kind  between  the  two  cities  in  two 
years.  Then  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi, 
as  President  Lincoln  said,  "went  unvexed 
to  the   sea." 

Port  Republic,  Battle  at.  Before 
the  battle  of  Cross  Keys  (q.  v.),  "  Stone- 
wall "  Jackson  had  crossed  the  Shenandoah 
River,  and  was  encamped  at  Port  Repub- 


lic. The  vanguard  of  Shields's  force,  under 
General  Carroll — less  than  1,000  infantry, 
150  cavalry,  and  a  battery  of  six  guns — ■ 
had  arrived  there  almost  simultaneously 
with  Jackson.  With  his  cavalry  and  five 
pieces  of  artillery,  Carroll  dashed  into 
the  village,  drove  Jackson's  cavalry  out 
of  it,  and  took  possession  of  the  bridge 
that  spanned  the  river.  Had  he  burned 
that  structure,  he  might  have  ruined  Jack- 
son, for  he  would  have  cut  him  off  from 
Ewell  at  Cross  Keys.  But  he  waited  for 
his  infantry  to  come  up,  and  was  attacked 
by  a  superior  force  and  driven  to  a  point 
2  miles  from  the  town,  where  he  was 
afterwards  joined  by  Gen.  E.  B.  Tyler 
and  his  brigade,  2,000  strong,  Tyler  taking 
command.  Meanwhile,  Ewell  had  escaped 
from  Fremont,  crossed  the  bridge,  and 
reinforced  Jackson.  A  flanking  move- 
ment was  now  begun  by  the  Confederates, 
which  Tyler  resisted  with  his  whole  force, 
about  3,000  in  number.  With  these  he 
drove  8,000  Confederates  into  the  woods. 
At  the  same  time  an  augmented  force  at- 
tacked Tyler's  right,  and  a  severe  battle 
ensued.  Gen.  Dick  Taylor's  Louisiana 
brigade  made  a  sudden  dash  through  the 
woods  and  captured  a  National  battery, 
when  Colonel  Candy,  with  Ohio  troops, 
made  a  countercharge  and  recaptured  it, 
with  one  of  the  guns  of  the  Confederates. 
The  artillery-horses  having  been  killed, 
he  could  not  carry  off  the  battery;  but  he 
took  back  with  him  sixty-seven  Confeder- 
ates. So  overwhelming  was  Jackson's 
force  that  Tyler  was  compelled  to  retreat, 
and  was  pursued  about  5  miles,  covered 
by  Carroll's  cavalry.  The  battle  was  dis- 
astrous to  the  Nationals,  but  it  was  rec- 
ognized by  both  sides  as  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  of  the  war.  In  the  engagement 
and  retreat  the  Confederates  captured' 
450  prisoners  and  800  muskets.  The  Na- 
tional army  then  fell  back  to  Harrison- 
burg (June  9,  1864),  when  Fremont  went 
on  to  Mount  Jackson,  and  Shields  to  New- 
market. 

Port  Royal,  Capture  of.  In  1690, 
the  Indians  having  taken  the  fort  at 
Pemaquid,  and  French  privateers  from 
Acadia  infesting  the  coasts  of  New  Eng- 
land, the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts 
determined  to  seize  Port  Royal,  N.  S. 
A  fleet  of  eight  small  vessels,  bearing  about 
800  men,  under  the  command  of  Sir  Will- 


262 


PORT  ROYAL  FERRY— PORT  ROYAL  SOUND 

iam  Phipps,   sailed   for   that   purpose   on  Presbyterians  were  persecuted.     Some  of 

April  28.    The  weak  fort  was  surrendered  their    agents   went    to    England    to    treat 

without    resistance,    and    the    whole    sea-  with   the  proprietaries  of  Carolina  for  a 

coast   from   that   town    to    the   northeast  lodgment  there.     It  is  believed  that  one 

settlements   was   taken    possession  of    by  of  these  agents  was  Lord  Cardross,  and 

Sir  William.  that  his   colony   were   Presbyterians,   who 

Port  Royal  Ferry,  Battle  at.  After  preferred  exile  in  peace  to  their  native 
an  expedition  from  Hampton  Roads,  under  land,  where  they  were  continually  harass- 
Admiral  Dupont  and  Gen.  T.  W.  Sherman,  ed.  When  Cardross  arrived  there  were 
had  taken  possession  of  Port  Royal  Sound  instant  premonitions  of  trouble.  In  pur- 
and  the  neighboring  islands  (Nov.  7,  suance  of  some  agreement  or  understand- 
1861),  the  only  stand  made  by  the  Con-  ing  with  the  proprietaries,  Lord  Cardross 
federates  in  defence  of  the  South  Caro-  claimed /for  himself  and  associates  co- 
lina  coast  islands  was  at  Port  Royal  ordinate  authority  with  the  governor  and 
Ferry,  on  the  Coosa,  at  the  close  of  the  grand  council  at  Charleston.  This  claim 
year.  Gen.  R.  S.  Ripley,  formerly  of  the  the  provincial  government  disallowed, 
National  army,  who  had  joined  the  Con-  and  the  colony  at  Port  Royal  was  corn- 
federates,  was  in  command  of  that  sea-  pelled  to  acknowledge  submission.  Soon 
coast  district,  and  had  established  a  for-  afterwards  Lord  Cardross  returned  home, 
tified  post  at  the  ferry.  When  the  Some  time  afterwards  his  colonists  were 
Nationals  landed  at  Beaufort  it  had  a  dislodged  by  the  Spaniards  at  St.  Au- 
garrison  estimated  to  be  8,000  strong,  gustine  (1686),  who  accused  them  of  in- 
under  Generals  Gregg  and  Pope.  The  Na-  citing  the  Indians  to  invade  their  terri- 
tionals  proceeded  to  expel  them.     For  this  tory. 

purpose  a  joint  land  and  naval  force,  the  In  1779,  when  Prevost  joined  Campbell 
former  commanded  by  Brigadier-General  at  Savannah,  the  British  commanders  de- 
Stevens,  and  the  latter  by  Commodore  termined  to  extend  a  part  of  their  forces 
C.  R.  P.  Rogers,  proceeded  to  attack  into  South  Carolina.  Major  Gardiner 
them.  Stevens  had  about  4,000  troops —  was  detached,  with  200  men,  to  take  pos- 
of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Michi-  session  of  Port  Royal  Island;  but  soon 
gan ;  and  the  naval  force  consisted  of  four  after  he  landed,  General  Moultrie,  with 
gunboats,  an  armed  ferry-boat,  and  four  the  same  number  of  men  (only  nine  of 
large  row-boats,  each  carrying  a  12-  whom  were  regulars),  attacked  and  drove 
pounder  howitzer.  The  expedition  moved  him  off  the  island.  Two  field-pieces,  well 
on  the  evening  of  Dec.  31.  The  land  and  served  by  some  militia  under  Captains 
naval  forces  were  joined  3  miles  below  Heyward  and  Rutledge,  were  principally 
the  ferry  on  the  morning  of  Jan.  1,  1862,  gainers  of  this  advantage.  A  small  body 
and  pressed  forward  to  the  attack.  The  of  horsemen,  under  Capt.  John  Barnwell, 
first  onset  was  sharp  and  quick.  A  con-  who  gained  the  rear  of  the  British,  were 
cealed  battery  near  the  ferry,  that  was  also  efficient  in  contributing  to  the  re- 
opened   upon    the    Nationals    was    soon  suit. 

silenced  by  a  close  encounter,  in  which  Port  Royal  Sound,  Expedition  to. 
the  8th  Michigan  bore  the  brunt.  But  On  the  morning  of  Oct.  29,  1861,  a  land 
very  little  fighting  occurred  afterwards,  and  naval  armament  left  Hampton  Roads 
The  Confederates,  seeing  the  gunboats  for  a  destination  known  only  to  the  offi- 
coming  forward,  abandoned  their  works  cers.  It  was  composed  of  fifty  ships-of- 
and  fled,  and  the  Pennsylvania  "  Round-  war  and  transports,  commanded  by  Ad- 
heads  "  passed  over  the  ferry  and  oc-  miral  S.  F.  Dupont,  and  15,000  troops 
cupied  them.  The  works  were  demolished,  under  Gen.  T.  W.  Sherman.  Dupont's 
and  the  houses  in  the  vicinity  were  burned,  flag-ship  Wabash  led  the  way  out  to  sea, 
Stevens  had  nine  men  wounded,  one  mor-  and  each  ship  sailed  under  sealed  orders, 
tally.  to  be  opened  in  case  of  the  dispersion  of 

Port   Royal   Island,    Settlement   on.  the  fleet.    Off  Cape  Hatteras  the  fleet  was 

In   1692  Lord  Cardross    (afterwards  Earl  so  terribly  smitten  by  a  tempest  that  very 

of    Buchan),    a    Scotch    nobleman,    led    a  soon  only  one  vessel   could  be  seen  from 

colony   from  his   native   land,   where   the  the    deck    of    the    flag-ship.      The    sealed 

263 


POET    BOYAL    SOUND,    EXPEDITION    TO 


MAP    SHOWING    T1IK    POSITION*    OF    PORT    ROYAI,. 


orders  were  opened,  and  each  commander  little  bundles  containing  all  their  worldly 
was  ordered  to  rendezvous  at  Port  Royal  possessions,  ready  to  go  on  board  the 
Sound,  on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  ships  of  the  invaders,  who,  they  had  been 
There  all  but  four  transports  that  were  told,  were  coming  to  steal  or  sell  the 
lost  were  gathered  on  the  evening  of  negroes  in  Cuba,  or  to  kill  and  bury  them 
Nov.  4.  No  human  life  on  the  perished  in  the  sound.  In  the  conflict  with  the 
transports  had  been  lost.  The  entrance  forts  at  the  entrance  of  the  sound  Dupont 
to  the  sound,  between  Hilton  Head  and 
Phillip's  Island,  was  guarded  by  the  Con- 
federates with  a  strong  battery  on  each 
side  —  Forts  Walker  and  Beauregard. 
Within  the  sound  was  a  small  Confederate 
flotilla,  commanded  by  the  veteran  Com- 
modore Tatnall,  formerly  of  the  United 
States  navy.  It  was  called  the  "  Mos- 
quito Fleet."  The  guns  of  the  guarding 
forts  were  silenced,  and  on  the  morning 
of  Nov.  7  Dupont's  fleet  passed  into  the 
sound  and  drove  Tatnall's  vessels  into 
shallow  water.  The  National  forces  took 
possession  of  Port  Royal  Island  and  the 
neighboring  ones,  and  found  them  desert- 
ed by  the  planters  and  their  families. 
Most  of  the  slaves  remained.  They  re- 
fused to  follow  their  masters.  Groups  of 
them  actually  stood  upon  the  shore   with 

264 


PLAN  OF  BATTLE  AT  PORT  ROYAL. 


PORTO    RICO 

had  lost  eight  killed  and  twenty-three  sion  of  Hilton  Head  also,  General  Sher- 
wounded.  The  Confederate  officers  re-  man  went  vigorously  to  work  to  strength- 
ported  their  loss  in  both  forts  (Walker  en  the  position.  The  Nationals  held  the 
and  Beauregard)  at  ten  killed  and  forty  islands  and  controlled  Port  Royal  Sound 
wounded.      Troops    having    taken    posses-  until  the  end  of  the  war.  » 


PORTO    RICO 

Porto  Rico,  an  island  in  the  West  3,000  feet,  with  occasional  summits  slight- 
Indies,  one  of  the  Greater  Antilles;  for-  ly  above  3,000  feet  and  gaps  slightly  be- 
merly  belonging  to  Spain,  but  occupied  by  low  2,000  feet.  This  range  is  known  in  dif- 
the  United  States  as  a  conquest  of  war  in  ferent  parts  of  the  island  by  various 
1898.  The  Spanish  spelling  of  the  first  names,  Cordillera  Central,  Sierra  de 
word  is  Puerto,  and  this  form  was  fol-  Cayey,  and  in  the  northeast  Sierra  de  Lu- 
lowed  by  United  States  authorities  till  an  quilla.  From  its  crest  the  land  slopes 
act  of  Congress,  approved  April  12,  1900,  northward  and  southward  in  broad  undu- 
established  the  form  Porto.  lations,    deeply    cut    by    streams,    giving 

Location. — The  island  is  the  easternmost  most  of  the  interior  of  the  island  a  steep, 
and  smallest  of  the  Greater  Antilles;  is  hilly  surface,  gradually  becoming  more 
within  the  tropics, between  latitudes  17°  50'  nearly  level,  until  near  the  coast  it  spreads 
and  18°  30'  N.  and  longitudes  65°  30'  and  into  broad  level  playas.  This  range 
67°  15'  W. ;  lies  east  of  Haiti,  being  sepa-  forms  the  water  divide  of  the  island,  and 
rated  from  it  by  Mona  Passage;  is  in  shape  from  it  streams  flow  northward  and 
rudely  rectangular,  its  longest  axis  lying  southward,  those  flowing  north  having 
east  and  west;  is  a  trifle  over  100  miles  much  the  longer  courses  and  gentler 
long  and  about  36  miles  wide;  area  ap-  slopes.  None  of  these  streams  are  navi- 
proximately  3,600  square  miles,  three-  gable,  excepting  for  a  very  few  miles  near 
fourths  the  size  of  Connecticut.  The  isl-  their  mouths,  where  they  are  in  effect 
and  is  divided  into  seven  departments,  estuaries.  The  largest  are  the  Rios, 
viz.,  Aguadilla,  Arecibo,  Bayamon,  Gua-  Loiza,  Bayamon,  Morovis,  Arecibo,  and 
yama,  Humacao,  Mayaguez,  and  Ponce.  Blanco,  all  on  the  north  of  the  dividing 
At  the  time  of  the  American  occupation  ridge.  On  the  south  the  dividing  ridge 
the  departments  were  subdivided  into  69  descends  steeply,  with  short  spurs  and  a 
municipal  districts,  and  these  in  turn  into  narrow  coastal  plain.  Here  the  streams 
barrios,  or  outlying  tracts.  Besides  the  are  short,  with  very  steep  descents.  The 
main  island  the  United  States  has  juris-  coast  is  low  and  for  the  most  part  simple, 
diction  over  the  islands  of  Vieques  and  with  few  good  harbors,  the  best  beinsr  that 
Celubra,  lying  to  the  eastward,  and  Isla  of  San  Juan,  on  the  north  coast.  Ponce 
Mona  to  the  west,  in  the  Mona  Passage,  and  Guanica  are  the  only  harbors  on  the 
together  with  a  few  other  islets  in  their  south  coast  into  which  vessels  of  ordinary 
neighborhood.  Since  the  occupation  the  draft  can  enter,  but  the  island  of  Vieques 
municipalities  have  been  reduced  to  46  has  several  commodious  ports  where  the 
in  number,  the  others  having  been  consoli-  largest  ships  can  ride  at  anchor.  The 
dated  with  their  larger  and  more  prosper-  coast  of  Porto  Rico,  unlike  that  of  Cuba, 
ous  neighbors.  is  not  bordered  by  fringing  reefs  or  islets. 

Physical  Features. — The  structure  of  the  Climate. — Lying  in  the  tropics,  the  isl- 
island  is  simple.  Passing  across  it  from  and  is  within  the  region  of  the  southwest 
east  to  west,  a  little  south  of  the  middle  trades,  which  blow  with  great  regularity, 
of  its  breadth,  is  a  broken,  irregular  range  The  annual  temperature  at  San  Juan,  on 
of  hills  or  low  mountains,  which  towards  the  north  coast,  ranges  in  different  years 
the  eastern  end  trends  northeastward,  and  from  78°  to  82°  F.  The  mean  monthly 
terminates  near  the  northeastern  corner  of  temperature  ranges  from  75°  in  January 
the  island,  where  it  culminates  in  the  peak  to  82°  in  August.  The  maximum  tem- 
of  El  Yunque,  3.609  feet  in  altitude.  Else-  perature  on  record  is  99°,  and  the  mini- 
where  it  ranges  in  altitude  from  2,000  to    mum  57°,  indicating  a  very  slight  range 

265 


PORTO    RICO 


and  a  uniform  climate.  The  only  dif- 
ference of  temperature  to  be  observed 
throughout  the  island  is  due  to  altitude, 
the  highlands  of  the  interior  having  a 
mean  annual  temperature  as  low  as  72°  F. 
Serious  storms  occur  and  occasional  earth- 
quakes, but  the  latter  are  not  violent, 
doing  but  little  damage.  The  annual  rain- 
fall at  San  Juan  averages  sixty  inches, 
about  the  same  as  at  New  Orleans,  and 
nearly  two-thirds  of  this  falls  in  the  sum- 
mer and  autumn.  The  annual  relative 
humidity  at  the  capital  is  very  high, 
averaging  not  far  from  eighty  per  cent. 
The  annual  rainfall  increases  eastward 
from  San  Juan,  until  near  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  island  it  exceeds  100  inches. 


are  sugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  coffee,  and 
fruits.  In  the  fiscal  year  1902-03  the  ex- 
portation of  sugar  was  the  largest  on 
record,  reaching  233,070,000  pounds,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  molasses,  the 
quantity  being  3,537,000  gallons.  The  ex- 
port of  tobacco  in  leaf  was  valued  at  $135,- 
080;  as  cigars  and  cigarettes,  $1,755,311. 
An  improvement  in  quality  and  increase 
in  yield  were  features  of  the  year's  crop. 
The  coffee  crop  was  about  39,650,000 
pounds,  and  the  value  of  its  export,  $718,- 
531.  Cotton-growing  was  greatly  stimu- 
lated during  the  year.  The  variety  is  the 
famous  and  valuable  Sea  Island  cotton, 
and  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington     is    liberally    promoting    in- 


STREET  SCENE  IN  SAN  JCAN. 


It  increases  also  upon  the  highlands  of  the 
interior,  reaching  a  maximum  upon  the 
dividing  ridge  of  nearly  100  inches.  The 
south  slope  of  the  island,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  much  drier,  both  rainfall  and 
atmospheric  moisture  being  less,  so  much 
so  that  in  some  regions  irrigation  is  neces- 
sary for  cultivation  of  crops. 

Agriculture. — The  principal  productions 


266 


creased  acreage  and  the  highest  grade  of 
cultivation.  Fruit  culture  has  advanced 
decidedly.  Within  three  or  four  years 
about  10,000  acres  of  land  have  been  plant- 
ed with  oranges.  The  superior  flavor  of 
the  native  wild  orange  is  such  that  many 
planters  have  budded  with  them,  expect- 
ing to  produce  the  very  best  fruit  in  this 
way.     The  value   of   oranges   exported   in 


PORTO    RICO 

1902-03,  mostly  from  wild  trees,  was  $230,-  Finances. — Official  reports  of  the  Treas- 
589,  as  against  $51,364  in  1901-02.  Much  ury  Department  on  June  30,  1903, 
larger  attention  also  is  being  given  to  the  showed:  Balance  from  previous  year,  $1,- 
growing  of  the  pineapple.  358,468.86;   receipts  from  customs,  $771,- 

Mineralogy. — The  mineral  deposits  have  447.90;  from  internal  revenue,  $1,609,- 
not  attracted  particular  attention  as  yet,  433.69;  from  other  sources,  $69,111.35; 
although  it  is  known  that  there  are  con-  repayments  and  transfers,  $52,688.13; 
siderable  deposits  of  iron  and  copper,  and  trust  funds  deposited,  $1,004,624.80;  re- 
that  gold  and  silver  have  been  found  in  payments  and  transfers,  $20,100.61 — 
the  mountains.  During  1902-03  there  total  receipts,  $4,885,875.34.  The  expendi- 
were  fifty-three  claims  prosecuted  in  the  tures  were:  Legislative,  $116,205.13;  ex- 
bureau  of  mines,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  ecutive,  $1,902,317.12;  judicial,  $204,- 
there  were  eighty  mining  claims  in  force.    891.83;     settlement    payments    of    sundry 

Commerce. — For  the  first  time  since  the  claims,  $234,598.38;  transfers  to  trust 
American  occupation  the  foreign  trade  funds,  $14,598.43;  advanced  from  trust 
yielded  a  balance  in  favor  of  the  island  funds  to  the  Department  of  the  Interior, 
in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1903.  The  $429,274.03,  to  the  Department  of  Educa- 
total  imports  were  $14,179,575;  total  ex-  tion,  $94,486.96;  payment  of  claims,  $602,- 
ports,  $14,866,644.  The  imports  from  the  856.01 ;  transfer  to  insular  revenues  from 
United  States  amounted  to  $11,976,134,  trust  funds,  $1,244.29— total  expenditures, 
principally  rice,  cotton  manufactures,  pro-  $3,600,832.18,  leaving  a  balance  of  $1,285,- 
visions,  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  043.16.  Of  the  balance  $344,310  only  was 
breadstuff's,  and  wood  and  leather  manu-  available  for  ordinary  insular  expendi- 
factures;  and  the  exports  to  the  United  tures,  the  remainder  belonging  to  trust 
States,  $10,909,147,  made  up  of  sugar,  to-  funds,  viz.,  $887,939.28  representing  the 
bacco,  cigars  and  cigarettes,  molasses,  balance  of  the  funds  set  aside  by  Congres* 
fruits,  and  coffee.  for  permanent  improvements,  and  $52,793.- 

Under  the  Spanish  regime  the  total  ex-  30  money  due  municipalities  or  held  in 
ports  to  the  United  States  and  total  im-  trust  for  other  purposes.  The  receipts  for 
ports  from  the  United  States  were  as  the  year  exceeded  the  expenditures  by 
follows:  $29,710.18. 

NON-AGRICULTURAL  imports  FROM  THE  Public      Instruction.— The      system      of 

UNITED  states.  schools    of   the    island    is   built   upon    the 

F,?r  \Hl $879'725    common  public  school,  which  takes  a  child 

"     1895.! ....................... ','".'."  781 ! 751    at  nve  or  s'x  years  of  age  and  carries  him 

"     1896'.'.".'.'.".""'/.'.'.'.".!".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.!!'.!'.;'.  868',504    through  eight  years  of  school  life.    All  the 

'  .  1^97 — •••• y: ■••; 794,333    town  schools  are  graded  and  in  many  of 

Chiefly  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  and  wood.    ,,  ■  ,  ,  ,    °  ,  „  . 

them  eight  grades  are  successfully  main- 

AGRICULTURAL    imports    FROM    THE    UNITED    tained.     The  grading  has  been  found  very 

STATR9 

For  1893  $1  649  356  difficult,   because   many   children   entering 

"    1894 !!! 1,825]921  school,   even   of   sufficiently   advanced   age 

1895 1,038,452  to  do  high-school  work,  had  never  had  any 

»,     1897 1 170  527  cc^ucational  advantages  whatever  and  were 

Chiefly  bread  and  brea'dVtuffs.    '  not  able  to  read  or  write.     Official  reports 

for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1903,  showed: 

NON- AGRICULTURAL    EXPORTS    TO    THE    UNITED  ^   .  •        ,     ,  ,    ?•  t      \.      i  n~,n 

states.  Estimated  population  of  school  age,  377,- 

For  1893 ' $15,905  200;    enrolled   in   the   public   schools,   70,- 

„    j^qi o!'q!u  ~^'     roax™uni     number    of     schools    in 

u     iggg 34400  °Peration,  1,014,  of  which  427  were  graded 

"    1897 ."!!!.'!!!!."!!!!!!!!!!  86,705  or    town    schools;    school   buildings,    717; 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPORTS  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES.  m™,    ™mh*r      «f      teachers       1,354  ; 

For  1893  $3  992  718  sPecia^    schools,    89,    including    10    kinder- 

"    1894 !...!.! .'..!  3.122,046  gartens,    44    night    schools,    6    industrial 

1895 1,482,171  schools,  23  high-schools;  2  practice  schools ; 

u    1896  2  VfY*  25^  i 

,i    jqqw 2094319  anc^  ^  normal   schools;    total   expenditure 

Chiefly  sugar  and  molasses.  '         for    public    education    from    all    sources, 

267 


PORTO    RICO 

$817,814,  or  $7.99  per  pupil  enrolled.     Of  across  the  island  in  a  northwesterly  direc- 

the  expenditures,  $14,864  was  for  the  edu-  tion,  a  distance  of  about  eighty  miles,  and 

cation    of    Porto-Rican    students    in    the  connecting  San  Juan  with  Ponce ;  the'  road 

United  States.  leading  from  Cayey,  on  the  military  road, 

Religion. — Under      Spanish      rule      the  to  Guayama,  on  the  coast,  a  distance  of 

Roman  Catholic  was  the  only  recognized  about  twenty-eight  miles;    and  the  roads 


A   NATIVE    VILLAGE,    PORTO   RICO. 


form  of  religion  on  the  island,  with  the  from  Toa  Alta  to  Bayamon,  from  Baya- 
exception  that  by  a  special  decree  the  mon  to  Rio  Piedras,  from  Bayamon  to 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  had  been  per-  Catano,  and  from  Ponce  to  Guayama,  the 
mitted  to  establish  itself  in  Ponce.  The  last  group  being  only  fairly  good.  The 
latter  church  has  since  consecrated  a  military  road  is  a  stone  macadam,  very 
bishop,  the  Rev.  James  H.  Van  Buren,  carefully  built,  with  a  most  complete  sys- 
for  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  jointly.  As  tem  of  bridges  and  culverts,  and  is  con- 
freedom  of  worship  is  now  guaranteed  sidered  one  of  the  finest  roads  in  the 
throughout  the  island,  other  denomina-  Western  World.  From  the  trust  funds 
tions  are  rapidly  acquiring  establishments  allotted  for  internal  improvements  a  lib- 
there,  eral  amount  was  set  aside  for  road-making 
Communications. — At  the  time  of  the  and  repairs  in  1902-03,  and  at  the  end  of 
American  occupation  the  roads  and  high-  that  year  the  Ponce-Arecibo  road  was  well 
ways,  with  few  exceptions,  were  in  the  advanced  in  construction;  the  Manaubo- 
worst  possible  condition.  The  exceptions  Yabucoa  road  was  nearing  completion ;  re- 
were  the  military  road  extending  entirely  pairs  had  been  made  on  the  Camuy-Agua- 

268 


POUTO    RICO 


dilla  and  the  Caguas-Humacao  roads;  and  gust,  1899,  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
appropriations  had  been  made  to  recon-  judicial  board,  Military-Governor  Davis 
struct  the  Ponee-Guayama,  the  Fajardo-  reorganized  the  courts,  reduced  the  num- 
Mameyes,  the  Yabucoa-Sabana  Grande,  and  ber  of  judicial  districts  from  twelve  to  five, 
the  Lares-San  Sebastian  roads,  to  build  and  gradually  introduced  many  American 
bridges  across  the  Auasco  and  Portugues  rules  of  procedure,  and  the  system  ob- 
rivers,  and  to  proceed  with  the  Bayamo-  served  generally  in  the  courts  of  the 
Comerio  road.  United    States.      The   organic   act   of   the 

The  experiment  of  the  governmental  civil  government  established  a  Supreme 
ownership  of  telegraph  lines  is  meeting  Court  of  five  justices  having  the  same 
with  satisfactory  results.  About  thirty-  powers  and  duties  as  were  assigned  to  that 
eight  miles  were  added  to  the  total  length  tribunal  by  the  military  orders.  This  left 
in  1902-03;  the  receipts  of  the  service  it  a  court  of  cassation  rather  than  a  court 
were  $49,114;  expenditures,  $35,199;  net  of  appeals.  The  territorial  assembly  by 
earnings,  $13,914.  On  Oct.  IS,  1903,  the  act  of  March  12,  1903,  made  the  Supreme 
first  passenger  train  over  the  line  of  the  Court  a  court  of  appeals  and  eliminated 
American  railroad  was  run  from  San  Juan  all  the  elements  of  cassation, 
to  Ponce,  excepting  the  incomplete  sec-  Population. — The  people  of  Porto  Rico 
tion  between  Camuy  and  Aguadilla.  This  are,  in  the  main,  a  rural  community, 
improvement  cost  over  $1,000,000,  extends  There  are  no  large  cities  in  the  island,  the 
through  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  island,  largest  two  being  San  Juan,  which,  re- 
and  will  be  of  incalculable  service  in  pro-  garding  the  entire  municipal  district  as  a 
moting  agriculture  and  internal  trade,  city,  had  a  population,  according  to  the 
The  scheme  of  railroad  development  has  census  of  1899,  of  32,048,  and  Ponce,  which, 
in  view  the  encircling  of  the  entire  island,    with  its  port,  constituted  practically  one 

Judiciary. — Prior  to  1832  the  laws  and  city,  with  a  population  of  27,952.  These 
modes  of  procedure  were  the  same  as  in  are  the  only  two  cities  exceeding  25,000 
Cuba  and  other  Spanish  colonies.  The  inhabitants.  The  next  city  in  magnitude 
courts  were  limited,  however,  to  the  judges  is  Mayaguez,  on  the  west  coast,  with  a 
of  first  instance  and  the  municipal  judges,  population  of  15,187.  The  only  other  city 
By  a  royal  decree  of  June  19,  1831,  a  exceeding  8,000  inhabitants  is  Arecibo, 
territorial  audiencia  was  established  in  with  a  population  of  8,008.  The  total 
San  Juan,  and  appeals  were  then  made  urban  population  of  the  island  contained 
direct  to  the  Supreme  Court  in  Madrid,  in  cities  exceeding  8,000  inhabitants  each 
At  the  date  of  American  occupation,  each  was  83,195,  or  only  8.7  per  cent,  of  the 
municipal  district  had  a  municipal  judge,  population  of  the  island.  There  were  in 
and  there  were  twelve  judicial  districts  Porto  Rico  fifty-seven  cities,  each  having 
each  having  a  judge  of  first  instance  and  a  population  of  1,000  or  more.  The  total 
instruction.  There  were  three  audiencias,  urban  population  of  the  island,  under  this 
one  territorial  of  six  judges,  having  its  definition,  numbered  203,792,  or  21.4  per 
seat  in  San  Juan,  with  both  civil  and  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  inhabitants 
criminal  jurisdiction,  and  two  criminal  of  the  island.  The  number  of  urban  in- 
audiencias  of  three  judges  each,  located  habitants  in  each  department  of  Porto 
in  Ponce  and  Mayaguez,  respectively.  All  Rico,  with  the  proportion  it  bears  to  the 
judges  were  appointed  by  the  captain-  total  population  of  the  department,  is 
general.  Since  the  American  occupation  shown  in  the  following  table: 
many  salutaiy  and  important  changes 
have  been  made  in  the  Spanish  system,  as 
established  in  Porto  Rico,  including  the 
discontinuance  of  the  theory  of  the  guilt 
of  an  accused  person,  ex  parte  investiga- 
tions, and  the  incomunirado.  For  these, 
speedy  and   impartial   trials,  by  jury,  or 


Department. 


Aguadilla. 
Arecibo. . . 
Rayamon.. 
Guayama. 
Humacao. 
otherwise,  have  been  substituted,  while  the    Mayaguez. 

writ  of  habeas  corpus  protects  those  who    Ponce 

may  have  been  unjustly  confined.    In  Au-  Total 


Total 
Population. 


99,645 
162,308 
160,046 
111,986 

88,501 
127,566 
203,191 


953,243 


Urban 

Population 

(1,000-t-). 


15,518 
21.166 
46,728 
26,829 
18,219 
29,462 
45.869 


269 


203,79] 


Percentage 

Urban  to 

Total. 


15.6 

13.0 
29.2 
24.0 
20.6 
23.1 
22.6 


21.4 


PORTO   RICO 

The  People. The  people  of  Porto  Rico   he  sailed  along  the  south  and  east  coast  to 

have  proven  themselves  loyal  in  their  de-  Aguada,  where  he  landed  Nov.  19.  He 
votion  to  their  new  country,  and  have  took  possession  of  the  island  in  the  name 
shown  much  solicitation  to  be  regarded  in  of  the  reigning  sovereigns  of  Spain  and 
all  essentials  as  citizens  of  the  United  named  it  Juan  Bautista,  in  honor  of  St. 
States.  Immediately  after  the  American  John  the  Baptist.  Its  Indian  name  was 
occupation  expressions  were  heard  on  Borinquen.  Columbus  remained  for  sev- 
every  hand  and  from  all  classes  of  a  eral  days  and  then  returned  to  Santo  Do- 
readiness  and  willingness  to  accept  Amer-  mingo.  It  does  not  appear  that  he  ever 
ican  institutions  to  the  fullest  extent,  as  visited  the  island  again.  During  the  next 
well  as  a  desire  to  be  relieved  as  quickly  fourteen  years  numerous  vessels  stopped 
as  possible  of  the  oppressive  laws  to  at  the  island,  usually  for  water,  but  it 
which  they  had  been  so  long  subjected  by  remained  unexplored  and  uninhabited  by 
Spanish  rule.  Compulsory  education  white  men  until  1508,  when  Nicolas  de 
being  unknown,  and  thousands  of  parents,  Ovando,  Governor  of  Santo  Domingo,  hav- 
not  having  themselves  received  any  educa-  ing  learned  that  the  mountains  and 
tion,  seeing  no  need  of  requiring  their  streams  abounded  in  gold,  sent  Juan 
children  to°attend  such  schools  as  existed  Ponce  de  Leon  to  explore  the  island.  He 
in  their  neighborhood,  an  educational  con-  embarked  with  a  small  party  of  Spaniards 
dition  was  encountered  by  the  Americans  and  a  few  Indian  guides  and  landed  near 
which  at  first  seemed  exceedingly  dis-  Aguadilla,  the  home  of  the  principal 
couraging;  but  within  a  short  time  the  cacique,  Aqueybana,  by  whom  he  was 
people  began  to  manifest  an  intense  desire  kindly  received  and  conducted  to  different 
to  have  their  children  educated,  and  ac-  parts  of  the  island.  In  the  course  of  the 
cordingly  became  enthusiastic  in  the  be-  journey  Ponce  de  Leon  verified  the  reports 
ginnings  of  the  present  American  public-  of  the  Indians  in  regard  to  the  presence 
school  system.  It  was  estimated  at  one  of  gold,  and  returned  to  Santo  Domingo, 
time  that  in  a  population  of  approximately  leaving  a  few  of  his  companions  as  guests 
800,000  only  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  Aqueybana.  Ovando  now  determined 
could  read  and  write.  There  is  consider-  to  subjugate  and  colonize  the  island,  and 
able  wealth  and  certainly  superior  intelli-  Ponce  de  Leon  was  selected  to  conduct  the 
gence  among  the  more  favored  classes,  enterprise.  Before  organizing  the  expedi- 
and  the  hospitality  of  the  Porto-Rican  is  tion,  however,  Ponce  de  Leon  resolved  on 
without  bounds.  His  house  is  open  to  another  friendly  visit  for  the  purpose  of 
every  proper  person,  and  a  most  cordial  a  more  thorough  reconnoissance,  and  ac- 
greeting  is  assured.  The  people  generally  cordingly  returned  to  Porte  Rico.  He 
are  peaceful  and  law-abiding.  In  the  in-  found  that  his  companions  had  been 
terior  of  the  island  there  is  in  many  places  kindly  treated  and  that  the  Indians  were 
considerable  poverty,  especially  since  the  friendly,  and  believing  he  could  get  pos- 
hurricane  of  Aug.  8,  1899,  and  many  of  session  of  the  island  peaceably  he  returned 
the  homes  are  constructed  almost  alto-  to  Santo  Domingo  to  solicit  the  appoint- 
gether  of  palm  trees  with  a  covering  of  ment  of  governor.  He  found,  however, 
palm  leaves  and  straw  thatch.  The  people  that  during  his  absence  Ovando  had  been 
are  very  industrious  and  willing  to  work  superseded  by  Don  Diego  Columbus,  and 
if  given  an  opportunity;  and  in  nearly  that  Cristoval  de  Sotomayor,  a  Spanish 
every  instance  those  employing  them  speak  cavalier,  had  been  appointed  governor  of 
in  terms  of  commendation  of  them  as  Porto  Rico  by  the  Crown.  But  Don 
workmen.  Diego  Columbus  would  not  confirm  his  ap- 

History. — The  history  of  Porto  Rico  pre-  pointment  or  appoint  Ponce  de  Leon,  and 
sents  but  few  points  of  interest  as  com-  sent  Juan  Ceron  as  governor  and  Miguel 
pared  with  Cuba  or  the  other  colonies  of  Diaz  as  his  second.  Prompted  by  a  love 
Spain  in  this  hemisphere.  The  island  of  adventure  and  the  hope  of  bettering 
was  discovered  by  Columbus,  Nov.  16,  their  fortunes,  Ponce  de  Leon  and  Soto- 
1493,  during  his  second  voyage.  He  ap-  mayor  joined  the  expedition.  In  the 
proached  it  from  Santo  Domingo  and  first  mean  time  Ovando  returned  to  Spain, 
sighted  Cape  Mala  Pascua.     From  there   where  he  gave  such  a  favorable  account 

270 


PORTO    RICO 

of    the    character    and    services    of    Juan  for    twenty-eight    days,    but   were    finally 

Ponce    de   Leon    in   Porto    Rico,    that   the  forced  to  withdraw  with  considerable  loss. 

King    appointed     him     governor    of     the  In   1626  the  French  attempted  a  landing, 

island     and     intimated     plainly     to    Don  but  were  repulsed.     Between  this  and  1797 

Diego    Columbus   that    he   must   not    pre-  several    minor    and    unsuccessful    attacks 

sume  to  displace  him.     Ponce  de  Leon  took  were   made.      In    April    of    that   year,    a 

charge  in  1509,  and  founded  the  town  of  British    squadron    and    a    detachment    of 

Caparra,    about   three   miles    inland   from  6,500    soldiers,    under    Lord    Ralph    Aber- 

the  bay  of  San  Juan.     It  was  afterwards  crombie,  attacked  San  Juan,  but  withdrew 

named  Puerto  Rico  and  transferred  to  the  after  an  investment  of  two  weeks.     From 

present   site  of   San   Juan.      Subsequently  this   time   to    the    date   of    the    American 

the  island  and  the  city  exchanged  names,  occupation    of    the    island     (1898)     Porto 

although  by  what  process  does  not  appear.  Rico  was  exempt  from  outside  attack. 
The  site  of  Caparra,  the  first  town  found- 
ed, is  now  known  as  Pueblo  Viejo.     Hav-  GOVERNORS. 

ing   fixed   the   seat  of  government  at  Ca-  ...... 

T  T-,  -it  Military. 

parra,    Juan    Ponce    de    Leon    began    the  Appointed. 

pacification  and  colonization  of  the  island  Maj. -Gen.  John  R.  Brooke,  A. S.  A Oct.    18,1898 

in     the    usual     manner.       A     conspiracy  ^-«on- ^ v- ^enry  U.S. A Dec.    o  1898 

.,  ..  .  ,     .    .         ;  Maj. -Gen.  George  M.  Davis,  U.S.  A May     9,  189g 

among  the  native  caciques,  led  by  Aquey- 

bana,    the   brother    and   successor    of   him  Civil. 

who  had  first  welcomed  the  Spaniards  to  Charles  H.  Allen April  12  1900 

the   island,   was   exposed   and   suppressed,  William  H.  Hunt Aug.  30, 1901 

but  not  without  desperate  efforts  on  the  Beekman  Winthrop April  23, 1904 

part  of  the  Spaniards,  the  death  of  Soto- 

mayor,  and  the  destruction  of  such  Span-  Government. — By  the  act  of  April  12, 
ish  settlements  as  then  existed.  It  does  1900,  which  took  effect  May  1,  Congress 
not  appear  that  the  colonists  had  any  made  provision  for  a  civil  government 
serious  trouble  with  the  natives  there-  to  consist  of  a  governor  and  an  executive 
after.  Lying  between  and  practically  con-  council  to  be  appointed  by  the  President 
trolling  the  Virgin  and  Mona  passages  for  four  years,  and  a  house  of  delegates 
from  the  Atlantic  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  of  thirty-five  members  to  be  elected  bi- 
Porto  Rico  occupies  a  strategic  position  of  ennially  by  the  qualified  voters.  The 
much  importance,  which,  ne  doubt,  was  executive  council  is  composed  of  the  in- 
recognized  at  an  early  day.  Certain  it  is  sular  cabinet  and  five  other  persons  of 
that  several  attempts  were  made  to  wrest  good  repute.  The  cabinet  includes  a  secre- 
the  island  from  Spain.  Thus,  in  1597,  tary  for  civil  affairs,  an  attorney-general, 
Admiral  George  Clifford,  Earl  of  a  treasurer,  an  auditor,  a  commissioner 
Cumberland,  blockaded  and  captured  of  the  interior,  and  a  commissioner  of 
San  Juan,  and  took  possession  of  the  education,  all  appointed  for  the  term  of 
island;  but,  being  forced  by  an  epi-  four  years.  The  executive  council  and 
demic  of  yellow  fever  to  withdraw,  he  house  of  delegates  comprise  the  legislative 
destroyed  the  city,  killed  a  number  of  assembly.  On  May  1  this  government  was 
its  inhabitants,  and  carried  off  as  tro-  established  by  the  inauguration  of  Gov. 
phies  seventy-two  pieces  of  artillery.  Charles  H.  Allen,  of  Massachusetts,  and 
Two  years  before,  the  English  free-  is  now  in  operation.  By  executive  order 
hooter,  Drake,  had  sacked  and  burned  of  Sept.  21,  1899,  General  Davis  estab- 
San  Juan  and  destroyed  all  the  vessels  lished  the  qualifications  of  an  elector  as 
found  in  the  harbor.  These  disasters  follows:  He  must  be  a  bona  fide  male 
led  to  the  completion  of  the  Morro  resident  of  the  municipality,  21  years  of 
of  San  Juan,  commenced  some  time  be-  age,  and  a  tax-payer  of  record,  or  able  to 
fore,  and  an  increase  in  the  garrison  of  read  and  write.  He  must  also  have  re- 
the  island.  In  September,  1625,  San  Juan  sided  in  the  island  for  two  years  next 
was  attacked  by  a  Dutch  fleet  of  seven-  preceding  the  date  of  his  registration, 
teen  vessels  and  a  detachment  of  2,500  and  for  the  last  six  months  of  said  two 
men.     They  landed  and  besieged  the  citv  vears  within  the  municipality  where  the 

271 


PORTC    BICO 


election  is  held.  Mayors,  eounc:lmen, 
municipal  judges,  and  school  trustees 
are  elected  annually.  On  Jan.  4,  1904, 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  de- 
cided that  citizens  of  Porto  Rico  were  not 
aliens  and  that  they  were  entitled 
to  enter  the  United  States  without  ob- 
struction. 

American  Occupation. — At  the  outbreak 
of  the  American-Spanish  War  in  1898  a 
plan  for  the  conquest  of  Porto  Rico  was 
elaborated  by  Ma j. -Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles, 
commanding  general  of  the  army,  but  it 
was  not  put  into  execution  until  after  the 
fall  of  Santiago  had  released  from  duty 
in  Cuba  some  of  the  experienced  troops. 
An  advance  force  of  3,415  officers  and  men 
under  General  Miles,  in  person,  set  out 
from  Guantanamo  Bay  on  July  20,  and 
on  July  25  landed  at  Guanico,  near  Ponce, 
meeting  with  the  resistance  only  of  a 
small  block-house.  Several  of  Admiral 
Sampson's  ships  had  made  a  feint  of  at- 


transports,  under  the  protection  of  a  small 
force  of  fighting  ships,  arrived  off  Ponce, 
and  the  city  surrendered  without  a 
struggle,  the  Spanish  officials  retiring  to 
San  Juan  and  the  people  turning  out  to 
welcome  the  Americans.  The  troops  were 
landed  at  Ponce  on  July  29,  and  on  Aug. 
2  the  third  and  last  detachment  debarked 
at  Arroyo,  which  had  surrendered  to  the 
navy  the  previous  day.  With  a  force  of 
16,973  officers  and  men,  General  Miles 
started  across  the  island,  meeting  with 
but  little  resistance,  and  being  heartily 
welcomed  by  the  mass  of  the  people,  who 
greeted  the  Americans  as  their  liberators. 
The  Spanish  troops  were  defeated  in  the 
hills  near  Hormigueros,  Aug.  10,  and  at 
Rio  Canas,  Aug.  13,  and  General  Miles 
was  about  to  advance  on  San  Juan  from 
several  directions,  when,  on  Aug.  14,  he 
was  notified  of  the  armistice,  and  further 
operations  at  once  ceased. 

Under   Article   IV.    of    the   protocol   of 


COFFEE   AND   TOBACCO    LANDS. 


tacking  San  Juan,  leading  the  Spanish 
to  withdraw  their  troops  from  the  interior 
of  the  island.  On  July  26  the  Americans 
advanced  to  Yauco,  and  after  a  short  en- 
counter seized  the  railroad  running  to 
Ponce.     Two     days    later    several    army 


peace  the  following  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  arrange  and  superintend  the 
evacuation  of  the  island  by  the  Spaniards: 
for  the  United  States:  Maj.-Gen.  John  R. 
Brooke,  Rear-Admiral  Winfield  S.  Schley, 
and   Brig.-Gen.  William  W.   Gordon;    for 


272 


A 


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S.  Antouio 


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Agaadillnj 


UJ1.de  Agaalo^-"  Halo. 
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-  AJ/raho'nda     „      .  . 

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(Salto  Arriba     =  >  .       CtsiitflfiJ     _/"^|  Vaga^2 


fMiradero 
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^'uat,,!  ///?  .).')  oPeWjas       Collores  (  Ala  dejji  PiedrS— 


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*.*■*   4hA««.nJ-,   /r   -i    tAdJ»atZ&)         ''oPTffiwT    Collores  Ala  de  lk  PiedS- 

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icaJhalo     I        ySusua}\ll3      N.I.laun.  V  -     /    "      •,      WortlAl.es  \      J  »\     °    ■'  -..Jicaiuas  Euiajaiual ' 

o\Susik<jf// ?  /Ahnarii;,,  All,,  >uni>i.o     y-         \ .    Jl,!?„rv&  LVmllo.^i. -i:,.a„..     ;  Lnuia         \3 ^. 


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PORTO  RICO 


66"  30' 


PORTSMOUTH— POSTAL    SERVICE 

Spain:  Maj.-Gen.  Ortego  y  Diaz,  Com.  Posey  was  at  the  surrender  of  Yorktown, 
Vallarino  y  Carrasco,  and  Judge- Advocate  and  was  afterwards  with  Wayne  until  the 
Sanchez  del  Aguila  y  Leon.  On  Oct.  18,  evacuation  of  Savannah,  in  1782.  In  Feb- 
the  island  was  formally  surrendered  to  ruary,  1793,  he  was  made  brigadier-general; 
the  United  States  in  the  city  of  San  Juan,  settled  in  Kentucky;  became  State  Senator 
In  1899  a  census  of  the  island  was  taken  and  lieutenant-governor;  was  major-gen- 
under  the  direction  of  the  United  States  eral  of  Kentucky  levies  in  1809;  and  Unit- 
War  Department,  which  by  departments  ed  States  Senator  in  1812-13.  He  suc- 
gave  the  following:  Aguadilla,  99,645;  ceeded  Harrison  as  governor  of  Indiana 
Arecibo,  162,308;  Bayamon,  160,046;  Territory  in  March,  1813;  and  in  1816 
Guayamo,  111,986;  Humacao,  88,501;  was  made  agent  for  Indian  affairs,  which 
Mayaguez,  127,566;  and  Ponce,  203,191 —  post  he  held  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in 
total  for  the  island,  953,243.  The  popu-  Shawneetown,  111.,  March  19,  1818. 
lation  of  the  principal  cities  was:  San  Post,  Frederick  Christian,  Moravian 
Juan,  32,048;  Ponce,  27,952;  Mayague/.,  missionary  to  the  Delaware  Indians,  who 
15,187;  Arecibo,  8,008;  Aguadilla,  6,425;  succeeded  in  detaching  the  Delawares  from 
Yauco,  6.108;  Caguas,  5,450;  Guayamo,  their  alliance  with  the  French  after  Brad- 
5,334;     Manati,     4,494;     and     Humacao,    dock's  defeat. 

4,428.  Postal  Service,  Colonial.     In  1639  a 

On  July  25,  1901,  President  McKinley  post-office  was  established  in  Boston  at  the 
proclaimed  civil  government  in  Porto  Eico  house  of  Richard  Fairbanks  for  "all  letters 
and  free-trade  with  the  United  States,  which  are  brought  from  beyond  the  seas, 
William  H.  Hunt  was  appointed  governor,  or  are  to  be  sent  thither."  The  Virginia 
July  23,  1901,  to  succeed  Charles  H.  Allen.  .Assembly  passed  an  act  in  1657  for  the 
Portsmouth,  the  present  county  seat  of  immediate  transmission  of  official  let- 
Rockingham  county,  N.  H,  with  a  popu-  ters  from  plantation  to  plantation  on  pen- 
lation  (1900)  of  9,827;  was  founded  at  alty  of  one  hogshead  of  tobacco  for  each 
Strawberry  Bank,  at  the  mouth  of  the  default.  The  government  of  New  York  es- 
Piscataqua  River,  by  Mason,  who  tried  to  tablished  a  monthly  mail  to  Boston  in 
be  "lord  of  the  manor";  but  his  people  1672,  and  in  1676  the  colonial  court  of 
were  too  independent  to  allow  special  Massachusetts  established  a  post-office  in 
privileges  to  any  one.  An  Episcopalian  Boston,  appointing  John  Heyward  post- 
named  Gibson  was  the  first  minister  at  master.  The  first  parliamentary  act 
Portsmouth,  for  whom  a  chapel  was  built  for  the  establishment  of  a  post-office 
in  1638.  He  was  dismissed  by  the  General  in  the  English-American  colonies  was 
Court  of  Massachusetts,  which  claimed  passed  in  April,  1692,  and  a  royal 
jurisdiction  over  that  region,  and  a  Puri-  patent  was  granted  to  Thomas  Neale  for 
tan  minister — James  Parker — was  put  in  the  purpose.  He  was  to  transport  letters 
his  place.  See  William  and  Mary,  Fort,  and  packets  "  at  such  rates  as  the  plant- 
Posey,  Thomas,  military  officer;  born  ers  should  agree  to  give."  Rates  of  post- 
in  Virginia,  July  9,  1750;  removed  to  age  were  accordingly  fixed  and  authorized, 
western  Virginia  in  1769,  and  was  quar-  and  measures  were  taken  to  establish  a 
tumaster  to  Lewis's  division  in  Dunmore's  post-office  in  each  town  in  Virginia,  when 
army  in  1774.  He  raised  a  company  in  Neale  began  his  operations.  Massachu- 
Virginia.  and  assisted  in  the  defeat  of  setts  and  other  colonies  soon  passed  post- 
'  Dunmore  at  Gwyn's  Island.  He  joined  al  laws,  and  a  very  imperfect  post-office 
Washington,  in  New  Jersey,  early  in  1777;  system  was  established.  Neale's  patent  ex- 
was  transferred  to  Morgan's  rifle  regiment,  pired  in  1710,  when  Parliament  extended 
and  with  it  did  valuable  service  on  Bemis's  the  English  postal  system  to  the  colonies. 
Heights  and  at  Saratoga.  He  commanded  The  rate  on  a  single  letter  from  London 
the  regiment  in  the  spring  of  1778,  and  to  New  York  was  one  shilling,  and  four 
was  finally  placed  in  command  of  a  battal-  pence  additional  for  each  60  miles.  The 
ion  of  Febiger's  regiment,  under  Wayne,  chief  office  was  established  in  New 
participating  in  the  capture  of  Stony  York,  to  which  letters  were  conveyed  by 
Point  in  July,  1779,  where  he  was  one  of  regular  packets  across  the  Atlantic.  A 
the  first  to  enter  the  works.  Colonel  line  of  post-offices  was  soon  after  estab- 
vii.— s  273 


POSTAL   SERVICE;    COLONIAL— FEDERAL 


lished  on  Neale's  old  routes,  north  of  the 
present  city  of  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  and 
south  to  Philadelphia,  and  irregularly  ex- 
tended, a  few  years  later,  to  Williams- 
burg, Va.     The  post  left  for  the  South  as 


Postal  Service,  Federal.  Soon  after 
the  commencement  of  the  first  session  of 
the  first  national  Congress,  Ebenezer  Haz- 
ard, Postmaster-General,  suggested  (July 
17,  1789)   the  importance  of  a  reorganiza- 


a  printer,  went  from  colony  to  colony 
making  efforts  to  establish  a  "  constitu- 
tional post-office,"  in  opposition  to  the 
"  royal    mail."     When,    in     1775,    almost 


often  as  letters  enough  were  deposited  to  tion  of  the  Post-office  Department.  A  bill 
pay  the  expense.  Finally  an  irregular  for  the  temporary  establishment  of  the 
postal  communication  was  established  with  general  post-office  was  passed  soon  after- 
Charleston.  In  1753  Dr.  Franklin  was  ap-  wards.  The  subject  was  brought  up  in 
pointed  deputy  postmaster-general  for  the  Congress  from  time  to  time,  until  the  pres- 
colonies.  It  was  a  lucrative  office  and  he  ent  system  in  its  general  features  was 
held  it  until  1774,  when  he  was  dismissed  adopted  in  1792.  When  Franklin  re- 
because  of  his  active  sympathy  with  the  signed  the  office  of  Postmaster-General  in 
colonists  in  their  quarrel  with  the  minis-  1776,  the  whole  number  of  post-offices  in 
try.  For  a  while  the  colonial  postal  sys-  the  United  States  was  75;  the  whole  num- 
tem  was  in  confusion.     William  Goddard,    ber  on  June  30,  1903,  was  74,169,  classified 

as  follows:  First-class,  242;  second-class, 
1,107;  third-class,  3,690;  fourth-class,  69,- 
130;  and  Presidential,  5,039.  Among 
these  were  34,547  money  -  order  offices 
issuing  45,941,681 
orders.  The  entire  re- 
ceipts of  the  Post-office 
Department  during  the 
administration  of  Dr. 
Franklin  —  about  fifteen 
months — were  $27,985, 
and  the  expenditures 
$32,142;  in  1900  the  re- 
ceipts of  the  Post-office 
Department  for  the  fiscal 
year  were  $134,224,443, 
and  the  expenditures 
$138,784,487. 

The  rates  of  postage 
from  the  organization  of 
the  department  until 
1816  were:  For  a  letter 
composed  of  a  single 
Iggjg^^  piece  of  paper,  under  40 
miles,  8  cents;  under  90 
miles,  10  cents;  under 
150  miles,  12%  cents; 
under  300  miles,  17 
cents;  under  500  miles, 
20  cents;  and  over  500 
miles,  25  cents.  The 
rates  were  made  by  law 
in  1816  for  a  single  let- 
ter, not  over  30  miles, 
6%  cents;  over  30  and 
under  80  miles,  10  cents; 
every  vestige  of  royal  power  was  swept  over  80  and  under  150  miles,  18% 
from  the  colonies,  the  Continental  Con-  cents;  over  400  miles,  25  cents,  and 
gress  appointed  (July  26)  Dr.  Franklin  an  additional  rate  for  every  additional 
Postmaster-General.  piece  of  paper.       If  a  letter  weighed  an 

274 


u      C3 


STAMTING-T  U1LK    IN    A    LARGE    POST-OFFICR. 


POSTAL    SERVICE,    FEDERAL 

ounce,  four  times  these  rates  were  charged,  a  letter  of  one-half  ounce  in  weight,  under 

After  railroad  facilities  were  established,  3,000  miles,  if  prepaid,  3  cents;  or' if  not 

these  high  rates  caused  many  letters  to  be  prepaid,  5  cents;  over  3,000  miles,  6  or  12 

carried    by    express    between    the    several  cents;  to  foreign  countries  not  over  2  500 


SORTING   THE   NEWSPAPER   MAIL. 


cities,  at  rates  much  below  those  of  the 
post-office.  As  early  as  1836,  Edward  Ever- 
ett, in  Congress,  proposed  measures  for  re- 
ducing the  postage.  The  matter  was  agi- 
tated in  public  discussions  until  1843, 
when  the  general  discontent  was  manifest- 
ed by  resolutions  passed  by  various  legis- 
latures instructing  their  Senators  and  re- 
questing their  Representatives  in  Congress 
to  adopt  measures  for  reduction.  The 
Postmaster-General  (Wickliffe) ,  in  an 
elaborate  report,  recommended  a  moderate 
reduction,  and  in  1S45  the  following  rates 
were  established :  For  a  letter  not  exceeding 
one-half  ounce  in  weight,  under  300  miles, 
5  cents;  over  300  miles,  10  cents,  and  an 
additional  rate  for  every  additional  half- 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  In  the  next 
Congress  unsuccessful  efforts  were  made  to 
increase  the  rates  on  letters,  but  on  news- 
papers and  magazines  they  were  raised, 
and  prepayment  was  required.  Postage  on 
circulars  was  raised  to  3  cents,  and  news- 
paper postage  to  Oregon  and  California, 
at  the  close  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  was 
fixed  at  4i/o  cents  each.  The  letter  charge 
to  California  via  Chagres  and  Panama  was 
40  cents. 

In  1851  a  law  was  passed  establishing 
the  following  rates  of  letter  postage:  For 


miles,  except  where  postal  arrangements 
had  been  made,  10  cents;  over  2,500  miles, 
20  cents.  Transient  newspapers,  circulars, 
and  other  printed  matter,  1  cent  an  ounce 
under  500  miles,  and  greater  distances  in 
proportion.  Books,  under  32  ounces,  1 
cent  an  ounce,  if  prepaid ;  2  cents  an  ounce 
if  not.  The  next  year  the  law  was  modi- 
fied. Letters  sent  over  3,000  miles  and  not 
prepaid  were  charged  10  cents;  news- 
papers, etc.,  under  3  ounces,  1  cent. 
Books  weighing  less  than  4  pounds,  under 
3.000  miles,  1  cent  an  ounce;  over  3.000 
miles,  2  cents.  By  an  act  of  the  same  year 
(1852),  stamps  and  stamped  envelopes 
were  ordered.  By  a  law  of  March  3,  1855, 
the  rates  on  single  inland  letters  were  re- 
duced to  3  cents  for  all  distances  under 
3,000  miles,  and  10  cents  for  all  over  that; 
and  all  inland  letter-postage  was  to  be  pre- 
paid. 

In  1863  the  rate  of  postage  was  made 
uniform  at  3  cents  on  all  domestic  letters 
not  exceeding  half  an  ounce  in  weight,  and 
3  cents  additional  for  every  half-ounce  or 
fraction  thereof.  The  rates  on  printed 
matter  were  also  modified.  In  1868  the 
law  was  so  amended  as  to  allow  weekly 
newspapers  to  be  sent  free  to  regular 
subscribers   residing   in   the   county.      By 


275 


POSTAL     SERVICE— POTTAWATTOMIE    INDIANS 

the  act  of  1855,  provision  was  made  for  transmission  of  letters.  In  February,  1883, 
the  registration  of  valuable  letters  on  the  Congress,  by  act,  fixed  the  postage  on 
payment  of  a  specific  fee;  but  the  gov-  single  letters  at  2  cents  after  Oct.  1,  1883. 
ernment  is  not  liable  for  the  loss  of  any  Second-class  matter  (periodicals),  is  car- 
registered  mail-matter;  the  system  simply  ried  at  the  nominal  rate  of  1  cent  per 
provides    for   greater    certainty   in    trans-  pound. 

mission.     In  1874  the  cost  of  registration  Potomac,   Army  of.     See  Peninsular 

was  reduced  from  15  cents  to  8  cents,  in  Campaign. 

addition  to  the  regular  postage.     In  June,  Pottawattomie  Indians,  an  Algonquian 

1875,  it  was  raised  to  10  cents,  but  after-  family   which    occupied   the    lower    penin- 

wards  restored  to  8  cents.  sula   of  Michigan,   and   spoke   one  of   the 

The  money-order  system  was  establish-  rudest   dialects    of   that   nation.      At   the 

ed  in  the  United  States  Nov.   1,  1864,  in  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  they 

order  to  promote  public  convenience  and  were    in    scattered    and    apparently    inde- 

insure  safety  in  the  transfer  by  mail  of  pendent  bands,  without  the  faintest  sign 

small   sums   of   money.     That   security   is  of    any    civil    government.     Hunters    and 

obtained  by  omitting  from  the  order  the  fishers,  and  cultivators  of  a  little  maize, 

name   of   the    payee,    which    is    added    on  they  were  wanderers,  and  were  frequently 

the  receipt  of  the  order.     Orders  are  is-  engaged  in  wars  with  neighboring  tribes, 

sued  for  sums  not  exceeding  $100;  larger  The    Iroquois    finally   drove    them   to    the 

sums  by  increasing  the  number  of  orders  shores   of   Green   Bay,   where   the   French 

accordingly.      The    charge    for    issuing    a  Jesuits  established  a  mission  among  them, 

money-order  for  sums  not  exceeding  $2  50,  They  became  allies  of  the  French  in  the 

3  cents;  $5,  5  cents;  $10,  8  cents;  $20,  10  wars  with  the  Iroquois  and  the  English, 

cents;   $30,  12  cents;   $40,   15  cents;   $50,  and  they  gradually  spread  over  southern 

18   cents;    $60,   20   cents;    $75,   25   cents;  Michigan  and  northern  Illinois  and  Indi- 

$100,  30  cents.     On  June  30,   1903,  the-e  ana.    The  Pottawattomies  joined  Pontiac 

were  34,547  money-order  offices.  (q,  v.)?  an<i  were  the  friends  of  the  Eng- 

By  act  of  June  8,  1872,  the  Postmaster-  lish  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  sub- 
General  was  authorized  to  issue  postal-  sequently,  but  joined  in  the  treaty  at 
cards  to  the  public  at  a  cost  of  1  cent  Greenville  in  1795.  In  the  War  of  1812 
each.  The  first  cards  were  issued  in  May,  they  again  joined  the  English,  under  the 
1873.  The  rates  of  postage  established  by  influence  of  Tecumseh  (q.  v.).  After- 
acts  prior  to  1870  were  as  follows:  Single  wards  they  made  treaties  with  the  United 
letters  (domestic),  uniform  for  any  dis-  States  for  the  cession  of  their  lands, 
tance,  3  cents  for  every  half-ounce,  and  for  when  a  large  tract  was  assigned  them 
each  additional  half-ounce,  3  cents.  This  in  Missouri,  and  the  whole  tribe,  num- 
applies  to  all  sealed  matter,  whether  in  bering  about  4,000,  settled  there  in  1838. 
manuscript  or  printed.  There  are  two  A  portion  of  them  are  Roman  Catholics, 
other  classes  of  mail-matter ;  one  embraces  and  the  remainder  are  pagans.  They  are 
all  regularly  supplied  newspapers,  maga-  divided  into  the  St.  Joseph,  Wabash, 
zines,  and  periodicals,  exclusively  in  print,  and  Huron  bands,  who  are  Roman  Cath- 
and  the  other  embraces  pamphlets,  tran-  olics,  and  the  Prairie  band,  who  are 
sient  newspapers,  magazines,  and  articles  pagans.  Missions  among  the  latter  have 
of  merchandise,  seeds,  roots,  scions,  en-  failed,  and  they  have  scattered,  some  of 
gravings,  etc.,  for  all  of  which  there  are  them  having  gone  to  Mexico.  The  experi- 
graded  prices.  Letters  not  taken  from  a  ment  of  giving  a  certain  amount  of  land 
post-office,  or  the  directions  of  which  are  to  each  individual  was  undertaken  with 
not  clear,  are  sent  to  the  Dead-letter  Office  1,400  of  them  in  1867,  and  was  partially 
in  Washington,  where  they  are  examined,  successful.  In  1899  there  were  seventy- 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  they  and  their  seven  Huron  Pottawattomies  at  the  Mack- 
contents  are  returned  to  the  sender.  The  inac  agency  in  Michigan;  560  Prairie 
quantity  of  these  letters  is  very  large,  band  Pottawattomies  at  the  Pottawatto- 
Postal  arrangements  have  been  made  with  mie  and  Great  Nemaha  agency  in  Kansas; 
foreign  governments  by  which  great  fa-  and  756  Citizen  Pottawattomies  at  the  Sac 
cility   and    security   are   obtained   in   the  and  Fox  agency  in  Oklahoma. 

276 


POTTER— POWELL 


Potter,  Chandler  Eastman,  author; 
born  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  March  7,  1S07; 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1831; 
editor  and  publisher  of  the  Manchester 
Democrat  in  East  Concord,  in  1844-48; 
was  also  connected  with  other  periodicals. 
His  publications  include  History  of  Man- 
chester, N.  II.;  a  new  edition  of  Belknap's 
History  of  Neio  Hampshire,  tvith  Notes 
and  a  Continuation  to  1S60;  and  contri- 
butions on  the  Penobscot  and  other  East- 
ern Indians  in  Schoolcraft's  History  of 
the  Indians.  He  died  in  Flint,  Mich., 
Aug.  4,  IS 68. 

Potter,  Elisha  Reynolds,  jurist; 
born  in  South  Kingston,  R.  I.,  June  20, 
1811;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1830;  commissioner  of  Rhode  Island  pub- 
lic schools  in  1849-54;  subsequently  be- 
came a  judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court. 
His  publications  include  A  Brief  Account 
of  Emissions  of  Paper  Money  made  by 
the  Colony  of  Rhode  Island;  Report  on  the 
Condition  and  Improvement  of  the  Public 
Schools  of  Rhode  Island;  Early  History 
of  Narraganset,  with  an  Appendix  of 
Original  Documents ;  The  Bible  and 
Prayer  in  Public  Schools,  etc.  He  died  in 
South  Kingston,  R.  I.,  April  10,  1882. 

Potter,  Robert  B.,  military  officer;  born 
in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  July  16,  1829; 
son  of  Bishop  Alonzo  Potter;  was  a 
successful  lawyer  in  New  York  City 
when  the  Civil  War  broke  out.  He  enter- 
ed the  military  service  as  major  of  the 
Shepard  Rifles,  and  led  the  attack  with 
Reno's  Zouaves  and  the  9th  New  Jersey 
Regiment  on  Roanoke  Island,  Feb.  8,  1862. 
He  was  wounded  at  Newbern;  behaved  gal- 
lantly at  the  head  of  his  regiment  in  bat- 
tles in  Virginia,  and  at  Antietam  carried 
the  stone  bridge  on  the  National  left,  when 
he  was  again  wounded.  He  was  in  the  bat- 
tle at  Fredericksburg,  and  was  made  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteers  in  March,  1863. 
He  commanded  a  division  in  the  siege  of 
Vicksburg,  was  active  in  the  defence  of 
Knoxville,  and  commanded  a  corps  against 
Longstreet  in  Tennessee.  In  command  of 
a  division  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
he  was  distinguished  throughout  the  Rich- 
mond campaign  in  1864-65,  and  was  shot 
through  the  body  at  Petersburg  (April 
2,  1S65),  but  recovered.  He  was  pro- 
moted major-general  of  volunteers  in  1865, 
and  was  mustered  out  of  the   service  in 


1866.  He  died  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  Feb. 
19,  1887. 

Powderly,  Terence  Vincent,  labor 
leader;  born  in  Carbondale,  Pa.,  Jan.  22, 
1849;  elected  mayor  of  Scran  ton  in  1878; 
general  master-workman  of  the  Knights 
of  Labor  in  1879-93;  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1894;  U.  S.  commissioner-general  of 
emigration  in  1897;  resigned,  1902. 

Powell,  Edward  Payson,  author;  born 
in  Clinton,  N.  Y,  in  1833;  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College  in  1853  and  at  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  1858;  was  first  a 
Congregational  and  afterwards  a  Unita- 
rian minister;  and  then  entered  journal- 
ism; was  connected  with  the  St.  Louis 
Globe-Democrat  for  a  number  of  years, 
and  subsequently  became  associate  editor 
of  The  New  Unity,  in  Chicago.  He  is  the 
author  of  Our  Heredity  from  God;  Lib- 
erty and  Life;  and  Nullification  and  Se- 
cession in  the  United  States. 

Powell,  Joiin  Wesley,  naturalist;  born 
in  Mount  Morris,  N.  Y,  March  24,  1834; 
graduated  at  Illinois  Wesleyan  College; 
served  in  the  2d  Illinois  Artillery  during 
the  Civil  War;  lost  his  right  arm  at  the 
battle  of  Shiloh;  and  was  promoted 
major.  In  1869  he  explored  the  Grand 
Canon  of  the  Colorado  River,  and  his  suc- 
cess in  that  undertaking  resulted  in  a 
systematic  survey  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  later  by  the  Department 
of  the  Interior.  He  was  made  director  of 
the  United  States  bureau  of  ethnology  in 
1879,  and  of  the  United  States  geologi- 
cal survey  in  1880;  resigned  the  latter  in 
1894,  but  retained  the  former.  His  publi- 
cations include  Explorations  of  the  Colo- 
rado River;  Report  on  Geology  of  the 
Uinta  Mountains ;  Report  on  Arid  Re- 
gions of  United  States;  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  Indian  Languages;  Studies 
in  Sociology ;  Canons  of  the  Colorado;  etc. 
He  died  in  Haven,  Maine,  Sept.  23,  1902. 

Powell,  William  Henry,  artist;  born 
in  New  York  City,  Feb.  14,  1823;  began 
the  study  of  art  early  in  life  in  his  native 
city  and  later  studied  in  Europe.  His 
historical  works  include  De  Soto  Dis- 
covering the  Mississippi ;  Perry's  Victory 
on  Lalce  Erie;  Siege  of  Vera  Cruz;  Battle 
of  Buena  Vista;  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims; 
Scott's  Entry  into  the  City  of  Mexico; 
Washington  at  Valley  Forge;  and  Chris- 
topher   Columbus    before    the    Court    of 


277 


POWERS— POWHATAN 


Salamanca.  He  died  in  New  York  City,  which  Thorwaldsen  pronounced  a  master- 
Oct  6  1879.  piece.  The  next  year  he  produced  the  ex- 
Powers,  Hiram,  sculptor;  born  in  quisite  figure  of  the  Greek  Slave,  the  most 
Woodstock,  Vt.,  July  29,  1805;  went  to  widely  known  of  his  works,  and  of  which 
Ohio  in  early  life,  and  on  the  death  of  his  six  duplicates  in  marble  have  been  made, 
father  made  his  residence  in  Cincinnati,  besides  casts  and  reduced  copies.  He  was 
where  he  was  employed  in  a  reading-room,  accurate  in  his  portraits,  and  the  greater 
a  produce-store,  and  with  a  clock-maker,  portion  of  his  works  consists  of  busts 
He  learned  the  art  of  modelling  in  plaster  of  distinguished  men.  He  made  portrait 
from  a  German,  and  soon  made  several  statues  of  Washington  for  the  State  of 
busts  of  considerable  merit,  and  was  mana-  Louisiana,  of  Calhoun  for  South  Carolina 
ger  of  the  wax-work  department  of  the  (which  has  been  called  his  best  work  of 
museum  at  Cincinnati.  In  1835  he  went  the  kind),  and  of  Webster  for  Massa- 
to  Washington,  where  he  successfully  mod-  chusetts. 

elled  busts  of  distinguished  men,  and  with  Powhatan,    Indian    sagamore,    or    em- 

the  assistance  of  Nicholas  Longworth,  of  peror;  born  about  1550;  was  on  the  Vir- 

Cincinnati,    he    was    enabled    to    establish  ginia    peninsula    between    the    York    and 

himself  at  Florence,  Italy,  in  1837,  where  James  rivers  when  the  English  first  set- 
he  resided  until  his  death,  June  27,  1873. 
There  he  soon  rose  to  eminence  in  his  pro- 


tied  there  in  1607. 
Wah-un-so-na-cook. 


His  Indian  name  was 
He  lived  about  a  mile 


fession,   making   an   ideal    statue   of   Eve   below  the  foot  of  the  falls  of  the  James 

River,  Richmond, 
and  there  Captain 
Smith  and  his  com- 
panions, exploring 
the  stream,  found 
him.  By  his  wis- 
dom and  prowess  he 
had  raised  himself 
to  the  rank  of  saga- 
more, or  civil  ruler, 
over  thirty  Indian 
tribes,  and  was  en- 
titled Powhatan, 
having  a  signifi- 
cance like  that  of 
Pharaoh,  the  official 
title  of  a  line  of 
kings  of  Egypt.  His 
subjects  numbered 
about  8,000,  and 
he  is  known  in  his- 
tory simply  as  Pow- 
hatan. When  he  be- 
came emperor  he  re- 
sided chiefly  at  We- 
roworomoco  ( now 
Shelly),  on  the  York 
River,  in  Gloucester 
county,  Va.  He 
treated  the  English 
people  hospitably, 
but  his  younger 
brother,  Opechanca- 
nough,  King  of  Pa- 
powhatan  sitting  in  state  (From  an  old  print),  munkey,  was  always 
278 


POWHATAN— POWNALL 


hostile  to  them.  When  Captain  Smith 
was  taken  prisoner  by  him,  he  con- 
ducted the  captain  first  to  his  own  village, 
and  then  to  the  palace  of  Powhatan  on 
the  York.  At  the  former  place  the  Ind- 
ians held  incantations  for  three  days  to 
discover  Smith's  character,  for  they  were 
in  doubt  whether  he  was  the  incarnation 
of  the  good  or  the  evil  spirit.  Then  they 
took  him  to  Powhatan  and  asked  him  to 
decide  the  prisoner's  fate.  The  emperor, 
seated  upon  a  raised  platform  in  a  stately 
arbor  covered  with  branches,  and  with  a 
favorite  daughter  on  each  side  of  him,  with 
solemn  words  adjudged  Smith  to  death. 
The  sympathy  of  one  of  Powhatan's 
daughters  saved  him,  and  through  her  in- 
fluence friendship  was  maintained,  with 
some  interruptions,  between  the  emperor 
and  the  English  until  Powhatan  died. 

In  1608  Captain  Newport  came  to  Vir- 
ginia with  presents  for  Powhatan.  Among 
these  was  a  basin,  a  ewer,  some  clothes, 
and  a  crown  for  the  dusky  monarch,  with 
orders  for  him  to  be  crowned.  Captain 
Smith  was  then  president  of  the  colony, 
and  he,  as  special  ambassador  of  the  King 
of  England,  summoned  the  emperor  to 
Jamestown  to  undergo  the  ceremony  of 
coronation.  Powhatan,  with  dignity,  re- 
fused to  go, saying,  "  I  also  am  a  king;  and 
if  the  King  of  England  has  sent  me  gifts, 
they  should  be  brought  to  me ;  I  shall 
not  go  to  receive  them."  Newport  went 
to  Powhatan  with  the  gifts.  They  were  ac- 
cepted ;  but  no  persuasions  could  induce 
the  Indian  monarch  to  kneel  to  receive  the 
crown.  Only  by  two  Englishmen  bearing 
down  heavily  upon  his  shoulders  could  he 
be  brought  to  a  position  that  might  be  con- 
sidered as  kneeling;  and  so  he  had  the 
crown  placed  upon  his  head.  The  act 
finished,  a  pistol  was  fired,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  volley  from  the  boats  in  the 
York  River.  Powhatan  was  startled  by  a 
fear  of  treachery,  but  when  assured  that 
all  was  right,  he  accepted  this  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  royal  state,  and  gave  a  slight 
present  to  be  conveyed  to  his  brother  the 
King  of  England. 

Powhatan's  friendship  was  almost  de- 
stroyed when  Captain  Argall,  a  rough, 
half-piratical  mariner,  kidnapped  Poca- 
hoxtas  (q.  v.)  to  extort  favors  from  her 
father.  Powhatan  was  grieved,  but  re- 
mained  firm.     Meanwhile   Pocahontas   be- 


came betrothed  to  an  Englishman,  and 
with  the  consent  of  her  father  was  mar- 
ried to  him.  After  that  Powhatan  was 
the  fast  friend  of  the  settlers.  He  died 
in  April,  1618,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Opechancanough,  an  enemy  of  the  Eng- 
lish. 

Powhatan  Indians,  a  branch  of  the 
Algonquian  family,  which  composed  a  con- 
federacy of  about  thirty  bands,  including 
the  Accohannocks  and  Accomacs,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  Their 
sagamore  was  Powhatan  {q.  v.).  After 
Powhatan's  death  his  people  made  two  at- 
tempts (1622,  1644)  to  exterminate  the 
English,  but  they  themselves  were  so  weak- 
ened by  the  contest  that  the  confederacy 
fell  in  pieces  at  the  death  of  Opechan- 
canough, Powhatan's  brother  and  suc- 
cessor. Of  all  that  once  great  confederacy 
in  lower  Virginia,  not  one  representative, 
it  is  believed,  exists  on  earth,  nor  one 
tongue  speaks  the  dialect. 

Pownall,  Thomas,  statesman ;  born  in 
Lincoln,  England,  in  1720;  graduated  at 
Cambridge  in  1743,  and  was  made  secre- 
tary to  the  commissioners  of  trade  and 
plantations  in  1745.  He  came  to  America 
in  1753  as  secretary  to  Governor  Osborn, 
of  New  York,  whom  he  succeeded  as  lieu- 
tenant-governor. He  was  a  member  of  the 
Colonial  Congress  at  Albany  in  1754,  and 
was  governor  of  Massachusetts  from  1757 
to  1760.  In  1760-61  he  was  governor  of 
South  Carolina,  and  returning  to  England 
was  made  a  director-general  of  the  office 
of  control  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  En- 
tering Parliament  in  1768,  he  was  one  of 
the  most  powerful  friends  of  the  Ameri- 
cans in  that  body. 

Pownall,  who,  as  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  a  traveller,  explorer,  and 
civil  officer  in  the  central  portion  of  the 
Union,  had  become  well  acquainted  with 
the  characteristics  of  the  American  peo- 
ple, published  in  England,  at  the  beginning 
of  1780,  a  memorial  to  the  sovereigns  in 
Europe,  in  which  he  said  the  system  or 
establishing  colonies  in  various  climates  to 
create  a  monopoly  of  the  peculiar  products 
of  their  labor  was  at  an  end;  that  Amer- 
ica was  so  far  removed  from  the  in- 
fluences of  Europe  and  its  embroiled  inter 
ests  that  it  was  without  a  real  enemy, 
and  the  United  States  of  America  had 
taken  an  equal  station  with  the  nations 


279 


POWNALL— PRAIRIE    GROVE 


upon  earth;  that  negotiations  were  of  no 
consequence  either  to  the  right  or  the  fact 
— the  independence  of  America  was  "  a 
fixed  fact";  that  its  government,  young 
and  strong,  would  struggle  by  the  vigor 
of  its  internal  healing  principles  of  life 
against  all  evils  in  its  system  and  sur- 
mount them.  "Its  strength  will  grow 
with  years,"  he  said,  "  and  it  will  estab- 
lish its  constitution."  He  asserted  his  be- 
lief that  in  time  the  West  Indies  must, 
"in  the  course  of  events,  become  part  of 
the  great  North  American  dominion."  He 
predicted  the  casting  off  by  the  Spanish 
colonies  in  South  America  of  their  de- 
pendence upon  Spain,  which  occurred  in 
less  than  fifty  years  afterwards,  because 
"  South  America,"  he  said,  "  is  growing 
too  much  for  Spain  to  manage;  it  is  in 
power  independent,  and  will  be  so  in  act 
as  soon  as  any  occasion  shall  call  forth 
that  power."  He  spoke  of  the  civilizing 
activity  of  the  human  race  having  free 
course  in  America,  the  people  there, 
"  standing  on  the  high  ground  of  improve- 
ment up  to  which  the  most  enlightened 
parts  of  Europe  have  advanced,  like 
eaglets,  commence  the  first  efforts  of  their 
pinions  from  a  towering  advantage." 

He  lauded  America  as  "  the  poor  man's 
country,"  where  labor  and  mental  develop- 
ment went  hand  in  hand — where  "  many  a 
real  philosopher,  a  politician,  a  warrior, 
emerges  out  of  this  wilderness,  as  the  seed 
rises  out  of  the  ground  where  it  hath  lain 
buried  for  its  season."  He  referred  to  the 
freedom  of  the  mechanic  arts  that  would  be 
secured  by  independence,  where  no  laws 
lock  up  the  artisan,  and  said,  "  The 
moment  that  the  progress  of  civilization 
is  ripe  for  it,  manufactures  will  grow  and 
increase  with  an  astonishing  exuberancy." 
Referring  to  ship-building,  he  said:  "  Their 
commerce  hath  been  striking  deep  root  " ; 
and  referred  to  ocean  and  inland  navi- 
gation as  becoming  "  our  vital  principle  of 
life,  extended  through  cur  organized  being, 
our  nature."  "  Before  long,"  he  said,  the 
Americans  "  will  be  trading  in  the  South 
Sea,  in  the  Spice  Islands,  and  in  China. 
.  .  .  Commerce  will  open  the  door  to  im- 
migration. By  constant  intercommunion, 
America  will  every  day  approach  nearer 
and  nearer  to  Europe.  Unless  the  great 
potentates  of  Europe  can  station  cherubim 
at  every  avenue  with  a  flaming  sword  that 


turns  every  way  to  prevent  man's  quitting 
this  Old  World,  multitudes  of  their  people, 
many  of  the  most  useful,  enterprising  spir- 
its, will  emigrate  to  the  new  one.  Much 
of  the  active  property  will  go  there,  too." 

He  alluded  to  the  folly  of  the  sovereigns 
trying  to  check  the  progress  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, and  said:  "Those  sovereigns  of  Eu- 
rope who  shall  call  upon  their  ministers 
to  state  to  them  things  as  they  really  do 
exist  in  nature,  shall  form  the  earliest,  the 
more  sure,  and  natural  connection  with 
North  America,  as  being,  what  she  is,  an 
independent  State.  .  .  .  The  new  empire 
of  America  is,  like  a  giant,  ready  to  run 
its  course.  The  fostering  care  with  which 
the  rival  powers  of  Europe  will  nurse  it 
insures  its  establishment  beyond  all  doubt 
and  danger."  As  early  as  1760,  Pownall, 
who  had  associated  with  liberal  men  while 
upholding  the  King's  prerogative,  many 
times  said  that  the  political  independence 
of  the  Americans  was  certain,  and  near  at 
hand.  On  one  occasion  Hutchinson,  who, 
eight  years  later,  was  in  Pownall's  official 
seat  in  Massachusetts,  hearing  of  these  re- 
marks, exclaimed,  "Not  for  centuries!" 
for  he  knew  how  strong  was  the  affection 
of  New  England  for  the  fatherland.  He 
did  not  know  how  strong  was  the  desire  of 
the  people  for  liberty.  Pownall  died  in 
Bath,  England,  Feb.  25,  1805. 

Pownall,  Fort,  Erection  of.  Governor 
Pownall,  of  Massachusetts,  took  possession 
of  the  country  around  the  Penobscot 
River  in  1759,  and  secured  it  by  the 
erection  of  a  fort  there.  It  was  done  by 
400  men  granted  by  Massachusetts  for  the 
purpose,  at  a  cost  of  about  $15,000,  and 
named  Fort  Pownall. 

Prairie  Grove,  Battle  at.  In  the 
summer  of  1862  Gen.  T.  C.  Hindman 
gathered  about  40,000  men,  largely  made 
up  of  guerilla  bands,  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Ozark  Mountains.  Schofield,  leaving 
Curtis  in  command  of  his  district,  march- 
ed against  them  late  in  September,  1862, 
with  8,000  men  under  Gen.  J.  G.  Blunt. 
This  officer  attacked  a  portion  of  them  at 
Fort  Wayne,  near  Maysville  (Oct.  22), 
and  drove  them  into  the  Indian  country. 
A  week  later  a  cavalry  force  under  Gen. 
F.  J.  Herron  struck  another  portion  on 
the  White  River  and  drove  them  into  the 
mountains.  Ill-health  compelled  Schofield 
to    relinquish    command,    which    was    as- 


280 


PRAIRIE  GROVE— PREBLE 


sumed    by    Blunt.      Hindman    now    deter-  fell  upon  the  Confederate  left  where  troops 

mined  to  strike  a  decisive  blow  for  the  re-  had  been  massed  to  turn  Herron's  right, 

covery   of   Arkansas    from    National    con-  A    severe   battle   ensued   which    continued 

trol.      Late   in   November   he   had   in   one  for   nearly   four  hours.     Night  ended  the 

body   about    20,000    men    on   the   western  conflict.      The    Nationals    slept    on    their 

borders    of    Arkansas,    and    on    the    28th  arms   on   the   battle -field.      The   Confeder- 

moved  against  Blunt.     His  advance,  com-  ates   retreated   under   cover  of  the  night, 

posed    of    Marmaduke's    cavalry,    was    at-  marched   rapidly,   and   escaped.     The   Na- 


tacked  and  defeated  by  Blunt  on  Boston 
Mountains.  The  latter  now  took  position 
at  Cane  Hill,  where  Hindman  tried  to 
crush  him.  Hindman  crossed  the  Arkan- 
sas River  at  Van  Buren  (Dec.  1,  1862) 
with  about  11,000  men,  including  2,000 
cavalry,  and  joined  Marmaduke.  Told  of 
this,  Blunt  sent  to  Herron,  then  just  over 
the  Missouri  border,  for  assistance. 

He  immediately  marched  into  Arkansas 
at  the  rate  of  20  miles  a  day,  with  guns 


tional  loss  was  1,148,  of  which  167  were 
killed.  Blunt  estimated  the  Confederate 
loss  at  3,000,  as  his  command  buried 
about  1,000  killed  on  the  battle-field. 
Hindman  reported  his  loss  at  1,317. 

Pratt,  Daniel  Johnson,  educator; 
born  in  Westmoreland,  N.  Y.,  March  8, 
1827;  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in 
1851;  became  assistant  secretary  of  the 
board  of  regents  of  the  University  of  the 
State  of  New  York.     His  publications  in- 


and  trains.     He  sent  forward  cavalry,  but    chide  Biographical  Notice  of  Peter  Wrax- 


on  the  morning  of  Dec.  7  he  met  a  part 
of  them  who  had  been  driven  back  by 
Marmaduke's  horsemen.  Meanwhile, 
Blunt  had  been  skirmishing  with  the  Con- 
federates, who  had  turned  his  left  flank 
and  were  making  for  his  trains.  Both  he 
and  Herron  were  now  in  a  perilous  condi- 
tion. Herron  had  arrived  with  his  main 
army  on  Dec.  7,  and  marching  on  met 
the  mounted  guard  of  the  Confederates 
at  a  little  settlement  called  Prairie  Grove. 
Divested  of  his  cavalry,  he  had  only 
about  4,000  effective  men.  Ignorant 
of  the  near  presence  of  a  heavy  force 
under  Hindman,  he  left  a  strong 
position,  drove  the  Confederate  cav- 
alry across  the  river,  and  was  there 
confronted  by  about  20,000  men, 
well  posted  on  a  wooded  ridge. 

Herron  did  not  suspect  their  num- 
ber, and,  pushing  on,  was  instantly 
driven  back.  He  pushed  a  battery 
forward  which  did  such  execution 
that  the  Confederates  supposed  his 
force  was  much  larger  than  it  was. 
He  then  threw  three  full  batteries 
across  a  creek,  supported  by  three 
regiments,  opened  on  the  flank  of 
the  Confederates  with  a  terrible 
storm  of  grape  and  canister,  silenced 
their  guns,  and  pressed  up  the  ridge 
and  captured  a  battery  there.  The 
Nationals,  unable  to  hold  it,  fell 
back;  and  for  a  while  the  result 
was  doubtful.  While  Herron  was 
thus  struggling,  Blunt  came  up  and 


all;  Annals  of  Public  Education  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  1626-1746 ;  and  most 
of  the  History  of  the  Boundaries  of  the 
State  of  New  York.  He  died  in  Albanv, 
N.  Y.,  Sept.  12,  1884. 

Prayer  in  Congress,  First.  See 
Duche,  Jacob. 

Preble,  Edward,  naval  officer ;  born  in 
Portland,  Me.,  Aug.  15,  1761.  At  the  age 
of  sixteen  years  he  made  a  voyage  to  Eu- 
rope   in    an    American    privateer,    and    in 


KUWARU    1'REBI.E. 


281 


PREBLE 


MEDAL   PRESENTED  TO   COMMODORE   PREBLE. 


1779,  when  eighteen  years  of  age,  served  vey,  also  in  1852-53.  He  was  in  the  ex- 
as  midshipman  in  the  Protector.  He  was  pedition  to  Japan  and  China  (1852-56), 
made  prisoner  and  was  in  the  Jersey  and  destroyed  Chinese  pirates  in  1854. 
Prison-ship  (q.  v.)  for  a  while.  After  Afterwards  he  was  with  the  South  Pacific 
the  war  he  occupied  himself  as  ship-  Squadron;  and  during  the  Civil  War  he 
master  until  1708,  when  he  was  named  was  an  active  commander  in  the  Gulf 
one  of  the  five  lieutenants  appointed  by  region.  He  was  with  Farragut  at  New 
the  government.  In  1799  he  was  commis-  Orleans  in  May,  1862,  and  in  July  was 
sioned  captain,  and  made  a  voyage  to  the  commissioned  commander.  He  commanded 
East  Indies  in  the  Essex  for  the  protec-  the  naval  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Honey 
tion  of  American  commerce.  In  1803  he  Hill,  S.  C.  In  1867  he  was  commissioned 
took  command  of  the  frigate  Constitution,  captain  and  became  chief  of  staff  of  the 
and  in  June,  as  commodore,  was  placed  Pacific  Squadron.  After  some  important 
in  command  of  the  squadron  sent  duties  at  Washington,  he  was  appointed 
against  Tripoli.  By  a  series  of  skilful  commandant  of  the  naval  rendezvous  at 
bombardments  of  Tripoli  he  brought  its  Boston  in  1871-72.  On  Nov.  12,  1871,  he 
ruler  to  terms.  He  was  superseded  by  was  made  commodore,  and  from  1873  to 
Barron,  in  September,  1804,  and  returned  1876  was  commandant  of  the  navy -yard 
home,  when  Congress  voted  him  the  at  Philadelphia.  On  Sept.  30,  1876,  he 
thanks  of  the  nation  and  a  gold  medal,  was  made  rear-admiral;  commanded  the 
He  died  in  Portland,  Me.,  Aug.  25,  1807.  South  Pacific  Squadron,  1877-78;  was  re- 
Preble,  George  Henry,  naval  officer;  tired  as  rear-admiral,  1878.  He  died  in 
born  in  Portland,  Me.,  Feb.  25,  1816;  Boston,  Mass.,  March  1,  1885. 
nephew  of  Edward  Preble;  entered  the  Preble,  Jedediah,  military  officer;  born 
navy  as  midshipman,  Oct.  10,  1835;  in  Wells,  Me.,  in  1707;  father  of  Edward 
served  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  West  Preble;  was  a  sailor  in  early  life,  and  in 
Indies;  became  passed  midshipman  in  1746  was  a  captain  in  a  provincial  regi- 
1841;  served  in  the  Florida  War,  and  in  ment.  He  was  a  lieutenant-colonel  under 
the  St.  Louis  went  round  the  world  as  General  Winslow  at  the  dispersion  of  the 
actfhg  master  and  acting  lieutenant.  He  Acadians  in  1755.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of 
also  served  in  the  war  with  Mexico  as  brigadier-general  in  1759,  and  was  twelve 
executive  officer  of  the  Petrel.  He  be-  years  a  Representative.  In  1774  the  Pro- 
came  lieutenant  early  in  1848,  while  yet  vincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts  made 
in  service  against  Mexico;  and  from  1849  him  a  brigadier-general.  He  was  a  State 
to  1851  he  was  attached  to  the  coast  sur-  Senator  in  1780,  and  judge  of  the  Supreme 

282 


PRE-EMPTION    RIGHTS— PRESCOTT 

Court.     He  died  in  Portland,  Me.,  March    Presbyterian    Church   of   the   South,    and 
H>  1784.  the  name  of  the  Presbyterian  Church   in 

Pre-emption  Rights.  In  1816  the  first  the  United  States  was  adopted.  The  doc- 
pre  -  eruption  bill  for  settlers  on  public  trine  and  policy  of  this  organization  are 
lands  was  passed  by  Congress,  not,  how-  in  the  main  similar  to  those  of  the 
ever,  without  much  opposition.  This  act  Northern  Church.  The  reports  for  1904 
allowed  settlers  on  the  public  domain  the  were  as  follows:  Ministers,  1517- 
right  to  purchase  320  acres.  churches,  3,044;  members,  235,142. 

Prentice,  George  Denison,  journalist;  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
born  in  Preston,  Conn.,  Dec.  18,  1802;  States  of  America,  the  name  of  the 
was  graduated  at  Brown  University  in  Presbyterian  Church  operating  in  the 
1S23;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1829,  but  Northern  section  of  the  United  States. 
never  practised;  was  on  the  staff  of  the  The  first  church  was  established  by  John 
New  England  Weekly  Review  for  two  Young,  a  Puritan  minister,  on  Lon»  Isl- 
years;  and  from  1831  till  his  death  was  and  in  1G40;  and  another  was  organized  in. 
editor  of  the  Louisville  Journal  (now  Hempstead  in  1642.  The  Presbyterians 
Courier- Journal) .  He  was  the  author  of  are  Calvinistic  in  doctrine  and  in  policy; 
Life  of  Henry  Clay  and  Poems.  He  died  have  four  supervising  boards,  viz.,  the 
in  Louisville,  Ky.,  Jan.  22,  1870.  session,    the    presbytery,    the    synod,    and 

Prentiss,  Benjamin  Mayberry,  mili-  the  general  assembly.  This  last  body  is 
tary  officer;  born  in  Belleville,  Va.,  Nov.  the  supreme  judicial  and  legislative  court 
23,  1819;  served  as  captain  in  the  Mexi-  of  the  Church.  In  1741  a  division  occur- 
can  War;  in  April,  1861,  became  colonel  red,  owing  to  differences  which  had  sprung 
of  the  7th  Illinois  Volunteers;  in  May,  up  regarding  subscription  to  the  Confes- 
1861,  was  commissioned  brigadier-general  sion  of  Faith  and  certain  doctrines  and 
of  volunteers,  and  served  in  Missouri  until  practices.  Those  who  held  to  a  strict  sub- 
April,  1862,  when  he  joined  General  scription  were  called  Old  Side  and  those 
Grant,  and  fought  in  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  who  believed  in  a  more  liberal  interpreta- 
where  he  was  taken  prisoner.  Early  in  July,  tion  the  New  Side  Presbyterians.  In  1837 
1863,  he  defeated  a  Confederate  force  under  the  latter  body  became  divided  into  the 
Generals  Holmes  and  Price,  at  Helena,  Ark.  Old  School  and  New  School  assemblies,  on 
He  died  in  Bethany,  Mo.,  Jan.  8.  1901.  account     of     differences     concerning     the 

Prentiss,  Charles,  author;  born  in  atonement.  When  the  Civil  War  broke 
Reading,  Mass.,  Oct.  8,  1774;  graduated  out  the  Northern  churches  became  sepa- 
at  Harvard  College  in  1795;  and  entered  rated  from'those  of  the  South  and  adhered 
journalism.  His  publications  include  Life  to  the  New  School  principles.  Since  1869 
of  Robert  Treat  Paine;  Life  of  Gen.  Wil-  the  Northern  Church  has  grown  rapidly, 
Ham  Eaton;  History  of  the  United  States;  even  extending  into  the  South,  where  it 
Trial  of  Calvin  and  Hopkins;  etc.  He  has  had  large  additions.  The  reports  for 
died  in  Brimfield,  Mass.,  Oct.  20,  1820.  1904  were  as  follows:  Ministers,  7,445; 
Prentiss,  Sergeant  Smith,  lawyer;  churches,  7,620;  and  members,  1,044,161. 
born  in  Portland,  Me.,  Sept.  30,  1808;  be-  Prescott,  Richard,  military  officer; 
came  a  lawyer  and  practised  in  Vicksburg,  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  in  1725;  was 
Miss.;  and  was  a  member  of  Congress  in  sent  to  Canada  in  1773  as  brevet-colonel 
1838-39.  As  an  orator  he  was  acknowl-  of  the  7th  Foot.  On  the  capture  of  Mon- 
edged  to  be  without  an  equal  in  the  South,  treal,  late  in  1775,  Prescott,  who  had  the 
He  died  in  Logwood,  Miss.,  July  1,  1850.  local  rank  of  brigadier-general,  attempted 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  to  escape  to  Quebec  with  the  British 
States,  the  name  of  that  branch  of  the  troops,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender. 
Presbyterian  Church  located  in  the  He  was  exchanged  the  following  Septem- 
Southern  States.  In  1858,  owing  to  the  ber  for  General  Sullivan,  and  was  soon 
slavery  agitation,  the  New  School  Presby-  afterwards  made  colonel  of  his  regiment, 
terian  churches  of  the  South  separated  On  the  capture  of  Rhode  Island,  late  in 
from  those  of  the  North.  In  1864  this  1776,  he  was  placed  in  command  there, 
body,  which  was  known  as  the  United  and  made  his  quarters  at  a  farm-house 
Synod,  South,  united  with  the  Old  School    a  short  distance  from  Newport.     His  con- 

283 


PRESCOTT 


duct  had  become  very  offensive  to  the 
Whigs,  and  to  the  inhabitants  generally, 
who  wished  to  get  rid  of  him.  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Barton,  with  thirty-eight  picked 
men,  in  four  whale-boats,  accompanied 
by  a  negro  named  Prince,  crossed  Narfa- 
Iganset  Bay  from  Warwick  Point  at  9 
P.M.  on  July  10,  1777,  to  accomplish  the 
task.  Barton  divided  his  men  into  small 
parties,  and  to  each  assigned  a  special 
duty.  Misleading  the  sentinel  at  the  gate 
of  the  house,  belonging  to  Samuel  Over- 
ton, Barton  entered.  Prescott  was  sleep- 
ing in  an  upper  room.     Ascending  to  it, 


to  Rhode  Island,  and  remained  in  com- 
mand there  until  it  was  evacuated,  Oct. 
25,  1779.  He  was  made  major-general  in 
1777,  and  lieutenant-general  in  1782.  He 
died  in  England  in  October,  1788. 

Prescott,  William,  military  officer; 
born  in  Groton,  Mass.,  Feb.  20,  1726;  was 
a  provincial  colonel  at  the  capture  of 
Cape  Breton  in  1754,  and  was  one  of 
General  Winslow's  captains  in  Nova  Sco- 
tia in  175G,  when  the  dispersion  of  the 
Acadians  took  place  (see  Acadia).  Pres- 
cott inherited  a  large  estate  at  Pepper- 
ell,  and  held  several  offices  of  trust  there. 


puescott's   HEADQUARTERS. 

the  negro  burst   in   a   panel   of  the   door,  When  the  news  of  the  fight  at  Lexington 

through  which  Barton  entered,  seized  the  reached  him  he  assembled   a  regiment  of 

general,  bade  him  be  perfectly  silent,  and,  minute-men,   of  which  he  became  colonel, 

hurrying  him  to  one  of  the  boats,  thrust  and  marched  to  Cambridge.     When  it  was 

him  in,   and   there  allowed  him  to  dress,  decided   to   fortify   Bunker   Hill,   Prescott 

He  was  taken  to  Warwick  Point,  and  from  was    chosen    to    conduct    the    enterprise, 

thence  he  was  sent  to  Washington's  head-  He  cast  up  a  redoubt  and  breastworks  on 

quarters  in  New  Jersey.     He  was  finally  Breed's  Hill,  and  defended  it  bravely  the 

exchanged    for    General    Lee;    went    back  next  day    (June   17,   1775)    until  his  e.w- 

284 


PRESCOTT— PRESIDENT 


munition  was  exhausted,  when  he  was 
compelled  to  retreat,  after  a  severe  bat- 
tle with  3,000  troops  under  Generals  Howe 
and  Clinton.  He  was  among  the  last  to 
quit  the  field.  Prescott  resigned  his  com- 
mission early  in  1777,  and  returned  home; 
but  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he 
entered  the  Northern  army  under  Gates 
as  a  volunteer,  and  was  present  at  the 
capture  of  Burgoyne.  After  the  war  he 
was  in  the  Massachusetts  legislature  sev- 
eral years.  He  died  in  Pepperell,  Oct. 
13,   1795. 

Prescott,  William  Hickling,  histori- 
an; born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  May  4,  1796; 
grandson  of  Col.  William  Prescott;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in   1814;   adopt- 


^t£^Ccrt^t 


ed  a  literary  rather  than  a  professional 
career,  in  consequence  of  an  injury  to 
his  eye  while  in  college.  In  1824  he  com- 
menced contributing  to  the  North  Ameri- 
can Review,  and  in  June,  1826,  began  his 
History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  (3  vol- 
umes, 1838).  This  work  placed  him  in 
the  front  rank  of  historians,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  Conquest  of  Mexico  (3  volumes, 
1843)  ;  Conquest  of  Peru  (2  volumes, 
1847)  ;  and  History  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain 
(3  volumes,  1855-58).    He  intended  to  add 


three  volumes  more,  but  he  did  not  live 
to  complete  them.  In  1856  he  published 
Robertson's  Charles  V.,  with  notes  and  a 
supplement.  His  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  several  European  languages. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Jan.  28,  1859. 

President,  The,  an  American  frigate 
built  in  New  York  City  in  1794;  became 
flag-ship  of  the  squadron  commanded  by 
Capt.  John  Rodgers  at  the  beginning  of 
the  War  of  1812.  Minister  Pinkney,  at 
the  British  Court,  had  arranged  the  diffi- 
culties concerning  the  affair  of  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Leopard  (see  Chesapeake),  by 
which  full  atonement  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment was  secured.  A  favorable  ar- 
rangement with  the  French  by  the  United 
States  had  caused  British  cruisers  on  the 
American  coast  to  become  more  and  more 
annoying  to  American  commerce.  A  rich- 
ly laden  vessel  bound  to  France  was  capt- 
ured within  30  miles  of  New  York,  and 
early  in  May,  1811,  a  British  frigate,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Guerriere,  stopped  an 
American  brig  only  18  miles  from  New 
York.  The  government  then  resolved  i.o 
send  out  one  or  two  of  the  new  frigates 
to  protect  American  commerce  from  Brit- 
ish cruisers.  The  President,  lying  at  An- 
napolis, was  ordered  (May  6)  to  put  to 
sea  at  once,  under  the  command  of  Commo- 
dore Rodgers.  Rodgers  exchanged  signals 
with  the  stranger  who  bore  off  southward. 
Thinking  she  might  be  the  Guerriere, 
Rodgers  gave  chase. 

Early  in  the  evening  of  May  16  Rodgers 
was  so  near  that  he  inquired,  "  What  ship 
is  that?"  The  question,  repeated,  came 
from  the  stranger.  Rodgers  immediately 
reiterated  his  question,  which  was  an- 
swered by  a  shot  that  lodged  in  the 
mainmast  of  the  President.  Rodgers  was 
about  to  respond  in  kind  when  a  single 
gun  from  his  ship  was  accidentally  dis- 
charged. It  was  followed  by  three  shots 
from  his  antagonist,  and  then  by  a  broad- 
side, with  musketry.  Then  Rodgers, 
"  equally  determined,"  he  said,  "  not  to  be 
the  aggressor,  or  suffer  the  flag  of  my  coun- 
try to  be  insulted  with  impunity,"  gave 
orders  for  a  general  fire.  His  antagonist 
was  silenced  within  six  minutes,  and  the 
guns  of  the  President  ceased  firing,  when 
suddenly  her  antagonist  opened  fire  anew. 
Again  she  was  silenced,  and  at  dawn  the 
President  saw  her  several  miles  to  the  lee- 


285 


PRESIDENT,    THE 


ward.  He  ascertained  that  she  was  his 
Majesty's  ship  Little  Belt,  Capt.  A.  B. 
Bingham,  which  was  searching  for  the 
Guerricre  on  the  American  coast. 

Rodgers  was  in  the  port  of  New  York 
when  war  was  declared,  in  command  of 
a  small  squadron — the  President  (his 
flag-ship),  forty-four  guns;  the  Essex, 
thirty-two,  Captain  Porter;  and  the  Hor- 
net, eighteen,  Captain  Lawrence.  He  re- 
ceived orders  (June  21,  1812)  to  sail  im- 
mediately on  a  cruise.  He  had  received 
information  that  a  fleet  of  West  India 
merchantmen  had  sailed  for  England  un- 
der a  convoy,  and  he  steered  for  the  Gulf 
Stream  to  intercept  them.  He  had  been 
joined  by  a  small  squadron  under  Commo- 
dore Decatur — the  United  States  (flag- 
ship), forty- four  guns;  Congress,  thirty- 
eight,  Captain  Smith;  and  Argus,  sixteen, 
Lieutenant-Commander  St.  Clair.  Meet- 
ing a  vessel  which  had  been  boarded  by 
the  British  ship  Belvidera,  thirty-six, 
Capt.  R.  Byron,  Rodgers  pressed  sail, 
and  in  the  course  of  thirty  -  six  hours 
he  discovered  the  Belvidera,  gave  chase, 
and  overtook  her  off  Nantucket  Shoals. 
Rodgers  pointed  and  discharged  one 
of  the  forecastle  chase  -  guns  of  the 
President,  and  his  shot  went  crashing 
through  the  stern  -  frame  into  the  gun- 
room of  his  antagonist,  driving  her 
people  from  it.  That  was  the  "  first 
hostile  shot  of  the  war  fired  afloat."  A 
few  moments  afterwards  one  of  the  Presi- 
dent's guns  burst,  killed  and  wounded 
sixteen  men,  blew  up  the  forecastle,  and 
threw  Rodgers  several  feet  in  the  air.  As 
he  fell  his  leg  was  broken.  Then  a  shot 
from  a  stern-chaser  came  from  the  Bel- 
videra, killing  a  midshipman  and  one  or 
two  men.  The  Belvidera  now  lightened 
her  burden  by  cutting  away  anchors  and 
casting  heavy  things  overboard.  She 
gained  on  the  President,  and  at  twilight 
Mune  23)  the  chase  was  abandoned.  The 
President  lost  twenty-two  men  (sixteen 
by  accident)  killed  and  wounded.  The 
Belvidera  lost  about  twelve  men  killed 
and  wounded. 

In  the  summer  of  1814  Commodore  De- 
catur, who  had  long  been  blockaded  in  the 
Thames,  above  New  London,  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  President,  forty-four  guns, 
which  Commodore  Rodgers  had  left  for  the 
new  ship  Guerridre.     In  November  he  had 


under  his  command  at  New  York  a  squad- 
ron composed  of  his  flag-ship;  the  Hornet, 
eighteen  guns,  Captain  Biddle;  the  Pea- 
cock, eighteen,  Captain  Warrington,  and 
Tom  Bowline,  store-ship.  He  had  been 
watching  the  British  who  had  ravaged 
the  coasts  in  the  vicinity  of  Chesapeake 
Bay.  Finally  he  received  orders  to 
prepare  for  a  cruise  in  the  East  Indies 
to  spread  havoc  among  the  British 
shipping  there.  On  the  night  of 
June  14,  1815,  the  President  dropped 
down  to  Sandy  Hook,  leaving  the  other 
vessels  of  the  squadron  at  anchor  near 
Staten  Island,  and  before  morning  she 
evaded  the  British  blockaders  and  cleared 
the  coast.  Decatur  kept  the  President 
close  along  the  Long  Island  shore  for  a 
while,  believing  that  a  gale  that  blew  on 
the  14th  had  driven  the  blockaders  to  the 
leeward.  Then  he  sailed  boldly  out  to 
sea,  and  by  starlight  that  evening  he  saw 
a  strange  sail  ahead,  within  gunshot  dis- 
tance. Two  others  soon  made  their  ap- 
pearance, and  at  dawn  the  President  was 
chased  by  four  British  ships-of-war,  two 
on  her  quarter  and  two  astern.  These 
were  the  Endymion,  forty  guns;  Pomone, 
thirty-eight;  Tenedos,  thirty-eight,  and 
Majestic,  razee,  which  had  been  blown 
off  the  coast  by  the  gale.  The 
President,  deeply  laden  with  stores  for 
a  long  cruise,  soon  found  the  Endymion, 
Captain  Hope,  rapidly  overtaking  her. 
Decatur  lightened  his  ship  to  increase 
her  speed,  but  to  little  purpose. 
At  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  (Sept. 
16)  the  Endymion-  came  down  with  a 
fresh  breeze,  which  the  President  did  not 
feel,  and  opened  her  bow  guns  upon  the 
latter,  which  she  quickly  returned.  At 
five  o'clock  the  Endymion  gained  an  ad- 
vantageous position  and  terribly  bruised 
the  President,  while  the  latter  could  not 
bring  a  gun  to  bear  on  her  antagonist.  It 
was  evident  that  the  Endymion  was  en- 
deavoring to  gradually  bring  the  Presi- 
dent to  an  unmanageable  wreck,  and  so 
secure  a  victory.  Perceiving  this,  De- 
catur resolved  to  run  down  upon  the 
Endymion  and  seize  her  as  a  prize  by  a 
hand-to-hand  fight.  But  the  commander 
of  the  British  vessel,  wary  and  skilful, 
was  not  to  be  caught  so,  and  managed  his 
vessel  so  that  they  were  brought  abeam  of 
each     other,    when    both     delivered     tre- 


>86 


PRESIDENTIAL    ADMINISTRATIONS 


inendous  broadsides.  Every  attempt  of 
Decatur  to  lay  the  President  alongside 
the  Endyrnion  was  foiled  by  Captain 
Hope,  who  adroitly  kept  his  ship  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  his  antagonist.  Decatur 
now  determined  to  dismantle  his  antago- 
nist. The  two  frigates  ran  side  by  side 
for  two  hours  and  a  half,  discharging 
broadsides  at  each  other,  until  the  En- 
dyrnion, having  had  most  of  her  sails  cut 
from  the  yards,  fell  astern,  and  would 
have  struck  her  colors  in  a  few  minutes. 
At  that  moment  the  other  vessels  in  chase 
were  seen  by  the  dim  starlight  approach- 
ing, when  the  President  kept  on  her  course 
and  vainly  tried  to  escape.  The  pursuers 
closed  upon  her,  and  at  eleven  o'clock 
made  a  simultaneous  attack.  Further  re- 
sistance would  have  been  useless,  and  the 
colors  of  the  President  were  hauled  down. 
Decatur  delivered  his  sword  to  Captain 
Hayes,  of  the  Majestic,  which  was  the 
first  vessel  that  came  alongside  the  Presi- 
dent. Decatur  lost  twenty- four  men 
killed  and  fifty-six  wounded.  The  En- 
dyrnion had  eleven  killed  and  fourteen 
wounded.  The  Endyrnion,  with  her  prize, 
Bailed  for  Bermuda,  and  both  vessels  were 
dismasted  by  a  gale  before  reaching  port. 
When  the  details  of  the  whole  battle  be- 
came known,  the  praise  of  Decatur  and 
his  men  was  upon  every  lip. 

Presidential  Administrations.  The 
Presidents  and  leading  cabinet  officers, 
with  the  political  complexion  of  both  the 
executive  and  legislative  departments  of 
the  national  government,  have  been  as 
follows : 

1789-93:  Washington;  Adams,  Vice- 
President,  Federalist;  Jefferson,  State; 
Hamilton,  Treasury;  Knox,  War;  Ed- 
mund Randolph,  Attorney-General.  Con- 
gress, Federalist;  Muhlenberg  and  Trum- 
bull speakers. 

1793-97:  Washington  and  Adams  again; 
Jefferson,  then  Randolph,  State;  Hamil- 
ton, then  Wolcott,  Treasury;  other  minor 
changes.  Congress,  1793-95,  Republican 
House;  Muhlenberg,  speaker;  1795-97, 
Dayton,  speaker. 

1797-1801:  Adams,  Federalist;  Jeffer- 
son, Vice-President,  Republican;  Picker- 
ing, State;  Wolcott,  Treasury.  Congress, 
Federalist;  Dayton  and  Sedgwick,  speak- 
ers. 

1801-5:     Jefferson;     Burr,     Vice-Presi- 


dent, Republican;  Madison,  State;  Gal- 
latin, Treasury.  Congress,  Republican; 
Macon,  speaker. 

1805-9:  Jefferson;  George  Clinton,  Vice- 
President,  Republican;  Madison,  State; 
Gallatin,  Treasury.  Congress,  Republican; 
Macon  and  Varnum,  speakers. 

1809-13;  Madison;  Clinton,  Vice-Presi- 
dent, Republican;  Robert  Smith,  later 
Monroe,  State;  Gallatin,  Treasury.  Con- 
gress, Republican;  Varnum  and  Clay, 
speakers. 

1813-17:  Madison;  Gerry,  Vice-Presi- 
dent, Republican;  Monroe,  State,  Gallatin, 
at  first,  Treasury.  Congress,  Republican ; 
Clay,  speaker. 

1817-21:  Monroe;  Tompkins,  Vice- 
President,  Republican ;  J.  Q.  Adams, 
State;  Crawford,  Treasury;  Calhoun  (and 
others ) ,  War,  Congress,  Republican, 
Clay,   speaker. 

1821-25:  Monroe;  Tompkins,  Vice- 
President;  J.  Q.  Adams,  State;  Crawford, 
Treasury;  Calhoun,  War.  Congress, 
Republican;  P.  P.  Barbour  and  Clay, 
speakers. 

1825-29:  J.  Q.  Adams,  National  Re- 
publican; Calhoun,  Vice-President,  Demo- 
crat; Clay,  State.  Congress,  1825-27, 
National  Republican;  J.  W.  Taylor, 
speaker;  1827-29,  Democratic;  Steven- 
son,   speaker. 

1829-33:  Jackson,  Calhoun,  Vice-Presi- 
dent, Democrat;  Van  Buren,  later  Liv- 
ingston, State.  Congress,  1829-31,  Demo- 
cratic; Stevenson,  speaker;  1831-33,  Sen- 
ate opposition,  House  Democratic;  Steven- 
son, speaker. 

1833-37;  Jackson;  Van  Buren,  Vice- 
President,  Democrat;  McLane,  later  For- 
syth, State;  Duane,  Taney,  Woodbury, 
Treasury.  Congress,  1833-35,  Senate  op- 
position, House  Democratic;  Stevenson, 
speaker;  1835-37,  Senate  opposition,  then 
Democratic,  House  Democratic;  Polk, 
speaker. 

1837-41:  Van  Buren;  R.  M.  Johnson. 
Vice-President,  Democrat;  Forsyth,  State; 
Woodbury,  Treasury.  Congress,  Demo- 
cratic;  Polk  and  Hunter,  speakers. 

1841-45:  W.  H.  Harrison;  Tyler,  Vice- 
President  (succeeded  as  President  April 
4,  1841),  Whig;  Webster,  afterwards 
Legar£,  Upshur,  Calhoun,  State;  numer- 
ous changes  in  the  other  departments. 
Congress,    1841-43,    Whig;    White,   speak- 


287 


PRESIDENTIAL    ADMINISTRATIONS— PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTIONS 

er;    1843-45,  Senate  Whig,  House  Demo-  dent    (succeeded    as    President    Sept.    19, 

cratic;   J.  W.  Jones,  speaker.  1881),  Republican;   Blaine,  later  Freling- 

1845-49;    Polk;    Dallas,   Vice-President,  huysen,  State;  Windom  and  others,  Treas- 

Democrat;      Buchanan,      State;      Walker,  ury;    Lincoln,    War.      Congress,    1881-83, 

Treasury;  Marcy,  War;  Bancroft,  at  first,  Senate    tie,    House    Republican;     Keifer, 

Navy.      Congress,     1845-47,     Democratic;  speaker;      1883-85,     Senate     Republican, 

J.    W.    Davis,    speaker;     1847-49,    Senate  House  Democratic;  Carlisle,  speaker. 

Democratic,    House    Whig;     R.    C.    Win-  1885-89:     Cleveland;     Hendricks,    Vicc- 

throp,   speaker.  President,  Democrat;  Bayard,  State;  Man- 

1849-53:    Taylor;    Fillmore,   Vice-Presi-  ning,  Fairchild,  Treasury;  Whitney,  Navy, 

dent     (succeeded    as    President    July    9,  Congress,  Senate  Republican,  House  Demo- 

1850),  Whig;    Clayton,  Webster,  Everett,  cratic;  Carlisle,  speaker. 

State;  numerous  changes  in  other  depart-  1889-93:   Harrison;  Morton,  Vice-Presi- 

ments.     Congress,  Democratic;    Cobb  and  dent,  Republican;  Blaine,  State;  Windom, 

Boyd,   speakers.  at  first,  Treasury;  Tracy,  Navy.  Congress, 

1853-57:  Pierce;  King,  Vice-Presi-  Senate  Republican,  House,  1889-91,  Re- 
dent,  Democrat;  Marcy,  State;  Davis,  publican;  Reed,  speaker;  1891-93,  Demo- 
War.  Congress,  1853-55,  Democratic;  cratic;  Crisp,  speaker. 
Boyd,  speaker;  1855-57,  Senate  Demo-  1893-97:  Cleveland;  Stevenson,  Vice- 
cratic,  House  Anti  -  Nebraska ;  Banks,  President,  Democrat ;  Gresham,  then 
speaker.  Olney,  State;  Carlisle,  Treasury;  Lamont, 

1857-61:  Buchanan;  Breckinridge,  Vice-  War;  Olney,  then  Harmon,  Attorney-Gen- 
President,  Democrat;  Cass,  State;  Cobb,  eral;  Bissell,  then  Wilson,  Postmaster- 
Treasury;  Floyd,  War;  various  changes  General;  Herbert,  Navy;  Smith,  Interior; 
in  the  cabinet  in  1860  and  1861.  Con-  Morton,  Agriculture.  Congress,  Demo- 
gress,  1857-59,  Democratic;  Orr,  speaker;  cratic;  Crisp,  speaker;  1895.  House  Re- 
1859-61,  Senate  Democratic,  House,  Re-  publican;  Reed,  speaker, 
publican;   Pennington,  speaker.  1897-1901:     McKinley;     Hobart,    Vice- 

1861-65:  Lincoln;  Hamlin,  Vice-  President,  Republican  (died  Nov.  2, 
President,  Republican;  Seward,  State;  1899);  Sherman,  Day,  and  Hay,  State; 
Chase,  later  Fessenden,  Treasury;  Cam-  Gage,  Treasury;  Alger  and  Root,  War; 
eron,  later  Stanton,  War;  Welles,  Navy.  McKenna,  Griggs,  and  Knox,  Attorney- 
Congress,  Republican;  Grow,  speaker,  General;  Gary  and  Smith,  Postmaster- 
1861-63;    Colfax,   1863-65.  General;    Long,    Navy;    Bliss   and   Hitch- 

1865-69:  Lincoln;  Johnson,  Vice-  cock,  Interior;  Wilson,  Agriculture.  Con- 
President  (succeeded  as  President  April  gress,  Republican;  Reed  and  Henderson, 
15,    1865),    Republican;     Seward,    State;  speakers. 

McCulloch,  Treasury;  Stanton,  until  1867,  1901-1905:  McKinley;  Roosevelt,  Vice- 
War.  Congress,  Republican;  Colfax,  President;  Republican;  Hay,  State;  Gage 
speaker.  and  Shaw,  Treasury;  Root  and  Taft,  War; 

1869-73:      Grant;     Colfax,     Vice-Presi-  Knox,      Attorney  -  General ;      Smith      and 

dent,  Bepublican;    Fish,   State;    Boutwell,  Fayne,     Postmaster-General;      Long     and 

Treasury.     Congress,  Republican;    Blaine,  Moody,   Navy;    Hitchcock,   Interior;    Wil- 

speaker.  son,  Agriculture.     Congress,  Republican. 

1873-77:     Grant;     Wilson,     Vice-Presi-  Presidential  Cabinets.     See  Cabinet, 

dent,    Republican;    Fish,    State;    Bristow  President's.     Presidential  Administra- 

tand    others,    Treasury.      Congress,    1873-  tions. 

75,    Republican;    Blaine,    speaker;     1875-  Presidential     Elections.       Under     the 

77,     Senate     Republican,     House     Demo-  Constitution    as    originally    adopted,    the 

cratic;  Kerr,  later  Randall,  speaker.  candidates   for   President   and  Vice-Presi- 

1S77-81:    Hayes;    Wheeler,    Vice-Presi-  dent  were  voted  for  in  the  electoral  college 

dent,  Republican ;  Evarts,  State ;  Sherman,  of  each  State,  without  designating  which 

Treasury.      Congress,   House   Democratic;  the  elector  intended  for  the  first  and  which 

Randall,    speaker;     Senate,    1877-79,    Re-  for  the  second  office.     Lists  of  these  were 

publican;   1879-81,  Democratic.  transmitted    to    the    seat    of    government, 

18S1-85;    Garfield;    Arthur,   Vice-Presi-  and    the    candidate    having    the    greatest 

288 


PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTIONS 


number  (if  a  majority  of  the  whole)  be- 
came President,  and  the  one  having  the 
next  greatest  number  Vice-President.  If 
the  two  highest  candidates  received  an 
equal  number  of  votes,  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives (as  now)  was  to  proceed  im- 
mediately to  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them 
for  President,  voting  by  States,  each  State 
having  one  vote,  and  a  majority  of  all 
the  States  being  necessary  to  a  choice.  In 
case  of  a  tie  on  the  Vice-President,  the 
Senate  was  to  choose  between  the  equal 
candidates. 

The  Twelfth  Amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tution (declared  in  force  Sept.  25,  1804) 
changed  the  mode  of  voting  for  the 
two  officers,  the  electors  being  required 
to  vote  separately  for  President  and 
Vice  -  President.  They  were  to  name  in 
their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Presi- 
dent, and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person 
voted  for  as  Vice-President;  distinct  lists 
of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President  and 
Vice-President,  signed  and  certified,1  were 
sent  to  the  seat  of  government,  directed 
to  "  the  President  of  the  Senate,"  whose 
duty  it  was,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  to  open  all 
the  certificates,  and  count  the  votes,  the 
person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  for  the  respective  offices  (if  a  ma- 
jority of  the  whole),  to  be  declared  elected. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  people  do  not  vote 
for  the  Presidential  candidates  direct. 
The  people  vote  for  electors,  the  majority 
of  whom  elect  the  President.  As  a  result, 
a  candidate  might  have  an  overwhelming 
popular  majority  and  yet  be  defeated  in 
the  electoral  college. 

In  the  elections  of  1789,  1792,  1796,  and 
1800,  each  elector  in  the  electoral  college 
voted  for  two  candidates  for  President. 
The  candidate  who  received  the  largest 
electoral  vote  was  declared  President,  and 
the  candidate  who  received  the  next 
largest  number  of  votes  was  declared  Vice- 
President. 

In  1804  the  Constitution  was  amended 
(Twelfth  Amendment).  Beginning  with 
the  election  of  1804,  all  the  electors  voted 
for  a  President  and  a  Vice-President, 
instead  of  for  two  candidates  as  for- 
merly. 

The  record  of  any  popular  vote  for  elec- 
tors prior  to  1824  is  so  meagre  and  im- 
perfect   that    a    trustworthy    compilation 


would  be  impossible.  In  most  of  the 
States,  for  more  than  a  quarter-century 
following  the  establishment  of  the  govern- 
ment, the  State  legislatures  "  appointed  " 
the  Presidential  electors,  and  the  people's 
choice  was  expressed  by  their  votes  for 
members  of  the  legislature.  In  the  tabu- 
lation of  the  votes  1789-1820  only  the 
aggregate  electoral  votes  for  candi- 
dates for  President  and  Vice-President 
are  given.  See  Popular  Vote  for  Presi- 
dent. 

1789.  George  Washington,  69  ;  John  Adams, 
of  Massachusetts,  34 ;  John  Jay,  of  New 
York,  9;  H.  H.  Harrison,  of  Maryland,  6; 
John  Rutledge,  of  South  Carolina,  6 ;  John 
Hancock,  of  Massachusetts,  4  ;  George  Clin- 
ton, of  New  York,  3 ;  Samuel  Huntingdon, 
cf  Connecticut,  2  ;  John  Milton,  of  Georgia, 
2 ;  James  Armstrong,  of  Georgia,  Benjamin 
Lincoln,  of  Massachusetts,  and  Edward  Tel- 
fair, of  Georgia,  1  vote  each.  Vacancies 
(votes  not  cast),  4.  George  Washington  was 
chosen  President  and  John  Adams  Vice-Presi- 
dent. 

1792.  George  Washington  received  132 
Votes :  John  Adams,  Federalist,  77  ;  George 
Clinton,  of  New  York,  Republican,  50 ; 
Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia,  Republican, 
4  ;  Aaron  Burr,  of  New  York,  Republican,  1 
vote.  Vacancies,  3.  George  Washington  was 
chosen  President  and  John  Adams  Vice- 
President. 

1796.  John  Adams,  Federalist,  71  :  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Republican,  68  ;  Thomas  Tinckney, 
of  South  Carolina,  Federalist,  59 ;  Aaron 
Burr,  of  New  York,  Republican,  30  ;  Samuel 
Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  Republican,  15 ; 
Oliver  Ellsworth,  of  Connecticut,  Indepen- 
dent, 11  ;  George  Clinton,  of  New  York,  Re- 
publican, 7  ;  John  Jay,  of  New  York,  Federal- 
ist, 5 :  James  Iredell,  of  North  Carolina, 
Federalist,  3  ;  George  Washington,  of  Vir- 
ginia, John  Henry,  of  Maryland,  and  S. 
Johnson,  of  North  Carolina,  all  Federalists, 
2  votes  each  ;  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney, 
of  South  Carolina,  Federalist,  1  vote.  John 
Adams  was  chosen  President  and  Thomas 
Jefferson  Vice-President. 

1800.  Thomas  Jefferson,  Republican,  73 : 
Aaron  Burr,  Republican,  73 ;  John  Adams, 
Federalist,  65 ;  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  Fed- 
eralist, 64 ;  John  Jay,  Federalist,  1  vote. 
There  being  a  tie  vote  for  Jefferson  and 
Burr,  the  choice  devolved  upon  the  House  of 
Representatives.  Jefferson  received  the  votes 
of  ten  States;  Burr  received  the  votes  of 
four  States.  There  were  2  blank  votes. 
Thomas  Jefferson  was  chosen  President  and 
Aaron   Burr  Vice-President. 

1804.  For  President,  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son, Republican,  162 ;  Charles  C.  Pinckney. 
Federalist,  14.  For  Vice-President,  George 
Clinton,  Republican,  162  ;  Rufus  King, 
of  New  York,  Federalist,  14.  Jefferson 
was  chosen  President  and  Clinton  Vice-Presi- 
dent. 


289 


PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTIONS 


"T^ 


1808.  For  President,  James  Madison,  of 
Virginia,  Republican,  122  ;  Charles  C.  Pinck- 
ney,  of  South  Carolina,  Federalist,  47  ;  George 
Clinton,  of  New  York,  Republican,  6.  For 
Vice-President,  George  Clinton,  Republican. 
113 ;  Rufus  King,  of  New  York,  Federalist, 
47 ;  John  Langdon,  of  New  Hampshire,  9 ; 
James  Madison,  3  ;  James  Monroe,  3. 
Vacancy,  1.  Madison  was  chosen  President 
and  Clinton  Vice-President. 

1812.  For  President,  James  Madison,  Repub- 
lican, 128 ;  De  Witt  Clinton,  of  New  York, 
Federalist,  89.  For  Vice-President,  Eibridge 
Gerry,  of  Massachusetts,  131  ;  Jared  Ingersoil, 
of  Pennsylvania,  Federalist,  86.  Vacancy,  1. 
Madison  was  chosen  President  and  Gerry 
Vice-President. 

1816.  For  President,  James  Monroe,  of  Vir- 
ginia, Republican,  183  ;  Rufus  King,  of  New 
York,  Federalist,  34.  For  Vice-President, 
Daniel    D.    Tompkins,   of   New    York,    Repub- 


lican, 183  ;  John  Eager  Howard,  of  Maryland, 
Federalist,  22  ;  James  Ross,  of  Pennsylvania, 
5  ;  John  Marshall,  of  Virginia,  4 ;  Robert 
G.  Harper,  of  Maryland,  3.  Vacancies,  4. 
Monroe  was  chosen  President  and  Tompkins 
Vice-President. 

1820.  For  President,  James  Monroe,  of  Vir- 
ginia, Republican,  231  ;  John  Q.  Adams,  of 
Massachusetts,  Republican,  1.  For  Vice-Presi- 
dent, Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  Republican,  218 ; 
Richard  Stockton,  of  New  Jersey, '  8  ;  Daniel 
Rodney,  of  Delaware,  4  ;  Robert  G.  Harper,  of 
Maryland,  and  Richard  Rush,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 1  vote  each.  Vacancies,  3.  James  Mon- 
roe was  chosen  President  and  Daniel  D. 
Tompkins   Vice-President. 

The  popular  vote  for  the  principal 
Presidential  candidates  since  1824  was  as 
follows: 


ELECTORAL   AND  POPULAR   VOTES. 


Year  of  Election 

and  Candidates  for 

President. 


1824. 

Andrew  Jackson 

John  Q.  Adams    

Henry  Clay 

William  H.  Crawford. 


1828. 
Andrew  Jackson 
John  Q.  Adams. . . 


1832. 
Andrew  Jackson 

Henry  Clay 

John  Floyd 

William  Wirt      .. 


1836. 
Martin  Van  Buren  .... 

W.  H.  Harrison 

Hugh  L.  White 

Daniel  Webster 

Willie  P.  Mangum 

1840. 

W.  H.  Harrison   

Martin  Van  Buren 

James  G.  Birney 

1844. 

James  K.  Polk  

Henry  Clay 

James  G    Birney 

1818. 

Zachary  Tiylor  

Lewis  Cass 

Martin  Van  Buren. 

1852. 

Franklin  Pierce   

Wintield  Scott 

John  P.  Hale 

Daniel  Webster      

1856. 

James  Buchanan 

JohnC  Fremont 

Millard  Fillmore 

1860. 
Abraham  Lincoln    .... 
Stephen  A.  Douglas. . . . 

J.  C.  Breckinridge 

John  Bell 


Tenn. 
Mass. 
Ky.., 

Ga.  ., 


Tenn. 

.Mass. 


Tenn. 
Ky  . 
Va... 
Md.. 


N.  Y. 

0 

Tenn. 
Mass. 
N.  C. , 


0.  .  ., 
N.  Y. 
N.  Y. 


Tenn. 
Ky.  . . 
N.Y. 

La.  .. 

Mich., 
N.  Y. . 

NT.  H. 
X.  J.. 


NT  H. 
Mass 

Pa.  ., 
Cal.  . 

N.  Y. 

111.... 
III... 

Ky.  . 
Tenn. 


Oem... 
Mat.  R. 
Rep... 
Rep?.. 


Hem... 
Nat.  R. 


Dem... 
Nat.  R. 
Ind 

Anti-M. 


Polit- 
ical 
Party. 


em.. 

Whig. 
Whig. 
Whig. 
Whig. 

Whig., 
Dem.. 
Lib..., 


Dem.. . 
Whig.. 
Lib.... 

Whig. . 
Dem.. . 
F.  Soil. 

Dem... 

Whig.. 
F  D. 
Whig. . 

Oem.. . 
Rep . . . 

Amer. . 

Rep . . . 
Dem... 
Dem... 
Union . 


155,872 
105,321 
46,587 
44,282 


647,231 
509,097 


687,502 
530,189 

33,108 


761,549 
736,656 


1,275,017 

1,128,702 

7,059 


1,337,243 

1,299,068 

62,300 

1,360,101 

1.220,544 

291,263 

1,601,474 

1,380,576 

156,149 

1,670 

1,838,169 
1,341,264 

874,538 

1,866,352 

1,375,157 

845,763 

589,581 


Plurality. 


50,551 


157,313 


220,896 


496,905 


491,195 


Elec- 
toral 
Vote. 


178 
83 


219 

40 
11 
7 


170 
73 
26 
14 
II 

234 
60 


163 

127 


254 

42 


ISO 

12 

72 
39 


R.  M.  Johnson 
Francis  Granger. 

John  Tyler 

William  Smith.. 


Candidates  for 
Vice-President. 


John  C.  Calhoun  . 
Nathan  Sanford  . .. 
Nathaniel  Macon.. 
Andrew  Jackson... 
Martin  Vau  Buren.. 
Henry  Clay 


John  C.  Calhoun 
Richard  Rush. ... 
William  Smith  . . 


Martin  Van  Buren 

John  Sergeant 

Henry  Lee 

Amos  Ellmaker 
William  Wilkins... 


John  Tyler  . . . 

R.  M.  Johnson. 

W.  Tazewell. 

James  K.  Polk. 


George  M.  Dallas 
T.  Frelinghuysen. 
Thomas  Morris. .. 


Millard  Fillmore  . 
William  O.  Butler. 
Charles  F.  Adams. 


William  R.  King  .. 
William  A.  Graham. 
George  W.  Julian... 


J.  C.  Breckinridge 
William  L.  Dayton. 
A.  J.  Donelson 


Hannibal  Hamlin 
H.  V.  Johnson.... 

Joseph  Lane  

Edward  Everett... 


S.  C 
N.  Y.. 
N.  C 
Tenn.. 
N.  Y. 
Ky.. 

S.  C. 
Pa... 
S.  C. 

N.Y. 

Pa... 
Mass. 
Pa... 
Pa..., 

Ky.., 
N.  Y., 
Va.., 
Ala.. 


Va.... 

Ky... 
Va... 
Tenn.. 

Pa.... 
N.  J.. 
0 


N.  Y. 

Ky.. 
Mass. 

Ala.. 

N.  C. 
Ind.. 


Ky... 
N.  J.. 
Tenn.. 

Me... 
Ga... 
Ore. . . 

Mass.. 


Polit- 
ical 
Party. 


Dem... 
Rep . . . 
Rep . . . 
Dem. . . 
Rep... 
Rep . . . 

Dem  . . 
Nat.  F 
Dem  , 

Dem 

Nat. 

Ind 

Anti-M, 
Dem  ... 

Dem  ... 
Whig. . , 
Whig. . , 
Dem  . .. 


Whig.. 
Dem  .. 
Dem  .. 
Dem  . . 

Dem  . . 
Whig.. 
Lib.... 

Whig.. 
Dem  . . 
F.  Soil. 

Dem  . . 
Whig. . 
F.  D. . . 


Dem  .. 
Rep . . . 
Amer.. 

Rep . . . 
Dem  .. 
Dem  .. 
Union. 


Elec- 
toral 
Vote. 


182 
30 
24 
13 
9 
2 

171 
83 

7 

189 
49 
11 
7 
30 

147 
77 
47 
23 


234 

48 

11 

1 

170 
105 


163 
127 


254 
42 


174 

114 

8 

180 
12 
72 
39 


290 


fBESIDENTIAL    ELECTIONS 

ELECTORAL  AND   POPULAR  VOTES—  Continued. 


Year  of  Election 

and  Candidates  for 

President. 

States. 

Polit- 
ical 
Party. 

Popular 
Vote. 

Plurality. 

Elec- 
toral 
Vote. 

Candidates  for 
Vice-President. 

States. 

Polit- 
ical 
Party. 

Elec- 
toral 
Vole. 

1864. 

~ 

Abraham  Lincoln   .... 

III.... 

Rep .... 

2,216,067 

407,342 

212 

Tenn.. 

Rep . . . 

212 

George  B.  MeClellan... 

X.  J.. 

Dem. . . . 

1,808,725 

21 

George  H   Pendleton. . . 

0 

Dem. . . . 

21 

1868. 

Ulysses S.  Grant    

111..  .. 

Rep ... . 

3,015,071 

305,456 

214 

Ind... 

Rep 

214 

Horatio  Seymour 

1872. 

N.  Y.. 

Dem.... 

2,709,615 
3,597,070 

80 

F.  P.  Blair,  Jr 

Mo  . 

Deni 

111.... 

Rep 

762,991 

286 

Henry- Wilson   

Mass.. 

Rep 

286 

Horace  Greeley 

N.  Y.. 

D.  &L.. 

2,834,079 

Mo... 

I).  L.... 

47 

Charles  O'Conor 

N.  Y.. 

Dem. . . . 

29,408 

John  Q.  Adams 

Mass.. 

Dem  . . . 

Pa.... 
Ind... 

Temp. . . 
Dem. . . . 

5,608 

"42 

Mich. 
Ind... 

Temp... 
Lib 

Thomas  A.  Hendricks.. 

5 

Mo.  . . 

Dem.... 

18 

A.  H.  Colquitt 

Ga  ... 

Dem  . . . 

5 

Charles  J.  Jenkins 

Ga.  .. 

Dem 

2 

III.... 

Dem  . . . 

3 

David  Davis 

111.... 

Ind  . . . . 

1 

T.  E.  Bramlette 

Willis  B.  Machen 

N.  P.  Banks 

Ky... 
0 

Ky... 

Dem  . . . 
Dem  . . 
Dem  . .. 
Lib 

3 
1 

1 

1876. 

Samuel  J.  Tilden 

N.  Y.. 

Dem. . . . 

4,284,885 

250,935 

184 

T.  A.  Hendricks 

Ind... 

Dem  .. 

184 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes  .. 

0.... 

Rep ... . 

4,033,950 

185 

William  A.  Wheeler  ... 

N.  Y.. 

Rep 

185 

Peter  Cooper 

N.  Y.. 

Gre'nb.. 

81,710 

O  .... 

Gre'nb. . 

Green  Clay  Smith. 

Kv... 

Pro 

9,522 

Gideon  T.  Stewart 

0  .... 

Pro 

111.... 

Amer. . . 

2,636 

D.   Kirkpatrick 

N.Y.. 

Amer... 

1880. 

James  A.  Garfield  .... 

O.  .  .. 

Rep   ... 

4,449,053 

7,018 

214 

Chester  A.  Arthur    .... 

N.  Y.. 

Rep 

214 

Pa.... 

Dem. . . . 

4,442,035 

155 

William  H.  English 

Ind... 

Dem  . .. 

155 

Iowa . 

Gre'nb.. 

307,306 

Tex . . 

Gre'nb.. 

Me... 
Vt.... 

Pro  ,    . 
Amer... 

10,305 
707 

S.  C.  Pomeroy 

0  .... 

Kan.. 

Pro 

Amer... 

1884. 

Grover  Cleveland 

N.  Y. . 

Dem.... 

4,911,017 

62,683 

219 

Ind... 

Dem  .. . 

219 

James  G.  Blaine 

Me . . . 

Rep 

4,848,334 

182 

111.... 

Rep 

182 

Kan . . 

151,809 

William  Daniel... ..... 

Md... 

Pro 

Peop . . . 
Amer. . . 

133,825 

A.  M.  West 

Peop.  .. 

Cal... 

1888. 

Grover  Cleveland 

N.Y.. 

Dem. . . . 

5,538,233 

98,017 

168 

Allen  G.  Thurman 

O 

Dem  . .. 

168 

Benjamin  Harrison  ... 

Ind... 

Rep 

5,440,216 

233 

Levi  P.  Morion   

X.  Y. . 

Rep 

233 

Clinton  B.  Fisk 

N.  J.. 

Pro 

249,907 

John  A.  Brooks  ....... 

Mo... 

Pro  .... 

111.... 

U.  L.... 

148,105 

Ark... 

U'dL.. 

R.  H.  Cowdry 

111.... 

U'dL... 

2,808 

W.  H.  T.  Wakefield.... 

Kan.  . 

U'dL... 

James  L.  Curtis 

1892. 
Grover  Cleveland 

N.  Y.. 

Amer. . . 

1,591 

Tenn  . 

Amer. .. 

N.Y.. 

Dem. . . . 

5,556,918 

380,810 

277 

Adlai  E.  Stevenson   ... 

111.... 

Dem  ... 

277 

Benjamiu  Harrison. . . . 

Ind  .. 

Rep 

5,176,108 

145 

Whitelaw  Reid 

X.  Y.. 

Rep 

145 

Iowa.. 

Peop.  .. 

1,041,028 

22 

Va.... 

Peop.... 

22 

Cal. . . 
Mass.. 

Soc.  L.. 

264,133 
21,164 

Charles  H.  Matchett... 

Tex. . . 
N.  Y.. 

Pro 

Soc.  L. . 

1896. 

William  McKinley   .... 

O 

Rep 

7,104,779 

601,854 

271 

Garret  A.  Hobart 

X.  J.. 

Rep.... 

271 

Xeb.. 

Dem.   \ 
Peop.  J 

6,502,920 

{ :::::: 

176 

Arthur  Sewall 

Me... 
Ga... 

Dem  . . . 
Peop.... 

176 

William  J.  Brvan 

Xeb . . 

Md . . . 

Pro 

132,007 

111.... 

Pro 

John  M.  Palmer 

111.... 

X.  Dem. 

133,14s 

Ky... 

X.  Dem. 

Charles  H.  Matchett. . . 

N.  Y. . 

Soc.  L. . 

36,274 

Matthew  Maguire 

N.  J.. 

Soc.  L.. 

Xat. 

13,969 

James  H.  Southgate 

X.  C. 

Xat. 

1900. 

William  McKinley   .. 

O 

Rep 

7,206,677 

832,280 

292 

Theodore  Roosevelt   . . . 

X.  Y. . 

Rep 

292 

William  J.  Brvan 

Neb... 

Dem.  P. 

6,374,397 

155 

Adlai  E.  Steveuson 

111.... 

Dem.  P. 

155 

John  G.Woolley 

111.... 

208,555 

Henry  B.  Metcalf 

U 

Wharton  Barker 

Pa .  . . 

M.  P. 

50,337 

M.  P. 

Eugene  V.  Debs 

Ind... 

Soc.  D.. 

84,003 

Job  Harrimau 

Cal... 

Soc.  D. . 

Joseph  F.  Malloney 

Mass.. 

Soc.  L.. 

39,537 

I'a.... 

Soc.  L.. 

J.  F.  R.  Leonard 

Iowa.. 

V.  -C. 

1,060 

111.. .J 

U.  C. 

Seth  H.  Ellis 

o 

V.  R. 

5,698 

Samuel  T.  Xicholas 

Pa..  .. 

U.  R. 

1904. 
Theodore  Roosevelt... 

X  Y.. 

Rep 

7,620.332 

2,541,291 

336 

Charles  W.  Fairbanks.. 

Ind... 

Rep 

336 

Alton  B.  Parker 

N.Y.. 

Hem. .  . . 

£,079.041 

14IJ 

Henry  G.  Davis 

W.  Va. 

Dem.... 

140 

Eugene  V.  Debs 

Ind... 

Soc.  D.. 

402.159 

Benjamin  Hanford..   . 

N.Y.. 

Soc.  D.. 

.... 

Silas  C.  Swallow 

Pa.... 

258,847 

George  W.  Carroll 

Tex... 

Pro 

.... 

Thomas  E.  Watson 

Ga.... 

113,258 

Thomas  H.  Tibbies.... 

N'eb . . 

Pop 

Charles  H.  Corregan. . . 

X.Y.. 

Soc.  L. . 

33,612 

William  W.  Cox 

111.... 

Soc.  L.. 

291 


PRESIDENTIAL    MARCH— PRESTON 

Presidential  March.  President  Wash-  dent-elect  (April  23,  1789)  the  Senate 
ington  and  his  family  attended  the  little  appointed  a  committee  to  confer  with  such 
theatre  in  John  Street,  New  York,  occa-  committee  as  the  House  might  appoint 
sionally,  by  particular  desire  of  the  man-  as  to  what  titles,  if  any,  it  would  be  prop- 
ager.  On  these  occasions  the  play-bills  er  to  annex  to  the  office  of  President  and 
would  be  headed  "  By  Particular  De-  Vice-President.  The  joint  committee  re- 
sire,"  and  the  house  would  be  crowded  ported  that  it  would  not  be  proper  to  use 
with  as  many  to  see  Washington  as  the  any  other  than  that  "  expressed  in  the 
play.  On  one  of  these  occasions,  on  the  Constitution  "  — "  plain "  President  and 
entering  of  the  President,  he  was  greeted  Vice-President.  The  Senate  was  not  satis- 
with  a  new  air  by  the  orchestra,  composed  fied,  and  referred  the  subject  to  a  new 
by  a  German  musician  named  Fayles  committee,  who  reported  in  favor  of  adopt- 
(1789),  which  was  called  The  President's  ing  the  style  of  "his  Highness  the  Presi- 
March,  in  contradistinction  to  The  March  dent  of  the  United  States,  and  Protector 
of  the  Revolution,  then  very  popular.  Ever  of  their  Liberties."  A  long  and  animated 
afterwards  this  air  was  played  by  the  or-  debate  ensued  in  the  House,  when  a  propo- 
chestra  when  the  President  entered  the  sition  was'made  to  appoint  a  new  commit- 
theatre.  But  the  public  would  call  for  tee  to  confer  with  that  of  the  Senate. 
The  March  of  the  Revolution  as  soon  as  The  House  finally  appointed  a  committtee. 
The  President's  March  was  ended.  The  To  this  the  Senate  responded,  but  no  re- 
latter  air  is  now  known  as  Hail,  Colum-  port  was  ever  made.  The  House  had  al- 
bia!  ready  carried  their  views  into  practice  by 

Presidential  Succession.     The  method  addressing   Washington,   in   reply   to   his 

of  temporarily  filling  the  office  of  President  first  message,  as  "  President  of  the  United 

in  case  of  the  death  or  inability  of  both  States."     The  Senate  saw  fit  to  follow  the 

President  and  Vice-President,  adopted  by  example.     Before  long  it  became  common 

Congress    in    1792,    was    not    without    its  to  prefix  the  title  "  his  Excellency." 

objectionable  features,  and  the  necessity  of  Presque  Isle,  Fort,  was  the  chief  point 

some  kind  of  change  in  the  law  was  very  of  communication  between  Fort  Pitt   (now 

generally  acknowledged.     It  was  not  until  Pittsburg)   and  Fort  Niagara.     It  was  on 

the  first  session  of  the  Forty-ninth   Con-  the  site  of  Erie,  Pa.,  and  in  June,   1763, 

gress  (1885-87) ,  however,  that  such  change  was  garrisoned  by  twenty-four  men.     On 

was  effected.     The  Presidential  succession  the  20th  it  was  attacked  by  Indians,  and, 

was  fixed  by  that  body  as  follows:  In  case  after    defending    it    two    days,    the    com- 

of  the  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  in-  mander,  paralyzed  by  terror,  surrendered 

ability  of  both  President  and  Vice-Presi-  the   post.      Several   of   the   garrison   were 

dent,   then   the    Secretary   of    State   shall  murdered,  and  the  commander  and  a  few 

act  as  President  until  the  disability  of  the  ethers  were  carried  to  Detroit.     Here  was 

President  or  Vice-President  be  removed,  or  erected  one  of  the  chain  of  French  forts 

a  President  elected.     If  there  be  no   Sec-  in  the  wilderness  which  excited  the  alarm 

retary  of  State,  then  the  Secretary  of  the  and  jealousy  of  the  English   colonists  in 

Treasury  shall  act  as  President.     And  the  America    and    the    government    at    home, 

succession   passes   in   like   manner   to   the  It  was  intended  by  the  French  as  an  im- 

Secretary  of   War,   the   Attorney-General,  portant   entrepot   of   supplies   for   the   in- 

the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  the  Secre-  terior  forts. 

tary   of  the   Interior,   in   the   order   here  Press,  Freedom  of  the.     See  Lovejoy, 

given.     The  acting  President,  upon  taking  Elijah  Parish;  Zenger,  J.  P. 

office,  convenes  Congress  in  extraordinary  Preston,     William,     military     officer; 

session,   if   it   is  not   then   sitting,   giving  born  near  Louisville,  Ky.,  Oct.   16,   1806; 

twenty  days'  notice.    This  act  applies  only  served,  in  the  war  against  Mexico,  as  lieu- 

to  cabinet  officers  who  shall  have  been  ap-  tenant-colonel  of  Kentucky  volunteers,  and 

pointed  by  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  afterwards   was   in   his   State   legislature. 

Senate,  and  are  eligible  under  the  Consti-  In  1851  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and  in 

tution  to  the  Presidency.  March,  1859,  President  Buchanan  appoint- 

Presidential  Title.     On  the  day  when  ed  him  minister  to  Spain.     When  the  Civil 

Washington  arrived  in  New  York  as  Presi-  War  broke  out  he  resigned  his  office,  and 

292 


PRESTON— PRICE 


hastened  home.     At  the  Secession  Conven-  tinique   (1808),  and  the  same  year  he  be- 

tion  at  Russellville,  he  was  appointed  a  came  governor  of  Nova  Scotia.     He  was 

commissioner  to  visit  Richmond,  and  nego-  made   lieutenant-general   in    1811,   and   in 

tiate  for  the  admission  of  Kentucky  into  June  of  that  year  he  succeeded  Sir  James 

the  Confederacy,  and  accepted  the  commis-  Craig  as  governor  of  Canada,  which  office 


sion  of  brigadier-general  in  the  Confed- 
eiate  army.  He  was  aide  to  his  brother-in- 
law,  Gen.  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  at  the 
battle  of  Shiloh,  and  served  under  Bragg 
in  his  invasion  of  Kentucky.  After  the 
war  he  was  again  elected  to  the  legislat- 
ure. He  died  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  Sept.  21, 
1887. 

Preston,  William  Ballard,  statesman; 
born  in  Smithfield,  Va.,  Nov.  25,  1805; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia; 
elected  to  the  Virginia  House  of  Dele- 
gates, to  the  State  Senate,  and  to 
Congress  in  1846;  and  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  by  President  Tay- 
lor.     He    opposed    the    secession    of    Vir- 


he  retained  until  his  return  to  England, 
in  1814.  He  ably  defended  Canada  in  the 
War  of  1812-15.  With  a  large  force  of 
Wellington's  veterans,  he  invaded  New 
York  in  September,  1814,  and  was  de- 
feated in  battle  at  Plattsburg  on  the 
11th. 

The  cause  of  the  sudden  panic  of  the 
British  troops  at  Plattsburg,  and  their 
precipitous  flight  on  the  night  of  the  battle 
there  (see  Plattsburg,  Battles  at),  was 
inexplicable.  The  Rev.  Eleazar  Williams 
declared  that  it  was  the  result  of  a  clever 
trick  arranged  by  him  (Williams),  as 
commander  of  a  secret  corps  of  observa- 
tion, or  "  spies,"  as  they  were   called   in 


ginia,  but  accepted  the  action  of  the  State    the  Western  army.     Governor  Chittenden, 


and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Confeder- 
ate Senate.  He  died  in  Smithfield,  Va., 
Nov.  16,  1862. 

Prevalaye,  Pierre  Dimas,  Marquis  de, 
naval  officer;  born  near  Brest,  France,  in 
1745;  joined  the  navy  in  1760;  partici- 
pated    in     the     American     Revolutionary 


of  Vermont,  restrained  the  militia  of  his 
State  from  leaving  it.  A  few  days  before 
the  battle  an  officer  (Colonel  Fassett) 
from  that  State  assured  Macomb  that 
the  militia  would  cross  the  lake  in  spite 
of  the  governor.  After  the  officer  left, 
Williams    suggested    to    Macomb    that    a 


War;   served  under  d'Estaing  at  Newport  letter  from  Fassett,  declaring  that  a  heavy 

in   1778;    had   charge   of   the  batteries   in  body  of  militia   were  about   to   cross   the 

the   siege  of   Savannah   in   October,    1779,  lake,    sent   so   as   to   fall    into   the   hands 

was   with   De   Grasse   at   Yorktown;    and  of  the  British  general,  would  have  a  salu- 

was  promoted  rear-admiral  in  1815.     His  tary  effect.     Macomb  directed  Williams  to 

publications  include  Memoir  on  the  Cam-  carry  out  the  plan.     He  went  over  to  Bur- 

paign  of  Boston  in  1778;  Memoir  of  the  lington,  and  received  from  Fassett  a  let- 


~Naval  and  Army  Operations  of  Count 
d'Estaing  During  the  American  War,  etc. 
He  died  near  Brest,  July  28,  1816. 

Prevost,  Augustine,  British  officer; 
born  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  about  1725; 
served  as  captain  under  Wolfe  at  Quebec; 
distinguished  himself  in  Georgia,  especial- 
ly in  his  defence  of  Savannah,  in  1779, 
for  which  he  was  promoted  to  major-gen- 


ter  to  Macomb,  in  which  he  said  Chitten- 
den was  marching  with  10,000  men  from 
St.  Albans,  that  5,000  men  were  march- 
ing from  St.  Lawrence  county,  and  that 
4,000  from  Washington  county  were  in 
motion.  This  letter  Williams  placed  in 
the  hands  of  a  shrewd  Irishwoman  at 
Cumberland  Head,  who  took  it  to  Prevost 
just   after   the   battle   at   Plattsburg   had 


eral.     He  died  in  Barnett,  England,  May  ended.    Prevost,  who  was  naturally  timid, 

5,  1786.  was  greatly  alarmed  by  the  "  intercepted  " 

Prevost,   Sir  George,  military  officer;  letter,  and  at  a  little  past  midnight  his 

born  in  New  York  City,  May  19,  1767;  son  whole  army  were  flying  in  haste  towards 


of  Augustine  Prevost;  entered  the  British 
army  in  youth,  and  served  with  distinction 
in  the  military  operations  in  the  West 
Indies,  especially  at  St.  Lucia.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1805,  he  was  made  a  major-general, 
and  in  November  a  baronet.  He  was  sec- 
ond in   command  at   the  capture  of  Mar- 


the  Canada  frontier.     He  died  in  London, 
England,  Jan.  5,   1816. 

Price,  Richard,  clergyman;  born  in 
Tynton,  Glamorganshire,  Wales,  Feb.  23, 
1723;  was  a  dissenting  minister,  connect- 
ed with  churches  at  Stoke-Newington  and 
Hackney,    as    pastor    and    preacher,    from 


293 


PRICE— PRINCE 


1743  until  a  short  time  before  his  death.  Confederacy  throughout  the  Civil  War. 
He  wrote  much  on  morals,  politics,  and  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  went  to  Mex- 
political  and  social  economy.  His  Ap-  ico,  but  returned  to  Missouri  in  1866, 
peal  on  the  Subject  of  the  National  Debt  and  died  in  St.  Louis,  Sept.  29,  1867. 
is  said  to  have  been  the  foundation  of  Prideaux,  John,  military  officer;  born 
Pitt's  sinking-fund  scheme.  In  1776  he  in  Devonshire,  England,  in  1718;  a  son  of 
published  Observations  on  Civil  Liberty  Sir  John  Prideaux;  entered  the  army,  and 
and  the  Justice  and  Policy  of  the  War  was  appointed  captain  in  1745,  colonel 
with  America.  It  was  a  powerful  plea  in  1758,  and  brigadier-general  in  1759.  In- 
for  justice  and  right,  and  60,000  copies  trusted  with  the  duty  of  reducing  Port 
were  distributed.  The  corporation  of  Lon-  Niagara,  he  led  a  strong  force  against 
don  gave  him  a  vote  of  thanks  and  the  it,  and  during  a  siege  he  was  instantly 
freedom  of  the  city;  and  in  1778  the  killed  by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon,  July 
American  Congress  invited  him  to  become    19,  1759. 

a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  to  aid  Prime,  William  Cowpeb,  author;  born 
them  in  the  management  of  their  finances,  in  Cambridge,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  31,  1825;  grad- 
promising  him  a  liberal  remuneration,  uated  at  Princeton  in  1843;  admitted  to 
In  1783  Yale  College  conferred  on  him  the  New  York  bar  in  1846;  became  editor 
the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.,  and  in  1784  of  the  New  York  Journal  of  Commerce  in 
he  published  Observations  on  the  Impor-  1861;  first  vice-president  of  the  Metropol- 
tance  of  the  American  Revolution.  His  it  an  Museum  of  Art,  New  York,  in  1874. 
philosophical  writings  procured  for  him  He  is  the  author  of  The  Owl  Creek  Let- 
a  fellowship  in  the  Royal  Society  in  1764.  ters;  The  Old  House  by  the  River;  Later 
He  died  in  London,  England,  March  19,  Years:  Boat  Life;  Tent  Life;  Coins,  Med- 
1791.  als,  and  Seals;  I  Go  a-Fishing  ;  Along  New 

Price,   Sterling,  military  officer;   born    England    Roads;    Among     the    Northern 
in  Prince  Edward   county,  Va.,   Sept.   11,    Bills,  etc. 

Prince,  Le  Baron  Bradford,  author; 
born  in  Flushing,  L.  I.,  July  3,  1840; 
graduated  at  Columbia  Law  School  in 
1866;  was  a  member  of  the  New  York 
Assembly  in  1871-75;  and  of  the  New 
York  Senate  in  1876-77;  chief-justice  of 
New  Mexico  in  1878-82,  and  governor  of 
that  Territory  in  1889-93.  He  is  the 
author  of  Agricultural  Bistory  of  Queens 
County;  E.  Pluribus  Unum,  or  American 
Nationality ;  A  Nation,  or  a  League; 
General  Laws  of  Neio  Mexico;  and  The 
American  Church  and  its  Name. 

Prince,  Thomas,  clergyman;  born  in 
Sandwich,  Mass.,  May  15,  1687;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1707,  and, 
going  to  England  in  1709,  preached  there 
until  1717,  when  he  returned  to  America, 
and  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Old 
1809;    was    a   member    of    Congress    from    South    Church,    Boston     (1718),    as    col- 


iy- 


m 


STERLING  PRICE. 


Missouri    (where   he   settled   in    1830)    in 
1845;   colonel  of  Missouri   cavalry  in  the 


league  of  Dr.   Sewal.l.     In   1703  he  began 
a  collection  of  private  and  public  papers 


war    against    Mexico;    and    was    made    a  relating  to  the  civil  and  religious  history 

brigadier-general    and    military    governor  of    New    England,    and    continued    these 

of  Chihuahua  in  1847.     He  was  governor  labors  for  fifty  years.     These  he  published 

of  Missouri  from  1853  to  1857,  and  presi-  under  the  title  of  The  Chronological  Bis- 

dent  of  the  State  convention  in  February,  tory  of  England    (1736  and   1756).     The 

1861.     He  was  made  major-general  of  the  history  was  brought  down  only  to   1633, 

Missouri  militia  in  May,  and  served  the  as  he  spent  so  much  time  on  the  intro- 

294 


PRINCE— PRINCETON 


ductory  epitome,  beginning  with  the  crea- 
tion. His  manuscripts  were  deposited  in 
the  Old  South  Church,  and  were  partially- 
destroyed  by  the  British  in  1775-76.  The 
remains,  with  his  books,  form  a  part  of 
the  Public  Library  of  Boston.  He  died  in 
Boston,  Oct.  22,  175S. 

Prince,  or  Prence,  Thomas,  colonial 
governor;  born  in  England  in  1601;  ar- 
rived in  America  in  1628;  and  was  govern- 
or of  Plymouth  from  1634  to  1673.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  settlers  at  Nanset,  or 
Eastham,  in  1644,  and  lived  there  until 
1663;  was  a  zealous  opposer  of  the 
Quakers,  as  heretics,  though  not  a  perse- 
cutor of  them;  and  was  an  earnest  cham- 
pion of  popular  education.  In  spite  of 
the  opposition  and  clamors  of  the  igno- 
rant, he  procured  resources  for  the  sup- 
port of  grammar-schools  in  the  colony. 
He  died  in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  March  29, 
1673. 

Princeton,  Battle  at.  Alarmed  by 
the  blow  at  Trenton  (see  Trenton,  Bat- 
tle at),  the  British  broke  up  their 
encampments  along  the  Delaware,  and 
retired  to  Princeton.  Washington  there- 
upon reoccupied  Trenton,  where  he  was 
speedily    joined     by     3,600     Pennsylvania 


militia.  At  that  time  the  term  of  enlist- 
ment of  the  New  England  regiments  ex- 
pired, but  the  persuasions  of  their  officers 
and  a  bounty  of  $10  induced  them  to  re- 
main for  six  weeks  longer.  Howe  detain- 
ed Cornwallis  (who  was  about  to  sail  for 
England),  and  sent  him  to  take  command 
of  the  concentrated  troops  at  Princeton, 
about  10  miles  northeast  of  Trenton. 
Eeinforced  by  troops  from  New  Bruns- 
wick, he  marched  on  Trenton  (Jan.  2, 
1777),  where  Washington  was  encamped 
on  high  ground  east  of  a  small  stream, 
near  where  it  enters  the  Delaware.  After 
a  sharp  cannonade  at  a  bridge  and  a  ford, 
the  British  encamped,  feeling  sure  of  capt- 
uring the  whole  of  Washington's  army 
in  the  morning.  The  position  of  the  lat- 
ter was  a  perilous  one.  He  had  5,000 
men,  half  of  them  militia  who  had  been 
only  a  few  days  iri  camp.  To  fight  the 
veterans  before  him  would  be  madness; 
to  attempt  to  recross  the  Delaware  in  the 
face  of  the  enemy  would  be  futile.  Wash- 
ington called  a  council  of  war,  and  it  was 
decided  to  attempt  to  gain  the  rear  of  the 
enemy  during  the  night,  beat  up  his  quar- 
ters at  Princeton,  and,  if  possible,  fall  on 
his  stores  at  New  Brunswick. 


battle  of  Princeton  (From  an  old  print). 
295 


PRINCETON,    BATTLE    AT 


Washington  kept^his  camp-fires  bright- 
ly burning,  sent  liirf  baggage  silently  down 
the  river  to  Burlington,  had  small  parties 
throwing  up  intrenchments  within  hear- 
ing of  the  British  sentinels,  and  at  about 
midnight,  the  weather  having  suddenly 
become  very  cold  and  the  ground  hard 
frozen,  the  whole  American  army  march- 
ed away  unobserved  by  the  enemy.  By 
a  circuitous  route,  they  reached  Princeton 
(Jan.   3)    before   sunrise.     Two   or   three 


ton!"  The  army  was  soon  on  the  move 
ill  that  direction.  In  the  mean  time  the 
battle  at  Princeton  was  sharp  and  de- 
cisive. Mercer's  forces  were  furiously  at- 
tacked with  the  deadly  bayonet,  and  they 
iied  in  disorder.  The  enemy  pursued  un- 
til, on  the  brow  of  a  hill,  they  discovered 
the  American  regulars  and  Pennsylvania 
militia,  under  Washington,  marching  to 
the  support  of  Mercer,  who,  in  trying  to 
rally    his    men,    had    his    horse    disabled 


VIEW    OF   THE    BATTLE   FIELD    NEAR    PRINCETON. 


British  regiments  lying  at  Princeton  had  under  him,  and  was  finally  knocked  down 
just  begun  their  march  to  join  Corn-  by  a  clubbed  musket,  and  mortally  wound- 
wallis  at  Trenton.  Their  commander,  ed.  Just  then  Washington  appeared, 
Colonel  Mawhood,  first  discovered  the  checked  the  flight  of  the  fugitives,  and, 
approaching  Americans,  under  General  with  the  help  of  Moulder's  artillery,  inter- 
Mercer,  and  a  sharp  engagement  ensued,  cepted  the  other  British  regiment, 
each  having  two  field-pieces.  Mawhood  saw  Washington  bringing 
Meanwhile  the  British  at  Trenton  were  order  out  of  confusion,  and,  charging  with 
greatly  surprised,  in  the  morning,  to  find  his  artillery,  tried  in  vain  to  seize 
their  expected  prey  had  escaped.  The  Moulder's  cannon.  At  this  onset  the 
American  camp-fires  were  still  burning,  Pennsylvanians,  first  in  line,  began  to 
but  the  little  army  had  mysteriously  dis-  -waver,  when  Washington,  to  encourage 
appeared.  Faint  sounds  of  cannonading  them,  rode  to  the  forefront  of  danger. 
at  Princeton  reached  the  ear  of  Cornwallis  For  a  moment  he  was  hidden  in  the 
at  Trenton.  Although  it  was  a  keen  win-  battle-smoke,  and  a  shiver  of  dread  lest  he 
ter  morning,  he  thought  it  the  rumbling  had  fallen  ran  through  the  army.  When 
of  distant  thunder.  General  Erskine  he  appeared,  unhurt,  a  shout  of  joy  rent 
more  readily  comprehended  the  matter,  the  air.  A  fresh  force  of  Americans, 
and  exclaimed,  "Thunder?  To  arms,  under  Colonel  Hitchcock,  came  up,  and, 
general!  Washington  has  outgeneralled  with  Hand's  riflemen,  were  turning  the 
us!      Let  us  fly  to  the  rescue  at  Prince-  British  left,  -when  Mawhood  ordered  a  re- 

206 


PRINCETON— PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY 


treat.  His  force  (the  70th  Regiment) 
fled  across  the  snow-covered  fields,  leaving 
two  brass  cannon  behind  thern.  The 
55th  Regiment,  which  had  attempted  to 
reinforce  them,  were  pressed  by  the  New 
England  troops,  under  Stark,  Poor,  Pat- 
terson, Reed,  and  others,  and  were  joined 
in  their  flight  towards  New  Brunswick 
by  the  40th,  who  had  not  taken  part  in 
the  action.  A  British  regiment  in  the 
strong  stone-built  Nassau  Hall,  of  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  was  cannonaded, 
and  soon  surrendered. 

In  this  short  but  sharp  battle  the  Brit- 
ish lost,  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners, 
about  430  men.  The  .American  loss  was 
about  100,  including  Colonels  Haslet  and 
Potter,  Major  Morris,  and  Captains  Ship- 
pen,  Fleming,  and  Neal.  Mercer  died 
nine  days  after  the  battle.  When  Corn- 
wallis  arrived  at  Princeton,  Washington 
and  his  little  army  and  prisoners  were 
lar  on  their  way  towards  the  Millstone 
River,  in  hot  pursuit  of  the  40th  and 
55th  regiments.  Washington  relinquished 
the  chase  because  of  the  great  fatigue  of 
his  soldiers;  and  moving  on  to  Morris- 
town  ( q.  v. ) ,  in  east  Jersey,  there  estab- 
lished the  winter-quarters  of  the  army. 
He  was  universally  applauded.  It  is  said 
that  Frederick  the  Great,  of  Prussia,  de- 
clared that  the  achievements  of  Washing- 
ton and  his  little  band  of  patriots,  be- 
tween Dec.  25,  1776,  and  Jan.  4,  1777, 
were  the  most  brilliant  of  any  recorded 
in  military  history. 

Princeton,  The.  On  Feb.  28,  1845, 
President  Tyler  lost  two  of  his  most  trust- 
ed cabinet  ministers  by  an  accident.  The 
President  and  all  his  cabinet,  many  mem- 
bers of  Congress,  and  other  distinguished 
citizens,  with  several  ladies,  were  on  board 
the  United  States  steam  ship  -  of  -  war 
Princeton,  on  a  trial-trip  down  the  Po- 
tomac from  Washington.  When  they  were 
opposite  Mount  Vernon  one  of  the  largest 
guns  of  the  Princeton,  in  firing  a  salute, 
burst,  scattering  its  deadly  fragments 
around.  The  Secretary  of  State,  Abel 
P.  Upshur,  and  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
T.  W.  Gilmer,  and  David  Gardiner,  of 
New  York,  were  killed.  No  one  else  was 
seriously  injured. 

Princeton  University,  one  of  the  high- 
er institutions  of  learning  established  in 
the  English-American  colonies,  under  the 


name  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  It 
was  founded  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Presbyterian  Synod  of  New  York,  which 
then  included  New  Jersey  in  its  jurisdic- 
tion. A  charter  was  obtained  in  1746, 
and  it  was  opened  for  students  in  May, 
1747,  at  Elizabeth  town,  N.  J.  The  same 
year  it  was  removed  to  Newark,  and  in 
1757  it  was  transferred  to  Princeton,  where 
a  new  college  edifice,  named  Nassau  Hall, 
had  just  been  completed.  That  name  was 
given  in  honor  of  William  III.,  "  of  the 
illustrious  house  of  Nassau."  The  college 
itself  was  often  called  "  Nassau  Hall." 
It  suffered  mmch  during  the  Revolution, 
being  occupied  as  barracks  and  hospital 
by  both  armies.  The  president,  Dr.  Wither- 
spoon,  and  two  of  the  alumni,  Benjamin 
Rush  and  Richard  Stockton,  were  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence;  and 
several  of  the  leading  patriots  during  the 
war,  and  statesmen  afterwards,  were  grad- 
uates of  the  College  of  New  Jersey.  Gen- 
eral Washington  and  the  Continental  Con- 
gress were  present  at  the  "  commence- 
ment"    in    1783.      Other    buildings    were 


SEAL   OF   PRINCETON   UNIVERSITY. 

erected,  and  it  had  steady  prosperity  un- 
til the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  in 
1861.  Nassau  Hall  was  burned  in  1855, 
and  speedily  rebuilt.  The  Civil  War  re- 
duced the  number  of  its  students,  but  it 
regained  them,  and  more,  when  peace 
came.  In  1868  Rev.  James  McCosh,  of 
Belfast,  Ireland,  was  called  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  college — a  man  of  great  en- 
ergy and  activity.  During  his  administra- 
tion many  fine  buildings  were  added  to 
the  institution,  and  more  than  $1,000,000 
wTas  given  to  the  college.  John  C.  Green 
gave  $750,000  to  endow  a  scientific  school, 


297 


PRINTING 


erect  a  library,  and  a  building  for  lect- 
ures and  recitations.  The  sesquicentennial 
of  the  institution  was  observed  in  October, 
1896,   during  which   it  was   formally   de- 


ing-offices  in  Europe.  The  second  press 
was  set  up  in  Lima,  Peru,  in  1586,  and 
the  third  was  erected  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
in  1639.    In  1638  Rev.  Jesse  Glover  started 


clared  a  university,  and   in  honor  of  the    for  Massachusetts  with  his  family,  having 
event  friends  of  the  institution  made  spe-    in  his  care  a  printing-press  given  to  the 


NASSAU    HALL,    PRINCETON    UNIVERSITY. 


cial   gifts    of   about   $1,500,000.      At   the    colony   by   some   friends   in   Holland.     He 


end  of  1903  the  university  had  108  profess- 
ors and  instructors,  1,565  students,  176,- 
302  volumes  in  the  library,  8,864  gradu- 
ates since  the  organization  of  the  college; 
productive  funds  aggregating  $2,591,750; 
and  a  total  income  of  $224,800.  The 
Rev.  Francis  Landey  Patton,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
succeeded  Dr.  McCosh  as  president  in 
1888,  and,  resigning  in  1902,  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Woodrow  Wilson,  LL.D.,  Lt.D. 
Since  1900  the  university  has  received  in 
gifts  and  bequests,  largely  for  new  build- 
ings, over  $2,500,000. 

Printing.  The  first  printing  in  Amer- 
ica was  done  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  in 
1539.     There  were  then  about  200  print- 


was  accompanied  by  Stephen  Day,  a  prac- 
tical printer.  Mr.  Glover  died  on  the 
voyage,  and,  under  the  direction  of  the 
authorities  in  Boston,  Day  set  up  the 
press  at  Cambridge,  and  began  printing 
there  in  January,  1639.  Its  first  pro- 
duction was  The  Freeman's  Oath,  and  the 
first  literary  work  issued  by  it  was  a  new 
metrical  version  of  the  psalms,  a  revision 
of  those  of  Sternhold  and  Hopkins.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  book-printing  in  the 
United  States.  It  was  forty  years  before 
another  printing-press  was  set  up  in  this 
country.  The  first  printing-press  at  work 
west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains  was  in 
Cincinnati,   in    1793,    and    the    first   west 


298 


PRINTING-PRESS 


of  the  Mississippi  was  in  St.  Louis,  in 
1808. 

In  reply  to  questions  of  the  plantation 
committee,  Governor  Berkeley,  in  1671, 
reported:  "We  have  forty-eight  parishes, 
and  our  ministers  are  well  paid,  and  by 
my  consent  should  be  better  if  they  would 
pray  oftener  and  preach  less.  But  as 
of  all  other  commodities,  so  of  this — the 
worst  are  sent  out  to  us;  and  there  are 
few  that  we  can  boast  of,  since  the  per- 
secution in  Cromwell's  tyranny  drove 
divers  worthy  men  from  hither.  But  I 
thank  God  there  are  no  free  schools  nor 
printing,  and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have 
them  these  hundred  years;  for  learning 
has  brought  disobedience  and  heresy  and 
sects  into  the  world,  and  printing  has 
divulged  them,  and  libels  against  the 
best  government.  God  keep  us  from  both ! " 
The  authorities  in  Virginia  continued  to 
hold  this  view  after  Berkeley  had  left. 
In  1680  John  Buckner,  having  brought  a 
printing-press  to  Virginia,  printed  the 
laws  of  that  session  for  a  while.  Governor 
Culpeper  and  his  council  called  him  to 
account  and  compelled  him  to  give  bonds 
that  he  would  print  no  more  until  his 
Majesty's  pleasure  should  be  known. 
Royal  instructions  came  positively  forbid- 
ding any  printing  in  the  colony. 

Printing-press,  The.  Wonderful  im- 
provements  were    made    in   the    construc- 


FRANKLIN'S   PRESS. 


WASHINGTON  PRESS,  ONE  OF  THE  EARLIEST  USED  IN  THE 
UNITED   STATES. 


tion  of  printing-presses  in  the  United 
States  during  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
press  on  which  Benjamin  Franklin  work- 
ed as  a  journeyman  printer  in  1725,  was 
very  little  improved  until  1817,  when 
George  Clymer,  of  Philadelphia,  invented 
the  "  Columbian  "  press.  It  was  the  first 
important  improvement.  The  power  was 
applied  by  a  compound  lever.  In  1829 
Samuel  Rust  invented  the  "  Washington  " 
press,  which  superseded  others  for  a  while. 
The  daubing-balls,  before  used,  were  suc- 
ceeded by  inking-rollers,  and  later  a  self- 
inking  apparatus  was  used.  With  that 
machine  a  good  workman  could  turn  off 
2,000  sheets  a  day.  Daniel  Treadwell,  of 
Boston,  invented  the  first  "  power-press," 
and  in  1830  Samuel  Adams,  of  the  same 
city,  invented  the  celebrated  "  Adams " 
press,  which  was  long  used  for  fine  book- 
work.  It  was  improved  by  his  son  Isaac. 
Every  operation  is  now  done  automatical- 
ly. The  first  "  rotary "  press  for  rapid 
newspaper-printing  was  made  by  a  Ger- 
man mechanic  in  London,  and  used  to 
print  the  London  Times,  in  1814.  It  gave 
1,800  impressions  in  an  hour.  An  im- 
proved machine  was  made  for  the  Times, 
in  1848,  which  threw  off  10,000  sheets  an 
hour.  The  Hoes,  of  New  York,  made  many 
and  great  improvements  in  printing-ma- 
chines, and  between  1850  and  1860  they 
made  successful  attempts  to  print  from 
a  roll  of  paper,  on  both  sides  of  the  sheet. 
Difficulties    that    at    first    appeared    have 


299 


PRISON    PENS— PRISONERS 

been  overcome,  and  now  the  press  used  for  Washington  refused  to  send  back  an  equa> 

a   great    daily   newspaper   will    print    the  number    of   healthy    British    and   Hessian 

paper   on  both   sides  and   fold,   ready   for  prisoners.     Besides,  those  who  came  back 

delivery,  at  the  rate  of  96,000  four-page  were  persons  whose  terms  of  service  gen- 

or  48,000  eight-page  sheets  per  hour.  erally  had  expired,  and  would  be  lost  to 

Printing  was  introduced  into  the  thir-  the  Continental  army;  while  every  person 

teen  original  States  of  the  'United  States  sent  to   the   British  army  was   a  healthy 

by   the   following   named   persons   at   the  recruit.     For  this  reason  Congress  was  in 

time  and  place  noted:  no  haste  to  exchange. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  many 

Massachusetts Cambridge Stephen  Day 1639  prisonerS    Were    taken    On    both    sides.       The 

Virginia Williamsburg John  Buckner 1680-82  r 

Pennsylvania near  Philadelphia.. .William  Bradford...       1685  question    SOOn   OCCUlTed   to   the   government, 

New  York New  York   City William  Bradford...       1693  p  pvphanpe     nrisOTlPrs     with      rphpls 

Connecticut New  London Thomas  Short 1109  *^an      V\  e     eXCliange     pilSOnerS     Wlin     TeDeiS 

Maryland Annapolis William  Parks 1726  aeailist      the      national      authority      Without 

South  Carolina Charleston Eleazer  Phillips 1130  .,  ,  ,  it-  ,,  r^      r     i  ^ 

Rhode  island Newport james  Franklin 1732  thereby    acknowledging    the     Confederate 

New  jersey. woodbridge james  Parker 1751  government,  so-called,  as  a  government  in 

North  Carolina.... New-Berne James  Davis 1749  °  '  &  .  . 

New  Hampshire... Portsmouth Daniel  Fowle 1756  f act  ?       TlieV   COUld  not  ;    but  humanity  took 

S1^.:::::::::™^.V::;;:::jS:wS^:::::    ml  precedence'of  policy,  and  an  arrangement 

was  made  for  an  exchange  of  prisoners. 
The  first  book  published  in  America  Col.  W.  H.  Ludlow  was  chosen  for  the 
was  issued  in  1536  in  the  city  of  Mexico.  service  by  the  national  government;  Rob- 
Prison  Pens.  See  Confederate  ert  Ould\vas  chosen  by  the  Confederates. 
Prisons.  The  former  commissioner  had  his  head- 
Prisoners,  Exchange  of.  Late  in  1776  quarters  at  Fort  Monroe;  the  latter  at 
an  arrangement  was  made  for  an  ex-  Richmond.  Prisoners  were  sent  in  boats 
change  of  prisoners  between  the  Ameri-  to  and  from  each  place.  This  business 
cans  and  British.  The  latter  held  about  went  regularly  on  until  it  was  interrupted 
5,000,  many  of  whom  had  suffered  terribly  by  Jefferson  Davis  near  the  close  of  1862. 
in  the  prisons  in  and  around  New  York.  Because  the  government  chose  to  use  the 
The  Americans  held  about  3,000.  At  first  loyal  negroes  as  soldiers,  -Davis's  anger 
the  British  refused  to  exchange,  on  the  was  kindled.  On  Dec.  23  he  issued  a  most 
ground  that  the  Americans  were  rebels;  extraordinary  proclamation,  the  tone  of 
but  after  Howe's  arrival  at  New  York  he  which  more  "than  anything  else  doubtless 
had  opened  negotiations  on  the  subject,  caused  foreign  governments  to  hesitate 
A  good  deal  of  obstruction  had  occurred  about  introducing  the  Confederacy  into 
on  account  of  the  refusal  of  Congress  to  the  family  of  nations.  In  it  he  outlawed  a 
fulfil  the  stipulations  made  by  Arnold  major-general  of  the  Union  army  (see 
at  the  Cedars  (see  Cedars,  Affair  at  Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin),  and  he 
the).  But  finally  a  cartel  was  arranged,  directed  in  that  proclamation  that  all 
and  a  partial  exchange  was  effected  early  negro  soldiers  who  might  be  taken  prison- 
in  1777.  As  the  Americans  had  no  ers,  and  all  commissioned  officers  serving 
prisoner  of  equal  rank  with  Gen.  Charles  in  company  with  them  who  should  be  capt- 
Lee,  they  offered  in  exchange  for  him  six  ured,  should  be  handed  over  to  State  gov- 
Hessian  field-officers  captured  at  Trenton,  ernments  for  execution,  the  negroes  as  in- 
Lee  was  claimed  by  Howe  as  a  deserter  surgent  slaves,  the  white  officers  as  in- 
from  the  British  army,  and  the  exchange  citers  of  servile  insurrection, 
was  at  first  refused.  Howe  had  received  The  national  government  felt  morally 
orders  to  send  Lee  to  England;  but  the  bound  to  afford  equal  protection  to  all  its 
fear  of  retaliation  upon  British  prisoners,  citizen  soldiers  of  whatever  hue.  When 
and  some  important  revelations  made  by  Davis,  in  a  message  to  the  Confederate 
Lee,  caused  him  to  be  kept  in  America,  Congress  (Jan.  12,  1863),  announced  his 
and  finally  exchanged  for  Gen.  Robert  determination  to  deliver  all  white  officers 
Prescott.  There  were  other  reasons  for  commanding  negro  troops,  who  might  be 
delay  in  the  exchange  of  prisoners.  The  captured,  to  State  authorities  to  be  hung, 
prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the  British  were  and  to  treat  those  troops  as  rebels  against 
returned    half -starved    and    disabled,    and  their  masters,  the  national  Congress  took 

300 


PRISONERS—  PRISONERS    TOR   DEBT 


the  matter  up.  Davis's  proclamation  and  God  that  Richmond  is  at  last  rid  of  old 
message  were  followed  by  his  instructions  Winder!  God  have  mercy  upon  those  to 
to   Robert    Ould   not    to    consider    captive    whom  he  has  been  sent." 


negro  soldiers  as  prisoners  of  war.  After 
that  no  quarter  was  given,  in  many  in- 
stances, where  colored  troops  were  employ- 
ed, and  the  black  flag  was  carried  against 
officers    commanding    them.      The    govern- 


Meanwhile  the  Confederate  prisoners  of 
war  had  been  well  fed  and  humanely 
treated.  This  the  Confederate  authorities 
well  knew;  and  when,  in  all  the  Confed- 
erate prisons,  the  Union  captives  were  no 


ment  felt  compelled  to  refuse  any  more  better,  as  soldiers,  than  dead  men — an 
exchanges  until  the  Confederates  should  army  of  40,000  skeletons — Mr.  Ould  pro- 
treat  all  prisoners  alike.  In  August,  1863,  posed,  in  a  letter  to  General  Butler  (Aug. 
when  the  national  commissioner  of  prison-  10,  1864),  a  resumption  of  exchange,  man 
ers  demanded  that  negro  captives  should  for  man.  And  when  such  resumpt'on  be- 
be  treated  as  prisoners  of  war  and  ex-  gan,  the  difference  between  Union  skeletons 
changed,  Commissioner  Ould  replied:  and  vigorous  Confederate  soldiers  was 
"  We  will  die  in  the  last  ditch  before  acknowledged  by  Ould,  who  wrote  exulting- 
giving  up   the  right  to   send   slaves   back  ly   from   City   Point   to   General   Winder: 


to  slavery." 

The  Confederate  government  thus  ef- 
fectually shut  the  door  of  exchange,  and 
fearfully  increased  the  number  and  ter- 
rible sufferings  of  the  Union  prisoners  in 
their  hands.     These   sufferings  have  been 


"  The  arrangement  I  have  made  works 
largely  in  our  favor.  We  get  rid  of  a  set 
of  miserable  wretches,  and  receive  some 
of  the  best  material  I  ever  saw."  At  the 
middle  of  autumn  (1864)  arrangements 
for    special    exchanges    were    made,    and 


detailed   in   official   reports,  personal   nar-  Lieutenant-Colonel     Mulford     went     with 

ratives,   and   otherwise;    and   there   seems  vessels  to  Savannah  to  receive  and  take  to 

to  be   conclusive  testimony  to   show  that  Annapolis    12,000    Union    prisoners    from 

the   order   of   President   Davis   concerning  Andersonville  and  elsewhere.  The  records 

negro   prisoners   was   to   deliberately   stop  of  the  War  Department  show  that  during 

exchanges  and  enable  the  Confederates  to  the  war  220,000  Confederate  soldiers  were 

destroy    or     permanently     disable     Union  captured,  of  whom  26,436  died  of  wounds  or 

prisoners  by  the  slow  process  of  physical  diseases  during  their  captivity;  while,  of 

exhaustion,    by    means    of    starvation    or  126,940  Union  soldiers  captured,  nearly  22,- 


unwholesome  food.  General  Meredith, 
commissioner  of  prisoners  at  Fort  Mon- 
roe, said  in  a  letter :  "  On  the  25th  of 
November  I  offered  to  send  immediately 
to  City  Point  12,000  or  more  Confederate 
prisoners,  to  be  exchanged  for  National 
soldiers  confined  in  the  South.  This  prop- 
osition was  distinctly  and  unequivocally 
refused  by  Mr.  Ould.  And  why?  Because 
the   damnable   plans   of  the  rebel   govern- 


576  died  while  prisoners — or  a  little  more 
than  11  per  cent,  of  the  Confederates,  and 
more  than  17  per  cent,  of  the  Unionists. 

Prisoners  for  Debt.  The  suffering  of 
prisoners  for  debt,  which  impelled  Gen- 
eral Oglethorpe  to  propose  colonizing  a  re- 
gion in  America  with  them,  was  terrible 
in  the  extreme.  The  writings  of  Howard 
and  the  pencil  of  Hogarth  have  vividly  de- 
picted them;   yet  these  do  not  convey  an 


ment    in    relation    to    our    poor    captured  adequate  idea  of  the  old  debtors'  prisons 

soldiers  had  not  been  fully  carried  out."  of  England.    The  merchant,  unfortunate  in 

The  testimony  seems  clear  that  the  Union  his  business,  was  often  plunged  from  afflu- 

prisoners    at    Richmond,    Danville,    Salis-  ence  and  social  honor  and  usefulness  to  the 

bury,  and  Andersonville  were  subjected  to  dreadful   dens   of   filth   and  misery  called 

cruelties  and  poisonous  food  for  the  double  prisons.     Oglethorpe  had  stood  before  one 

purpose    of    crippling    and    reducing    the  of  the  victims  of  the  cruel  law.     He  had 


National  force  and  of  striking  terror  into 
the  Northern  population,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent enlistments.  When  Gen.  John  Win- 
der, Davis's  general  commissary  of  prison- 
ers, went  from  Richmond  to  take  charge  of 


been  a  distinguished  London  alderman,  a 
thrifty  merchant,  and  highly  esteemed  for 
his  integrity  and  benevolence.  As  a  "  mer- 
chant prince,"  he  had  been  a  commercial 
leader.     Great  losses   made  him   a  bank- 


the  Union  prisoners  at  Andersonville,  the    rupt.     His   creditors  sent  him  to  prison. 
Examiner  of  that  city  exclaimed:  "Thank    In  a  moment  he  was  compelled  to  leave  a 

301 


PRISONERS    FOR    DEBT— PRISONS    AND    PRISON-SHIPS 


happy  home,  delightful  society,  and  luxu- 
rious ease  for  a  loathsome  prison-cell, 
there  to  herd  with  debased  and  criminal 
society.  One  by  one  his  friends  who  could 
aid  him  in  keeping  famine  from  his 
wretched  abode  disappeared,  and  he  was 
forgotten  by  the  outside  world.  He  had 
been  twenty-three  years  in  jail  when 
Oglethorpe  saw  him.  Gray-haired,  ragged, 
haggard,  and  perishing  with  hunger,  he 
lay  upon  a  heap  of  filthy  straw  in  a 
dark,  damp,  unventilated  room.  His  de- 
voted wife,  who  had  shared  his  misery  for 
eighteen  years,  had  just  starved  to  death, 
and  her  body  lay  in  rags  by  his  side,  silent 
and  cold.  An  hour  before  he  had  begged 
his  jailer  to  remove  her  body  to  the  prison 
burying-ground.  The  inhuman  wretch,  who 
was  acquainted  with  the  prisoner's  his- 
tory, had  refused  with  an  oath,  and  said, 
with  cruel  irony,  "  Send  for  your  alder- 
man's coach  to  take  her  to  Westminster 
Abbey!" 

The  scene  led  to  the  foundation  of  the 
colony  of  Georgia  ( q.  v. ) .  The  fate  of 
this  London  alderman  was  worse  than  that 
of  the  debtors  of  Greece  and  Rome,  who 
were  sold  into  slavery  by  their  creditors. 
Laws  for  the  imprisonment  of  debtors  dis- 
graced the  statute-books  of  our  States 
until  within  a  comparatively  few  years. 
When  Lafayette  visited  the  United  States 
in  1824-25  he  found  Colonel  Barton,  the 
captor  of  General  Prescott  in  Rhode  Isl- 
and, in  a  prison  for  debt,  and  released  him 
by  the  payment  of  the  creditor's  demand. 
Robert  Morris,  whose  financial  ability  was 
the  main  dependence  of  the  colonies  in 
carrying  on  the  war  for  independence,  was 
a  prisoner  for  debt  in  his  old  age.  Red 
Jacket,  the  Seneca  chief,  once  saw  a  man 
put  in  jail  in  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  for  debt. 
His  remark — "He  no  catch  beaver  there!" 
— fully  illustrated  the  unwisdom  of  such 
laws;  for  surely  a  man  in  prison  cannot 
earn  money  to  pay  a  debt.  Public  atten- 
tion was  thoroughly  aroused  to  the  cruel- 
ties of  the  law  when  John  G.  Whittier 
wrote  his  stirring  poem,  The  Prisoner  for 
Debt,  in  which  he  thus  alluded  to  Colonel 
Barton: 


What  hath  the  gray-haired  prisoner  done? 

Hath  murder  stained  his  hands  with  gore? 
Ah,  no !  his  crime's  a  fouler  one — ■ 

God  made  the  old  man  poor. 

302 


For  this  he  shares  a  felon's  cell, 

The  fittest  earthly  type  of  hell ! 

For  this,  the  boon  for  which  he  poured 

His  young  blood  on  the  invader's  sword, 

And  counted  light  the  fearful  cost — 

His  blood-gained  liberty  is  lost! 

'Down  with  the  law  that  binds  him  thus! 

Unworthy  freemen,  let  it  find 
No  refuge  from  the  withering  curse 

Of  God  and  human  kind ! 
Open  the  prisoner's  living  tomb, 
And  usher  from  its  brooding  gloom 
The  victims  of  your  savage  code 
To  the  free  sun  and  air  of  God  ! 
No  longer  dare  as  crime  to  brand 
The   chastening  of   the   Almighty's   hand !" 

— See  Debtors. 

Prisons  and  Prison-ships,  British. 
The  British  in  New  York  confined  the 
American  prisoners  of  war  in  various 
large  buildings,  the  most  spacious  of 
which  were  churches  and  sugar-houses. 
In  the  North  Dutch  Church,  corner  of 
Fulton    and    William    streets,    were    con- 


VAN  COKTLANDT  S  SUGAR  HOUSE. 

fined  at  one  time  800  prisoners;  and  in 
the  Middle  Dutch  Church,  corner  of 
Nassau  and  Liberty  streets,  room  was 
made  for  3,000  prisoners.  Both  churches 
were  stripped  of  their  pews,  and  floors 
were  laid  from  one  gallery  to  the  other. 


SUGAR-HOUSE  IN  LIBERTY  STREET. 


PRISONS    AND    PRISON-SHIPS— PRIVATEERING 

companied  by  horrid  imprecations, 
"Down,  rebels,  down!"  and  in  the  morn- 
ing the  significant  cry,  "  Rebels,  turn  out 
your  dead!"  The  latter  were  selected 
from  the  living,  sewed  up  in  blankets, 
carried  on  shore,  and  buried  in  shallow 
graves  in  the  sand.  Fully  11,000  were  so 
taken  from  the  Jersey  and  buried  during 
the  war.  In  1808  the  bones  of  these  mar- 
tyrs were  gathered  by  the  Tammany  So- 
provost  jail.  ciety  and  placed  in  a  vault  near  the  en- 

trance to  the  navy-yard,  and  a  magnifi- 
Smaller  churches  were  used  for  hospitals,  cent  monument  was  erected  and  dedicated 
Rhinelander's,  Van  Cortlandt's,  and  Liv-  to  their  memory  in  Trinity  Church-yard, 
ingston's  sugar-houses  contained  hundreds    on  Broadway. 

of  prisoners,  whose  sufferings  for  want  of  Privateering,  the  right  given  to  pri- 
fresh  air,  food,  and  cleanliness  were  dread-  vate  individuals  to  roam  the  ocean  and 
ful.  Under  Commissaries  Loring,  Sproat,  seize  and  plunder  the  vessels  of  an  enemy 
and  others,  and  particularly  under  the  in-  in  time  of  war.  When  the  act  of  the 
famous  Provost-Marshal  Cunningham,  the  British  Parliament  prohibiting  all  trade 
prisoners  in  these  buildings  and  the  pro-  with  the  colonies  and  confiscating  their 
vost  jail  received  the  most  brutal  treat-  ships  and  effects  as  if  they  were  the  ships 
ment.  Hundreds  died  and  were  cast  into  and  effects  of  open  enemies  was  received 
pits  without  any  funeral  ceremonies.  The  by  Congress,  the  first  instinct  was  to 
heat  of  summer  was  suffocating  in  the  retaliate.  On  March  16,  1776,  a  commit- 
sugar-house  prisons.  "  I  saw,"  says  Dun-  tee  of  the  whole  considered  the  propriety 
lap,  in  describing  the  one  in  Liberty  of  authorizing  the  inhabitants  of  the  colo- 
Street,  "  every  narrow  aperture  of  those  nies  to  fit  out  privateers.  Franklin  ex- 
stone  walls  filled  with  human  heads,  face  pressed  a  wish  that  such  an  act  should 
above  face,  seeking  a  portion  of  the  ex-  be  preceded  by  a  declaration  of  war,  as 
ternal  air."  For  many  weeks  the  dead-  of  one  independent  nation  against  an- 
cart  visited  this  prison  (a  fair  type  of  other.  Two  days  afterwards,  after  an 
the  others),  into  which  from  eight  to  able  debate,  privateers  were  authorized 
twelve  corpses  were  daily  flung  and  piled  to  cruise  against  ships  and  their  cargoes 
up.  They  were  then  dumped  into  ditches  belonging  to  any  inhabitant,  not  of  Ire- 
in  the  outskirts  of  the  city  and  covered  land  and  the  West  Indies,  but  of  Great 
with  earth  by  their  fellow-prisoners,  who  Britain.  All  New  England  and  New  York, 
were  detailed  for  the  work.  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina  voted  for  it. 

The  prison-ships — dismantled  old  hulks  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  voted  against 
— lying  in  the  waters  around  the  city,  it.  On  the  following  day  Wythe,  Jay, 
were  more  intolerable  than  the  prisons  on  and  Wilson  were  appointed  to  prepare  a 
land.  Of  these,  the  Jersey,  lying  at  the  preamble  to  the  resolutions,  and  when  on 
Wallabout,  near  the  site  of  the  Brooklyn  the  22d  Lee  presented  their  report  (being 
navy-yard,  was  the  most  famous.  She  in  the  minority),  he  moved  an  amendment, 
was  the  hulk  of  a  64-gun  ship,  in  which  charging  the  King  himself  with  their 
more  than  1,000  prisoners  were  sometimes  grievances,  inasmuch  as  he  had  "  rejected 
confined  at  one  time.  There  they  suf-  their  petitions  with  scorn  and  contempt." 
fered  indescribable  horrors  from  unwhole-  This  was  new  and  bold  ground,  and  was 
some  food,  foul  air,  filth,  and  vermin,  objected  to  as  severing  the  King  from 
and  from  small-pox,  dysentery,  and  prison-  the  colonies.  Never  before  had  they  dis- 
fever  that  slew  them  by  scores.  Despair  claimed  allegiance  to  their  monarch,  and 
reigned  there  incessantly,  for  their  treat-  Congress  hesitated;  but  on  the  following 
ment  was  generally  brutal  in  the  ex-  day  (the  23d)  the  amendment  was  accept- 
treme.  Every  night  the  living,  dying,  and  ed.  This  was  nearly  three  months  be- 
dead  were  huddled  together.  At  sunset  fore  Lee  offered  his  resolution  for  inde- 
each  day  was  heard  the  savage  order,  ac-    pendence. 

303 


PRIVATEERING 


TYPE   OF    PRIVATEER    USED    IN   THE   CIVIL   WAR. 


Early  in  the  Revolutionary  War  priva-  more  privateers.  The  homeward  -  bound 
teering  was  entered  upon  with  much  zeal  British  vessels  from  the  West  Indies,  deep- 
and  vigor  by  the  Americans,  especially  by  ly  laden,  and  passing  a  long  distance 
the  New  Englanders,  and  the  scarcity  pro-  along  the  American  coast,  offered  rich 
duced  by  the  interruption  of  regular  com-  and  tempting  prizes.  In  the  first  year 
merce  was  partially  supplied  by  success-  of  this  naval  warfare  nearly  350  British 
ful  cruisers.  It  was  kept  up  during  the  vessels  were  captured,  worth,  with  their 
whole   war.      Shares   in   vessels   following    cargoes,    $5,000,000. 

it  were  held  by  many   of   the   leaders   in        The  records  of  the  American  privateers 

during  the  War  of  1812-15 
show  the  wonderful  boldness 
and  skill  of  American  sea- 
men, most  of  them  untaught 
in  the  art  of  naval  war- 
fare and  the  general  charac- 
ter of  privateering  service. 
After  the  first  six  months , 
of  the  war  most  of  the  naval 
conflicts  on  the  ocean  were 
carried  on,  on  the  part  of 
the  Americans,  by  private 
armed  vessels,  which  "  took, 
burned,  and  destroyed " 
about  1,600  British  mer- 
chantmen of  all  classes  in 
the  space  of  three  years  and 
nine  months,  while  the  num- 
ber of  American  merchant- 
vessels  destroyed  during  the 
same  period  by  British  pri- 
the  Revolutionary  struggle.  Robert  Mor-  vateers  did  not  vary  much  from  500. 
ris  made  large  profits  by  the  business,  and  The  American  armed  vessels  which  caused 
Washington    was    part   owner    of    one    or    such  disasters  to  British  commerce  num- 

304 


CLIPPER-BOLT    PRIVATEER   SCHOONER. 


PRIVY    COUNCIL— PROCES   VERBAL 

bered  about  250.  Of  these  forty-six  were  and  so  continued.  Those  only  who  were 
letters-of-marque,  and  the  remainder  were  specially  summoned  ever  attended  its  meet- 
privateers.  This  was  115  less  than  were  ings.  Under  its  jurisdiction  the  King,  in 
enrolled  while  there  were  difficulties  with  council,  might  issue  proclamations  bind- 
France  in  1739  and  1799.  The  number  of  ing  on  the  subject  if  consonant  with  the 
private  armed  vessels  then  was  365.  Of  laws  of  the  land;  temporarily  regulate 
the  whole  number  in  1812-15,  184  were  various  matters  of  trade  and  international 
bent  out  from  the  four  ports  of  Baltimore,  intercourse ;  inquire  into  offences  against 
New  York,  Boston,  and  Salem.  The  aggre-  the  government  and  commit  offenders  to 
gate  number  sent  out  from  Portsmouth  take  their  trial  according  to  law,  and  had 
{N.  H.) ,  Philadelphia,  and  Charleston,  was  appellate  jurisdiction  in  the  last  resort 
thirty-five.  The  remainder  went  out  from  from  all  the  colonies.  The  function  of 
other  ports.  The  "  clippers  "  were  the  fast-  advisers  of  the  sovereign  in  all  weighty 
est  sailors  and  most  successful  of  the  pri-  matters  is  now  discharged  by  the  cabinet. 
vateers.  These  were  mostly  built  at  Balti-  Prize  Courts.  Ships  and  property 
more,  or  for  parties  in  that  city,  and  were  captured  in  war-time  are  submitted  to  the 
known  as  "  Baltimore  clippers."  They  judgment  of  certain  courts  to  establish 
were  schooners  with  raking  masts.  They  the  lawfulness  of  such  capture.  The  Unit- 
usually  carried  from  six  to  ten  guns,  with  ed  States  district  courts  have  such  juris- 
a  single  long  one,  which  was  called  diction  under  the  judiciary  act  of  1789. 
"  Long  Tom,"  mounted  on  a  swivel  in  the  Prize  -  money,  arising  from  captures 
centre.  They  were  usually  manned  with  made  from  the  enemy,  was  decreed  by  the 
fifty  persons  besides  officers,  all  armed  English  government  to  be  divided  into 
with  muskets,  cutlasses,  and  boarding  eight  equal  parts  and  distributed  by  or- 
pikes,  and  commissioned  to  "burn,  sink,  der  of  rank,  April  17,  1703.  The  distri- 
and  destroy  the  property  of  the  enemy,  bution  of  army  prize  -  money  is  regulated 
either  on  the  high  seas  or  in  his  ports."  by  an  act  passed  in  1832.  Naval  prize- 
A  complete  history  of  American  privateer-  money  is  now  regulated  by  royal  procla- 
ing  would  fill  several  volumes;  an  outline  of  mation.  In  the  United  States,  Congress 
it  is  contained  in  Coggeshall's  History  of  decreed  in  1812  that  in  the  distribution 
American  Privateers.  The  most  famous  and  of  prize-money  arising  from  the  captures 
desperate  combat  recorded  in  the  history  of  by  national  vessels,  one-half  should  go  to 
American  privateering  is  that  of  the  Gen  the  government,  and  the  other  half,  divided 
eral  Armstrong,  Capt.  S.  C.Reid,  in  Septern-  into  twenty  equal  parts,  should  be  dis- 
ber,  1814.     See  General  Armstrong,  The.  tributed  by  order  of  rank. 

Privy  Council,  a  body  of  men  selected  Proces  Verbal,  the  French  term  for  an 
by  the  sovereigns  of  England  for  their  official  report  or  record  of  proceedings, 
chief  advisers  and  executors.  First  it  was  The  French  explorers  in  America  set  a 
a  small  permanent  committee  selected  out  column,  placed  the  royal  arms  of  France 
of  the  great  council  of  the  kingdom,  which  upon  the  same,  and  then  proclaimed  the 
was  composed  of  all  the  great  tenants  of  country  to  be  a  part  of  the  dominions  of 
the  crown.  It  appears  in  the  early  rolls  France.  Then  a  report  of  the  proceed- 
of  Parliament  as  a  permanent  council,  and  ings  was  written  and  signed.  Sometimes 
under  the  Plantagenet  monarchs  it  con-  they  deposited  a  tablet  of  lead  with  an 
sisted  of  the  five  great  officers  of  state,  appropriate  inscription.  Celoron,  who  led 
the  two  archbishops,  and  from  ten  to  a  French  expedition  from  Canada  to  the 
fifteen  other  persons,  spiritual  or  tem-  Ohio  country  (1749),  buried  several  of 
poral,  sitting  constantly  as  a  court,  and  them  at  different  points.  One  of  these 
invested  with  extensive  powers.  Under  plates  reads  as  follows:  "In  the  year 
the  Stuarts,  the  star-chamber  court  and  1749,  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.,  King  of 
court  of  requests  were  committees  of  the  France,  we,  Celoron.  commander  of  a  de- 
privy  council.  The  privy  councillors  tachment  sent  by  Monsieur  the  Marquis 
were  chosen  by  the  King  without  patent  de  la  Galissoniere,  governor  -  general  of 
or  grant.  Under  Charles  II.  their  number,  New  France,  to  re-establish  tranquillity  in 
which  had  become  large,  was  reduced  to  some  Indfan  villages  of  these  cantons,  have 
thirty.  It  soon  became  indefinite  again  buried  this  plate  of  lead  at  the  confluence 
VTT. — u                                                               305 


PROCTOR— PROHIBITION    PARTY 


of  the  Ohio  and  Chautauqua*  this  29th  day 
of  July,  near  the  river  Ohio,  otherwise 
Belle  Riviere,  as  a  monument  of  the  re- 
newal of  the  possession  we  have  taken  of 
the  said  river  Ohio,  and  of  all  those  which 
empty  into  it,  and  of  all  the  lands  on  both 
sides  as  far  as  the  sources  of  said  rivers,  as 
enjoyed  or  ought  to  have  been  enjoyed  by 
the  kings  of  France  preceding,  and  as  they 
have  there  maintained  themselves  by  arms 
and  by  treaties,  especially  those  of  Utrecht 
:ind  Aix-la-Chapelle."  This  inscription 
revealed  the  designs  of  the  French.  The 
plate  was  sent  to  the  royal  governor  of 
New  York,  and  by  him  to  the  British  gov- 
ernment. He  sent  copies  of  the  inscrip- 
tion to  other  colonial  governors,  and  Colo- 
nel Johnson  told  the  Five  Nations  that  it 
implied  an  attempt  to  deprive  them  of 
their  lands,  and  that  the  French  ought  to 
be  immediately  expelled  from  the  Ohio 
and  Niagara.  One  of  the  plates  buried  by 
Celoron  near  the  mouth  of  the  Muskingum 
River  was  found  by  some  boys  near  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  part 
of  it  was  used  for  bullets;  the  preserved 
fragment  is  now  in  the  library  of  the 
American  Antiquarian  Society  of  Worces- 
ter, Mass.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  Great 
Kanawha  River,  W.  Va.,  another  leaden 
proces  verbal,  buried  by  Celoron,  was 
found  by  a  boy  in  1846. 

Proctor,  Henry  A.,  military  officer; 
born  in  Wales  in  1765;  joined  the  British 
army  in  1781,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
major-general  after  his  service  in  Canada 
in  1813.  He  was  sent  to  Canada  in  com- 
mand of  a  regiment  in  1812,  and,  as  act- 
ing brigadier-general,  commanded  British 
troops  at  Amherstburg,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  General  Brock,  to  prevent  Hull's 
invasion  of  Canada.  For  his  victory  at 
Frenchtown  he  was  made  a  brigadier-gen- 
eral. He  and  his  Indian  allies  were  re- 
pulsed at  Fort  Meigs  and  at  Fort  Stephen- 
son, and  he  was  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
the  Thames  by  General  Harrison.  For 
his  conduct  in  America,  especially  at 
Frenchtown,  he  was  afterwards  court-mar- 
tialled,  and  suspended  from  command  for 
six  months;  but  was  again  in  active  serv- 
ice, and  was  made  a  lieutenant-general. 
He  died  in  Liverpool,  England,  in  1859. 

*  The  Alleghany  River  was  regarded  as  the 
Ohio  proper,  and  the  Monongahela  only  as  a 
tributary. 


Proctor,  Lucien  Brock,  author;  born 
in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  March  6,  1826;  gradu- 
ated at  Hamilton  College  in  1844;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1847;  abandoned  law 
practice  in  1863  to  give  his  entire  atten- 
tion to  legal  writing.  His  publications 
include  The  Bench  and  Bar  of  the  State  of 
~New  York;  Lives  of  the  New  York  State 
Chancellors ;  The  Life  and  Times  of 
Thomas  Addis  Emmet;  The  Legal  History 
of  Albany  and  Schenectady  Counties; 
Early  History  of  the  Board  of  Regents 
and  University  of  the  State  of  New  York; 
etc. ;  also  many  addresses,  including 
Aaron  Burr's  Political  Career  Defended; 
Review  of  John  C.  Spencer's  Legal  and 
Political  Career,  etc. 

Proctor,  Redfield,  statesman;  born 
in  Proctorsville,  Vt.,  June  1,  1831;  gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  College  in  1851;  subse- 
quently studied  law  in  the  Albany  Law 
School ;  entered  the  National  army  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  as  lieutenant; 
was  mustered  out  as  colonel  in  1865.  He 
was  elected  to  the  State  legislature  in 
1867;  to  the  State  Senate  in  1874;  lieu- 
tenant-governor in  1876;  governor  in  1878; 
was  Secretary  of  War  in  1889-91;  and 
then  became  a  United  States  Senator. 
At  the  request  of  the  President,  Senator 
Proctor  visited  Cuba  in  March,  1898,  and 
his  report  on  the  conditions  existing  there 
powerfully  influenced  public  opinion  in 
the  United  States. 

Proctor,  Thomas,  military  officer;  born 
in  Ireland  in  1739;  emigrated  to  Phila- 
delphia; became  a  colonel  of  artillery;  and 
was  distinguished  in  the  battle  of  Brandy- 
wine  and  in  Sullivan's  expedition  in  1779.' 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  March  16, 
1806. 

Prohibition  Party.  The  question  of 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors 
was  agitated  in  various  sections  of  the 
United  States  before  a  political  party  was 
formed  distinctly  on  that  issue.  State 
legislation  has  at  different  times  attempt- 
ed prohibition  in  Maine,  Kansas,  Iowa, 
and  other  States.  A  distinctive  national 
party  was  organized  in  1869,  and  in  1872 
it  nominated  a  candidate  for  President. 
It  has  put  a  ticket  in  the  field  in  all  suc- 
ceeding Presidential  campaigns,  among 
others  St.  John  in  1884,  Fisk  in  1888,  Bid- 
well  in  1892,  Levering  in  1896,  Woolley  in 
1900,  and  Swallow  in   1904.     It  has  re- 


306 


PROTECTION 

ceived  no  electoral  votes,  though  it  has  some  principles  held  either  by  the  Demo- 
polled  a  popular  vote  of  several  hundred  cratic  or  by  the  People's  party.  In  1900 
thousand.  Besides  its  characteristic  there  was  a  marked  increase  in  the  popu- 
|3lank,   it  has  advocated  in   its  platforms  lar  vote  of  this  party. 


PROTECTION 


Protection.  The  following  argument 
for  protection  is  Mr.  Blaine's  reply  to 
Mr.  Gladstone's  argument  for  free-trade, 
the  text  of  which  will  be  found  in  vol. 
iii.  of  this  work,  under  Free  Trade. 


There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Mr.  Glad- 
stone is  the  most  distinguished  represent- 
ative of  the  free-trade  school  of  political 
economists.  His  addresses  in  Parliament 
on  his  celebrated  budget,  when  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer,  in  1853,  were  declared  by 
Lord  John  Russell  "  to  contain  the  ablest 
exposition  of  the  true  principles  of  finance 
ever  delivered  by  an  English  statesman." 
His  illustrious  character,  his  great  ability, 
and  his  financial  experience  point  to  him 
as  the  leading  defender  of  free-trade  applied 
to  the  industrial  system  of  Great  Britain. 

Mr.  Gladstone  apologizes  for  his  appar- 
ent interference  with  our  affairs.  He  may 
be  assured  that  apology  is  superfluous. 
Americans  of  all  classes  hold  him  in  hon- 
or; free-traders  will  rejoice  in  so  emi- 
nent an  advocate,  and  protectionists,  al- 
ways the  representatives  of  liberality  and 
progress,  will  be  glad  to  learn  his  opin- 
ions upon  a  question  of  such  transcendent 
importance  to  the  past,  the  present,  and 
the  future  of  the  republic. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  argument  of  Mr.  Gladstone,  as  in- 
deed of  every  English  free-trader  except 
John  Stuart  Mill,  is  the  universality  of 
application  which  he  demands  for  his 
theory.  In  urging  its  adoption  he  makes 
no  distinction  between  countries;  he  takes 
no  account  of  geographical  position — • 
whether  a  nation  be  in  the  Eastern  or  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  whether  it  be  north 
or  south  of  the  equator;  he  pays  no  heed 
to  climate,  or  product,  or  degree  of  ad- 
vancement; none  to  topography — whether 
the  country  be  as  level  as  the  delta  of  the 
Nile  or  as  mountainous  as  the  republic 
of  Bolivia;  none  to  pursuits  and  employ- 
ments, whether  in  the  agricultural,  manu- 
facturing, or  commercial  field;  none  to  the 


wealth  or  poverty  of  a  people;  none  to 
population,  whether  it  be  crowded  or 
sparse;  none  to  area,  whether  it  be  as 
limited  as  a  German  principality  or  as 
extended  as  a  continental  empire.  Free- 
trade  he  believes  advantageous  for  Eng- 
land: therefore,  without  the  allowance  of 
any  modifying  condition,  great  or  small, 
the  English  economist  declares  it  to  be 
advantageous  for  the  United  States,  for 
Brazil,  for  Australia;  in  short,  for  all 
countries  with  which  England  can  estab- 
lish trade  relations.  It  would  be  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  for  Mr.  Gladstone  to  find 
any  principle  of  administration  or  any 
measure  of  finance  so  exactly  fitted  to  the 
varying  needs  of  all  countries  as  he  as- 
sumes the  policy  of  free-trade  to  be.  Sure- 
ly it  is  not  unfair  to  maintain  that,  de- 
ducing his  results  from  observation  and 
experience  in  his  own  country,  he  may  fall 
into  error  and  fail  to  appreciate  the  finan- 
cial workings  of  other  countries  geograph- 
ically remote  and  of  vastly  greater  area. 
The  American  protectionist,  let  it  not  be 
discourteous  to  urge,  is  broader  in  his 
views  than  the  English  free-trader.  No 
intelligent  protectionist  in  the  United 
States  pretends  that  every  country  would 
alike  realize  advantage  from  the  adoption 
of  the  protective  system.  Human  govern- 
ment is  not  a  machine,  and  even  machines 
cannot  be  so  perfectly  adjusted  as  to  work 
with  equal  effectiveness  at  all  times  and 
under  all  conditions.  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  certainly  resemble  one 
another  in  more  ways  than  either  can  be 
said  to  resemble  any  other  nation  in  the 
world ;  yet,  when  we  compare  the  two  on 
the  question  at  issue,  the  differences  are 
so  marked  that  we  almost  lose  sight  of  the 
resemblance.  One  is  an  insular  monarchy 
with  class  government ;  the  other  a  con- 
tinental repuhlic  with  popular  govern- 
ment. One  has  a  large  population  to  the 
square  mile;  the  other  a  small  population 
to  the  square  mile.  One  was  old  in  a  rich 
and  complex  civilization  before  the  estab- 


307 


PROTECTION 


lishment  of  the  other  was  even  foreseen. 
One  had  become  the  wealthiest  nation  of 
the  world  while  the  other  was  yet  in  the 
toils  and  doubts  of  a  frontier  life  and  a 
primitive  civilization.  One  had  extensive 
manufactures  for  almost  every  field  of 
human  need,  with  the  civilized  world  for 
its  market,  while  the  population  of  the 
other  was  still  forced  to  divide  its  ener- 
gies between  the  hard  calling  of  the  sea 
and  the  still  harder  calling  of  a  rude  and 
scantily  remunerative  agriculture. 

The  physical  differences  between  the  two 
countries  are  far  more  striking  than  the 
political  and  social  differences.  They  are, 
indeed,  almost  incalculable.  Great  Britain 
is  an  island  less  than  00,000  square  miles 
in  extent.  It  lies  in  the  far  north.  Its 
southernmost  point  is  nearly  thirty 
degrees  of  latitude  above  the  tropics. 
Its  northernmost  point  is  but  nine 
degrees  below  the  Arctic  Circle.  With- 
in its  area  the  exchange  of  natural 
products  is  necessarily  limited.  Its  life 
depends  upon  its  connection  with  other 
countries.  Its  prosperity  rests  upon  its 
commerce  with  the  world.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  single  State  of  the  Union  is  nearly 
three  times  as  large  as  Great  Britain. 
Several  other  States  are  each  quite  equal 
to  it  in  area.  The  whole  Union  is  well- 
nigh  forty  times  as  large.  Alaska  except- 
ed, the  northernmost  point  of  the  Union 
is  60  miles  south  of  the  southernmost  point 
of  Great  Britain,  and  the  southernmost 
point  of  the  Union  is  but  little  more  than 
100  miles  from  the  tropics.  Its  natural 
products  are  more  varied,  more  numerous, 
and  of  more  valuable  character  than  those 
of  all  Europe.  To  quote  one  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's phrases,  we  constitute  "  not  so 
much  a  country  in  ourselves,  as  a  world." 
He  tells  us  that  we  carry  on  "  the  business 
of  domestic  exchanges  on  a  scale  such  as 
mankind  has  never  seen."  Our  foreign 
commerce,  very  large  in  itself,  is  only  as 
one  to  twenty-five  compared  to  our  internal 
trade.  And  yet  Mr.  Gladstone  thinks  that 
a  policy  which  is  essential  to  an  island  in 
the  northern  ocean  should  be  adopted  as 
the  policy  of  a  country  which  even  to  his 
own  vision  is  "  a  world  within  itself." 

With  these  fundamental  points  of  differ- 
ence between  the  two  countries,  I  assume 
that  varied  financial  and  industrial  sys- 
tems, wrought  by  the  experience  of  each. 


308 


would  be  the  natural  and  logical  result. 
Hence  I  do  not  join  issue  with  Mr.  Glad- 
stone on  both  of  his  propositions.  He  de- 
fends free-trade  in  Great  Britain.  He  as- 
sails protection  in  the  United  States.  The 
first  proposition  I  neither  deny  nor  af- 
firm. Were  I  to  assume  that  protection  is 
in  all  countries  and  under  all  circum- 
stances the  wisest  policy,  I  should  be 
guilty  of  an  error  similar  to  that  which 
I  think  Mr.  Gladstone  commits.  It  might 
be  difficult  to  prove  that  free-trade  is  not 
the  wisest  financial  policy  for  Great  Brit- 
ain. So  far  from  guarding  herself  against 
material  imported  from  other  countries, 
her  industrial  system  would  wither  and' 
die  if  foreign  products  were  withheld  for 
even  a  brief  period.  She  is  in  an  especial 
degree  dependent  upon  the  products  of 
other  nations.  Moreover,  she  does  not  feel 
bound  to  pay  heed  to  the  rate  of  wages 
which  her  labor  may  receive.  That,  like 
the  fabrics  which  her  labor  creates,  must 
take  its  chance  in  the  markets  of  the 
world. 

On  many  points  and  in  many  respects  it 
was  far  different  with  Great  Britain  a 
hundred  years  ago.  She  did  not  then  feel 
assured  that  she  could  bear  the  competi- 
tion of  Continental  nations.  She  was, 
therefore,  aggressively,  even  cruelly,  pro- 
tective. She  manufactured  for  herself  and 
for  her  net-work  of  colonies  reaching 
around  the  globe.  Into  those  colonies  no 
other  nation  could  carry  anything.  There 
was  no  scale  of  duty  upon  which  other 
nations  could  enter  a  colonial  port.  What 
the  colonies  needed  outside  of  British  prod- 
ucts could  be  furnished  to  them  only  in 
British  ships.  This  was  not  protection! 
It  was  prohibition,  absolute  and  remorse- 
less, and  it  was  continued  even  to  the  day 
when  Mr.  Gladstone  entered  upon  his  long 
and  splendid  career  in  Parliament.  It 
was  not  broken,  though  in  some  respects 
it  was  relaxed,  until  in  the  fulness  of  time 
British  energy  had  carried  the  wealth  and 
the  skill  of  the  kingdom  to  the  point  where 
no  competition  could  be  feared. 

During  the  last  thirty  years  of  her  pro- 
tective system,  and  especially  during  the 
twenty  years  from  1826  to  1846,  Great 
Britain  increased  her  material  wealth  be- 
yond all  precedent  in  the  commercial  his- 
tory of  the  world.  Her  development  of 
steam-power  gave  to  every  British  work- 


PROTECTION 

man  the   arms  of   Briareus,   and   the   in-  tariff,*  as  certainly  as  effect  follows  cause, 

ventive    power    of    her    mechanicians    in-  One   of  the  most  suggestive  experiments 

creased  the  amount,  the  variety,  and  the  of  that  kind  had  its" origin  in  the  tariff 

value    of    her    fabrics    beyond    all    antici-  to  which  I  have  just  referred,  passed  in 

pation.      Every   year   of   that   period   wit-  1846  in  apparent  harmony  with  England's 

nessed  the  addition  of  millions  upon  mill-  newly  declared  financial  policy.     At  that 

ions  of  sterling  to  the  reserve  capital  of  moment  a  Southern  President   (Mr.  Polk) 

the  kingdom ;  every  year  witnessed  a  great  and   a   Southern   Secretary  of   the  Treas- 

addition  to  the  effective  machinery  whose  ury    (Mr.    Robert    J.    Walker)    were    far 

aggregate  power  was  already  the  wonder  more  interested  in  expanding  the  area  of 

of  the  world.     The  onward  march  of  her  slave   territory   than   in   advancing   home 

manufacturing  industries,  the  steady  and  manufactures,   and   were   especially   eager 

rapid     development     of     her     mercantile  to  make   commercial   exchanges  with   Eu- 

marine,  absorbed  the  matchless  enterprise  rope   on   the   somewhat   difficult   basis   of 

and  energy  of  the  kingdom.     Finally,  with  cotton  at  high  prices  and  returning  fabrics 

a  vast  capital   accumulated,   with   a   low  at  low  prices. 

rate  of  interest  established,  and  with  a  Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  free- 
manufacturing  power  unequalled,  the  Brit-  trade  tariff  of  1S46  would  have  promptly 
ish  merchants  were  ready  to  underbid  all  fallen  under  popular  reprobation  and  been 
rivals  in  seeking  for  the  trade  of  the  doomed  to  speedy  repeal.  But  it  had  a 
world.  singular  history  and  for  a  time  was  gen- 

At  that  moment  Great  Britain  had  rea-  erally  acquiesced  in,  even  attaining  in 
son  to  feel  supremely  content.  She  found  many  sections  a  certain  degree  of  popu- 
under  her  own  flag,  on  the  shores  of  larity.  Never  did  any  other  tariff  meet 
every  ocean,  a  host  of  consumers  whom  with  so  many  and  so  great  aids  of  an 
no  man  might  number.  She  had  Canada,  adventitious  character  to  sustain  it  as 
Australia,  and  India  with  open  ports  and  did  this  enactment  of  1846.  Our  war  with 
free  markets  for  all  her  fabrics;  and,  more  Mexico  began  just  as  the  duties  were  low- 
than  all  these  combined,  she  found  the  ered,  and  the  consequence  was  the  dis- 
united States  suddenly  and  seriously  low-  bursement  of  more  than  $100,000,000  in 
ering  her  tariff  and  effectively  abolish-  a  way  that  reached  all  localities  and  favor- 
ing protection  at  the  very  moment  Eng-  ably  affected  all  interests.  This  was  a 
land  was  declaring  for  free-trade.  The  great  sum  of  money  for  that  period,  and 
traffic  of  the  world  seemed  prospectively  for  the  years  1846,  1S47,  and  1848  it  con- 
in  her  control.  Could  this  condition  of  siderably  more  than  doubled  the  ordinary 
trade  have  continued,  no  estimate  of  the  outlay  of  the  government.  In  the  middle 
growth  of  England's  wealth  would  be  pos-  of  this  period  the  Irish  famine  occurred 
sible.  Practically  it  would  have  had  no  and  called  for  an  immense  export  of  bread- 
limit.  Could  she  have  retained  her  con-  stuffs  at  high  prices.  The  discovery  of 
trol  of  the  markets  of  the  United  States  gold  in  California  the  succeeding  year 
as  she  held  it  for  the  four  years  preced-  flushed  the  channels  of  business  as  never 
ing  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  the  before,  by  rapidly  enlarging  the  circulation 
American  people  would  have  grown  com-  of  coin  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Before 
mercially  dependent  upon  her  in  a  greater  this  outpouring  of  gold  had  ceased,  the 
degree  than  is  Canada  or  Australia  to-  three  great  nations  of  Europe,  as  pre- 
day.  cedence  was  reckoned  at  that  time — Eng- 

But  England  was  dealing  with  an  in-  land,    France,   and   Russia — entered   upon 

telligence  equal  to  her  own.    The  American  the  Crimean  War.     The  export  of  manu- 

people  had,  by  repeated  experience,  learn-  factures    from    England    and    France   was 

ed  that  the  periods  of  depression  in  home  checked ;    the   breadstuff's   of   Russia  were 

manufactures  were  those  in  which  Eng-  blockaded  and  could  not  reach  the  markets 
land  most  prospered  in  her  commercial  rela- 

tions  with  the  United  States,  and  that  these  *  The  phrase   »  free-trade ;  tariff -   involves 

.    ,        .    ,             .        .     ,        .,,                 ,  a  contradiction  of  terms.     It  is  used  to  des- 

penods  of  depression   had,  with   a   single  ignate   tnat    form   of    duty   which    is   levied 

exception,   easily   explained,    followed    the  with  no  intention  to  protect  domestic  manu- 

enactment    by    Congress    of    a    free-trade  factures. 

309 


PROTECTION 

of  the  world.  An  extraordinary  Stimulus  them  despite  the  exhausting  effect  of  the 
was  thus  given  to  all  forms  of  trade  in  struggle  with  Great  Britain.  But  the 
the  United  States.  For  ten  years — 1846  to  prayer  of  the  people  was  answered,  and 
1856 — these  adventitious  aids  came  in  the  war  duties  were  dropped  from  the 
regular  succession  and  exerted  their  pow-  tariff  of  1816.  The  business  of  the  coun- 
erful  influence  upon  the  prosperity  of  the  try  was  speedily  prostrated.  The  people 
country.  were  soon  reduced  to  as  great  distress  as 
The  withdrawal  or  termination  of  these  in  that  melancholy  period  between  the 
influences,  by  a  treaty  of  peace  in  Europe  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  and  the 
and  by  the  surcease  of  gold  from  Califor-  organization  of  the  national  government 
nia,  placed  the  tariff  of  1846  where  a  real  — 1783  to  1789.  Colonel  Benton's  vivid  de- 
test of  its  merits  or  its  demerits  could  be  scription  of  the  period  of  depression  fol- 
made.  It  was  everywhere  asked  with  appre-  lowing  the  reduction  of  duties  comprises 
hension  and  anxiety,  Will  this  free-trade  in  a  few  lines  a  whole  chapter  of  the  his- 
tariff  now  develop  and  sustain  the  business  tory  of  free-trade  in  the  United  States : 

of  the  countrv  as  firmly  and  securely  as  „  AT         .       .                  .                  ,                , 

;                      ,       ,                i                  j  t.  No   price   for   property ;    no   sales   except 

it  has  been  developed  and  sustained  by  pro-  those    o£    the    sheriff    and    the    marshal ;    no 

tection?      The   answer   was    made    in   the  purchasers    at    execution  -  sales    except    the 

ensuing   year    by    a    widespread    financial  creditor    or    some    hoarder    of    money;    no 

.          (.•!_■        t      i    .i            •         t    ii  „  ,  employment    for    industry;     no    demand    for 

panic,  which   involved  the   rum   of   thou-  ]abIor ;  no  gale  fm.  the  pi.oducts  of  the  farm . 

sands,  including  proportionately  as  many  no  SOUnd  of  the  hammer  except  that  of  the 

in  the  South  as  in  the  North,  leaving  the  auctioneer  knocking  down  property.     Distress 

country  disordered   and   distressed   in   all  *'as  th.e  universal  cry  of  the  people ;   relief 

J  .  .  .  „,  ..  ,  the  universal  demand, 
the  avenues  of  trade.  The  disastrous  re- 
sults of  this  tariff  upon  the  permanent  Relief  came  at  last  with  the  enactment 
industries  of  the  country  are  described  of  the  protective  tariff  of  1824,  to  the 
in  President  Buchanan's  well-remembered  support  of  which  leading  men  of  both 
message,  communicated  to  Congress  after  parties  patriotically  united  for  the  com- 
the  panic:  "With  unsurpassed  plenty  in  mon  good.  That  act,  supplemented  by  the 
all  the  elements  of  national  wealth,  our  act  of  1828,  brought  genuine  prosperity 
manufacturers  have  suspended,  our  public  to  the  country.  The  credit  of  passing  the 
works  are  retarded,  our  private  enter-  two  protective  acts  was  not  due  to  one 
prises  of  different  kinds  are  abandoned,  party  alone.  It  was  the  work  of  the  great 
and  thousands  of  useful  laborers  are  men  of  both  parties.  Mr.  Clay  and  Gen- 
thrown  out  of  employment  and  reduced  eral  Jackson,  Mr.  Webster  and  Mr.  Van 
to  want."  This  testimony  as  the  result  Buren,  Gen.  William  Henry  Harrison  and 
of  a  free-trade  tariff  is  all  the  more  Richard  M.  Johnson,  Silas  Wright  and 
forcible  from  the  fact  that  Mr.  Buchanan,  Louis  McLane,  voted  for  one  or  the  other 
as  a  member  of  President  Polk's  cabinet,  of  these  acts,  and  several  of  them  voted 
had  consented  to  the  abandonment  of  pro-  for  both.  The  co-operation  of  these  eminent 
tection,  which  in  his  earlier  career  he  had  men  is  a  great  historic  tribute  to  the' 
earnestly  supported.  necessity  and  value  of  protection.  Plenty 
If  these  disasters  of  1857,  flowing  from  and  prosperity  followed,  as  if  by  magic, 
the  free-trade  tariff,  could  have  been  re-  the  legislation  to  which  they  gave  their 
garded  as  exceptional,  if  they  had  been  support.  We  have  their  concurrent  testi- 
without  parallel  or  precedent,  they  might  mony  that  the  seven  years  preceding  the 
not  have  had  so  deadly  a  significance,  enactment  of  the  protective  tariff  of  1824 
But  the  American  people  had  twice  before  were  the  most  discouraging  which  the 
passed  through  a  similar  experience.  On  young  republic  in  its  brief  life  had  en- 
the  eve  of  the  War  of  1812,  Congress  countered,  and  that  the  seven  years  which 
guarded  the  national  strength  by  enacting  followed  its  enactment  were  beyond  pree- 
a  highly  protective  tariff.  By  its  own  edent  the  most  prosperous  and  happy, 
terms  this  tariff  must  end  with  the  war.  Sectional  jealousy  and  partisan  zeal 
When  the  new  tariff  was  to  be  formed,  a  could  not  endure  the  great  development  of 
popular  cry  arose  against  "war  duties,"  manufactures  in  the  North  and  East  which 
though  the  country  had  prospered  under  followed  the  apparently  firm  establishment 

310 


PROTECTION 


of  the  protective  policy.  The  free-trade 
leaders  of  the  South  believed — at  least 
they  persuaded  others  to  believe — that  the 
manufacturing  States  were  prospering  at 
the  expense  of  the  planting  States.  Un- 
der the  lead  of  Calhoun,  South  Carolina 
rebelled,  and  President  Jackson,  who  had 
so  strikingly  shown  his  faith  in  the  policy 
of  protection,  was  not  able  to  resist  the 
excitement  and  resentment  which  the 
free-traders  had  created  in  the  cotton 
States.  He  stood  between  hostile  policies, 
represented  by  his  two  bitterest  personal 
enemies — Clay  for  protection;  Calhoun  for 
free-trade.  To  support  Clay  would  ruin 
Jackson  politically  in  the  South.  He 
could  not  sustain  Calhoun,  for,  aside  from 
his  opposition  to  free-trade,  he  had  cause 
for  hating  him  personally.  He  believed, 
moreover,  that  Calhoun  was  at  heart  un- 
true to  the  Union,  and  to  the  Union  Jack- 
son was  as  devoted  as  Clay.  Out  of  this 
strange  complication  came,  not  unnatural- 
ly,, the  sacrifice  of  the  protective  tariff  of 
1824-28  and  the  substitution  of  the  com- 
promise tariff  of  1833.  which  established 
an  ad-valorem  duty  of  20  per  cent,  on  all 
imports,  and  reduced  the  excess  over  that 
by  a  10  per  cent,  annual  sliding  scale  for 
the  ensuing  ten  years.  Like  all  com- 
promises, it  gave  complete  satisfaction 
to  neither  party,  but  it  was  received  with 
general  acquiescence  from  the  belief  that 
it  was  the  best  practicable  solution  of 
the  impending  difficulties.  The  impending 
difficulties  were  two.  One  was  the  por- 
tentous movement  which  involved  the  pos- 
sibility of  dissolving  the  Union.  The  other 
was  the  demand  for  a  free-trade  tariff  as 
the  only  measure  that  could  appease 
the  Southern  milliners.  Disunion  and  free- 
trade  from  that  time  became  associated 
in  the  public  mind — a  source  of  appre- 
hension in  the  North,  a  source  of  polit- 
ical power  in  the  South.  Calhoun  was 
the  master-spirit  who  had  given  the  origi- 
nal impulse  both  to  disunion  and  free- 
trade.  Each  in  turn  strengthened  the 
other  in  the  South,  and  both  perished 
together  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion. 

For  a  time  satisfaction  was  felt  with 
the  tariff  adjustment  of  1833,  because  it 
was  regarded  as  at  least  a  temporary  rec- 
onciliation between  two  sections  of  the 
Union.  Before  the  sliding  scale  was  ruin- 
ously advanced,  there  was  great  stimulus 


to  manufacturing  and  to  trade,  which  final- 
ly assumed  the  form  of  dangerous  specu- 
lation. The  years  1834,  1835,  and  1836 
were  distinguished  for  all  manner  of  busi- 
ness hazard,  and  before  the  fourth  year 
opened,  the  30  per  cent,  reduction  (three 
years  of  10  per  cent,  each)  on  the  scale 
of  duties  was  beginning  to  influence  trade 
unfavorably.  The  apprehension  of  evil 
soon  became  general,  public  confidence  was 
shaken,  the  panic  of  1837  ensued,  and 
business  reversals  were  rapid,  general,  and 
devastating. 

The  trouble  increased  through  1838, 
1839,  and  1840,  and  the  party  in  power, 
held  responsible  for  the  financial  disas- 
ters, fell  under  popular  condemnation. 
Mr.  Van  Buren  was  defeated,  and  the  eld- 
er General  Harrison  was  elevated  to  the 
Presidency  by  an  exceptionally  large  ma- 
jority of  the  electoral  votes.  There  was 
no  relief  to  the  people  until  the  protective 
tariff  of  1842  was  enacted;  and  then  the 
beneficent  experience  of  1824  was  repeated 
on  even  a  more  extensive  scale.  Pros- 
perity, wide  and  general,  was  at  once  re- 
stored. But  the  reinstatement  of  the  Dem- 
ocratic party  to  power,  two  years  later, 
by  the  election  of  Mr.  Polk  to  the  Presi- 
dency, followed  by  a  perverse  violation  of 
public  pledges  on  the  part  of  men  in  im- 
portant places  of  administration,  led  to 
the  repeal  of  the  protective  act  and  the 
substitution  of  the  tariff  of  1846,  to  which 
I  have  already  adverted,  and  whose  effects 
upon  the  country  I  have  briefly  outlined. 

Measuring,  therefore,  from  1812,  when  a 
protective  tariff  was  enacted  to  give 
strength  and  stability  to  the  government 
in  the  approaching  war  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, to  1861,  when  a  protective  tariff  was 
enacted  to  give  strength  and  stability  to 
the  government  in  the  impending  revolt 
of  the  Southern  States,  we  have  fifty  years 
of  suggestive  experience  in  the  history 
of  the  republic.  During  this  long  period 
free-trade  tariffs  were  thrice  followed  by 
industrial  stagnation,  by  financial  embar- 
rassment, by  distress  among  all  classes  de- 
pendent for  subsistence  upon  their  own 
labor.  Thrice  were  these  burdens  removed 
by  the  enactment  of  a  protective  tariff. 
Thrice  the  protective  tariff  promptly  led 
to  industrial  activity,  to  financial  ease, 
to  prosperity  among  the  people.  And  this 
happy  condition  lasted  in  each  case,  with 


311 


PROTECTION 

no  diminution  of  its  beneficent  influence,  protective  tariff  of  1861  was  in  full  force, 

until    illegitimate   political    combinations,  and    that,    therefore,    panic    and    distress 

having  their  origin  in  personal  and  sec-  follow    periods    of   protection   as   well    as 

tional   aims,  precipitated  another   era   of  periods  of  free-trade.     It  is  true  that  a 

free-trade.    A  perfectly  impartial  man,  un-  financial    panic    occurred    in     1873,    and 

swerved  by  the  excitement  wbich  this  ques-  its  existence  would  blunt  the  force  of  my 

tion     engenders     in     popular     discussion,  argument   if  there  were  not   an   impera- 

might  safely  be  asked  if  the  half-century's  tively  truthful  way  of  accounting  for  it 

experience,   with   its  three  trials  of  both  as  a  distinct  result  from  entirely  distinct 

systems,  did  not  establish  the  wisdom  of  causes.      The   panic   of    1873   was   widely 

protection   in   the   United   States.     If   the  different    in    its    true    origin    from    those 

inductive    method    of    reasoning    may    be  which   I   have  been   exposing.      The   Civil 

trusted,  we  certainly  have  a  logical  basis  War,  which  closed  in  1865,  had  sacrificed 

of  conclusion  in  the  facts  here  detailed.  on  both  sides  a  vast  amount  of  property. 

And  by  what  other  mode  of  reasoning  Reckoning    the   money   directly   expended, 

can  we  safely  proceed  in  this  field  of  con-  the  value  of  property  destroyed,  and  the 

troversy?      The    great    method    of    Bacon  production    arrested    and    prevented,    the 

was  by  "  rigid  and  pure  observation,  aided  total    is    estimated    to    be    $9,000,000,000. 

by    experiment    and    fructified    by    indue-  The   producers   of   the   country   had   been 

tion."     Let  us  investigate  "  from   effects  seriously  diminished  in  number.     A  half- 

to  causes,  and  not  from  causes  to  effects."  million  men  had  been  killed.     A  million 

Surely  it  is  by  a  long  series  of   experi-  more  had  been  disabled  in  various  degrees, 

ments,  and  by  that  test  only,   that   any  Help  was  needed  in  the  honorable  form  of 

country  can   establish   an  industrial   sys-  pensions,  and  the  aggregate  required  for 

tern  that  will  best  aid  in  developing  its  this    purpose    exceeded    all    anticipation 

hidden   wealth   and   establishing   its    per-  and   has    annually   absorbed   an   immense 

manent  prosperity.  And  each  country  must  proportion   of   the   national   income.    The 

act  intelligently  for  itself.     Questions  of  public  debt  that  must  be  funded  reached 

trade  can  no  more  be  regulated  by  an  ex-  nearly   $3,000,000,000,   demanding   at   the 

act   science   than   crops   can   be   produced  beginning  more  than  $150,000,000  for  an- 

with     accurate    forecast.     The    unknown  nual  interest.     A  great  proportion  of  the 

quantities  are  so  many  that  a  problem  in  debt,  when  funding  was  complete,  was  held 

trade   or   agriculture   can  never   have   an  in  Europe,  calling  for  an  enormous  export 

absolute    answer    in    advance.      But    Mr.  of   gold,    or   its    equivalent,   to   meet   the 

Gladstone,    with    an    apparent    confidence  interest. 

in  results  es  unshaken  as  though  he  were  Besides  these  burdens  upon  the  people, 
dealing  with  the  science  of  numbers,  pro-  the  country  was  on  a  basis  of  paper  money, 
ceeds  to  demonstrate  the  advantage  of  and  all  gold  payments  added  a  heavy  pre- 
free-trade.  He  is  positively  certain  in  mium  to  the  weight  of  the  obligation.  The 
advance  of  the  answer  which  experiment  situation  was  without  parallel.  The  spec- 
will  give,  and  the  inference  is  that  noth-  ulative  mania  which  always  accompanies 
ing  is  to  be  gained  by  awaiting  the  experi-  war  had  swollen  private  obligations  to  a 
ment.  Mr.  Gladstone  may  argue  for  Great  perilous  extent,  and  the  important  ques- 
Britain  as  he  will,  but  for  the  United  tion  arose  of  restoring  coin  payment.  On 
States  we  must  insist  on  being  guided  the  one  hand,  it  was  contended  that  to 
by  facts,  and  not  by  theories;  we  must  enforce  the  measure  would  create  a  panic 
insist  on  adhering  to  the  teachings  of  by  the  shrinkage  of  prices  which  would 
experiments  which  "have  been  carried  follow;  and  on  the  other  hand,  it  was 
forward  by  careful  generalization  to  well-  urged  with  equal  zeal  that  to  postpone 
grounded  conclusions."  it  longer  would  increase  the  general  dis- 

As  an  offset  to  the   charge   that   free-  trust   among   the   people   as   to   the   real 

trade  tariffs  have  always  ended  in  panics  condition   of  the   country,   and  thus   add 

and  long  periods  of  financial  distress,  the  to  the  severity  of  the  panic  if  one  should 

advocates  of  free-trade  point  to  the  fact  be  precipitated. 

that  a   financial   panic  of  great  severity  Notwithstanding  the  evil  prophecies  on 

fell  upon  the  country  in  1873,  when  the  both  sides,  the  panic  did  not  come  until 

312 


PROTECTION 


eight  and  a  half  years  after  the  firing  of 
the  last  gun  in  the  Civil  War.  Nor  did 
it  come  until  after  two  great  calamities 
in  the  years  immediately  preceding  had 
caused  the  expenditure  of  more  than  $200,- 
000,000,  suddenly  withdrawn  from  the 
ordinary  channels  of  business.  The  rapid 
and  extensive  rebuilding  in  Chicago  and 
Boston  after  the  destructive  fires  of  1871 
and  1872  had  a  closer  connection  with  the 
panic  of  1873  than  is  commonly  thought. 
Still  further,  the  six  -  years'  depression, 
from  1873  to  1879,  involved  individual 
suffering  rather  than  general  distress. 
The  country  as  a  whole  never  advanced 
in  wealth  more  rapidly  than  during  that 
period.  The  entire  experience  strengthen- 
ed the  belief  that  the  war  for  the  Union 
could  not  have  been  maintained  upon  a 
free-trade  basis,  and  that  the  panic  of 
1873  only  proved  the  strength  of  the  safe- 
guard which  protection  supplies  to  a  peo- 
ple surrounded  by  such  multiform  em- 
barrassments as  were  the  people  of  the 
United  States  during  the  few  years  im- 
mediately following  the  war.  And,  strong- 
est of  all  points,  the  financial  distress  was 
relieved  and  prosperity  restored  under 
protection,  whereas  the  ruinous  effects  of 
panics  under  free-trade  have  never  been 
removed  except  by  a  resort  to  protection. 

Does  Mr.  Gladstone  maintain  that  I 
am  confusing  post  hoc  with  propter  hoc 
in  these  statements?  He  must  show,  then, 
that  the  United  States  during  the  war 
could  have  collected  a  great  internal  reve- 
nue on  domestic  manufactures  and  prod- 
ucts, when  under  the  system  of  free-trade 
similar  fabrics  would  daily  have  reached 
New  York  from  Europe  to  be  sold  at 
prices  far  below  what  the  American  manu- 
facturer, with  the  heavy  excise  then  lev- 
ied, could  afford  to  set  upon  his  goods. 
And  if  the  government  could  collect  little 
from  the  customs  under  free-trade,  and 
nothing  from  internal  products,  whence 
could  have  been  derived  the  taxes  to  pro- 
vide for  the  payment  of  interest  on  pub- 
lic loans,  and  what  would  have  become 
of  the  public  credit?  Moreover,  with  free- 
trade,  which  Mr.  Gladstone  holds  to  be 
always  and  under  all  circumstances  wiser 
than  protection,  we  should  have  been  com- 
pelled to  pay  gold  coin  for  European  fab- 
rics, while  at  home  and  during  the  tre- 
mendous  strain   of   the  war   legal-tender 

31 


paper  was  the  universal  currency.  In 
other  words,  when  the  life  of  the  country 
depended  upon  the  government's  ability 
to  make  its  own  notes  perform  the  function 
of  money,  the  free-traders'  policy  would 
have  demanded  daily  gold  for  daily  bread. 

The  free-trader  cannot  offset  the  force 
of  the  argument  by  claiming  that  the  laws 
regulating  revenue  and  trade  are,  like 
municipal  laws,  silent  during  the  shock 
of  arms;  because  the  five  closing  years — 
indeed,  almost  six  years — of  the  decade  in 
which  the  Eebellion  occurred  were  passed 
in  peace,  and  during  those  years  the  rav- 
ages of  war  were  in  large  degree  repaired 
and  new  wealth  rapidly  acquired.  But  I 
shall  not  give  to  Mr.  Gladstone  or  to  the 
American  free-trader  the  advantage  of 
seeming  to  rest  the  defence  of  protection 
upon  its  marvellous  value  during  the  ex- 
haustive period  of  war.  Viewing  the  coun- 
try from  1861  to  1889— full  twenty-eight 
years — the  longest  undisturbed  period  in 
which  either  protection  or  free-trade  has 
been  tried  in  this  country — I  ask  Mr. 
Gladstone  if  a  parallel  can  be  found  to 
the  material  advancement  of  the  United 
States. 

Mr.  Gladstone  admits  the  wonderful  in- 
crease of  wealth  acquired  under  a  protec- 
tive tariff,  but  he  avers  that  the  results 
would  have  been  larger  under  free-trade. 
That,  of  course,  is  a  speculative  opinion, 
and  is  entitled  to  respect  according  to  the 
knowledge  and  experience  of  the  man  who 
utters  it.  Every  statement  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone carries  weight,  but  in  this  case  his 
opinion  runs  directly  counter  to  the  fifty 
years  of  financial  experience  through  which 
this  country  has  passed  with  alternate 
trials  of  the  two  systems.  Moreover,  it  is 
fair  to  say  that  Mr.  Gladstone  does  not 
in  this  utterance  represent  European 
judgment.  He  speaks  only  for  the  free- 
trade  party  of  Great  Britain  and  their 
followers  on  this  side  of  the  ocean.  The 
most  eminent  statesman  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  holds  opinions  on  this  subject 
directly  the  reverse  of  those  held  by  the 
most  eminent  statesman  of  Great  Britain. 
We  feel  assured  in  America  that  so  far 
as  the  question  of  protection  may  be  af- 
fected, either  favorably  or  adversely,  by 
the  weight  of  individual  judgment,  we  may 
safely  leave  Mr.  Gladstone  fo  be  answered 
by  Prince  Bismarck. 
3 


PROTECTION 


But  better  than  the  opinion  of  Mr. 
Gladstone,  better  than  the  opinion  of 
Prince  Bismarck,  are  the  simple  facts  of 
the  ease,  of  open  record  in  both  countries. 
A  brief  rehearsal  of  these  facts,  with  the 
pertinent  comparison  which  they  suggest, 
will  give  the  best  answer  to  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's assumption  that  the  United  States 
would  have  made  more  rapid  progress  un- 
der a  system  of  free-trade.  I  take  the  offi- 
cial figures  of  the  census  in  the  United 
States,  and  for  the  United  Kingdom  1 
quote  from  Mr.  Giffen,  who  is  commended 
by  Mr.  Gladstone  as  the  best  authority 
in  England : 

In  1860  the  population  of  the  United 
States  was  in  round  numbers  31,000,000. 
At  the  same  time  the  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom  was  in  round  numbers 
29,000,000.  The  wealth  of  the  United 
States  at  that  time  was  $14,000,000,000; 
the  wealth  of  the  United  Kingdom  was 
$29,000,000,000.  The  United  Kingdom  had, 
therefore,  nearly  the  same  population,  but 
more  than  double  the  wealth  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  with  machinery  for  manufact- 
uring fourfold  greater  than  that  of  the 
United  States.  At  the  end  of  twenty  years 
(1880),  it  appeared  that  the  United  States 
had  added  nearly  $30,000,000,000  to  her 
wealth,  while  the  United  Kingdom  had 
added  nearly  $15,000,000,000,  or  about  one- 
half. 

During  this  period  of  twenty  years  the 
United  States  had  incurred  the  enormous 
loss  of  $9,000,000,000  by  internal  war, 
while  the  United  Kingdom  was  at  peace, 
enjoyed  exceptional  prosperity,  and  made 
a  far  greater  gain  than  in  any  other  twen- 
ty years  of  her  history — a  gain  which  dur- 
ing four  years  was  in  large  part  due  to 
the  calamity  that  had  fallen  upon  the 
United  States.  The  United  Kingdom  had 
added  6,000,000  to  her  population  during 
the  period  of  twenty  years,  while  the  addi- 
tion to  the  United  States  exceeded 
18,000,000. 

By  the  compound  ratio  of  population 
and  wealth  in  each  country,  even  without 
making  allowance  for  the  great  loss  in- 
curred by  the  Civil  War,  it  is  plainly 
shown  by  the  statistics  here  presented  that 
the  degree  of  progress  in  the  United  States 
under  protection  far  exceeded  that  of  the 
United  Kingdom  under  free-trade  for  the 
period  named.  In  1860  the  average  wealth, 


per  capita,  of  the  United  Kingdom  was 
$1,000,  while  in  the  United  States  it  was 
but  $450.  In  1880  the  United  Kingdom 
had  increased  her  per  capita  wealth  to 
$1,230,  while  the  United  States  had  in- 
creased her  per  capita  wealth  to  $870. 
The  United  Kingdom  had  in  twenty  years 
increased  her  per  capita  wealth  23  per 
cent.,  while  the  United  States  had  in- 
creased her  per  capita  wealth  more  than 
93  per  cent.  If  allowance  should  be  made 
for  war  losses,  the  ratio  of  gain  in  the 
United  States  would  far  exceed  100  per 
cent.  Upon  these  results,  what  ground 
has  Mr.  Gladstone  for  his  assertion?  With 
great  confidence,  Mr.  Gladstone  proposes 
to  carry  the  war  for  free-trade  into  the 
enemy's  country.  Perhaps  the  enemy,  who 
are  only  modest  protectionists,  may  em- 
barrass the  march  of  his  logic  with  a  few 
pertinent  questions,  or  at  least  abate  the 
rate  of  speed  which  he  proposes  for  his 
triumphant  movement.  I  shall  not  give 
counter-theories.  I  shall  only  cite  estab- 
lished facts,  and  allow  the  facts  to  estab- 
lish their  own  theories: 

1.  John  Edgar  Thompson,  late  president 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company, 
purchased  100  tons  of  steel  rails  in  1862 
at  a  price  (freight  paid  to  New  York; 
duty  of  45  per  cent,  unpaid)  of  $103.44 
gold  coin.  (By  way  of  illustrating  Mr. 
Gladstone's  claim  to  superior  quality  of 
manufactures  under  free-trade,  the  rail- 
road company  states  that  many  of  the 
rails  broke  during  the  first  winter's  trial.) 
In  1864  English  rails  had  fallen  to  $88 
per  ton  in  New  York,  the  freight  paid  and 
the  duty  unpaid.  English  manufacturers 
held  the  market  for  the  ensuing  six  years, 
though  the  sales  at  the  high  prices  were 
limited.  In  1870  Congress  laid  a  specific 
duty  of  $28  per  ton  on  steel  rails.  From 
that  time  the  home  market  has  been  held 
by  our  own  manufacturers,  with  a  steady 
annual  fall  in  price,  as  the  facilities  of 
production  increased,  until  the  summer 
and  autumn  of  1889,  when  steel  rails  were 
selling  in  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  and  London 
at  substantially  the  same  prices.  Does 
any  free-trader  on  either  side  of  the 
ocean  honestly  believe  that  American  rails 
could  ever  have  been  furnished  as  cheaply 
as  English  rails,  except  by  the  sturdy 
competition  which  the  highly  protective 
duty  of  1870  enabled  the  American  manu- 


314 


PROTECTION 


facturers  to  maintain  against  the  foreign 
manufacturers  in  the  first  place,  and 
among  American  manufacturers  them- 
selves in  the  second  place?  It  is  not  as- 
serted that  during  the  nineteen  years  since 
the  heavy  duty  was  first  established  (ex- 
cept during  the  past  few  months)  Ameri- 
can rails  have  been  as  cheap  in  America 
as  English  rails  have  been  in  England,  but 
it  is  asserted  with  perfect  confidence  that, 
steadily  and  invariably,  American  rail- 
road companies  have  bought  cheaper  rails 
at  home  than  they  would  have  been  able  to 
buy  in  England  if  the  protective  duty  had 
not  stimulated  the  manufacture  of  steel 
rails  in  the  United  States,  and  if  the  re- 
sulting competition  had  not  directly  oper- 
ated upon  the  English  market.* 

*  In  1870  only  30,000  tons  of  steel  rails 
were  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 
But  the  product  under  the  increased  duty 
of  that  year  rapidly  increased.  The  rela- 
tive number  of  tons  produced  in  England 
and  the  United  States  for  a  period  of  twelve 
years  is  shown  as  follows  : 

England.  United  States. 

1877 508,400  385,865 

1878 622,390  491,427 

1879 520,231  610,682 

1880 732,910  852,196 

1881 1,023,740  1,187,770 

1882 1,235,785  1,284,067 

1883 1,097,174  1,148,709 

1884 784,968  996,983 

1885 706,583  959,471 

1886 730,343  1,574,703 

1887 1,021,847  2,101,904 

1888 979,083  1,386,277 

Total  in  12  years.  .     9,963,454     12,980,054 

For  the  same  period,  1877-88  inclusive, 
the  following  table  will  show  the  number 
of  tons  of  steel  ingots  produced  in  the  two 
countries  respectively : 

England.  United  States. 

1877 750,006  500,524 

1878 807,527  653,773 

1879 834,511  829,439 

1880 1,044,382  1,074,262 

1881 1,441,719  1,374,247 

1882 1,673,649  1,514,687 

1883 1,553,380  1,477,345 

1884 1,299,676  1,375,531 

1885 1,304,127  1,519,430 

1886 1,570,520  2,269,190 

1887 2,089,403  2,936,033 

1888 2,032,794  2,511,161 

Total  in  12  years.  .   16,401,688     18,035,622 

Under  the  protective  duty  of  1870  the 
United  States  soon  manufactured  annually 
a  much  larger  quantity  of  steel  than  Great 
Britain,  and  reduced  the  price  from  $100  per 
ton  in  gold  to  less  than  $35  per  ton  in  gold. 

31 


2.  English  steel  for  locomotive  tires  im- 
ported in  1865,  duty  paid,  was  34  cents 
per  pound  in  gold.  The  American  com- 
petition, under  a  heavy  protective  duty, 
had  by  1872  reduced  the  price  to  13  cents 
per  pound,  duty  paid.  At  the  present 
time  (1889)  American  steel  for  locomo- 
tive tires,  of  as  good  quality  as  the  Eng- 
lish steel  formerly  imported,  is  furnished 
at  4%  cents  per  pound  and  delivered  free 
of  cost  at  the  point  where  the  locomotives 
are  manufactured.  The  lowering  of  price 
was  not  a  voluntary  act  on  the  part  of 
the  English  manufacturer.  It  was  the 
direct  result  of  American  competition  un- 
der a  protective  duty — a  competition  that 
could  not  have  been  successfully  inau- 
gurated under  free-trade. 

3.  In  the  year  1860,  the  last  under  a 
free-trade  policy,  the  population  of  31,000,- 
000  in  the  United  States  bought  carpets 
to  the  amount  of  $12,000,000.  Nearly  half 
of  the  total  amount  was  imported.  In 
1888,  with  a  population  estimated  at  63,- 
000,000,  the  aggregate  amount  paid  for 
carpets  was  nearly  $60,000,000,  and  of 
this  large  sum  less  than  $1,000,000  was 
paid  for  foreign  carpets  and  about  half 
a  million  for  Oriental  rugs.  Does  any 
free-trader  in  England  believe  that  the 
United  States,  without  a  protective  tariff, 
could  have  attained  such  control  of  its 
own  carpet  manufacture  and  trade?  It 
will  not  be  unnoticed,  in  this  connection, 
that  under  a  protective  tariff  the  popu- 
lation, by  reason  of  better  wages,  was  en- 
abled to  buy  a  far  greater  proportion  of 
carpets  than  under  free-trade.  Nor  must 
it  escape  observation  that  carpets  are  now 
furnished  to  the  American  buyer  under  a 
protective  tariff  much  cheaper  than  when 
a  non-protective  tariff  allowed  Europe  to 
send  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  total 
amount  used  in  the  United  States. 

These  illustrations  might  be  indefinitely 
multiplied.  In  woollens,  in  cottons,  in 
leather  fabrics;  in  glass,  in  products  of 
lead,  of  brass,  of  copper;  indeed,  in  the 
whole  round  of  manufactures,  it  will  be 
found  that  protection  has  brought  down 
the  price  from  the  rate  charged  by  the  im- 
porters before  protection  had  built  up  the 
competing  manufacture  in  America.  For 
many  articles  we  pay  less  than  is  paid  in 
Europe.  If  we  pay  higher  for  other  things 
lhan  is  paid  across  the  sea  to-day,  figures 
5 


PROTECTION 


plainly  indicate  that  we  pay  less  than  we    tern  steadily  tends  to  keep  up  the  price  of 
should    have    been    compelled    to    pay    if    "  cereals   and   cotton,"   and   he   asks   that 

"  be  aban- 


cereals 
Glad- 
much  more  wherewith  to  pay  than  they  stone  evidently  considers  the  present 
ever  had  or  could  have  under  free-trade.         prices    of    cereals    and    cotton    as    "  high 

Mr.     Gladstone    boldly    contends     that    prices." 
"  keeping  capital  at  home  by  protection  is        Protectionists  owe  many  thanks  to  Mr. 
dear   production,   and  is  a  delusion   from    Gladstone  for  his  outspoken  mode  of  deal- 
top  to  bottom."     I  take  direct  issue  with    ing  with  this  question  of  free-trade 


him  on  that  proposition.  Between  1870 
and  the  present  time  considerably  more 
than  100,000  miles  of  railroad  have  been 
built  in  the  United  States.  The  steel  rail 
and  other  metal  connected  therewith  in- 
volved so  vast  a  sum  of  money  that  it 
could  not  have  been  raised  to  send  out  of 
the  country  in  gold  coin.     The  total  cost 


He 
gives  us  his  conclusions  without  quali- 
fication and  without  disguise.  The  Amer- 
ican free-trader  is  not  so  sincere.  He  is 
ever  presenting  half-truths  and  holding 
back  the  other  half,  thus  creating  false 
impressions  and  leading  to  false  con- 
clusions. But  Mr.  Gladstone  is  entirely 
frank.     He  tells  the  laborers  on  protected 


could  not  have  been  less  than  $500,000,000.  articles  that  they  would  be  better  engaged 
We  had  a  large  interest  to  pay  abroad  on  in  "  raising  more  cereals  and  more  cotton 
the  public  debt,  and  for  nine  years  after    at  low  prices."   Where  does  Mr.  Gladstone 


1870  gold  was  at  a  premium  in  the  Unit- 
ed States.  During  those  years  nearly  40,- 
000  miles  of  railways  were  constructed, 
and  to  import  English  rail  and  pay  for  it 
with  gold  bought  at  a  large  premium 
would  have  been  impossible.  A  very  large 
proportion     of     the     railway     enterprises 


suggest  a  market  for  the  additional  grain 
and  cotton  to  be  raised  by  American  me- 
chanics becoming  farmers  and  increasing 
the  production  of  those  great  staples? 
The  foreign  market  is  filled  with  a  com- 
peting grain-supply  to  such  a  degree  that 
already  the  price  of  wheat  is  unduly  low- 


would  of  necessity  have  been  abandoned  if    ered  to  the  Western  farmer.     The  farmer 
the  export  of  gold  to  pay  for  the  rails  had    needs  a  still  larger  home  consumption  of 


been  the  condition  precedent  to  their  con- 
struction. But  the  manufacture  of  steel 
rails  at  home  gave  an  immense  stimulus 
to  business.  Tens  of  thousands  of  men 
were  paid  good  wages,  and  great  invest- 
ments and  great  enrichments  followed  the 
line  of  the  new  road  and  opened  to  the 


his  grain,  while  Mr.  Gladstone  thinks  he 
needs  a  still  larger  home  production.  The 
legitimate  involvement  of  Mr.  Gladstone's 
argument  is  that  all  mechanical  and  manu- 
facturing enterprises  in  America  pro- 
ducing articles  of  higher  price  than  the 
same  produced  in  Europe  should  be  aban- 


American  people  large  fields  for  enterprise    doned,  and  the  laborers  so  engaged  should 

be  turned  to  the  production  of  "  more 
cereals  and  more  cotton  at  low  prices"! 
The  Western  farmer's  instinct  is  wiser 
than  Mr.  Gladstone's  philosophy.  The 
farmer   knows   that   the   larger   the   home 


not  theretofore  accessible. 

I  might  ask  Mr.  Gladstone  what  he 
would  have  done  with  the  labor  of  the 
thousands  of  men  engaged  in  manufactur- 
ing rail,  if  it  had  been  judged  practicable 


to  buy  the  rail  in  England?  Fortunately  market  the  better  are  his  prices,  and  that 
he  has  given  his  answer  in  advance  of  the  as  the  home  market  is  narrowed  his  prices 
question,  for  he  tells  us  that  "  in  Amer-    fall. 


ica  we  produce  more  cloth  and  more  iron 
at  high  prices,  instead  of  more  cereals  and 
more  cotton  at  low  prices."  The  grain- 
growers  of  the  West  and  the  cotton-grow- 
ers of  the  South  will  observe  that  Mr. 
Gladstone  holds  out  to  them  a  cheerful 
prospect !  They  "  should  produce  more 
cereals  and  more  cotton  at  low  prices"! 
Mr.  Gladstone  sees  that  the  protective  sys- 


Mr.  Gladstone's  pregnant  suggestion 
really  exhibits  the  thought  that  lies  deep 
in  the  British  mind:  that  the  mechanic 
arts  and  the  manufacturing  processes 
should  be  left  to  Great  Britain  and  the 
production  of  raw  material  should  be  left 
to  America.  It  is  the  old  colonial  idea 
of  the  last  century,  when  the  establish- 
ment of  manufactures  on  this  side  of  the 


316 


PROTECTION 


ocean  was  regarded  with  great  jealousy  by 
British  statesmen  and  British  merchants. 
Some  years  before  the  Revolutionary 
struggle  began,  Parliament  had  declared 
that  "  the  erecting  of  manufactories  in  the 
colonies  tends  to  lessen  their  dependence 
on  Great  Britain."  A  few  years  later  the 
British  board  of  trade  reported  to  Parlia- 
ment that  "  manufactures  in  the  American 
colonies  interfere  with  profits  made  by 
British  merchants."  The  same  body  peti- 
tioned Parliament  that  "  some  measures 
should  be  provided  to  prevent  the  manu- 
facturing of  woollen  and  linen  goods  in 
the  colonies."  Finally  Parliament  de- 
clared that  "  colonial  manufacturing  was 
prejudicial  to  the  trade  and  manufactures 
of  Great  Britain."  These  outrageous  senti- 
ments (the  colonists  characterized  them 
much  more  severely)  were  cherished  in  the 
time  of  the  glorious  Georges,  in  the  era  of 
Walpole  and  the  elder  Pitt. 

I  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's words  carry  with  them  an  ap- 
proval, even  retrospectively,  of  this  course 
towards  the  colonies,  but  there  is  a  re- 
markable similarity  to  the  old  policy  in 
the  fundamental  idea  that  causes  him  in 
1889  to  suggest  that  Americans  produce 
"  too  much  cloth  and  too  much  iron,"  and 
should  turn  their  labor  to  "  low-priced 
cereals  and  low-priced  cotton."  Are  we 
not  justified  in  concluding  that  Mr.  Glad- 
stone's theory  of  free-trade,  in  all  its  gen- 
eralizations and  specifications,  is  fitted 
exactly  to  the  condition  of  Great  Britain, 
and  that  British  hostility  to  American 
protection  finds  its  deep  foundation  in  the 
fact — to  quote  the  old  phrases — that  "  it 
is  prejudicial  to  the  trade  and  manufact- 
ures of  Great  Britain,"  that  "  it  lessens 
our  dependence  upon  Great  Britain,"  and 
that  "  it  interferes  with  profits  made  by 
British  merchants"? 

Mr.  Gladstone  makes  another  statement 
of  great  frankness'  and  of  great  value. 
Comparing  the  pursuits  in  the  United 
States  which  require  no  protection  with 
those  that  are  protected,  he  says :  "  No 
adversary  will,  I  think,  venture  upon  say- 
ing that  the  profits  are  larger  in  protected 
than  in  unprotected  industries."  This  is 
very  true,  and  Mr.  Gladstone  may  be  sur- 
prised to  hear  that  the  constant  objection 
made  by  American  free-traders  against 
the  "  protected   industries,"   as   he   terms 


317 


them,  is  that  the  profits  derived  from  them 
are  illegitimately  large.  Mr.  Gladstone 
sees  clearly  that  as  a  rule  this  is  not  true, 
and  he  at  once  discerns  the  reason.  He 
says  "  the  best  opinions  seem  to  testify 
that  in  your  protected  trades  profits  are 
hard  pressed  by  wages."  The  free-traders 
of  America  try  by  every  cunning  device  to 
hide  this  fact.  Its  admission  is  fatal  to 
their  cause.  Not  one  free-trade  organ  or 
leader  among  them  all  dares  to  take  his 
position  beside  Mr.  Gladstone  and  plainly 
tell  the  truth  to  the  American  laborer. 
Not  one  free-trade  organ  or  leader  dares 
frankly  to  say  to  the  great  body  of  Ameri- 
can workmen  that  the  destruction  of  pro- 
tection inevitably  and  largely  reduces  their 
daily  wages.  I  thank  Mr.  Gladstone  for 
this  testimony,  at  once  accurate  and  acute. 
It  is  fair  to  presume  that  he  intends  it  to 
be  applied  to  the  unprotected  manufact- 
urer in  England  and  to  the  protected 
manufacturer  in  America,  both  producing 
the  same  article.  His  logic  gives,  and  1 
have  no  doubt  truly,  as  large  profit  to  the 
manufacturer  of  England,  selling  at  a  low 
price,  as  to  the  manufacturer  of  America, 
selling  at  a  high  price — the  difference  con- 
sisting wholly  in  the  superior  wages  paid 
to  the  American  mechanic. 

There  is  another  important  effect  of 
protective  duties  which  Mr.  Gladstone  does 
not  include  in  his  frank  admission.  He 
sees  that  the  laborers  in  what  he  calls 
the  "  protected  industries "  secure  high 
pay,  especially  as  compared  with  the  Eu- 
ropean school  of  wages.  He  perhaps  does 
not  see  that  the  effect  is  to  raise  the  wages 
of  all  persons  in  the  United  States  en- 
gaged in  what  Mr.  Gladstone  calls  the 
"  unprotected  industries."  Printers,  brick- 
layers, carpenters,  and  all  others  of  that 
class  are  paid  as  high  wages  as  those  of 
any  other  trade  or  calling,  but  if  the  wages 
of  all  those  in  the  protected  classes  were 
suddenly  struck  down  to  the  English 
standard,  the  others  must  follow.  A  mill- 
ion men  cannot  be  kept  at  work  for  half 
the  pay  that  another  million  men  are  re- 
ceiving in  the  same  country.  Both  classes 
must  go  up  or  must  go  down  together. 

Mr.  Gladstone  makes  another  contention, 
in  which,  from  the  American  point  of 
view,  he  leaves  out  of  sight  a  controlling 
factor,  and  hence  refers  an  effect  to  the 
wrong  cause.     Regarding  the  advance  of 


PROTECTION 

wages  in  England,  he  says :  "  Wages  which  of  all  do  I  say  it  is  immoral.  On  the 
have  been  partially  and  relatively  higher  contrary,  I  think  it  has  often  proved  the 
under  protection  have  become  both  gen-  highest  commercial  wisdom,  without  in  the 
erally  and  absolutely  higher,  and  greatly  least  infringing  upon  the  domain  of 
higher,  under  free-trade."  I  do  not  doubt  morals.  Mr.  Gladstone,  however,  commits 
the  fact,  but  I  venture  to  suggest  that  himself  to  the  principle  that  "  all  pro- 
such  advance  in  wages  as  there  has  been  tection  is  morally  bad."  If  this  has  been 
in  England  is  referable  to  another  and  a  his  belief  ever  since  he  became  an  advocate 
palpable  cause — namely,  the  higher  wages  of  free-trade,  his  conscience  must  have  re- 
in the  United  States,  which  have  constant-  eeived  many  and  severe  wounds,  as  ses- 
ly  tempted  British  mechanics  to  emigrate,  sion  after  session,  while  chancellor  of  the 
and  which  would  have  tempted  many  more  exchequer,  he  carried  through  Parliament 
if  the  inducement  of  an  advance  in  wages  a  bounty — may  I  not  say  a  direct  pro- 
at  home  had  not  been  interposed.  Espe-  tection? — of  £180,000  sterling  to  a  line  of 
cially  have  wages  been  high  and  tempting  steamers  running  between  England  and 
in  the  United  States  since  1861,  when  the  the  United  States — a  protection  that  began 
country  became  firmly  protective  by  the  six  years  before  free-trade  was  proclaimed 
enactment  of  the  Morrill  tariff.  It  will  in  English  manufactures,  and  continued 
be  found,  I  think,  that  the  advance  of  nearly  twenty  years  after.  In  the  whole 
wages  in  England  corresponds  precisely  in  period  of  twenty-five  years  an  aggregate 
time,  though  not  in  degree,  with  the  ad-  of  many  millions  of  dollars  was  paid  out 
vance  in  the  United  States,  and  the  ad-  to  protect  the  English  line  against  all 
vance  in  both  cases  was  directly  due  to  the  competition. 

firm  establishment  of  protection  in  this  It  may  be  urged  that  this  sum  was  paid 
country  as  a  national  policy.  But  it  for  carrying  the  Anglo-American  mails, 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  American  but  that  argument  will  not  avail  a  free- 
wages  are  still  from  70  per  cent,  to  100  trader,  because  steamers  of  other  nation- 
per  cent,  higher  than  British  wages.  If  alities  stood  ready  to  carry  the  mails  at  a 
a  policy  of  free-trade  should  be  adopted  far  cheaper  rate.  Nay,  a  few  years  ago, 
in  the  United  States,  the  reduction  of  possibly  when  Mr.  Gladstone  was  premier 
wages  which  would  follow  here  would  of  England,  public  bids  were  asked  to  carry 
promptly  lead  to  a  reduction  in  England,  the  Anglo-Indian  mails.  A  French  line  of- 
The  operatives  of  Manchester,  Leeds,  and  fered  a  lower  bid  than  any  English  line, 
Sheffield  recognize  this  fact  as  clearly  as  but  the  English  government  disregarded 
do  the  proprietors  who  pay  the  advanced  the  French  bid  and  gave  the  contract  to 
wages,  and  more  clearly  than  do  certain  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  line,  owned  by 
political  economists  who  think  the  world  a  well-known  English  company.  Still 
of  commerce  and  manufactures  can  be  un-  later,  the  German  Lloyd  Company  con- 
erringly  directed  by  a  theory  evolved  in  a  tracted  to  carry  the  Anglo-American  mails 
closet  without  sufficient  data,  and  applied  cheaper  than  any  English  line  offered,  and 
to  an  inexact  science.  the  German  company  actually  began  to 
The  zeal  of  Mr.  Gladstone  for  free-  perform  the  duty.  But  Englishmen  did 
trade  reaches  its  highest  point  in  the  not  want  that  kind  of  free-trade,  and  they 
declaration  that  "  all  protection  is  moral-  broke  the  contract  with  the  German  line 
ly  as  well  as  economically  bad."  He  is  and  again  gave  protection  to  the  English 
right  in  making  this  his  strongest  ground  ships.  Does  not  this  justify  the  opin- 
of  opposition,  if  protection  is  a  question  ion  that  the  English  policy  of  free-trade 
of  morals.  But  his  assertion  leaves  him  is  urged  where  England  can  hold  the  field 
m  an  attitude  of  personal  inconsistency,  against  rivals,  and  that  when  competition 
there  is  protection  on  sea  as  well  as  on  leaves  her  behind  she  repudiates  free-trade 
Jand.  Indeed,  the  most  palpable  and  ef-  and  substitutes  the  most  pronounced  form 
tective  form  of  protection  is  in  the  direct  of    protection? 

payment   of    public   money   to    a    line    of        Does    Mr.    Gladstone's    estimate   of   the 

steamers    that    could    not    be    maintained  immorality  of  protection  apply  only  to  pro- 

without  that  form  of  aid.     I  do  not  say  tection  on  land,  or  is  supremacy  on  the  sea 

tnat  such  aid  is  unwise  protection;  least  so  important  to  British  interests  that  it  is 

318 


PROTECTION 


better  to  throw  morals  to  the  wind  and 
resort  to  whatever  degree  of  protection  may 
be  necessary  to  secure  the  lead  to  English 
ships?  The  doctrine  of  improving  har- 
bors in  the  United  States  by  the  national 
government  was  for  many  years  severely 
contested,  the  strict-construction  party 
maintaining  that  it  must  be  confined  to 
harbors  on  the  sea-coast  at  points  where 
foreign  commerce  reaches  the  country. 
During  one  of  the  many  discussions  over 
this  narrow  construction,  an  Ohio  member 
of  Congress  declared  that  he  "  could  not 
think  much  of  a  Constitution  that  would 
not  stand  being  dipped  in  fresh  water  as 
well  as  salt."  I  fear  that  Mr.  Gladstone's 
code  of  morals  on  this  question  of  pro- 
tection will  not  secure  much  respect  in 
other  countries  so  long  as  it  spoils  in 
salt  water. 

It  will  not  escape  Mr.  Gladstone's  keen 
observation  that  British  interests  in  navi- 
gation flourish  with  less  rivalry  and  have 
increased  in  greater  proportion  than  any 
other  of  the  great  interests  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  I  ask  his  candid  admission 
that  it  is  the  one  interest  which  England 
has  protected  steadily  and  determinedly,  re- 
gardless of  consistency  and  regardless  of 
expense.  Nor  will  Mr.  Gladstone  fail  to 
note  that  navigation  is  the  weakest  of  the 
great  interests  in  the  United  States,  be- 
cause it  is  the  one  which  the  national  gov- 
ernment has  constantly  refused  to  protect. 
If  since  the  Civil  War  the  United  States 
had  spent  in  protecting  her  shipping  mere- 
ly the  annual  interest  on  the  great  sum 
which  England  has  expended  to  protect 
her  ocean  traffic,  American  fleets  would 
now  be  rivalling  the  fleets  of  England,  as 
they  rivalled  them  before  the  war,  on 
every  sea  where  the  prospect  of  commer- 
cial gain  invites  the  American  flag. 

The  failure  of  the  United  States  to  en- 
courage and  establish  commercial  lines 
of  American  ships  is  in  strange  contrast 
with  the  zealous  efforts  made  to  extend 
lines  of  railway  inside  the  country,  even 
to  the  point  of  anticipating  the  real  needs 
of  many  sections.  If  all  the  advances  to 
railway  companies,  together  with  the  out- 
right gifts,  by  towns,  cities,  counties, 
States  and  nation  be  added  together,  tfie 
money  value  would  not  fall  short  of 
$1,000,000,000.  No  effort  seems  too  great 
for  our  people  when  the  interior  of  the 

3 


country  is  to  be  connected  with  the  sea- 
board. But  when  the  suggestion  is  made 
to  connect  our  seaboard  with  commercial 
cities  of  other  countries  by  lines  of  steam- 
ships, the  public  mind  is  at  once  disturbed 
by  the  cry  of  "  subsidy."  We  really  feel 
as  much  afraid  of  protection  at  sea  as  Mr. 
Gladstone  is  of  protection  on  land.  The 
positions  of  the  American  Congress  and 
the  English  Parliament  on  this  subject  are 
precisely  reversed.  England  has  never 
been  affrighted  by  the  word  subsidy,  and, 
while  we  have  stood  still  in  impotent  fear, 
she  has  taken  possession  of  the  seas  by  the 
judicious,  and  even  the  lavish,  interpo- 
sition of  pecuniary  aid.  I  have  already 
said  that  the  interest  on  the  amount  which 
England  has  paid  for  this  object  since  she 
began  it  with  great  energy,  fifty  years  ago, 
would  give  all  the  stimulus  needed  for  the 
rapid  expansion  of  our  commerce.  Let  it  be 
added  that  if  the  government  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  will  for  twenty  years  to  come 
give  merely  the  interest  upon  the  interest, 
at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent.,  on  the  amount 
which  has  been  a  free  gift  to  railroads, 
every  steam  line  needed  on  the  Atlantic, 
the  Pacific,  and  the  Gulf  will  spring  into 
existence  within  two  years  from  the  pas- 
sage of  the  act.  It  is  but  a  few  years 
since  Congress  twice  refused  to  give  even 
$125,000  per  annum  to  secure  an  admi- 
rable line  of  steamers  from  New  York  to 
the  four  largest  ports  of  Brazil.  And  the 
sum  of  $125,000  is  but  the  interest  upon 
the  interest  of  the  interest,  at  5  per  cent., 
of  the  gross  amount  freely  given  to  the 
construction  of  railroads  within  the 
Union.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  we  have 
lost  all  prestige  on  the  sea? 

The  opposition  to  the  policy  of  extend- 
ing our  foreign  commerce  by  aiding  steam- 
ship lines  with  a  small  sum,  just  as  we 
have  aided  internal  commerce  on  railroads 
with  a  vast  sum,  originates  with  the  Amer- 
ican free-trader.  Mr.  Gladstone  cannot 
fail  to  see  how  advantageous  the  success 
of  this  free-trade  effort  in  the  United 
States  must  prove  to  Great  Britain.  The 
steady  argument  of  the  free-trader  is 
that,  if  the  steamship  lines  were  estab- 
lished, we  could  not  increase  our  trade 
because  we  produce  under  our  protective 
tariff  nothing  that  can  compete  in  neu- 
tral markets  with  articles  of  the  like  kind 
from  England.  How,  then,  can  the  free- 
19 


PROTECTION 


trader  explain  the  fact  that  a  long  list 
of  articles  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  find  ready  and  large  sale  in  Can- 
ada? The  Canadian  tariff  is  the  same 
upon  English  and  American  goods.  Trans- 
portation from  England  to  Quebec  or  Mon- 
treal is  cheaper  than  from  the  manufactur- 
ing centres  of  the  United  States  to  the 
same  points.  The  difference  is  not  great, 
but  it  is  in  favor  of  the  English  shipper 
across  the  seas,  a'nd  not  of  the  American 
shipper  by  railway.  It  is  for  the  free- 
trader to  explain  why,  if  the  cost  of 
transportation  be  made  the  same,  the 
United  States  cannot  compete  with  Eng- 
land in  every  country  in  South  America  in 
all  the  articles  of  which  we  sell  a  larger 
amount  in  Canada  than  England  does. 

Giving  heed  to  the  cry  of  the  profes- 
sional free-trader  in  America,  Mr.  Glad- 
stone feels  sure  that,  though  the  protected 
manufacturers  in  the  United  States  may 
flourish  and  prosper,  they  do  so  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  farmer,  who  is  in  every  con- 
ceivable form,  according  to  the  free-trade 
dictum,  the  helpless  victim  of  protection. 
Both  Mr.  Gladstone  and  the  American 
free-trader  have,  then,  the  duty  of  ex- 
plaining why  the  agricultural  States  of 
the  West  have  grown  in  wealth  during 
the  long  period  of  protection  at  a  more 
rapid  rate  than  the  manufacturing  States 
of  the  East.  The  statement  of  the  free- 
trader can  be  conclusively  answered  by 
referring  to  the  census  of  the  United 
States  for  the  year  18G0,  and  also  for  the 
year  1880: 

In  1860,  eight  manufacturing  States  of 
the  East  (the  six  of  New  England,  to- 
gether with  New  York  and  Pennsylvania) 
returned  an  aggregate  wealth  of  $5,123,- 
000,000.  Twenty  years  afterwards,  by  the 
census  of  1880,  the  same  States  returned 
an  aggregate  wealth  of  $16,228,000,000. 
The  rate  of  increase  for  the  twenty  years 
was  slightly  more  than  216  per  cent. 

Let  us  see  how  the  agricultural  States 
fared  during  this  period.  By  the  census 
of  1860,  eight  agricultural  States  of -the 
West  ( Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  Wis- 
consin) returned  an  aggregate  wealth  of 
$2,271,000,000.  Twenty  years  afterwards, 
by  the  census  of  1880  (protection  all  the 
while  in  full  force),  these  same  States 
returned  an  aggregate  wealth  of  $11,268,- 


320 


000,000.  The  rate  of  increase  for  the 
twenty  years  was  396  per  cent.,  or  180 
per  cent,  greater  than  the  increase  in  the 
eight  manufacturing  States  of  the  East. 

The  case  will  be  equally  striking  if  we 
take  the  fifteen  Southern  States  that 
were  slave-holding  in  1860.  By  the  census 
of  that  year,  the  aggregate  return  of  their 
property  was  $6,792,000,000.  But  $2,000,- 
000,000  was  slave  property.  Deducting 
that,  the  total  property  amounted  to  $4,- 
792,000,000.  Their  aggregate  return  of 
wealth  by  the  census  of  1880  was  $8,633,- 
000,000.  The  rate  of  increase  for  the 
twenty  years  was  80  per  cent.  Consider 
that  during  this  period  eleven  States  of 
the  South  were  impoverished  by  civil  war 
to  an  extent  far  greater  than  any  coun- 
try has  been  despoiled  in  the  wars  of 
modern  Europe.  Consider  that  the  labor 
system  on  which  previous  wealth  had  been 
acquired  in  the  South  was  entirely  broken 
up.  And  yet,  at  the  end  of  twenty  years, 
the  Southern  States  had  repaired  all  their 
enormous  losses  and  possessed  nearly 
double  the  wealth  they  had  ever  known  be- 
fore. Do  not  these  figures  incontestably 
show  that  the  agricultural  sections  of  the 
country,  West  and  South,  have  prospered 
even  beyond  the  manufacturing  sections. 
East  and  North?  And  all  this  not  merely 
with  protection,  but  because  of  protection ! 

As  Mr.  Gladstone  considers  protection 
immoral,  he  defines  its  specific  offence  as 
"  robbery."  To  have  been  fully  equal  to 
the  American  standard  of  free-trade  vitu- 
peration, Mr.  Gladstone  should  have  de- 
nounced our  manufacturers  as  "  Robber 
Barons."  This  is  the  current  phrase  with 
a  class  who  are  perhaps  more  noisy  than 
numerous.  The  intention  of  the  phrase  is 
to  create  popular  prejudice  against  Amer- 
ican manufacturers  as  growing  rich  at  the 
expense  of  the  people.  This  accusation  is 
so  persistently  repeated  that  its  authors 
evidently  regard  it  as  important  to  their 
cause.  It  may  perhaps  surprise  Mr. 
Gladstone  to  be  told  that  out  of  the  fifty 
largest  fortunes  in  the  United  States — 
those  that  have  arrested  public  attention 
within  the  last  ten  years — certainly  not 
more  than  one  has  been  derived  from  pro- 
tected manufacturing;  and  this  was 
amassed  by  a  gentleman  of  the  same  Scotch 
blood  with  Mr.  Gladstone  himself.  The 
forty-nine    other    fortunes    were    acquired 


PROTECTIVE    ASSOCIATION— PROTESTANT    CHURCHES 


from  railway  and  telegraph  investments, 
from  real  estate  investments,  from  the 
import  and  sale  of  foreign  goods,  from 
banking,  from  speculations  in  the  stock 
market,  from  fortunate  mining  invest- 
ments, from  patented  inventions,  and  more 
than  one  from  proprietary  medicines. 

It  is  safe  to  go  even  further  and  state 
that,  in  the  one  hundred  largest  fortunes 
that  have  been  viewed  as  such  in  the  past 
ten  years,  not  five  have  been  derived  from 
the  profits  of  protected  manufactures. 
Their  origin  will  be  found  in  the  fields  of 
investment  already  referred  to.  Moreover, 
the  fear  of  the  evil  effect  of  large  fortunes 
is  exaggerated.  Fortunes  rapidly  change. 
With  us  wealth  seldom  lasts  beyond  two 
genei'ations.  There  is  but  one  family  in 
the  United  States  recognized  as  possessing 
large  wealth  for  four  consecutive  genera- 
tions. When  Mr.  Jefferson  struck  the 
blow  that  broke  down  the  right  of  primo- 
geniture and  destroyed  the  privilege  of 
entail,  he  swept  away  the  only  ground 
upon  which  wealth  can  be  secured  to  one 
family  for  a  long  period.  The  increase  in 
the  number  of  heirs  in  successive  gen- 
erations, the  rightful  assertion  of  equality 
among  children  of  the  same  parents,  the 
ready  destruction  of  wills  that  depart  too 
far  from  this  principle  of  right,  and,  above 
all,  the  uncertainty  and  the  accidents  of 
investment,  scatter  fortunes  to  the  wind 
and  give  to  them  all  the  uncertainty  that 
betides  human  existence. 

In  no  event  can  the  growth  of  large 
fortunes  be  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  pro- 
tective policy.  Protection  has  proved  a 
distributer  of  great  sums  of  money;  not 
an  agency  for  amassing  it  in  the  hands 
of  a  few.  The  records  of  our  savings- 
banks  and  building  associations  can  be 
appealed  to  in  support  of  this  statement. 
The  benefit  of  protection  goes  first  and 
last  to  the  men  who  earn  their  bread  in 
the  sweat  of  their  faces.  The  auspicious 
and  momentous  result  is  that  never  before 
in  the  history  of  the  world  has  comfort 
been  enjoyed,  education  acquired,  and  in- 
dependence secured  by  so  large  a  pro- 
portion of  the  total  population  as  in  the 
United   States  of  America. 

Protective  Association,  American. 
See  American  Protective  Association. 

Protectorate  Parliament.  See  Crom- 
well, Oliver. 


Protestant  Churches.  On  the  progress 
of  the  Protestant  faith  in  general,  and 
in  the  United  States  during  the  nineteenth 
century  in  particular,  the  Rev.  Washington 
Gladden,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  writes  as  follows: 


Besides  a  number  of  minor  sects,  such 
as  the  Abyssinians,  the  Copts,  the  Ar- 
minians,  the  Nestorians,  and  the  Jaco- 
bites, numbering  in  all  4,000,000  or  5,000,- 
000,  we  have  the  three  grand  divisions 
of  Christendom — the  Holy  Orthodox  Greek 
Church,  with  98,000,000  of  adherents; 
the  Protestant  churches,  with  an  aggre- 
gate of  143,000,000,  and  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church,  with  230,000,000.  No  statistics 
are  at  hand  showing  the  relative  growth 
of  the  number  of  adherents  of  these  three 
great  divisions.  But  the  growth  of  the 
populations  under  their  rule  is  thus  set 
forth  by  comparison :  The  Roman  Catho- 
lics, in  the  year  1500,  were  ruling  over 
80,000,000  of  people;  in  1700,  over  90,000,- 
000,  and  in  1891,  over  242,000,000.  The 
Greek  Catholics,  in  1500,  were  governing 
20,000,000;  in  1700,  33,000,000,  and  in 
1891,  128,000,000.  The  Protestants,  in 
1500,  had  not  begun  to  be;  in  1700  they 
held  sway  over  32,000,000,  and  in  1891, 
over  520,000,000.  In  the  four  centuries 
the  political  power  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics has  more  than  trebled,  that  of  the 
Greeks  has  been  multiplied  by  six,  and 
that  of  the  Protestants  has  sprung  from 
nothing  to  a  control  of  one-third  of  the 
world's  population.  It  is  easy  to  see 
which  of  these  grand  divisions  is  expand- 
ing most  rapidly. 

The  Protestant  principle  of  the  right 
of  private  judgment  has  resulted  in  the 
multiplication  of  sects.  Some  variety  of 
organization  and  ritual  might  well  have 
grown  from  the  sowing  of  the  light;  but 
the  variation  which  would  have  appeared 
under  normal  conditions  has  undoubtedly 
been  increased  by  human  se^shness  and 
ambition.  It  may  be  doubted  whether 
the  emphasis  which  has  been  placed  upon 
the  right  of  private  judgment  expresses 
a  sound  principle.  In  no  kind  of  social 
organization  are  rights  or  liberties  the 
primary  concern.  A  family  in  which 
it  is  the  first  business  of  every  member 
to  assert  his  own  rights,  or  to  magnify 
his  liberty,  will  not  be  a  united  and 
happy  family.     In   the  organic  relations 


vn. — x 


321 


PROTESTANT  CHURCHES 

of  the  family,  love  and  duty  are  funda-  The    past    century   has    been    a    period 

mental — not  rights  and  liberties.  of  theological  agitation  and  upheaval  in 

We  may  awake,  by-and-by,  to  the  fact  Protestant  Christendom.     The  progress  of 

that  the  same  thing  is  true  of  the  state,  physical  science,  the  rise  of  the  evolution- 

The  attempt  to  base  a  commonwealth  upon  ary  philosophy,   and   the   development  of 

a  doctrine  of  rights  will  probably  result  Biblical  criticism  have  kept  the  theologi- 

in  social  disintegration.    A  community  in  ans  busy  with  the  work  of  reconstruction, 

which  it  is  the  first  business  of  every  citi-  Germany  has  been  the  theological  storm- 

zen  to  assert  his  own  rights  will  not  con-  centre.    Kant's  tremendous  work  had  been 

tinue  to  be  peaceful  and  prosperous.    The  done    before    the    century    came    in,    but 

social  and  political  disorders  which  threat-  Herder  and  Hegel  and  Schleiermacher  were 

en  the  life  of  the  nation  all  spring  from  digging  away  at  the   foundations  in  the 

the  fact  that  the  people  have  been  train-  early    years,    and    those    who   have    come 

ed  to  think  more  of  rights  than  of  du-  after    them    have    kept    the    air    full    of 

ties.  the  noises  of  hammer  and  saw  and  chisel 

By  misplacing  the  emphasis  in  the  same  as  the  walls  have  been  going  up.  Much 
way,  Protestantism  has  introduced  into  of  the  theology  "  made  in  Germany "  has 
its  life  a  disintegrating  element.  Neither  appeared  to  be  the  product  of  the  head 
the  right  of  private  judgment  nor  any  rather  than  of  the  heart;  formal  logic 
other  right  can  be  safely  asserted  as  the  deals  rudely  with  the  facts  of  the  spirit- 
foundation  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  ual  order.  But  the  great  theologians  of 
foundation  of  the  Church  is  loyalty  to  the  last  half  of  the  century — Dorner  and 
Christ  and  His  Kingdom;  all  rights  are  Rothe  and  Nitzsch  and  Ritschl — although 
to  be  held  and  interpreted  under  that  working  on  different  lines,  have  abundant- 
obligation.  The  failure  to  do  this — the  ly  asserted  the  reality  of  the  spiritual 
assertion  of  the  individual  will  as  against  realm;  and  it  is  now  possible  for  the  edu- 
the  common  welfare — has  rent  the  Church  cated  German  to  find  a  philosophy  of  re- 
into  fragments  and  multiplied  creeds  and  ligion  which  reconciles  modern  science 
organizations  far  beyond  all  the  needs  with  the  essential  facts  of  Christianity. 
of  varying  tastes  and  intellects.  We  may  The  most  important  religious  movement 
admit  that  this  is  the  opprobrium  of  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  England  is 
Protestantism ;  its  power  is  lessened  and  a  reversion  to  sacramentalism,  led  by  New- 
its  life  is  marred  by  these  needless  di-  man  and  Pusey  and  William  George  Ward. 
visions,  and  by  the  unlovely  competitions  Its  ruling  idea  is  that  the  sacraments 
that  spring  from  them.  But  the  last  have  power  in  themselves  to  convey  grace 
years  of  the  century  have  witnessed  some  and  salvation.  This  is  essentially  the  doc- 
serious  attempts  to  correct  these  abuses;  trine  of  the  old  Church,  and  the  move- 
some  of  the  separated  sects  have  come  ment  gradually  took  on  the  form  of  a 
together  in  unity;  others  are  approaching  reaction;  the  adoration  of  the  consecrated 
each  other  with  friendly  overtures;  the  wafer,  prayers  for  the  dead,  the  use  of 
tendencies  seem  now  to  be  towards  re-  incense — various  Roman  Catholic  practices 
union  rather  than  division.  In  Great  — were  adopted  one  by  one.  In  due  time 
Britain  the  Non-conformist  bodies  have  Newman  and  Faber  and  Ward  entered 
formed  a  strong  federation  by  which  they  the  Catholic  communion;  since  their  de- 
are  able  to  act  together  for  many  com-  parture,  the  ideas  and  practices  for  which 
mon  purposes,  and  movements  are  on  foot  they  stood  have  been  rapidly  gaining 
to  bring  about  a  similar  organization  in  ground  in  the  EngMsh  Church.  How  far 
this  country.  If  the  principle  of  differ-  this  doctrinal  reaction  is  likely  to  go, 
entiation  has  been  over-accentuated  dur-  it  would  not  be  safe  to  predict.  But  it 
ing  the  nineteenth  century,  there  is  now  must  be  said  of  the  High.  Church  party 
some  reason  to  hope  that  the  twentieth  that  it  is  not  wasting  all  its  energies  upon 
century  will  reinforce  the  principle  of  vestments  and  ceremonies;  it  is  taking 
integration;  that  loyalties  will  be  empha-  hold,  in  the  most  energetic  manner,  of  the 
sized  as  much  as  liberties,  and  the  duty  problems  of  society;  in  hand  to  hand 
of  co-operation  rather  more  than  the  right  work  with  the  needy  and  degraded  classes 
of  private  judgment.  it  is  doing  more,  perhaps,  than  has  ever 

322 


PROTESTANT    CHURCHES 

been    done   by    any   other   branch   of    the  mination    to    do    right,    to    recognize    the 

Christian    Church    in    England.  moral    constitution    which    He   has   given 

The   remainder    of   the    Protestants   of  to  His  children,  and  to  conform  to  that 

Great  Britain — the  Broad  Churchmen,  the  in  His  dealings  with  them.     The  assump- 

Non-conformists,  the  Scotch  Presbyterians  tion,  nowadays,  always  is  that  of  Abraham 

of    the    Established    Church,    and    of    the  — that   the   Judge   of    all   the   earth   will 

United     Free     Church — with     the     entire  do  right,  that  which  will  commend  itself 

Protestant    body    of    the    United    States,  as  right  to  the  unperverted  moral  sense 

have   been    subject   to    similar    influences,  of  His  children.     Theology  has  been  ethi- 

and    have   been    passing    through    similar  cized;   that  is  the  sum  of  it.     To-day  it 

theological    transitions.      Some    branches  is    a    moral    science;    100    years    ago    it 

of  the  Protestant  Church  have  been  great-  was  not.     This  is  a  tremendous  change; 

ly    affected    by    the    prevailing    scientific  none   more   radical   or   revolutionary  has 

and  critical  inquiries,  and  some  have  been  taken  place  in  any  of  the  sciences.     To  be 

less  disturbed  by  them,  but  the  intellectu-  rid  of   theories   which   required   the   dam- 

al    ferment    has    reached    most    of    them;  nation  of  non-elect  infants  and  of  all  the 

and   modifications,   more  or   less   radical,  heathen;  which  imputed  the  guilt  of  our 

have  been  made  in  all  their  creeds.  progenitors  to  their  offspring;  and  which 

These  theological  changes  are  not  wholly  proclaimed  an  eternal  kingdom  of  dark- 
due  to  the  new  conceptions  of  the  world  ness,  ruled  by  an  evil  potentate,  whose 
and  of  man  which  modern  science  has  ubiquity  was  but  little  short  of  omni- 
introduced.  Some  of  them — and  these  not  presence,  whose  resources  pressed  hard 
the  least  important — are  the  fruit  of  a  upon  omnipotence,  and  whose  access  to 
purified  ethical  judgment.  The  dogmas  human  souls  implied  omniscience — is  a 
of  the  Church,  as  Sabatier  has  shown,  great  deliverance.  The  entire  aspect  of 
spring  from  the  life  of  the  Church.  If  religion  has  changed  within  the  memory 
the  spirit  of  Christ  is  abiding  in  the  of  many  who  will  read  these  words.  We 
hearts  of  his  disciples,  their  views  of  are  living  under  a  different  sky,  and 
truth  will  be  constantly  purified  and  breathing  a  different  atmosphere.  That 
enlarged.  Many  of  the  changes  in  theo-  these  horrible  doctrines  are  obsolete  is 
logical  theory  which  have  taken  place  manifest  from  the  fact  that  the  great 
within  the  past  century  are  to  be  thus  Scotch  Presbyterian  churches  have  ex- 
explained.  The  practical  disappearance  plained  them  away,  and  that  their  Ameri- 
of  the  hard  Calvinistic  interpretations  can  brethren  are  slowly  making  haste  to 
which  were  prevalent  in  most  of  the  be  free  of  them.  It  is  long  since  they 
Reformed  churches  100  years  ago  has  have  been  preached  to  intelligent  congre- 
resulted  from  the  cultivation  of  humaner  gations. 

feelings    and    from    a    better    conception        The  progress  of  Biblical  criticism  dur- 

of  the  nature  of  justice.     Philosophically,  ing  the  last  quarter  of  the  century  has 

the    change    consists    in    the    substitution  been    rapid    and    sometimes    disquieting, 

of   righteousness    for   power   in   our   defi-  Much  work  of  a  somewhat  fanciful  char- 

nitions  of  the  justice  of  God.      The  old  acter  has  been  done,  but  a  large  number 

theology    emphasized    the    sovereignty    of  of  important  conclusions  are  accepted  by 

God  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  appear  most    scholars.      The   prevailing   teaching 

that  what  was  central  in  Him  was  will  in  the  theological  seminaries  of  the  evan- 

— His  determination  to  have  His  own  way.  gelical    churches    is    that    the    Bible    con- 

"  His   mere   good   pleasure"  was   the   de-  tains  a  revelation  from  God,  in  historical 

cisive   element   in   His   action.      This   the-  and     prophetic     documents     of     priceless 

ology   was    the    apotheosis    of   will.      The  value,  holding  truth   found  nowhere  else, 

hard    fact    was    disguised    and    softened  and   making  known  to  us   the   Way  and 

in  many  ways,  but  it  was  always  there;  the   Truth    and   the   Life;    but   that   this 

that  was  the  nerve  of  the  doctrine.     The  revelation    comes    through    human    medi- 

later  conceptions  emphasize  the  righteous-  ation,   and   is  not   free  from   human   im- 

ness  of  God  more  than  His  power.     His  perfection;    that,   while   its   spiritual   ele- 

justice   is   not   chiefly   His   determination  ments    may   be    spiritually   discerned,   its 

to  have  His  own  way;   it  is  His  deter-  parts   are  not  of   equal   value,   and   that 

323 


PROTESTANT    CHURCHES 

it  is  dangerous  to  impute  to  the  whole  minions  or  principalities  or  powers;  al! 
book  an  infallibility  which  it  nowhere  things  have  been  created  through  Him, 
claims.  The  new  conception  of  the  Bible  and  unto  Him;  and  He  is  before  all 
has  undoubtedly  given  a  shock  to  many  things,  and  in  Him  all  things  hold  to- 
devout  minds,  who  have  been  accustomed  gether."*  If  the  Christ-element,  the  ele- 
to  regard  it  with  superstitious  venera-  ment  of  self-sacrificing  love,  is  the  very 
tion;  and  those  who  have  been  convinced  matrix  of  the  creation,  then  it  ought  not 
by  the  arguments  of  the  critics  have  not  to  surprise  us  if  we  find  in  nature  itself 
all  learned  to  use  it  as  it  was  meant  to  the  elements  of  sacrifice;  and  we  do  find 
be  used — to  draw  inspiration  from  it,  in-  them  there,  when  we  look  for  them, 
stead  of  reading  inspiration  into  it.  Those  Over  against  the  struggle  for  life  is  the 
who  will  seek  to  be  inspired  by  it  will  struggle  for  the  life  of  others;  vicarious- 
find  that  it  is  inspired,  because  it  is  in-  ness  is  at  the  heart  of  nature.  We  begin 
spiring;  and  there  is  reason  to  hope  that  to  discern  some  deep  meaning  in  the  mys- 
the  Bible  may  yet  prove,  under  the  new  tical  saying  that  Christ  represents  "the 
theories  of  its  origin,  a  better  witness  Lamb  slain  from  the  foundation  of  the 
for  God  than  ever  before.  It  is  well  that  world,"  and  we  are  able  to  see  that  He 
He  should  not  any  longer  be  held  re-  came  to  fulfil  not  merely  the  Levitical 
sponsible  for  the  human  crudities  and  law,  but  the  very  law  of  life.  All  this 
errors  which  it  contains.  has  been,  as  yet,  but  imperfectly  worked 

The  great  development  of  the  natural  out  in  our  theological  theories;  but  it 
sciences  and  the  rise  of  the  evolutionary  begins  to  be  evident  that  the  doctrine 
theories  have  also  had  their  effect  upon  of  the  Incarnation  will  find,  in  the  doc- 
Christian  theology.  That  there  are  vast  trine  of  evolution,  an  interpretation  far 
numbers  of  Protestant  Christians  who  more  sublime  than  any  which  was  pos- 
have  been  scarcely  touched  by  these  in-  sible  under  the  mechanical  theories  of  ere- 
fluences  is  true;   but  these  influences  are    ation. 

shaping  the  thought  of  the  world,  and  In  the  devolopment  of  Protestantism  on 
it  is  impossible  that  the  theology  of  a  its  intellectual  side  there  have  been  losses 
living  Church  should  not  be  profoundly  as  well  as  gains.  Where  such  liberty  of 
affected  by  them.  For  natural  science  thinking  is  allowed,  there  will  be  wild 
is  simply  telling  us  what  God  is  doing  and  foolish  thinking;  it  is  often  forgot- 
in  His  world,  and  evolution  is  simply  ten  that  the  principle  of  reason  is  the 
explaining  the  way  in  which  His  work  principle  of  unity,  and  not  of  division 
is  done.  At  bottom,  all  this  is  religious  or  denial.  There  is  a  reasonless  conser- 
truth,  of  the  most  fundamental  character;  vatism,  which  clings  to  beliefs  long  after 
and,  if  Christian  theology  is  true  theology,  they  have  ceased  to  be  credible ;  and  there 
it  must  include  the  truths  of  science  and  is  a  rash  radicalism,  which  throws  away 
of  evolution.  truth   untested.     Protestant  theology  has 

Such  an  inclusion  makes  needful  some  suffered  from  both  these  causes.  There 
important  reconstructions  of  theological  has  always  been,  and  there  still  is,  much 
theory.  It  substitutes  for  our  mechanical  shallow  thinking;  and,  in  the  transitions 
theories  of  creation  the  thought  of  the  which  have  been  taking  place,  some  have 
immanent  God,  who,  in  the  words  of  Paul,  lost  their  faith.  But  there  is  good  reason 
is  above  all,  and  through  all,  and  in  us  all ;  for  believing  that  the  Christians  of  to- 
nay>  ^  gives  us  also  that  doctrine  of  the  day  have  a  hold  as  firm  as  those  of  any 
immanent  Christ — the  Logos,  the  infinite  former  day  upon  essential  Christian  truth. 
Reason  and  Love,  of  whom  the  same  On  the  side  of  life  and  practice  there 
apostle  speaks  in  words  of  such  wonder-  have  also  been  gains  and  losses.  In  some 
ful  significance;  "in  whom  we  have  our  of  the  elements  of  the  religious  life  we 
redemption,  the  forgiveness  of  our  sins;  may  be  poorer  than  our  forefathers  were, 
who  is  the  image  of  the  invisible  God,  There  is  not  so  much  reverence  now  as 
the  first-born  of  all  creation ;  for  in  Him  once  there  was ;  but  there  is  less  of  slavish 
were  all  things  created,  in  the  heavens  fear.  There  is  less  intense  devotional  feel- 
and   upon   the   earth,   things   visible   and 

things   invisible,   whether   thrones   or   do-  *  Col.  i.,  14-17. 

324 


PROTESTANT    CHURCHES— PROTESTANT    EPISCOPAL    CHURCH 

ing;  but  there  are  also  fewer  cases  of  ing  Him  Monarch.  He  was  as  much  of  a 
hopeless  religious  melancholy.  We  do  not  Father  as  He  could  be  consistently  with 
make  so  much  of  the  Lord's  day  as  men  his  functions  as  an  absolute  Sovereign, 
once  did  in  some  sections;  that  is  an  un-  The  Sovereignty  was  the  dominant  fact; 
doubted  loss.  Yet  there  was  a  gloom  and  the  Fatherhood  was  subordinate.  All  this 
restraint  in  that  old  observance  which  we  is  changed.  It  is  believed  to-day  that 
should  be  slow  to  recall.  We  do  not,  per-  there  can  be  no  sovereignty  higher  than 
haps,  quite  adequately  estimate  the  amount  fatherhood,  and  no  law  stronger  than  love, 
of  irreligion  which  prevailed  in  this  coun-  The  doctrine  must  have  vast  social  con- 
try  in  the  early  days  of  the  nineteenth  sequences.  When  it  is  once  fully  accept- 
century.  A  careful  historical  comparison  ed,  and  all  that  it  implies  is  recognized 
would  reassure  those  who  suppose  that  and  enforced,  society  will  be  regenerated 
we  are  in  danger  of  losing  all  our  re-  and  redeemed.  If  all  men  are,  indeed, 
ligion.  brothers,  and  owe  to  one  another,  in  every 

The     development     of     the     Protestant  relation,    brotherly   kindness;    if    there   is 

churches   has   been    intensive,   as   well    as  but  one  law  of  human  association — "  Thou 

extensive;    the  work  of  the  local   Church  shalt   love   thy   neighbor   as   thyself";    if 

has  greatly  broadened.     The  Church  of  to-  every  man's  business  in  the  world   is   to 

day  is  a  far  more  efficient  instrument  for  give  as   much  as  he  can,   rather  than   to 

promoting   the    Kingdom    of    God    in    the  get  as  much  as  he  can,  then  the  drift  of 

world  than  was  the  Church  of  100  years  human  society  must  now  be  in  wrong  di- 

ago.      At    that    date    the    Sunday-school  rections,  and  there  is  need  of  a  reforma- 

work  was  just  beginning;  the  Church  did  tion   which   shall   start   from   the   centres 

nothing  for  its  own  members  but  to  hold  of    life    and    thought.      We    need    not    so 

two  services  on  a  Sunday,  and  sometimes  much    new   machinery,    as   new    ideals    of 

a  week-night  service.     In  fact,  it  may  be  personal  obligation. 

said  that  the  Church  did  nothing  at  all;  This    idea    that    Christ    has    come    to 

all   the   religious   work  was   done   by  the  save  the  world;    that  His  mission  is  not 

minister.     The  conception  that  the  Church  to  gather  His  elect  out  of  the  world  and 

is  a  working  body,  organized  for  the  ser-  then    burn    it    up, .  but    to    establish    the 

vice  of  the  community,  had  hardly  enter-  Kingdom  of  Heaven  here,  and  that  it  is 

ed.  into  the  thought  of  the  minister  or  of  established    by    making    the    law    of    love 

the   members.      It   was   rather   an   ark   of  the   regulative   principle   of   all   the  busi- 

safety,    in    which    men    found    temporary  ness    of    life,    is    practically   a   new   idea, 

shelter  on  their  way  to  heaven.  Many,    here    and    there,    have    tentatively 

The  larger  work,  outside  of  its  immedi-  held  it,  and  their  faltering  attempts  to 
ate  fold,  was  not  contemplated.  In  1S00  live  by  it  have  produced  what  we  have 
there  was  no  Foreign  Missionary  Society  had  of  the  precious  fruits  of  peace  and 
in  existence  on  this  continent,  and  no  good-will  among  men.  Charity  and  phi- 
Bible  Society;  a  few  feeble  Home  Mission-  lanthropy  have  not  been  unknown;  the 
ary  Societies  had  just  been  formed.  There  spirit  of  Christ  has  found  in  them  a 
was  no  religious  newspaper  in  the  world,  beautiful  expression;  within  that  realm 
The  vast  outreaching  work  of  Christian  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  has  been  set  up. 
education  and  Christian  publication  had  Protestant  Episcopal  Ciiurcn,  a  re- 
not  entered  into  the  thought  of  the  church-  ligious  body  founded  on  the  Church  of 
es.  Such  efficient  arms  of  the  Christian  England,  which  had  its  beginning  on  the 
service  as  the  Young  Men's  and  the  Young  American  continent  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
Womgn's  Christian  Associations,  the  So-  tury.  Clergymen  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
cieties  of  Christian  Endeavor  and  the  Sal-  land  accompanied  the  early  colonists  of 
vation  Army  are  of  recent  origin.  North  Carolina  and  one  of  them  baptized 

The   two   truths   of   the   divine   Father-  an  Indian  chief  in   1587   in  a   colony  un- 

hood  and  the  human  Brotherhood  are  the  successfully  begun  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 

central   truths   of    Christian   theology  to-  In    1693    Trinity    parish    in    New    York 

day.      This   has    never   before   been    true.  City    was    instituted.      Two    years    later 

Men  have  always  been  calling  God  Father,  Christ   Church   was   founded   in   Philadel- 

but  in  their  theories  they  have  been  mak-  phia,     and     from     then     on     individual 

325 


PROUD— PROVINCIAL    CONGRESSES 

churches  sprang  up  in  various  localities  Neck  by  the  governor.  Gage  denounced 
until  1785-89  when  the  Protestant  Episco-  them.  This  act  increased  their  zeal.  They 
pal  Church  was  formally  organized  as  a  appointed  a  committee  of  safety,  to  whom 
branch  of  Christ's  Church.  The  doctrines  they  delegated  large  powers.  They  were 
of  this  body  consist  of  the  Apostles'  authorized  to  call  out  the  militia  of  the 
and  Nicene  creeds,  and  the  Thirty-nine  province,  and  perform  other  acts  of  sov- 
Articles  of  the  Church  of  England,  with  a  ereignty.  Another  committee  was  author- 
few  changes.  The  legislative  power  is  ized  to  procure  ammunition  and  military 
vested  in  a  general  convention  which  stores,  for  which  purpose  more  than  $60,- 
meets  every  three  years.  This  body  is  000  were  appropriated.  A  receiver-gen- 
composed  of  the  house  of  bishops  and  the  eral,  Henry  Gardiner,  was  appointed, 
house  of  the  clerical  and  lay  representa-  into  whose  hands  the  constables  and  tax- 
tives.  At  the  general  convention  of  the  collectors  were  directed  to  pay  all  moneys 
church,  in  Boston,  in  October,  1904,  the  received  by  them.  They  made  provision 
Rt.  Hon.  and  Most  Rev.  Randall  Thomas  for  arming  the  -  province,  and  appointed 
Davidson,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  Jeremiah  Preble,  Artemas  Ward,  and  Seth 
in  attendance,  he  being  the  first  Primate  Pomeroy  general  officers  of  the  militia, 
of  all  England  to  visit  the  United  States.  They  also  authorized  the  enrolment  of 
The  reports  for  1904  were  as  follows:  12,000  minute-men,  and,  assuming  both 
Ministers,  5,050;  churches,  6,789;  mem-  legislative  and  executive  powers,  received 
bers,  773,261.  *-ne  allegiance  of  the  people  generally.    So 

Proud,     Robert,     historian;     born     in  passed  away  royal  rule  in  Massachusetts, 

Yorkshire,  England,  May  10,   1728;   went  and    the    sovereignty    of    the    people   was 

to  Philadelphia  in  1759,  where  he  taught  established  in  the  form  of  the  Provincial 

until  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution,  Congress.     Gage  issued  a  proclamation  de- 

when  he  gave  a  passive  adherence  to  the  nouncing  their   proceedings,  to  which  no 

British   crown.      In    1797    his   History   of  attention  was  paid. 

Pennsylvania   (1681-1742)   was  published.  The  Provincial  Congress  of  New  Hamp- 

He  died  in  Philadelphia,  July  7,  1813.  shire   assembled   at   Exeter,   on   May    17, 

Providence    Plantation.      See    Rhode  1775,   when   ninety-eight   counties,  towns, 

Island.  parishes,   and  boroughs  were   represented 

Provincial      Congresses.         Governor  by     deputies.       Matthew     Thornton     was 

Gage  summoned  a  meeting  of  the  Massa-  chosen  president,   and   Eleazar   Thompson 

chusetts   Assembly   at    Salem,   under    the  secretary.     They   established   a   post-office 

provisions  of  the  new  and  obnoxious  act  at    Portsmouth,   provided    for    procuring 

of  Parliament.     Perceiving  the  increasing  arms,   recommended   the   establishment  of 

boldness  of  the  people  under  the  stimulus  home    manufactures,    commissioned    Brig- 

of  the  proceedings  of  the  Continental  Con-  adier-General     Folsom     first     commander, 

gress,    he    countermanded    the    summons,  and    provided    for    the    issue    of    bills    of 

The   members   denied   his   right  to   do   so.  credit. 

They  met  at  Salem,  ninety  in  number,  on  On  May  2,  1775,  the  provincial  commit- 
the  appointed  day,  Oct.  5,  1774;  waited  tee  of  correspondence  of  New  Jersey  di- 
two  days  for  the  governor,  who  did  not  rected  the  chairman  to  summon  a  Pro- 
appear;  and  then  organized  themselves  vincial  Congress  of  deputies  to  meet  in 
into  a  Provincial  Congress,  with  John  Trenton,  on  the  23d  of  that  month. 
Hancock  as  president  and  Benjamin  Lin-  Thirteen  counties  were  represented — name- 
coin,  secretary.  They  adjourned  to  Con-  ly,  Bergen,  Essex,  Middlesex,  Morris, 
cord,  where,  on  the  11th,  260  members  Somerset,  Sussex,  Monmouth,  Hunterdon, 
took  their  seats.  There  they  adjourned  Burlington,  Gloucester,  Cumberland,  Sa- 
to Cambridge,  when  they  sent  a  message  lem,  and  Cape  May.  Hendrick  Fisher  was 
to  the  governor,  telling  him  that,  for  the  chosen  president;  Johathan  D.  Sargent 
want  of  a  legal  assembly,  they  had  formed  secretary;  and  William  Paterson  and 
a  provisional  convention.  They  complain-  Frederick  Frelinghuysen  assistants.  The 
ed  of  unlawful  acts  of  Parliament,  ex-  Provincial  Assembly  had  been  called  (May 
pressed  their  loyalty  to  the  King,  and  pro-  15)  by  Governor  Franklin  to  consider 
tested    against   the    fortifying    of    Boston  North's     conciliatory    proposition.      They 

326 


PROVINCIAL    CONGRESSES— PRYOR 

declined  to  approve  it,  or  to  take  any  de-  matter   of  declaring  the  independence  of 

cisive  step  in  the  matter,  except  with  the  the  colonies.       It  ceased  to  exist  in  the 

consent  of  the  Continental  Congress,  then  summer  of  1777,  when  a  State  government 

in   session.     They   adjourned   a   few   days  was  organized. 

afterwards,  and  never  met  again.  Royal  On  Aug.  21,  1775,  a  Provincial  Congress, 
authority  was  at  an  end  in  New  Jersey,  consisting  of  184  deputies,  assembled  at 
The  Provincial  Congress  adopted  measures  Hillsboro,  N.  C.  They  first  declared  their 
for  organizing  the  militia  and  issuing  determination  to  protect  the  Regulators, 
$50,000  in  bills  of  credit  for  the  payment  who  were  liable  to  punishment;  declared 
of  extraordinary  expenses.  Governor  Martin's  proclamation  to  have 
On  the  recommendation  of  the  commit-  a  tendency  to  stir  up  tumult  and  insur- 
tee  of  sixty  of  the  city  of  New  York,  rection  in  the  province  dangerous  to  the 
delegates  chosen  in  a  majority  of  the  King's  government,  and  directed  it  to  be 
counties  of  the  province  met  at  the  Ex-  publicly  burned  by  the  common  hangman, 
change  in  New  York,  May  22,  1775.  They  They  provided  for  raising  troops;  author- 
adjourned  to  the  next  day,  in  order  to  ized  the  raising,  in  addition  to  a  regular 
have  a  more  complete  representation,  force,  of  ten  battalions,  to  be  called  min- 
when  delegates  appeared  from  the  follow-  ute-men,  and  they  authorized  the  emission 
ing  counties :  New  York,  Albany,  Dutchess,  of  bills  of  credit  to  the  amount  of 
Ulster,  Orange,  Westchester,  Kings,   Suf-  $150,000. 

folk,  and  Richmond.  The  Congress  was  Provisional  Army.  The  course  of  the 
organized  by  the  appointment  of  Peter  French  government  (Directory)  towards 
Van  Brugh  Livingston,  president;  Vol-  the  government  of  the  United  States  be- 
kert  P.  Douw,  vice-president;  John  Mc-  came  so  aggressive  and  insolent  during  the 
Kesson  and  Robert  Benson,  secretaries;  years  1797-98  that  the  United  States  de- 
and  Thomas  Petit,  door-keeper.  They  for-  cided  to  take  measures  for  defence  and 
warded  to  the  Continental  Congress  a  retaliation.  To  this  end,  therefore,  an 
financial  scheme,  devised  by  Gouverneur  addition  to  the  army  of  10,000  men  was 
Morris,  for  the  defence  of  the  colonies  by  ordered  by  Congress  in  1798,  and  officers 
the  issue  of  a  Continental  paper  currency,  commissioned,  with  Washington  as  lieu- 
substantially  the  same  as  that  afterwards  tenant-general  and  commander-in-chief, 
adopted.  They  also  took  measures  for  en-  Although  commissions  were  issued  to  the 
listing  four  regiments  for  the  defence  of  officers,  the  men  were  never  called  out 
the  province,  and  for  erecting  fortifica-  and  no  money  disbursed.  This  provisional 
tions,  recommended  by  the  Continental  army  was  held  in  readiness  until  the  sum- 
Congress,  at  the  head  of  York  Island  and  mer  of  1800,  when  it  was  disbanded. 
in  the  Hudson  Highlands.  The  Provin-  Pryor,  Roger  Atkinson,  jurist;  born 
cial  Congress  agreed  to  furnish  provisions  in  Dinwiddie  county,  Va.,  July  19,  1828 ; 
for  the  garrison  at  Ticonderoga.  There  graduated  at  Hampden-Sydney  College  in 
was  a  strong  Tory  element  in  the  Con-  1845,  and  at  the  University  of  Virginia  in 
gress,  which  caused  much  effort  towards  1848;  became  a  lawyer  and  editor,  and 
conciliation,  and  a  plan  was  agreed  to,  in  an  advocate  of  State  supremacy.  In  1854 
spite  of  the  warm  opposition  of  leading  he  was  a  special  commissioner  to  Greece, 
Sons  of  Liberty.  It  contemplated  a  re-  and  in  1859  was  elected  to  Congress.  He 
peal  of  all  obnoxious  acts  of  Parliament,  was  an  advocate  of  secession ;  went  to 
but  acknowledged  the  right  of  the  mother-  South  Carolina  early  in  1861 ;  was  on 
country  to  regulate  trade,  and  the  duty  the  staff  of  Beauregard  in  the  attack 
of  the  colonists  to  contribute  to  the  com-  upon  Fort  Sumter  in  April ;  was  commis- 
mon  charges  by  grants  to  be  made  by  the  sioned  a  brigadier-general  and  led  a  di- 
colonial  assemblies,  or  by  a  general  con-  vision  in  the  battles  before  Richmond  in 
gress,  specially  called  for  that  purpose.  1862,  and  resigned  in  1863.  He  was  a 
But  this  plan  met  with  little  favor,  and  member  of  the  Confederate  Congress  in 
in  time  the  Provincial  Congress  of  New  1862;  and  was  captured  and  confined  in 
York  became  more  thoroughly  patriotic.  Fort  Lafayette  in  1864.  After  the  war 
It  showed  hesitation,  however,  in  several  he  urged  loyalty  to  the  government;  in 
important   emergencies,   especially   in   the  1865  removid  to  New  York  City  to  prac- 

327 


PUBLIC    DEBT— PUEBLA 


Use  law;  and  became  a  justice  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  New  York. 

Public  Debt.     See  Debt,  National. 

Public  Domain.  There  were  disposed 
of  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1903,  public  lands  aggregating  22,824,- 
299.65  acres,  classified  as  follows:  Cash 
sales,  3,073,896.99  acres;  miscellaneous 
entries,  19,577,031.10  acres,  and  Indian 
lands,  173,371.56  acres,  showing  an  in- 
crease of  3,335,764.35  acres  as  compared 
with  the  aggregate  disposals  for  the  pre- 
ceding fiscal  year.  The  total  cash  re- 
ceipts during  the  fiscal  year  from  various 
sources  aggregated  $11,024,743.65,  an  in- 
crease of  $4,762,816.47  over  the  preceding 
fiscal  year. 

The  following  table  gives,  by  States  and 
Territories,  an  approximate  estimate  of 
the  reserved,  as  well  as  the  unappropri- 
ated, public  lands  in  the  public  land 
States  and  Territories: 


republic.  It  was  foundt  after  the  reduc- 
tion of  Mexico  by  Cortez  (1519-21).  It 
contains  more  than  sixty  churches,  thir- 
teen nunneries,  nine  monasteries,  and 
twenty-one  collegiate  houses.  Many  of  the 
churches  and  convents  are  rich  in  gold 
and  silver  ornaments,  paintings,  and 
statues.  The  city  is  about  7,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  contained 
(1895)  88,684  inhabitants.  After  his  vic- 
tory at  Cerro  Gordo  ( q.  v. ) ,  General 
Scott  pressed  forward  on  the  great  nation- 
al road  over  the  Cordilleras.  General 
Worth  had  joined  the  army,  and  with  his 
division  led  the  way.  They  entered  the 
strongly  fortified  town  of  Jalapa,  April  19, 
1847,  and  a  few  days  afterwards  Worth 
unfurled  the  American  flag  over  the  for- 
midable castle  of  Perote,  on  the  summit 
of  the  Cordilleras,  50  miles  beyond  Jalapa. 
This  fortress  was  regarded  as  the  strong- 
est  in   Mexico   after   San  Juan   de   Ulloa. 


State  or  Territory. 


Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Florida 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian   Territory. 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Louisiana 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New   Mexico 

North  Dakota.  .  . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

South   Dakota. .  . 

Utah 

Washington 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


Grand    total. 


Area  Unappropriated  and  Un 


Acres. 


(a) 

11.691 
2,759, 

29,450, 

33,638. 
1,179, 

12,376, 


8,420 


038 
553 
676 
530 
197 


1,047, 

109 

365 

3,498, 

112, 

227, 

18,244! 

8,848. 

30,792 

39,336 

8,749 


831 
964 
005 
127 
720 
158 
326 
006 
220 
648 
864 


3,091, 
17,182, 
10,522. 
11,526; 

4,464. 

113. 

34,543; 


367,983,506 
35,312,783 

'  '7,508,854 

4.2S8.086 

160,070 

29,409,495 


65,018 
'  1,670,558 


333 
749 
553 
008 
185 
001 
098 


2S4,130,355 


39,641,337 

'36,485,688 

14,435,359 

4,447,475 


5,923,067 

382,601 

29,843.553 

5,021,007 

"2,574',87i 


579,153,328 


258,420 

367,983,506 

47,003,821 

2,759,553 

36,965,530 

37,926,616 

1,339.267 

41,785,780 


1,047,831 

174,982 

5,365,065 

5,168,685 

112,720 

227,158 

57,885,663 

8,848,906 

61,277,908 

53,772,359 

13,197,339 

3,09'l',333 
23.105,816 
10,905,154 
41,369,561 

9,485.192 

113,001 

37,118,S69 


868,290,035 


Area 
Reserved. 


52,020 

M20.174 

20,159,837 

2,560 

19,718,027 

5,486,643 

19,259 

1,334,031 


19,658,880 

987,875 
1,468,434 

120,695 
2,686,355 


17,384.134 

606,611 

5,983,409 

6,606,759 

3,325,490 

'  '3,762,462 
12,801,800 
12,722,374 
6,187,645 
11,865,205 
432.524 
15, 790,840 


109,284,043 


Area 
Appropriated. 


Acres. 

32,347,480 
(a) 
5,628,662 
30,781,567 
43,286,363 
22,934,901 
33,714.114 
10,173,629 
35,842,560 
22,950.400 

'  35,646,686 
50,347,014 
27,411,944 
36.333,440 
43.343,040 
29,572,400 
43,568,682 
18,323.803 
39.681.763 

3,075.323 
18.049,682 
28,387,251 
26,062,720 
17,920,605 
25,369,824 
25,578,872 

4,984,234 
21,396,483 
34,729,395 

9,523,571 


776,965,802 


a  The  unreserved  lards  in  Alaska  are  mostly  unsurveyed  and  unappropriated, 
b  So  far  as  estimated. 


Public  Libraries.  See  Libraries,  Appalled  by  the  suddenness  and  strength 
Free  Public.  of   this   invasion,    the  Mexicans  gave   up 

Puebla,  the  capital  of  the  Mexican  these  places  without  making  any  resist- 
State  of  Puebla,  and  the  sacred  city  of  the    ance.     At  Perote  the  victors  gained  fifty- 

328 


PUEBLO  INDIANS— PULASKI 


four  pieces  of  artillery  and  an  immense    reconnoitre  Fort  Pulaski  and  report  upon 


quantity  of  munitions  of  war 

Onward  the  victors  swept  over  the  lofty 
Cordilleras,  and  on  May  15  they  halted 
at  the  sacred  Puebla  de  los  Angeles, 
where  they  remained  until  August.    There 


the  feasibility  of  a  bombardment  of 
it.  It  had  been  seized  by  the  Confeder- 
ates early  in  the  year.  Gillmore  reported 
that  it  might  be  done  by  planting  bat- 
teries of  rifled  guns  and  mortars  on  Big 


Scott  counted  up  the  fruits  of  his  inva-  Tybee  Island.  A  New  York  regiment  was 
sion  thus  far.  In  the  space  of  two  months  sent  to  occupy  that  isiand,  and  explora- 
he  had  made  10,000  Mexican  prisoners  and  tions  were  made  to  find  a  channel  by  which 
captured  700  pieces  of  artillery,  10,000  gunboats  might  get  in  the  rear  of  the  fort, 
muskets,  and  20,000  shot  and  shell;  and  It  was  found,  and  land  troops  under  Gen- 
yet,  when  he  reached  Puebla,  his  whole  eral  Viele  went  through  it  to  reconnoitre, 
effective  marching  force  with  which  he  Another  expedition  went  up  to  the  Savan- 
was  provided  for  the  conquest  of  the  capi-  nah  River  by  way  of  Wassaw  Sound,  and 
tal  of  Mexico  did  not  exceed  4,500  men.  the  gunboats  had  a  skirmish  with  Tat- 
Sickness  and  the  demands  for  garrison  nail's  "Mosquito  Fleet "  (see  Port  Royal)  . 
duty  had  reduced  his  army  about  one-half.  Soon  afterwards  the  Nationals  erected  bat- 


At  Puebla  Scott  gave  the  Mexicans  an  op- 
portunity to  treat  for  peace.  The  gov- 
ernment had  sent  Nicholas  P.  Trist  as  a 
diplomatic  agent,  clothed  with  power  to 
negotiate  for  peace.     He  had  reached  Ja- 


teries  that  effectually  closed  the  Savannah 
River  in  the  rear  of  Pulaski,  and  at  the 
close  of  February,  1S02,  it  was  absolutely 
blockaded.  General  Gillmore  planted  siege 
guns  on   Big  Tybee   that  commanded   the 


lapa  just  as  the  army  had  moved  forward,  fort;  and  on  April  10,  1862,  after  General 

and    he    now    accompanied    it.     He    made  Hunter   (who  had  succeeded  General  Sher- 

overtures    to     the     Mexican    government,  man)    had    demanded    its    surrender,    and 

which  were  treated  with  disdain  and  loud  it    had    been    refused,    thirty  -  six    heavy 

boasts  of  their  valor  and  patriotism.     Gen-  rifled    cannon    and    mortars    were    opened 

eral  Scott  issued  a  conciliatory  proclama-  upon   it,  under  the  direction   of  Generals 

tion  to  the  Mexican  people  on  the  subject  Gillmore    and    Viele.      It    was    gallantly 

while  on  the  march,  which  closed  with  this  defended    until    the    I2th,    when,    so    bat- 


significant  paragraph :  " 
on  Puebla  and  Mexico, 
capitals  I  shall  again  ad- 
dress you."  Scott's  chief 
officers  were  Generals 
Worth,  Twiggs,  Quitman, 
Pillow,  Shields,  Smith, 
and  Cadwallader.  On 
Aug.  7  he  resumed  his 
march  towards  the  cap- 
ital. See  Mexico,  Wab 
with. 

Pueblo  Indians.  See 
Zuni  Indians. 

Pulaski,  Fort,  Capt- 
ure OF.  At  the  close  of 
1861  the  National  au- 
thority was  supreme 
along  the  Atlantic  coast 
from  Wassaw  Sound,  be- 
low the  Savannah  River, 
to  the  North  Edisto,  well 
up  towards  Charleston. 
Gen.  T.  W.  Sherman  di- 
rected his  chief  engineer, 
Gen.   Q.   A.   Gillmore,   to 


1    am    marching    tered  as  to  be  untenable,  it  was  surren- 
and   from    those    dered.    This  victory  enabled  the  Nationals 


BREACH   IN    FORT   PULASKI. 


329 


PULASKI— PULITZEB 


GREENE   AND   PULASKI    MONUMENT. 


to   close   the   port   of   Savannah    against 
blockade-runners. 

Pulaski,  Count  Casimie,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Podolia,  Poland,  March  4, 
1748.  His  father  was  the  Count  Pulaski, 
who  formed  the  Confederation  of  Bar  in 
1768.  He  had  served  under  his  father 
in  his  struggle  for  liberty  in  Poland;  and 
when  his  sire  perished  in  a  dungeon  the 
young  count  was  elected  commander-in- 
chief  (1770).  In  1771  he,  with  thirty- 
nine  others,  disguised  as  peasants,  entered 
Warsaw,  and,  seizing  King  Stanislaus,  car- 
ried him  out  of  the  city,  but  were  com- 
pelled to  leave  their  captive  and  fly  for 
safety.  His  little  army  was  soon  after- 
wards defeated.  He  was  outlawed,  and  his 
estates  were  confiscated,  when  he  entered 
the  Turkish  army  and  made  war  on  Russia. 
Sympathizing  with  the  Americans  in  their 
struggle  for  independence,  he  came  to 
America  in  the  summer  of  1777,  joined  the 
army  under  Washington,  and  fought  brave- 
ly in  the  battle  of  Brandywine.  Congress 
gave  him   command  of  cavalry,  with  the 

rank  of  brigadier-general.  He  was  in  the  wrought  by  them,  which  he  received  with 
battle  of  Germantown;  and  in  1778  his  grateful  acknowledgments,  and  which  he 
"  Legion "  was  formed,  composed  of  sixty  bore  until  he  fell  at  Savannah  in  1779. 
light  horsemen  and  200  foot-soldiers.  This  event  is  commemorated  in  Long- 
When  about  to  take  the  field  in  the  South  fellow's  Hymn  of  the  Moravian  Nuns. 
the  "  Moravian  nuns,"  or  singing  women  The  banner  is  now  in  possession  of  the 
at    Bethlehem,    Pa.,    sent    him    a    banner    Maryland    Historical    Society.      Surprised 

near  Little  Egg  Harbor,  on  the  New 
Jersey  coast,  nearly  all  of  his  foot-soldiers 
were  killed.  Recruiting  his  ranks,  he  went 
South  in  February,  1779,  and  was  in 
active  service  under  General  Lincoln,  en- 
gaging bravely  in  the  siege  of  Savannah 
(q.  v.),  in  which  he  was  mortally  wound- 
ed, taken  to  the  United  States  brig 
Wasp,  and  there  died,  Oct.  11.  The 
citizens  of  Savannah  erected  a  monument 
to  "  Greene  and  Pulaski,"  the  corner- 
stone of  which  was  laid  by  Lafayette 
in  1825. 

Pulitzer,  Joseph,  journalist;  born  in 
Buda-Pesth,  Hungary,  April  10,  1847; 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1864,  and 
I  enlisted  in  the  National  army;  became  re- 
porter, subsequently  proprietor,  of  West- 
liche  Post,  St.  Louis;  proprietor  of  the 
St.  Louis  Dispatch  and  Evening  Post  in 
1878;  proprietor  of  the  New  York  World 
in  1883.  He  was  a  member  of  the  State 
legislature  of  Missouri  in  1869;  of  the 
State  Constitutional  Convention  in  1874; 
330 


COUNT    CASIMIR    PULASKI. 


PUPIN— PU  KIT  ANS 


and  of  Congress  from  New  York  City  in 
1885-87.  In  1893  he  gave  Columbia  Uni- 
versity $100,000,  and  in  1903,  for  a  school 
of  journalism,  $1,000,000,  with  a  condi- 
tional pledge  of  $1,000,000  more. 

Pupin,  Michael  Idvorsky,  inventor; 
born  in  Austria,  in  1858;  came  to  New 
York  when  fifteen  years  old ;  graduated  at 
Columbia  University  in  1883;  studied  at 
Cambridge  University,  England,  and  at 
the  University  of  Berlin;  became  in- 
structor of  mathematical  physics  in  the 
department  of  electrical  engineering  at 
Columbia  in  1889.  It  was  announced  in 
1900  that  he  had  discovered  a  method  by 
which  ocean  telephony  could  be  made  pos- 
sible. He  has  published  numerous  works 
on  electro-mechanics. 

Purchas,  Samuel,  clergyman;  born  in 
Thaxted,  Essex,  England,  in  1577;  is 
chiefly  known  by  his  famous  work  entitled 
Purchas  his  Pilgrimages ;  or,  Relations  of 
the  World  and  the  Religion  observed  in  all 
Ages  and  Places  discovered  from  the  Crea- 
tion until  this  Present.  It  contains  an 
account  of  voyages,  religions,  etc.,  and  was 
published  in  five  volumes  in  1613.  This, 
with  Hakluyt's  Voyages,  led  the  way  to 
similar  collections.  The  third  volume  re- 
lates to  America,  and  contains  the  original 
narratives  of  the  earliest  English  naviga- 
tors and  explorers  of  the  North  American 
continent.  Purchas  was  rector  of  St.  Mar- 
tin's, Ludgate,  and  chaplain  to  Abbot, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  died  in 
London  in  1628. 

Puritans,  a  name  applied  in  England, 
at  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  to 
persons  who  wished  to  see  a  greater  de- 
gree of  reformation  in  the  Established 
Church  than  was  adopted  by  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  a  purer  form,  not  of  faith,  but 
of  discipline  and  worship.  It  became  a 
common  name  of  all  who,  from  conscien- 
tious motives,  but  upon  different  grounds, 
disapproved  of  the  established  ritual  in 
the  Church  of  England  from  the  Reforma- 
tion under  Elizabeth  to  the  act  of  uni- 
formity in  1562.  From  that  time  until  the 
Revolution  in  England  in  1688  as  many  as 
refused  to  comply  with  the  established 
form  of  worship  were  called  Non-conform- 
ists. There  were  about  2,000  clergymen 
and  500,000  people  who  were  so  denomi- 
nated. From  the  accession  of  William 
and  Mary  and  the  passage  of  the  tolera- 


tion act  the  name  of  Non-conformists  was 
changed  to  Dissenters,  or  Protestant  Dis- 
senters. Because  the  stricter  Non-con- 
formists in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and 
James  I.  professed  and  acted  purer  lives 
in  morals  and  manners,  they  were  called 
Puritans  in  derision. 

There  were  different  degrees  of  Puritan- 
ism, some  seeking  a  moderate  reform  of 
the  English  liturgy,  others  wishing  to 
abolish  episcopacy,  and  some  declaring 
against  any  Church  authority  whatsoever. 
Representatives  from  these  three  classes 
of  Puritans  formed  the  larger  portion 
of  the  earlier  settlers  in  New  England. 
The  union  of  these  in  the  civil  war 
in  England  effected  the  overthrow  of 
the  monarchy,  and  at  the  restoration 
the  name  of  Puritan  was  one  of  re- 
proach. Since  the  toleration  act  of 
1690  the  word  has  ceased  to  designate  any 
particular  sect. 

At  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  tolera- 
tion act  in  Maryland  (1649)  the  Puritans 
in  Virginia  were  severely  persecuted  be- 
cause they  refused  to  use  the  Church 
liturgy,  and  118  of  them  left  that  colony. 
Their  pastor,  Mr.  Harrison,  returned  to 
England ;  but  nearly  all  the  others,  led  by 
their  ruling  elder,  Mr.  Durand,  went  to 
Maryland,  and  settled  on  the  banks  of  the 
Severn  River,  near  the  site  of  Annapolis, 
and  called  the  place  Providence.  The  next 
year  Governor  Stone  visited  them  and  or- 
ganized the  settlement  into  a  shire,  and 
called  it  Anne  Arundel  county,  in  compli- 
ment to  the  wife  of  Lord  Baltimore. 
These  Puritans  gave  the  proprietor  con- 
siderable trouble. 

Puritanism  was  exhibited  in  its  most 
radical  form  in  New  England,  for  there 
it  had  freedom  of  action.  The  Puritan  was 
not  a  sufferer,  but  an  aggressor.  He  was 
the  straitest  of  his  sect.  He  was  an  un- 
flinching egotist,  who  regarded  himself  as 
his  "  brother's  keeper,"  and  was  continu- 
ally busied  in  watching  and  guiding  him. 
His  constant  business  seemed  to  be  to 
save  his  fellow-men  from  sin,  error,  and 
eternal  punishment.  He  sat  in  judgment 
upon  their  belief  and  actions  with  the  au- 
thority of  a  God-chosen  high-priest.  He 
would  not  allow  a  Jesuit  or  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest  to  live  in  the  colony.  His 
motives  were  pure,  his  aims  lofty,  but  his 
methods  were  uncharitable  and  sometimes 


331 


PURITANS 

absurd.     As  a  law-giver  and  magistrate,  Plaistowe  stole  four  baskets  of  corn  from 

his  statute-books  exhibit  the  salient  points  the  Indians,  and  he  was  ordered  to  return 

in  his  character— a  self-constituted  censor  to  them  eight  baskets,  to  be  fined  £5,  and 

and  a  conservator  of  the  moral  and  spirit-  thereafter  to  "  be  called  by  the  name  of 

ual    destiny    of    his    fellow-mortals.      His  Josias,  and  not  Mr.  Plaistowe,  as  former- 


4   PURITAN    HOME    IN   ENGLAND. 


laws  in  those  statute-books  were  largely  ly."  He  directed  his  grand-jurors  to  ad- 
sumptuary  in  their  character.  He  im-  rnonish  those  who  wore  apparel  too  costly 
posed  a  fine  upon  every  woman  who  should  for  their  incomes,  and,  if  they  did  not 
cut  her  hair  like  that  of  a  man.  He  for-  heed  the  warning,  to  fine  them ;  and  in 
bade  all  gaming  for  amusement  or  gain,  1646  he  placed  on  the  statute-books  of 
and  would  not  allow  cards  or  dice  to  be  Massachusetts  a  law  which  imposed  the 
introduced  into  the  colony.  He  fined  fami-  penalty  of  flogging  for  kissing  a  woman 
lies  whose  young  women  did  not  spin  as  in  the  street,  even  by  way  of  honest  salute, 
much  flax  or  wool  daily  as  the  selectmen  He  rigidly  enforced  this  law  100  years 
had  required  of  them.    He  forbade  all  per-  after  its  enactment,  because  it  was  not  re- 


sons  to  run,  or  even  walk,  "  except  rever- 
ently to  and  from  church,"  on  Sunday; 
and  he  doomed  a  burglar,  because  he  com- 


pealed.  A  British  war-vessel  entered  the 
harbor  of  Boston.  The  captain,  hastening 
to  his  home  in  that  town,  met  his  wife  in 


mitted  a  crime  on  that  sacred  day,  to  have  the  street  and  kissed  her.    He  was  accused, 

one  of  his  ears   cut  off.     He  commanded  found  guilty,  and  mildly  whipped.     Just 

John  Wedgewood  to  be  put  in  the  stocks  before  sailing  on  another  cruise  he  invited 

for   being  in  the   company  of  drunkards,  his   accuser,   the   magistrates,   and   others 

Thomas    Pitt    was    severely   whipped    for  who  approved  the  punishment  to  dine  on 

"  suspicion  of  slander,  idleness,  and  stub-  board  his  vessel.     When  all  were  merry 

bornness."    He  admonished  Captain  Lovell  with  good-cheer  he  ordered  his  boatswain 

to  "  take  heed  of  light  carriage."     Josias  and  mate  to  flog  the  magistrates  with   f. 

332 


PURITANS 


knotted  cat-o'-nine  tails.  It  was  done,  and  Indians  had  embittered  both  parties  the 
the  astonished  guests  were  driven  pell-  expressions  of  pious  men  concernin°-  them 
mell  over  the  side  of  the  ship  into  a  are  shocking  to  the  enlightened  mind  of 
boat  waiting  to  receive  them.  Such  were  to-day.  After  the  massacre  of  the  Pe- 
some  of  the  outward  manifestations  of  quods,  Mather  wrote :  "  It  was  supposed 
Puritanism  in  New  England,  especially  that  no  less  than  five  or  six  hundred 
in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut.  In  Pequod  souls  were  brought  down  to  hell 
Rhode  Island  it  was  softened,  and  finally  that  day."  The  learned  and  pious  Dr. 
it  assumed  an  aspect  of  broader  charity  Increase  Mather,  in  speaking  of  the  ef- 
everywhere.  Its  devotees  were  stern,  con-  ficiency  of  prayer  in  bringing  about  the 
scientious  moralists  and  narrow  relig-  destruction  of  the  Indians,  said :  "  Nor 
ionists.  They  came  to  plant  a  Church  could  they  [the  English]  cease  crying  to 
free  from  disturbance  by  persecution,  and  the  Lord  against  Philip  until  they  had 
proclaimed  the  broad  doctrine  of  liberty  prayed  the  bullet  into  his  heart/'  In 
of  conscience — the  right  to  exercise  private  speaking  of  an  Indian  who  had  sneered 
judgment.  "Unsettled  persons" — Latitu-  at  the  religion  of  the  English,  he  said  that 
dinarian  in  religion — came  to  enjoy  free-  immediately  upon  his  uttering  a  "  hid- 
dom  and  to  disseminate  their  views.  In  eous  blasphemy  a  bullet  took  him  in  the 
that  dissemination  Puritanism  saw  a  head  and  dashed  out  his  brains,  sending 
prophecy  of  subversion  of  its  principles,  his  cursed  soul  in  a  moment  amongst  the 
Alarmed,  it  became  a  persecutor  in  turn,  devils  and  blasphemers  in  hell  forever." 
"  God  forbid,"  said  Governor  Dudley  in  The  feeling  against  the  Indians  at  the 
his  old  age,  "  our  love  for  truth  should  close  of  King  Philip's  War  among  the 
be  grown  so  cold  that  we  should  tolerate  New-Englanders  was  that  of  intense  bit- 
errors — I  die  no  libertine."  "  To  say  that  terness  and  savage  hatred.  It  was  mani- 
men  ought  to  have 
liberty  of  con- 
science is  impious 
ignorance,"  said 
Parson  Ward,  of 
Ipswich,  a  leading 
divine.  "  Religion 
admits  of  no  eccen- 
tric notions,"  said 
Parson  Norton, 
another  leading 
divine  and  per- 
secutor of  so-called 
Quakers  in  Bos- 
ton. 

The  early  set- 
tlers in  New  Eng- 
land regarded  the 
Indians  around 
them  as  something 
less  than  human. 
Cotton  Mather 
took  a  short  meth- 
od of  solving  the 
question    of    their 

origin.  He  guessed  that  "  the  devil  de-  fested  in  many  ways ;  and  when  we  con- 
coyed  the  miserable  savages  hither  in  sider  the  atrocities  perpetrated  by  the 
hope  that  the  Gospel  of  our  Lord  Indians,  we  cannot  much  wonder  at  it. 
Jesus  Christ  would  never  come  here  to  The  captives  who  fell  into  the  hands  of 
destroy  or  disturb  his  absolute  control  the  Rhode  -  Islanders  were  distributed 
over   them."     And   after   wars   with   the    among  them  as  servants  and  slaves.     A 

333 


'^> 


OLD   PURITAN   MEETING  HOI'SE,    HINGHAM,   MASS. 


PUT-IN-BAY— PUTNAM 


large  body  of  Indians,  assembled  at  Dover, 
N.  H.,  to  treat  for  peace,  were  treacherous- 
ly seized  by  Major  Waldron.  About  200 
of  them  were  claimed  as  fugitives  from 
Massachusetts,  and  were  sent  to  Boston, 
where  some  were  hanged  and  the  re- 
mainder sent  to  Bermuda  and  sold  as 
slaves.  To  have  been  present  at  the 
"Swamp  fight"  was  adjudged  by  the  au- 
thorities of  Rhode  Island  sufficient  foun- 
dation for  putting  an  Indian  to  death. 
Death  or  slavery  was  the  penalty  for  all 
known  to  have  shed  English  blood.  Some 
fishermen  at  Mrnblehead  having  been 
killed  by  the  Indians,  some  women  of  that 
town,  coming  out  of  church  on  Sunday 
just  as  two  Indian  prisoners  were  brought 
in,  fell  upon  and  murdered  them.  King 
Philip's  dead  body  was  first  beheaded  and 
then  quartered.  His  head  was  carried  into 
Plymouth  on  a  pole  and  there  exhibited 
for  months.  His  wife  and  son,  made 
prisoners,  were  sent  to  Bermuda  and  sold 
as  slaves.  The  disposition  of  the  boy  was 
warmly  discussed,  some  of  the  elders  of 
the  church  proposing  to  put  him  to  death, 
but  slavery  was  his  final  doom. 

Put-in-Bay.  See  Perry,  Oliver  Haz- 
ard. 

Putman,  Albigence  Waldo,  author, 
born  in  Marietta,  0.,  March  11,  1799; 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  practised  in 
Mississippi  till  1836,  when  he  removed  to 
Nashville,  Tenn.  His  publications  in- 
clude History  of  Middle  Tennessee;  Life 
and  Times  of  Gen.  James  Robertson;  and 
Life  of  Gen.  John  Sevier  in  Wheeler's  His- 
tory of  North  Carolina.  He  died  in  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  Jan.  20,  1869. 

Putnam,  Herbert,  librarian;  born  in 
New  York  City,  Sept.  20,  1861;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1883;  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1885;  practised  at  the  Minne- 
sota and  Massachusetts  bars.  He  became 
librarian  of  the  Minneapolis  Public  Li- 
brary in  1887,  of  the  Boston  Public  Li- 
brary in  1895,  president  of  the  American 
Library  Association  in  1898,  and  librarian 
of  Congress  in  1899.  See  Public  Libra- 
ries. 

Putnam,  Israel,  military  officer;  born 
in  Salem  (the  part  now  Danvers),  Mass., 
Jan.  7,  1718;  he  settled  in  Pomfret,  Conn., 
in  1739,  where  he  acquired  a  good  estate; 
raised  a  company,  and  served  in  the 
French  and  Indian  War  with  so  much  ef- 


ficiency that  in  1757  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  major. 

While  Abercrombie  was  resting  secure- 


334 


ISRAEL   PUTNAM   IN   1776. 

ly  in  his  intrenchments  at  Lake  George 
after  his  repulse  at  Ticonderoga,  two  or 
three  of  his  convoys  had  been  cut  off  by 
French  scouting-parties,  and  he  sent  out 
Majors  Rogers  and  Putnam  to  intercept 
them.  Apprised  of  this  movement,  Mont- 
calm sent  Molang,  an  active  partisan,  to 
waylay  the  English  detachment.  While 
marching  through  the  forest  (August, 
1758),  in  three  divisions,  within  a  mile  of 
Fort  Anne,  the  left,  led  by  Putnam,  fell 
into  an  ambuscade  of  Indians,  who  attack- 
ed the  English  furiously,  uttering  horrid 
yells.  Putnam  and  his  men  fought  brave- 
ly. His  fusee  at  length  missed  fire  with 
the  muzzle  at  the  breast  of  a  powerful 
Indian,  who,  with  a  loud  war-whoop, 
sprang  forward  and  captured  the  brave 
leader.  Binding  Putnam  to  a  tree  (where 
his  garments  were  riddled  by  bullets),  the 
chief  fought  on.  The  Indians  were  de- 
feated, when  his  captor  unbound  Putnam 
and  took  him  deeper  into  the  forest  to 
torture  him.  He  was  stripped  naked  and 
bound  to  a  sapling  with  green  withes. 
Dry  wood  was  piled  high  around  him  and 
lighted,  while  the  Indians  chanted  the 
death-song.  The  flames  were  kindling 
fiercely,  when  a  sudden  thunder-shower 
burst  over  the  forest  and  nearly  extin- 
guished them.  But  they  were  renewed 
with  greater  intensity,  and  Putnam  lost 
all  hope,  when  a  French  officer  dashed 
through  the  crowd  of  yelling  savages,  scat- 
tered the  burning  fagots,  and  cut  the  cords 


PUTNAM,    ISRAEL 


that  bound  the  victim.  It  was 
Molang,  the  leader  of  the  French 
and  Indians,  who  had  heard  of  the 
dreadful  proceedings.  Putnam  was 
delivered  to  Montcalm  at  Ticon- 
deroga,  treated  kindly,  and  sent  a 
prisoner  to  Montreal.  He  was  af- 
terwards exchanged  for  a  prison- 
er captured  by  Bradstreet  at  Fort 
Frontenac,and  was  lieutenant-colo- 
nel at  the  capture  of  Montreal  in 
1760,  and  at  the  capture  of 
Havana  in  1762.  He  was  a  colo- 
nel in  Bradstreet's  Western  expe- 
dition in  1764.  After  the  war  he 
settled  on  a  farm  in  Brooklyn 
township,  Conn.,  where  he  also 
kept  a  tavern. 

On  the  morning  after  the  affairs 
at  Lexington  and  Concord  (April 
20,  1775)  Putnam  was  in  his  field, 
with  tow  blouse  and  leather  apron, 
assisting  hired  men  in  building  a 
stone  wall  on  his  farm.  A  horse- 
man at  full  speed  acquainted  him 
with  the  stirring  news.  He  instant- 
ly set  out  to  arouse  the  militia  of 
the  nearest  town,  and  was  chosen 
their  leader  when  they  were  gather- 
ed. In  his  rough  guise  he  set  out 
for  Cambridge,  and  reached  it  at  sunrise, 
having  ridden  the  same  horse  100  miles 
in  eighteen  hours.  He  was  appointed 
a   provincial    major-general;    was    active 


ISRAEL  PUTNAM   IN   BRITISH   UNIFORM. 

that  time  his  services  were  given  to  his 
country  without  cessation  in  the  Hudson 
Highlands  and  in  western  Connecticut. 
Paralysis  of  one  side  of  his  body  in  1779 
affected  his  physical  condition,  but  did  not 
impair  his  mind,  and  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment until  his  death,  May  19,  1790. 

The  sign  on  Putnam's  tavern  bore  a  full- 
length  portrait  of  General  Wolfe.  In  the 
following  letter,  written  at  the  close  of  the 
Revolutionary  War,  he  alludes  to  his  hav- 
ing been  an  innkeeper: 

"  Brooklyn,  Feb.  18,  1782. 
"  Gentlemen, — Being  an  Enemy  to  Idle- 
ness, Dissipation,  and  Intemperance,  I  would 
object  against  any  measure  that  may  be  con- 
ducive thereto :  and  as  the  multiplying  of 
public-bouses  where  the  public  good  does  not 
require  it  has  a  direct  tendency  to  ruin  the 
morals  of  the  youth,  and  promote  idleness  aud 
intemperance  among  all  ranks  of  people,  espe- 
cially as  the  grand  object  of  those  candidates 
for  license  is  money,  and  where  that  is  the 
case,  men  are  not  apt  to  be  over-tender  of 
...  ,    people's  morals  or  purses.     The  authority  of 

in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill;  and.  this  town,  I  think,  have  run  into  a  great 
was  appointed  one  of  the  first  major-gen-  error  in  approbating  an  additional  number 
erals    of    the    Continental    army.      From    of   public -houses,   especially   In  this   parish. 

335 


Putnam's  sign. 


PUTNAM 


THK   FRENCH   OFFICER   RESCUING   PUTNAM    FROM   THE   INDIANS. 


They  have  approbated  two  houses  in  the  cen- 
tre, where  there  never  was  custom  (I  mean 
travelling  custom)  enough  for  one.  The  other 
custom  (or  domestic),  I  have  been  informed, 
has  of  late  years  increased,  and  the  licensing 
of  another  house,  I  fear,  would  increase  it 
more.  As  I  kept  a  public  house  here  myself 
a  number  of  years  before  the  war,  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  knowing,  and  certainly  do 
know,  that  the  travelling  custom  is  too 
trifling  for  a  man  to  lay  himself  out  so  as 
to  keep  such  a  house  as  travellers  have  a 
right  to  expect ;  therefore  I  hope  your  honors 
will  consult  the  good  of  this  parish,  so  as 
only  to  license  one  of  the  two  houses.  I  shall 
not  undertake  to  say  which  ought  to  be 
licensed  :  your  honors  will  act  according  to 
your  best  information. 

"  I   am,   with  esteem,  your  honors'  humble 
servant,  Israel  Putnam. 

"  To  the  Honorable  County  Court,  to  be  held 
at  Windham  on  the  19th  inst." 


336 


Putnam,  Rttfus,  military  officer;  a 
cousin  of  Gen.  Israel  Putnam;  born  in 
Sutton,  Mass.,  April  9,  1738;  served  in  the 
French  and  Indian  War  from  1757  to 
1760,  and  on  the  surrender  of  Montreal 
(1760)  married  and  settled  in  Brain- 
tree,  Mass.,  as  a  mill-wright.  He  was 
studious ;  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of 
mathematics,  surveying,  and  navigation; 
was  a  deputy  surveyor  in  Florida  before 
the  Revolution;  and  entered  the  army  at 
Cambridge  in  1775  as  lieutenant-colonel. 
The  ability  he  displayed  in  casting  up  de- 
fences at  Roxbury  caused  Washington  to 
recommend  him  to  Congress  as  superior, 
as  an  engineer,  to  any  of  the  Frenchmen 
then  employed  in  that  service.     He  was 


PYLE 


appointed  chief  engineer  (August,  1776),  efforts  of  Cornwallis  to  embody  the  loyal- 
but  soon  afterwards  left  that  branch  of  ists  of  North  Carolina  into  military  corps, 
the  service  to  take  command  of  a  Massa-  In  this  movement  the  gallant  Col.  Henry 
chusetts  regiment.  He  was  with  the  Lee,  with  his  "  Legion,"  was  conspicuous. 
Northern  army  in  1777,  and  in  1778  he,  At  the  head  of  his  cavalry,  he  scoured  the 
with  General  Putnam,  superintended  the  country  around  the  head-waters  of  the 
construction  of  the  fortifications  at  West  Haw  and  Deep  rivers,  where,  by  force  and 
Point.  After  the  capture  of  Stony  Point  stratagem,  he  foiled  Tarleton,  who  was  re- 
he  commanded  a  regiment  in  Wayne's  bri-  cruiting  among  the  Tories  there.     Colonel 


gade,  and  served  to  the  end  of  the  cam- 
paign. He  was  made  a  brigadier-general 
in  1783.  He  was  aide  to  General  Lincoln 
in   quelling   Shays's   insurrection    (1787), 


Pyle,  an  active  loyalist,  had  gathered 
about  400  Tories,  and  was  marching  to 
join  Cornwallis.  Lee's  Legion  greatly  re- 
sembled Tarleton's,  and  he  made  the  coun- 


and  in  1788,  as  superintendent  of  the  try  people  believe  that  he  was  recruiting 
Ohio  Company,  he  founded  Marietta,  the  for  Cornwallis.  Two  prisoners  were  com- 
pelled to  favor  the  deception  or  suf- 
fer instant  death.  Two  well-mounted 
young  men  of  Pyle's  corps  were  so 
deceived,  and  informed  Lee  (suppos- 
ing him  to  be  Tarleton)  of  the  near 
presence  of  that  corps.  Lee  sent 
word  to  Pyle,  by  one  of  the  young 
men,  of  his  approach,  and,  assum- 
ing the  person  of  Tarleton,  requested 
him  to  draw  up  his  corps  on  one  side 
of  the  road,  that  his  wearied  troops 
might  pass  without  delay.  The  order, 
or  request,  was  obeyed.  Lee  intended, 
when  he  should  secure  the  complete 
advantage  of  Pyle,  to  reveal  himself 
and  give  his  Tory  corps  the  choice, 
after  being  disarmed,  to  join  the 
jr  patriot  army  or  return  home.  He  had 
S  ,  ordered  Pickens  to  conceal  his  rifle- 
men near.  Just  as  Lee  (as  Tarleton) 
rode  along  Pyle's  line  (March  2, 
1781),  and  had  grasped  the  hand  of 
the  latter  in  an  apparently  friendly 
salute,  some  of  the  loyalists  discover- 
ed Pickens's  riflemen.  Perceiving  that 
they  were  betrayed,  they  commenced 
firing  upon  the  rear-guard  of  the 
first  permanent  settlement  in  the  eastern  cavalry,  commanded  by  Captain  Eggleston. 
part  of  the  Northwest  Territory.  He  was  That  officer  instantly  turned  upon  the  foe, 
judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  that  Terri-  and  the  movement  was  followed  by  the 
tory  in  1789,  and  was  a  brigadier-general  whole  column.  A  terrible  fight  and 
in  Wayne's  campaign  against  the  Indians,  slaughter  ensued.  Of  the  loyalists,  ninety 
As  United  States  commissioner,  he  made  were  killed  and  a  large  portion  of  the  re- 
important     treaties     with     some     of     the    mainder  wounded  in  a  brief  space  of  time. 


RUFUS    PUTNAM. 


tribes.  He  was  United  States  surveyor- 
general  from  October,  1703,  to  September, 
1S03.  He  died  in  Marietta,  O.,  May  1, 
1824. 

Pyle,  Defeat  of.     Eecrossing  the  Dan 
after    his    famous    retreat    into    Virginia, 


A  cry  for  mercy  was  raised  by  the  loyal- 
ists. It  was  granted  when  the  Americans 
were  assured  of  their  safety.  Colonel 
Pyle,  wounded,  fled  to  the  shelter  of  a 
pond  near  by,  where,  tradition  says,  he 
laid  himself  under  water,  with  nothing  but 


General  Greene  attempted  to  frustrate  the    his  nose  above  it,  until  after  dark,  when 
vn. — Y  337 


PYLE— PYNCHON 


he  crawled  out  and  made  his  way  to  his 
home.  Tarleton,  who  was  near,  fled  to 
Hillsboro,  and  the  disheartened  Tories  re- 
turned to  their  homes.  Cornwallis  wrote: 
"  I  am  among  timid  friends  and  adjoin- 
ing inveterate  rebels." 

Pyle,  Howard,  artist;  born  in  Wilming- 
ton, Del.,  in  1853;  studied  in  the  Art 
Students'  League,  New  York  City;  became 
one  of  the  foremost  blacl:-and-white  ar- 
tists in  the  world.  He  has  published  a 
very  large  number  of  drawings  on  histor- 
ical subjects. 

Pynchon,  John,  son  of  William;  came 


to  America  with  his  father  in  1630;  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  government  of 
Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1652;  one  of  the 
assistants  under  the  royal  charter  of 
Massachusetts  from  1665  to  1686.  He  saw 
active  service  in  King  Philip's  and  the 
first  French  war.  He  died  in  Springfield, 
Jan.  17,  1703. 

Pynchon,  William,  pioneer;  born  in 
Springfield,  England,  about  1590;  removed 
to  New  England  in  1630;  founded  Aga- 
wam,  near  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1636; 
returned  to  England  in  1652,  where  he 
died,  Oct.  29,  1662. 


338 


a 


Quackenbos,  John  Duncan,  physi- 
cian; born  in  New  York  City,  April  22, 
1848;  graduated  at  Columbia  University 
in  1868;  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons in  1871;  appointed  Professor  of  Eng- 
lish Language  and  Literature  in  Columbia 
University,  1884.  Since  1895  he  has  de- 
voted himself  to  his  profession,  making  a 
specialty  of  diseases  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem. Dr.  Quackenbos  is  the  author  of 
History  of  the  World;  Appleton's  Geog- 
raphies; New  England  Roads;  Hypnotism 
in  Mental  and  Moral  Culture,  etc. 

Quaker  Hill,  Battle  at.  In  the  sum- 
mer   of    1778    there    were    6,000    British 


under  D'Estaing,  occupied  Narraganset 
Bay  and  opened  communication  with  the 
American  army,  then  near,  and  10,000 
strong.  The  French  fleet  even  entered 
Newport  Harbor,  and  compelled  the  Brit- 
ish to  burn  or  sink  six  frigates  that  lay 
there.  There  was  a  delay  of  a  week  be- 
fore the  American  army  could  be  made 
ready  to  move  against  the  foe.  Greene 
and  Lafayette  had  both  been  sent  to  aid 
Sullivan,  and  success  was  confidently  ex- 
pected. On  Aug.  10  the  Americans  crossed 
over  the  narrow  strait  at  the  north  end  of 
the  island  in  two  divisions,  commanded 
respectively    by    Greene    and    Lafayette, 


SCENE   OP   THE   ENGAGEMENT    ON   RHODE   ISLAND,   AUG    29,  177H. 
(From  ft  print  In  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  1178.) 


troops  in  Rhode  Island,  commanded  by 
General  Pigot.  His  headquarters  were  at 
Newport.  They  had  held  the  island  since 
late  in  1776.  An  attempt  had  been  made, 
by  a  force  under  General  Spencer,  of  Con- 
necticut, the  year  before,  to  expel  them 
from  the  island,  but  it  failed,  and  that 
officer  resigned  his  commission  and  shortly 
after  entered  Congress.  General  Sullivan 
was  his  successor,  and  he  had  been  direct- 
ed to  call  on  the  New  England  States  for 
5.000  militia.  The  call  was  promptly 
obeyed.  John  Hancock,  as  general,  led  the 
Massachusetts  militia  in  person.  There 
was  much  enthusiasm.     The  French  fleet, 


where  they  expected  to  be  joined  by  the 
4,000  French  troops  of  the  fleet,  according 
to  arrangement.  But  at  that  time  Howe 
had  appeared  off  Newport  with  his  fleet, 
and  D'Estaing  went  out  to  meet  him,  tak- 
ing the  troops  with  him.  A  stiff  wind  was 
then  rising  from  the  northeast,  and  be- 
fore the  two  fleets  were  ready  for  attack 
it  had  increased  to  a  furious  gale,  and  scat- 
tered both  armaments.  The  wind  blew  the 
spray  from  the  ocean  over  Newport,  and 
the  windows  were  incrusted  with  salt. 
The  French  fleet,  much  shattered,  went  to 
Boston  for  repairs,  and  the  storm,  which 
ended   on  the   14th,   spoiled  much  of  the 


339 


QUAKERS 

ammunition  of  the  Americans,  and  dam-  the  British  were  pushed  farther  back.     It 

aged    their    provisions.     Expecting    D'Es-  was    a    hot    and    sultry    day,    and    many 

taint's  speedy  return,  the  Americans  had  perished   by  the   heat.     The   action   ended 

marched  towards  Newport,  and  when  Sul-  at  3  P.M.,  but  a  sluggish  cannonade  was 


VIEW  NORTHWARD   FROM   BUTTS'S   HILL. 

livan  found  he  had  gone  to  Boston,  he  sent  kept  up  until  sunset.     On  the  night  of  the 

Lafayette    to    urge    him    to    return.     The  30th    Sullivan's    army    withdrew    to    the 

militia    began    to    desert,    and    Sullivan's  main.     They  had  lost  about  200  men,  and 

army  was  reduced  to  6,000  men.     He  felt  the    British    260.       Sullivan    made    bitter 

compelled  to  retreat,  and  began  that  move-  complaints    against    D'Estaing,  but    Con- 

ment  on  the  night  of   the  28th,   pursued  gress  soothed  his  wounded  spirit  by  com- 

by   the   British.     The   Americans   made   a  mending  his  course.     The  day  after  Sulli- 


QUAKER   HILL,   FROM   THE  FORT   OX   BCTTS'S   HILL. 


stand  at  Butts's  Hill,  and,  turning,  drove  van  withdrew,  the  British  on  Rhode  Isl- 

the  pursuers  back  to  Quaker  Hill,  where  and   were   reinforced   by   4,000   men   from 

they  had  strong  intrenchments.     There  a  New    York,    led    by    General    Clinton    in 

severe  engagement  occurred  (Aug.  29),  and  person. 


QUAKERS 


Quakers.  The  sect  of  "  Friends,"  who 
were  called  Quakers  in  derision,  was 
founded  at  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  At  first  they  were  called 
"Professors  (or  Children)  of  the  Light," 
because    of    their    fundamental    principle 


340 


that  the  light  of  Christ  within  was  God's 
gift  of  salvation — that  "  Light  which  light- 
eth  every  man  that  cometh  into  the  world." 
It  is  said  that  George  Fox  (q.  v.),  the 
founder  of  the  sect,  when  brought  before 
magistrates  at  Derby,  England,   in    1650, 


QUAKERS 


told  them  to  "quake  before  the  Lord," 
when  one  of  them  (Gervase  Bennet) 
caught  up  the  word  "  quake,"  and  was 
the  first  who  called  the  sect  "  Quakers." 
Tbey  were  generally  known  by  that  name 
afterwards.  They  spread  rapidly  in  Eng- 
land, and  were  severely  persecuted  by  the 
Church  and  State.  At  one  time  there 
were  4,000  of  them  in  loathsome  prisons 
in  England.     The  most  prominent  of  Fox's 


disciples  was  William  Penn,  who  did  much 
to  alleviate  their  sufferings.  Many  died 
in  prison  or  from  the  effects  of  imprison- 
ment. Grievous  fines  were  imposed,  a 
large  portion  of  which  went  to  informers. 
They  were  insulted  by  the  lower  classes; 
their  women  and  children  were  dragged  by 
the  hair  along  the  streets;  their  meeting- 
houses were  robbed  of  their  windows;  and, 
bv  order  of  King  Charles  and  the  Arch- 


A  QUAKER  AT  THE  COUKT  OF  CtfAKUSS  1L 

341 


QUAKERS 


bishop  of  Canterbury,  in  1670,  their  meet- 
ing-houses were  pulled  down;  and  when 
they  gathered  for  worship  beside  the  ruins 
tbey  were  beaten  over  the  head  by  soldiers 
and  dispersed.  In  this  way  many  were 
killed  outright  or  disabled  for  life.     Con- 


Those  who  first  appeared  in  New  England 
and  endured  persecution  there  were  fanat- 
ical and  aggressive,  and  were  not  true  rep- 
resentatives of*the  sect  in  England.  They 
were  among  the  earliest  of  the  disciples  of 
Fox,  whose  enthusiasm  led  their  judg- 
ment; and  some  of 
them  were  abso- 
lutely lunatics  and 
utterly  unlike  the 
sober-minded,  mild- 
mannered  members 
of  that  society 
to  -  day.  They  ran 
into  the  wildest 
extravagances  of 
speech;  openly  re- 
viling magistrates 
and  ministers  of 
the  Gospel  with 
intemperate  lan- 
guage ;  overriding 
the  rights  of  all 
others  in  main- 
taining their  own; 
making  the  most 
exalted  pretensions 
to  the  exclusive 
possession  of  the 
gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit;  scorned  all 
respect  for  human 
laws ;  mocked  the 
institutions  of  the 
country ;  and  two 
or  three  fanatical 
stables  and  informers  broke  into  their  young  women  outraged  decency  by  ap- 
houses.  The  value  of  their  property  de-  pearing  without  clothing  in  the  churches 
stroyed  before  the  accession  of  William  and  in  the  streets,  as  emblems  of 
and  Mary  (1689)  was  estimated  at  $5,-  the  "unclothed  souls  of  the  people"; 
000,000.  Besides  this,  they  were  fined  to  while  others,  with  loud  voices,  proclaimed 
the  amount  of  over  $80,000,  and  their  that  the  wrath  of  the  Almighty  was  about 
goods  were  continually  seized  because  to  fall  like  destructive  lightning  upon 
they  refused  to  pay  tithes,  bear  arms,  or  Boston  and  Salem.  This  conduct,  and 
enroll  themselves  in  the  military  force  of  these  indecencies,  caused  the  passage  of 
the  country.  "  The  purity  of  their  lives,  severe  laws  in  Massachusetts  against  the 
the  patience  with  which  they  endured  in-    Quakers. 

suit  and  persecution  (never  returning  evil  The  first  of  the  sect  who  appeared  there 
for  evil),  their  zeal,  their  devotedness,  were  Mary  Fisher  and  Ann  Austin,  who 
and  their  love  for  each  other  often  com-  arrived  at  Boston  from  Barbadoes  in 
pelled  the  admiration  even  of  magistrates  September  (N.  S.),  1656.  Their  trunks 
whose  orders  oppressed  them."  were  searched,  and  their  books  were  burned 

To  escape  persecution,  many  of  them  by  the  common  hangman  before  they 
emigrated  to  the  Continent,  and  some  to  were  allowed  to  land.  Cast  into  prison, 
the  West  Indies  and  North  America.  In  their  persons  were  stripped  in  a  search  for 
the  latter  places  they  found  persecutors,    body-marks  of  witches.     None  were  found, 

342 


A   yl'AKER    PREACHER   IN    LITCHFIELD,   ENGLAND. 


QUAKERS 


and  they,  being  mild-mannered  women, 
and  innocent,  were  soon  released  and  ex- 
pelled from  Massachusetts  as  "  heretics." 
Nine  other  men  and  women  who  came 
from  London  were  similarly  treated.  Oth- 
ers "  sought  martyrdom  "  in  New  England 
and  found  it.  Some  reviled,  scolded,  and 
denounced  the  authorities  in  Church  and 
State,  railing  at  the  functionaries  from 
windows  as  they  passed  by.  More  and 
more  severe  were  the  laws  passed  against 
the  Quakers.  They  were  banished  on 
pain  of  death.  Three  of  them  who  re- 
turned were  led  to  the  scaffold — two  young 
men  and  Mary  Dyer,  widow  of  the  secre- 
tary of  state  of  Rhode  Island.  The  young 
men  were  hanged;  Mary  was  reprieved 
and  sent  back  to  Rhode  Island.  The  next 
spring  she  returned  to  Boston,  defied  the 
laws,  and  was  hanged.  The  severity  of 
the  laws  caused  a  revulsion  in  public  feel- 
ing. True  Friends  who  came  stoutly 
maintained  their  course  with  prudence, 
and  were  regarded  by  thoughtful  persons 
as  real  martyrs  for  conscience'  sake.  A 
demand  for  the  repeal  of  the  bloody  enact- 
ments caused  their  repeal  in  1661,  when 
the   fanaticism    of   both   parties    subsided 


and  a  more  Christian  spirit  prevailed.  In 
Virginia,  laws  almost  as  severe  as  those 
in  Massachusetts  were  enacted  against  the 
Quakers.  In  Maryland,  also,  where  relig- 
ious toleration  was  professed,  they  were 
punished  as  "  vagabonds  "  who  persuaded 
people  not  to  perform  required  public  du- 
ties. In  Rhode  Island  they  were  not  inter- 
fered with,  and  those  who  sought  martyr- 
dom did  not  go  there.  Some  of  them  who 
did  so  disgusted  Roger  Williams  that  he 
tried  to  argue  them  out  of  the  colony. 

In  September,  1656,  the  authorities  of 
Massachusetts  addressed  to  President  Ar- 
nold, of  Rhode  Island,  an  urgent  letter, 
protesting  against  the  toleration  of  Quak- 
ers allowed  there,  and  intimating  that, 
unless  it  was  discontinued,  it  would  be 
resented  by  total  non-intercourse.  There 
was  then  very  little  sympathy  felt  for 
the  Quakers  in  Rhode  Island,  but  the  au- 
thorities refused  to  persecute  them,  and 
Coddington  and  others  afterwards  joined 
them. 

Governor  Stuyvesant  was  a  strict 
churchman,  and  guarded,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  purity  of  the  ritual  and  doc- 
trines of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  in 


PERSECUTING  A   QUAKER. 

343 


QUAKERS 

New  Netherland.     He  compelled  the  Lu-  a  banished  Quaker,  who  appeared  before 

therans    to    conform,    and    did    not    allow  Governor  Endicott  with  his  hat  on.     The 

other   sects  to  take  root  there.     In   1657  incensed  governor  was  about  to  take  the 

a  ship  arrived  at  New  Amsterdam,  having  usual  brutal  steps  to  send  him  to  prison, 

on    board    several    of    "  the   accursed    sect  after  ordering  an  officer  to  remove  Shat- 

called  Quakers."     They  had  been  banish-  tuck's   hat,   when   the   latter   handed   the 

ed  from  Boston,  and  were  on  their  way  magistrate    the    order    from    the    throne, 

from  Barbadoes  to  Rhode  Island,  "where  Endicott  was  thunderstruck.     He  handed 

all  kinds  of  scum  dwell,"  wrote  Dominie  back  Shattuck's  hat  and  removed  his  own 

Megapolenses,  "  for  it  is  nothing  else  than  in  deference  to  the  presence  of  the  King's 

a    sink    of    New    England."     Among    the  messenger.     He  read  the  papers,  and,  di- 

Friends  were  Dorothy  Waugh   and  Mary  recting  Shattuck  to  withdraw,  simply  re- 

Witherhead.     They   went    from    street    to  marked,    "  We    shall    obey    his    Majesty's 

street  in  New  Amsterdam,  preaching  their  commands."      A    hurried    conference    was 

new  doctrine  to  the  gathered  people.  Stuy-  held  with  the  other  magistrates  and  min- 

vesant    ordered   the   women    to    be    seized  isters.     They  dared  not  send  the  accused 

and  cast  into  prison,  where,  for  eight  days,  persons    to    England,    for    they   would    be 

they    were    imprisoned    in    dirty,    vermin-  swift  witnesses  against  the  authorities  of 

infested   cells,   with   their   hands   tied   be-  Massachusetts;    so   they   ordered   William 

hind  them,  when  they  were  sent  on  board  Sutton,  keeper  of  the  Boston  jail,  to  set 

the  ship  in  which  they  came,  to  be  trans-  all    the    Quakers    free.      So    ended    their 

ported  to  Rhode  Island.     Robert  Hodgson,  severe   persecution  in  New   England;    but 

who  determined  to  remain  in  New  Nether-  the  magistrates   continued   for   some  time 

land,    took   up    his    abode   at    Hempstead,  to    whip    Quaker    men    and    women,    half 

where  a  few  Quakers  were  quietly  settled,  naked,  through  the  streets  of  Boston  and 

There  he  held  a  meeting,  and  Stuyvesant  Salem,  until  peremptorily  forbidden  to  do 

ordered  him  to  his  prison  at  New  Amster-  so  by  the  King. 

dam.     Tied  to  the  tail  of  a  cart  wherein  After  Massachusetts  had  suspended  its 

sat  two  young  women,  offenders  like  him-  laws  against  Quakers,  Parliament  made  a 

self,  he  was  driven  by  a  band  of  soldiers  law     (1662)     which    provided    that    every 

during   the   night   through    the    woods    to  live   Quakers,   meeting   for   religious   wor- 

the  city,  where  he  was  imprisoned  in  "  a  ship,  should  be  fined,  for  the  first  offence, 

filthy  jail,"  under  sentence  of  such  con-  $25;   for  the  second  offence,  $50;  and  for 

finement  for  two  years,  to  pay  a  heavy  the  third  offence  to  abjure  the  realm  on 

fine,  and  to  have  his  days  spent  in  hard  oath,  or  be  transported  to  the  American 

labor,   chained   to  a  wheel-barrow  with   a  colonies.     Many  refused  to  take  the  oath, 

negro,  who  lashed  him  with  a  heavy  tarred  and    were    transported.      By    an    act    of 

rope.      He   was    subjected   to    other    cruel  the   Virginia   legislature,   passed   in   1662, 

treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  governor,  every  master  of  a  vessel   who  should  im- 

until    the   Dutch   people,    as   well    as    the  port  a  Quaker,  unless  such  as  had  been 

English,     cried     "Shame!"      There    were  shipped  from  England  under  the  above  act, 

no   other   persecutions   of   the   Friends   in  was   subjected   to   a   fine  of  5,000   lbs.   of 

New  Netherland  after  Hodgson's  release,  tobacco  for  the  first  offence.     Severe  lawa 

The   executions  of  Mary  Dyer   in    1660  against    other    sectaries    were    passed    in 

and    William    Leddra    in    1661,    both    in  Virginia,  and  many  of  the  Non-conformists 

Boston,    caused    an    amazing    addition    to  in  that  colony,  while  Berkeley  ruled,  fled 

the    number    of    converts    to    Quakerism,  deep  into  the  wilderness  to  avoid  persecu- 

The    same    year    monthly    meetings    were  tion. 

established  in  several  places  in  New  Eng-  Because  the  Friends  refused  to  perform 

land,    and    not    long    afterwards    quarter-  military  duty  or  take  an  oath  in  Maryland 

ly  meetings  were  organized.     On  hearing  they  were  subject  to  fines  and  imprison- 

of  the  death  of  Leddra,  Charles  II.   sent  ment,  but  were  not  persecuted  there  on  ac- 

an   order   to   Endicott   to   stop   the   perse-  count  of  their  religious  views.     When,  in 

cutions   and   to   send   all   accused   persons  1676,   George   Fox   was   in   Maryland,   his 

to    England    for    trial.      This    order    was  preaching   was   not   hindered.      He   might 

sent   by    the   hand   of    Samuel    Shattuck,  be.  seen  on  the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake, 

344 


QUAKERS 


preaching  at  the  evening  twilight,  when  the  emigrants  had  come.  The  name  was 
the  labors  of  the  day  were  over,  to  a  multi-  corrupted  to  Burlington,  which  it  still 
tude  of  people,  comprising  members  of  the  bears.  There  the  passengers  of  the  Kent 
legislature  and  other  distinguished  men  settled,  and  were  soon  joined  by  many 
of  the  province, 
yeomen,  and  large 
groups  of  Indians, 
with  chiefs  and 
sachems,  their 
wives  and  chil- 
dren, all  led  by 
their   emperor. 

Fenwick,   one   of 
the    purchasers    of 
west  Jersey,  made 
the  first  settlement 
of  members  of  his 
sect    at     Salem. 
Liberal  offers  were 
made     to     Friends 
in  England  if  they 
would   settle   in 
New  Jersey,  where 
they  would  be  free 
from    persecution, 
and  in  1677  several 
hundred    came 
over.     In  March  a 
company  of  230 
came    in    the    ship 
Kent.     Before  they 
sailed    King 
Charles  gave  them 
his   blessing.     The 
Kent  reached  New 
York     in     August, 
with    commission- 
ers to  manage  pub- 
lic  affairs    in    New  an  old  quaker  house,  Newcastle,  del. 
Jersey.     The   ar- 
rival was   reported   to   Andros,   who  was 
governor  of  New  York,  and  claimed  polit- 
ical   jurisdiction    over    the   Jerseys.     Fen- 
wick,    who     denied     the     jurisdiction     of 
the     Duke     of     York     in     the     collection 
of   customs   duties,   was   then    in    custody 
at     New     York,     but     was     alHwed     to 
depart    with    the    other    Friends,    on    his 
own    recognizance   to    answer    in    the   au- 
tumn.    On  Aug.    16  the   Kent  arrived  at 
New  Castle,  but  it  was  three  months  be- 
fore a  permanent  place  was  settled  upon. 
That   place   was   on   the   Delaware   River, 
and  was  first  named  Beverly.     Afterwards 
it  was  called  Bridlington,  after  a  parish 
in  Yorkshire,   England,   whence  many  of 


others.  The  village  prospered,  and  other 
settlements  were  made  in  its  vicinity. 
Nearly  all  the  settlers  in  west  Jersey 
were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
or  Quakers.  One  of  the  earliest  erected 
buildings  for  the  public  worship  of 
Friends  in  New  Jersey  was  at  Crosswicks, 
about  half-way  between  Allentown  and 
the  Delaware  River.  Before  the  Revolu- 
tion they  built  a  spacious  meeting-house 
there  of  imported  brick. 

From  the  founding  of  the  government 
of  Pennsylvania  the  rule  of  the  colony 
was  held  by  the  Quakers,  they  being  more 
numerous  than  others.  When  wars  with 
the  French  and  Indians  afflicted  the  colo- 


345 


QUAKERS 


FRIENDS'  MEETING-HOUSE   AT    CROSSW1CKS,  N.  J. 

nies  their  peace  principles  made  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Assembly  of  that  sect  oppose 
appropriations  of  men  and  money  for  war 
purposes.  When,  in  1755,  the  frontiers 
of  Pennsylvania  were  seriously  threatened, 
the  Quakers,  though  still  a  majority  in 
the  Assembly,  could  no  longer  resist  the 
loud  cry  "  To  arms  "  in  Philadelphia  and 
re-echoed  from  the  frontiers.  The  hostile 
Indians   were   among   the   Juniata   settle- 


the  amount  was  intrusted  to  a  committee 
of  seven,  of  whom  a  majority  were  mem- 
bers of  the  Assembly;  and  these  became 
the  managers  of  the  war,  now  formally 
declared,  against  the  Delawares  and  Shaw- 
nees.  So  the  golden  chain  of  friendship 
which  bound  the  Indians  to  William  Penn 
was  first  broken.  This  was  the  first  time 
the  Quakers  were  driven  into  an  open  par- 
ticipation in  war.  Some  of  the  more  con- 
scientious resigned  their  seats  in  the  As- 
sembly, and  others  declined  a  re-election. 
So  it  was  that,  in  1755,  the  rule  of  the 
Quakers  in  the  administration  of  public 
affairs  in  Pennsylvania  came  to  an  end. 

The  "  Testimony  "  of  Friends,  or  Quak- 
ers, at  their  yearly  meeting  in  Philadel- 
phia in  May,  1775,  against  the  movements 
of  the  American  patriots  attracted  special 
attention  to  that  body.  The  papers  and  rec- 
ords of  their  yearly  meeting  in  New  Jer- 
sey, captured  by  Sullivan  in  his  expedition 
against  the  loyalist  regiments  on  Staten 
Island,  gave   Congress   the  first  proof  of 


raents.  The  proprietary  party  success- 
fully stirred  up  the  people.  After  a  sharp 
struggle,  the  Assembly,  in  consideration 
of  a  voluntary  subscription  of  £5,000  by 
the  proprietaries,  consented  to  levy  a  tax 
of  £50,000,  from  which  the  estates  of  the 
latter  were  exempted.    The  expenditure  of 


the  general  disaffection  of  the  society. 
The  Congress  recommended  the  executives 
of  the  several  colonies  or  States  to  watch 
their  movements;  and  the  executive  coun- 
cil of  Pennsylvania  were  earnestly  ex- 
horted to  arrest  and  secure  the  persons 
of  eleven  of  the  leading  men  of  that  so- 


346 


QUAKERS— QUAY 

ciety  in  Philadelphia,  whose  names  were  sharply  did  Keith  criticise  the  shortcom- 

given.     It  was  done,  Aug.  28,   1777,  and  ings  of  his  co-religionists  that  he  was  dis- 

John  Fisher,  Abel  James,  James  Pember-  owned   by   the   Yearly  Meeting,   when   he 

ton,    Henry    Drinker,    Israel    Pemberton,  forthwith  instituted  a  meeting  of  his  own, 

John    Pemberton,    John    James,    Samuel  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  "  Christian 

Pleasants,  Thomas  Wharton,  St.,  Thomas  Quakers."     A    Testimony   of   Denial   was 

Fisher,  and  Samuel  Fisher,  leading  mem-  put  forth  against  Keith,  who  replied  in  a 

bers,  were  banished  to  Fredericksburg,  Va.  published   address,   in   which    he   handled 

The  reason  given  by  Congress  for  this  act  his  adversaries  without  mercy.    The  Quak- 

was  that  when  the  enemy  were  pressing  er  magistrates  fined  him  for  "  insolence," 

on    towards    Philadelphia    in    December,  and   William   Bradford,   the  only  printer 

1777,  a  certain  seditious  publication,  ad-  in  the  colony,  was  called  to  account  for 

dressed  "  To  our  Friends  and  Brethren  in  having  published  Keith's  address.    He  was 

Religious  Profession  in  these  and  the  ad-  discharged,   but   was   so   annoyed   that  he 

jacent    Provinces,"    signed   John    Pember-  removed    his    printing    business    to    New 

ton,  in  and  on  behalf  of  the  "  Meeting  of  York. 

Sufferings,"  held  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  26,  Quarantine  Law,  First.  A  profitable 
1776,  had  been  widely  circulated  among  trade  had  been  opened  between  Massa- 
Friends  throughout  the  States.  At  the  chusetts  and  Barbadoes  and  other  West 
same  time  the  Congress  instructed  the  India  islands,  when,  in  the  summer  of 
board  of  war  to  send  to  Fredericksburg  1647,  there  was  a  wasting  epidemic  in  those 
John  Penn,  the  governor,  and  Benjamin  islands,  carrying  off  6,000  people  in  Bar- 
Chew,  chief-justice  of  Pennsylvania,  for  badoes,  and  nearly  as  many  in  the  other 
safe  custody.  While  the  British  army  was  islands,  proportionably  to  their  population. 
in  Philadelphia  in  1778,  Joseph  Galloway,  The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts,  on 
an  active  Tory,  and  others  employed  John  hearing  of  the  disease,  published  an  order 
Roberts  and  Abraham  Carlisle,  members  that  all  vessels  which  should  come  from 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  as  secret  agents  the  West  Indies  should  stay  at  the  Castle 
in  detecting  foes  to  the  British  govern-  at  the  entrance  to  the  harbor,  and  not 
ment.  Carlisle  was  a  sort  of  inquisitor-  land  any  passengers  or  goods  without  li- 
general,  watching  at  the  entrances  to  the  cense  from  three  of  the  council,  under  a 
city,  pointing  out  and  causing  the  arrest  penalty  of  $500.  A  like  penalty  was  im- 
of  Whigs,  who  were  first  cast  into  prison  posed  upon  any  person  visiting  such  quar- 
and  then  granted  permission  to  pass  the  antined  vessel  without  permission.  A  sim- 
lines.  Both  Roberts  and  Carlisle  acted  as  ilar  order  was  sent  to  Salem  and  other 
guides  to  British  expeditions  when  they  ports.  The  nature  of  the  epidemic  is  not 
went  out  of  Philadelphia  to  fall  upon  and  known,  but  yellow  fever  has  been  alleged, 
massacre  their  countrymen.  These  facts  Quartering  Act.  A  clause  inserted  in 
being  laid  before  Congress,  that  body  the  British  mutiny  act  in  1765  author- 
caused  the  arrest  of  Roberts  and  Car-  ized  the  quartering  of  troops  upon  the 
lisle.  They  were  tried,  found  guilty,  and  English-American  colonies.  By  a  special 
hanged.  enactment  known  as  the  "  quartering 
Quakers,  Christian.  In  1692  there  act,"  the  colonies  in  which  they  were 
was  a  schism  among  the  Friends,  or  stationed  were  required  to  find  quarters, 
Quakers,  in  Pennsylvania,  caused  by  the  firewood,  bedding,  drink,  soap,  and  can- 
action  of  George  Keith,  a  Scotch  Friend,  dies. 

formerly  surveyor  of  east  Jersey,  and  at  Quay,    Matthew   Stanley,    legislator: 

this  time  master   of  the   Friends'   school  born   in   Dillsbury,    Pa.,    Sept.    30,    1833; 

at  Philadelphia.     He  was  a  champion  of  graduated   at  Jefferson   College   in    1850; 

the  Quakers  against  Cotton  Mather  and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1854;  became  lieu- 

the    Boston    ministers.     He    pressed    the  tenant  in  the  10th  Pennsylvania  Reserves 

doctrine    of    non-resistance    to    its    logical  in    1861;    promoted   colonel   of   the    134th 

conclusion,    that    this    principle    was    not  Pennsylvania  Volunteers  in  August,  1862; 

consistent   with    the   exercise   of   political  member  of  the  Pennsylvania  legislature  in 

authority.    He  also  attacked  negro  slavery  1864-66 ;    secretary  of  the  commonwealth 

as  inconsistent  with  those  principles.     So  in  1872-78;  and  was  elected  United  States 

347 


QUEBEC 

Senator  in  1887,  1893,  and  1901.  In  1889  April  21,  1889,  Governor  Stone  issued  to 
he  was  indicted  for  alleged  misappropria-  Mr.  Quay  a  recess  appointment  certificate, 
tion  of  public  funds,  but  was  acquitted,  but  this  was  not  accepted  by  the  Senate, 
after  a  sensational  hearing,  April  21.  The  which,  on  April  24,  1900,  declared  the  cre- 
same  year  he  was  a  candidate  for  re-elec-  dentials  offered  invalid.  On  Jan.  15,  1901, 
tion  to  the  United  States  Senate;  the  the  legislature  elected  him  for  the  remain- 
legislature  got  into  a  deadlock,  and  ad-  der  of  the  term  ending  March  4,  1905.  He 
journed    without    making    a    choice.      On  died  in  Beaver,  Pa.,  May  28,  1904. 

QUEBEC 

Quebec.  The  New  England  colonies  and  7,000  men.  When  the  ships  arrived  at 
New  York  formed  a  bold  design,  in  1690,  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  after  loiter- 
to  subject  Canada  to  the  crown  of  Eng-  ing  by  the  way,  they  were  overtaken  by  a 
land.  An  armament  was  fitted  out  for  storm  and  thick  fog.  They  were  in  a 
operations  by  sea  and  land.  The  naval  perilous  place  among  rocks  and  shoals. 
arm  of  the  service  was  placed  under  the  Walker's  New  England  pilots,  familiar 
command  of  Sir  William  Phipps,  who,  with  the  coast,  told  him  so;  but  he 
without  charts  or  pilots,  crawled  cautious-  haughtily  rejected  their  information,  and 
ly  along  the  shores  around  Acadia  and  up  relied  wholly  on  French  pilots,  who  were 
the  St.  Lawrence,  consuming  nine  weeks  interested  in  deceiving  him.  On  the  night 
on  the  passage.  A  swift  Indian  runner  of  Sept.  2  his  fleet  was  driving  on  the 
had  carried  news  of  the  expedition  from  shore.  Just  as  the  admiral  was  going 
Pemaquid  to  Frontenac,  at  Montreal,  in  to  bed,  the  captain  of  his  flag-ship  came 
time  to  allow  him  to  hasten  to  Quebec  down  to  him  and  said,  "Land  is  in  sight; 
and  strengthen  the  fortifications  there,  we  are  in  great  danger."  He  did  not  be- 
Phipps  did  not  arrive  until  Oct.  5.  Im-  lieve  it.  Presently  a  provincial  captain 
mediate  operations  were  necessary  on  ac-  rushed  down  and  exclaimed,  "  For  the 
count  of  the  lateness  of  the  season.  He  Lord's  sake,  come  on  deck,  or  we  shall 
sent  a  flag  demanding  the  instant  surren-  be  lost!"  Leisurely  putting  on  his  gown 
der  of  the  city  and  fortifications.  His  and  slippers,  the  admiral  ascended  to  the 
summons  was  treated  with  disdain.  After  deck  and  saw  the  imminent  peril.  His 
being  prevented  from  landing  near  the  city  orders  given  to  secure  safety  were  too 
by  a  gale,  he  debarked  a  large  body  of  his  late.  The  vessels  were  driven  on  the 
troops  at  the  Isle  of  Orleans,  about  3  miles  rocks,  and  eight  of  them  were  lost.  In 
below  the  town,  where  they  were  attack-  the  disaster  almost  1,000  men  perished, 
ed  by  the  French  and  Indians.  There  the  At  a  council  of  war  held  a  few  days  after- 
English  remained  until  the  11th,  when  wards,  it  was  determined  to  abandon  the 
a  deserter  gave  them  such  an  account  of  expedition,  and  Nicholson,  with  his  ships, 
the  strength  of  Quebec  that  Phipps  aban-  returned  to  England,  while  the  troops 
doned  the  enterprise,  hastily  re-embarked  were  sent  to  Boston.  The  arrogant  Walk- 
his  troops,  and  crawled  back  to  Bos-  er  actually  claimed  credit  for  himself  in 
ton  with  his  whole  fleet,  after  it  had  been  retreating,  falsely  charging  the  disaster 
dispersed  by  a  tempest.  to   the  New   England   pilots,   and   saying: 

After  the  reduction  of  Port  Royal,  in  "  Had  we  arrived  safe  at  Quebec,  ten  or 
1711,  Colonel  Nicholson  went  again  to  twelve  thousand  men  must  have  been  left 
England  to  solicit  an  expedition  against  to  perish  with  cold  and  hunger;  by  the 
Canada.  The  ministry  acceded  to  his  loss  of  a  part,  Providence  saved  all  the 
proposal,  and  a  sufficient  armament  was  rest."  His  government  did  not  reward 
ordered  for  the  grand  enterprise.  Nichol-  him  for  helping  Providence.  Governor 
son  hastened  back,  gave  notice  to  the  col-  Vaudreuil,  at  Montreal,  advised  of  the 
onies,  and  prepared  for  the  invasion  of  movement,  had  sent  out  Jesuit  mission- 
Canada  by  sea  and  land.  Admiral  Walk-  aries  and  other  agents  to  gather  Indian 
er  commanded  the  fleet  of  sixty-eight  ves-  allies,  and,  hastening  to  Quebec,  strength- 
sels  of  war  and  transports,  bearing  about  ened  the  fortifications  there.     So  enthus$« 

348 


QUEBEC 


OLD   TOWN  AND  RAMPARTS,   QUEBEC. 


astic  were  the  people  in  preparing  for  de-  8.000  troops,  in  transports,  under  a  convoj 

fence  that  women  worked  on  the  forts.  of  twenty-two   line-of-battle  ships  and  as 

Another   expedition    for   the   capture   of  many  frigates  and  smaller  armed  vessel*, 

Quebec   was   fitted   out   in   the   spring  of  commanded     by     Admirals     Holmes     and 

1759,  and  placed  under  the  command  of  Saunders.     On    June    27    he    landed    his 

Gen.  James  Wolfe,  then  only  thirty-three  troops  on  the  Isle  of  Orleans.     Quebec  oc- 

years   of   age.       He   left   Louisburg   with  cupied     a    strong    position     for     defence 

349 


QUEBEC 


against  attack.  It  consisted  of  an  upper 
and  a  lower  town  on  a  point  of  land  at  the 
confluence  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  its 
tributary  the  St.  Charles.  The  lower 
town  was  built  on  a  narrow  beaoh  at  the 
water's  edge  of  both  rivers;  the  upper 
town  occupied  a  high  rocky  cape,  rising  at 
one  point  300  feet  above  the  river,  and  ex- 
tending  back   some   distance    in    a    lofty 


Canadians  and  Indians.  This  camp  was 
strongly  intrenched,  and,  overhanging  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  extending  a  great  dis- 
tance above  Quebec,  the  Heights,  almost 
perpendicular  on  the  river-front,  seemed  to 
present  an  almost  impregnable  barrier 
of  defence.  Wolfe  found  a  great  advan- 
tage in  his  naval  superiority,  which  gave 
him  full  command  of  the  river.     On  the 


\-as£\\.a-9JsM\.T* 


MONTCALM'S    HEADQUARTERS. 


plateau,  called  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  south  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  opposite 
The  upper  town  was  sui  rounded  by  a  forti-  Quebec,  was  Point  Levi,  occupied  by  some 
fled  wall.  At  the  mouth  of  the  St.  French  troops.  This  post  Wolfe  seized 
Charles  the  French  had  moored  several  (July  30)  without  much  opposition,  on 
floating  batteries,  and,  apprised  of  the  ex-  which  he  erected  batteries.  From  there 
pedition,  had  taken  vigorous  measures  to  he  hurled  hot  shot  upon  the  city,  which  de- 
strengthen  the  port.  Beyond  the  St.  stroyed  the  cathedral  and  did  much  dam- 
Charles,  and  between  it  and  the  Mont-  age  to  the  lower  town,  but  which  had  very 
morency,  a  river  which  enters  the  St.  Law-  little  effect  upon  the  strong  fortifications 
rence  a  few  miles  below  Quebec,  lay  Mont-  of  the  upper  town.  Wolfe  then  deter- 
calm's  army,  almost  equal  in  numbers  to  mined  to  land  below  the  mouth  of  the 
that  of   Wolfe,   but  composed   largely   of    Montmorency    and    bring   Montcalm    into 

action.  For  this  purpose  he  caused  a  large 
force  to  be  landed,  under  Generals  Town- 
shend  and  Murray  (July  10),  who  were 
to  force  the  passage  of  the  Montmorency. 
But  the  French  were  so  strongly  posted 
that  such  action  was  deferred.  Finally 
General  Monckton,  with  grenadiers,  cross- 
ed the  river  from  Point  Levi  and  landed 
upon  the  beach  at  the  foot  of  the  high 
bank,  just  abov°  the  Montmorency.  Mur- 
ray and  Townshend  were  ordered  to  cross 
that  stream  above  the  great  falls  and  co- 
operate with  Monckton,  but  the  latter 
was  too  eager  for  attack  to  await  their 
coming.  He  unwisely  rushed  forward,  but 
was  soon  repulsed  and  compelled  to  take 
shelter  behind  a  block-house  near  the 
beach,  just  as  a  thunder-storm,  which  had 
350 


NEAR   THE    PLACE  WHKHE  WOLFE   LANDED. 


QUEBEC 


MAP   OF   BATTLE    OP    QUEBEC. 


foot  of  a  narrow  ravine,  a  short  distance 
above  the  town,  that  led  up  to  the  Plains 
of  Abraham.  At  midnight  the  troops  left 
the  ships,  and  in  flat-bottomed  boats,  with 
muffled  oars,  went  down  to  the  designated 
landing-place,  where  they  disembarked. 
At  dawn  (Sept.  13)  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Howe  (afterwards  Gen.  Sir  William 
Howe)  led  the  van  up  the  tangled  ravine 
in  the  face  of  a  sharp  fire  from  the  guard 
above.  After  a  brief  struggle  they  reach- 
ed the  plain,  drove  off  a  small  force  there, 
and  covered  the  ascent  of  the  main  body, 
been  gathering  for  some  time,  burst  in  In  early  morning  the  whole  British  force 
fury  upon  the  combatants.  Before  it  was  upon  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  ready 
ceased  night  came  on,  and  the  roar  of  to  attack  the  city  at  its  weakest  points, 
the  rising  tide  warned  the  English  to  take 
to  their  boats.  In  the  battle  and  the  flood 
500  of  the  English  perished.  Various  de- 
vices were  conceived  for  destroying  the 
French  shipping,  to  draw  out  the  garri- 
son, and  to  produce  alarm.  A  magazine 
and  many  houses  were  fired  and  burned, 
but  it  was  impossible  to  cut  out  the 
French  shipping. 

Two  months  passed  away;  very  little 
progress  had  been  made  towards  conquest; 
and  no  other  intelligence  had  been  received 
from  Amherst  than  a  report  by  the  enemy 
that  he  had  retreated.  The  season  for  ac- 
tion was  rapidly  passing.  The  prospect 
was  discouraging;  yet  Wolfe,  though  pros- 
trated by  sickness,  was  full  of  hope.  He 
called  a  council  of  officers  at  his  bedside, 
and,  on  the  suggestion  of  General  Town- 
shend,  it  was  resolved  to  scale  the  Heights 
of  Abraham  from  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
assault  the  town.  A  plan  was  instantly 
matured,  and,  feeble  as  Wolfe  was  from 
the  effects  of  fever,  he  resolved  to  lead  the 
assault  in  person.  The  camp  below  the 
Montmorency  was  broken  up  ( Sept.  8 ) , 
and  the  attention  of  Montcalm  was  divert- 
ed from  the  real  designs  of  the  English 
by  seeming  preparations  to  attack  his 
lines.  Even  De  Bougainville,  whom  Mont- 
calm had  sent  up  the  river  with  1,500 
men  to  guard  against  an  attack  above  the 
town,  had  no  suspicions  of  their  inten- 
tions, so  secretly  and  skilfully  had  the 
affair  been  managed.  The  troops  had  been 
withdrawn  from  the  Isle  of  Orleans  and 
placed  on  shipboard,  and  on  the  evening 

of  Sept.  12  the  vessels  moved  up  the  It  was  an  apparition  unexpected  to  the 
stream  several  miles  above  the  intended  vigilant  Montcalm.  He  instantly  put  his 
landing-place,  which  was  at  a  cove  at  the    troops  in  motion  to  meet  the  impending 

351 


JIu.sT.\IUKE.\0     FALLS. 


QUEBEC 


peril  of  the  city.  He  crossed  the  St. 
Charles,  and  between  9  and  10  a.m.  the 
English  were  confronted  by  the  French 
army  on  the  plains. 

A  general  battle  quickly  ensued.     Eight 


WOLFE'S    FIRST    MONUMENT. 


or  ten  6-pounders,  dragged  up  the  heights 
by  sailors,  were  brought  into  play  after 
the  action  began.  The  French  had  only 
two    small    field-pieces.      The   contending 


generals  were  respectively  stationed  on  the 
right  of  the  English  and  the  left  of  the 
French,  opposite  each  other,  and  there  the 
battle  raged  fiercest.  Wolfe,  though  twice 
wounded,  continued  to  give  orders.  Hia 
grenadiers  were  pressing  the  French  back, 
when,  a  third  time,  he  was  wounded,  and 
mortally.  English  bayonets  and  the  broad- 
swords of  the  Scotch  Highlanders  at  length 
began  to  make  the  French  line  waver. 
At  that  moment  Montcalm  fell,  mortally 
wounded,  and  the  whole  French  line 
broke  into  disorder  and  fled.  Monckton. 
who  had  taken  the  command,  was  severely 
wounded.  Townshend  continued  the  battle 
until  the  victory  was  won.  Of  the  French, 
500  were  killed,  and  1,000  (including  the 
wounded)  were  made  prisoners.  The  Eng- 
lish lost  GOO  killed  and  wounded.  General 
Townshend  then  prepared  to  besiege  the 
city.  Threatened  famine  within  aided 
him,  and  five  days  after  the  death  of 
Wolfe  (Sept.  18,  1759),  Quebec,  with  its 
fortifications,  shipping,  stores,  and  people, 
was  surrendered  to  the  English,  when 
5,000  troops,  led  by  General  Murray,  took 


THE    CITADEL,    QUEBEC. 

352 


QUEBEC 

possession  of  the  whole.  The  English  fleet,  1759),  ascended  to  the  Plains  of  Abra- 
with  the  sick  and  French  prisoners,  sailed  ham,  marched  towards  the  two  gates  of 
for  Halifax.     A  truncated  column  of  gran-    the  city  opening  on  the  plain,  and  order- 


U0EI1EC   FKOM   THK   ST     LAWRENCE 


ite  was  erected  on  the  spot  where  Wolfe  ed  his  men  to  give  three  cheers  to  bring 

fell.     Relic-seekers   broke   it   into   an   un-  out  the  regulars  to  attack  him,  when  he 

attractive  mass,  and  it  was  removed  for  hoped  to  rush  in  through  the  open  gates, 

a   more    stately    structure.       See    Wolfe,  and   by  the  assistance  of  friends  within 

James.  the   walls    to    seize    the    city.      The   com- 

On  the  day  after  Montgomery  entered  mander  there  paid  little  attention  to  him, 

Montreal  in  triumph  (Nov.  13,  1775),  Col.  and  after  making  a  ridiculous  display  of 

Benedict     Arnold,    with     750     half-naked  arrogance   and   folly   for   a   few   days   by 

men,  having  not  more  than  400   muskets  issuing  proclamations  and  demanding  the 

and  no  artillery,  stood  before  the  walls  of  surrender  of  the  city,  he  was  startled  by 

Quebec.     He  boldly  demanded  its   surren-  news  of  the  descent  of  the  St.   Lawrence 

der.      He    had    reached    Point    Levi    four  by  Carleton,  and  that  the  garrison  were 

days  before,  at  the  end  of  a  terrible  march  about   to   sally  out  and   attack  him   with 

through  the  wilderness.     Veiled  in  falling  field-pieces.     He  had  been  joined  by  the 

snow,    they    had    appeared    like    a    super-  200  troops  he  had  left  at  Point  Levi,  but 

natural     apparition — a     spectral     army —  his  numbers  were  still  so  few  and  without 

on  the  bleak  shore.     The  man  who  carried  cannon,    that    he    prudently    fled    up    the 

the    news    of    their    advent    into    Quebec  river  to  Point  Aux  Trembles,  and  there 

created    great    consternation    there.      He  awaited    instructions    from    Montgomery, 

said,   in   French,   that   they  were  vetu  en  The   latter   had   left   troops   in   charge   of 

toile — clothed  in  linen  cloth — referring  to  General  Wooster,  at  Montreal,  and  with  a 

Morgan's   riflemen    in   their   linen    frocks,  few    soldiers    who    had    agreed    to    follow 

The   last   word   was    mistaken    for   tole —  him  he  went  towards  Quebec.    He  met  Ar- 

iron    plate — and    the    message    created    a  nold's   shivering  soldiers  on   Dec.   3,   and 

panic.      Detained    by    the    storm,    Arnold  took    command    of   the    combined    troops, 

crossed  the  river  on  the  night  of  the  13th  With  woollen  clothing  Avhich  he  took  with 

with   500  men  in  bark   canoes,  landed  at  him   he   clothed   Arnold's   men,   and   with 

Wolfe's    Cove     (wh>re    Wolfe    landed    in  the  combined  force,  less  than  1,000  strong, 
vn. — z                                                       353 


QUEBEC 


and  200  Canadian  volunteers  under  Col. 
James  Livingston,  he  pressed  forward, 
and  stood  before  Quebec  on  the  evening  of 
the  5th. 

On  the  following  morning  he  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  city  and  garrison 
of  Governor  Carleton,  when  the  flag  which 
he  sent  was  fired  upon.  Montgomery  sent 
a  letter  to  Carleton,  but  the  latter  re- 
fused to  have  any  communication  with 
a  "rebel  general."  The  latter  prepared 
to  assail  the  walled  town  with  his  hand- 
ful of  ill- supplied  men,  exposed  to  tem- 
pest and  cold  on  the  bleak  plain.  He 
made  an  ice-redoubt  and  planted  upon  it 
six   12-pound   cannon   and  two   howitzers 


pox  appeared  among  them.  Quarrels  be- 
tween Arnold  and  several  of  his  officers 
alienated  some  of  the  troops,  and  it  ap- 
peared at  one  time  as  if  a  dissolution  of 
the  little  invading  army  was  imminent. 
On  Christmas  Montgomery  determined  to 
try  and  carry  the  city  by  assault  at  two 
points  simultaneously,  one  division  to  be 
under  his  own  command,  the  other  to  be 
led  by  Arnold.  It  was  determined  to  un- 
dertake the  task  on  the  next  stormy  night, 
Arnold  to  attack  the  lower  town  in  the 
gloom,  setting  fire  to  the  suburb  of  St. 
Eoque,  while  the  main  body  under  Mont- 
gomery should  make  the  attack  on  the  St. 
Lawrence    side    of    the    town.     A    snow- 


A    STREET    IN   THE    LOWER    TOWN. 


brought  by  Colonel  Lamb.  From  four  or 
five  mortars  placed  in  the  lower  town 
he  sent  bomb-shells  into  the  city,  and  set 
a  few  buildings  on  fire.  Some  round-shot 
from  the  citadel  shivered  Lamb's  ice-bat- 
tery and  compelled  him  to  withdraw. 
Then  Montgomery  waited  a  fortnight  for 
expected  reinforcements,  but  in  vain.  The 
terms  of  enlistment  of  some  of  his  men 
had  almost  expired,  and  the  deadly  small- 


354 


storm  began  (Dec.  30),  and,  notwithstand- 
ing sickness  and  desertion  had  reduced  the 
invading  army  to  750  efficient  men,  move- 
ments for  the  assault  were  immediately 
made. 

While  Colonel  Arnold  led  350  men  to 
assault  the  city  on  the  St.  Charles  side, 
Colonel  Livingston  made  a  feigned  attack 
on  the  St.  Louis  Gate,  and  Major  Brown 
menaced  Cape  Diamond  Bastion.     At  the 


QUEBEC— QUEElSHsTON 


same  time  Montgomery  descended  to  the    Quebec.     The  whole  loss  of  the  Americans 
edge   of   the   St.    Lawrence   with   the   re-    in  the  assault,  killed,  wounded,  and  prison- 
niainder  of  the  army,  and  made  his  way    ers,  was  about  400;    that  of  the  Britis"h 
along   the   narrow   shore   at    the   foot   of    was    only    about    twenty    killed.      Arnold 
Cape    Diamond.      The    plan    was    for    the    retired  with  the  remnant  of  his  troops  to 
troops  of  Montgomery  and  Arnold  to  meet 
and  assail  Prescott  Gate  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence side,  and,  carrying  it  by  storm,  en- 
ter  the  city.     The  whole  plan  had  been 
revealed  to   Carleton  by  a   Canadian   de- 
serter,   and    the    garrison    was    prepared. 
A  battery  was  placed  at  a  narrow  pass 
on    the    St.    Charles    side,    and    a    block- 
house with   masked   cannon   occupied   the 
narrow  way  at  the  foot  of  Cape  Diamond. 
Montgomery  found  that  pass  blocked  with 
ice,   and   blinding   snow  was   falling   fast. 
He  pressed  forward,  and  after  passing  a 
deserted    barrier    approached     the    block- 
house.     All   was    silent   there.      Believing 
the  garrison  not  to  be  on  the  alert,  Mont- 
gomery shouted  to  the  companies  of  Cap- 
tains   Mott    and    Cheeseman    near    him, 
"  Men   of   New   York,   you   will   not   fear 
to  follow  where  your  general  leads;   push 
on,  my  brave  boys,  and   Quebec  is  ours ! " 
Through  the  thick  snow-veil  forty  men  in 
the   block-house   watched   for   the   appear- 
ance of  the  invaders  just  at  dawn.     Mont- 
gomery's shout  was  answered  by  a  deadly 
storm  of  grape-shot  from  the  masked  can- 
non, and  Montgomery,  his  aide    (Captain 
McPherson),  Captain  Cheeseman,  and  ten 
others    were    slain.      The    remainder    fell 
back   under   the   command   of   Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Campbell.  Sillery,    3    miles   up    the   river,    and    kept 
Meanwhile,  Arnold  was  making  his  way   up  the  blockade  of  Quebec  during  the  win- 
through  the  snow-drifts  on  the  other  side    ter.    See  Arnold,  Benedict. 
of   the   town,   in   which   there    was   great       Queen  Anne's  War.    See  Anne,  Queen. 
uproar — bells  ringing  and  drums  beating.        Queen's    College.      See    Rutgers  Col- 
The  storm  was  raging  violently,  and  Ar-    lege. 

nold's  troops  were  compelled  to  march  Queenston,  Battle  at.  The  unfort- 
in  single  file  through  heavy  snow-drifts,  unate  armistice  signed  by  Dearborn  in 
Lamb  had  to  leave  his  artillery  behind  1812,  so  delayed  preparations  for  war  on 
and  join  the  fighters  with  small-arms.  At  the  Niagara  frontier  that  General  Van 
a  narrow  pass  Arnold  was  wounded  in  Rensselaer  found  himself  in  command  of 
the  leg  and  carried  back  to  the  hospital,  only  700  men  there  on  Sept.  1.  His  head- 
Morgan  took  the  command.  A  party  of  quarters  were  at  Lewiston,  opposite 
the  Americans  near  Palace  Gate  were  Queenston.  He  had  been  promised  5,000 
captured.  The  remainder  fought  desper-  men  at  that  time,  and  was  charged  with 
ately  until  ten  o'clock,  when  Morgan,  hav-  the  double  duty  of  defending  that  iron- 
ing lost  full  100  men,  was  compelled  to  tier  and  invading  Canada.  After  the  ar- 
surrender.  A  reserve  force  of  ArnoM's  mistice  was  ended,  regulars  and  militia 
division  had  retreated,  and  these  were  began  to  gather  on  that  frontier,  and 
soon  joined  by  the  forces  of  Lieutenant-  towards  the  middle  of  October  Van  Rens- 
Colonel  Campbell.     So  ended  the  siege  of    selaer  had  6,000  men  scattered  along  the 

355 


PI.ACK    WHEliK    ARNOLD    WAS    WOl'XDKD 


QUEENSTON,    BATTLE   AT 


river  from  Lewiston  to  Buffalo.  Feeling 
strong  enough,  he  marched  to  invade  Can- 
ada from  Lewiston,  on  the  night  of  the 
12th.  It  was  intensely  dark.  A  storm 
had  just  ceased,  and  the  air  was  laden 
with  vapor.  At  3  a.m.  the  next  day 
Col.  Solomon  Van  Rensselaer,  in  command 
of  600  men,  was  on  the  shore  at  Lewiston, 
prepared  to  cross  the  river  in  the  gloom, 
but,  for  want  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
boats,  he  crossed  with  less  than  half  his 
force.  The  British,  on  the  alert,  had  dis- 
covered the  movement  of  the  Americans, 
and  when  the  latter  landed,  at  the  foot 
of  the  high,  rocky  bank  of  the  Niagara 
River,  they  were  assailed  with  musketry 
and  a  small  field-piece.  To  this  attack  a 
battery  on  Lewiston  Heights  responded, 
when  the  British  fled  towards  the  village 


George,  7  miles  below  Queenston,  when 
the  firing  began.  He  hastened  to  the  scene 
of  action  with  his  staff  and  pressed  up  the 
heights  to  a  redan  battery,  where  he 
dismounted,  when  suddenly  Wool  and  his 
men  came  upon  him.  Brock  and  his  staff 
fled  in  haste,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the 
American  flag  was  waving  over  that  little 
work.  Brock  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  some  troops  to  drive  Wool  from  the 
heights,  and  at  first  the  Americans  were 
pressed  back  by  overwhelming  numbers  to 
the  verge  of  the  precipice,  which  rises 
200  feet  above  the  river,  when,  inspired 
by  Wool's  words  and  acts,  they  turned 
so  furiously  upon  the  British  that  they 
broke  and  fled  down  the  hill.  They  were 
rallied  by  Brock,  and  were  about  to  ascend 
the   heights,   when   their   commander   was 


QUKKNSTON    IN    1812. 


of  Queenston.  They  were  followed  by 
regulars,  under  Capt.  John  E.  Wool,  who 
pushed  gallantly  up  the  hill,  pressed  the 
British  back  to  the  plateau  on  which 
Queenston  stands,  and  finally  gained  pos- 
session of  Queenston  Heights.  Colonel 
Van  Rensselaer  had  followed  with  militia, 
but  was  so  severely  wounded  that  he  was 
compelled  to  relinquish  the  command  and 
return  to  Lewiston.  A  bullet  had  passed 
through  the  fleshy  part  of  both  Wool's 
thighs,  but,  unmindful  of  his  wounds,  he 
would  neither  leave  the  field  nor  relin- 
quish his  command  until  the  arrival  of  his 
senior  officer,  Lieutenant-Colonel  Chrystie, 
at   about  nine  o'clock. 

Gen.    Sir    Isaac    Brock    was    at    Fort 


mortally  wounded  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 
Wool  was  left  master  of  the  heights  until 
the  arrival  of  General  Wads  worth,  of  the 
New  York  militia,  who  took  the  chief  com- 
mand. General  Sheaffe,  who  succeeded 
Brock,  again  rallied  the  troops.  Lieuten- 
ant-Colonel Scott  had  crossed  the  river 
and  joined  the  Americans  on  the  heights 
as  a  volunteer,  and  at  the  request  of  Gen- 
eral Wadsworth  he  took  active  command. 

Early  in  the  afternoon  a  crowd  of  Ind- 
ians, led  by  John  Brant,  son  of  the  great 
Mohawk  chief,  fell  upon  the  American 
pickets  with  a  horrid  war-whoop.  The 
militia  were  about  to  flee,  when  the  tower- 
ing form  and  trumpet-toned  voice  of  Scott 
arrested  their  attention.  He  inspired  the 
56 


QUINCY 


troops,  now  about  600  strong,  to  fall  upon 
the  Indians,  who  turned  and  fled  in  ter- 
ror to  the  woods.  General  Van  Rensse- 
laer, who  had  come  over  from  Lewiston, 
hastened  back  to  send  over  more  militia. 
About  1,000  had  come  over  in  the  morning, 
but  few  had  engaged  in  the  contest.  The 
others  refused  to  go,  pleading  that  they 
were  not  compelled  to  leave  the  soil  of 
their  country,  and  they  stood  idly  at  Lew- 
iston while  their  comrades  were  being 
slaughtered.  Overwhelming  numbers  had 
pressed  forward  under  General  SheafTe, 
and  compelled  the  Americans  to  surrender. 
The  loss  of  the  Americans,  in  killed  and 
wounded,  was  about  190;  the  number  made 
prisoners  was  900.  The  loss  of  the  Brit- 
ish, in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners — the 
latter  taken  in  the  morning — was  about 
130.  The  prisoners  were  marched  to  New- 
ark, opposite  Fort  Niagara.  The  Ameri- 
can militia,  officers  and  privates,  were 
paroled  and  sent  across  the  river,  but 
those  of  the  regular  army  were  detained, 
prisoners  of  war,  for  exchange,  sent 
to  Quebec,  and  thence  by  cartel-ship  to 
Boston. 

Quincy,  Edmund;  born  in  Wigsthorpe, 
England,  1602;  emigrated  to  Massachu- 
setts in  1628;  several  thousand  acres  of 
land  in  Mount  Wollaston  plantation  were 
granted  to  Edmund  Quincy  and 
William  Coddington  in  1635.  Upon 
this  tract  the  town  of  Quincy  was 
laid  out.  He  died  in  Mount  Wol- 
laston, Mass.,  Dec.  9,  1635. 

Quincy,  Josiah,  merchant;  born 
in  Braintree,  Mass.,  in  1709;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1728;  appointed 
joint  commissioner  with  Thomas 
Pownall,  from  Massachusetts,  in 
1755,  tc  negotiate  an  alliance  with 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania  against 
the  French,  and  to  erect  Fort  Ticon- 
deroga  as  a  defence  against  inva- 
sion from  Canada.  He  died  in 
Braintree  in  1784. 

Quincy,  Josiah,  patriot;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  23,  1744; 
third  son  of  Josiah  Quincy;  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  College  in  1763, 
and  soon  rose  to  distinction  as  a 
lawyer.  He  was  fervent  and  in- 
fluential as  a  speaker  and  writer. 
In  1770  he,  with  John  Adams,  de- 
fended Captain  Preston.     Ill-health 


compelled  him  to  abandon  all  business. 
He  made  a  voyage  to  Charleston  in 
February,  1773,  which  gave  him  much 
benefit,  but  his  constitution  was  perma- 
nently impaired.  He  took  part  in  public 
affairs,  speaking  against  British  oppres- 
sion fervidly  and  eloquently,  until  Seo- 
tcmber,  1774,  when  he  made  a  voyage  to 
England.  In  London  he  labored  inces- 
santly in  behalf  of  the  American  cause, 
but  his  health  soon  gave  way,  and  on 
the  voyage  homeward  he  died  when  he 
was  in  sight  of  his  native  land,  April  26, 
1775. 

Quincy,  Josiah,  statesman;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  4,  1772;  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding Josiah  Quincy;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1790,  at  the  head  of  his 
class,  and  entered  on  the  practice  of  law 
in  Boston  in  1793.  In  1804  he  was  State 
Senator,  and  from  1805  to  1813  a  member 
of  Congress,  in  which,  as  a  Federalist,  he 
opposed  the  measures  of  the  administra- 
tion— especially  with  regard  to  the  ad- 
mission of  Louisiana  as  a  State  and  the 
War  of  1812-15 — with  great  ability  and 
vigor.  He  was  ready,  fervid,  earnest, 
witty,  and  keenly  satirical  in  speech,  and 
was  a  constant  annoyance  to  Presidents 
Jefferson  and  Madison.  After  the  war 
he   was   again    State   Senator    (1815-20), 


JOSIAH    Ql'INCY 


357 


QUINCY,   JOSIAH 


member  of  the  State  Constitutional  Con- 
vention, speaker  of  the  Massachusetts  As- 
sembly in  1820-21,  mayor  of  Boston  from 
1823  to  1829,  and  president  of  Harvard 
College  from  1829  to  1845.  He  was  judge 
of  the  Boston  municipal  court  in  1822, 
and  he  first  laid  down  the  rule  that  the 
publication  of  the  truth  with  good  in- 
tentions, and  for  a  justifiable  motive,  was 
not  libellous.  Mr.  Quincy  was  a  life- 
long opposer  of  the  system  of  slave  labor, 
not  only  as  morally  wrong,  but  injurious 
to  the  country;  and  at  the  age  of  ninety- 
one  years  he  made  a  public  patriotic 
speech  in  support  of  the  efforts  of  the 
government  to  perpetuate  the  Union.  Mr. 
Quincy's    career    in    Congress    was    mem- 


He  Was  a   leader   among  the   Federalists, 
and  was  cordially  hated  by  his  Democratic 
opponents.     They    lampooned    him,    they 
abused  him,  they  caricatured  him.     In  one 
caricature    he    was    called    "  Josiah    the 
First,"  and   had  upon  his  breast,   as   the 
decoration  of  an  order,  crossed  codfishes, 
in  allusion  to  his  persistent  defence  of  the 
New  England  fisheries.     He  was  also  call- 
ed    "  King "     because     of     his     political 
domination  in  New  England.     In  the  cari- 
cature his  coat  was  scarlet,  his  waistcoat 
brown,   his   breeches   light  green,   and  his 
stockings  white  silk.     In  a  space  near  his 
head,  in  the  original,  were  the  words,  "  I, 
Josiah  the  First,  do,  by  this  royal  proc- 
lamation,  announce   myself   King  of  New 
England,   Nova    Scotia,   and   Passa- 
maquoddy,    Grand    Master    of    the 
noble  order  of  the  Two  Codfishes." 
He  died  in  Quincy,  Mass.,  July  1, 
1864. 

The  Embargo.  On  Nov.  28,  1808, 
Mr.  Quincy  delivered  the  following 
speech  in  the  national  House  of 
Representatives  on  the  embargo 
bill :  

I  agree  to  this  resolution,  be- 
cause, in  my  apprehension,  it  offers 
a  solemn  pledge  to  this  nation — 
a  pledge  not  to  be  mistaken  and 
not  to  be  evaded — that  the  present 
system  of  public  measures  shall  be 
totally  abandoned.  Adopt  it,  and 
there  is  an  end  to  the  policy  of  de- 
serting our  rights,  under  a  pretence 
of  maintaining  them.  Adopt  it, 
and  we  no  longer  yield  to  the  beck 
of  haughty  belligerents  the  rights  of 
navigating  the  ocean — that  choice 
inheritance  bequeathed  to  us  by  our 
fathers.  Adopt  it,  and  there  is  a 
termination  of  that  base  and 
abject  submission  by  which  this 
country  has  for  these  months  been 
orable.  It  was  at  a  time  of  great  political  disgraced  and  brought  to  the  brink  of 
agitation    and    international    commotion,    ruin.  .  .  . 

He  was  an  able  debater,  and  was  some+imes  It  remains  for  us,  therefore,  to  consider 
almost  fierce  in  his  denunciations  of  his  what  submission  is,  and  what  the  pledge 
opponents,  especially  when  topics  connect-    not  to  submit  implies. 

ed  with  the  War  of  1812  was  a  theme  for  One  man  submits  to  the  order,  decree, 
debate.  He  was  patriotic,  and  most  sin-  or  edict  of  another,  when  he  does  that 
cerely  opposed  to  war;  but  when  it  was  thing  which  such  order,  decree,  or  edict 
begun  he  never  omitted  to  give  his  aid  commands,  or  when  he  omits  to  do  that 
to  his  distressed  country  in  the  conflict,    thing  which   such   order,   decree,   or   edict 

358 


A   COXTKMl'ORART  CAKIPATfRR. 


QUINCY,    JOSIAH 


prohibits.  This,  then,  is  submission.  It 
is  to  do  as  we  are  bidden.  It  is  to  take 
the  will  of  another  as  a  measure  of  our 
rights.  It  is  to  yield  to  his  power,  to 
go  where  he  directs,  or  to  refrain  from 
going  where  he  forbids  us. 

If  this  be  submission,  then  the  pledge 
not  to  submit  implies  the  reverse  of  all 
this.  It  is  a  solemn  declaration  that  we 
will  not  do  that  thing  which  such  order, 
decree,  or  edict  commands,  or  that  we 
will  do  what  it  prohibits.  This,  then,  is 
freedom.  This  is  honor.  This  is  inde- 
pendence. It  consists  in  taking  the  nature 
of  things,  and  not  the  will  of  another, 
as  the  measure  of  our  rights.  What  God 
and  nature  offer  us  we  will  enjoy  in 
despite  of  the  commands,  regardless  of 
the  menaces  of  iniquitous  power. 

Let  us  apply  these  correct  and  unde- 
niable principles  to  the  edicts  of  Great 
Britain  and  France,  and  the  consequent 
abandonment  of  the  ocean  by  the  Ameri- 
can government.  The  decrees  of  France 
prohibit  us  trading  with  Great  Britain. 
The  orders  of  Great  Britain  prohibit  us 
from  trading  With  France.  And  what 
do  we  do?  Why,  in  direct  subser- 
viency to  the  edicts  of  each,  we  pro- 
hibit our  citizens  from  trading  with 
either.  We  do  more.  As  if  unqualified 
submission  was  not  humiliating  enough, 
we  descend  to  an  act  of  supererogation  in 
servility;  we  abandon  trade  altogether; 
we  not  only  refrain  from  that  particular 
trade  which  their  respective  edicts  pre- 
scribe, but,  lest  the  ingenuity  of  our 
merchants  should  enable  them  to  evade 
their  operation,  to  make  submission 
doubly  sure,  the  American  government 
virtually  re  -  enact  the  edicts  of  the  bel- 
ligerents, and  abandon  all  the  trade 
which,  notwithstanding  the  practical 
effects  of  their  edicts,  remains  to  us.  The 
same  conclusion  will  result  if  we  consider 
our  embargo  in  relation  to  the  objects 
of  this  belligerent  policy.  France,  by  her 
edicts,  would  compress  Great  Britain  by 
destroying  her  commerce  and  cutting  off 
her  supplies.  All  the  continent  of  Europe, 
in  the  hand  of  Bonaparte,  is  made  sub- 
servient to  this  policy.  This  embargo  law 
of  the  United  States,  in  its  operation,  is 
a  union  with  the  continental  coalition 
against  British  commerce  at  the  very 
moment   most   auspicious   to    its    success. 


359 


Can  anything  be  in  more  direct  sub- 
serviency to  the  views  of  the  French  Em- 
peror? If  we  consider  the  orders  of 
fireat  Britain,  the  result  will  be  the  same. 
I  proceed  at  present  on  the  supposition 
of  a  perfect  impartiality  in  our  adminis- 
tration towards  both  belligerents,  so  far 
as  relates  to  the  embargo  law.  Great 
Britain  has  two  objects  in  issuing  her 
orders.  First,  to  excite  discontent  in  the 
people  on  the  Continent,  by  depriving  them 
of  their  accustomed  colonial  supplies. 
Second,  to  secure  to  herself  that  com- 
merce of  which  she  deprived  neutrals. 
Our  embargo  co-operates  with  the  British 
view  in  both  respects.  By  our  dereliction 
of  the  ocean,  the  Continent  is  much  more 
deprived  of  the  advantages  of  commerce 
than  it  would  be  possible  for  the  British 
navy  to  effect,  and  by  removing  our  com- 
petition all  the  commerce  of  the  Conti- 
nent which  can  be  forced  is  wholly  left 
to  be  reaped  by  Great  Britain.  The  lan- 
guage of  each  sovereign  is  in  direct  con- 
formity with  these  ideas.  Napoleon  tells 
the  American  minister,  virtually,  that  we 
are  very  good  Americans;  that  although 
he  will  not  allow  the  property  he  has  in 
his  hands  to  escape  him,  nor  desist  from 
burning  and  capturing  our  vessels  on 
every  occasion,  yet  that  he  is,  thus  far, 
satisfied  with  our  co-operation.  And  what 
is  the  language  of  George  III.,  when  our 
minister  presents  to  his  consideration  the 
embargo  laws?  Is  it  he  roy  s'avisera? 
"  The  King  will  reflect  upon  them."  No, 
it  is  the  pure  language  of  royal  appro- 
bation, he  roy  le  veut — "  The  King  wills 
it."  Were  you  colonies,  he  could  expect 
no  more.  His  subjects  will  as  inevitably 
get  that  commerce  which  you  abandon  as 
the  water  will  certainly  run  into  the  only 
channel  which  remains  after  all  the 
others  are  obstructed.  In  whatever  point 
of  view  you  consider  these  embargo  laws 
in  relation  to  those  edicts  and  decrees,  we 
shall  find  them  co-operating  with  each 
belligerent  in  its  policy.  In  this  way,  I 
grant,  our  conduct  may  be  partial.  But 
what  has  become  of  our  American  rights 
to  navigate  the  ocean  ?  They  are  aban- 
doned in  strict  conformity  to  the  decrees 
of  both  belligerents.  This  resolution  de- 
clares that  we  will  no  longer  submit  to 
such  degrading  humiliation.  Little  as  I 
relish  it,  I  will  take  it  as  the  harbinger  of 


QUINCY,    JOSIAH 


a  new  day — the  pledge  of  a  new  system  of 
measures. 

Perhaps,  here,  in  strictness,  I  ought 
to  close  my  observations.  But  the  report 
of  the  committee,  contrary  to  what  I  deem 
the  principle  of  the  resolution,  unques- 
tionably recommends  the  continuance  of 
the  embargo  laws.  And  such  is  the  state 
of  the  nation,  and  in  particular  that  por- 
tion of  it  which,  in  part,  I  represent, 
under  their  oppression,  that  I  cannot  re- 
frain submitting  some  consideration  on 
that  subject. 

When  I  enter  on  the  subject  of  the  em- 
bargo, I  am  struck  with  wonder  at  the 
very  threshold.  I  know  not  with  what 
words  to  express  my  astonishment.  At 
the  time  I  departed  from  Massachusetts, 
if  there  was  an  impression  which  I 
thought  universal,  it  was  that  at  the 
commencement  of  this  session  an  end 
would  be  put  to  this  measure.  The  opin- 
ion was  not  so  much  that  it  would  be 
determinated,  as  that  it  was  then  at  an 
end.  Sir,  the  prevailing  sentiment,  ac- 
cording to  my  apprehension,  was  stronger 
than  this — even  that  the  pressure  was  so 
great  that  it  could  not  possibly  be  longer 
endured;  that  it  would  soon  be  absolutely 
insupportable.  And  this  opinion,  as  I 
then  had  reason  to  believe,  was  not  con- 
ilned  to  any  one  class,  or  description,  or 
party — even  those  who  were  friends  of  the 
existing  administration,  and  unwilling  to 
abandon  it,  were  yet  satisfied  that  a  suffi- 
cient trial  had  been  given  to  this  measure. 
With  these  impressions,  I  arrive  in  this 
city.  I  hear  the  incantation  of  the  great 
enchanter.  I  feel  his  spell.  I  see  the 
legislative  machinery  begin  to  move.  The 
scene  opens,  and  I  am  commanded  to  for- 
get all  my  recollections,  to  disbelieve  the 
evidence  of  my  senses,  to  contradict  what 
1  have  seen,  and  heard,  and  felt.  I  hear 
that  all  this  discontent  was  merely  party 
clamor — electioneering  artifice;  that  the 
people  of  New  England  are  able  and  will- 
ing to  endure  this  embargo  for  an  in- 
definite, unlimited  period;  some  say  for 
six  months,  some  a  year,  some  two  years. 
The  gentleman  from  North  Carolina  (Mr. 
Macon)  told  us  that  he  preferred  three 
years  of  embargo  to  a  war.  And  the  gen- 
tleman from  Virginia  (Mr.  Clopton)  said 
expressly,  that  he  hoped  we  should  never 
allow  our  vessels  to  go  upon  the  ocean 


again,  until  the  orders  and  decrees  of  the 
belligerents  were  rescinded.  In  plain 
English,  until  France  and  Great  Britain 
should,  in  their  great  condescension,  per- 
mit. Good  Heavens!  Mr.  Chairman,  are 
men  mad?  Is  this  House  touched  with 
that  insanity  which  is  the  never-failing 
precursor  of  the  intention  of  Heaven  to 
destroy?  The  people  of  New  England, 
after  eleven  months'  deprivation  of  the 
ocean,  to  be  commanded  still  longer  to 
abandon  it,  for  an  undefined  period,  to 
hold  their  inalienable  rights  at  the  tenure 
of  the  will  of  Great  Britain  or  of  Bona- 
parte! A  people  commercial  in  all  re- 
spects, in  all  their  relations,  in  all  their 
hopes,  in  all  their  recollections  of  the 
past,  in  all  their  prospects  of  the  future 
— a  people,  whose  first  love  was  the  ocean, 
the  choice  of  their  childhood,  the  appro- 
bation of  their  manly  years,  the  most 
precious  inheritance  of  their  fathers — in 
the  midst  of  their  success,  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  most  exquisite  perception  of 
commercial  prosperity,  to  be  commanded 
to  abandon  it,  not  for  a  time  limited,  but 
for  a  time  unlimited — not  until  they  can 
be  prepared  to  defend  themselves  there 
( for  that  is  not  pretended ) ,  but  until 
their  rivals  recede  from  it  —  not  until 
their  necessities  require,  but  until  foreign 
nations  permit!  I  am  lost  in  astonish- 
ment, Mr.  Chairman.  I  have  not  words  to 
express  the  matchless  absurdity  of  this  at- 
tempt. I  have  no  tongue  to  express  the 
swift  and  headlong  destruction  which  a 
blind  perseverance  in  such  a  system  must 
bring  upon  this  nation.  .  .  : 

Mr.  Chairman,  other  gentlemen  must 
take  their  responsibilities — I  shall  take 
mine.'  This  embargo  must  be  repealed. 
You  cannot  enforce  it  for  any  important 
period  of  time  longer.  When  I  speak 
of  your  inability  to  enforce  this  law,  let 
not  gentlemen  misunderstand  me.  I  mean 
not  to  intimate  insurrections  or  open 
defiance  of  them.  Although  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  foresee  in  what  acts  that  "  oppres- 
sion," will  finally  terminate,  which,  we 
are  told,  "  make  wise  men  mad,"  I  speak 
of  an  inability  resulting  from  very  differ- 
ent causes. 

The  gentleman  from  North  Carolina 
(Mr.  Macon)  exclaimed  the  other  day,  in 
a  strain  of  patriotic  ardor,  "What!  shall 
not   our   laws   be    executed?     Shall    their 


360 


QUINCY,  JOSIAH 

authority  be  defied?     I  am  for  enforcing  from  the  exercise  of  their  natural  rights 

them  at  every  hazard."     I  honor  that  gen-  will  have  a  binding  effect  not  one  moment 

tleman's  zeal;    and  I  mean  no  deviation  longer  than  the  public  sentiment  supports 

from  that  true  respect  I  entertain  for  him,  them.  .  .  . 

when    I    tell    him    that    in    this    instance  I  ask  in  what  page  of  the  Constitution 

'"his  zeal  is  not  according  to  knowledge."  you  find  the  power  of  laying  an  embargo? 

I  ask  this  House,  is  there  no  control  Directly  given  it  is  nowhere.  You  have  it, 
to  its  authority?  Is  there  no  limit  to  the  then,  by  construction,  or  by  precedent, 
power  of  this  national  legislature?  I  hope  By  construction  of  the  power  to  regulate. 
I  shall  offend  no  man  when  I  intimate  I  lay  out  of  the  question  the  commonplace 
that  two  limits  exist — nature  and  the  argument,  that  regulation  cannot  mean 
Constitution.  Should  this  House  under-  annihilation,  and  that  what  is  annihilated 
take  to  declare  that  this  atmosphere  cannot  be  regulated.  I  ask  this  question — 
should  no  longer  surround  us,  that  Can  a  power  be  ever  obtained  by  con- 
water  should  cease  to  flow,  that  grav-  struction  which  had  never  been  exercised 
ity  should  not  hereafter  operate,  that  at  the  time  of  the  authority  given — the 
the  needle  should  not  vibrate  to  the  pole,  like  of  which  had  not  only  never  been  seen, 
I  do  suppose,  Mr.  Chairman, — Sir,  I  mean  but  the  idea  of  which  had  never  entered 
no  disrespect  to  the  authority  of  this  into  human  imagination,  I  will  not  say  in 
House,  I  know  the  high  notions  some  gen-  this  country,  but  in  the  world?  Yet  such 
tlemen  entertain  on  this  subject — I  do  sup-  is  this  power,  which  by  construction  you 
pose — sir,  I  hope  I  shall  not  offend — I  assume  to  exercise.  Never  before  did  so- 
think  T  may  venture  to  affirm,  that,  such  ciety  witness  a  total  prohibition  of  all 
a  law  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding,  intercourse  like  this  in  a  commercial  na- 
the  air  would  continue  to  circulate,  the  tion.  Did  the  people  of  the  United  States 
Mississippi,  the  Hudson,  and  the  Potomac  invest  this  House  with  a  power  of  which 
would  hurl  their  floods  to  the  ocean,  at  the  time  of  investment  that  people  had 
heavy  bodies  continue  to  descend,  and  the  not  and  could  not  have  had  any  idea?  For 
mysterious  magnet  hold  on  its  course  to  even  in  works  of  fiction  it  had  never  ex- 
its celestial  cynosure.  isted. 

Just  as  utterly  absurd  and  contrary  to  But  it  has  been  asked  in  debate,  "  Will 
nature  is  it  to  attempt  to  prohibit  the  not  Massachusetts,  the  cradle  of  liberty, 
people  of  New  England,  for  any  consider-  submit  to  such  privations?"  An  embargo 
able  length  of  time,  from  the  ocean.  Com-  liberty  was  never  cradled  in  Massachu- 
merce  is  not  only  associated  with  all  the  setts.  Our  liberty  was  not  so  much  a 
feelings,  the  habits,  the  interests,  and  rela-  mountain  as  a  sea-nymph.  She  was  as 
tions  of  that  people,  but  the  nature  of  our  free  as  air.  She  could  swim,  or  she  could 
soil  and  of  ouf  coast,  the  state  of  our  pop-  run.  The  ocean  was  her  cradle.  Our  fa- 
ulation  and  its  mode  of  distribution  over  thers  met  her  as  she  came,  like  a  goddess 
our  territory,  render  it  indispensable.  We  of  beauty,  from  the  waves.  They  caught 
have  500  miles  of  sea-coast,  all  furnished  her  as  she  was  sporting  on  the  beach, 
with  harbors,  bays,  creeks,  rivers,  inlets,  They  courted  her  while  she  was  spread- 
basins — with  every  variety  of  invitation  ing  her  nets  upon  the  rocks.  But  an 
of  the  sea — with  every  species  of  facility  embargo  liberty,  a  handcuffed  liberty,  a 
to  violate  such  laws  as  these.  Our  peo-  liberty  in  fetters,  a  liberty  traversing  be- 
ple  are  not  scattered  over  an  immense  sur-  tween  four  sides  of  a  prison,  and  beating 
face;  at  a  solemn  distance  from  each  oth-  her  head  against  the  walls,  is  none  of  our 
er,  in  lordly  retirement,  in  the  midst  of  offspring.  We  abjure  the  monster.  Its 
extended  plantations  and  intervening  parentage  is  all  inland, 
wastes.  They  are  collected  on  the  margin  The  gentleman  from  North  Carolina 
of  the  ocean,  by  the  sides  of  the  rivers,  at  (Mr.  Macon)  exclaimed  the  other  day, 
the  heads  of  bays,  looking  into  the  water  "Where  is  the  spirit  of  76?"  Ay,  sir; 
or  on  the  surface  of  it  for  the  incitement  where  is  it?  Would  to  Heaven  that  at  our 
and  the  reward  of  their  industry.  Among  invocation  it  would  condescend  to  alight 
a  people  thus  situated,  thus  educated,  on  this  floor.  But  let  gentlemen  remem- 
thus    numerous,    laws    prohibiting    them  ber  that  the  spirit  of  '76  was  not  a  spirit 

361 


QUINCY,  JOSIAH 

of  empty  declamation,  or  of  abstract  prop-  enumerated.  Unnecessary  restrictions 
ositions.  It  did  not  content  itself  with  upon  trade;  cutting  off  commercial  inter- 
non-importation  acts,  or  non-intercourse  course  between  the  colonies;  embarrass- 
laws.  It  was  a  spirit  of  active  prepara-  ing  our  fisheries;  wantonly  depriving 
tion,  of  dignified  energy.  It  studied  both  our  citizens  of  necessaries;  invasion  of 
to  know  our  rights  and  to  devise  the  ef-  private  property  by  governmental  edicts; 
fectual  means  of  maintaining  them.  In  the  authority  of  the  commander-in-chief, 
all  the  annals  of  '76  you  will  find  no  such  and  under  him  of  the  brigadier-general,  be- 
degrading  doctrine  as  the  one  maintained  ing  rendered  supreme  in  the  civil  govern- 
in  this  report.  It  never  presented  to  the  ment;  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
people  of  the  United  States  the  alterna-  made  governor  of  a  colony ;  citizens  trans- 
tive  of  war  or  a  suspension  of  our  rights,  ferred  from  their  native  country  for  trial, 
and  recommend  the  latter  rather  than  to  Let  the  gentlemen  beware  how  they  appeal 
incur  risk  of  the  former.  What  was  the  to  the  spirit  of  '76;  lest  it  come  with  the 
lano-uaoe  of  that  period  in  one  of  the  ad-  aspect,  not  of  a  friend,  but  of  a  torment- 
dresses  of  Congress  to  Great  Britain?  er — lest  they  find  a  warning  when  they 
"  You  attempt  to  reduce  us  by  the  sword  look  for  support,  and  instead  of  encour- 
to  .  base  and  abject  submission.  On  the  agement  they  are  presented  with  an  awful 
sword,  therefore,  we  rely  for  protection."  lesson.  .  .  . 

In  that  day  there  were  no  alternatives  Let  me  ask,  Is  embargo  independence? 
presented  to  dishearten — no  abandonment  Deceive  not  yourselves.  It  is  palpable 
of  our  rights  under  the  pretence  of  main-  submission.  Gentlemen  exclaim,  Great 
taining  them — no  gaining  the  battle  by  Britain  "  smites  us  on  one  cheek."  And 
running  away.  In  the  whole  history  of  that  what  does  Administration?  "  It  turns  the 
period  there  are  no  such  terms  as  "  em-  other  also."  Gentlemen  say,  Great  Britain 
bargo — dignified  retirement — trying  who  is  a  robber,  she  "  takes  our  cloak."  And 
can  do  each  other  the  most  harm."  At  what  says  Administration?  "Let  her 
that  time  we  had  a  navy — that  name  so  take  our  coat  also."  France  and  Great 
odious  to  the  influences  of  the  present  day.  Britain  require  you  to  relinquish  a  part 
Yes,  sir,  in  1776,  though  but  in  our  in-  of  your  commerce,  and  you  yield  it  en- 
fancy,  we  had  a  navy  scouring  our  coasts,  tirely.  Sir,  this  conduct  may  be  the  way 
and  defending  our  commerce,  which  was  to  dignity  and  honor  in  another  world, 
never  for  one  moment  wholly  suspended,  but  it  will  never  secure  safety  and  inde- 
In  1776  we  had  an  army  also;  and  a  glori-  pendence  in  this. 

ous  army  it  was;  not  composed  of  men  At  every  corner  of  this  great  city  we 
halting  from  the  stews,  or  swept  from  the  meet  some  gentlemen  of  the  majority, 
jails,  but  of  the  best  blood,  the  real  yeo-  wringing  their  hands  and  exclaiming, 
manry  of  the  country,  noble  cavaliers,  "What  shall  we  do?  Nothing  but  em- 
men  without  fear,  and  without  reproach,  bargo  will  save  us.  Remove  it,  and  what 
We  had  such  an  army  in  1775,  and  Wash-  shall  we  do?"  Sir,  it  is  not  for  me,  an 
ington  was  at  its  head.  We  have  an  army  humble  and  uninfluential  individual,  at  an 
in  1808,  and  a  head  to  it.  awful  distance  from  the  predominant  influ- 
I  will  not  humiliate  those  who  lead  ences,  to  suggest  plans  of  government, 
the  fortunes  of  the  nation  at  the  present  But  to  my  eye  the  path  of  our  duty  is  as 
day  by  any  comparison  with  the  great  distinct  as  the  milky  way — all  studded 
men  of  that  period.  But  I  recommend  the  with  living  sapphires,  glowing  with  cumu- 
advocates  of  the  present  system  of  public  lating  light.  It  is  the  path  of  active  prep- 
measures  to  study  well  the  true  spirit  of  aration,  of  dignified  energy.  It  is  the 
1776  before  they  venture  to  call  it  in  aid  path  of  1776.  It  consists,  not  in  abandon- 
of  their  purposes.  It  may  bring  in  its  ing  our  rights,  but  in  supporting  them, 
train  some  recollections  not  suited  to  give  as  they  exist,  and  where  they  exist — en 
ease  or  hope  to  their  bosoms.  I  beg  gen-  the  ocean  as  well  as  on  the  land.  It  con- 
tlemen  who  are  so  frequent  in  their  re-  sists  in  taking  the  nature  of  things  as  the 
currence  to  that  period  to  remember,  that  measure  of  the  right  of  your  citizens,  not 
among  the  causes  which  led  to  a  separa-  the  orders  and  decrees  of  imperious  for- 
tion  from  Great  Britain  the  following  are  eigners.      Give   what   protection   you   can. 

362 


QUINCY— QUITMAN 

Take  no  counsel  of  fear.  Your  strength  that  the  effect  of  slave  representation, 
will  increase  with  the  trial,  and  prove  and  of  the  transfer  of  power  to  the  West, 
greater  than  you  are  now  aware.  were  subjects  of  great  jealousy  to  some 

But  I  shall  be  told,  "  This  may  lead  to  of  the  best  patriots  of  the  Northern  and 
war."  I  ask,  "Are  we  now  at  peace?"  Eastern  States.  Had  it  been  foreseen 
Certainly  not,  unless  letiring  from  insult  that,  besides  all  that,  the  population  of 
be  peace — unless  shrinking  under  the  lash  a  world  beyond  the  Mississippi  was  to 
be  peace.  The  surest  way  to  prevent  war  come  in,  to  change  all  existing  proportions 
is  not  to  fear  it.  The  idea  that  nothing  of  political  weight  and  influence — to  make 
on  earth  is  so  dreadful  as  war  is  incul-  our  laws,  control  our  actions,  and  decide 
cated  too  studiously  among  us.  Disgrace  our  destiny — would  such  an  arrangement, 
is  worse.  Abandonment  of  essential  rights  such  a  throwing  of  our  rights,  liberties, 
is  worse.  and    property   into   hotch-potch   with    the 

Sir,  I  could  not  refrain  from  seizing  wild  men  on  the  Missouri,  have  been  lis- 
the  first  opportunity  of  spreading  before  tened  to  for  a  moment?  The  admission  of 
this  House  the  sufferings  and  exigencies  of  Louisiana  must  be  under  an  amendment 
New  England  under  this  embargo.  Some  of  the  Constitution  authorizing  that  ad- 
gentlemen  may  deem  it  not  strictly  be-  mission,  and  that  only." 
fore  us.  Tn  my  opinion — it  is  necessarily.  Quincy,  Josiah  Phillips,  lawyer;  born 
For,  if  the  idea  of  the  committee  be  cor-  in  Boston,  Nov.  29,  1829 ;  graduated  at 
rect,  and  embargo  is  resistance,  then  this  Harvard,  1850;  admitted  to  Suffolk  bar 
resolution  sanctions  its  continuance.  If,  in  1854.  Among  his  works  are  Double 
on  the  contrary,  as  I  contend,  embargo  is  Taxation  in  Massachusetts;  Tax  Exemp- 
submission,  then  this  resolution  is  a  Hon  No  Excuse  for  Spoliation;  The  Protec- 
pledge  of  its  repeal.  Hon  of  Majorities,  etc. 

On  the  Right  of  Secession  and  the  Ad-  Quint,  Alonzo  Hall,  clergyman;  born 
mission  of  New  States. — In  an  address  de-  in  Barnsley,  N.  H.,  Nov.  22,  1828;  gradu- 
livered  Jan.  14,  1811,  on  the  admission  ated  at  Dartmouth  in  1864;  pastor  of 
of  Louisiana  as  a  State,  Quincy  expressed  Mather  Church  in  Roxbury,  Mass.,  1858; 
his  deliberate  opinion  that  it  would  be  chaplain  of  the  2d  Massachusetts  Infantry 
a  virtual  dissolution  of  the  Union,  freeing  in  1861.  Among  his  writings  are  The 
the  States  composing  it  from  their  moral  Potomac  and  the  Rapidan ;  The  Record 
obligation  of  adhesion  to  each  other,  and  of  the  2d  Massachusetts  Infantry;  The 
making  it  the  right  of  all,  as  it  would  First  Parish  in  Dover,  N.  77./  etc.  He 
become  the  duty  of  some,  to  prepare  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  4,  1896. 
definitely  for  separation;  amicably  if  they  Quintard,  Charles  Todd,  clergyman; 
might,   forcibly   if  they  must.  born   in   Stamford,   Conn.,  Dec.   22,   1824; 

Quincy  proceeded  to  declare  "  that  he  graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of 
had  uttered  the  statement  which  had  so  New  York  in  1847 ;  removed  to  Georgia 
startled  the  House,  not  for  agitation,  but  and  Tennessee;  became  a  clergyman  of 
as  a  warning;  not  from  hostility  to  the  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1856; 
Union,  but  out  of  an  earnest  desire  to  chaplain  in  the  Confederate  army  from 
preserve  it.  The  clause  in  the  Constitu-  1862  to  1865;  elected  Bishop  of  Tennessee 
tion  authorizing  the  admission  of  new  in  1865.  He  died  in  Meridian,  Ga.,  Feb. 
States    must,    from    the    context,    be    un-    15,    1898. 

derstood  to  relate  only  to  the  formation  Quitman,  John  Anthony,  military  offi- 
of  new  States  within  the  limits  of  the  cer;  born  in  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  1, 
Union  as  then  existing.  .  .  .  Nowadays  1799;  became  a  lawyer,  and  settled  in 
there  was  no  limit  to  our  ambitious  hopes.  Natchez  in  1823,  where  he  engaged  in  cot- 
We  were  about  to  cross  the  Mississippi;  ton-planting  and  the  practice  of  law,  in 
the  Missouri  and  the  Red  River  were  which  profession  he  soon  became  distin- 
but  roads  upon  which  our  imagination  guished.  From  1826  to  1831  he  was  chan- 
travelled  to  new  lands  and  new  States,  cellor  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Mississippi, 
to  be  erected  and  admitted  under  a  power  and  again  from  1832  to  1834.  Quitman 
now  about  to  be  usurped.  The  debates  served  in  both  branches  of  the  State  legis- 
on   the   federal    Constitution   would    show    lature,    and    was    governor    pro    tern,    in 

363 


QUO    WARRANTO    ACT— QUORUM 


1835.  In  the  struggle  of  Texas  for  in- 
dependence he  was  distinguished.  In  1839 
he  became  judge  of  the  State  high  court 
of  errors  and  appeals,  and  in  1846  the 
President  of  the  United  States  appointed 
him  brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He 
served  with  distinction  through  the  war 
against  Mexico,  and  was  appointed  by- 
General  Scott  military  governor  of  the 
city  of  Mexico.  In  1850  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Mississippi,  and  was  in  Con- 
gress from  1856  to  1858,  at  the  head  of  the 
military  committee.  General  Quitman  was 
a  devoted  disciple  of  Calhoun  in  his  polit- 
ical creed.  He  favored  the  annexation  of 
Cuba  to  the  Unitpd  States,  and  was  ac- 
cused of  complicity  in  the  Lopez  filibuster- 
ing expedition.  He  was  held  for  trial,  but 
the  jury  disagreeing  he  was  released.  He 
died  in  Natchez,  Miss.,  July  17,  1858. 

Quo  Warranto  Act.  By  it  a  writ  may 
be  directed  to  any  person  to  inquire  by 
what  authority  he  assumes  to  hold  any 


office  or  franchise.  On  the  accession  of 
James  II.  he  planned  to  procure  a  sur- 
render of  the  patents  of  the  New  England 
colonies  and  to  form  North  America  into 
twelve  provinces  with  a  governor-general 
over  all.  Writs  of  quo  icarranto  were 
issued,  July,  1685,  requiring  the  several 
colonies  to  appear  by  representatives  be- 
fore the  council  to  show  by  what  right 
they  exercised  certain  powers  and  priv- 
ileges. Notwithstanding  petitions  and 
remonstrances,  the  charters  were  annulled, 
and  Sir  Edmund  Andros  ( q.  v.)  appointed 
governor-general.    See  Connecticut. 

Quorum.  The  United  States  Constitu- 
tion requires  the  presence  of  one-half  of 
the  House  to  constitute  a  quorum.  Until 
1890  this  was  held  to  be  evidenced  by  the 
number  of  votes  cast,  but  in  that  year 
Speaker  T.  B.  Reed  (q.  v.)  ruled  that  the 
mere  bodily  presence  of  the  required  num- 
ber would  constitute  a  quorum,  even 
though  some  of  them  did  not  vote. 


R. 


Race  Problem,  The.  See  Lamar,  Lu- 
cius  QUINTUS   ClNCINNATUS. 

Radcliffe  College,  an  educational  insti- 
tution for  women  exclusively,  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.;  established  in  1878  by  a 
society  for  the  collegiate  instruction  of 
women,  and  made  a  part  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  the  following  year.  In  1893-94 
it  was  established  as  a  separate  institu- 
tion, although  in  affiliation  with  Harvard 
University,  and  given  its  present  name 
in  honor  of  Annie  Radcliffe,  the  first  wom- 
an who  made  a  donation  of  money  for  the 
founding  of  Harvard  University.  At  the 
close  of  1903  it  reported:  Professors, 
108;  students,  443;  library,  18700 
vols.;  funds,  $300,000;  value  of  build- 
ings,   $490,000;    income,    $96,537;    gradu- 


by  the  Merrimao  in  Hampton  Roads,  in 
March,  1861  ( see  Monitor  and  Merrimac  ) . 
In  the  attacks  of  Porter's  squadron  on 
Fort  Fisher,  Radford  commanded  the  New 
Ironsides.  He  was  promoted  rear-admiral 
in  1866;  commanded  the  European  Squad- 
ron in  1869-70;  retired  March  1,  1870. 
He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  8, 1890. 

Rafeix,  Pierre.  See  Jesuit  Mis- 
sions. 

Raids.     See  Morgan,  John  Hunt. 

Railroads.  The  steam  -  carriage  was 
dimly  shadowed  by  Evans's  "  Oracter  Am- 
phibolis."  It  suggested  the  locomotive. 
His  drawings  and  specifications,  sent  to 
England  in  1787  and  1794-95,  were  cop- 
ied there,  and  became  the  basis  of  all  sub- 
sequent   inventions    of    that    nature.      In 


PETKR   COOPER'S   TRAIS. 


ates,     574;      president,      Le     Baron      R. 
Brigers,  LL.D. 

Radford,  William,  naval  officer;  born 
in  Fincastle,  Va.,  March  1,  1808;  entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman  in  March.  1825; 
served  on  the  Mexican  coast,  as  lieuten- 
ant, in  the  war  against  Mexico,  and  was 
in  command  of  the  Cumberland  when  sunk 


1804  Evans  said,  "The  time  will  come 
when  a  steam-carriage  will  set  out  from 
Washington  in  the  morning,  the  passen- 
gers will  breakfast  at  Baltimore,  dine  at 
Philadelphia,  and  sup  in  New  York."  The 
prophecy  is  fulfilled.  The  first  railroad 
charter  granted  in  America  was  given 
by  the  legislature  of  New  York  to  the  Mo- 


365 


RAILROADS 

hawk  and  Hudson  Railroad  Company  in  railway,  costing,  in  round  numbers,  $12,- 
1825.  The  road  was  completed  in  the  000,000.000.  The  gross  earnings  of  the 
fall  of  1831.     The  next  charter  was  given  roads   in   that  year   were   $2,000,000,000. 


A   MODERN    LOCOMOTIVE    DESIGNED    FOR    FAST    PASSENGER   SERVICE. 


by    the    legislature    of    Maryland     (1827)  The   number    of    locomotive    engines   was 

to  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  Com-  44,529,  and  the  number  of  cars,  1,562,980, 

pany.     The  same  year  Horatio  Allen  was  of   which    28,648   were   in   passenger    ser- 

sent    to    England    by    the    Delaware    and  vice.     The  total  number  of  men  employed 

Hudson  Canal  Company  to  buy  for  them  on  the  railways  was  nearly  1.000.000. 

locomotives  and  iron  for  a  railway  which  The  following  statistics  show  the  extent 

they  built  in  1828  from  Honesdale  to  the  and   condition  of  the  steam  railroad  sys- 

coal-mines.     Allen,   in   the  latter  part  of  terns  of  the  United  States  in   1903: 
1829,    put    the    first    locomotive    on    an 

American   railway.      The   first   locomotive    Mileage  of  railroads SiSoS 

r.   mj.   •     ii.     tt  •!  j   ox  4.  u„  t>  4. Side  tracks  and  sidings io,lov.io 

built  in  the  United  States  was  by  Peter  " 

Cooper,    at    his    iron  -  works    near    Balti-        Total  track 274,835.30 

more,  in   1830.     It  was  a  small  machine,    gteel  railg  in  track 257,437.11 

and   drew  an  open   car   on  the  Baltimore    iron  rails  in  track 17,398.28 

and   Ohio   Railroad,   filled   with   directors,    Locomotive  engines,  number 41,626 

from  Baltimore  to  Ellicott's  Mills,  ai  the    cars,  passenger 27,364 

rate  of  18  miles  an  hour.     The  multipli-        "      baggage,  mail,  etc wwiua 

cation   of  railways   in   the  United   States  freight  ' 

kept   pace    with    the    marvellous    increase        Total  cars 1,541,039 

in    population,    wealth,    and    ii^and    com- 

i-i        •          Tonn       i-u              M  LIABILITIES. 

merce,    until,    in    1890,    the    mileage    was  c     ita]   gtock                                $6,078,290,596 

greater    than    that    of    all    other    railway  Bonded  debt.'! !'.!!!!!!!!!! '.       6,465,290,839 

systems  in  the  world  combined.     In   1830    Unfunded  debt 479957935 

there   were   in   the    country    23    miles    of    Current  accounts 14o'679'814 

passenger    railways.      On    Jan.     1,     1905,     Sinking  and  other  funds. .. . ',      '      . 

there    were    206,876    miles    of    completed        Total  liabilities $13,474,565,051 

366 


RAILROADS— RAILWAY 


ASSETS. 

Cost   of   railroad   and   equip- 
ment    $10,S65,GS3,376 

Other  investments 2,345,515,940 

Sundry  assets 455,053,773 

Current  accounts 287,854,729 

Total  assets $13,954,107,818 

Excess  of  assets  over  lia- 
bilities      $479,542,767 

Miles  of  railroad  operated. . .  197,887.36 

Passenger  train  mileage 403,213,178 

Freight  train  mileage 508,210,140 

Mixed  train  mileage 22,990,130 

Total .  934,413,448 

Passengers  carried 655,130,236 

Fassenger  mileage 19,706,908, 7S5 

Tons  of  freight  moved 1,192,136,510 

Freight  mileage 156,624,166,024 

TRAFFIC    EARNINGS. 

Passengers   $396,513,412 

Freight ,  1,197,212,452 

Miscellaneous    127,089,036 

Total  traffic  revenue $1,720,814,900 

Net  earnings $560,026,277 

Receipts  from  other  sources..  77,663,483 

Total  available  revenue...  $637,689,760 

PAYMENTS. 

Interest  on  bonds $222,614,909 

Other  interest 9!733,'s60 

Dividends  on  stock 151,019,537 


payments — Continued. 

Carried  forward $383,36S,0O(j 

Miscellaneous 57,408.351 

Itentals — Interest   40,622.542 

Dividends    27,154,215 

Miscellaneous  ....  19,970,212 

Total    payments $528,523,326 

Surplus $109,166,434 

See  State  Regulation  of  Railways. 

Rail-splitter,  a  popular  nickname  for 
Abraham  Lincoln. 

Railway,  The  Intercontinental,  or 
"  Three  Americas." — One  of  the  results 
of  the  international  conference  held  in 
Washington  in  1889-90  was  its  recom- 
mendation that  an  international  commis- 
sion be  created  to  ascertain  the  feasibility, 
the  cost,  and  the  location  for  a  railroad 
connecting  South  and  Central  America 
with  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  This 
was  endorsed  by  Secretary  Blaine  and  by 
President  Harrison,  who  transmitted  it  to 
Congress,  asking  that  an  appropriation  be 
made  to  commence  the  surveys.  In  the 
same  act  which  authorized  the  establish- 
ment of  the  bureau  of  the  American  re- 
publics— the  diplomatic  and  consular  ap- 
propriation act  of  July  14,  1890 — the 
Intercontinental  Railway  Commission  was 
created.  In  this  act  it  was  provided  that 
three   commissioners   on   the   part   of   the 


A    RAILROAD   TRAIN  OF   THR   TWENTIETH   CENTURY. 

367 


RAILWAY— BALE 


United  States  should  be  appointed  by  the  Raines  Law,  an  act  for  the  regula- 
President,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  tion  of  liquor  traffic  in  New  York  State, 
the  Senate,  who  were  to  act  with  repre-  by  which  all  local  excise  boards  are  abol- 
fientatives  of  the  other  American  republics  ished  and  the  traffic  is  placed  under  the 
to  devise  plans  for  carrying  out  the  objects  supervision  of  the  State.  By  this  act 
recommended  by  the  international  Ameri-  liquor  dealers  were  subjected  to  an  annual 
can  conference.  The  commission  organ-  license  tax  of  $800  in  New  York  City, 
ized  Dec.  4,  1S90,  and  at  once  set  about  $050  in  Brooklyn,  and  smaller  sums,  de- 
equipping  surveying  parties  to  make  a  creasing  according  to  the  size  of  the  city 
topographical  examination.  The  United  or  town,  from  $500  to  $100.  Two-thirds 
States  representatives  on  the  commission  of  the  proceeds  of  this  tax  are  appor- 
were  practical  railroad  men — A.  J.  Cas-  tioned  to  the  locality  in  which  the  same  is 
satt,  Henry  G.  Davis,  and  R.  C.  Kerens,  and  collected,  one-third  to  the  State, 
eleven  other  republics  were  represented  Rains,  Gabriel  James,  military  officer; 
on  the  commission.  The  report  issued  born  in  Craven  county,  N.  C,  in  June, 
in  March,  1899  (4  volumes),  is  accom-  1803:  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1827; 
panied  with  four  sets  of  maps  and  profiles,  served  with  distinction  in  the  Seminole 
exhibiting  the  surveys  and  examination  of  War,  in  which  he  was  severely  wounded, 
the  country  that  were  made  from  Mexico  and  was  brevetted  major  for  gallantry, 
through  Central  America  to  Colombia,  In  1855  he  was  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
Ecuador,  and  Peru,  in  South  America.  teers  in   Washington  Territory,   and  was 

An   estimate   is   given   of   the   cost   for  lieutenant-colonel    in    the    National    army 

grading,  masonry,  and  bridges  of  that  por-  in  the  summer  of  1861,  when  he  resigned 

tion  of  the  line,  which  must  be  construct-  and    became    a    brigadier  -  general    of    the 

ed    to    complete    the    connections,    which  Confederate     army.      In     the     battle     of 

amount  to  $174,290,271.84.  Wilson's  Creek    (q.   v.)    he  led  the  ad- 

As   surveyed    (1899),   from   New   York  vance    division.      He    also    commanded    a 

City  to  Buenos  Ayres,  the  railway  would  division  in  the  battles  at  Shiloh  and  Per- 

be   10,221   miles   long,   and  to  finish   and  ryville.     He   died  in  Aiken,   S.   C,   Sept. 

equip  it  would  cost  at  least  $200,000,000.  6,    1881. 

This  length  and  cost  would  also  be  in-  Rains,  James  Edward,  military  offi- 
creased  when  the  line  is  extended  through  cer;  born  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  April  10, 
Patagonia  to  the  southern  limits  of  South  1833;  was  a  stanch  Union  man  be- 
America.  Complete  surveys  prove  that  a  fore  the  war,  and,  at  one  time,  edited 
practical  route  can  be  had,  and  the  road  the  Daily  Republican  Banner,  at  Nash- 
built  in  a  reasonable  time.  The  route  of  ville.  He  was  also  attorney-general  of 
this  road  can  be  traced  on  a  railroad  map,  the  State,  but  resigned,  joined  the  Con- 
while  the  following  table  shows  the  dis-  federate  army,  and  was  for  a  time  in 
tances,  the  miles  built,  and  the  gaps   to  command  at  Cumberland  Gap.     He  was  a 


be  filled: 


Countries. 

United  States 

Mexico 

Total  in  North  America. . 

Guatemala 

San  Salvador 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Costa  Rica 

Total  in  Central  America 

Colombia 

Kcn.idor 

Peru 

Bolivia 

Argentina 

Total  in  South  America. 

Grand  total 


2,094 
1,183 


3,277 


151 
195 

936 


1,232 


4,769 


Proposed. 


126 
166 
71 
106 
360 


829 

1,354 
658 

1,633 
392 
125 


4,769 


5,452 


brigadier-general ;  acted  with  bravery  in 
the  battles  of  Shiloh  and  Perryville,  and 
r°tal-  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Stone  River, 
2,094  near  Murfreesboro,  Tenn.,  Dec.  31,  1862. 
-i^5  Raisin  River.  See  Frenchtown,  Mas- 
sacre at;  River  Raisin. 

Rale,    Sebastian,    Jesuit    missionary; 

born   in   France   in    1658.     In   the   fall   of 

1689   he   went   to   Quebec,    and   was   first 

stationed    as    a    missionary    among    the 

Abenake   Indians,   near   the   Falls   of   the 

1,354    Chaudiere.     Then  he  was  sent  to  the  Illi- 

j  5g|    nois  country,  and  as  early  as  1695  he  es- 

587    tablished  a  mission   among  the  Abenakes 

1,0(n    at  Norridgewock,  on  the  Kennebec  River. 


169 
230 
71 
209 
360 


He  acquired  great  influence  over  the  Ind- 
ians, accompanying  them   on   their  hunt- 


368 


BALEIGH 


ing  and  fishing  excursions.  The  English  educated  at  Oxford;  and  at  the  age  of 
accused  him  of  instigating  savage  forays  seventeen  went  as  a  soldier  to  France  to 
on  the  New  England  frontiers,  and  a  assist  the  Huguenots.  He  afterwards 
price  was  set  upon  his  head.  They  burn-  fought  in  the  Netherlands,  and  returning 
ed  his  mission  church  in  1705.  It  was  to  England  found  that  his  half-brother, 
rebuilt,  and  in  1722  Rale's  cabin  and  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  had  just  obtained 
church  were  plundered  by  New  England  a  patent  for  establishing  a  plantation  in 
soldiers,  who  carried  away  his  Diction-  America.  Raleigh  joined  him,  and  they 
ary  of  the  Abenake  Language,  which  is  sailed  for  the  Western  Continent  in  1579, 
preserved  in  manuscript  in  the  library  of  but  were  turned  back  by  the  loss  of  one 
Harvard  University.  It  has  been  printed  ship  and  the  crippling  of  the  others  in 
(1833)  by  the  Academy  of  Arts  and  a  fight  with  Spanish  cruisers.  After 
Sciences.  On  Aug.  12,  1724,  Father  Rale  serving  in  the  suppression  of  a  rebellion 
was  shot  at  the  mission  cross,  Norridge-  in  Ireland,  he  was  admitted  to  the  Court 
wock,  Me.,  by  some  New-Englanders  with    of  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  conferred  honors 

upon  him.  These  favors  were 
won  by  his  gallantry  in  spread- 
ing his  scarlet  cloak  over  a 
miry  place  for  the  Queen  to 
walk  upon. 

Through  his  influence  he  ob- 
tained another  patent  for  Gil- 
bert, and  they  again  proposed  to 
sail  for  America.  Accident  kept 
Raleigh  at  home,  but  Gilbert 
sailed  from  Plymouth  with  five 
ships  in  1583,  and  landing  in 
Newfoundland  he  took  posses- 
sion of  the  island  in  the  name 
of  the  Queen.  Off  the  coast  of 
Maine  the  squadron  was  dis- 
persed, and  the  vessel  in  which 
Gilbert  sailed  was  lost  in  a 
storm  with  all  on  board.  After- 
wards Raleigh  obtained  for  him- 
self a  patent  as  lord  proprietor 
of  the  country  extending  from 
Delaware  Bay  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Santee  River,  to  plant  a  col- 
ony there;  and  in  1584  he  sent 
two  ships  thither  under  the  re- 
spective commands  of  Philip 
Amidas  and  Arthur  Barlow 
(see  Amidas,  Philip).  They 
entered  Ocracoke  Inlet,  off  the 
coast  of  North  Carolina,  in 
July;  explored  Pamlico  and 
Albemarle  sounds;  discovered 
Roanoke  Island,  and,  waving 
over  its  soil  the  banner  of  Eng- 
land, took  possession  of  it  in 
a  number  of  Indians.  In  August,  1833,  the  name  of  the  Queen.  On  their  re- 
Bishop  Fenwick  (R.  C.)  erected  a  monu-  turn  to  England  in  the  autumn  they  gave 
ment  to  his  memory.  glowing  accounts  of  the  country  they  had 

Raleigh.,  Sib  Walter,  navigator;  born    discovered,  and  as  a  memorial  of  her  un- 
in  Hayes,  Devonshire,  England,  in   1552;     married  state,  it  is  said,  the  Queen  gave 
vii.— 2  a  369 


RALEIGH,    SIR    WALTER 


form  of  raleigh's  ships. 


to  the  domain  the  name  of  Virginia.  She 
knighted  Raleigh,  and  gave  him  lucrative 
privileges  that  enriched  him. 

Raleigh  now  took  measures  for  send- 
ing out  a  colony 
to  settle  in  Vir- 
ginia, and  on 
April  9,  1585, 
seven  of  his  ves- 
sels sailed  from 
Plymouth  with 
18  0  colonists 
and  a  full  com- 
plement of  sea- 
men. Sir  Rich- 
a  r  d  Grenville 
commanded  the 
expedition,  ac- 
companied by  Sir  Ralph  Lane  (see 
Lane,  Sir  Ralph)  as  governor  of  the 
colony,  Philip  Amidas  as  admiral  of  the 
fleet,  Thomas  Cavendish,  who  the  next 
year  followed  the  path  of  Drake  around 
the  world,  Thomas  Harriott  ( see  Harriott, 
Thomas  ) ,  as  historian  of  the  expedition, 
and  John  With,  a  competent  painter,  to 
delineate  men  and  things  in  America.  The 
expedition  reached  the  American  coast  late 
in  June,  and  the  vessels  being  nearly 
wrecked  on  a  point  of  land,  they  named 
it  Cape  Fear.  Entering  Ocracoke  Inlet, 
they  landed  on  Roanoke  Island.  There 
Grenville  left  the  colonists  and  returned 
to  England  with  the  ships.  The  next  year 
Raleigh  sent  reinforcements  and  supplies 
to  the  colony,  but  the  settlement  was  aban- 
doned. The  settlers  had  gone  home  in 
one  of  Drake's  ships  (see  Drake,  Sir 
Francis).  In  1587  Raleigh  sent  out  a 
colony  of  farmers  and  mechanics  to  settle 
on  the  shores  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  with 
John  White  as  governor.  He  gave  them  a 
charter  and  a  municipal  government  to 
found  the  "City  of  Raleigh."  White 
landed  on  Roanoke  Island  and  went  back 
to  England  for  reinforcements  and  sup- 
plies. Two  of  Raleigh's  supply  ships  were 
captured  by  French  cruisers.  His  funds 
were  exhausted,  having  spent  $200,000  in 
his  colonization  schemes,  and  the  colonists 
were  left  to  perish  or  become  incorporated 
with  the  Indian  tribes. 

Raleigh  was  a  lieutenant-general  in  com- 
mand of  the  forces  in  Cornwall  in  1588, 
and  behaved  gallantly  in  fighting  the 
Spanish     Armada.     The     next     year     he 


formed  under  his  patents  a  company  of 
"  Merchants  and  Adventurers "  to  carry 
on  his  colonization  schemes  in  America, 
but  it  was  a  failure.  With  Drake  he  went 
to  restore  Dom  Antonio  to  the  throne  of 
Portugal  in  1589;  brought  the  poet  Ed- 
mund Spenser  from  Ireland  to  the  British 
Court;  lost  favor  there  himself  by  bad 
conduct;  planned  an  expedition  to  Guiana, 
South  America,  and  went  there  with  five 
ships  in  1595,  and  published  a  highly 
colored  account  of  the  country  on  his  re- 
turn. Regaining  a  portion  of  the  royal 
favor,  he  was  in  public  employment  and 
received  large  grants  from  the  crown,  but 
the  death  of  Elizabeth  in  1603  was  a  fatal 
blow  to  his  fortunes.  On  the  accession  of 
James  he  was  stripped  of  his  preferments, 
and  soon  after  was  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  conspiring  to  dethrone  the  King,  found 
guilty,  and  sentenced  to  be  beheaded.  He 
was  reprieved  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
thirteen  years,  during  six  of  which  his 
wife  bore  him  company.  During  that 
period  Raleigh  wrote  his  History  of  the 
World.  Released  in  1615  (not  pardoned), 
he  was  commanding  admiral  of  the  fleet, 


kalkioh  enjoying  his  pipu  (1'ioni  au  old  print). 

and  was  sent  by  James  with  fourteen  ships 
to  Guiana  in  search  of  treasures.  One  of 
Raleigh's  commanders  was  sent  up  the 
Orinoco  with  250  men  in  boats,  landed  at 
the  Spanish  set^ement  of  St.  Thomas,  and, 
in  defiance  of  the  peaceable  instructions 
of  the  King,  killed  the  governor  and  set 
fire  to  the  town.  Raleigh's  eldest  son  was 
killed   in    the   action.      Unabla   either    to 


370 


RALEIGH,    SIR    WALTER 

advance    or    to    maintain    their    position,  lieires    and    successors,    shal    goe    or    tra- 

they   retreated   in   haste   to   the   ships,   a  vaile  thither  to  inhabite  or  remaine,  there 

Spanish    fleet,   which    had   been   informed  to  build  and  fortifie,  at  the  discretion  of 

of  their  movements,   hovering  near.     The  the  said  Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires  &  as- 

expedition  was   a   failure,    several   of   the  signes,  the  statutes  or  act  of  Parliament 

ships  were  lost,  and  he  returned  in   1618  made  against  fugitives,  or  against  such  as 

ruined    in    health    and    reputation.     Dis-  shall   depart,  remaine  or  continue  out  of 

appointed    in   his   avaricious    desires,    the  our   Realme   of   England   without   licence, 

infamous  King  consented  to  Raleigh's  re-  or  any  statute,  act,  law,  or  any  ordinance 

commitment  to  the  Tower  and  his  execu-  whatsoever   to   the   contrary   in  any  wise 

tion    (Oct.   29,   1618)    under   the   sentence  notwithstanding. 

of  1603.  Lane,  Raleigh's  governor  in  Vir-  And  we  do  likewise  by  these  presents, 
ginia,  first  introduced  tobacco  into  Eng-  0f  our  especial  grace,  meere  motion,  and 
land.  He  had  learned  to  smoke  it,  and  certaine  knowledge,  for  us,  our  heires  and 
taught  Raleigh.  When  the  servant  of  successors,  give  and  graunt  full  authori- 
se latter  first  saw  his  master  enveloped  tie,  libertie,  and  power  to  the  said  Walter 
in  tobacco  smoke,  supposing  him  to  be  on  Ralegh,  his  heires  and  assignes,  and  every 
Are,  he  dashed  a  pail  of  water  over  him.  of  them,  that  he  and  they,  and  every  or 
Raleigh  taught  the  Queen  to  smoke.  any   of   them   shall   and   may   at   all   and 

_  every    time    and    times    hereafter,    have, 

Charter  in  favor  of   Sir  Walter  Ra-    lake?  and  ]eade  in  the  sayde  and 

leigh,  Knight,  for  the  Discovert  and  travaile  thitherward,  or  to  innabite  there 
Planting  of  New  Lands  in  America,  with  Mm  or  themj  and  eyery  or  any  of 
25  March  1584.  t]iemj  gudl  and  g0  many  of  our  subject3 

Elizabeth  by  the  grace  of  God  of  Eng-  as  shall  willingly  accompany  him  or  them, 

land,  France  and  Ireland  Queene,  defender  and    every    or    any    of    them:       and    to 

of  the  faith,  &c.     To  all  people  to  whom  whom  also  we  doe  by  these  presents,  give 

these      presents      shall      come,      greeting,  full    libertie    and    authoritie    in    that    be- 

Know  ye  that  of  our  especial  grace,  cer-  halfe,  and  also  to  have,  take  and  employ, 

taine   science,   &   meere   motion,   we   have  and  use  sufficient  shipping  and  furniture 

given  and  graunted,  and  by  these  presents  for  the  transportations,  and   Navigations 

for  us,  our  heires  and  successors  doe  give  in  that  behalfe,  so  that  none  of  the  same 

and  graunt  to  our  trusty  and  welbeloved  persons  or  any  of  them  be  such  as  here- 

servant  Walter  Ralegh  Esquire,  and  to  his  after  shall  be  restrained  by  us,  our  heires 

heires  and  assignes  for  ever,  free  liberty  or  successors. 

&  licence  from  time  to  time,  and  at  all  And  further  that  the  said  Walter  Ra- 
times  for  ever  hereafter,  to  discover,  legh  his  heires  and  assignes,  and  every 
search,  finde  out,  and  view  such  remote,  of  them,  shall  have,  holde,  occupie  and 
heathen  and  barbarous  lands,  countreis,  enjoy  to  him,  his  heires  and  assignes,  and 
and  territories,  not  actually  possessed  of  every  of  them  for  ever,  all  the  soyle  of  all 
any  Christian  prince,  nor  inhabited  by  such  landes,  territories,  and  Countreis,  so 
Christian  people,  as  to  him,  his  heires  to  be  discovered  and  possessed  as  afore- 
and  assignes,  and  to  every  or  any  of  them  sayd,  and  of  all  such  Cities,  Castles, 
shall  seeme  good,  and  the  same  to  have,  Townes,  Villages,  and  places  in  the  same, 
holde,  occupy  &  enjoy  to  him,  his  heires  with  the  right  royalties,  franchises,  and 
and  assignes  for  ever,  with  all  preroga-  jurisdictions,  as  well  marine  as  other 
tives,  commodities,  jurisdictios,  royalties,  within  the  sayd  landes,  or  Countreis,  or 
privileges,  franchises  and  preeminences,  the  seas  thereunto  adjoyning,  to  be  had, 
thereto  or  thereabouts  both  by  sea  and  or  used,  with  full  power  to  dispose  there- 
land,  whatsoever  we  by  our  letters  patents  of,  and  of  every  part  in  fee  simple  or 
may  grant,  and  as  we  or  any  of  our  noble  otherwise,  according  to  the  order  of  the 
progenitors  have  heretofore  granted  to  lawes  of  England,  as  neere  as  the  same 
any  person  or  persons,  bodies  politique  or  conveniently  may  be,  at  his,  and  their  wil 
corporate:  and  the  saide  Walter  Ralegh,  and  pleasure,  to  any  persons  then  being, 
his  heires  and  assignes,  and  all  such  as  or  that  shall  remaine  within  the  allegi- 
from  time  to  time,  by  licence  of  us,  our  ance  of  us,  our  heires  and  successors :  re- 

371 


RALEIGH,    SIB    WALTER 


serving  al waves  to  us,  our  heires  and  suc- 
cessors, for  all  services,  dueties,  and  de- 
maunds,  the  fift  part  of  all  the  oare  of 
golde  and  silver,  that  from  time  to  time, 
and  at  all  times  after  such  discoverie,  sub- 
duing and  possessing,  shall  be  there  gotten 
and  obteined:  All  which  lands,  Countreis, 
and  territories  shall  for  ever  be  holden  of 
the  said  Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires  and 
assignes,  of  us,  our  heires  and  successors, 
by  homage,  and  by  the  sayd  payment  of 
the  said  fift  part,  reserved  onely  for  all 
services. 

And  moreover,  we  do  by  these  presents, 
for  us,  our  heires  and  successors,  give  and 
grant  licence  to  the  said  Walter  Ralegh, 
his  heires,  and  assignes,  and  every  of 
them,  that  he  and  they,  and  every  or  any 
of  them,  shall  and  may  from  time  to  time, 
and  at  all  times  for  ever  hereafter,  for  his 
and  their  defence,  encounter  and  expulse, 
repell  and  resist  as  well  by  sea  as  by  lande, 
and  by  all  other  wayes  whatsoever,  all  and 
every  such  person  and  persons  whatsoever, 
as  without  especiall  liking  and  licence 
of  the  sayd  Walter  Ralegh,  and  of  his 
heires  and  assignes,  shall  attempt  to  in- 
habite  within  the  sayde  Countreys,  or  any 
of  them,  or  within  the  space  of  two  hun- 
dreth  leagues  neere  to  the  place  or  places 
within  such  Countreys  as  aforesayd  (if 
they  shall  not  bee  before  planted  or  in- 
habited within  the  limits  as  aforesayd 
with  the  subjects  of  any  Christian  Prince 
being  in  amitie  with  us)  where  the  sayd 
Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires,  or  assignes,  or 
any  of  them,  or  his,  or  their,  or  any  of 
their  associats  or  company,  shall  within 
sixe  yeeres  (next  ensuing)  make  their 
dwellings  or  abidings,  or  that  shall  enter- 
prise or  attempt  at  any  time  hereafter 
unlawfully  to  annoy,  eyther  by  Sea  or 
Lande  the  sayde  Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires 
or  assignes,  or  any  of  them,  or  his  or 
their,  or  any  of  his  or  their  companies: 
giving  and  graunting  by  these  presents 
further  power  and  author itie  to  the  sayd 
Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires  and  assignes, 
and  every  of  them  from  time  to  time,  and 
at  all  times  for  ever  hereafter,  to  take 
and  surprise  by  all  maner  of  meanes  what- 
soever, all  and  every  those  person  or  per- 
sons, with  their  Shippes,  Vessels,  and 
other  goods  and  furniture,  which  with- 
out the  licence  of  the  sayde  Walter 
Ralegh,  or  his  heires,  or  assignes,  as  afore- 


sayd, shalbe  found  traffiquing  into  any 
Harbour,  or  Harbours,  Creeke,  or  Creekes, 
within  the  limits  aforesayd,  (the  subjects 
of  our  Realmes  and  Dominions,  and  all 
other  persons  in  amitie  with  us,  trading 
to  the  Newfound  lands  for  fishing  as  here- 
tofore they  have  commonly  used,  or  being 
driven  by  force  of  a  tempest,  or  ship- 
wracke  onely  excepted:)  and  those  per- 
sons, and  every  of  them,  with  their 
shippes,  vessels,  goods,  and  furniture  to 
deteine  and  possesse  as  of  good  and  law- 
full  prize,  according  to  the  discretion  of 
him  the  sayd  Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires, 
and  assignes,  and  every,  or  any  of  them. 
And  for  uniting  in  more  perfect  league 
and  amitie,  of  such  Countryes,  landes,  and 
territories  so  to  be  possessed  and  inhabit- 
ed as  aforesayd  with  our  Realmes  of  Eng- 
land and  Ireland,  and  the  better  incour- 
agement  of  men  to  these  enterprises:  we 
doe  by  these  presents,  graunt  and  declare 
that  all  such  Countries,  so  hereafter  to  be 
possessed  and  inhabited  as  is  aforesayd, 
from  thencefoorth  shall  be  of  the  allegi- 
ance of  us,  our  heires  and  successours.  And 
wee  doe  graunt  to  the  sayd  Walter  Ralegh, 
his  heires,  and  assignes,  and  to  all,  and 
every  of  them,  and  to  all,  and  every  other 
person  and  persons,  being  of  our  allegi- 
ance, whose  names  shall  be  noted  or  en- 
tred  in  some  of  our  Courts  of  recorde 
within  our  Realme  of  England,  that  with 
the  assent  of  the  sayd  Walter  Ralegh,  his 
heires  or  assignes,  shall  in  his  journeis  for 
discoverie,  or  in  the  journeis  for  conquest 
hereafter  travaile  to  such  lands,  coun- 
treis and  territories,  as  aforesayd,  and  to 
their,  and  to  every  of  their  heires,  that 
they,  and  every  or  any  of  them,  being 
eyther  borne  within  our  sayde  Realmes 
of  England  or  Irelande,  or  in  any  other 
place  within  our  allegiance,  and  which 
hereafter  shall  be  inhabiting  within  any 
the  Lands,  Countryes,  and  Territories, 
with  such  licence  (as  aforesayd)  shall  and 
may  have  all  the  privileges  of  free  Deni- 
zens, and  persons  native  of  England,  and 
within  our  allegiance  in  such  like  ample 
maner  and  forme,  as  if  they  were  borne 
and  personally  resident  within  our  said 
Realme  of  England,  any  law,  custome,  or 
usage  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

And  forasmuch  as  upon  the  finding  out, 
discovering,  or  inhabiting  of  such  remote 
lands,  countries,  and  territories  as  afore- 


372 


RALEIGH,    SIR    WALTER 

said,  it  shalbe  necessary  for  the  safety  high  Treasourer  of  England,  and  to  the 
of  all  men,  that  shall  adventure  them-  Lorde  Treasourer  of  England  for  us,  our 
selves  in  those  journeys  or  voyages,  to  de-  heires  and  successors,  for  the  time  being, 
termine  to  live  together  in  Christian  and  to  the  privie  Counsaile  of  us,  our 
peace,  and  civill  quietnesse  eche  with  oth-  heires  and  successors,  or  any  foure  or 
er,  whereby  every  one  may  with  more  more  of  them,  for  the  time  being,  that  he, 
pleasure  and  profit  enjoy  that  whereunto  they,  or  any  foure  or  more  of  them,  shall 
they  shall  atteine  with  great  paine  and  and  may  from  time  to  time,  and  at  all 
perill,  wee  for  us,  our  heires  and  succes-  times  hereafter,  under  his  or  their  handes 
eors,  are  likewise  pleased  and  contented,  or  Seales  by  vertue  of  these  presents,  au- 
and  by  these  presents  doe  give  &  grant  thorize  and  licence  the  sayd  Walter 
to  the  said  Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires  and  Ralegh,  his  heires  and  assignes,  and  every 
assignes  for  ever  that  he  and  they,  and  or  any  of  them  by  him,  &  by  themselves, 
every  or  any  of  them,  shall  and  may  or  by  their,  or  any  of  their  sufficient  At- 
from  time  to  time  for  ever  hereafter,  turnies,  Deputies,  Officers,  Ministers,  Fac- 
within  the  said  mentioned  remote  lands  tors,  and  servants,  to  imbarke  &  trans- 
and  countries,  in  the  way  by  the  seas  port  out  of  our  Realme  of  England  and 
thither,  and  from  thence,  have  full  and  Ireland,  and  the  Dominions  thereof,  all 
meere  power  and  authoritie  to  correct,  or  any  of  his  or  their  goods,  and  all  or 
punish,  pardon,  governe,  and  rule  by  their  any  the  goods  of  his  and  their  associats 
and  every  or  any  of  their  good  discretions  and  companies,  and  every  or  any  of  them, 
and  policies,  as  well  in  causes  capitall,  or  with  such  other  necessaries  and  commodi- 
criminall,  as  civill,  both  marine  and  other,  ties  of  any  our  Realmes,  as  to  the  sayde 
all  such  our  subjects,  as  shal  from  time  to  Lorde  Treasurer,  or  foure  or  more  of  the 
time  adventure  themselves  in  the  said  privie  Counsaile,  of  U3  our  heires  and  suc- 
journeis  or  voyages,  or  that  shall  at  any  eessors  for  the  time  being  (as  aforesaid) 
time  hereafter  inhabite  any  such  lands,  shalbe  from  time  to  time  by  his  or  their 
countreis,  or  territories  as  aforesayd,  or  wisedomes,  or  discretions  thought  meete 
that  shall  abide  within  200.  leagues  of  and  convenient,  for  the  better  reliefe  and 
any  of  the  sayde  place  or  places,  where  the  supportation  of  him  the  sayde  Walter 
sayde  Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires  or  as-  Ralegh,  his  heires,  and  assignes,  and  every 
signes,  or  any  of  them,  or  any  of  his  or  or  any  of  them,  and  of  his  or  their  or  any 
their  associats  or  companies,  shall  inhabite  of  their  associats  and  companies,  any  act, 
within  6.  yeeres  next  ensuing  the  date  here-  statute,  law,  or  any  thing  to  the  contrary 
of,  according  to  such  statutes,  lawes  and  in  any  wise  notwithstanding, 
ordinances  as  shall  be  by  him  the  sayd  Provided  alwayes,  and  our  wil  and 
Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires  and  assignes,  pleasure  is,  and  we  do  hereby  declare  to 
and  every  or  any  of  them  devised,  or  estab-  all  Christian  kings,  princes,  and  states, 
lished,  for  the  better  government  of  the  that  if  the  sayde  Walter  Ralegh,  his  heires 
said  people  as  aforesaid.  So  alwayes  as  or  assignes,  or  any  of  them,  or  any  other 
the  said  statutes,  lawes,  and  ordinances  by  their  licence  or  appointment,  shall  at 
may  be,  as  nere  as  conveniently  may  bee,  any  time  or  times  hereafter  robbe  or  spoile 
agreeable  to  the  forme  of  the  lawes,  by  sea  or  by  land,  or  doe  any  acte  of  un- 
etatutes,  government,  or  pollicie  of  Eng-  just  or  unlawfull  hostilitie,  to  any  of  the 
land,  and  also  so  as  they  be  not  against  the  subjects  of  us,  our  heires  or  successors,  or 
true  Christian  faith,  nowe  professed  in  to  any  of  the  subjects  of  any  the  kings, 
the  Church  of  England,  nor  in  any  wise  to  princes,  rulers,  Governours,  or  estates, 
withdrawe  any  of  the  subjects  or  people  being  then  in  perfect  league  and  amitie 
of  those  lands  or  places  from  the  al-  with  us,  our  heires  and  successours,  and 
leagance  of  us,  our  heires  and  successours,  that  upon  such  injurie,  or  upon  just  com- 
as their  immediate  Soveraigne  under  God.  plaint  of  any  such  Prince,  Ruler,  Govern- 
And  further,  we  doe  by  these  presents  our  or  estate,  or  their  subjects,  wee,  our 
for  us,  our  heires  and  successors,  give  and  heires  and  successors,  shall  make  open 
grant  ful  power  and  authoritie  to  our  Proclamation  within  any  the  portes  of  our 
trustie  and  welbeloved  Counsailour  Sir  Realme  of  England,  that  the  saide  Walter 
William  Cecill  knight,  Lorde  Burghley,  or    Ralegh,  his  heires  and  assignes,  and  ad- 

373 


RALEIGH   TAVERN— RAMBOUILLET   DECREE 


RALEIGH    TAVKRN. 


herents,  or  any  to  whom  these  our  Let-  ginia  House  of  Burgesses  met  when  Gov- 
ters  patents  may  extende,  shall  within  the  ernor  Dunmore  dissolved  that  House  in 
termes  to  bee  limited,  by  such  Proclama-  1774;  appointed  delegates  to  the  first  Con- 
tion,  make  full  restitution,  and  satis-  tinental  Congress;  devised  schemes  for 
faction  of  all  such  injuries  done:  so  as  local  self-government,  and  defied  the  power 
both  we  and  the  said  Princes,  or 
other    so    complaining,    may    hold 

us   and   themselves   fully   content-  ^         -        -      .  ^    r 

ed:    And  that  if  the   said  Walter  jggBJ  '.■"*■         '.  :  ,Vv-:  ■ 

Ralegh,    his    heires    and    assignes, 
shall    not    make    or    cause    to    be         Jjg 
made       satisfaction       accordingly      Jgj^B 
within   such  time   so  to  be   limit-  jgj 

ed,   that   then   it   shall   be   lawful      fjgga 
to  us,   our   heires  and   successors,       IJaal 
to   put   the    sayd   Walter   Ralegh,       ^^ 
his   heires   and   assignes,   and   ad- 
herents,   and    all    the    inhabitants 
of  the  saide  places  to  be  discover- 
ed   (as    is    aforesaid)     or    any    of 

them  out  of  our  allegeance  and  protection,  of  the  royal  representative.  The  old 
and  that  from  and  after  such  time  of  put-  tavern  was  yet  standing  when  the  Civil 
ting  out  of  protection  of  the  sayde  Walter  War  broke  out.  In  1850,  over  the  door  of 
Ralegh,  his  heires,  assignes  and  adherents,  the  main  entrance  to  the  building  was  a 
and  others  so  to  be  put  out,  and  the  said  wooden  bust  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 
places  within  their  habitation,  possession  Rail,  Johann  Gottlieb,  Hessian  mili- 
and  rule,  shall  be  out  of  our  allegeance  and  tary  officer;  born  in  Hesse-Cassel,  about 
protection,  and  free  for  all  Princes  and  1720;  led  a  regiment  of  Germans  hired  by 
others  to  pursue  with  hostilitie,  as  being  the  British  government  to  fight  the  Ameri- 
not  our  subjects,  nor  by  us  any  way  to  be  cans;  landed  at  Staten  Island  in  June, 
avouched,  maintained,  or  defended,  nor  177G;  took  part  in  the  battle  of  White 
to  be  holden  as  any  of  ours,  nor  to  our  Plains  and  the  capture  of  Fort  Washing- 
protection,  or  dominion,  or  allegeance  any  ton,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Tren- 
way  belonging:   for  that  expresse  mention    ton,  Dec.  26,  177G. 

of  the  cleere  yeerely  value  of  the  certaintie  Ralph,  Julian,  author ;  born  in  New 
of  the  premisses,  or  any  part  thereof,  or  York  City,  May  27,  1853;  was  on  the 
of  any  other  gift,  or  grant  by  us,  or  any  staff  of  the  New  York  Daily  Graphic,  New 
our  progenitors,  or  predecessors  to  the  York  Sun,  New  York  Journal,  Harper's 
said  Walter  Ralegh,  before  this  time  made  Weekly,  and  the  London  Daily  Mail,  and 
in  these  presents  bee  not  expressed,  or  was  also  a  contributor  to  the  magazines, 
any  other  grant,  ordinance,  provision,  Among  his  works  are  Our  Great  West : 
proclamation,  or  restraint  to  the  contrary  On  Canada's  Frontier;  Chicago  and  the 
thereof,  before  this  time,  given,  ordained,  World's  Fair;  Alone  in  China;  and  The 
or  provided,  or  any  other  thing,  cause,  or  War  with  the  Boers.  He  died  in  New 
matter  whatsoever,   in  any  wise  notwith-    York,  Jan.  20,  1903. 

standing.  In  witnesse  whereof,  wee  have  Rambouillet  Decree.  Professing  to  be 
caused  these  our  letters  to  be  made  indignant  at  what  seemed  to  be  partiality 
Patents.  Witnesse  our  selves,  at  West-  shown  to  England  by  the  Americans  in 
minster  the  five  and  twentie  day  of  March,  their  restrictive  acts,  Napoleon  caused  the 
in  the  sixe  and  twentith  yeere  of  our  seizure  and  confiscation  of  many  American 
Raigns.  vessels    and    their     cargoes.     John    Arm- 

Raleigh  Tavern,  The,  in  Williamsburg,  strong,  then  United  States  minister  to 
Va.,  was,  with  its  famous  Apollo  Room,  France,  remonstrated,  and  when  he  learn- 
the  cradle  of  liberty  in  Virginia,  as  ed  that  several  vessels  were  to  be  sold, 
Faneuil  Hall  was  in  Massachusetts.  It  he  offered  to  the  French  government  a  vig- 
was  there  that  the  patriots  of  the  Vir-    orous  protest,  in  which  he  recapitulated 

374 


RAMONA— RAMSEY 


the    many    aggressions    which    American    American  Revolution  in  1789.     Both  were 

commerce  had  suffered  from  French  cruis-    translated  into  the  French   language  and 

ers.     This  remonstrance  was  answered  by    published  in  France.     In  1801  he  published 

a    decree    framed    at    Ram- 

bouillet  March  23,  1810,  but 

not  issued  until  May  1,  that 

ordered     the     sale     of     132 

American  vessels  which  had 

been     seized,     worth,     with 

their      cargoes,      $8,000,000, 

the  proceeds  to  be  placed  in 

the    French    military    chest. 

It    also    ordered    that    "  all 

American  vessels  which 

should   enter   French   ports, 

or  ports  occupied  by  French 

troops,  should  be  seized  and 

sequestered." 

Eamoua.      See  Jackson, 
Helen  Maria  Fiske. 

Ramsay,  David,  historian;  born  in  Lan- 
caster, Pa.,  April  2,  1749;  began  the  prac- 
tice   of    medicine    in    Charleston,    S.    C, 


FORT  MARION,  ST.   AUGUSTINE. 


a  Life  of  Washington,  and  in  1809  a  His- 
tory of  the  United  States  to  the  close  of 
the  colonial  period.  He  also  published 
where  he  ardently  espoused  the  cause  of  the  some  minor  works.  He  died  in  Charles- 
patriots,  became  active  in  the  provisional  ton,  S.  C,  May  8,  1815. 
free  government,  council  of  safety,  etc.,  Ramsay,  Francis  Munroe,  naval  offi- 
and  when  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  cer;  born  in  Washington,  April  5,  1835; 
out  became  a  surgeon  in  the  military  joined  the  navy  Oct.  5,  1850;  graduated 
service.  He  was  among  the  prisoners  capt-  at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
ured  at  Charleston  in  1780,  and  was  close-    1856;   served  through  the  Civil  War,  tak- 


ly  confined  in  the  fort  at  St.  Augustine. 
Dr.  Ramsay  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1782  to  1786,  and  was  pi-esident  of 


ing  part  in  actions  at  Haines's  Bluff, 
Yazoo  River,  Milliken's  Bend,  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  etc.  He  was  appointed 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  navigation  in 
1889;  promoted  rear-admiral  in  1894;  and 
retired  on  account  of  age  iD  1897.  In 
September,  1901,  he  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Schley  court  of  inquiry,  in 
place  of  Rear-Admiral  Howison,  who  had 
been  challenged  by  Rear-Admiral  Schley 
and  released  from  service  on  the  court. 

Ramsey,    Alexander;    was    born   near 
Harrisburg  Pa.,  Sept.  8,   1815;  was  clerk 
of  the  Pennsylvania  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  1841,  and  a  member  of  Congress 
in    1843-47.     President   Taylor   appointed 
him  first  governor  of  the  Territory  of  Min- 
nesota in  1849,  when  it  contained  a  civil- 
ized population  of  nearly  5.000  white  peo- 
ple and  half-breed  Indians.    He  remained 
in  that  office  until  1853,  and  made  treaties 
with    the    Indians    by    which    cessions    of 
large    tracts    of    land    were    made    to    the 
that  body  for  a  year.     His  History  of  the    national  government.     He  was  chosen  the 
Revolution   in    South    Carolina   was    pub-    first   mayor   of   St.    Paul,   the   capital,   in 
lished  in   17S5,   and   bis   History  of   the    1835.     He  was  an  active  "  war  governor n 

375 


i 


DAVID    RAMSAY, 


RAMSEY— RANDOLPH 


ALEXANDKK    RAMSEY. 


rency,  and  on  retrenchment.  In  the  vari- 
ous debates  on  the  tariff  he  was  recog- 
nized as  a  leader  of  the  protection 
wing  of  his  party.  He  opposed  the  Morri- 
son and  Mills  tariff  bills,  and  antagonized 
some  of  the  strongest  members  of  his 
party  by  his  independent  course.  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  April  13,  1890. 

Randolph,  Edmund  (Jennings), 
statesman;  born  in  Williamsburg,  Va., 
Aug.  10,  1753;  son  of  John  Randolph, 
attorney-general  of  Virginia.  Educated 
for  a  lawyer,  he  had  entered  upon  its 
practice  while  the  storm  of  the  Revolution 
was  brewing.  He  was  a  warm  patriot — 
opposed  to  his  father — and  in  August, 
1775,  became  an  aide  to  Washington.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Virginia  convention 
held  at  Williamsburg  in  May,  177(5,  and 
in  1860-64;  United  States  Senator  in  in  July  became  the  attorney-general  of  the 
1864-75;  and  Secretary  of  War  in  1879-81.  State.  From  1779  to  1782  he  occupied  a 
He  died  in  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  April  22,  1903.  seat  in  Congress,  and  from  1786  to  1788 
Ramsey,  James  Gattys  McGregor,  his-  was  governor  of  Virginia.  He  took  a  lead- 
torian;  born  in  Knox  county,  Tenn.,  in  ing  part  in  the  convention  that  framed 
1796.  He  published  the  Annals  of  Tennes-  the  national  Constitution,  in  which  he  in- 
see  to  the  End  of  the  Eighteenth  Century. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  a  financial 
agent  for  the  Confederacy.  He  died  in 
Knoxville,  Tenn.,  in  1884. 

Randall,  Alexander  Williams,  states- 
man; born  in  Ames,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  31,  1819; 
removed  to  Wisconsin  in  1840;  elected 
governor  of  Wisconsin  in  1857  and  1859; 
appointed  minister  to  Italy  in  1861;  Post- 
master-General in  1866.  He  died  in 
Elmira,  N,  Y.,  July  25,  1872. 

Randall,  James  Ryder,  song  writer; 
born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Jan.  1,  1839.  He 
is  the  author  of  the  famous  Confederate 
song  Maryland,  My  Maryland,  and  The 
Battle-cry  of  the  South. 

Randall,  Samuel  Jackson,  legislator; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  10,  1828; 
was  educated  for  a  mercantile  career,  and 
entered  politics  early  in  life.     In  1862  he 

was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Union  Demo-  troduced  the  "  Virginia  plan."  He  vote 
crat  from  the  old  1st  District  in  Phila-  against  and  refused  to  sign  the  Constitu- 
delphia,  and  held  the  seat  continuously  tion,  but  urged  its  acceptance  by  the  Vir- 
till  his  death.  In  1876,  1877,  and  1879  ginia  ratification  convention.  Washing- 
he  was  elected  speaker  of  the  House,  in  ton  appointed  him  Attorney-General  of 
which  office  he  established  a  high  repu-  the  United  States  in  1789,  and  in  Janu- 
tation  as  a  parliamentarian.  During  his  ary,  1794,  he  succeeded  Thomas  Jefferson 
congressional  service  he  was  best  known  as  Secretary  of  State. 
for  his  work  as  chairman  of  the  commit-  Soon  afterwards  M.  Fouchet,  the  French 
tee  on  appropriations,  and  as  a  member  minister,  in  a  private  despatch  to  his 
of  the  committee   on  banking   and   cur-   government  concerning  the  Whiskey  In- 

376 


EDMUND    RANDOLPH. 


RANDOLPH 


surrection  ( q.  v. ) ,  written  some  time 
in  August,  1794,  said  that  as  soon  as  the 
disturbance  in  western  Pennsylvania  was 
known  Randolph  came  to  his  lodgings  and 
requested  a  private  conversation.  He 
stated  that  civil  war  was  imminent;  that 
four  influential  men  might  save  it;  but 
these  being  debtors  of  English  merchants, 
would  be  deprived  of  their  liberty  if  they 
should  take  the  smallest  step.  He  asked 
Fouchet  if  he  could  lend  them  funds  im- 
mediately to  shelter  them  from  English 
persecution.  In  his  despatch  in  October 
following,  Fouchet  returned  to  the  sub- 
ject. He  gave  a  sketch  of  the  rise  of  op 
posing  parties  in  the  United  States,  in 
which  he  represented  that  the  disturbances 
had  grown  out  of  political  hostility  to 
Hamilton,  and  Hamilton  himself  as  tak- 
ing the  advantage  which  they  afforded  to 
make  the  President  regard  as  a  blow  to 
the  Constitution  what,  in  fact,  was  only 
a  protest  against  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  He  says  Randolph  informed 
him  that  the  persistence  in  enforcing  the 
excise  was  a  scheme  of  Hamilton's  to  mis- 
lead the  President  into  unpopular  courses 
and  to  introduce  absolute  power — in  other 
words,  a  monarchy — under  pretext  of  giv- 
ing energy  to  the  government 

Such,  according  to  Fouchet,  was  the  ori- 
gin of  the  expedition  into  the  western 
counties  of  Pennsylvania.  He  then  freely 
commented  upon  the  characters  of  several 
leading  men  in  the  government,  and  made 
it  appear  that  venality  was  a  strong  mo- 
tive of  action  among  the  politicians  of  the 
United  States,  especially  of  those  of  the 
Federal  party.  This  opinion  appears  to 
have  been  formed  from  information  given 
him  by  Randolph,  who,  two  or  three  days 
before  Washington's  proclamation  to  the 
insurgents  was  issued,  came  to  him  to 
borrow  money.  This  despatch,  which  re- 
vealed the  inimical  relations  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  to  the  government  he  was 
serving,  was  intercepted  on  its  way  to 
France  by  a  British  cruiser,  and,  through 
Lord  Grenville,  was  transmitted  to  Mr. 
Hammond,  the  British  minister  at  Phila- 
delphia. That  functionary,  ascribing  the 
delay  in  ratifying  Jay's  treaty  to  Ran- 
dolph, communicated  Fou chefs  despatch 
to  Wolcott,  as  going  to  show  what  in- 
trigues the  Secretary  of  State  had  car- 
ried on  with   the   late   French   minister. 


377 


Wolcott  consulted  with  other  friends  of  the 
government,  and  a  message  was  sent  to  the 
President,  at  Mount  Vernon,  requesting 
his  immediate  return  to  Philadelphia. 

On  his  arrival  the  despatch  was  pre- 
sented to  him  (Aug.  12,  1795).  A  cabinet 
council  was  held  the  next  day,  when  the 
question  was  propounded.  "  What  shall 
be  done  with  the  treaty?"  Randolph  op- 
posed the  ratification  vehemently.  The 
other  members  were  in  favor  of  it,  and 
on  Aug.  18  the  President  signed  it.  When 
copies  of  the  treaty  had  been  signed  by 
Randolph  as  Secretary  of  State,  Washing- 
ton presented  to  him  the  intercepted  de- 
spatch of  Fouchet  in  the  presence  of  the 
other  members,  with  a  request  to  read  it 
and  to  make  such  explanations  as  he  might 
think  fit.  After  reading  it,  he  commenced 
commenting  upon  it.  He  could  not  tell, 
he  said,  what  Fouchet  referred  to  when  he 
spoke  of  Randolph  as  asking  for  money 
for  himself  and  some  brother  patriots. 
Perceiving  that  his  explanations  were  un- 
satisfactory, he  proposed  to  put  the  re- 
mainder of  his  observations  in  writing, 
and  immediately  tendered  his  resignation. 
He  requested  that  the  despatch  might  be 
kept  secret  till  he  should  be  able  to  pre- 
pare his  explanations,  for  which  purpose 
he  proposed  to  visit  Fouchet,  who  was  at 
Newport,  R.  I.,  and  about  to  sail  for 
France.  Fouchet  gave  to  Randolph  an  ex- 
planatory letter  that  was  very  unsatisfac- 
tory. Randolph  published  a  "  vindica- 
tion," but  it,  too,  was  very  unsatisfactory, 
and  he  retired  from  office  under  the 
shadow  of  a  cloud.  He  died  in  Clarke 
county,  Va.,  Sept    13,  1813. 

Randolph,  Edward,  British  official ; 
born  in  England,  about  1620;  was  sent  to 
the  New  England  colonies  in  1675.  He 
first  appeared  in  Boston,  in  June,  1676,  as 
bearer  of  an  order  from  the  privy  council 
citing  Massachusetts  to  defend  her  title 
to  Maine.  He  reappeared  in  1678  as  a 
messenger  from  the  privy  council  with 
a  new  oath  of  allegiance  and  to  inquire 
concerning  the  non-observance  of  the  navi- 
gation laws.  In  July,  1680,  he  came  again, 
with  the  returning  agents  sent  to  England 
by  Massachusetts,  bearing  a  commission 
as  collector  of  the  royal  customs  for  New 
England  and  inspector  for  enforcing  the 
acts  of  trade.  He  presented  his  commis- 
sion to  the  General  Court.    They  took  no 


RANDOLPH 


notice  of  it.  He  posted  a  notice  of  his  ap-  from  the  Charlotte  district,  which  he  rep- 
pointment  at  the  public  exchange,  but  it  resented  until  1829.  excepting  three  years 
was  torn  down  by  order  of  the  magistrates,  while  holding  a  seat  in  the  United  States 
The  General  Court  erected  a  naval  office,  Senate — 1825  to  1827.  He  was  an  adhe- 
at  which  all  vessels  were  required  to  rent  of  the  State  supremacy  doctrine,  and 
enter  and  clear,  and  so  superseded  Ran-  in  Congress  often  stood  alone,  for  he  op- 
dolph's  authority.  But  Randolph  seized  posed  measures  of  the  Democratic  party, 
vessels  for  the  violation  of  the  acts  of  to  which  he  belonged.  He  was  sarcastic 
trade.  The  whole  population  were  against  in  debate;  often  eloquent;  frequently  in- 
him,  and  he  was  soon  involved  in  an  over-  dulged  in  the  grossest  insults  of  his  op- 
whelming  number  of  lawsuits.  ponents;  and  fought  a  duel  with  Henry 
In  1G82  he  obtained  leave  to  go  to  Eng-  Clay  in  1826.  He  supported  Jackson  for 
land,  but  soon  returned  with  a  royal  letter  the  Presidency,  and  in  1831  was  sent  to 
complaining  of  these  obstructions  to  law  Russia  as  American  minister.  He  soon 
and  demanding  the  immediate  appointment  returned  home  in  feeble  health,  and  ex- 
of  agents  empowered  to  consent  to 
a  modification  of  the  colonial 
charter.  Disobedience  was  no  long- 
er safe.  The  King  threatened  a 
writ  of  quo  warranto,  and  agents 
were  sent  to  England.  Randolph's 
commission  was  ordered  to  be  en- 
rolled, and  the  General  Court  as- 
sumed a  submissive  attitude.  The 
theocratic  party,  with  Increase 
Mather  at  their  head,  held  out,  but 
could  not  resist  the  tempest. 
Randolph  was  again  in  England, 
when  he  filed  articles  of  high  mis- 
demeanor against  Massachusetts. 
A  writ  of  quo  warranto  was  issued, 
and  the  indefatigable  enemy  of 
Massachusetts  again  crossed  the 
ocean,  this  time  in  a  royal  frigate, 
and  himself  served  the  writ  on 
the  magistrates  (November,  1683). 
There  was  delay,  and  before  action 
was  taken  a  default  was  recorded. 
Judgment  was  entered  (November, 
1684)  pronouncing  the  charter  void. 
Massachusetts  became  a  royal  prov- 
ince.    The   reign   of   theocracy  was 

ended.  Randolph  was  a  member  of  the  pressed  his  sympathy  with  the  South  Caro- 
couneil  during  the  administration  of  An-  lina  nullifiers.  When  about  to  depart  for 
dros,  and  in  1689  was  imprisoned  as  a  Europe  again,  he  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
traitor.  Released,  he  went  to  the  West  June  24,  1S33.  In  politics  and  social  life 
Indies,   where   he   died,   presumably   after    Mr.    Randolph   was   like   an   Ishmaelite — 


JOHN    RANDOLPH 


1694 

Randolph,  John,  statesman ;  born  in 
Chesterfield  county,  Va.,  June  2,  1773;  was 
a  descendant  of  Pocahontas,  and  a  great- 
grandson  of  William  Randolph,  the  colo- 
nist. Delicate  in  health  at  his  birth,  he  to  England,  and  there  studied  law  at  the 
was  so  all  through  life.  He  studied  both  Temple.  Afterwards  (1748)  he  was  made 
at  Princeton  and  Columbia  colleges.  In  king's  attorney  for  Virginia,  and  was 
1799  he  entered   Congress  as  a  delegate    elected  to  a  Seat  in  the  House  of  Bur« 

378 


"  his  hand  against  every  man's,  and  every 
man's  hand  against  him." 

Randolph,  Peyton,  statesman ;  born  in 
Williamsburg,  Va.,  in  1723.  Educated  at 
the  College  of  William  and  Mary,  he  went 


RANDOLPH— RAPPAHANNOCK    STATION 


gesses,  wherein  he  was  at  the  head  of  a  Randolph,  Thomas  Jefferson,  author ; 
committee  to  revise  the  laws  of  the  colony,  born  in  Monticello,  Va.,  Sept.  12,  1792; 
He  was  the  author  of  an  address  of  the  grandson  of  Thomas  Jefferson.  As  liter- 
House  to  the  King,  in  opposition  to  the  ary  executor  of  Jefferson  he  published  The 
Stamp  Act,  and  in  April,  1706,  was  chosen  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Thomas  Jeffer- 
speaker,   when   he   resigned    the    office   of  son    (4    'olumes).     He   also   wrote   Sixty 

Years'  Reminiscences  of  the  Currency  of 
the  United  States.  He  died  in  Edgehill, 
Va.,  Oct.  8,  1875. 

Rankin,  Thomas,  clergyman;  born  in 
Scotland  in  1738;  became  a  Methodist 
preacher  in  1761.  He  presided  over  the 
first  Methodist  conference  held  in  the 
United  States,  in  July,  1773.  During  the 
Revolution  he  sympathized  with  Gneat 
Britain,  and  was  obliged  to  return  to 
London,  where  he  died  May  17,  1810. 

Ransom,  Matthew  Whitaker,  diplo- 
matist ;  born  in  Warren  county,  N.  C,  Oct. 
8,  1820;  attorney-general  of  the  State, 
1852-55;  member  of  the  State  legislature, 
1858-61 ;  attained  the  rank  of  major- 
general  in  the  Confederate  army;  United 
States  Senator,  1872-95;  and  minister  to 
Mexico,  1895-97.  He  died  in  Garrysburg, 
N.  C,  Oct.  8,  1904. 

Ransom,  Thomas  Edward  Greenfield, 
attorney.  Early  espousing  the  cause  of  military  officer;  born  in  Norwich,  Vt., 
the  colonists,  he  was  a  leader  in  patriotic  Nov.  29,  1834.  When  the  Civil  War  broke 
movements    in    Virginia,    and    was    made    out    he    became   lieutenant-colonel    of    the 


PEYTON    RANDOLPH. 


chairman  of  the  committee  of  corre- 
spondence in  1773.  Appointed  president 
of  the  First  Continental  Congress,  he  pre- 
sided with  great  dignity.  In  March,  1775, 
he  was  president  of  a  convention  of  dele 


11th  Illinois  Volunteers.  He  was  wounded 
at  Charlestown,  Mo.,  in  1861 ;  took  part  in 
the  capture  of  Fort  Henry  and  in  the  at- 
tack on  Fort  Donelson.  He  was  again 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh.     Ransom 


gates  at  Richmond  to  select  delegates  for  was  in  Banks's  Red  River  expedition,  and 

the  Second  Continental   Congress.     For  a  was    severely    wounded    in    the    battle    at 

short    time    he    acted    as    speaker    of    the  Sabine    Cross-roads.      He    was    brevetted 

House,  and  on  May   10  resumed  his  seat  major-general  of  volunteers,  Sept.  1,  1864. 

in  Congress,  and  was  re-elected  its  presi-  He  died  near  Rome,  Ga.,  Oct.  29,  1864. 


dent. 
1775. 


He   died   in   Philadelphia,   Oct.   22, 


Randolph,  Sarah  Nicholas,  author; 
born  in  Edgehill,  Va.,  Oct.  12,  1839;  grand- 
daughter of  Thomas  Jefferson;  is  the  au- 
thor   of    The    Domestic    Life    of    Thomas 


Rapp,  George,  reformer ;  born  in  Wiir- 
temburg,  Germany,  in  1770;  was  the 
founder  of  the  Harmonists  (q.  v.).  He 
died  in  Economy,  Pa.,  Aug.  7,  1847.  See 
New  Harmony;  Owen,  Robert. 

Rapp,   Wilhelm,   editor;   born  in  Ger- 


Jcfferson:     Life    of    Stonewall    Jackson;  many,   July   14,    1828;    imprisoned    for   a 

Famous    Women   of   the   Revolution;    The  year   on   account   of   participation    in   the 

Kentucky  Resolutions  in  a  New  Light,  etc.  German  Revolution  of  1848;  emigrated  to 

Randolph,    Theodore    Freltnohtjysen,  the  United  States  in  1852;  was  connected 

statesman;  born  in  New  Brunsw'ck.  N.  J.,  with     several     German     newspapers,     and 

June  24,  1816;  member  of  the  State  legis-  since    1891    has   been    chief   editor   of   the 

lature,  1859-65;  governor  of  New  Jersey.  Illinois  Staats-Zeitung. 

1869-71;  United  States  Senator,  1871-75.  Rappahannock    Station,    Battle    at. 

He   died    in   Morristown,   N.   J.,    Nov.    7,  In  the  pursuit  of  Lee.  in  his  retreat  tow- 

18'8'3.  arils  Richmond  from  the  vicinity  of  Bull 

379 


RASLE— RAWLINS 


Run,  in  October,  1863,  the  6th  Corps,  un- 
der General  Sedgwick,  found  the  Confed- 
erates strongly  intrenched  in  works  cast 
up  by  the  Nationals  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Rappahannock,  at  Rappahannock 
Station.  They  were  about  2,000  in  num- 
ber. Sedgwick  advanced  (Nov.  7,  1863) 
upon  each  flank  of  the  works,  with  the 
division  of  Gen.  D.  A.  Russell  marching 
upon  the  centre.  The  first  brigade,  under 
{  ol.  P.  C.  Ellmaker,  was  in  the  van  of 
Russell's  division,  and  just  before  sunset, 
in  two  columns,  stormed  the  works  with 
fixed  bayonets.  The  van  of  the  stormers 
rushed  through  a  thick  tempest  of  canis- 
ter-shot and  bullets,  followed  by  the  re- 
mainder of  the  brigade,  and  after  a  strug- 
gle of  a  few  moments  the  strongest  re- 
doubt was  carried.  At  the  same  time  two 
regiments  of  Upton's  brigade  charged  the 
rifle-pits,  drove  the  Confederates  from 
them,  and,  sweeping  down  to  the  pontoon 
bridge,  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  garrison. 
The  National  loss  was  about  300  killed 
and  wounded.  Sixteen  hundred  prisoners, 
4  guns,  8  battle-flags,  2,000  small  -  arms 
were  captured. 

Rasle,  Sebastian.  See  Rale,  Sebas- 
tian. 

Raum,  Green  Berry,  lawyer;  born  in 
Golconda,  111.,  Dec.  3,  1829;  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1853;  took  part  in  the  Civil 
War,  entering  as  major  and  being  mus- 
tered out  as  brigadier-general.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1867  and  appoint- 
ed commissioner  of  internal  revenues  in 
1876,  and  commissioner  of  pensions  in 
1889.  He  is  the  author  of  History  of  Illi- 
nois Republicanism;  The  Existing  Con- 
flict, etc. 

Rawdon,  Lord  Francis,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  County  Down,  Ireland,  Dec. 
9,  1754;  was  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  Moira; 
entered  the  British  army  in  1771,  and  em- 
barked for  America  as  a  lieutenant  of  in- 
fantry in  1775.  After  the  battle  of  Bun- 
ker Hill  be  became  aide  to  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  and  was  distinguished  in  several 
battles  near  New  York  City  in  1776.  In 
1778  he  was  made  adjutant-general  of  the 
army  under  Clinton,  and  raised  a  corps 
called  the  Volunteers  of  Ireland.  He  was 
distinguished  for  bravery  in  the  battle 
at  Monmouth,  and  was  afterwards,  when 
Charleston  fell  before  Clinton,  placed  in 
command  of  one  of  the  divisions  of  the 


army  to  subjugate  South  Carolina.  He 
bravely  defended  Camden  against  Greene, 
and  relieved  Fort  Ninety-six  from  siege  by 
that  officer.     Soon  afterwards  he  went  to 


francis  rawdon  (From  an  English  print.) 

Charleston,  and  sailed  for  England.  While 
on  a  return  voyage,  he  was  captured  by  a 
French  cruiser.  On  March  5,  1783,  he 
was  created  a  baron,  and  made  aide-de- 
camp to  the  King,  and  in  1789  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  title  of  his  uncle,  the  Earl 
of  Huntingdon.  In  1793  he  became  Earl 
of  Moira  and  a  major-general,  and  the 
next  year  served  under  the  Duke  of  York 
in  the  Netherlands.  In  1808  he  inherited 
the  baronies  of  Hastings  and  Hungerford, 
and  in  1S12  he  was  intrusted  with  the  for- 
mation of  a  ministry,  and  received  the 
Order  of  the  Garter  and  the  governor- 
generalship  of  India,  which  he  held  nine 
years.  In  1824  he  was  made  governor 
and  commander-in-chief  of  Malta,  but 
failing  health  compelled  him  to  leave.  He 
died  on  his  voyage  homeward  near  Naples, 
Italy,  Nov.  28,  1826. 

Rawlins,  John  Aaron,  military  officer ; 
born  in  East  Galena,  111.,  Feb.  13,  1831; 
was  a  farmer  and  charcoal-burner  until 
1854,  but,  studying  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  Galena  in  1855.  When 
Sumter  fell  he  gave  his  zealous  support 
to  his  government,  going  on  the  staff  of 
General  Grant  in  September,  1861,  as  as- 
sistant adjutant-general,  with  the  rank  of 
captain.  He  remained  with  General  Grant 
throughout  the  war;  was  promoted  brig- 
adier-general in  August,  1863;  and  major- 
general  in  March,  1865.  President  Grant 
called  Rawlins  to  his  cabinet  in  the  spring 


380 


RAYMBAULT— RAYNAL 


of  1869  as  Secretary  of  War,  which  post  tor  of  the  New  York  Tribune  at  its  coin- 
he  held  until  his  death,  in  Washington,  mencement  in  April,  1841.  He  was  the 
D.  C,  Sept.  9  following.  After  his  death  first  editor  of  Harper's  New  Monthly  Mag- 
a  popular  subscription  of  $50,000  was  azive;  and  in  September,  1851,  issued  the 
made  to  his  family,  and  a  bronze  statue  first  number  of  the  New  York  Daily  Times. 
was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Washington.  In  1854  he  was  elected  lieutenant-governor 

Raymbault,     Charles.       See     Jesuit  of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  was  prom- 

Missions.  inent  in   the  organization  of   the  Repub- 

Raymond,    Battle    of.      Gen.    W.    T.  lican  party  in  1854-56.     In  1861  he  was 

Sherman   was    called   from   operations    in  elected  a  member  and  speaker  of  the  New 

the  Yazoo  region    (see  Haines's  Bluff)  York  Assembly,  and  was  an  unsuccessful 


candidate  for  the  United  States  Senate 
in  1863.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1864.  He  visited  Europe  a  third  time  in 
1868,  and  his  career  was  suddenly  termi- 


by  General  Grant.  He  marched  down  the 
western  side  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
crossed  at  Hai-d  Times,  and  on  the  follow- 
ing day  (May  8,  1863)  joined  Grant  on 
the  Big  Black  River.  Grant  had  intended 
to  send  down  troops  to  assist  Banks  in 
an  attack  upon  Port  Hudson,  but  circum- 
stances compelled  him  to  move  forward 
from  Grand  Gulf  and  Port  Gibson.  He 
made  for  the  important  railway  connecting 
Jackson,  the  capital  of  Mississippi,  with 
Vicksburg.  His  army  moved  in  parallel 
lines  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  river. 
These  were  led  respectively  by  Generals 
McClernand  and  McPherson,  and  each  was 
followed  by  portions  of  Sherman's  corps. 
When,  on  the  morning  of  April  12.  the 
van  of  each  column  was  approaching  the 
railway  near  Raymond,  the  county  seat  of 
Hinds  county,  the  advance  of  McPher- 
son's  corps,  under  Logan,  was  attacked  by 
about  6,000  Confederates  under  Generals 
Gregg  and  Walker.  It  was  then  about  10 
A.M.  Logan  received  the  first  blow  and 
bore  the  brunt  of  the  battle.  Annoyed  by 
Michigan  guns,  the  Confederates  dashed 
forward  to  capture  them  and  were  re- 
pulsed. McPherson  ordered  an  advance  nated  by  death  in  New  York  City,  June 
upon  their  new  position,  and  a  very  severe  18,  1869.  His  publications  include  Politi- 
conflict  ensued,  in  which  the  Nationals  cal  Lessons  of  the  Revolution  ;  History  of 
lost  heavily.  The  Confederates  maintain-  the  Administration  of  President  Lincoln; 
ed  an  unbroken  front  until  Colonel  Stur-  Life  and  Services  of  Abraham  Lincoln, 
gis,  with  an  Illinois  regiment,  charged  with  his  State  Papers,  Speeches,  Letters, 
with  fixed  bayonets  and  broke  their  line    etc. 

into  fragments,  driving  the  insurgents  in  Raynal,  Guillaume  Thomas  Francois, 
wild  disorder.  They  rallied  and  retreated  usually  called  Abbe,  historian;  born  in  St. 
in  fair  order  through  Raymond  towards  Geniez,  France,  April  12,  1713.  His  phil- 
Jackson,  cautiously  followed  by  Logan,  osophic  and  political  history  of  the  two 
The  National  loss  was  442,  of  whom  69  Indies  appeared  in  Paris  in  1770.  It  was 
were  killed.  The  Confederate  loss  was  an  indictment  of  royalty,  while  it  praised 
825,  of  whom  103  were  killed.  the  people  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 

Raymond,  Henry  Jarvts,  journalist;  ica  as  models  of  heroism  such  as  antiquity 
born  in  Lima,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  24,  1820;  grad-  boasted  of,  and  spoke  of  New  England 
uated  at  the  University  of  Vermont  in  in  particular  as  a  land  that  knew  how 
1840;   studied  law;  became  assistant  edi-    to  be  happy  "without  kings  and  without 

381 


HKNKY   JAKVIS    RAYMOND 


READ— REAVIS 

priests."    He  spoke  of  philosophy  as  wish-  Reagan,  John  Henninger,  jurist ;  born 

ing  to  see  "all  peoples  happy,"  and  said,  in  Sevier  county,  Tenn.,  Oct.  8,  1818;  held 

'•If   the   love   of   justice   had   decided   the  several    local    offices    in    Texas;    and    was 

Court  of   Versailles   to   the   alliance   of   a  judge   of   the   district   court   in   Texas,   to 

monarchy    with    a    people    defending    its  which  State  he  emigrated  after  its  indepen- 

jiberty,  the  first  article  of  its  treaty  with  dence.     From  1857  to  1861  he  was  in  Con- 

the  United   States  should  have  been  that  gress,   and,   joining   the   Confederacy,   was 

all    oppressed    peoples    have   the   right    to  appointed  Postmaster-General,  and  was  for 

rise    against    their    oppressors."      Raynal  a    short    time    Secretary   of    its    Treasury 

was    indicted,   and   fled   to   Holland,      Lie  Department.     He  was  captured  with  Jef- 

subsequently   came  to   the  United   States,  ferson  Davis  and  was  sent  to  Fort  Warren. 

He  died  in  Paris,  France,  March  6,  1793.  In   1874  he  was  elected  to  Congress,   and 

Read,    George,   signer   of   the   Declara-  in    1887   to   the   United   States   Senat?,  on 

tion  of  Independence;  born  in  Cecil  coun-  retiring  from   which  he  b?came  chairman 

ty,  Md.,  Sept.   7,   1733;   was  admitted  to  of   the   Texas    State   railroad    commission, 

the  bar   in    1752,   and   began   practice   in  He    died    in    Palestine,    Texas,    March    0, 

1754.       He     became     attorney-general     of  1905. 

Delaware  in  1763,  and  held  the  office  until  Ream's  Station,  Battle  at.     When,  in 

1774.     From  1774  to  1777  he  was  a  mem-  1864,  Warren  proceeded  to  strike  the  Wel- 

ber  of  the  Continental  Congress,  and  one  don  road,   Hancock,  who  had  been   called 

of  its  first  naval  committee    (1775).     In  from  the  north  side  of  the  James,  follow- 

1777    he    became    vice-president    of    Dela-  ed  close  in  his  rear,  and  on  Aug.  21  struck 

ware,    and    afterwards    acting    president,  the  railway  north  of  Ream's  station  and 

He  was  the  author  of  the  first  constitution  destroyed  the  track  for  several  miles.    He 

of  Delaware,  and   a   delegate  to   the   con-  formed  an  intrenched  camp  at  Ream's,  and 

vention  that  framed  the  national  Consti-  his  cavalry  kept  up  a  vigilant  scout  in  the 

tution.     In   1782  he  was  appointed  judge  direction    of   the    Confederate    army.      On 

of    the    Court    of    Appeals    in    admiralty  the    25th    Hancock    was    struck    by    Hill. 

cases.      He    was    United    States    Senator  The  latter  was  repulsed.  Hill  struck  again, 

from   1789  to   1793,  and  from   1793  until  and  was  again  repulsed  with  heavy  loss, 

his   death   chief-justice  of   Delaware.     He  Hill  then  ordered  Heth  to  carry  the  Na- 

died  in  Newcastle,   Del.,   Sept.   21,   1798.  tional   works   at  all  hazards,  upon  which 

Read,  George  Campbell,  naval  officer;  a  concentrated  fire  of  artillery  was  open- 
born  in  Ireland,  about  1787;  entered  the  ed.  This  was  followed  by  a  desperate 
United  States  navy  as  midshipman  in  charge,  which  broke  the  National  line. 
April,  1804.  His  gallantry  was  conspicu-  Three  National  batteries  were  captured, 
ous  in  the  battle  between  the  Constitu-  A  fierce  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the 
tion  and  Guerriere  (see  Constitution),  works  and  guns  ensued.  In  this  the  Na- 
and  he  was  appointed  to  receive  the  sur-  tionals  were  partly  successful.  The  Na- 
rendered  sword  of  Captain  Dacres.  He  tionals  were  finally  defeated,  and  with- 
was  also  in  the  action  between  the  United  drew.  Hancock  lost  2,400  of  his  8,000 
States  and  Macedonia  (see  United  men  and  five  guns.  Of  the  men,  1,700 
States).  Read  was  lieutenant  in  1810;  were  made  prisoners.  Hill's  loss  was  not 
promoted  commander  in  1816;  captain  in  much  less;  and  he,  too,  withdrew  from 
1825,  and  rear-admiral  in  1862.  At  Ream's  station.  See  Weldon  Road. 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  superin-  Reavis,  Logan  Uriah,  editor;  born  in 
tendent  of  the  Philadelphia  Naval  Asylum.  Sangamon  Bottom,  111.,  March  26,  1831; 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Aug.  22,  1862.  purchased  an  interest  in  the  Beardstown 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan,  poet;   born  Gazette  which  he  afterwards  changed  to 

in  Chester  county,  Pa.,  March   12,   1822;  the  Central  Illinoian.     He  removed  to  St. 

studied  art  and  became  well  known  as  a  Louis,  Mo.,  in  1866,  and  became  prominent 

painter  and  sculptor.     He  published  sev-  as   an    advocate    for   the    removal    of   the 

eral  volumes  of  poems,  but  is  best  known  seat   of  government,   from   Washington  to 

as  the  author  of  the  stirring  lyric  Sher-  St.  Louis.    He  is  the  author  of  the  TAfe  of 

idan's  Bide.     He  died  in  New  York  City,  Horace  Greeley;  The  Life  of  William  8. 

May,  11,  1872.  Harney;  St.  Louis,  the  Future  Great  City 

382 


REBELLION— RECONSTRUCTION 


of  the  World;  A  Change  of  National  Em- 
pire; The  New  Republic,  or  the  Transition 
Complete;  etc.  He  died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
April  25,  1889. 

Rebellion,  Bacon's.  See  Bacon,  Na- 
thaniel; Dorr,  Thomas  Wilson;  Mor- 
mons; Shays,  Daniel;  Whiskey  Insur- 
rection. 

Reciprocity,  in  commercial  relations, 
a  mutual  arrangement  between  nations 
to  secure  reciprocal  trade,  and  involving 
a  modification  of  regular  tariff  rates. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  reciprocity 
treaties  and  agreements  which  have  been 
in  force  between  the  United  States  and 
foreign  countries   since   1850: 


Civil  War.  A  deep-seated  social  system 
had  been  overthrown,  and  in  a  number 
of  the  States  business  of  every  kind,  public 
and  private,  had  become  deranged.  It 
was  necessary  for  the  national  government 
to  put  forth  its  powers  for  the  recon- 
struction of  the  Union  politically,  as  a 
preliminary  measure  for  its  peaceful  and 
healthful  progress.  President  Johnson 
took  a  preliminary  step  towards  recon- 
struction by  proclaiming  (April  29,  1865) 
the  removal  of  restrictions  upon  com- 
mercial intercourse  among  all  the  States. 
A  month  later  (May  29)  he  issued  a  proc- 
lamation stating  the  terms  by  which  the 
people    of     the    late    Confederate    States 


Countries  with  which  Reciprocity  Treaties 
and  Agreements  have  been  Made. 


British  North  American  posses- 
sions   (treaty) 

Hawaiian  Islands   (treaty) 

Brazil     (agreement) 

Santo    Domingo    (agreement)  .  . 
Great  Britain  : 

Barbados   (agreement) 

Jamaica  (agreement) 

Leeward  Islands  (agreement) 

Trinidad    (including   Tobago) 
(agreement) 

Windward  Islands  (excepting 
Grenada)    (agreement)  .  . 

British  Guiana  (agreement)  . 

Salvador    (agreement) 

Nicaragua    (agreement) 

Honduras     (agreement) 

Guatemala     (agreement) 

Spain,  for  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 

(agreement) 

Switzerland  (treaty  of  1850).. 
Austria-Hungary    (agreement)  . 

France   (agreement) 

Germany    (agreement) 

Portugal   and   Azores  and   Ma- 
deira Islands  (agreement)  . 

Italy  (agreement) 

Cuba  (agreement) 


Signed. 


June  5,  1854 
Jan.  30,  1875 
Jan.  31,  1891 
June  4,  1891 

Feb.  1,  1892 


Dec.  30,  1891 

March  11,  1892 

April  29,  1892 

Dec.  30,  1891 

June  16,  1891 

May  25, '1892 

May  28,  1898 

JJan.  30,  1892 

jjuly  10,  1900 

May  22,  1900 
Feb.  8,  1900 
Dec.  17,  1903 


March  16,  1855 
Sept.  9,  1876 
April  1,  1891 
Sept.  1,  1891 

Feb.  1,  1892 


April  1,  1892 
Feb.    1,  1892    (provisional) 

March  12,  1892 

May  25.  1892  (provisional) 

May    30,    1892 

Sept.  1, 1891  (provisional) 
June  1,  1898a 
May  26,  1892 
June  1,  1898 
Feb.  1,  1892 
July  13,  1900 

June  12,  1900 
July  18,  1900 
Dec.  27,  1903 


March  17,  1866 
April  30,  1900 


Aug.  27,  1894 


March  23,  1900 
Aug.  27,  1894 

Still  in  force 
Aug.  24,  1894 

Still  in  force 


a  Under  "most-favored-nation  "  clause  of  treaty  of  1850,  proclaimed  Nov.  9,  1855. 


Reconcentrados.  Cubans  concentrated 
in  places  which  were  the  headquarters  of  a 
division  of  the  Spanish  army  by  order  of 
Captain-General  Weyler,  Feb.  16,  1896. 
This  inhuman  order,  which  was  enforced 
to  the  utmost  of  his  power,  practically 
condemned  these  people  to  a  living  death 
by  starvation  and  disease.  Food  and 
supplies  were  sent  to  them  by  direc- 
tion of  the  United  States  government 
shortly  before  the  declaration  of  war 
(1898). 

Reconstruction,  Several  of  the  State 
governments  were  paralyzed  and  disorgan- 
ized by  the  convulsions  produced  by  the 


might  receive  full  amnesty  and  pardon 
(see  Amnesty  Proclamations;  John- 
ston, Andrew).  This  was  soon  followed 
by  the  appointment  by  the  President  of 
provisional  governors  for  the  seven  States 
which  originally  formed  the  "  Confeder- 
ate States"  (7.  v.),  with  authority  to 
assemble  loyal  citizens  in  convention  to 
reorganize  State  governments  and  secure 
the  election  of  representatives  in  the  na- 
tional Congress. 

The  President's  plan  was  to  restore  to 
the  States  named  their  former  position 
in  the  Union  without  any  provision  for 
securing   to   the   emancipated   slaves   the 


383 


RECONSTRUCTION— BED   CROSS 

fight  to  the  exercise  of  citizenship  which  report    should    be    made,    representatives 

an  amendment  to  the  national  Constitution  from  those  States  should  not  take  seats 

(see     Constitution      of      the      United  in    Congress.      This    was    a    virtual    con- 

States  ) ,  then  before  the  State  legislatures  demnation  of   the   President's  acts.     The 

for  consideration,  would  entitle  them  to.  angry   chief   magistrate   resented   it,   and 

The     President's     provisional     governors  denounced  by  name  members  of  Congress 

were  active  in  carrying  out  his  plan  of  who    opposed    his    will.     He    uniformly 

reconstruction  before  the  meeting  of  Con-  vetoed  acts  passed  by  Congress,  but  his 

gress,  fearing  that  body  might  interfere  vetoes    were    impotent    for    mischief,    for 

with  it.    Meanwhile  the  requisite  number  the  bills  were  passed  over  them  by  very 

of  States  ratified  the  Thirteenth  Amend-  large  majorities.  His  conduct  so  estranged 

ment  of  the  Constitution.     Late  in  June  his  cabinet  ministers  that  they  all  resigned 

the  order  for  a  blockade  of  southern  ports  in  March,  1866,  excepting  the  Secretary  of 

was   rescinded;    most   of   the   restrictions  War     (Mr.    Stanton),    who    retained    his 

upon   interstate   commerce   were   removed  post  at  that  critical  time  for  the  public 

in  August ;   State  prisoners  were  paroled  good.     Congress  pressed  forward  the  work 

in  October;  and  the  first  act  of  Congress  of   reconstruction   in    spite   of   the   Presi- 

after  its  meeting  in  December,  1865,  was  dent's  opposition.    Late  in  July  Tennessee 

the  repealing  of  the  act  authorizing  the  was    reorganized,    and   took   its    place   in 

suspension  of  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of  the   councils   of   the   nation.      The   Presi- 

habeas  corpus.  dent's  official  acts  finally  caused  his  im- 

Five    of    the    Confederate    States    had  peachment,   when,   after   a   trial,   he  was 

then  ratified  the  Thirteenth  Amendment,  acquitted  by  one  vote.     Finally,  the  dis- 

caused   the   formation   of    State   constitu-  organized  States,  having  complied  with  the 

tions,    and    elected    representatives    there-  requirements  of  Congress,  the  Union  was 

under;  and  the  President  had  directed  the  fully  restored  in  May,  1872.     On  the  23d 

newly  elected  governors    (some  of  whom  of  that  month  every  seat  in  Congress  was 

had  been  active  participants  in  the  Con-  filled  for  the  first  time  since  the  winter 

fcderacy)    to  take  the  place  of  the  pro-  of   1860-61,  when  members   from   several 

visional  governors.     These  events  greatly  of  the  slave-labor  States  abandoned  them, 

disturbed  the  loyal  people.     To  many  it  See     Civil    Rights     Bill;     Freedmen's 

seemed    evident    that    the    President,    in  Bureau. 

violation   of   his    solemn   pledges    to    the  Recovery,  Fort,  Defence  of.    General 

freedmen  and  the  nation,  was  preparing  to  Wayne  succeeded  St.  Clair  in  command  of 

place    the    public    affairs    of    the    United  the  troops  in  the  Northwest,  and  on  the 

States  under  the  control  of  those  who  had  site    of    the    latter's    defeat     (1791)     he 

sought  to  destroy  the  Union.     Within  six  erected  a  fort,  and  called  it  Recovery.    In 

months  after  his  accidental   elevation  to  June,  1794,  the  garrison,  under  Maj.  Will- 

the  Presidential  chair  he  was  at  open  war  iam  M'Mahon,  were  attacked  by  many  Ind- 

with  the  party  whose  suffrages  had  given  ians.    M'Mahon  and  22  others  were  killed, 

him  his  high   honors.     He   had   usurped  and  30  were  wounded.     The  Indians  were 

powers  which  the  Constitution  conferred  repulsed.     On  Aug.   20  the  Indians  were 

exclusively    upon    Congress.     That    body  defeated     by     Wayne     at     the     Maumee 

clearly  perceived  the  usurpation,  and  their  Rapids  {q.  v.). 

first  business  of  moment  was  to  take  up  Red  Bank,  the  site  of  Fort  Mercer,  on 

the  subject  of  reconstruction.    On  the  first  the    New   Jersey   shore   of   the   Delaware 

day  of  the  session  (Dec.  4,  1865)  Congress  River.    See  Mercer,  Fort. 

appointed  what  was  called  a  reconstruc-  Red  Cross,  American  National,  The, 

tion  committee.    It  was  composed  of  nine  a  humane  organization  incorporated  under 

members    of    the   House    and    six   of    the  the  laws  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  Oct. 

Senate.     Their    duties    were    to    "  inquire  1,    1881 ;    reincorporated,   April    17,    1893, 

into  the  condition  of  the  States  which  had  for  the  relief  of  suffering  by  war,  pesti- 

formed  the  Confederates  States  of  Ameri-  lence,   famine,   flood,   fires,   and  other   ca- 

ca,  and  report  whether  they,  or   any  of  lamities  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  be  deem- 

them,  were  entitled  to  be  represented  in  ed  national  in  extent.     The  organization 

Congress.    It  was  resolved  that  until  such  acts  under  the  Geneva  treaty,  the  provi- 

384 


RED    JACKET 


aions  for  which  were  made  in  international  always  honest.  He  first  appears  conspicu- 
convention  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  Aug.  ous  in  history  at  the  treaty  of  Fort  Stan- 
22,  1864,  and  since  signed  by  nearly  all  wix  in  1784.  It  was  on  that  occasion  that 
civilized  nations,  including  the  United 
States,  which  gave  its  adhesion  by  act  of 
Congress  March  1,  1S82;  ratified  by  the 
Congress  of  Berne,  June  9,  1882;  pro- 
claimed by  President  Arthur  July  26, 
1882;  headquarters,  Washington,  D.  C. 
In  1904  the  American  National  Red  Cross 
Association  was  radically  reorganized, 
Miss  Clara  Barton  and  a  majority  of  the 
old  officers  resigned,  and  ex-Surgeon-Gen- 
eral W.  K.  Van  Ruypen  and  Surgeon- 
General  Walter  Wyman  were  elected 
president  and  vice-president,  respectively. 
This  action  was  the  outgrowth  of  an 
investigation  of  its  affairs  by  a  commit- 
tee of  its  friends.  The  scheme  of  re- 
organization embraced  the  procuring  of 
a  new  charter  from  Congress,  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  governing  board  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  of 
the  organization  of  State  branches,  with 
representation  on  the  board.  See  Barton, 
Clara. 

Red  Jacket  (  Sagoyewath a  ) ,  Seneca 
Indian,  chief  of  the  Wolf  tribe;  born  near 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  in  1751.  He  was  swift- 
footed,  fluent-tongued,  and  always  held 
great  influence  over  his  people.  During  Red  Jacket's  fame  as  an  orator  was  es- 
thc  Revolutionary  War  he  fought  for  the  tablished.  In  all  the  dealings  with  white 
British  King  with  his  eloquence  in  arous-  people  concerning  the  lands  in  western 
ing  his  people,  but  seems  not  to  have  been  New  York,  Red  Jacket  was  always  the  de- 
very  active  as  a  soldier  on  the  war-path,  fender  of  the  rights  of  his  people.  His 
Brant  spoke  of  him  as  a  coward  and  not    paganism  never  yielded  to  the   influences 

of    Christianity,    and    he 


was  the  most  inveterate 
enemy  of  the  mission- 
aries sent  to  his  nation. 
It  was  under  his  leader- 
ship that  the  Senecas 
became  the  allies  of  the 
Americans  against  the 
British  in  the  War  of 
1812-15,  and  in  the 
battle  of  Chippewa  he 
behaved  well  as  a  soldier. 
For  many  years  he 
was  the  head  of  the  Sen- 
eca nation.  He  became 
so  intemperate  late  in 
life  that  he  was  deposed 
by  an  act,  in  writing, 
signed  by  twenty-six  of 
the    leading   men    among 


RED   JACKET. 


RED-JACKET'S    MEDAL. 


VII. — 2  B 


385 


RED    LEGS— RED   RIVER  EXPEDITION 


the  Seneeas.  He  died  in  Seneca  Vil- 
lage, N.  Y.,  Jan.  30,  1830.  The  name 
of  Red  Jacket  was  given  him  from  the 
circumstance  that  towards  the  close  of 
the  Revolution  a  British  officer  gave 
the  young  chief  a  richly  embroidered 
scarlet  jacket,  which  he  wore  with  satis- 
faction. In  1792  President  Washington, 
on  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  peace  and 
amity  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Six  Nations,  gave  Red  Jacket  a  medal  of 
solid  silver,  with  a  heavy  rim,  the  form  of 
which,  with  the  devices,  is  seen  in  the  en- 
graving. The  medal  is  seven  inches  in 
length  and  five  inches  in  breadth. 

Red  Legs.     See  Jayhawkers. 

Red   River   Expedition.      At    the    be- 


Ark.,  was  ordered  to  co-operate  with  the 
expedition.  Banks's  column,  led  by  Gen- 
eral Franklin,  moved  from  Brashear  City, 
La.  (March  13),  by  way  of  Opelousas,  and 
reached  Alexandria,  on  the  Red  River,  on 
the  26th.  Detachments  from  Sherman's 
army,  under  Gen.  A.  J.  Smith,  had  al- 
ready gone  up  the  Red  River  on  transports, 
captured  Fort  de  Russy  on  the  way,  and 
taken  possession  of  Alexandria  (March 
10).  They  were  followed  by  Porter's 
fleet  of  gunboats.  From  that  point  Banks 
moved  forward  with  his  whole  force,  and 
on  April  3  was  at  Natchitoches,  near  the 
river,  80  miles  above  Alexandria,  by  land. 
At  that  point  Porter's  vessels  were  em- 
barrassed  by   low  water,   and   his   larger 


C*^^"^     os       "^"SiTLI^    0 


MAP   OF   THE    KED    RIVEK    EXPEDITION. 


ginning  of  1864  another  attempt  was  made 
to  repossess  Texas  by  an  invasion  by  way 
of  the  Red  River  and  Shreveport.  General 
Banks  was  directed  to  organize  an  expedi- 
tion for  that  purpose  at  New  Orleans,  and 
General  Sherman  was  ordered  to  send 
troops  to  aid  him.  Admiral  Porter  was 
also  directed  to  place  a  fleet  of  gunboats 
on  the  Red  River  to  assist  in  the  enter- 
prise, and  General  Steele,  at  Little  Rock, 


ones  could  proceed  no  farther  than  Grand 
Ecore.  A  depot  of  supplies  was  establish- 
ed at  Alexandria,  with  a  wagon-train  to 
transport  them  around  the  rapids  there, 
if  necessary. 

The  Confederates  had  continually  re- 
treated before  the  Nationals  as  the  lat- 
ter advanced  from  Alexandria,  frequently 
stopping  to  skirmish  with  the  vanguard. 
From  Grand  Ecore  Banks  pushed  on  tow- 


386 


RED   RIVER  EXPEDITION 


^M§£nL> 


THE   FIGHT   BETWEEN   THE   GUNBOATS   AND  THE   SHARP-SHOOTERS. 


ards  Shreveport,  100  miles  beyond  Natch- 
itoches, and  Porter's  lighter  vessels  pro- 
ceeded up  the  river  with  a  body  of  troops 
under  Gen.  Thomas  K.  Smith.  At  that 
time  the  Confederates  from  Texas  and 
Arkansas  under  Generals  Taylor,  Price, 
Green,  and  others  were  gathering  in  front 
of  the  Nationals  to  the  number  of  about 
25,000,  with  more  than  seventy  cannon. 
So  outnumbered,  Banks  would  have  been 
justified  in  proceeding  no  farther,  but  he 
and  Smith,  anxious  to  secure  the  object 
of  the  expedition,  pressed  forward.  The 
Confederates  fell  back  until  they  reached 
Sabine  Cross  Pioads,  54  miles  fjom  Grand 
Eeore,  were  they  made  a  stand.  It  was 
now  evident  that  the  further  advance  of  the 
Nationals  was  to  be  obstinately  contested. 
The  Trans-Mississippi  army,  under  Gen. 
E.  Kirby  Smith,  was  there  20,000  strong. 
A  fierce  battle  occurred  (April  8),  which 
resulted  in  disaster  to  the  Nationals. 


The  shattered  columns  of  Franklin's  ad- 
vance fell  back  3  miles,  to  Pleasant  Grove, 
where  they  were  received  by  the  fine  corps 
of  General  Emory,  who  was  advancing, 
and  who  now  formed  a  battle  line  to  op- 
pose the  pursuers.  There  another  severe 
battle  was  fought,  which  ended  in  victory 
for  the  Nationals  (see  Pleasant  Grove, 
Battle  at).  Although  victorious,  Banks 
thought  it  prudent  to  continue  his  retreat 
to  Pleasant  Hill,  15  miles  farther  in  the 
rear,  for  the  Confederates  were  within 
reach  of  reinforcements,  while  he  was  not 
certain  that  Smith,  then  moving  forward, 
would  arrive  in  time  to  aid  him.  He  did 
arrive  on  the  evening  of  the  8th.  The 
Confederates,  in  strong  force,  had  followed 
Banks,  and  another  heavy  battle  was 
fought  (April  9)  at  Pleasant  Hill,  which 
resulted  in  a  complete  victory  for  the  Na- 
tionals (see  Pleasant  Htll,  Battle  at). 
Then,  strengthened  in  numbers  and  encour- 


387 


BED  BIVER  EXPEDITION 


aged  by  victory,  Banks  gave  orders  for  an 
advance  on  Shreveport;  but  this  was 
countermanded.  In  the  meanwhile  the 
gunboats,  with  Gen.  Thomas  K.  Smith's 
troops,  had  proceeded  as  far  as  Loggy 
Bayou,  when  they  were  ordered  back  to 
Grand  Ecore.  In  that  descent  they  were 
exposed  to  the  murderous  fire  of  sharp- 
shooters on  the  banks.  With  these  the 
Nationals  continually  fought  on  the  way. 
There  was  a  very  sharp  engagement  at 
Pleasant  Hill  Landing  on  the  evening  of 
the  12th.  The  Confederates  were  repulsed, 
and  Gen.  Thomas  Green,  the  Confederate 
commander,  was  killed. 

Meantime.  Banks  and  all  the  land  troops 
had  returned  to  Grand  Ecore,  for  a  council 
of  officers  had  decided  that  it  was  more 
prudent  to  retreat  than  to  advance.  The 
army  was  now  again  upon  the  Red  River. 
The  water  was  falling.  With  difficulty  the 
fleet  passed  the  bar  at  Grand  Ecore  (April 
17).  From  that  point  the  army  moved 
on  the  21st,  and  encountered  8,000  Con- 
federates, on  the  22d,  with  sixteen  guns, 
under  General  Bee,  strongly  posted  on 
Monet's  Bluff,  at  Cane  River  Ferry.  On 
the  morning  of  the  23d  the  van  of  the 
Nationals   drove   the   Confederates   across 


the  stream,  and  after  a  severe  struggle 
during  the  day,  General  Birge,  with  a 
force  of  Nationals,  drove  the  Confederates 
from  the  ferry,  and  the  National  army 
crossed.  Its  retreat  to  Alexandria  was 
covered  by  the  troops  under  Gen.  Thomas 
K.  Smith,  who  skirmished  at  several 
points  on  the  way — severely  at  Clouter- 
ville,  on  the  Cane  River,  for  about  three 
hours.  The  whole  army  arrived  at  Alex- 
andria, on  April  27.  At  that  place  the 
water  was  so  low  that  the  gunboats  could 
not  pass  down  the  rapids. 

It  had  been  determined  to  abandon  the 
expedition  against  Shreveport  and  return 
to  the  Mississippi.  To  get  the  fleet  below 
the  rapids  was  now  urgent  business.  It 
was  proposed  to  dam  the  river  above  and 
send  the  fleet  through  a  sluice  in  the  man- 
ner of  "  running "  logs  by  lumbermen. 
Porter  did  not  believe  in  the  feasibility 
of  the  project;  but  Lieut.-Col.  Joseph 
Bailey  (q.  v.)  performed  the  service  suc- 
cessfully. The  whole  expedition  then  pro- 
ceeded towards  the  Mississippi,  where  Por- 
ter resumed  the  service  of  patrolling  that 
stream.  The  forces  of  Banks  were  placed 
under  the  charge  of  Gen.  E.  R.  S.  Canby, 
on  the  Atehafalaya,  and  Gen.  A.  J.  Smith's 


THE   FLEET    PASSING    THE   DAM. 

388 


REDEMPTIONERS— REED 


troops  returned  to  Mississippi.  A  strong 
confronting  force  of  Confederates  had  kept 
Steele  from  co-operating  witrr  the  expedi- 
tion. He  had  moved  from  Little  Rock 
with  8,000  men,  pushed  back  the  Confed- 
erates, and  on  April  15  had  captured  the 
important  post  at  Camden,  on  the  Wa- 
chita  River;  but  after  a  severe  battle  at 
Jenkinson's  Ferry,  on  the  Sabine  River,  he 
had  abandoned  Camden  and  returned  to 
Little  Rock.  So  ended  the  disastrous  Red 
River  campaign. 

Redemptioners.  From  the  beginning 
of  the  English  colonies  in  America  the  im- 
portation of  indentured  white  servants 
was  carried  on.  Sometimes  immigrants 
came  as  such,  and  were  sold,  for  a  term 
of  years,  to  pay  the  expenses  of  their 
transportation.  This  arrangement  was 
voluntarily  entered  into  by  the  parties  and 
was  legitimate.  The  limits  of  the  time 
of  servitude  was  fixed,  seldom  exceeding 
seven  years,  except  in  cases  of  very  young 
persons.  In  all  the  colonies  were  rigorous 
laws  to  prevent  them  from  running  away, 
and  the  statutes  put  them  on  the  level 
with  the  slave  for  the  time.  This  class 
of  servants  came  to  be  known  as  "  re- 
demptioners," in  distinction  from  slaves; 
and  at  the  end  of  their  terms  of  service 
they  were  merged  into  the  mass  of  the 
white  population  without  any  special 
taint  of  servitude.  Even  as  late  as  with- 
in the  nineteenth  century  a  law  still  re- 
mained in  force  in  Connecticut  by  which 
debtors,  unable  to  meet  claims  against 
them,  might  be  sold  into  temporary  ser- 
vitude for  the  benefit  of  their  creditors. 

Redfield,  William,  C,  meteorologist; 
born  near  Middletown,  Conn.,  March  26, 
1789.  Engaging  in  steamboat  navigation, 
he  removed  to  New  York  in  1825.  He 
thoroughly  investigated  the  whole  range 
of  the  subject  of  steam  navigation,  its 
adaptation  to  national  defence,  and  meth- 
ods of  safety  in  its  uses.  He  was  the 
originator  of  the  "  safety  barges,"  or 
"  tow-boats,"  on  the  Hudson  River,  and 
first  suggested  (1828)  the  importance  of 
a  railway  system  between  the  Hudson 
River  and  the  Mississippi.  He  was  a  skil- 
ful meteorologist,  and  first  put  forth  the 
circular  theory  of  storms.  He  published 
sixty-two  pamphlets,  of  which  forty  were 
on  the  subject  of  meteorology.  He  died 
in  New  York  City,  Feb.  12,  1857. 


Redpath,  James,  abolitionist ;  born  in 
Scotland,  Aug.  24,  1833;  was  connected 
with  the  New  York  Tribune  as  editor  in 
1852 ;  took  an  active  part  in  the  Kansas 
(q.  v.)  troubles.  After  the  war  he  estab- 
lished a  lecture  bureau  which  for  a  time 
was  very  successful.  The  New  York 
Tribune  sent  him  to  Ireland  in  1881  to  in- 
vestigate the  conditions  in  the  famine  dis- 
trict, and  on  his  return  to  the  United 
States  he  founded  Redpath's  Weekly. 
Among  his  works  are  Hand-Book  to  Kan- 
sas; Echoes  of  Harper's  Ferry;  Life  of 
John  Brown;  Southern  Notes;  etc.  He 
died  in  New  York,  Feb.   10,   1891. 

Reed,  James,  military  officer;  born  in 
Woburn,  Mass.,  in  1724;  served  in  the 
French  and  Indian  War  under  Abercrom- 
bie  and  Amherst.  In  1765  he  settled  in 
New  Hampshire  and  was  an  original  pro- 
prietor and  founder  of  the  town  of  Fitz- 
william.  He  commanded  the  2d  New 
Hampshire  Regiment  at  Cambridge  in 
May,  1775,  and  fought  with  it  at  Bunker 
(Breed's)  Hill.  Early  in  1776  he  joined 
the  army  in  Canada,  where  he  suffered 
from  small-pox,  by  which  he  ultimately 
lost  his  sight.  In  August,  1776,  he  was 
made  a  Irigadier-general,  but  was  inca- 
pacitated for  further  service.  He  died  in 
Fitchburg,  Mass.,  Feb.  13,  1807. 

Reed,  JosErn,  statesman;  born  in  Tren- 
ton, N.  J.,  Aug.  27,  1741 ;  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1757;  studied  law  in  London; 
began  practice  in  Trenton  in  1765,  and 
became  Secretary  of  the  Province  of  New 
Jersey  in  1767.  He  was  an  active  patriot, 
a  member  of  the  committee  of  correspond- 
ence, and,  having  settled  in  Philadelphia 
in  1770,  was  made  president  of  the  first 
Pennsylvania  Convention  in  January.  1775. 
He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Second  Congress 
(May,  1775),  and  went  with  Washington 
to  Cambridge,  in  July,  as  his  secretary 
and  aide-de-camp.  He  was  adjutant-gen- 
eral during  the  campaign  of  1776,  and  was 
appointed  chief-justice  of  Pennsylvania 
and  also  a  brigadier-general,  in  1777,  but 
declined  both  offices.  Reed  was  a  volun- 
teer in  the  battles  of  Brandywine,  German- 
town,  and  Monmouth,  and  in  1778,  as  a 
member  of  Congress,  signed  the  Articles 
of  Confederation.  He  was  president  of 
Pennsylvania  from  1778  to  1781,  and  was 
chiefly  instrumental  in  the  detection  of  the 
ill-practices    of    General    Arnold    and    in 


3S9 


REED— REFORMED    EPISCOPAL    CHURCH 


bringing  him  to  trial.  Mr.  Reed  aided  in 
founding  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  was  an  advocate  of  the  gradual  aboli- 
tion of  slavery.  Charges  of  wavering  in  his 
support  of  the  American  cause  created 
much  bitter  controversy  a  few  years  ago, 
but  an  accidental  discovery  by  Adj. -Gen. 
William     S.     Stryker,     president     of     the 


at  Bowdoin  College  in  1860;  studied  law; 
served  in  both  branches  of  the  Maine  leg- 
islature; and  from  1870  to  1873  was  attor- 
ney-general of  the  State.  He  entered  the 
national  House  of  Representatives  as  a 
Republican  in  1S77,  and  continued  there 
uninterruptedly  till  the  close  of  1899, 
when  he  declined  further  election,  and  re- 
moved to  New  York  City  to  engage  in  law 
practice.  In  Congress  he  soon  acquired 
reputation  as  a  forceful  debater,  and  was 
speaker  of  the  House  during  several 
terms.  The  Fifty-first  Congress  (1889-91). 
besides  passing  the  Mclvinley  tariff,  was 
noted  for  the  Reed  code  of  rules  ("count- 
ing a  quorum"),  which  was  adopted  in 
February,  1890.  In  1892  and  1896  he 
was  a  candidate  for  the  nomination 
for  President.  Mr.  Reed  was  for  many 
years  a  contributor  to  the  magazines  and 
reviews.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Dec.  7,  1902.    See  Nicaragua  Canal. 

Reeder,  Andrew  Horatio,  lawyer ; 
born  in  Easton,  Pa.,  Aug.  6,  1807;  was 
a  practitioner  in  Easton,  where  he  spent 
the  most  of  his  life.  In  1854  he  accepted 
the  office  of  (first)  governor  of  Kansas 
from  President  Pierce,  where  he  endeavor- 
ed in  vain  to  prevent  the  election  frauds 


New  Jersey  Historical  Society,  proved  the  in  that  territory  in  1855.  He  would  not 
utter  groundlessness  of  the  accusation,  countenance  the  illegal  proceedings  of  Mis- 
Reed  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  March  5,  sourians  there,  and  (July,  1855)  the  Presi- 
1785.  dent  removed  him  from  office.     The  anti- 

Reed,  Thomas  Brackett,  lawyer;  born    slavery  people  immediately  elected  him  a 
in  Portland.  Me.,  Oct.  18,  1839;  graduated    delegate    to    Congress    for    Kansas;    and 

afterwards,  under  the  legal  constitution,  he 
was  chosen  United  States  Senator.  Con- 
gress did  not  ratify  that  constitution,  and 
he  never  took  his  seat.  His  patriotic 
course  won  for  him  the  respect  of  all 
law-abiding  citizens.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  to  be  appointed  a  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  but  declined  the  honor.  Three 
of  his  sons  served  in  the  army.  He 
died  in  Easton,  Pa.,  July  5,  1864.  See 
Kansas. 

Referendum.    See  Initiative  and  Ref- 
erendum. 

Reformed  Episcopal  Church..  In  1872 
a  schism  occurred  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  in  America,  under  the  lead  of 
the  Right  Rev.  George  David  Cummins, 
D.D.,  assistant  bishop  of  the  diocese  of 
Kentucky.  He  and  several  presbyters  and 
laymen  withdrew  from  the  Church,  be- 
390  " 


^ 
*&** 


THOMAS    BK.K'KUTT    KKICD. 


REGENCY  BILL— REGICIDES 

tiering  that  in  some  of  its  teachings  there  kept  a  secret.  The  heir  to  the  throne 
was  a  tendency  towards  erroneous  doc-  was  then  an  infant  only  two  years  of  age, 
tiines  and  practices,  such  as — 1.  That  the  and  the  subject  of  a  regency  in  the  event 
Church  of  Christ  exists  only  in  one  order  of  the  King's  disability  or  death  occupied 
or  form  of  ecclesiastical  polity;  2.  That  the  thoughts  of  the  ministry  for  a  time, 
Christian  ministers  are  "  priests "  in  an-  to  the  exclusion  of  schemes  for  taxing 
other  sense  than  that  in  which  all  be-  the  Americans.  As  soon  as  the  King  had 
lievers  are  a  "  royal  priesthood  " ;  3.  That  sufficiently  recovered,  he  gave  orders  to 
the  Lord's  table  is  an  altar  on  which  the  four  of  his  ministers  to  prepare  a  bill  for 
oblation  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  a  regency.  It  was  done;  and  by  it  the 
is  offered  anew  to  the  Father;  4.  That  the  King  was  allowed  the  nomination  of  a 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's  Supper  is  regent,  provided  it  should  be  restricted 
a  presence  in  the  elements  of  bread  and  to  the  Queen  and  royal  family.  The  pres- 
wine;  and,  5.  That  regeneration  is  insep-  entation  of  the  bill  by  the  Earl  of  Hali- 
arably  connected  with  baptism.  Rejecting  fax  to  the  House  of  Lords  excited  much 
these  views,  they  formed  a  new  Church  debate  in  that  body,  especially  on  the 
organization,  called  the  "Reformed  Epis-  question,  "Who  are  the  royal  family?" 
copal  Church,"  and  held  a  first  general  The  matter  led  to  family  heart-burnings 
council  in  New  York,  Dec.  2,  1873,  at  and  political  complications  and  a  change 
which  Bishop  Cummins  presided.  He  of  ministry,  and  Pitt  was  brought  again 
addressed  the  council,  setting  forth  the  into  the  office  of  premier  of  England.  It 
causes  which  impelled  to  the  movement,  did  more — it  made  the  stubborn  young 
reviewing  the  history  of  the  Church  from  King  submit  to  the  ministry;  and,  in 
1785,  and  said:  "We  are  not  schismatic  the  pride  of  power,  they  perfected  their 
(no  man  can  be  schismatic  who  does  not  schemes  for  oppressing  the  American  col- 
deny  the  faith)  ;  we  are  not  disorganizes ;  onies. 

we  are  restorers  of  the  old,  repairers  of  Regicides,  THE,  a  term  applied  to  the 
the  breaches,  reformers."  The  council  judges  who  tried,  condemned,  and  signed 
elected  standing  committees,  adopted  pro-  the  death-warrant  of  Charles  I.  The  same 
visional  rules,  and  chose  the  Rev.  Charles  ship  which  brought  to  New  England  the 
Edward  Cheney,  D.D.,  missionary  bishop  news  of  the  restoration  of  monarchy 
for  the  Northwest.  They  also  adopted  a  in  Old  England  bore,  also,  Edward  Whal- 
"  Declaration  of  Principles,"  which  were  ley  and  William  Goffe,  high  officers  in 
reaffirmed  May  18,  1874,  at  which  time  a  Cromwell's  army.  Many  of  the  "  regi- 
constitution  and  canons  of  the  "  Reform-  cides  "  were  arrested  and  executed.  Whal- 
ed Episcopal  Church"  were  also  adopted,  ley  and  his  son-in-law  (Goffe),  with  Col. 
The  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Kentucky,  John  Dixwell,  another  "  regicide,"  fled  to 
having  been  informed  that  Bishop  Cum-  America  to  save  their  lives.  Whalley  was 
mins  had  abandoned  the  communion  of  descended  from  an  ancient  family,  and 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  gave  him  was  a  cousin  of  Cromwell  and  Hampden, 
notice,  on  Nov.  22,  1873,  that  unless  he  He  had  been  the  custodian  of  the  royal 
should,  within  six  months,  make  declara-  prisoner,  and  he  and  Coffe  had  signed  the 
tion  that  the  statement  was  untrue,  he  King's  death-warrant.  They  arrived  in 
should  be  deposed  from  the  ministry  of  Boston  in  July,  1600,  and  made  their 
the  church.  Bishop  Cummins  did  not  re-  abode  at  Cambridge.  They  were  speedily 
spond,  and  on  June  24,  1874,  he  was  for-  followed  by  a  proclamation  of  Charles  II. 
mally  deposed  by  Bishop  Smith  of  Ken-  offering  a  liberal  reward  for  their  arrest, 
tucky,  the  senior  bishop  of  the  Church,  The  King  also  sent  officers  to  arrest  them 
with  the  consent  of  thirty-five  bishops,  and  take  them  back  to  England.  Feeling 
In  1904  this  Church  reported  100  min-  insecure  at  Cambridge,  the  "regicides" 
isters,  78  church  edifices,  and  a  member-  fled  to  New  Haven,  where  the  Rev.  Mr. 
ship  of  9,282.  Davenport  and  the  citizens  generally  did 
Regency  Bill.  In  the  early  years  of  what  they  could  to  protect  them.  Learn- 
his  reign,  George  III.  had  symptoms  of  ing  that  their  pursuers  were  near,  they 
insanity.  In  April,  1765,  his  illness  was  hid  in  caves,  in  clefts  of  rocks,  in  mills, 
publicly   announced,   but   its   nature   was  and    other    obscure    places,    where    their 

391 


REGULATING   ACT— REID 

friends  supplied  their  wants.  There  is  still  there,  they  should  be  resisted  by  20,000 
to  be  seen  in  New  Haven  the  cave,  known  men  from  Hampshire  county  and  Con- 
as  "  the  Judges'  Cave,"  wherein  they  took  necticut.  Gage's  council,  summoned  to 
refuge  from  the  King's  officers.  Finally,  in  meet  at  Salem  in  August,  dared  not  ap- 
1664,  they  went  to  Hadley,  Mass.,  where  pear,  and  the  authority  of  the  new  govern- 
thev   remained,   in   absolute   seclusion,   in    nient  vanished. 

the' house  of  Rev.  Mr.  Russell,  for  about  Regulators.  To  feed  the  rapacity  of 
fifteen  years.  Dixwell  was  with  Whalley  rulers,  the  people  of  North  Carolina  were 
and  Goffe  most  of  the  time  until  they  very  heavily  taxed.  They  finally  formed 
died — the  former  in  1678,  and  the  latter  an  association  to  resist  this  taxation  and 
in  1679— and  were  buried  at  New  Haven,  extortion,  and,  borrowing  the  name  of 
Dixwell  lived  at  New  Haven  under  the  Regulators  from  the  South  Carolinians 
assumed  name  of  James  Davids.  He  was  (see  South  Carolina),  they  soon  became 
twice  married,  leaving  three  children.  He  too  formidable  to  be  controlled  by  local 
died  in  New  Haven,  March  18,  1689,  in  the  magistrates.  They  became  actual  insur- 
eighty-second  year  of  his  age.  In  the  gents,  against  whom  Governor  Tryon  led 
burying-ground  in  the  rear  of  the  Central  a  force  of  volunteers  from  the  seaboard. 
Church  small  stones,  with  brief  inscrip-  The  opposing  parties  fought  a  battle,  May 
tions,  mark  the  graves  of  the  three  "  regi-  16,  1771,  near  the  Allemance  Creek,  in 
cides."  See  Goffe,  William;  Whalley,  Allemance  county,  when  nearly  forty 
Edward.  men    were    killed.      The    Regulators    were 

Regulating  Act,  an  act  of  the  British  beaten  and  dispersed,  but  not  subdued, 
Parliament  for  the  subversion  of  the  char-  and  many  of  them  were  among  the  most 
ter  of  Massachusetts,  the  principle  of  earnest  soldiers  in  the  Revolutionary  War. 
which  was  the  concentration  of  the  execu-  Indeed,  the  skirmish  on  the  Allemance  is 
tive  power,  including  the  courts  of  justice,  regarded  by  some  as  the  first  battle  in  the 
in  the  hands  of  the  royal  governor.  It  war.  Tryon  marched  back  in  triumph  to 
took  from  Massachusetts,  without  notice  Newbern,  after  hanging  six  of  the  Regu- 
and  without  a  hearing,  by  the  arbitrary  lators  for  treason  (June  19).  These 
will  of  Parliament  and  the  King,  rights  events  caused  fierce  hatred  of  British  rule 
and  liberties  which  the  people  had  en-  in  the  region  below  the  Roanoke, 
joyed  from  the  foundation  of  the  colony,  After  the  close  of  the  Cherokee  War, 
excepting  in  the  reign  of  James  II.  It  the  western  districts  of  South  Carolina 
utterly  uprooted  the  town-meeting,  the  were  rapidly  settled  by  people  of  various 
dearest  institution  in  the  political  scheme  nationalities,  but  mostly  by  Scotch-Irish, 
of  Massachusetts.  On  Aug.  6,  1774,  Gen-  Germans,  and  immigrants  from  the  North- 
eral  Gage  received  an  official  copy  of  the  ern  provinces.  Among  these  was  a  lawless 
new  law,  and  at  once  prepared  to  put  it  class,  for  the  summary  punishment  of 
into  operation.  The  people  of  Massachu-  which  the  better  sort  of  people  associated 
setts,  in  convention,  decided  that  the  act  themselves  under  the  name  of  Regulators, 
was  unconstitutional,  and  firmly  declared  This  "  vigilance  committee,"  or  "  Lynch  " 
that  all  officers  appointed  under  it,  who  law,  was  strongly  protested  against,  for 
should  accept,  would  be  considered  the  people  claimed  the  right  of  trial  by 
"usurpers  of  power  and  enemies  to  the  jury.  Governor  Montague  sent  a  com- 
province,"  even  though  they  bore  the  com-  missioner  in  1766  to  investigate  the  mat- 
mission  of  the  King.  A  provisional  con-  ter,  who  arrested  some  of  the  Regulators 
gress  was  proposed,  with  large  executive  and  sent  them  to  Charleston.  Two  parties 
powers.  Gage  became  alarmed,  stayed  were  formed,  and  nearly  came  to  blows. 
his  hand,  and  the  regulating  act  became  They  were  pacified  by  the  establishment 
a  nullity.  Courts  convened,  but  the  of  district  courts,  but  ill-feeling  con- 
judges  were  compelled  to  renounce  their  tinued,  and  the  opponents  of  the  Regu- 
office  under  the  new  law.  Jurors  refused  lators,  taking  sides  with  Parliament  "in 
to  serve  under  the  new  judges.  The  army  the  rising  disputes,  formed  the  basis  of 
was  too  small  to  enforce  the  new  laws,  the  Tory  party  in  South  Carolina, 
and  the  people  agreed,  if  Gage  should  send  Reid,  Samuel  Chester,  naval  officer; 
troops  to  Worcester  to  sustain  the  judges    born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  August  25,  1783; 

392 


REID— RELIGION 


went  to  sea  when  only  eleven  years  of  tion  with  the  New  York  Tribune.  He 
age,  and  was  captured  by  a  French  priva-  succeeded  Horace  Greeley  in  1872  in  the 
teer  and  kept  a  prisoner  six  months.  Act-  editorship,  and  soon  became  the  chief 
ing  midshipman  under  Commodore  Trux- 
tun,  he  became  enamoured  of  the  naval 
service,  and  when  the  War  of  1812-15 
broke  out  he  began  privateering.  He  com- 
manded the  General  Armstrong  in  1814, 
and  with  her  fought  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable of  recorded  battles,  at  Fayal 
(see  General  Armstrong,  The).  Cap- 
tain Reid  was  appointed  sailing-master 
in  the  navy,  and  held  that  office  till  his 
death.  He  was  also  warden  of  the  port 
of  New  York.  Captain  Reid  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  signal  telegraph  that  com- 
municated with  Sandy  Hook  from  the 
Narrows,  and  it  was  he  who  designed 
the  present  form  of  the  United  States 
flag.  He  died  in  New  York  City,  Jan. 
28,   1861. 

Reid,  Whitelaw,  journalist;  born  near 
Xenia,  0.,  Oct.  27,  1837;  graduated  at 
Miami  University  in  1856;  edited  the 
Xenia  News  1858-9.  As  war  correspon- 
dent of  the  Cincinnati  Gazette  he  attract- 
ed attention  by  his  graphic  and  accurate 

WHITELAW   REiD. 

owner.  He  accepted  the  position  of 
United  States  minister  to  France  in  1889. 
Returning  in  1892,  he  was  associated 
with  Benjamin  Harrison  on  the  Republi- 
can ticket  as  candidate  for  Vice-Presi- 
dent; was  a  special  commissioner  at 
Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee  in  1897;  one  of 
the  American  peace  commissioners  at  the 
close  of  the  war  of  1898;  and  special  am- 
bassador for  the  coronation  of  King  Ed- 
ward VII.  in  1902.  In  1905  he  suc- 
ceeded Joseph  H.  Choate  as  ambassador 
to  England.  He  wrote  Ohio  in  the  War, 
Some  Consequences  of  the  Last  Treaty 
of  Paris,  Our  ~New  Duties,  A  Continental 
Union,  Problems  of  Expansion,  etc. 

Religion.  The  United  States,  being  the 
land  of  religious  freedom,  presents  a  con- 
stantly increasing  number  of  denomina- 
tions or  sects.  In  1904  there  were  more 
than  29,000,000  people  enrolled  on  various 
church  lists.  The  following  is  the  annual 
compilation  of  the  number  of  ministers, 
descriptions  over  the  signature  of  Agate,  church  edifices,  and  communicants  or 
After  a  short  experience  in  cotton-plant-  members  by  The  Independent  for  the 
ing,  he  began,  in   1868,  his  long  associa-    calendar  year  1900: 

393 


SAMUEL   CHESTER    BEID. 


RELIGION 


NUMBER  OF  MINISTERS,  CHURCH   EDIFICES,  AND   COMMUNICANTS. 


Denominations. 


Adventists : 

Seventh   Day 

Life  and  Advent  Union 

Arminians 

Baptists : 

Regular    (North) 

Regular   (South) 

Regular     (Colored) 

Seventh    Day 

Freewill    

General    

Separate  

Brethren  in  Christ  (River) 

Catholics : 

Roman  Catholics 

Independent  Catholics : 

Polish   branch 

Old  Catholic 

Catholics :  Reformed 

Christians    

Christian  Catholic   (Dowie) 

Christian   Scientists 

Church  of  God 

Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem 

Congregationalists   

Disciples  of  Christ 

Dunkards : 

German  Baptists  (Conservative) 

German  Baptists    (Old  Order) 

German  Baptists    ( Progressive) 

Episcopalians  : 

Protestant  Episcopal 

Reformed  Episcopal 

Evangelical  Bodies  : 

Evangelical   Association 

United  Evangelical  Church 

Friends  :  Orthodox 

German  Evangelical  Synod 

Greek   Church  : 

Greek  Orthodox 

Russian   Orthodox 

Jews 

Latter  Day  Saints : 

Mormons    

Reorganized  Church 

Lutherans : 

General   Synod 

United  Synod  in  the  South 

General  Council 

Synodical   Conference 

Independent  Synods 

Mennonites  : 

Mennonite 

Amish 

Reformed ] 

General  Conference . 

Bundes  Conference 

Defenceless    

Brethren  in  Christ 

Methodists  : 

Methodist   Episcopal 

Union  American  M.  E 

African  M.  E 

African  Union  Methodist  Protestant .  . 

African  M.  E.  Zion 

Methodist   Protestant .  .  . 

Wesleyan  Methodist 

Methodist  Episcopal  South 

Congregational  Methodist 

Colored  M.  E 

Primitive    Methodist '. 

Free    Methodist 

Evangelist    Missionary 

Moravians   

Presbyterians  : 

Presbyterian  in  United  States  (Northern) .  . 

Cumberland   Presbyterian 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  (Colored) 

Welsh  Calvinistic 


Ministers. 

Churches. 

Members. 

372 

1,470 

55,316 

60 

33 

3,000 

15 

21 

8,500 

7,415 

9,374 

975,820 

12,058 

18,963 

1,608,413 

14,351 

15,654 

1,864,600 

119 

115 

8,991 

1,619 

1,486 

85.109 

450 

550 

28,000 

113 

103 

6,479 

152 

78 

4,000 

11,636 

12,062 

8,610,226 

19 

18 

15,000 

6 

5 

10,000 

6 

6 

1,500 

1,248 

1,520 

111,835 

55 

50 

40,000 

12,000 

600 

1,000,000 

460 

580 

38,000 

143 

173 

7,679 

5,614 

5,604 

629,874 

6,528 

10,528 

1,149,982 

2,612 

850 

95,000 

150 

100 

3,500 

231 

173 

12,787 

4,961 

6,686 

716,431 

103 

104 

9,743 

1,052 

1,806 

118,865 

478 

985 

60,993 

1,279 

820 

91,868 

909 

1,129 

203,574 

4 

4 

20,000 

41 

58 

45,000 

301 

570 

211,627 

1,700 

796 

300,000 

2,200 

600 

45,500 

1,226 

1,568 

194,442 

215 

390 

38,639 

1,156 

2,019 

370,409 

2,029 

2,650 

581,029 

•  2,084 

4,496 

481,359 

418 

288 

22,443 

365 

124 

13,051 

43 

34 

1,680 

138 

79 

10,395 

41 

16 

3,050 

20 

11 

1,176 

45 

82 

2,953 

17,521 

26,021 

2,716,437 

63 

5.659 

61 
5,775 

2,675 
673,504 

80 

70 

2,000 

3.155 

2,906 

536,271 

1,647 

2,400 

181,316 

5S7 

506 

17,201 

6,041 

14,244 

1,457,864 

210 

240 

20,000 

2,187 

1,300 

199,206 

65 

92 

6,470 

944 

1,123 

28,588 

87 

13 

4,600 

118 

111 

14,817 

7,335 

7,469 

973.433 

1,734 

2,957 

180,192 

400 

150 

39,000 

105 

185 

12,000 

394 


RELIGION 


NUMBER  OF   MINISTERS,  CHURCH   EDIFICES,  AND   COMMUNICANTS-CtonKnued. 


Denominations. 


Presbyterians. —  Continued. 

United    Presbyterian 

Presbyterians  in  United  States  (South)... 

Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  tbe  Soutb.  .  . 

Reformed  Presbyterian  in  United  States 
(Synod)    

Reformed  Presbyterian  in  North  America 
(General   Synod) 

Reformed  Presbyterian   (Covenanted) 

Reformed  Presbyterian  in  United  States  and 
Canada   

Reformed    Presbyterian    (Russellites) 

Reformed  : 

Reformed  in  America   (Dutch) 

Reformed  in  United  States  (German) 

Christian   Reformed 

Salvation    Army 

United  Brethren  : 

United  Brethren  in  Christ 

United  Brethren   (Old  Constitution) 

Unitarians 

Universalists    


918 

1,461 

104 

124 

33 

1 


098 

1,0S2 

96 

2,689 

1,897 
670 
550 
735 


911 

2,959 

131 

113 

36 

1 


619 

1,660 

145 

753 

4,229 
817 
459 
764 


BODIES  CONCERNING  WHICH  NO   RELIABLE   INFORMATION  IS  AVAILABLE. 


Denominations. 


Adventists  : 

Evangelical   

Advent  Christians 

Church  of  God 

Church  of  God  in  Jesus  Christ 

Baptists  : 

Six    Principle , 

Original   Freewill 

United    

Church  of  Christ 

Primitive 

Old   Two-seed-in-the-Spirit   Predestinarian. 
Brethren   (River)  : 

Old  Order,  or  Yorker 

United   Zim's  Children 

Brethren  (Plymouth)  : 

Brethren    ( 1 ) 

Brethren    (2) 

Brethren    (3) 

Brethren    (4) 

Catholic  Apostolic 

Chinese  Temples 

Christadelphians    

Christian  Missionary  Association 

Christian    Union 

Church    Triumphant    (Schweinfurth) 

Communistic  Societies : 

Shakers    

Amana   

Harmony   

Separatists    

New  Icaria 

Altruists    

Adonai    Shomo 

Church   Triumphant    (Koreshan   Ecclesia)  . 

Dunkards    ( Seventh  Day) 

Friends    (Hicksite) 

Friends    (Wilburite) 

Friends    ( Primitive ) 

Friends  of  the  Temple 

German  Evangelical  Frotestant 

Mennonites  : 

Bruederhoef  

Old  Amish 

Apostolic     

Church  of  God  in  Christ 

Old   (Wisler) 

Methodists  : 

Congregational    (Colored) 

Zion  Union  Apostolic 

Independent    

Kew  Congregational  Methodist 

395 


Ministers. 


34 

883 

19 

94 

14 

118 

25 

80 

2,040 

300 

7 
20 


95 


10 
183 


Churches. 


115 

38 

11 

4 

44 


30 

5S0 

29 

95 

18 
167 
204 
152 
3,222 
473 


25 

109 
88 
86 
31 
10 
47 
63 
13 

294 
12 

15 
7 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
5 
6 
201 

52 
9 
4 

52 


9 

5 

352 

71 

22 

2,038 

2 

2 

209 

18 

18 

471 

17 

15 

610 

5 

5 

319 

30 

27 

2,346 

8 

14 

2,569 

20 

17 

1,059 

214 
525 

2,289 
2,419 
1,235 
718 
1,394 

1,277 

754 

18,214 

384 

1,728 

1,600 

250 

200 

21 

25 

20 

205 

194 

21,992 

4,329 

232 

340 

36,156 


RELIGIOUS    FREEDOM 


BODIES   CONCERNING  WHICH   NO   RELIABLE  INFORMATION  IS   AVAILABLE— Continued. 


Denominations. 


Presbyterians  : 

Associate  Church  of  North  America. 

Scbwenkfeldians    

Social   Brethren 

Spiritualists    

Theosophical   Society 

Society  of  Ethical  Culture 

Waldenstromians    

Independent   Congregations 


Churches. 


12 

3 

17 


140 
54 


31 

4 

20 

334 

40 

4 

150 

156 


Members. 


1,053 

306 

913 

45,030 

695 

1,064 

20,000 

14,126 


Religious  Freedom.  The  provisions  of 
the  first  constitutions  of  the  States  be- 
trayed a  struggle  between  ancient  bigotry 
and  growing  liberality.  When  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  broke  out,  Congregation- 
alism constituted  the  established  religion 
in  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  and 
Connecticut.  The  Church  of  England  en- 
joyed a  similar  civil  support  in  all  the 
Southern  colonies,  and  partially  so  in 
New  York  and  New  Jersey.  Only  in 
Rhode  Island,  Pennsylvania,  and  Dela- 
ware was  the  equality  of  all  Protestant 
sects  acknowledged,  caused  by  the  lasting 
impressions  given  by  Roger  Williams  and 
William  Penn.  In  the  last  two  colonies 
this  equality  was  extended  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church. 

The  constitution  of  Massachusetts  seem- 
ed to  guarantee  entire  freedom  of  relig- 
ious opinions  and  the  equality  of  all  sects, 
yet  the  legislature  was  expressly  author- 
ized and  implicitly  required  to  provide 
for  the  support  of  ministers,  and  to  com- 
pel attendance  on  their  services — a  clause 
against  which  the  people  of  Boston  pro- 
tested and  struggled  in  vain.  The  legis- 
lature was  quick  to  avail  itself  of  the 
constitutional  requirement  and  permis- 
sion. It  passed  laws  subjecting  to  heavy 
penalties  any  who  might  question  received 
notions,  as  to  the  nature,  attributes,  and 
functions  of  the  Deity,  or  the  divine  in- 
spiration of  any  book  of  the  Old  or  New 
Testament,  reviving,  in  part,  the  old  colo- 
nial laws  against  blasphemy.  Similar  laws 
remained  in  force  in  Connecticut  (under 
the  charter)  and  were  re-enacted  in  New 
Hampshire. 

In  those  three  States  Congregationalism 
continued  to  enjoy  the  prerogatives  of  an 
established  Church,  and  to  be  supported 
by  taxes  from  which  it  was  not  easy  for 
dissenters  to  escape,  nor  possible  except 
by  contributing  to  the  support  of  some 
other  Church  which  they  regularly  attend- 

3 


ed.  The  ministers,  once  chosen,  held  their 
places  for  life,  and  had  a  legal  claim 
for  their  stipulated  salaries,  unless  dis- 
missed for  cause  deemed  sufficient  by  a 
council  mutually  chosen  from  among  the 
ministers  and  members  of  the  neighbor- 
ing churches. 

A  great  majority  of  the  members  of 
the  Church  of  England  were  loyalists  dur- 
ing the  Revolution,  and  the  Church  lost 
the  establishment  it  had  possessed  in  the 
Southern  colonies.  In  South  Carolina  the 
second  constitution  declared  the  "  Chris- 
tian Protestant  religion  "  to  be  the  estab- 
lished religion  of  the  State.  All  persons 
acknowledging  one  God  and  a  future  state 
of  rewards  and  punishments  were  to  be 
freely  tolerated;  and  if  in  addition  they 
held  Christianity  to  be  the  true  religion, 
and  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  to  be 
inspired,  they  might  form  churches  of 
their  own  entitled  to  be  admitted  as  a 
part  of  the  establishment.  In  Maryland 
a  "  general  and  equal  tax "  was  author- 
ized for  the  support  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, but  no  Assembly  ever  exercised  the 
power  to  lay  such  tax.  The  constitutions 
of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Geor- 
gia expressly  repudiated  the  compulsory 
system  in  religious  matters,  and  in  the 
constitution  of  Virginia  no  mention  was 
made  of  the  matter.  By  act,  in  1785,  all 
religious  tests  in  Virginia  were  abrogated. 
This  act  was  framed  by  the  earnest  efforts 
of  Jefferson  and  Madison,  seconded  by  the 
Baptists,  Presbyterians,  and  other  dis- 
senters. It  was  to  prevent  an  effort,  fav- 
ored by  Washington,  Patrick  Henry,  and 
others,  to  pass  a  law  in  conformity  to  the 
ecclesiastical  system  in  New  England,  com- 
pelling all  to  contribute  to  the  support 
of   some   minister. 

By  the  constitutions  of  New  York,  Dela- 
ware, and  Maryland,  priests  or  minis- 
ters of  religion  were  disqualified  from 
96 


REMEY— RENSSELAERWYCK 


holding  any  political  office  whatever.  In 
Georgia  they  could  not  be  members  of  the 
Assembly.  All  gifts  for  pious  uses  were 
prohibited  by  the  constitution  of  Mary- 
land, except  grants  of  land  not  exceeding 
2  acres  each,  as  sites  for  churches  and 
church-yards.  In  several  of  the  States 
religious  tests  were  maintained.  The  old 
prejudices  against  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  could  not  be  easily  laid  aside. 
In  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  North  and 
South  Carolina,  and  Georgia  the  chief  offi- 
cers of  State  were  required  to  be  Prot- 
estants. In  Massachusetts  and  Maryland 
all  officers  were  required  to  declare  their 
belief  in  the  Christian  religion ;  in  South 
Carolina  in  a  future  state  of  punishments 
and  rewards;  in  North  Carolina  and  Penn- 
sylvania to  acknowledge  the  inspiration  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments ;  and  in  Dela- 
ware to  believe  in  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity.  In  1784  Rhode  Island  repealed 
a  law  so  repugnant  to  its  charter,  by  which 
Roman  Catholics  were  prohibited  from  be- 
coming voters.  The  old  colonial  laws  for 
the  observance  of  Sunday  as  a  day  of  rest 
continued  in  force  in  all  the  colonies.  The 
national  Constitution  (article  vi.,  clause 
3)  declared  that  "no  religious  test  shall 
ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any 
office  or  public  trust  under  the  United 
States."  At  the  first  session  of  the  First 
Congress,  held  March  4,  1789,  many 
amendments  to  the  Constitution  were  of- 
fered, and  ten  of  them  were  adopted  and 
ratified  by  the  required  number  of  State 
legislatures  in  December,  1791.  The  first 
amendment  was  as  follows  "  Congress  shall 
pass  no  law  respecting  an  establishment 
of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof."  This  was  a  direct  blow  at  the 
clauses  dictated  by  bigotry  in  several  of 
the  State  constitutions,  and  was  effectual 
in  time. 

Remey,  George  Collier,  naval  officer; 
born  in  Burlington,  la.,  Aug.  10,  1841; 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1859;  served  with  distinc- 
tion during  the  Civil  War;  was  with  the 
North  and  South  Atlantic  blockading 
squadrons  in  1862-63;  participated  in  a 
number  of  actions,  including  the  siege 
of  Battery  Wagner  and  the  attack  on 
Fort  Sumter,  in  1863;  was  captured  dur- 
ing the  assault  on  the  latter.  When  the 
war  with  Spain  broke  out  he  was  placed 


in  command  of  the  naval  base  at  Key 
West,  Fla. ;  was  promoted  rear-admiral 
in  November,  1898,  and  appointed  com- 
mandant of  the  Portsmouth  navy-yard. 
In  March,  1900,  he  was  given  command 
of  the  Asiatic  Station,  and  in  this  ca- 
pacity directed  the  operations  of  the 
United  States  naval  forces  in  China 
(q.  v.). 

Remington,  Frederick,  artist;  born  in 
St.  Lawrence  county,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  4,  1861; 
educated  at  Yale  Art  School  and  Art 
Students'  League,  New  York  City.  He  is 
one  of  the  foremost  black-and-white  artists 
of  the  day  and  is  also  well  known  as  a 
painter  and  sculptor.  He  is  the  author  of 
Pony  Tracks;  Crooked  Trails;  Frontier 
Sketches,  etc. 

Remonetization  of  Silver.  See  Mor- 
rill, Justin  Smith. 

Reno,  Jesse  Lee,  military  officer;  born 
in  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  June  20,  1823; 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1S46.  He 
served  through  the  war  with  Mexico,  and 
was  severely  wounded  in  the  battle  of 
Chapultepec;  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Mathematics  at  West  Point  in  1849; 
chief  of  ordnance  in  the  Utah  expedition 
of  1857-59.  He  took  part  in  the  attack  on 
Fort  Bartow  and  the  battles  of  Newbern, 
Camden,  Manassas,  and  Chantilly.  At  the 
battle  of  South  Mountain  he  commanded 
the  9th  Corps,  and  while  leading  an  as- 
sault was  killed  Sept.  14,  1862. 

Rensselaerwyck,  the  seat  of  Patroon 
Van  Rensselaer,  in  New  York,  equalled  in 
population  in  1638  the  rest  of  the  province 
of  New  Netherland.  It  did  not  include 
Fort  Orange  (Albany),  which  was  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  Dutch  West 
Indian  Company  through  the  director  at 
Fort  Amsterdam.  The  government  was 
vested  in  two  commissaries,  one  of  whom 
acted  as  president,  and  two  councillors, 
assisted  by  a  secretary,  schout-fiscal,  and 
marshal.  The  commissaries  and  council- 
lors composed  a  court  for  the  trial  of  all 
cases,  civil  and  criminal,  from  which,  how- 
ever, an  appeal  lay  to  the  director  and 
council  at  Fort  Amsterdam.  The  code  was 
the  Roman-Dutch  law  as  administered  in 
Holland.  The  population  consisted  princi- 
pally of  farmers,  who  emigrated  at  their 
own  expense,  other  husbandmen  sent  out 
by  the  patroon  to  establish  and  cultivate 
boweries,  or  farms,  on  shares  or  by  i-ent, 


307 


REPRESENTATIVE    GOVERNMENT 

and  farm-servants  indentured  for  a  term  -were   planted    in   New   Nether! and   when, 

of  years.     From  the  very  foundation  of  in  1641,  Governor  Kieft  summoned  all  the 

the  "  Colonie,"  as  it  was  called,  there  were  masters  and  heads  of  families  to  meet  at 

disputes  between  the  patroon  and  his  ten-  Fort   Amsterdam   to    bear   with   him   the 

ants,  and  for  a  long  time  there  was   a  responsibility  of  making  an  unrighteous 

clashing  of  authority  between  the  director  war    on    the    Indians.      When    they    met, 

of  the  province  and  the  commissary  of  the  Kieft   submitted   the   question   whether   a 

"Colonie."      See  Anti-bent  Party;    Pa-  murder    lately    committed    by    an    Indian 

tboons.  on  a  Hollander,  for  a  murder  committed 

Representative  Government.  The  by  a  Hollander  on  an  Indian  many  years 
government  of  Massachusetts  colony,  in  before,  ought  not  to  be  avenged;  and,  in 
its  popular  branch,  was  purely  demo-  case  the  Indians  would  not  give  up  the 
cratic  until  1034.  The  freemen,  dissatis-  murderer,  whether  it  would  not  be  just 
fied  by  the  passage  of  obnoxious  laws  by  to  destroy  the  whole  village  to  which  he 
the  magistrates  and  clergy,  sent  a  delega-  belonged?  The  people  chose  twelve  of 
tion,  composed  of  two  representatives  their  number  to  represent  them.  These 
from  each  town,  to  request  a  sight  of  the  were  Jacques  Bertyn,  Maryn  Adriaensen, 
charter.  Its  inspection  satisfied  them  Jan  Jansen  Dam,  Hendrick  Jansen,  David 
that  to  the  freemen,  and  not  to  the  magis-  Pietersen  de  Vries,  Jacob  Stoffelsen, 
trates,  belonged  the  legislative  power.  Abram  Molenaar,  Frederick  Lubbertsen, 
They  asked  the  governor's  opinion.  He  Jochem  Pietersen  Kuyter,  Gerrit  Dirck- 
replied  that  the  freemen  were  now  too  sen,  George  Rapelje,  and  Abraham  Planck 
many  (not  over  300)  to  meet  as  a  legislat-  — all  Hollanders.  The  action  of  the 
ure,  and  also  gave  an  opinion  that  the  twelve  was  contrary  to  Kieft's  wishes,  and 
"  commons "  were  not  yet  furnished  with  he  afterwards  dissolved  the  first  repre- 
a  body  of  men  fit  to  make  laws.  He  pro-  sentative  assembly  and  forbade  the  as- 
posed  that  a  certain  number  of  freemen  sembling  of  another.  An  appalling  crisis 
should  be  appointed  yearly,  not  to  make  in  1643  caused  Kieft  to  call  for  popular 
laws,  but  to  prefer  grievances  to  the  Court  counsellors,  and  the  people  chose  eight 
of  Assistants,  whose  consent  might  also  men  to  represent  them.  This  second  rep- 
be  required  to  all  assessments  of  money  resentative  assembly  consisted  of  Jochem 
or  grants  of  lands.  They  insisted  upon  Pietersen  Kuyter,  Jan  Jansen  Dam,  Ba- 
less  restricted  power;  and  when  the  Gen-  rent  Dircksen,  Abraham  Pietersen,  Isaac 
eral  Court,  composed  of  freemen,  met,  that  Allerton  (a  Puritan  who  came  over  in  the 
body  claimed  for  itself  all  the  powers  Mayflower,  and  was  then  a  merchant  in 
which  the  charter  clearly  granted  them.  New  Amsterdam),  Thomas  Hall  (another 
The  magistrates  were  compelled  to  yield;  Englishman),  Gerrit  Wolfertsen,  and  Cor- 
and  it  was  arranged  that  while  all  the  nelius  Meylyn,  the  patroon  of  Staten  Isl- 
freemen  should  assemble  annually  for  the  and. 

choice  of  officers,  they  should  be  repre-  On  the  arrival  of  Stuyvesant  as  gov- 
sented  by  delegates  elected  by  the  people  ernor  of  New  Netherland,  he  organized  a 
in  the  other  three  sessions  of  the  court  council  of  nine  men,  who  in  a  degree  rep- 
to  "deal  on  their  behalf  in  the  public  resented  the  people.  A  circumstance  now 
affairs  of  the  commonwealth,"  and  for  favored  the  growth  of  republicanism  in 
that  purpose  "to  have  devised  to  them  the  colony.  The  finances  were  in  such  a 
the  full  voice  and  power  of  all  the  said  low  state  that  taxation  was  absolutely 
freemen."  By  this  political  revolution  necessary.  The  principle  that  "  taxation 
representative  government  was  first  es-  without  representation  is  tyranny"  had 
tablished  in  Massachusetts.  The  first  rep-  prevailed  in  Holland  since  1477.  Stuy- 
resentative  legislature,  composed  of  three  vesant  was  compelled  to  respect  it,  for  he 
delegates  from  each  of  the  eight  prin-  feared  the  States-General;  so  he  called  a 
cipal  plantations,  met  with  the  magis-  convention  of  citizens  (1647) ,  and  directed 
trates  in  May,  1634.  This  was  the  second  them  to  choose  eighteen  of  their  best  men 
government  of  the  kind  established  in  from  whom  he  might  select  nine  as  rep- 
America.    See  Massachusetts.  resentatives  of  the  tax-payers.    He  hedged 

The  germs  of  representative  government  this  representatn-e  assembly  as  tightly  as 

398 


REPRESENTATIVES— REPUBLICAN    ARMY 

possible  with  restrictions.  The  first  nine  Reprisal,  Letters  of,  in  national  law, 
were  to  choose  their  successors,  so  that  he  the  authorization  of  the  capture  of  prop- 
need  not  go  to  the  people  again.  They  erty  belonging  to  the  subjects  of  a  for- 
nourished  the  prolific  seed  of  democracy  eign  power  in  satisfaction  of  losses  sus- 
then  planted.  Stuyvesant  tried  to  stifle  tained  by  a  citizen  of  the  capturing  state, 
its  growth ;  persecution  promoted  it.  Set-  Reprisal,  The.  The  ship  that  carried 
tiers  from  New  England  were  now  many  Franklin  to  France,  having  replenished  in 
among  the  Dutch,  and  imbibed  their  re-  the  port  of  Nantes,  cruised  off  the  French 
publican  sentiments.  Finally,  late  in  the  coast  and  captured  several  prizes  from 
autumn  of  1653,  nineteen  delegates,  who  the  English.  The  American  privateers 
represented  eight  villages  or  communities,  were  permitted  to  enter  French  ports  in 
assembled  at  the  City  Hall  in  New  Am-  cases  of  extreme  emergency,  and  there  to 
sterdam,  without  the  governor's  consent,  receive  supplies  only  sufficient  for  a  voy- 
to  take  measures  for  the  public  good,  age  to  their  own  ports;  but  the  Reprisal 
They  demanded  that  "  no  new  laws  shall  continued  to  cruise  off  the  French  coast 
be  enacted  but  with  the  consent  of  the  after  leaving  port,  and  captured  the  Eng- 
people,  that  none  shall  be  appointed  to  lish  royal  packet  between  Falmouth  and 
office  but  with  the  approbation  of  the  Lisbon.  With  this  and  five  other  prizes, 
people,  and  that  obscure  and  obsolete  laws  she  entered  the  harbor  of  L'Orient,  the 
shall  never  be  revived."  captain  saying  he  intended  to  send  them 

Stuyvesant,  angered  by  what  he  called  to  America.  Stormont,  the  English  am- 
their  impertinence,  ordered  them  to  dis-  bassador  to  Paris,  hurried  to  Vergennes  to 
perse  on  pain  of  punishment,  saying:  demand  that  the  captain,  with  his  crews, 
"  We  derive  our  authority  from  God  and  cargoes,  and  ships,  should  be  given  up. 
the  Company,  not  from  a  few  ignorant  "  You  have  come  too  late,"  said  the  min- 
subjects."  The  deputies  paid  very  little  ister ;  "  orders  have  already  been  sent  that 
attention  to  the  wishes  or  commands  of  the  American  ship  and  her  prizes  must 
the  irate  governor,  who  was  an  honest  immediately  put  to  sea."  The  Reprisal 
despot.  When  they  adjourned  they  in-  continued  to  cruise  in  European  waters 
vited  the  governor  to  a  collation,  but  he  until  captured  in  the  summer  of  1777. 
would  not  sanction  their  proceedings  by  Republican  Army,  the  name  given  the 
his  presence.  They  bluntly  told  him  there  American  army  that  invaded  Canada  in 
would  be  another  convention  soon,  and  1776.  Gen.  John  Thomas  was  sent  to  take 
he  might  prevent  it  if  he  could.  He  the  command  of  the  patriot  troops  in  Can- 
stormed,  but  prudently  yielded  to  the  ada.  He  arrived  at  Quebec  May  1,  1776, 
demands  of  the  people  for  another  con-  and  found  1,900  soldiers,  one-half  of  whom 
vention,  and  issued  a  call.  The  dele-  were  sick  with  small-pox  and  other  dis- 
gates  met  (Dec.  10,  1653)  in  New  Amster-  eases.  Some  of  them  were  also  clamorous 
dam.  Of  the  eight  districts  represented,  for  a  discharge,  for  their  term  of  enlist- 
four  were  Dutch  and  four  English.  Of  ment  had  expired.  He  was  about  to  retreat 
the  nineteen  delegates,  ten  were  Dutch  up  the  St.  Lawrence,  when  reinforce- 
and  nine  English.  Baxter,  English  secre-  ments  for  Carleton  arrived,  and  the  gar- 
tary  of  the  colony,  led  the  English  dele-  rison  of  Quebec  sallied  out  and  attacked 
gates.  He  drew  up  a  remonstrance  against  the  Americans,  who  in  their  weakness  fled 
the  tyrannous  rule  of  the  governor,  far  up  the  river  to  the  mouth  of  the  Sorel. 
Stuyvesant  met  the  severe  document  with  There  General  Thomas  died  of  small- 
his  usual  pluck,  denouncing  it  and  the  pox  (June  2) ,  when  the  command  devolved 
Assembly,  and  until  the  end  of  his  ad-  on  General  Sullivan.  After  meeting  with 
ministration  (1664)  he  was  at  "swords'  disaster  at  Three  Rivers,  the  latter  was 
points "  with  the  representatives  of  the  compelled  to  fly  up  the  Sorel  before  an 
people,  who  gradually  acquired  greater  approaching  force  under  Burgoyne,  and  he 
power.  pressed  on  by  Chambly  to  St.  John.     Ar- 

Representatives,  House  of.  See  nold,  at  Montreal,  seeing  approaching  dan- 
Speaker  of  Congress,  The,  by  Gen.  A.  W.  ger,  abandoned  that  city  and  joined  Sul- 
Greely,  including  ex-Speaker  T.  B.  Reed's  livan  at  Chambly;  and  on  June  17  all  the 
article  How  the  House  Does  Business.  American  troops  in  Canada  were  at  that 

399 


REPUBLICAN  GOVERNMENT— REPUBLICAN  PARTY 


post.  They  were  in  a  most  pitiable  plight. 
Nearly  one-half  of  them  were  sick;  all 
were  half-clad,  and  were  scantily  fed  with 
salted  meat  and  hard  bread.  The  force 
was  too  weak  to  make  a  stand  at  St.  John 
against  the  slowly  pursuing  army  of  Bur- 
goyne,  and  they  continued  their  flight  to 
Crown  Point  in  open  boats,  without  awn- 
ings, exposing  the  sick  to  the  fiery  sun  and 
drenching  rain.  Terrible  were  their  suf- 
ferings at  Crown  Point.  Every  spot  and 
every  thing  seemed  infected  with  disease. 
For  a  short  time  the  troops  were  poorly 
housed,  half-naked,  and  inadequately  fed, 
their  daily  rations  being  raw  salted  pork, 
hard  bread,  and  unbaked  flour.  During 
two  months  the  Northern  army  lost,  by 
sickness  and  desertion,  fully  5,000  men, 
and  5,000  were  left,  and  were  at  Crown 
Point  in  June,  1778.  So  ended,  in  dis- 
aster, this  remarkable  invasion. 

Republican  Government.  When  the 
0.000  white  inhabitants  of  Louisiana  heard 
of  the  cession  of  their  domain  by  France 
to  Spain,  by  the  treaty  of  1763,  they 
formed  an  assembly  of  representatives 
of  each  parish  in  the  colony,  which  re- 
solved to  ask  the  King  of  France  to  ob- 
serve their  loyalty,  and  not  sever  them 
from  his  dominions.  They  sent  John 
Milhet,  a  wealthy  merchant  of  New 
Orleans,  as  their  envoy  to  Paris,  to  pre- 
sent their  petition  to  Choiseul ;  but  that 
minister  said,  "  It  may  be  France  cannot 
bear  the  charge  of  supporting  the  colony's 
precarious  existence."  On  July  10,  1765, 
Antonio  de  Ulloa  wrote  a  letter  in 
Havana  to  New  Orleans,  and  announced 
to  the  authorities  there  that  he  had  re- 
ceived orders  to  take  possession  of  Loui- 
siana in  the  name  of  the  Spanish  mon- 
arch. He  landed  there  on  March  5,  1766, 
with  civil  officers,  three  Capuchin  monks, 
and  eighty  soldiers.  The  colonists  re- 
ceived him  coldly.  The  French  garrison 
of  300  soldiers  refused  to  enter  the  Span- 
ish service,  nor  would  the  inhabitants 
consent  to  give  up  their  nationality. 
Ulloa  could  only  direct  a  Spanish  com- 
missary to  defray  the  expenses  of  govern- 
ment at  the  cost  of  Spain,  and  to  ad- 
minister it  under  the  French  flag,  by  old 
French  officers. 

Very  soon  the  Spanish  restrictive  com- 
mercial system  was  applied  to  Louisiana. 
The    merchants    of    New    Orleans    remon- 


strated. "  The  extension  and  freedom 
of  trade,"  they  said,  "  far  from  injuring 
states  and  colonies,  are  their  strength  and 
support."  The  ordinance  was  suspended, 
and  very  little  Spanish  jurisdiction  was 
exercised  in  Louisiana.  The  conduct  of 
Ulloa,  the  derangement  of  business,  and 
a  sense  of  vassalage  aroused  the  whole 
colony  at  the  end  of  two  years,  and  it  was 
proposed  to  make  New  Orleans  a  repub- 
lic like  Holland  or  Venice,  with  a  legisla- 
tive body  of  forty  men,  and  a  single  execu- 
tive. The  people  of  the  country  parishes 
filled  the  city,  and,  joining  those  of  New 
Orleans,  formed  a  numerous  assembly,  in 
which  John  Milhet,  his  brother,  Lafre- 
niere,  and  one  or  two  others  were  conspic- 
uous. They  adopted  an  address  to  the 
Superior  Council,  Oct.  25,  1768,  rehearsing 
their  grievances,  and  in  their  Petition  of 
Rights  they  claimed  freedom  of  commerce 
with  the  ports  of  France  and  America, 
and  demanded  the  expulsion  of  Ulloa  from 
the  colony.  The  address  was  signed  by 
nearly  600  names.  It  was  adopted  by  the 
council  (Oct.  26)  ;  and  when  the  French 
flag  was  displayed  on  the  public  square, 
women  and  children  kissed  its  folds,  and 
900  men  raised  it  amid  shouts  of  "  Long 
live  the  King  of  France;  we  will  have  no 
king  but  him."  Ulloa  fled  to  Havana, 
while  the  people  of  Louisiana  made  them- 
selves a  republic  as  an  alternative  to  their 
renewed  political  connection  with  France. 
They  elected  their  own  treasurer,  and 
syndics  to  represent  the  mass  of  the 
colony.  They  sent  envoys  to  Paris  bearing 
a  memorial  to  the  French  monarch  (Louis 
XV. ) ,  asking  him  to  intercede  between 
them  and  the  King  of  Spain.  Du  Chatelet, 
the  French  ambassador  in  London,  wrote 
to  Choiseul,  Feb.  24,  1769:  "The  success 
of  the  people  of  New  Orleans  in  driving 
away  the  Spaniards  is  at  least  a  good 
example  for  the  English  colonies;  may 
they  set  about  following  it."  See  Choi- 
seul, Etienne  Francois;  New  Orleans. 
Republican  Party.  The  Anti-federal- 
ists formed  the  basis  of  the  Republican 
party  after  Jefferson  entered  the  cabinet 
of  President  Washington.  During  the  dis- 
cussion on  the  national  Constitution  be- 
fore it  was  adopted  the  difference  of 
opinion  became  more  and  more  decidedly 
marked,  until,  at  the  time  when  the  rati- 
fication  was   consummated,   the   views   of 


400 


REPUBLICAN    PARTY 

the  supporters  and  opposers  of  the  Con-  claimed  by  several  communities.  It  is  a 
stitution,  called  Federalists  and  Anti-  matter  of  date  to  be  settled.  Michigan 
federalists,  gradually  crystallized  into  claims  that  it  was  at  a  State  convention 
strongly  opposing  creeds.  Jefferson  came  assembled  at  Jackson,  July  6,  1854,  a  call 
from  France  to  take  his  seat  in  the  cabi-  for  which  was  signed  by  more  than  10,000 
net,  filled  with  the  radical  sentiments  of  persons.  The  "  platform "  of  the  conven- 
the  best  of  the  French  revolutionists,  who  tion  was  drawn  up  by  Jacob  M.  Howard 
had  begun  the  work  which  afterwards  as-  (afterwards  United  States  Senator),  in 
sumed  the  aspect  of  revolution  and  the  which  the  extension  of  slavery  was  opposed 
Reign  of  Terror.  He  came  home  glowing  and  its  abolition  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
with  the  animus  of  French  democracy,  bia  agitated.  The  name  of  "  Republican " 
and  was  shocked  by  the  apparent  indif-  was  adopted  by  the  convention  as  that 
ference  of  Washington,  Hamilton,  Adams,  of  the  opposition  party.  Conventions  that 
and  others  to  the  claims  of  the  struggling  took  a  similar  course  were  held  in  Ohio, 
French  people  to  the  sympathy  of  the  Wisconsin,  and  Vermont  on  July  13,  and 
Americans.  He  sympathized  with  the  in  Massachusetts  on  July  19,  1854. 
ultra-republicans  of  France,  and  was  an  For  some  time  previous  to  the  canvass 
enthusiastic  admirer  of  a  nation  of  en-  for  President  in  1856  there  were  very  ap- 
thusiasts.  His  suspicious  nature  caused  parent  signs  of  the  formation  of  a  new 
him  to  suspect  those  who  differed  with  party.  The  anti-slavery  element  in  all 
him  in  his  political  views  as  enemies  of  political  parties  began  more  than  a  year 
republicanism;  and  he  had  scarcely  taken  before  to  crystallize  into  a  party  opposed 
his  seat  in  Washington's  cabinet  before  he  to  the  further  extension  of  slavery  into  the 
declared  his  belief  that  some  of  his  col-  Territories  of  the  Union.  It  rapidly  gath- 
leagues  held  monarchical  views,  and  that  ered  force  and  bulk  as  the  election  ap- 
there  was  a  party  in  the  United  States  proached.  It  assumed  giant  proportions 
secretly  and  openly  in  favor  of  the  over-  in  the  fall  of  1856,  and  was  called  the 
throw  of  the  republic.  He  did  not  hesi-  Republican  party.  That  party  nominated 
tate  to  designate  Hamilton  as  a  leader  John  C.  Fremont,  of  California,  for  Presi- 
among  them,  and  Washington  was  soon  dent.  He  was  defeated  by  James  Bu- 
alarmed  and  mortified  to  find  that  he  had  chanan;  but  the  party  still  increased  in 
personal  and  political  enemies  in  his  cabi-  power,  and  in  1860  elected  its  candidate — 
net.     These  two  men  soon  became  the  ac-    Abraham  Lincoln. 

knowledged  leaders  of  opposing  parties  in  The  party  held  control  of  the  national 
the  nation — Federalists  and  Anti-federal-  executive  for  twenty-four  consecutive 
ists — Hamilton  of  the  first,  Jefferson  of  years,  under  the  administrations  of  Presi- 
the  second.  The  latter  party  took  the  dents  Lincoln,  Johnson,  Grant,  Hayes, 
title  of  Republican,  or,  later,  Democratic-  Garfield,  and  Arthur.  It  had  previous  to 
Republican.  They  called  their  opponents  1885  lost  control  now  of  the  Senate,  now 
the  "  British  party."  The  latter  retorted  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  After 
by  calling  the  Republicans  the  "  French  an  interval  of  four  years  the  Republicans 
party."  In  the  Presidential  contest  in  in  1889  returned  to  power  with  full  con- 
1 800  the  Republicans  defeated  the  Federal-  trol  of  all  departments;  from  the  execu- 
ists,  and,  after  a  struggle  for  about  twenty  tive  they  were  disp^ced  in  1893,  having 
years  for  political  supremacy,  the  Federal  previously  lost  control  of  Congress.  The 
party  disappeared.  Fenno's  Gazette  was  Republicans  in  recent  years  have  gener- 
considered  Hamilton's  organ,  and  an  op-  ally,  but  not  universally,  supported  a 
position  journal,  called  the  National  Ga-  high  protective  tariff  and  federal  super- 
zette,  was  started,  with  Philip  Freneau,  a  vision  of  elections.  On  other  questions, 
poet  and  translating-clerk  in  the  office  of  like  finance  and  civil-service  reform,  they 
Mr.  Jefferson,  at  its  head.  The  Repub-  have  been  less  united.  The  election  of 
lican  members  of  Congress  were  mostly  1893  appeared  to  indicate  a  reaction  in 
from  the  Southern  States,  and  the  Fed-  their  favor.  In  1896  the  Republican  party 
eralists  from  the  Northern  and  Eastern.  won  a  great  popular  victory,  the  issue 
The  place  of  the  birth  of  the  modern  being  financial,  when  the  party  stood  for 
Republican  party,  like  that  of  Homer,  is  the  gold  standard  of  currency,  the  Demo- 
vti. — 2  c  401 


RESACA 


crats  and  Populists  uniting  for  free  silver. 
Besides  electing  a  President,  the  House  and 
Senate  became  Republican.  In  1900  the 
Republican  and  Democratic  candidates  for 
the  Presidency  were  renominated,  and  the 
Republican  (McKinley)  was  re-elected. 
In  1901  the  Republicans  controlled  both 
Houses  of  Congress.  See  Bryan,  Will- 
iam Jennings;  McKinley,  William. 

Resaca,  Battle  of.  In  his  cam- 
paign in  Georgia  in  1864,  General  Sher- 
man, instead  of  attacking  General  John- 
ston at  Dalton,  flanked  him  and  caused 
him  to  leave  Dalton  and  take  post  at 
Resaca,  on  the  Oostenaula  River,  where 
the  railway  between  Chattanooga  and 
Atlanta  crosses  that  stream.  In  so  doing, 
General    Thomas   had   quite   a    sharp   en- 


arrival  of  the  main  army.  On  May  11 
the  whole  army  was  marching  westward 
cf  Rocky-face  Ridge  for  Snake  Creek  Gap 
and  Resaca.  Johnston,  closely  pursued  by 
Howard,  had  taken  position  behind  a  line 
of  intrenchments  at  Resaca.  From  the 
Gap,  McPherson,  preceded  by  Kilpatrick's 
cavalry,  pushed  towards  the  same  place. 
The  latter  was  wounded  in  a  skirmish. 
McPherson  drove  in  the  Confederate  pick- 
ets, and  took  post  on  a  ridge  of  bald  hills, 
with  his  right  on  the  Oostenaula  River 
and  his  left  abreast  the  village.  Very 
soon  the  Confederate  intrenchments  were 
confronted  by  other  National  troops. 
On  the  14th  Sherman  ordered  a  pontoon 
bridge  to  be  laid  across  the  Oostenaula 
at  Lay's  Ferry,  and  directed  Sweeny's  di- 


SCEXE  AT  THE  BATTLB  OP  RESACA. 


gagement  at  Buzzard's  Roost  Gap  on  May 
7.  Meanwhile  the  Army  of  the  Ohio 
(Schofield)  pressed  heavily  on  Johnston's 
right,  and  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee 
(McPherson)  appeared  suddenly  before 
the  Confederate  works  at  Resaca.  The 
latter  were  so  strong  that  McPherson  fell 
back  to  Snake  Creek  Valley  to  await  the 


402 


vision  to  cross  and  threaten  Calhoun, 
farther  south.  At  the  same  time  Gar- 
rard's cavalry  moved  towards  Rome. 
Meanwhile  Sherman  was  severely  press- 
ing Johnston  at  all  points,  and  there  was 
a  general  battle  at  Resaca  during  the  af- 
lernoon  and  evening  of  May  15,  in  which 
Thomas,    Hooker,    and    Schofield    took    a 


EESACA    DE    LA   PALMA— RESERVATIONS 

principal    part.      Hooker    drove   the    Con-  Arista  fled,    a   solitary   fugitive,   and   es« 

federates    from    several    strong    positions  caped  across  the  Rio  Grande.     So  sudden 

and   captured   four  guns   and   many  pris-  had  been  his  discomfiture   that  his  plate 

oners.      That    night    Johnston    abandoned  and    correspondence,    with    arms,    equip- 

Resaca,  fled  across  the  Oostenaula,  firing  ments,  and  ammunition  for  several  thou- 

the   bridges   behind   him,    and   leaving   as  sand  men,  besides   2,000  horses,  fell   into 

spoils  a  4-gun  battery  and  a  considerable  the   hands  of  the  victors.     La  Vega  and 

amount  of   stores.     The  Nationals,   after  some  other  captive  officers  were   sent  to 

taking  possession  of  Resaca    pushed  on  in  New    Orleans    on    parole.     The    Mexicans 

pursuit.     After  briefly  resting  at  two  or  having  been   reinforced  during  the   night 

three     places,     Johnston     took     a     strong  of  the  8th,  it  was  estimated  that  they  had 

position  at  Allatoona  Pass    (q.  v.).  7,000  men  on  the  battle-field;   the  Ameri- 

Resaca  de  la  Palma,  Battle  of.     At  cans   less    than    2,000.     The    former   lost, 

2  a.m.   on  May   9,    1846,   the   little   army  iu   killed,  wounded,   and  prisoners,   about 

of  General  Taylor,  which  had  fought  the  1,000;  the  latter,  110.     The  Mexican  army. 

Mexicans   the   day  before   at   Palo   Alto  was  broken  up.     See  Mexico,  War  with. 
(q.  v.),  were  awakened  from  their  slum-        Reservations,    Indian.     In     1900    the 

bers   on    the   battle-field    to   resume   their  Indian  reservations  in  the  United  States 

march    for    Fort    Brown.     The    cautious  comprised  the  following: 

leader    prepared   for    attack   on   the   way, 

»  .  .,  •,,        *       ,1        it  j      tt  Blackfeet Montana. 

for  the  smitten  foe  had  rallied.     He  saw  Cheyenne  and  Arapahoe.  ...  Oklahoma. 

no  traces  of  them  until  towards  evening,  Cheyenne  River South  Dakota. 

when,   as  the  Americans  emerged  from  a  Colorado  River Arizona. 

dense    thicket,    the    Mexicans    were    dis-  £°^lle SEiSf0"' 

'  .  Crow Montana. 

covered    strongly    posted    in    battle    order  Crow  Creek South  Dakota. 

in    a    broad    ravine    about    4    feet    deep  Devil's  Lake North  Dakota. 

and  200  feet  wide,  the  dry  bed  of  a  series  Eastern  Cherokee North  Carolina. 

.  ,        ,.,,..,         ,       . ,     ,  -i  Flathead Montana. 

oi  pools,  skirted  with  palmetto-trees,  and  Fort  Apache..  ..Arizona. 

called    "Resaca    de.   la    Palma."     Within  Fort  Pelknap Montana. 

that    natural    trench    the    Mexicans    had  Fort  Berthold North  Dakota. 

planted  a  battery  that  swept  the  road  over  p^*  Peck. ............  ...  Montana. 

which    the    Americans   were    approaching.  Grande  Ronde Oregon. 

Taylor   pressed   forward,   and,    after    some  Green   Bay Wisconsin. 

severe    skirmishing,    in   which    a    part   of  Hoopa  Valley a*}™™1** 

.  .  ,    ,  ,        ,  L      ,    .  Hualapai Arizona. 

his  army  was  engaged,  he  ordered  Captain  Kiowa Oklahoma. 

May,  leader  of  dragoons,  to  charge  upon  Klamath Oregon. 

the  battery.     Rising  in  his  stirrups,  May  La  Pointe Wisconsin. 

nj        a.  j.     u-     j.  «.  t>  iT  Lemhi Idaho. 

called  out  to  his  troops,      Remember  your  Lower   Bru]e South  Dakota. 

regiment!       Men,    follow!"    and,    dashing  Mackinac Michigan. 

forward  in  the  face  of  a  shower  of  balls  Mescalero New  Mexico. 

from   the   battery,   he  made  his   powerful  £££^  .^";;;  "/ j^  °Me5'co. 

black    horse    leap    the    parapet.     He    was  Neah  Bay Washington. 

followed    by    a    few    of    his    men,    whose  Nevada Nevada. 

steeds  made  the  fearful  leap.     They  killed  New  York New  York. 

N<?Z"  Perec**  Iua.no 

the  gunners,   and   General   La  Vega,  who  Omaha  and  Winnebago .'.'.* .'.'Nebraska. 

was  about  to  apply  a  match  to  one  of  the  Osage Oklahoma. 

pieces,  and  100  men  were  made  prisoners  Pima Arizona. 

by   the   troops    and   marched    in    triumph  «£j«g —  •  ^  •  'J^  Dakote" 

within    the    American    lines.     The    battle        Oakland Oklahoma. 

grew  fiercer  every  moment.     The  chapar-  Pottawattomie     and     Great 

ral,  an  almost  impenetrable  thicket  near,  „  Nemaha       . . 5anSSiSr'    t 

..,    ,,     .  in-  Pueblo  and  Jicanlla New  Mexico. 

was  swarming  with  Mexicans  and  blazing  puyanup Washington. 

with   the  fire  of  their  muskets.     Finally,  Quapaw Indian  Territory. 

after    a    fearful    struggle,    the    camp    and  Rosebud South  Dakota. 

headquarters  of  General  Arista  were  capt-  ^tiAM. '.' ." '.' y,\\ \ \ . .-; \ .fowl 

ured  and  the  Mexicans  completely  routed.  sac  and  Fox Oklahoma. 

403 


RESOLUTIONS    OF    '98 


San  Carlos Arizona. 

Santee. Nebraska. 

Seminole Florida. 

Shoshone Wyoming. 

Siletz Oregon. 

Sisseton South  Dakota. 

Southern    Ute Colorado. 

Standing    Rock North   Dakota. 

Tongue   River Montana. 

Tulalip Washington. 

Uintah  and   Ouray Utah. 

Umatilla Oregon. 

Union Indian  Territory. 

Walker  River  Reservation . .  Nevada. 

Warm   Springs Oregon. 

Western    Shoshone Nevada. 

White    Earth Minnesota. 

Yakima Washington. 

Yankton South  Dakota. 

Resolutions  of  '98.  The  famous  "  Ken- 
tucky Resolutions"  (see  Kentucky)  and 
"Virginia  Resolutions"  of  1798  afforded 
ground  for  the  doctrine  of  State  suprem- 
acy down  to  the  breaking-out  of  the  Civil 
War  in  18G1.  The  organization  of  a  pro- 
visional army  to  fight  France,  and  the 
passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws  of 
the  summer  of  1798,  brought  forward  into 
prominence  bold  men,  leaders  in  communi- 
ties, who  were  ready  to  support  secession 
and  nullification  schemes.  Among  these 
was  John  Taylor,  of  Caroline,  a  Virginia 
statesman,  who  boldly  put  forth  his  ad- 
vanced views.  Mr.  Jefferson  finally  sym- 
pathized with  him,  and  at  a  conference 
held  at  Monticello,  towards  the  close  of 
October,  1798,  between  the  latter  and 
George  and  Wilson  C.  Nicholas,  they  de- 
termined to  engage  Kentucky  to  join  Vir- 
ginia in  an  "  energetic  protestation 
against  the  constitutionality  of  those 
laws."  Mr.  Jefferson  was  urged  to  sketch 
resolutions  accordingly,  which  W.  C. 
Nicholas,  then  a  resident  of  Kentucky, 
agreed  to  present  to  the  legislature.  Hav- 
ing obtained  the  solemn  assurance  of  the 
Nicholas  brothers  that  it  should  not  be 
known  from  whence  the  resolutions  came, 
Jefferson  drafted  them. 

The  first  declared  that  the  national  Con- 
stitution is  a  compact  between  the  States, 
as  States,  by  which  is  created  a  general 
government  for  special  purposes,  each 
State  reserving  to  itself  the  residuary 
mass  of  power  and  right,  and  "  that,  as 
in  other  cases  of  compact  between  parties 
having  no  common  judge,  each  party  has 
an  equal  right  to  judge  for  itself,  as  well 
of  infractions  as  of  the  mode  and  meas- 


ure of  redress."  Then  followed  five  reso- 
lutions practically  applying  to  three  acts 
of  Congress — one  to  punish  counterfeiters 
of  bills  of  the  United  States  Bank,  and 
one  to  the  Alien  and  Sedition  laws.  For 
various  reasons  assigned,  these  acts  were 
pronounced  "  not  law,  but  altogether  void, 
and  of  no  force."  Another  asserted  the 
right  of  the  States  to  judge  of  infractions 
and  their  remedy,  not  merely  as  matter 
of  opinion,  but  officially  and  constitution- 
ally, as  parties  of  the  compact,  and  as  the 
foundation  of  important  legislation.  The 
seventh  resolution  postponed  "  to  a  time 
of  greater  tranquillity"  the  "revisal  and 
correction "  of  sundry  other  acts  of  Con- 
gress alleged  to  have  been  founded  upon 
an  unconstitutional  interpretation  of  the 
right  to  impose  taxes  and  excise,  and  to 
provide  for  the  common  defence. 

The  eighth  resolution  directed  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  committee  of  correspond- 
ence, to  communicate  the  resolutions  to 
the  several  States,  and  to  inform  them 
that  the  State  of  Kentucky,  with  all  her 
esteem  for  her  "  co-  States  "  and  for  the 
Union,  was  determined  "  to  submit  to 
undelegated,  and,  consequently,  unlimited 
powers,  in  no  man  or  body  of  men  on 
earth;  that  in  the  case  of  an  abuse  of 
the  delegated  powers,  the  members  of 
the  general  government  being  chosen  by 
the  people,  a  change  by  the  people  would 
be  the  constitutional  remedy;  but  when 
powers  are  assumed  which  have  not  been 
delegated,  a  nullification  of  the  act  is  the 
right  remedy;  and  that  every  State  has  a 
natural  right,  in  cases  not  within  the 
compact,  to  nullify,  of  their  own  author- 
ity, all  assumptions  of  power  by  others' 
within  their  limits."  The  resolution  au- 
thorized and  instructed  the  committee 
of  correspondence  to  call  upon  the  "co- 
States,"  "  to  concur  in  declaring  those  acts 
void  and  of  no  force,  and  each  to  take 
measures  of  its  own  for  providing  that 
neither  these  acts,  nor  any  other  of  the 
general  government,  not  plainly  and  in- 
tentionally authorized  by  the  Constitu- 
tion, shall  be  exercised  within  their  re- 
spective  territories." 

The  first  resolution  teaches  the  doctrine 
that  the  Constitution,  instead  of  being  a 
form  of  government,  as  it  purports  to  be, 
is  simply  a  compact  or  treaty;  and,  sec- 
ondly, that  the  parties  to  it  are  not,  as 


404 


RESTRAINING    ACTS— REVENUE 

the  Constitution  itself  expressly  declares,  straining  all  the  other  provinces,  except- 
"  the  people  of  the  United  States,"  but  only  ing  three,  in  their  trade  and  commerce, 
the  States  as  political  corporations.  The  The  three  exempted  colonies,  regarding  the 
logical  effect  of  this  doctrine,  practically,  exception  as  a  bribe  to  induce  them  to 
would  be  to  destroy  the  Union,  and  rele-  oppose  the  measures  of  the  other  colonies, 
gate  it  to  the  barren  desert  of  the  Articles  spurned  the  proffered  favor,  and  submit- 
of  Confederation,  or  anarchy  under  the  ted  to  the  restraints  imposed  upon  their 
name  of  government.  These  resolutions  neighbors.  The  excepted  colonies  were 
— the  last  two  modified  by  Nicholas —  New  York,  Delaware,  and  North  Carolina, 
passed  the  Kentucky  legislature,  Nov.  14,  The  ministers  were  disappointed  in  their 
1798,  with  only  two  or  three  dissenting  calculations  on  the  moderation  of  New 
votes.  These  nullification  doctrines  were  York,  for  at  that  time  its  Assembly  was 
echoed  by  the  Virginia  legislature,  Dec.  preparing  to  assert  the  rights  of  the  col- 
24,  in  a  series  of  resolutions  drafted  by  ony  in  the  very  important  matter  of  taxa- 
Madison,  and   offered  by  John  Taylor,  of    tion. 

Caroline,  who,  a  few  months  before,  had  Retaliation,  The.  Lieutenant  Bain- 
suggested  the  idea  of  a  separate  confed-  bridge,  in  the  Retaliation,  was  cruising  off 
eracy,  to  be  composed  of  Virginia  and  Guadeloupe,  W.  I.,  late  in  1798,  when  he 
North  Carolina.  Madison's  resolutions  fell  in  with  a  French  squadron,  which  he 
were  more  general  in  their  terms,  and  al-  took  to  be  British  vessels.  When  he  dis- 
lowed  latitude  in  their  interpretation,  covered  his  mistake  it  was  too  late  to 
They  were  passed,  after  a  warm  debate,  avoid  trouble,  and  two  French  frigates 
by  a  vote  of  100  to  63  in  the  House  of  (Volontaire  and  L'Insurgente)  attacked 
Delegates,  and  14  to  3  in  the  Senate,  and  captured  the  Retaliation.  The  In- 
They  were  sent  to  the  other  States,  ac-  surgente  was  one  of  the  swifest  vessels 
companied  by  an  address,  drawn,  prob-  on  the  ocean.  She  immediately  made 
ably,  by  Madison,  to  which  an  answer  chase  after  two  American  ships.  Bain- 
was  soon  put  forth,  signed  by  fifty-eight  bridge  was  a  prisoner  on  the  Volontaire. 
of  the  minority.  Neither  the  Senators  "  What  are  the  armaments  of  the  two  ves- 
nor  Representatives  in  Congress  from  sels?"  asked  the  French  commander,  as  he 
Kentucky  ventured  to  lay  the  nullify-  and  Bainbridge  were  watching  the  In- 
ing  resolutions  before  their  respective  surgente  gaining  on  the  Americans.  He 
Houses;  nor  did  the  resolutions  of  Ken-  quickly  replied,  "Twenty-eight  121s  and 
tucky  or  Virginia  find  favor  with  the  twenty  9's."  This  was  double  the  force, 
other  legislatures.  See  Kentucky  Reso-  and  startled  the  commander,  who  was 
lutions.  senior  captain  of  the  Insurgente.     He  im- 

Restraining  Acts.  Alarmed  by  the  pro-  mediately  signalled  his  vessel  to  give  up 
ceedings  of  the  Continental  Congress,  late  the  chase,  and  the  Americans  escaped, 
in  1774,  and  the  movements  in  New  Eng-  Bainbridge's  deceptive  reply  cost  him  only 
land,  the  British  ministry,  early  in  1775,  a  few  curses.  The  Retaliation  was  the 
took  vigorous  measures  to  assert  its  power  first  vessel  captured  during  the  war.  See 
in  coercing  the  English-American  colonies  Bainbridge,  William. 
into  submission.  Lord  North,  the  pre-  Reuterdahl,  Henry,  artist;  born  in 
mier,  introduced  into  Parliament  a  bill  Sweden,  Aug.  12,  1871.  He  was  a  war  cor- 
to  restrain  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  respondent  during  the  progress  of  the 
New  England  provinces  to  Great  Britain,  American-Spanish  War,  and  has  been  a 
Ireland,  and  the  British  West  Indies,  and  contributor  to  the  magazines.  He  is 
to  prohibit  them  from  carrying  on  any  well  known  through  his  pictures  of  the 
fishery  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  and  naval  battles  of  the  American-Spanish 
other  places,  under  certain  conditions  and    War. 

for  a  limited  time.  The  bill  was  adopted  Revenue,  Public.  In  1764  the  in- 
by  a  large  majority.  Soon  afterwards,  crease  of  smuggling  became  so  prejudicial 
on  being  assured  that  the  rest  of  the  to  the  British  revenue  that  the  govcrn- 
colonies  upheld  the  New-Englanders  in  nient  made  a  regulation  requiring  the 
their  rebellious  proceedings,  a  second  bill  commanders  of  vessels  stationed  on  the 
was   passed,   similar   to   the   first,   for   re-    coasts  of  England,   and   even  those   ships 

405 


BEVENUE,    PUBLIC 

destined    for    the    English-American    col-  of    Washington.     On    April    8,    1789,   Mr. 

onies,   to   perform   the    functions    of    rev-  Madison    offered    a    resolution    for   laying 

enue  officers,   and   to   conform   themselves  specific  duties  on  imported  rum  and  other 

to  the  rules  established  for  the  protection  spirituous  liquors,  wines,  tea,  coffee,  sugar, 

of    the    customs.     The    oppressions    prac-  molasses,   and   pepper,   the   amount   being 

tised    under    this    law    called    forth    loud  left  blank;  and  imposing  ad  valorem,  duties 


A  UNITED  STATUS  RKVKNCK-CUTTKR. 


complaints  in  all  the  colonies.  In  the  ex- 
ecution of  it  naval  commanders  seized  and 
confiscated  the  cargoes  prohibited  and 
those  that  were  not,  indiscriminately. 
The  law  soon  destroyed  a  lucrative  and 
honest  commerce  between  the  English, 
Spanish,  and  French  colonies.  When  the 
English  colonies  felt  the  disastrous  effects 
of  the  law,  they  resolved  not  to  purchase, 
in  future,  any  English  stuffs  with  which 
they  had  been  accustomed  to  clothe  them- 
selves, and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  use  only 
domestic  manufactures.  So  faithfully  was 
this  resolution  adhered  to  in  Boston  that 
the  consumption  of  British  merchandise 
was  diminshed,  in  1764,  more  than 
$50,000. 

The  all-important  subject  of  a  public 
revenue  to  replenish  the  empty  treasury 
of  the  United  States  was  acted  upon  by 
the  first  Congress,  before  the  inauguration 


on  all  other  articles  imported,  and  a  ton- 
nage duty  on  all  vessels,  with  a  discrimina- 
tion in  favor  of  all  vessels  owned  wholly  in 
the  United  States,  and  an  additional  dis- 
crimination between  foreign  vessels,  fa- 1 
vorable  to  those  countries  having  commer- 
cial treaties  with  the  United  States.  The 
debates  on  this  question  revealed  much 
information  concerning  the  industries  of 
the  Americans;  and  the  tariff  which  grew 
out  of  it  still  lies  at  the  bottom  of  our 
existing  revenue  system.  At  that  time, 
however,  the  idea  of  levying  duties  for 
the  protection  of  American  industry  was 
not  put  forth ;  it  was  simply  for  revenue. 
The  question  of  the  ability  of  the  United 
States  to  coerce  foreign  nations  by  means 
of  commercial  restrictions,  as  in  the  case 
of  non-importation  agreements  before  the 
Revolution,  was  earnestly  discussed  at 
this  time. 


406 


REVERE 


The  public  revenue  of  the  United  States 
is  now  derived  from  three  general  sources. 
The  sources  and  amounts  for  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1904,  -were:  Cus- 
toms, $262,013,079;  internal  revenue, 
$232,873,721;  and  miscellaneous,  $46,- 
628,843— total,  $541,515,644.  Under  the 
war  revenue  act,  which  went  into  effect 
on  July  13,  1898,  and  was  greatly  modi- 
fied on  July  1,  1901,  the  sum  of  $310,- 
053,363  was  collected  up  to  June  1,  1901. 
The  sources  of  internal  revenue  and  their 
several  amounts  in  1903-04  were  as  fol- 
lows: From  spirits,  $135,779,720;  tobac- 
co, $44,655,801;  fermented  liquors,  $49,- 
083,458;  and  miscellaneous,  $46,628,843. 
In  1900-01  the  total  revenue  was  $587,- 
685,337,  which  included  $40,194,641  of 
war  stamp  taxes. 

Revere,  Joseph  Warren,  grandson  of 
Paul  Revere;  born  in  Boston,  May  17, 
1812;  was  an  officer  in  the  United  States 
navy,  1828-50.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
became  colonel  of  a  New  Jersey  regiment, 
and  was  promoted  brigadier-general  in 
1862.  He  was  court  -  martialled  in  1863, 
but  the  sentence  was  revoked  by  President 
Lincoln  in  1864.  Revere  retired  to  private 
life  in  1864,  and  died  in  Hoboken,  N.  J., 
April  20,  1880. 

Revere,  Paul,  patriot;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  1,  1735.  Was  descended  from 
the  Huguenots,  and  was  educated  in  his 
father's  trade  of  goldsmith.  In  the  French 
and  Indian  War  he  was  at  Fort  Edward, 
on  the  upper  Hudson,  as  a  lieutenant  of 
artillery,  and  on  his  return  he  established 
himself  as  a  goldsmith,  and,  without  in- 
struction, became  a  copper-plate  engraver. 
He  was  one  of  four  engravers  in  America 
when  the  Revolutionary  War  broke  out. 
He  had  engraved,  in  1766,  a  print  emblem- 
atic of  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  and  in 
1767  another  called  "The  Seventeen  Re- 
scinders."  He  published  a  print  of  the 
Boston  massacre,  in  1770,  and  from  that 
time  became  one  of  the  most  active  op- 
ponents of  the  acts  of  Parliament.  Re- 
vere engraved  the  plates,  made  the  press, 


Congress  sent  him  to  Philadelphia  to  learn 
the  art  of  making  powder,  and  on  his  re- 
turn he  set  up  a  mill.  The  president  of 
the  Congress  (Joseph  Warren)  chose 
Revere  as  one  of  his  trusted  messengers 
to  warn  the  people  of  Lexington  and  Con- 
cord of  the  expedition  sent  thither  by 
Cage  (April  18,  1775),  and  to  tell  Adams 
and  Hancock  of  their  danger.  He  was 
made  a  prisoner  while  on  his  way  from 
Lexington  towards  Concord,  but  was  soon 


PAUL    REVliKE. 


released.  Longfellow  made  Revere's  mid- 
night ride  the  subject  of  his  well-known 
poem.  He  served  in  the  military  corps 
for  the  defence  of  his  State,  and  after  the 
war  he  cast  church  bells  and  cannon;  and 
he  founded  the  copper-works  at  Canton, 
Mass.,     afterwards     carried    on    by     the 


and  printed  the  bills  of  credit,  or  paper    Revere    Copper    Company.     He    was    the 
money,  of  Massachusetts,  issued  in  1775;     first  in  the  United  States  to  smelt  copper 


he  also  engraved  the  plates  for  the  "  Con- 
tinental money."  He  was  sent  by  the 
Sons  of  Liberty,  of  Boston,  to  confer  with 
their  brethren  in  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia.    Early    in    1775    the    Provincial 


ore  and  roll  it  into  sheets.  In  1795 
Revere,  as  grand  master  of  the  masonic 
order,  laid  the  corner-stone  of  the  State- 
house  in  Boston.  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
May  10,  1818. 


407 


REVOLUTION 


PACL    RKVKKE   AT    LEXINGTO> 


Revolution,  Diplomacy  of  the.  As  Americans  began  to  contemplate  the  neces- 
soon  as  the  idea  of  independence  had  taken  sity  of  foreign  aid,  material  and  moral, 
the  practical  shape  of  a  resolution  and  The  Congress  appointed  a  secret  corn- 
declaration     adopted     by     Congress,     the    mittee  of  correspondence  for  the  purpose, 

40S 


REVOLUTION,    DIPLOMACY    OF    THE 

and  sent  Silas  Deane  upon  a  half-com-  Meanwhile  the  Continental  Congress  had 
mercial,  half-diplomatic  mission  to  France,  sent  John  Jay  as  ambassador  to  Spain,  to 
Franklin  was  at  first  opposed  to  seeking  win  the  active  friendship  of  that  power, 
foreign  alliances.  "  A  virgin  State,"  he  He  could  effect  nothing;  and  it  was  well  he 
said,  "  should  preserve  the  virgin  char-  did  not,  as  subsequent  events  manifested, 
acter,  and  not  go  about  suitoring  for  al-  From  the  time  of  the  treaty  of  alliance 
liances,  but  wait  with  decent  dignity  for  with  France,  the  action  of  Spain  towards 
the  application  of  others."  But  Franklin  the  United  States  was  selfish,  hypocritical, 
soon  became  the  chief  suitor  in  Europe,  for  and  often  sullen.  She  declared  war 
in  the  autumn  of  1776  he  was  sent  as  against  England  for  her  own  selfish  pur- 
"  commissioner  "  to  France  to  seek  an  al-  pose,  but  it  worked  in  favor  of  the  Ameri- 
liance  and  material  aid.  The  aid  was  cans  by  keeping  British  troops  employed 
furnished  through  Beaumarchais,  at  first  elsewhere  than  in  America.  The  Count 
secretly,  and  afterwards  by  the  govern-  d'Aranda,  the  Spanish  minister  in  France, 
ment  openly.  The  American  commission-  who  had  watched  the  course  of  events  with 
ers  proposed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  keen  vision  from  the  beginning  to  the  end 
France,  but  the  French  government  hesi-  of  the  American  war  for  independence, 
tated,  for  it  did  not  then  desire  an  open  suggested  to  his  sovereign,  as  an  antidote 
rupture  with  England;  but  when  the  to  American  independence,  the  formatiou 
news  of  the  defeat  and  capture  of  Bur-  of  the  Spanish-American  colonies  into  in- 
goyne's  army,  late  in  1777,  reached  dependent  Spanish  monarchies.  He  said, 
France,  the  King  no  longer  hesitated,  and  in  reference  to  the  treaty  of  peace  in  1783: 
a  treaty  of  amity,  commerce,  and  alii-  "  The  independence  of  the  English  colo- 
ance  was  consummated  in  February,  nies  has  been,  then,  recognized.  It  is  for 
1778.  me  a  subject  of  grief  and  fear.  France 
The  recognition  of  the  independence  of  has  but  few  possessions  in  America;  but 
the  United  States  involved  France  in  war  she  was  bound  to  consider  that  Spain,  her 
with  England,  and  the  latter  sent  com-  most  intimate  ally,  had  many,  and  that 
missioners  to  negotiate  with  the  Ameri-  she  now  stands  exposed  to  terrible  re- 
cans  for  peace.  The  terms  were  not  satis-  verses.  From  the  beginning  France  has 
factory,  and  the  mission  failed.  The  acted  against  her  true  interests  in  en- 
French  government  pressed  Spain  to  join  couraging  and  supporting  this  indepen- 
in  espousing  the  cause  of  the  Americans,  dence,  and  so  I  have  often  declared  to  the 
but  that  power  hesitated,  because  a  sup1-  ministers  of  this  nation." 
port  of  such  a  republican  system  in  Amer-  When  the  armed  neutrality  was  pro- 
ica  might  be  dangerous  to  the  integrity  of  posed  in  1780,  the  Americans  gladly  join- 
her  own  colonial  system  in  that  part  of  ed  the  European  powers  with  their  moral 
the  world.  In  this  feeling  France  had  influence  (all  they  could  then  give),  for 
been  alike  cautious,  and  for  the  same  rea-  it  would  aid  themselves  by  weakening  Eng- 
sons.  They  had  agreed  that  while  it  land.  Its  results  were  disappointing  to  the 
would  not  be  politic  to  invade  the  rights  other  powers,  but  it  added  to  the  open 
of  the  British  crown,  they  would  evade  enemies  of  England.  The  Congress,  in  in- 
the  obligations  of  treaties,  for  both  had  structions  to  Dana  at  St.  Petersburg,  had 
a  mischievous  intent  to  foment  the  dis-  said:  "You  will  readily  perceive  that  it 
turbances  between  England  and  her  Ameri-  must  be  a  leading  and  capital  point,  if 
can  colonies.  -While  doing  this  secretly,  these  United  States  shall  be  formally  ad- 
they  held  the  language  of  honest  neu-  mitted  as  a  party  to  the  convention  of  the 
trality.  When,  therefore,  France  had  de-  neutral  maritime  powers  for  maintaining 
termined  openly  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  freedom  of  commerce."'  Thus  early, 
the  Americans,  Spain  was  urged  to  do  while  yet  fighting  for  independence,  the 
likewise;  but  the  Spanish  Court  could  not  American  statesmen  assumed  the  dignity 
be  persuaded  to  go  beyond  a  certain  point,  and  used  the  language  of  the  representa- 
The  French  minister,  with  keen  prescience,  tives  of  a  powerful  nation,  which  they 
saw  ultimate  independence  for  America,  certainly  expected  to  form, 
while  the  Spanish  Court  dreaded  such  a  re-  The  Americans  had  opened  negotia- 
sult.  tions  with  the  States-General  of  Holland 

409 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


for  a  treaty  as  early  as  1778.  William, 
brother  of  Richard  Henry  and  Arthur 
Lee,  had  begun  the  discussion  of  such  a 
treaty  with  Van  Berkel,  the  pensionary 
of  Amsterdam.  This  negotiation  with  a 
single  province  was  made  in  secret.  Lee 
had  no  authority  to  sign  a  treaty,  nor 
could  the  expression  of  a  single  province 
bind  the  Dutch  Republic.  Finally,  Henry 
Laurens  was  sent  by  Congress  to  negotiate 
a  treaty  with  the  States-General,  but  was 
captured  while  crossing  the  Atlantic,  and 
imprisoned  in  England.  Then  John  Adams 
was  sent  for  the  purpose  to  The  Hague. 
Early  in  1782,  through  the  joint  exertions 
of  Mr.  Adams  and  the  French  minister 
at  The  Hague,  the  provinces,  one  after  an- 
other, consented  to  the  public  recognition 
of  Mr.  Adams,  and  so  openly  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  publicly  introduced  to  the  Prince 
of  Orange  on  April  22,  1782.     In  October 


following  he  had  completed  the  negotia- 
tion of  a  treaty  with  Holland,  and  signed 
it  with  great  satisfaction.  It  was  a 
"  Treaty  of  Alliance  between  their  High 
Mightinesses  the  States  -  General  of  the 
United  Netherlands  and  the  United  States 
of  America."  This  treaty  was  not  alto- 
gether dependent  upon  the  alliance  of  the 
United  States  with  France,  and  was  a  step 
forward  in  the  march  of  the  former  tow- 
ards independent  national  existence.  The 
final  great  act  in  the  diplomacy  of  the 
Revolution  was  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  England.  In  their  foreign  di- 
plomacy the  Congress  had  been  greatly  aid- 
ed at  almost  every  step  by  the  enlightened 
wisdom,  prudence,  and  firmness  of  Count 
Gravier  de  Vergennes,  who  was  a  faith- 
ful servant  of  his  King,  while  he  earnestly 
desired  the  boon  of  the  enjoyment  of  ra- 
tional liberty  for  all  peoples.  He  died 
soon  after  the  peace. 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


Revolutionary  War,  the  popular  name 
of  the  struggle  of  the  American  colonies 
against  Great  Britain  for  independence  in 
1775-83;  also  known  in  American  his- 
tory as  the  first  war  for  independence. 
For  a  detailed  statement  of  causes  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence. The  following  is  a  chrono- 
logical record  of  the  war: 

Battle  of  Lexington,  Mass.,  at  dawn  of 

April   19,   1775 
-Col.    Samnel    H.    Parsons    and    Benedict 
Arnold  plan,  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  the 
capture    of    Fort   Ticonderoga,    N.    Y. 

April  27,  1775 

Arnold    leads    his    company    from    New 

Haven    to    Boston,    arriving 

April  29,  1775 

Fort  Ticonderoga  captured  by  Ethan 
Allen    May  10,   1775 

Crown  Foint,  N.  Y.,  captured  by  Ameri- 
cans   May  12,  1775 

Americans  under  Benedict  Arnold  capt- 
ure  St.    John,   Canada May  1G,  1775 

British  Generals  Howe,  Clinton,  and 
Burgoyne  arrive  at  Boston  from  Eng- 
land with  troops May  25,  1775 

Congress  votes   to   raise   20,000   men .  . 

June  14,  1775 

George  Washington  is  unanimously 
elected  by  Congress  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  American  forces.  June  15,  1775 

Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June  16-17 ;  and 
burning  of   Charlestown June   17,  1775 

Resolved  by  Congress,  "  That  a  sum  not 


exceeding  two  million  of  Spanish  mill- 
ed dollars  be  emitted  by  Congress  in 
bills  of  credit  for  the  defence  of 
America." June   22,   1775 

Washington  takes  command  of  the  army 
at  Cambridge July  3,   1775 

Declaration  by  Congress,  the  causes  and 

necessity  for  taking  up  arms.. July  6,   1775 

First  provincial  vessel  commissioned 
for  naval  warfare  in  the  Revolution, 
sent  out  by  Georgia July   10,  1775 

Importation  of  gunpowder,  saltpetre, 
sulphur,  and  fire-arms  permitted  by 
act  of  Congress July  15,   1775 

Georgia    joins    the    United   Colonies.... 

July  20,   1775 

Franklin's  plan  of  confederation  and 
perpetual  union,  "  The  United  Colo- 
nies of  North  America,"  considered 
by  Congress July  21,  1775 

Congress  resolves  to  establish  an  army 

hospital July    27,  1775 

British  vessel,  the  Betsy,  surprised  by 
a  Carolina  privateer  off  St.  Augustine 
bar,  and  111  barrels  of  powder  capt- 
ured     Aug.,  1775 

King  issues  a  proclamation  for  suppress- 
ing rebellion  and  sedition  in  the 
colonies Aug.    23,   1775 

American  troops  under  Gen.  Richard 
Montgomery  sent  into  Canada  to  cut 
off  British  supplies Sept.,  1775 

Col.  Benedict  Arnold,  with  a  force  of 
about  1,100  men,  marches  against 
Quebec  via  Kennebec  River.  ..  .Sept.,  1775 

English  ship  seized  off  Tybee  Island, 
Ga.,  by  the  Liberty  people,  with  250 
barrels  of  powder Sept.   17,   1775 


410 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


British   capture   Col.    Ethan   Allen   and 

thirty -eight  men  near  Montreal 

Sept.  25,   1775 

Bristol,   R.   I.,   bombarded Oct.   7,  1775 

Gen.  William  Howe  supersedes  General 
Gage  as  commander  of  the  British 
army  in  America,  who  embarks  for 
England Oct.  10,  1775 

Falmouth,    Me.,    burned    by    British..., 

Oct.  18,   1775 

St.  John,  Canada,  surrenders  to  Amer- 
icans under  Montgomery Nov.  2,   1775 

Congress  orders  a  battalion  to  protect 
Georgia    Nov.   4,  1775 

British  fleet  repulsed  at  Hampton,  Va., 
Oct.  25,  1775,  and  Lord  Dunmore  de- 
clares open  war Nov.  7,   1775 

Night  attack  of  the  British  vessels 
Tamar  and  Cherokee  on  the  schooner 
Defence,  in  Hog  Island  Channel,  S.  C. 

Nov.  12,   1775 

Americans  under  Montgomery  capture 
Montreal Nov.  13,  1775 

Benjamin  Harrison,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
Thomas  Johnson,  John  Dickinson, 
and  John  Jay,  appointed  by  Congress 
a  committee  for  secret  correspondence 
with  friends  of  America  in  Great 
Britain,  Ireland,  and  other  foreign 
nations Nov.   29,   1775 

Battle    of    Great    Bridge,    Va...Dec.    9,  1775 

Congress  appoints  Silas  Deane,  John 
.Langdon,  and  Christopher  Gadsden, 
a  committee  to  fit  out  two  vessels 
of  war,  Nov.  25,  orders  thirteen  ves- 
sels of  war  built  and  appoints  Esek 
Hopkins  commander Dec.  13,  1775 

British  vessels  driven  from  Charleston 
Harbor,  S.  C,  by  artillery  company 
under  Colonel  Moultrie,  stationed  on 
Haddrell's    Point Dec,  1775 

American  forces  united  under  Mont- 
gomery and  Arnold  repulsed  at  Que- 
bec;   General   Montgomery  killed.... 

Dec.  31,  1775 

Washington  unfurls  the  first  Union  flag 
of  thirteen  stripes  at  Cambridge, 
Mass Jan.   1,  1776 

Norfolk,  Va.,  partly  burned  by  Gov- 
ernor Dunmore Jan.  1,  177C 

Battle  of  Moore's  Creek,  N.  C. :  Mc- 
Donald's loyalists  routed  by  militia  ; 
seventy  killed  and  wounded.  .Feb.  27,   1776 

Silas  Deane  appointed  political  agent  to 

the  French  Court March  2,  1776 

Howe  evacuates  Boston March  17,  1776 

Congress  authorizes  privateering 

March  23,   1776 

Congress  orders  the  ports  open   to   all 

nations    April  6,   1776 

North  Carolina  declares  for  indepen- 
dence   April  22,  1776 

American  forces  under  Gen.  John 
Thomas  retire  from  the  siege  of  Que- 
bec    May  6.  1776 

Rhode  Island,  May  4 :  Massachusetts, 
May  10 ;  and  Virginia,  May  14,  de- 
clare  for   independence 1776 

Congress  advises  each  colony  td  form 
a  government  independent  of  Great 
Britain   May  15,  1776 


Resolution  introduced  in  Congress  by 
Richard  Henry  Lee,  that  "  the  United 
Colonies  are  and  ought  to  be  free  and 
independent  States  ;  that  they  are  ab- 
solved from  all  allegiance  to  the 
British  crown,  and  that  their  political 
connection  with  Great  Britain  is  and 

ought    to    be    totally    dissolved" 

June  7,  1776 
Committee    appointed    by    Congress    to 
prepare  a  form  of  confederation.... 

June  11,  177C. 
Committee    appointed    by    Congress    to 
draw   up   a    Declaration   of    Indepen- 
dence     June  11,  1776 

Board  of  war  and  ordnance  appointed 
by  Congress,  consisting  of  five  mem- 
bers, viz.  :  John  Adams,  Roger  Sher- 
man, Benjamin  Harrison,  James  Wil- 
son,  and   Edward    Rutledge ;    Richard 

Peters  elected  secretary June  12,  1776 

American  forces  under  General  Sulli- 
van   retire    from    Canada    to    Crown 

Point,    N.    Y June    18,  1776 

Unsuccessful  attack  on  Fort  Moultrie 
by     British     fleet     under     Sir     Peter 

Parker   June  28,  1776 

Declaration  of  Independence  adopted  by 

Congress   July  4,   1776 

Declaration  of  Independence  Bead  to  the 
army  in  New  York  by  order  of  Gen- 
eral  Washington July  9,  1776 

British  General  Lord  Howe  lands  10,- 
000  men  and  forty  guns  near  Graves- 
end,  L.  I Aug.  22,   1776 

Battle  of  Long  Island Aug.   27,  1776 

Washington  withdraws  his  forces  from 
Long  Island  to  the  city  of  New  York. 

Aug.  29-30,  1776 
Congress  resolves  "  that  all  Continental 
commissions  in  which  heretofore  the 
words  '  United  Colonies '  have  been 
used,  bear  hereafter  the  words  '  Unit- 
ed States  '  " Sept.  9,  1776 

Americans   evacuate   New   York    City.. 

Sept.  14,  1776 
British   repulsed  at  Harlem  Heights... 

Sept.  16,  1776 
Benjamin    Franklin,    Silas    Deane,    and 
Arthur  Lee  appointed  ambassadors  to 

the  Court  of  France Sept.  22,  1776 

Nathan  Hale  executed  as  a  spy  at  New 

York    Sept.    22,  1776 

Battle  on  Lake  Champlain  ;  British  vic- 
tory   Oct.  11-13,   1776 

Thaddeus  Kosciuszko,  a  Pole,  arrives ; 
recommended  to  Washington  by  Dr. 
Franklin ;  appointed  colonel  of  en- 
gineers  by   Congress Oct.    18,   1776 

Battle  of  White  Plains,  N.  Y. ;  British 

victory    Oct.   28,  177G 

Franklin  sails  for  France  in  the  Re- 
prisal, of  sixteen  guns,  one  of  the  new 
Continental  frigates,  the  first  na- 
tional vessel  to  appear  in  the  East- 
ern Hemisphere Oct.,  1776 

Congress  authorizes  the  raising  of 
$5,000,000  by  lottery  for  expenses  of 

the   next  campaign Nov.   1,   1776 

Fort  Washington  on  the  Hudson  capt- 
ured by  the  British Nov.  16,  1776 


411 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


Americans  evacuate  Fort  Lee,  Nov.  18, 
and    retreat    across    New    Jersey    to 

Pennsylvania   Nov., 

Eight  thousand  British  troops  land  and 

take  possession  of  Rhode  Island.... 

Nov.  28, 

Washington     with     his    forces     crosses 

the   Delaware   into   Pennsylvania.... 

Dec.   8, 

Sir    Peter    Parker    takes    possession    of 

Rhode     Island,     and     blockades     the 

American    fleet    at    Providence    

Dec.  8, 

Maj.-Gen.     Charles     Lee     captured     by 

British  at  Baskingridge,  N.  J.. Dec.  12 

Battle  of  Trenton,  N.  J Dec.  26, 

Congress  resolves  to  send  commission- 
ers  to   the   courts   of   Vienna,    Spain, 

Prussia,  and  Tuscany Dec.  30, 

Battle  of  Princeton Jan.  3, 

Washington's    army    encamps    for    the 

winter  at  Morristown Jan., 

Americans  under  General  Maxwell  capt- 
ure Elizabethtown,   N.   J Jan.  23, 

Letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  granted 

by  England  against  American  ships.. 

Feb.  6, 

Five    vessels     belonging    to     a    British 

supply    fleet    are    sunk    near    Amboy, 

N.  J *. Feb.  26, 

Vermont  declares  itself  an  independent 
State,  Jan.,  1777,  and  presents  a  peti- 
tion  to   Congress   for   admission    into 
the  confederacy,  which  was  denied .  . 
April   8, 
Danbury,    Conn.,    destroyed    by    troops 
under  ex-Governor  Tryon.  ...April  26, 
Colonel    Meigs,    with    whale-boats    from 
Guilford,    attacks    the    British    forces 
at  Sag  Harbor,  destroying  vessels  and 
stores  and  taking  ninety  prisoners..  . 
May   23, 
Stars  and  Stripes  adopted  by  Congress. 

June  14, 

British    under    General    Howe    evacuate 

New  Jersey,  crossing  to  Staten  Island. 

June  30, 

British    under    Burgoyne   appear    before 

Ticonderoga July  1, 

American      garrison      withdraw      from 

New  York July   6, 

Battle  of  Hubbardton,  Vt July  7, 

British  Gen.  Richard  Prescott  surprised 
and  captured  near  Newport  by  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel   Barton July    10, 

Miss    Jane    McCrea    captured    by    Ind- 
ians  in    British    employ   at    Fort   Ed- 
ward, N.  Y.,  and  shot  and  scalped.. 
July  27, 
On   the   approach   of   Burgoyne   General 
Schuyler  evacuates  Fort  Edward,  and 
retreats  down  the  Hudson  Valley... 
July  29, 
General    Lafayette,    who   volunteers   his 
services  to  Congress,  is  commissioned 

major-general July    31, 

Lafayette  introduced  to  Washington  in 
Philadelphia,  and  attached  to  his  per- 
sonal staff Aug.  3, 

Battle  of  Oriskany,  N.  Y Aug.   6, 

Battle  of  Bennington,  Vt Aug.  16, 


Gen.  Philip  Schuyler  succeeded  by  Gen. 
Horatio    Gates    in    command    of    the 

1776        Northern  army Aug.  19,  1777 

General    Arnold    sent    to    relieve    Fort 

Schuyler,    invested    by    British    under 

1776         St.   Leger,    who   retreats   and   returns 

to  Montreal Aug.  22,  1777 

Battle  of  Brandywine,   Washington  de- 

1776        feated    Sept.  11,  1777 

Count   Pulaski   commissioned   brigadier- 
general  by  Congress Sept.  15,  1777 

Battle  of  Stillwater,  N.  Y. ;  indecisive. . 

1776  Sept.   19,  1777 

Three      hundred      of      Wayne's      troops 

1776        slaughtered  at  Paoli Sept.   20-21,  1777 

1776    British  army  occupies  Philadelphia.... 

Sept.  27,  1777 
Battle   of   Germantown ;    Americans    re- 

1776  pulsed    Oct.  4,  1777 

1777  Forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery  captured 

by   the   British Oct.   6,  1777 

1777    Battle  of  Saratoga,  N.  Y Oct.  7,  1777 

General    Burgoyne's    army   surrenders.  . 

1777  Oct.  17,  1777 

Successful   defence  of  Fort  Mifflin   and 

Fort  Mercer Oct.  22-23,  1777 

1777    Congress  creates  a  new  board  of  war, 

General  Gates  presiding Oct.,  1777 

Articles   of   Confederation    adopted.... 

1777  Nov.  15,   1777 

Forts  Mifflin  and  Mercer  besieged  by  the 

British  and  captured Nov.  16-20,   1777 

Congress    recommends    to    the    several 
States   to   raise   by   taxes   $5,000,000 

1777         for  the  succeeding  year Nov.,  1777 

Howe    leaves    Philadelphia   with    14,000 

1777         men    to    drive    Washington    from    his 

position  at  Whitemarsh,  but  does  not 

attack    Dec.    4,  1777 

Howe  hurriedly  returns  to  Philadelphia. 

Dec.  8,   1777 
1777    American   army  goes   into   winter  quar- 
ters at  Valley  Forge,  on  the  Schuyl- 

1777        kill    Dec.    18,   1777 

Gen.   Charles   Lee   released   in   exchange 

for    General    Prescott Dec,  1777 

1777    Battle  of  the  Kegs Jan.   5,   1778 

Louis   XVI.    acknowledges    the    indepen- 

1777        dence    of    the    colonies,    and    signs    a 

treaty    of    alliance    and    commerce.. 

1777  Feb.  6,  1778 

1777    Baron  Steuben  joins  the  camp  at  Valley 

Forge    Feb.,  1778 

Bill  introduced  by  Lord  North  in  Parlia- 

1777         ment    concerning    peace    negotiations 

with  America  reaches  Congress  April 

15,   and   is  rejected April   22,  1778 

French  treaty  reaches  Congress  by  mes- 

1777        senger    May    2,  1778 

Deane's   treaty    with    France    ratified.  . 

May  4,   1778 

Mischianza,  a  festival,  is  given  at  Phila- 

1777         delphia     by     the     British    officers    in 

honor  of  Sir  William  Howe  (who  had 

been    succeeded    by    Sir    Henry    Clin- 

1777        ton),    six   days   before   his    return    to 

England    May  18,  1778 

Affair   at    Barren   Hill May   20,  1778 

1777    British  raid  in  Warren  and  Bristol,  R.  I. 
1777  May  25,  1778 

1777    Col.    Ethan    Allen,    released    from    im- 

412 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


prisonment,    returns    to    Bennington, 

Vt May  31,   1778 

Earl  of  Carlisle,  George  Johnstone,  and 
William  Eden,  appointed  peace  com- 
missioners   to    America,     with    Prof. 

Adam   Ferguson   as  secretary 

June  10,  1773 

British  evacuate  Philadelphia  and  re- 
tire across  the  Delaware  into  New 
Jersey    June   18,   1778 

Americans  break  camp  at  Valley  Forge 

and  follow June  18,  1778 

Battle  of  Monmouth  Court-house,  N.  J., 

British  retreat June  28,  1778 

*'  Molly  Pitcher  "  commissioned  sergeant 
by  Washington  for  bravery  at  Mon- 
mouth    June  29,   1778 

Massacre  of  inhabitants  in  Wyoming 
Valley,  Pa.,  by  Indians  and  Tories.. 

July  4,   1778 

Expedition  from  Virginia  under  Maj. 
George  Rogers  Clarke  captures  the 
British  fort  at  Kaskaskia.  . . .  July  4,   1778 

Articles  of  Confederation  signed  by 
delegates  from  eight  States — New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Isl- 
and, Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  Virginia,  and  South  Carolina.  . 

July  9,   1778 

Delegates    from    North    Carolina    sign 

them. July   21,  1778 

Delegates  from  Georgia  sign  them 

July  24,   1778 

French    fleet,    under    Count    D'Estaing, 

enters  Narraganset  Bay July  29,   1778 

M.    Gerard,    minister    from    France    to 

America,  received  in  Congress.  .Aug.  6,   1778 

Congress  rejects  the  bills  of  Parliament, 
and  refuses  to  negotiate  with  Great 
Britain  until  her  fleets  and  armies  are 
withdrawn  and  she  acknowledges  the 
independence  of  the  colonies.. Aug.  11,   1778 

Gen.  Charles  Lee  by  court-martial  for 
disobedience,  misbehavior,  and  disre- 
spect to  Washington,  suspended  from 
command  for  one  year Aug.   12,   1778 

Battle  of  Rhode  Island Aug.  29,   177S 

Americans  evacuate  Rhode  Island,  Aug. 
30,   and   British  occupy  Newport.... 

Aug.  31,  1778 

British  under  General  Grey  burn  Bed- 
ford village,  in  Dartmouth,  Mass., 
and  seventy  American  vessels  lying 
at  the  wharfs Sept.  5,   1778 

Benjamin    Franklin    appointed    minister 

to  the  Court  of  France Sept.  14,  1778 

Massacre    by    Indians    and    Tories    at 

Cherry  Valley,  N.  Y Nov.  10,  1778 

British  troops  under  Howe  capture 
Savannah ;  the  Americans  retreat 
across  the  Savannah  River.  .  .Dec.  29,   1778 

Northern  American  army  hutted  in  can- 
tonments from  Danbury,  Conn.,  to 
Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  for  the  winter. 

1778-79 

Maj. -Gen.  Benjamin  Lincoln,  command- 
ing the  Southern  forces,  establishes 
his  first  post  at  Purysburg,  on  the 
Savannah    River 1779 

Congress  calls  upon  the  States  for  their 
quotas   of   $15,000,000   for   the   year, 


and  $6,000,000  annually  for  eighteen 
years   to   follow    as   a   sinking-fund.. 

Jan.  2,   1779 

Vincennes,  Ind.,  captured  by  the  Brit- 
ish   Jan.,  1779 

British  under  General  McLane  take  pos- 
session of  Castine,  Me Jan.  12,  1779 

British  under  Major  Gardiner  driven 
from  Port  Royal  Island  by  General 
Moultrie   Feb.  3,  1779 

Franklin  commissioned  sole  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  France,  and  Adams 
recalled   Feb.,  1779 

Battle  of  Kettle  Creek,  Ga.,  Amer- 
ican victory Feb.  14,  1779 

Americans  under  Major  Clarke  capture 

Vincennes    Feb.  20,  1779 

Battle  of  Brier  Creek,  Ga.,  British  vic- 
tory    March  3,  1779 

Salt  works  at  Horseneck,  Conn.,  de- 
stroyed by  General  Tryon.  .March  26,   1779 

American  ministers  recalled,  except  at 
Versailles    and    Madrid April,  1779 

Americans     repulsed     at     Stono     Ferry, 

S.  C June  20,  1779 

Spain  declares  war  against  Great 
Britain    June,  1779 

British  under  Tryon  plunder  New 
Haven,  July  5,  and  burn  Fairfield, 
July  8,  and  Norwalk July  12,   1770 

Americans  under  Wayne  take  by  storm 

Fort  Stony  Point,  N.  Y July  16,  1779 

Expedition  against  the  British  at  Fort 
Castine,   Me.,   repulsed July   25,  1779 

American  fleet  arrive  at  Penobscot, 
July  25,  and  are  dispersed  by  British 
fleet   Aug.  13,   177ft 

Congress  agrees  to  a  basis  of  terms  for 

a  peace  with  Great  Britain..  .Aug.  14,  1779 

General  Sullivan's  campaign  against  the 
Six    Nations;    the* Indian   villages   of 

the    Genesee    Valley    destroyed 

July-Sept.,  1779 

British  fleet  at  Tybee  captured  bv  Count 
D'Estaing    Sept.  3,   1779 

Congress  votes  thanks  and  a  gold  medal 
to  Major  Lee,  for  surprising  and  capt- 
uring (Aug.  19)  the  British  garrison 
at  raulus's  Hook Sept.,   1779 

Congress  guarantees  the  Floridas  to 
Spain  if  she  takes  them  from  Great 
Britain,  provided  the  United  States 
should  enjoy  the  free  navigation  of 
the    Mississippi    River Sept.  17,   1779 

Naval  engagement  off  Flamboiough 
Head,  England ;  the  Tion  Homme 
Richard  (American),  Pajl  Jones  com- 
mander, captures  the  British  gun-ship 
Serapis    Sept.   23,   1779 

John  Jay  appointed  minister  to  Spain, 
and  John  Adams  to  negotiate  a  peace 
with   Great   Britain Sept.   27,   1779 

Siege  of  Savannah,  Ga.,  by  Americans 
and    French,    fails;    Fulaski    killed.. 

Sept.  23-Oct.  9,    1779 

A  company  of  British  regulars  and  four 
armed  vessels  in  the  Ogeechee  River, 
Ga.,   surrenders   to   Colonel    White... 

Oct.  1,    1779 

British  evacuate  Rhode  Island 

Oct.  11-25     1779 


413 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


M.  Gerard  succeeded  by  the  Chevalier 
de     la     Luzerne     as     minister     from 

France    to    the    United    States 

Nov.  17, 
American  army  winters  at  Morristown. 

Dec, 
General   Clinton   sails   from   New   York 

against  Charleston Dec.  26, 

Washington  reprimands  General  Arnold, 
by  order  of  Congress,  for  miscon- 
duct charged  by  the  council  of  Phila- 
delphia     Jan., 

Gen.    Charles    Lee    dismissed    from    the 

army Jan.  10, 

Congress  sends  General  Gates  to  suc- 
ceed Baron  de  Kalb,  who,  by  the  sur- 
render of  General  Lincoln,  had  been 
commander-in-chief  in  the  South.... 

March, 
General   Clinton   lays   siege   to   Charles- 
ton    April  10, 

Battle    at    Monk's    Corner,     S.     C 

April  14, 
Lafayette  rejoins  the  army,  after  a  visit 
to  France,  bringing  a  commission 
from  the  French  government  to 
Washington  as  lieutenant-general  and 
vice-admiral  of  France,  so  that  he 
may  be  commander-in-chief  of  the 
united    forces    of    France    and    the 

United  States May  11, 

Fort    Moultrie,    S.    C,    surrendered    to 

Captain  Hudson  of  the  British  navy. 

May  6, 

Charleston,  S.  C,  capitulates.  .May  12, 

Massacre    of    Americans    under    Colonel 

Buford    at    Waxhaw,    on    the    North 

Carolina    border,     by     British    under 

Tarleton May    29, 

General  Clinton  proclaims  South  Caro- 
lina subject  to  Englaifd June  3, 

Battle   of   Ramsour's    Mills,    N.    C 

June  20, 
Battle    at    Springfieid,    N.    J. ;    General 

Clinton  burns  the  town June  23, 

French  army  of  6,000  men,  under 
Rochambeau,  reaches  Newport  Har- 
bor, R.  I July  10, 

Battle  of  Rocky  Mount,  S.  C July  30, 

Command  in  the  highlands  of  the  Hud- 
son  with   West   Point   given   to    Gen. 

Benedict  Arnold Aug.  3, 

Battle  of  Hanging  Rock,  S.  C.Aug.  6, 
Battle  of  Camden,  S.  C. ;  Gates  defeated. 

Aug.  16, 
Battles  of  Musgrove  Mills  and   Fishing 

Creek,   S.  C Aug.  18, 

Maj.  John  Andre,  British  adjutant- 
general,   meets   Benedict  Arnold   near 

Stony  Point,  N.  Y Sept.  21, 

Major  Andre  captured  near  Tarrvtown. 

Sept.  23, 
Arnold    escapes    to    the    British    vessel 

Vulture  Sept.  24, 

Battle  of  Charlotte,  N.  C Sept.  26, 

Andre1  convicted  as  a  spy  by  military 
board,  Gen.  Nathanael  Greene,  presi- 
dent, Sept.  29,  and  hung  at  Tappan, 

N.  Y Oct.  2, 

Congress  votes  John  Paulding,  David 
Williams,  and  Isaac  Van  Wart,  cap- 


tors of  Andre,  its  thanks,  a  silver 
medal,  and  a  pension  of  $200  each 
yearly,  for  life Oct.,  1780 

1779  Henry  Laurens,  minister  from  United 
States,  seized  on  his  way  to  Holland 

1779  by  a  British  frigate,  Sept.  3,  and 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  of  London.. 

1779  Oct.  6,   1780 
Battle   of   King's    Mountain,    S.    C 

Oct.    7,   1780 
Congress  resolves  that  western  lands  to 

1780  be  ceded  shall  be  formed  into  repub- 
lican States,  and  become  equal  mem- 

1780        bers  of  the   Union Oct.   10,  1780 

Gen.    Nathanael    Greene    appointed    to 

command  of  the  armies  in  the  South, 

superseding    General    Gates.  .Oct.    14,   1780 

Col..  John  Laurens  appointed  a  special 

1780        minister  to  France  to  secure  a  loan. 

Dec,   1780 
1780    Pennsylvania     troops     break     camp     at 
Morristown,   Jan.   1,  demanding  back 
1780        pay.      Congress    appoints    a    commis- 
sion, which  accedes  to  their  demand. 

Jan.  1,  1781 
Benedict     Arnold     plunders     Richmond, 

Va Jan.  5-6,  1781 

Robert    R.    Livingston    appointed    secre- 
tary of  foreign  affairs  by  Congress.  . 

Jan.,  1781 
1780    Battle  of  Cowpens,  S.  C. ;  American  vic- 
tory     Jan.  17,  1781 

Mutiny    of    New    Jersey    troops    quelled 

1780        by  Gen.  Robert  Howe Jan.  23-27,  1781 

1780  Young's  house,  near  White  Plains,  sur- 
prised by  British Feb.  2,  1781 

Skilful  retreat  of  Americans  under  Gen- 
eral   Greene    from    Cowpens    to    the 
1780        River    Dan,    pursued    by    Cornwallis, 

Jan.   28-Feb.    13,   1781 
1780    Final  ratification  of  Articles  of  Confed- 
eration  announced   by   order   of   Con- 

1780        gress    March  1,   1781 

Battle  of  Guildford  Court-house,  N.  C. 
1780  March    15,   1781 

British     under    Generals     Phillips     and 
Benedict  Arnold  occupy  Petersburg.  . 
1780  April    24,   1781 

1780    Battle  of  Hobkirk's  Hill,  S.  C.  .April  25,   1781 
Union  of  Vermont  with  the  British  pro- 
posed to  Col.  Ira  Allen  at  Isles  aux 

1780        Noix,  Canada May,   1781 

1780    Cornwallis  joins  Arnold  at   Petersburg, 

Va May  20,  1781 

1780    Augusta,    Ga.,    taken   by   Colonel    Clark, 
Sept.    14,    1780 ;    retaken    by    British, 
1780        Sept.  17,  1780;  capitulates  to  Amer- 
icans    June  5,  1781 

General    Wadsworth    captured,    and    im- 

1780        prisoned  at  Castine,  Me June  18,  1781 

British   abandon   Fort   Ninety-six 

1780  June  21,  1781 

Jonas  Fay,  Ira  Allen,  and.  Bazaleel 
1780  Woodward  appointed  to  represent  the 
1780        cause  of  Vermont  in  the  Continental 

Congress June  22,  1781 

General    Lafayette    attacks    Cornwallis, 
near   Green    Springs,    Va.,    and    is   re- 

1780        pulsed July  6,  1781 

Cornwallis    retires    with    his    army    to 
Yorktown    , Aug.   4,   1781 

414 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


It.  H.  Livingston  appointed  secretary  of 
foreign  affairs  by  Congress Aug., 

Congress  requires  Vermont  to  relinquish 
territory  east  of  the  Connecticut  and 
west  of  the  present  New  York  line  be- 
fore admission  as  a  State.  .Aug.  20, 

Combined  armies  of  Americans  and 
French  start  for  Yorktown,  Va.,  from 
the  Hudson  River Aug    25, 

Count  de  Grasse,  with  the  French  fleet, 
arrives  in  the  Chesapeake.  .  ..Aug.  30, 

Lafayette    joins    French    troops    under 
Count  de  St.  Simon  at  Green  Springs, 
Sept.    3,    and    they    occupy    Williams- 
burg, about  15  miles  from  Yorktown. 
Sept.  5, 

Benedict  Arnold  plunders  and  burns 
New    London,    Conn.,    and    captures 

Fort  Griswold Sept.  6, 

'British  fleet  under  Admiral  Graves  ap- 
pears in  the  Chesapeake Sept.  7, 

Indecisive  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  S.  C. 

Sept.  8, 

Washington  and  Count  Rochambeau 
reach  Williamsburg Sept.  14, 

Siege  of  Yorktown Oct.   5-19, 

Cornwallis  surrenders  at  Yorktown.... 

Oct.   19, 

Sir  Henry  Clinton,  with  fleet  of  thirty- 
five  vessels  and  7,000  troops,  arrives 
at  the  Chesapeake,  Oct.  24,  and  re- 
turns to  New  York Oct.  29, 

Benjamin  Lincoln  appointed  Secretary 
of  War  by  Congress Oct.  30, 

Day  of  public  thanksgiving  and  prayer 

observed  throughout  the  United  States. 

Dec.  13, 

Henry  Laurens  released  from  imprison- 
ment   in    the    Tower    of    London.... 
Dec.  31, 

Holland  recognizes  the  independence  of 
United   States April  19, 

Sir  Guy  Carleton,  appointed  to  succeed 
Clinton,  lands  in  New  York.  .  .May  5, 

Orders  received  by  Sir  James  Wright 
at  Savannah  for  the  evacuation  of 
the  province June  14, 

Savannah,  Ga.,  evacuated  by  the  Brit- 
ish   July  11, 

Treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  con- 
cluded by  Mr.  Adams,  on  part  of  the 
United  States,  with  Holland.  .  .Oct.  8, 

Preliminary  articles  of  peace  signed  at 
Paris  by  Richard  Oswald  for  Great 
Britain,  and  by  John  Adams,  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  John  Jay,  and  Henry 

Laurens  for  the  United  States 

Nov.  30, 

British  evacuate   Charleston,   S.   C 

Dec.  14, 

French  army  embarks  from  Boston  for 
San  Domingo,  having  been  in  the 
United  States  two  years  five  months 
and  fourteen  days Dec.  24, 

Sweden  recognizes  independence  of 
United  States Feb.  5, 

Denmark  recognizes  independence  of 
United  States Feb.  25, 

Congress  being  unable  to  pay  either  offi- 
cers or  men  of  the  army,  an  anony 
mous  address  is  circulated,  March  11, 


1783,  advising  the  army  at  Newburg, 
1781  N.  Y.,  to  enforce  its  claims.  The 
situation  is  critical,  but  Washington, 
by  an  admirable  address,  obtains 
from  the  officers  a  declaration  of  con- 
1781         fidence  in  Congress  and  the  country. 

March  15,   1783 
Congress  grants  five  years'  full  pay  to 
1781         officers    in    lieu    of    half-pay    for    life, 

promised  Oct.  21,  1780 March  22,   1783 

1781  Spain  recognizes  independence  of  Unit- 
ed  States March  24,  178S 

Congress  ratifies  the  preliminary  treaty 

with   Great   Britain April   15,   1783 

Congress  proclaims   a  cessation  of  hos- 
17S1         tilities,  April  11,  1783,  which  is  read 

to   the   army April    19,  1785 

Independence  of  the  United  States  rec- 

17S1         ognized  by  Russia July,  1783 

Definitive  treaty  signed  by  David  Hart- 

1781         ley  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  and 

by   Benjamin   Franklin,    John   Adams, 

1781         and    John    Jay    on    the    part    of    the 

United    States Sept.   3,   1783 

1781    Washington    issues    his    "  Farewell    Ad- 
1781         dress  to  the  Army  "  from  Rocky  Hill, 

near  Princeton,  N.  J Nov    2,  1783 

1781  By  general  order  of  Congress,  proclaim- 
ed Oct.  18,  the  army  is  disbanded,  a 
small  force  remaining  at  West  Toint. 

Nov.  3,   1783 

1781     British    evacuate   New   York    City 

Nov.  25,   1783 
1781    General  Washington  bids  farewell  to  his 
officers    at    Fraunce's    tavern,    corner 
Pearl   and   Broad   Streets,   New   York 

1781         City    Dec."  4,  1783 

British  evacuate  Long  Island  and  Staten 
Island   (withdrawing  their  last  armed 

1781  man  sent  for  the  purpose  of  reducing 

the  colonies  to  subjection) .  . .  .Dec.  4.   1783 

1782  Washington    resigns    his   commission    as 

commander-in-chief      at      the      State- 
1782        house,    Annapolis,    Md.,    and    retires 

to  Mount  Vernon Dec.  23,   1783 

Congress    ratifies    the    definitive    treaty 
1782        of  peace Jan.  14,  1784 

1782  Sketches  and  portraits  of  all  the  im- 
portant   participants,    and    details    of   all 

1782  noteworthy  events  in  the  war,  will  be 
found  under  their  own  or  readily  sugges- 
tive titles.  See  also  Army  (Continental 
Army). 

The    following    side-lights    on    the    war 

1782  have  a  permanent  interest,  as  showing  con- 
27go    ditions  apart   from  those  connected  with 

direct  military  operations: 

In   the   session   of  Parliament   in    1756, 
17SO    that  body  attempted  to  extend  its  author- 
ity in  a  signal  manner  over  the  colonies. 

1783  They  passed  laws  to  regulate  the  internal 

policv  of  the  colonies,  as  well  as  their  acts 
1783  * 

'     for  the  common  good.     The  law  in  Penn- 
sylvania, under  which   Franklin's  militia 
were  raised,  was  repealed  by  the  King  in 
415 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 

council;  the  commissions  of  all  officers  The  crown  officers  in  America  had  long 
elected  under  it  were  cancelled,  and  the  urged  the  establishment  of  a  parliamen- 
companies  were  dispersed.  Volunteers  tary  revenue  for  their  support.  Their 
were  forbidden  to  organize  for  their  de-  whole  political  system  seemed  to  be  but 
fence;  and  the  arrangements  made  by  the  methods  for  the  increase  and  security  of 
Quakers  with  the  Delawares,  to  secure  the  emoluments  of  office.  To  meet  their 
peace  and  friendship  with  the  Indians,  views,  they  advised  a  thorough  revision 
were  censured  by  Lord  Halifax  at  the  of  the  American  governments — a  parlia- 
head  of  the  board  of  trade  and  planta-  mentary  regulation  of  colonial  charters, 
tions,  as  "  the  most  daring  violation  of  and  a  certain  and  sufficient  civil  list, 
the  royal  prerogative."  Each  Northern  This  latter  measure  Grenville  opposed 
province  was  also  forbidden  to  negotiate  (1764),  refusing  to  become  the  attorney 
with  the  Indians.  But  the  spirit  of  the  for  American  office-holders,  or  the  founder 
colonists  could  not  be  brought  into  sub-  of  a  stupendous  system  of  colonial  pat- 
jection  to  arbitrary  royal  authority.  A  ronage  and  corruption.  His  policy  in  all 
person  who  had  long  resided  in  America,  his  financial  measures  was  to  improve  the 
and  had  just  returned  to  England,  de-  finances  of  his  country  and  replenish  its 
clared  prophetically,  "  In  a  few  years  the  exhausted  treasury.  When  the  Earl  of 
colonies  in  America  will  be  independent  Halifax  proposed  the  payment  of  the  sala- 
of  Great  Britain  "  ;  and  it  was  actually  ries  of  colonial  crown-officers  directly  from 
proposed  to  send  over  William,  Duke  of  England,  Grenville  so  strenuously  opposed 
Cumberland,  to  be  their  sovereign,  and  it  that  the  dangerous  experiment  was  post- 
to  emancipate  them  at  once.  poned.  The  rapacity  of  crown-officers  in 
Four  great  wars  had  burdened  Great  America  for  place,  money,  and  power  was 
Britain  with  a  debt  of  about  $700,000,000  a  chief  cause  of  public  discontent  at  all 
in  1763.     Her  treasury  was  low,  and  she  times. 

looked  to  the  colonies  for  contributions  With  the  dawn  of  1766,  there  were, 
to  her  revenues.  At  the  beginning  of  the  here  and  there,  almost  whispered  expres- 
French  and  Indian  War,  the  board  of  sions  of  a  desire  for  political  independence 
trade  had  contemplated  a  scheme  of  of  Great  Britain.  Samuel  Adams  had 
colonial  taxation,  and  Pitt  had  intimated  talked  of  it  in  private;  but  in  Virginia, 
to  more  than  one  colonial  governor  that  where  the  flame  of  resistance  to  the  Stamp 
at  the  end  of  the  war  the  government  Act  burned  with  vehemence,  Richard 
would  look  to  the  colonies  for  a  revenue;  Bland,  in  a  printed  Inquiry  into  the 
yet  he  dared  not  undertake  a  scheme  Rights  of  the  British  Colonies,  etc.,  claim- 
which  the  great  Walpole  had  timidly  ed  freedom  from  all  parliamentary  legisla- 
evaded.  Pitt's  successors,  more  reckless,  tion;  and  he  pointed  to  independence  as  a 
entered  upon  a  scheme  of  taxation  under  remedy  in  case  of  a  refusal  of  redress, 
the  authority  of  Parliament,  boldly  as-  He  appealed  to  the  "  law  of  nature  and 
serting  the  absolute  right  and  power  of  those  rights  of  mankind  which  flow  from 
that  body  over  the  colonies  in  "  all  cases  it,"  and  pleaded  that  the  people  of  the 
whatsoever."  Then  began  the  resistance  to  English  colonies  ought  to  be  as  free  in  the 
that  claim  on  the  part  of  the  colonies  exercise  of  privileges  as  the  people  of 
which  aroused  the  government  to  a  more  England — freedom  from  taxation,  customs, 
vigorous  and  varied  practical  assertion  of  and  impositions,  excepting  with  the  con- 
it.  For  more  than  ten  years  the  quarrel  sent  of  their  general  assemblies.  He  de- 
raged  before  the  contestants  came  to  nounced  the  navigation  laws  as  unjust 
blows.  The  great  question  involved  was  towards  the  colonies,  because  the  latter 
the  extent  of  the  authority  of  the  British  were  not  represented  in  Parliament.  This 
Parliament  over  the  English  American  was  but  an  expression  of  sentiments  then 
colonies,  which  had  no  representative  in  rapidly  spreading,  and  which  soon  grew 
that  legislative  body — a  question  in  the  into  strong  desires  for  political  indepen- 
settlement   of  which   the   British   Empire  dence. 

was  dismembered.     The  colonies  took  the  When  Parliament  assembled  on  Nov.  8, 

broad  ground  that  "  taxation  without  rep-  1768,  the  King,  in  his  speech,  alluded  with 

resentation  is  tyranny."  much   warmth   to   the   "  spirit   of   faction 

416 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 

breaking  out  afresh  in  some  of  the  col-  where.  America  responded  to  calls  for 
onies.  Boston,"  he  said,  "  appears  to  be  help  from  England,  as  well  as  calls  for 
in  a  state  of  disobedience  to  all  law  and  help  in  America  had  been  responded  to 
government,  and  has  proceeded  to  meas-  in  England.  In  December,  1769,  South 
ures  subversive  of  the  constitution,  and  Carolina  sent  £10,500  currency  to  Lon- 
attended  with  circumstances  that  might  don  for  the  society  for  supporting  the 
manifest  a  disposition  to  throw  off  its  Bill  of  Rights,  "  that  the  liberties  of 
dependence  on  Great  Britain."  He  asked  Great  Britain  and  America  might  alike 
for  the  assistance  of  Parliament  to  "  de-  be  protected,"  wrote  members  of  the  South 
feat  the  mischievous  designs  of  those  tur-  Carolina  Assembly.  In  Ireland,  the  dis- 
bulent  and  seditious  persons "  who  had  pute  with  America  aroused  Grattan,  and 
deluded,  by  false  pretences,  numbers  of  he  began  his  splendid  career  at  about 
his  subjects  in  America.  An  address  was  this  time.  The  English  toilers  in  the 
moved  promising  ample  support  to  the  manufacturing  districts  longed  to  enjoy 
King,  and  providing  for  the  subjection  of  the  abundance  and  freedom  which  they 
the  rebellious  spirit  of  the  Americans,  heard  of  in  America;  and  17G9  is  marked 
Vehement  debates  ensued.  The  opposi-  by  the  establishment,  in  England,  of  the 
tion  were  very  severe.  Lord  North,  the  system  of  public  meetings  to  discuss  sub- 
recognized  leader  of  the  ministry,  replied,  jects  of  importance  to  free-born  English- 
saying:  "America  must  fear  you  before  men.  The  press,  too,  spoke  out  boldly 
she  can  love  you.  If  America  is  to  be  the  at  that  time.  "  Can  you  conceive,"  wrote 
judge,  you  may  tax  in  no  instance;  you  the  yet  mysterious  Junius  to  the  King, 
may  regulate  in  no  instance.  .  .  .  We  "  that  the  people  of  this  country  will 
shall  go  through  with  our  plan,  now  long  submit  to  be  governed  by  so  flexible 
that  we  have  brought  it  so  near  success,  a  House  of  Commons?  The  oppressed  peo- 
I  am  against  repealing  the  last  act  of  pie  of  Ireland  give  you  every  day  fresh 
Parliament,  securing  to  us  a  revenue  out  marks  of  their  resentment.  The  colonists 
of  America;  I  will  never  think  of  repeal-  left  their  native  land  for  freedom  and 
ing  it  until  I  see  America  prostrate  at  found  it  in  a  desert.  Looking  forward 
my  feet."  This  was  a  fair  expression  to  independence,  they  equally  detest  the 
of  the  sentiments  of  the  ministry  and  of  pageantry  of  a  king  and  the  supercilious 
Parliament.  The  address  was  carried  by  hypocrisy  of  a  bishop." 
an  overwhelming  majority — in  the  House  To  wise  and  thoughtful  men,  war  be- 
of  Lords  by  unanimous  vote.  During  this  tween  Great  Britain  and  her  American  col- 
year  addresses  and  remonstrances  were  onies  seemed  inevitable  as  early  as  1774.  All 
sent  to  King  George  against  the  taxation  through  the  summer  of  that  year  Samuel 
schemes  of  Parliament,  by  the  assemblies  Adams  proclaimed  it  as  his  belief.  Joseph 
of  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  Delaware,  and  Haw!ey,of  Massachusetts,  submitted  to  the 
Georgia.  These  were  all  couched  in  re-  delegation  from  his  colony,  in  the  First 
spectful  language,  but  ever  firm  and  keen-  Continental  Congress,  a  series  of  wise 
ly  argumentative,  having  for  their  prem-  "hints,"  beginning  with  these  remarkable 
ises  the  chartered  rights  of  the  various  words:  "We  must  fight,  if  we  cannot 
colonies.  But  these  voices  of  free-born  otherwise  rid  ourselves  of  British  taxation. 
Englishmen  were  not  only  utterly  disre-  There  is  not  heart  enough  yet  for  battle," 
garded,  but  treated  with  scorn.  The  pride  he  continued.  "  Constant  and  a  sort  of 
and  the  sense  of  justice  and  self-respect  of  negative  resistance  to  government  will  in- 
the  Americans  were  thereby  outraged.  It  crease  the  heat  and  blow  the  fire.  There 
was  an  offence  not  easily  forgiven  or  for-  is  not  military  skill  enough.  That  is 
gotten.  improving,  and  must  be  encouraged  and 
The  influence  of  political  agitation  in  improved,  but  will  daily  increase.  Fight 
the  colonies  began  to  be  sensibly  felt  in  ire  must,  finally,  unless  Britain  retreats." 
Great  Britain  at  the  beginning  of  1770.  When  John  Adams  read  these  words  to 
The  friends  of  liberty  in  England  were  the  Patrick  Henry,  the  latter  exclaimed,  with 
friends  of  the  colonists.  The  cause  was  emphasis,  "I  am  of  that  man's  mind!" 
the  same  in  all  places.  There  was  a  vio-  All  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1774  the 
lent  struggle  for  relief  from  thralls  every-  people,  impressed  with  this  idea,  had  prac- 
vii.— 2d                                                    417 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 

tised  daily  in  military  exercises,  especially  der  would,  by  a   recent  act,  be  removed 

in    Massachusetts.      There    provision    was  to   England. 

made  for  arming  the  people  of  the  prov-  The  skirmishes  at  Lexington  and  Con- 
ince  and  for  the  collection  of  munitions  cord  (April  19,  1775),  stirred  society  in 
of  war.  The  Provincial  Convention  of  Mas-  the  colonies  as  it  was  never  stirred  be- 
sachusetts  appropriated  $60,000  for  that  fore.  There  was  a  spontaneous  resolution 
purpose,  and  leading  soldiers  in  the  French  to  environ  Boston  with  an  army  of  Pro- 
and  Indian  War  were  commissioned  gen-  vincials  that  should  confine  the  British 
eral  officers  of  the  militia.  Mills  were  to  the  peninsula.  For  this  purpose  New 
erected  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  Hampshire  voted  2,000  men,  with  Folsom 
and  establishments  were  set  up  for  making  and  Stark  as  chief  commanders.  Connecti- 
iirms.  Encouragement  was  given  to  the  cut  voted  6,000,  with  Spencer  as  chief  and 
production  of  saltpetre,  and  late  in  De-  Putnam  as  second.  Rhode  Island  voted 
cember,  1774,  the  Massachusetts  Provin-  1,500,  with  Greene  as  their  leader;  and 
cial  Congress  authorized  the  enrolment  Massachusetts  voted  13,600  men.  The  peo- 
of  12,000  minute-men.  Very  soon  there  pie  there  seemed  to  rise  en  masse.  From 
was  an  invisible  army  of  determined  the  hills  and  valleys  of  the  Bay  State 
patriots,  ready  to  resist  every  act  of  (as  from  all  New  England)  the  patriots 
military  coercion  on  the  part  of  Great  went  forth  by  hundreds,  armed  and  un- 
Britain.  armed,  and  before  the  close  of  the  month 
Towards  the  close  of  1774  the  King  — in  the  space  of  ten  days — an  army  of 
issued  a  proclamation  prohibiting  the  ex-  20,000  men  were  forming  camp's  and  piling 
portation,  from  Great  Britain,  of  military  fortifications  around  Boston,  from  Rox- 
stores.  As  soon  as  the  proclamation  bury  to  the  river  Mystic.  The  Provincial 
reached  America  it  created  great  excite-  Congress  of  Massachusetts,  with  Joseph 
ment.  Preparations  were  made  for  the  Warren  at  its  head,  worked  day  and  night 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  of  can-  in  consonance  with  the  gathering  army, 
nons.  The  Assembly  of  Rhode  Island  They  appointed  military  officers;  organ- 
passed  resolutions  for  obtaining  arms  and  ized  a  commissariat;  issued  bills  of  credit 
military  stores  and  for  arming  the  in-  for  the  payment  of  the  troops  to  the 
habitants.  From  the  public  battery  at  amount  of  $375,000,  and  declared  (May 
Newport  about  forty  cannon  were  removed,  5 )  General  Gage  to  be  an  inveterate  enemy 
that  thev  might  not  be  used  by  the  govern-  of  the  people.  And  as  the  news  of  the 
ment  authorities.  At  Portsmouth,  N.  EL,  events  of  April  19  went  from  colony  to 
a  similar  movement  had  taken  place.  Paul  colony,  the  people  in  each  were  equally 
Revere  had  been  sent  there  expressly,  by  aroused.  With  the  hottest  haste,  it  did 
a  committee  at  Boston,  with  the  King's  not  reach  Charleston,  S.  C,  under  twenty 
order  and  an  account  of  the  proceedings  days.  Arms  and  ammunition  were  seized 
of  a  meeting  in  the  New  England  capital,  in  various  places  by  the  Sons  of  Liberty; 
On  the  following  day  about  400  men  pro-  provincial  congresses  were  formed,  and,  be-  ■ 
ceeded  to  Castle  William  and  Mary,  at  the  fore  the  close  of  summer,  the  power  of 
entrance  to  Boston  Harbor,  seized  it,  broke  every  royal  gover.ior  from  Massachusetts 
open  the  powder-house,  and  carried  away  to  Georgia  was  utterly  destroyed.  Every- 
more  than  100  barrels  of  gunpowder.  Gov-  where  the  inhabitants  armed  in  defence 
ernor  Hutchinson  having  reported  that  the  of  their  liberties,  and  took  vigorous  meas- 
military  power  was  insufficient  in  Massa-  ures  for  future  security, 
ehusetts,  because  no  civil  officer  would  When  the  Congress  had  resolved  upon 
sanction  its  employment,  the  crown  armed  resistance  in  the  late  spring  of 
lawyers  decided  that  such  power  belonged  1775,  the  pulpit,  the  bar,  and  the  press 
to  the  governor;  and  Lord  Dartmouth,  united  in  encouraging  the  people  to  be 
secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies,  or-  firm  in  their  opposition.  The  clergy  of 
dered  General  Gage,  in  case  the  inhabi-  New  England  were  a  zealous,  learned, 
tants  should  not  obey  his  commands,  to  numerous,  and  widely  influential  body  of 
bid  the  troops  to  fire  upon  them  at  his  earnest  patriots.  They  connected  religion 
discretion.  He  was  assured  that  all  trials  and  patriotism,  and  in  their  prayers  and 
o.'     peers  or  troops  in  America  for  mur-  sermons  represented  the  cause  of  America 

418 


BEVOLTJTIONAitY   WA» 

as  the  cause  of  Heaven.  The  Presbyterian  thus  waving  the  points  in  dispute.  Burke 
synods  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  sent  supported  the  bill  with  one  of  his  ablest 
forth  a  pastoral  letter  which  was  publicly  speeches,  but  it  was  rejected  by  a  vote  of 
read  in  their  churches.  This  earnestly  two  to  one.  On  the  contrary,  a  bill  was 
jecommended  such  sentiments  and  conduct  carried  by  the  ministry  (Dec.  21)  pro- 
as were  suitable  to  the  situation.  Pub-  hibiting  all  trade  with  the  thirteen  colo- 
licists  and  journalists  followed  the  preach-  nies,and  declaring  their  ships  and  goods, 
ers,  and  exerted  a  powerful  influence  over  and  those  of  all  persons  trafficking  with 
the  minds  of  the  great  mass  of  the  colo-  them,  lawful  prize.  The  act  also  au- 
nists.  The  legal  fraternity  denied  the  thorized  the  impressment  for  service  in 
charge  of  rebellion,  and  proved  the  justice  the  royal  navy  of  the  crews  of  all  capt- 
of  the  resistance  of  the  Americans.  A  dis-  ured  colonial  vessels;  also  the  appoint- 
tinction  founded  on  law  was  drawn  be-  ment  of  commissioners  by  the  crown,  with 
tween  the  King  and  Parliament.  They  con-  authority  to  grant  pardon  and  exemption 
tended  that  the  King  could  do  no  wrong,  from  the  penalties  of  the  act  to  such 
and  upon  Parliament  they  charged  the  colonics  or  individuals  as  might,  by 
crime  of  treason  for  using  the  royal  name  speedy  submission,  seem  to  merit  that 
in  connection  with  their  own  unconstitu-  favor.  So  the  door  of  honorable  recon- 
tional  measures.    The  phrase  of  a  "  minis-  ciliation  was  closed. 

terial  war  "  became  common,  and  the  colo-        The  camp  of  the  Continental   army  at 

nists  professed  loyalty  to  the  crown  until  Cambridge,   when   Washington   took   com- 

the  Declaration  of  Independence.     Thus  it  mand  of  it  in  July,  1775,  presented  a  curi- 

was  that  the  leaders  in  thought  bore  for-  ous   and   somewhat   picturesque   spectacle. 

ward  the  banner  of  resistance  to  British  There  was   no   conformity  in   dress.     The 

oppression.  volunteers  from  Rhode  Island  were  lodged 

Lord    North    had    scruples    concerning  in    tents,    and   had    more   the   appearance 

harsh  American  measures  which  the  King  of  regular  troops  than  any  of  the  others; 

did  not  possess,  and,  wearied  with  the  dis-  others    were    quartered    in    Harvard    Col- 

pute  with   the   Americans,   showed   symp-  lege  buildings,  the  Episcopal  church,  and 

toms  of  a  disposition  to  make  concessions,  private    dwellings;     and    the    fields    were 

The  majority  of  the  cabinet  were  as  mad  dotted     with     lodges     of     almost     every 

as  the  King,  and  when  they  found  North  description,    varying    with    the    tastes    of 

wavering   they   plotted   to   have   him   dis-  their     occupants.      Some    of     them     were 

placed  to  make  room  for  a  more  thorough  constructed     of     boards,     some     of     sail- 

supporter  of  British  authority.     On  Jan.  cloth,    and    some   partly   of   both.      There 

12,   1775,  at  a  cabinet  council,  he  found  were   huts  of   stone   and   sods,   others   of 

the   current   of   opinion   so  much   against  bushes,  while  a  few  had  regular  doors  and 

him  that,  ambitious  of  place  and  power,  windows,  constructed  of  withes  and  reedd. 

he  yielded.     His  colleagues  declared  there  To    these    the    feminine    relatives    of    the 

was   nothing   in   the   proceedings   of   Con-  soldiers — mothers,      sisters,      wives — were 

gress  that  afforded  any  basis  for  an  honor-  continually    repairing    with     supplies    of 

able  reconciliation.     It  was  therefore  re-  clothing  and  gifts  for  comfort.    With  them 

solved  to  break  off  all  commerce  with  the  came   flocks   of   boys   and   girls   from   the 

Americans;  to  protect  the  loyalists  in  the  surrounding     country,     to     gratify     their 

colonies;   and  to  declare  all  others  to  be  curiosity  and  behold  some  of  the  mysteries 

traitors  and  rebels.     The  vote  was  design-  of  war.     Among  the  soldiers  in  the  camp 

ed  only  to  divide  the  colonies.     It  united  might  be  seen  eminent  and  eloquent  min- 

them  and  kindled  a  war.    There  was,  how-  isters  of  the  Gospel,  acting  as  chaplains, 

ever,    a    strong    minority    in    the    British  keeping   alive   the   habit   of   daily   prayer 

Parliament  who   were  anxious   for   recon-  and  of  public  worship  on  the  Sabbath, 
ciliation   between   Great   Britain   and   her        Having  no   sufficient   force   at  home   to 

American  colonies  from  the  beginning  of  send  for  the   subjugation  of  the   colonies 

the  dispute.     In  the  House  of  Commons,  early  in  1775,  and  as  mercenaries  from  the 

Edmund    Burke   introduced    a    bill    (Nov.  Continent  could  not  be  immediately  pro- 

16,  1775)    repealing  all  the  offensive  acts  cured,    the   King   ordered   Dunmore,   gov- 

and  granting  an  amnesty  as  to  the  past,  ernor  of  Virginia,  to  arm  negroes  and  Ind- 

419 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


ians,  if  necessary,  to  crush  the  rebellion 
in  that  colony.  To  Dunmore  3,000  stand 
of  arms,  with  200  rounds  of  powder  and 
ball  for  each  musket,  together  with  four 
pieces  of  light  artillery,  were  instantly 
shipped.  An  order  was  also  sent  directly, 
in  the  King's  name,  to  Guy  Johnson,  agent 
among  the  Six  Nations,  to  seek  immediate 
assistance  from  the  Iroquois  Confederacy. 
"Lose  no  time,"  so  ran  the  order;  "  induce 
them  to  take  up  the  hatchet  against  his 
Majesty's  rebellious  subjects  in  America. 
It  is  a  service  of  very  great  importance; 
fail  not  to  exert  every  effort  that  may 
tend  to  accomplish  it;  use  the  utmost 
diligence  and  activity."  Johnson  was 
promised  an  ample  supply  of  arms  and 
•ammunition  from  Quebec. 

As  early  as  the  summer  of  1776,  in- 
timations reached  the  Americans  that  the 
British  ministry  had  devised  a  grand 
scheme  for  dividing  the  colonies,  and  so 
to  effect  their  positive  weakness  and  easy 
conquest.  It  contemplated  the  seizure 
of  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson  River  and 
Lake  Champlain,  and  the  establishment  of 
a  line  of  military  posts  between  the  mouth 
of  the  Hudson  and  the  river  St.  Lawrence, 
and  so,  separating  New  England  from  the 
rest  of  the  union,  easily  accomplish  the 
subjugation  of  the  whole.  To  effect  this, 
English  and  German  troops  were  sent 
both  to  the  St.  Lawrence  and  to  New 
York  in  the  spring  and  summer  of  1775. 
It  was  the  grand  aim  of  the  expedition  of 
Burgoyne  southward  from  the  St.  Law- 
rence in  1777.  To  counteract  this  move- 
ment, the  Americans  cast  up  strong  forti- 
fications in  the  Hudson  Highlands,  and 
kept  their  passes  guarded.  It  was  in 
anticipation  of  such  a  scheme  that  the 
colonists  made  the  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  win  Canada  either  by  persuasion  or 
conquest.    See  Canada. 

When,  in  1778,  it  was  ascertained  that 
there  were  hundreds  of  American  pris- 
oners of  war  in  England,  enduring  great 
sufferings  for  want  of  the  necessaries  of 
life,  a  subscription  was  made  by  the 
friends  of  the  Americans  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, which  speedily  gave  them  relief.  At 
that  time  there  were  900  of  them  suffer- 
ing in  British  prisons.  A  subscription 
started  in  London  soon  procured  about 
$2,000,  which  was  more  than  sufficient  to 
relieve  the  immediate  wants  of  the  cap- 


tives.    These   wants    consisted    chiefly    in 
a  lack  of  sufficient  clothing. 

As  the  year  1780  drew  to  a  close  there 
were  warm  disputes  in  the  Pennsylvania 
regiments  as  to  the  terms  on  which  the 
men  had  been  enlisted.  The  officers  main- 
tained that  at  least  a  quarter  part  of 
the  soldiers  had  enlisted  for  three  years 
and  the  war.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
fact;  but  the  soldiers,  distressed  and  dis- 
gusted for  want  of  pay  and  clothing,  and 
seeing  the  large  bounties  paid  to  those 
who  re-enlisted,  declared  that  the  enlist- 
ment was  for  three  years  or  the  war. 
As  the  three  years  had  now  expired,  they 
demanded  their  discharges.  It  was  re- 
fused, and  on  Jan.  1,  1781,  the  whole 
line,  1,300  in  number,  broke  out  into  open 
revolt.  An  officer  attempting  to  restrain 
them  was  killed  and  several  others  were 
wounded.  Under  the  leadership  of  a 
board  of  sergeants  the  men  marched  tow- 
ards Princeton,  with  the  avowed  pur- 
pose of  going  to  Philadelphia  to  demand 
of  the  Congress  a  fulfilment  of  their  many 
promises.  General  Wayne  was  in  com- 
mand of  these  troops,  and  was  much  be- 
loved by  them.  By  threats  and  persua- 
sions he  tried  to  bring  them  back  to  duty 
until  their  real  grievances  should  be  re- 
dressed. They  would  not  listen  to  him ; 
and  when  he  cocked  his  pistol,  in  a  men- 
acing manner,  they  presented  their  bayo- 
nets to  his  breast,  saying,  "  We  respect 
and  love  you;  you  have  often  led  us  into 
the  field  of  battle;  but  we  are  no  longer 
under  your  command ;  we  warn  you  to 
be  on  your  guard;  if  you  fire  your  pistol, 
or  attempt  to  enforce  your  commands,  we 
shall  put  you  instantly  to  death."  Wayne 
appealed  to  their  patriotism ;  they  pointed 
to  the  broken  promises  of  the  Congress. 
He  reminded  them  of  the  strength  their 
conduct  would  give  to  the  enemy;  they 
pointed  to  their  tattered  garments  and 
emaciated  forms.  They  avowed  their  will- 
ingness to  support  the  cause  of  indepen- 
dence if  adequate  provision  could  be  made 
for  their  comfort ;  and  they  boldly  re- 
iterated their  determination  to  march  to 
Philadelphia,  at  all  hazards,  to  demand 
from  Congress  a  redress  of  their  griev 
ances.  Finding  he  could  not  move  them, 
Wayne  determined  to  accompany  them  to 
Philadelphia.  At  Princeton  they  pre- 
sented the  general  with  a  written  list  of 


420 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


their  demands.  These  demands  appeared 
so  reasonable  that  he  had  them  laid  be- 
fore Congress.  That  body  appointed  a 
committee  to  confer  with  the  insurgents. 
The  result  was  a  compliance  with  their 
demands,  and  the  disbanding  of  a  large 
part  of  the  Pennsylvania  line,  whose  places 
were  filled  by  new  recruits. 

When  Sir  Henry  Clinton  heard  of  the 
ievolt  of  the  Pennsylvania  line,  mistak- 
ing the  spirit  of  the  mutineers,  he  de- 
spatched two  emissaries — a  British  ser- 
geant and  a  New  Jersey  Tory  named  Og- 
den — to  the  insurgents,  with  a  written 
offer  that,  on  laj'ing  down  their  arms  and 
marching  to  New  York,  they  should  re- 
ceive their  arrearages  and  the  amount  of 
the  depreciation  of  the  Continental  cur- 
rency in  hard  cash;  that  they  should  be 
well  clothed,  have  a  free  pardon  for  all 
past  offences,  and  be  taken  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  British  government;  that 
no  military  service  should  be  required  of 
them,  unless  voluntarily  offered.  Sir 
Henry  requested  them  to  appoint  agents 
to  treat  with  his,  and  adjust  terms;  and, 
not  doubting  the  success  of  his  plans,  he 
went  to  Staten  Island  himself,  with  a 
large  body  of  troops,  to  act  as  circum- 
stances might  require.  Sir  Henry  entirely 
misapprehended  the  temper  of  these  muti- 
neers. They  felt  justified  in  using  their 
power  to  obtain  a  redress  of  grievances, 
but  they  looked  with  horror  upon  the 
armed  oppressors  of  their  country,  and 
they  regarded  the  act  and  stain  of  trea- 
son, under  any  circumstances,  as  worse 
than  the  infliction  of  death.  Clinton's 
proposals  were  rejected  with  disdain. 
"  See,  comrades,"  said  one  of  them,  "  he 
takes  us  for  traitors;  let  us  show  him  that 
the  American  army  can  furnish  but  one 
Arnold,  and  that  America  has  no  truer 
friends  than  we."  They  seized  the  emissa- 
ries, and  delivered  them,  with  Clinton's  pa- 
pers, into  the  hands  of  Wayne,  and  they 
were  tried,  condemned,  and  executed  as 
spies.  The  reward  which  had  been  offered 
for  the  apprehension  of  the  offenders  was 
tendered  to  the  mutineers  who  seized  them. 
They  sealed  the  pledge  of  their  patriotism 
by  nobly  refusing  it,  saying:  "Necessity 
wrung  from  us  the  act  of  demanding  jus- 
tice from  Congress,  but  we  desire  no  re- 
ward for  doing  our  duty  to  our  bleeding 
country." 


On  Jan.  18,  1781,  a  portion  of  the  New 
Jersey  line,  stationed  at  Pompton,  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  the  Pennsylvanians, 
at  Morristown,  in  refusing  to  serve  longer 
unless  their  reasonable  demands  on  Con- 
gress were  attended  to.  Washington,  fear- 
ing the  revolt,  if  so  mildly  dealt  with  as 
it  had  been  by  Wayne,  would  become 
fatally  infectious  and  cause  the  army  to 
melt  away,  took  harsher  measures  to  sup- 
press it.  He  sent  Gen.  Robert  Howe,  with 
500  men,  to  restore  order  at  Pompton. 
They  surrounded  the  camp  and  compelled 
the  troops  to  parade  without  arms.  Two 
of  the  ringleaders  were  tried,  condemned, 
and  immediately  executed,  when  the  re- 
mainder quietly  submitted.  These  events 
had  a  salutary  effect,  for  they  aroused 
the  Congress  and  the  people  to  the  neces- 
sity of  more  efficient  measures  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  army,  their  only  reliance  in 
the  struggle.  Taxes  were  more  cheerfully 
paid;  sectional  jealousies  were  quelled;  a 
special  agent  (John  Laurens)  sent  abroad 
to  obtain  loans  was  quite  successful,  and 
a  national  bank  was  established  in  Phila- 
delphia and  put  in  charge  of  Robert  Mor- 
ris, the  superintendent  ot  the  treasury. 

Count  de  Rochambean  received  intelli- 
gence at  the  close  of  May,  1781,  that  the 
Count  de  Grasse  might  be  expected  on 
the  coast  of  the  United  States  with  a  pow- 
erful French  fleet  in  July  or  August.  This 
news  caused  the  French  forces,  which  had 
lain  idle  at  Newport  many  months,  to 
move  immediately  for  the  Hudson  River, 
to  form  a  junction  with  the  Continental 
army  there  under  Washington.  A  part 
of  them  moved  on  June  10,  and  the  re- 
mainder immediately  afterwards.  They 
formed  a  junction  with  the  American 
army,  near  Dobb's  Ferry,  on  the  Hudson, 
July  6.  The  Americans  were  encamped 
on  Valentine's  Hill,  in  two  lines,  with 
the  right  wing  resting  on  the  Hudson 
River  near  the  ferry.  The  French  army 
was  stationed  on  the  hills  at  the  left, 
in  a  single  line,  reaching  from  the  Hud- 
son to  the  Bronx  River.  There  was  a 
valley  of  considerable  extent  between  the 
two  armies.  The  American  army  had  been 
encamped  at  Peekskill,  and  marched  down 
to  Valentine's  Hill  on  the  morning  of 
July  2. 

In  August,  1781,  a  French  frigate,  from 
the  fleet  of  De  Grasse  in  the  West  Indies. 


421 


REVOLUTIONARY    WAR 


brought  word  that  he  would  sail  directly 
for  the  Chesapeake  Bay.  Already  Wash- 
ington had  had  his  thoughts  turned  tow- 
ards a  campaign  of  the  allies  against 
Cornwallis  in  Virginia  by  a  letter  from 
Lafayette,  who  had  taken  a  position  only 
•H  miles  from  Yorktown.  The  marquis  had 
plainly  perceived  the  mistake  of  Clinton 
in  ordering  Cornwallis  to  take  a  defen- 
sive position  in  Virginia.  As  early  as 
July  he  wrote  to  Washington  from  Ran- 
dolph's, on  Malvern  Hill,  urging  him  to 
march  into  Virginia  in  force,  saying, 
"  Should  a  French  fleet  enter  Hampton 
Roads,  the  British  army  would  be  com- 
pelled to  surrender."  Foiled  in  his  plan 
of  attacking  New  York,  Washington  anx- 
iously contemplated  the  chance  of  suc- 
cess in  Virginia,  when  his  determination 
was  fixed  by  a  letter  from  Admiral  de 
Barras  (the  successor  of  Admiral  Ter- 
nay,  who  had  died  at  Newport),  which 
contained  the  news  that  De  Grasse  was 
to  sail  for  the  Chesapeake  at  the  close 
of  August  with  a  powerful  fleet  and  more 
than  3,000  land  troops.  De  Barras  wrote: 
"  M.  de  Grasse  is  my  junior;  yet,  as  soon 
as  he  is  within  reach,  I  will  go  to  sea 
to  put  myself  under  his  orders."  Wash- 
ington at  once  made  ample  preparations 
for  marching  into  Virginia.  To  prevent 
any  interference  from  Clinton,  he  wrote 
deceptive  letters  to  be  intercepted,  by  which 
the  baronet  was  made  to  believe  that  the 
Americans  still  contemplated  an  attack 
upon  New  York  City.  So  satisfied  was 
Clinton  that  such  was  Washington's  de- 
sign, that,  for  nearly  ten  days  after  the 
allied  armies  had  crossed  the  Hudson  (Aug. 
23  and  24)  and  were  marching  through 
New  Jersey,  he  believed  the  movement  to 
be  only  a  feint  to  cover  a  sudden  descent 
upon  the  city  with  an  overwhelming  force. 
It  was  not  until  Sept.  2  that  he  was  satis- 
fied that  the  allies  were  marching  against 
Cornwallis.  On  the  arrival  of  a  body  of 
Hessians  at  New  York,  he  had  counter- 
manded an  order  for  the  earl  to  send  him 
troops,  and  for  this  he  was  now  thankful. 
On  Sept.  5,  while  the  allies  were  encamped 
at  Chester,  Pa.,  Washington  was  informed 
that  De  Grasse  had  entered  Chesapeake 
Bay.  In  that  event  he  saw  a  sure  proph- 
ecy of  success.  De  Grasse  had  moored  his 
fleet  in  Lynn  Haven  Bay.  and  so  barred 
the  entrance  to  the  York  River  against 


reinforcements  for  Cornwallis.  He  had 
landed  3,000  troops  on  the  peninsula,  near 
old  Jamestown.  Meanwhile  De  Barras  had 
sailed  for  Newport  with  a  fleet  convoying 
ten  transports  laden  with  ordnance  for  the 
siege  of  Yorktown.  The  British  admiral, 
Graves,  on  hearing  of  the  approach  of  the 
French  fleet,  had  sailed  for  the  Chesa- 
peake. De  Grasse  went  out  to  meet  him, 
and  on  Sept.  5  they  had  a  sharp  engage- 
ment. The  British  fleet  was  so  shattered 
that  it  retired  to  New  York,  leaving  De 
Grasse  master  of  the  Chesapeake.  When 
Clinton  was  assured  that  the  allies  were 
bound  for  Virginia,  he  tried  by  military 
movements  to  call  them  back.  He  menaced 
New  Jersey;  threatened  to  attack  the 
works  in  the  Hudson  Highlands;  and  sent 
Arnold  on  a  marauding  expedition  into 
New  England.  But  neither  Clinton's  men- 
aces nor  Arnold's  atrocities  stayed  the  on- 
ward march  of  the  allies.  They  made  their 
way  to  Annapolis,  and  thence  by  water 
to  the  James  River  in  transports  furnish- 
ed by  De  Barras.  From  Baltimore  Wash- 
ington, accompanied  by  Rochambeau  and 
the  Marquis  de  Chastellux,  visited  his 
home  at  Mount  Vernon,  from  which  he 
had  been  absent  since  June,  1775.  There 
they  remained  two  days,  and  then  jour- 
neyed to  Williamsburg,  where  they  ar- 
rived on  the  14th.  There  the  allies  ren- 
dezvoused, and  prepared  for  the  siege  of 
Yorktown. 

The  defeat  of  Cornwallis  seemed  to 
prophesy  speedy  peace,  yet  Washington 
wisely  counselled  ample  preparations  for 
carrying  on  the  war.  He  spent  some  time 
in  Philadelphia  in  arranging  plans  for  the 
campaign  of  1782.  The  Congress  had  al- 
ready (Oct.  1,  1781)  called  upon  the  sev- 
eral States  for  $8,000,000,  payable  quar- 
terly in  specie  or  commissary  certificates, 
besides  an  additional  outstanding  requi- 
sition. The  States  were  requested  to  im- 
pose separate  and  distinct  taxes  for  their 
respective  quotas  of  the  sum  of  $8,000,000 ; 
the  taxes  to  be  made  payable  to  the  loan- 
office  commissioners,  or  to  federal  collec- 
tors to  be  appointed  by  the  superintend- 
ent of  finance,  for  whom  was  asked  the 
same  power  possessed  by  the  State  collec- 
tor. At  Washington's  suggestion,  a  circu- 
lar letter,  containing  an  earnest  call  for 
men  and  money,  was  sent  to  the  executive 
of  each  of  the  States;  but  the  people  were 


422 


REVOLUTIONARY  WAR— REYNOLDS 

so    much    impoverished    by    the    war    and  extent,    it    remained    a    theory    only,    for 

exhausted    by    past    efforts    that    the    call  human   slavery   was   fostered   and   defend- 

was  feebly  responded  to;  besides,  the  gen-  ed,   by  which   4,000,000   of   the   people   of 

eral   expectations   of   peace   furnished   ex-  the   republic  were  absolutely   deprived   of 

cuses   for   backwardness.  their  natural   rights,  when  the   proclama- 

Some  Americans,  led  by  Captain  Wil-  tion  of  President  Lincoln  (Jan.  1,  1863) 
mot,  a  brave  and  daring  young  officer,  were  reduced  the  theory  to  practice,  and  made 
engaged  in  the  duty  of  covering  John's  all  men  and  women  within  the  United 
island,  near  Charleston,  in  September,  States  absolutely  free.  In  civil  affairs, 
1782.  He  was  always  impatient  of  in-  colonial  usages,  in  modified  forms,  were 
action,  and  often  crossed  the  narrow  apparent.  In  Pennsylvania,  two  persons 
strait  or  river  to  harass  British  foraging  from  each  county  were  to  be  chosen  every 
parties  on  the  island.  While  on  one  of  seven  years  to  act  as  a  "  council  of 
these  excursions,  in  company  with  Kos-  censors,"  with  power  to  investigate  all 
eiuszko,  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade  and  branches  of  the  Constitution.  The  con- 
was  killed.  This,  it  is  believed,  was  stitution  of  New  York  established  a 
the  last  life  sacrificed  in  battle  in  the  "  council  of  revision,"  composed  of  the 
war.  governor,    chancellor,    arid    judges   of   the 

The  25th  of  November  was  appointed  Supreme  Court,  to  which  were  submitted 
for  the  evacuation  of  the  city  of  New  all  bills  about  to  pass  into  laws.  If 
York  by  the  British.  The  latter  claimed  objected  to  by  the  council,  a  majority  of 
the  right  of  occupation  until  noon.  Early  two-thirds  in  both  branches  of  the  legis- 
in  the  morning  Mrs.  Day,  who  kept  a  lature  was  required  to  pass  them.  A 
boarding-house  in  Murray  Street,  near  the  "  council  of  appointment  "  was  also  pro- 
Hudson  River,  ran  up  the  American  flag  vided  for,  consisting  of  sixteen  Senators, 
upon  a  pole  at  the  gable  end  of  her  house,  to  be  annually  elected  by  the  Assembly, 
Cunningham,  the  British  provost-marshal,  four  from  each  of  the  four  senatorial 
hearing  of  it,  sent  an  order  for  her  to  districts  into  which  the  State  was  at 
pull  down  the  flag.  She  refused,  and  at  first  divided.  All  nominations  to  office 
about  9  a.m.  he  went  in  person  to  com-  by  the  governor  required  the  sanction 
pel  her  to  take  it  down.  He  was  in  full  of  this  council.  By  the  constitution  of 
dress,  in  scarlet  uniform  and  powdered  Georgia  all  mechanics,  even  though  des- 
wig.  She  was  sweeping  at  the  door.  He  titute  of  pecuniary  qualifications,  were 
ordered  her  to  take  down  the  flag.  She  entitled  to  vote  by  virtue  of  their  trades : 
refused.  He  seized  the  halyards  to  haul  and  every  person  entitled  to  vote  and 
it  down  himself,  whereupon  the  spunky  failing  to  do  so  was  subjected  to  a  fine 
lady  fell  upon  him  with  her  broom.     She  of  £5. 

made  the  powder  fly  out  of  his  wig  and  Reynolds,    Elher    Robert,    scientist ; 

finally  beat  him  off.    This  was  the  last  con-  born  in  Dansville,  N.  Y.,  July  30,   1846; 

flict  of  the  war.  graduated   at   Columbia   College   in    1880. 

The  successful  Revolution  made  no  sud-  During  the  Civil  War  he  was  in  the  10th 

den    or    violent    change    in    the    laws    or  Wisconsin  Cavalry.     For  many  years  he 

political  institutions  of  the  United  States  was   engaged   in   ethnological   exploration, 

beyond     casting     off     the     superintending  and    is    the    author    of    Aboriginal    Soap- 

power    of    Great   Britain,    and    even    that  stone  Quarries  in  the  District  of  Colum- 

power  was  replaced,  to  a  limited  extent,  bia;    Pre-Columbian    Shell    Mounds    at 

by  the  authority  of  Congress.     The  most  Newburg,    Md.;    Prehistoric    Remains    in 

marked  peculiarity  of  the  change  was  the  the     Valleys    of    the    Potomac    and    the 

public   recognition   of   the   theory   of   the  Shenandoah;    The    War    Memories    of    a 

equal    rights    of    man.      This    theory   was  Soldier,  etc. 

first    publicly    promulgated    by    the    first  Reynolds,  John  Fulton,  military  offi 

Continental    Congress   in   the   Declaration  cer;    born    in    Lancaster,    Pa.,    Sept.    20, 

of  Colonial  Rights.     It  was  reiterated  in  1820;   graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841; 

the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  was  served  through  the  war  with  Mexico;  took 

tacitly  recognized  as  the  foundation  of  all  part  in  the  expedition  against  the  Rogue 

the  State  governments.     Yet,  to  a  great  River    Indians    and    in    the   Utah    expedi- 

423 


REYNOLDS— RHODE    ISLAND 


tion  of  1858;  appointed  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  1861 ;  took  part  in  the 
battles  of  Mechanicsville,  Gaines's  Mill, 
and  Glendale.  In  the  last-named  battle 
he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  was  soon  ex- 
changed and  returned  to  duty.  He  par- 
ticipated in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and 
on  Nov.  29,  1862,  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers,  suc- 
ceeding General  Hooker  in  command  of 
the  1st  Corps  of  the  Army  of  the  Po- 
tomac. On  the  first  day  of  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg  (July  1,  1863),  he  was  in 
command  of  the  left  wing  of  the  National 
army,  and  was  shot  dead.  A  monument 
in  his  honor  was  erected  at  Gettysburg 
in  1884. 

Reynolds,  Joseph  Jones,  military  offi- 
cer; born  in  Flemingsburg,  Ky.,  Jan.  4, 
1822;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1843, 
where  he  was  assistant  professor  from 
1846  to  1855.  He  entered  the  service  in 
the  Civil  War  as  colonel  of  the  10th  In- 
diana Volunteers,  and  was  made  a  briga- 
dier-general in  May,  1861.  He  was  at  first 
active  in  western  Virginia,  and  then  in 
the  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  1862-63. 
He  was  Rosecrans's  chief  of  staff  in  the 
battle  of  Chickamauga,  and  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1864  commanded  the  19th  Army 
Corps,  and  organized  a  force  for  the  capt- 
ure of  Forts  Morgan  and  Gaines,  near 
Mobile.  Late  in  1864  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Department  of  Arkansas, 
where  he  remained  until  April,  1866.  In 
March,  1867,  he  was  brevetted  major-gen- 
eral, United  States  army;  in  1867-72  com- 
manded the  5th  Military  District;  in  1871 
was  elected  United  States  Senator  from 
Texas,  but  declined;  and  in  1877  was  re- 
tired. He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Feb. 
26,  1899. 


Rhees,  William  Jones,  librarian;  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  March  13,  1830;  be- 
came chief  clerk  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution in  1852.  He  is  the  author  of 
Manual  of  Public  Libraries;  Guide  to  the 
Smithsonian  Institution;  Catalogue  of 
Publications  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, etc. 

Rhett,  Robert  Barnwell,  legislator; 
born  in  Beaufort,  S.  C,  Dec.  24,  1800; 
was  a  son  of  James  and  Mariana  Smith, 
and  adopted  the  name  of  Rhett  in  1837. 
Receiving  a  liberal  education,  he  chose  the 
law  as  a  profession.  In  1826  he  was  a 
member  of  the  South  Carolina  legislature, 
and  was  attorney-general  of  the  State  in 
1832,  acting  at  that  time  with  the  most 
ultra  wing  of  the  nullification  or  State 
supremacy  party.  From  1838  to  1849 
he  was  a  member  of  Congress,  and  in 
1850-51  United  States  Senator.  It  is 
said  that  he  was  the  first  man  who 
advocated  on  the  floor  of  Congress  the  dis- 
solution of  the  Union.  Rhett  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  secession  movements 
in  1860-61,  and  was  chairman  of  the 
committee  in  the  convention  at  Mont- 
gomery by  whom  the  constitution  of  "  The 
Confederate  States  of  America "  was. 
reported.  He  owned  the  Charleston 
Mercury,  of  which  his  son  was  the  editor. 
He  died  in  St.  James  parish,  La.,  Sept. 
14,  1876. 

Rhode  Island,  State  of,  was  one  of 
the  original  thirteen  States  of  the  Union, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  theatre 


WHERE   ROGER   WILLIAMS    LANDED. 

424 


RHODE    ISLAND,    STATE    OF 

of   the  attempt  to   piant  a   settlement  in  was  required  to  sign  an  agreement  to  give 

Ameriea  by  the  Northmen  at  the  beginning  active   or    passive    obedience    to    all    ordi- 

of  the  eleventh  century  (see  Northmen  in  nances  that  should  be  made  by  a  majority 

America).     It  is  believed  to  be  the  "  Vin-  of    the    inhabitants — heads    of    families- 


NEWPORT,  R.  I.,  FROM  PORT  ADAMS. 


land  "  mentioned  by  them.  Verazzani  is 
supposed  to  have  entered  Narraganset 
Bay,  and  had  an  interview  with  the  na- 
tives there  in  1524.  Block,  the  Dutch 
navigator,  explored  it  in  1614,  and  the 
Dutch  traders  afterwards,  seeing  the 
marshy  estuaries  red  with  cranberries, 
called  it  Roode  Eyelandt — "  red  island," 
corrupted  to  Rhode  Island.  The  Dutch 
carried  on  a  profitable  fur-trade  with  the 
Indians  there,  and  even  as  far  east  as 
Buzzard's  Bay,  and  they  claimed  a  mo- 
nopoly of  the  traffic  to  the  latter  point. 
The  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth  became  annoy- 
ed by  the  New  Netherlanders  when  they 
claimed  jurisdiction  as  far  east  as  Narra- 
ganset Bay,  and  westward  from  a  line 
of  longitude  from  that  bay  to  Canada. 
That  claim  was  made  at  about  the  time 
when  Roger  Williams  (q.  v.)  was  ban- 
ished from  the  colony  of  Massachusetts, 
fled  to  the  head  of  Narraganset  Bay,  and 
there,  with  a  few  followers,  planted  the 
seed  of  the  commonwealth  of  Rhode  Isl- 
and in  1036. 

The  spot  where  Williams  began  a  settle- 
ment he  called  Providence,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  goodness  of  God  towards  him. 
The  government  he  there  established  was 
a  pure  democracy,  and  in  accordance  with 
his  tolerant  views  of  the  rights  of  con- 
science.   Everv  settler  then  and  afterwards 

4! 


for  the  public  good.  For  some  time  the 
government  was  administered  by  means 
of  town-meetings.  In  1638  William  Cod- 
dington  and  others,  driven  from  Massa- 
chusetts by  persecution,  bought  of  the 
Indians  the  island  of  Aquiday  or  Aquit- 
neck,  and  made  settlements  on  the  site 
of  Newport  and  Portsmouth.  A  third  set- 
tlement was  formed  at  Warwick,  on  the 
mainland,   in   1643,  by  a  party  of  whom 


STATE    SEAL    OF    RHODE    ISLAND. 

John    Greene    and    Samuel    Gorton  were 

leaders.     The   same  year   Williams  went 

to    England,    and    in    1644    brought  back 


RHODE    ISLAND,    STATE    OF 


a  charter  which 
united  the  settle- 
ments at  Provi- 
dence and  on  Rhode 
Island  under  one 
government,  called 
the  Rhode  Island 
and  Providence 
Plantations. 

Then  the  com- 
mon wealth  of 
Rhode  Island  was 
established,  though 
the  new  govern- 
ment did  not  go 
into  operation 
until  1647,  when 
the  first  General 
Assembly,  c  o  m- 
posed  of  the  col- 
lective freemen  of 
the  several  planta- 
tions, met  at  Ports- 
mouth (May  19) 
and  established  a 
code  of  laws  for 
carrying  on  civil 
government.  The 
charter  was  con- 
firmed by  Cromwell 
one     was     obtained 


9M. 


RKSIDEXCK   OF   GOVERNOR   CODDINGTOX. 


(1655),   and   a   new 
from     Charles     II. 


(1663),  under  which  the  commonwealth 
of  Rhode  Island  was  governed  180 
years.  In  the  war  with  King  Philip 
(1676)  the  inhabitants  of  Rhode  Island 
suffered  fearfully.  Towns  and  farm- 
houses were  burned  and  the  people  mur- 


dered. Providence  was  laid  in  ashes. 
The  decisive  battle  that  ended  the  war 
was  fought  on  Rhode  Island  soil.  When 
Sir  Edmund  Andros,  governor  of  New 
England,  was  instructed  to  take  away  the 
colonial  charters  (1687),  he  seized  that  of 
Rhode  Island,  but  it  was  returned  on 
the     accession     of     William     and     Mary 


OLD   HOUSES    IN    NEWPORT. 

426 


BHODE    ISLAND,    STATE    OF 


(1689),  and  the  people  readopted  the  seal 
— an  anchor  for  a  device  and  "  Hope " 
for  a  motto. 

Rhode  Island  was  excluded  from  the 
New  England  Confederacy  (1043-1686), 
but  it  always  bore  a  share  of  the  burden 
of  defending  the  New  England  provinces. 
Its  history  is  identified  with  that  of  New 
England  in  general  from  the  commence- 
ment of  King  William's  War,  for  that 
colony  took  an  active  part  in  the  strug- 
gle between  Great  Britain  and  France 
for  empire  in  America,  furnishing  troops 
and  seamen.  The  colony  had  fifty  priva- 
teer  vessels   at   sea   in    1756,   manned   by 


course  under  its  old  charter  from  Charles 
II.;  and  it  was  the  last  of  the  thirteen 
States  to  ratify  the  national  Constitu- 
tion, its  assent  not  being  given  until  May 
29,  1790,  or  more  than  a  year  after  the 
national  government  went  into  operation. 
Under  the  charter  of  Charles  II.  the  lower 
House  of  the  legislature  consisted  of  six 
deputies  from  Newport,  four  each  from 
Providence,  Portsmouth,  and  Warwick, 
and  two  from  each  of  the  other  towns. 
The  right  of  suffrage  was  restricted  to 
owners  of  a  freehold  worth  $134,  or  rent- 
ing for  $7  a  year,  and  to  their  eldest  sons. 
These  restrictions,   as   they  became  more 


STATE   CAPITOL,   PROVIDENCE,   R    I. 


1,500  seamen,  which  cruised  along  the 
American  shores  and  among  the  West 
India  Islands.  The  people  of  Rhode  Isl- 
and were  conspicuous  for  their  patriot- 
ism in  the  stirring  events  preliminary  to 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolutionary 
War,  and  were  very  active  during  that 
war.  The  first  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Continental  navy  was  a  native  of  Rhode 
Island,  Esek  Hopkins,  and  the  first  naval 
squadron  sent  against  the  enemy  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Revolution  sailed  from 
Providence. 

When  the  various  colonies  were  forming 
new  State  constitutions  (1776-79),  Rhode 
Island    went    forward    in    its    independent 


and  more  obnoxious,  finally  produced  open 
discontent.  The  inequality  of  representa- 
tion was  the  chief  cause  of  complaint.  It 
appeared  that  in  1840,  when  Newport  had 
only  8,333  inhabitants,  it  was  entitled  to 
six  representatives;  while  Providence, 
then  containing  23,171  inhabitants,  had 
only  four  representatives.  Attempts  to 
obtain  reform  by  the  action  of  the  legis- 
lature having  failed,  "  suffrage  associa- 
tions "  were  formed  in  various  parts  of 
the  State  late  in  1840  and  early  in  1841. 
They  assembled  in  mass  convention  at 
Providence  July  5,  1841.  and  authorized 
their  State  committee  to  oall  a  conven- 
tion to  prepare  a  constitution.     That  con- 


427 


RHODE    ISLAND,    STATE    OF 

ventiofl     assembled     at     Providence     Oct.  governors. 

4,   and   framed   a   constitution   which   was  Portsmouth. 

,',u™;  ++^/i     +r.     H.o     r>Anr>]p     T)po      27       28  William  Coddiugton March  7,  1638 

submitted    to    the    people    "<*•*'>    *»»  wiiharo  Hutchinson. April30.i639 

and  29,  when  it  was  claimed  that  a  vote  William  coddiugton March  12,  1640 

equal  to  a  majority  of  the  adult  male  cit-  Newport. 

izens  of  the  State  was  given  for  its  adop-  William  Coddiugton April  28, 1639-47 

Hon.     It  was  also  claimed  that  a  majority  PRESIDENTS  UNDER  the  patent 

of  those  entitled  to  vote  under  the  charter       pRoytomcB%  WARWJCK  P0RTSM0UTH  AND  KBWP0RI 

had  voted  in  favor  of  the  constitution.  Jonn  coggeshaii May,  1647 

Under    this    constitution    State    officers  William  Coddiugton May,  1648 

were  chosen  April  is,  1842,  with  Thomas  ^^^n;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;:;;-;;;;;;;;:S  gg 

W.   Dorr   as   governor,     lihe   new   govern- 

»v.      i/wi      aa     b""-'""  ■"**  O  PROVIDENCE   AND   WARWICK. 

ment  attempted  to  organise  at  Providence  Samuei  Gorton Oct.,  1651 

on   May  3.     Thev  were  resisted  by  what  John  Smith  May,  10.-2 

was  called  the  ""legal  State  government,"  Gn*01'  Dexler Uay'lfi5^ 

chosen  under  the  charter,  at  the  head  of  Portsmouth  and  Newport 

which    was    Governor    Samuel    W.    King.  John  Sanford,  Sr May.  1653 

On  the   18th  a   portion   of  the  "  Suffrage  ""«  towns  united 

party"   assemlled   under   arms   at   Provi-  £0^'Wl^-- V.'.V.  /. : //////.l ". ". ! '. '. '  £#,'  £S 

dence  and  attempted  to  seize  the  arsenal,  Benedict  Arnold May,  1657 

but  retired  on  the  approach  of  Governor  ^^^T:::::::::::::::.::\. ::::::.5Ig: iSS 

Kins;  with  a  military  force.     On  June  25 

they  reassambled,  several  hundred  strong,  GOVERNORS  UNDER  ROYAL  CHARTER. 

at   Chepacket,    10   miles   from   Providence,  Benedict  Arnold Nov., .1663 

r  '  '  William  Brenton May,  1666 

but  they  again  dispersed  on  the  approach  Benedict  Arnold "    1669 

of  State  troops.     Governor  Dorr  was  arrest-  Nicholas  Easton "    1672 

,     ,.,„,.,  -ji  j  William  Coddinglon "    16i4 

ed,  tried  for  high-treason,   convicted,  and  Walter  Clarke "    1676 

sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  but  was  Benedict  Arnold "    1677 

,  ,    .       ,„,_  ,  ,         ,       »  William  Coddiugton Aug.  28,  1678 

released   in   184*,   under  a  general   act  of  John  Cranston Nov.,  1678 

amnesty.     See  Doer,  Thomas  Wilson.  Peieg  Sandford March  16  1680 

,,       J    ,  .,         ,.  ,      .    .     .  ,  „  ,         „  William   Coddiugton,  Jr May,  1683 

Meanwhile     the     legislature      (Feb.     6,  Henry  Bull "    1685 

1841)   called  a  convention  to  frame  a  new  Walter  Clarke "    1686 

...     , .  t      t-  1  ,„.„     ,,  Henry  Bull Feb  27,  1690 

constitution.     In  February,  1842,  the  con-  jonn  Easton May,  1690 

vention  agreed  upon  a  constitution,  which  Caleb  Carr May,  1695 

,       ...    ,   ,      ,,  ,      •      -mt        ,  ,  Walter  Clarke lau.  1696 

was  submitted  to  the  people  in  March  and  Samuel  Cranston May,  1698 

rejected.    Another  constitution  was  framed  Joseph  Jenckes. "    1727 

,  it.  ,-  ,.,  ,-c    j  William  Wanton "    1732 

by  another  convention,  which  was  ratihed  .jonil  wanton "    1734 

bv    the    people    almost    unanimously,    and  Richard  Ward July  15,  1740 

i-,         /,.     .    •      ■««■  ,n.„       x      -lor.,  William  Greene May,  1743 

went  into  enect  in  May,  1S43.     In  1861  a  rjjjeou  Wanton "1745 

controversy    between    Rhode    Island    and  William  Greene "    1746 

Massachusetts  about  boundary,  which  be-  \vmiam  Greene..'...'....'.".".'."..'.!.".';'.".'.!!!"    "    1748 

gan    in    colonial     times,    was    settled    by  Stephen  Hopkins "    1755 

i      i  .  ,,       j.  ,.         i  William  Greene "    1757 

mutual  concessions,  the  former  ceding  to  Stephen  Hopkins March  14,  1758 

the  latter  that  portion  of  the  township  of  Samuel  Ward May,  1762 

Tiverton  containing  the  village  of  Faii  ffi^5ffi™;;;;;;\\\\\"::::;;::::;;-::;;  «  SS 

River  in  exchange   for  the  town  of  Paw-  Stephen  Hopkins "    1767 

tucket  and  a  part  of  Seekonk,  afterwards  ^^ttn!!!!!::!::!!::!:;!::;!!;:!:!!!    -    1769 

known  as  East  Providence.  Nicholas  Cooke Nov.,  1775 

Rhode  Island  was  among  the  earliest  to  ^J^™[-—;;:  \\\\"\\:v;;.\\:^  1786 

respond   to    President    Lincoln's    first    call  Arthur  Eenner "    1790 

for  troops,  and  during 'the  Civil  War,  the  Sf^nes.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.!!!!!::::'.!!!:!:;!:::    «    i8ll 

State,  with  a  population  of  only  175,000,  Nehemtah  R.  knight "    1817 

furnished    to    the    National    army    23,711  3^j&^^\\\\::"::\"::"\"\\:\".    «    ml 

soldiers.      Population     in     1890,     345,506;  Lemuel  H.  Arnoid!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!'.!!!!.'.*."!!!!         1831 

1900,  428,556.    See  United  States,  Rhode  wiinam^'rajue130'3'''''.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.''.'.'.':'!'.'.'.'        1838 

ISLAND,  in  vol.  ix.  Samuel  Ward  King!!'.'.!!!!!!!!!!.'!!!!!!!!!!'.  1840 

428 


RHODE    ISLAND    COLLEGE— RIBAULT 


GOVERNORS  UNDER  THE  STATE  CONSTITUTION.  1850,   of   which   4    volumes    have    been    is- 

cSSon:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::  Itti  s«ed>  brinsing  the  history  down  to  ww. 

Byron  Diman 1846  Four  more  volumes  are  planned,  extending 

Elisba  Hams  1847  the  history  to  1885. 

Henry  B.  Anthony ,,.  1849  J 

Philip  Allen    1851  Ribault,     Jean,     navigator;     born     in 

^tmD^r?^H?pp":::::;::;:::;:::::::::::::  Itti  Dieppe>  Fran<*>  *  ^o;  first  appeared  m 

Thomas  <;  Turner 1859  history  as  commander  of  Colicni's  expedi- 

w;!!i"ncpc^nS:;:;::::::::::::::::::Ma;Ch^803  tion  to  ^erica  in  is62.  Returning  for 

James  Y  Smith  18G3  supplies,  he  was  detained  by  civil  war  un- 


Ambrose  E    Buruside 1866 

Seth  Padelford  1869 

Henry  Howard 1873 

Henry  Lippitt 1875 

Charles  C.  Van  Zaudt  (Republican) May  29,  1877 

Alfred  H.  Littlelieid  (Republ  can) May  25,  1880 

Augustus  O.  Bourn  (Republican) May  29,  1883 

George  P.  Wetmore  (Republican)   May,  1885 


til  the  spring  of  1565,  when  Coligni  sent 
him  with  five  ships  to  Florida,  where  he 
succeeded  Laudonniere  as  commander-in- 
chief.  He  had  just  arrived,  when  five 
Spanish  vessels  appeared,  under  Don 
1887  Pedro  Menendez  de  Aviles,  whose  name 
j^jj   and  object  were  demanded.    "  I  am  Menen 


John  W  Davis  (Democrat). 
Royal  C.  Tafl  (Republican). 
H  W.  I.add  (Republican)  . 
John  W  Davis  (Democrat). 
H.  W   Ladd  (Repubhcan)  ..    "      1891    f]estrov     all     Protestants 

I)    Russell  Brown  (Republican) 1892-96    uebtroy     al!     Protestants 

Charles  w.  Lipp  tt  (Republican) 1896-97   Ribault  had  been  advised  of  the  expedition 

Elisha  Dyer  (Republican) 1897-1900    0f    Menendez    before    his    denartnre    from 

William  Gregory  (Republican) 1900-1901    I,1    1VAeu*;"ue^    ueioie    ms    uepanure    irom 

Charles  D  Kimball  (Republican) 1902  France.     Just  as  he  was  departing  from 


1890   dez,"  he  said,  and  declared  he  was  sent  to 

he    could    find. 


Lucius  F.  C.  Garvin  (Democrat) 1903-1905 

George  N.  I'tter  (Republican) 1905-1907 

UNITED  STATES  SENATORS. 


Name. 


Theodore  Foster  

Joseph  Stanton 

Will  am  Bradford 

Ray  Greene .... 

Christopher  Ellery 

Samuel  J   Potter  

Benjamin  Howland 

James  Fenner 

Elisha  Mattbewson 

Francis  Malbone 

Christopher  G  Champlaiu 

William   Hunter 

Jeremiah  B.  Howell 

James  Burrell,  Jr 

Nehemiali  R    Knight 

James  D'Wolf 

Asher  Robbins 

Nathan  F    Dixon 

William  Sprague 

.lames  F.  Simmons 

John  B.  Francis 

Albert  C.  Greene 

John  H.  Clark 

Charles  T   James 

Philip  Allen 

James  F.  Simmons 

Henry  B    Anthony 

Samuel  G   Arnold 

William  Sprague 

Ambrose  E  Buruside 

Nelson  W.  Aldrich 

William  P.  Sheffield 

Jonathan  Chace  

Nathan  P.  Dixon 

George  P    Welmore 


No.  of  Congress,  f    Term. 


8th 
3d 

5th 
7th 
9th 


1st  to 

1st  " 

3d  " 

5th  " 

7th  " 
8th 

8th  to  11  tli 

9th  "  10th 
10th  »  12th 

11th 
11th  to  12th 
12th  "  17th 


12th 
15th 
16th 
17th 
20th 
26th 
27th 
27  th 


15th 
16th 
27  th 
20th 
26th 
27th 
28th 
30th 


28  th 
29th  to  33d 
30th  "  33d 
32d  "  35th 
33d  "  36th 
35th  "  37th 
36th  "  48th 

37th 
38th  to  44th 
44th  "  47th 

47th  '■ 

48th  "  60th 
49th  "  51st 
51st  "  54th 
54th  "  


1789  to  1803 

1789 

1793 

1797 

1801 

1803 

1804 

1805 

1807 


Dieppe    he    was    handed    a    letter    from 

Coligni,  in  which  the  admiral  had  written 

a  postscript,  saying,  "  While  closing  this 

letter  I  have  received  certain  advice  that 

Don   Pedro  Menendez   is   about  to  depart 

1797    from  Spain  to  the  coast  of  Florida.     You 

1805    W*M   take   care  not   to   suffer   him   to   en- 

iso4    croach  upon  us,  any  more  than  he  would 

!g07    that    we     should    encroach    upon    him." 

1811    The  cables   of   the   French   fleet   were   hi- 

1810  to  1811    stantly  cut,  and  they  went  to  sea,  followed 

1811  " 
1811  " 
1817    " 

1820  " 

1821  " 
1825  " 
1839  " 
1842  " 
1S41  " 

1844  " 

1845  " 
1847  " 
1851  " 
1853  " 
1857  " 
1859  " 

1862  " 

1863  " 
1875  " 
1881  " 

1884  " 

1885  " 
1889  " 
1895  " 


1821  by  the  Spanish  squadron,  which,  failing 
1820  to  overtake  the  fugitives,  returned  j,o  the 
1841    shore  farther  south. 

Ribault  returned  to  the  St.  John,  when, 
contrary  to  the  advice  of  Laudonniere,  he 
determined  to  try  to  drive  the  Spaniards 
away  from  the  coast.  When  he  reached 
the  open  sea  he  was  struck  by  a  fierce 
tempest  that  wrecked  his  vessels  not  far 
from  Cape  Canaveral,  on  the  central  coast 
of  Florida.  With  his  command,  Ribault 
started  by  land  for  Fort  Carolina  (built 
on  the  St.  John  by  the  Frenchmen ) . 
ignorant  of  the  fact  that  its  garrison  had 
1889  been  destroyed.  Ribault  divided  his  force 
1895    of  500  men,  about  200  of  them  taking  the 

advance  in  the  march,  the  remainder,  witli 

See    Brown   Ribault,  following  soon  afterwards.     Tlie 
latter  were  betrayed  by  a  sailor,  and  fell 


1825 
1839 
1842 
1844 
1847 
1845 
'1851 
1853 
1857 
1859 
1862 
1884 
1863 
1875 
1881 

1885 


Rhode    Island    College 
University. 

Rhodes,   James   Ford,  historian ;   born    into  the  hands  of  Menendez. 
in  Cleveland,  O.,  May  1,  1848;  educated  at        The  captives  pleaded  for  mercy.    Menen- 
the  universities  of  New  York  and  Chicago,    dez  asked,  "  Are  you  Catholics  or  Luther- 
He    is    the    author    of    a    History    of    the    ans?"      They   answered,   "We   are   all   of 
United   States   from    the   Compromise   of    the  reformed  religion."     He  told  them  he 

429 


RICHARD— RICHMOND 

was  ordered  to  exterminate  all  of  that  fine  which  had  been  imposed  on  him  for 
/aith.  They  offered  him  50,000  ducats  if  defamation  of  character.  He  had  excom- 
he  would  spare  their  lives.  "  Give  up  your  municated  one  of  his  parishioners,  who 
arms  and  place  yourselves  under  my  sued  him  for  defamation  of  character  and 
mercy,"  he  said.  A  small  stream  divided  obtained  a  verdict  of  $1,000  damages, 
the  Frenchmen  from  the  Spaniards.  Father  Gabriel  upon  his  election  left  the 
Menendez  ordered  the  former  to  be  brought  jail  and  proceeded  to  Washington.  He 
over  in  companies  of  ten.  Out  of  sight  died  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  Sept.  13,  1832. 
of  their  companions  left  behind,  they  were  Richardson,  Israel  Bush,  military 
bound  with  their  hands  behind  them,  officer;  born  in  Fairfax,  Vt.,  Dee.  20, 
When  all  were  gathered  in  this  plight  1815;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841; 
they  were  marched  to  a  spot  a  short  dis-  served  in  the  Seminole  War  and  in  the 
tanee  off,  when  they  were  again  asked,  war  against  Mexico ;  and  became  colo- 
'*  Are  you  Catholics  or  Lutherans?"  A  nel  of  the  2d  Michigan  Volunteers  when 
dozen  who  professed  to  be  Catholics,  and  the  Civil  War  broke  out.  He  took  a 
four  others  who  were  mechanics,  useful  prominent  part  in  the  battle  at  Black- 
to  the  Spaniards,  were  led  aside.  The  burn's  Ford  and  Bull  Run,  at  both  of 
remainder,  helpless,  were  butchered  with-  which  he  commanded  a  brigade.  He  was 
out  mercy.  Very  soon  after  this  treacher-  made  r.  brigadier-general,  and  in  the  Penin- 
ous  massacre  Ribault,  with  the  rest  of  sular  campaign  he  commanded  a  division 
his  followers,  reached  the  spot  where  their  in  Sumner's  corps.  On  July  4,  1862,  he 
companions  had  been  betrayed  a  few  hours  was  made  major-general.  He  was  in  the 
before.  Menendez  hurried  back,  and  by  battle  of  South  Mountain,  and  in  the 
the  same  treacherous  method  disarmed  battle  of  Antietam  he  received  a  wound 
Ribault  and  his  friends.  Ribault  was  from  which  he  died  Nov.  3,  1862. 
shown  the  pile  of  unburied  corpses  of  Richardson,  William  Adams,  jurist; 
his  men.  A  ransom  of  100,000  ducats  born  in  Tyngsboro,  Mass.,  Nov.  2,  1821 ; 
was  offered  for  the  lives  of  Ribault  and  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1843;  admitted 
his  friends.  As  before,  they  were  betrayed,  to  the  bar  in  1846;  appointed  to  revise 
and  Ribault  and  all  but  six  or  eight  of  the  statutes  of  Massachusetts  in  1855; 
his  companions  were  murdered,  Sept.  23,  judge  of  probate  in  1866-72;  Secretary  of 
1565.  "They  were  put  to  the  sword,"  the  United  States  Treasury  in  1873-74; 
Menendez  wrote,  "  judging  this  to  be  ex-  resigning  to  accept  the  appointment  of 
pedient  for  the  service  of  God  our  Lord  judge  in  the  United  States  court  of 
and  of  your  Majesty."  See  Florida.  claims,  of  which  he  was  chief  -  justice 
Richard,  Gabriel,  clergyman;  born  in  from  1S85  till  his  death,  in  Washington, 
Saintes,   France,   Oct.    15,    1767;    educated  D.  C,  Oct.  19,  1896. 

at   Angers;    ordained   priest   in   Paris    in        Richmond,  Battle  at.     Gen.  E.  Kirby 

1790;     emigrated    to    America    in     1792,  Smith    led    the    van    in    Bragg's    invasion 

where  he  labored  as  a  missionary  in  Tlli-  of    Kentucky    in    1862.      He    entered    the 

nois  and  Michigan.      On  the  outbreak  of  State  from  east  Tennessee,  and  was  mak- 

the  War  of  1812  he  was  an  ardent  sym-  ing    his    way    rapidly    towards    the    Blue 

pathizer  with  the  Americans.    The  British  Grass  region,  when  he  was  met  by  a  force 

captured   and    imprisoned    him    until    the  organized  by  Gen.  Lew.  Wallace,  but  then 

close   of   the   war,    when    he    returned    to  commanded  by  Gen.  M.  D.  Manson.    It  was 

Michigan.    In  1807,  as  there  was  no  Prot-  part  of  a  force  under  the  direction  of  Gen. 

estant  minister   in   Detroit,   the  governor  William    Nelson.      Manson's    troops    were 

and    other    Protestants    requested    Father  mostly   raw.      A   collision   occurred   when 

Gabriel    to    preach    to    them    in    English,  approaching  Richmond  and  not  far  from 

avoiding  all  controversy.     Father  Gabriel  Rogersville  on  Aug.   30.     A  severe  battle 

accepted  the  invitation,  and  preached  ac-  was  fought  for  three  hours,  when  Manson  • 

ceptably  to  his  hearers.     In  1823  he  was  was  driven  back.       At  this  junction  Nel- 

elected  delegate  to  the  national  House  of  son  arrived  and  took  command.     Half  an 

Representatives    from    the    Territory    of  hour  later  his  troops  were  utterly  routed 

Michigan.     At  the  time  of  his  election  he  and    scattered   in    all    directions.      Nelson 

was  in  jail,  having  been  unable  to  pav  a  was  wounded.    Manson  resumed  command, 

430 


RICHMOND 


but  the  day  was  lost.  Smith's  cavalry 
had  gained  the  rear  of  the  Nationals,  and 
stood  in  the  way  of  their  wild  flight.  Man- 
son  and  his  men  were  made  prisoners. 
!Jhe  estimated  loss  was  about  equal,  that 
of  the  Nationals  having  been  about  5,000 
killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners. 

Richmond,  Campaign  against.  The 
first  collisions  between  the  two  great 
armies  on  the  borders  of  the  Chicka- 
hominy  River  occurred  on  May  23  and  24, 
18G2 — one  near  New  Bridge,  not  far  from 
Cold  Harbor,  between  Michigan  cavalry 
and  a  Louisiana  regiment,  when  thirty- 
seven  of  the  latter  were  captured.  The 
other  was  at  and  near  Mechanicsville,  7  or 
8  miles  from  Richmond,  where  a  part  of 
McClellan's  right  wing  was  advancing 
towards  the  Chickahominy.  There  was  a 
sharp  skirmish  at  Ellison's  Mill  (May 
23),  a  mile  from  Mechanicsville.  To  this 
place  the  Confederates  fell  back,  and  the 
next    morning    were    driven    across    the 


off  the  chief  sources  of  supply  for  the 
Confederate  army  from  the  south,  and 
attempt  the  capture  of  Richmond  from 
that  direction.  He  disencumbered  his 
army  of  about  20,000  sick  and  wounded, 
who  were  sent  to  the  hospitals  at  Wash- 
ington and  elsewhere,  and  with  25,000 
veteran  recruits,  amply  supplied,  and  30,- 
000  volunteers  for  100  days  joining  his 
army,  he  began  another  flank  movement 
on  the  night  of  May  20-21,  1864,  Han- 
cock's corps  leading.  Lee  had  kept  a 
vigilant  watch  of  the  movements  of  the 
Nationals,  and  sent  Longstreet's  corps  to 
march  southward  parallel  with  Hancock. 
Warren  followed  Hancock,  and  Ewell  fol- 
lowed Longstreet's  troops.  Cn  May  21  the 
race  was  fairly  begun,  the  Confederates 
having  the  more  direct  or  shorter  route. 
Lee  outstripped  his  antagonist,  and  when 
the  Nationals  aproached  the  South  Anna 
River  the  Confederates  were  already 
strongly  posted  there  on  the  south  side  of 


RICHMOND    DURIXG   THE    CIVIL   WAR. 

Chickahominy.  On  the  same  morning  the  river,  where  Lee  had  evidently  deter- 
General  McClellan  issued  a  stirring  order  mined  to  make  a  stand, 
for  an  immediate  advance  on  Richmond;  Grant  proceeded  to  attempt  to  dislodge 
but  the  overcautious  commander  hesi-  him.  In  attempts  to  force  passages  across 
tated  to  move  until  the  golden  opportunity  the  stream,  very  sharp  engagements  en- 
had  passed.  President  Lincoln  telegraph-  sued.  Having  partly  crossed  the  North 
ed  to  the  general,  "  I  think  the  time  is  Anna,  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  in 
near  when  you  must  either  attack  Rich-  great  peril.  Its  two  strong  wings  were 
mond  or  give  up  the  job  and  come  to  the  on  one  side  of  the  stream,  and  its  weak 
defence  of  Washington."  centre  on  the  other.  Perceiving  this  peril, 
The  National  and  Confederate  armies  Grant  secretly  recrossed  the  river  with  his 
had  three  times  run  a  race  for  Washing-  troops,  and  resumed  his  march  on  Rich- 
ton.  After  the  battle  at  Spottsylvania  mond  by  a  flank  movement  far  to  the  east- 
Court-house,  they  entered  upon  a  race  for  ward  of  the  Confederate  army.  The  flank- 
Richmond,  then  the  Confederate  capital,  ing  column  was  led  by  Sheridan,  with  two 
Grant  determined  to  transfer  his  army  to  divisions  of  cavalry.  On  the  28th  the 
the   south   side   of   the   James   River,   cut  whole  army  was  south  of  the  Pamunkey, 

431 


RICHMOND,    CAMPAIGN    AGAINST 


MAP   OP   THE    FORTIFICATIONS    AROUND    RICHMOND 


and  in  communication  with  its  new  base  before  the  Nationals  crossed  the  Paniun- 
at  the  White  House.  This  movement  com-  key.  He  was  at  a  point  where  he  could 
pelled  Lee  to  abandon  his  strong  position  cover  the  railways  and  highways  leading 
at  the  North  Anna,  but,  having  a  shorter    to  Richmond. 

route,   he  was   in    another   good   position        The  Nationals  were  now  within  15  milea 

432 


KICHMOND,    CAMPAIGN    AGAINST 

of  Richmond.     Their  only  direct  pathway  Grant  proceeded  to  throw  his  army  across 

to    that    capital    was    across    the    Chicka-  to  the  south  side  of  the  James  River,  and 

hominy.     There    was    much    skirmishing,  to  operate  against  the  Confederate  capital 

and  Grant  was  satisfied  that  he  would  be  on  the  right  of  that  stream.     It  was  near 

•compelled    to    force    the    passage    of    the  the    middle    of    June    before    the    whole 


MITM    LEAVING    THE    CITY. 


Chickahominy  on  Lee's  Hank,  and  he  pre- 
pared for  that  movement  by  sending  Sher- 
idan to  seize  a  point  near  Cold  Harbor, 
where  roads  leading  into  Richmond  di- 
verged. After  a  fight  with  Fitzhugh  Lee's 
cavalry,  it  was  secured,  and  on  the  same 
night  (May  30)  Wright's  corps  pressed 
forward  to  the  same  point.  A  large  body 
of  troops,  under  Gen.  W.  F.  Smith,  called 
from  the  Army  of  the  James,  were  ap- 
proaching Cold  Harbor  at  the  same  time. 
These  took  position  on  Wright's  right 
"wing.  There  a  terrible  battle  occurred 
I  June  1-3),  in  which  both  armies  suffered 
immense  loss.  It  was  now  perceived  that 
ihe  fortifications  around  Richmond  were 
too  formidable  to  warrant  a  direct  attack 
upon  them  with  a  hope  of  success,  so 
vn. — 2  E  43 


National  force  had  crossed  the  Chicka- 
hominy  and  moved  to  the  James  by  way 
of  Charles  City  Court-house.  There  they 
crossed  the  river  in  bonis  and  over  pon- 
toon bridges;  and  on  June  16,  when  the 
entire  army  was  on  the  south  side,  Gen- 
eral Grant  made  his  headquarters  at  City 
Point,  at  the  junction  of  the  Appomattox 
and  James  rivers.  A  portion  of  the  Army 
of  the  James,  under  General  Butler,  had 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  capture 
Petersburg,  where  the  Confederates  had 
constructed  strong  works.  Before  them 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  appeared  on  the 
evening  of  June  16,  and  in  that  vicinity 
the  two  armies  struggled  for  the  mastery 
until  April  the  next  year,  or  about  ten 
months. 
3 


RICHMOND,    CAMPAIGN   AGAINST 


Sunday  morning,  April  2,  1865,  while 
attending  service  at  St.  Paul's  Church, 
President  Davis  received  this  message 
from  General  Lee: 

"It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  we 
should  abandon  our  position  to-night,  or 
run  the  risk  of  being  cut  off  in  the  morn- 
ing." 

Hastily  reading  it  he  left  the  church, 
quickly  followed  by  others,  and  the  ser- 
vice was  abruptly  concluded.  Rumors 
that  Richmond  was  to  be  evacuated  were 
soon  succeeded  by  the  definite  announce- 
ment of  the  fact.  One  special  train  car- 
ried the  President  and  the  cabinet,  to- 
gether with  several  million  dollars  in  gold. 
Late  in  the  afternoon  Governor  Smith 
and  the  members  of  the  legislature  embark- 
ed on  canal-boats  for  Lynchburg.  The 
roads  from  the  city  leading  to  the  north 
and  west  were  crowded  with  wagons,  car- 
riages, and  carts,  horsemen,  and  men  and 
women  on  foot  seeking  for  a  place  of 
refuge. 

The  night  when  the  Confederate  govern- 
ment fled  from  Richmond  was  a  fearful 
one  for  the  inhabitants  of  that  city.  All 
day  after  the  receipt  of  Lee's  despatch — 
"  My  lines  are  broken  in  three  places ; 
Richmond  must  be  evacuated  to-night " — 
the  people  were  kept  in  the  most  painful 
suspense  by  the  reticence  of  the  govern- 
ment, then  making  preparations  to  fly  for 


safety.  That  body  employed  every  vehicle 
for  this  use,  and  the  people  who  prepared 
to  leave  the  city  found  it  difficult  to  get 
any  conveyance.  For  these  as  much  as 
$100  in  gold  was  given  for  service  from  a 
dwelling  to  the  railway  station.  It  was- 
revealed  to  the  people  early  in  the  even- 
ing that  the  Confederate  Congress  had 
ordered  all  the  cotton,  lobacco,  and  other 
property  which  the  owners  could  not  carry 
away,  and  which  was  stored  in  four  great 
warehouses,  to  be  burned  to  prevent  it 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Nationals. 
There  was  a  fresh  breeze  from  the  south, 
and  the  burning  of  these  warehouses 
would  imperil  the  whole  city.  General 
Ewell,  in  command  there,  vainly  remon- 
strated against  the  execution  of  the  order. 
A  committee  of  the  common  council  went 
to  Jefferson  Davis  before  he  had  left  to  re- 
monstrate against  it,  to  which  he  replied 
that  their  statement  that  the  burning  of 
the  warehouses  would  endanger  the  city 
was  "  a  cowardly  pretext  on  the  part  of 
the  citizens,  trumped  up  to  endeavor  to- 
save  their  property  for  the  Yankees."  A 
similar  answer  was  given  at  the  War  De- 
partment. 

The  humane  Ewell  was  compelled  to 
obey,  for  the  order  from  the  War  Depart- 
ment was  imperative.  The  city  council 
took  the  precaution,  for  the  public  safety, 
to  ordei  the  destruction  of  all  liquors  that 


UBBT    PRISON,   RICHMOND. 

434 


BICHMOND,    CAMPAIGN    AGAINST 


might  be  accessible  to  lawless  men.  This 
was  done,  and  by  midnight  hundreds  of 
barrels  of  spirituous  liquors  were  flow- 
ing in  the  gutters,  where  stragglers  from 
the  retreating  army  and  rough  citizens 
gathered  it  in  vessels,  and  so  produced  the 
calamity  the  authorities  endeavored  to 
avert.  The  torch  was  applied,  and  at  day- 
break the  warehouses  were  in  flames.  The 
city  was  already  on  fire  in  several  places. 
The  intoxicated  soldiers,  joined  with  many 
of    the    dangerous    class    of    both    sexes, 


the  city.  When  at  7  a.m.,  the  troops 
were  all  across  the  river,  the  bridges  were 
burned  behind  them.  A  number  of  other 
vessels  in  the  river  were  destroyed.  The 
bursting  of  shells  in  the  arsenal  when  the 
fire  reached  them  added  to  the  horrors 
of  the  scene.  At  noon  about  700  build- 
ings in  the  business  part  of  the  city, 
including  a  Presbyterian  church,  were  in 
ruins.  While  Richmond  was  in  flames 
National  troops  entered  the  city,  and. 
by  great   exertions,   subdued  the  fire  and 


THE   DEVASTATION   IN   RICHMOND. 


formed  a  marauding  mob  of  fearful  pro- 
portions, who  broke  open  and  pillaged 
stores  and  committed  excesses  of  every 
kind.  From  midnight  until  dawn  the  city 
was  a  pandemonium.  The  roaring  mob 
released  the  prisoners  from  the  jail  and 
burned  it.  They  set  fire  to  the  arsenal,  and 
tried  to  destroy  the  Tredegar  Iron  Works. 
Conflagrations  spread  rapidly,  for  the  fire 
department  was  powerless,  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  forenoon  (April  3)  a  greater 
portion  of  the  principal  business  part  of 
Richmond  was  a  blazing  furnace. 

Between  midnight  and  dawn  the  Con- 
federate troops  made  their  way  across  the 
bridges  to  the  south  side  of  the  James. 
At  3  a.m.  the  magazine  near  the  alms- 
house was  fired  and  blown  up  with  a  con- 
cussion that  shook  the  city  to  its  founda- 
tions. Tt  was  followed  by  the  explosion 
of   the   Confederate   ram    Virginia,   below 

4 


saved  the  city  from  utter  destruction. 
Many  million  dollars'  worth  of  prop- 
erty had  been  annihilated.  Gen.  Godfrey 
Weitzel  had  been  left,  with  a  portion 
of  the  Army  of  the  James,  on  the 
north  side  of  that  river,  to  menace 
Richmond,  and  he  kept  up  a  continual 
show  of  great  numbers,  which  had  de- 
ceived Longstreet,  standing  in  defence  of 
the  Confederate  capital.  After  midnight 
on  April  3.  a  great  light  in  Richmond, 
the  sound  of  explosions,  and  other  events, 
revealed  to  Weitzel  the  fact  that  the  Con- 
federates were  evacuating  the  city.  At 
daylight  he  put  Draper's  negro  brigade 
in  motion  towards  Richmond.  The  place 
of  every  terra-torpedo  in  front  of  the  Con- 
federate works  was  marked  by  a  small 
flag,  for  the  safety  of  their  own  men,  and 
in  their  hasty  departure  they  forgot  to  re- 
move them.  Cannon  on  the  deserted 
35 


BICH    MOUNTAIN 


works  were  left  unharmed.  Early  in  the 
morning  the  whole  of  Weitzel's  force  were 
in  the  suburbs  of  the  town.  A  demand 
was  made  for  its  surrender,  and  at  seven 
o'clock  Joseph  Mayo,  the  mayor,  handed 
the  keys  of  the  public  buildings  to  the 
messenger  of  the  summons.  Weitzel  and  his 
staff  rode  in  at  eight  o'clock,  at  the  head 
of  Ripley's  brigade  of  negro  troops,  when 
Lieut.  J.  Livingston  Depeyster,  of  Weit- 
zel's staff,  ascended  to  the  roof  of  the 
State-house  with  a  national  flag,  and,  with 
tne  assistance  of  Captain  Langdon,  Weit- 
zel's chief  of  artillery,  unfurled  it  over 
that  building,  and  in  its  Senate  chamber 
the  office  of  headquarters  was  established. 
Weitzel  occupied  the  dwelling  of  Jeffer- 
son Davis,  and  General  Shepley  was  ap- 
pointed military  governor.  The  troops 
were  then  set  at  work  to  extinguish  the 
flames.  See  "  On  to  Richmond!";  "  On  to 
Washington!" 

Rich  Mountain,  Battle  of.  Early  in 
1861  the  Confederates  attempted  to  per- 
manently occupy  the  country  south  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railway  in  Virginia. 
They  were  placed  under  the  command  of 
R.  S.  Garnett,  a  meritorious  soldier,  who 
was  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  was 
brevetted  for  gallantry  at  Buena  Vista. 
He  made  his  headquarters  at  Beverly,  in 
Randolph  county,  and  prepared  to  prevent 
the  National  troops  from  pushing  through 
the  mountain-gaps  into  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  The  roads  through  these  gaps 
were  fortified.  At  the  same  time  ex-Gov- 
ernor H.  A.  Wise,  with  the  commission  of 
a  brigadier-general,  was  organizing  a 
brigade  in  the  Great  Ranawha  Valley,  be- 
yond the  Greenbrier  Mountains.  He  was 
ordered  to  cross  the  intervening  moun- 
tains, and  co-operate  with  Garnett.  Gen- 
eral MeClellan  took  command  of  his 
troops  in  western  Virginia,  at  Grafton, 
towards  the  close  of  May,  and  the  entire 
force  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Vh'ginia 
troops  under  his  control  numbered  full 
20,000  men.  With  these  he  advanced 
against  the  Confederates.  He  sent  Gen. 
J.  D.  Cox  with  a  detachment  to  keep  Wise 
in  check,  while  with  his  main  body,  about 
10,000  strong,  he  moved  to  attack  Gar- 
nett at  Laurel  Hill,  near  Beverly.  At  the 
same  time  a  detachment  4,000  strong,  un- 
der General  Morris,  moved  towards 
Beverly  by  way  of  Philips    while  another 

4 


body,  led  by  General  Hill,  was  sent  to 
West  Union,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  any 
Confederates  by  that  way  over  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains,  to  join  Johnston  at 
Winchester. 

Garnett  was  then  strongly  intrenched  at 
Laurel  Hill,  with  about  8,000  Virginians. 
Georgians,  Tennesseeans,  and  Carolinians. 
To  this  camp  Morris  nearly  penetrated, 
but  not  to  attack  it — only  to  make  feints 
to  divert  Garnett  while  MeClellan  should 
gain  his  rear.  There  was  almost  daily 
heavy  skirmishing,  chiefly  by  Colonels 
Dumont  and  Milroy,  on  the  part  of  the 
Nationals.  So  industrious  and  bold  had 
been  the  scouts,  that  when  MeClellan  ap- 
peared they  gave  him  full  information 
of  the  region  and  the  forces  there.  Dur- 
ing a  few  days,  so  daring  had  been  the 
conduct  of  the  Nationals  that  they  were 
regarded  almost  with  awe  by  the  Confed- 
erates. They  called  the  9th  Indiana — 
whose  exploits  were  particularly  notable 
— "  Swamp  Devils."  While  on  the  road 
towards  Beverly,  MeClellan  ascertained 
that  about  1,500  Confederates  under  Col. 
John  Pegram,  were  occupying  a  heavily 
intrenched  position  in  the  rear  of  Gar- 
nett, in  the  Rich  Mountain  Gap,  and  com- 
manding the  road  over  the  mountains 
to  Staunton,  the  chief  highway  to  south- 
ern Virginia.  Pegram  boasted  that  his 
position  could  not  be  turned;  but  it  was 
turned  by  Ohio  and  Indiana  regiments  and 
some  cavalry,  all  under  the  command  of 
Colonel  Rosecrans,  accompanied  by  Colo- 
nel Lander,  who  was  with  Dumont 
at  Philippi.  They  made  a  detour,  July 
11,  in  a  heavy  rain-storm,  over  most  peril- 
ous ways  among  the  mountains  for  about 
8  miles,  and  at  noon  were  on  the  summit 
of  Rich  Mountain,  high  above  Pegram's 
camp,  and  a  mile  from  it. 

Rosecrans  thought  his  movement  was 
unknown  to  the  Confederates.  Pegram 
was  informed  of  it,  and  sent  out  900  men, 
with  two  cannon,  up  the  mountain-road, 
to  meet  the  Nationals,  and  just  as  they 
struck  the  Staunton  road  the  latter  were 
fiercely  assailed.  Rosecrans  was  without 
cannon.  He  sent  forward  his  skirmishers ; 
and  while  these  were  engaged  in  fighting, 
his  main  body  was  concealed.  Finally 
Pegram's  men  came  out  from  their  works 
and  charged  across  the  road,  when  the 
Indianians  sprang  to  their  feet,  fired,  and, 
36 


RICH    MOUNTAIN— RICKETTS 


BATTLE    OF    RICH    MOUNTAIN. 


with  a  wild  shout,  sprang  upon  the  foe 
with  fixed  bayonets.  A  sharp  conflict 
ensued,  when  the  Confederates  gave  way. 
and  fled  in  great  confusion  down  the  de- 
clivities of  the  mountain  to  Pegram's 
camp.  The  battle  lasted  about  an  hour 
and  a  half.  The  number  of  Union  troops 
engaged  was  about  1,800,  and  those  of 
the  Confederates  half  that  number.  The 
former  lost  18  killed  and  about  40  wound- 
ed;  the  latter  140  killed  and  a  large  num- 
ber wounded  and  made  prisoners.  Their 
entire  loss  was  about  400.  For  his  gal- 
lantry on  this  occasion,  Rosecrans  was 
made  a  brigadier-general. 

Garnett  was  a  prey  to  the  Nationals. 
In  light  marching  order  he  pushed  on  tow- 
ards Beverly,  hoping  to  escape  over  the 
mountains  towards  Staunton.  He  was  too 
late,  for  McClellan  moved  rapidly  to 
Beverly.  Garnett  then  turned  back,  and, 
taking  a  road  through  a  gap  at  Leedsville. 
plunged  into  the  wild  mountain  regions  of 
the  Cheat  Range,  taking  with  him  only 
one  cannon.     His  reserves  at  Beverly  fled 

4i 


over  the  mountains.  Meanwhile  Rose- 
crans had  entered  Pegram's  deserted  camp, 
while  the  latter,  dispirited  and  weary, 
with  about  600  followers,  was  trying  to 
escape.  He  surrendered  to  McClellan 
July   14. 

Ricketts,  James  Brewerton,  military 
officer;  born  in  New  York  City,  June  21, 
1817;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1839; 
served  in  the  war  against  Mexico ;  and 
when  the  Civil  War  began  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  1st  Battery  of  rifled 
guns.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  where  he  was  severely 
wounded,  taken  prisoner,  and  confined 
eight  months  in  Richmond,  when  he  was 
exchanged.  He  was  made  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  volunteers :  was  in  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run,  in  which  he  commanded  a 
division  of  the  Army  of  Virginia,  and  was 
wounded;  and  in  the  battle  of  Antietam 
he  commanded  General  Hooker's  corps 
after  that  officer  was  wounded.  He  was 
engaged  in  the  campaign  against  Rich- 
mond from  March  until  July,  1864,  and  in 
7 


RIDEING— RIGHTS 


JAMES    BREWEKTON    RICKETTS. 

the  Shenandoah  campaign  from  July  until 
October,  1864.  He  was  brevetted  briga- 
dier-general, United  States  army,  for  gal- 
lantry at  Cedar  Creek,  and  major-general 
for  meritorious  services  through  the  war, 
and  was  retired  because  of  wounds  in 
1867.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
Sept.  22,  1887. 

Rideing,  William  Henry,  editor;  born 
in  Liverpool,  England,  Feb.  17,  1853;  has 
been  connected  with  the  Springfield  Re- 
publican, New  York  Times,  New  York 
Tribune,  and  the  Youth's  Companion. 
He  is  the  author  of  Pacific  Railways 
Illustrated:  A  Saddle  in  the  Wild  West, 
etc. 

Ridpath,  John  Clark,  author;  born  in 
Putnam  county.  Ind.,  April  26,  1841  : 
graduated  at  the  Asbury  University  in 
1863.  He  is  the  author  of  Life  of  James 
A.  Garfield;  Life  of  James  G.  Blaine: 
Cyclopaedia  of  Universal  History;  The 
Great  Races  of  Mankind,  etc.,  and  many 
school-books.  He  died  in  New  York  Citv, 
July  31,  1000. 

Riedesel,  Baron  Frederick  Adolph, 
military  officer:  born  in  Lauterbach, 
Rhine-Hesse,  Germany,  June  3,  1738. 
Leaving  the  College  of  Marburg,  he  enter- 
ed the  English  army  as  ensign,  and  served 
in  the  Seven  Years'  War  under  Prince 
Ferdinand.  In  1760  he  became  captain  of 
the  Hessian  Hussars,  and  was  made  lieu- 
tenant-colonel   of    the    Black    Hussars    in 

4; 


1762,  adjutant-general  of  the  Brunswick 
army  in  1767,  colonel  of  carabineers  in 
1772,  and  a  major-general,  with  the  com- 
mand of  a  division  of  4,000  Brunswiekers, 
hired  by  the  British  Court  to  fight  British 
subjects  in  America  early  in  1776.  Rie- 
desel arrived  at  Quebec  June  1,  1776; 
aided  in  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  (July 
6),  and  in  dispersing  the  American  troops 
at  Hubbardton,  and  was  made  a  prisoner 
with  Burgoyne;  was  exchanged  in  the  fall 
of  1780;  returned  home  in  August,  1783, 
and  was  made  lieutenant-general  in  com- 
mand of  troops  serving  in  Holland  in 
1787.  He  became  commander-in-chief  of 
the  military  of  Brunswick.  He  died  in 
Brunswick,  Jan.  6,  1800.  His  Memoirs, 
Letters,  and  Journals  in  America,  edited 
by  Max  Von  Eelking,  were  translated  by 
William  L.  Stone.  His  wife,  Fredericka 
Charlotte  Louisa,  accompanied  him  to 
America,  and  wrote  charming  letters,  and 
a  journal,  which  were  published  in  Boston 
in  1799,  of  which  a  translation  was  made 
bv  Mr.  Stone.     She  was  a  daughter  of  the 


FREDERICK   ADOLPH    RIEDESEL. 

Prussian  minister,  Massow.     She  died   in 
Berlin,  March  29,  1808. 

Rights,  Bill  of.     See  Bill  of  Rights. 

Rights,  Petition  of.    See  Petition  of 

RTGnTS. 


M  RIGHTS    OF  MAN  "—RIKER 

"  Rights  of  Man,"  the  title  of  Thomas  the  British  ministry  for  taxing  the  Eng- 
Paine's  famous  reply  to  Edmund  Burke's  lish-American  colonists.  It  was  written 
Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution.  It  by  James  Otis,  of  Boston,  and  produced 
was  issued  in  England,  and  had  an  im-  a  profound  sensation  in  America  and  in 
mense  sale.  It  was  translated  into  French,  Great  Britain.  Its  boldness,  its  logic,  its 
and  won  for  the  author  a  seat  in  the  eloquence,  combined  to  make  it  a  sort  of 
French  National  Assembly.  Thomas  Jef-  orinamme  for  the  patriots.  In  it  Mr. 
ferson,  then  Secretary  of  State,  had  come  Otis,  while  he  contended  for  the  charter 
from  France  filled  with  the  radical  ideas  privileges  of  the  colonists,  did  not  admit 
of  the  French  Revolutionists,  and  thought  that  the  loss  of  their  charters  would  de- 
he  saw,  in  the  coolness  of  the  President  prive  them  of  their  rights.  He  said: 
and  others,  a  sign  of  decaying  republi-  li  Two  or  three  innocent  colony  charters 
canism  in  America.  The  essays  of  Adams,  have  been  threatened  with  destruction 
entitled  Discourses  on  Davila,  disgusted  one  hundred  and  forty  years  past.  ...  A 
him,  and  he  believed  that  Adams,  Hamil-  set  of  men  in  America,  without  honor  or 
ton,  Jay,  and  others  were  plotting  for  the  love  for  their  country,  have  been  long 
establishment  of  a  monarchy  in  the  United  grasping  at  powers  which  they  think  un- 
States.  To  thwart  these  fancied  designs  attainable  while  these  charters  stand  in 
and  to  inculcate  the  doctrines  of  the  the  way.  But  they  will  meet  with  insur- 
French  Revolution,  Jefferson  hastily  mountable  obstacles  to  their  project  for 
printed  in  America,  and  circulated,  Paine's  enslaving  the  British  colonies,  should 
Rights  of  Man,  which  had  just  been  re-  those  arising  from  provincial  charters  be 
ceived  from  England.  It  was  originally  rerao'  ed.  .  .  .  Our  forefathers  were  soon 
dedicated  "  to  the  President  of  the  United  worn  away  in  the  toils  of  hard  labor  on 
States."  It  inculcated  principles  con-  their  little  plantations  and  in  war  with 
sonant  with  the  feelings  and  opinions  the  savages.  They  thought  they  were 
of  the  great  body  of  the  American  people,  earning  a  sure  inheritance  for  their  pos- 
The  author  sent  fifty  copies  to  Washing-  terity.  Could  they  imagine  it  would  ever 
ton,  who  distributed  them  among  his  be  thought  just  to  deprive  them  or  theirs 
friends,  but  his  official  position  admonished  of  these  charter  privileges?  Should  this 
him  to  be  prudently  silent  about  the  ever  be  the  case,  there  are,  thank  God, 
work,  for  it  bore  hard  upon  the  British  natural,  inherent,  and  inseparable  rights, 
government.  The  American  edition,  issued  as  men  and  citizens,  that  would  remain 
from  a  Philadelphia  press,  contained  a  after  the  so-much-wished- for  catastrophe, 
commendatory  note  from  Mr.  Jefferson,  and  which,  whatever  became  of  charters, 
which  had  been  privately  written,  and  not  can  never  be  abolished,  de  jure  or  de  facto, 
intended  for  publication.  In  it  he  had  till  the  general  conflagration."  See  Otis, 
aimed    some    severe    observations    against  James. 

the  author  of  the  Discourses  on  Davila.  Rights  of  the  Colonists.     See  Adams, 

This   created   ?nuch   bitterness   of   feeling.  Samuel. 

Warm  discussions  arose.  John  Quincy  Riis,  Jacob  August,  journalist;  born 
Adams,  son  of  the  Vice-President,  wrote  a  in  Denmark,  May  3,  1849;  has  been  con- 
series  of  articles  in  reply  to  the  Rights  nected  with  the  New  York  Sun  and  has 
of  Man,  over  the  signature  of  "  Publico."  been  active  in  the  movement  for  tenement- 
They  were  published  in  the  Boston  Gen-  house  and  school-house  reform,  and  also 
tinel,  and  reprinted  in  pamphlet  form,  for  the  making  of  small  parks  in  the 
with  the  name  of  John  Adams  on  the  crowded  districts  of  New  York  City.  He 
title-page,  as  it  was  supposed  they  were  is  the  author  of  How  the  Other  Half  Lives; 
written  by  him.  Several  writers  answered  The  Children  of  the  Poor,  etc. 
them.  "A  host  of  champions  entered  the  Riker,  James,  historian;  born  in  New 
arena  immediately  in  your  defence,"  Jef-  York  City,  May  11,  1822.  He  is  the  au- 
ferson  wrote  to  Paine.  See  Ingersoix,  thor  of  A  Brief  History  of  the  Riker  Fam- 
Robert  Green;  Paine,  Thomas.  ily;  The  Annals  of  Newtoicn;  Origin  and 

"  Rights  of  the  British  Colonies  As-  Early  Annals  of  Harlem;  The  Indian  His- 

serted    and    Proved,"    the    title    of    a  tory  of  Tioga   County,  etc.     He  died  i« 

pamphlet  in  opposition  to  the  scheme  of  Waverly,  N.  Y.,  in  July,  1889. 

439 


RILEY— RIPLEY 


Riley,    Fort,    a    fortification    of    the  left  133  killed  and  wounded  on  the  field; 

United  States  in  Geary  county,  Kan.,  on  See  Missionary  Ridge,  Battle  of. 

the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  4  miles  north-  Ringgold,    Cadwalader,   naval   officer  \  . 

west   of  Junction   City,   the   county   seat,  born  in  Washington  county,  Md.,  Aug.  20r 

A  military  post  was   established   here   in  1802;  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  in 

1853,    and,    under    the    name    of    Camp  1819;   was  retired  by  reason  of  ill-health 

Centre,   because   it   was   the   geographical  in    1855;    and  was  recalled  to  the  active 

centre   of   the   United    States,   was   garri-  list   and    promoted   captain   in    1856.     At 

soned  in  1855.    Later  in  the  same  year  the  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil  War  he  was. 

name  was  changed  to  its  present  one  in  ordered    to    the    command    of    the    Sabine 

honor  of  Gen.  B.  C.  Riley.    In  1887,  under  and  engaged  in  blockading  Southern  ports- 

an   act  of  Congress,   this  army  post  was  and  in  operations  against  some  of  them, 

entirely  transformed,  enlarged,  and  equip-  He    was    retired    in    1864,    and    promoted 

ped  to  accommodate  a   permanent   school  rear-admiral   on  the  retired  list  in   I860, 

of    instruction   in    drill    and   practice   for  He  died  in  New  York  City,  April  29,1867, 

the  cavalry  and  light  artillery  service  of  Riots  in  the  United  States.     The  fol- 

the  United  States.    The  post  now  occupies  lowing  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  most  im- 

21,000  acres,  and  on  a  conspicuous  site  is  portant  riots: 

a  monument  to  the  memory  of  the  officeis    Boston   massacre 1770 

and  men  killed  in  the  battles  of  Wounded    "?<£*?£*  mob  "New  York 1788 

T.  i      t->         i      tvt-     •  a      at     At  Baltimore,  Md..... 1812,  18G1 

Knee     and     Drexel     Mission,     in     South    Alton    in         1837 

Dakota,     in     1890,     culminations    of    the   Philadelphia 18-1  i 

Messiah  craze.  Astor  Place  riots  in  New  York,  growing 

Riley,  James  Whitcomb,  poet;  born  in  on\  of  rjy£lry  between  the  actors  For- 

n         n  ij    t   j     •      ioro     •     Z\  j-i  f        rest  and  Macready May  10,   184$ 

Greenfield,  Ind.,  m  1853;  is  the  author  of  Draft  riot  in  New   York  .   mob  in  pos. 

The  Old  Smmmin'-Bole;  Rhymes  of  Child-        session  of  the  city July  13  to  17,  18G3 

hood;  Old-fashioned  Roses,  etc.  Orange  riot  in  New  York  between  Catho- 

Ringgold,  battle  oe.  When,  on  Nov.  ^S™TT*  .™.S.  ^V^  187. 
25,  1863,  the  Confederates  retreated  from  Cincinnati.  After  a  verdict  of  man- 
Missionary  Ridge  towards  Ringgold  they  slaughter  in  the  Berner  and  Palmer 
destroved  the  bridges  behind  them.  Earlv  murder  trial,  both  having  confessed 
.,  "  .  ■  oi  -r.  i  j  the  murder.  Twenty  untried  murder 
the  next  morning,  Sherman,  Palmer,  and  erg  in  the  county  jaiL    Six  days.  riot 

Hooker  were  sent  in  pursuit.     Both  Sher-        began March  28,  1884 

man  and  Palmer  struck   a   rear-guard   of    Anarchists  in  Chicago,  111 May  4,  188(5 

the  fugitives  late   on  the  same  day,   and  E1*ven  r,ta"an.s'  ^I'^f J°  ^oTni 

°                                                 »            i  der   of   David    C.    Hennessy.    chief   of 

the  latter  captured  three  guns  from  them.  poiice,  are  killed  in  the  parish  prison, 

At   Greysville    Sherman    halted   and    sent        New  Orleans March  14,  1891 

Howard"  to  destroy  a  large  section  of  the  Carnegie    iron    and    steel    workers    at 

.,             „,.  ,                    i.  a     r.  -a.          „-j.i  Homestead,   Pa.    Strike   lasted   nearly 

railway     which     connected     Dalton     with        six  months  ;  began Feb.  25,  1893 

Cleveland,   and   thus   severed   the    commu-  Federal  troons  ordered  to  Chicago  dur- 

nication    between    Bragg    and    Burnsidc.  ing  the  railway  strikes  beginning... 

Hooker,    meanwhile,    had    pushed    on    to  Colorado    State    troops    orde redout  2to  189* 

Ringgold,  Osterhaus  leading,  Geary  follow-        suppress  miners'  riots  in 1903-04 

ing,  and  Cruft  in  the  rear,  making  numer-  See  Strikes. 

ous   prisoners   of    stragglers.     At    a    deep  Ripley,    Eleazar   Wheelock,    military 

gorge  General  Cleburne,  covering  Bragg's  officer;  born  in  Hanover,  N.  H.,  April  15, 

retreat,    made    a    stand,    with    guns    well  1782;   was  a  nephew  of  President   Whee- 

posted.     Hooker's  guns  had  not  yet  come  lock,  of  Dartmouth   College;    studied  and 

up,   and   his   impatient   troops   were   per-  practised    law    in    Portland;    was    in    the 

mitted   to   attack   the   Confederates   with  legislature    of    Massachusetts,    and    was 

small-arms    only.     A    severe    struggle    en-  chosen  speaker  of  the  Assembly  in   1812. 

sued,  and  in  the  afternoon,  when  some  of  He   was   also    State   Senator.     In   March, 

Hooker's   guns  were   in   position   and   the  1813,  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  21?t 

Confederates  were  flanked,  the  latter  re-  Infantry.     He  was  active  on  the  Northern 

treated.     The  Nationals  lost  432  men,  of  frontier  until  appointed  nrigadier-general 

whom   65  were  killed.     The  Confederates  in  the  spring  of  1814,  when  he  took  part 

440 


RIPLEY— RITTENHO  USE 


in  the  events  on  the  Niagara  frontier. 
For  his  services  during  that  campaign  he 
received  from  Congress  the  brevet  of  ma- 
jor-general and  a  gold  medal.  General 
Ripley  left  the  army  in  1820;  practised 
law  in  Louisiana;  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Senate;  and  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress from  1834  till  his  death  in  West 
Feliciana,  La.,  March  2,  1839.  He  was 
wounded  in  the  battle  at  York,  and  in  the 
sortie  at  Fort  Erie  he  was  shot  through 
the  neck.    These  wounds  caused  his  death. 

Ripley,  Ezra,  clergyman ;  born  in 
Woodstock,  Conn.,  May  1,  1751;  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1776;  ordained  in  1778. 
In  a  pamphlet  entitled  A  History  of  the 
Fight  at  Concord,  he  proved  that  though 
the  enemy  had  fired  first  at  Lexington,  the 
Americans  fired  first  in  Concord,  his  own 
town.  He  died  in  Concord,  Mass.,  Sept. 
21,  1841. 

Ripley,  George,  editor;  born  in  Green- 
field, Mass.,  Oct.  3,  1802;  was  an  able 
writer  and  a  most  industrious  man  of  let- 
ters, having  edited,  translated,  and  writ- 
ten numerous  works  on  a  great  variety 
of  subjects,  and  gained  a  wide  reputation 
as  a  scholar,  editor,  and  journalist.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1823, 
and  Cambridge  Divinity  School  in  1826; 
became  pastor  of  the  Thirteenth  Congre- 
gational   (Unitarian)    Church  in  Boston; 


.»..>. 


L3 


GEOROE    RIPLEY 


and  was  prominent  in  the  Brook  Farm 
Association  (q.  v.)  In  1840-41  he  was 
associate  editor  with  Ralph  Waldo  Emer- 
son and  Margaret  Fuller  of  the  Dial,  the 
organ  of  the  New  England  Transcenden- 
talists;  and  with  Charles  A.  Dana,  Parke 
Godwin,  and  J.  S.  Dwight,  of  the  Har- 
binger, an  advocate  of  socialism  as  pro- 
pounded by  Fourier.  From  1849  until  his 
death  Mr.  Ripley  was  the  literary  editor  of 
the  New  York  Tribune.  In  conjunction 
with  Charles  A.  Dana,  Dr.  Ripley  edited 
Appleton's  New  American  Cyclopaedia  (16 
volumes,  1857-63),  and  a  new  edition 
(1873-76).  He  died  in  New  York  City, 
July  4,  1880. 

Ripley,  James  Wolfe,  soldier;  born 
in  Windham,  Conn.,  Dec.  10,  1794;  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy in  1814;  served  in  the  War  of  1812, 
participating  in  the  defence  of  Sackett's 
Harbor.  During  the  Seminole  War  he  was 
engaged  in  the  capture  of  Pensacola  and 
San  Carlos  de  Barrancas.  He  received  the 
brevet  of  brigadier-general  in  1861,  and 
later  was  promoted  to  full  rank.  He  died 
in  Hartford,  Conn.,  March  16,  1870. 

Ripley,  Roswell  Sabine,  soldier;  born 
in  Worthington,  O.,  March  14,  1823;  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy in  1843;  served  in  the  Mexican  and 
Civil  wars,  and  in  1861  was  appointed 
brigadier-general.  He  published,  in  1849, 
a  History  of  the  Mexican  War.  He  died 
in  New  York  City,  March  26,  1887. 

Rittenhouse,  David,  astronomer;  born 
in  Roxboro,  Pa.,  April  8,  1732;  was  of 
German  descent.  His  great-grandfather 
established  at  Germantown,  in  1690,  the 
first  paper-mill  in  America.  Accidental- 
ly falling  in  with  instruments  and  mathe- 
matical books  of  a  deceased  uncle  while 
working  on  his  father's  farm,  David  had 
mastered  Newton's  Principia  and  inde- 
pendently discovered  the  methods  of  flux- 
ions before  he  was  nineteen  years  of  age. 
He  early  became  a  skilful  mechanic,  and, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-three,  planned  and 
constructed  an  orrery,  which  was  pur- 
chased by  Princeton  College.  He  after- 
wards constructed  a  larger  and  more 
perfect  one  for  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. In  1763  he  was  employed  in  de- 
termining the  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line 
(g.  v.),  and  afterwards  fixed  other  State 
boundaries.     In  1769  the  American  Philo- 


441 


RIVER    AND    HARBOR   BILLS— RIVINGTON 


DAVID    RITTENHOCBB. 

6ophical  Society  appointed  him  to  observe 
the  transit  of  Venus  at  Philadelphia.  He 
erected  a  temporary  observatory  for  the 
purpose  on  the  Walnut  Street  front  of  the 
State-house.  It  is  said  that  the  emotion 
of  Rittenhouse  was  so  great  at  the  appar- 
ent contact  at  the  time  of  the  transit  that 
he  fainted.  In  Philadelphia  Rittenhouse 
continued  his  manufacture  of  clocks  and 
mathematical  instruments  several  years. 
From  1777  to  1779  he  was  treasurer  of 
Pennsylvania;  in  1791  he  succeeded  Frank- 
lin as  president  of  the  American  Philo- 
sophical Society;  and  from  1792  to  1795 
was  director  of  the  United  States  Mint. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences  of  Boston.  He  died  in  Phil- 
adelphia, June  26,  1796. 

River  and  Harbor  Bills.  The  first  bill 
for  harbor  inipiwements  in  the  United 
States  was  passed  March  3,  1823.  Polk  in 
1846  and  Pierce  in  1854  vetoed  such  bills. 
In  1870  a  $2,000,000  appropriation  was 
made,  the  largest  amount  up  to  that  time. 

River  Raisin,  Mich.,  is  remarkable  in 
history  as  the  place  of  a  massacre  on  Jan. 
23,  1813.  General  Winchester,  with  about 
800  Americans,  was  encamped  on  that 
river,  and  at  dawn,  on  Jan.  22,  General 
Proctor,  with  1,500  British  and  Indians, 
fell  upon  them.  After  a  severe  action  Win- 
chester surrendered,  under  promise  of  pro- 
tection from  the  Indians.  But  Proctor 
marched  off,  leaving  no  guard  for  the 
Americans.  His  Indians  returned,  and 
killed  and  scalped  a  large  number  of  them. 
The  American  loss  was  over  300  killed 
(mostly  after  the  fight) ,  and  the  rest  were 


made  prisoners.  See  Frenchtown,  Mas- 
sacre AT. 

Rives,  William  Cabell,  diplomatist; 
born  in  Nelson  county,  Va.,  May  4,  1793; 
was  educated  at  Hampden-Sidney  and 
William  and  Mary  colleges;  studied  law 
under  the  direction  of  Jefferson,  a  member 
of  the  State  constitutional  convention  in 
1816;  of  the  State  legislature  in  1817-19 
and  in  1822,  and  of  Congress  in  1823-29; 
was  minister  to  France  in  1829-32;  and 
United  States  Senator  in  1832-45.  He 
was  again  minister  to  France  in  1849-53. 
He  sympathized  with  the  secession  move- 
ment, and  in  February,  1861,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  peace  congress.  After  Virginia 
joined  the  Confederacy,  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Confederate  Congress.  He  died 
near  Charlottesville,  Va.,  April  25,   1868. 

Rivington,  James,  journalist;  born  in 
London,  England,  about  1724;  was  en- 
gaged in  bookselling  in  London,  and  fail- 
ing, came  to  America  in  1760,  and  estab- 
lished a  book-store  in  Philadelphia  the 
same  year.  In  1761  he  opened  one  near 
the  foot  of  Wall  Street,  New  York,  where 
his  New  York  Gazetteer,  a  weekly  news- 
paper, was  established  in  April,  1773. 
It  was  soon  devoted  to  the  royal  cause, 
and  his  trenchant  paragraphs  against  the 
"  rebels  *'  made  him  detested  by  the  Whigs. 
To  sarcasm  he  added  good-natured  ridi- 
cule. Isaac  Sears,  a  leader  of  the  Sons 
of  Liberty,  was  so  irritated  by  him  that, 
with  a  company  of  light-horsemen  from 
Connecticut,  he  destroyed  Rivington's 
printing  establishment  in  November,  1775, 
after  which  the  latter  went  to  England. 


WALWCT    STREET    FRONT    OP    THE    STATE-HOCSB. 
(From  an  old  print  of  the  period.) 


442 


ROACH— ROANOKE   ISLAND 


JAM  US    RIVINGTOX. 


in  New  York  City,  where  he  built  the 
first  compound  engines  made  in  the 
United  States.  He  purchased  the  ship- 
yards in  Chester,  Pa.,  in  1871,  and  under 
the  name  of  the  Delaware  River  Iron  Ship- 
building and  Engine  Works  enlarged  them 
till  their  value  was  estimated  at  $2,000,- 
000.  Here  he  built  about  114  iron  ves- 
sels, including  the  cruisers  Atlanta,  Chi- 
cuijo,  Boston,  and  other  vessels  for  the 
United  States  navy.  He  died  in  New 
York  City,  Jan.  10,  1887. 

Roanoke,     First     Voyage     to.      See 
Amidas,   Philip. 

Roanoke  Island  was  discovered  by 
Amidas  and  Barlow  in  July,  1584,  and 
taken  possession  of  in  the  name  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  These  navigators  spent  sev- 
Appointed  king's  printer  in  New  York,  eral  weeks  in  explorations  of  that  island 
he  returned  late  in  1776  with  new  print-  and  Pamlico  and  Albemarle  sounds,  and 
ing  materials,  and  in  1777  resumed  the  in  trafficking  with  the  natives.  "  The 
publication  of  his  paper  under  the  title  people,"  wrote  the  mariners,  "  were  most 
of  Rivington's  New  York  Loyal  Gazette,  gentle,  loving,  and  faithful,  void  of  all 
Late  in  the  year  he  changed  it  to  Royal  guile  and  treason,  and  such  as  lived  after 
Gazette.  Shrewd  and  unscru- 
pulous, after  the  defeat  of 
Cornwallis  (1781),  he  per- 
ceived the  hopelessness  of  the 
royal  cause  and  endeavored  to 
make  his  peace  with  the  Whigs 
by  Becretly  sending  informa- 
tion to  Washington  concerning 
public  affairs  in  the  city.  This 
treason  was  practised  until  the 
evacuation  of  the  city  by  the 
British.  When  the  loyalists 
fled  and  the  American  army 
entered  the  city  (1783),  Riv- 
ington  remained  unharmed,  to 
the  astonishment  of  those  not 
in  the  secret.  He  changed  the 
title  of  his  paper  to  Rivington's 
New  York  Gazette  and  Univer- 
sal Advertiser.  But  his  busi- 
ness declined,  as  he  had  lost 
the  confidence  of  both  Whigs 
ard  Tories,  and  he  lived  in 
comparative  poverty  until  his 
death  in  July,  1802. 

Roach,  John,  ship-builder; 
born  in  Mitchellstown,  Ireland, 
in  1815;  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1829  and  secured  em- 
ployment in  the  Howell  Iron- 
works of  New  Jersey;  later 
founded   the   Aetna   Iron-works 


MAP   OK   KOANOKR    ISLAJTD. 


443 


BOANOKE    ISLAND 


the  manner  of  the  Golden  Age."  They 
were  hospitably  entertained  by  the  moth- 
er of  Wingina,  King  of  Roanoke,  who 
was  absent.  When  they  left  they  took 
with  them  Manteo  and  Wanchese,  two 
dusky  lords  of  the  woods  from  the  neigh- 
boring main.  Raleigh  sent  a  squadron 
under  Sir  Richard  Grenville  in  1585  to 
Roanoke  Island,  who  took  back  the  native 
chiefs.  Grenville  sent  Manteo  to  the  main- 
land to  announce  the  coming  of  the  Eng- 
lish, and   for   eight  days   Sir  Richard   ex- 


Island  became  historically  conspicuous. 
Early  in  1862  an  expedition  was  fitted 
out  at  Hampton  Roads  for  operations 
against  the  island.  It  was  composed  of 
over  100  war-vessels  and  transports,  com- 
manded by  Commodore  L.  M.  Goldsbor- 
ough,  and  bearing  16,000  troops  under 
Gen.  Ambrose  E.  Burnside.  The  arma- 
ment left  the  Roads  on  Sunday,  Jan.  11, 
1862,  with  its  destination  unknown  except- 
ing to  certain  officers.  The  land  force 
was  divided  into  three  brigades,  command- 


liOANOKK    ISLAND. 


plored  the  country  in  search  of  precious 
metals,  and  by  his  conduct  made  the 
natives  his  enemies.  Ralph  Lane,  who 
went  with  Grenville  as  governor  of  the 
country,  was  delighted  with  it,  as  being 
one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  he  had 
ever  beheld;  but  he  contented  himself 
with  searching  for  gold.  His  colony,  half 
starved,  and  afraid  of  the  offended  Ind- 
ians, deserted  Roanoke  Island  in  one  of 
Drake's  ships.  Other  attempts  to  settle 
there  failed. 

In    the    American    Civil    War    Roanoke 

44 


ed  respectively  by  Gens.  J.  G.  Foster,  J. 
L.  Reno,  and  J.  G.  Parke.  The  fleet  was- 
divided  into  two  columns  for  action,  in- 
trusted respectively  to  the  care  of  Com- 
manders S.  F.  Hazard  and  S.  C.  Rowan. 
Its  destination  was  Pamlico  Sound, 
through  Hatteras  Inlet,  and  its  chief 
object  was  the  capture  of  Roanoke  Isl- 
and, which  the  Confederates  had  strongly 
fortified  with  batteries  which  command- 
ed the  sounds  on  each  side  of  it.  There 
was  also  a  fortified  camp  that  extended 
across     a     narrow     part     of     the     island. 


ROANOKE    ISLAND 

These    fortifications    were    garrisoned    by  side's    headquarters    were    on    the    8.    E. 

North   Carolina   troops  under   Col.   H.   M.  Spaulding. 

Shaw,  and  mounted  forty  guns.  Above  As  Fort  Bartow  began  to  give  way  the 
the  island,  in  Croatan  Sound,  was  a  Con-  transports  were  brought  up,  and  at  mid- 
federate  flotilla   of  small  gunboats,   com-  night,   while   a   cold   storm   of   wind   and 


BOMBARDMKNT    OF    ROAXDKR    ISLAND 


manded  by  Lieut.  W.  F.  Lynch,  formerly  vain   was   sweeping  over  land   and   water, 

of  the  United  States  navy.  about  11.000  troops  were  landed,  many  of 

Goldsborough  drew  up  his  fleet  in  Croa-  them    wading    ashore.      These    were    New 

tan    Sound    and    opened    a    bombardment  England,    New    York,    and    New    Jersey 

(Feb.   7)    upon   the  works  on   the   island,  troops.     They   were   without   shelter.     At 

Four  of  his  transports,  one  gunboat,  and  dawn,  led  by  General  Foster,  they  moved 

a  floating  battery  had  been  smitten  by  a  to  attack  the  line  of  intrenchments  that 

storm    off    Hatteras    before    entering    the  spanned    the    island.      The    Confederates, 

still    waters    of    the    inlet    and    wrecked,  much  inferior  in  numbers,  made  a  gallant 

Goldsborough    had    moved    his    gunboats  defence,    going    from    redoubt    to    redoubt 

towards    the    island   to    open    fire    in    col-  as  one  after  another   fell   into   the  hands 

umns,    the    first    being    led    by    the   Stars  of  the  Nationals.     They  made  a   vigorous 

and  Stripes,  Lieut.  Reed  Werden ;  the  sec-  3tand  in  a  well-situated  redoubt  that  was 

ond    by    the    Louisiana,    Commander    A.  approached  by  a  causeway.     There  was  to 

Murray;    and    the    third    by    the    Hetzel,  be  the  last  struggle  in  defence  of  the  line. 

Lieut.   H.   R.   Davenport.     The   Southfield  At  the  head  of  Hawkins's  Zouaves.  Major 

was   the   flag-ship.      The   first   attack   was  Kimball,     a    veteran     of    the    war    with 

upon   Fort   Bartow,   on   Pork   Point,   tow-  Mexico,    undertook   to   take   it   by   storm, 

ards  the  northern  end  of  the  island,  and  Colonel  Hawkins  was  then  leading  a  flank 

in   twenty-one  minutes  a   general   engage-  movement  with   a   part  of  his   command, 

ment    took    place    between    the    gunboats  Seeing    the    major    pushing    forward,    the 

and   the   batteries   in   Croatan    Sound,    in  colonel   joined  him,   when   the   whole  bat- 

which     the     little     flotilla     participated,  talion    shouted.    "Zou!    Zou!    Zou!"    and 

These    vessels    disposed    of,    Goldsborough  pressed  to  the  redoubt.     The  Confederates 

concentrated    his    fire    on    Fort    Bartow,  fled  and  were  pursued  about  6  miles,  when 

three-fourths    of    a    mile    distant.      Bum-  thev     surrendered,     and     Boanoke     Island 

445 


ROBERTS— ROBERTSON 


passed  into  the  possession  of  the  National  United  States  Cavalry.  He  was  Professor 
forces.  °f  Military  Science  at  Yale  College  from. 

The  Confederate  flotilla  fled  up  Albe-  1868  till  his  retirement  in  1870.  He  died 
marie  Sound,  pursued  by  National  gun-  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  29,  1875.  Gen- 
boats  under  Commander  Rowan.  Near  eral  Roberts  invented  the  breech-loading 
Elizabeth,  not  far  from  the  Dismal  rifle  bearing  his  name. 
Swamp,  Rowan  attacked  the  flotilla  and  Roberts,  Ellis  Henry,  editor;  born  in 
some  land  batteries,  driving  the  Confed-  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  30,  1827;  graduated  at 
erates  from  both,  while  Lynch  and  his  Yale  in  1850;  editor  and  proprietor  of  the 
followers  retired  into  the  interior.  Then  Utica  Morning  Herald  for  thirty-five 
the  United  States  flag  was  placed  upon  years;  elected  to  the  New  York  Assembly 
a  shore-battery,  and  this  was  the  first  in  1866;  to  Congress  in  1871;  appointed 
portion  of  the  North  Carolina  main  that  assistant  treasurer  of  the  United  States 
was  repossessed  by  the  government.  The  in  1880,  and  treasurer  in  1897.  He  is  the 
loss  of  Roanoke  Island  was  a  severe  one  author  of  Government  Revenue;  The 
for  the  Confederates.  The  National  loss  Planting  and  the  Growth,  of  the  Empire 
in  the  capture  of  the  island  was   about    State,  etc. 

50  killed  and  222  wounded ;  that  of  the  Robertson,  James,  "  the  father  of 
Confederates  was  23  killed,  58  wounded,  Tennessee " ;  born  in  Brunswick  county, 
and  62  missing.  Va.,  June  28,  1742;  emigrated  to  the  re- 

Roberts,  Benjamin  Stone,  military  gions  beyond  the  mountains  about  1760. 
officer;  born  in  Manchester,  Vt,  in  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Watauga,  a 
1811;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1835,  branch  of  the  Tennessee;  made  a  settle- 
and  entered  the  dragoons.  He  resigned  ment  and  lived  there  several  years.  He 
in  1839  and  engaged  in  engineering,  and  was  often  called  upon  to  contest  for  life 
in  1841  was  assistant  geologist  of  the  with  the  savages  of  the  forest.  In  177*5 
State  of  New  York.  In  1S42  he  went  to  he  was  chosen  to  command  a  fort  built 
Russia  to  assist  Colonel  Whistler 
in  building  railroads  there.  Re- 
turning, he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  and  began  law  practice  in  Iowa 
in  1843,  and  when  the  war  with 
Mexico  broke  out  he  re-entered  the 
army  as  first  lieutenant  of  mount- 
ed rifles,  and  served  under  Gen- 
eral Lane.  In  1861  he  was  major 
of  the  3d  Cavalry  on  duty  in  New 
Mexico,  and  afterwards  being  in 
command  of  the  Southern  District 
under  General  Canby,  he  defended 
Fort  Craig  against  Texan  forces 
under  Sibley.  He  was  ordered  to 
Washington :  commissioned  a  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteers  (July 
20,  1862)  ;  and  was  assigned  to 
duty  in  the  Army  of  Virginia  under 
Pope,  as  chief  of  cavalry.  He  com- 
manded a  division  of  the  19th 
Corps  in  Louisiana  in  the  summer 
of  1864,  and  from  October,  1864, 
to  Jan.  24,  1865,  was  chief  of  cav- 
alry in  the  Department  of  the  Gulf.  jamks  kobkrtson 
In  the  summer  of   1865   he  was  in 

command  in  west  Tennessee.  In  1866  he  near  the  mouth  of  the  Watauga.  In  1775) 
was  brevetted  major-general  of  volunteers  he  was  at  the  head  of  a  party  emigrating 
and  promoted  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  3d    to  the  still  richer  country  of  the  Cumber- 

446 


ROBERTSON— ROBERVAL 

land,  and  upon  Christmas  Eve  of  that  year  very  best  chance  for  rest  and  sleep  which 

they  arrived  upon   the  spot   where  Nash-  my   bed  affords   shall   be  given  you,   pro- 

ville  now  stands.     Others  joined  them,  and  vided,  always,  that  I  shall  retain  a  part 

in   the   following   summer   they   numbered  of  the  same."     He  was  then  seventy-one, 

about  200.     A  settlement  was  established,  and  she  sixty-three  years  of  a°e.    She  went 

and  Robertson  founded  the  city  of  Nash-  to  him,  and  was  at  his  side  when  he  died 

ville.     The  Cherokee  Indians  attempted  to  at  his  post  in  the   Indian  country,   Sept. 

destroy   the   settlement,   but,   through   the  1,  1814.     His  remains  were  buried  at  the 

skill  and  energy  of  Robertson  and  a  few  agency.      In    1825    they   were   removed   to 

companions,    that    calamity    was    averted.  Nashville,  and,  in  the  presence  of  a  laroe 

They  built  a  log  fort  on  the  high  bank  of  concourse   of   citizens,   were   reinterred   in 

the  Cumberland,  and  in  that  the  settlers  the  cemetery  there.     A  plain  tomb  covers 

were  defended  against  fully  700  Indians  in  the   spot.     The   remains   of   his  wife   rest 

1781.  by  his  side,   and  the  observer   may  there 

The     settlement     was     erected     into     a  read    the    following    inscriptions:     "Gen. 

county  of  North  Carolina,  and  Robertson  James  Robertson,  the  founder  of  Nashville, 

was   its   first   representative   in   the   State  was   born   in   Virginia,    28th    June,    1742. 

legislature.     In  1790  the  "  Territory  South  Died    1st    September,    1814."      "  Charlotte 

of    the    Ohio    River"    was    formed,    and  R.,  wife  of  James  Robertson,  was  born  in 

Washington    appointed    Robertson    briga-  North  Carolina,  2d  January,   1751.     Died 

dier-general  and  commander  of  the  militia  11th   June,    1843."      Their   son   Dr.    Felix 

in  it.     In  that  capacity  he  was  very  active  Robertson,  who  was  born  in  the  fort,  and 

in     defence     of     the     settlements     against  the  first  white  child  whose  birth   was  in 

the  savages.     At  the  same  time  he  prac-  west  Tennessee,  died  at  Nashville  in  1864. 

tised  the  most  exact  justice  towards  the  Robertson,     James,     royal     governor , 

Indians,   and  when   these   children   of   the  born   in   Fifeshire,  ^Scotland,   about   1710; 

forest  were  no  longer  hostile,  his  kindness  was   deputy-quartermaster   under   General 

towards  the  oppressed  among  them  made  Abererombie  in  1758;  was  at  the  capture 

him  very   popular.     At   length,   when   the  of  Louisburg;    and  accompanied   Amherst 

emissaries,  white  and  red,  from  the  British  to  Lake  Champlain  in  1759.    He  took  part 

in   the  North  began   to   sow  the   seeds  of  in   the   expedition   against   Martinique   in 

discontent   among   them    at    the    breaking  1762,    and    was    afterwards    stationed    in 

out  of  the  War  of   1812,  the  government  New  York.     At  Boston,   in   1775,   he  was 

wisely  appointed  General  Robertson  agent  made  major-general,  Jan.   1,  1776,  and  at. 

to    the    Chickasaw    tribe.      He    was    ever  the  evacuation  of  that  city  he  shared   in 

watchful    of    the    national     interest.      As  the  plunder.    He  was  in  the  battle  of  Eon-.,' 

early    as    March,    1813,    he    wrote.    "The  Island;    was    military    governor    of    New 

Chickasaws  are  in  a  high  strain  for  war  York   until    his   return   to   England;    and. 

against  the  enemies  of  the  country.     They  coming  back,   was   commissioned   military 

have    declared    war    against    all    passing  governor  of  the  city  of  New  York  in  May. 

Creeks  who  attempt  to  go  through   their  1779,  and  remained  such  until  April,  1783. 

nation.    They  have  declared,  if  the  United  when  he  again  returned  to  England,  where 

States  will  make  a  campaign  against  the  he  died,  March  4,  1788. 

Creeks     (because    of    some    murders    com-  Roberval,  Jean  Fraxcots  de  la  Roque, 

mitted    by   them   near   the   mouth   of   the  Sieur  de.  colonist;  born  in  France,  about 

Ohio),  that  they  are  ready  to  give  them  1500;  early  won  distinction  in  the  army: 

aid."     A  little  later  he  suggested  the  em-  and  was  authorized  by  the  King  to  colo- 

ployment  of  companies  of  Chickasaws  and  nize  and  govern  Canada.     In  prosecution 

Choctaws  to   defend  the  frontiers   and   to  of    his    design    of    planting    a    colony    in 

protect  travellers,  and  he  was  seconded  by  Canada  Roberval  sailed  from  France  with 

Pitchlyn,  an  active  and  faithful  Indian.  three  ships  and200  persons,  and  inthehar- 

During  the  war  General   Robertson   re-  bor  of  St.  Johns,  Newfoundland,  met  Car- 

mained  at  his  post  among  the  Indians,  and  tier,  who  was  on  his  return  to  Europe.   He 

invited  his  aged  wife  to  share  his  priva-  commended    the    country    of    Canada     to 

tions  by  quaintly  saying  to  her  by  a  mes-  Roberval  as  rich  and  fruitful.     The  latter 

sender    "  If  vou   shall  come  this  way,  the  commanded   Cartier  to  return   to   the   St. 

447 


ROBESON— ROBINSON 


Lawrence    with    him,    but    the    navigator    the  British  government  up  to  the  Deelara- 
eluded  the  viceroy  in  the  night  and  sailed    tion  of  Independence,  when  he  took  sides 


with  that  government;   moved  his  family 
into    the   city   of    New    York ;    raised   the 


for  France.  Eoberval  sailed  up  the  St. 
Lawrence  some  distance  above  the  site  of 
Quebec,  built  a  fort,  and  remained  there 
through  the  winter  (1542-43).  In  the 
spring  he  explored  the  country  above,  but 
appears  to  have  abandoned  the  enterprise 
soon  afterwards.  The  colony  was  broken 
up,  and  for  half  a  century  the  French 
made  no  further  attempts  to  colonize 
Canada.  In  1547  Eoberval,  accompanied 
by  his  brothers  and  a  numerous  train  of 
adventurers,  embarked  again  for  the  river 
St.  Lawrence,  but  they  were  never  heard 
of  afterwards. 

Robeson,  George  Maxwell,  lawyer; 
born  in  Belvidere,  N.  J.,  in  1829;  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  in  1S47;  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1850;  became  attorney-gen- 
eral of  New  Jersey  in  1867;  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  in  1S69-77;  elected  to  Congress 
in  1879;  served  three  terms;  resumed 
private  practice  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  where 
he  died,  Sept.  27,  1897. 

Robeson,  Henry  Bellows,  naval  officer ; 
born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Aug.  5,  1842; 
graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  in  I860; 
served  through  the  Civil  War,  taking  part 
in  the  engagements  at  Fort  McEae, 
Charleston,  Morris  Island,  Fort  Fisher,  treason  of  Arnold,  who  occupied  Eobin- 
ete.     He  was  promoted  rear-admiral,  and    son's  country-house,  opposite  West  Point, 


BKVKKLY    ROBINSON. 

''  Loyal  American  Regiment,"  of  which  he 
was  colonel,  and  was  concerned  in  some 
degree  as  a   sort   of  go-between   with   the 


retired  March  28,  1899. 

Robinson,  Beverly,  military  officer; 
born  in  Virginia  in  1734;  was  a  major 
under  Wolfe  at  Quebec,  and  afterwards 
married  a  daughter  of  Frederick  Thil- 
lipse,  owner  of  the  Phillipse  Manor,  on 
the  Hudson 


at  the  time  of  that  transaction.  At  the 
end  of  the  wTar  Eobinson  went  to  England 
with  a  portion  of  his  family,  and  his  prop- 
erty was  confiscated.  His  house,  from 
which  Arnold  fled  on  the  discovery  of  his 
treason,  was  a  frame  building,  and  stood 
He  opposed  the  measures  of    back    from   the   river   about   half   a   mile, 

upon  a  fertile  plateau  at  the 
western  foot  of  the  lofty  hills 
on  which  redoubts  were 
planted  by  the  Americans 
during  the  Eevolution.  He 
died  in  Thornbury,  England, 
in  1792. 

Robinson,  Edward, 
scholar :  born  in  Southing- 
ton,  Conn.,  April  10,  1794; 
graduated  at  Hamilton  Col- 
lege in  1816,  and  married  a 
daughter  of  Samuel  Kirk- 
land,  the  missionary,  who 
died  in  1819.  He  became  an 
assistant  instructor  in  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary. 
448 


THE    ROBINSOX    dOUSE 


ROBINSON— ROCHAMBEAU 

For  four  years  (1826-30)  he  travelled  to  leave  England  and  seek  an  asylum  in 
in  Europe,  where  he  married  Therese,  Holland,  but  were  prevented  by  officers  of 
daughter  of  Professor  Jakob,  of  Halle,  the  law,  who  kept  the  whole  company 
a  woman  of  fine  literary  attainments,  under  arrest  for  some  time.  In  1608 
From  1830  to  1833  he  was  Professor  most  of  them  made  their  escape  in  small 
of  Sacred  Literature  and  Librarian  at  parties  and  joined  each  other  at  Amster- 
Andover,  and  from  1837  until  his  death  dam.  The  next  year  they  went  to  Leyden, 
was  Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  in  where  they  organized  a  church,  and  re- 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  New  mained  eleven  years.  In  1617  another  re- 
York  City.  Dr.  Robinson  visited  Pales-  moval  was  contemplated,  and  the  pastor 
tine  in  1838,  and,  with  Rev.  Eli  Smith,  favored  emigration  to  America.  Agents 
made  a  minute  survey  of  it,  an  ac-  went  to  England  and  made  arrangements 
count  of  which  was  published  in  Halle,  for  such  emigration,  and  late  in  1620  a 
London,  and  Boston  in  1841.  He  made  a  portion  of  the  Leyden  congregation,  under 
second  visit  in  1852,  the  result  of  which  the  spiritual  leadership  of  Elder  William 
was  published  in  1S56.  Dr.  Robinson's  re-  Brewster,  reached  the  New  England  coast, 
searches  in  Palestine  are  regarded  by  Robinson  intended  to  follow  with  the  re- 
Biblical  scholars  as  of  the  first  importance,  mainder  of  the  congregation,  but  he  died 
At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  in  Leyden,  in  March,  102.S,  before  the  con- 
upon  a  physical  and  historical  geography  sent  of  the  English  merchants  who  con- 
of  the  Holy  Land.  He  was  an  active  mem-  trolled  the  enterprise  could  be  obtained, 
ber  of  geographical,  Oriental,  and  ethno-  Not  long  afterwards  the  remainder  of  his 
logical  societies,  and  was  the  author  or  congregation  and  his  two  sons  followed  the 
translator  of  several  notable  Greek  and  passengers  in  the  Mayflower.  See  Brew- 
Hebrew  lexicons,  and  author  of  many  ster,  William;  Pilgrims. 
works  in  Biblical  scholarship.  He  died  in  Robinson,  John  Cleveland,  military 
New  York  City,  Jan.  27,  1863.  officer;  born  in  Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  April 
Robinson,  Sir  Frederick  Phillipse,  10,  1817;  took  a  partial  course  of  study 
military  officer;  son  of  Beverly,  the  loyal-  at  West  Point,  leaving  it  to  study  law; 
ist,  born  in  the  Hudson  Highlands  in  served  in  the  war  against  Mexico,  and  at 
September,  1763.  In  1777,  though  only  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  was  in 
fourteen  years  of  age,  he  was  made  ensign  command  of  Fort  McIIenry,  Baltimore, 
of  his  father's  regiment  of  American  As  brigadier-general  he  took  command  of 
loyalists.  He  was  wounded  and  made  a  division  in  Heintzelman's  corps  in  the 
prisoner  at  the  capture  of  Stony  Point,  battle  before  Richmond  in  1862.  He  was 
He  left  the  United  States  with  his  father  in  the  principal  battles  in  Virginia  and 
in  1783,  and  served  in  the  West  Indies,  Pennsylvania  in  1863;  was  brevetted 
Spain,  and  Canada,  rising  to  the  rank  major-general  of  volunteers  and  major- 
of  general  in  1841.  He  commanded  a  bri-  general,  United  States  army,  lost  a  leg  at 
gade  at  the  battle  of  Vittoria,  Spain ;  was  Spottsylvania ;  was  awarded  a  congres- 
v/ounded  at  the  siege  of  St.  Sebastian;  sional  medal  of  honor;  and  was  retired 
and  at  the  close  of  the  Peninsular  War  as  a  major-general,  United  States  army, 
went  to  Canada  as  commander-in-chief  in  1869.  In  1872  he  was  elected  lieu- 
of  the  forces  there,  and  was  engaged  in  tenant-governor  of  New  York  on  the  ticket 
the  events  of  the  War  of  J  812-15.  General  headed  by  Gen.  John  A.  Dix,  He  died  in 
Robinson  was  Governor  of  Upper  Canada  Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  18,  1897. 
in  1815-16,  and  in  the  former  year  was  Rochambeau,  Jean  Baptiste  Dona- 
knighted.  He  received  the  Grand  Cross  tien  de  Vimeur,  Count  de,  military  offi- 
in  1838.  He  died  in  Brighton,  England,  cer;  born  in  Vendome,  France,  July  1, 
Jan.  1,  1852.  1725;  entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  six- 
Robinson,  John,  clergyman;  born  pre-  teen  years,  and  in  1745  became  aid  to 
sumably  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1575 ;  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans.  He 
educated  at  Cambridge,  -and  in  1602  afterwards  commanded  a  regiment,  and 
became  pastor  of  a  Dissenting  congrega-  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Lafeldt.  He 
tion  at  Norwich.  The  church  was  perse-  was  distinguished  in  several  battles, 
cuted,  and  in  1607  the  members  attemDted  especially  at  Minden.  When  it  was  re- 
VII.— 2  F                                                       449 


ROCHE— ROCKINGHAM 


COUNT    DK    ROCIIAMREAU. 


solved  by  the  French  monarch  to  send  a   including  $7,000,000  for  a  post-graduats 

military    force    to    America,    Rochambeau    medical  college  and  hospital  in  Chicago. 

wa8    created    a    lieutenant  -  general    and       Rockingham,  Charles  Watson  Went- 

worth,  Marquis  of,  statesman;  born  in 
England,  March  19,  1730;  became  the  rec- 
ognized chief  of  the  Whig  party  in  1764; 
and  the  head  of  the  cabinet  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  He  made  a  vigorous  effort  to 
establish  harmony  between  the  American 
colonies  and  the  mother-country,  against 
the  opposition  of  the  King  and  his  own 
colleagues.  In  1766  he  secured  the  repeal 
of  the  stamp  duties,  but  before  he  was  able 
to  carry  out  the  other  measures  in  his 
scheme  he  was  forced  by  growing  oppo- 
sition to  resign  his  office.  On  March  28, 
1782,  when  Lord  North  resigned  the  office 
of  prime  minister,  the  Marquis  of  Rock- 
ingham was  again  called  to  the  head  of 
the  cabinet.  The  avowed  principle  of 
Rockingham  and  his  colleagues  was  to 
acknowledge     the     independence     of     the 

placed  in  command  of  it.     He  arrived  at    United    States   and    treat    with    them    ac- 

Newport,  R.   I.,  in  July.  1780,  and  joined    cordingly.      Lord    Shelburne    still    hoped 

the    American    army    under    Washing- 
ton, on  the  Hudson,  a  few  miles  above 

New    York.      He   led   his   army   to   the 

Virginia  peninsula,  and  assisted  in  the 

'capture    of    Cornwallis    at    Yorktown, 

Oct.   19,   1781,  when   he  was  presented 

with  one  of  the  captured  cannon.      In 

1783    he    received    the    decoration    of 

Saint  Esprit,  and  in  1791   was  made  a 

marshal  of  France.     Early  in   1792  he 

was   placed   in   command   of  the  Army 

of    the    North,    and    narrowly    escaped 

the     guillotine     when      the     Jacobins 

wielded      supreme      power      in      Paris. 

Bonaparte  gave  him  a  pension  in  1804. 

He    dictated    Memoirs    (Paris,    1809). 

He   died   in  Thore,   May   10,    1307.      A 

monument  to  his  memory  was  unveiled 

in  Washington,  D.  C,  May  24,  1902. 
Roche,  Marquis  de  la.    See  Rober- 

val. 
Rockefeller,    John    Davison,    born 

in  Riehford,  N.  Y.,  July  8,   1839;   re- 
moved to  Cleveland,  O.,  in   1853;  built 

the  Standard  Oil   Works  in  Cleveland; 

formed     the     Standard     Oil     Trust    in 

1882,   and   the   Standard   Oil    Company 

in    1892.      He   has   been   a   liberal   con- 
tributor to  higher  education  in  the  United    for    a  reconciliation    and    the    restoration 

States,  having  given  about  $15,000,000  to    of     the     American     colonies     as     a     part 

the  Chicago  University  alone,  and  in  1903    of     the     British     Empire.      John     Adams 

about  $12,000,000  to  various  institutions,    was  at  The  Hague,  negotiating  a  treaty 

450 


LORD   ROCKINGHAM. 


ROCK   OP   CHICXAMAUGA— RODGERS 


of  commerce,  and  overtures  wera  made  to 
him,  as  well  as  to  Franklin  at  Paris,  to  as- 
certain whether  the  United  States  would 
not  agree  to  a  separate  peace,  and  to  some- 
thing less  than  entire  independence.  With 
this  object,  the  ministry  appointed  Sir 
Guy  Carleton  to  supersede  General  Clinton 
in  command  of  the  British  army  in  Amer- 
ica, and  commissioned  him,  along  with  Ad- 
miral Digby,  to  treat  for  peace.  Their 
powers  to  treat  were  made  known  to  Con- 
gress, but  that  body  declined  to  negotiate, 
except  in  conjunction  with  France,  in  ful- 
filment of  the  agreement  of  the  treaty 
of  alliance  at  Paris.  While  these  matters 
were  under  consideration  Lord  Rocking- 
ham died,  July  1,  1782. 

Bock  of  Chickamauga,  a  term  applied 
to  Gen.  Geo.  H.  Thomas  for  his  conduct  in 
that  battle. 

Rocky  Mount,  Skirmisti  at.  When 
Gates  was  marching  on  Camden,  S.  C, 
in  July,  1780,  Col.  Thomas  Sumter 
first    appeared    in    power    on    the    bor- 


United  States  Cavalry,  in  1861;  promoted 
captain  in  1862;  was  captured  at  Manas- 
sas, but  soon  c  changed;  appointed  colo- 
nel of  the  18th  Pennsylvania  Volunteers, 
April  29,  1805.  After  the  war  he  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  commissioned  major  of  the  42d  United 
States  Infantry;  retired  as  colonel  because 
of  wounds,  Dec.  15,  1870.  He  was  chief 
of  the  bureau  of  elections,  New  York  City, 
in  1890-99.  He  is  the  author  of  From 
Everglade  to  Canon  with  the  2d  Dra- 
goons. 

Rodgers,  John,  naval  officer;  born  in 
Harford  county,  Md.,  July  11,  1771;  en- 
tered the  navy  as  lieutenant  in  1798,  and 
was  executive  officer  of  the  frigate  Con- 
stellation, Commodore  Truxtun,  which 
captured  I/Insurgente.  He  did  good  ser- 
vice in  the  Mediterranean  from  1802  to 
1806,  commanding  the  squadron  of  Com- 
modore Barron  in  1804.  In  the  spring  of 
1811  he  was  in  command  of  the  President, 
forty-four  guns,  and  in  May  had  a  combat 


VIKW   AT   ROCKY   MOUNT. 


devs  of  the  Catawba  River.  He  had  with  the  Little  Belt  (see  President, 
gathered  a  considerable  force,  and  on  The).  His  services  during  the  War  of 
July  30  he  left  Major  Davie's  camp,  cross-  1812-15  were  very  important.  When  war 
ed  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Catawba,  was  declared  he  was  in  the  port  of  New 
and  proceeded  cautiously  but  swiftly  to  at-  York  with  a  small  squadron.  He  at  once 
tack  a  British  post  at  Rocky  Mount.  The  put  to  sea  in  pursuit  of  a  British  squad- 
British  commander,  warned  of  his  ap-  ron  convoying  the  West  Indian  fleet  of 
proach  by  a  Tory,  was  prepared.  A  sharp  merchantmen  to  England.  Rodgers's  flag- 
skirmish  ensued,  and  Sumter  was  repulsed,  ship,  the  President,  fell  in  with  the  Bel- 
The  site  of  this  battle  is  near  the  right  videra,  and  chased  her  several  hours, 
bank  of  the  Catawba  River.  The  view  in  News  of  this  affair  reaching  Rear-Admiral 
the  picture  is  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  Sawyer,  at  Halifax,  he  sent  out  a  squadron 
looking  towards  Lancaster  district.  under  Captain  Broke  to  search  for  Rodgers 
Rodenbough,  Theophiltjs  FRANCis.mil-  and  his  frigate.  Broke's  flag-ship  was  the 
itary  officer:  born  in  Easton,  Pa.,  Nov.  5,  Shannon,  thirty-eight  guns.  This  squad- 
1838;     appointed    second    lieutenant,    2d  ron    appeared   near   New   York   early   Ln 

4*1 


XtODGEBS,    JdHIsr 


July,  and  made  several  captures,  among  R.  L,  having  captured  eleven  merchant 
tli em  the  United  States  brig  Nautilus,  vessels  and  the  British  armed  schooner 
fourteen  guns,  Lieutenant  -  Commander  Highflyer.  Rodgers  sailed  northeastward, 
Crane.  She  had  arrived  at  New  York  in. the  direction  of  the  southern  edge  of  the 
just  after  Rodgers  left,  and  went  out  im-  Gulf  Stream,  until  May  8,  when  the  Presi- 
mediately  to  cruise  in  the  track  of  the  dent  and  Congress  separated,  near  the 
West  Indian  fleet.  The  next  day  she  was  Azores.  For  weeks  Rodgers  was  singular- 
ly unsuccessful,  not  meeting  with  a 
vessel  of  any  kind.  When  his  pres- 
ence in  British  waters  became  known, 
it  produced  great  excitement  among 
the  English  shipping.  Many  cruisers 
were  sent  out  to  capture  or  destroy 
the  President.  Rodgers's  supplies 
finally  began  to  fail  in  the  North- 
ern seas,  and  he  put  into  North  Ber- 
gen, Norway,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
plenishment. In  this,  too,  he  was  dis- 
appointed. An  alarming  scarcity  of 
food  prevailed  all  over  the  country, 
and  he  could  only  get  water.  He 
cruised  about  in  those  high  latitudes, 
hoping  to  fall  in  with  a  fleet  of  Eng- 
lish merchantmen  that  were  to  sail 
from  Archangel ;  but,  instead  of  these, 
he  suddenly  fell  in  with  two  British 
ships-of-war.  Unable  to  contend  with 
them,  the  President  fled,  hotly  pur- 
sued. Owing  to  the  perpetual  day- 
light there,  they  were  enabled  to 
chase  her  for  fully  eighty  hours.  She 
finally  escaped.  Rodgers  had  got  some 
supplies  from  two  merchantmen 
which  he  had  captured  just  before 
captured  by  the  Shannon,  and  her  106  meeting  the  men-of-war,  and  he  turned 
men  were  made  prisoners.  This  was  the  westward  to  intercept  such  vessels  coming 
first  vessel  of  war  taken  on  either  side  out  of  the  Irish  Channel. 
in  that  contest.  A  prize-crew  was  placed  He  soon  afterwards  met  and  captured 
in  her,  and  she  was  made  one  of  Broke's  these  (July  and  August),  and,  after  mak- 
squadron.  The  Nautilus  was  retaken  by  ing  a  complete  circuit  of  Ireland,  he  steer- 
Captain  Warrington,  June  30,  1815,  be-  ed  for  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland.  Tow- 
tween  Java  and  the  islands  of  the  East  ards  evening,  Sept.  23,  the  President  fell 
India  Archipelago.  She  was  also  the  in  with  the  British  armed  schooner  High- 
test  vessel  captured  on  either  side  dur-  flyer,  the  tender  to  Admiral  Warren's  flag- 
ing  the  war.  Informed  of  the  proclama-  ship  St.  Domingo.  She  was  a  stanch 
tion  of  peace,  Warrington  gave  up  the  vessel  and  fast  sailer,  and  was  command- 
Nautilus  to  the  English  and  returned  ed  by  Lieutenant  Hutchinson,  one  of 
home.  Coekburn's-  subalterns  when  he  plundered 

While  Commodore  Porter  was  on  his  ex-  and  burned  Havre  de  Grace,  the  home  of 
tended  cruise  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  (see  Es-  Eodgers.  By  stratagem,  the  latter  decoyed 
sex,  The),  Commodore  Rodgers  was  on  the  Highflyer  alongside  the  President. 
a  long  cruise  in  the  North  Atlantic  in  his  Eodgers  had  obtained  some  British  signal- 
favorite  frigate,  the  President.  He  left  books  before  leaving  Boston,  and  he  had 
Boston  on  April  27,  1813,  in  company  with  caused  some  signal-flags  to  be  made  on  his 
the  Congress,  thirty-eight  guns,  and,  after  ship.  When  he  came  in  sight  of  the 
a  cruise  of  148  days,  arrived  at  Newport,    Highflyer,    he    raised    a    British    ensign, 

452 


COMMODORE  JOHN  RODGERS. 


&ODGERS 


which  was  responded  to,  and  a  signal  was 
also  displayed  at  the  mast-head  of  the 
Highflyer.  Rodgers  was  delighted  to  find 
he  possessed  its  complement.  He  signalled 
that  his  vessel  was  the  Sea  Horse,  one  of 
the  largest  of  the  British  vessels  of  its 
class  in  American  waters.  The  Highflyer 
bore  down  and  hove  to  close  to  the  Presi- 
dent, and  received  one  of  Rodgers's  lieu- 
tenants on  board,  who  was  dressed  in 
British  naval  uniform.  He  bore  an  order 
from  Rodgers,  under  an  assumed  name, 
to  send  his  signal-books  on  board  the  Sea 
Horse  to  be  altered,  as  the  Yankees,  it 
was  alleged  had  obtained  possession  of 
some  of  them.  Hutchinson  obeyed,  and 
Rodgers  was  put  in  possession  of  the 
whole  signal  correspondence  of  the  Brit- 
ish navy. 

Hutchinson  soon  followed  his  signal- 
books,  putting  into  Rodgers's  hands  a 
bundle  of  despatches  for  Admiral  Warren. 
He  told  the  commodore  that  the  chief 
object  of  the  admiral  then  was  to  capture 
the  President,  which  had  spread  alarm 
in  British  waters.  "  What  kind  of  a  man 
is  Rodgers?"  asked  the  commodore.  The 
unsuspecting  lieutenant  replied,  "  I  have 
never  seen  him,  but  I  am  told  he  is  an  odd 
fish,  and  hard  to  catch."  "Sir!"  said 
Rodgers,  with  emphasis  that  startled 
Hutchinson,  "  do  you  know  what  vessel 
you  are  on  board  of?"  The  lieutenant 
answered,  "  Why,  yes,  sir,  his  Majesty's 
ship  Sea  Horse."  "  Then,  sir,"  said  Rod- 
gers, "  you  labor  under  a  mistake ;  you  are 
on  board  the  President,  and  I  am  Com- 
modore Rodgers."  At  that  moment  the 
band  struck  up  Yankee  Doodle  on  the 
President's  quarter-deck,  the  American 
ensign  was  displayed,  and  the  uniforms 
of  the  marines  were  suddenly  changed 
from  red  to  blue.  The  lieutenant  was  as- 
tonished and  utterly  overwhelmed  witli 
shame,  for  the  sword  at  his  side  had  been 
taken  from  Rodgers's  house  at  Havre  de 
Grace.  He  had  been  instructed  not  to 
fall  into  the  hands  of  Rodgers,  for,  it 
was  alleged,  the  commodore  would  hang 
him  to  the  yard-arm.  But  Rodgers  treat- 
ed him  with  great  courtesy,  and  soon 
afterwards  released  him  on  parole.  This 
transaction  occurred  off  the  New  England 
coast,  and  three  days  afterwards  Rodgers 
entered  Newport  Harbor  with  his  prize. 
In  December   he   cruised   southward  with 


some  success,  and  finally  he  dashed 
through  the  British  blockading  squadron 
off  Sandy  Hook  (Feb.  14,  1814)  and  sail- 
ed into  New  York  Harbor.  He  was  enter- 
tained at  a  banquet  in  New  York,  at 
which  he  gave  the  following  toast: 
';  Peace — if  it  can  be  obtained  without  the 
sacrifice  of  national  honor  or  the  abandon- 
ment of  maritime  rights;  otherwise  war 
until  peace  shall  be  secured  without  the 
sacrifice  of  either."  From  1815  to  1824  he 
was  president  of  the  board  of  naval 
commissioners,  acting  as  Secretary  of. 
the  Navy  a  while  in  the  latter  part  of 
1823.  On  nis  return  from  a  cruise  in  the 
Mediterranean  (1824-27)  he  was  again 
in  the  board  of  naval  commissioners, 
which  position  he  relinquished  in  1837. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Aug.  1, 
1838. 

Rodgers,  John,  naval  officer;  born  in 
Harford  county,  Md.,  Aug.  8,  1812;  son 
of  the  preceding;  entered  the  navy  in 
1828.  He-  was  made  captain  in  July, 
1862;  commanded  the  Hancock  in  an  ex- 
ploring  expedition    to    the    North    Pacifii' 


KKAK -AVMIKAI.  JOHN    KODGKK.S. 

and  China  seas  (1853-50),  and  in  1802 
superintended  the  construction  of  iron- 
clad gunboats  on  Western  waters.  In  1862 
he  was  assigned  to  command  an  expedi- 
tion up  the  James  River.  When  Huger 
fled  from  Norfolk,  the  Confederate  flotilla 


453 


RODMAN— RODNEY 


AN  ARMORED    LOOKOUT. 


went  up  the  James  River,  pursued  by  1815;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1841 ; 
Commodore  Rodgers,  whose  flag  -  ship  was  entered  the  ordnance  department;  brevet- 
the  Galena,  the  round-top  of  which  was  ted  brigadier  -  general  in  1865 ;  promoted 
iron-clad,  so  as  to  make  it  a  safe  lookout,    lieutenant-colonel,  United  States  army,  in 

1807;  best  known  as  the  inventor  of  the 
Rodman  gun  and  for  his  services  in  the 
manufacture  of  ordnance  and  projectiles. 
He  died  in  Rock  Island,  111.,  June  7,  1871. 
Rodney,  C^sar,  a  signer  of  the  Decla- 
ration of  Independence;  born  in  Dover, 
Del.,  Oct.  7,  1728.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
eight  he  was  appointed  sheriff  of  Kent 
county,  Del.,  and  afterwards  was  a  judge. 
He  represented  his  district  in  the  legislat- 
ure, and  was  sent  to  the  Stamp  Act  Con- 
gress in  1765.  For  several  years  he  was 
speaker  of  the  Delaware  Assembly;  was 
a  member  of  the  committee  of  corre- 
spondence, and  of  Congress  in  1774  and 
afterwards.  Made  a  brigadier-general,  he 
was  active  in  supplying  Delaware  troops 
to  the  army  under  Washington,  and,  early 
The  pursuers  met  with  no  obstructions  in  1777,  was  in  command  of  the  Delaware 
until  they  approached  Drury's  Bluff,  a  line  in  New  Jersey.  From  1778  to  1782 
bank  on  the  right  side  of  the  James,  near-  he  was  president  of  his  State.  He  died  in 
ly  200  feet  in  height,  about  8  miles  below  Dover,  Del.,  June  29,  1784. 
Richmond.  Below  this  point  were  two  Rodney,  Cesar  Augustus,  legislator; 
rows  of  obstructions  in  the  river,  formed  born  in  Dover,  Del.,  Jan.  4,  1772;  gradu- 
by  spiles  and  sunken  vessels,  and  the  ated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
shores  were  lined  with  rifle-pits  filled  with  17S0;  admitted  to  the  bar  "in  1793; 
sharp-shooters.  The  Galena  anchored  with-  elected  to  Congress  from  Delaware  in 
in  600  yards  of  the  battery,  and  opened  1803;  became  Attorney  -  General  of  the 
fire  upon  it  on  the  morning  of  May  15.  A  United  States  in  1807.  He  served  in  the 
sharp  fight  was  kept  up  until  after  eleven  War  of  1812;  was  appointed  by  President 
o'clock,  when  the  ammunition  of  the  Go-  Monroe  to  report  upon  the  status  of  the 
lena  was  nearly  expended,  and  the  flotilla  Spanish-American  republics  in  1817;  re- 
withdrew.  Rodgers  lost  in  the  attack  e'ected  to  Congress  in  1820,  and  to  the 
twenty-seven  men  and  a  100-pound  rifled  United  States  Senate  in  1822;  appointed 
cannon,  which  burst  on  board  the  gunboat  minister  to  the  Argentine  Republic  in 
S'augatuck,  disabling  her.  The  Confed-  1823.  He  published  a  Report  upon  the 
erate  loss  in  the  battery  was  ten.  Rodgers  Present  mate  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
fell  back  to  City  Point.  In  June,  1863,  ^outh  America  (1819).  He  died  in  Buenos 
in  the  monitor  Weehawken,  he  captured  Avres.  South  America,  June  10,  1824. 
the  powerful  Confederate  ram  Atlanta  in  Rodney,  George  Brydges,  naval  offi- 
Wassaw  Sound.  In  the  monitor  Monad-  cer ;  born  in  Walton  -  upon  -  Thames,  Eng- 
nock,  he  made  the  passage  around  Cape  land,  Feb.  19,  1718;  joined  the  British 
Horn  to  San  Francisco  in  1867;  and  in  navy  in  1730;  was  promoted  admiral  in 
1871  he  captured  the  Korean  forts,  with  1779,  and  appointed  commander-in-chief 
the  Asiatic  fleet.  He  was  promoted  rear-  of  the  West  Indies  Station.  In  April, 
admiral  in  1869:  commanded  the  Asiatic  1780.  he  broke  through  the  French  squad- 
Squadron  in  1870-72;  and  was  superin-  ron  under  Count  de  Guichen,  near  Mar- 
tendent  of  the  Naval  Observatory  from  tiniqne.  In  recognition  of  this  feat  he 
1877  till  his  death,  in  Washington,  D.  C,  received  the  thanks  of  Parliament  and 
May  5,  1882.  a  pension  of  £2.000.     In  April,  1782,  he 

Rodman,  Thomas  Jefferson,  military    fought  Count  de  Grasse  in  the  Dominica 
officer;    born    in    Salem,    Ind.,    July    30,    Channel,  W.  I.,  and  after  a  severe  battle 

454 


ROE— ROGERS 


of    twelve    hours    won    a    signal    victory,  Pittsburg,  Pa.     Later  he  began  the  raanu- 

which   led  to  an  armistice  and  the  peace  facture  of  iron   and  steel   wire,   which   he 

of   1783.     On   his   arrival   in   England,   in  discovered  could   be  used   with  efficacy  in 

September,    1782,    Rodney    was    hailed    as  the   building   of   bridges.      In    1844-45   he 

a  national  hero,  created  a  peer,  and  voted  directed  the  construction  of  a  bridge  over 

an    additional    pension    of    £2,000,    which  the  Alleghany  River  at  Pittsburg,  in  which 

after  his  death  reverted  to  his  heirs.     He  were  used  the  first  suspension  wire  cables 

died  in  London,  England,  May  21,  1792.  ever    seen    in    the    United    States.      After 

Roe,  Charles  Francis,  military  officer;  successfully  building  several  other  sus- 
born  in  New  York,  May  1.  1848;  graduated  pension  bridges  he  moved  his  wire  fac- 
at  West  Point  in  1868;  resigned  from  the  tory  to  Trenton,  N.  J.  In  1851-55  he  con- 
army  in  1888;  was  active  in  the  New  structed  the  New  York  Central  Railroad 
York  State  militia;  and  was  appointed  suspension  bridge  across  the  Niagara 
major-general,  N.  G.  S.  N.  Y.,  and  briga-  River.  This  work  at  the  time  was  con- 
dier  -  general,  United  States  volunteers  in  sidered  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world, 
1898.  and   was  followed  by  the  construction  of 

Roe,    Francis    Asbury,    naval    officer;  other    great    bridges,    including    that    be- 

born  in  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  4,   1823;   ap-  tween  Cincinnati  and  Covington.     In  1808 

pointed     midshipman     in      1841;      served  he    was    appointed    chief   engineer   of   the 

through  the  Civil  War,  taking  part  in  the  Brooklyn  Bridge,  his  plans  for  which  had 

battle  on  the  Mississippi   below  New  Or-  been  approved  by  a  commission  of  eminent 

leans;  promoted  rear-admiral  in  18S4.    He  engineers.      He   was   the   author   of   Long 


lied  in  Washington,  D.  C,  Dec.  28,  1901 

Roebling,  John  Augustus,  civil  engi- 
neer; born  in  Miihlhausen,  Germany,  June 


and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges.  He 
died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  July  22.  18G9. 

Roebling,  Washington  Augustus,  en- 
gineer; born  in  Saxenburg,  Pa.,  May  26, 
1837;  son  of  John  ■  Augustus  Roebling; 
graduated  at  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute in  1857 ;  served  in  the  National 
army  during  the  Civil  War,  rising  from 
private  to  brevet-colonel.  On  the  death 
of  his  father  he  had  entire  charge  of  the 
completion  of  the  suspension  bridge  be- 
tween Brooklyn  and  New  York.  See 
Bridges. 

Rogers,  Horatio,  jurist;  born  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  May  18,  1836;  graduated  at 
Brown  University  in  1855;  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1858;  was  in  the  National  army 
during  the  Civil  War,  rising  from  first 
lieutenant  to  brevet  brigadier-general ;  ap- 
pointed justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Rhode  Island  in  1891.  He  is  the  author  of 
Private  Libraries  of  Providence,  and  Mary 
Dyer  of  Rhode  Island;  and  the  editor 
of  Hadden's  Journal  and  Orderly  Books. 

Rogers,  John,  sculptor;  born  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  Oct.  30,  1829;  well  known  as  the 
sculptor  of  small  statuette  groups  issued 
during  the  Civil  War.  many  of  which  were 
of  war  subjects.  He  died  in  New  Canaan, 
Conn.,  July  26,   1904. 

Rogers,  Robert,  military  officer:  born 
12,  1806;  graduated  at  the  Berlin  Royal  in  Dunbarton,  N.  H..  in  1727.  Raisin?  a 
Polytechnic  School  in  1826;  came  to  the  corps  of  rangers,  he  was  commissioned 
Uuited   States  in   1829,  and  settled  near    a    major,    and    he    and    his    men    became 

455 


JOHN    AUGUSTUS     liOKBLINU. 


ROGERSVILLE— ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CHURCH 

renowned  for  their  exploits  during  the  culty.  It  is  no  mere  coincidence  that, 
French  and  Indian  War.  In  1759  he  at  the  opening  of  the  last  century  of 
destroyed  the  Indian  village  of  St.  Fran-  this  mystical  and  wonderful  cycle  of  2,000 
cis  and  in  1760  was  sent  by  General  Am-  years,  the  Bishop  of  Rome  should  again 
her'st  to  take  possession  of  Detroit  and  address  the  world  in  tones  whose  modera- 
other  Western  posts  ceded  to  the  English  tion  and  sympathy  recall  the  temper  and 
by  the  French.  Going  to  England,  he  the  arguments  of  St.  Clement,  his  far- 
there  published  his  journal,  which  he  pre-  away  predecessor  and  disciple  of  St.  Peter 


sented  to  the  King,  who,  in  1765,  made 
him  governor  of  Michilimackinac  (Mack- 
inaw )  ;    but    he    was    shortly    afterwards 


The  year  1800  was  a  very  dishearten- 
ing one  for  Catholicism.  It  still  stood 
erect  and  hopeful,  but  in  the  midst  of  a 


sent   to   Montreal,    in    irons,    to   be    tried  political   and   social   wreckage,   the   result 

on  a  charge  of  a  design  to  plunder   the  of  a   century  of   scepticism   and   destruc- 

fort  and  join  the  French.    He  was  acquit-  tive  criticism  that  acted  at  last  as  sparks 

ted,   went   to   England,   was   presented   to  for  an  ungovernable  popular  frenzy,  dur- 

the'  King,   and   was   soon   afterwards   im-  ing  which  the  old  order  appeared  to  pass 

prisoned°'for  debt.     Released,  he  went  to  away  forever  and  a  new  one  was  inaugu- 

Algiers  and  fought  in  two  battles  for  the  rated    with    every    manifestation    of    joy. 

Dey.      Returning    fo    America,    he    joined  The   tree   of   political   liberty  was   every- 

the  royalists  on  tl  e  breaking  out  of  the  where  planted,  and  the  peoples  of  Europe 

Revolutionary  War,  and  raised  the  famous  promised   themselves   a   life   of   unalloyed 

corps  known  as  the  "Queen's   Rangers."  comfort  for  all  future  time.     Catholicism 

Rogers  published  two  works  on  the  French  was  the  religion  of  the  majority  of  thtse 

and  Indian  War,  as  well  as  two  or  three  people,  and  was  cunningly  obliged  to  bear 

other  books.     He  died  in  England,  about  the  brunt  of  all  their  complaints,  jusci- 

IgOO.  fied   and  unjustifiable;    although  the  au- 

Rogersville,  Surprise  at.  In  Novem-  thorities  of  Catholicism  had  long  pro- 
ber, 1863,  Colonel  Garrard,  of  General  tested  against  many  of  the  gravest  abuses 
Shackleford's  command,  with  two  regi-  of  the  period,  sustained  in  formal  de- 
ments and  a  battery,  was  posted  at  Rogers-  fiance  of  the  principles  and  institutions 
ville,  in  east  Tennessee,  and  there  was  of  the  Catholic  religion.  The  new  Caesar 
suddenly  attacked  on  the  6th  by  Confed-  threatened  to  be  more  terrible  to  the  iu- 
erates  under  Gen.  W.  E.  Jones,  about  dependence  of  religion  than  any  ancient 
2,000  in  number.  It  was  a  surprise.  The  one,  and  the  revenues  and  establishments 
Nationals  were  routed,  with  a  loss  of  by  which  Catholicism  had  kept  up  its  pub- 
750  men,  four  guns,  and  thirty-six  wag-  lie  standing  and  earned  the  esteem  and 
ons.  This  disaster  created  great  alarm,  gratitude  of  the  people  were  swept  away 
Shackleford's    troops    at    Jonesboro    and  or  quasi  ruined. 

Greenville    fled    in    baste    back    to    Bull's  With  this  overturning  of  all  the  condi- 

Gap,   and  the   Confederates,  not   doubting  tions  of  Catholic  life  came  new  problems, 

Shackleford's    horsemen    would    be    after  new  trials,  and  a  period  of  indefinite,  un- 

them  in  great  force,  fled  as  hastily  tow-  certain    circumstances    that    were    finally 

ards  Virginia,  in  the  opposite  direction.  set  at  rest  only  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna 

Roman  Catholic  Church.     On  the  sub-  in  1815,  by  which  an  end  was  put  to  the 

ject  of  Roman  Catholicism  of  modern  times  political  changes  that  began  with  the  Rev- 

and  its  work  and  purpose  in  the  United  olution  of  1789. 

States,  Cardinal  Gibbons,  the  head  of  the  The   modus    vivendi   then   reached,   and 

American  Catholic  Church,  writes  as  fol-  soon  consecrated  by  a  series  of  concordats, 

lows:  has   remained    substantially   the   basis    of 

the  dealings  of  Catholicism  with  the  gov- 

The  Roman  Church  has  had  a  message  ernments    of   the    Old    World.      Only   one 

for  all  humanity  in  every  age  ever  since  formal    and    permanent   violation   of   this 

St.  Clement  penned  his  famous  epistle  to  legal   situation  has   taken  place,   the  vio- 

the  Corinthians,  or  St.  Victor  caused  the  lent  and  unjust  dispossession  of  the  Holy 

Christian  world  to  meet  in  special  coun-  See  by  the  government  of  the  House  of 

oils  for  the  solution  of  a  universal  diffi-  Savoy,  in  flagrant  violation  of  every  title 

456 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CHURCH 

that  could  be  invoked  by  a  legitimate  observation,  that  few  ages  of  Christian  - 
civil  power.  Elsewhere  Catholicism  has  ity  can  show  a  more  laborious  and  elevated 
undergone  much  suffering,  both  in  the  episcopate  than  the  nineteenth  century, 
states  of  the  Old  World  and  in  the  re-  The  recruiting  of  the  diocesan  clergy 
publics  of  South  America.  But,  the  above  has  been  the  gravest  duty  of  this  episco- 
vital  conflict  apart,  the  nineteenth  century  pate,  for  religion  lives  by  and  for  men. 
closed  with  no  very  acute  or  intolerable  It  can  get  along  without  wealth  or  monu- 
condition  of  things,  although  there  is  much  ments,  but  not  without  intelligent  teach- 
that  does  not  reply  to  our  ideas  of  fair-  ers  of  its  tenets  and  faithful  observers  of 
ness  and  justice.  its  precepts.     In  keeping  with  the  decrees 

The  chief  event  of  the  century,  from  the  of  the  council  of  Trent  diocesan  semi- 
point  of  view  of  Roman  Catholicism,  is  naries  have  been  opened  where  it  was  pos- 
undoubtedly  the  holding  of  the  Vatican  sible,  and  elsewhere  provincial  institu- 
council.  Since  the  council  of  Trent  the  tions  of  a  similar  character.  Both  flourish 
bishops  of  the  Catholic  world  had  not  met  in  the  United  States,  and  grow  more 
in  common  under  the  guidance  of  the  numerous  with  every  decade.  The  older 
Bishop  of  Rome.  The  gravest  interests  clergy,  long  drawn  from  the  venerable 
of  religion  seemed  at  stake  after  more  schools  of  Europe,  have  left  a  sweet  odor 
than  a  century  of  public  infidelity  and  among  us,  the  purest  odors  of  self-sacrific- 
the  overthrow  of  all  former  safeguards  ing  lives,  of  devotion  to  poor  and  scattered 
of  faith.  The  character  of  doctrinal  au-  flocks,  of  patient,  uncomplaining  content- 
thority  and  its  visible  tangible  possessor  ment  with  the  circumstances  of  poverty 
were  declared  by  the  dogma  of  Papal  in-  and  humility.  There  is  no  diocese  in  the 
fallibility.  The  genuine  relations  of  rea-  United  States  where  there  cannot  be 
son  and  revelation  were  set  forth  in  mi-  heard  tales  of  the  hardships  and  brave 
mistakable    language.  lives    of    the    ecclesiastics    who    laid    the 

A  general  council  is  the  very  highest  foundations  of  religion.  We  remember 
act  of  the  life  of  the  Church,  since  it  pre-  them  always,  and  hold  their  names  in 
sents  within  a  small  compass,  and  at  once,  benediction.  The  younger  generation  of 
all  the  movements  that  have  been  devel-  our  clergy  enjoys  advantages  denied  to 
oping  in  the  course  of  centuries,  and  of-  its  predecessors;  but  we  consider  that 
fers  to  all  the  faithful  and  to  all  outside  *they  owe  it  to  those  predecessors  if  they 
the  Church  straightforward  answers  to  have  a  degree  of  leisure  to  perfect  the 
all  the  great  ecclesiastical  problems  that  culture  of  their  minds,  and  a  faithful 
come  up  for  settlement.  Had  the  Vatican  Catholic  people  to  ask  for  the  benefits 
council  been  finished  it  would  have  taken  which  must  accrue  from  greater  learn- 
up  the  grave  subject  of  ecclesiastical  dis-  ing,  if  it  be  solid  and  well  directed, 
cipline.  That  is  reserved  for  the  reopen-  Yet  I  cannot  admit  that  our  older 
ing  of  the  council  at  some  future  date.  clergy   were   deficient   in   the   learning   of 

In  the  United  States,  particularly,  the  the  schools.     The  names  of  England  and 

Catholic   episcopate   has  been   very  active  Corcoran  are  at  once  on  our  lips,  not  to 

in    providing    for    the    most    fundamental  speak   of   a   long  array  of   others   almost 

spiritual   needs   of   their   flocks — churches  equally  entitled  to  distinguished  mention, 

for  religious  services,  priests  for  the  ad-  If  the  external  conditions  of  the  diocesan 

ministration    of    sacraments,    schools    for  clergy   have   improved,   their   relations   to 

the    preservation    of    the    revealed    Chris-  the    Church    authority    have    been    safe- 

tian  faith,  orphanages  for  the  little  waifs  guarded    with    even    greater    earnestness 

and  castaways  of  society.     Whether  short  and  efficiency.    The  dispositions  of  synods, 

or    long,    the    periods    of    government    of  provincial  councils,  and  the  three  plenary 

these  Church  rulers  have  never  been  idle  councils  of  Baltimore  have,  we  are  happy 

nor    marked    by    self-indulgence.      Almost  to  say,  had  little  to  do  with  questions  of 

every    one    has    left    some    monument    of  doctrine.     They  have  all  been  held  for  the 

faith    as    a    contribution    to    the    general  improvement  of  discipline  and  notably  for 

good  of  Catholicism.     I  wou'd  neither  ex-  the  welfare  of  the  clergy.     In  the  same  di- 

aggerate  nor  boast,  yet  it  occurs  to  me.  rection,   also,   have  tended   the  numerous 

after  many  years  of  service,  travel,  and  decisions   and   instructions   from   the   Ro- 

457 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


man  congregations,  whose  wisdom  has 
never  been  invoked  by  us  in  vain,  and 
whose  sympathy  for  our  conditions  we 
gratefully  acknowledge. 

Any  account  of  the  good  influence  of 
the  Holy  See  on  our  ecclesiastical  condi- 
tions would  be  unjust  and  incomplete  if 
the  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  Fide 
were  omitted.  To  it  we  owe  an  unceasing 
surveillance,  full  of  prudence  and  intelli- 
gence. From  its  offices  have  come  to  the 
bishops  regularly  counsel,  warning,  en- 
couragement, co-operation. 

In  the  religious  orders  and  communities 
the  Catholic  Church  possesses  a  very  an- 
cient auxiliary  force  that  has  rendered 
incalculable  help  during  the  nineteenth 
century.  By  their  numbers,  their  strong 
inherited  traditions,  their  central  govern- 
ment, their  willing  obedience,  and  their 
other  resources  they  have  come  everywhere 
to  the  aid  of  the  bishops  and  the  diocesan 
clergy.  Often  they  bore  alone  and  for  a  long 
time,  and  at  great  sacrifices,  the  whole 
burden  of  religion.  Their  praise  is  rightly 
on  all  sides,  and  their  works  speak  for  them, 
when  their  modesty  and  humility  forbid 
them  to  praise  themselves.  The  missions 
of  Catholicism  have  largely  fallen  to  them. 
They  stood  in  the  breach  for  the  cause 
of  education  when  the  churches  were  too 
poor  and  few  to  open  colleges.  They  have 
given  countless  missions  and  retreats,  and 
in  general  have  not  spared  themselves 
when  called  upon  for  works  of  general 
utility.  They  and  their  works  are  of 
the  essence  of  Catholicism,  and  they  ought 
rightly  to  nourish  in  any  land  where  they 
are  free  to  live  according  to  the  precepts 
and  the  spirit  of  their  founders,  who  are 
often  canonized  saints  of  the  Catholic 
Church. 

I  shall  not  be  saying  too  much  when  I 
assert  that  among  the  invaluable  ser- 
vices rendered  to  the  Church  by  Catholic 
women  of  all  conditions  of  life — no  unique 
thing  in  the  history  of  Catholicism — those 
rendered  by  the  women  of  religious  com- 
munities are  of  the  first  rank  of  merit. 
Primary  Catholic  education,  in  the  Unit- 
ed States,  would  have  been  almost  impos- 
sible without  their  devotion.  It  is  owing 
to  them  that  the  orphans  have  been  col- 
lected and  cared  for,  the  sick  housed  and 
sheltered,  the  poor  and  helpless  and  aged, 
the  crippled  and  the  blind,  looked  after 


regularly  and  lovingly.  They  surely  walk 
in  the  footsteps  of  Jesus,  doing  good 
wherever  they  go.  The  perennial  note  of 
sanctity  in  the  Catholic  Church  shines 
especially  in  them.  Content  with  food 
and  clothing  and  shelter,  they  devote 
their  lives,  often  in  the  very  flower  of 
youth  and  health  and  beauty,  to  the  weak 
and  needful  members  of  Christian  society. 
lie  must  needs  be  a  Divine  Master  who 
can  so  steadily  charm  into  His  service  the 
purest  and  the  most  affectionate  of  hearts, 
and  cause  them  to  put  aside  deliberately 
for  love  of  Him  even  the  most  justifiable 
of  human  attachments.  This  argument 
for  Christianity  is  not  new;  it  was  urged 
by  St.  Justin  the  Martyr  on  the  liber- 
tine world  of  the  Antonines. 

In  our  own  beloved  country,  the  United 
States,  we  have  every  reason  to  be  thank- 
ful that  the  liberty  to  worship  God  ac- 
cording to  the  dictates  of  conscience  is 
guaranteed  by  the  Constitution,  and  has 
entered  deeply  into  the  convictions  of  our 
fellow-citizens.  The  Catholic  Church,  by 
her  own  constitution,  is  deeply  sympa- 
thetic with  our  national  life  and  all  that 
it  stands  for.  She  has  thrived  in  the  at- 
mosphere of  liberty,  and  seeks  only  the 
protection  of  the  common  law,  that  equal 
justice  which  is  dealt  out  to  all. 

When  this  nation  was  forming,  the  first 
Catholic  bishop  in  the  United  States,  and 
my  first  predecessor  in  the  see  of  Balti- 
more, John  Carroll,  accepted  and  per- 
formed satisfactorily  the  gravest  public 
duty  of  a  citizen,  an  embassy  to  another 
people  for  the  benefit  of  his  own  country. 
Thereby  he  left  to  us  all  an  example  and 
a  teaching  that  we  shall  ever  cherish,  the 
example  of  self-sacrifice  as  the  prime  duty 
of  every  citizen,  and  the  teaching  that 
patriotism  is  a  holy  conviction  to  which 
no  Catholic,  priest  or  layman.,  can  hold 
himself  foreign  or  apathetic. 

A  Catholic  layman  of  the  same  distin- 
guished family,  Charles  Carroll  of  Car- 
lollton,  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  patriots 
from  the  beginning,  and  by  word  and  deed 
served  the  cause  of  American  liberty, 
while  he  lived  to  see  it  flourish  and  in- 
form more  and  more  the  minds  and  hearts 
of  the  first  generation  of  American  citi- 
zens. In  future  centuries,  as  in  this, 
his  name  will  be  held  in  honor  and  bene- 
diction as  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 


458 


ROMAN    CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


Independence.  His  Catholic  belief  and 
conduct  will  forever  be  a  potent  encour- 
agement to  the  children  of  his  own  faith. 
He  was  the  first  layman  to  contribute 
notably  to  the  cause  of  Catholic  educa- 
tion, and  the  native  formation  of  the 
priesthood,  by  the  establishment  of  a  col- 
lege for  that  purpose. 

We  have  done  our  best  in  these  ten 
decades  to  provide  the  best  education  for 
our  people  and  our  priests.  Intimately 
convinced  that  general  education  without 
religion  is  destined  to  be  an  evil  rather 
than  a  blessing,  we  have  created  all  over 
the  United  States  a  system  of  primary 
education  in  parochial  schools  that  has 
cost  us  and  yet  costs  us  the  gravest  sac- 
rifices and  entails  the  heaviest  solicitudes. 
Yet  we  feel  that  we  are  serving  the  cause 
of  God  and  country  by  indoctrinating  our 
Catholic  youth  with  persuasions  of  the 
existence  of  God  and  His  holy  attributes, 
of  the  true  nature  of  vice  and  virtue,  of 
conscience  and  sin,  of  the  spiritual  and 
the  temporal,  of  the  proper  purposes  of 
life,  of  punishment  and  reward  in  an  im- 
mortal life.  We  believe  that  Christianity 
is  better  than  paganism;  also  that  Chris- 
tianity is  something  simple,  positive,  his- 
torical, that  can  and  ought  to  be  taught 
from  the  cradle  to  the  grave,  good  for  all 
conditions,  for  both  sexes,  and  for  every 
situation  in  life  this  side  of  the  common 
grave.  Believing  this,  we  have  shaped 
our  conduct  accordingly,  and  trust"  to  God 
for  the  issue.  In  such  matters  it  im- 
ports more  to  be  right  in  principle  than 
to  be  successful.  Our  secondary  system 
of  education  has  gone  on  from  the  found- 
ing of  the  republic.  Colleges  for  boys  and 
academies  for  girls  have  risen  up  in  every 
State  and  Territory,  have  been  supported 
by  the  faithful  people,  and  are  doing  an 
incalculable  good.  As  our  means  increase 
and  other  advantages  offer,  we  hope  to 
improve  them;  Catholicism  is  no  stagnant 
pool,  but  a  field  for  every  good  private 
initiative  that  respects  right  and  truth. 
In  the  Catholic  University  of  America, 
founded  in  the  last  decade  of  the  century 
by  Pope  Leo  XIII.  and  the  Catholic  hier- 
archy, after  due  and  lengthy  deliberation, 
and  made  possible  by  the  magnificent  gen- 
erosity of  a  Catholic  woman,  we  have  cen- 
tred our  hopes  for  a  system  of  higher 
education  that  shall  embody  the  best  tradi- 


tions of  our  ancient  Church  and  the  ap- 
proved gains  of  our  own  times.  American 
Catholics  have  not  disposed  in  the  past 
of  great  wealth,  inherited  or  earned; 
hence  all  these  works  mean  an  incredible 
devotion  and  intensity  of  good-will  and 
sustained  sacrifices.  Wherever  the  Cath- 
olic Church  has  been  strong  and  success- 
ful, schools  of  every  kind  flourish.  I 
need  only  recall  the  fact  that  the  idea, 
the  constitution,  the  functions,  the  in- 
fluences of  a  university  were  unknown  in 
the  world  until  she  created  the  type 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  gave  over  to  man- 
kind a  new  factor  in  civil  and  religious 
life — the  power  of  organized  learning. 

For  the  last  100  years  one  line  of 
thought  and  action  has  been  gradually  dis- 
engaging itself  from  all  others  and  dom- 
inating them.  That  is  the  social  move- 
ment, or  the  tendency  towards  a  more 
evenly  just  and  natural  conception  of  all 
the  relations  that  arise  from  the  common 
dwelling  of  mankind  in  organized  society. 
It  has  long  taken  the  form  of  institutions 
and  plans  for  the  betterment  of  the  con- 
ditions of  the  people,  of  woman,  of  all 
who  suffer  or  think  they  suffer  from  the 
actual  organization  of  society.  If  there 
is  something  Utopian  in  certain  plans 
or  hopes,  there  is  too  much  that  is  justi- 
fiable at  the  root  of  other  attempts  to 
reorganize  our  social  conditions.  Not  to 
speak  of  the  undesirable  inheritances  of 
the  past,  the  new  conditions  created  for 
the  common  man  by  the  spread  of  indus- 
trialism and  commercialism  have  often 
been  painful  in  the  extreme,  and  have 
aroused  both  violent  protests  and  deep 
sympathy.  By  the  help  of  God  we  have 
abolished  the  reproach  of  slavery  in  every 
civilized  land,  but  we  hear  from  the  la- 
boring multitudes  a  vague  cry  that  they 
are  already  in  the  throes  of  a  return  to 
that  accursed  institution. 

Here  the  doctrines  of  Catholicism  are 
eminently  in  accord  with  the  right  con- 
ception of  human  nature,  the  functions 
of  authority  and  mutual  help  or  charity, 
the  duty  to  live,  and  the  right  to  all  the 
necessary  means  for  that  end.  She  is 
sympathetic,  historically  and  naturally, 
to  the  toiling  masses,  who,  after  all,  form 
everywhere  the  bulk  of  her  adherents,  and 
have  been  always  the  most  docile  and  af- 
fectionate of  her  members.    It  is  she  who 


459 


ROMAN   CATHOLIC    OHTTBOH— BOMANS 

created  in  the  world  the  practical  work-    peoples.    Expediency,  opportunism,  moral 
in<»  idea  of  a  common  humanity,  the  basis    cowardice  have  often  triumphed  over  the 
of  all  genuine  social  improvement.     The    plain  right  and  the  fair  truth.    The  prin- 
trials    of    Catholicism    have    come    more    ciple  has  been  established  that  God  is  on 
often  from  the  luxury  and  the  sin  of  those    the   side  of   the   great  battalions,   is   ever 
in  high  places  than  from  the  disaffection    with   the   strong   men   of  blood   and   iron, 
of  its  great  masses.   As  this  movement  has    Ancient  and  venerable  sovereignties  have 
gathered  force,  and  passed  from   theories    been    hypocritically    dispossessed.      Small 
into  the  domain  of  action,  the   Catholic    nationalities   have   been   erased   from   the 
Church,  through  her  head,  has  followed  it    world's  political  map,  and  the  history  of 
with   attention   and   respect.     The   whole    the  near  past  almost  justifies  the  rumors 
pontificate  of  Leo  XIII.  is  remarkable  for    of  impending  steps  in  the  same  direction, 
acts    and    documents    which    have    passed    With  the   increase  of  greatness  in  states 
into  the  history  of  social  endeavor  in  the    comes  an  increase   of  warlike   perils,  not 
nineteenth   century.      His   personal   chari-    only   from   commercial   rivalry,   but   from 
ties,  large  and  enlightened,  are  as  noth-    that    root    of    ambition    and    domination 
ing  in   comparison  with   the   far-reaching    which  grows  in  every  heart,  unless  check- 
acts  like  the  refusal  to  condemn  the  asso-    ed  and  subdued  in  time,  and  which  in  the 
eiation  of  the  Knights  of  Labor.     His  en-    past  has  been  too  often  the  source  of  vio- 
cyclical    on    the    condition    of    working-    lent  injustice  on  the  greatest  scale, 
men  recalls  the  only  possible  lines  of  a        Apostolic     delegation     to     the     United 
final   concord   between   labor    and   capital   States. — Diomede  Falconio,  Archbishop  of 
— the  spirit  and  teachings  of  Jesus  Christ,   Lairissa,      Papal     Delegate,      Washington, 
the    best    Friend    our    common    humanity   D.      C.        Archbishops. — Baltimore,      Md., 
ever   had.      In   the   same   way,   his   latest   James      Gibbons,      Cardinal,      consecrated 
encyclical    on    Jesus    Christ,    with    which    1868;    Boston,    Mass.,   John   J.    Williams, 
the     religious     history     of     the     century    1866;     Chicago,    111.,    James    E.    Quigley, 
closes,  emphasizes  the  true  basis  for  the    1899;    Cincinnati,   O.,    William   H.   Elder, 
restoration    of    peace    and    harmony    and    1857;  Dubuque,  la.,  John  J.  Keane,  1878; 
justice  between  the  poor  and  the  rich,  be-   Milwaukee,     Wis.      (vacancy     in     1904)  ; 
tween   the   producers   of   capital    and   the    New   Orleans,   La.,   P.   L.   Chapelle,    1897 ; 
capital  that  stimulates  and  regulates  pro-    New  York,  N.  Y.,  John  M.  Farley,   1895; 
duction.     We  may  be  confident   that  the    Portland,  Ore.,  Alexander  Christie,   1898; 
papacy  of  the  future  will   not  show  less    Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Patrick  J.  Ryan,  1872; 
enlightenment    and    sympathy    in    its    at-    St.  Louis,  Mo.,  T.  F.  Glennon,   1896:   St. 
tempts  to  solve  these  delicate  and  grave    Paul,  Minn.,  John  Ireland,  1875;  San  Fran- 
problems  with  the  least  injustice  and  the    cisco,  Cal.,  Patrick  W.  Reardon,  1883 ;  San- 
greatest  charity.  ta  Fe,  New  Mexico,  Peter  Bourgade,  1887. 
It  would  be  idle  to  deny  or  to  palliate        Romans,    Bernard,   engineer;    born    in 
the  many  shadows  that  fall  across  the  his-    Holland  about  1720;  was  employed  as  an 
tory  of  Catholicism   in  the   century  that    engineer   in  America  by  the  British  gov- 
has  elapsed.     I  scarcely  need  refer  to  the    ernment,    some    time    before    the    Revolu- 
weaknesses   and   errors   of   her   individual    tion.     While  in  government  employ  as   a 
children:    such   acts    she    repudiates,    and    botanist,    in   New   York,    and    engaged   in 
when   she   can  chastises   remedially.     But    the  publication  of   a   'Matured  History  of 
the   Church   has   not   recovered   that   vast    Florida,  the  committee  of  safety  of  that 
inherited    moral    power    over    the    public    city  offered  him  the  position  of  military 
life   which   it   enjoyed   before   the   French    engineer.      He    accepted    the    service,    and 
Pvevolution.      In    many    ways    the    conse-    was  afterwards  employed  by  Congress  to 
quenees  of  atheism,  materialism,  and  even    fortify  the  Highlands  east  of  West  Point, 
of  deism,  have  been  deduced  into  manners    At  or  near  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
and  institutions,  to  the  detriment  of  the    captured  at  sea,  on  his  way  to   Charles- 
ancient   Christian  morality.     The   sterner    ton,  taken  to  England,   and  in   1784   em- 
Christian    virtue    of    previous    centuries,    barked   for   America.      It   is   supposed   he 
founded  on  the  Christian  revelation,  has    was  murdered  on  the  passage.     He  pub- 
been  forced  out  of  the  public  life  of  whole    lished   a   Map  of  the  Seat  of  Civil  War 

460 


ROMNEY— ROOSEVELT 


in  America,  1775;  also  Annals  of  the 
Troubles  in  the  Netherlands,  from  the  Ac- 
cession of  Charles  V.,  which  was  dedicated 
to  Governor  Trumbull. 

Romney,  Skirmish  at.  One  of  the 
most  important  of  the  earlier  military 
operations  of  the  Civil  War,  in  its  moral 
effect,  was  performed  under  the  direction 
of  Col.  Lew.  Wallace,  with  his  regiment  of 
Zouaves,  the  11th  Indiana,  raised  by  him- 
self, and  presented  with  its  colors  by 
the  women  of  Indiana.  It  was  sent  to 
Evansville,  in  southern  Indiana,  on  the 
Ohio  River,  to  prevent  supplies  of  any 
kind  being  sent  to  the  South.  There,  as 
a  police  force,  it  chafed  with  impatience 
for  more  active  service,  and  on  June  6, 
1861,  it  was  ordered  to  proceed  to  Cum- 
berland, Md.,  and  join  General  Patter- 
son, then  moving  from  Pennsylvania  tow- 
ards Harper's  Ferry,  where  the  Confed- 
erate Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston  was  with 
a  strong  force.  Travelling  by  railway, 
the  regiment  reached  Grafton,  Va.,  very 
soon,  and  on  the  night  of  the  9th  was 
near  Cumberland.  At  Romney,  Va.,  only 
a  day's  march  south  from  Cumberland, 
there  was  then  a  Confederate  force,  about 
1,200  strong.  Wallace  resolved  to  attack 
it  at  once.  Led  by  faithful  guides  along 
an  unguarded  mountain  road,  at  night, 
Wallace,  with  800  of  his  men  (having 
left  the  others  at  New  Creek),  made  a 
perilous  journey,  and  got  near  Rom- 
ney at  8  p.m.  on  June  11. 


In  a  narrow  pass,  half  a  mile  from 
the  bridge  that  spanned  the  south  branch 
of  the  Potomac  at  Romney,  the  advance 
of  the  Zouaves  was  fired  upon  by  Con- 
federate pickets.  The  camp  of  the  latter 
was  on  a  bluff  near  the  village,  where 
they  had  planted  two  cannon.  The  In- 
dianians  pressed  forward,  drove  the  Con- 
federates before  them,  and,  pushing  di- 
rectly up  the  hill,  captured  the  battery. 
After  a  slight  skirmish,  the  Confederates 
fled  in  terror  to  the  forest,  leaving  only 
women  and  children  (excepting  negroes) 
in  the  village.  Having  no  cavalry  with 
which  to  pursue  the  fugitives,  Wallace 
at  once  retraced  his  steps  and  returned 
to  Cumberland.  In  the  space  of  twenty- 
four  hours  he  and  his  men  had  travelled 
87  miles  without  rest  (46  of  them  on 
foot),  engaged  in  a  brisk  skirmish,  "and, 
what  is  more,"  reported  the  gallant  colo- 
nel, "  my  men  are  ready  to  repeat  it  to- 
morrow." The  indomitable  energy,  skill, 
and  spirit  displayed  in  this  dash  on 
Romney  had  a  salutary  effect,  and  made 
the  Confederates  in  all  that  region  more 
circumspect.  According  to  the  Richmond 
papers,  it  so  alarmed  Johnston  by  its 
boldness  and  its  menace  of  his  line  of 
communication  with  Richmond  and  Man- 
assas (for  he  supposed  it  to  be  the 
advance  of  a  much  larger  force  near), 
that  he  immediately  evacuated  Harper's 
Ferry  and  moved  up  the  Shenandoah  Val- 
ley to  Winchester. 


ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE 

Roosevelt,       Theodore,       twenty-sixth  of    the   "  Rough    Riders."     He    served    in 

President    of    the    United    States;     from  Cuba   as   lieutenant  -  colonel   of  this   regi- 

Sept.  14,  1901,  to  March  4,  1905;  Republi-  ment,   which   greatly   distinguished   itself 

can;  born  in  New  York  City, Oct.  27,1858;  during  the  war,  and  was  promoted  colonel 

graduated    at    Harvard    College    in    1880;  in  recognition   of  his   bravery  during  the 

member  of  the  New  York  legislature   in  engagement  at  Las  Guasimas  (q.  v.).   He 

1882-84;  defeated  as  Republican  candidate  was    elected    governor    of    New    York    in 

for  mayor  of  New  York  City  in  1886;  na-  1898,    and    Vice-President    of    the    United 

tional  civil  service  commissioner  in  1889-  States   on   the  ticket  with   President  Mc- 

95;  and  president  of  the  New  York  police  Kinley  in  1900.     His  publications  include 

board  in  1895-97.    He  was  then  appointed  Winning   of   the    West ;    Life   of    Thomas 

assistant     Secretary    of    the    Navy     and  Hart   Benton ;   Life   of    Gouverneur    Mor- 

served     till     war     was     declared     against  ris ;  Naval  War  of  1812 ;  History  of  New 

Spain,  when  he  resigned,  and  with   Sur-  York;    American    Ideals    and    Other    Es- 

geon     (now    Brig.-Gen.)     Leonard    Wood,  saps;    The    Wilderness     Hunter;     Ranch 

recruited  the  1st  United  States  Volunteer  Life    and     the    Hunting-Trail ;     Hunting 

Cavalrv,  which  received  the  popular  name  Trips  of  a  Ranchman  ;  The  Rough  Riders; 

461 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

7'he  Strenuous  Life;  and  Life  of  Crom-  and  was  selected  as  the  candidate  for  the 
icell,  and  a  large  number  of  magazine  governorship  on  the  first  ballot  by  a  vote 
articles.  °f    nearly   three-fourths   of   the    delegates 

Mr.  Roosevelt  belongs  to  one  of  the  old  of  the  convention.  The  campaign  was  a 
Dutch  families  which  have  been  connect-  very  picturesque  one,  and  resulted  in  Mr. 
ed  with  New  York  since  the  days  of  the  Roosevelt's  election  by  a  majority  of  18,- 
Dutch  supremacy.    As  a  boy  he  was  rather    000  votes. 

During  the  winter  of  1899  and  1900 
suggestions  that  Governor  Roosevelt  be 
nominated  for  Vice-President  were  made 
by  the  politicians  and  by  the  public.  The 
governor  discouraged  the  idea  and  on  Feb. 
12  spoke  as  lollows: 

"  In  view  of  the  continued  statements 
in  the  press  that  I  may  be  urged  as  a 
candidate  for  Vice-President,  and  in  view 
of  the  many  letters  that  reach  me  advising 
for  and  against  such  a  course,  it  is  proper 
for  me  to  state  definitely  that  under  no 
circumstances  could  I  or  would  I  accept 
the  nomination  for  the  Vice-Presidency. 

"  It  is  needless  to  say  how  deeply  I  ap- 
preciate the  honor  conferred  upon  me  by 
the  mere  desire  to  place  me  in  so  high 
and  dignified  a  position;  but  it  seems  to 
me  clear  that  at  the  present  time  my  duty 
is  here  in  the  State  whose  people  chose  me 
to  be  governor.  Great  problems  have  been 
faced  and  are  being  partly  solved  in  this 
State  at  this  time,  and,  if  the  people  so  de- 
sire, I  hope  that  the  work  thus  begun  I 
may  help  carry  to  a  successful  conclusion." 
As  the  demand  for  his  nomination  was 
delicate  in  health,  but  possessing  great  unanimous  at  the  convention  at  Phila- 
nervous  power  and  a  strong  will  he  sue-  delphia,  Governor  Roosevelt  accepted  the 
ceeded  through  an  out-door  life,  combined  mandate  of  the  convention, 
with  athletics  and  sport,  in  so  building  When  the  President  was  shot,  Sept.  6, 
up  his  physique  that  he  became  an  all-  1901,  Mr.  Roosevelt  reached  Buffalo  on 
around  athlete.  While  a  thorough  party  the  morning  of  Sept.  14,  and  took  the 
man,  he  never  hesitated  to  attack  all  oath  of  office  before  Judge  John  R.  Hazel, 
suspicious  legislation,  openly  and  boldly,  His  first  official  acts  were  the  issuing  of  a 
whether  the  measures  were  promoted  by  proclamation  appointing  Sept.  19  as  a 
his  political  friends  or  enemies.  day   of   mourning,    and   a   request   to   the 

For  some  years  he  lived  on  his  Dakota  members  of  the  cabinet  to  retain  their 
ranch,   hunting  big  game,   raising   cattle,  portfolios. 

and  doing  literary  work.  His  acquaint-  In  1904  Roosevelt  was  unanimously 
ance  with,  and  influence  over,  the  cow-  nominated,  and  elected  by  a  very  large 
boys  of  the  West  resulted  in  thousands  majority  (see  Presidential  Elections). 
trying  to  join  the  regiment  of  Rough  It  was  at  President  Roosevelt's  sugges- 
Riders,  which  was  composed  of  cowboys,  tion  that  the  Russian  and  Japanese  en- 
millionaires,  and  society  men,  who  met  voys  met  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Aug. 
on  the  common  plane  of  patriotism  and  9,  1905,  for  the  purpose  of  negotiating 
love  of  adventure.  peace.     These  negotiations  ended  happily, 

After  the  Spanish  War  Mr.  Roosevelt  Sept.  5.  During  the  Rus-o  -  Japanese 
was  the  most  popular  man  in  the  Repub-  war,  President  Roosevelt  called  for  a  sec- 
lican   party  of  the   State  of  New  York,  ond    meeting    of    the    Hague    Conference, 

468 


THE   BIRTHPLACE   OP  THEODORE   ROOSEVELT, 
S8  Kast  Twentieth  Street,  New  York  City. 


.ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

Th:s  was  accepted  by  all  the  powers,  and  the  irresolute,  and  the  idle,  and  it  is  no 
the  meeting  will  prrbably  take  place  in  less  true  that  there  is  scant  room  in  the 
the  latter  part  of  1900.  world  at  large  for  the  nation  with  mighty 

The  following  address,  delivered  Sept.  2,    thews  that  dares  not  to  be  great. 
1001,  at  the  State  fair  at  Minneapolis,  in        Surely     in     speaking    to     the     sons    of 
its  frank  treatment  of  the  political  prob-    men    who    actually    did    the    rough    and 
lems  of  the  day,  forms  a  fit  pendant  to  that    hard     and     infinitely     glorious     work     of 

making  the  great  Northwest  what  it  now 
is,  I  need  hi  idly  insist  upon  the  right- 
eousness of  this  doctrine.  In  your  own 
vigorous  lives  you  show  by  every  act  how 
scant  is  your  patience  with  those  who 
do  not  see  in  the  life  of  effort  the  life 
supremely  worth  living.  Sometimes  we 
bear  those  who  do  not  work  spoken  of 
with  envy.  Surely  the  wilfully  idle  need 
arouse  in  the  breast  of  a  healthy  man  no 
emotion  stronger  than  that  of  contempt — 
at  the  outside,  no  emotion  stronger  than 
angry  contempt. 

The  feeling  of  envy  would  have  in  it  an 
admission  of  inferiority  on  our  part,  to 
which  the  men  who  know  not  the  sterner 
joys  of  life  are  not  entitled.  Poverty  is  a 
bitter  thing,  but  it  is  not  as  bitter  as  the 
existence  of  restless  vacuity  and  physical, 
moral,  and  intellectual  flabbiness  to  which 
those  doom  themselves  who  elect  to  spend 
all  their  years  in  that  vainest  of  all  vain 
pursuits,  the  pursuit  of  mere  pleasure  as  a 
sufficient  end  in  itself.  The  wilfully  idle 
man,  like  the  wilfully  barren  woman,  has 
no  place  in  a  sane,  healthy,  and  vigorous 
community.  Moreover,  the  gross  and 
hideous  selfishness  for  which  each  stands 
defeats  even  its  own  miserable  aims.  Ex- 
actly as  infinitely  the  happiest  woman  is 
she  who  has  borne  and  brought  up  many 
healthy  children — so  infinitely  the  hap- 
piest man  is  he  who  has  toiled  hard  and 
successfully  in  his  life  work.  The  work 
may  be  done  in  a  thousand  different  ways; 
with  the  brain  or  the  hands,  in  the  study, 
the  field,  or  the  workshop;  if  it  is  honest, 
work,  honestly  done  and  well  worth  doing, 
that  is  all  we  have  a  right  to  ask.  Every 
father  and  mother  here,  if  they  are  wise, 
will  bring  up  their  children  not  to  shirk 
difficulties,  but  to  meet  them  and  over- 
come them ;  not  to  strive  after  a  life  of 
ignoble  ease,  but  to  strive  to  do  their  duty, 
first  to  themselves  and  their  families  and 
then  to  the  whole  State;  and  this  duty 
must  inevitably  take  the  shape  of  work 
in  some  form  or  other.  You.  the  sons  of 
pioneers,  if  you  are  true  to  your  ancestry, 


made  by  McKinley  (q.  v.)   Sept.  5,  1901. 

The  Law  of  High,  Resolute  Endeavor. 
— In  his  admirable  series  of  studies  of 
twentieth-century  problems  Dr.  Lyman 
Abbott  has  pointed  out  that  we  are  a  na- 
tion of  pioneers;  that  the  first  colonists 
to  our  shores  were  pioneers,  and  that 
pioneers  selected  out  from  among  the 
descendants  of  these  early  pioneers,  min- 
gled with  others  selected  afresh  from  the 
Old  World,  pushed  westward  into  the  wil- 
derness, and  laid  the  foundations  for  new 
commonwealths.  They  were  men  of  hope 
and  expectation,  of  enterprise  and  energy; 
for  the  men  of  dull  content  or  more  dull 
despair  had  no  part  in  the  great  move- 
ment into  and  across  the  New  World.  Our 
country  has  been  populated  by  pioneers, 
and  therefore  it  has  in  it  more  energy, 
more  enterprise,  more  expansive  power 
than  any  other  in  the  wide  world. 

You  whom  I  am  now  addressing  stand, 
for  the  most  part,  but  one  generation  re- 
moved from  these  pioneers.  You  are 
typical  Americans,  for  you  have  done  the 
great,  the  characteristic,  the  typical  work 
of  our  American  life.  In  making  homes 
and  carving  out  careers  for  yourselves  and 
your  children,  you  have  built  up  this 
State;  throughout  our  history  the  success 
of  the  home-maker  has  been  but  another 
name  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  nation. 
The  men  who  with  axe  in  the  forest,  and 
pick  in  the  mountains  and  plough  on 
the  prairies,  pushed  to  completion  the 
dominion  of  our  people  over  the  American 
wilderness  have  given  the  definite  shape 
to  our  nation.  They  have  shown  the 
qualities  of  daring,  endurance,  and  far- 
sightedness, of  eager  desire  for  victory 
and  stubborn  refusal  to  accept  defeat, 
which  go  to  make  up  the  essential  manli- 
ness of  the  American  character.  Above 
all  they  have  recognized  in  practical  form 
the  fundamental  law  of  success  in  Ameri- 
can life — the  law  of  worthy  work,  the  law 
of  high,  resolute  endeavor.  We  have  but 
little  room  among  our  people  for  the  timid, 


463 


ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE 

must  make  your  lives  as  worthy  as  they  of  wage-workers,  and  which  shall  discrimi- 

made  theirs.    They  sought  for  true  success,  nate  in  favor  of  the  honest  and  humane 

and  therefore  they  did  not  seek  ease.  They  employer  by  removing  the  disadvantages 

knew   that   success   comes   only   to   those  under    which    he    stands    when    compared 

who  lead  the  life  of  endeavor.  with  unscrupulous  competitors  who  have 

It  seems  to  me  that  the  simple  accept-  no  conscience,  and  will  do  right  only  un- 
ance  of  this  fundamental  fact  of  Amer-  der  fear  of  punishment. 
ican  life,  this  acknowledgment  that  the  Nor  can  legislation  stop  only  with  what 
law  of  work  is  the  fundamental  law  of  our  are  termed  labor  questions.  The  vast  in- 
being,  will  help  us  to  start  aright  in  facing  dividual  and  corporate  fortunes,  the  vast 
not  a  few  of  the  problems  that  confront  us  combinations  of  capital,  which  have  mark- 
from  without  and  from  within.  As  regards  ed  the  development  of  our  industrial  sys- 
internal  affairs,  it  should  teach  us  the  tern,  create  new  conditions,  and  neces- 
prime  need  of  remembering  that  after  all  sitate  a  change  from  the  old  attitude  of 
has  been  said  and  done,  the  chief  factor  the  State  and  the  nation  towards  prop- 
in  any  man's  success  or  failure  must  be  erty, 

his  own   character;    that  is,  the  sum  of        It  is  probably  true  that  the  large  ma- 

his  common-sense,  his  courage,  his  virile  jority  of  the  fortunes  that  now  exist  in 

energy  and   capacity.     Nothing  can  take  this   country  have   been   amassed   not   by 

the  place  of  this  individual  factor.  injuring   our   people,   but   as   an   incident 

I  do  not  for  a  moment  mean  that  much  to  the  conferring  of  great  benefits  upon 
cannot  be  done  to  supplement  it.  Besides  the  community;  and  this,  no  matter 
each  of  us  working  individually,  all  of  us  what  may  have  been  the  conscious  pur- 
have  got  to  work  together.  We  cannot  pose  of  those  amassing  them.  There  is 
possibly  do  our  best  work  as  a  nation  but  the  scantiest  justification  for  most 
unless  all  of  us  know  how  to  act  in  com-  of  the  outcry  against  the  men  of  wealth 
bination  as  well  as  how  to  act  each  in-  as  such,  and  it  ought  to  be  unneces- 
dividually  for  himself.  The  acting  in  com-  sary  to  state  that  any  appeal  which  di- 
bination  can  take  many  forms,  but,  of  rectly  or  indirectly  leads  to  suspicion  and 
course,  its  most  effective  form  must  be  hatred  among  ourselves,  which  tends  to 
when  it  comes  in  the  shape  of  law;  that  limit  opportunity,  and  therefore  to  shut 
is,  of  action  by  the  community  as  a  whole  the  door  of  success  against  poor  men  of 
through  the  law-making  body.  talent,  and,  finally,  which  entails  the  pos- 

But   it   is   not   possible   ever   to   insure  sibility    of    lawlessness    and    violence,    is 

prosperity  merely  by  law.     Something  for  an  attack  upon  the  fundamental  properties 

good  can  be  done  by  law,  and  a  bad  law  of    American    citizenship.      Our    interests 

can  do  an  infinity  of  mischief;  but,  after  are  at  bottom  common;   in  the  long  run 

all,  the  best  law  can  only  prevent  wrong  we  go  up  or  go  down  together.    Yet  more 

and  injustice,  and  give  to  the  thrifty,  the  and  more  it  is  evident  that  the  State,  and 

far-seeing,  and  the  hard-working  a  chance  if  necessary  the  nation,  has  got  to  possess 

to   exercise   to    the   best   advantage   their  the   right   of   supervision   and   control,   as 

special   and   peculiar   abilities.     No  hard  regards  the  great  corporations  which  are 

and    fast    rule   can   be   laid    down   as    to  its  creatures;  particularly  as  regards  the 

where    our    legislation    shall    stop    in    in-  great  business  combinations,  which  derive 

terfering  between  man  and  man,  between  a   portion   of   their   importance   from   the 

interest    and    interest.      All    that    can    be  existence   of   some   monopolistic   tendency, 

said    is    that    it    is    highly    undesirable,  The  right  should  be  exercised  with  caution 

on    the   one   hand,    to   weaken    individual  and  self-restraint;  but  it  should  exist,  so 

initiative,  and  on  the  other  hand,  that  in  that  it  may  be  invoked  if  the  need  arises. 
a  constantly   increasing  number  of   cases        So  much   for   our   duties,   each   to   him- 

we  shall   find   it  necessary  in  the   future  self  and  each  to  his  neighbor,  within  the 

to  shackle  cunning  as  in  the  past  we  have  limits  of  our  own  country.     But  our  coun- 

shackled  force.  try,  as  it  strides  forward  with  ever-increas- 

It  is  not  only  highly  desirable,  but  nee-  ing  rapidity  to  a  foremost  place  among  the 

essary,   that    there    should    be    legislation  world  powers,  must  necessarily  find,  more 

which  shall  carefully  shield  the  interests  and  more,  that  it  has/ world  duties  also. 

484 


Roosevelt,  theodore 


ROOSEVELT  AND   THE  ROUGH   RIDERS  AT  SANTIAGO,  CUBA. 


There  are  excellent  people  who  believe  that  die;  and  whereas  the  nation  that  has  done 
we  can  shirk  these  duties,  and  yet  re-  nothing  leaves  nothing  behind  it  the  na- 
tain  our  self-respect;  but  these  good  peo-  tion  that  has  done  a  great  work  really 
pie  are  m  error.  Other  people  seek  to  continues,  though  in  changed  form,  for- 
deter  us  from  treading  the  path  of  hard  evermore.  The  Roman  has  passed  away, 
but  lofty  duty  by  bidding  us  remember  exactly  as  all  nations  of  antiquity  which 
that  all  nations  that  have  achieved  great-  did  not  expand  when  he  expanded  have 
ness,  that  have  expanded  and  played  their  passed  away;  but  their  very  memory  has 
part  as  world  powers,  have  in  the  end  vanished,  while  he  himself  is  still  a  living 
passed  away.  So  they  have,  and  so  have  force  throughout  the  wide  world  in  our 
all  others.  entire   civilization  of  to-day,  and  will   so 

The  weak  and  the  stationary  have  van-    continue    through    countless    generations, 
ished  as  surely  as,  and  more  rapidly  than,    through  untold  ages. 

those  whose  citizens  felt  within  them  the  It  is  because  we  believe  with  all  our 
life  that  impels  generous  souls  to  great  heart  and  soul  in  the  greatness  of  this 
and  noble  effort.  This  is  another  way  of  country,  because  we  feel  the  thrill  of 
stating  the  universal  law  of  death,  which  hardy  life  in  our  veins,  and  are  con- 
is  itself  part  of  the  universal  law  of  life,  fident  that  to  us  is  given  the  privilege 
The  man  who  works,  the  man  who  does  of  playing  a  leading  part  in  the  cen- 
great  deeds,  in  the  end  dies  as  surely  as  tury  that  has  just  opened  that  we  hail 
the  veriest  idler  who  cumbers  the  earth's  with  eager  delight  the  opportunity  to 
surface;  but  he  leaves  behind  him  the  do  whatever  task  Providence  may  allot 
great  fact  that  he  has  done  his  work  well.  us.  We  admit  with  all  sincerity  that  our 
So  it  is  with  nations.  While  the  nation  first  duty  is  wuthin  our  own  household: 
that  has  dared  to  be  great,  that  has  had  that  we  must  not  merely  talk,  but  act, 
the  will  and  the  power  to  change  the  in  favor  of  cleanliness  and  decency  and 
destiny  of  the  ages,  in  the  end  must  die,  righteousness,  in  all  political,  social,  and 
yet  no  less  surely  the  nation  that  has  civic  matters.  No  prosperity  and  no  glory 
played  the  part  of  the  weakling  must  also  can  save  a  nation  that  is  rotten  at  heart. 
VTI.— 2  Q  465 


ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE 

We  must  ever  keep  the  core  of  our  national  justice.     Then  let  us  make  it  equally  evi- 

being  sound,  and  see  to  it  that  not  only  dent   that   we  will  not  tolerate   injustice 

our  citizens  in  private  life,  but,  above  all,  being  done  us  in  return.     Let  us  further 

our  statesmen  in  public  life,  practise  the  make   it   evident   that   we   use   no    words 

old  commonplace  virtues  which  from  time  which   we   are   not   prepared   to   back   up 

immemorial   have  lain  at  the  root  of  all  with    deeds,    and    that    while    our    speech 

true  national  well-being.  is    always    moderate,    we    are    ready    and 

Yet,  while  this  is  our  first  duty,  it  is  willing  to   make   it  good.     Such  an   atti- 

not  our  whole  duty.    Exactly  as  each  man,  tude  will  be  the  surest  possible  guarantee 

while  doing  first  his  duty  to  his  wife  and  of   that   self-respecting   peace,   the   attain- 

the   children   within  his  home,   must  yet,  ment  of  which   is   and  must  ever  be   the 

if   he   hopes   to   amount   to   much,    strive  prime  aim  of  a  self-governing  people, 

mightily  in  the  world  outside  his  home;  This  is  the  attitude  we  should  take  as 

so  our  nation,  while  first  of  all  seeing  to  regards    the    Monroe    doctrine.      There    is 

its    own    domestic    well-being,    must    not  not  the  least  need  of  blustering  about  it. 

shrink   from   playing  its  part  among  the  Still   less  should  it  be  used  as  a  pretext 

great  nations  without.  for   our   own    aggrandizement   at   the   ex- 

Our  duty  may  take  many  forms  in  the  pense  of  any  other  American  state.     But, 

future    as    it    has    taken    many    forms    in  most  emphatically,  we  must  make  it  evi- 

the  past.     Nor  is  it  possible  to  lay  down  denv   ""hat   we   intend   on   this    point    ever 

a  hard  and   fast  rule  for  all   cases.     We  to    maintain    the    old    American    position, 

must   ever   face   the   fact   of   our   shifting  Indeed,  it  is  hard  to  understand  how  any 

national    needs,    of    the    always-changing  man    can    take    any    other    position    now 

opportunities     that     present     themselves,  that   we   are   all    looking   forward   to   the 

But    we    may    be    certain    of    one    thing;  building  of  the  isthmian  canal.    The  Mon- 

whether    we    wish    it    or    not,    we    cannot  roe  doctrine  is  not  international  law,  but 

avoid    hereafter    having    duties    to    do    in  there  is  no  necessity  that  it  should  be. 

the   face   of   other   nations.     All   that  we  All    that    is   needful    is   that   it   should 

can  do  is  to  settle  whether  we  shall  per-  continue  to  be  a  cardinal  feature  of  Amer- 

form  these  duties  well  or  ill.  ican    policy   on    this    continent;    and    the 

Right  here  let  me  make  as  vigorous  a  Spanish-American   states   should,   in   their 

plea  as   I   know   how   in   favor   of   saying  own  interests,  champion  it  as  strongly  as 

nothing  that  we  do  not  mean,  and  of  act-  we  do.     We   do  not  by   this   doctrine   in- 

ing  without  hesitation  up  to  whatever  we  tend  to  sanction  any  policy  of  aggression 

say.     A  good  many  of  you  are  probably  by    one    American    commonwealth    at    the 

acquainted  with  the  old  proverb,  "  Speak  expense  of  any  other,   nor   any  policy  of 

softly  and  carry  a  big  stick — you  will  go  commercial     discrimination     against     any 

far."     If  a  man  continually  blusters,  if  he  foreign  power  whatsoever.     Commercially, 

lacks  civility,  a  big  stick  will  not  save  him  as   far   as   this   doctrine   is   concerned,   all 

from   trouble,   and    neither   will    speaking  we  wish  is  a  fair  field  and  no  favor;  but 

softly  avail,  if  back  of  the  softness  there  if  we  are  wise  we  shall  strenuously  insist 

does  not  lie  strength,   power.    In  private  that   under    no    pretext    whatsoever    shall 

life  there  are  few  beings  more  obnoxious  there  be  any  territorial  aggrandizement  on 

than  the  man  who  is  always  loudly  boast-  American  soil  by  any  European  power,  and 

ing,  and  if  the  boaster  is  not  prepared  to  this,  no  matter  what  form  the  territorial 

back  up  his  words,  his  position  becomes  aggrandizement  may  take, 

absolutely    contemptible.      So    it    is    with  We    most    earnestly    hope    and    believe 

the   nation.      It   is   both   foolish   and   un-  that   the   chance   of   our   having  any   hos- 

digniled    to    indu'ge    in    undue    self-glori-  tile   military   complication   with   any   for- 

fieation.   and.   above   all,   in   loose-ton<jued  ei^n     power     is     very     small.      But     that 

denunciation  of  other  peoples.     Whenever  there  will   come  a  strain,  a  jar  here  and 

on  any  point  we  come  in  contact  with  a  there,    from    commercial    and   agricultural 

foreign    power,   I   hope   that   we   shall    al-  — that    is,    from    industrial — competition, 

ways  strive  to  speak  courteously  and  re-  is     almost     inevitable.      Here     again     we 

spectfully  of  that  foreign  power.     Let  us  have    got    to    remember     that    our    first 

make    it   evident   that   we    intend    to    do  duty  is  to  our  own  people;  and  yet  that 

466 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 


we  can  best  get  justice  by  doing  justice. 
We  must  continue  the  policy  that  has  been 
so  brilliantly  successful  in  the  past,  and 
so  shape  our  economic  system  as  to  give 
every  advantage  to  the  skill,  energy,  and 
intelligence  of  our  farmers,  merchants, 
manufacturers,  and  wage  -  workers ;  and 
yet  we  must  also  remember  in  dealing 
with  other  nations  that  benefits  must  be 
given  where  benefits  are  sought.  It  is  not 
possible  to  dogmatize  as  to  the  exact  way 
of  attaining  this  end;  for  the  exact  con- 
ditions cannot  be  foretold.  In  the  long  run 
one  of  our  prime  needs  is  stability  and 
continuity  of  economic  policy;  and  yet, 
through  treaty  or  by  direct  legislation, 
it  may,  at  least  in  certain  cases,  become 


own  efforts  a  sane  and  orderly  civilization, 
no  matter  how  small  it  may  be,  has  any- 
thing to  fear  from  us. 

Our  dealings  with  Cuba  illustrate  this, 
and  should  be  forever  a  subject  of 
just  national  pride.  We  speak  in  no 
spirit  of  arrogance  when  we  state  as 
a  simple  historic  fact  that  never  in 
recent  times  has  any  great  nation  acted 
with  such  disinterestedness  as  we  have 
shown  in  Cuba.  We  freed  the  island  from 
the  Spanish  yoke.  We  then  earnestly  did 
our  best  to  help  the  Cubans  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  education,  of  law  and 
order,  of  material  prosperity,  of  the  clean- 
liness necessary  to  sanitary  well-being  in 
their  great   cities.      We   did   all   this   at 


^^S$^&i^§m^B 


iiira^ 


giSMf^^ 


Wi> 


ROOSEVELT'S     HOME    AT    OYSTER    BAT,    L.    I 


advantageous  to  supplement  our  present  great  expense  of  treasure,  at  some  ex- 
policy  by  a  system  of  reciprocal  benefit  pense  of  life,  and  now  we  are  establishing 
and  obligation.  them  in  a  free  and  independent  common- 
Throughout  a  large  part  of  our  nation-  wealth,  and  have  asked  in  return  nothing 
al  career  our  history  has  been  one  of  whatever  save  that  at  no  time  shall  their 
expansion,  the  expansion  being  of  different  independence  be  prostituted  to  the  advan- 
kinds  at  different  times.  This  exp^nation  tage  of  some  foreign  rival  of  ours,  or  so 
is  not  a  matter  of  regret,  but  of  price,  as  to  menace  our  well-being.  To  have 
It  is  vain  to  tell  a  people  as  masterful  as  failed  to  ask  this  wou'd  have  amounted  to 
ours  that  the  spirit  of  enterprise  is  not  national  stultification  on  our  part, 
safe.  The  true  American  has  never  feared  In  the  Philippines  we  have  brought 
to  run  risks  when  the  prize  to  be  won  was  peace,  and  we  are  at  this  moment  giving 
of  sufficient  value.  No  nation  capable  of  them  such  freedom  and  self-government 
self-government  and  of  developing  by  its  as  they  could  never  under  any  conceivable 

467 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 


conditions  have  obtained  had  we  turned 
them  loose  to  sink  into  a  welter  of  blood 
and  confusion,  or  to  become  the  prey  of 
some  strong  tyranny  without  or  within. 
The  bare  recital  of  the  facts  is  sufficient 
to  show  that  we  did  our  duty,  and  what 
prouder  title  to  honor  can  a  nation  have 
than  to  have  done  its  duty  ?  We  have  done 
our  duty  to  ourselves,  and  we  have  done 
the  higher  duty  of  promoting  the  civiliza- 
tion of  mankind. 

The  first  essential  of  civilization  is  law. 
Anarchy  is  simply  the  handmaiden  and  fore- 
runner of  tyranny  and  despotism.  Law  and 
order  enforced  by  justice  and  by  strength 
lie  at  the  foundation  of  civilization.  Law 
must  be  based  upon  justice,  else  it  cannot 
stand,  and  it  must  be  enforced  with  reso- 
lute firmness,  because  weakness  in  enforc- 
ing it  means  in  the  end  that  there  is  no 
justice  and  no  law,  nothing  but  the  rule 
of  disorderly  and  unscrupulous  strength. 
Without  the  habit  of  orderly  obedience  to 
the  law,  without  the  stern  enforcement  of 
the  laws  at  the  expense  of  those  who  de- 
fiantly resist  them,  there  can  be  no  possi- 
ble progress,  moral  or  material,  in  civili- 
zation. There  can  be  no  weakening  of  the 
law-abiding  spirit  at  home  if  we  are  per- 
manently to  succeed,  and  just  as  little  can 
we  afford  to  show  weakness  abroad.  Law- 
lessness and  anarchy  were  put  down  in  the 
Philippines  as  a  prerequisite  to  inducing 
the  reign  of  justice. 

Barbarism  has  and  can  have  no  place 
in  a  civilized  world.  It  is  our  duty  tow- 
ards the  people  living  in  barbarism  to 
see  that  they  are  freed  from  their  chains, 
and  we  can  only  free  them  by  destroying 
barbarism  itself.  The  missionary,  the  mer- 
chant, and  the  soldier  may  each  have  to 
play  a  part  in  this  destruction,  and  in  the 
consequent  uplifting  of  the  people.  Ex- 
actly as  it  is  the  duty  of  a  civilized  power 
scrupulously  to  respect  the  rights  of  all 
weaker  civilized  powers  and  gladly  to  help 
those  who  are  struggling  towards  civiliza- 
tion, so  it  is  its  duty  to  put  down  sav- 
agery and  barbarism.  As  in  such  a  work 
human  instruments  must  be  used,  and  as 
human  instruments  are  imperfect,  this 
means  that  at  times  there  will  be  in- 
justices; that  at  times  merchant,  or  sol- 
dier, or  even  missionary  may  do  wrong. 

Let  us  instantly  condemn  and  rectify 
such  wrong  when  it  occurs,  and  if  pos- 


sible punish  the  wrong-doer.  But,  shame, 
thrice  shame  to  us,  if  we  are  so 
foolish  as  to  make  such  occasional  wrong- 
doing an  excuse  for  failing  to  perform 
a  great  and  righteous  task.  Not  only 
in  our  own  land,  but  throughout  the 
world,  throughout  all  history,  the  ad- 
vance of  civilization  has  been  of  incal- 
culable benefit  to  mankind,  and  those 
through  whom  it  has  advanced  deserve  the 
higher  honor.  All  honor  to  the  mission- 
ary, all  honor  to  the  soldier,  all  honor 
to  the  merchant  who  now  in  our  own  day 
have  done  so  much  to  bring  light  into  the 
world's  dark  places. 

Let  me  insist  again,  for  fear  of  pos- 
sible misconstruction,  upon  the  fact  that 
our  duty  is  twofold,  and  that  we  must 
raise  others  while  we  are  benefiting  our- 
selves. In  bringing  order  to  the  Philip- 
pines, our  soldiers  added  a  new  page 
to  the  honor-roll  of  American  history,  and 
they  incalculably  benefited  the  islanders 
themselves.  Under  the  wise  administra- 
tion of  Governor  Taft  the  is^nds  now  en- 
joy a  peace  and  liberty  of  which  they  have 
hitherto  never  even  dreamed.  But  this 
peace  and  liberty  under  the  law  must  be 
supplemented  by  material,  by  industrial 
development.  Every  encouragement  should 
be  given  to  their  commercial  development, 
to  the  introduction  of  American  industries 
and  products;  not  merely  because  this  will 
be  a  good  thing  for  our  people,  but  in- 
finitely more  because  it  will  be  of  in- 
calculable benefit  to  the  people  of  the 
Philippines. 

We  shall  make  mistakes;  and  if  we  let 
these  mistakes  frighten  us  from  work,  we 
shall  show  ourselves  weaklings.  Half  a  cen- 
tury ago  Minnesota  and  the  two  Dakotas 
were  Indian  hunting-grounds.  We  commit- 
ted plenty  of  blunders,  and  now  and  then 
worse  than  blunders,  in  our  dealings  with 
the  Indians.  But  who  does  not  admit 
at  the  present  day  that  we  were  right  in 
wresting  from  barbarism  and  adding  to 
civilization  the  territory  out  of  which  we 
have  made  these  beautiful  States  ?  And  now 
we  are  civilizing  the  Indian  and  putting 
him  on  a  level  to  which  he  could  never 
have  attained  under  the  old  conditions. 

In  the  Philippines  let  us  remember  that 
the  spirit  and  not  the  mere  form  of  gov- 
ernment is  the  essential  matter.  The  Tag- 
alogs  have  a  hundredfold  the  freedom  un- 


468 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 


der  us  that  they  would  have  if  we  had 
abandoned  the  islands.  We  are  not  trying 
to  subjugate  a  people;  we  are  trying  to 
develop  them,  and  make  them  a  law- 
abiding,  industrious,  and  educated  people, 
and  we  hope,  ultimately,  a  self-governing 
people.  In  short,  in  the  work  we  have 
done,  we  are  but  carrying  out  the  true 
principles  of  our  democracy.  We  work  in 
a  spirit  of  self-respect  for  ourselves  and  of 
good-will  towards  others;  in  a  spirit  of 
love  for  and  of  infinite  faith  in  mankind. 
We  do  not  blindly  refuse  to  face  the  evils 
that  exist;  or  the  shortcomings  inherent 
in  humanity;  but  across  blunderings  and 
shirking,  across  selfishness  and  meanness 
of  motive,  across  short  -  sightedness  and 
cowardice,  we  gaze  steadfastly  towards 
the  far  horizon  of  golden  triumph. 

If  you  will  study  our  past  history  as  a 
nation  you  will  see  we  have  made  many 
blunders  and  have  been  guilty  of  many 
shortcomings,  and  yet  that  we  have  always 
in  the  end  come  out  victorious  because 
we  have  refused  to  be  daunted  by  blun- 
ders and  defeats — have  recognized  them, 
but  have  persevered  in  spite  of  them.  So 
it  must  be  in  the  future.  We  gird  up 
our  loins  as  a  nation  with  the  stern 
purpose  to  play  our  part  manfully  in  win- 
ning the  ultimate  triumph,  and  therefore 
we  turn  scornfully  aside  from  the  paths 
of  mere  ease  and  idleness,  and  with  un- 
faltering steps  tread  the  rough  road  of 
endeavor,  smiting  down  the  wrong  and 
battling  for  the  right  as  Greatheart  smote 
and  battled  in  Bunyan's  immortal  story. 

President  Roosevelt's  First  Message  to 
Congress. — On  Dec.  3,  1901,  President 
Roosevelt  sent  the  following  message  to 
Congress.  (To  make  reference  easier  to 
the  various  subjects  mentioned  in  the 
message  italic  head-lines  are  here  added.) 


To  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives,— The  Congress  assembles  this  year 
under  the  shadow  of  a  great  calamity.  On 
the  6th  of  September  President  McKinley 
was  shot  by  an  anarchist  while  attending 
the  exposition  at  Buffalo,  and  died  in 
that  eity  on  the  14th  of  that  month. 

Of  the  last  seven  elected  Presidents,  he 
is  the  third  who  has  been  murdered,  and 
the  bare  recital  of  this  fact  is  sufficient  to 
justify  grave  alarm  among  all  loyal 
American  citizens.     Moreover,  the  circum- 


stances of  this,  the  third  assassination  of 
an  American  President,  have  a  peculiarly 
sinister  significance.  Both  President  Lin- 
coln and  President  Garfield  were  killed  by 
assassins  of  types  unfortunately  not  un- 
common in  history,  President  Lincoln  fall- 
ing a  victim  to  the  terrible  passions 
aroused  by  four  years  of  civil  war,  and 
President  Garfield  to  the  revengeful  vanity 
of  a  disappointed  office-seeker.  President 
McKinley  was  killed  by  an  utterly  de- 
praved criminal  belonging  to  that  body  of 
criminals  who  object  to  all  governments, 
good  and  bad  alike,  who  are  against  any 
form  of  popular  liberty  if  it  is  guaranteed 
by  even  the  most  just  and  liberal  laws,  and 
who  are  as  hostile  to  the  upright  exponent 
of  a  free  people's  sober  will  as  to  the 
tyrannical  and  irresponsible  despot. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  at  the 
time  of  President  McKinley's  death  he 
was  the  most  widely  loved  man  in  all  the 
United  States,  while  we  have  never  had 
any  public  man  of  his  position  who  has 
been  so  wholly  free  from  the  bitter  ani- 
mosities incident  to  public  life.  His  po- 
litical opponents  were  the  first  to  bear  the 
heartiest  and  most  generous  tribute  to  the 
broad  kindliness  of  nature,  the  sweetness 
and  gentleness  of  character  which  so  en- 
deared him  to  his  close  associates.  To  a 
standard  of  lofty  integrity  in  public  life 
he  united  the  tender  affections  and  home 
virtues  which  are  all-important  in  the 
make-up  of  national  character  A  gallant 
soldier  in  the  great  war  for  the  Union,  he 
also  shone  as  an  example  to  all  our  people 
because  of  his  conduct  in  the  most  sacred 
and  intimate  of  home  relations.  There 
could  be  no  personal  hatred  of  him,  for  he 
never  acted  with  aught  but  consideration 
for  the  welfare  of  others.  No  one  could 
fail  to  respect  him  who  knew  him  in  public 
or  private  life.  The  defenders  of  those 
murderous  criminals  who  seek  to  excuse 
their  criminality  by  asserting  that  it  is  ex- 
ercised for  political  ends  inveigh  against 
wealth  and  irresponsibile  power.  But  for 
this  assassination  even  this  base  apology 
cannot   be  urged. 

An  Insensate  Crime. — President  Mc- 
Kinley was  a  man  of  moderate  means,  a 
man  whose  stock  sprang  from  the  sturdy 
tillers  of  the  soil,  who  had  himself  belong- 
ed among  the  wage-workers,  who  had  en- 
tered the  army  as  a  private  soldier.    Wealth 


469 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 


was  not  struck  at  when  the  President  was 
assassinated,  but  the  honest  toil  which  is 
content  with  moderate  gains  after  a  life- 
time of  unremitting  labor,  largely  in  the 
service  of  the  public.  Still  less  was 
power  struck  at  in  the  sense  that  power 
is  irresponsible  or  centred  in  the  hands 
of  any  one  individual.  The  blow  was  not 
aimed  at  tyranny  or  wealth.  It  was  aimed 
at  one  of  the  strongest  champions  the 
wage-worker  has  ever  had;  at  one  of  the 
most  faithful  representatives  of  the  sys- 
tem of  public  rights  and  representative 
government  who  has  ever  risen  to  public 
office.  President  McKinley  filled  that  po- 
litical office  for  which  the  entire  people 
vote,  and  no  President — not  even  Lincoln 
himaelf — was  ever  more  earnestly  anxious 
to  represent  the  well-thought-out  wishes 
of  the  people;  his  one  anxiety  in  every 
crisis  was  to  keep  in  closest  touch  with  the 
people — to  find  out  what  they  thought  and 
to  endeavor  to  give  expression  to  their 
thought,  after  having  endeavored  to  guide 
that  thought  aright.  He  had  just  been  re- 
elected to  the  Presidency  because  the  ma- 
jority of  our  citizens,  the  majority  of  our 
farmers  and  wage-workers,  believed  that  he 
had  faithfully  upheld  their  interests  for 
four  years.  They  felt  themselves  in  close 
and  intimate  touch  with  him.  They  felt 
that  he  represented  so  well  and  so  hon- 
orably all  their  ideals  and  aspirations  that 
they  wished  him  to  continue  for  another 
four  years  to  represent  them. 

And  this  was  the  man  at  whom  the  as- 
sassin struck !  That  there  might  be  nothing 
lacking  to  complete  the  Judas-like  infamy 
of  his  act,  he  took  advantage  of  an  occa- 
sion when  the  President  was  meeting  the 
people  generally,  and,  advancing  as  if  to 
take  the  hand  outstretched  to  him  in  kind- 
ly and  brotherly  fellowship,  he  turned  the 
noble  and  generous  confidence  of  the  vic- 
tim into  an  opportunity  to  strike  the  fatal 
blow.  There  is  no  baser  deed  in  all  the 
annals  of  crime. 

The  shock,  the  grief  of  the  country,  are 
bitter  in  the  minds  of  all  who  saw  the 
dark  days  while  the  President  yet  hovered 
between  life  and  death.  At  last  the  light 
was  stilled  in  the  kindly  eyes,  and  the 
breath  went  from  the  lips  that  even  in 
mortal  agony  uttered  no  words  save  of  for- 
giveness to  his  murderer,  of  love  for  his 
friends,  and  of  unfaltering  trust  in  the 

4 


will  of  the  Most  High.  Such  a  death, 
crowning  the  glory  of  such  a  life,  leaves 
us  with  infinite  sorrow,  but  with  such 
pride  in  what  he  had  accomplished  and  in 
his  own  personal  character,  that  we  feel 
the  blow  not  as  struck  at  him,  but  as 
struck  at  the  nation.  We  mourn  a  good 
and  great  President  who  is  dead ;  but  while 
we  mourn  we  are  lifted  up  by  the  splendid 
achievements  of  his  life  and  the  grand 
heroism  with  which  he  met  his  death. 

Anarchism. — When  we  turn  from  the 
man  to  the  nation,  the  harm  done  is  so 
great  as  to  excite  our  gravest  apprehen- 
sions and  to  demand  our  wisest  and  most 
resolute  action.  This  criminal  was  a  pro- 
fessed anarchist,  inflamed  by  the  teachings 
of  professed  anarchists,  and  probably  also 
by  the  reckless  utterances  of  those  who,  on 
the  stump  and  in  the  public  press,  appeal 
to  the  dark  and  evil  spirits  of  malice  and 
greed,  envy  and  sullen  hatred.  The  wind 
is  sowed  by  the  men  who  preach  such  doc- 
trines, and  they  cannot  escape  their  share 
of  responsibility  for  the  whirlwind  that  is 
reaped.  This  applies  alike  to  the  deliber- 
ate demagogue,  to  the  exploiter  of  sensa- 
tionalism, and  to  the  crude  and  foolish 
visionary  who,  for  whatever  reason,  apolo- 
gizes for  crime  or  excites  aimless  discon- 
tent. 

The  blow  was  aimed  not  at  this  Presi- 
dent, but  at  all  Presidents;  at  every  sym- 
bol of  government.  President  McKinley 
was  as  emphatically  the  embodiment  of 
the  popular  will  of  the  nation  expressed 
through  the  forms  of  law  as  a  New  Eng- 
land town-meeting  is  in  similar  fashion 
the  embodiment  of  the  law-abiding  pur- 
pose and  practice  of  the  people  of  the 
town.  On  no  conceivable  theory  could  the 
murder  of  the  President  be  accepted  as  due 
to  protest  against  "  inequalities  in  the 
social  order,"  save  as  the  murder  of  all  the 
freemen  engaged  in  a  town-meeting  could 
be  accepted  as  a  protest  against  that  social 
inequality  which  puts  a  malefactor  in  jail. 
Anarchy  is  no  more  an  expression  of 
"  social  discontent "  than  picking  pockets 
or  wife  beating. 

The  anarchist,  and  especially  the  anar- 
chist in  the  United  States,  is  merely  one 
type  of  criminal,  more  dangerous  than  any 
other  because  he  represents  the  same  de- 
pravity in  a  greater  degree.  The  man  who 
advocates  anarchy,  directly  or  indirectly, 
70 


( 


KOOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

In  any  shape  or  fashion,  or  the  man  who  They  and  those  like  them  should  be  kept 
apologizes  for  anarchists  and  their  deeds,  out  of  this  country;  and  if  found  here  they 
makes  himself  morally  accessory  to  mur-  should  be  promptly  deported  to  the  coun- 
der  before  the  fact.  The  anarchist  is  a  try  whence  they  came;  and  far-reachin<» 
criminal  whose  perverted  instincts  lead  provision  should  be  made  for  the  puniuL° 
him  to  prefer  confusion  and  chaos  to  the  ment  of  those  who  stay.  No  matter  calls 
most  beneficent  form  of  social  order.  His  more  urgently  for  the  wisest  thought  of 
protest  of  concern  for  workingmen  is  out-    the  Congress. 

rageous  in  its  impudent  falsity;  for  if  the  The  federal  courts  should  be  given 
political  institutions  of  this  country  do  jurisdiction  over  any  man  who  kills  or  at- 
not  afford  opportunity  to  every  honest  and  tempts  to  kill  the  President  or  any  man 
intelligent  son  of  toil,  then  the  door  of  who  by  the  Constitution  or  by  law  is  in 
hope  is  forever  closed  against  him.  The  line  of  succession  for  the  Presidency,  while 
anarchist  is  everywhere  not  merely  the  the  punishment  for  an  unsuccessful  at- 
enemy  of  system  and  of  progress,  but  the  tempt  should  be  proportioned  to  the  enor- 
deadly  foe  of  liberty.  If  ever  anarchy  is  mity  of  the  offence  against  our  institu- 
triumphant.  its  triumph  will  last  for  but    tions. 

one  red  moment,  to  be  succeeded  for  ages  Anarchy  is  a  crime  against  the  whole 
by  the  gloomy  night  of  despotism.  human  race,  and  all  mankind  should  band 

For  the  anarchist  himself,  whether  he  against  the  anarchist.  His  crime  should 
preaches  or  practises  his  doctrines,  we  need  be  made  an  offence  against  the  law  of  na- 
not  have  one  particle  more  concern  than  tions,  jike  piracy  and  that  form  of  man- 
for  any  ordinary  murderer.  He  is  not  the  stealing  Known  as  the  slave-trade;  for  it 
victim  of  social  or  political  injustice,  is  of  far  blacker  infamy  than  either.  It 
There  are  no  wrongs  to  remedy  in  his  case,  should  be  so  declared  by  treaties  among 
The  cause  of  his  criminality  is  to  be  found  all  civilized  powers.  Such  treaties  would 
in  his  own  evil  passions  and  in  the  evil  give  to  the  federal  government  the  power 
conduct  of  those  who  urge  him  on,  not  in  of  dealing  with  the  crime, 
any  failure  by  others  or  by  the  State  to  do  A  grim  commentary  upon  the  folly  of  the 
justice  to  him  or  h?s.  He  is  a  malefactor,  anarchist  position  was  afforded  by  the  at- 
and  nothing  else.  He  is  in  no  sense,  in  titude  of  the  law  towards  this  very  crimi- 
no  shape  or  way,  a  "  product  of  social  con-  nai  who  _ad  just  taken  the  life  of  the 
ditions,"  save  as  a  highwayman  is  "pro-  President.  The  people  would  have  torn 
duced  "  by  the  fact  that  an  unarmed  man  him  limb  from  limb  if  it  had  not  been  that 
happens  to  have  a  purse.  It  is  a  travesty  the  law  he  defied  was  at  once  invoked  in 
upon  the  great  and  holy  names  of  liberty  his  behalf.  So  far  from  his  deed  being 
and  freedom  to  permit  them  to  be  invoked  committed  on  behalf  of  the  people  against 
in  such  a  cause.  No  man  or  body  of  men  the  government,  the  government  was 
preaching  anarchistic  doctrines  should  be  obliged  at  once  to  exert  its  full  police 
allowed  at  large  any  more  than  if  preach-  power  to  save  him  from  instant  death  at 
ing  the  murder  of  some  specified  private  the  hands  of  the  people.  Moreover,  his  deed 
individual.  Anarchistic  speeches,  writings,  worked  not  the  slightest  dislocation  in  our 
and  meetings  are  essentially  seditious  and  governmental  system,  and  the  danger  of  a 
treasonable.  recurrence  of  such  deeds,  no  matter  how 

Safeguards  Suggested.  —  I  earnestly  great  it  might  grow,  would  work  only  in 
recommend  to  the  Congress  that  in  the  the  direction  of  strengthening  and  giving 
exercise  of  its  wise  discretion  ic  should  harshness  to  the  forces  of  order.  No  man 
take  into  consideration  the  coming  to  this  will  ever  be  restrained  from  becoming 
country  of  anarchists  or  persons  profess-  President  by  any  fear  as  to  his  personal 
ing  principles  hostile  to  all  government  safety.  If  the  risk  to  the  President's  life 
and  justifying  the  murder  of  those  placed  became  great,  it  would  mean  that  the  office 
in  authority.  Such  individuals  as  those  would  more  and  more  come  to  be  filled  by 
who  not  long  ago  gathered  in  open  meeting  men  of  a  spirit  which  would  make  them 
to  glorify  the  murder  of  King  Humbert  of  resolute  and  merciless  in  dealing  with 
Italy  perpetrate  a  crime,  and  the  law  every  friend  of  disorder.  This  great  coun« 
should  insure  their  rigorous  punishment,    try  will  not  fall  into  anarchy,  and  if  ai> 

471 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

archists    should    ever    become    a    serious  corporate,  fortunes.     The  creation  of  these 

menace  to  its  institutions  they  would  not  great  corporate  fortunes  has  not  been  due 

merely  be  stamped  out,  but  would  involve  to  the  tariff  nor  to  any  other  government- 

in  their  own  ruin  every  active  or  passive  al   action,   but  to  natural   causes   in   the 

sympathizer    with    their    doctrines.     The  business  world,  operating  in   other   coun- 

American  people  are  slow  to  wrath,  but  tries  as  they  operate  in  our  own. 

when  their  wrath  is  once  kindled  it  burns  The  process  has  aroused  much  antago- 

like  a  consuming  flame.  nism,  a  great  part  of  which  is  wholly  with- 

The  Trusts. — During  the  last  five  years  out  warrant.     It  is  not  true  that  as  the 

business  confidence  has  been  restored,  and  rich    have    grown    richer    the    poor    have 

the  nation  is  to  be  congratulated  because  grown  poorer.     On  the  contrary,  never  be- 

of  its  present  abounding  prosperity.    Such  fore  has  the  average  man,  the  wage-worker, 

prosperity   can   never   be   created   by   law  the  farmer,  the  small  trader,  been  so  well 

alone,   although  it  is  easy  enough  to  de-  off  as  in  this  country  and  at  the  present 

stroy  it  by  mischievous  laws.    If  the  hand  time.     There  have  been  abuses  connected 

of  the  Lord  is  heavy  upon  any  country,  if  with  the  accumulation  of  wealth;   yet  it 

flood  or  drought  comes,  human  wisdom  is  remains  true  that  a  fortune  accumulated 

powerless   to   avert   the   calamity.     More-  in    legitimate    business    can    be    accumu- 

over,  no  law  can  guard  us  against  the  con-  lated  by  the  person  specially  benefited  only 

sequences  of  our  own  folly.     The  men  who  on   condition  of  conferring  immense  inci- 

are  idle  or  credulous,  the  men  who  seek  dental    benefits    upon    others.     Successful 

gains  not  by  genuine  work  with  head  or  enterprise  of  the  type  which   benefits  all 

hand,  but  by  gambling  in  any  form,  are  mankind  can  only  exist  if  the  conditions 

always   a   source  of  menace  not  only  to  are  such  as  to  offer  great  prizes  as  the 

themselves,  but  to  others.     If  the  business  rewards  of  success. 

world  loses  its  head,  it  loses  what  legis-  Captains  of  Industry. — The  captains  of 

lation  cannot  supply.     Fundamentally  the  industry  who  have  driven  the  railway  sys- 

welfare  of  each  citizen,  and  therefore  the  tems  across  this  continent,  who  have  built 

welfare  of  the  aggregate  of  citizens  which  up  our  commerce,  who  have  developed  our 

makes   the  nation,  must  rest  upon   indi-  manufactures,   have,   on   the  whole,   done 

vidual   thrift  and   energy,   resolution   and  great  good  to  our  people.     Without  them 

intelligence.     Nothing  can  take  the  place  the  material  development  of  which  we  are 

of  this  individual  capacity,  but  wise  legis-  so   justly  proud  could  never  have  taken 

lation  and  honest  and  intelligent  adminis-  place.     Moreover,  we  should  recognize  the 

tration  can  give  it  the  fullest  scope,  the  immense  importance  to  this  material   de- 

largest  opportunity  to  work  to  good  effect,  velopment  of  leaving  as  unhampered  as  is 

The  tremendous  and  highly  complex  in-  compatible  with  the  public  good  the  strong 
dustrial  development  which  went  on  with  and  forceful  men  upon  whom  the  success 
ever-accelerated  rapidity  during  the  latter  of  business  operations  inevitably  rests. 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  brings  us  The  slightest  study  of  business  conditions 
face  to  face  at  the  beginning  of  the  twen-  will  satisfy  any  one  capable  of  forming  a 
tieth  with  very  serious  social  problems,  judgment  that  the  personal  equation  is  the 
The  old  laws,  and  the  old  customs  which  most  important  factor  in  a  business  opera- 
had  almost  the  binding  force  of  law,  were  tion,  that  the  business  ability  of  the  man 
once  quite  sufficient  to  regulate  the  accu-  at  the  head  of  any  business  concern,  big  or 
mulation  and  distribution  of  wealth.  Since  little,  is  usually  the  factor  which  fixes 
the  industrial  changes  which  have  so  enor-  the  gulf  between  striking  success  and  hope- 
mously  increased  the  productive  power  of  less  failure, 
mankind  they  are  no  longer  sufficient.  An  additional  reason  for  caution  in  deal- 

The   growth   of   cities  has   gone   on   be-  ing  with  corporations  is  to  be  found  in  the 

yond  comparison  faster  than  the  growth  international  commercial  conditions  of  to- 

of  the  country,  and  the  upbuilding  of  the  day.     The  same  business  conditions  which 

great  industrial  centres  has  meant  a  start-  have  produced  the  great  aggregations  of 

ling  increase  not  merely  in  the  aggregate  corporate  and  individual  wealth  have  made 

of  wealth,  but  in  the  number  of  very  large  them  very  potent  factors  in  international 

individual,   and   especially  of   very   large  commercial  competition.  Business  concerns 

472 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

which  have  the  largest  means  at  their  dis-  and    fear.    These   are    precisely    the    two 

posal  and  are  managed  by  the  ablest  men  emotions,  particularly  when  combined  with 

are  naturally  those  which  take  the  lead  ignorance,  which  unfit  men  for  the  exer- 

in   the    strife   for   commercial    supremacy  cise    of    cool    and    steady    judgment.    In 

among  the  nations  of  the  world.    America  facing  new  industrial  conditions  the  whole 

has  only  just  begun  to  assume  that  com-  history    of    the    world    shows    that    legis- 

manding    position     in    the     international  lation  will  generally  be  both  unwise  and 

business  world  which  we  believe  will  more  ineffective   unless   undertaken   after    calm 

and  more  be  hers.     It  is  of  the  utmost  im-  inquiry     and     with     sober     self-restraint, 

portance   that   this   position   be   not  jeop-  Much   of   the   legislation   directed   at   the 

arded,  especially  at  a  time  when  the  over-  trusts  would   have  been  exceedingly  mis- 

fiowing  abundance  of  our  own  natural  re-  chievous  had  it  not  also  been  entirely  in- 

sources  and  the  skill,  business  energy,  and  effective.   In  accordance  with  a  well-known 

mechanical   aptitude   of   our   people   make  sociological  law,  the  ignorant  or  reckless 

foreign    markets    essential.     Under    such  agitator  has  been  the  really  effective  friend 

conditions    it   would    be    most    unwise   to  of  the  evils  which  he  has  been  nominally 

cramp  or  to  fetter  the  youthful  strength  opposing.     In    dealing   with    business    in- 

of  our   nation.  cerests   for   the  government  to   undertake 

Moreover,  it  cannot  too  often  1  e  poi.ited  by  crude  and  ill-considered  legislation  to 

out  that  to  strike  with  ignorant  vidence  do  what  may  turn  out  to  be  bad  would  be 

at  the  interests  of  one  set  ot  men  almost  to  incur  the  risk  of  such  far-reaching  na- 

inevitably  endangers  the  interests  of  all.  tional  disaster  that  it  would  be  preferable 

The  fundamental  rule  in  our  national  life  to    undertake    nothing    at   all.     The    men 

— the  rule  which  underlies  all  others — is  who  demand  the  impossible  or  the  unde- 

that.  on  the  whole,  and  in  the  long  run,  we  sirable  serve  as  the  allies  of  the  forces 

shall  go  up  or  down  together.     There  are  with  which  they  are  nominally  at  war,  for 

exceptions;    and    in    times    of    prosperity  they  hamper  those  who  would  endeavor  to 

some  will  prosper  far  more,  and  in  times  find    out    in    rational    fashion    what    the 

of   adversity   some  will    suffer   far   more,  wrongs  really  are  and  to  what  extent  and 

than   others ;    but,    speaking   generally,   a  in  what  manner  it  is  practicable  to  apply 

period  of  good  times  means  that  all  share  remedies. 

more  or  less  in  them,  and  in  a  period  of  All  this  is  true,  and  yet  it  is  also  true 

hard  times  all  feel  the  stress  to  a  greater  that  there  are  real  and  grave  evils,  one  of 

or  less  degree.     It  surely  ought  not  to  be  the  chief  being  over-capitalization,  because 

necessary  to  enter  into  any  proof  of  this  of   its  many   baleful   consequences,   and   a 

statement;  the  memory  of  the  lean  years  resolute  and  practical  effort  must  be  made 

which  began  in  1893  is  still  vivid,  and  we  to  correct  these  evils. 

can  contrast  them  with  the  conditions  in  There  is  a  wide-spread  conviction  in  the 

this  very  year  which  is  now  closing.     Dis-  minds   of   the   American   people  that   the 

aster    to    great    business    enterprises    can  great  corporations  known  as  trusts  are  in 

never  have  its  effects  limited  to  the  men  certain   of   their   features   and   tendencies 

at  the  top.       It  spreads  throughout,  and,  hurtful     to     the     general     welfare.     This 

while  it  is  bad  for  everybody,  it  is  worse  springs  from  no  spirit  of  envy  or  unchari- 

for   those   furthest   down.     The   capitalist  tableness,  nor  lack  of  pride  in  the  great  in- 

may   be    shorn   of   his   luxuries,   but   the  dustrial    achievements    that    have    placed 

wage-worker  may  be  deprived  of  even  bare  this  country  at  the  head  of  the  nations 

necessities.  struggling  for  commercial  supremacy.    It 

Warning  to  the  Rash. — The  mechanism  does  not  rest  upon  a  lack  of  intelligent  ap- 

of  modern  business  is  so  delicate  that  ex-  preciation    of    the    necessity    of    meeting 

treme  care  must  be  taken  not  to  interfere  changing  and  changed  conditions  of  trade 

with   it   in   a  spirit  of  rashness  or   igno-  with  new  methods,  nor  upon  ignorance  of 

ranee.     Many  of  those  who  have  made  it  the  fact  that  combination  of  capital  in  the 

their  vocation  to  denounce  the  great  in-  effort  to  accomplish  great  things  is  nec- 

dustrial  combinations  which  are  popularly,  essary  when  the  world's  progress  demands 

although  with  technical  inaccuracy,  known  that   great  things   be   done.     It   is  based 

as  "  tnuts,"  appeal   especially  to  hatred  upon  sincere  conviction  that  combination 

473 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODOBE 

and  concentration  should  be,  not  prohibit-  they  are  incorporated.    There  is  utter  lack 

ed,  but  supervised  and  within  reasonable  of    uniformity    in    the    State    laws    about 

limits  controlled;   and,  in  my  judgment,  them,  and,  as  no  State  has  any  exclusive 

this  conviction  is  right.  interest  in  or  power  over  their  acts,  it  has 

It  is  no  limitation  upon  property  rights  in  practice  proved  impossible  to  get  ade- 
or  freedom  of  contract  to  require  that  quate  regulation  through  State  action, 
when  men  receive  from  government  the  Therefore,  in  the  interest  of  the  whole 
privilege  of  doing  business  under  corporate  people,  the  nation  should,  without  inter- 
form,  which  frees  them  from  individual  re-  fering  with  the  power  of  the  States  in  the 
sponsibility  and  enables  them  to  call  into  matter  itself,  also  assume  power  of  super- 
their  enterprises  the  capital  of  the  public,  vision  and  regulation  over  all  corporations 
they  shall  do  so  upon  absolutely  truthful  doing  an  inter-State  business.  This  is  es- 
representations  as  to  the  value  of  the  pecially  true  where  the  corporation  de- 
property  in  which  the  capital  is  to  be  in-  rives  a  portion  of  its  wealth  from  the  ex- 
vested.  Corporations  engaged  in  inter-  istence  of  some  monopolistic  element  or 
State  commerce  should  be  regulated  if  they  tendency  in  its  business.  There  would  be 
are  found  to  exercise  a  license  working  to  no  hardship  in  such  supervision ;  banks  are 
the  public  injury.  It  should  be  as  much  subject  to  it,  and  in  their  case  it  is  now 
the  aim  of  those  who  seek  for  social  better-  accepted  as  a  simple  matter  of  course.  In- 
ment  to  rid  the  business  world  of  crimes  of  deed,  it  is  probable  that  supervision  of 
cunning  as  to  rid  the  entire  body  politic  corporations  by  the  national  government 
of  crimes  of  violence.  Great  corporations  need  not  go  so  far  as  is  now  the  case  with 
exist  only  because  they  are  created  and  the  supervision  exercised  over  them  by  so 
safeguarded  by  our  institutions,  and  it  is  conservative  a  State  as  Massachusetts  in 
therefore  our  right  and  our  duty  to  see  order  to  produce  excellent  results, 
that  they  work  in  harmony  with  these  in-  When  the  Constitution  was  adopted,  at 
stitutions.  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  no  hu- 

Publicity  as  a  Remedy. — The  first  essen-  man  wisdom  could  foretell  the  sweeping 
tial  in  determining  how  to  deal  with  the  changes,  alike  in  industrial  and  political 
great  industrial  combinations  is  knowl-  conditions,  which  were  to  take  place  by 
edge  of  the  facts — publicity.  In  the  interest  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century.  At 
of  the  public  the  government  should  have  that  time  it  was  accepted  as  a  matter  of 
the  right  to  inspect  and  examine  the  work-  course  that  the  several  States  were  the 
ings  of  the  great  corporations  engaged  in  proper  authorities  to  regulate,  so  far  as 
inter-State  business.  Publicity  is  the  only  was  then  necessary,  the  comparatively  in- 
sure remedy  which  we  can  now  invoke,  significant  and  strictly  localized  corporate 
What  further  remedies  are  needed  in  the  bodies  of  the  day.  The  conditions  are  now 
way  of  governmental  regulation  or  taxa-  wholly  different,  and  wholly  different  ac- 
tion can  only  be  determined  after  publicity  tion  is  called  for.  I  believe  that  a  law 
has  been  obtained  by  process  of  law  and  can  be  framed  which  will  enable  the  na- 
in  the  course  of  administration.  The  first  tional  government  to  exercise  control 
requisite  is  knowledge,  full  and  complete  along  the  lines  above  indicated,  profiting 
= — knowledge  which  may  be  made  public  to  by  the  experience  gained  through  the  pas- 
the  world.  sage  and  administration  of  the  inter-State 

Artificial   bodies,   such   as    corporations  commerce    act.     If,     however,     the     judg- 

and  joint  stock  or  other  associations,  de-  ment  of  the  Congress  is  that  it  lacks  the 

pending  upon  any  statutory  law  for  their  constitutional  power  to  pass  such  an  act, 

existence  or  privileges  should  be  subject  to  then  a  constitutional  amendment  should  be 

proper  governmental  supervision,  and  full  submitted  to  confer  the  power, 

and  accurate  information  as  to  their  oper-  Secretary   of   Commerce. — There   should 

ations  should  be  made  public  regularly  at  be  created  a  cabinet  officer,  to  be  known  as 

reasonable  intervals.  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Industries,  as 

The  large  corporations,  commonly  called  provided  in  the  bill  introduced  at  the  last 

trusts,  though  organized  in  one  State,  al-  session  of  the  Congress.     It  should  be  his 

ways  do  business  in  many  States,  often  do-  province    to   deal    with    commerce    in    its 

ing  very  little  business  in  the  State  where  broadest    sense,    including    among    many 

474 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

other  things  whatever  concerns  labor  and  eight-hour  law  easy  and  certain.    In  all 

all   matters   affecting   the   great   business  industries  carried  on  directly  or  indirectly 

corporations  and  our  merchant  marine.  for  the  United  States  government  women 

The    course    proposed    is    one    phase    of  and  children  should  be  protected  from  ex- 

what  should  be  a  comprehensive  and  far-  cessive   hours   of   labor,    from   night-work, 

reaching  scheme  of  constructive  statesman-  and    from   work   ujider   unsanitary   condi- 

ship   for   the   purpose   of   broadening   our  tions.     The  government  should  provide  in 

markets,    securing   our   business   interests  its  contracts  that  all  work  should  be  done 

on  a  safe  basis,  and  making  firm  our  new  under  "  fair  "  conditions,  and  in  addition 

position    in    the    international    industrial  to  setting  a  high  standard  should  uphold 

world,  while  scrupulously  safeguarding  the  it  by  proper  inspection,  extending  if  nec- 

rights   of  wage-worker   and   capitalist,   of  essary   to   the   sub-contractors.     The   gov- 

investor  and  private  citizen,  so  as  to  secure  ernment  should  forbid  all  night-work  for 

equity  as  between  man  and  man   in   this  women  and  children,  as  well  as  excessive 

republic.  overtime.     For  the  District  of  Columbia  a 

Labor. — With  the  sole  exception  of  the  good  factory  law  should  be  passed;  and,  as 
farming  interest,  no  one  matter  is  of  such  a  powerful  indirect  aid  to  such  laws,  pro- 
vital  moment  to  our  whole  people  as  the  vision  should  be  made  to  turn  the  in- 
welfare  of  the  wage-workers.  If  the  farmer  habited  alleys,  the  existence  of  which  is  a 
and  the  wage-worker  are  well  off,  it  is  ab-  reproach  to  our  capital  city,  into  minor 
solutely  certain  that  all  others  will  be  well  streets,  where  the  inhabitants  can  live 
off,  too.  It  is  therefore  a  matter  for  under  conditions  favorable  to  health  and 
hearty  congratulation   that  on   the   whole  morals. 

wages    are    higher    to-day    in    the    United        American  wage-workers  work  with  their 

States  than  ever  before  in  our  history,  and  heads  as  well  as  their  hands.     Moreover, 

far  higher  than  in  any  other  country.   The  they  take  a  keen  pride  in  what  they  are 

standard  of  living  is  also  higher  than  ever  doing;    so    that,    independent    of    the    re- 

before.     Every  effort  of  legislator  and  ad-  ward,    they   wish    to    turn   out   a    perfect 

ministrator  should  be  bent  to  secure  the  job.     This  is  the  great  secret  of  our  suc- 

permanency  of  this  condition  of  things  and  cess  in  competition  with  the  labor  of  for- 

its    improvement   wherever   possible.     Not  eign  countries. 

only  must  our  labor  be  protected  by  the        The  most  vital  problem  with  which  this 

tariff,  but  it  should  also  be  protected  so  country,  and,  for  that  matter,  the  whole 

far  as  it  is  possible  from  the  presence  in  civilized  world,  has  to  deal  is  the  problem 

this  country  of  any  laborers  brought  over  which  has  for  one  side  the  bettermert  of 

by  contract,  or  of  those  who,  coming  freely,  social   conditions,  moral   and   physical,   in 

yet  represent  a  standard  of  living  so  de-  large  cities,  and  for  another  side  the  effort 

pressed  that  they  can  undersell  our  men  in  to   deal  with   that  tangle   of  far-reaching 

the  labor  market  and  drag  them  to  a  lower  questions  which  we  group  together  when 

level.     I  regard  it  as  necessary,  with  this  we    speak    of   "  labor."     The    chief    factor 

end  in  view,  to  re-enact  immediately  the  in  the  success  of  each  man — wage-worker, 

law    excluding    Chinese    laborers    and    to  farmer,    and    capitalist    alike — must    ever 

strengthen  it  wherever  necessary  in  order  be   the   sum   total    of   his   own    individual 

to  make  its  enforcement  entirely  effective,  qualities    and    abilities.     Second    only    to 

The  national  government  should  demand  this  comes  the  power  of  acting  in  combi- 
the  highest  quality  of  service  from  its  em-  nation  or  association  with  others.  Very 
ploy£s;  and  in  return  it  should  be  a  good  great  good  has  been  and  will  be  accom- 
employer.  If  possible  legislation  should  plished  by  associations  or  unions  of 
be  passed,  in  connection  with  the  inter-  wage-workers,  when  managed  with  fore- 
State  commerce  law,  which  will  render  thought,  and  when  they  combine  insist- 
effective  the  efforts  of  different  States  to  ence  upon  their  own  rights  with  law- 
do  away  with  the  competition  of  convict  abiding  respect  for  the  rights  of  others, 
contract  labor  in  the  open  labor  market.  The  display  of  these  qualities  in  such 
So  far  as  practicable  under  the  conditions  bodies  is  a  duty  to  the  nation  no  less  than 
of  government  work,  provision  should  be  to  the  associations  themselves.  Finally, 
made  to   render   the   enforcement  of  the  there  must  also  in  many  cases  be  action 

475 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 


by  the  government  in  order  to  safeguard 
the  rights  and  interests  of  all.  Under 
our  Constitution  there  is  much  more  scope 
for  such  action  by  the  State  and  the  mu- 
nicipality than  by  the  nation.  But  on 
points  such  as  those  touched  on  above  the 
national  government  can  act. 

When  all  is  said  and  done,  the  rule  of 
brotherhood  remains  as  the  indispensable 
prerequisite  to  success  in  the  kind  of  na- 
tional life  for  which  we  strive.  Each 
man  must  work  for  himself,  and  unless  he 
so  works  no  outside  help  can  avail  him; 
but  each  man  must  remember  also  that 
he  is  indeed  his  brother's  keeper,  and  that 
while  no  man  who  refuses  to  walk  can  be 
carried  with  advantage  to  himself  or  any 
one  else,  yet  that  each  at  times  stumbles 
or  halts,  that  each  at  times  needs  to  have 
the  helping  hand  outstretched  to  him.  To 
be  permanently  effective,  aid  must  always 
take  the  form  of  helping  a  man  to  help 
himself;  and  we  can  all  best  help  our- 
selves by  joining  together  in  the  work 
that  is  of  common  interest  to  all. 

Immigration. — Our  present  immigra- 
tion laws  are  unsatisfactory.  We  need 
every  honest  and  efficient  immigrant  fitted 
to  become  an  American  citizen,  every  im- 
migrant who  comes  here  to  stay,  who 
brings  here  a  strong  body,  a  stout  heart. 
a  good  head,  and  a  resolute  purpose  to  do 
his  duty  well  in  every  way  and  to  bring 
up  his  children  as  law-abiding  and  God- 
fearing members  of  the  community.  But 
there  should  be  a  comprehensive  law  en- 
acted with  the  object  of  working  a  three- 
fold improvement  over  our  present  sys- 
tem. First,  we  should  aim  to  exclude 
absolutely  not  only  all  persons  who  are 
known  to  be  believers  in  anarchistic  prin- 
ciples or  members  of  anarchistic  societies, 
but  also  all  persons  who  are  of  a  low  moral 
tendency  or  of  unsavory  reputation.  This 
means  that  we  should  require  a  more 
thorough  system  of  inspection  abroad  and 
a  more  rigid  system  of  examination  at 
our  immigration  ports,  the  former  being 
especially  necessary. 

The  second  object  of  a  proper  immigra- 
tion law  ought  to  be  to  secure  by  a 
careful  and  not  merely  perfunctory  edu- 
cational test  some  intelligent  capacity  to 
appreciate  American  institutions  and  act 
sanely  as  American  citizens.  This  would 
not  keep  out  all  anarchists,  for  many  of 


them  belong  to  the  intelligent  criminal 
class.  But  it  would  do  what  is  also  in 
point,  that  is,  tend  to  decrease  the  sum  of 
ignorance,  so  potent  in  producing  the 
envy,  suspicion,  malignant  passion,  and 
hatred  of  order,  out  of  which  anarchis- 
tic sentiment  inevitably  springs.  Finally, 
all  persons  should  be  excluded  who  are 
below  a  certain  standard  of  economic  fit- 
ness to  enter  our  industrial  field  as  com- 
petitors with  American  labor.  There 
should  be  proper  proof  of  personal  capac- 
ity to  earn  an  American  living  and  enough, 
money  to  insure  a  decent  start  under 
American  conditions.  This  would  stop 
the  influx  of  cheap  labor  and  the  result- 
ing competition  which  gives  rise  to  so 
much  of  bitterness  in  American  industrial 
life;  and  it  would  dry  up  the  springs  of  the 
pestilential  social  conditions  in  our  great 
cities,  where  anarchistic  organizations 
have  their  greatest  possibility  of  growth. 

Both  the  educational  and  economic 
tests  in  a  wise  immigration  law  should 
be  designed  to  protect  and  elevate  the 
general  body,  politic  and  social.  A  very 
close  supervision  should  be  exercised  over 
the  steamship  companies  which  mainly 
bring  over  the  immigrants,  and  they 
should  be  held  to  a  strict  accountability 
for  any  infraction  of  the  law. 

Tariff  and  Reciprocity. — There  is  gen- 
eral acquiescence  in  our  present  tariff 
system  as  a  national  policy.  The  first 
requisite  to  our  prosperity  is  the  con- 
tinuity and  stability  of  this  economic 
policy.  Nothing  could  be  more  unwise 
than  to  disturb  the  business  interests  of 
the  country  by  any  general  tariff  change 
at  this  time.  Doubt,  apprehension,  un- 
certainty are  exactly  what  we  most  wish 
to  avoid  in  the  interest  of  our  commercial 
and  material  well-being.  Our  experience 
in  the  past  has  shown  that  sweeping  re- 
visions of  the  tariff  are  apt  to  produce 
conditions  closely  approaching  panic  in 
the  business  world.  Yet  it  is  not  only 
possible,  but  eminently  desirable,  to  com- 
bine with  the  stability  of  our  economic 
system  a  supplementary  system  of  recip- 
rocal benefit  and  obligation  with  other 
nations.  Such  reciprocity  is  an  incident 
and  result  of  the  firm  establishment  and 
preservation  of  our  present  economic 
policy.  Tt  was  specially  provided  for  in 
the  present  tariff  law. 


476 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

Reciprocity    must    be    treated      as    the  desirable   will   naturally  be  promoted  by 

hand-maiden  of  protection.   Our  first  duty  the  course  thus  required  by  our  own  in- 

is  to   see  that  the  protection  granted  by  torests. 

the  tariff  in  every  case  where  it  is  needed        The  natural  line  of  development  for  a 

is    maintained,    and    that    reciprocity    be  policy  of  reciprocity  will  be  in  connection 

sought    for    so    far    as    it    can    safely    be  with   those   of   our   productions  which   no 

done  without  injury  to  our  home  indus-  longer    require    all    of    the    support    once 

tries.    Just  how  far  this  is  must  be  deter-  needed   to   establish    them   upon   a   sound 

mined    according   to   the    individual    case,  basis,  and  with  those  others  where,  either 

remembering   always   that   every   applica-  because  of  natural  or  of  economic  causes, 

tion  of  our  tariff  policy  to  meet  our  shift-  we    are    beyond    the    reach    of    successful 

ing   national    needs    must   be    conditioned  competition. 

upon    the    cardinal    fact    that    the    duties        I   ask   the   attention   of   the    Senate    to 

must   never    be    reduced    below   the    point  the   reciprocity  treaties  laid  before   it  by 

that  will  cover  the  difference  between  the  my   predecessor. 

labor    cost    here    and    abroad.     The    well-        Merchant     Marine. — The     condition     of 

being  of  the  wage-worker  is  a  prime  con-  the  American  merchant  marine  is  such  as 

sideration  of  our  entire  policy  of  economic  to  call   for  immediate  remedial  action  by 

legislation.  the   Congress.     It   is   discreditable   to   us 

Subject  to  this  proviso  of  the  proper  as  a  nation  that  our  merchant  marine 
protection  necessary  to  our  industrial  should  be  utterly  insignificant  in  compari- 
well-being  at  home,  the  principle  of  reci-  son  to  that  of  other  nations  which  we 
procity  must  command  our  hearty  sup-  overtop  in  other  forms  of  business.  We 
port.  The  phenomenal  growth  of  our  ex-  should  not  longer  submit  to  conditions 
port  trade  emphasizes  the  urgency  of  the  under  which  only  a  trifling  portion  of  our 
need  for  wider  markets  and  for  a  liberal  great  commerce  is  carried  in  our  own 
policy  in  dealing  with  foreign  nations,  ships.  To  remedy  this  state  of  things 
Whatever  is  merely  petty  and  vexatious  would  not  merely  serve  to  build  up  our 
in  the  way  of  trade  restrictions  should  be  shipping  interests,  but  it  would  also  re- 
avoided.  The  customers  to  whom  we  dis-  suit  in  benefit  to  all  who  are  interested 
pose  of  our  surplus  products,  in  the  long  in  the  permanent  establishment  of  a  wider 
run,  directly  or  indirectly,  purchase  those  market  for  American  products,  and  would 
surplus  products  by  giving  us  something  provide  an  auxiliary  force  for  the  navy, 
in  return.  Their  ability  to  purchase  our  Ships  work  for  their  own  countries,  just 
products  should  as  far  as  possible  be  se-  as  railroads  work  for  their  terminal 
cured  by  so  arranging  our  tariff  as  to  en-  points.  Shipping  lines,  if  established  to 
able  us  to  take  from  them  those  products  the  principal  countries  with  which  we 
which  we  can  use  without  harm  to  our  have  dealings,  would  be  of  political  as 
own  industries  and  labor,  or  the  use  of  well  as  commercial  benefit.  From  every 
which  will  be  of  marked  benefit  to  us.  stand-point   it   is   unwise   for   the  United 

It   is   most    important   that    we    should  States  to  continue  to  rely  upon  the  ships 

maintain    the    high    level    of   our    present  of  competing  nations  for  the  distribution 

prosperity.     We    have    now    reached    the  of  otir  goods.    It  should  be  made  advan- 

point  in  the  development  of  our  interests  tageous  to  carry  American  goods  in  Amer- 

where  we  are  not  only  able  to  supply  our  ican-built  ships. 

own  markets,  but  to  produce  a  constantly  At  present  American  shipping  is  under 
growing  surplus  for  which  we  must  find  certain  great  disadvantages  when  put  in 
markets  abroad.  To  secure  these  markets  competition  with  the  shipping  of  foreign 
we  can  utilize  existing  duties  in  any  case  countries.  Many  of  the  fast  foreign 
where  they  are  no  longer  needed  for  the  steamships,  at  a  speed  of  fourteen  knots 
purpose  of  protection,  or  in  any  case  or  above,  are  subsidized;  and  all  our 
where  the  article  is  not  produced  here  ships,  sailing-vessels  and  steamers  alike, 
and  the  duty  is  no  longer  necessary  for  cargo  carriers  of  slow  speed  and  mail  car- 
revenue,  as  giving  us  something  to  offer  riers  of  high  speed,  have  to  meet  the  fact 
in  exchange  for  what  we  ask.  The  cordial  that  the  original  cost  of  building  Ameri- 
relations  with  other  nations  which  are  so  can    ships    is    greater    than    is    the    case 

477 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODOBE 

abroad;  that  the  wages  paid  American  expenditure.  Only  by  avoidance  of  spend- 
officers  and  seamen  are  very  much  higher  ing  money  on  what  is  needless  or  unjusti- 
than  those  paid  the  officers  and  seamen  fiable  can  we  legitimately  keep  our  in- 
of  foreign  competing  countries;  and  that  come  to  the  point  required  to  meet  our 
the  standard  of  living  on  our  ships  is  far  needs  that  are  genuine, 
superior  to  the  standard  of  living  on  the  The  Railways. — In  1887  a  measure  was 
ships  of  our  commercial  rivals.  enacted   for  the   regulation  of   inter-State 

Our  government  should  take  such  action  railways,  commonly  known  as  the  inter- 
as  will  remedy  these  inequalities.  The  State  commerce  act.  The  cardinal  pro- 
American  merchant  marine  should  be  re-  visions  of  that  act  were  that  railway  rates 
stored  to  the  ocean.  should  be  just  and  reasonable   and   that 

Currency  and  Banking. — The  act  of  all  shippers,  localities,  and  commodities 
March  14,  1900,  intended  unequivocally  should  be  accorded  equal  treatment.  A 
to  establish  gold  as  the  standard  money  commission  was  created  and  endowed 
and  to  maintain  as  a  parity  therewith  all  with  what  were  supposed  to  be  the  neces- 
forms  of  money  medium  in  use  with  us,  sary  powers  to  execute  the  provisions  of 
has   been    shown   to   be   timely   and    judi-    this  act. 

cious.  The  price  of  our  government  bonds  That  law  was  largely  an  experiment, 
in  the  world's  market,  when  compared  Experience  has  shown  the  wisdom  of  its 
with  the  price  of  similar  obligations  is-  purposes,  but  has  also  shown,  possibly, 
sued  by  other  nations,  is  a  flattering  trib-  that  some  of  its  requirements  are  wrong, 
ute  to  our  public  credit.  This  condition  certainly  that  the  means  devised  for  the 
it  is  evidently  desirable  to   maintain.  enforcement   of   its   provisions   are   defec- 

In  many  respects  the  national  banking  tive.  Those  who  complain  of  the  manage- 
law  furnishes  sufficient  liberty  for  the  ment  of  the  railways  allege  that  estab- 
pvoper  exercise  of  the  banking  function;  lished  rates  are  not  maintained;  that  re- 
but there  seems  to  be  need  of  better  safe-  bates  and  similar  devices  are  habitually 
guards  against  the  deranging  influence  resorted  to;  that  these  preferences  are 
of  commercial  crises  and  financial  panics,  usually  in  favor  of  the  large  shipper; 
Moreover,  the  currency  of  the  country  that  they  drive  out  of  business  the  smaller 
should  be  made  responsive  to  the  demands  competitor;  that  while  many  rates  are 
of   our   domestic  trade   and   commerce.  too     low,     many     others     are     excessive, 

The  collections  from  duties  on  imports  and  that  gross  preferences  are  made, 
nnd  interna]  taxes  continue  to  exceed  the  affecting  both  localities  and  commodi- 
ordinary  expenditures  of  the  government,  ties.  Upon  the  other  hand,  the  rail- 
thanks  mainly  to  the  reduced  army  ex-  ways  assert  that  the  law  by  its  very  terms 
penditures.  The  utmost  care  should  be  tends  to  produce  many  of  these  illegal 
taken  not  to  reduce  the  revenues  so  that  practices  by  depriving  carriers  of  that 
there  will  be  any  possibility  of  a  deficit;  right  of  concerted  action  which  they 
but,  after  providing  against  any  such  con-  claim  is  necessary  to  establish  and  main- 
tingency,  means  should  be  adopted  which  tain  non-discriminating  rates, 
will  bring  the  revenues  more  nearly  with-  The  act  should  be  amended.  The  rail- 
in  the  limit  of  our  actual  needs.  In  his  way  is  a  public  servant.  Its  rates  should 
report  to  the  Congress  the  Secretary  of  the  be  just  to  and  open  to  all  shippers  alike. 
Treasury  considers  all  these  questions  at  The  government  should  see  to  it  that 
length,  and  I  ask  your  attention  to  the  within  its  jurisdiction  this  is  so,  and 
report  and  recommendations.  should  provide  a  speedy,  inexpensive,  and 

I  call  special  attention  to  the  need  of  effective  remedy  to  that  end.  At  the 
strict  economy  in  expenditures.  The  fact  same  time  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
that  our  national  needs  forbid  us  to  be  our  railways  are  the  arteries  through 
niggardly  in  providing  whatever  is  act-  which  the  commercial  life-blood  of  this 
ually  necessary  to  our  well-being  should  nation  flows.  Nothing  could  be  more  fool- 
make  us  doubly  careful  to  husband  our  ish  than  the  enactment  of  legislation 
national  resources  as  each  of  us  husbands  which  would  unnecessarily  interfere  with 
his  private  resources,  by  scrupulous  avoid-  the  development  and  operation  of  these 
ance  of  anything  like  wasteful  or  reckless    commercial  agencies.    The  subject  is  one 

478 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

of    great    importance,    and    calls    for    the    to  a  wide-spread  demand  by  thft  people  ol 
earnest  attention  of  the  Congress.  the  West  for  their  protection  and  exten- 

Forest  Conservation. — The  Department  sion.  The  forest  reserves  will  inevitably 
of  Agriculture  during  the  last  fifteen  be  of  still  greater  use  in  the  future  than 
years  has  steadily  broadened  its  work  on  in  the  past.  Additions  should  be  made 
economic  lines,  and  has  accomplished  re-  to  them  whenever  practicable,  and  their 
suits  of  real  value  in  upbuilding  domestic  usefulness  should  be  increased  by  a  thor- 
and  foreign  trade.  It  has  gone  into  new  oughly  business-like  management, 
fields  until  it  is  now  in  touch  with  all  At  present  the  protection  of  the  forest 
sections  of  our  country  and  with  two  of  reserves  rests  with  the  general  land 
the  island  groups  that  have  lately  come  office,  the  mapping  and  description  of 
under  our  jurisdiction,  whose  people  must  their  timber  with  the  United  States  geo- 
look  to  agriculture  as  a  livelihood.  It  is  logical  survey,  and  the  preparation  of 
searching  the  world  for  grains,  grasses,  plans  for  their  conservative  use  with  the 
fruits,  and  vegetables  specially  fitted  for  bureau  of  forestry,  which  is  also  charged 
introduction  into  localities  in  the  several  with  the  general  advancement  of  practi- 
States  and  Territories  where  they  may  cal  forestry  in  the  United  States.  These 
add  materially  to  our  resources.  By  scien-  various  functions  should  bo  united  in  the 
tific  attention  to  soil  survey  and  possible  bureau  of  forestry,  to  which  they  proper- 
new  crops,  to  breeding  of  new  varieties  ly  belong.  The  present  diffusion  of  re- 
of  plants,  to  experimental  shipments,  to  sponsibility  is  bad  from  every  stand-point, 
animal  industry  and  applied  chemistry,  It  prevents  that  effective  co-operation  be- 
very  practical  aid  has  been  given  our  tween  the  government  and  the  men  who 
farming  and  stock-growing  interests.  The  utilize  the  resources  of  the  reserves,  with- 
products  of  the  farm  have  taken  an  un-  out  which  the  interests  of  both  must 
precedented  place  in  our  export  trade  suffer.  The  scientific  bureau  generally 
during  the  year  that  has  just  closed.  should   be   put   under   the   Department   of 

Public  opinion  throughout  the  United  Agriculture.  The  President  should  have 
States  has  moved  steadily  towards  a  just  by  law  the  power  of  transferring  lands 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  forests,  for  use  as  forest  reserves  to  the  Depart- 
whether  planted  or  of  natural  growth,  ment  of  Agriculture.  He  already  has  such 
The  great  part  played  by  them  in  the  ere-  power  in  the  case  of  lands  needed  by  the 
ation  and  maintenance  of  the  national  departments  of  war  and  the  navy, 
wealth  is  now  more  fully  realized  than  The  wise  administration  of  the  forest 
ever  before.  reserve  will  be  not  less  helpful  to  the  in- 

Wise  forest  protection  does  not  mean  terests  which  depend  on  water  than  to 
the  withdrawal  of  forest  resources,  those  which  depend  on  wood  and  grass, 
whether  of  wood,  water,  or  grass,  from  The  water  supply  itself  depends  upon  the 
contributing  their  full  share  to  the  wel-  forest.  In  the  arid  region  it  is  water,  not 
fare  of  the  people,  but,  on  the  contrary,  land,  which  measures  production.  The 
gives  the  assurance  of  larger  and  more  western  half  of  the  United  States  would 
certain  supplies.  The  fundamental  idea  sustain  a  population  greater  than  that  of 
of  forestry  is  the  perpetuation  of  forests  our  whole  country  to-day  if  the  waters 
by  use.  Forest  protection  is  not  an  end  that  now  run  to  waste  were  saved  and 
of  itself;  it  is  a  means  to  increase  and  used  for  irrigation.  The  forest  and  water 
sustain  the  resources  of  our  country  and  problems  are  perhaps  the  most  vital  infer- 
tile industries  which  depend  upon  them,  nal  questions  of  the  United  States. 
The  preservation  of  our  forests  is  an  im-  Game  Preserves. — Certain  of  the  forest 
perative  business  necessity.  We  have  reserves  should  also  be  made  preserves  for 
come  to  see  clearly  that  whatever  destroys  the  wild  forest  creatures.  All  of  the  re- 
the  forest,  except  to  make  way  for  agri-  serves  should  be  better  protected  from 
culture,  threatens  our  well-hein«.  fires.     Many  of  them  need  special  protec- 

The  practical  usefulness  of  the  national  tion  because  of  the  great  injury  done  by 
forest  reserves  to  the  mining,  grazing,  ir-  live  stock,  above  all  by  sheep.  The  in- 
rigation,  and  other  interests  of  the  re-  crease  in  deer,  elk,  and  other  animals  in 
gions  in  which  the  reserves  lie  has  led    the  Yellowstone  Park  shows  what  may  be 

479 


ftOOSEVELT,    THEODORE 


expected  when  other  mountain  forests  are 
properly  protected  by  law  and  properly 
guarded.  Some  of  these  areas  have  been 
so  denuded  of  surface  vegetation  by  over- 
grazing that  the  ground-breeding  birds, 
including  grouse  and  quail,  and  many 
mammals,  including  deer,  have  been  ex- 
terminated or  driven  away.  At  the  same 
time  the  water-storing  capacity  of  the 
surface  has  been  decreased  or  destroyed, 
thus  promoting  floods  in  times  of  rain 
and  diminishing  the  flow  of  streams  be- 
tween rains. 

In  cases  where  natural  conditions  have 
been  restored  for  a  few  years,  vegetation 
has  again  carpeted  the  ground,  birds  and 
deer  are  coming  back,  and  hundreds  of 
persons,  especially  from  the  immediate 
neighborhood,  come  each  summer  to  enjoy 
the  privilege  of  camping.  Some,  at  least, 
of  the  forest  reserves  should  afford  per- 
petual protection  to  the  native  fauna  and 
flora,  safe  havens  of  refuge  to  our  rapidly 
diminishing  wild  animals  of  the  larger 
kinds,  and  free  camping  grounds  for  the 
ever  increasing  numbers  of  men  and  women 
who  have  learned  to  find  rest,  health,  and 
recreation  in  the  splendid  forests  and 
flower-clad  meadows  of  our  mountains. 
The  forest  reserves  should  be  set  apart 
forever  for  the  use  and  benefit  of  our  peo- 
ple as  a  whole,  and  not  sacrificed  to  the 
short-sighted  greed  of  a  few. 

The  forests  are  natural  reservoirs.  By 
restraining  the  streams  in  flood  and  re- 
plenishing them  in  drought  they  make  pos- 
sible the  use  of  waters  otherwise  wasted. 
They  prevent  the  soil  from  washing,  and 
so  protect  the  storage  reservoirs  from 
filling  up  with  silt.  Forest  conservation 
is  therefore  an  essential  condition  of  water 
conservation. 

The  forests  alone  cannot,  however,  fully 
regulate  and  conserve  the  waters  of  the 
arid  region.  Great  storage  works  are  nec- 
essary to  equalize  the  flow  of  streams  and 
to  save  the  flood-waters.  Their  construc- 
tion has  been  conclusively  shown  to  be 
an  undertaking  too  vast  for  private  effort. 
Nor  can  it  be  best  accomplished  by  the 
individual  States  acting  alone.  Far-reach- 
ing inter-State  problems  are  involved,  and 
the  resources  of  single  States  would  often 
be  inadequate.  It  is  properly  a  national 
function,  at  least  in  some  of  its  features. 
It  is  as  right  for  the  national  government 


to  make  the  streams  and  rivers  of  the  arid 
region  useful  by  engineering  works  for 
water  storage  as  to  make  useful  the  rivers 
and  harbors  of  the  humid  region  by  en- 
gineering works  of  another  kind.  The 
storing  of  the  floods  in  reservoirs  at  the 
headwaters  of  our  rivers  is  but  an  enlarge- 
ment of  our  present  policy  of  river  control, 
under  which  levees  are  built  on  the  lower 
reaches  of  the  same  streams. 

The  government  should  construct  and 
maintain  these  reservoirs  as  it  does  other 
public  works.  Where  their  purpose  is  to 
regulate  the  flow  of  streams,  the  water 
should  be  turned  freely  into  the  chan- 
nels in  the  dry  season  to  take  the  same 
course  under  the  same  laws  as  the  natural 
flow. 

Irrigation. — The  reclamation  of  the  un- 
settled arid  public  lands  presents  a  differ- 
ent problem.  Here  it  is  not  enough  to 
regulate  the  flow  of  streams.  The  object 
of  the  government  is  to  dispose  of  the 
land  to  settlers  who  will  build  homes  upon 
it.  To  accomplish  this  object,  water  must 
be  brought  within  their  reach. 

The  pioneer  settlers  on  the  arid  public- 
domain  chose  their  homes  along  stream? 
from  which  they  could  themselves  divert 
the  water  to  reclaim  their  holdings.  Such 
opportunities  are  practically  gone.  There 
remain,  however,  vast  areas  of  public  land 
which  can  be  made  available  for  home- 
stead settlement,  but  only  by  reservoirs 
and  main  line  canals  impracticable  for 
private  enterprise.  These  irrigation  works 
should  be  built  by  the  national  govern- 
ment. The  lands  reclaimed  by  them  should 
be  reserved  by  the  government  for  actual 
settlers,  and  the  cost  of  construction 
should  so  far  as  possible  be  repaid  by  the 
land  reclaimed.  The  distribution  of  the 
water,  the  division  of  the  streams  among 
irrigators,  should  be  left  to  the  settlers 
themselves  in  conformity  with  State  laws 
and  without  interference  with  those  laws 
or  with  vested  rights.  The  policy  of  the 
national  government  should  be  to  aid  irri- 
gation in  the  several  States  and  Terri- 
tories in  such  a  manner  as  will  enable 
the  people  in  the  local  communities  to  help 
themselves,  and  as  will  stimulate  needed 
reforms  in  the  State  laws  and  regulations 
governing  irrigation. 

The  reclamation  and  settlement  of  the 
arid  lands  will  enrich  every  portion  of  our 


480 


EOOSEVELT,   THEODORE 

country,  just  as  the  settlement  of  the  Ohio  on  the  stability  of  titles  to  water,  but  the 
and  Mississippi  valleys  brought  prosperity  majority  of  these  rest  on  the  uncertain 
to  the  Atlantic  States.  The  increased  de-  foundation  of  court  decisions  rendered  in 
mand  for  manufactured  articles  will  ordinary  suits  at  law.  With  a  few  credit- 
stimulate  industrial  production,  while  able  exceptions,  the  arid  States  have  failed 
wider  home  markets  and  the  trade  of  Asia  to  provide  for  the  certain  and  just  division 
will  consume  the  larger  food  supplies  and  of  streams  in  times  of  scarcity.  Lax  and 
effectually  prevent  Western  competition  uncertain  laws  have  made  it  possible  to 
with  Eastern  agriculture.  Indeed,  the  establish  rights  to  water  in  excess  of  act- 
products  of  irrigation  will  be  consumed  ual  uses  or  necessities,  and  many  streams 
chiefly  in  upbuilding  local  centres  of  min-  have  already  passed  into  private  owner- 
ing  and  other  industries,  which  would  ship,  or  a  control  equivalent  to  ownership, 
otherwise  not  come  into  existence  at  all.  Whoever  controls  a  stream  practically 
Our  people  as  a  whole  will  profit,  for  sue-  controls  the  land  it  renders  productive, 
cessful  home-making  is  but  another  name  and  the  doctrine  of  private  ownership  of 
for  the  upbuilding  of  the  nation.  water  apart  from  land  cannot  prevail 
The  necessary  foundation  has  already  without  causing  enduring  wrong.  The 
been  laid  for  the  inauguration  of  the  recognition  of  such  ownership,  which  has 
policy  just  described.  It  would  be  unwise  been  permitted  to  grow  up  in  the  arid 
to  begin  by  doing  too  much,  for  a  great  deal  regions,  should  give  way  to  a  more  en- 
will  doubtless  be  learned,  both  as  to  what  lightened  and  larger  recognition  of  the 
can  and  whs,t  cannot  be  safely  attempted,  rights  of  the  public  in  the  control  and 
by  the  early  efforts,  which  must  of  neces-  disposal  of  the  public  water  supplies, 
sity  be  partly  experimental  in  character.  Laws  founded  upon  conditions  obtaining 
At  the  very  beginning  the  government  in  humid  regions,  where  water  is  too  abun- 
should  make  clear,  beyond  shadow  of  dant  to  justify  hoarding  it,  have  no  proper 
doubt,  its  intention  to  pursue  this  policy  application  in  a  dry  country, 
on  lines  of  the  broadest  public  interest.  In  the  arid  States  the  only  right  to 
No  reservoir  or  canal  should  ever  be  built  water  which  should  be  recognized  is  that 

of  use.  In  irrigation  this  right  should 
attach  to  the  land  reclaimed  and  be  in- 
separable therefrom.  Granting  perpetual 
water  rights  to  others  than  users,  without 


to  satisfy  selfish  personal  or  local  inter- 
ests, but  only  in  accordance  with  the  ad- 
vice of  trained  experts,  after  long  investi- 
gation has  shown  the  locality  where  all 
the  conditions  combine  to  make  the  work  compensation  to  the  public,  is  open  to  all 
most  needed  and  fraught  with  the  greatest    the  objections  which  app'y  to  giving  away 


perpetual  franchises  to  the  public  utilities 
of  cities.  A  few  of  the  Western  States 
have  already  recognized  this,  and  have  in- 
corporated in  their  constitutions  the  doc- 
trine   of    perpetual    State    ownership    of 


usefulness  to  the  community  as  a  whole 
There  should  be  no  extravagance,  and  the 
believers  in  the  need  of  irrigation  will 
most  benefit  their  cause  by  seeing  to  it 
that  it  is  free  from  the  least  taint  of 
excessive  or  reckless  expenditure  of  the  water, 
public  moneys.  The  benefits  which  have  followed  the 
Water  Control. — Whatever  the  nation  unaided  development  of  the  past  justify 
does  for  the  extension  of  irrigation  should  the  nation's  aid  and  co-operation  in  the 
harmonize  with  and  tend  to  improve  the  more  difficult  and  important  work  ypt  to 
condition  of  those  v.nw  living  on  irrigated  be  accomplished.  Laws  so  vita^y  affect- 
land.  We  are  not  at  the  starting-point  of  ing  homes  as  those  which  control  the 
this  development.  Over  $200,000,000  of  water  supply  will  only  be  effective  when 
private  capital  has  already  been  expended  they  have  the  sanction  of  the  irrigators; 
in  the  construction  of  irrigation  works,  and  reforms  can  only  he  final  and  satisfactory 
many  million  acres  of  arid  land  reclaimed,  when  thev  come  through  the  enlighten- 
A  high  degree  of  enterprise  and  ability  has  ment  of  the  people  most  concerned.  The 
been  shown  in  the  work  itself;  but  as  larger  development  which  national  aid  in- 
much  cannot  be  said  in  reference  to  the  sures  should,  however,  awaken  in  every 
laws  relating  thereto.  The  security  and  arid  State  the  determination  to  make  its 
value  of  the  homes  created  depend  largely  irrigation  system  equal  in  justice  and 
vn.— 2  h                                             481 


ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE 

effectiveness  that  of  any  country  in  the  United  States.  I  ask  the  attention  of  the 
civilized  world.  Nothing  could  be  more  Congress  to  the  need  of  legislation  con- 
unwise  than  for  isolated  communities  to  cerning  the  public  lands  of  Porto  Rico, 
continue  to  learn  everything  experimental-  Cuba. — In  Cuba  such  progress  has  been 
ly,  instead  of  profiting  by  what  is  already  made  towards  putting  the  independent  gov- 
known  elsewhere.  We  are  dealing  with  a  ernment  of  the  island  upon  a  firm  footing 
new  and  momentous  question,  in  the  preg-  that  before  the  present  session  of  the  Con- 
nant  years  while  institutions  are  forming,  gress  closes  this  will  be  an  accomplished 
and  what  we  do  will  affect  not  only  the  fact.  Cuba  will  then  start  as  her  own 
present  but  future  generations.  mistress;    and  to  the  beautiful  queen  of 

Our  aim  should  be  not  simply  to  re-  the  Antilles,  as  she  unfolds  this  new  page 
claim  the  largest  area  of  land  and  pro-  of  her  destiny,  we  extend  our  heartiest 
vid^  homes  for  the  largest  number  of  greetings  and  good  wishes.  Elsewhere  I 
people,  but  to  create  for  this  new  in-  have  discussed  the  question  of  reciprocity. 
du6try  the  best  possible  social  and  in-  In  the  case  of  Cuba,  however,  there  are 
dustrial  conditions;  and  this  requires  that  weighty  reasons  of  morality  and  of  na- 
we  not  only  understand  the  existing  situ-  tional  interest  why  the  policy  should  be 
ation,  but  avail  ourselves  of  the  best  held  to  have  a  peculiar  application,  and  I 
experience  of  the  time  in  the  solution  of  most  earnestly  ask  your  attention  to  the 
its  problems.  A  careful  study  should  be  wisdom — indeed,  to  the  vital  need — of  pro- 
made,  both  by  the  nation  and  the  States,  viding  for  a  substantial  reduction  in  the 
of  the  irrigation  laws  and  conditions  here  tariff  duties  on  Cuban  imports  into  the 
and  abroad.  Ultimately  it  will  probably  United  States.  Cuba  has  in  her  consti tu- 
be necessary  for  the  nation  to  co-operate  tion  affirmed  what  we  desired,  that  she 
with  the  several  arid  States  in  proportion  should  stand,  in  international  matters,  in 
as  these  States  by  their  legislation  and  ad-  closer  and  more  friendly  relations  with 
ministration  show  themselves  fit  to  receive  us  than  with  any  other  power ;  and  we  are 
it.  bound  by  every  consideration  of  honor  and 

Hawaii. — In  Hawaii   our  aim  must  be  expediency  to   pass   commercial   measures 

to    develop    the    Territory    on    the    tradi-  in  the  interest  of  her  material  well-being. 

tional  American  lines.     We  do  not  wish  a  The  Philippines. — In  the  Philippines  our 

region    of    large    estates    tilled    by    cheap  problem   is   larger.      They   are   very   rich 

labor;  we  wish  a  healthy  American  com-  tropical  islands,  inhabited  by  many  vary- 

munity  of  men  who   themselves   till    the  ing   tribes,    representing   widely   different 

farms  they  own.     All  our  legislation  for  stages    of    progress    towards    civilization, 

the   islands   should   be   shaped  with   this  Our  earnest  effort  is  to  help  these  people 

end  in  view;  the  well-being  of  the  average  upward  along  the  stony  and  difficult  path 

home-maker    must    afford    the    true    test  that  leads  to  self-government.     We  hope 

of  the  healthy  development  of  the  islands,  to  make  our  administration  of  the  islands 

The  land  policy  should  as  nearly  as  pos-  honorable  to  our  nation  by  making  it  of 

sible  be  modelled  on  our  homestead  system,  the  highest  benefit  to  the  Filipinos  them- 

Porto   Rico. — It   is   a   pleasure   to    say  selves;  and  as  an  earnest  of  what  we  in- 

that  it   is  hardV  more  necessary  to  re-  tend  to  do,  we  point  to  what  we  have  done, 

port  as  to  Porto  Pico  than  as  to  any  State  Already   a    greater    measure    of    material 

or  Territory  within  our  continental  limits,  prosperity   and   of   governmental    honesty 

The   island    is   thriving   as   never   before,  and    efficiency   has   been    attained   in    the 

and  it  is  being  administered  efficiently  and  Philippines  than  ever  before  in  their  his- 

honestly.      Tts    people    are   now   enjoying  tory. 

liberty    and    order    under    the    protection  It    is   no    light   task    for    a    nation    to 

of  the  United  States,  and  upon  this  fact  achieve  the  temperamental  qualities  with- 

we  congratulate  them  and  ourselves.  Their  out  which  the  institutions  of  free  govern- 

material  welfare  must  be  as  carefully  and  ment    are    but    an    empty   mockery.     Our 

jealously  considered  as  the  welfare  of  any  people    are    now    successfully    governing 

other  portion  of  our  country.     We  have  themselves,  because  for  more  than  a  thou- 

given  them  the  great  gift  of  free  access  sand  years  they  have  been  slowly  fitting 

for  th«ir  products  to  the  markets  of  the  themselves,   sometimes  consciously,   some- 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

times    unconsciously,    towards    this    end.  have  been  crinx.    We  are  extremely  anx« 

What  has  taken  us  thirty  generations  to  ious  that  the  natives  shall  show  the  power 

achieve  we  cannot  expect  to  see  another  of  governing  themselves.    We  are  anxious, 

race   accomplish    out   of    hand,   especially  first  for  their  sakes,  and  next  because  it 

when    large   portions   of   that    race    start  relieves  us  of  a  great  burden.     There  need 

very  far  behind  the  point  which  our  an-  not  be  the  slightest  fear  of  our  not  con- 

cestors   had   reached   even   thirty  genera-  tinuing  to  give  them  all  the  liberty  for 

tions    ago.     In    dealing   with    the    Philip-  which  they  are  fit. 

pine  people  we  must  show  both  patience  Self-government. — The  only  fear  is  lest 

and    strength,    forbearance   and    steadfast  in  our  overanxiety  we  give  them  a  degree 

resolution.     Our  aim  is  high.     We  do  not  of  independence  for  which  they  are  unfit, 

desire  to  do  for  the  islanders  merely  wnat  thereby  inviting  reaction  and  disaster.   As 

has  elsewhere  been  done  for  tropic  peoples  fast  as  there  is  any  reasonable  hope  that 

by  even  the  best  foreign  governments.    We  in  a  given  district  the  people  can  govern 

hope  to  do  for  them  what  has  never  before  themselves,  self-government  has  been  given 

been  done  for  any  people  of  the  tropics —  in  that  district.     There  is  not  a  locality 

to  make  them  fit  for  self-government  after  fitted  for  self-government  which  has  not 

the  fashion  of  the  really  free  nations.  received  it.     But  it  may  well  be  that  in 

History    may    safely    be    challenged    to  certain  cases  it  will  have  to  be  withdrawn 

show  a  single  instance  in  which  a  master-  because  the   inhabitants  show  themselves 

ful  race  such  as  ours,  having  been  forced  unfit  to  exercise  it ;   such  instances  have 

by  the  exigencies  of  war  to  take  posses-  already  occurred.     In  other  words,  there 

sion  of  an  alien  land,  has  behaved  to  its  is  not  the  slightest  chance  of  our  failing 

inhabitants  with  the  disinterested  zeal  for  to  show  a  sufficiently  humanitarian  spirit, 

their  progress  that  our  people  have  shown  The  danger  comes  in  the  opposite  direc- 

in  the  Philippines.     To  leave  the  islands  tion. 

at  this  time  would  mean  that  they  would  There  are  still  troubles  ahead  in  the 
fall  into  a  welter  of  murderous  anarchy,  islands.  The  insurrection  has  become  an 
Such  desertion  of  duty  on  our  part  would  affair  of  local  banditti  and  marauders, 
be  a  crime  against  humanity.  The  char-  who  deserve  no  higher  regard  than  the 
acter  of  Governor  Taft  and  of  his  asso-  brigands  of  portions  of  the  Old  World, 
ciates  and  subordinates  is  a  proof,  if  such  Encouragement,  direct  or  indirect,  to  these 
be  needed,  of  the  sincerity  of  our  effort  to  insurrectos  stands  on  the  same  footing  as 
give  the  islanders  a  constantly  increasing  encouragement  to  hostile  Indians  in  the 
measure  of  self-government,  exactly  as  days  when  we  still  had  Indian  wars.  Ex- 
fast  as  they  show  themselves  fit  to  exer-  actly  as  our  aim  is  to  give  to  the  Indian 
cise  it.  Since  the  civil  government  was  who  remains  peaceful  the  fullest  and  am- 
established  not  an  appointment  has  been  plest  consideration,  but  to  have  it  under- 
made  in  the  islands  with  any  reference  to  stood  that  we  will  show  no  weakness  if  he 
considerations  of  political  influence,  or  to  goes  on  the  war-path,  so  we  must  make  it 
aught  else  save  the  fitness  of  the  man  and  evident,  unless  we  are  false  to  our  own 
the  needs  of  the  service.  traditions  and  to  the  demands  of  civiliza- 

In  our  anxiety  for  the  welfare  and  prog-  tion  and  humanity,  that  while  we  will  do 
ress  of  the  Philippines,  it  may  be  that  everything  in  our  power  for  the  Filipino 
here  and  there  we  have  gone  too  rapidly  who  is  peaceful,  we  will  take  the  stem- 
in  giving  them  local  self-government.  It  is  est  measures  with  the  Filipino  who  fol- 
on  this  side  that  our  error,  if  any,  has  lows  the  path  of  the  insurrecto  and  the 
been  committed.     No  competent  observer,  ladrone. 

sincerely  desirous  of  finding  out  the  facts  The    heartiest    praise    is    due    to    large 

and  influenced  only  by  a   desire  for  the  numbers  of  the  natives  of  the  islands  for 

welfare  of  the  natives,  can  assert  that  we  their    steadfast    loyalty.     The    Macabebes 

have  not  gone  far  enough.     We  have  gone  have  been   conspicuous  for  their  courage 

to  the  very  verge  of  safety  in  hastening  and   devotion   to  the  flag.     I   recommend 

the  process.     To  have  taken  a  single  step  that  the  Secretary  of  War  be  empowered 

farther  or  faster  in  advance  would  have  to  take  some  systematic  action  in  the  way 

bwn  folly  and  weakness,  and  might  well  of   aiding  those  of  these  men   who   are 

482 


ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE 

crippled  In  the  »ervice  and  the  families  of  provide  for  the  conntructlon  of  a  govern- 

those  who  are  killed.  ment  cable,  or  else  an  arrangement  should 

The  time  has  come  when  there  should  be  be  made  by  which  like  advantages  to  those 
additional  legislation  for  the  Philippines,  accruing  from  a  government  cable  may  be 
Nothing  better  can  be  done  for  the  islands  secured  to  the  government  by  contract 
than  to  introduce  industrial  enterprises,  with  a  private  cable  company. 
Nothing  would  benefit  them  so  much  as  The  Isthmian  Canal. — No  single  great 
throwing  them  open  to  industrial  develop-  material  work  which  remains  to  be  under- 
ment.  The  connection  between  idleness  taken  on  this  continent  is  of  such  conse- 
and  mischief  is  proverbial,  and  the  op-  quence  to  the  American  people  as  the 
portunity  to  do  remunerative  work  is  one  building  of  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  con- 
of  the  surest  preventives  of  war.  Of  course,  necting  North  and  South  America.  Its 
no  business  man  will  go  into  the  Philip-  importance  to  the  nation  is  by  no  means 
pines  unless  it  is  to  his  interest  to  do  so ;  limited  merely  to  its  material  effects  upon 
and  it  is  immensely  to  the  interest  of  the  our  business  prosperity;  and  yet,  with 
islands  that  he  should  go  in.  It  is  there-  view  to  these  effects  alone,  it  would  be  to 
fore  necessary  that  the  Congress  should  the  last  degree  important  for  us  imme- 
pass  laws  by  which  the  resources  of  the  diately  to  begin  it.  While  its  beneficial 
islands  can  "be  developed;  so  that  fran-  effects  would  perhaps  be  most  marked 
chises  (for  limited  terms  of  years)  can  be  upon  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  Gulf  and 
granted  to  companies  doing  business  in  South  Atlantic  States,  it  would  also 
them,  and  every  encouragement  be  given  greatly  benefit  other  sections.  It  is  em- 
to  the  incoming  of  business  men  of  every  phatically  a  work  which  it  is  for  the  in- 
kind,  terest  of  the  entire  country  to  begin  and 

Not  to  permit  this  is  to  do  a  wrong  to  complete  as  soon  as  possible;  it  is  one  of 
the  Philippines.  The  franchises  must  be  those  great  works  which  only  a  great  na- 
granted  and  the  business  permitted  only  tion  can  undertake  with  prospects  of  sue- 
under  regulations  which  will  guarantee  cess,  and  which,  when  done,  are  not  only 
the  islands  against  any  kind  of  improper  permanent  assets  in  the  nation's  material 
exploitation.  But  the  vast  natural  wealth  interests,  but  standing  monuments  to  its 
of  the  islands  must  be  developed,  and  the  constructive  ability. 

capital  willing  to  develop  it  must  be  given  I  am  glad  to  be  able  to  announce  to  you 
the  opportunity.  The  field  mu9t  be  thrown  that  our  negotiations  on  this  subject  with 
open  to  individual  enterprise,  which  has  Great  Britain,  conducted  on  both  sides  in 
been  the  real  factor  in  the  development  a  spirit  of  friendliness  and  mutual  good- 
of  every  region  over  which  our  flag  has  will  and  respect,  have  resulted  in  my  be- 
flown.  It  is  urgently  necessary  to  enact  ing  able  to  lay  before  the  Senate  a  treaty 
suitable  laws  dealing  with  general  trans-  which,  if  ratified,  will  enable  us  to  begin 
portation,  mining,  banking,  currency,  preparations  for  an  isthmian  canal  at  any 
homesteads,  and  the  use  and  ownership  of  time,  and  which  guarantees  to  this  nation 
the  lands  and  timber.  These  laws  will  every  right  that  it  has  ever  asked  in  con- 
give  free  play  to  industrial  enterprise;  nection  with  the  canal.  In  this  treaty 
and  the  commercial  development  which  the  old  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  so  long 
will  surely  follow  will  afford  to  the  people  recognized  as  inadequate  to  supply  the 
of  the  islands  the  best  proofs  of  the  sin-  base  for  the  construction  and  maintenance 
cerity  of  our  desire  to  aid  them.  of  a   necessarily  American   ship-canal,   is 

A  Trans-Pacific  Cable. — I  call  your  at-  abrogated.     It    specifically    provides    that 

tention  most  earnestly  to  the  crying  need  the  United  States  only  shall  do  the  work 

of  a  cable  to  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines,  of  building  and  assume  the  responsibility 

to  be  continued  from  the  Philippines  to  of  safeguarding  the  canal,  and  shall  regu- 

points  in  Asia.     We  should  not  defer  a  late    its    neutral    use   by   all    nations    on 

day  longer  than  necessary  the  construe-  terms  of  equality  without  the  guarantee  or 

tion  of  such  a  cable.     It  is  demanded  not  interference  of   any  outside   nation   from 

merely   for   commercial   but   for   political  any  quarter.     The   signed   treaty  will   at 

and  military  considerations.  once  be  laid  before  the  Senate,  and  if  ap- 

Either  the  Congress  should  immediately  proved  the  Congress  can  then  proceed  to 

484 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

give  effect  to  the  advantages  it  secures  us  rope.     Through    the   Monroe   doctrine   we 

by  providing  for  the  building  of  the  canal,  hope   to  be  able   to  safeguard   like   inde- 

The  true  end  of  every  great  and  free  pendence  and  secure  like  permanence  for 
people  should  be  self-respecting  peace;  the  lesser  among  the  New  World  nations, 
and  this  nation  most  earnestly  desires  This  doctrine  has  nothing  to  do  with 
sincere  and  cordial  friendship  with  all  the  commercial  relations  of  any  American 
others.  Over  the  entire  world,  of  recent  power,  save  that  it  in  truth  allows  each  of 
years,  wars  between  the  great  civilized  them  to  form  such  as  it  desires.  In  other 
powers  have  become  less  and  less  frequent,  words,  it  is  really  a  guarantee  of  the  com- 
Wars  with  barbarous  or  semi-barbarous  mercial  independence  of  the  Americas.  We 
peoples  come  in  an  entirely  different  cate-  do  not  ask  under  this  doctrine  for  any  ex- 
gory,  being  merely  a  most  regrettable  but  elusive  commercial  dealings  with  any 
necessary  international  police  duty  which  other  American  state.  We  do  not  guar- 
must  be  performed  for  the  sake  of  the  wel-  antee  any  state  against  punishment  if  it 
fare  of  mankind.  Peace  can  only  be  kept  misconducts  itself,  provided  that  punish- 
with  certainty  where  both  sides  wish  to  ment  does  not  take  the  form  of  the  acqui- 
keep  it;  but  more  and  more  the  civilized  sition  of  territory  by  any  non- American 
peoples  are  realizing  the  wicked  folly  of  power. 

war  and  are  attaining  that  condition  of  Our    attitude    in    Cuba    is    a    sufficient 

just  and  intelligent  regard  for  the  rights  guarantee  of  our  own  good  faith.  We  have 

of  others  which  will  in  the  end,  as  we  hope  not  the  slightest  desire  to  secure  any  terri- 

and  believe,  make  world-wide  peace  pos-  tory  at  the  expense  of  any  of  our  neigh- 

sible.     The  peace  conference  at  The  Hague  bors.     We  wish  to  work  with  them  hand 

gave  definite  expression  to  this  hope  and  in  hand,  so  that  all  of  us  may  be  uplifted 

belief  and  marked  a  stride  towards  their  together,    and   we   rejoice   over    the   good 

attainment.  fortune  of  any  of  them,  we  gladly  hail 

This  same  peace  conference  acquiesced  their  material  prosperity  and  political 
in  our  statement  of  the  Monroe  doctrine  stability,  and  are  concerned  and  alarmed 
as  compatible  with  the  purposes  and  aims  if  any  of  them  fall  into  industrial  or  po- 
of the  conference.  litical  chaos.     We  do  not  wish  to  see  any 

The     Monroe     Doctrine. — The     Monroe  Old  World  military  power  grow  up  on  this 

doctrine    should    be    the    cardinal '  feature  continent,   or  to   be   compelled   to   become 

of  the  foreign  policy  of  all  the  nations  of  a  military  power  ourselves.     The  peoples 

the  two  Americas,  as  it  is  of  the  United  of  the  Americas  can  prosper  best  if  left 

Slates.     Just     seventy-eight     years     have  to  work  out  their  own  salvation  in  their 

passed  since  President  Monroe  in  his  an-  own  way. 

nual  message  announced  that  "  The  Ameri-  The  Ifavy. — The  work  of  upbuilding  the 

can  continents  are  henceforth  not  to  be  navy  must  be  steadily  continued.     No  one 

considered  as  subjects   for   future  coloni-  point  of  our  policy,  foreign  or  domestic, 

zation  by  any  European  power."    In  other  is  more  important  than  this  to  the  honor 

words,  the  Monroe  doctrine  is  a  declara-  and  material  welfare,  and  above  all  to  the 

tion  that  there  must  be  no  territorial  ag-  peace,     of    our     nation     in     the     future, 

grandizement  by  any  non-American  power  Whether   we   desire    it   or   not,  we   must 

at  the  expense  of  any  American  power  on  henceforth  recognize  that  we  have  interna- 

American  soil.     It  is  in  no  wise  intended  tional   duties   no   less   than   international 

as  hostile  to  any  nation  in  the  Old  World,  rights.     Even    if    our    flag    were    hauled 

Still  less  is  it  intended  to  give  cover  to  down  in  the  Philippines  and  Porto  Rico, 

any  aggression  by  one  New  World  power  even  if  we  decided  not  to  build  the  isth- 

at  the  expense  of  any  other.     It  is  simply  mian  canal,  Ave  should  need  a  thoroughly 

a  step,  and  a  long. step,  towards  assuring  trained  nan  of  adequate  size,  or  else  be 

the  universal  peace  of  the  world  by  secur-  prepared   definitely   and   for   all   time   to 

ing  the  possibility  of  permanent  peace  on  abandon  the  idea  that  our  nation  is  among 

this  hemisphere.  those  whose  sons  go  down  to  the  sea  in 

During  the  last  century  other  influences  ships.     Unless    our    commerce    is    always 

have  established  the  permanence  and  in-  to  be  carried  in  foreign  bottoms  we  must 

dependence  of  the  smaller  states  of  Eu-  have  war  craft  to  protect  it. 

485 


ROOSEVELT,    THEOf»OSE 


Inasmuah,  however,  as  the  American 
people  have  no  thought  of  abandoning  the 
path  upon  which  they  have  entered,  and 
especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
building  of  the  isthmian  canal  is  fast  be- 
coming one  of  the  matters  which  the  whole 
people  are  united  in  demanding,  it  is  im- 
perative that  our  navy  should  be  put  and 
kept  in  the  highest  state  of  efficiency,  and 
should  be  made  to  answer  to  our  growing 
needs.  So  far  from  being  in  any  way  a 
provocation  to  war,  an  adequate  and  high- 
ly trained  navy  is  the  best  guarantee 
against  war,  the  cheapest  and  most  effec- 
tive peace  insurance.  The  cost  of  building 
and  maintaining  such  a  navy  represents 
the  very  lightest  premium  for  insuring 
peace  which  this  nation  can  possibly  pay. 

Probably  no  other  great  nation  in  the 
world  is  so  anxious  for  peace  as  we  are. 
There  is  not  a  single  civilized  power  which 
lias  anything  whatever  to  fear  from  ag- 
gressiveness on  our  part.  All  we  want  is 
peace;  and  towards  this  end  we  wish  to  be 
able  to  secure  the  same  respect  for  our 
rights  from  others  which  we  are  eager  and 
anxious  to  extend  to  their  rights  in  re- 
turn, to  insure  fair  treatment  to  us  com- 
mercially, and  to  guarantee  the  safety  of 
the  American  people. 

Our  people  intend  to  abide  by  the  Mon- 
oe  doctrine  and  to  insist  upon  it  as  the 
one  sure  means  of  securing  the  peace  of 
the  Western  Hemisphere.  The  navy  offers 
us  the  only  means  of  making  our  insist- 
ence upon  the  Monroe  doctrine  anything 
but  a  subject  of  derision  to  whatever  na- 
tion chooses  to  disregard  it.  We  desire 
the  peace  which  comes  as  of  right  to  the 
just  man  armed;  not  the  peace  granted 
on  terms  of  ignominy  to  the  craven  and 
the  weakling. 

It  is  not  possible  to  improvise  a  navy 
after  war  breaks  out.  The  ships  must  be 
built  and  the  men  trained  long  in  advance. 
Some  auxiliary  vessels  can  be  turned  into 
makeshifts  which  will  do  in  default  of 
any  better  for  the  minor  work,  and  a 
proportion  of  raw  men  can  be  mixed  with 
the  highly  trained,  their  shortcomings  be- 
ing made  good  by  the  skill  of  their  fellows ; 
but  the  efficient  fighting  force  of  the  navy 
when  pitted  against  an  equal  opponent 
will  be  found  almost  exclusively  in  the 
war-ships  that  have  been  regularly  built 
and  in  the  officers  and  men  who  through 


years  of  faithful  performance  of  sea-duty 
have  been  trained  to  handle  their  formi- 
dable but  complex  and  delicate  weapons 
with  the  highest  efficiency.  In  the  late 
war  with  Spain  the  ships  that  dealt  the 
decisive  blows  at  Manila  and  Santiago 
had  been  launched  from  two  to  fourteen 
years,  and  they  were  able  to  do  as  they 
did  because  the  men  in  the  conning-towers, 
the  gun-turrets,  and  the  engine-rooms  had 
through  long  years  of  practice  at  sea 
learned  how  to  do  their  duty. 

Its  Early  Stages. — Our  present  navy 
was  begun  in  1882.  At  that  period  our 
navy  consisted  of  a  collection  of  anti- 
quated wooden  ships,  already  almost  as 
out  of  place  against  modern  war-vessels 
as  the  galleys  of  Alcibiades  and  Hamilcar 
— certainly  as  the  ships  of  Tromp  and 
Blake.  Nor  at  that  time  did  we  have 
men  fit  to  handle  a  modern  man-of-war. 
Under  the  wise  legislation  of  the  Con- 
gress and  the  successful  administration  of 
a  succession  of  patriotic  Secretaries  of  the 
Navy  belonging  to  both  political  parties 
the  work  of  upbuilding  the  navy  went  on, 
and  ships  equal  to  any  in  the  world  of 
their  kind  were  continually  added;  and, 
what  was  even  more  important,  these 
ships  were  exercised  at  sea  singly  and  in 
squadrons  until  the  men  aboard  them  were 
able  to  get  the  best  possible  service  out  of 
them.  The  result  was  seen  in  the  short 
war  with  Spain,  which  was  decided  with 
such  rapidity  because  of  the  infinitely 
greater  preparedness  of  our  navy  than  of 
the  Spanish  navy. 

While  awarding  the  fullest  honor  to  the 
men  who  actually  commanded  and  manned 
the  ships  which  destroyed  the  Spanish  sea 
forces  in  the  Philippines  and  in  Cuba,  we 
must  not  forget  that  an  equal  meed  of 
praise  belongs  to  those  without  whom 
neither  blow  could  have  been  struck.  The 
Congressmen  who  voted  years  in  advance 
the  money  to  lay  down  the  ships,  to  build 
the  guns,  to  buy  the  armor  plate ;  the  de- 
partment officials  and  the  business  men 
and  wage-workers  who  furnished  what  the 
Congress  had  authorized ;  the  Secretaries 
of  the  Navy  who  asked  for  and  expended 
the  appropriations;  and,  finally,  the  offi- 
cers who,  in  fair  weather  and  foul,  on  act- 
ual sea-service,  trained  and  disciplined  the 
crews  of  the  ships  when  there  was  no  war 
in  sight — all  are  entitled  to  a  full  share 


486 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

in  th«  glory  of  Manila  and  Santiago  and  ter,  for  it  is  there  only  they  can  l«ara 
the  respect  accorded  by  every  true  Ameri-  their  duties  as  they  should  be  learned, 
can  to  those  who  wrought  such  signal  The  big  vessels  should  be  manoeuvred  in 
triumph  for  our  country.  It  was  fore-  squadrons  containing  not  merely  battle- 
thought  and  preparation  which  secured  us  ships,  but  the  necessary  proportion  of 
the  overwhelming  triumph  of  1898.  If  we  cruisers  and  scouts.  The  torpedo-boats 
fail  to  show  forethought  and  preparation  should  be  bandied  by  the  younger  officers 
now,  there  may  come  a  time  when  dis-  in  such  manner  as  will  best  fit  the  latter 
aster  will  befall  us  instead  of  triumph;  to  take  responsibility  and  meet  the  emer- 
and  should  this  time  come  the  fault  will  gencies  of  actual  warfare, 
rest  primarily  not  upon  those  whom  the  Every  detail  ashore  which  can  be  per- 
accident  of  events  puts  in  supreme  com-  formed  by  a  civilian  should  be  so  perform- 
mand  at  the  moment,  but  upon  those  who  ed,  the  officer  being  kept  for  his  special 
have  failed  to  prepare  in  advance.  duty  in  the  sea-service.     Above  all,  gun- 

There  should  be  no  cessation  in  the  work  nery  practice  should  be  unceasing.  It  is 
of  completing  our  navy.  So  far  ingenuity  important  to  have  our  navy  of  adequate 
has  been  wholly  unable  to  devise  a  substi-  size,  but  it  is  even  more  important  that 
tute  for  the  great  war  craft  whose  ham-  ship  for  ship  it  should  equal  in  efficiency 
mering  guns  beat  out  the  mastery  of  the  any  navy  in  the  world.  This  is  possible 
high  seas.  It  is  unsafe  and  unwise  not  only  with  highly  drilled  crews  and  officers, 
to  provide  this  year  for  several  addition-  and  this  in  turn  imperatively  demands 
al  battle-ships  and  heavy  armored  cruis-  continuous  and  progressive  instruction  in 
ers,  with  auxiliary  and  lighter  craft  in  target  practice,  ship  handling,  squadron 
proportion;  for  the  exact  numbers  and  tactics,  and  general  discipline.  Our  ships 
character  I  refer  you  to  the  report  of  the  must  be  assembled  in  squadrons  actively 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  But  there  is  some-  cruising  away  from  harbors,  and  never 
thing  we  need  even  more  than  additional  long  at  anchor.  The  resulting  wear  upon 
ships,  and  this  is  additional  officers  and  engines  and  hulls  must  be  endured;  a 
men.  To  provide  battle-ships  and  cruisers  battle-ship  worn  out  in  long  training  of 
and  then  lay  them  up,  with  the  expecta-  officers  and  men  is  well  paid  for  by  the 
tion  of  leaving  them  unarmed  until  they  results,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  no  mat- 
are  needed  in  actual  war,  would  be  worse  ter  in  how  excellent  condition,  it  is  useless 
than  folly;  it  would  be  a  crime  against  if  the  crew  be  not  expert, 
the  nation.  We  now  have  seventeen  battle-ships  ap- 

Gunnery. — To  send  any  war-ship  against  propriated  for,  of  which  nine  are  com- 
a  competent  enemy  unless  those  aboard  pleted  and  have  been  commissioned  for 
it  have  been  trained  by  years  of  actual  actual  service.  The  remaining  eight  will 
sea-service,  including  incessant  gunnery  be  ready  in  from  two  to  four  years,  but 
practice,  would  be  to  invite  not  merely  it  will  take  at  least  that  time  to  recruit 
disaster,  but  the  bitterest  shame  and  hu-  and  train  the  men  to  fight  them.  It  is 
miliation.  Four  thousand  additional  sea-  of  vast  concern  that  we  have  trained 
men  and  1,000  additional  marines  should  crews  ready  for  the  vessels  by  the  time 
be  provided ;  and  an  increase  in  the  officers  they  are  commissioned.  Good  ships  and 
should  be  provided  by  making  a  large  good  guns  are  simply  good  weapons,  and 
addition  to  the  classes  at  Annapolis.  There  the  best  weapons  are  useless  save  in  the 
is  one  small  matter  which  should  be  men-  hands  of  men  who  know  how  to  fight 
tioned  in  connection  with  Annapolis.  The  them.  The  men  must  be  trained  and  drill- 
pretentious  and  unmeaning  title  of  "  naval  ed  under  a  thorough  and  well-planned 
cadet"  should  be  abolished;  the  title  of  system  of  progressive  instruction,  while 
"  midshipman."  full  of  historic  associa-  the  recruiting  must  be  carried  on  with 
tion,  should  be  restored.  still  greater  vigor.     Every  effort  must  be 

Even  in  time  of  peace  a  war-ship  should  made  to  exalt  the  main  function  of  the 
be  used  until  it  wears  out,  for  only  so  officer — the  command  of  mpn.  The  lead- 
can  it  be  kept  fit  to  respond  to  any  emer-  ing  graduates  of  the  Naval  Academy 
gency.  The  officers  and  men  alike  should  should  be  assigned  to  the  combatant 
be  kept  as  much  as  possible  on  blue  wa-    branches,  the  line  and  marines. 

487 


BOOSEVELT,    THEODORE 


Many  of  the  essentials  of  success  are 
already  recognized  by  the  general  board, 
which,  as  the  central  office  of  a  grow- 
ing staff,  is  moving  steadily  towards  a 
proper  war  efficiency  and  a  proper  ef- 
ficiency of  the  whole  navy,  under  the  Sec- 
retary. This  general  board,  by  fostering 
the  creation  of  a  general  staff,  is  provid- 
ing for  the  official  and  then  the  gen- 
eral recognition  of  our  altered  conditions 
as  a  nation  and  of  the  true  meaning  of 
a  great  war  fleet,  which  meaning  is, 
first,  the  best  men,  and,  second,  the  best 
ships. 

The  naval  militia  forces  are  State  or- 
ganizations, and  are  trained  for  coast  ser- 
vice, and  in  event  of  war  they  will  con- 
stitute the  inner  line  of  defence.  They 
should  receive  hearty  encouragement  from 
the  general  government. 

But,  in  addition,  we  should  at  once  pro- 
vide for  a  national  naval  reserve,  organ- 
ized and  trained  under  the  direction  of  the 
Navy  Department,  and  subject  to  the  call 
of  the  chief  executive  whenever  war  be- 
comes imminent.  It  should  be  a  real  aux- 
iliary to  the  naval  sea-going  peace  estab- 
lishment, and  offer  material  to  be  drawn 
on  at  once  for  manning  our  ships  in  time 
of  war.  It  should  be  composed  of  gradu- 
ates of  the  Naval  Academy,  graduates  of 
the  naval  militia,  officers  and  crews  of 
coast-line  steamers,  long-shore  schooners, 
fishing-vessels,  and  steam-yachts,  together 
with  the  coast  population  about  such  cen- 
tres as  life-saving  stations  and  light- 
houses. 

The  American  people  must  either  build 
and  maintain  an  adequate  navy  or  else 
make  up  their  minds  definitely  to  accept 
a  secondary  position  in  international 
affairs,  not  merely  in  political  but  in  com- 
mercial matters.  It  has  been  well  said 
that  there  is  no  surer  way  of  courting 
national  disaster  than  to  be  "  opulent,  ag- 
gressive, and  unarmed.2" 

The  Army. — It  is  not  necessary  to  in- 
crease our  army  beyond  its  present  size  at 
this  time.  But  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it 
at  the  highest  point  of  efficiency.  The  in- 
dividual units  who  as  officers  and  enlisted 
men  compose  this  army  are,  we  have  good 
reason  to  believe,  at  least  as  efficient  as 
those  of  any  other  army  in  the  entire 
world.  It  is  our  duty  to  see  that  their 
training  is  of  a  kind  to  insure  the  highest 


possible  expression  of  power  to  these  units 
when  acting  in  combination. 

The  conditions  of  modern  war  are  such 
as  to  make  an  infinitely  heavier  demand 
than  ever  before  upon  the  individual  char- 
acter and  capacity  of  the  officer  and  the 
enlisted  man,  and  to  make  it  far  more 
difficult  for  men  to  act  together  with 
effect.  At  present  the  fighting  must  be 
done  in  extended  order,  which  means  that 
each  man  must  act  for  himself  and  at  the 
same  time  act  in  combination  with  others 
with  whom  he  is  no  longer  in  the  old- 
fashioned  elbow-to-elbow  touch.  Under 
such  conditions  a  few  men  of  the  highest 
excellence  are  worth  more  than  many 
men  without  the  special  skill  which  is  only 
found  as  the  result  of  special  training  ap- 
plied to  men  of  exceptional  physique  and 
morale.  But  nowadays  the  most  valuable 
fighting  man  and  the  most  difficult  to  per- 
fect is  the  rifleman  who  is  also  a  skilful 
and  daring  rider. 

The  proportion  of  our  cavalry  regiments 
has  wisely  been  increased.  The  Ameri- 
can cavalryman,  trained  to  manceuvre  and 
fight  with  equal  facility  on  foot  and  on 
horseback,  is  the  best  type  of  soldier  for 
general  purposes  now  to  be  found  in  the 
world.  The  ideal  cavalryman  of  the 
present  day  is  a  man  who  can  fight  on 
foot  as  effectively  as  the  best  infantry- 
man, and  who  is,  in  addition,  unsurpassed 
in  the  care  and  management  of  his  horse 
and  in  his  ability  to  fight  on  horseback. 

A  general  staff  should  be  created.  As 
for  the  present  staff  and  supply  depart- 
ments, they  should  be  filled  by  details 
from  the  line,  the  men  so  detailed  return- 
ing after  a  while  to  their  line  duties.  It 
is  very  undesirable  to  have  the  senior 
grades  of  the  army  composed  of  men  who 
have  come  to  fill  the  positions  by  the  mere 
fact  of  seniority.  A  system  should  be 
adopted  by  which  there  shall  be  an  elimi- 
nation grade  by  grade  of  those  who  seem 
unfit  to  render  the  best  service  in  the  next 
grade.  Justice  to  the  veterans  of  the 
Civil  War  who  are  still  in  the  army  would 
seem  to  require  that  in  the  matter  of  re- 
tirements they  be  given  by  law  the  same 
privileges  accorded  to  their  comrades  in 
the   navy. 

The  process  of  elimination  of  the  least 
fit  should  be  conducted  in  a  manner  that 
would  render  it  practically  impossible  to 


488 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

apply  political  or  social  pressure  on  be-  corps  when  assembled  could  be  marched 

half  of  any  candidate,  so  that  each  man  from  some  inland  point  to  some  point  on 

may  be  judged  purely  on  his  own  merits,  the   water,   there   embarked,   disembarked 

Pressure  for  the  promotion  of  civil  offi-  after  a  couple  of  days'  journey  at  some 

cials  for  political  reasons  is  bad  enough,  other   point,    and   again   marched   inland, 

but  it  is  tenfold  worse  where  applied  on  Only  by  actual  handling  and  providing  for 

behalf   of   officers   of   the  army   or   navy,  men  in  masses  while  they  are  marching, 

Every  promotion  and  every  detail  under  camping,     embarking     and     disembarking 

the  War  Department  must  be  made  solely  will    it   be   possible   to    train    the   higher 

with  regard  to  the  good  of  the  service  and  officers  to  perform  their  duties  well  and 

to  the  capacity  and  merit  of  the  man  him-  smoothly. 

self.    No  pressure,  political,  social,  or  per-  A  great  debt  is  owing  from  the  public 

sonal,  of  any  kind  will  be  permitted  to  to  the  men  of  the  army  and  navy.    They 

exercise  the  least  effect  in  any  question  of  should  be   so   treated  as  to   enable  them 

promotion  or  detail;  and  if  there  is  rea-  to   reach   the   highest   point  of  efficiency, 

son  to   believe  that  such  pressure  is  ex-  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  respond  in- 

ercised  at  the  instigation  of  the  officer  con-  stantly  to  any  demand  made  upon  them  to 

cerned,  it  will  be  held  to  militate  against  sustain   the   interests   of   the  nation   and 

him.     In  our  army  we  cannot  afford  to  the    honor    of    the    flag.     The    individual 

have   rewards   or  duties  distributed   save  American  enlisted  man  is  probably  on  the 

on  the  simple  ground  that  those  who  by  whole    a    more    formidable    fighting    man 

their  own  merits  are  entitled  to  the  re-  than    the    regular    of    any    other    army, 

wards  get  them,  and  that  those  who  are  Every  consideration  should  be  shown  him, 

peculiarly  fit  to  do  the  duties  are  chosen  and    in    return    the   highest    standard    of 

to  perform  them.  usefulness  should  be  exacted  from  him.   It 

Every  effort  should  be  made  to  bring  the  is  well  worth  while  for  the  Congress  to 

army  to  a  constantly  increasing  state  of  consider  whether  the  pay  of  enlisted  men 

efficiency.     When    on    actual    service    no  upon   second   and   subsequent   enlistments 

work  save  that  directly  in  the  line  of  such,  should  not  be  increased  to  correspond  with 

service    should    be    required.     The    paper  the  increased  value  of  the  veteran  soldier, 

work  in  the  army,  as  in  the  navy,  should  Much    good    has    already    come    from 

be   greatly   reduced.     What   is   needed    is  the    act    reorganizing    the    army,    passed 

proved   power   of   command   and   capacity  early    in    the    present    year.     The    three 

to  work  well  in  the  field.     Constant  care  prime   reforms,    all   of   them   of   literally 

is    necessary    to    prevent    dry-rot    in    the  inestimable  value,  are,  first,  the  substitu- 

transportation    and    commissary    depart-  tion  of  four-year  details  from  the  line  for 

ments.  permanent  appointments  in  the  so-called 

Manoeuvres  in  Mass.— Our  army  is  so  staff  divisions;  second,  the  establishment 
small  and  so  much  scattered  that  it  is  of  a  oorps  of  artillery  with  a  chief  at  the 
very  difficult  to  give  the  higher  officers  (as  head;  third,  the  establishment  of  a  maxi- 
well  as  the  lower  officers  and  the  enlisted  mum  and  minimum  limit  for  the  army, 
men)  a  chance  to  practise  manoeuvres  in  It  wculd  be  difficult  to  overestimate  the 
mass  and  on  a  comparatively  large  scale,  improvement  in  the  efficiency  of  our  army 
In  time  of  need  no  amount  of  individual  which  these  three  reforms  are  making, 
excellence  would  avail  against  the  paraly-  and  have  in  part  already  effected, 
sis  which  would  follow  inability  to  work  The  reorganization  provided  for  by  the 
as  a  coherent  whole,  under  skilful  and  act  has  been  substantially  accomplished, 
daring  leadership.  The  Congress  should  The  improved  conditions  in  the  Philip- 
provide  means  whereby  it  will  be  possible  pines  have  enabled  the  War  Department 
to  have  field  exercise  by  at  least  a  division  materially  to  reduce  the  military  charge 
of  regulars,  and,  if  possible,  also  a  divi-  upon  our  revenue  and  to  arrange  the  num- 
sion  of  national  guardsmen,  once  a  year,  ber  of  soldiers  so  as  to  bring  this  number 
These  exercises  might  take  the  form  of  much  nearer  to  the  minimum  than  to  the 
field  manoeuvres;  or,  if  on  the  Gulf  coast  maximum  limit  established  by  law.  There 
or  the  Pacific  or  Atlantic  seaboard,  or  in  is,  however,  need  of  supplementary  legis- 
the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  army  lation.   Thorough  military  education  must 

489 


ROOSEVELT,    THEODORE 


b»  provided,  and  in  addition  to  the  regu- 
lars the  advantages  of  this  education 
should  be  given  to  the  officers  of  the 
national  guard  and  others  in  civil  life 
who  desire  intelligently  to  fit  them- 
selves for  possible  military  duty.  The 
officers  should  be  given  the  chance  to  per- 
fect themselves  by  study  in  the  higher 
branches  of  this  art.  At  West  Point  the 
education  should  be  of  the  kind  most  apt 
to  turn  out  men  who  are  good  in  actual 
field  service;  too  much  stress  should  not 
be  laid  on  mathematics,  nor  should  pro- 
ficiency therein  be  held  to  establish  the 
right  of  entry  to  a  aorps  d'ilite.  The 
typical  American  officer  of  the  best  kind 
need  not  be  a  good  mathematician ;  but 
he  must  be  able  to  master  himself,  to 
control  others,  and  to  show  boldness 
and  fertility  of  resource  in  every  emer- 
gency. 

Militia  and  Veterans. — Action  should 
be  taken  in  reference  to  the  militia  and 
to  the  raising  of  volunteer  forces.  Our 
militia  law  is  obsolete  and  worthless.  The 
organization  and  armament  of  the  na- 
tional guard  of  the  several  States,  which 
are  treated  as  militia  in  the  appropria- 
tions by  the  Congress,  should  be  made 
identical  with  those  provided  for  the  regu- 
lar forces.  The  obligations  and  duties  of 
the  guard  in  time  of  war  should  be  care- 
fully defined,  and  a  system  established  by 
law  under  which  the  method  of  procedure 
of  raising  volunteer  forces  should  be  pre- 
scribed in  advance.  It  is  utterly  im- 
possible in  the  excitement  and  haste  of 
impending  war  to  do  this  satisfactorily 
if  the  arrangements  have  not  been  made 
long  beforehand.  Provision  should  be 
made  for  utilizing  in  the  first  volunteer 
organizations  called  out  the  training  of 
those  citizens  who  have  already  had  ex- 
perience under  arms,  and  especially  for 
the  selection  in  advance  of  the  officers  of 
any  force  which  may  be  raised;  for  care- 
ful selection  of  the  kind  necessary  is  im- 
possible after  the  outbreak  of  war. 

That  the  army  is  not  at  all  a  mere  in- 
strument of  destruction  has  been  shown 
during  the  last  three  years.  In  the 
Philippines,  Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico  it  has 
proved  itself  a  great  constructive  force,  a 
most  potent  implement  for  the  upbuilding 
of  a  peaceful  civilization. 

No  other  citizens  deserve  so  well  of  the 


republic  as  the  veterans,  the  survivors  of 
those  who  saved  the  Union.  They  did  the 
one  deed  which  if  left  undone  would  have 
meant  that  all  else  in  our  history  went 
for  nothing.  But  for  their  steadfast 
prowess  in  the  greatest  crisis  of  our  his- 
tory, all  our  annals  would  be  meaningless, 
and  our  great  experiment  in  popular  free- 
dom and  self-government  a  gloomy  failure. 
Moreover,  they  not  only  left  us  a  united 
nation,  but  they  left  us  also  as  a  heritage 
the  memory  of  the  mighty  deeds  by  which 
the  nation  was  kept  united.  We  are  now 
indeed  one  nation,  one  in  fact  as  well  as 
in  name;  we  are  united  in  our  devotion  to 
the  flag  which  is  the  symbol  of  national 
greatness  and  unity;  and  the  very  com- 
pleteness of  our  union  enables  us  all,  in 
every  part  of  the  country,  to  glory  in  the 
valor  shown  alike  by  the  sons  of  the 
North  and  the  sons  of  the  South  in  the 
times  that  tried  men's  souls. 

The  men  who  in  the  last  three  years 
have  done  so  well  in  the  East  and  the 
West  Indies  and  on  the  mainland  of  Asia 
have  shown  that  this  remembrance  is  not 
lost.  In  any  serious  crisis  the  United 
States  must  rely  for  the  great  mass  of  its 
fighting  men  upon  the  volunteer  soldiery 
who  do  not  make  a  permanent  profession 
of  the  military  career;  and  whenever  such 
a  crisis  arises  the  deathless  memories  of 
the  Civil  War  will  give  to  Americans  the 
lift  of  lofty  purpose  which  comes  to  those 
whose  fathers  have  stood  valiantly  in  the 
forefront  of  the  battle. 

Civil  Service. — The  merit  system  of 
making  appointments  is  in  its  essence  as 
democratic  and  American  as  the  common 
school  system  itself.  It  simply  means 
that  in  clerical  and  other  positions  where 
the  duties  are  entirely  non-political  all 
applicants  should  have  a  fair  field  and 
no  favor,  each  standing  on  his  merits  as 
he  is  able  to  show  them  by  practical  test. 
Written  competitive  examinations  offer 
the  only  available  means  in  many  cases 
for  applying  this  system.  In  other  cases, 
as  where  laborers  are  employed,  a  system 
of  registration  undoubtedly  can  be  widely 
extended.  There  are,  of  course,  places 
where  the  written  competitive  examina- 
tion cannot  be  applied,  and  others  where 
it  offers  by  no  means  an  ideal  solution, 
but  where  under  existing  political  con- 
ditions it  i3,  though  an  imperfect  means, 


400 


BOQSflVULT,    TSSOSOfiJB 

yt   fh«   best   present   means   of   getting  new  consular  service  have  in  recent  yearB 

satisfactory  results.  been    submitted    to    the    Congress.     They 

Wherever  the  conditions  have  permitted  are  based  upon  the  just  principle  that  ap- 

the  application  of  the  merit  system  in  its  pointments  to  the  service  should  be  made 

fullest  and  widest  sense  the  gain  to  the  only  after  a  practical  test  of  the  appli- 

government  has  been  immense.     The  navy-  cant's   fitness,   that  promotions  should   be 

yards   and   postal   service   illustrate   prob-  governed  by  trustworthiness,  adaptability, 

ably  better  than  any  other  branches  of  the  and  zeal  in  the  performance  of  duty,  and 

government   the   great   gain    in   economy,  that  the   tenure   of  office   should   be   un- 

efficiency,  and  honesty  due  to  the  enforce-  affected  by  partisan  considerations, 

ment  of  this  principle.  The  guardianship  and  fostering  of  our 

I  recommend  the  passage  of  a  law  which  rapidly  expanding  foreign  commerce,  the 
will  extend  the  classified  service  to  the  protection  of  American  citizens  resorting 
District  of  Columbia,  or  will  at  least  en-  to  foreign  countries  in  lawful  pursuit  of 
able  the  President  thus  to  extend  it.  In  their  affairs,  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
my  judgment  all  laws  providing  for  the  dignity  of  the  nation  abroad,  combine  to 
temporary  employment  of  clerks  should  make  it  essential  that  our  consuls  should 
hereafter  contain  a  provision  that  they  be  men  of  character,  knowledge,  and  enter- 
be  selected  under  the  civil  service  law.  prise.     It  is  true  that  the  service  is  now 

It  is  important  to  have  this  system  in  the  main  efficient,  but  a  standard  of  ex- 
obtain  at  home,  but  it  is  even  more  impor-  cellence  cannot  be  permanently  maintained 
tant  to  have  it  applied  rigidly  in  our  in-  until  the  principles  set  forth  in  the  bills 
sular  possessions.  Not  an  office  should  heretofore  submitted  to  the  Congress  on 
be  filled  in  the  Philippines  or  Porto  Rico  this  subject  are  enacted  into  law. 
with  any  regard  to  the  man's  partisan  The  Indian. — In  my  judgment  the  time 
affiliations  or  services,  with  any  regard  to  has  arrived  when  we  should  definitely 
the  political,  social,  or  personal  influence  make  up  our  minds  to  recognize  the  Ind- 
which  he  may  have  at  his  command;  in  ian  as  an  individual  and  not  as  a  member 
short,  heed  should  be  paid  to  absolutely  of  a  tribe.  The  general  allotment  act  is 
nothing  save  the  man's  own  character  and  a  mighty  pulverizing  engine  to  break  up 
capacity  and  the  needs  of  the  service.  the  tribal  mass.     It  acts  directly  upon  the 

The    administration    of    these    islands  family    and    the    individual.     Under    its 

should  be  as  wholly  free   from   the   sus-  provisions     some     60,000     Indians     have 

picion  of  partisan  politics  as  the  adminis-  already    become    citizens    of    the    United 

tration  of  the  army  and  navy.     All  that  States.     We    should    now    break    up    the 

we   ask   from   the   public   servant   in   the  tribal  funds,  doing  for  them  what  allot- 

Philippines  or  Porto  Pico  is  that  he  re-  ment  does  for  the  tribal  lands;    that  is, 

fleet  honor  on  his  country  by  the  way  in  they    should    be    divided    into    individual 

which  he  makes  that  country's  rule  a  bene-  holdings.  There  will  be  a  transition  period 

fit  to  the  peoples  who  have  come  under  it.  during    which    the    funds    will    in    many 

This  is  all  that  we  should  ask,  and  we  can-  cases  have  to  be  held  in  trust.     This  is 

not  afford  to  be  content  with  less.  the    case    also    with    the    lands.     A    stop 

The  merit  system  is  simply  one  method  should    be    put    upon    the    indiscriminate 

of  securing  honest  and  efficient  adminis-  permission  to   Indians   to  lease  their  al- 

tration    of    the    government,    and    in    the  lotments.     The   effort   should   be   steadily 

long  run  the  sole  justification  of  any  type  to  make  the  Indian  work  like  any  other 

of   government  lies   in   its  proving   itself  man  on  his  own  ground.     The  marriage 

both  honest  and  efficient.  laws  of  the  Indians  should  be  made  the 

The  consular  service  is  now  organized  same  as  those  of  the  whites, 

under  the  provisions  of  a  law  passed  in  In  the  schools  the  education  should  be 

1856,  which  is  entirely  inadequate  to  ex-  elementary    and    largely    industrial.     The 

isting  conditions.     The  interest  shown  by  need  of  higher  education  among  the  Ind- 

so  many  commercial  bodies  throughout  the  ians  is  very,  very  limited.     On  the  reser- 

country  in  the  reorganization  of  the  ser-  vations   care    should   be  taken   to   try   to 

vice  is   heartily  commended   to  your   at-  suit  the  teaching  to  the  needs  of  the  par- 

tention.     Several    bills    providing    for    a  ticular   Indian.    There  is  no  use   in   at- 

491 


ROOSEVEM,    THEODORE 

tempting  to  induce  agriculture  in  a  coun-  should  be  represented  by  a  full  and  corn- 
try  suited  only  for  cattle  raising,  where  plete  set  of  exhibits. 

the  Indian  should  be  made  a  stock  grower.  The  people  of  Charleston,  with  great 
The  ration  system,  which  is  merely  the  energy  and  civic  spirit,  are  carrying  on 
corral  and  the  reservation  system,  is  an  exposition  which  will  continue  through- 
highly  detrimental  to  the  Indians.  It  pro-  out  most  of  the  present  session  of  the 
motes  beggary,  perpetuates  pauperism,  and  Congress.  I  heartily  commend  this  ex- 
stifles  industry.  It  is  an  effectual  bar-  position  to  the  good-will  of  the  people.  It 
rier  to  progress.  It  must  continue  to  a  deserves  all  the  encouragement  that  can^ 
greater  or  less  degree  as  long  as  tribes  be  given  it.  The  managers  of  the  Charles- 
are  herded  on  reservations  and  have  every-  ton  exposition  have  requested  the  cabinet 
thing  in  common.  The  Indian  should  be  officers  to  place  thereat  the  government  ex- 
treated  as  an  individual — like  the  white  hibits  which  have  been  at  Buffalo,  promis- 
man.  During  the  change  of  treatment  ing  to  pay  the  necessary  expenses.  I 
inevitable  hardships  will  occur;  every  have  taken  the  responsibility  of  directing 
effort  should  be  made  to  minimize  these  that  this  be  done,  for  I  feel  that  it  is  due 
hardships;  but  we  should  not  because  of  to  Charleston  to  help  her  in  her  praise- 
them  hesitate  to  make  the  change.  There  worthy  effort.  In  my  opinion  the  man- 
should  be  a  continuous  reduction  in  the  agement  should  not  be  required  to  pay 
number  of  agencies.  all    these    expenses.     I    earnestly    recom- 

In    dealing    with    the    aboriginal    races  mend    that   the    Congress   appropriate   at 

few  things  are  more  important   than   to  once    the    small    sum    necessary    for    this 

preserve  them  from  the  terrible  physical  purpose. 

and  moral  degradation  resulting  from  the  The  Pan-i^merican  exposition  at  Buffalo 
liquor  traffic.  We  are  doing  all  we  can  has  just  closed.  Both  from  the  indus- 
to  save  our  own  Indian  tribes  from  this  trial  and  the  artistic  stand-point  this  ex- 
evil.  Wherever  by  international  agree-  position  has  been  in  a  high  degree  credit- 
ment  this  same  end  can  be  attained  as  able  and  useful,  not  merely  to  Buffalo, 
regards  races  where  we  do  not  possess  ex-  but  to  the  United  States.  The  terrible 
elusive  control,  every  effort  should  be  tragedy  of  the  President's  assassination 
made  to  bring  it  about.  interfered    materially    with    its    being    a 

Expositions. — I  bespeak  the  most  cord-  financial  success.  The  exposition  was 
ial  support  from  the  Congress  and  the  peculiarly  in  harmony  with  the  trend  of 
people  for  the  St.  Louis  exposition  to  our  public  policy,  because  it  represented 
commemorate  the  one  hundredth  anni-  an  effort  to  bring  into  closer  touch  all  the 
versary  of  the  Louisiana  purchase.  This  peoples  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  and 
purchase  was  the  greatest  instance  of  ex-  give  them  an  increasing  sense  of  unity, 
pansion  in  our  history.  It  definitely  de-  Such  an  effort  was  a  genuine  service  to 
cided  that  we  were  to  become  a  great  the  entire  American  public, 
continental  republic,  by  far  the  foremost  The  advancement  of  the  highest  interest 
power  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  It  is  of  national  science  and  learning  and  the 
one  of  three  or  four  great  landmarks  in  custody  of  objects  of  art  and  of  the  valu- 
our  history  —  the  great  turning-points  able  result*  or  scientific  expeditions  con- 
in  our  development.  It  is  eminently  fit-  ducted  by  the  United  States  have  been 
ting  that  all  our  people  should  join  with  committed  to  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
heartiest  good-will  in  commemorating  it,  tion.  In  furtherance  of  its  declared  pur- 
and  the  citizens  of  St.  Louis,  of  Missouri,  pose — for  the  "  increase  and  diffusion  of 
of  all  the  adjacent  region,  are  entitled  knowledge  among  men  " — the  Congress  has 
to  every  aid  in  making  the  celebration  a  from  time  to  time  given  it  other  important 
noteworthy  event  in  our  annals.  We  ear-  functions.  Such  trusts  have  been  exe- 
nestly  hope  that  foreign  nations  will  ap-  cuted  by  the  institution  with  notable 
predate  the  deep  interest  our  country  fidelity.  There  should  be  no  halt  in  the 
takes  in  this  exposition,  and  our  view  work  ot  the  institution,  in  accordance  with 
of  its  importance  lrom  every  stand-point,  the  plans  which  its  secretary  has  pre- 
and  that  they  will  participate  in  securing  sented,  for  the  preservation  01  the  vanish- 
its     success.     The     national     government  ing  races  of  great  North  American   ani- 

492 


EOOSEVELT,    THEODORE 

mals  in  the  national  zoological  park,  that  its  revenues  have  doubled  and  its 
The  urgent  needs  of  the  national  museum  expenditures  have  nearly  doubled  within 
are  recommended  to  the  favorable  con-  twelve  years.  Its  progressive  development 
sideration  of  the  Congress.  compels  constantly  increasing  outlay,  but 

Public  Libraries. — Perhaps  the  most  in  this  period  of  business  energy  and  pros- 
characteristic  educational  movement  of  perity  its  receipts  grow  so  much  faster 
the  last  fifty  years  is  that  which  has  than  its  expenses  that  the  annual  deficit 
created  the  modern  public  library  and  has  been  steadily  reduced  from  $11,411 
developed  it  into  broad  and  active  service.  779  in  1897  to  $3,923,727  in  1901.  Anions 
There  are  now  over  five  thousand  public  recent  postal  advances  the  success  of  rural 
libraries  in  the  United  States,  the  prod-  free  delivery  wherever  established  has  been 
uct  of  this  period.  In  addition  to  accu-  so  marked  and  actual  experience  has  made 
mulating  material,  they  are  also  striv-  its  benefits  so  plain  that  the  demand  for 
ing  by  organization,  by  improvement  in  its  extension  is  general  and  urgent, 
method,  and  by  co-operation  to  give  greater  It  is  just  that  the  great  agricultural 
efficiency  to  the  material  they  hold,  to  population  should  share  in  the  improve- 
make  it  more  widely  useful,  and  by  avoid-  ment  of  the  service.  The  number  of  rural 
ance  of  unnecessary  duplication  in  proc-  routes  now  in  operation  is  6,009,  practi- 
ess  to  reduce  the  cost  of  its  administra-  cally  all  established  within  three  years, 
tion.  and  there  are  6,000  applications  awaiting 

In  these  efforts  they  naturally  look  action.  It  is  expected  that  the  number 
for  assistance  to  the  federal  library,  in  operation  at  the  close  of  the  current 
which,  though  still  the  Library  of  Con-  fiscal  year  will  reach  8,600.  The  mail  will 
gress,  and  so  entitled,  is  the  one  national  then  be  daily  carried  to  the  doors  of  5,700,- 
library  of  the  United  States.  Already  the  000  of  our  people  who  have  heretofore  been 
largest  single  collection  of  books  on  the  dependent  upon  distant  offices,  and  one- 
Western  Hemisphere,  and  certain  to  in-  third  of  all  that  portion  of  the  country 
crease  more  rapidly  than  any  other  which  is  adapted  to  it  will  be  covered  by 
through  purchase,  exchange,  and  operation    this  kind  of  service. 

of  the  copyright  law,  this  library  has  The  full  measure  of  postal  progress 
a  unique  opportunity  to  render  to  the  which  might  be  realized  has  long  been 
libraries  of  this  country — to  American  hampered  and  obstructed  by  the  heavy 
scholarship — service  of  the  highest  impor-  burden  imposed  on  the  government  through 
tance.  It  is  housed  in  a  building  which  the  intrenched  and  well-understood  abuses 
is  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  yet  which  have  grown  up  in  connection  with 
erected  for  library  uses.  Resources  are  second-class  mail  matter.  The  extent  of 
now  being  provided  which  will  develop  this  burden  appears  when  it  is  stated  that 
the  collection  properly,  equip  it  with  the  while  the  second-class  matter  makes  near- 
apparatus  and  service  necessary  to  its  ly  three-fifths  of  the  weight  of  all  the 
effective  use,  render  its  bibliographic  work  mail,  it  paid  for  the  last  fiscal  year  only 
widely  available,  and  enable  it  to  become  $4,294,445  of  the  aggregate  postal  revenue 
not  merely  a  centre  of  research,  but  the  of  $111,631,193.  If  the  pound  rate  of 
chief  factor  in  great  co-operative  efforts  postage,  which  produces  the  large  loss 
for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  the  ad-  thus  entailed,  and  which  was  fixed  by  the 
vancement  of  learning.  Congress  with  the  purpose  of  encouraging 

Census  Office. — For  the  sake  of  good  the  dissemination  of  public  information, 
administration,  sound  economy,  and  the  were  limited  to  the  legitimate  newspa- 
advancement  of  science,  the  census  office  pers  and  periodicals  actually  contemplat- 
as  now  constituted  should  be  made  a  per-  ed  by  the  law,  no  just  exception  could 
manent  government  bureau.  This  would  be  taken.  That  expense  would  be  the  rec- 
insure  better,  cheaper,  and  more  satisfac-  o?nizod  and  accepted  cost  of  a  liberal  pub- 
tory  work,  in  the  interest  not  only  of  our  lie  policv  deliberately  adopted  for  a  justifi- 
business,  but  of  statistic,  economic,  and  able  end.  But  much  of  the  matter  which 
social  science.  enjoys   the  privilege  rate  is  wholly  out- 

Postal  Service. — The  remarkable  growth  side  of  the  intent  of  the  law,  and  has  se- 
of  the  postal  service  is  shown  in  the  fact   cured  admission  only  through  an  evasion 

493 


ROOSEVELT,   THEODORE 

of  its  requirements  or  through  lax  eon-  the  future  safety  of  the  foreign  represent- 
struetion.  The  proportion  of  such  wrong-  atives  in  Peking  by  setting  aside  for  their 
ly  included  matter  is  estimated  by  the  exclusive  use  a  quarter  of  the  city  which 
postal  experts  to  be  one-half  of  the  whole  the  powers  can  make  defensible,  and  in 
volume  of  second-class  mail.  If  it  be  only  which  they  can,  if  necessary,  maintain 
one-third  or  one-quarter,  the  magnitude  permanent  military  guards;  by  disman- 
of  the  burden  is  apparent.  The  Post-office  tling  the  military  works  between  the  cap- 
Department  has  now  undertaken  to  re-  ital  and  the  sea,  and  by  allowing  the  tem- 
move  the  abuses  so  far  as  is  possible  by  porary  maintenance  of  foreign  military 
a  stricter  application  of  the  law,  and  it  posts  along  this  line.  An  edict  has  been 
should  be  sustained  in  its  effort.  issued  by  the  Emperor  of  China  prohibit- 
China. — Owing  to  the  rapid  growth  of  ing  for  two  years  the  importation  of  arms 
our  power  and  our  interests  on  the  Pacific,  and  ammunition  into  China.  China  has 
whatever  happens  in  China  must  be  of  the  agreed  to  pay  adequate  indemnities  to  the 
keenest  national  concern  to  us.  states,  societies,  and  individuals  for  the 
The  general  terms  of  the  settlement  of  losses  sustained  by  them,  and  for  the  ex- 
the  questions  growing  out  of  the  anti-  penses  of  the  military  expeditions  sent  by 
foreign  uprisings  in  China  of  1900,  having  the  various  powers  to  protect  life  and  re- 
been  formulated  in  a  joint  note  addressed  store  order. 

to   China   by   the   representatives   of   the  Under  the  provisions  of  the  joint  note 

injured    powers    in    December    last,    were  of  December,    1900,  China  has  agreed  to 

promptly  accepted  by  the  Chinese  govern-  revise  the  treaties  of  commerce  and  navi- 

ment.     After   protracted    conferences   the  gation,  and  to  take  such  other  steps  for 

plenipotentiaries    of    the    several    powers  the  purpose  of  facilitating  foreign   trade 

were  able   to   sign   a   final   protocol  with  as  the  foreign  powers  may  decide  to  be 

the  Chinese   plenipotentiaries  on   Sept.   7  needed. 

last,  setting  forth  the  measures  taken  by  The  Chinese  government  has  agreed  to 
China  in  compliance  with  the  demands  of  participate  financially  in  the  work  of  bet- 
the  joint  note,  and  expressing  their  satis-  tering  the  water  approaches  to  Shanghai 
faction  therewith.  It  will  be  laid  before  and  to  Tientsin,  the  centres  of  foreign 
the  Congress,  with  a  report  of  the  pleni-  trade  in  central  and  northern  China,  and 
potentiary  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  an  international  conservancy  board,  in 
William  Woodville  Rockhill,  to  whom  high  which  the  Chinese  government  is  largely 
praise  is  due  for  the  tact,  good  judgment,  represented,  has  been  provided  for  the  inl- 
and energy  he  has  displayed  in  perform-  provement  of  the  Shanghai  River  and  the 
ing  an  exceptionally  difficult  and  delicate  control  of  its  navigation.  In  the  same 
task.  line  of  commercial  advantages  a  revision 
The  agreement  reached  disposes  in  a  of  the  present  tariff  on  imports  has  been 
manner  satisfactory  to  the  powers  of  the  assented  to  for  the  purpose  of  substi- 
various  grounds  of  complaint,  and  will  tuting  specific  for  ad  valorem  duties,  and 
contribute  materially  to  better  future  rela-  an  expert  has  been  sent  abroad  on  the  part 
tions  between  China  and  the  powers.  Rep-  of  the  United  States  to  assist  in  this  work, 
aration  has  been  made  by  China  for  the  A  list  of  articles  to  remain  free  of  duty, 
murder  of  foreigners  during  the  upris-  including  flour,  cereals,  and  rice,  gold  and 
ing,  and  punishment  has  been  inflicted  on  silver  coin  and  bullion,  has  also  been 
the  officials,  however  high  in  rank,  recog-  agreed  upon  in  the  settlement, 
nized  as  responsible  for  or  having  partici-  During  these  troubles  our  government 
pated  in  the  outbreak.  Official  examina-  has  unswervingly  advocated  moderation, 
tions  have  been  forbidden  for  a  period  and  has  materially  aided  in  bringing  about 
of  five  years  in  all  cities  in  which  foreign-  an  adjustment  which  tends  to  enhance  the 
ers  have  been  murdered  or  cruelly  treated,  welfare  of  China  and  to  lead  to  a  more 
and  edicts  have  been  issued  making  all  beneficial  intercourse  between  the  empire 
officials  directly  responsible  for  the  future  and  the  modern  world,  while  in  the  critical 
safety  of  foreigners  and  for  the  suppres-  period  of  revolt  and  massacre  we  did  our 
sion  of  violence  against  them.  full  share  in  safeguarding  life  and  prop- 
Provisions  have  been  made  for  insuring  erty,  restoring  order,  and  vindicating  the 

494 


BOOSE  VELT— ROOT 


national  interest  and  honor.  It  behooves  United  States  deep  and  heartfelt  sorrow, 
us  to  continue  in  these  paths,  doing  what  to  which  the  government  gave  full  ex- 
lies  in  our  power  to  foster  feelings  of  good-  pression.  When  President  McKinley  died 
will,  and  leaving  no  effort  untried  to  our  nation  in  turn  received  from  every 
work  out  the  great  policy  of  full  and  quarter  of  the  British  Empire  expressions 
fair  intercourse  between  China  and  the  na-  of  grief  and  sympathy  no  less  sincere, 
tions,  on  a  footing  of  equal  rights  and  ad-  The  death  of  the  Empress  Dowager  Fred- 
vantages  to  all.  We  advocate  the  "  open  erick  of  Germany  also  aroused  the  genuine 
door,"  with  all  that  it  implies,  not  merely  sympathy  of  the  American  people;  and 
the  procurement  of  enlarged  commercial  this  sympathy  was  cordially  reciprocated 
opportunities  on  the  coasts,  but  access  by  Germany  when  the  President  was  as- 
to  the  interior  by  the  waterways  with  sassinated.  Indeed,  from  every  quarter 
which  China  has  been  so  extraordinarily  of  the  civilized  world  we  received,  at  the 
favored.  Only  by  bringing  the  people  of  time  of  the  President's  death,  assurances 
China  into  peaceful  and  friendly  commu-  of  such  grief  and  regard  as  to  touch  the 
nity  of  trade  with  all  the  peoples  of  the  hearts  of  our  people.  In  the  midst  of  our 
earth  can  the  work  now  auspiciously  be-  affliction  we  reverently  thank  the  Al- 
gun  be  carried  to  fruition.  In  the  at-  mighty  that  we  are  at  peace  with  the  na- 
tainment  of  this  purpose  we  necessarily  tions  of  mankind;  and  we  firmly  in- 
claim  parity  of  treatment,  under  the  con-  tend  that  our  policy  shall  be  such  as 
ventions,  throughout  the  empire,  for  our  to   continue  unbroken  these   international 


relations  of  mutual  respect  and  good-will. 
Root,  Elihtj,  statesman;  born  in  Clin- 
ton, N.  Y.,  Feb.  15,  1845;  graduated  at 
Hamilton  College  in  1864,  and  at  the 
University  Law  School,  of  New  York,  in 


trade  and  our  citizens  with  those  of  all 
other  powers. 

Mexico. — We  view  with  lively  interest 
and  keen  hopes  of  beneficial  results  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Pan-American  congress, 
convoked  at  the  invitation  of  Mexico, 
and  now  sitting  at  the  Mexican  capital. 
The  delegates  of  the  United  States  are 
under  the  most  liberal  instructions  to  co- 
operate with  their  colleagues  in  all  mat- 
ters promising  advantage  to  the  great 
family  of  American  commonwealths,  as 
well  in  their  relations  among  themselves 
as  in  their  domestic  advancement  and  in 
their  intercourse  with  the  world  at  large. 

My  predecessor  communicated  to  the 
Congress  the  fact  that  the  Weil  and  La 
Abra  awards  against  Mexico  have  been 
adjudged  by  the  highest  courts  of  our 
country  to  have  been  obtained  through 
fraud  and  perjury  on  the  part  of  the 
claimants,  and  that  in  accordance  with 
the  acts  of  the  Congress  the  money  re- 
maining in  the  hands  of  the  Secretary  of 
State  on  these  awards  has  been  returned 
to  Mexico.  A  considerable  portion  of  the 
money  received  from  Mexico  on  these 
awards  had  been  paid  by  this  government 
to  the  claimants  before  the  decision  of  the 
courts  was  rendered.  My  judgment  is 
that  the  Congress  should  return  to  Mexico 

an  amount  equal  to  the  sums  thus  already    1867;  in  the  latter  year  was  admitted  to 
paid  to  the  claimants.  the  bar;  was  United  States  attorney  for 

Peace    and    Good-will.— The    death    of    the    Southern    District   of   New    York    in 
Queen  Victoria  caused  the  people  of  the    1883-85;    delegate-at-large    to    the    State 

40* 


EMHU   ROOT. 


SOPES— EOSS 


constitutional  convention  in  1894,  and  manded  a  division  at  the  siege  of  Corinth 
was  chairman  of  its  judiciary  committee,  in  May,  1862;  commanded  the  Army  of  the 
He  was  Secretary  of  War,  Aug.  1,  1899,  Mississippi  until  October,  defeating  Price 
to  Feb.  1,  1904;  Secretary  of  State,  July  at  Iuka  (see  Iuka  Springs,  Battle 
6,  1905.  near),  and  Van  Dorn  and  Price  at  Cor- 

Bopes,  John  Codman,  historian;  born  inth  in  October.  As  commander  of  the 
in  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  April  28,  1836;  Army  of  the  Cumberland,  in  December, 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1857;  admitted  1862,  he  won  the  battle  of  Stone  River, 
to  the  bar  in  1861.  He  was  the  author  of  In  September,  1863,  he  was  defeated  at 
T\e  Army  under  Pope;  The  Story  of  the  Chickamauga.  In  1864  he  commanded  the 
CivilWar;  the  Campaign  of  Waterloo;  etc.  Department  of  Missouri,  and  defeated  the 
He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  27,  1899.  object  of  Price's  raid.  In  1865  he  was 
Bosalie.     See  Natchez  Indians.  brevetted  major-general.     He  resigned  in 

Eose,  Thomas  Ellwood,  military  offi-  1867;  was  minister  to  Mexico  in  1868; 
cer;  born  in  Bucks  county,  Pa.,  March  12,  member  of  Congress  from  California  in 
1830;  enlisted  in  the  12th  Pennsylvania  1881-85;  register  of  the  United  States 
Volunteers  in  April,  1861 ;  promoted  cap-  treasury  in  1885-93.  He  was  restored  to 
tain  in  the  77th  Pennsylvania  in  Octo-  the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  retired 
ber,  1861;  taken  prisoner  at  Chlcka-  in  1889.  He  died  near  Redondo,  Cal., 
mauga    and    sent    to    Libby    prison    with    March  11,  1898. 

Major  Hamilton  and  others.  A  tunnel  Kosengarten,  Joseph  George,  lawyer; 
was  dug  from  the  cellar  to  the  street,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  14,  1835; 
through  which  over  100  soldiers  escaped,  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
including  Rose,  who  was  retaken  and  con-  vania  in  1852;  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
fined  until  his  exchange  in  1864.  He  was  1856:  served  through  the  Civil  War  on 
brevetted  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  the  staff  of  Gen.  John  F.  Reynolds.  He 
and  colonel,  United  States  army.  See  i9  the  author  of  The  German  Soldier  in 
Confederate  Prisons.  the  Wars  of  the  United  States;  The  Ger- 

Eosecrans,  William  Starke,  military  man  Allied  Troops  in  the  War  of  Inde- 
officer;    born    in    Kingston,    O.,    Sept.    6,    pendence,  etc. 

1819;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1842;        Eosewater,    Edward,    editor;    born   in 

Bohemia  in  1841 ;  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  in  1854;  elected  member  of  the 
Nebraska  legislature  in  1871;  editor  of 
the  Omaha  Bee.  Mr.  Rosewater  was  the 
original  promoter  of  the  trans-Mississippi 
exposition. 

Eoss,  Alexander,  pioneer;  born  in 
Nairnshire,  Scotland,  May  9,  1783;  emi- 
grated to  Canada  in  1805;  took  part  in 
Astor's  expedition  to  Oregon  in  1810.  He 
wrote  Adventures  of  the  First  Settlers 
on  the  Oregon  River;  The  Fur-Hunters  of 
the  Far  West:  A  Narrative  of  Adventures 
in  the  Oregon  and  Rocky  Mountains;  The 
Red  River  Settlement,  Its  Rise,  Progress, 
and  Present  State.  He  died  in  Winnipeg, 
Manitoba,  Oct.  23,  1856. 

Eoss,    Charles,    son    of    Christian    K. 
william  starke  rosecrans.  Ross,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  kidnapped  July 

1,  1874.  Never  restored  to  his  family, 
entered  the  engineer  corps;  was  assistant  Eoss,  George,  a  signer  of  the  Deelara- 
professor  in  the  Military  Academy  in  tion  of  Independence;  born  in  Newcastle, 
1843-47;  and  resigned  on  account  of  ill-  Del.,  in  1730;  became  a  lawyer  in  Lan- 
health  in  1854.  In  May,  1861,  he  was  caster,  Pa.,  in  1751 ;  was  a  representative 
commissioned  brigadier-general.     He  com-    in   the   Pennsylvania   Assembly   in    1768- 

498 


BOSS— HOUGH    RIDERS 


?0,  and  in  1774  Was  elected  to  the  first  was  compelled  to  yield,  and  made  a  treaty 
Continental  Congress.  He  was  a  ready  with  the  Confederate  government.  At  the 
writer  and  a  skilful  committeeman.  A  time  of  his  death,  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
few  months  after  he  signed  the  Declara-  Aug.  1,  1SGG,  Ross  was  urging  the  c'aims 
tion  of  Independence  ill-liealth  compelled  oi  his  nation  to  remuneration  for  losses 
him  to  leave  Congress  (January,  1777).  incurred  during  the  war. 
After  the  dissolution  of  the  proprietary  Ross,  Sir  John,  Arctic  exp'orer;  borrt 
government  in  Pennsylvania  a  convention  in  Balsarrock,  Scotland.  June  24,  1777; 
appointed  him  to  draw  up  a  "  Declaration  entered  the  royal  navy  when  nine  years 
of  Rights";  and  a  short  time  before  his  of  age,  and  brcame  a  rear-admiral  in 
death  he  was  made  judge  of  the  court  of  1851.  He  began  Arctic  voyages  in  1828, 
admiralty.  He  died  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  in  with  Captain  Parry  as  his  lieutenant,  and 
1779.  in  1850  went  in  search  of  Sir  John  Frank- 

Boss,  John,  Indian  name  Koo  wes  koo  lin,  in  a  vessel  of  00  tons.  In  the  naval 
WE,  Cherokee  chief;  born  in  Georgia  in  service  he  was  wounded  thirteen  times, 
1790;  was  a  quarter-breed  Indian,  and  He  published  a  number  of  works  relating 
was  well  educated.  In  1S28  he  became  to  Arctic  travel.  He  died  in  London,  Aug. 
principal    chief    of    the    Cherokee    nation,    30,   1856. 

and  from  the  beginning  was  an  efficient  Ross,  Robert,  military  officer:  born  in 
champion  ot  their  rights  against  the  en-  Ross  Trevor,  Devonshire,  England;  served 
croachments  and  cupidity  of  the  white  as  an  officer  of  foot  in  Holland  and  in 
race.  About  600  of  the  nation,  led  by  Egypt;  was  in  the  campaign  in  Spain 
John  Ridge,  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  under  Sir  John  Moore,  and  commanded  a 
United  States,  agreeing  to  surrender  the  brigade  in  the  battles  of  Vittoria  and  the 
lands  of  the  Cherokees  and  go  west  of  the  Pyrenees.  He  commanded  the  troops  sent 
Mississippi  River.  Against  this  treaty  against  Washington  in  August,  1814,  and 
Ross  and  about  15,000  Cherokees  protest-  was  successful ;  but  attempting  to  co- 
ed,   but    the    United    States    government,    operate  with  the  British  fleet  in  an  attack 

on  Baltimore,  in  September,  he  was  s'ain 
near  North  Point,  Md.,  Sept.  12,  1814, 
while  riding  towards  that  city,  chatting 
gayly  with  an  aide-de-camp.  See  Balti- 
more. 

Rothrock,  Joseptt  Trimble,  scientist: 
born  in  MacVeytown.  Pa..  April  9.  1839; 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1864;  took  part 
in  the  Civil  War  and  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Fredericksburg:  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1877.  Among  his  pub'ica- 
tions  are  Flora  of  Alaxlca;  Pennsylvania 
Forestry  Reports;  Botany  of  the  Wheeler 
Ext  edition,  etc. 

Rothwell,   Richard  Pennefather,  sci- 
entist; born  in  Ingersoll,  Canada,  May  1, 
john  ross.  1836;   graduated  at  the  Rensselaer   Po^- 

technic  Institute  in  1858,  and  the  Im- 
having  a  preponderance  of  force,  sent  Gen-  perial  School  of  Mines,  Paris,  France,  in 
eral  Scott  with  troops  to  compel  the  Ind-  1862.  He  was  the  author  of  The  Mineral 
ians  to  abide  by  a  treaty  made  by  a  small  Industry;  Universal  Bimetallism,  and  an 
minority.  They  went  sadly  to  their  new  International  Monetary  Clearing  House. 
home,  with  Ross  at  their  head,  a  moderate    etc. 

allowance  being  made  them  for  their  Rough  Riders,  the  popular  name  of 
losses.  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  two  regiments  of  cavalry  organized  at  the 
the  Cherokees  joined  the  Confederacy,  beginning  of  the  American-Spanish  War. 
Ross,  who  was  a  loyal  man,  protested,  but  The  most  conspicuous  one  was  the  1st 
vn.— 2  i.  497 


ROUSSEAU— ROWAN 


United     States     Volunteer     Cavalry,     of 
which   Dr.  Leonard   Wood,   a   surgeon   in 


LOVELL  HARRISON    ROUSSEAU. 

the  regular  army,  was  commissioned 
colonel,  and  Theodore  Roosevelt,  who  had 
resigned  the  office  of  assistant  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  for  the  purpose,  lieutenant- 
colonel.  The  regiment  greatly  distin- 
guished itself  in  the  Santiago  campaign, 
particularly  in  the  engagements  at  El 
Caney  and  San  Juan  Hill.  For  their 
services  in  this  campaign  Colonel  Wood 
was  promoted  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers, and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Roosevelt 
colonel  of  the  regiment. 

Rousseau,  Lovell  Harrison,  military 
officer;  born  in  Lincoln  county,  Ky.,  Aug. 
4,  1818;  in  early  life  worked  at  road- 
making,  but  finally  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  at  Bloomfield,  Ind., 
in  1841.  He  served  in  the  Indiana  legis- 
lature and  in  the  war  against  Mexico. 
Settling  at  Louisville  in  1849,  he  soon 
took  a  high  place  as  a  criminal  lawyer. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Kentucky  Senate 
in  1860,  and  took  a  decided  stand  for  the 
Union.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  raised  two  regiments,  but  was  obliged 
to  encamp  on  the  Ohio  side  of  the  river, 
where  he  established  Camp  Joe  Holt.  In 
September  (1861)  he  crossed  the  river  to 
protect  Louisville,  and  in  October  was 
made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 
With  a  part  of  Buell's  army  he  fought  at 
Shiloh  and  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
battle   of   Perryville,    for   which    he   was 


promoted  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  was  also  conspicuous  in  the  battle  at 
Stone  River;  was  in  the  campaign  in 
northern  Georgia,  in  1863,  and  fought  at 
Chickamauga;  commanded  the  District  of 
Tennessee  in  1864;  and  made  a  famous 
raid  into  Alabama.  In  1865-67  he  was  in 
Congress.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  com- 
missioned a  brigadier-general  and  assigned 
to  duty  in  Alaska  as  its  first  American 
governor.  He  afterwards  commanded  in 
New  Orleans,  where  he  died,  Jan.  8,  1869. 

Rowan,  Andrew  Summers,  military 
officer;  born  in  Gap  Mills,  Va. ;  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1881;  promoted 
captain  in  the  19th  United  States  In- 
fantry, April  26,  1898.  At  the  opening 
of  the  war  with  Spain  Captain  Rowan 
was  sent  by  the  United  States  government 
with  the  message  to  Garcia.  He  landed 
on  the  island  without  knowing  Garcia's 
whereabouts,  and  succeeded  in  finding 
Garcia  and  in  bringing  back  a  reply  with 
full  information  concerning  the  Cuban 
insurgents.  The  successful  accomplish- 
ment of  his  mission  was  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  exploits  in  the  American-Spanish 
War. 

Rowan,  Stephen  Clegg,  naval  officer; 
born  near  Dublin,  Ireland,  Dec.  25,  1808; 
entered  the  United  States  naw  as  mid- 


8TEPHBX   OLEGG   ROWAK. 


498 


ROYAL    GREENS— RTJFFIN 


shipman  in  February,  182G;  served  on  the 
Pacific  coast  in  the  war  against  Mexico; 
and  early  in  the  Civil  War  commanded 
the  sloop-of-war  Pawnee  in  action  at 
Aquia  Creek.     He  was  also  a  participant 


March,  1652.  There  were  several  Dutch 
ships  lying  in  the  James  River,  who-.' 
crews  agreed  to  assist  in  the  defence  of 
the  province  against  the  parliamentary 
forces.     But  a   negotiation   ensued,  which 


in  the  capture  of  the  Confederate  forts  at  resulted   in   a   capitulation.     Two   sets   of 

Hatteras.     He  commanded   the  naval   flo-  articles  were  signed — one  with  the  Assem- 

tilla  in   the  attack  on   Roanoke   Island  bly,  which  was  favorably  inclined  toward* 

(</.  v.),  and  performed  exceptional  service  Parliament;     the     other     with     Governor 

in  the  sounds  on  the  coast  of  North  Caro-  Berkeley  and  his  council,  who  were  tu  b< 

lina;   also  in  the  attacks  on  Forts  Wag-  allowed  a  year  to  settle  up  their  affairs, 

ner,    Gregg,    and    Sumter,    in    Charleston  without  being  required  to  take  new  oaths 

Harbor.      In    1868-69   he   commanded   the  They   were   guaranteed   the   right   to   sel1 

Asiatic  Squadron;  in  September,  1870,  was  their  property  and  go  where  they  pleased 

promoted   vice-admiral;    and   in    1882   be-  The  Assembly  was  dealt  fairly  and  honor- 


came  superintendent  of  the  Naval  Ob- 
servatory. He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
March  31,  1890. 

Royal  Greens,  the  name  of  a  British 
corps  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  Sir  John 
Johnson,  son  of  Sir  William,  was  com- 
missioned a  colonel  in  the  British  army 

soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,    property  and  departing 
and   raised    two   battalions,    composed   of    sels   were   pi-ovided   for 


ably  with.  Those  who  did  not  choose  to  re- 
linquish the  use  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  or  to  subscribe  to  a  promise  "  to 
be  true  and  faithful  to  the  commouwealth 
of  England,"  as  was  then  established. 
"  without  king  or  House  of  Lords,"  were 
allowed  a  year  for  making  sale  of  their 
The  Dutch  ves- 
Berkeley's   corn- 


Tories  and  his  own  Scotch  retainers,  in  mission  was  declared  void.  A  new  Assem- 
number  about  1,000.  This  corps  he  called  bly  was  called,  when  Richard  Bennett,  who 
"The  Royal  Greens,"  because  of  their  accompanied  the  expedition,  was  elected 
green  uniforms.  They  were  a  formidable  governor  of  Virginia,  and  Claiborne,  who 
corps  in  connection  with  Indian  allies,  also  came  with  the  expedition,  was  chosen 
and  carried  destruction  and  distress  secretary.  See  Claiborne,  William. 
throughout  large  portions  of  the  Mohawk  Ruffin,  Edmund,  military  officer;  born 
region.  in    Prince    George    county,    Va.,    Jan.    5, 

Royalist  Colonies.  The  English  colo-  1794.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
nists  in  the  West  Indies,  as  well  as  in 
Virginia  and  Maryland,  adhered  to  Charles 
II.  in  his  exile.  In  October,  1650,  the 
victorious  Parliament  authorized  the 
council  of  state  to  send  a  land  and  naval 
force  to  bring  these  colonies  into  subjec- 
tion, and  all  trade  with  them  was  pro- 
hibited, and  the  capture  of  all  vessels 
employed  in  it  was  authorized.  Sir 
George  Ayscue  was  sent  with  a  fleet 
against  Barbadoes,  and  another  expedition, 
under  the  direction  of  five  commissioners, 
was  sent  against  the  Virginians  in  Sep- 
tember, 1651.  Ships  for  this  purpose  were 
furnished  by  merchants  trading  with  Vir- 
ginia; and  they  bore  750  soldiers  and  150 
Scotch  prisoners  taken  at  the  battle  of 
Worcester,  sent  over  to  be  sold  in  Virginia 
as  servants.     This  expedition  went  by  way 

of  the  West  Indies,  where  it  joined  Ayscue,  his  company  was  ordered  to  Charleston, 
and  assisted  him  in  capturing  Barbadoes,  and  he  was  chosen  to  fire  the  first  shot 
which  he  had  not  been  able  to  do  alone,  against  Fort  Sumter,  April  12,  lb61.  He 
The  expedition  reached  the  Chesapeake  in    wrote    Anticipations    of    the    Future    to 

499 


EDMCXD    RUFFIN. 


RTJFFIN— RTTMFORB 

Serve  as  Lessons  for   the  Present   Time  ure    reprimanded    him.     On    account    of 

(1860);  and  edited  the  Westover  Manu-  his   Toryism   he   took   refuge   in   Boston, 

scripts,    containing    the    History    of    the  where,  in  1775,  he  tried  without  success  to 

Dividing  Line  behcixt  Virginia  and  North  raise  a  corps  of  loyalists.     When  the  Brit- 

Carolina.      He  died   in   Redmoor,  Amelia  ish   evacuated   Boston    (March,    1776)    he 

CO.,  Va.,  June  15,  1865.  went  with  the  troops  to  Halifax,  and  be- 

Ruffin,   Thomas,   jurist;    born,  in  Vir-  came  one  of  the  proprietors  of  the  town 

ginia,  Nov.  17,  1787;  graduated  at  Prince-  of  Digby,  N.  S.     He  was  a  man  of  great 

ton  in  1805;  removed  to  North  Carolina  in  ability  and  learning,  and  fluent  in  speech. 

1807;   elected  member  of  the  State  legis-  He  died  in  Wilmot,  N.  S.,  Aug.  4,  1795. 

lature    in    1813,    judge    of    the    Supreme  Rule  of  1756.     When  in  1756  war  be- 

Court  in   1816,   serving  until    1858,   with  tween  Great  Britain  and  France  was  for- 

the  exception  of  four  years.      He  was  a  mally    declared,    the    former    power    an- 

member  of  the  peace  congress  which  met  nounced   as   a   principle   of   national   law 

in  Washington  in  1861.    He  died  at  Hills-  that  "no  other  trade  should  be  allowed 

boro,  N.  O,  Jan.  15,  1870.  to  neutrals  with  the  colonies  of  a  bellig- 

Ruger,  Thomas  Howard,  military  offi-  erent  in  time  of  war  than  what  is  al- 
cer;  born  in  Lima,  N.  Y.,  April  2,  1833;  lowed  by  the  parent  state  in  time  of 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1854,  but  peace."  This  was  in  direct  opposition  to 
resigned  the  next  year  and  became  a  law-  the  law  of  nations  promulgated  by  Fred- 
yer  in  Jamesville,  Wis.  In  1861-62  he  erick  the  Great — namely,  "  The  goods  of 
served  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  as  colo-  an  enemy  cannot  be  taken  from  on  board 
nel  of  the  3d  Wisconsin  Volunteers,  and  the  ships  of  a  friend";  and  also  in  direct 
was  in  the  battles  of  Antietam  in  1862  and  violation  of  a  treaty  between  England  and 
Chaneellorsville  in  1863.  At  Gettysburg  Holland,  in  which  it  was  stipulated  ex- 
he  commanded  a  division,  having  been  pressly  that  "  free  ships  make  free  goods  " 
made  brigadier-general  in  November,  1862.  — that  the  neutral  should  enter  safely  and 
He  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  Atlanta  unmolested  all  the  harbors  of  the  belliger- 
campaign  in  1864,  and  a  division  in  opera-  ents,  unless  they  were  blockaded  or  be- 
tions  in  North  Carolina  until  the  sur-  sieged.  This  dictation  of  law  to  other  na- 
render  of  Johnston.  He  was  brevetted  tions  for  merely  selfish  purposes  drew 
brigadier -general,  United  States  army,  in  upon  Great  Britain  the  dislike  of  all. 
1867;  was  promoted  to  the  full  rank  in  Then  it  was  aimed  directly  at  France,  the 
1886,  and  to  major-general  in  1895;  and  weaker  naval  power, 
was  retired  April  2,  1897.  Rumford,        Benjamin        Thompson, 

Ruggles,  Benjamin,  legislator ;  born  in  Count,  scientist;  born  in  Woburn,  Mass., 
Windham  county,  Conn.,  in  1783;  re-  March  26,  1753;  in  early  youth  manifest- 
moved  to  Ohio,  where  he  became  judge  of  ed  much  love  for  the  study  of  science  while 
the  court  of  common  pleas.  He  was  a  engaged  in  a  store  in  Boston  at  the  time 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate  from  of  the  Boston  massacre.  Then  he  taught 
1815  until  1833,  and  was  usually  known  school  in  Rumford  (now  Concord),  N.  H., 
as  "The  Wheel-horse  of  the  Senate."  He  and  in  1772  married  a  wealthy  widow  of 
died  in  St.  Clairsville,  0.,  Sept.  2,  1857.  that  place,  and  was  appointed  major  of  mi- 

Ruggles,    Timothy,    jurist;    born    in  litia  over  several  older  officers.     This  of- 

Rochester,  Mass.,  Oct.  20,   1711;    was  at  fended  them,  and  led  to  much  annoyance  for 

the  battle  of  Lake  George  at  the  head  of  a  young  Thompson.     He  was  a  conservative 

brigade,  and  was  second  in  command.    The  patriot,  and  tried  to  get  a  commission  in 

next  year  (1756)  he  was  made  a  judge  of  the  Continental  army,  but  his  opponents 

the  court  of  common  pleas,  and  was  chief-  frustrated  him.     He  was  charged  with  dis- 

justice  of  that  court  from  1762  until  the  affection,    and    finally    persecution    drove 

Revolution.     In    1762  he  was   speaker   of  liim  to  take  sides  with  the  crown.    He  was 

the  Assembly,  and  for  many  years  an  ac-  driven    from    his   home,    and    in    October, 

tive  member  of  that  body.     He  was  a  dele-  1775,  he  took  refugs  within  the   British 

gate  to  the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  and  was  lines    in    Boston.     When   Howe    left    for 

made  its  president,  but  refused  to  concur  Halifax,   he    sent   Thompson    to    England 

in  its  measures.    For  this  act  the  legislat-  with  despatches,  where  the  secretary  of 

500 


RTTMFORP— RTTNYON 


state  gave  him  employment,  and  in  1780  the  electorate.  At  the  end  of  two  years 
he  became  under-secretary.  In  that  year  he  went  back  to  England.  The  Bavarian 
he  returned  to  America,  raised  a  loyalist  governs  mt  wished  him  to  be  its  minister, 
corps  called  "  The  King's  American  Dra-  but  the  English  government,  acting  on  the 
gocns,"  and  was  made  lieutenant-colonel,  rule  of  inalienable  allegiance,  could  not 
serving  a  short  time  in  South  Carolina,    receive    him    as    such.      Count    Rumford 

gave  up  his  citizenship  in  Bavaria  and 
settled  in  Paris.  There  he  married  for 
his  second  wife  the  widow  of  Lavoisier, 
and  with  her  retired  to  the  villa  of  Au- 
teuil,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  philosophical  pursuits,  and  con- 
tributed a  great  number  of  essays  to 
scientific  journals.  He  made  many  ex- 
periments and  discoveries  in  the  matter 
of  heat  and  light;  instituted  prizes  for 
discoveries  in  regard  to  light  and  heat,  to 
be  awarded  by  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don and  the  American  Academy  of 
Sciences;  and  bequeathed  to  Harvard  Col- 
lege the  funds  by  which  was  founded  the 
Rumford  Professorship  of  the  Physical 
and  Mathematical  Sciences  as  Applied  to 
the  Useful  Arts,  which  was  established  in 
October,  1816.  He  left  a  daughter  by  his 
first  wife,  who  bore  the  title  of  Countess 
of  Rumford,  and  who  died  at  Concord, 
On  returning  to  England  at  the  close  of  N.  H.,  in  1852.  He  died  in  Auteuil,  France, 
the  war,  he  was  knighted,  and  in  17S4  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria 


COUNT    RUMFORD. 


Aug.  21,  1814. 

Rumsey,    James,    inventor ; 


born    in 


as  aide-de-camp  and  chamberlain.     To  that  Cecil  county,  Md.,  in  1743.     As  early  as 

prince  he  was  of  infinite  service  in  reor-  1784  he  propelled  a  boat  on  the  Potomac 

ganizing  the  army  and  introducing  many  by  machinery,  and   in   1786  he  propelled 

needed     reforms.     He    greatly    beautified  one  by  steam  on  the  same  river,  and  ob- 

Munich    by    converting    an    old    hunting-  tained    a    patent    for    his    discovery    and 

ground  into  a  handsome  garden  or  park,  invention  from  Virginia  in  1787.    A  Rum- 

and  the  grateful  citizens  afterwards  erect-  sey    Society,    of    which    Franklin    was    a 

ed  a  fine  monument  to  his  honor.  member,  was   formed   in   Philadelphia   to 

Thompson    was    successively    raised    to  aid  him.     He  went  to  London,  where  a 

the  rank  of  major-general   in   the  army,  similar    association    was    formed,    and    a 

member  of  the  council   of   state,  lieuten-  boat  and  machinery  were  built  for  him. 

ant-general,     commander-in-chief     of     the  He    obtained    patents    in    Great    Britain, 

general  staff,  minister  of  war,  and  count  France,  and  Holland.     He  made  a  success- 

of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.     On  the  lat-  ful  experiment  on  the  Thames  in  1792,  but 

ter  occasion  he  chose  for  his  title,  Rum-  before  he  could  complete  his  invention  he 

ford,  the  name  of  the  place  where  he  had  died    in    London,     Dec.     23,     1792.      His 

married    his    wife.      In    1795    he    again  agency  in  "giving  to  the  world  the  bene- 

visited    England,    and    returning    to    Ba-  fit  of  the  steamboat "  was  acknowledged 

varia    in    1796,    when    that    country   was  and  appreciated  by  the  Kentucky  legislat- 

threatened    by    the    war    between    France  lire,    which,    in    1839,    presented    a    gold 

and  Germany,  he  was  appointed  head  of  medal  to  his  son  in  token  of  such  acknowl- 

the  council  of  regency  during  the  absence  edgment. 

of  the  elector,   and   maintained   the  neu-  Runyon,  Theodore,  diplomatist;   born 

trality     of     Munich.      For     this     service  in  Somerville,  N.  J.,  Oct.  25,  1822;  gradu- 

honors  were  bestowed  upon  him,  and  he  ated   at  Yale  College  in    1842;    admitted 

was  made  superintendent  of  the  police  of  to   the  bar   in  Newark,   N,   J.,   in   184G; 

501 


RUPP— RUSH 

appointed  brigadier-general  of  State  tion  in  1880-9G;  appointed  Professor  of 
militia  in  1856,  and  subsequently  was  Botany,  Physiology,  and  Materia  Medica 
promoted  major-general  of  the  National  in  the  New  York  College  of  Pharmacy  in 
Guard  of  New  Jersey.  On  April  27,  1861,  1888;  Professor  of  Materia  Medica  at 
he  started  for  Washington,  D.  C,  in  com-  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College;  Cura- 
mand  of  th»  1st  Brigade  of  New  Jersey  tor  New  York  Botanical  Gardens;  revised 
Volunteers;  on  May  6  reached  the  national  botanical  department  of  the  United  States 
capital,  then  in  a  state  of  great  ex-  Pharmacopoeia  in  1900-1. 
citement  because  of  an  expected  invasion,  Rush,  Benjamin,  a  signer  of  the  Dec- 
with  3,000  men;  on  the  10th  he  took  laration  of  Independence;  born  near 
possession  of  exposed  parts  of  the  city,  Philadelphia,  Dec.  24,  1745;  studied  rnedi- 
and  on  the  24th  was  ordered  to  occupy  cine  in  Edinburgh,  London,  and  Paris,  as 
and  fortify  the  approaches  to  the  city,  well  as  in  Philadelphia,  and  became  one 
especially  those  converging  at  the  Long  of  the  most  eminent  physicians  of  his 
Bridge.  The  first  fortifications  erected  time,  and  filled  professorial  chairs.  He 
for  the  defence  of  the  national  capital  was  also  a  patriot,  and  took  an  active 
were  given  the  name  of  Fort  Runyon.  part  in  the  great  questions  at  the  kindling 
When  the  National  army  met  its  first  of  the  war  for  independence.  He  urged  in 
defeat  and  was  fleeing  in  a  panic  towards  the  convention  of  Pennsylvania  the  ex- 
Washington,  with  the  Confederates  in  pediency  of  a  declaration  of  independence, 
close  pursuit,  General  Runyon  closed  all  and  was  elected  to  Congress  in  time  to 
the  approaches  to  the  city,  planted  cannon  vote  for  it.  He  was  made  surgeon-general 
at  the  Long  and  Chain  bridges,  and  thus  of  the  Middle  Department  in  April,  1777, 
not  only  checked  the  retreat  of  the  Na-  and  physician-general  in  July.  He  re- 
tional  troops  but  prevented  a  Confederate  signed  these  posts  early  in  1778.  About 
march  on  the  capital.  General  Runyon  1785  he  proposed  in  Philadelphia  the 
kept  the  National  army  outside  the  establishment  of  the  first  dispensary  in 
city  limits  till  it  was  thoroughly  reor-  the  United  States.  Dr.  Rush  was  a  firm 
ganized,  and  averted  a  panic  in  the  city  supporter  of  the  national  Constitution, 
itself.  For  saving  the  National  capital  During  the  prevalence  of  yellow  fever  in 
General  Runyon  received  the  personal  Philadelphia  in  1793,  only  Dr.  Rush 
thanks  of  President  Lincoln  and  his  cabi-  treated  it  successfully.  It  was  estimated 
net.  Soon  afterwards  he  resigned  his  that  he  saved  from  death  no  fewer  than 
commission  under  the  conviction  that  his  6,000  people  in  Philadelphia.  In  one  day 
superior  officers  had  little  regard  for  a  he  treated  100  patients.  He  received 
militia  general.  In  1873-87  he  was  marks  of  esteem  for  his  medical  skill  from 
chancellor  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey;  in  foreign  potentates,  and  his  writings  upon 
March,  1893,  was  appointed  United  States  medical  subjects  are  numerous  and  valu- 
minister  to  Germany,  and  in  Septem-  able.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  April 
ber  following  was   raised  to  the  rank   of  19,  1813. 

ambassador.      He    died    in    Berlin,     Ger-  The  Defects  of  the  Confederation. — The 

many,  during  his  term  of  office,  Jan.  27,  following    is    Dr.     Rush's    view    of    the 

1896.  American   Confederation,   as   published   in 

Rupp,  Israel  Daniel,  historian;  born  Philadelphia  in  1787: 

in  Cumberland  county,  Pa.,  July  10,  1803;  

was  author  of  History  of  Religious  Denom-  There  is  nothing  more  common  than 
inations  in  the  United  States;  Extents  in  to  confound  the  terms  of  American  Revo- 
Indian  History;  Collection  of  Naynes  of  lution  with  those  of  the  late  American 
Thirty  Thousand  German  and  Other  Im-  War.  The  American  war  is  over,  but  this 
migrants  to  Pennsylvania  from  1727-  is  far  from  being  the  case  with  American 
76';  and  of  many  Pennsylvania  county  revolution.  On  the  contrary,  nothing  but 
histories.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  the  first  act  of  the  great  drama  is  closed. 
May  31,  1878.  It   remains   yet   to   establish    and   perfect 

Rusby,    Henry    Hurr,    botanist ;    born  our  new  forms  of  government,  and  to  pre- 

in  Franklin,  N.   J.,  April   26,   1855;   was  pare  the  principles,  morals,  and  manners 

connected  with   the  Smithsonian  Institu-  of  our  citizens  for  these  forms  of  govern- 

502 


RUSH,    BENJAMIN 


ment,  after  they  are  established  and  A  convention  is  to  sit  soon  for  the  pur- 
brought  to  perfection.  pose  of  devising  means  of  obviating  part 

The  Confederation,  together  with  most  of  the  two  first  defects  that  have  been  men- 
of  our  State  constitutions,  were  formed  tioned.  But  I  wish  they  may  add  to  their 
under  very  unfavorable  circumstances,  recommendations  to  each  State  to  surren- 
We  had  just  emerged  from  a  corrupted  der  up  to  Congress  their  power  of  emitting 
monarchy.  Although  we  understood  per-  money.  In  this  way  a  uniform  currency 
fectly  the  principles  of  liberty,  yet  most  of  will  be  produced  that  will  facilitate  trade 
us  were  ignorant  of  the  forms  and  com-  and  help  to  bind  the  States  together.  Nor 
binations  of  power  in  republics.  Add  to  will  the  States  be  deprived  of  large  sums 
this,  the  British  army  was  in  the  heart  of  money  by  this  means,  when  sudden 
of  our  country,  spreading  desolation  emergencies  require  it;  for  they  may 
wherever  it  went;  our  resentments,  of  always  borrow  them,  as  they  did  during 
course,  were  awaken- 
ed. We  detested"  the  ^^  ^  - — 
British  name,  and 
unfortunately  re- 
fused to  copy  some 
things  in  the  admin- 
istration of  justice 
and  power,  in  the 
British  government, 
which  have  made  it 
the  admiration  and 
envy  of  the  world. 
In  our  opposition  to 
monarchy  we  forgot 
that  the  temple  of 
tyranny  has  two 
doors.  We  bolted  one 
of  them  by  proper 
restraints,  but  we 
left  the  other  open, 
by  neglecting  to 
guard  against  the  ef- 
fects of  our  own  ig- 
norance and  licen- 
tiousness. 

Most  of  the  pres- 
ent difficulties  of 
this  country  arise 
from  the  weakness 
and  other  defects 
of  our  governments. 

My  business  at 
present  shall  be  only 
to  suggest  the  de- 
fects of  the  Confed- 
eration. These  con-  benjamin  rush. 
sist:     First,    in    the 

deficiency  of  coercive  power;  second,  in  a  1he  war,  out  of  the  treasury  of  Congress, 
defect  of  exclusive  power  to  issue  paper  Even  a  loan  office  may  be  better  instituted 
money  and  regulate  commerce;  third,  in  in  this  way,  in  each  State,  than  in  any 
vesting  the  sovereign  power  of  the  United    other. 

States  in  a  single  legislature;  and  fourth,  The  last  two  defects  that  have  been 
in  the  too  frequent  rotation  of  its  members,    mentioned  are  not  of  less  magnitude  than 

5Q3 


RUSH,    BENJAMIN 


the  first.  Indeed,  the  single  legislature  of 
Congress  will  become  more  dangerous 
from  an  increase  of  power  than  ever.  To 
remedy  this  let  the  supreme  federal  power 
be  divided,  like  the  legislatures  of  most  of 
our  States,  into  two  distinct,  independent 
branches.  Let  one  of  them  be  styled  the 
Council  of  the  States  and  the  other  the 
Assembly  of  the  States.  Let  the  first  con- 
sist of  a  single  delegate — and  the  second 
of  two,  three  or  four  delegates,  chosen  an- 
nually by  etch  State.  Let  the  President 
be  chosen  annually  by  the  joint  ballot  of 
both  Houses;  and  let  him  possess  certain 
powers,  in  conjunction  with  a  privy  coun- 
cil, especially  the  power  of  appointing 
most  of  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 
The  officers  will  not  on'y  be  better  when 
appointed  this  way,  but  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal causes  of  faction  will  be  thereby  re- 
moved from  Congress.  I  apprehend  this 
division  of  the  power  of  Congress  will  be- 
come more  necessary  as  soon  as  they  are 
invested  with  more  ample  powers  of  levy- 
ing and  expending  public  money. 

The  custom  of  turning  men  out  of  power 
or  office  as  soon  as  they  are  qualified  for 
it  has  been  found  to  be  absurd  in  practice. 
Is  it  virtuous  to  dismiss  a  general,  a  phy- 
sician, or  even  a  domestic,  as  soon  as  they 
have  acquired  knowledge  sufficient  to  be 
useful  to  us  for  the  sake  of  increasing  the 
number  of  ab'e  generals,  skilful  physi- 
cians, and  faithful  servants?  We  do  not. 
Government  is  a  science,  and  can  never  be 
perfect  in  America  until  we  encourage  men 
to  devote  not  on'y  three  years,  but  their 
whole  lives,  to  it.  I  believe  the  principal 
reason  why  so  many  men  of  abilities  ob- 
ject to  serving  in  Congress  is  owing  to 
their  not  thinking  it  worth  while  to  spend 
three  years  in  acquiring  a  profession 
which  their  country  immediately  after- 
wards forbids  them  to  follow. 

There  are  two  errors  or  prejudices  on 
the  subiect  of  government  in  America, 
which  lead  to  the  most  dangerous  conse- 
quences. 

It  is  often  said  "  that  the  sovereign  and 
a1!  other  power  is  seated  in  the  people." 
This  idea  is  unhappily  expressed.  It 
shou'd  be,  "  All  power  is  derived  from  the 
peop'e."  they  possess  it  only  on  the  days 
of  their  e'ections.  After  this  it  is  the 
property  of  their  rulers;  nor  can  they  ex- 
ercise or  resume  it  unless  it  be  abused. 


It  is  of  importance  to  circulate  this  idea, 
as  it  leads  to  order  and  good  government. 

The  people  of  America  have  mistaken 
the  meaning  of  the  word  sovereignty, 
hence  each  State  pretends  to  be  sovereign. 
In  Europe  it  is  applied  only  to  those  States 
which  possess  the  power  of  making  war 
and  peace — of  forming  treaties  and  the 
like.  As  this  power  belongs  only  to  Con- 
gress, they  are  the  only  sovereign  power 
in  the  United  States. 

We  commit  a  similar  mistake  in  our 
ideas  of  the  word  independent.  No  in- 
dividual State,  -as  such,  has  any  claim  to 
independence.  She  is  independent  only  in  a 
union  with  her  sister  States  in  Congress. 

To  conform  .the  prineip'es,  morals,  and 
manners  of  our  citizens  to  our  repub'ican 
forms  of  government,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  knowledge  of  every  kind  should 
be  disseminated  through  every  part  of  the 
United   States. 

For  this  purpose  let  Congress,  instead 
of  laying  out  a  half  a  million  of  dollars 
in  building  a  federal  town,  appropriate 
only  a  fourth  of  that  sum  in  founding  a 
federal  university.  In  tlrs  university  let 
everything  connected  with  government, 
such  as  history,  the  law  of  nature  and 
nations,  the  civil  law.  the  munic;pal  laws 
of  our  country,  and  the  princ:pVs  of  com- 
merce, be  taught  by  competent  professors. 
Let  masters  be  emp'oved,  likewise,  to 
teach  gunnery,  fortification,  and  every- 
thing connected  with  defensive  and  offen- 
sive war.  Above  all,  let  a  professor  of, 
what  is  caHed  in  the  European  universi- 
ties, economy,  b"  established  in  tlrs  fed- 
eral seminary.  His  business  shou-d  be  to 
unfold  the  princip'es  and  practice  of  agri- 
cuHure  and  manufactures  of  all  kinds, 
and  to  enab'e  him  to  make  his  lectures 
more  extensively  useful.  Congress  shouM 
support  a  travelling  correspondent  for 
him,  who  should  visit  all  the  nations  of 
Europe,  and  transmit  to  him,  from  time 
to  time,  all  the  discoveries  and  improve- 
ments that  are  made  in  agri culture  and 
manufactures.  To  this  seminary  young 
men  should  be  encouraged  to  repair,  after 
completing  their  academical  studies  in  the 
colleges  of  their  respective  States.  The 
honors  and  offices  of  the  United  States 
should,  after  a  whi'e,  be  confined  to  per- 
sons who  had  imb;bpd  federal  and  repub- 
lican ideas  in  this  university. 


5Q4 


RUSH 

For  the  purpose  of  diffusing  knowledge,  path  may  be  avoided.  Let  but  one  new 
as  well  as  extending  the  living  principle  State  be  exposed  to  sale  at  a  time,  and  let 
of  government  to  every  part  of  the  United  the  land  office  be  shut  up  till  every  part 
States,  every  State,  city,  county,  village,  of  this  new  State  be  settled, 
and  township  in  the  Union  should  be  tied  1  am  extremely  sorry  to  find  a  passion 
together  by  means  of  the  post-office.  This  for  retirement  so  universal  among  the 
is  the  true  non-electric  wire  of  govern-  patriots  and  heroes  of  the  war.  They 
ment.  It  is  the  only  means  of  conveying  resemble  skilful  mariners  who,  after  ex- 
heat  and  light  to  every  individual  in  the  erting  themselves  to  preserve  a  ship  from 
federal  commonwealth.  "  Sweden  lost  her  sinking  in  a  storm,  in  the  middle  of  the 
liberties,"  says  the  Abbe1  Raynal,  "  because  ocean,  drop  asleep  as  soon  as  the  waves 
her  citizens  were  so  scattered  that  they  subside,  and  leave  the  care  of  their  lives 
had  no  means  of  acting  in  concert  with  and  property,  during  the  remainder  of  the 
each  other."  It  should  be  a  constant  in-  voyage,  to  sailors  without  knowledge  or 
junction  to  the  postmasters  to  convey  experience.  Every  man  in  a  republic  is 
newspapers  free  of  all  charge  for  postage,  public  property.  His  time  and  talents,  his 
They  are  not  only  the  vehicles  of  knowl-  youth,  his  manhood,  his  old  age;  nay  more, 
edge  and  intelligence,  but  the  sentinels  of  his  life,  his  all,  belong  to  his  country, 
the  liberties  of  our  country.  Patriots  of  1774,  1775,  1776 — heroes  of 

The  conduct  of  some  of  those  strangers  1778,    1779,    1780,    come    forward!     Your 

who   have   visited   our   country   since   the  country  demands  your  services.     Philoso- 

peace,  and  who  fill  the  British  papers  with  phers  and  friends  to  mankind,  come  for- 

accounts  of  our  distresses,  shows  as  great  ward!  Your  country  demands  your  studies 

a  want   of  good  sense  as  it  does  of  good  and    speculations.      Lovers    of    peace    and 

nature.     They  see  nothing  but  the  founda-  order,    who    declined    taking   part    in    the 

tions  and  walls  of  the  temp'e  of  liberty;  late   war,    come    forward!     Your    country 

and  yet   they  undertake   to   judge   of   the  forgives  your  timidity  and  demands  your 

whole    fabric.  influence  and  advice.     Hear  her  proclaim- 

Our  own  citizens  act  a  still  more  ab-  ing,  in  sighs  and  groans,  in  her  govern- 
surd  part  when  they  cry  out,  after  the  ex-  ments,  in  her  finances,  in  her  trade,  in  her 
perience  of  three  or  four  years,  that  we  manufactures,  in  her  morals  and  in  her 
are  not  proper  material  for  republican  manners,  "  The  Revolution  is  not  over." 
government.  Remember  we  assumed  these  Rush,  Richard,  diplomatist;  born  in 
forms  of  government  in  a  hurry,  before  Philadelphia,  Aug.  29,  1780;  son  of  Dr. 
we  were  prepared  for  them.  Let  every  Benjamin  Rush ;  graduated  at  Prince- 
man  exert  himself  in  promoting  virtue  ton  College  in  1797;  became  a  lawyer 
and  knowledge  in  our  country,  and  we  in  1800;  attorney-general  of  Pennsyl- 
shall  soon  become  good  repuWicans.  Look  vania  in  1811,  and  comptroller  of  the 
at  the  steps  by  which  governments  have  United  States  treasury  in  November  of 
been  changed,  or  rendered  stable  in  that  year.  In  1814-17  he  was  Attorney- 
Europe.  Read  the  history  of  Great  Brit-  General  of  the  United  States;  in  1817 
ain.  Her  boasted  government  has  risen  was  temporary  Secretary  of  State  under 
out  of  wars  and  rebellions  that  lasted  Monroe,  and  in  1817-25  was  minister  at 
above  600  years.  The  United  States  the  British  Court,  where  he  negotiated 
are  travelling  peaceably  into  order  and  several  important  treaties,  especially  that 
good  government.  They  know  no  strife  of  1818  respecting  the  fisheries.  Presi- 
— but  what  arises  from  the  collision  dent  Adams  recalled  him  and  made  him 
of  opinions;  and,  in  three  years,  they  have  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  1825.  In 
advanced  further  on  the  road  to  stability  1829  he  negotiated  an  advantageous  loan 
and  happiness  than  most  of  the  nations  for  the  corporations  of  Washington, 
in  Europe  have  done  in  as  many  centuries.  Georgetown,  and  Alexandria.     He  assisted 

There  is  but  one  path  that  can  lead  the  in  adjusting  a  boundary  dispute  between 

United  States  to  destruction,  and  that  is  Ohio  and  Michigan  in   1835,  and  in   1836 

their  extent  of  territory.     It  was  probably  the     President     appointed     him     commis- 

to  effect  this  that  Great  Britain  ceded  to  sioner  to  receive  the  Smithsonian  legacy, 

us  so  much  waste  land.     But  even   this  and  he  returned  in  August  with  the  entire 

$05 


RUSK— RTTSSELL 


amount    (see   Smithson,  James  L.   M.).   was    lieutenant-colonel    of   the    7th   Mas- 


Mr.  Rush  was  a  vigorous  writer,  and  in 
the  newspapers  of  the  day  he  published 
many  essays  in  favor  of  the  war  with 
England  (1812-15)  ;  also  in  1833  many 
able  letters  against  the  rechartering  of  the 
United  States  Bank.  In  1815  he  compiled 
an  edition  of  the  laws  of  the  United 
States.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
July  30,  1859. 

Rusk,  Jeremiah  McLain,  legislator, 
born  in  Morgan  county,  O.,  June  17,  1830; 
removed  to  Wisconsin  in  1853;  entered 
the  National  army  in  1862  as  major  of 
the  25th  Wisconsin  Volunteers;  elected  to 
Congress  in  1870,  serving  six  years; 
elected  governor  of  Wisconsin  in  1882;  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  1889. 
He  died  in  Virginia,  Wis!,  Nov.  21,  1893. 

Rusk,  Thomas  Jefferson,  legislator; 
born  in  Camden,  S.  C,  Aug.  8,  1802;  re- 
moved to  Texas  in  1835;  was  appointed 
the  first  minister  of  war  of  the  republic 
of  Texas.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
war  between  Texas  and  Mexico,  and,  upon 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  was  elected 
United  States  Senator  in  1846.  He  died 
in  Nacogdoches,  Tex.,  July  29,   1856. 

Russell,  Benjamin,  journalist;  born 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  13,  1761 ;  learned 
the  printer's  art  of  Isaiah  Thomas;  served 
in  the  army  of  the  Revolution;  and  was 
the  army  correspondent  of  Thomas's  news- 
paper, the  Massachusetts  Spy,  publish- 
ed at  Worcester,  Mass.  In  1784  he  began 
the  publication,  in  Boston,  of  the  Colum- 
bian Centinel,  a  semi-weekly,  which  soon 
became  the  leading  newspaper  in  the  coun- 
try, containing  contributions  from  men 
like  Ames,  Pickering,  and  other  able  men 
of  the  Federal  school  in  politics.  Mr. 
Russell  was  twenty-four  years  a  repre- 
sentative of  Boston  in  the  Massachusetts 
Assembly,  and  was  for  several  years  in 
the  State  Senate  and  the  executive  coun- 
cil. He  was  the  originator  of  the  word 
Gerrymander  {q.  v.).  He  died  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  4,  1845. 

Russell,  David  Allan,  military  officer ; 
born  in  Salem,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  10,  1820;  and 
was  brevetted  major-general,  United 
States  army,  the  day  he  was  killed 
in  battle  at  Opequan,  Va.,  Sept.  19, 
1864;  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1845;  served  in  the  war  against  Mexico; 
was  made  captain   of   infantry   in    1854; 


sachusetts  Volunteers  in  April,  1861, 
and  brigadier-general  in  November,  1862. 
In  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg  he  led  the 
advance;  was  distinguished  in  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg,  and  also  in  the  campaign 
against  Richmond,  in  1864.  His  coolness 
and  bravery  saved  the  6th  Army  Corps 
from  destruction  on  the  second  day  of  the 
battle  in  the  Wilderness.  On  May  9  he 
was  put  in  command  of  a  division  of  that 
corps,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Cold  Harbor.  He  was  after- 
wards transferred  to  the  Army  of  the 
Shenandoah. 

Russell,  Henry  Benajah,  author;  born 
in  Russell,  Mass.,  March  9,  1859;  gradu- 
ated at  Amherst  in  1881 ;  has  been  con- 
nected with  various  newspapers  as  re- 
porter and  editor  since  1881.  He  is  the 
author  of  Life  of  William  HcKinley;  In- 
ternational Monetary  Conferences;  Our 
War  with  Spain,  etc. 

Russell,  John  Henry,  naval  officer; 
born  in  Frederick  City,  Md.,  July  4,  1827; 
joined  the  navy  in  1841 ;  served  in  the 
early  part  of  the  Mexican  War,  taking 
part  in  the  blockade  and  capture  of  Vera 
Cruz  and  other  actions ;  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1848. 
During  his  Pacific  exploring  cruise  in 
1853-56  he  succeeded  in  establishing  com- 
munication between  the  American  and 
English  envoys  and  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment; was  promoted  lieutenant  in  Sep- 
tember, 1855.  He  commanded  a  naval 
expedition  in  September,  1861,  which  de- 
stroyed the  Confederate  privateer,  Judah, 
while  under  the  protection  of  shore  bat- 
teries and  about  9,000  men  at  Pensa- 
cola.  In  recognition  of  this  feat  he  re- 
ceived the  thanks  of  President  Lincoln  and 
the  State  of  Maryland.  Later,  as  com- 
mander of  the  steamer  Kennebec  in  Farra- 
gut's  fleet,  he  participated  in  important 
engagements,  winning  much  distinction ; 
was  promoted  rear-admiral  and  retired  in 
1886.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C, 
April  1,  1897. 

Russell,  Jonathan,  diplomatist;  born 
in  Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1771 ;  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1791 ;  studied  law; 
but  became  a  merchant,  and  his  taste  led 
him  into  political  life,  though  he  never 
sought  office.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners who  negotiated  the   treaty  at 


506 


RUSSELL—RUSSIA 

Ghent,  in  1814;  and  after  that  was  Unit-  answer  me  with  her  own  hand,  and  has 

ed  States  minister  at  Stockholm,  Sweden,  thrown  out  expressions  that  may  be  civil 

for  several  years.     On   his  return  to  the  to  a  Russian  ear,  but  certainly  not  to  move 

United  States,  he  settled  at  Mendon,  Mass.,  civilized   ones."      So   he   turned   from   the 

which  district  he  represented  in  Congress  Empress    of    "  barbarians "    to    the    needy 

in   1821-23.     Although   he  was  a  forcible  ruler  of  a  people  out  of  whom  had  come 

and  elegant  writer,  little  is  known  of  his  his   own   dynasty   and   procured  his   mer- 

literary  productions  excepting  an  oration  cenaries. 

delivered  in  Providence  on  July  4,  1800,  John  Quincy  Adams  was  the  American 
and  his  published  correspondence  while  in  minister  to  the  Russian  Court  in  1812. 
Europe.  He  died  in  Milton,  Mass.,  Feb.  He  was  on  intimate  terms  with  the  Em- 
19,  1832.  peror,  and  when  intelligence  of  the  dec- 
Russell,  William,  military  officer;  born  titration  of  war  reached  the  Czar,  the  mon- 
in  Culpeper  county,  Va.,  in  1758;  entered  arch  expressed  his  regret.  He  was  then 
the  army  of  the  Revolution  at  sixteen  on  friendly  terms  with  Great  Britain,  and 
years  of  age;  was  a  lieutenant  in  Camp-  his  prime  minister  suggested  to  Mr.  Adams 
bell's  regiment  in  the  battle  of  King's  the  expediency  of  tendering  the  media- 
Mountain;  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain  tion  of  Russia  for  the  purpose  of  effect- 
in  the  war;  and  in  1793  commanded  the  ing  a  reconciliation  between  the  United 
Kentucky  mounted  volunteers,  under  States  and  Great  Britain.  Mr.  Adams 
Wayne,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colo-  favored  it.  After  the  defeat  of  Napoleon 
nel.  He  was  also  in  the  War  of  1812-  at  Moscow,  the  Czar  sent  instructions  to 
15,  and  served,  altogether,  in  about  twen-  M.  Daschkoff,  his  representative  at  Wash- 
ty  campaigns.  He  was  a  representative  ington,  to  offer  to  the  United  States  his 
in  the  legislature  of  both  Virginia  and  friendly  services  in  bringing  about  a  peace. 
Kentucky.  He  died  in  Fayette  county,  This  was  done  March  8,  1813.  The  Presi- 
Ky.,  July  3,  1825.  dent,  always  anxious  for  peace,  imme- 
Russia.  When  King  George,  in  coun-  diately  accepted  the  friendly  offer,  and 
eil,  determined  to  hire  mercenary  troops  nominated  Albert  Gallatin  and  James  A. 
to  assist  in  subduing  hi?  subjects  in  Amer-  Bayard  commissioners  to  act  jointly  with 
ica,  he  first  turned  to  the  Empress  of  Mr.  Adams  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace 
Russia,  Catharine  II.,  a  woman  of  rare  with  Great  Britain.  The  Thirteenth  Con- 
ability,  and  ambitious  of  glory  and  em-  gress  assembled  on  May  24,  1813,  and, 
pire.  Her  minister,  Prince  Potemkin,  with  his  message,  the  President  sent  in  a 
had  boasted  that  she  had  troops  enough  letter  from  the  Czar,  offering  his  media- 
te spare  to  trample  the  Americans  under  tion.  He  also  announced  that  the  offer  had 
foot.  The  King  wrote  an  autograph  letter  been  accepted;  that  commissioners  had 
to  the  Empress,  and  it  was  believed  that  been  appointed  to  conclude  a  treaty  of 
she  would  instantly  comply  with  his  re-  peace  with  British  commissioners,  and 
quest.  But  Catharine  sent  a  flat  refusal  that  Gallatin  and  Bayard  had  departed  for 
to  enter  into  such  nefarious  business,  say-  Russia,  there  to  meet  Mr.  Adams.  The 
ing  (through  her  minister):  "I  should  Senate  refused  to  confirm  the  nomination 
not  be  able  to  prevent  myself  from  re-  of  Gallatin,  because  he  still  held  the  posi- 
flecting  on  the  consequences  which  would  tion  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  the 
result  for  our  dignity,  for  that  of  the  two  attempt  at  mediation  by  Russia  was  a 
monarchies  and  the  two  nations,  from  this  failure. 

junction  of  our  forces  simply  to  calm  a  re-  The  sympathy  displayed  by  Russia  with 
bellion  which  is  not  supported  by  any  the  American  government  at  a  critical 
foreign  power."  This  stinging  rebuke  of  period  of  the  Civil  War  is  well  known ; 
the  British  policy  in  this  case  nettled  the  at  a  time  when  the  attitude  of  Great 
King,  and  he  was  surprised  and  offended  Britain  and  France  was  doubtful,  the  ap- 
by  what  he  called  her  want  of  politeness  pearance  of  Russian  vessels  in  Northern 
in  not  answering  his  gracious  autograph  waters  was  taken  as  an  evidence  of  good- 
letter  with  her  own  hand.  He  thus  sput-  will.  More  recently,  in  the  great  famine 
tered  out  his  indignation  in  his  rapid  man-  prevailing  in  that  country,  American 
ner;    "She   has   not   had    the    civility    to  sympathy  was  manifested  substantially  by 

507 


RUTGERS   COLLEGE— RTJTLEDGllI 


the  shipment  of  a  large  quantity  of  grain. 
Russia  ceded  Alaska  to  the  United  States 
for  $7,200,000  by  the  treaty  of  March  30, 
1867,  and  formal  possession  was  taken  by 
the  United  States  Oct.  9,  1867.  An  extra- 
dition treaty  between  the  two  countries 
was  negotiated,  to  take  effect  June  24, 
1S!)3. 

Rutgers  College,  an  institution  for 
higher  education,  established  in  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Reformed  Dutch  Church.  A  royal 
charter  was  obtained  in  1770,  with  the 
title  of  Queen's  College,  and  it  was  a 
theological  seminary  until  1865,  when  it 
became  a  partially  independent  literary 
college,  on  condition  that  the  president 
and  three-fourths  of  its  trustees  should  be 
in  full  communion  with  the  Reformed 
Dutch  Church.  It  received  the  name  of 
Rutgers  College  in  1825,  when  Col.  Henry 
Rutgers  gave  it  $5,000.  Its  operations 
had  been  three  times  suspended  previous 
to  that  time — once  by  the  Revolution  and 
twice  by  financial  embarrassment.  Its 
first  president  was  Rev.  Dr.  J.  R.  Harden- 
burg.  Its  small  endowments  and  the  dis- 
turbances of  the  Civil  War  threatened  it 
with  a  fourth  suspension,  when  Rev.  Dr. 
W.  H.  Campbell,  an  energetic  worker,  was 
called  to  the  presidential  chair  in  1863. 
Under  his  administration  several  hundred 
thousand  dollars  were  added  to  the  endow- 
ment, and  in  1866  the  State  College  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts  was 
opened  as  a  department  of  the  college, 
with  a  farm  of  100  acres.  At  the  close  of 
1903  the  college  reported  twenty-eight  pro- 
fessors and  instructors;  226  students; 
2,126  graduates;  45,650  volumes  in  the 
library;  scientific  apparatus  valued  at 
$70,000;  grounds  and  buildings,  $366,500? 
and  endowment,  $500,000.  The  president 
was  Austin  Scott,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Rutherford,  Griffith,  military  officer; 
born  in  Ireland,  about  1731.  A  resident 
of  western  North  Carolina,  he  represented 
Rowan  county  in  the  convention  of  New- 
bern  in  1775.  He  led  a  force  against  the 
Cherokees  in  1776,  and  was  appointed  by 
the  Provincial  Congress  a  brigadier-general 
in  April  of  that  year.  He  commanded  a 
brigade  at  the  battle  near  Camden ;  was 
made  a  prisoner,  and  afterwards  command- 
ed at  Wilmington,  when  the  British 
evacuated.    He  was  State  Senator  in  1784, 


and  soon  afterwards  emigrated  to  Tennes- 
see, where,  in  1794,  he  was  a  member 
of  the  council,  and  where  he  died  about 
1800. 

Rutledge,  Edward,  a  signer  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence;  born  in  Charles- 
ton, S.  C,  Nov.  23,  1749;  son  of  Chief- 
Justice  John  Rutledge;  completed  his  law 
studies  in  England,  and  began  practice  in 
Charleston  in  1773.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  first  Continental  Congress,  and  con- 
tinued there  until  1777.  He  was  distin- 
guished as  a  debater;  was  a  member  of 
the  first  board  of  war,  and  was  on  the 
committee  to  confer  with  Lord  Howe,  in 
1776.  In  1780  he  was  made  a  prisoner  at 
Charleston,  and  sent  to  St.  Augustine,  and 
did  not  return  until  17S2.  In  the  South 
Carolina  legislature  he  drew  up  (1791) 
the  law  abolishing  primogeniture,  and  was 
an  ardent  advocate  of  the  national  Con- 


EDWARD    RUTLEDGE. 

stitution.  He  was  governor  of  South  Caro- 
lina from  1798  until  his  death,  in  Charles- 
ton, Jan.   23,   1800. 

Rutledge,  John,  jurist;  born  in 
Charleston,  S.  C,  in  1739;  studied  law  in 
London ;  returned  to  Charleston  in  1 761 ; 
and  soon  afterwards  rose  to  eminence  in 
his  profession.  In  1765  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Stamp  Act  Congress  that  met  in 
New  York  City;  in  1774  of  the  South 
Carolina   convention   of   patriots;    and   of 


$08 


ftUTLEDGE—  RYSWICK 


the  first  Continental  Congress,  at  Phila-  with  siege.  In  the  fall  of  Charleston 
delphia,  the  same  year.  He  was  also  in  (May,  1780),  Rutledge  went  to  North 
Congress  in   1775,  and  was  chairman  of    Carolina,  and  accompanied  the  Southern 

army  until  1782,  when  he  was  elected  to 
Congress.  He  was  chosen  chancellor  of 
South  Carolina  in  1784;  was  a  member  of 
the  convention  that  framed  the  national 
Constitution  (1787)  ;  appointed  an  associ- 
ate-justice of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  (1789);  elected  chief -jus- 
tice of  South  Carolina  in  1791;  and  in 
1795  was  appointed  chief- justice  of  the 
United  States,  but  the  Senate  did  not  con- 
firm him.  He  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
July  23,  1800. 

Ruttenber,  Edward  Manning,  author; 
born  in  Bennington,  Vt.,  July  17,  1825; 
connected  with  the  bureau  of  military 
records,  1863-65;  editor  Newburg  Tele- 
graph, Goshen  Republican,  etc.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  History  of  Newburg,  N.  Y.; 
History  of  Orange  County,  N.  Y.;  The 
Indian  Tribes  on  the  Hudson  River,  etc. 

By s wick,  Peace  of.  In  1697  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  at  Ryswick,  near 
The  Hague,  by  France  on  one  side  and  the 
German  Empire,  England,  Spain,  and  Hol- 
land on  the  other,  that  terminated  a  long 


JOHN    RCTLEDGB 


the  convention  that  framed  the  State  con- 


stitution of  South  Carolina  in  1776.     By  war  begun  in   1686.     By  that  treaty  the 

his  vigilance  and  activity  he  saved  Fort  King   of   France,   who   had   espoused   the 

Moultrie  from  the  effects  of  an  order  by  cause  of  James  II.,  acknowledged  William 

General  Lee  to  evacuate  it  when  attacked  of  Orange  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 

by  the  British;  and  he  was  elected  presi-  land,  and  provinces  were  restored  to  Spain 

dent  of  the  State  under  the  new  constitu-  and   Germany,   but   Alsace   and   Lorraine 

tion.    In  1779  he  was  chosen  governor,  and  were  retained  by  France.     They  were  won 

the    legislature    made    him    a    temporary  back  by  Germany  in    1871.     This   treaty 

dictator  when  Charleston  was  threatened  ended  the  inter-colonial  war  in  America. 

6UL> 


El  74 


L88 

1S05 

v.7 


£111 


HHffl 


HRM