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Presented
With the Compliments of
THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE
OF
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
HARVARD DICTIONARY OF MUSIC
HARVARD
Dictionary of Music
By
WILLI APEL
1950
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
2, Massachusetts
COPYRIGHT, 1944
BY THE PRESIDENT AND FELLOWS OF HARVARD COLLEGE
First printing, November 1944
Second printing, December 1944
Third printing, 1945
Fourth printing, 1946
Fifth printing, 1947
Sixth printing, 1950
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PREFACE
NOWHERE in literature is a preface more clearly out of place than in a book
which, like the present one, is predestined to be read without leisure and
to be consulted (somewhat like a dentist) in the case of an emergency only.
Moreover it seems incongruous to write a wordy preface for a book which
by its very nature aims at the utmost conciseness. In the way of general
description it will suffice to say that this book is designed to provide
accurate afid pertinent information on all musical topics and that it is
addressed to the musical amateur as well as to the student and the scholar.
To reconcile the different, if not conflicting, interests of these three groups
of readers has been one of the chief concerns of the author. In the majority
of the articles this has been no problem, since an article on "Major and
Minor" or "Eroica," for instance, falls just as clearly within the province
of the first group as does one on "Lai" or "Oktoechos" within that of the
last. In the case of articles which are of interest to the amateur as well
as to the musicologist the difficulty has been solved successfully, it is
hoped by clearly dividing the material into two paragraphs, one of
which treats the subject from the present-day point of view, the other,
from that of the historian. The articles on "Sonata" and "Fugue" may be
cited as examples. A special feature of this book, not to be found in any
other music dictionary in the English language, is the bibliography,
which covers book publications as well as the periodical literature die
latter more completely than any other music dictionary in any language.
The most distinctive trait of the present work is the restriction to mu-
sical topics, which has entailed the omission of biographical articles. The
reason for this restriction is that the biographical field is adequately cov-
ered in a considerable number of recent reference books, several of which
are devoted exclusively to biography, while exactly the opposite is true of
the information on the various aspects of music itself. In this respect even
the best dictionaries fail even to approximate the standard which has long
been established in the biographical field. This situation indicates the
point of departure and the raison d'etre for the present publication.
The restriction of subject matter means the exclusion not only of indi-
vidual composers, feut .ajsp of individual organizations, orchestras, pub-
lishers. There are, however, general articles on "Societies," "Orchestras,"
"Publishers," which supply information about the most important mem-
[v]
PREFACE
bers of such groups. For the purpose of orientation the list of general
articles ("Synoptic Guide") given on p. 2 may be consulted.
There remains the pleasant duty of acknowledging gratefully the as-
sistance which the author has received from many sides. A complete list
of those scholars who have contributed original articles is found on p. x.
Less obvious, but hardly less important, is the collaboration of others who
have given valuable advice or other assistance, as follows:
Mrs. Willi Apel, Boston: Final check of the periodical literature.
Mr. Artur Bogen, Cambridge: Preparatory work for the articles on indi-
vidual operas.
Dr, Manfred F. Bukofzer, University of California: Reading of articles on
Medieval and Oriental music.
Mr. Leonard Burkat, Boston Public Library: Reading of the articles on
Periodicals and Publishers.
Dr. Yuen Ren Chao, Harvard University: Reading of the articles on
Chinese and Japanese music.
Dr. Alfred Einstein, Smith College: Reading of various articles on i6th-
and 17th-century music.
Mr. Klaus Goetze, Cambridge: Material for the article on Pianoforte
playing.
Dr. Lloyd Hibberd, Graham-Eckes School, Palm Beach: Reading of the
entire manuscript.
Prof. Edward B. Hill, Cambridge: Reading of articles on modern instru-
ments.
Dom Anselm Hughes, O.S.B.: Reading of articles on liturgical music.
Dr. Otto Kinkeldey, Cornell University: See below.
Mrs. Edward B. Lawton, Berkeley, California: Material for the article on
the Mass.
Dr. Curt Sachs, New York University: Reading of articles on ancient in-
struments.
Mr. Nicolas Slonimsky, Boston: Proofreading of the entire manuscript,
with particular regard to "Music Since 1900."
Dr. Harold Spivacke, Library of Congress: Reading of articles on Orches-
tras, Periodicals, Publishers, and others.
Mr. David Stone, Howard University: Material for the article on Piano
playing; final check of the periodical literature.
I am particularly indebted to Professor Kinkeldey, who not only has
read the entire sections A and B of the Dictionary, but also numerous
articles (e.g., Auffiihrungspraxis; Binary and ternary form; Character
piece; Choral, chorale; Cl^sicism; Expression; Figural, figurate, figured;
[vij
PREFACE
Folk song; Modern music; Plainsong notation; Song form) which the
author would have been hesitant to publish in their present form Without
the backing of the authority which Professor Kinkeldey, the dean of
American musicology, so justly enjoys.
I also wish to express my gratitude to the members of the staff of the
Music Department of the Boston Public Library whose kind cooperation
has greatly facilitated the completion of the book.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to Mr. W. W. Norton, New York,
for permission to reproduce a number of illustrations of instruments, taken
from C. Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments (1940); and to the
Macmillan Company, London, to reproduce from Grove's Dictionary the
illustrations for the article "Bow" and the drawing of the colascione for
the article "Lute."
In conclusion the author wishes to say that he will appreciate suggestions
for corrections to be used in a second edition which may be forthcoming
sooner or later.
W. A.
Boston, Massachusetts
May 1944
NOTE
Addenda and corrigenda will be found on page 825 and following pages.
Fviil
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
I. Periodicals
Reference is usually made by annual volume numbers (i, ii, iii, . . .), if a list of con-
tents is given with the volume. Otherwise, copy numbers are added (e.g., ii, no. 4).
Special methods of reference (e.g., when the volume numbering is inconsistently used)
are indicated below. In the case of articles the title of which is essentially identical
with that of the subject under consideration, this title is usually omitted.
AM Acta Musicologica (quarterly, 1928-).
AMF Archiv fur Musityorschung (quarterly, 1936-).
AMW Archiv fur MusH(wissenschajt (quarterly, 191828).
BAMS Bulletin of the American Musicological Society (annual, 1936-).
BJ Bach Jahrbuch (annual, 1904-).
BS1M Abbreviation for a monthly publication which appeared from 1905 to 1914
under five different titles, as follows: i-iii: Le Mercure musical', iv-v:
Bulletin franfais de la Societe Internationale de Musique; vi-vii: S.I.M.
Revue musicale mensurelle; viii-ix: Revue musicale S. I. M.\ x: La Revue
musicale S.I.M. See also RMC.
BUM Bulletin de la societt "Union musicologique" (semiannual, 1921-26).
DM Die Musi^ (1901-15 in 24 copies per year, numbered i.i-i.24, . . .,
xiv.i-xiv.24; 1922 to date in 12 copies per year, numbered xv.i-xv.i2, etc.).
JMP Jahrbuch der Musi1(bibliotheJ^ Peters (annual, 1894-).
JM W Jahrbucher fur musikalische Wissenschaft (two volumes, 1863 and 1867).
KIM Kongress der Internationalen Musi^gesellschajt (Leipzig, 1904; Basel,
1906; Vienna, 1909; London, 1911). Also included under this sign are:
Bericht fiber den Musifyuissenschaftlichen Kongress, Basel, 1924; Bericht
iiber den i. musiJ(tvissenschajtlichen Kongress der Deutschen Musil^-
gesellschajt, Leipzig, 1925; Kongressbericht (Compte rendu, Report),
Internationale Gesellschaft fur Musi1(wissenschajt, Liege, 1930. Cf. R. S.
Angell, in Music Library Association Notes, 1944, no. 2.
KJ KirchenmusiJ(alisches Jahrbuch (1885-1932); preceded by Cacilien-Kalcn-
der (1876-84).
LRM La Rassegna Musicale (monthly, 1928-).
MA Musical Antiquary, The (quarterly, 1909-13).
MfM Monatshefte fur Musif(geschichte (monthly, 1869-1905).
ML Music and Letters (quarterly, 1920-).
MM Modern Music (quarterly, 1924-).
MQ Musical Quarterly (quarterly, 1915-).
MR Music Review (quarterly, 1940-).
PAMS Papers Read by Members of the American Musicological Society (annual,
1936-).
PMA Proceedings of the Musical Association (annual, 1874-).
RdM Revue de musicologie (quarterly, 1922-), preceded by Bulletin de la so-
franfaise de musicologie (quarterly, 1917-21). Reference by year
[ viii ]
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
and continuous numbering of copies, e.g., 1922, no. i; 1937, no. 64, etc.
RM Revue musicale, La (ed. by Prunieres, monthly, 1920-).
RMC Revue musicale, La (ed. by Combarieu, monthly, 1901-10). Merged in
1911 withfiS/M.
RMI Rivista musicale italiana (quarterly, 1870-).
SIM Sammelbdnde der Internationalen Musi^gesellschajt (quarterly, 1900-14).
StM Studien zur Musityvissenschajt (Beihefte der Denkmaler dcr Tonkunst in
Oesterreich; annual, 1913-34).
TG Tribune de St. Gervais (monthly, 1895-?).
VMW Vierteljahrsschrift fur Musityvissenschajt (quarterly, 1884-94).
ZIM Zeitschrijt der Internationalen Musi\gesellschajt (monthly, 1900-14).
ZMW Zeitschrijt fur Musi\wissenschajt (quarterly, 1918-35).
II. Boo\s
AdHM G. Adler, Handbuch der Musil^geschichte, 2 vols., 1930.
ApMZ W. Apel, Musif^ aus jruher Zeit, 2 vols.
ApNPM W. Apel, Notation of Polyphonic Music, 1942 (2d ed., 1944).
AR Antiphonale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae, 1924 (No. 820, edition in
neumatic signs).
BeMMR H. Besseler, Musi\ des Mittelalters und der Renaissance, 1931.
BuHM E. Biicken, Handbuch der Musi\tvissenschajt, 7 vols., 1928-32.
CS H. Coussemaker, Scriptorum de musica medii aevi nova series, 4 vols.,
1864-76.
DdT Denkmaler deutscher Tonkunst, 65 vols., 1892-1931.
DTB Denkmaler der Tonkunst in Bayern, 36 vols., 1900-31.
DTOe Dentynaler der Tonkunst in Oesterreich, 83 vols., 1894-1938.
EiBM A. Einstein, Beispielsammlung zur Musi^geschichte, 1930 (incorporated
in his A Short History of Music, 2d edition, 1938).
GD Grove, Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5 vols., 1938; supplementary
vol., 1940.
GSHM Th. Gerold, Histoire de la musique des origines a la fin du xive siecle, 1936.
GR Graduale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae, 1924 (No. 696, edition in neu-
matic signs).
GS M. Gerbert, Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimum, 3 vols.,
1784; facsimile edition, 1931.
HAM Historical Anthology of Music, ed. by A. T. Davison and W. Apel, Har-
vard University Press.
LaMWC P. Lang, Music in Western Civilization, 1941.
LavE Lavignac, Encyclopedic de la musique, 19^; Histoire: $.1-5; Technique:
ii.i-6.
LU Liber Usualis Missae et Officii, 1937 (No. 780, edition in neumatic signs).
MoML H. J. Moser, Musi^-Lexi^on, 1935.
OH Oxford History of Music (mainly vol. i of the first ed., 1901).
ReMMA G. Reese, Music in the Middle Ages, 1940.
KHM H. Riemann, Handbuch der Musi^geschichte, 5 vols., 1904-13.
RiMB H. RiemaLn^Mujifigcschichte in Beispielen, 1925.
RiML H. Riemann, Musfy Lexicon, 2 vols., 1929.
SaHMl C. Sachs, History of Musical Instruments, 1940.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
SaRM C. Sachs, Rcallexityn dcr Musifynstrumtnte, 1913.
SchGMB A. Schcring, Gcschichtc dcr Musi% in Beispiclen, 1931.
TaAM G. Tagliapictra, Antologia di musica . . . per pianoforte, 18 vols., 1931/2.
WoGM J. Wolf, Gcschichte dcr Mensurdnotation, 3 vols., 1904.
WoHN J. Wolf, Handbuch dcr Notationstyndc, 2 vols.,
A.E.
A. T. D.
A. T. M.
D. D.
D. J. G.
E. B.H.
E. C.
E. P.
G.C.
G. D.H,
H. A.
H. G. M.
H. J. S.
H.L.
H.N.
J. F. O.
J. T. H.
L. H.
L. S.
N. S.
P. A.
P. L. M.
R. S. A.
R. Y. R.
W. D. D.
W. P.
V. Z.
III. Contributors of Articles
Alfred Einstein, Smith College (Madrigal comedy).
Archibald T. Davison, Harvard University (Anglican chant; Conducting;
Glee; Just note and accent; Music education; Psalter).
A. Tillman Mcrritt, Harvard University (Counterpoint; Harmonic analy-
sis; Harmony I).
Dorothea Doig, Longy School of Music, Cambridge (Tests).
Donald J. Grout, University of Texas (Opera; Comic opera; Ballet in opera;
and related articles).
Everett B. Helm (Composition; Degrees; Profession; Scholarships; Soci-
eties I).
Eunice Crocker, Radcliffc College (Canzona).
Ernest La Prade, National Broadcasting Company (Electronic musical in-
struments; Radio broadcasting of music).
Gilbert Chase, Library of Congress (Latin American countries).
G. Donald Harrison, Aeolian-Skinner Company (Organ I-IX).
Hans Abraham, Cambridge (Copyright).
Henry G. Mishkin, Amhcrst College ( Accadcmia; Bologna School).
Helen Joy Sleeper, Wellcsley College (Fancy).
Hugo Leichtentritt, Cambridge (Music criticism).
Hugo Norden, Boston (Bowing).
John F. Ohl, Fisk University (Recorder).
John Tasker Howard, Glen Ridge, New Jersey (American music; Ameri-
can Indian music).
Lloyd Hibberd, Graham-Eckes School, Palm Beach (Dictionaries; Jazz).
Leo Schrade, Yale University (Maniera).
Nicolas Slonimsky, Boston (Russian music II).
Putnam Aldrich, University of Texas (Ornamentation and related articles).
Philip Licson Miller, New York Public Library (Phonograph and recorded
music).
Richard S. Angell, Columbia University (Libraries).
Rulon Y. Robison, Boston University (Register; Voice).
William D. Denny, Vassar College (Orchestra; various instruments).
Walter Piston, Harvard University (Harmonic rhythm).
Victor Zuckerkandl, Princeton, N. J. (Urlinie) .
IV. Signs
* indicates reference to other articles.
j* indicates publications consisting mainly or exclusively of music.
If you want to understand the invisible, look
carefully at the visible. [See*AestheticsIII (b).]
SYNOPTIC GUIDE
List of articles of a general character and of master articles
containing reference to others
Acoustics
Aesthetics
Analysis
Appreciation
Arrangement
Chamber music
Church music
Color and music
Composition
Concert
Conducting
Copyright
Counterpoint
Dance music
Degrees
Dictionaries
Editions, Historical
Electronic musical instru-
ments
Exotic music
Expression*
Festivals
Folk music
Form
Gregorian chant
Harmonic analysis
Harmony
History of music
Improvisation
Instrumental music
Instruments
Libraries
Mechanical instruments
Melody
Modern music
Music criticism
Music education
Musicology
Notation
Opera houses
Orchestras and concert
halls
Oriental music
Ornamentation
Periodicals
Phonograph and recorded
music
Poetic meter
Primitive music
Printing of music
Profession of music
Publishers
Radio broadcasting
Rhythm
Scholarships
Singing
Societies
Sources prior to 1450
Style
Tests and measurements
Text and music
Texture
Theory
Tonality
Vocal music
Wind instruments
Articles on Nations and Races: American Indian; American; Arabian; Argentina;
Armenian; Australian; Babylonian; Belgian; Brazilian; Bulgarian; Byzantine; Cana-
dian; Central America; Chile; Chinese; Colombia; Cuba; Czech; Danish; Egyptian;
English; Eskimo; Ethiopian; Finnish; French; German; Greek; Hindu; Hungarian;
Icelandic; Irish; Italian; Japanese; Javanese; Jewish; Mexico; Negro; Netherlands;
Norwegian; Oriental; Peru; Polish; Portuguese; Roman; Rumanian; Russian; Scot-
tish; Spanish; Swedish; Swiss; Syrian; Tibetan; Turkish; Venezuela; Yugoslavian.
HARVARD DICTIONARY OF MUSIC
A. Sec *Pitch names; *Letter notation;
*Hexachord; *Pitch. On the title page
of *part-books of the i6th century A
stands for altus. In liturgical books it
stands for antiphon.
Ab [G.]. Off, chiefly with reference to
the discontinuation of an organ stop.
Abandonne [F.]. With abandon; un-
restrained.
A battuta [It.]. See *Battuta.
Abbandono, Con ; abbandonasi
[It.]. With abandon, unrestrained.
Abbellimenti [It.] . Embellishments,
^ornaments.
abbreviations used in musical notation
are indicated in the accompanying table.
A - b - c - dieren [G.] . The use of
pitch-letters, a, b, c . . . , rather than of
*solmization syllables, in singing and ele-
mentary instruction. This system pre-
vails in Germany.
Abdampfen [G.]. To *mute.
Abduction from the Seraglio. See
*Entfiihrung aus dem Serail.
Abegg Variations. R. Schumann's op.
i, dedicated to his friend Meta Abegg.
The first five notes of the theme a-bb-
e'-g'-g' read, in German pitch names,
A-B-E-G-G.
Abbreviations. The most important Abendlied [G.]. Evening song.
7 (vioUn)
Abendmusik [G.]. Evening musical
performances, usually of a religious or
contemplative character. The term ap-
plies particularly to the famous concerts
started in 1673 by Dietrich Buxtehude
in the Marienkirche of Liibeck in North
Germany. These took place annually on
the five Sundays before Christmas, fol-
lowing the afternoon service, and con-
sisted of concerted pieces of sacred music
for orchestra and chorus and of organ
music [see DdT 14], They continued
throughout the i8th and ipth centuries.
In 1705 J. S. Bach walked 200 miles from
Arnstadt to Liibeck to hear the Abend-
Lit.: W. Maxton, in ZMW x; C. Stiehl,
Die Organisten an der St. Marienkirche
und die Abendmusifyn zu
Abbreviations
A bene placito [It., at pleasure]. An
indication permitting a certain freedom
in performance, equivalent to ad libi-
tum.
[3]
ABGESANG
Abgesang [G.]. Sec *Barform.
Abgestossen [G., detached].
tachc [see *Bowing (b)].
Abnehmend [G.]. Diminuendo.
Abschieds-symphonie [G.]. Fare-
well Symphony.
Abschnitt [G.]. Section.
Absetzen [G.]. (i) To separate, either
notes [*Dtache] or phrases. (2) In
16th-century parlance, absetzen in die
Tabulator means to transcribe (vocal
music) into *tablaturc.
Absolute music [L. absolutus, sepa-
rated]. Music which is dissociated from
extramusical implications. The term is
used most frequently in contradistinction
to *program music, i.e., music in which
pictorial or poetic ideas are portrayed.
It also excludes vocal music, especially
that type of vocal music in which the
text clearly influences the musical lan-
guage and structure (e.g., a song by
Schubert). In German usage the term is
employed in a stricter sense, excluding
not only program and vocal music but
also music of a definite emotional char-
acter (*Romantic musig), so that Bach
and, to some extent, MBzart become the
main representatives of absolute music.
Absolute pitch. Properly, "the posi-
tion of a tone in reference to the whole
range of pitch . . . , conceived as inde-
pendently determined by its rate of vibra-
tion" (Webster). The German term for
this is absolute Tonhohe. Usually, how-
ever, the term is used to denote what
should be termed more accurately "abso-
lute judgment of (absolute) pitch," i.e.,
the capacity of 'a person to identify a
musical sound immediately by name,
without reference to a previously sounded
note of different pitch [see ^Relative
pitch]. This faculty, called in German
absolutes Gehor, is a tonal memory
which is inborn with certain individuals
but can also be acquired by practice, as
recent experiments have shown. The
faculty, whether inborn or acquired, is
found chiefly in persons possessing some
ABSOLUTE PITCH
degree of musical experience or aptitude,
but it can by no means be considered a
measuring stick of musical talent. In
fact, it is just as frequent (perhaps more
so) among mediocre orchestral players
as among great composers and outstand-
ing artists. While Mozart had an ex-
tremely acute sense of absolute pitch,
Wagner and Schumann are reputed to
have lacked it.
Absolute pitch is in various respects a
valuable asset to a musician, particularly
to a conductor, but it may prove a real
inconvenience when music for one rea-
son or another must be transposed in per-
formance to another key, as is frequently
the case in vocal music, in order to ac-
commodate the range of the singer [see
remark under *chiavctte]. It is ques-
tionable, indeed, whether it is an advan-
tage or a disadvantage to hear a composi-
tion "all wrong" simply because it is a
half tone higher or lower. Needless to
say, all the discussions about the "true
pitch" of Beethoven's C minor Sym-
phony, for example, are entirely pointless
unless the standard pitch of Beethoven's
day is taken into account. Since this
pitch has considerably changed (still
more so in the case of Bach), it can be
definitely said that, from the standpoint
of absolute pitch, all present-day per-
formances of music written prior to the
general acceptance of the modern concert
pitch [see *Pitch (2)] are "wrong."
Generally speaking, they are higher than
the composer wanted them to be. A mu-
sician with absolute pitch who lived one
hundred years ago if brought back to life
today would be horrified to hear Bee-
thoven's Fifth Symphony played in what
would be to him C-sharp minor.
Lit.: C. H. Wedell, The Nature of the
Absolute Judgment of Pitch (1934); L.
A. Petrau, An Experimental Study of
Pitch Recognition (1932); A. Wellek,
Das absolute Gehor und seine Typen
(1938, bibl.); C. E. Seashore, The Meas-
urement of Musical Memory (1917);
O. Abraham, in SIM iii, viii; F. Auer-
bach, in SIM viii; H. Riemann, in Z1M
xiii; J. Kobelt, in AMW ii (bibl.); G.
Rvcsz, "t)bcr die beiden Arten des abso-
[4]
ABSTOSSEN
luten Gehors" (ZIM xiv); N. Slonimsky,
in American Mercury xxi.
Abstossen [G.]. (i) In violin playing,
same as *abgestossen. (2) In organ
playing, to take off a stop [see *Ab].
Abstract music. Same as *absolute
music.
Abstrich [G.]. Down-bow.
Abzug [G.]. *Scordatura.
Academic Festival Overture (A\a-
demische Festouverture). The title of
Brahms's op. 80, an orchestral composi-
tion written for the University of Breslau
as a recompense for the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy conferred upon him
(1879). ft 1S a presentation of various
German student songs, much in the man-
ner of a *potpourri.
Academic [F.]. *Academy. In the
early part of the i9th century the term
was used for concerts or recitals. Bee-
thoven in one of his letters says: "Heute
keine Akademie," i.e., "No concert to-
night."
Academy [Gr., derived from the olive
grove of Academe, the meeting place of
Plato and his disciples near Athens]. A
term applied to scholarly or artistic so-
cieties and to musical organizations of
various types. The movement started in
Italy around 1600 [see *Accademia].
The societies outside of Italy include:
(a) Learned associations, part of whose
activity is the promoting of musical
studies. They usually have a member-
ship limited to those of demonstrable
ability, maintain periodic discussions and
proceedings which are often gathered
into publications, and generally offer
honors, medals, or prizes for achieve-
ment in composition or research. Many
of these are state-supported: Paris, Insti-
tut de France, division Academic des
Beaux Arts; Berlin, Akademie der
Kiinste; Brussels, Academic Royale;
others in Stockholm and Moscow, (b)
Organizations for the giving of operas
and concerts: Paris, Academic de Mu-
sique; London, Royal Academy of Music
[5]
ACATHISTUS
and Academy of Ancient Music; Munich,
Akademie der Tonkunst; New York,
Academy of Music (today the Metro-
politan Opera); Brooklyn, Academy of
Music (founded 1861), etc. [see *Con-
cert halls; *Opera houses], (c) Institu-
tions of musical education: London,
Royal Academy of Music; Berlin, Staat-
liche Akademie fur Kirchen- und Schul-
musik; Munich, Konigliche Akademie
der Tonkunst (founded 1846); Phila-
delphia, Academy of Music (1870); New
York, Academy of Allied Arts (School
of Music, 1928). See also *Societies.
A cappella [It. cappella, chapel].
Music written "for the choir of a chapel,"
i.e., choral music without instrumental
accompaniment. The music of Palestrina
[see ^Palestrina style] is usually consid-
ered the model of a cappella music. An
a cappella choir is one formed for the cul-
tivation of unaccompanied singing. His-
torians of the 1 9th century held the idea
that all "early music" i.e., music be-
fore 1600 was a cappella. Such a state-
ment is correct, however, only with re-
spect to strictly liturgical music, such as
masses and motets. Secular music,
whether for a soloist or a choral group,
was frequently accompanied or dupli-
cated by instruments, particularly in the
period 1300-1450 [see *Ars nova; *Bur-
gundian School],
Lit.: J. Handschin, Die Grundlagen
des a-cappella-Stils (1929); Th. Kroyer,
in Kretzschmar Festschrift (1918),
AMW ii; AM vi, no. 4.
Acathistus [Gr., not seated]. A hymn
of praise of the Byzantine Church, sung
in honor of the Virgin upon the Satur-
day of the fifth week in Lent by the
whole congregation standing. Both text
and music were written by the patriarch
Sergios in A.D. 626, on the occasion of the
deliverance of Constantinople from the
Persians. The poem consists of 24 stanza?
the initial letters of which represent the
alphabet (acrostic). It belongs to the
general species of Byzantine poetry
known as fyntalyon [see *Byzantine
chant II].
Lit.: H. J. W. Tillyard, Byzantine
ACCADEMIA
Music and Hymnography (1923), p. 16;
AdHM i, 131.
Accademia [It.]. Italian learned asso-
ciation, named after Plato's Academy
[see * Academy]. An A. di Platonc was
founded in 1470 at the court of Lo-
renzo dc* Medici in Florence. With the
beginning of the I7th century, the move-
ment spread enormously in Italy; every
place of some repute had its accademia,
and larger cities had numbers of them.
They were of two types: (a) Learned
societies founded for the promotion of
science, literature, and arts, part of whose
activity was the encouragement and cul-
tivation of music. The most famous of
these was the A. dci A read i of Rome
(founded 1692), which included among
its members the musicians Marcello,
Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti, Gluck.
Handel attended many meetings, but as
a foreigner was not eligible for member-
ship. Other institutions of the same type
existed, in Florence: A. della Crusca
(1588), A. dei Filarmonici\ in Bologna:
A. dei Gelati (1588), A. dei Concord 7
(1615), A. dei Filomusi (1622), A. dei
Filar monici (1675); in Venice: A. Pelle-
grina (1550), A. degli Olimpici; and
elsewhere, (b) Organizations of profes-
sional and amateur musicians which had
the cultivation of music as their sole pur-
pose. The activities of these groups were
varied; they gave public and private con-
certs, conducted research investigations
in the history of music and in the sci-
ence of sound, founded music schools,
and even launched operatic enterprises.
The most important of these is the A.
F Harmonica of Bologna, founded in 1666
by Count Vincenzo Carrati, which in-
cluded among its members such distin-
guished figures as Bassani (1657-1716),
Corelli (1653-1713), Torelli (d. 1708),
Domenico Gabrielli (1640-90), Padre
Martini (1706-84), Mozart (1756-91),
Rossini (1792-1868), and Busoni (1866-
1924). Cf. N. Morini, La Realc Ac-
cademia filarmonica di Bologna (1930);
A. Einstein, in BAMS vii. H. G. M.
ACCENT
Accelerando [It.]. Becoming faster.
Accent, (i) The stress of one tone over
others. According to the position of the
stressed note within the measure, one
may distinguish between regular (nat-
ural) accent, which falls on the first and,
in compound meters, also on other beats
(secondary accent); and irregular (un-
natural) accent, which falls on a nor-
mally weak beat. According to the
means of achieving stress, the following
distinctions are usually made: dynamic
accent, which results from reinforcement;
*tonic accent, which results from higher
Accarezzevole [It.]. Caressing.
pitch; and *agogic accent, which results
from longer duration of the stressed note.
Of these, the dynamic accent is by far the
most important, the other two being
largely subsidiary or incidental. Irregular
dynamic accent is usually indicated by
signs such as sf, >, . Ex. i (Mozart,
Symphony in G minor) shows an irregu-
lar dynamic accent which, at the same
time, is tonic and agogic also. Frequently,
the emphasis on the weak beat is en-
hanced by means of striking dissonances,
as in Ex. 2. The *tonic accent has played
a role in the discussions on Gregorian
chant and on other types of medieval
monophonic music.
(2) [F.]. In French music of the i7th
and 1 8th centuries, an ornamentation be-
longing to the class of *Nachschlage.
(3) Signs used in ancient Greek liter-
ature (probably also in Hebrew poetry,
e.g., Psalms, Book of Job) to indicate a
change of pitch of the voice in recitation:
accentus acutus ^, for a raising; a. gravis
\ for a lowering; a. circumftexus A ,
for an inflection (raising followed by low-
ering) of the voice. These signs are
considered today as the origin of the
neumes (accent neumes; see *Neumes
II) and of certain other related systems
[6]
ACCENTUATION
of notation, called *ekphonetic notation.
Cf. WoHN i, 61.
(4) The notational signs used in Jew-
ish chant [see * Jewish music II].
Accentuation. The proper placement
of accents, especially in music set to a
text. See ^Declamation; *Text and music.
Accentus, concentus. The terms are
used in liturgical music in two different
though related meanings: (a) liturgi-
cally, as referring to the chanting of the
priest (accentus) and to that of the
schold) i.e., the choir, the soloists, or both
(concentus)\ (b) stylistically, as referring
to two opposite types of plainsong, the
syllabic recitation, largely on a monotone
with slight inflections, as in the psalm
tones (accentus)) and the melismatic
type found in the alleluias, graduals, etc.
(concentus). The chant of the priest is
usually of the simpler type; that of the
schola of the more elaborate. See P.
Wagner, Einjuhrung in die Gregoria-
nischen Melodien, iii (1921), p. 4.
Acciaccato [It.]. "Crushed," i.e.,
brusquely, forcibly.
Acciaccatura [It. acciaccare, to crush],
Italian name for an ornament of harpsi-
chord music (c. 1675-1725) which calls
for the lower second of the normal note
to be simultaneously struck and immedi-
ately released. It usually occurs in con-
ACCIDENTALS
nection with chords; either written out
as an ordinary note, but to be played as
described above [Ex. i, Domenico Scar-
latti, Sonata; Ex. 2, Scherzo in Bach's
Partita no. 3] ; or indicated by a diagonal
dash, in which case arpeggio execution
is usually intended, particularly in slow
tempo. The direction of the dash indi-
cates the direction of the arpeggio [Ex.
3 ] . The French name for this ornamen-
tation was arpegement figure. For an
erroneous usage, frequent in modern
writings, of the term acciaccatura, see
under *Appoggiatura III.
Accidentals. I. General. The signs of
chromatic alteration momentarily intro-
duced for single notes or measures, as
opposed to those given in the ^signature.
The signs of chromatic alteration to-
gether with their names in English,
French, German, and Italian are given
in the following table:
E:
F:
G:
It:
E:
F:
G:
It:
*
sharp
diese
Kreuz
diesis
bb
double-flat
double bemol
Doppcl-Bc
doppio bemolle
b
flat
bemol
Be
bemolle
X
double-sharp
double diese
Doppelkreuz
doppio diesis
natural
becarre
Auflosungszeichcn
bequadro
The sharp raises the pitch one semitone,
the flat lowers it one semitone; the
double-sharp and double-flat raise and
lower two semitones respectively; the
natural cancels any of the other signs.
The use of the compound signs W, tlb,
W to cancel partly or entirely a previous
X or bb is quite frequent but unneces-
sary. The simple signs #, b, $ answer
the purpose [Ex. i]. In modern practice
a sign affects the note immediately fol-
lowing and is valid for all the notes of
the same pitch (but not in different oc-
taves) within the same measure. Recent
composers frequently add bracketed ac-
C^)
I
ir T
cidentals to those demanded by this rule,
in order to clarify complicated passages
or chords.
[7!
ACCIDENTALS
II. History. All the signs used for
chromatic alteration developed from the
same sign, namely, the letter b which
indicates the whole tone above a. The
fact that in the diatonic scale c-d-e
... no perfect fourth above f is avail-
able necessitated, as early as the loth
century, the introduction of another b,
a semitone lower than the diatonic b
[see *Hexachord]. These two b's were
distinguished by their shape, the higher
one being written in a square form and
called b durum (durus, hard, angular),
the lower in a round form and called
f b B durum
E . b B molle
sh'apes -S * Shar P
$& Double sharp
L *fc Double sharp
b molle (mollis, soft, round). It is from
these designations that the German
names Dur and Moll for major and
minor mode are derived. When in the
ensuing period the introduction of other
chromatic tones became necessary, the
sign b durum and its later modifications
\ $ were used to indicate the higher of
two semitones; the sign b molle or b, the
ACCOMPANIMENT
doubled lines, either in a straight or in
a diagonal position. The present sign is
a simplification of the latter.
In music prior to 1700 an accidental
is not valid for the entire measure, but
only for the next note and immediate
repetitions of the same note. See Ex. 3.
T
c o
Cf C
lower one. Thus, in early music, ^ f is
not F-natural (canceled), but F-sharp;
likewise, b f is not F-flat, but F (in dis-
tinction from a previous F-sharp); [see
Ex. 2, from Frescobaldi's Canzone
(1628)]. Bach continued to use the
sign b for the cancellation of a previous f#.
In Germany, during the i6th century,
the sign b durum was erroneously inter-
preted as the letter h, to which it bears
some visual resemblance. Hence, in Ger-
man terminology h denotes the B-natural,
and b the B-flat.
In the printed books of the i6th cen-
tury the sharp sign usually occurs in a
diagonal position. The double-sharp (in-
troduced in the early i8th century; cf.
Bach's Well-tempered Clavier, 1722, and
J. G. Walther's Musi\ Lexicon, 1732)
originally appeared as a sharp with
For the problem of accidentals in
music of the i3th to the i6th centuries,
see *Musica ficta. Cf. F. Niecks, "The
Flat, Sharp, and Natural" (PMA xvi).
Acclamation. A type of Byzantine
poetry and music which served as a
salutation for the emperor in the cere-
monial of the Byzantine court of the
9th and loth centuries. The acclama-
tions are practically the only type of non-
liturgical Byzantine music known to us.
Acclamations are still used today in Rus-
sia and the Balkans for welcoming high
dignitaries of the church. Those begin-
ning with the traditional phrase "Many
be the years*' were called polychronion
[cf. the examples in ReMMA, 77 and
in MQ xxiii, 207].
Lit.: AdHM i, 128; E. Wellesz, Byzan-
tinische Musi\ (1927); H. Tillyard, in
The Annual of the British School of
Athens, xviii.
Accolade [F.]. *Brace.
Accompagnato. Accompanied. See
*Recitative II (c).
Accompaniment. I. The musical
background provided by a less important
for a more important part. For instance,
in piano music, the chords or other sub-
sidiary material of the left hand, as
against the melody of the right hand.
The term also refers to the support given
to a soloist (singer, violinist) by a pianist
or an orchestra. The auxiliary role of
the accompaniment frequently leads to
an underestimation of its musical and
artistic importance, on the part of the
soloist as well as the audience. Vocalists,
especially, are inclined to demand an un-
due subordination of .their accompanists,
8]
ACCOMPANIMENT
condemning them to complete slavery in
questions of interpretation, of tempo, of
dynamics, etc. This situation is the more
dangerous, since the possession of an
outstanding voice and vocal technique is
no guarantee of musical taste and artistic
discrimination.
The modern church organist as well
as the leader of a choir is frequently con-
fronted with the problem of providing
suitable accompaniment for the singing
of the congregation or the chorus, either
improvised or written out. Following
are a number of books on this subject:
J. F. Bridge, Organ Accompaniment
(1886); D. Buck, Illustrations in Choir
Accompaniment (1877); C. Forsyth,
Choral Orchestration (1920); W. Hickin,
Pianoforte Accompaniment', A. H.
Lindo, The Art of Accompanying
(1916); Ch. W. Pearce, The Organist's
Directory to the Accompaniment of the
Church Service (1908); A. M. Richard-
son, Modern Organ Accompaniment
(1907). See also *Vamp.
II. References to instrumental accom-
paniment of songs are not infrequently
found in the Bible (harp-accompani-
ment is suggested by the remark "on
eight strings," given with Psalms 6 and
12) and in the writings of the ancient
Greeks. Pictorial reproductions and lit-
erary documents of the Middle Ages
show the use of harps, fiddles, bells,
small drums, trumpets, etc., in connec-
tion with the monophonic songs of the
troubadours and Minnesinger, and in
conjunction with dance music. Neither
in ancient nor in medieval music was
this improvised type of accompaniment
ever of a harmonic nature; it was merely
a unison- (or octave-) doubling of the
voice part, with occasional *heterophonic
elements. The same type of accompani-
ment is to be found with the Oriental
nations, especially in *China, *India,
* Arabia. While the polyphonic music
of the 9th to the i3th centuries (organa,
motets) does not admit the separation of
the polyphonic fabric into parts of
greater or lesser importance, such a sepa-
ration takes place in the French secular
compositions of th^ i4th and early i5th
ACCOMPANIMENT
centuries (ballades, virelais by G. de
Machaut and his successors, sec *Ars
Nova; chansons of Dufay and his con-
temporaries, see *Burgundian School).
It disappears again with the rise of
Flemish sacred music and of Flemish
counterpoint (Ockeghem, Obrecht),
which is essentially opposed to any dis-
tinction between principal and auxiliary
parts. The instrumental doubling of
vocal parts, such as was occasionally
practiced in this period, can scarcely be
considered an accompaniment. In the
1 6th century the renewed shift to secular
things immediately led to a revival of
accompanied melody, e.g., in the lute-
songs of the German Schlick (1512), of
the Spanish Valderrabano (1547), and of
the English Dowland (1597).
III. A new era of accompaniment
began with the period of thorough-bass
(Baroque period, 1600-1750), which
calls for a harmonic accompaniment to
be improvised upon the notes of the bass.
Moreover, the growing interest in florid
and singable melody brought about a
gradually increasing separation of the
musical substance into a predominant
melody with subordinate accompaniment
(e.g., in the aria). Whereas, throughout
the Baroque period, the written-out ac-
companiment (and, consequently, the
improvised one, too) shows many traits
of contrapuntal and harmonic interest,
it degenerated, in the second half of the
1 8th century, into a stereotyped pattern
of plain chords, arpeggios, *Alberti-bass
figures, etc. As a curiosity it may be
mentioned that, about 1760, sonatas were
frequently written for the "pianoforte
with the accompaniment of a violin or
flute" (Mondonville, 1734, see ^Editions
XXIV, 9; Schobert, see DdT 34), that is,
with the violin or flute merely duplicat-
ing the upper part of the pianoforte. In
this connection it is interesting to note
that Samuel Wesley speaks of }. S. Bach's
"Six sonatas for harpsichord with an ob-
bligato violin accompaniment."
IV. About 1780 Haydn and Mozart
evolved a new type of accompaniment
known as accompanimento obbligato,
characterized by a greater individuality
[9]
ACCORD
of the lower parts, by the occasional in-
troduction of fugal elements, by the oc-
casional shift of the melody from the
higher part into a lower part, etc. This
style is particularly evident in the
quartets written in this period. Because
of -these efforts Beethoven was able to
say of himself: "Ich bin mit einem obli-
gaten Accompaniment auf die Welt
gekommen." What Haydn and Mozart
did in the field of instrumental music,
Schubejrt achieved in the field of song,
by freeing the pianoforte accompaniment
from the slavery of mere chord-filling
and making it an independent, some-
times the most interesting, part of the
composition. Composers such as Schu-
mann, Brahms, and H. Wolf adopted
his method, whereas others (e.g., Tchai-
kovsky) rarely went beyond a chordal
accompaniment in lush harmonies of a
rather ephemeral interest. More recent
composers (Mahler, Strauss) have re-
peatedly used the whole orchestra as an
instrumental background for a solo
singer.
V. The extraordinary growth of ac-
companied melody .as it occurs in the
songs of the ipth century has had a de-
plorable effect upon the minds of musi-
cal scholars and editors engaged in the
study and publication of early mono-
phonic music, such as Greek music, ex-
otic melodies, Gregorian chant, the songs
of the trouveres, Minnesinger, etc. Nu-
merous volumes have been published in
which the melodies of the pre-Christian
era or of the Middle Ages are coupled
with cheap accompaniments in the styles
of Schumann, Brahms, or Debussy. Even
well-known scholars have not withstood
this temptation [cf., e.g., O. Fleischer,
Rcste der altgricchischen Tontytnst
(1899)]. More recent attempts to give
these accompaniments an "antique" air
[see reference under *Quartal harmony]
are only more dangerous and misleading.
For literature on the 17th-century ac-
companiment see *Thorough-bass. See
also * Additional accompaniment.
ACOUSTIC BASS
ments such as the lute for which various
systems of tuning were in use during the
i;th century [cf. WoHN ii, 91; ApNPM,
7if]. See *Scordatura.
Accordare [It.], accorder [F.]. To
tune.
Accordatura [It.]. See *Accord (2).
Accordion. A portable musical instru-
ment consisting of a rather large rec-
tangular bellows with reeds in the two
headboards. It has pushed-out and
drawn-in reeds, the former sounding by
expiration, the latter by inspiration. The
modern accordion has a piano keyboard
at the right side for the playing of mel-
ody notes, while buttons on the left side
operate bass notes and full chords. The
earliest instruments of this type were
made by Buschmann (1822), Buffet
(1827), and Damian (1829).
A similar instrument, preferred to the
accordion in England, is the concertina
invented by Wheatstone in 1829. This
is of hexagonal shape and is provided at
each side with a number of studs. It
possesses a full chromatic scale and pro-
duces the same note whether the bellows
are pressed or drawn. Artistically, this
instrument is superior to the accordion.
A good deal of solo music has been writ-
ten for it by virtuosos such as G. Regondi,
W. B. Molique, G. A. Macfarren, and
E. Solas, and it has occasionally been used
in the orchestra (Tchaikovsky, Orches-
tral Suite op. 53). The bandoneon is an
Argentine variety of the accordion with
buttons on each side, each of them for a
single tone.
Accordo [It.]. Chord.
Accuse [F.] . With emphasis.
Achromatic. *Diatonic.
Achtel, Achtelnote, Achtelpause
[G. achtel, one-eighth]. See *Notes and
rests.
Achtfuss [G.]. Eight-foot (stop) [see
*Foot (2)].
Accord [F.]. (i) Chord. (2) Man- Acoustic bass (also called resultant
ner of tuning, especially that of instru- bass). On organs, a 32-foot stop which
[10]
ACOUSTICS
is obtained as a differential tone of a 16-
foot stop and a io%-foot stop. Accord-
ing to the acoustic phenomenon of the
differential tones [see Combination
tones] the simultaneous sounding of C
(produced by the i6-foot) and of G (pro-
duced by the io%-foot) produces the
tone Ci (32-foot). The acoustic bass is
frequently used where the great expense
of the large 32-foot pipes is prohibitive.
Acoustics. The science which treats
of sounds. From the standpoint of the
musician the most important problems
of acoustics are: (i) the nature of the
musical sound; (2) ^intervals; (3) Con-
sonance and dissonance; (4) ^resonance;
(5) *architectural acoustics. Only the
first problem will be treated here; for the
others, see the respective entries..
I. Vibration. The generation of sound
is invariably bound up with the vibra-
tion of an elastic body, i.e., of a body
which, when its equilibrium is disturbed,
develops inner forces which try to restore
the equilibrium. Such a process does not
end at once, since the body upon return-
ing to its initial position still has a certain
amount of kinetic energy which causes
it to go beyond this position so that a
new contrary disturbance results. This
leads to a repetition of the whole move-
ment in the reverse direction and, in fact,
to a succession of movements back and
forth which would continue indefinitely
were it not for friction, which causes
them to diminish and finally to stop. A
tongue of steel fastened at one end may
serve as an example [Ex. i].
The movement A-B-A (or A-C-A
or B - A - C) is called "single vibration"
(half-vibration); the movement A-B-
A-C-A (or B-A-C-A-B) is
called "double vibration" or simply "vi-
bration" or "cycle" (in modern writings
usually the double vibration is used as
the unit of measurement). The distance
B-C is called "amplitude." The num-
ber of vibrations made in one second is
called "frequency." Example 2 repre-
sents a vibration of 3 cycles.
(In order to understand the relation of
this graph to the vibration it is meant to
ACCOMPANIMENT
represent, one iu*v imagine me itrvycsi
point of the tongue, A, to be made lumi-
nous and then photographed. If for this
purpose a single exposure of film is used,
a horizontal dash ( ) will appear. If,
Ex. i: Vibration of Elastic Body; O, fixed end;
A, position of equilibrium; B, position of initial
disturbance; C, reverse position. Ex. 2: Vibration
of 3 Cycles; a = amplitude; v= (double) vibration;
s = single vibration. Ex. j: Path of Vibrating
Tongue. Ex. 4: Vibration of 6 Cycles. Ex. 5: Fad-
ing Sound. Ex. 6: Vibrating String; A, B, fastened
ends of the string; C, point of plucking.
however, a quickly moving film is used,
this dash will appear drawn out into an
oscillating curve [Ex. 3] ).
If the same tongue is plucked with
different degrees of force, the ear will
notice different intensities of sound, and
the vibration curve will show different
ACOUSTICS
amplitudes, corresponding to the differ-
ent magnitudes of the initial disturbance.
This leads to the first law of acoustics:
The intensity of a sound defends upon
the amplitude of the vibration [see *Bel] .
Therefore a fading sound will show a
vibration curve of gradually diminishing
elongations [see below].
Still more important is another ele-
ment of variety, namely, that which en-
ters if sounds of different pitch are
studied. If the photographic experiment
described above is repeated with a shorter
tongue, a higher tone will be heard and
the resulting curve will show vibrations
of narrower width (provided that the
speed of the moving film remains un-
altered) [Ex. 4], This means that the
single vibration of the higher-pitched
tongue takes a shorter time than that of
the lower-pitched one. In other words,
the higher sound makes more vibrations
per second, i.e., has a greater frequency,
than the lower sound. This is the basis
of the second law of acoustics: The pitch
of a sound depends only upon the fre-
quency of the vibration. A sound is audi-
ble if its frequency is approximately be-
tween 1 6 and 20,000 cycles; the tones of
the piano vary from about 30 to 4,000,
those of the violin from about 300 to
3,000. The frequency of a middle A (a'),
i.e., of concert pitch, is 440 (or 880, if
single vibrations are counted).
In the above law, the word only is of
particular importance. It expresses the
fact, known to every musician, that the
pitch of a vibrating string is not altered
by the greater or lesser force with which
the string is plucked, or, in other words,
that the pitch does not depend upon the
amplitude. The piano player obtains a
tone of the same pitch regardless of
whether he uses a pianissimo or a fortis-
simo touch. The same principle is borne
out by the fact that a sound does not alter
its pitch when it gradually decreases in
intensity. This means that a curve rep-
resenting a fading sound [Ex. 5] will
always have the form a, not the form b.
II. Vibrating Strings. If a violin is
plucked or bowed, each single point of
the string will make an up-and-down
ACOUSTICS
vibration comparable to that made by the
lowest point of the steel tongue previ-
ously described. All these vibrations have
the same frequency, but differ in ampli-
tude. For the purpose of our explana-
tions, the vibration of the string can be
considered as being represented by that
of its point of highest vibration ampli-
tude, i.e., of the point at which the string
is plucked. If this is the middle point of
the string, the resulting phenomenon can
be roughly illustrated by Example 6.
III. Frequency, Vibrating Length, and
Pitch. The pitch produced by a vibrat-
ing string depends upon its material
(steel, copper, etc.), its diameter, its ten-
sion, and its length. For the present pur-
pose it is sufficient to consider only the
latter factor, the others being regarded as
constant. These conditions are realized
in the case of a single string whose vibrat-
ing length can be changed by stopping
(violin) or by means of a movable fret
(*monochord). The following funda-
mental law results: The frequency is
in inverse proportion to the vibrating
length. This means that if the whole
string (e.g., one yard) gives a sound of
the frequency 600, the string of the half
length (one-half yard) gives a sound of
the double frequency, 1200, while a
string of two-thirds of a yard produces
the frequency 600 X % = 900, etc.
More important from the musical point
of view is the relation between a given
vibration and the pitch of the sound it
produces. This problem was investigated
and solved by Pythagoras, who estab-
lished the law relating the pitch of a note
to the length of the string by which it
is obtained. The results have a more
general application, however, if they are
expressed in frequencies rather than in
vibrating lengths. Thus expressed, they
remain unchanged regardless of whether
the sound is produced by a pipe or by a
string, and they do not depend upon ad-
ditional factors such as the tension, thick-
ness, or material of the string. The
fundamental principle is as follows: //
the frequency of a tone is n, that of the
octave is 2n, that of the fifth, %n, and
that of the major third, %n. From these
ACOUSTICS
tones, all the others of the diatonic scale
can be derived [see intervals, Calcula-
tion of, II]. The result is as follows:
cdefgabc'
Frequency ( = i): i % % % % % 15 6 2
Frequency ( = 24): 24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48
Vibrating length: x ft ft ft ft ft 9b K
The illustration [Ex. 7] shows a num-
ber of frequencies calculated for the tone
= 360 (the correct frequency for f is
352). It must be noted that these fre-
quencies give the tones of *just intona-
tion, not of equal temperament [see
*Temperament] .
IV. Harmonics. The acoustic effect
produced by a single vibration of the
type described above is called a pure
sound; but practically no vibrating body
produces a pure sound. All the musical
instruments produce composite sounds,
8. ^
5" 6 7 6 9 iO II (2. >3
Iff 16
Frequency; Harmonics
consisting of the main sound, or funda-
mental, plus a number of additional pure
sounds, the so-called overtones, which,
however, are not heard distinctly be-
cause their intensity (amplitude) is
much less than that of the main sound.
The frequencies of the overtones are
exact multiples of the frequency of the
fundamental. In other words, an instru-
ment which produces the tone of the fre-
quency n actually produces vibrations
(pure sounds) of the frequencies n, 2/1,
3, 4/2, . . . (up to 200 and more). The
illustration [Ex. 8] shows the first 15
overtones of the tone C.^ A^morc com-
mon designation for these tones is par-
tials or harmonics. It should be noted,
ACOUSTICS
however, that these terms (if properly
used) include the fundamental, while the
term overtone (if properly used) ex-
cludes it. Thus, the first overtone is the
second harmonic, etc. Although the
terms harmonics and partials arc fre-
quently used as interchangeable, the lat-
ter has, in scientific studies, a wider
significance, since it includes also non-
harmonic overtones, such as occur in
noises, also in bells. With the exception
of the octaves (2,4,8) none of the har-
monics arc tones of equal temperament.
Those which result from the factors 3
and 5 (3,5,6,9,10,12, etc.) are tones of
*just intonation (see the above table of
frequencies) whereas the harmonics 7,
ii and 13 (indicated by black notes) can
only approximately be identified with
tones available in our system of tuning
and notation. As can easily be seen, the
7th harmonic, which is 7 = 6 %, is lower
than the B-flat of just intonation which
is *% X 4 = 6 %; this, in turn, is
slightly lower than the B-flat of equal
temperament (in *cents, the three tones
are: 972, 996, 1000, respectively). Simi-
larly, the nth harmonic, which is n =
4 %, is lower than the F-sharp of just
intonation (*%X% = 4 %) and, in
fact, nearer to the F than to the F-sharp
of equal temperament. Finally, the i3th
harmonic is 13 = 3 %, whereas the A of
just intonation is % X 8 = 4 %.
The physical cause of the harmonics
is to be found in the fact that a vibrating
body, such as a string, vibrates simul-
taneously as a whole and in sections of
one-half, one-third, one-fourth, etc., of
the entire length. The secondary vibra-
tions, however, have a much smaller am-
plitude, approximately between one-fifth
and one-fiftieth of that of the fundamen-
tal [Ex. 9].
The existence of these additional tones
in what the ear believes to be a single
sound was shown first by Helmholtz
( 1 821-94), by means f *resonators of
various sizes which reinforce one fre-
quency and eliminate all the others. The
harmonics can easily be demonstrated by
the following simple experiment on the
pianoforte: Depress the key of C with-
ACOUSTICS
out producing a sound, i.e., merely raise
the damper of the key of C; then strike
forcefully the key of Ci and release it
at once; the higher C, corresponding to
the tone of the depressed key, will
clearly be heard. The experiment can
be repeated by depressing the keys of G,
c, e, g, etc., and striking each time the
key of Ci. In every case, the tone cor-
responding to the depressed key will be
heard. The explanation of the phenome-
non is found in the fact that the har-
monics C, G, c, . . . produced by the
fundamental tone Ci generate, by way
of resonance, sympathetic vibrations in
the shorter strings corresponding to these
tones. The harmonics are the cause of
three important musical phenomena,
namely, *timbre, the *natural tones of
wind instruments, and the *harmonics
of the violin.
V. Pipes. In pipes (organ pipes, and
all wind instruments) an enclosed air
column is caused to vibrate in what is
technically termed "stationary waves."
These are characterized by a regular
alternation of places of highest density
(nodes) and highest rarefaction (anti-
nodes or loops) between which the den-
sity of the air decreases from the maxi-
mum to the minimum. At the place of
maximum density the amplitude of the
vibrating particles of air is at a mini-
mum, and vice versa. The whole phe-
nomenon can conveniently be described
by graphs similar to that used for a vi-
brating string, if the point of highest
Open and Closed Pipes
amplitude is interpreted as the loop, the
stationary point as the node. In an open
pipe, a loop develops at each end, with a
node in the middle; in a *stopped pipe,
a node develops at the closed end, a loop
at the open end. From the accompany-
ACOUSTICS
ing drawing it appears that an open
pipe generates a sound the wave length
of which is double the length of the pipe
(N'N" = 2 AB), while a stopped pipe
generates a sound the wave length of
which is four times the length of the pipe
(N'N" = 4 AB) and which, therefore,
is an octave lower than that produced by
an open pipe of the same length. An
open pipe sounding C measures approxi-
mately eight feet [see *Foot (2)].
Like a vibrating string, an air column
vibrates not only as a whole but also in
parts (y 2> Y^ %, %, etc., of its length),
thus producing harmonics. While an
open pipe produces all the harmonics
(as does a string), a stopped pipe seg-
ments so as to give out only the odd-
numbered harmonics, 1,3,5, etc - T ne rea "
son is that an even harmonic (e.g., 2)
would call for a loop (or a node) at both
ends of the pipe, while in a stopped pipe
there is always a loop at the open end, a
node at the closed end [see *Wind instru-
ments III; *Organ IX],
VI. Interference. This is the technical
term (not a very fortunate one) for the
numerous phenomena resulting from the
B
INTERFERENCE
Ex. A: Vibrations of the Same Frequency. Ex. B:
Vibrations of Different Frequencies: I, of 12 cycles;
II, of 14 cycles; III, resulting vibration showing
2( = i4-i2) maximum vibrations per second
(beats).
superposition of two or more air vibra-
tions. The general principles of the very
complex phenomenon can be grasped
from the drawing [Ex. A], showing two
original vibrations (I, II) of the same
frequency as well as the result of their
superposition (III = I -f II). More im-
14]
ACTION
portant is the interference of vibration?
of different frequencies, e.g., of 2 and 3
cycles per second, or of 12 and 14 cycles
per second [Ex. B]. The example illus-
trates the manner in which *beats are pro-
duced, in the present case 2 (14-12) per
second. For a more complicated phenom-
enon of interference, see *Combination
tones.
Related articles: Architectural acous-
tics; Beats; Bel; Cents; Combination
tones; Comma; Consonance and Disso-
nance; Intervals, Calculation of; Just in-
tonation; Pitch; Pythagorean scale; Reso-
nance; Savart; Temperament; Timbre.
Lit.: W. T. Bartholomew, Acoustics
of Music (1942; bibl.); P. C. Buck,
Acoustics for Musicians (1918); J. Broad-
house, Musical Acoustics (1926); E. G.
Richardson, The Acoustics of Orchestral
Instruments and of the Organ (1929);
}. Jeans, Science and Music (1937);
D. C. Miller, Science of Musical Sounds
(1916); J. Redfield, Music: a Science and
an Art (1928); Stevens and Davis, Hear-
ing (1938); A. H. Davis, Modern Acous-
tics (1934); N. W. McLachlan, The New
Acoustics (1936); Olson and Massa, Ap-
plied Acoustics (1934). See also under
* Architectural acoustics; *Electronic mu-
sical instruments. Additional bibliog-
raphy in D. H. Daugherty, A Bibliog-
raphy of Periodical Literature in Musi-
cology . . . (1940), pp. nyff.
Action, (i) Any kind of mechanism
used in instruments as a means of trans-
mitting the action of the fingers to the
sound-producing parts; in other words,
a sort of artificial prolongation of the
fingers (or feet). On keyboard instru-
ments, the action forms an essential, even
the characteristic, part of the instrument
[see *Pianoforte I; *Organ II]. The
term is also applied to the key-mechanism
of wood-wind instruments which en-
ables the player to control holes which
are out of reach of the hand (e.g., the
*Boehm-action of the flute). The action
of the harp is the mechanism controlled
by the player's feet upon the pedals by
which a transposition of a semitone or a
whole tone can be effected [see *Harp],
ADDITIONAL ACCOMPANIMENT
(2) In modern French usage the word
action sometimes is used for an opera,
e.g., in Vincent d'Indy's Fervaal (1897).
Act tune. See *Entr'acte.
Adagietto [It.], (i) A tempo some-
what faster than adagio. (2) A short
adagio.
Adagio [It., comfortable, easy], (i)
Slow tempo, slower than andante and
faster than largo. (2) A movement
written in slow tempo, especially the sec-
ond (slow) movement of sonatas, sym-
phonies, etc. See *Tempo marks.
Adagissimo. Extremely slow.
Adaptation. * Arrangement.
Added sixth. The sixth added to a
triad, or the entire chord thus obtained
e.g., c-e-g-a. In classical harmony,
the chord of the added sixth occurs pref-
erably on the fourth degree, i.e., with a
subdominant function (f-a-c' d' in
C major; also f-ab -c' d'). It is usu-
ally explained as the first inversion of
the seventh-chord on the second degree
(d- f-a-c'). Although according to
strict rules the chord must be resolved
into the dominant or the tonic, it is used
in more recent works [impressionism]
as a color-modification of the triad which
does not call for resolution. Jazz writers
have abundantly availed themselves of
this over-sweet effect, especially for the
final chord of a piece.
Additional accompaniment. Desig-
nation for 19th-century revisions or en-
largements of earlier orchestral scores,
especially those of the i8th century (Han-
del, Bach). With the ever-increasing
size of the 19th-century orchestra and
concert hall, men felt the need of ex-
panding the instrumentation; but with
the ever-diminishing understanding of
true Baroque style, many stylistic incon-
gruities were allowed to enter. Thus, not
only were admissible and sometimes
necessary changes made (replacement of
obsolete instruments by newer ones,
doubling of certain parts, etc.), but also
the voice leading was changed, the writ-
IS]
ADDOLCENDO
ing was "improved," new parts were
added, and in many instances the original
intention of the composer was thor-
oughly misunderstood or disregarded.
The composers whose works were most
frequently subjected to arrangement
were Handel and Bach. The Messiah of
Handel has been particularly unfortu-
nate in this regard. Mozart was among
the first to make a more modern arrange-
ment of it; subsequently various other
musicians made further arrangements of
Mozart's arrangement. Many other
works of Handel have fared similarly,
e.g., under the hands of Mendelssohn,
who later expressed regret for having
published his arrangements. Bach's can-
tatas suffered mistreatment from Robert
Franz. Wagner made arrangements of
Beethoven's Ninth, of Gluck's Ifhigenie
en Aulide, etc. Recent times have wit-
nessed a growing understanding of the
Baroque style and a consequent demand
for authentic, unarranged, performances.
See *Auffiihrungspraxis. Cf. N. Kil-
burn, "Additional Arrangements to
Handel's Adi 9 (SIM iii).
Addolcendo [It.]. Becoming dolce.
Addolorato [It.]. Sadly.
A deux [F.]. See*A due.
Adirato [It.]. Angered, infuriated.
Ad libitum [L., at will]. An indica-
tion which gives the performer the lib-
erty: (i) to vary from strict tempo (con-
trast a *battuta)\ (2) to include or omit
the part of some voice or instrument
(contrast *obbligato); (3) to include a
*cadenza according to his own inven-
tion.
A due [It.]. Direction in orchestral
parts indicating that two instruments
notated on one staff (e.g., Flute i and 2)
are to sound in unison [see *AH'uni-
sono]. However, the term is also used
in the almost opposite meaning, synony-
mous with *divisi. The same ambiguity
exists with the French term a deux.
A due cordey see *Due corde. A due
AEOLOPANTALON
iy for two hands. A due vod (con,
stromentiy etc.), for two voices (choirs,
instruments, etc.).
Aengstlich [G.]. Anxiously.
Aeolian, aeolian mode. See *Church
modes; *Modality.
Aeolian harp [Gr. Aeolos, the God of
the Winds]. An instrument comprising
a long narrow box, with six or more gut
strings stretched inside over two bridges.
The strings are tuned in unison, but
vary in thickness and, therefore, tension.
If the box is placed in a free current of
air (preferably in an open window), the
strings, according to their different ten-
sion, vibrate differently and thus pro-
duce a great variety of harmonics over
the same fundamental (cf. the "singing"
of the telephone wires). The sound
varies considerably with the changing
force of the wind and produces a highly
romantic, mysterious effect. The instru-
ment was known in ancient China and
India, and in Europe during the Middle
Ages. It enjoyed special popularity in
the Romantic period around 1800. The
intimate charm of this instrument is most
beautifully set forth in Eduard Moerike's
poem Die Aeolsharfe and in its musical
settings by Brahms and (especially)
Hugo Wolf.
Various attempts have been made to
harness this elusive sound to a keyboard,
with an artificial jet of wind provided
by footbellows (Schnell's Antmochord
or Aero-clavichord, 1789; H. Herz's
Piano tolien, 1851). Cf. SaRM, 16.
Aeoline. Old name for *mouth-har-
monica. Also an early type of Harmo-
nium (aeolodicon) .
Aeolopantalon. An instrument in-
vented in 1825 by Dlugosz, Warsaw; it
was a combination of a harmonium-like
instrument (Aeolomelodityn, with brass
tubes affixed to the reeds) and a piano-
forte, so that both instruments could be
used in alternation. Its only claim to re-
membrance lies in the fact that the young
Chopin played on it in various recitals.
16]
AEQUALSTIMMEN
Aequalstimmen [G.]. (i) The eight-
foot pipes of the organ. (2) *Equal
voices.
Aerophones. Sec *Instruments III.
Aerophor (aerophon). A device in-
vented by B. Samuels in 1912 by which
the player of a wind instrument is pro-
vided with additional air from small
bellows operated with the foot. The air
is pressed, through a tube with mouth-
piece, into the mouth of the player when-
ever his breath does not suffice, e.g., for
long-held tones or long melodies in full
legato. R. Strauss has written passages
requiring the use of the aerophon (Al-
pine Symphony and Festal Prelude).
Aesthetics of music. I. Aesthetics is
generally defined as the philosophy or
study of the beautiful. Musical aesthetics,
therefore, should be the study of the
beautiful in music, the ultimate goal of
such a study being the establishment of
criteria which would allow us to say
whether or why one particular composi-
tion is beautiful while another is not.
The main objection to such a point of
view is that beauty is by no means the
only (and probably not even the fore-
most) criterion of what may be roughly
described as "quality" or "artistic value."
At least the possibility must be admitted
that music, like other works of art, may
be "valuable" without necessarily being
"beautiful" unless the term beauty is
interpreted so broadly as to include fea-
tures which may well be much closer to
its opposite. Therefore, a definition such
as the following provides a much better
basis for the study in question: Musical
aesthetics is the study of the relationship
of music to the human senses and intel-
lect. This definition corresponds exactly
to the original meaning of the Greek
word aisthesis, i.e., feeling, sensation.
The following words by R. Schumann
(Gesammelte Schrtften uber Musi^ und
Mustier, i, 44) adequately describe die
peculiar problem of musical aesthetics
[translation by the writer]:
"In no other field ii the proof of the
fundamentals as difficult as it is in music.
AESTHETICS OF MUSIC
Science argues with mathematics and
logic; poetry possesses the decisive,
golden word; other arts have chosen
nature as their arbiter, borrowing their
forms from her. Music, however, is a
poor orphan whose father and mother
nobody can name. But, perhaps, it is pre-
cisely this mystery of her origin which
accounts for the charm of her beauty."
II. For more than 2000 years philoso-
phers have tried to solve the mystery of
music. Among them we find Pythagoras
(550 B.C.), who explains music as the ex-
pression of that universal harmony which
is also realized in arithmetic and in as-
tronomy; Plato (400 B.C.), for whom
music is the most appropriate means of
social and political education [also Con-
fucius; see *Chinese music I]; Plotinus
(d. 270), who interprets music as a mys-
tic and occult power; Boethius (d. 524),
who divides music into three fields,
musica mundana (the Pythagorean har-
mony of the universe), musica humana
(the harmony of the human soul and
body), and musica instrumental^ (music
as actual sound), a classification which
prevailed in musical theory for more
than 1000 years; }. Kepler (Harmonices
mundi libri v, 1619), who in a great
structure of thought correlates the musi-
cal tones and intervals with the move-
ments of the planets and their astrological
functions; W. Leibniz (1646-1716), who
paves the way for the psychological
method of musical aesthetics by interpret-
ing music as the "unconscious exercise in
arithmetic"; A. Schopenhauer (Die Welt
als Wille und Vorstellung, 1819), who
considers music the purest incarnation
of the "absolute will" and as the expres-
sion of human feelings (love, joy, hor-
ror) in their abstract interpretation as
metaphysical ideas; then G. T. Fechner
(180187), who insists that music is the
expression of "general mood" rather than
specific "feelings"; and finally C. Stumpf
(Tonpsychologie, 1883-90), who inaugu-
rated the scientific study of musical psy-
chology on the basis of experiments and
statistics, especially with regard to the
problem of *consonance and dissonance.
Stumpf s procedure has been the point
[171
AESTHETICS OF MUSIC
of departure for many investigations
along similar lines, especially in Amer-
ica, e.g., C. E. Seashore, The Psychology
of Music (1938); M. Schoen, The Effects
of Music (1927), and others [see *Tests] .
For a criticism of these methods, cf.
C. C. Pratt, The Meaning of Music
It will be seen that not until the ad-
vent of the ipth century did these theo-
ries of music begin to accord with the
present-day interpretation of musical
aesthetics as defined above, a statement
which should not be construed as a de-
preciation of the much broader and, in
a sense, "greater" views cosmic, po-
litical, or theological held by the phi-
losophers of antiquity and of the Middle
Ages. While in those periods music
found its proper place and justification
in the universe, in the state, or in God,
for us it has lost these transcendental
affiliations, but has instead gained a se-
cure place in everyday life.
III. With the foregoing survey of the
theories and views held by philosophers
and psychologists as a general back-
ground, we may now turn to a study of
the contributions to our problem made
by the musicians themselves. As might
be expected, these contributions aim at a
more detailed penetration into the ques-
tions of musical aesthetics and are usu-
ally concerned with the study of indi-
vidual composers or works rather than
with music in the abstract. The various
theories can be conveniently divided into
two groups, according to whether they
consider music (a) as a heteronomous
art, i.e., as the expression of extramusical
elements, or (b) as an autonomous art,
i.e., as the realization of intrinsic prin-
ciples and ideas (F. Gatz).
(a) In the former class we find the
*AffeI(tenlehre of the i8th century and
its 16th-century predecessors, the *Musica
reservata and the *Maniera. In the lyth
century, music was frequently inter-
preted as an oratorical art, by relating its
structural and stylistic elements (such as
figura, rcpetitio^ fuga, climax) to cor-
responding principles of speech [cf. A.
Schering, in KJ, 1908], In the late Ro-
AESTHETICS OF MUSIC
mantic period the interpretation of musi-
cal compositions was largely based upon
programmatic and allegorical concepts.
Music was understood as a sort of psy-
chological drama and explained in terms
such as "desperate struggle," "the knock-
ing of Fate," "threatening fortissimo,"
"gloomy minor," etc. An early exponent
of this school of thought is A. B. Marx,
in his L. van Beethoven (1875). A more
intelligent use of this approach was at-
tempted by H. Kretzschmar, the inventor
of musitylische Hermeneuti^ [see *Her-
meneutics]. He considers music not as
a substitute for the pictorial arts or for ob-
jects of nature, but rather for poetry, i.e.,
as a SprachJ{unst of lesser clarity, but of
finer shades and deeper effects, than the
ordinary language. He goes back to the
"affects" of the i8th century which, ac-
cording to him, must be based upon the
study of the musical detail (themes, in-
tervals, rhythm, etc.). He also relates the
music to the life of the composer (Bee-
thoven's "period of happiness," etc.).
The latter point was emphasized by H.
Riemann, who maintains that the writ-
ten composition as well as the actual per-
formance is nothing but a means of trans-
ferring a psychological situation (Erleb-
nis) from the fancy of the composer to
that of the listener. Kretzschmar's
method has been elaborated by Schering
[see under *Hermeneutics] . A recent
American publication, E. Sorantin, The
Problem of Musical Expression (1932),
may be mentioned as an example of
20th-century Affefyenlehre (expression of
joy, grief, longing, etc.).
(b) In strong contrast to all these con-
tributions is the more recent school of
thought, which rejects the allegorical,
emotional, programmatic, poetical foun-
dation of musical aesthetics, and explains
music as a purely musical phenomenon,
as an autochthonous and autonomous
creation which can be understood only
in its own terms. The founder of this
school was E. Hanslick who, in his Vom
musil(alisch Schonen (1854), formulated
the sentence: "Musik ist toncnd bewegte
Form" music is form moving in
sounds (the term *form, naturally, must
18]
AEVIA
be taken in its widest sense, including all
structural and stylistic elements of
music). He admits the use of designa-
tions such as "powerful," "graceful,"
"tender," "passionate," but only in order
to illustrate the musical character of the
passage, not to suggest a definite feeling
on the part of composer or listener. Still
farther in this direction went August
Halm (Von zwei Kulturen der Musi^
1913), who must be considered the most
outstanding representative of musical
aesthetics of the present day. The follow-
ing quotation from the Talmud, given
at the beginning of his book, is an ade-
quate expression of the central thought
of musical autonomy: "If you want to
understand the invisible, look carefully
at the visible." Halm, as well as his suc-
cessors, E. Kurth, H. Hermann, F. Joede,
and others, advocated the separation of
the musical work from the emotional
world of both the composer and the
listener, and the emancipation of the
musical thought from "sensuous intoxi-
cation and hallucination."
See also *AfIektenlehre; *Hermeneu-
tics; *Musica reservata; *Maniera.
Lit.: F. M. Gatz, Musi^Aestheti^ in
ihren Hauptrichtungen (1929); H. H.
Briton, Philosophy of Music (1911);
H. Riemann, Catechism of Musical Aes-
thetics (1895); R. Schaefke, Geschichte
der Musi^-aesthetif^ (1934); H. Besseler,
"Grundfragen der Musik-aesthetik"
(JMP xxxiii). For a bibliography of re-
cent psychological studies, cf. D. H.
Daugherty, A Bibliography of Periodical
Literature in Musicology . . . (1940),
pp. io8ff. Cf. also MoML y 538^
Aevia. An artificial word, consisting of
the vowels of "alleluia (u = v). It is
occasionally used as an abbreviation in
manuscripts of Gregorian chant. Sec
"Euouae.
Affabile [It.]. In a pleasing manner.
AFRICAN MUSIC
A ff anno so [It.]. Sadly.
Affektenlehre [G.; doctrine of affec-
tions] . The aesthetic theory of the *emp-
findsamer Stil (sensitive style) of the
later i8th century, formulated by J.
Quantz and Ph. Em. Bach, according
to which the chief aim of music is to
portray certain typical emotions, such as
the tender, the languid, the passionate,
etc. This theory, which is realized in the
works of Ph. Em. Bach, marks an im-
portant advance over the superficiality
of the Italian "stile galante" (*gallant
style) and, in spite of its rationalistic
nature and schematic methods, paves the
way for the free expressiveness of the
Beethoven style. See * Aesthetics III (a);
*Musica reservata.
Lit.: W. Serauky, Die musi\alische
Nachahmungsaesthetif^ im Zeitraum
1700-1850 (1929); M. Kramer, Beitra'ge
zu einer Aesthetil^ der Affectenlehre in
der Musi^ von 15501700 (Diss. Halle
1924); H. Goldschmidt, Die Musityies-
theti^ des 18. Jahrhunderts (1915); G.
Frotscher, Bach's Themen-bildung unter
dem Einfluss der Affektenlehre (1926);
R. Schaefke, "Quantz als Aesthetiker"
(AMW vi); H. Abert, in AMW v; H.
Kretzschmar, in JMP xviii, xix; F. Stege,
in ZMW x; A. Schering, in JMP xlv.
Affetti [It.]. The term appears as a
title of various publications around 1600
[Dolci Affetti (1595); S. Bonini, Affetti
spirituals in istile di Firenze or recitative
. . . (1615); B. Marini, Affetti musicali,
op. i (1617)], probably in order to em-
phasize the emotional character of the
music. It is also used in early violin
sonatas to designate a certain type of
ornamentation, either tremolo or arpeg-
gio [cf. SchGMB y no. 183; RiHM ii. 2,
120].
Affettuoso [It]. Affectionate, with
warmth.
Affrettando [It.]. Hurrying.
Affaiblissant [F.]. Weakening, di-
minuendo. A - . o *r .
African music. See "Primitive music;
*Arabian music; "Ethiopian Church
music; "Coptic Church music.
[19]
Affanato [It]. "Panting," i.e., as in
distress.
AFTERNOON OF A FAUN, THE
Afternoon of a Faun, The. Sec
Symphonic poem IV.
Agende [L. agenda, that which has to
be done]. The Protestant counterpart of
the Catholic liturgy or of the Anglican
rites, i.e., the entire ritual of the service
of the German Protestant Church. Cf.
H. Kretzschmar, Die musifylische
Agende (1894); R. v. Liliencron, Musi-
folisch-liturgische Geschichte des evange-
lischen Gottesdienstes 1525-7700 (1892).
Agevole [It.]. Lightly and easily.
Aggradevole [It.]. Agreeably.
Agilmente; conagilita [It.]. Lively,
speedily.
Agitato [It.]. Agitated, excited.
Agnus Dei. The last item (except for
the *Itc missa est) of the Ordinary of the
Mass [see *Mass A and B III]; there-
fore, the final movement in Mass com-
positions. It consists of three invocations:
"Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi:
miserere nobis. Agnus Dei, . . . mise-
rere nobis. Agnus Dei, . . . dona nobis
pacem." The musical structure of the
chant is usually A A A (sometimes with
a different beginning for the middle A),
or A B A. See *Gregorian chant IV.
Agogic. An accent is said to be agogic
if it is effected, not by dynamic stress or
by higher pitch, but by longer duration
of the note [see * Accent]. In German
writings the term Agogi^ is used to de-
note all the subtleties of performance
achieved by modification of tempo, as
distinct from Dynami^ i.e., gradations
which involve variety of intensity. Thus,
the use of rallentando and accelerando,
of tempo rubato, the dwelling on certain
notes, also rests, breathing signs, fer-
matas, etc., all fall under Agogi^. The
term was introduced by H. Riemann
(Musitylische Dynami\ und Agogi^
1884) particularly in order to describe
those deviation's from strict tempo and
rhythm which are necessary for an in-
telligible rendering of the musical phrase.
Agr6ments. The ornaments intro-
duced in French music of the i7th cen-
AIR
tury, which were finally adopted into all
European music and were generally indi-
cated by stenographic signs or as notes
in small type. The agrements are char-
acterized by a definitely stereotyped me-
lodic contour, a close relationship with a
single note of the melody to be orna-
mented, and a small melodic range. See
Ornamentation H. P. A.
Aida. Grand opera by Giuseppe Verdi
(1813-1901), libretto by A. Ghislanzoni;
commissioned by the Khedive of Egypt
for the new Opera House at Cairo and
produced there in 1871, The plot has an
ancient Egyptian background and centers
around the love of the Egyptian warrior
Radames (Tenor) for the captive Ethi-
opian princess Aida (Soprano), and the
jealousy of Amneris (Mezzo-soprano),
daughter of the king of Egypt Amonasro
(Bass). Amneris, repudiated by Rada-
mes, discovers a treacherous plot of the
two lovers designed to aid Ethiopia, and
both die.
Although reputedly making use of a
few Egyptian musical themes, the gen-
eral style of the opera is that of the Italian
grand opera. Striking features are the
brief atmospheric prelude (in place of
a conventional operatic overture) and the
use of a few *leitmotifs (e.g., Amneris'
jealousy).
Aigu [F.]. High, shrill.
Air [F.]. (i) French iSth-century term
for song in general [see under *Chan-
son]. (2) In French opera and ballet
of the I7th-i8th centuries, an instrumen-
tal or vocal piece designed to accompany
dancing, but not cast in one of the stand-
ard dance patterns such as the minuet,
gavotte, etc. Sometimes (e.g., Rameau)
it is qualified as air tcndre, air gracieux,
etc. (3) In the *suites around and
after 1700, a movement, found in the
optional group, of a melodic rather than
dance-like character in a way, a "song
without words" [cf. Bach's Partitas nos.
IV and VI], As yet, no clear connection
between these airs and those described
under (2) has been discerned, probable
as it is that such a connection existed.
[20]
AIR DE COUR
(4) See *Ayre. For air de charactere,
etc., see *Aria.
Air de cour [F., court song]. Short
strophic songs, sometimes with a refrain,
for one or more voices with lute accom-
paniment, which were cultivated in
France in the late i6th and in the iyth
century. They are in simple syllabic
style and in binary form. The texts are
chiefly love-poems in affected precieux
language, some of them in *vers me sure.
The repetition of each of the two sections
was frequently ornamented at will by the
singer. Principal composers are Pierre
Guedron (c. 1565-1625); Antoine Boe's-
set {c. 1585-1646); Jean de Cambefort
(d. 1661); Michel Lambert (1610-96).
Cf. Th. Gerold, L'Art du chant en France
au XV He siecle (1921); L. de la Lau-
rencie, ^Chansons au luth et airs de cour
au XV le siecle (1931); A. Arnheim, in
SIMx. D.J.G.
Ais, aisis [G.]. See *Pitch names.
Akademie [G.]. *Academy. See also
under * Academic.
Akkord [G.]. Chord.
Akoluthia [Gr.]. The order of the
service of the Byzantine Church, particu-
larly that of the office, thus usually not
including the Mass, which was called
leiturgeia (liturgy). Cf. E. Wellesz, By-
zantinische Musi\ (1927), p. 23.
Akzent [G.]. Accent. A\zentneumen y
accent neumes [see *Neumes II],
Alala. A type of Galician folk song
expressing passion and longing. Older
examples use syllables such as la-la or
ai-le-lo-la and are interesting because of
the preservation of plainsong-like ele-
ments. Cf. F. Pedrell, "\Cancionero mu-
sical popular espanol (1918-22), ii, 2171!.
A la mi re, alamire. See *Hexachord
III.
Alba, albe, aube [F., dawn]. In the
repertoire of the Provencal *troubadours,
a poem dealing with the departure of the
lover in the early morning. It usually is
a dialogue between the lover and a
AL FINE
guardian friend who warns him of some
approaching danger [cf. GeHM, 301;
ReMMA, 215], The German Minne-
singer counterpart of the alba is the
Tagelied (day-song) or Wdchterlicd
(guardian-song) which Wagner revived
in the second act of his Tristan (Bran-
gane's warning call). Many examples of
Tagelied, however, are of a more devo-
tional nature, serving as a sort of morn-
ing prayer [cf. F. Runge, fD/> Sanges-
weisen der Colmarer Liederhandschrtft,
p. 173]. See also *Alborada; *Aubade.
Albert! bass. Stereotyped figures of
accompaniment for the left hand of the
piano player, consisting of broken chords
[see also *Murky bass] . They are named
after Domenico Alberti (1710-40?) who
used them extensively in his harpsichord
sonatas. An early example occurs in the
fourth variation of the G minor aria in
Pachelbel's Hexachordum Apollinis of
1698 [cf. DTB 2.i; TaAM ix, 64]. They
are still frequent in the works of Haydn,
Mozart, and the early Beethoven.
Albisiphone. See *Flute I (d).
Alborada [Sp., dawn song]. A type
of Spanish (particularly, Galician) music,
played on the dulzaina (rustic oboe) and
tamboril (small drum), originally a
morning serenade [cf. G. Chase, The
Music of Spain (1941), p. 237]. Ravel's
Alborada del Gracioso (1912) derives cer-
tain features from the Spanish alborada.
See also *Alba; *Aubade.
Albumblatt [G.], album leaf. A
fancy name for short pieces of 19th-cen-
tury salon music such as might have
served as a contribution to an autograph
album.
Alcuna licenza, Con [It.]. With a
little license, specifically regarding the
tempo.
Al fine [It.]. To the end (for repeti-
tion of a piece from the beginning).
ALIQUOT STRINGS
Aliquot Brings, aliquot scaling.
*Sympathfcitic strings added by some
pianoforte* makers (Bliithner) above the
strings of the upper register in order to
produce a 'fuller sound by resonance.
Alia breve [It.]. A tempo mark (<f)
indicating < quick duple time, i.e., with
the half-note rather than the quarter-note
as the beat; in other words,, 2/2 instead
of 4/4. Both the name and the sign are
a- vestige of *mensural notation and of
the *proportions (tempus imperjectum
diminutum). Originally and properly
alia breve means that the unit of musical
time (^tactus) is represented by the
*brevis (corresponding to our double
whole note), not as normally by the
semibrevis (corresponding to our whole
note). Today it means that the half-note
should be, regarded as the unit of time,
not as normally the quarter-note. See also
*Time signatures.
Allargando [It.]. Slowing down, usu-
ally accompanied by a crescendo; used
chiefly towards the end of a piece.
Allegramente [It.]. Brightly, gaily.
Allegretto [It.], (i) A tempo between
allegro and andante; see *Tempo marks.
(2) A small allegro movement.
Allegro [It., cheerful]. Originally a
designation for the joyful character of a
piece; today employed to indicate quick
tempo, regardless of the character and
expression [see *Tempo marks]. Also
used as a title for pieces in quick tempo,
especially the first and last movements
of a sonata.
Alleluia [Latinization of Hebrew
* halleluiah) praise ye the Lord]. An ex-
pression of joy and praise of God which
occurs frequently in Gregorian chant.
During Eastertide, the word alleluia is
added to all antiphons, and to various
other chants. It also occurs at the end of
chants for Christmas, Corpus Christi,
and other festivals. Alleluiatic antiphons
are antiphons which consist of the word
alleluia repeated three times [see, e.g.,
LU, 19]. More specifically, the term al-
ALLEMANDE
leluia denotes the third item of the
Proper of the *Mass. It was introduced
by Pope Damasus (368-384), first for
Easter only. Pope Gregory (590-604)
extended its use over the entire year ex-
cept for Lent, for which season the orig-
inal *tract was preserved. The alleluia
of the Mass consists of the word Alleluia
followed by a brief sentence referring to
the occasion, the so-called vers (versus
allcluiaticus, abbr. y), e.g.: Alleluia.
y. Surrexit Dominus de sepulcro [cf.
GR, 228; LU, 790; also HAM, no. 13;
EiBM, no. 4; ReMMAy 180]. The music
for the word alleluia closes with a long
vocalization to the final vowel: (Al~
lelui)a , the so-called *neuma or
*jubilus. See also *Gregorian chant III;
*Psalmody II; *Sequence.
Allemande [F., German, sc. a dance].
A dance in moderate duple time which
first appeared around 1550. Early ex-
amples occur in T. Susato's Musyc\
BoexJ(en (1551); in P. Attaingnant's
Troisieme livre de danseries (1556); in
B. Schmid, Zwey Bucher einer neuen
\unstlichen Tabulator (1577) [cf. W.
Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Ta-
bulaturbuchern (1927), p. in]; in the
Fitz William Virginal Boo^ (c. 1620),
where the name Alman, Almayne is
used. Arbeau, in his *Orchesographie
(1588), considers the dance already out-
moded. The music of the 16th-century
allemande in no way differs from that of
the *passamezzo; the dance steps were
simple, as appears from the following
description by Th. Morley [A Plaine and
Easie Introduction . . . (1597)) p. 181]:
"The Alman is a more heavie daunce
then this [i.e., the galliarde] (fitlie rep-
resenting the nature of the people, whose
name it carieth) so that no extraordinarie
motions are used in dauncing of it."
Like the pavane and passamezzo, the al-
lemande was frequently followed by a
jumping dance in triple meter, called
*tripla, *proportz, or, in the i7th cen-
tury, by the courante. In the i7th cen-
tury the allemande ceased to be actually
danced and became a stylized dance type
which was regularly used as the first
ALLENTANDO
movement of the *suitc. These allc-
mandes are in very moderate 4/4-time,
with a short upbeat, and frequently make
*TT
n-T
rr i i
ALT
words with the same initial letter. This
principle was adopted by R. Wagner in
his Ring des Nibelungs, e.g., "Nach Wei-
ten- Wonne mein Wunsch t/erlangte aus
#>ebcndem Zfengen."
use of short running figures which arc
passed through the various voices of a
pseudo-contrapuntal fabric. Our three
examples (i. Ammerbach, 1571; 2. Pur-
cell, c. 1660; 3. J. K. F. Fischer, c. 1690)
illustrate the stylistic development of the
dance.
In the late i8th century the name al-
lemande was used in South Germany as
an equivalent for Deutscher Tanz, a
quick waltz-like dance in 3/4- or 3/8-
time. Cf. Beethoven's "A Tallcmande"
in his Bagatellen, op. 119, and his 12
Deutsche Tdnze fur Ore/tester (1795).
See *Dance music III.
Lit.: E. Mohr, Die Allemandc in der
deutschen Klaviersuitc (1932).
Allentando [It.]. Slowing.
Alliteration. A characteristic feature
of ancient Germanic poetry (e.g., Beo-
wulf, Edda), consisting of the use of
Allmahlich [G.]. Gradually.
Allonger [F.]. To slacken in speed
All'ottava [It.]. See *Ottava.
AH'unisono [It.]. In orchestral scores
this term indicates that two instruments
for which the same staff is employed
(e.g., two flutes) play in unison, i.e., the
same notes. See *A due.
Alman, almayne. Sixteenth-century
English corruption of *allemande.
Alpensinfonie, Eine (An Alpine
Symphony). See *Symphonic poem III.
Alphabet (in music). See *Pitch
names; *Letter notation; *Tablature.
Alphorn, alpine horn. A primitive
wind instrument, still used by the herds-
men in the Alps for signaling over great
distance and for simple melodies. It is
made of wooden staves bound with strips
of birch bark, is 5 to 10 feet long, and
appears in various shapes, straight or
bent. The tones produced are the har-
monics [see *Acoustics IV], somewhat
modified by the material and by the ir-
regular width of the inner tube. In par-
ticular, the fourth (nth harmonic) is
halfway between F and F-sharp (Alp-
horn-fa) [see *Ranz de vaches]. Similar
instruments are to be found in Scandi-
navia, Poland, and Rumania, and among
the South American Indians. Cf. SaRM,
7; Szandrowsky, in Jahrbuch des Schwei-
zer Alpenclubs iv; K. Nef, in DC Mu-
zie^ v.
Al solito [It.]. As usual.
Alt. (i) In English usage the term is
sometimes applied to the tones of the
octave above the treble staff (g" to f "),
which arc said to be "in alt." The tones
of the next higher octave are called "in
altissimo." (2) In German, the lower
of the two female voices, i.e., the con-
[23]
ALTERATION
tralto [see *Ako]. In connection with
instruments (Alttyarinctte, Altsaxo-
phon), the term denotes the second high-
est member of the family (alto clarinet,
alto saxophone). See the various instru-
ments. Altgeige is the viola alta [see
Violin family (d)], rarely the ordinary
viola.
Alteration, (i) See *Mensural nota-
tion. (2) The raising or lowering of
a note by means of a sharp or flat; also
called chromatic alteration. See *Acci-
dentals; *Chromaticism; *Altered chord.
Altered chord. See *Harmonic analy-
sis V.
Alternative [It.], alternativement
[F.]. In the suites of the Bach period,
an indication found with a pair of dances
(e.g., Bourree I, alternativement Bour-
ree II), calling for repetition of the
first dance after the second, thus leading
to the ternary arrangement A B A [cf.
Bach's English Suite no. 2]. This struc-
ture persists in the Minuet (Scherzo)
with Trio of the classical sonata [see
*Trio].
Altgeige [G.]. See under *Alt (2).
Althorn. See *Brass instruments III (f).
Altistin [G.]. A contralto singer.
Alto [It., high], (i) A female voice of
low range, also called contralto. See
* Voices, Range of. (2) Originally the
alto was a high male voice (hence the
name) which by use of the *falsetto
nearly reached the height of the female
voice (contralto). This type of voice,
also known as *counter-tenor, was espe-
cially cultivated in England, where the
church music of the i6th and i7th cen-
turies definitely implies its use. For the
explanation of the term, see Contra-
tenor. (3) The second-highest part of
the normal four-part chorus; L. altus.
(4) In French and Italian, the second-
highest instrument of the violin family,
i.e., the viola. (5) In connection with
clarinet, flute, saxophone, etc., the term
refers to the third- or fourth-highest
member of the family.
'AMBROSIAN CHANT
Lit.: G. E. Stubbs, The Adult
Alto or Countertenor (1908); A. H. D.
Prendergast, "The Man's Alto in Eng-
lish Music" (ZIM i); J. Hough, "The
Historical Significance of the Counter-
tenor" (PMA Ixiv).
Alto clef. See *Clefs.
Altra volta [It.]. Encore.
Altschlussel [G.]. Alto-clef.
Altus [L.]. See*Alto (3).
Alzati [It.]. "Raised," indication to
take off the mutes.
Amabile [It.]. Lovable.
Amarevole [It.] . With bitterness, sadly.
Ambitus [L., compass, range]. The
range of the melodies of Gregorian chant.
It varies from a fourth (in the psalm
tones) to an octave or ninth in the more
melismatic chants (graduals, alleluias)
[see also *Gregorian chant V (b)]. In
the theory of the church modes, the am-
bitus is the chief mark of distinction
between an authentic and a plagal mode.
See *Church modes. Cf. Krasucki,
"Ueber den Ambitus der gregorianischen
Messgesange" ( Veroffentlichungen der
Gregorianischen Academic zu Freiburg,
Schweiz, i. Heft).
Ambo. In early Christian churches a
special platform on the steps of which
the gradual was sung.
Amboss [G.]. *Anvil.
Ambrosian chant. The liturgical
chant, established by St. Ambrose, bishop
of Milan (333-397), and still in use today
in the cathedral of that city; therefore
also called Milanese chant. It is one of
the four "dialects" of Christian chant
[see *Chant], and probably is closer to
its original form than *Gregorian (Ro-
man) chant. The Ambrosian melodies
are usually more ornamented than the
corresponding Gregorian melodies [cf.
the comparative examples in HAM, no.
10; SchGMB, no. 2; BeMMR, 58; LavE
i.i, 561; O. Ursprung, Katholische Kir-
[24]
AMBROSIAN HYMNS
chenmusi^ 20; H. Gastoue, Cours du
chant gregorien y 67, 128, 149]. Vocaliza-
tions including up to 200 notes are not
rare. On the other hand, the Ambrosian
psalm tones are simpler and lack the
methodical arrangement to be found with
the Gregorian psalm tones [cf. GD v,
267]. The Ambrosian rite occasionally
differs from the Gregorian, for instance,
in the names given to the chants: in-
gressa for introitus, psalmellus for grad-
ual, transitorium for communion, etc.
The use of the term "Ambrosian modes"
for the four authentic church modes (in
distinction from the "Gregorian," i.e.,
plagal, modes) is without any historical
justification. For more details see
*Church modes II. The earliest sources
of Ambrosian chant (nth century) con-
tain chants in the plagal as well as in the
authentic modes.
Lit.: P. Wagner, Einfuhrung in die
Gregorianischen Melodien (1911-21),
vols. i and iii; G. Bas, Manuale di canto
Ambrosiano (Torino, 1929; bibl.); ^An-
tiphonale Ambrosianum [see *Editions,
XXIII, A, 5/6]; K. Ott, "Le Ingresse (II
Psalmellus) della liturgia ambrosiana"
(Rassegna Gregoriana viii).
Ambrosian hymns. The hymns of
the Roman and Ambrosian rites writ-
ten and possibly composed by St. Am-
brose.
I. Text. Formerly all the hymns (c.
120) of the Antiphonarium were ascribed
to Ambrose, under the generic name of
hymni Ambrosiani. Actually the number
of true Ambrosian hymns is much small-
er, about 20 [see Lit., Dreves]. With
four of them Ambrose's authorship is
placed beyond doubt by the testimony of
St. Augustine (De Musica)\ these are:
Aeterne rerum conditor\ Deus creator
omnium; Jam surgit hora tertia\ Veni
redemptor gentium. All the Ambrosian
hymns are written in the simple scheme
of eight stanzas; each consisting of four
lines in iambic tetrameters, e.g.:
Venf redemptor gentium
Ostendc partum virginis
Miretur 6mne sc*culum
Talis dece*t partiis deum.
AME
Regarding the early history, see *Hymn
I, II.
II. Music. About a dozen melodies of
Ambrosian hymns are preserved in
sources none of which is earlier than the
1 2th century (an exception is the melody
for the Aeterne Christi munera, given in
*Daseian notation in the *Musica en-
chiriadis, c. 850; cf. GS i, 154 and RiHM
i.2, 17). Under these circumstances the
question as to whether these melodies are
compositions of Ambrose or as has
been surmised "early Christian folk
songs," or products of a later period, re-
mains entirely open, the more so since in
a number of cases different melodies are
given for the same hymn. The melodies
are syllabic, with occasional groups of two
or three notes; the latter are usually
omitted in modern transcriptions which
try to give the melodies in what is believed
to be their "original form." No less prob-
lematic is the question as to the true
rhythm of these hymns, i.e., whether they
are to be interpreted in duple or in triple
time. The answer probably depends upon
whether they are considered as melodies
of the Ambrosian era or of the late Middle
Ages (nth, i2th centuries). According
to St. Augustine, the iambic feet of the
Ambrosian hymns were "tria temporum"
(in three beats). The accompanying ex-
ample shows a hymn (a) in its 9th-cen-
tury form and (b) in its hypothetical
original state [cf. also HAM, no. 9],
A-tr-neQiastl muncra et mar-ty- nun vie-to- K-
The term "Ambrosian hymn" [G.
Ambrosianischer Lobgesang] is errone-
ously used for the *Te Deum.
Lit.: Biraghi, Inni sinceri di S. Am-
brogio (1862); G. M. Dreves, "Aurelius
Ambrosius . . ." (Stimmen aus Maria
Laachy Ergdnzungsheft 58, 1893); G. Bas,
in Musica Divina xvii; J. Jeannin, in TG
xxvi, 115.
Ame [F., soul]. Sound post.
AMEN
Amen. A Hebrew word, meaning "so
be it," which is widely used in the Chris-
tian rites. It is usually spoken by the con-
gregation (or recited by the choir) as a
confirming answer to the lection or the
prayer of the priest [cf. AR, 35*]. Espe-
cially important is its occurrence at the
end of the minor *doxology, in the con-
nection ". . . seculorum. Amen" [see
*Evovae] and, in the Mass, at the end of
the Gloria (". . , in gloria dei patris.
Amen") as well as of the Credo (". . . et
vitam venturi saeculi. Amen"). In the
polyphonic Masses of the i7th and i8th
centuries the confirming character of the
Amen led to the writing of extensive
finales in fugal style, called Amen-fugue
or Amen-chorus, in which the word is re-
peated over and over again. This prac-
tice occurred first with Antonio Bertali
(1605-69; cf. AdHM i, 516), and contin-
ued throughout the periods of Handel
(famous Amen-chorus), Bach, Mozart,
Beethoven, etc. In Cherubim's D minor
Mass at the end of the Credo, the soprano
alone repeats the word 107 times. For
Amen-cadence see *Plagal cadence.
Amener [F.]. A 17th-century dance in
moderate triple time with phrases of six
measures (three plus three or four plus
two) as a characteristic feature. It occurs
in the suites of Heinrich Biber, J. K. F.
Fischer, Alessandro Poglietti, in the in-
strumental suites edited by ficorchcville
( 1906), etc. The derivation of the amener
from the *basse dance, given in most ref-
erence books, is very questionable. More
likely, it is one of the numerous species of
the *branlc, a branle & mener, i.e., a branle
in which one pair was leading while the
others followed. See also *Minuet.
American Guild of Organists. See
*Societies, Musical I, i.
American Indian music. Although
the collection and scientific study of tribal
songs of the American Indians did not
commence until the latter i9th century,
there arc numerous references to the music
of the Indians from the early I7th cen-
tury, shortly after the coming of English
colonists. In William Wood's account of
AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC
his visit to Plymouth and Massachusetts
Bay (London, 1634), he wrote of the In-
dians' singing: "To hear one of these
Indian's unseene, a good care might easily
mistake their untaught voyce for the war-
bling of a well tuned instrument. Such
command have they of their voices."
Travelers and explorers occasionally re-
ported that the Indians were musical,
among them the Frenchman F. G. Sagard
in his Le grand Voyage du Pays dcs Hu-
rons (1632).
In the 1 8th century F. W. Marpurg,
the German music historian, published
Remarks on Three Songs of the Iroquois
(Berlin, 1760), and William Beresford
printed an Indian melody in his A Voy-
age around the world; but more particu-
larly to the northwest coast of America
(London, 1789). One of the early at-
tempts at adaptation of an actual Indian
melody was first published in London in
1784, and was called Al)(nomoo\ (Al^-
moono!(), "The death song of the Chero-
kee Indians, an Original Air, brought
from America by a gentleman long con-
versant with the Indian tribes, and par-
ticularly with the Nation of the Chero-
kees. The Words adapted to the Air by
a Lady." The identity of the "Gentle-
man" is unknown, but the "Lady" was
identified by Frank Kidson as Anne Hone
Hunter, who was Haydn's hostess during
his London visit. In America, James
Hewitt included All(moono^ in the score
he arranged and composed for the ballad-
opera Tammany (1794), and in 1800 Gil-
fert in New York and von Hagen in
Boston published sheet-music editions of
the song. Both American and English
editions presented the melody in thor-
oughly conventional form.
The first serious study of Indian music
by a musician was undertaken by Theo-
dore Baker, a German-American who in
1880 was a student at the University of
Leipzig. As a subject for his doctor's thesis
he chose the music of the North Ameri-
can Indians, and visited the Seneca Reser-
vation in New York State and the Indian
school at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. In 1882
the thesis was published at Leipzig: Vber
die Musil( dcr Nordameri1(anischen Wil-
AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC
den. It analyzed some sixty melodies ac-
cording to their poetry, vocalization,
scales, melodic progressions, rhythm, no-
tations, and instruments for performance.
Baker's studies were soon followed by
those of Alice C. Fletcher, who visited the
Omaha tribe, where she was assisted by
John C. Fillmore of Harvard, who pro-
vided piano accompaniments for the mel-
odies Miss Fletcher transcribed. Her find-
ings were published at intervals from
1883 to 1911 by the Peabody Museum of
American Archaeology and Ethnology
and by the Bureau of American Ethnol-
ogy in Washington.
B. J. Oilman and J. W. Fewkes were
pioneers in applying scientific methods to
analysis of Indian melodies. Gilman ac-
companied the Hemenway Southwestern
Expedition among the Zufii, Pueblo, and
Hopi Indians, and measured the interval
structure of their melodies by a mechani-
cal device. Fewkes was one of the first to
use the phonograph to record Indian sing-
ing (1890), and in 1891 Gilman published
a study based on these records of Zufii
songs. Further studies of Zuni, Pueblo,
and Hopi songs were made by Natalie C.
Burlin, while music of the Ojibways in
Minnesota and Wisconsin was taken down
and annotated by Frederick R. Burton.
The United States Government first
undertook the perpetuation of Indian
tribal melodies in 1911, by appointing
trained investigators to collect the melo-
dies with the aid of the phonograph and
place them on record, with annotations,
in the Smithsonian Institution. Reports
on the research have been issued by the
Bureau of American Ethnology. The
most prominent worker under these aus-
pices has been Frances Densmore, who
has studied the music and customs of the
Chippewas, Teton Sioux, Northern Ute,
Mandan, Hidatsa, and others.
The question as to whether the music
of the Indians is to be considered Ameri-
can folk music is open to debate. Cer-
tainly, if Western culture is considered
predominant among the inhabitants of
the nation, American Indian music is ex-
otic and far different in conception from
that which has been influenced by the
AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC
parent nations of the white settlers and
their descendants. When Indian melodies
are reduced to the diatonic scale, and har-
monized according to Western practice,
the character of most of them is lost in the
process. It is also inaccurate to refer to
American Indian music as a unified body
of folk-material. Originally there were
more than fifty basic linguistic stocks,
each of them divided into separate tribes.
The government Office of Indian Affairs,
even at the present time when the Indians
seem to be approaching tribal extinction,
deals with three hundred and forty-two
tribes, a number which does not include
the sub-tribal divisions. Each of these
tribes had its own customs, religion, and
characteristic music.
There are, however, a number of traits
which arc common to the music of vari-
ous tribes. Music is rarely performed by
the Indians for its own sake; generally
songs belong to some tribal custom, and
are sung only for the performance of that
custom. A visitor to one of the tribes
could not persuade the Indians to sing a
hunting song for him because they were
not actually hunting at the time. There
are songs for treating the sick, war songs
designed to bring success in battle, re-
ligious ceremonial songs, game songs,
many of them for gambling, dream and
vision songs, children's songs, and love
songs for courtship. Among most of the
tribes, three classes of songs exist. First,
the old, traditional songs, which have
been handed down from generation to
generation. Second, the old ceremonial
and medicine songs which are rarely per-
formed because they belonged to men now
dead, but which can still be sung by those
who remember their owners' singing of
them. Third, there are the comparatively
modern songs, which show the influence
of civilization. The property idea regard-
ing songs is common to many tribes, and
the individual owner of a song was often
known to sell it to another member of the
tribe. It could then be sung only by the
purchaser.
Many of the Indian songs, like those of
primitive races generally, are character-
ized by a descending melodic line. The
[27]
AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC
descent may be interrupted, but it con-
tinues to the end. According to a tabu-
lation of 820 songs by Frances Densmore,
67 per cent begin with a downward pro-
gression, and in 87 per cent the last tone
is the lowest of the entire melody. Al-
though many of the melodies cannot be
accurately represented in diatonic nota-
tion, many of them approximate the pen-
tatonic major or minor modes. Densmore
found also that 67 per cent of 340 Chip-
pewa songs end on tones which provide
the' ear with satisfactory keynotes. Rhyth-
mically, Indian music is complex and ir-
regular. The Indian is capable of per-
forming involved polyrhythms, although
Burton believed that the performers are
unaware that their songs and the accom-
panying drum beats are cast in conflicting
rhythms. See the examples under *Primi-
tive music.
The musical instruments of the various
tribes are flutes, whistles, rattles, and
drums. Although flutes are commonly
pictured as aiding in courtship, they are
as frequently used for warning against the
approach of an enemy. Whistles are part
of the medicine man's equipment for
treating the sick. Rattles are often re-
garded as sacred articles, for use in wor-
ship. Some of them are merely notched
sticks, rubbed over a second stick, while
others are receptacles holding loose ob-
jects. The drums are essential to Indian
music, some tribes cannot sing without
them. They are made in various sizes,
from hand drums to immense kegs partly
filled with water.
The effect of Indian music on the art
music of the United States has been ex-
tensive, but limited. Edward MacDowell
used Indian melodies in his Second Or-
chestral ("Indian") Suite of 1890; C. S.
Skilton in his Indian Dances and Suite
Primeval; C. W. Cadman in Thunderbird
Suite and other works; Frederick Jacobi
in his Indian Dances; C. T. Griffes in
Two Sketches for String Quartet; Victor
Herbert in the opera, Natoma; while
H. W. Loomis, Arthur Farwell, Thurlow
Lieurance, Carlos Troycr, Henry F. Gil-
bert, and others have made many settings
of tribal material. Among non-American
AMERICAN MUSIC
composers, Dvordk, with his symphony
"From the New World," and Busoni,
with his Indianisches Tagebuch, may be
mentioned.
Lit.: F. R. Burton, American Primitive
Music (1909); Natalie Curtis, The Indi-
an's BooJ^ (1907); Frances Densmore,
Chippewa Music, Nos. i and 2 (1910 and
1913), Man dan and Hidatsa Music
(1923), Northern Ute Music (1922),
Teton Sioux Music ( 1918) ; A. C. Fletcher,
Indian Story and Song from North Amer-
ica (1900); F. Densmore, "The Study of
Indian Music" (MQ i); id., in MQ xvii,
xx; F. W. Galpin, "Aztec Influence on
American Indian Instruments" (SIM iv);
M. Barbeau, "Asiatic Survivals in Indian
Songs" (MQ xx) ; J. Tiersot, "La musique
chez les peuples indigenes de I'Amerique
du nord. . . ." (SIM xi; bibl.). An ex-
tensive bibliography is found in G. Her-
zog, Research in Primitive and FolJ^
Music in the United States (1936).
J.T.H.
American music. This term is gener-
ally accepted as applying to music which
is composed or has its origin in the United
States, Similarly, an American composer
is one who is either a native of the United
States or has adopted the nation prior to
his or her mature production. For other
musical cultures of the American hemi-
sphere see * American Indian music;
*Latin American music; *Negro music;
^Canadian music.
I. ijth and i8th Centuries. The his-
tory of American music begins in the
early i7th century, with the arrival of the
first white settlers and colonists: James-
town, Virginia, in 1607, and Plymouth,
Massachusetts, in 1620. Little is known
about the musical habits of the Virginia
settlers, but a number of records exist to
show the part music played in the lives
of the New England colonists: the Pil-
grims at Plymouth and the English Puri-
tans who came to Massachusetts Bay
(Boston), starting in 1630. Until the close
of the century, musical activity was con-
fined almost exclusively to psalm-singing.
The only printed music used was con-
tained in the psalters the Puritans brought
28]
AMERICAN MUSIC
with them (Sternhold & Hopkins, Ains-
worth, Raven scroft, etc.), for the *Bay
Psalm Boo\ (Cambridge, 1640) contained
no music until a few tunes were added to
a later edition at the end of the century.
Two factors were chiefly responsible for
the small amount of music before 1700:
one of them was the lack of opportunity
in pioneer surroundings, and the other,
the Puritan attitude towards music. The
latter phase of early New England life has
been the subject of considerable contro-
versy in recent years. Percy Scholes, in
his book The Puritans and Music (1934),
claims that the Puritans in England, and
those who came to America, were not hos-
tile to music and that the tradition that
they did not tolerate musical activity in
the American colonies is fallacious. How-
ever, the available evidence shows that
while musical activity did become more
general at the beginning of the i8th cen-
tury, it was almost negligible in the iyth;
and that while there are references in con-
temporary records to a few musical instru-
ments, the Puritan colonists viewed with
suspicion and distrust secular amusements
and pleasures, which they considered un-
godly and sinful.
At the beginning of the i8th century,
psalm-singing in the churches had become
a haphazard practice. The lack of printed
tunes had forced the worshipers to sing
from memory, led by a deacon or elder.
There was so little standardization of the
few tunes in use that when several con-
gregations met together the musical re-
sults were bedlam. This condition led to
reforms as well as to controversy. Several
instruction books for singing appeared:
John Tufts's A very plain and easy intro-
duction to the whole Art of Singing Psalm
Tunes, in 1720, and Thomas Walter's
Grounds and Rules of Music Explained,
in 1721, which at first met strong opposi-
tion. Gradually the opposition was over-
come, and singing schools were estab-
lished to teach the rudiments of singing
from note. Toward the latter part of the
century there was considerable publication
of tune and instruction books. Among
the early ones were an American edition
of William Tans'ur's A Complete Melody
AMERICAN MUSIC
in Three Parts (1755); James Lyon's
Urania (1761, containing six original
works by Lyon); and Josiah Flagg's
A Collection of the Best Psalm Tunes
(1764). In 1770 appeared the first of six
books by William Billings (1746-1800),
entitled The New England Psalm Singer.
Billings is important in American music
history because he was something of a
radical. A number of his anthems, which
he called "fuguing pieces" [see *Fugue-
tune], were attempts at imitative coun-
terpoint, and while he was largely un-
tutored musically, his work had a rugged
vitality which reflected vividly the back-
ground of pioneer surroundings.
The controversies over music that
troubled the Puritan denominations did
not disturb the Anglican churches. Or-
gans were used in the Episcopal services
from an early date (the first was installed
in King's Chapel, Boston, shortly after
1713), and such men as William Selby,
who came to Boston from London about
1771 and became organist of King's
Chapel, and William Tuckey, who came
to New York from Bristol Cathedral in
1753 to become organist and choirmaster
at Trinity Church, not only devoted their
skill and energies to their church duties
but were also active as composers and pro-
moters and conductors of choral concerts.
Tuckey directed the first American per-
formance of excerpts from Handel's Mes-
siah in 1770.
Some of the settlements to the south of
New England were from their beginnings
more musically inclined. In 1694 a group
of German pietists founded a colony be-
side the Wissahickon River, near Phila-
delphia. These people had musical in-
struments, and acquired a reputation for
their singing. The Swedish Gloria Dei
church, also near Philadelphia, had an
organ as early as 1703, possibly earlier,
and its pastor, Julius Falckner, was the
author of several hymns.
The first known composer on American
soil, according to present knowledge, was
Conrad Beissel (1690-1768), a German
mystic and founder of the "Seventh Day
Dunkers." He was successively a baker,
a violinist, and a theologian, and in 1720
[29]
AMERICAN MUSIC
he was banished for holding pietistic
views. He emigrated to America and
settled first in Germantown, Pennsyl-
vania, where he founded the Dunker sect,
and in 1735 established the "Order of the
Solitary" and a communistic settlement at
Ephrata, Pennsylvania, which became
known as the Ephrata Cloister. Here the
worshipers sang hymns and chorals in 4,
5, 6, and 7 parts, and it is said that Beissel
composed over 1000 of them. Benjamin
Franklin published an Ephrata Hymn
Collection in 1730.
At Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, a Mo-
ravian colony was established in 1741.
These people were intense music lovers.
They brought instruments with them, and
their orchestra, chamber music groups,
and choruses performed the best music
from Europe works by Haydn, Mozart,
etc. A number of composers among the
Moravians wrote for various chamber
music combinations. When George
Washington visited Bethlehem in 1782
he was serenaded by the trombone
choir.
Conceit life in the American colonial
cities commenced in the i8th century.
According to newspaper announcements,
the first concert of record was held in Bos-
ton in 1731; the second in Charleston,
South Carolina, in 1732; the third in New
York, 1736; and the fourth in Philadel-
phia, 1757. From these dates on, each of
these cities enjoyed an increasing number
of concerts, at which the programs were
similar in content to those abroad, par-
ticularly in London, from which city the
latest published music was sent regularly
to America [see *Concert].
Philadelphia has the credit for produc-
ing the first native-born American com-
poser of music, according to known rec-
ords, in the person of Francis Hopkinson
OyST-iTP 1 )* a signer of the Declaration
of Independence, Judge of the Admiralty
from Pennsylvania, and a talented ama-
teur musician. Hopkinson composed a
number of songs in the current English
style of Arnold, Shield, Storace, and
others. The manuscript of the first of
them, "My^Days Have Been So Won-
drous Free," bears the date 1759. Hop-
AMERICAN MUSIC
kinson's songs, and his musical activities,
were characteristic of the taste and the
customs of the period. He was one of a
group of musical amateurs who met regu-
larly in each other's homes to play to-
gether, and who joined with the profes-
sional musicians who were beginning to
emigrate from abroad in giving public
concerts.
The War of the Revolution interrupted
musical activities for a number of years,
but at its conclusion they began again,
and more intensively. In the last fifteen
years of the century the nation experi-
enced a wholesale immigration from
Europe, bringing musicians from Eng-
land, and, after the French Revolution,
from France. These men were generally
well trained, and they accordingly took
over the musical life of the new nation
and became its principal concert-artists
and teachers. The names of the few
native composers who had been active up
to this time (Hopkinson, James Lyon,
Billings, etc.) disappeared almost com-
pletely from the concert programs which
were printed in the newspapers, and were
replaced by those of the newcomers
Benjamin Carr, Alexander Reinagle,
James Hewitt, Raynor Taylor, Gottlieb
Graupner, and dozens of others. Ameri-
can music doubtless benefited from the
infiltration of better-trained musicians,
but its growth as a native expression was
arrested.
II. igth Century. By the early years of
the 1 9th century these foreigners had be-
come Americans, and gradually native-
born composers began once more to come
into prominence. The most widely known
of them was Lowell Mason (1792-1872),
a composer of hymn-tunes and a pioneer
in music education. Mason succeeded in
persuading the Boston school board to
make the study of music a regular part of
the curriculum (1836) and he established
"musical conventions" in various parts of
the country where teachers could have
training. Another native composer was
Oliver Shaw (1779-1848), who, although
blind from early manhood, was active as
a teacher and organist in Providence,
Rhode Island. He was a composer of
[30:
AMERICAN MUSIC
anthems, songs, and a number of instru-
mental pieces which were widely used.
By the middle of the century another
type of foreigner had gained a foothold
in America, the visiting virtuoso who
dazzled large audiences with his reputa-
tion as well as his skill, and was rewarded
with huge monetary returns. Ole Bull
paid his first visit to America in 1843, and
followed this visit with many others.
Jenny Lind came in 1850, and under the
management of P. T. Barnum enjoyed
triumphs in every American city. One of
the virtuosi, the pianist-composer Louis
Moreau Gottschalk (1829-1869), was ac-
tually a native of New Orleans, but his
Parisian training and reputation lent him
a foreign atmosphere which helped mate-
rially towards his success. He made his
American debut in New York in 1853,
and from that year until he left the United
States for the last time in 1865 (he died
in Rio de Janeiro), his recitals in large
cities and on tours all the way to Cali-
fornia drew large and admiring crowds.
As a composer he had a flair for a lightly
sentimental type of piece which became
enormously popular. His works were
marked by a French elegance and a cer-
tain American flavor which resulted from
his use of Creole melodies. His "Banjo"
is based on a Negro-like tune which is
closely akin to the spiritual, "Roll, Jordan,
Roll." The glamor of such virtuosi led
to the idol-worship which has been char-
acteristic of American musical life from
the i9th century to the present day, and
which has often made it difficult for resi-
dent musicians who have not had the
benefit of European reputations to secure
the place to which the abilities of some
entitled them.
Even before 1800 musical societies were
founded, and after 1800 several were es-
tablished which have continued to the
present: the Handel & Haydn Society of
Boston (1815); the Musical Fund Society
of Philadelphia (1820); and the Philhar-
monic Society of New York (1842). In
the mid-century another foreign immigra-
tion began which had a profound effect
on musical life in America. The Central
Europe revolutions of 1848 sent thousands
AMERICAN MUSIC
of Germans, many of them musicians, to
seek a new home in the United States.
As in the closing years of the i8th century,
these newcomers were better trained than
the native musicians, for they had enjoyed
wider advantages in Continental Europe.
They settled not only in the seaboard
cities, but went inland to settle also in
Milwaukee, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and
other interior towns, and hundreds of
them became the principal orchestral mu-
sicians, teachers, and composers of the
nation. Thus, for a full half-century, if
not longer, the roster of the principal
American organizations, orchestras, cham-
ber music groups, and often choral socie-
ties, contained a high percentage of names
of German origin. Carl Bergmann, Otto
Dresel, Carl Zerrahn, the Mollenhauer
brothers, and others of like origin were
the leaders of American musical life.
Even Theodore Thomas, who became the
leading musical missionary of the nation
by taking his orchestra all over the coun-
try, was born in Germany.
This influx of Germans saturated the
entire American viewpoint with German
ideas and idioms, so that the German com-
posers became the principal models upon
which music was composed in the United
States. Native students studied at home
with teachers of German origin, and to
complete their studies, journeyed to
Europe to work with German masters.
The result was the stultifying of native
character and spirit, and the postpone-
ment of anything approaching an Ameri-
can expression. The prevalence of the
German influence did, however, result in
the awakening of a national consciousness
on the part of a few Americans who felt
keenly that they and their works were
neglected.
One of the first of these was a Bohemian
by birth, Anthony (Anton) Philip Hein-
rich (1781-1861), who first came to
America shortly before 1820, and after a
few months in Philadelphia migrated to
Kentucky, where he lived for a while in
the comparative wilderness of Bardstown.
It was there that he composed his collec-
tion of instrumental pieces and works,
"The Dawning of Music in Kentucky,"
[31]
AMERICAN MUSIC
to which he appended a statement that he
would be proud indeed to be called an
"American musician." He died leaving
a whole trunkf ul of manuscripts gran-
diose orchestral works dealing pro-
grammatically with American subjects,
including the American Indian and such
scenic marvels as Niagara Falls. A num-
ber of his smaller pieces were published,
but he and his admirers felt that he was
never accorded the place to which he was
entitled.
Another to protest violently against al-
leged discrimination in favor of foreigners
was William Henry Fry (1813-64), a
music critic and composer who lived first
in Philadelphia and later in New York.
Fry composed the first American grand
opera to be produced, Leonora (Phila-
delphia, 1845, and New York, 1858), and
a second opera, Notre Dame de Paris
(1864), as well as a Santa Glaus sym-
phony and numerous other works. He
was militant in his struggle for recogni-
tion of American talent and declared that
"until the American public shall learn to
support American artists, Art will not be-
come indigenous to this country" (1852).
One of Fry's companions in arms was
George F. Bristow (1825-98), also the
composer of an opera (Rip van Winkle,
1855 an d revived in 1870), and a number
of orchestral works. He was also a vio-
linist and a member of the New York
Philharmonic, who resigned temporarily
from that organization in protest against
its neglect of American works.
Concurrent with this early and some-
what premature awakening of a national
consciousness in the realm of art music
was another movement which was largely
overlooked by serious musicians. This
was the development of a lighter type of
entertainment which was typically Ameri-
can: the minstrel show which caricatured
the humor and sentiment of the American
Negro. The songs which the minstrel
shows produced were not Negro songs
nor were they connected primarily with
the Negro's own folk music, but they did
embody a carefree attitude, and a nostalgic
sentiment which had their basis in the
Negro character. The most lasting prod-
AMERICAN MUSIC
ucts of this field were the songs of Stephen
Foster (1826-64), whose "Old Folks at
Home," "Oh! Susanna," and dozens of
others have become literally American
folk songs. In Foster's time, however,
these songs were regarded as nothing
more than popular songs of the day, even
though they embodied a far more typically
American expression than the ambitious
efforts of other composers to write sym-
phonies in the manner of the German
Romanticists.
In the latter ipth century an increasing
number of native-born composers of art
music appeared, and their works began
to be included on the programs of major
concert organizations. The first to come
into lasting prominence was John
Knowles Paine (1839-1906) whose first
symphony was performed by the Theo-
dore Thomas Orchestra in 1876, and who
by 1899 had seen eighteen performances
of his compositions by the Boston Sym-
phony Orchestra alone. Paine studied at
home, and in Germany with Haupt, and
his works bear the German stamp and a
solid, academic workmanship which may
have lacked individuality, but which ren-
dered them technically far in advance of
anything that had been composed in
America earlier. His major published
works included two symphonies, two
symphonic poems, and an opera. Of equal
importance to his work as a composer,
was Paine's influence as a teacher. In
1862 he was appointed instructor of music
at Harvard and in 1873 was made a full
professor, a chair he held for thirty years.
His pupils included men who took their
place among America's leading compos-
ers: Arthur Foote (1853-1937), Freder-
ick S. Converse (1871-1940), John Alden
Carpenter (b. 1876), Daniel Gregory
Mason (b. 1873), and many others. In
addition to launching his own pupils
on successful careers, Paine was the artis-
tic parent of a coterie of composers which
became known as the "Boston," or "New
England Group," so called because its
members either derived from New Eng-
land by birth or residence, or because they
had the same ideals in common. They
were academic in the German tradition.
[32]
AMERICAN MUSIC
but 3!! of them had solid training and
something definite to say musically. Be-
sides Foote, the group included George
W. Chadwick (1854-1931), Horatio
Parker (1863-1919), Arthur Whiting
(1861-1936), Mrs. H. H. A. Beach
(1867-1944), Edgar Stillman Kelley
(1857-1944), and others. Chadwick and
Parker were perhaps the most distin-
guished of the set. Chadwick's work was
marked by expert craftsmanship and had
also a Yankee humor which gave it some-
thing of an American flavor. Musically,
Parker's opera Mona, produced at the
Metropolitan in New York in 1912, was
the most effective of any American opera
to date, and his oratorio, Hora Novissima>
became standard in the repertoire of
choral societies in America and in Eng-
land.
Contemporary with the Boston group,
but set apart from them because of his
striking individuality, was Edward Mac-
Dowell (1861-1908), who, with the pos-
sible exception of Gottschalk, was the first
American composer to achieve a foreign
reputation. In spite of his Germanic
training under Raff, MacDowell had a
style that was distinctly his own, a Celtic
boldness which derived, perhaps, from
his Scotch ancestry. Like Grieg, he had
his individual melodic and harmonic
idiom, which imposed its own limitations
when it became a mannerism. Although
he is heard today chiefly through his piano
pieces, his larger works are still per-
formed, particularly the second Piano
Concerto and the Second, "Indian," Suite
for orchestra. MacDowell is still regarded
by many as the outstanding American
composer, because of his marked individ-
uality and because of the vogue his music
has enjoyed. The national consciousness,
which had its origin in the middle of the
last century, received an added impetus
from the extended visit of the Bohemian
Antonin Dvorak, who taught at the Na-
tional Conservatory in New York from
1892 to 1895. Dvorak was deeply im-
pressed by the native folk-material he
heard in America, and urged his pupils
to make use of it. He incorporated the
spirit of Negro and Indian songs, if not
AMERICAN MUSIC
actual melodies, into several works of his
own, notably the "New World" Sym-
phony and the American Quartet. It is
true that Dvorak did not achieve an
American expression in these works, he
was too much of a Bohemian for that,
but he did succeed in firing the imagina-
tion of American composers, and by his
example persuaded many of them to look
to their own soil for a national expres-
sion.
III. 20th Century. The 20th century
has witnessed a marked change in Ameri-
can music. Where there were dozens of
composers in the latter i9th century, there
are hundreds now. American composers
have also had increasing opportunity for
performance and publication of their
major works, owing to considerable prop-
aganda urging program-makers to pro-
mote native music and the public to de-
mand it. It is, of course, not only the
propaganda that has led to this change;
it is also the tremendously increasing
quantity and vastly improved quality of
American compositions. Not only are
there thousands of available compositions
where a half, or even a quarter, of a cen-
tury ago there were merely hundreds; the
music itself is composed with craftsman-
ship and polished technique, and in count-
less cases it has something to say which
has not already been said by older com-
posers from abroad.
It is difficult to classify American com-
posers into groups, for many of them
have attempted work in a number of
fields, and their styles and idioms have
changed as they themselves have devel-
oped and progressed. There are compos-
ers who have remained conservative, and
some who are looked upon by the radicals
as conservative but who have nevertheless
shown contemporary tendencies and
seem modernistic to the layman who is
accustomed only to traditional music.
Among those who have never departed
appreciably from 19th-century idioms are
the late Henry Hadley (1871-1937), who
composed prolifically and successfully in
all forms and whose works were marked
by a facility that was felicitous and stimu-
lating; Deems Taylor (b. 1885), prob-
33]
AMERICAN MUSIC
ably the best known of all American com-
posers to the layman, whose operas, The
Kings Henchman and Peter Ibbetson, en-
joyed a large number of performances for
several seasons at the Metropolitan in
New York; Charles Wakefield Cadman
(b. 1881) who has written ballad-songs
which have ranked with Broadway hits
in popularity, and has also been active
in the larger forms: several operas (in-
cluding Shane wis), and a considerable
list of orchestral works; the late Rubin
Goldmark (1872-1936), a teacher of com-
posers as well as a composer himself; and
Walter Damrosch (b. 1862), who is more
important as a conductor and musical
missionary.
A number of composers have adopted
contemporary methods in part, but have
not departed far enough from accepted
idioms to encounter resistance from the
public. Among them are Carpenter, D. G.
Mason, and Converse (already men-
tioned as pupils of J. K. Paine), Edward
Burlingame Hill (b. 1872), Howard Han-
son (b. 1896), director of the Eastman
School of Music at Rochester, David
Stanley Smith (b. 1877), Douglas Moore
(b. 1893), an d Randall Thompson (b.
1899).
Slightly further to the left, in that they
have written in styles which have been a
little more advanced than the average
audience was ready to accept, are the late
Charles Martin LoefHer (1861-1935), an
Alsatian-born violinist-composer whose
"Pagan Poem" is one of the most striking
works composed in this country; Charles
T. Griffes (1884-1920); Roy Harris (b.
1898), an Oklahoman by birth whose
works represent an altogether national
expression in seeming to derive from the
vast spaces of the Southwest; Aaron Cop-
land (b. 1900), more sophisticated and
practical than Harris but inherently a
valid American product; Roger Sessions
(b. 1896) and Walter Piston (b. 1894),
both champions of the "international"
school of thought [see *Nationalism];
Quincy Porter (b. 1897); the Holland-
born Bernard Wagenaar (b. 1894) and
the German-born Werner Josten (b.
1888); Arthur Shepherd (b. 1880); Otto
AMERICAN MUSIC
Luening (b. 1900); and Ernst Bacon
(b. 1898).
America has also its share of experi-
mentalists. Among them are Charles Ives
(b. 1876), for many years unrecognized
by all but a few, and recently come into
prominence through the performance of
his Concord Sonata for piano. Ives de-
lights in polytonal combinations and in
complex rhythms, and has also experi-
mented in quarter-tones. Henry Cowcll
(b. 1897) has sought a scientific basis in
overtones for "tone-clusters." Adolph
Weiss (b. 1891) and Wallingford Ricggcr
(b. 1885) are avowed atonalists. Less
radical, perhaps, than the others is Carl
Ruggles (b. 1876), but the quality in his
music that Lawrence Gilman character-
ized as "torrential and disturbing" places
him in the experimental group.
Recent additions to the list of American
composers include younger men of con-
siderable talent and individuality, notably
Samuel Barber (b. 1910), Leonard Bern-
stein (b. 1918), Paul Bowles (b. 1911),
Paul Creston (b. 1906), David Diamond
(b. 1915), Bernard Herrmann (b. 1911),
Gail T. Kubik (b. 1914), Gian-Carlo
Menotti (b. 1911), Paul Nordoff (b.
1909), Gardner Read (b. 1913), and Wil-
liam Schumann (b. 1910).
IV. National Elements. The move-
ment toward using folk music which
DvoMk instigated at the turn of the cen-
tury had its inevitable reaction. Compos-
ers, and the public, found that a conscious
and wholesale adoption of folk material
did not in itself bring a national expres-
sion, particularly when the composers
themselves were not of the same race as
those who produced the folk songs orig-
inally. There have, however, been many
excellent works based on native material,
and a number of composers have been
closely identified with its use. Charles
Sanford Skilton (1868-1941) composed
some strikingly effective Indian dances
based on tribal melodies; John Powell's
(b. 1882) Rhapsodic Ngre not only uses
actual Negro melodies but reflects certain
phases of the Negro's temperament. Pow-
ell has also used Anglo-Saxon material
from the Appalachians. Percy Grainger
34]
AMERICAN MUSIC
(Australia, b. 1882) has not only made
exquisite settings of British folk songs,
but has turned to American material since
making his home in this country. Lamar
Stringfield (b. 1897), a native of North
Carolina, has made distinctive use of
Southern material, from the Negroes and
from the white mountaineers.
There are also many Negro composers
who have been eloquent interpreters of
their race. Among the older ones are
Harry T. Burleigh (b. 1866) who was one
of the first to make effective concert-set-
tings of Negro spirituals, R. Nathaniel
Dett (1882-1943), and Clarence C. White
(b. 1880). Somewhat younger than these
men are William Levi Dawson (b. 1895),
and William Grant Still (b. 1895). See
*Negro music.
Americans are now coming to realize
that their less pretentious music, the so-
called popular songs and dance music, has
distinctive qualities which have given it
a vogue throughout the world; in its best
phases this music represents a typically
national expression. From an earlier cen-
tury the songs of Stephen Foster typified
several features of American life its
humor, its sentiment, and the flavor of its
Southern plantations. The marches of
John Philip Sousa (1854-1932) had a
verve and sparkle which set them apart
from the common run of such pieces,
while the quasi- Viennese melodies of the
Victor Herbert (1859-1924) operettas
possessed at least a cosmopolitanism
which was characteristic of American
urban life.
More important than these is the body
of popular music which has for its basis
the peculiar type of syncopation that has
been borrowed from the Negro the
early ragtime of the 1890*8 and the later
"jazz" and the still more recent impro-
vised "swing" music. These have not only
developed highly ingenious and complex
rhythmic patterns, but have also evolved
instrumentations which are often used by
concert orchestras as well as by dance
bands. The effect of this jazz vogue has
been twofold. First, it has offered serious
composers of art music a field for experi-
mentation which has often been produc-
AMERICAN MUSIC
tive of excellent results. Carpenter, Cop-
land, Louis Gruenberg (b. 1884), an( ^
dozens of others have found it a reward-
ing field, even though they have come to
turn away from it because of its rather
rigid limitations. In Europe, too, a num-
ber of composers have tried their hand at
American jazz: Stravinsky, Kfenek, Mil-
haud, Hindemith, Honegger, and many
others [see *Jazz VI],
The other result of jazz has been that a
numbei of composers who started their
careers as composers of dance music and
musical comedy scores have extended
their efforts to the concert and grand-
opera field. The outstanding member of
this group is the late George Gershwin
(1898-1937), who first became a most
successful composer for Broadway shows
and then drew the attention of critics and
the music public with his Rhapsody in
Blue, for piano and orchestra. This was
followed by a Piano Concerto and a tone-
poem, An American in Paris, and finally
by the opera, Porgy and Bess. A number
of our serious composers have derived
from the popular field by acting as orches-
trators of musical comedy and motion pic-
ture scores Robert Russell Bennett (b.
1894), William Grant Still, and Otto
Cesana (b. 1899). Morton Gould (b.
1913) has been associated with Broadway
and the radio as a conductor, and has pro-
duced a long list of major works, which,
like his Chorale and Fugue in Jazz, apply
musical training to popular materials.
The result of this union of music-hall
and dance music with art music has been
extremely healthy. It has done much to
rid the concert field of its self-conscious
complacency and intolerance, and it has
without doubt raised the standards of
popular music, even though it has made
some of it over-sophisticated and a bit
self-conscious. It has, moreover, done
much to make American music a native
product, independent of Europe, and it
provides American composers with a
vehicle which represents a number of the
highly intricate and varied phases of the
American temperament. It is not, of
course, the only type of music which is
inherently American, nor does it cover all
35]
AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY
of the manifold facets of American life.
Nevertheless, the adoption of popular ele-
ments which are in some ways a folk-
spirit which characterizes Americans
everywhere, rather than a single race or
group, is a highly significant step in the
evolution of a distinctively American
music.
Lit.: J. T. Howard, Our American
Music (1931); id., Our Contemporary
Composers (1941); Henry Cowell, Amer-
ican Composers on American Music
0933); Clare Reis, Composers in Amer-
ica (1938); W. T. Upton, Art-Song in
America (1930-1938); W. Saunders,
"The American Opera" (ML xiii, no. 2);
O. G. Sonneck, "Early American Operas'*
(SIM vi); C. Lindstrom, "Wm. Billings
and His Time" (MQ xxv); O. G. Son-
neck, "Francis Hopkinson" (SIM v). See
also under *Jazz, *Negro music.
J.T.H.
American Musicological Society.
See *Societies, I, 2.
American organ. See *Harmonium.
Amorevole, amoroso [It.]. Loving.
Amorschall. See *Horn II.
Amphibrach [Gr.]. See *Poetic me-
ter I.
Amplitude. See * Acoustics I.
Anabole [Gr., beginning], humanis-
tic (i6th-century) name for *prelude.
Anacrusis. Upbeat.
Analysis. With reference to music, the
study of a composition with regard to
form, structure, thematic material, har-
mony, melody, phrasing, orchestration,
style, technique, etc. Analysis of composi-
tion plays a predominant part in musical
instruction (as a practical application of
technical studies in harmony, counter-
point, orchestration) and in writings on
music. Analysis is of little value if it is
mere enumeration of statistics; such meth-
ods, frequently encountered in modern
writings, overlook the synthetic element
and the functional significance of the
musical detail Another drawback of cur-
ANDANTE
rent methods is the one-sided application
of only one point of view, for instance,
that of form (D. F. Tovey, Beethoven's
Pianoforte Sonatas) or of phrasing (H.
Riemann, Analyse von Beethoven's Kla-
viersonaten). In present-day education
special emphasis is placed on analysis of
harmony [see *Harmonic analysis] and
of form [see *Form]; melodic analysis,
however, perhaps the most important and
most informative of all, is usually neg-
lected [see * Melody].
Lit.: A. J. Goodrich, Complete Musical
Analysis (1887); K. Westphal, in DM
xxiv, 5.
Anapaest. See *Poetic meter I.
Anche [F.], Ancia [It.]. *Reed.
Anche battante, beating reed; anche
double, double reed; anche libre, free reed.
Ancora [It.]. Once more (repeat).
Ancora piu forte, still more forte.
Ancus. See *Neumes I.
Andamento [It., from andare, to go]
means, in 18th-century writings: (i)
*Sequence. (2) A special type of fugal
subject [see *Soggetto]. (3) In more
recent writings the term is used preferably
to denote fugal episodes.
Andante [It., from andare, to go].
Tempo mark indicating very moderate
speed, between allegretto and adagio [see
*Tempo marks]. To the present day
there is no agreement among musicians
as to whether andante belongs to the
quick or to the slow tempo. While this
question as such would seem to be rather
irrelevant, it becomes important in the
case of terms such as piu andante, meno
andante, molto andante, andantino. Ac-
cording to the former interpretation,
which is supported by the literal meaning
of the word, piu andante and molto an-
dante indicate a tempo quicker than the
normal andante, while meno andante in-
dicates a slower speed. Brahms was un-
doubtedly aware of this meaning of the
term when, at the end of his andante from
the pianoforte sonata op. 5, he wrote "an-
dante molto"; the tempo of this closing
[36]
ANDANTINO
section is, of course, quicker, not slower,
than that of the preceding andante espres-
sivo. Other composers however (perhaps
the majority) use molto andante to mean
a tempo still slower than andante. See
*Andantino.
Andantino. Diminutive of andante,
used mainly to characterize a short piece
of andante tempo or character. If used
as a tempo mark, it means a slight modi-
fication of andante the direction of which
is, unfortunately, a matter of divergent
opinion [see * Andante], Beethoven was
puzzled by the question whether andan-
tino was to be understood as meaning
faster or slower than andante, as appears
from a letter he wrote to George Thomson
[cf. A. W. Thayer, The Life of Bee-
thoven, ed. by Krehbiel, 1921, ii, 246].
Most modern musicians apparently use
the term as indicating quicker tempo than
andante.
Andauernd [G.]. "Lasting," continu-
ously.
Anemochord. See under *Aeolian
harp; *Sostenente pianoforte.
Anenaiki. The term refers to an abu-
sive treatment of Russian (*Znamenny)
chant, practiced chiefly in the i6th and
1 7th centuries, in which long coloraturas
in bad taste were sung to meaningless
syllables such as a-ne-na. This method
was known as chomonie. A similar
method used in the Byzantine chant of
the same period is known as teretism, ow-
ing to the use of such syllables as te-re-rem
for the same purpose. The Russian syl-
lables are probably related to the early
Byzantine enechamata [see *Echos].
They appear in a manuscript as early as
the 1 2th century [cf. the reference in
ReMMA, 99] . See also *Noeane.
Anfang [G.]. Beginning; Vom An-
fang, da capo.
Angelica. See *Lute III.
Angklung. See "Javanese music I.
Anglaise [Fr., English dance]. One of
the numerous dance types used in the
[37]
ANGLICAN CHANT
French ballets of the late iyth century,
whence it was introduced into the op-
tional group of the suite [cf. J. K. F.
Fischer, Musifalischer Parnassus (c.
1690); J. S. Bach, French Suite no. 3].
It is in quick duple time, without upbeat.
The name was also used for other dances
of English origin or character, e.g., for the
(syncopated) *hornpipe and, around
1800, for the *country dance and the
*ecossaise. See *Dance music III.
Anglican chant. The method em-
ployed in the Anglican Church for the
singing of the psalms, canticles, and other
unmetrical texts. It is based on the recita-
tion principle of the *psalm tones of the
Roman Catholic Church but differs from
these aside from the English text in
the use of four-part harmony and of a
more strictly metrical rhythm.
The practice of using harmonized ver-
sions of the psalm tones, known as */a/jo-
bordone, was quite common in the i6th
century (Josquin des Pres, Vittoria, and
many others). The first English com-
posers to harmonize the psalm tones were
Tallis, Byrd, Morley, and Gibbons, who
were followed by many others. Naturally,
within the course of its 400 years of living
existence, the chant has undergone many
changes which, generally speaking, have
not improved its quality. The earliest set-
tings, although sacrificing the primal sim-
plicity of the monophonic chant, did not
impair its validity as a rhythmically free
agent for the conveyance of the text be-
cause they did not alter the free oratoric
rhythm of the plainsong.
It was in the late iyth century that
rhythm, in the categorical sense, began to
condition the free and expressive delivery
of the words in chanting. Bar-lines em-
phasized the metrical quality of the rendi-
tion and the generally mechanical nature
of the practice was not helped in later
times by the adoption of specially com-
posed chants often accompanied by har-
monizations of mediocre quality. It is
these metrical chants which are called
Anglican and which supply the needs of
many modern Protestant congregations.
Ideally treated, Anglican chanting may
ANGLICAN CHANT
be impressive to a certain degree, but it
contains four defects which render it defi-
nitely inferior to its plainsong analogue.
First, it is written with bar-lines enclosing
measures of theoretically equal length;
thus one measure may suffice for the sing-
ing of four or five words and the next
may have to accommodate twelve or fif-
teen, so that the inevitable tendency is to
rush the verbally crowded measures to
make their length conform to the others.
However much this tendency may be re-
sisted, the tyranny of the bar-line cannot
be wholly ignored. Secondly it has been
customary to employ a system of "point-
ing" in the text whereby certain syllables
or words over which appeared the sign
( ' ) served as a momentary point of stress
or rest. While this device may have ful-
filled the practical purpose of producing
occasional unity amid verbal confusion, it
tended to make the congregation hurry
over the preceding words to dwell to an
unnatural degree on the pointed word or
syllable. Later hymnals have abandoned
pointing in an effort to restore as nearly
as possible the flexibility of the Plainsong
Chant. Third, many Anglican chants
contain equal notes of smaller value, and
these, sung in strict time, further distort
the flow of the text. And fourth, the in-
variable ending of the chant on a strong
beat often leads to downright misaccentu-
ation.
Anglican chant represents a relatively
unsuccessful effort to carry over into a
workable congregational method the ideal
conditions belonging to plainsong; and
in spite of devoted and skillful efforts at
improvement, the two systems remain
fundamentally irreconcilable because the
Anglican represents a practice in which
the accents of the prose are dictated by
an arbitrary metrical scheme, while in
plainsong the rhythmic sweep of the
music is governed by the normal speech
delivery of the text. At its best, Anglican
chanting is a compromise; at its worst, it
suggests the recitative secco of i8th-cen-
tury opera which provided for the dis-
posal of large quantities of words in as
short a space of time as possible. Con-
trasting examples of Anglican (i) and
ANONYMOUS
Plainchant (2) drawn from The New
Hyinnal appear below.
Jjbr _ . ..
_J J
"Hi
S^nn
> Lmt, no* Uttetfbx>u,y servant <U-
(U(V<n
-n
peace
fiw mine
r*
^
seen
bst
^
*C- cord- In
Jo tlW
e-
word*.
tior.
Lord, now UHe*- tVu Hoy sava^ deport* to poo, ac-
joid : For mine y0 Vxxve sow toy
Lit.: W. Douglas, Church Music in
History and Practice (1937); P. Scholes,
The Oxford Companion to Music (1938),
article "Anglican Chant"; A. Rams-
botham, in ML i, no. 3; R. Bridges, in
MA ii, iii; W. Barclay-Squire, in SIM viii;
Ch. W. Pearce, "The Futility of Anglican
Chant" (Mvi). A.T.D.
Anglican church music. See Angli-
can chant; Anthem; Cathedral music;
Hymn IV; Litany; Psalter; Response;
Service. Cf. The Church Service Boo^
ed. by G. Edward Stubbs (1906).
Angosciamente ; con angore [It.].
With anxiety.
Anhalten [G.]. To hold on.
Anhang [G.]. *Coda.
Anhemitonic [Gr., without semi-
tones]. An anhemitonic scale (also called
tonal scale) is one which possesses no
semitones, e.g., the *pentatonic scale c-d-
f-g-a-c', or the *whole-tone scale.
Animato [It.],anime [F.]. Animated.
Anmutig [G.]. Gracefully.
Anonymous [Gr., without name]. Of
unknown authorship. The Latin word
[38]
ANREISSEN
Anonymus (abbreviated Anon.) is ap-
plied to unknown writers of medieval
treatises in the collections of Gerbert and
Coussemaker [see *Scriptores], in which
they are referred to as Anon. I, Anon. II,
etc. It should be noticed, however, that
the same numbering occurs in several
volumes of Coussemaker and Gerbert.
Therefore, the famous treatise known as
Coussemaker's Anon. IV should more ac-
curately be referred to as Anon. IV of
Coussemaker i (CS i).
Anreissen [G.]. Forceful pizzicato.
Ansatz [G.]. (i) In singing, the proper
adjustment of the vocal apparatus. (2)
In the playing of wind instruments, the
proper adjustment of the lips [see *Em-
bouchure (2)]. (3) *Crook or shank
of brass instruments. (4) In violin play-
ing, *attack.
Anschlag [G.]. (i) In piano playing,
touch. (2) Of a pianoforte, action
(heavy or light). (3) An ornament ex-
plained by K. P. E. Bach [see *Appoggia-
tura, Double III].
Anschwellend [G.]. Crescendo.
Anstrich [G.]. Up-bow.
Answer. In fugal writing the answer is
the second (and fourth) statement of the
subject, so called because of its relation-
ship to the first (and third) statement.
Therefore, the succession of statements
is subject - answer - subject - answer. See
*Fugue; *Tonal and real; * Antecedent
and consequent.
Antecedent and consequent. The
terms are usually applied to melodic
phrases which stand in the relationship
of question and answer or statement and
confirmation, as in the accompanying ex-
ample (Beethoven, String Quartet op. 18,
Violin
no. 2). Here, as in other examples, the
dialogue character of the melody is em-
phasized by its distribution between two
instruments [see *Durchbrochcnc Ar-
ANTHEM
bcit] . The terms are also used as synony-
mous with subject and answer in fugues
[see * Answer],
Anthem [from Gr. *antiphona; Ro-
manic antefena; Old English antefn, an-
tempne]. An English choral composition
written to English words from the Scrip-
tures or to another sacred text and per-
formed in the worship of the Anglican
Church, where it holds a position similar
to that of the *motet in the Roman rites.
An anthem usually is with accompani-
ment, preferably by the organ. If it in-
cludes parts for solo singers it is called
verse anthem; otherwise, full anthem.
The history of the anthem begins with
the Reformation and the consequent es-
tablishment of English as the liturgical
language. Although the anthem devel-
oped from the Latin motet, the first an-
thems, written by Tye and Tallis (c.
1560), show a marked difference in style
from the previous and contemporary
motets. They are rhythmically square,
more harmonically conceived, more syl-
labic and in shorter phrases, features all
of which result from the greater consider-
ation given to matters of text and pronun-
ciation. Towards the end of the i6th
century a new form, the verse anthem^
was introduced by Byrd (regarding an
isolated earlier example, by Richard Far-
rant, cf. G. E. P. Arkwright, in MA i,
p. 65 note) and developed by Orlando
Gibbons [cf. HAM, nos. 151, 169, 171],
This form, in which sections for full
chorus alternate with sections for one or
more solo voices, was preferred through-
out the i yth century, with the full anthem
coming into prominence again in the sub-
sequent period. While in the Elizabethan
anthem the vocal part (or parts) of the
verse-sections are contrapuntally conceived
(i.e., as parts of a contrapuntal fabric the
other voices of which are played on the
organ), a new declamatory arioso-style of
Italian origin [see *Monody] was intro-
duced for the verse-sections around 1630,
in the anthems of Monteverdi's pupil
Walter Porter (c. 1595-1659; cf. Ark-
wright, in MA iv, 247) and, particularly,
of William Child (1606-97; cf. the list of
[39]
ANTICIPATION
his anthems in GD i, 623; example in OH
iiiy 206). The Restoration anthem is rep-
resented by Henry Aldrich (1647-1710),
Pelham Humphrey (1647-74), Michael
Wise (1648-87), John Blow (1649-1708;
cf. GD i, 396), Henry Purcell (1659-95),
and Jeremiah Clarke (1659-1707). Blow
and Purcell introduced instruments into
the anthem, an innovation by which the
multi-sectional anthem came to resemble
a cantata. Another characteristic feature
of the Restoration anthem, adopted in
numerous later works, is a concluding
hallelujah chorus in fugal style. The use
of two choruses, called Dec(ani) and
Can(toris) prevails in the anthem as well
as in the Service music [sec *Polychoral],
The Baroque anthem reached its high-
point in the grandiose anthems of Handel,
nearly all of which were written for special
festive occasions where an unusual dis-
play ot means was possible and proper
(Chandos Anthems, 1716-18; Coronation
Anthems, 1727; Dettingen Anthem,
1743). Other composers of this period
are William Croft (16781727), John
Weldon (1676-1736), and Maurice
Greene (1695-1755). Their anthems, as
well as those of William Boyce (1710-79;
cf. GD i, 441), are modeled after the
somewhat simpler style of PurcelL The
outstanding figure of the I9th century
was S. S. Wesley (1810-76) whose two
volumes of anthems, published in 1853,
contain such standard works as "Blessed
be the God and Father" and "The Wil-
derness." Among the more recent com-
posers Ch. V. Stanford (18521924), B.
Harwood (b. 1859), and Martin Shaw
(b. 1875) must be mentioned.
Lit.: W. Davies, \The Church Anthem
Boo{ (1933); M. B. Foster, Anthem and
Anthem Composers (1901); H. W. Shaw,
"John Blow's Anthems" (ML xix. no. 4).
Anticipation. See *Nonharmonic tones
I; also *Nachschlag.
Antiennc [F.]. (i) * Antiphon. (2)
*Anthem.
Antiphon. A term denoting various cat-
egories of Gregorian chant, all of which
are remnants of the early method of an-
ANTIPHON
tiphonal psalmody [see below, History].
(1) Short texts from the Scriptures or
elsewhere, set to music in a simple, syllabic
style, and sung before and after a psalm or
canticle. On greater feasts the antiphon
is sung entire both before and after the
psalm; at other times the first word or two
only (*Incipit) are sung before, and the
whole after. For more details, see under
*Psalm tones. The present repertory of
Gregorian chant includes more than 1000
such antiphons. The melodies are not all
different, and can be classified in about 40
groups of closely allied chants [cf. F. A.
Gevaert, La Melopee antique dans le chant
de I'eglise latine (1895) ] . Aside from the
antiphons for the psalms, there are similar
enframing melodies for the *canticles, par-
ticularly the *Magnificat and the Bene-
dictus Deus Dominus. These are some-
what more elaborate textually as well as
musically [cf., e.g., AR, 54iff].
(2) The name antiphon is also used for
two other types of chants which are not
strictly antiphons, since they do not, as a
rule, embrace a psalm or canticle but are
independent songs of considerable length
and elaboration. The first of these types
includes the antiphons which at certain
feasts (e.g., Palm Sunday) are sung pre-
paratory to the Mass (Mass antiphon)*
They are usually of a narrative character,
containing reports from the New Testa-
ment referring to the occasion, e.g.: "Cum
appropinquaret Dominus Jerosolymam..."
for Palm Sunday [cf. GR, 159^]. The
second class of pseudo-antiphons is the
four antiphons B.M.V. (Beatae Mariae
Virginis) or B.V.M. (Blessed Virgin
Mary), namely: Alma redemptoris mater\
Ave regina coelorum\ Regina coeli lac-
tar c; * Salve regina [cf . AR, 65-69] . These
are more in the style of early hymns in
free meter. They are sung during four
different seasons of the year, at the offices
of Lauds and Compline, by alternating
choirs [see *Salve regina]. In the i5th
and 1 6th centuries they were frequently
composed polyphonically, for voices or
for organ [cf. HAM, nos. 65, 100, 139].
(3) While the chants mentioned above
are the only ones called antiphons in the
liturgical books of the present day, the
40]
ANTIPHONAL SINGING
name is also applied in historical studies
to certain chants of the Mass itself, namely,
the *Introit (introit antiphon, antiphona
ad introitum), the *Offertory (antiphona
ad offerendum), and the *Communion
(communion antiphon, antiphona ad com-
munioncm). The justification for this
terminology lies in the fact that these
chants originally sprang from the same
method of antiphonal psalmody which
also survives, in a different form, in the
antiphons embracing a psalm or a canticle
[see *Psalmody].
History. In Greek theory, antiphonia
(literally counter-sound) means the oc-
tave, in contradistinction to *symphonia,
the unison, and *paraphonia, the fifth. In
the early Christian rites, antiphonia came
to denote the singing of the successive
verses of a psalm by alternating choruses.
This meaning of the term probably origi-
nated in the fact that the second chorus
originally consisted of women or boys who
repeated the melody at the higher octave.
Very early antiphonal psalm-singing was
enriched by the addition of a short sen-
tence sung by the whole choir and re-
peated after each verse or pair of verses as
a refrain. It was this additional text and
melody which finally came to adopt and
retain the name antiphon. For a survey of
the various forms which sprang from the
antiphonal psalmody, see *PsaImody III;
also *Gregorian chant IV(c).
Antiphonal singing. Singing (or play-
ing) in alternating choruses. The term,
which originally belongs to the parlance
of plainsong [see * Antiphon, history], is
also used with reference to polyphonic
music composed in two choruses. See
*polychoral style. Regarding the use of
antiphonal singing in Gregorian chant
see *Responsorial.
Antiphonal, antiphoner, antipho-
nary [L. Antiphonale, Antiphonarium}.
See *Liturgical books. The name Anti-
phonarium Mediceum is erroneously ap-
plied to the MS Florence, Bibl. Laur. plut.
29, / which actually is not a book of plain-
song, but the most extensive collection of
the polyphonic repertory of the School of
APPOGGIATURA
*Notre Dame (c. 1200). See *Magnus
liber organi.
Antiphonia. In Greek theory, the oc-
tave. See *Antiphon, history.
Antwort [G.]. Answer, in fugues.
Anvil. Small steel bars, struck with a
hard wooden or metal beater, which have
sometimes been used as a percussion in-
strument in operas, usually as a stage
property (Auber, Le Ma$on, 1825; Verdi,
// Trovatore\ Wagner, Rheingold).
Anwachsend [G.]. Crescendo.
Apiacere [It.]. Sameas*abeneplacito.
Apollo Club. A name given to Ameri-
can male singing organizations, generally
amateur, corresponding to the French
*Orpheon and the German *Mannerge-
sangverein. Remarkable for their higher
ambitions are the Apollo Clubs of Boston
(founded in 1871), of Brooklyn (1878),
of Chicago (1872), of Cincinnati (1882),
and of St. Louis ( 1 893) . Some of the clubs
were expanded into a mixed chorus.
Apollonicon. See *Mechanical instru-
ments III.
Apostropha. See *Neumes I.
Apotome. See *Pythagorean scale.
Appassionata, or Sonata appassio-
nata [It., impassioned]. The name cus-
tomarily given to Beethoven's Piano So-
nata op. 57, in F minor. The title was not
his, but was added by some publisher.
The original tide is "Grande Senate pour
Piano" (1806).
Appena [It.]. Hardly, scarcely.
Applicatur. Eighteenth-century Ger-
man term for fingering.
Appoggiando [It.]. "Leaning," i.e.,
emphasized, also full legato.
Appoggiatura [from It. appoggiarc, to
lean on J . ( i ) In modern parlance, an im-
portant type of nonharmonic tones [see
*Nonharmonic tones II].
[41]
APPOGGIATURA
(2) Originally, appoggiatura [F. port
de voix\ E. forefall, backfall, half-fall; G.
Vorschlag] is an ornamental note, usually
a second, that is melodically connected
with the main note that follows it (i.e., the
appoggiatura is sung in the same breath
or played with the same stroke of the bow
or articulation of the tongue or, in the case
of keyboard instruments, slurred to that
following note). It is indicated by means
of a small note or special sign, but was also
frequently introduced extemporaneously
in performance. The interpretation of the
appoggiatura has varied considerably since
the iyth century, when it first became a
conventionalized ornament.
I. In the Baroque period the appoggia-
tura was exceedingly flexible as regards
both notation and rhythmic execution. In
Ex, i, A shows the various ways of indi-
APPOGGIATURA
music by J. S. Bach, Handel, Purcell, D.
Scarlatti, etc. Ex. 2 illustrates the appli-
cation of these principles to the music of
J. S. Bach (a: Kleine zweistimmige Fuge
c-moll; b: Goldberg Variations, aria; c: St.
Matthew Passion, Bass aria no. 66; d: Sin-
fonia no. 3). See also *Appuy; *Port de
voix.
II. After 1750 the performance of the
appoggiatura was systematized by the Ger-
man teachers and writers, K. P. E. Bach,
Leopold Mozart, Marpurg, and Turk. The
ornament is now divided into two types:
the long, or variable appoggiatura (ver-
andcrlicher Vorschlag)^ and the short ap-
poggiatura (l(urtzer Vorschlag), both of
which are to be performed upon the beat.
The duration of the long appoggiatura is
proportionate to that of the main note with
which it is connected, according to the fol-
lowing rules: (a) If the main note can be
divided into two equal parts the appoggia-
tura takes half its value; (b) an appoggia-
tura to a dotted note takes two thirds of its
value; (c) in % or %-metcr an appoggia-
tura to a dotted note that is tied to another
note takes the whole value of the dotted
eating the appoggiatura, and B the meth-
ods of performance that were prevalent
around 1700. The choice between these
interpretations was left to the discretion
of the performer a "discretion," how-
ever, which was not haphazard but was
governed by rules (based upon the conduct
of the melody and other parts, the tempo
and phrasing of the passage in question,
and the expression of the accompanying
text) that were formulated in textbooks
(e.g., Bacilly: Remarque s curieuses sur
fan de bicn chanter, 1668) and taught to
every student of performance. With the
exception of (a) and (b), which are exclu-
sively French, these interpretations were
taken over by musicians of all nationalities.
They are valid for the performance of
t
note; (d) if the main note is followed by
a rest, the appoggiatura takes the whole
value of the main note, the latter is played
in the time of the rest, and the rest ceases
to exist. In Ex. 3 these four rules are illus-
trated by quotations from the works of
42]
APPOGGIATURA
Mozart and Beethoven (a: Mozart, Piano
Sonata K.V. 311; Beethoven, Piano So-
nata op. 2, no. i, Menuetto; b: Mozart,
Piano Sonata K.V. 332; c: Mozart, Piano
Sonata K.V. 332; d: Beethoven, Ade-
laide).
The short appoggiatura should be per-
formed as a short note, regardless of the
duration of the main note. It is to be used
only in the following circumstances: (a)
when the main note is itself an appoggia-
tura (i.e., a non-harmonic note occurring
on the beat); (b) when the main note ac-
companies a suspension or syncopation;
(c) when the appoggiatura fills up the in-
tervals in a series of descending thirds; (d)
when the main note is a short note that is
followed by more notes of the same value;
(c) when the main note is one of a series
of reiterated notes [see Ex. 4 (a: C. P. E.
Bach; Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 2, no.
3; b: C. P. E. Bach; c: Mozart, Piano So-
nata K.V. 279; d: Beethoven, Piano Sonata
op. 22, Menuetto; e: Mozart, Piano Sonata
K.V. 627)].
The notation of the appoggiatura, in
this period, has no definite relationship to
its performance. A few composers wrote
the long appoggiatura as a small note of
the exact value in which it should be per-
formed, and distinguished the short ap-
poggiatura from it by means of a single
stroke across the stem (for a i6th-note) or
a double stroke (for a 32nd-note), but this
practice was by no means consistently car-
ried out. In music by C. P. E. Bach, Gluck,
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, the rules giv-
en above constitute a far surer guide to
performance than does the physical ap-
pearance of the ornament, even in the most
reliable editions. For an 18th-century
practice of improvised appoggiatura, see
Ornamentation I.
III. The I9th century brings still fur-
ther changes in the treatment of the appog-
giatura. The long appoggiatura becomes
absorbed in the ordinary notation. The
short appoggiatura is now invariably in-
dicated by a small note with a single stroke
across its stem, called a grace note or (er-
roneously) an *acciaccatura. The question
now arises whether this grace note should
be performed on the beat or in anticipation
t
APPOGGIATURA, DOUBLE
of the beat. The latter possibility had al-
ready been admitted by some of the late
18th-century authorities (who referred to
it as a durchgehender Vorschlag, distinct
from both the langer and the \urtzer Vor-
schlag) for certain exceptional circum-
stances. After 1800 this execution becomes
decidedly more popular; it seems to be
indicated for most of the grace notes in
the works of Chopin, Schumann, Brahms,
etc. (Schumann often prescribes it, by
placing the grace note before the bar-line),
but lack of material evidence leaves the
matter open to controversy in many cases.
In modern music it is customary to snap
the grace note sharply onto the following
note, so that it slightly anticipates the beat
and imparts a decided accent to the main
note. See *Ornamentation; *Ornaments.
P. A.
Appoggiatura, Double. The term
double appoggiatura has been applied to
each of the three distinct ways in which
two appoggiaturas can be used: I. two ap-
poggiaturas performed simultaneously, at
the interval of a third or sixth; II. two con-
3 ,
M=
oUvtd
r r "T
^
3E
^E
junct appoggiaturas approaching the main
note from the interval of a third above or
below it; III. two disjunct appoggiaturas,
one being placed below the main note, the
other above it.
I. Little need be said of the simultane-
ous double appoggiatura save that each of
43]
APPOGGIATURA, DOUBLE
its components is performed as though the
other were not present, as in Ex. i (Bach,
French Suite in Eb, Sarabande).
II. The conjunct double appoggiatura,
or slide, was a common *agrement in the
lyth and i8th centuries. The 17th-century
English lutenists and viol players referred
to the ascending slide as an elevation or
whole fall and called the descending slide
a double bacltfalL The signs and execu-
tion of these ornaments are illustrated in
Examples 2 and 3. Their German equiva-
lent is the Schleifer, which is indicated, in
the music of the Baroque period, either by
a custos (^direct) or two grace notes [Ex.
4] . It should always be played on the beat.
The punctierter Schleifer, or dotted
slide, is a complicated ornament very
APPRECIATION OF MUSIC
popular with the Rococo composers, be-
tween 1750 and 1780. Its performance is
shown in Ex. 5 (by C. P. E. Bach). An-
other special form of slide, peculiar to
keyboard music, is that in which the first
note is held throughout. Introduced by
the French clavecinistes, who called it
coule sur une tierce, this agrement is indi-
cated and performed as shown in Ex. 6. It
was adopted by Purcell and other English
composers, who used the same notation
but called it a slur. In Romantic and mod-
ern music this execution of the slide is in-
dicated with a tie, as in Ex. 7 (Schubert,
Moments musicaux op. 94, no. 3). The
performance of the slide, in general, has
changed very little since the i8th century;
it is still begun on the beat, as in Ex. 8
(Beethoven, Bagatellen op. 119, no. 5).
III. The disjunct double appoggiatura
was written in ordinary notes until the last
half of the i8th century, when C. P. E.
Bach gave it the name Anschlag and in-
troduced the two tiny grace notes which
have since been used to represent it [Ex.
9] . The first of the two notes which make
up the Anschlag may be at any distance
from the main note, but the second is only
one degree removed from it. The orna-
ment should always begin on the beat, as
in Ex. 10 (Chopin, Rondo op. 16) and Ex.
ii (Chopin, Polonaise op. 44). P. A.
Appreciation of music. This term
has come to be accepted as a name for a
type of musical training designed to de-
velop in the seriously interested amateur
an ability to listen intelligently to the mu-
sic which he is likely to encounter in con-
cert performances and in broadcast repro-
ductions and thus to enhance the pleasure
and satisfaction he may derive from listen-
ing to music. This type of musical educa-
tion, which is very common in the United
States and in Britain (but practically un-
known in Germany), has frequently been
criticized as leading to superficiality and
presumption, without providing that thor-
ough training which the professional con-
siders indispensable. Such criticism is not
justified, however, except in special cases
of incapacity and abuse which, one must
admit, have not been rare. As a principle,
!44l
APPUY
the idea of providing a special type of
training for the average music lover is
sound and more deserving of constructive
cooperation than of adverse criticism on
the part of professional musicians.
Lit.: M. Bernstein, An Introduction to
Music (1937); M. D. Calvocoressi, Musi-
cal Taste and How to Form It (1925); A.
Copland, What to Listen for in Music
( 1938) ; E. Dickinson, The Spirit of Music
(1925); D. S. Moore, Listening to Music
(1932); D. Welch, The Appreciation of
Music (1927); A. H. Fox-Strangways, in
ML viii, 395.
Appuy [F.]. French iSth-century term
for a note having the quality of an *appog-
giatura. Usually refers to the appoggiatura
which constitutes the first note of the
tremblement or cadence [see *Trill].
P. A.
Appuye [F.]. See *Appoggiando.
Apres-midi d'un faune, L' (The
Afternoon of a Faun). See ^Symphonic
poem IV.
Apsidenchore [G., from L. apsis, apse] .
Same as *cori spezzati.
Apt, Codex. See ^Sources, no. 19.
Arabesque [F., properly an ornamenta-
tion in Arabic architecture]. A fanciful
title used by R. Schumann and others for
*characteristic pieces of a more or less
casual type. The term is also used in the
sense of figuration, ornamentation of a
melody.
Arabian music. The music of the Is-
lamic nations and tribes in Arabia, North
Africa, and Persia.
I. History. As is the case with all the
Oriental nations, our knowledge of the
history of Arabian music is restricted
largely to the theoretical field. A consid-
erable number of early treatises exist, e.g.,
Al-Kindi (9th century); Al-Farabi (c.
900-950); Avicenna (nth century); Safi-
ud Din ( 1 3th century) ; Abd-el Kadr ( I5th
century). The most important informa-
tion to be gained from these manuscripts
concerns the scale, as given by the frets of
the two main instruments of Arabian mu-
ARABIAN MUSIC
sic, the 'ud (a short lute), and the *tanbur
(a long lute; see below). Prior to Al-
Farabi's time, the strings of the tanbur
were divided into forty equal parts the
first five of which were indicated by frets
and used in playing. The result of this
procedure is a small series of (unequal)
quarter-tones. Al-Farabi, influenced by
ancient Greek theory, introduced a new
scale based on the interval of the fourth.
The 'ud as well as the tanbur were tuned
in fourths (e.g., a-d'-g'-c") and were pro-
vided with frets which gave a number of
middle tones between the open string and
its upper fourth's. Al-Farabi himself in-
terpolated three such tones, namely, two
successive (Pythagorean) whole-tones
( % = 204 *cents) above the fundamental
(open string) and one whole-tone below
the fourth. Thus the tetrachord c-f in-
cluded five tones which are almost identi-
cal with the tones c-d-eb-e-f of the modern
scale (0-204-294-408498, instead of
0-200-300-400-500 cents). Later on, the
second whole-tone below the fourth was
added, a tone which is very near to the
modern db (294-204 = 90 cents; see *Lim-
ma). The addition of a similar tetrachord
f-bb and of an extra tone b above it re-
sulted in a scale of twelve tones which dif-
fers very little from the modern well-
tempered scale, except for the slightly low
db and gb. In the i3th century this scale
was extended by the addition of five tones,
each a quarter-tone (24 cents) below each
diatonic whole-tone, i.e., below d,e,g,a,c',
so that a i7-tone scale resulted. This scale
90 90 2*9090 a* 90 90 90 o/i- 90 90 14 90 90 WZ*-
Arabian i7-tone Scale
has been wrongly interpreted by Villoteau
(c. 1820) and by Kiesewetter [Die MusiJ^
der Araber (1842)] as a scale of equal
third-tones. Besides this division of the
tetrachord, many others were in use, e.g.,
one named after the Bagdad lutenist Zal-
zal (8th century) which used the tones
0-168-355-408-498 cents.
A special point of Arabic theory which
has attracted much attention is that of
consonance and dissonance. It has been
[45]
ARABIAN MUSIC
claimed that, as early as the loth century
(Al-Farabi), the Arabs considered the
third a consonance while in Western Eu-
rope it was not recognized as such until
about 1300. The fact is that Arabian the-
ory does not make any distinction between
consonance and dissonance, but knows
only decreasing degrees of consonance,
namely those which are expressed by the
following scries of fractions: %,%,%,%,
%>%>% Here the major and minor third
(%,%) range after the octave, the fifth,
and the fourth, but are followed in turn
by the intervals, % (fifth below the sev-
enth harmonic) and 8 /7 (inversion of the
seventh harmonic), neither of which exists
in Western theory, so that they must cer-
tainly be regarded as strong dissonances
[see *Messel],
Much attention has also been given to
the question of the influence of Arabian
music, as practiced on the Spanish penin-
sula, on Western music (troubadours).
The sweeping claims which have been
made by various scholars (particularly by
H. G. Farmer) have been greatly reduced
by more recent investigations [see Lit.,
Ursprung], It would appear that Euro-
pean music is indebted to the Arabs in the
field of instruments (lute, drum), of the-
oretical acoustics (measuring of consonant
lengths of a string a study which, how-
ever, in turn goes back to the ancient
Greeks), and of certain poetic forms [see
*Zajal], but not for such phenomena as
troubadour music, modal rhythm, or-
ganum, etc.
II. Present-Day Status. It goes without
saying that the above-described scales with
twelve or more tones represent what the
chromatic scale represents in, say, the
classical period of our music, i.e., the the-
oretical tonal material from which selec-
tions were made for the purpose of prac-
tical performance. In musical practice,
Arabian music uses a seven-tone scale
which includes four fixed tones, c,f,g,c',
and two more or less variable tones within
each fourth. Especially frequent is the
tctrachord c-db-e-f; however, the interval
db-e of this progression is smaller than it
is in our scale, the intervals of the tetra-
chord being approximately %, i%, and
ARABIAN MUSIC
% of a whole-tone [cf. Zalzal's tuning]
as against %, i %, and % of a whole-tone
in our system.
An important concept of Arabian mu-
sic is the maqam. These were formerly
(Kiesewettcr) considered the Oriental
counterpart of the Western *church
modes. Actually, a maqam is character-
ized not only by features such as center
tone and range, but especially by the pref-
erence of characteristic progressions, me-
lodic formulae, rhythmic patterns, orna-
mentations, etc. A maqam, therefore, is
a *melody-type, and a composition in a
given maqam is written not only "in a
given key," but also "in a given style or
tradition." Some of these maqam go back
to local traditions and may be compared
to what we would call, for example, a
I'hongroise. Others were originally melo-
dies of famous composers which were
imitated by other composers. For the
Arabian musician such a maqam estab-
lishes a tradition similar to what we ex-
press by the term "Beethoven-style."
Even today each piece of Arabian music
is written in one of the maqam [see the
ragas of *Hindu music]. However, the
relationship of a composition to its maqam
is difficult for the non-Oriental listener to
discover. In many cases it appears to exist
chiefly in the instrumental prelude which
usually opens an Arabian composition.
Evidently, by referring to the maqam in
the prelude, the musician pays tribute to
tradition and subsequently feels free to
play as he pleases".
The more elaborate examples of Ara-
bian music (chiefly instrumental) consist
of a prelude in free rhapsodic style which
serves to establish the maqam in the mind
Voice
UtUl
Drum.-
j J
m
J J J>
bawm
^^
A - .
Arabian Music
of the listener and which is followed by a
series of pieces in strict rhythm but of
freer invention in the same maqam. Thus
the form is strongly reminiscent of that of
[46]
ARC ATA
a suite, with all the dances being In the
same key.
The rhythm of Arabic melodies is sim-
ilar to that of Hindu music. Typical is an
% meter with the rhythm of the measure
alternating between the "European" ar-
rangement 2+2+2+2 and the "Orien-
tal" arrangement 2+3+3. The drums
frequently provide a rhythmical counter-
point [see Ex. on p. 46] .
The main instruments of Arabian mu-
sic are the short-necked lute with four or
five strings, tuned in fourths and called
'ud, from which the European lute de-
rived both its form and its name (al 'ud,
lud, lute), and the long-necked lute called
tan bur (originally pan-fur, Sumerian
"bow-small," Greek *pandura), usually
with two strings, tuned in minor seconds
[see *Lute II]. The family of the bowed
instruments is represented by the *rebab
and the femantche, consisting of a long
stick extending through a coconut [see
* Violin II]. A frequently used wind in-
strument is the arghool, a double shawm
with two pipes, one for the melody, the
other for bourdon accompaniment. For
an example cf. HAM, no. 3.
Lit.: F. S. Daniel, The Music and the
Musical Instruments of the Arabs (1915;
bibl.); H. G. Farmer, A History of Ara-
bian Music to the xiiith Century (1929;
bibl.); Ph. Thornton, The Voice of Atlas
(1936); D. Salvador, The Music of the
Arabs (1915); R. von Erlanger, La Mu-
sique arabe (1930); LavE i-5, 2676; A.
Berner, Studien zur Arabischen Musi\ . . .
(1937); E. A. Beichert, Die Wissenschaft
der Musil^ bei Al Farabi (Diss. Berlin
1936); Hefny, Ibn Sina's Musi\lehre
(Diss. Berlin 1931); English translation
of Al Farabi (Farmer); D. Stoll, "Music
in Mediaeval Bagdad" (MR i); A. Z. Idel-
sohn, "Die Maqamen der arabischen Mu-
sik" (SIM xv); R. Lachmann, in Wolf
Festschrift (1929) and in AMW v; H. G.
Farmer, in PMA lii; O. Urspning, in
ZMW xvi; B. Bartok, in ZMW ii; J. Roua-
net, in RM v, viii; R. P. Thibault, in
BSIMvii (1911).
Arcata [It.]. See *Bowing (a); arcato,
bowed.
ARCICEMBALO
Archet [F.], archetto [It.]. *Bow(of
the violin).
Architectural acoustics. The study
of the acoustic properties of a room (par-
ticularly, of concert halls, radio-studios)
as to ^resonance, reflection, echo, etc. Re-
cent investigations have raised this field of
study from the former stage of experi-
mentation to an important branch of
science.
Lit.: H. Bagenal, Planning for Good
Acoustics (1931); A. H. Davis, The Acou-
stics of Buildings (1927); P. R. Heyl,
Architectural Acoustics (1930); V. O.
Knudsen, Architectural Acoustics ( 1932) ;
P. E. Sabine, Acoustics and Architecture,
(1932); F. R. Watson, Acoustics of Build-
ings (1930); H. H. Statham, in PMA
xxxviii; A. Elson, in MQ vii.
Archives des Maitres de POrgue.
See *Editions, Historical, I.
Archlute, arciliuto [It.]. A lute with
two pegboxes, one for the fingered strings,
the other for the bass courses (theorboe,
chitarrone). See *Lute III.
Arcicembalo, arciorgano. A quar-
ter-tone harpsichord of the i6th century,
described by N. Vicentino in his L'antica
musica (1555) and Descrizione dell' arci-
organo (1561). Each octave had 31 keys
which were arranged in 6 manuals and
which gave all the tones of the diatonic,
chromatic, and enharmonic genera of an-
cient Greek theory. A simplified instru-
ment of greater practical importance was
built by the Belgian Charles Luython
(1556-1620); it had 18 keys in each oc-
tave, namely in addition to the diatonic
tones c# and db, d# and eb, ftf and gb,
g# and ab, bb, e#, and bJ. This instru-
ment, called Universal-clavicymbel (M.
Praetorius, in his Syntagma musicum,
1624, praises it as "instrumentum perfec-
tum si non pcrfectissimum"), permitted
enharmonic change and modulation in all
the keys, without the compromise of equal
temperament. Compositions such as John
Bull's Fantasia on the Hexachord (Fitz-
william Virginal Boo^ 1, 183) [sec Hexa-
chord IV] are evidently written for this
instrument.
[471
ARCO
Lit.: A. Koczirz, in SIM ix; Shohe*
Tanaka, in VMW vi; W. Dupont, G<?-
schlchte der musi{alischen Temperatur
Arco [It.]. Bow (of violins, etc.). See
Coll' arco.
Arditamente [It.]. Boldly.
A re, Are. See *Hexachord III.
Argentina. The beginnings of musical
life in Argentina, as in other parts of
Latin America, are associated with the
efforts of the early missionaries to teach
the arts and crafts of Europe to the native
population. In the La Plata region, espe-
cially, important missions were estab-
lished, with music playing a prominent
role in their organization. The most
gifted and zealous of these missionaries
as regards the teaching of music was the
Jesuit Father Luis Berger (1588-1641),
under whose guidance the Indians be-
came adept at playing many kinds of
European musical instruments. His ac-
tivities extended throughout the prov-
inces, and even into Chile.
It is not until the period of Independ-
ence that we find other names which need
claim our attention. First of all may be
mentioned the composer of the Argentine
National Hymn (1813), Bias Parera, a
rather obscure teacher of piano and violin,
of whose life little is known. In 1817 he
was in Spain, where he died. His Hymn,
officially adopted by government decree,
has firmly entrenched itself in the affec-
tion of the Argentine people. The out-
standing composers of the ipth century
were amateurs who cultivated music in
the midst of various kinds of public activ-
ity. They were Amancio Alcorta (1805-
62), Juan Pedro Esnaola (180878), and
Juan Bautista Alberdi (1810-84). All
three were of Basque descent. Their mu-
sic shows scarcely any local influence, be-
ing largely dominated by Italian tenden-
cies. All the works composed by Alcorta
from 1822 to 1830 his most prolific
period have been lost. From 1832 he
lived in Buenos Aires and continued to
compose while holding various official
ARGENTINA
positions. The works dating from this
period were published by his family at
Paris in two volumes (1869, '83), com-
prising chamber music, piano pieces, and
songs.
Esnaola, a native of Buenos Aires, stud-
ied at the conservatories of Paris and Ma-
drid and became an accomplished pianist.
Upon returning to Buenos Aires in 1822
he founded there the Academia de Musica.
He composed orchestral works, church
music, songs, and piano pieces, mostly
unpublished. Alberti, born in Tucuman,
had a distinguished career as a man of
letters and composed music simply as a
pastime. Most of his compositions have
been lost, but some were published in a
periodical called La Moda, founded by
Alberdi himself (1837-38). His works
are mostly for piano, and in 1 832 he pub-
lished a piano method for amateurs.
The dean of contemporary Argentine
composers is Alberto Williams (b. Buenos
Aires, 1862), grandson of Amancio Al-
corta, of English descent on his father's
side. After initial studies in Buenos Aires
he attended the Paris Conservatory, study-
ing piano and composition. In 1893 he
founded the Conservatory of Buenos
Aires, which now has many branches
throughout the country, and of which he
was still director in 1940. A prolific com-
poser, he has written nine symphonies and
several symphonic poems, concert over-
tures and suites for orchestra, many piano
pieces, songs (to his own texts), choral
works, chamber music, and technical trea-
tises. Although his technique is entirely
European and academic, he has essayed
a national style in his Argentine Suites for
strings, his Aires de la Pampa for piano,
etc.
The contemporary Argentine school is
vigorous and varied. Juan Jose Castro (b.
1895), pupil of d'Indy at the Schola Can-
torum in Paris, is active as conductor and
as composer (Sinfonia Argentina, Sin jo-
nia Biblica, etc.). In 1941 he appeared as
guest conductor of the NBC Orchestra in
New York. His brother, Jose* Maria Cas-
tro (b. 1892), is a member of the "Grupo
Renovacion," which includes also Hono-
rio Siccardi (b. 1897), Luis Gianneo (b.
[48]
ARGENTINA
1897), and Jacobo Ficher (b. Odessa,
1896). The radical Juan Carlos Paz (b.
1897) is an exponent of the twelve-tone
system. Among the younger composers
are Carlos SufTern, Isabel Aretz-Thiele,
Roberto Garcia Morillo, Julio Perceval,
and Alberto Ginastera (who is exception-
ally talented).
In Latin American countries native
opera is rather rare, but the Argentine
composers have been very active in this
field. Their activity has no doubt been
stimulated by the presence of the famous
Teatro Colon in Buenos Aires, where both
native and foreign operas are produced
under excellent conditions. Prominent as
opera composers are Pascual de Rogatis
(La Novia del Hereje), Raul Espoile (La
Ciudad Roja), Enrique Casella (La Ta-
per a), and especially Felipe Boero, who
scored a marked success with his folk
opera El Matrero, dealing with life on the
Argentine pampas. On the whole, Italian
influence predominates in Argentine op-
era.
Other contemporary composers are
Juan A. Garcia Estrada (b. 1895), Gilardo
Gilardi (b. 1889), Athos Palma (b. 1891),
Arturo Luzzati (b. Turin, 1875), and
Carlos Lopez Buchardo. Musicians who
have devoted themselves primarily to col-
lecting, arranging, and performing folk
music are Andres Beltrame, Andres Cha-
zarreta, Vicente Forte, and Carlos Vega.
The composer and pedagogue Josue T.
Wilkes has also done interesting work in
this field, notably with his arrangement
of Doce Canciones Coloniales.
The folk songs and dances of Argen-
tina are largely of Spanish (or at least
European) origin, with only a slight In-
dian influence in certain songs such as the
vidala (or vidalita) and the *tri$te, which,
as its name implies, is a rather sad love
song. See also *Milonga; *Tango.
Lit.: J. Alvarez, Origenes de la mtisica
argentina (1908); A. Schianca, Historia
de la musica argentina (1933); C. Vega,
Danzas y canciones argentinas (1933);
A. Williams, -\Antologia de compositores
argentinos. Cuaderno I: Los precursores
(1941); C. Vega, La mtisica popular ar-
gentina (1941)- G. C.
Arghool, arghul.
music II.
ARIA
See *Arabian
Aria. L An elaborate solo song (occa-
sionally for two solo voices; see *Duet)
with instrumental accompaniment. The
aria figures prominently in the cantatas
and oratorios of the I7th and i8th cen-
turies and in opera of all periods except
the Wagnerian type. It is distinguished
from the air, song, or Lied by (a) gener-
ally greater length; (b) non-strophic form
(*through-com posed); and (c) an accent
on purely musical design and expression,
often at the expense of the text. In fact
the small regard which many aria com-
posers have shown for the text has evoked
serious criticism of the form and, in some
instances, it has led writers of operas to
banish the aria from the stage; Gluck, for
instance, replaced it by the simpler Lied,
and Wagner substituted his dramatic
recitative. By and large such criticism
cannot be justified. Although at certain
periods (especially c. 1750 with Piccinni
and c. 1850 with Meyerbeer) the aria style
has been characterized by conventional-
ism and exaggeration, the great majority
of arias represent a treasure of great musi-
cal value. Moreover, in opera the aria has
a definite and important function, in rep-
resenting lyric episodes which temporar-
ily relieve the dramatic tension of the
action.
II. The term aria occurs first as a title
of wordless canzones ("Arie di canzon
francese") in the second book of madri-
gals by Ingegneri (1579). Its first use to
indicate a monodic song occurs in Cac-
cini's Nuove Musiche (1602). Here, how-
ever, contrary to its later meaning, it is
used to denote shorter, strophic songs
[cf. HAM, no. 183; SchGMB, no. 191],
while the longer, through-composed
pieces which are more allied to the later
aria are still called madrigals. The Cac-
cini sense of the word aria was adopted
by German composers such as Johann
Staden (1581-1634; cf. DTB j.i and 8.i);
Heinrich Albert (1604-51; cf. DdT
12/13; HAM, no. 205; SchGMB, no.
193), Adam Krieger (1634-66; cf. DdT
19; HAM, no. 228; SchGMB, no. 209),
49]
ARIA
and Job. Philipp Kricger (1649-1725;
cf. DdT 53/54). Those of Adam Krieger
[sec *Ritornell (2)] especially are impor-
tant forerunners of the German strophic
Lied of the i8th and ipth centuries [cf.
RiHM ii.2, 33 iff].
III. The early development of the aria
proper took place in Italy during the iyth
century. The first stage of this develop-
ARIA
to the ternary scheme ABA. Early ex-
amples of this form occur in Monteverdi's
Orfeo and Poppea [cf. RiHM ii.2, 197,
205, 238]. The form is more fully devel-
oped with Luigi Rossi (1598-1653; cf.
RiHM ii.2, 374), Giacomo Carissimi
(1605-74), Francesco Gavalli (1602-76),
Marcantonio Cesti (1623-69), and others
[cf. the operas of Cavalli and Cesti; also
B
D T R D B R
Scheme of the Da-capo Aria
T = tonic; D = dominant; R = relative key
fV a'
'\ a
V a a
T
T
D
T
ment (c. 1600-50) is characterized by the
emergence of various formal schemes, in-
cluding (a) an amorphous, continuous
type of *monodic melody, midway be-
tween recitative and song, sometimes
called *arioso; (b) a canzona-like type,
consisting of contrasting sections, alternat-
ing in tempo, meter, etc.; (c) the basso-
ostinato aria in which the melody is
formed above a repeated ground. Arias
of these types occur in: J. Peri, Varic
musichc (1609); Alessandro Grandi,
Cantade et arie a voce sola (1620; cf.
RiHM ii.2, 38); Steffano Landi, Arie a
una voce (1620; cf. RiHM ii.2, 50); Bene-
detto Ferrari, Musiche vane (1633-41;
cf. RiHM ii.2, 55). While in the ostinato-
aria of Peri, Grande, and Landi the re-
peated bass is a well-rounded musical
sentence of considerable length, so that
the resulting form might well be consid-
ered a strophic aria with a varied melody
[see *Strophic bass], Ferrari was one of
the first to use short, characteristic mo-
tives of the ostinato-type proper. This
form, actually a "vocal passacaglia" [see
*Chaconne and passacaglia], was fre-
quently used by Italian, English, and
French composers of the second half of
the 1 7th century (Carissimi, Purcell,
Couperin; cf. the Crucifixus of Bach's
B minor Mass).
IV. The second stage (c. 1650-1750)
is characterized by the establishment of
the da-capo aria as the typical form. In
this form the first section (A) is repeated
in toto after the second (B), thus leading
Lit., Landshoff, Riemann]. It attained
great artistic perfection in the hands of
such men as A. Scarlatti, J. S. Bach, and
Handel. A special feature, introduced by
Scarlatti and largely adopted by Bach,
was the opening announcement of the
initial theme twice, first by the instru-
ments (a'), then by the voice (a"), before
the main statement in the voice (a). Ger-
man writers call this announcement De-
vise (device), hence the name *Devisen-
arie (Riemann). Each of the three sec-
tions employs a three-part modulating
scheme, B usually in the relative key (R).
The material of B is generally different
from that of A, but not of a highly con-
trasting character.
V. During the i8th century the da-capo
aria became the vehicle of great virtuoso
display and of a conventionalism which
led to a codification and classification in
various types prescribed by typical oper-
atic situations, such as aria cantabile, di
bravura, parlante, di carattere (air de cha-
racter e), di mezzo car alter e> etc. [cf. GD
i, 1 10 ] . The desire on the part of the great
singers to show their ability in various
musical styles led, about 1750, to a form
consisting of two separate arias of con-
trasting character, usually the first dra-
matic, the second lyrical. Most of the op-
eratic arias by Mozart are of this type,
e.g., the famous "Register"-aria of Lepo-
rello in Don Giovanni (ist Act). In the
operas of the later Neapolitan School
(Leo, Porpora, Vinci, Jommelli) the use
of the aria was so extended that the whole
[50]
ARIETTA
opera consisted of nothing but arias. This
abuse was the main point of attack of
Gluck's reform.
The aria remained in the favor of oper-
atic composers throughout the first half
of the i pth century (Beethoven, Auber,
Rossini). While Wagner discarded it
more or less completely in his first operas
(Rienzi, 1840; Der fliegende Hollander,
1841), Verdi continued to use it except in
his last two operas (Otello, 1886; Falstaff,
Lit.: B. Flogel, Die Anentechni\ in den
Opern Handels (Diss. Halle 1929); H.
Riemann, ^Kantatenjriihling, 4 vols.; L.
Landshoff, 'fAlte Meister des Belcanto, 5
vols.; J. Godefroy, "Some Aspects of the
Aria" (ML xvii); H. Goldschmidt, in
MfM xxxiii. See also under *Opera;
*Cantata.
Arietta [It.], ariette [F.]. (i) A
small aria, usually in binary form and
lacking the musical elaboration of the
*aria; thus rather, a song or a *cavatina.
(2) In French operas before 1750, an
aria to Italian words, usually in brilliant
coloratura style. (3) In the ope*ra-
comique of the second half of the i8th
century, a solo song (aria) in French, pre-
ceded and followed by spoken dialogue,
the work being known as a "comedie
melee d'ariettes."
Lit.: P. M. Mason, L' Of era de Rameau
(1930); G. Cucuel, Les Createurs de
I' opera-comique jrangais ( 1914) . D. J. G.
Arioso [It., like an aria], A style which
is midway between that of an aria and a
recitativo. A good example showing the
difference between these three styles is a
cantata by Cesti (c. 1650), reproduced in
AdHMy 439ff. Bach uses the arioso re-
peatedly for the concluding section of a
recitative when he wishes to bestow upon
it a particular expression of assurance or
confidence [see*Cavata]. Two examples,
in the style of the *recitativo accompa-
gnato, occur in the cantata Ein feste Burg
illustrated. Beethoven, in the final move-
ment of his Piano Sonata op. no, uses the
term for an accompanied recitative played
on the pianoforte.
ARLfiSIENNE, L'
(Arloao)
&e reu. e dei ne. $d)uU mit Seiners dap G)ri ill
i^
^ mtb dlr sty ^st ver-bin- ^ - -
I
f
Arioso from Ein jeste Burg
Arithmetic division. In 16th-century
musical theory, the division of a string
into sections of equal length, e.g., those
indicated by the fractions %,%,%,%,
%,% as opposed to the harmonic (or
geometric) division in which the denomi-
nator changes: %, 1 /5,%,%, 1 /2>i- The
theoretical interest of these two divisions
(if applied to the string of a monochord)
lies in the fact that, while the latter leads
to the harmonics and, in particular, to the
major triad, the former gives the tones of
a minor triad:
ARITHMETIC DIVISION
f- f t
f
jt_
f
A
C Eb 6
c
9
/
HARMONIC DIVISION
r
t
*
t ? f
A
c
c
9
f i y"
The right end of the string, A, is fixed, the other
is altered by means of a fret.
These two divisions form the basis of
Zarlino's "dual theory " [see *Dualism]
in which minor mode is called divisio
arithmetical major, divisio harmonica [1s-
tituzioni harmoniche (1558)].
Arlesienne, L'. Incidental music by
Georges Bizet (1838-75) to Alphonse
[51]
ARMENIAN MUSIC
Daudet's play L'ArUsiennc ("The
Woman of Aries"). It is usually played
in the form of two orchestral suites [see
*Suite V], arranged by Bizet in 1872.
Armenian music. Since Armenia was
the first country officially to adopt the
Christian faith ( A.D. 303), the history of
Armenian sacred literature and music has
attracted much attention. The Armenian
liturgy, like that of Byzantium, consists
chiefly of hymns. The most ancient of
these hymns were in prose. Later versi-
fied hymns became prominent, especially
through the activity of the great poet
Nerses Schnorhali (nth century). The
official book of hymns, called sharafon,
contains 1166 songs. The earliest pre-
served liturgical manuscripts containing
musical signs date from the i4th century.
The notation is a highly developed system
of neumes (Armenian neumes) which
certainly was the result of a long evolution
[examples in LavE i.i, 552; Thibaut,
Notation neumatique de I'eglise latinc
(1907), plate 4], but the lack of treatises
explaining this notation renders the Ar-
menian neumes undecipherable. In the
early I9th century a new system of musi-
cal notation, similar to that of the present-
day Greek church music, was introduced
and is still in use. Whether the present-
day melodies are identical with or similar
to those of the early books cannot be ascer-
tained, but the fact that the modern chants
are grouped according to an *oktoechos
based on melodic formulae suggests an
ancient origin of the melodies. The con-
tinuity of tradition is more doubtful so
far as the rhythmic interpretation of Ar-
menian chant is concerned. The melo-
dies of the present liturgy are based upon
strict time, with the temporal unit (^&,
i.e., beat) divided into an elaborate sys-
tem of rhythmic formations of smaller
values, including 32d and 64th notes.
Whereas scholars such as R. P. Dechev-
rens and J. C. Jeannin have considered
this rhythm of great antiquity and have
used it as an argument in favor of strictly
rhythmical interpretation of Gregorian
chant, P. Aubry considers it as a fairly
recent innovation due to Turkish influ-
ARPEGGIO
ence (i5th century). The purest source
of Armenian church music is undoubt-
edly the music in use at Edjmiadzin,
which is also used at Tiflis and Eriwan.
The collections issued by European and
American communities differ widely from
the traditional forms, chiefly owing to the
use of cheap modern harmonizations.
Lit.: P. Bianchini, Les Chants litur-
giques de I'tglise armtnienne (1877);
M. Ekmalian, Les Chants de la sainte li-
turgie (1896); A. Abgar, Melodies of the
Holy Apostolic Church of Armenia (Cal-
cutta, 1897); Nerses Ter-Mikaelian, Das
armenische Hymnarium (1905); P. Au-
bry, Le Rhythme tonique ( 1903); A. Gas-
toue, in LavE i.i, 541; P. Aubry, in TG
vii, viii, ix; E. Wellesz, in AdHM i, 139
and in fPM xxvii; K. Keworkian, in SIM
i; A. Gastoue, in RdM, no. 31; GD, Suppl.
Vol., 176.
Secular music: K. Keworkian, Musique
populaire armtniennc (1931); R. P.
Komitas, Musique populaire armenlenne
(1925 and later); F. Macler, La Musique
en Armtnie (1917); F. H. Paelian, The
Music of Armenia (1939; bibl.); R. Pesce,
La Musica armena (1935); S. Poladian,
Armenian Folt( Songs (1942).
Armonioso [It.]. Harmoniously.
Armure [F.]. Key-signature.
Arpa [It.]. Harp. See also under *Psal-
tery.
Arpeggio [It., from arpeggiare, to play
upon a harp; F. arpegement or harptge-
ment\ E. battery; G. Brechung]. A term
applied to the notes of a chord when they
are played one after another instead of
simultaneously. In modern music the
arpeggio is indicated by one of the signs
given in Ex. i. Its execution always starts
with the lowest note, and as a rule it
should begin at the moment when the
chord is due (i.e., on the beat) whether
indicated by sign or by tiny notes [Ex. 2,
Mozart, Sonata E major; Ex. 3, Chopin,
Nocturne op. 62, no. i ] . There are cases,
however, in which the melody carried by
the top note of the arpeggio will not bear
the delay caused by this execution, so that
[5*1
ARPEGGIO
the last note of the arpeggio must then be
made to coincide with the beat [Ex. 4,
Mendelssohn]. The latter performance is
ARPEGGIO
of arpegements figures, or arpeggios in
which unwritten notes are introduced
[see Ex. 10, n and 12]. It will be ob-
served that in performance of these arpe-
gements figures all the notes are held ex-
cept those that are foreign to the chord,
generally to be recommended, in piano-
forte music, whenever the arpeggio occurs
in the left hand alone, as in Ex. 5 (Chopin,
Mazurka op. 7, no. 3). A distinction
should be made between an arpeggio
played simultaneously with both hands
[Ex. 6] and a long arpeggio in which the
right hand succeeds the left [Ex. 7], The
latter is (or should be) indicated by a long
arpeggio sign, joining the two staves. For
the violin arpeggio, see *Bowing (i).
In the music of the i7th and i8th cen-
turies the execution of the arpeggio varied
considerably (often at the discretion of
the individual performer) in respect to
direction and number of notes. The
French clavecinistes used the signs shown
in Ex. 8 to indicate the arpegement en
montant (ascending arpeggio) and those
in Ex. 9 for the arpegement en descendant
(descending arpeggio). Other special
signs were used to indicate various kinds
which are immediately released [see *ac-
ciaccatura]. An appoggiatura to an ar-
peggio chord is incorporated in the arpeg-
gio, occasioning a delay of the particular
note to which it belongs, as in Ex. 13. A
combination of arpegements figures and
an appoggiatura is shown in Ex. 14, from
Bach's Partita in E minor.
In music of the time of Bach and
Handel the word "arpeggio" is sometimes
found written at the beginning of a se-
quence of chords. The player, in this
case, is at liberty to break the chords up
and down several times, to extend them,
and to interpolate foreign notes as he sees
fit [cf. Handel's own notation of the last
four bars of the Prelude to his keyboard
Suite in D minor]. The note-values, and
even the tempo of such passages, are en-
tirely at the player's discretion. These
chords (e.g., those in Bach*s Chromatic
Fantasia) are written in measured time
only to facilitate reading, the style of per-
formance being derived from the unmcas-
[53]
ARPEGG1ONE
ured preludes of the lutenists and early
French clavecinistes (Louis Couperin,
d' Anglcbcrt, etc.; see 'Prelude II) . P. A.
Arpeggione, also called guitar violon-
cello, guitarre d'amour. A stringed in-
strument of the size of a violoncello, but
with a guitar-like body, and with six
strings tuned in E, A, d, g, b, e', invented
in 1823 by G. Staufer. It is played with a
bow. Franz Schubert wrote the only ex-
isting composition for it, a sonata for the
arpeggione and piano (1824; see the col-
lected edition [B. and H.], Series viii).
Arpicordo. Italian 16th-century name
for a harpsichord which differed in some
unknown detail from the clavicembalo
[see *Harpsichord II]. Cf. the title of a
publication from 1551: Intabulatura nova
di vane sorte di balli da sonare per Arpi-
chordiy Clavicembali, Spine tte e Mona-
chordi; also G. Picchi, Intabolatura di
balli d'arpicordo (1620) [see *Editions
III, 2]. Cf. the article in SaRM.
Arrache [F.]. Forceful pizzicato.
Arrangement. The adaptation of a
composition for instruments other than
those for which it was originally written
(thus, in a way, the musical counterpart
of a literary translation). One may distin-
guish between arrangements which are
made chiefly for study purposes and others
which are for public performance. In the
former class we find all the customary
piano arrangements of operas, sympho-
nies, quartets, etc. Here, strict adherence
to the original text is rightly considered
the foremost duty of the editor, who is
permitted only to detract from, not to add
to, the original. In the second category,
which involves the creative participation
of the arranger, various procedures have
been followed at different periods, rang-
ing from simple transcriptions in which
the musical substance remains the same
but is transferred to a new medium, to the
complete reworking of a piece with addi-
tions and modifications. Noteworthy ex-
amples of this category are: the *lntabu-
lierung of the i5th and i6th centuries;
Bach's arrangements of violin-concertos
ARS ANTIQUA
by Vivaldi and others for the harpsichord
and the organ, or of the fugue from his
solo-violin sonata in G minor (no. i) for
the organ (D minor; B.-G. xv, 148);
Haydn's Die Sieben Worte am Kreuz
which appeared as an orchestral composi-
tion, as a string quartet, and as choral
music [cf. A. Sandberger, in JMP x];
Liszt's concert arrangements of Schubert's
songs and of scenes from Wagnerian
operas; Brahms's arrangement for two
pianofortes of his orchestral variations on
a theme by Haydn (op. 56), etc.
In the last score of years there has been
an extraordinary activity in transcribing
Bach's organ works for the piano and the
orchestra. Although this must be wel-
comed as a token of the ever growing in-
terest in the work of the great master, yet
the development has taken on forms
which have recently led to a sharp reaction
against the "business of arrangement."
This opposition, however, is justifiable
only with regard to certain methods of
transcription. Several transcribers (e.g.,
Respighi), instigated by the display of
modern orchestration or pianoforte-tech-
nique, have tried and certainly with
success to bestow upon Bach's organ
pieces an impressionistic lushness or a Ro-
mantic emotionalism which is inconsistent
with the intrinsic clarity of his style.
Lt.: K. Grunsky, Die Techni^ des
Klavierauszugs (1911); E. Friedlander,
Wagner-Liszt und die Kunst der Klavier-
bearbeitung (1922); E. Howard- Jones in
ML xvi, no. 4.
Arrescu [Sp.]. See *Aurrescu.
Ars antiqua [L., the ancient art].
I. The term Ars antiqua (Ars veterum)
was used by writers of the early I4th cen-
tury (e.g., Speculum Musicae, c. 1325; cf.
CS ii, 429) to distinguish the late 13th-
century school (Franco, c. 1260; Petrus
de Cruce, c. 1290) from that of their own
day which was called *Ars nova (or Ars
modernorum). Today, both terms are
usually employed in a wider sense, denot-
ing music of the i3th and I4th centuries
respectively. The Ars antiqua, then, in-
cludes the School of Notre Dame with its
two masters, Leoninus (second half of the
[54]
ARS ANTIQUA
i2th century) and Perotinus (c. 1160-
1220), and the ensuing period, which, for
want of other names, may be divided into
the school of Franco (middle i3th cen-
tury) and that of Petrus de Cruce (late
1 3th century). The School of Notre
Dame was preceded by the School of *St.
Martial (c. 1100-50).
Leoninus, called "optimus organista"
by the English Anon. IV [CS i, 342]
(i.e., greatest composer of *organa, not
as some modern writers believe "very
able organist"), was the creator of the
Magnus liber organi de gradali et de an-
tiphonario (great book of organa for the
Mass and for the Office), which represents
a complete cycle of two-part organa (or-
gana dupla) for the ecclesiastical year,
about 90 in all [see *Magnus liber].
Perotinus, "optimus discantor" (i.e.,
greatest composer of *discantus), partly
rewrote this repertory in a more "crystal-
lized" style which is characterized by the
consistent use of modal meter [see
* Modes, rhythmic] and by the increase of
the number of parts from two to three
and, occasionally, four (organum triplum
and organum quadruplum; cf. AdHM i,
226, 228-232). He and his collaborators
also added a large number of short com-
positions, mostly in two parts, the so-
called *clausulae, which were designed to
be used as substitutes for corresponding
sections in Leonin's organa. These clausu-
lae constitute the link with the following
period, as they were frequently trans-
formed into *motets. The motet is the
representative form of the middle and
second half of the i3th century, during
which it was cultivated almost to the ex-
clusion of any other type of music. The
propensity of the 13th-century musicians
(practically all anonymous) for this form
would be difficult to understand were it
not for the fact that the motet, which orig-
inally was a strictly liturgical form (a
clausula provided with a full text in the
upper part), soon underwent secular in-
fluence, partly from the tradition of the
trouveres, which brought with it fresh im-
pulses and even many heterogeneous ele-
ments (mixture of Latin and French, of
liturgical tenors and love lyrics). The
ARS ANTIQUA
repertory of the School of Notre Dame
also includes a large number of *con-
ductus, i.e., Latin songs in one to four
parts, mostly to devotional texts, but with-
out plainsong cantus firmus, such as oc-
curs with all the organa, clausulae, and
motets.
II. The 13th-century technique of com-
position may be described as "successive
counterpoint." The composer starts out
with one complete voice, the tenor, which
is either a pre-existent plainsong melody
(this is the case with organa, clausulae,
and practically all motets) or written by
the composer himself (this is the case
with conductus). To this fundamental
part the others are added successively, first
the duplum (called motetus in a motet),
then the triplum. Regarding the prin-
ciples of consonance and dissonance, see
*Harmony.
The most important contribution of the
Ars antiqua lies in the field of rhythm.
While the organa of the School of St.
Martial employ for their upper part me-
lismas in free, unmeasured rhythm, the
period around 1150 marks the establish-
ment of strict rhythm, based on the rhyth-
mic modes [see *Rhythm III (b) (c)].
This new rhythm presents itself clearly in
the clausula-sections of Leonin's organa,
while the organal sections are written in
a transitional style the rhythmic interpre-
tation of which is still a matter of contro-
versy [see *Organum], With Perotinus,
modal rhythm (usually corresponding to
our % -meter) was universally adopted
for the entire organa and their derivatives.
The most important sources of 13th-
century music are, aside from those men-
tioned under *Magnus liber organi^ the
codices Montpellier, Bamberg, and Huel-
gas [see *Sources]. For complete lists cf.
F. Ludwig, in AMW v (also ApNPM,
20if, Sections II, III).
Related articles: Cantigas; Clausula;
Conductus; Discant; Estampie; Hocket;
Lauda; Minnesinger; Modes, Rhythmic;
Motet I; Square notation; Sumer is icu-
men in; Theory II; Troubadours; Trou-
vres.
Lit.: OH i (preferably the edition of
1901; the transcriptions of organa are
[55]
ARSIS AND THESIS
based on wrong principles); ReMMA,
272-330 (bibl. pp. 445-456); AdHM
i, 214-265 (bibl. p. 294); BeMMR, 113-
135 (bibl. p. 180); ApNPM, 215-337;
-\HAM, nos. 28-42; \SchGMB, nos. 16-
20; H. Gleason, ^Examples of Music be-
fore 1400 (1942), pp. 36-75; R. Picker,
^Perotinus, Sederunt prindpes (1930);
H. Schmidt, "fDrei Benedicamus Domino
Organa (1933); R- Picker, "Polyphonic
Music of the Gothic Period" (MQ xv).
See also under *Motet and other related
articles.
Arsis and thesis [Gr.]. Arsis means
"lifting" [G. Hebung], thesis means
"lowering" [G. Senfang]. In Greek
poetry, these terms were used in a sense
derived from bodily movement, such as
the lifting and lowering of the foot (as in
dancing) or of the hand (as in conduct-
ing). Consequently, arsis meant weak ac-
cent or lack of accent or weak beat, while
thesis meant strong accent, strong beat:
a t a t a t
i i .. i
Unfortunately, Roman and medieval
writers reversed the meaning of the terms,
by interpreting them as referring to the
raising and lowering not of the foot, but
of the voice. Since with a pair of tones
the higher one is usually accented more
than the lower one, the term arsis (high)
was identified with accent, and thesis
(low), with lack of accent:
a t a t a t
I I I
It is in this sense that the terms are usually
applied in French writings on meter and
metrical music. The usage also persists in
German terminology, in which Hebung
(arsis) means strong beat, Sen\ung (the-
sis), weak beat [see *Vierhebigkeit].
Recent English writers have returned to
the original and proper meaning of arsis
and thesis [see Webster, Collegiate Dic-
tionary]. This usage is observed in the
present book. See *Poetic meter.
A fugue "per arsin et thesin" is one in
which the answer of the subject is made
by contrary motion (e.g., Bach, The Art
of Fugue, no. 5).
ARS NOVA
Ars nova. [L., the new art]. I. Gen-
eral. Generic name for the music of the
1 4th century, in contradistinction to *Ars
antiqua, i.e., music of the i3th century.
Properly, the name should be restricted,
as it originally was, to the music of the
first half of the i4th century (represented
in France by Philippe de Vitry, in Italy
by Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bo-
logna). Indeed, compositions of the late
1 4th century, especially the French, show
features of intellectual refinement, of
formalism, and even decadence which are
scarcely compatible with the term "New
Art." In the early i4th century, however,
the Ars nova began as a novel movement
the chief champion of which was Philippe
de Vitry (c. 1290-1361). About 1325, he
introduced the term Ars nova as the title
of a treatise which, unfortunately, deals
primarily with the notational rather than
the musical innovations of the period
[CS iii, 13; transl. by P. Bohn, in MfM
xx ]. More illuminating from a general
point of view are the discussions in the
Speculum musicae, whose author (Jaco-
bus of Liege; see *Theory II) gives ex-
tremely interesting information regarding
the stylistic contrast between the Ars an-
tiqua and the Ars nova, although he
speaks from a decidedly anti-modern
point of view [book vii, chapters 43-46:
"Collatio veteris artis ad novam"; cf. CS
ii, 384; 427433]. On the other hand,
Johannes de Muris, who was formerly
thought to have written the Speculum
musicae, actually was another leader of
the new movement, as was the contempo-
rary Italian writer Marchettus de Padua
who, in his Pomerium de musica men-
surata (c. 1320), contrasts the Italian and
the French notation of the I4th century,
and decides in favor of the latter. In the
field of musical composition the I4th cen-
tury saw continued activity in France and
the rise of a new school of polyphonic
music in Italy. There also are a limited
number of English compositions of the
14th century; their main interest lies in
their early use of sixth-chord style [cf.
ReMMA, 399; see *Fauxbourdon ] .
II. French Ars Nova. From the point
of view of the Ars antiqua, the achieve-
[56]
ARS NOVA
ments of the early French Ars nova lie in
the direction of secularization, refinement,
expressiveness, and, one might even say,
Romanticism. In striking contrast to the
rigidity of the Ars antiqua, the music of
G. de Machaut (1300-77) shows free con-
trapuntal texture, supple rhythm, curved
lines, and generally bears the stamp of
high refinement, delicacy, individuality,
and creative imagination. Whereas in his
motets Machaut continued the tradition
of the past [see *Isorhythmic], he estab-
lished a completely new style in his secu-
lar works, the polyphonic *ballades, *ron-
deaux, and *virelais, by abandoning
cantus-firmus treatment as well as "suc-
cessive counterpoint" [see *Ars antiqua],
and by creating the musical style known
as "melody with accompaniment." Ma-
chaut is practically the only French com-
poser of his time known to us, although a
few motets of Philippe de Vitry survive
[cf. H. Besseler in AMW viii, 245!?] . The
ensuing period of French music, that is,
the period between Machaut and Dufay,
is, at present, the least explored period in
the entire history of polyphonic music.
This is chiefly due to the great difficulties
presented by the notation of composi-
tions from the end of the i4th century
[cf. the chapter "Mannered Notation" in
ApNPM, 4031!]. Very few compositions
of this period have as yet been transcribed.
A general judgment on the merits and
demerits of composers such as Johannes
Cesaris, Baude Cordier, Cunelier, Gri-
mace, Solage, Suzoy, must be postponed
until further studies are available [see
Lit., Dannemann]. To some extent the
gap between Machaut and Dufay is filled
in by the recent publication of the Manu-
script d'Apt [see ^Sources, no. 19] and
of some pieces in Ch. van den Borren,
Polyphonia sacra [^Sources, no. 24],
The harmonic style of the Ars nova
shows some advance over that of the Ars
antiqua, in so far as thirds are admitted
more frequently. More interesting is the
extremely bold treatment of dissonances,
which frequently reminds one of the dis-
sonant counterpoint of modern composers
(e.g., Hindemith). The polyphonic tex-
ture stands, as it were, under the influ-
ARS NOVA
ence of "points of magnetic attraction"
at which the parts start and converge
in perfect consonances, mainly octaves,
fourths, and fifths, while in between the
lines move with a remarkable degree of
individuality and independence from
harmonic considerations.
The rhythmic treatment also is remark-
ably advanced and "modern," owing par-
ticularly to the introduction and bold use
of *syncopation which results in frequent
displacements of the beat or, in other
words, in a free change of measures
(mixture of %, %, %, %, etc.). In
the late i4th century, especially, the
rhythmic structure adopts a complexity
which is unparalleled in the entire his-
tory of European music [cf. ApNPM,
4 3 fl].
III. Italian Ars Nova. In the tradition
of Italian 14th-century music two schools
can be distinguished, the earlier of which
is represented chiefly by Jacopo da Bo-
logna and Giovanni da Cascia (c. 1300-
50), the later by Francesco Landini
(132597), Paolo Tenorista, Ghirardello
da Firenze, and others. Musical as well
as notational features indicate that Italian
polyphonic music branched off from the
French tradition of the late I3th century,
particularly from the style of Petrus de
Cruce. However, in the half-century from
1275 till 1325 it developed special traits
which led to a style of a decidedly na-
tional character. The forms of the earlier
school are the *madrigal and the *caccia,
while in the later school the *ballata (the
French *virelai) prevails. The style of
the earlier compositions may best be de-
scribed as an "ornamented conductus
style." The voices, usually two, move
simultaneously from measure to measure,
but the upper part makes ample use of
quick figures (frequently in sequential
patterns) leading from one main note to
the next. With Landini, a good deal of
the elaborate polyrhythmic style of the
French (Machaut) appears in Italian
music. He adds to the French polyphonic
texture an Italian charm of melody which
makes him the outstanding master of the
Trecento and one who foreshadows the
transparent beauty of Dunstable and
[57]
ART BALLAD
Dufay. For lists of 14th-century sources
see under *Sources.
Related articles: Ballata; Ballade; Cac-
cia; Estampie; Isorhythmic; Madrigal
(i); Rondeau (i); Syncopation; Virelai.
Lit.: ReMMA (bibl.); AdHM i, 265-
294 (bibl.); BeMMR, 136-180 (bibl. p.
1 80); ApNPM, 337-435; M. Schneider,
Die Ars Nova in Franfyeich und Italicn
(1930); E. Dannemann, Die Spdtgotische
Musityradition in Franty-eich und Bur-
gund vor dem Auftrefen Dufays (1936);
W. Korte, Studie zur Geschichte der
in Italien (1933); F. Ellin wood,
Worths of Francesco Landini
(1939); F. Ludwig, "\Guillaume de Ma-
chaut, Musi\alische Werfa 3 vols.
(1926-29); G. de Van, *\Les Monuments
de I'ars nova i (1939); \HAM, nos. 43-
55; 1[SchGMB, nos. 22-28; fWoGM iii,
nos. 1362; F. Ludwig, "Die mehrstim-
mige Musik des 14. Jahrhunderts" (SIM
iv); H. Besseler, "Studien zur Musik des
Mittelalters" (AMW vii, viii); J. Wolf,
"Italian Trecento Music" (PMA Iviii);
L. Ellinwood, "Origins of the Italian Ars
Nova" (PAMS, 1937). See also under
*Ballade, *Caccia, etc.
Art ballad. See *Ballade [G.].
Arte Musicale in Italia, L'. See
*Editions II.
Articulation. In singing, the clear and
distinct rendering of the tones, especially
in coloraturas without full text. See also
*Phrasing.
Art of Fugue, The. Die Kunst der
Fuge, the last work of J. S. Bach, written
in 1749 and published posthumously, in
a rather careless manner, by his sons in
1752. It contains some 20 fugues and
canons, called "contrapuncti," all based
on the same theme [Ex. i], in which the
various devices of imitative counterpoint
such as inversion, stretto, augmentation,
diminution, canon, double fugue, triple
fugue, etc., are exploited in the most
elaborate and ingenious manner. The
number of pieces varies in the different
editions, some of which combine two re-
lated pieces under one number. Until rc-
ART OF FUGUE, THE
cently the Art of Fugue was considered
chiefly a magnificent manual of advanced
counterpoint, but during the last two dec-
ades it has become universally recognized
as one of the greatest creations of musical
[58]
Art of Fugue
art. The turning point was the first pub-
lic performance, promoted by W. Graeser
(1906-28), in Leipzig in 1927. This
event was the beginning of a sensational
revival which has since spread over the
entire musical world.
The inaccuracy of the first printed edi-
tion has given rise to a controversy of
nearly one hundred years concerning the
proper order of the contrapuncti, a con-
troversy in which historical, paleographic,
and artistic arguments as well as meta-
physical speculations and mathematical
abstractions have been advanced without
leading to a final answer [see Lit., Haupt-
mann, Rust, Graeser, David, Tovey,
Apel]. A special problem is presented by
the last (unfinished) fugue, which has
frequently been considered extraneous to
the work, since none of its three subjects
(the last of which is *B-A-C-H) is the
principal subject of the Art of Fugue [cf.
A. Schweitzer, Bach, I, 424]. H. Notte-
bohm (1817-82), however, showed that
this subject can be contrapuntally com-
bined with those of the last fugue [Ex. 2;
cf. W. Apel, in DM xxii.4, 274]. This is
sufficient reason for assuming that the
unfinished "triple fugue" was planned
as a gigantic quadruple fugue, a fitting
ART OF FUGUE, THE
climax of the whole work. The chorale
Wcnn wir in hochsten Noten sein which
was added by the editors "as a recom-
pense for the incomplete fugue'* does not
belong to the work; yet, if played after
the abrupt breaking off of the preceding
fugue, it takes on a symbolic significance
which may outweigh historical scruples.
According to Mizler (1754), Bach
planned to write .still another quadruple
fugue which could be reversed (crab mo-
tion) in all its parts [cf. CD, Suppl. Vol.,
p. 10].
Another problem of the Art of Fugue
is that of medium and performance
the question as to whether it is keyboard,
orchestral, or chamber music. The lack
of any instrumental specifications in
either the autograph or the first edition,
together with the use of the scholarly
name "Contrapunctus" as a designation
for the various pieces, characterizes the
Art of Fugue as a work which is not de-
pendent upon specified medium or sound,
a work which is rooted in the contrapuntal
tradition of the Flemish School rather
than in the ideas of the Baroque period.
Therefore any kind of performance must
be considered justifiable which is in con-
formity with the austere spirit of the com-
position. On the other hand, the fact
should not be overlooked that all the
pieces, with the exception of the mirror-
fugues (nos. XII and XIII of the Peters
ed.), are within the reach of the hands of
a keyboard player. Evidently, in compos-
ing the work, Bach was thinking con-
stantly of keyboard performance, if only
for instructive purposes. F. Busoni, in his
Fantasia contrappuntistica (1910), has
offered a congenial modern version,
fantastically expanded, of Bach's last
fugue.
Lit.: f#.-G. xxv ; other editions by
Czerny, W. Graeser, H. Th. David, D. F.
Tovey (with completion of the unfinished
fugue); Roy Harris (for string quartet);
E. Schwebsch (for 2 pianos); M. Haupt-
mann, Erlautcrungen zu Bach's Kunst
der Fuge (1841, '61); D. F. Tovey, A
Companion to the Art of Fugue (1931);
Roy Harris, in MQ xxi; C. S. Terry, in
MQ xix; H. David, in JMP xxxiv; W.
ATONALITY
Apel, in DM xxii-4; H. Husmann, in BJ
xxxv.
As, asas [G.]. See*Notes.
Aspiratamente [It.]. Aspiringly.
Aspiration [F.]. See under *Nach-
schlag.
Aspramente [It.]. Harshly.
Assai [It.]. Very; e.g., allegro assai,
very quick.
Assez [F.]. Fairly; e.g., assez vite,
fairly quick.
Assieme [It.]. Together.
Assyrian music. See *Babylonian
music.
Atem [G.]. Breath. Atempause (breath-
ing pause) is a very short rest used in
instrumental performance for the sake of
articulation or phrasing. It is sometimes
indicated by an apostrophe: '.
A tempo [I.]. Indicates return to nor-
mal tempo after deviations such as rite-
nuto, piu lento, ad libitum, etc.
Atonality, atonal music. Atonality,
literally "absence of tonality," is a term
which is frequently but loosely and con-
fusingly applied to compositions of the
20th century [see *New music], and one
upon which writers and composers have
voiced the most contradictory opinions.
Obviously, it is impossible to clarify the
meaning of atonality without a previous
agreement regarding the term *tonality.
In fact, the chief trouble seems to lie with
the latter term rather than with its op-
posite. If, as is frequently the case, the
word tonality is interpreted in its more
orthodox sense, as indicating the regular
vocabulary of 19th-century harmony, then
any music which deliberately discards the
fundamental principles of this system
must be considered atonal, more or less
(e.g., Busoni, and, still more so, Stravin-
sky, or Hindemith). It is in this sense
that the word atonality is frequently used,
especially by amateurs who upon hearing
a composition of Hindemith or Stravin-
sky describe it as atonal because the fa-
miliar features of traditional harmony arc
[59]
ATONALITY
lacking. However, these composers as
well as many others of the same progres-
sive group have repeatedly resented being
referred to as atonal and have emphasized
the existence of tonal centers in their
style. If, in accordance with these views,
the word tonality is understood in its
widest sense, that is, as including any
music in which tonal centers are still rec-
ognizable, then atonality would indicate
as it actually should a still more
radical break with the orthodox system,
that is, the complete rejection of any
tonal relationships. Taking this defini-
tion as a point of departure, the question
arises as to the very existence of atonal
music. In fact, it has been repeatedly
maintained that atonal music is a contra-
diction in terms; in other words, that
music, consisting of tones, necessarily
must show relationship between these
tones and hence cannot be completely
"atonal." Such an argument is, perhaps,
too mathematically correct to be artisti-
cally true. Tonal relationships, in the mu-
sical sense, are not a matter of demon-
strable facts, but are a matter of inten-
tions on the part of the composer. It is
entirely possible to write music with a
complete disregard of tonal relationships,
although it is not possible to avoid all
tonal relationship in writing music. No
doubt, the music of Schonberg and of
some of his followers is written with a
conscious rejection of tonal relationships
and hence must be considered atonal
music. The protests launched repeatedly
by "atonal" composers against their being
labeled thus should not be taken too seri-
ously (Schonberg also "hates to be called
a revolutionist" cf . his letter in N. Slo-
nimsky, Music Since 1900 (1937), p. 575),
as they seem to originate largely in the
understandable desire to avoid a denomi-
nation which, unfortunately but wholly
without justification, has frequently been
identified with "amusical."
To vindicate atonality from any such
stigma and to accept the term as a proper
denomination for an important current
in New Music, does not, of course, imply
any statement regarding the artistic
merits and possibilities of this idiom. The
AUBADE
answer to this question still lies in the
future. Certainly, the first ventures in
atonality, Schonberg's Drei Klavier-
stucfaop. ii (1908) [see Ex.] and Seeks
N-r
1(leine Klavierstucl^e op. 19 (1911), were
radical negations rather than constructive
contributions. Around 1915, Schonberg
began to feel that atonality needed a posi-
tive principle and a technique of its own.
Obviously this had to be of a non-har-
monic, hence, of a contrapuntal charac-
ter. His *Twelve-tone technique was the
answer to this problem. To the present
day, it remains the only one that has been
given.
Lit.: D. Milhaud, "Polytonalite et
atonalite" (RM iv); A. Machabey, "Dis-
sonance, polytonalite, atonalite" (RM
xxi). See also *Twelve-tone system;
*New Music.
Attacca, attacca subito [It.] indi-
cates, at the end of a movement, that the
next movement should follow without
break.
Attacco. See under *Soggetto.
Attack [F. attaque]. Promptness and
decision in beginning a phrase, especially
in forte passages. In orchestral parlance,
attack means precise entry of the instru-
ments. In French orchestras, the concert-
master is called chef d' attaque.
Aubade [F., Sp. alborada, from L.
dawn]. Morning music, in contradistinc-
tion to ^serenade, evening music. In the
i7th and i8th centuries aubades were
played in honor of royal or princely per-
sonages, at the levee. The term has been
used by various composers (e.g., Bizet,
Rimsky-Korsakov), to denote a sort of
idyllic overture. The beginning of Bee-
thoven's Pastoral Symphony and Wag-
ner's Siegfried-idyll may be considered as
idealized aubades. See *Alba.
[60]
AUDITION
Audition [F.]. (i) Faculty of hearing.
(2) Rehearsal; performance (particu-
larly by students).
Auffiihrungspraxis [G., practice of
performance] . This term has been widely
adopted by German and non-German
writers to refer to the manner in which
early music was performed and should be
performed. In particular, it refers to the
many problems connected with the at-
tempts at restoring, in so far as possible,
the original sound of compositions from
the early Middle Ages to Bach. The
problems of Auffiihrungspraxis vary, of
course, according to the period in ques-
tion. In music prior to 1550, the foremost
question is that of vocal or instrumental
performance and participation, a question
which arises from the fact that instru-
ments are never specified in the sources,
that the text is often carelessly underlaid,
or, that long passages or even entire voices
of an apparently vocal character are
found without text [see * Vocalization].
Another serious difficulty results from the
fact that the instruments of these periods,
such as the psaltery, rotta, vielle, rebec of
the 1 4th century, the viols, cornettos,
theorboes of the i5th and i6th centuries,
are all obsolete. It is only by long and
patient experiments with modern repro-
ductions of these instruments that one
may hope to gain a clearer idea of the in-
tended sound of ancient music and to
solve some of the problems indicated
above. Generally speaking, it must be
borne in mind that the lack of clear and
unequivocal indications of instruments,
accidentals, etc., is not mere negligence
on the part of the composer or carelessness
on that of the scribe, but is an adequate
expression in fact, the necessary con-
comitant of the intrinsically anti-ra-
tional viewpoint of the Middle Ages and
the Renaissance. The idea of writing
music for a specific instrument was just
as foreign to the ^th-century musician
as the idea of using one "correct" spelling
for a word was foreign to a writer of this
period. In both cases, the only thing that
mattered was the idea, which remained
AUFLOSUNG
the same, regardless of how it was real-
ized.
In the 1 6th and lyth centuries the prob-
lems are relatively simpler. Important
points are the correct execution of thor-
ough-bass, the performance of *orna-
mentations, either improvised or abbrevi-
ated, the size of the orchestra, the specifi-
cations of tempo and dynamics. Most of
these questions have been rather satisfac-
torily clarified by musicologists [see, e.g.,
under *Dotted notes II]. The main ob-
stacle to be overcome is the reluctance of
modern interpreters, particularly orches-
tral conductors, to accept the historical
facts, many of which, to be sure, are some-
what contrary to the aesthetic standards
and principles of 19th-century music, par-
ticularly of Romantic music. According
to the principles of Auffiihrungspraxis a
work such as Bach's St. Matthew Passion
should be performed by an orchestra of
about 20 players (flutes, oboes, strings,
organ, harpsichord) and a chorus of
about the same number of singers; it
should be played at a moderate speed,
ranging from allegro to adagio, and with
a clear distinction of forte and piano
rather than with constant crescendos and
decrescendos. In the period after Bach
the problems of Auffiihrungspraxis prac-
tically disappear, owing to the greater
care on the part of the composer to indi-
cate clearly his intentions. See also *En-
semble (3).
Lit.: R. Haas, Die musi^alische Auf-
fiihrungspraxis (in BiiHM)', A. Schering,
Auffiihrungspraxis alter Musi^ (1931);
H. Leichtentritt, "Zur Vortragspraxis des
17. Jahrhunderts" (KIM, 1909, p. 147);
A. Pirro, "Remarques sur l'exe*cution
musicale . . ." (c. 1400; KIM, 1930,
p. 55); G. Pietzsch, in AM iv, no. 2;
H. Mersmann, "Beitrage zur Auffiih-
rungspraxis der vorklassischen Kammer-
musik" (AMW ii); cf. BcMMR, 319
(bibl.).
Aufgeregt [G.]. Excited.
Auflosung [G.]. Resolution (of a dis-
sonance); cancellation (of an accidental).
Auflosungszeichen, the natural sign, \\.
[61]
AUFSATZ
Aufsatz [G.]. Tube of an organ reed
pipe.
Aufschnitt [G.]. The mouth of an
organ pipe.
Aufstrich [G.]. Up-bow.
Auftakt [G.]. Up-beat. For Aujta\-
tigfeit see under *Phrasing.
Auftritt [G.]. Scene of an opera.
Aufzug [G.]. Act of an opera.
Augmentation and diminution., The
presentation of a subject in doubled (aug-
mentation) and in halved (diminution)
values, e.g., with the quarter-note re-
placed by a half-note or an eighth-note
respectively. These devices are an impor-
tant element of variety in fugal writing.
They are usually introduced towards the
end of the fugue; thus used, diminution
bestows a character of stretto; augmenta-
tion, one of grandeur. Examples are:
Bach, Wt. Cl. i, no. 8 (augmentation),
Wt. Cl. ii, no. 9 (diminution), *Art of
Fugue, nos. 6 and 7 (simultaneous ap-
pearance of the normal form, diminution,
augmentation, and double augmenta-
tion); Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. no,
last movement (similar combinations;
see Ex.). Augmentation and diminution
are also used frequently in the develop-
ment sections of symphonies, particularly
those by Brahms and Bruckner.
Diminution (or augmentation) occurs
first in a .number of two-voiced *clausu-
lae of th Perotinus period [see *Ars an-
tiqua] in which a plainsong melody is
used twice in succession, first in duplex
longae (dotted half-notes in modern
transcription), then in plain longae
AULOS
(dotted quarter-notes) [cf. ApNPM,
253]. In the I4th century, diminution
is explained in detail by theoretical writ-
ers (Job. de Muris, Prosdocimus de Bel-
demandis) and is used almost regularly
in the motets of G. de Machaut, the tenor
having the cantus firmus twice, the sec-
ond time in halved values [see ^so-
rhythmic]. With the beginning of the
1 5th century, augmentation and diminu-
tion become notational devices, since the
change of note values is no longer indi-
cated by longer or shorter notes, but by
proportional signs [see "Proportions] or
by verbal instructions, such as per aug-
mentationem, or often by enigmatic in-
scriptions [see *Canon II]. A last ex-
ample of this method appears in Bach's
^Musical Offering. Many of the *ricer-
cars of the i6th century use augmentation
or diminution, e.g., A. Gabrieli's Ricer-
care del primo tono [repr. in *Editions
II, 7] in which each voice states the sub-
ject once in quadruple augmentation
exactly as in the Contrapunctus 7 of
Bach's Art of Fugue.
Augmented intervals. See inter-
vals; the augmented fourth is the *tritone.
Augmented sixth chord [see *Sixth
chord]. Augmented triad [sec *Triad].
See also *Harmonic analysis V.
Aulos. The most important wind in-
strument of the ancient Greek. It is not
a flute (as has frequently been stated)
but rather an oboe, with double reed and
a number of holes varying from four in
the oldest instruments to fifteen in the
later specimens. The numerous pictures
of aulos players show that the aulos al-
ways consisted of two pipes; probably the
larger pipe provided a few tones which
were missing on the other. Many pictures
show the player wearing a leather band
which passes over the mouth and tics at
the back of his head. This probably
served to increase the resistance of the
cheeks, which acted as bellows, and en-
abled the player to build up a consider-
able air pressure, thus producing a sound
which occasionally must have been just
as shrill as that of a modern bagpipe.
The aulos originally was an Oriental
62]
AURRESCU
instrument. According to legend, it was
introduced into Greece, about 900 B.C.,
by Olympos, who was later glorified as
the "inventor of music." Throughout the
history of Greek music the aulos has re-
tained its Asiatic character. It was adopted
for the orgiastic music symbolized by
Dionysos, whereas the *kithara repre-
sented the restrained character of au-
tochthonous Greek music, symbolized by
Apollo. The aulos music was rapid,
rhythmic, exciting. The slight modifica-
tions of pitch which could be obtained by
half-covering the holes of the aulos prob-
ably led to the enharmonic genus of
Greek music. See also *Chroai.
Lit.: K. Schlesinger, The Gree\ Aulos
(1939); SaHMl, i38ff; A. Howard, "The
Aulos or Tibia," Harvard Studies in
Classical Philology, iv and x.
Aur rescu, arrescu [Sp.]. An ancient
ceremonial dance still popular in the
Basque countries (northern Spain), exe-
cuted with a great variety of violent steps
and gestures symbolizing wooing cere-
monies or other old usages. Cf . V. Alford,
in MQ xviii; F. Gascue, in BSIM viii;
LavE 1.4,
AVE REGINA COELORUM
Auto [Sp., act]. Spanish and Portu-
guese dramatic plays of religious or con-
templative character, frequently with in-
cidental music [see *Liturgical drama].
Such plays were written by Juan del'En-
cina (c. 1500), Gil Vicente (14921557),
Lope de Vega (1562-1635), Calderon
( 1 600-81), and others. Cf. G. Chase, in
MQ xxv ; A. Salazar, in PAMS, 1938.
Autoharp. A *zither on which simple
chords such as are used in accompanying
popular melodies are provided by special
buttons which, upon being depressed,
damp all the strings except those required
for the chord.
Automelon and idiomelon. In By-
zantine church music a chant is called
automclon (other melody) if it is sung
to a standard melody provided originally
for another chant; idiomelon (own mel-
ody) if it has a specific melody of its own.
The terms are also used with reference to
other fields, e.g., the antiphons of Grego-
rian chant, most of which are automela
[see the classification of Gevaert, men-
tioned under *antiphon (i)] while
others are idiomela, e.g., the antiphons
of the Mass or the antiphons B.M.V.
Auxiliary tone. See *Nonharmonic
tones I.
Ave Maria. A prayer used in the Ro-
man Catholic Church; see text and plain-
song in AR, 123. The text has been re-
peatedly set to music by 19th-century
composers. The same title also occurs
with a rather lachrymose piece by Schu-
bert, and a very lamentable piece by
Gounod in which Bach's first prelude of
the Well-tempered Clavier is misused as
a harmonic background for a highly sen-
timental melody.
Ave maris Stella. A hymn of Grego-
rian chant to which there exist various
melodies in different modes (cf. AR 9 pp.
[ii7]-[i27]). These have been fre-
quently used as tenors of motets and of
organ-hymns, e.g., by Cabczon.
modes. See *Church Ave regina coelorum. One of the
four *antiphons B.V.M., sung as a Vesper
[631
Ausdruck [G.]. Expression, feeling.
Ausdrucksvoll [G.]. Expressively.
Ausgelassen [G.]. Exuberant, boister-
ous.
Aushalten [G.]. To sustain a note.
Auslosung [G.]. The repeating mech-
anism (escapement) of the pianoforte.
Aussprache [G.]. Diction, pronunci-
ation.
Australian music. See *Primitive
music. See also Addenda, p. 825.
Austrian music. See *German music.
Ausweichung [G.]. Modulation, es-
pecially passing modulation.
Auszug [G.]. Arrangement.
Authentic
modes.
AYRE
hymn from Purification until Easter
(text and plainsong in AR, 66). The
melody is interesting because of its well-
defined C major tonality (except for the
plagal B-flat of the beginning).
Ay re. (i) A Iate-i6th-century type of
English song, similar to the Italian Can-
zonet or *balletto. The ayre is a strophic
song in simple homophonic style, the
melody being supported either by voices
or by instruments or by both. For the
early publications and their modern re-
prints sec *Editions X, XL Later publi-
cations are: Select Ayres and Dialogues
(1652) and New Ayres and Dialogues
(1678); these include songs with the ac-
companiment of lute, theorboe, bass viol,
B-A-C-H
by H. Lawes, W. Webb, John Blow, Pur-
cell, and others. Cf. A. Dolmetsch, Eng-
lish Songs and Dialogues of the XVI and
XVII Centuries (1912); P. Warlock, The
English Ayre (1926). W. A.
(2) English writers of the i7th century
use the term ayre (aire) in the meaning
of key or mode, e.g., Th. Morley: "these
aires which the antiquity termed Modi"
(Plaine and Easy Introduction, p. 147);
or Th. Mace: "every shake is to be made
in the Aire" (Mustek's Monument, p.
104); also Butler, The Principles of Music
(1636), pp. 72, 80, 82; Locke, Melothesia
(1673), Rule 6; Simpson, A Compen-
dium to Practical Music^ (5th ed., 1714),
p. 36. See also under *Fancy. H. J. S.
B
B. See *Pitch names; *Letter notation;
Hexachord; also *Accidentals (history).
In *part-books of the i6th century, B
stands for bassus (bass).
Baborak. A Bohemian national dance,
including alternating sections in duple
and in triple time.
Babylonian (Sumerian, Assyrian)
music. Our knowledge of the musical
culture of the ancient inhabitants of Mes-
opotamia is restricted chiefly to informa-
tion about their musical instruments
gained from pictorial and architectural
illustrations. This material, however, is
full enough to permit the reconstruction
of a fairly adequate picture of the general
trends in the musical evolution which
took place there from about 3500 to 500
B.C. The chief instrument of the Sume-
rian period (c. 3500-2000) was the harp,
usually without fore-pillar [see *Harp
III ] . It existed in a great variety of shapes
and sizes. During the Babylonian rule
(200010^0) we find lutes, flutes, oboes,
and drums, instruments which point to
a greater refinement of musical culture.
During the Assyrian rule (1000-500)
music gradually lost its ancient cosmo-
logical character and strictly liturgical
position and became more and more
hedonistic and voluptuous, particularly
through the incorporation of elements of
contemporary Egyptian music. The at-
tempt made by C. Sachs [AMW vii] to
interpret certain signs on a Babylonian
clay tablet dating from about 800 B.C. as
harp notation, and his consequent recon-
struction of a Babylonian hymn, have
been withdrawn by him in an article
[MQ xxvi] in which he also refutes an-
other interpretation given by F. W. Gal-
pin.
Lit.: F. W. Galpin, The Music of the
Sumerians . . . , Babylonians and As-
syrians (1937); LavE i.i, 35ff; C. Sachs,
Musi\ des Altertums (1924); id., in
AMW vii and MQ xxvi, xxvii; ReMMA,
4ff (bibl. p. 426); GD, Suppl. Vol., p. 14
Bacchetta [It.]. *Drumstick ( di
legno, wooden; di spugna, sponge-
headed).
B-A-C-H. The letters which form
Bach's name have, in German, a musical
significance, namely: bb-a-c-b [see *Pitch
names]. This interesting musical motive
was first used by Bach himself in the last
(unfinished) fugue of his *Art of Fugue.
[64]
BACH-GESELLSCHAFT
Another fugue on the same subject fre-
quently ascribed to him [see ed. Peters,
xxv ] is definitely spurious. Various later
composers have used the famous motive
in fugues or fantasias, e.g., Albrechts-
berger [cf. DTOe i6.ii]; Schumann
(6 Fugen uber Bach, op. 60); Liszt (Fan-
tasia and Fugue on B.A.C.H., for piano-
forte and for organ); M. Reger (op. 46);
W. Piston (Chromatic Fantasy on Bach).
It also plays an important part in Busoni's
Fantasia contrappuntistica (1910).
Bach-Gesellschaft. See*SocietiesII,2.
Here follows a conspectus of the con-
tents of the edition of the Bach-Gesell-
schaft, arranged according to subject mat-
ter.
I. Sacred Cantatas, i-io: vol. i.
11-20: vol. 2. 21-30: vol. 5.i. 31-40:
vol. 7. 41-50: vol. 10. 51-60: vol.
i2.ii. 61-70: vol. 16. 71-80: vol. 18.
81-90: vol. 2O.i. 91-100: vol. 22.
101-110: vol. 23. 111-120: vol. 24.
121-130: vol. 26. 131-140: vol. 28.
141-150: vol. 30. 151-160: vol. 32.
161-170: vol. 33. 171-180: vol. 35.
181-190: vol. 37. 191-193: vol. 41.
194: vol. 29. 195-197 (Wedding Can-
tatas): vol. 13.1. 198 (Trauer Ode):
vol. 13-iii. Unnumbered (doubtful or
unfinished) : vol. 41. [For the numbering
of the cantatas 19 iff cf. C. S. Terry,
Bach's Cantata Texts (1926), 642.]
II. Secular Cantatas. 201-205: vol.
n.ii. 206-207: vol. 20.ii (also 34).
208-212: vol. 29. 213: vol. 34. Un-
numbered: vols. 34, 20.ii.
III. Oratorios. Weihnachts-Orato-
rium: 5.ii. Oster-Oratorium: 2i.iii.
Himmelfahrts-Oratorium: 2 (= Can-
tata n).
IV. Passion Music. Mattheus: 4 (vari-
ant of Schluss-choral in 41). Johannes:
I2.i. Lucas: 45.0*.
V. Masses and Parts of Masses.
B minor: 6. F, A, G minor, G: 8.
4 Sanctus: n.i. Sanctus, Kyrie, and
Christe: 41.
VI. Magnificat, n.i.
VII. Motets. Six and two doubtful: 39.
VIII. Chorales. 1-185 (Collection of
C. P. E. Bach) : 39. 3 Chorale zu Trau-
BACH-GESELLSCHAFT
ungen: 13.!. (For a complete collection
of Bach's Chorales cf. C. S. Terry, Bach's
Four-Part Chorals.)
IX. Songs. 39.
X. Orchestral Worlds (cl. = clavier;
vl. = violin; cont. = continue). Four
Overtures, i Sinfonia: 31.*. Ouverturc
C moll: 45.i. 6 Brandenburg concertos:
19. Triple concerto for flute, cl. and vl.:
17. 7 Concertos for one cl.: 17. 3
Concertos for 2 cl.: 21.11. 2 Concertos
for 3 cl.: 3i.iii. Concerto for 4 cl.: 43.1.
2 Concertos for vl.: 21.1 (also 45.1).-^
Sinfonia for vl.: 21.1. Concerto for 2
vl.: 21.1.
XI. Chamber Music. Sonata for flute,
vl. and cont.: 9. Trio, Canon for flute,
vl. and cont. (from the Musical Offer-
ing): 3i.ii. Instrumentalsatz fur vl.,
Hoboe und Cont.: 29. 7 Sonatas for cl.
and vl. (one doubtful): 9. Suite for
cl. and vl.: 9. Sonata, Fugue for vl. and
cont.: 43.1. Sonata for two vl. and
cont.: 9. 4 Inventions for vl. and cl.:
45.i. Sonata in G for vl. and cont.:
Neue B.-G. 30, Lf. i. 3 Sonatas, 3 Par-
titas for vl. solo: 27.i. 6 Suites for cello
solo: 27.}. 3 Sonatas for gamba and cl.:
9. 3 Sonatas for cl. and flute: 9. 3 So-
natas for flute and cont.: 43.5.
XII. Clavier Music. Six English Suites:
i3.ii (new ed. in 45.1). 6 French
Suites: i3.ii (new ed. in 45.i; fragments
in 36). 6 Partitas: 3. French Over-
ture: 3. Miscellaneous suites (frag-
ments): 36, 42, 45.i. Overture: 36.
Inventions, 2- and 3-part: 3. Well-tem-
pered Clavier: 14 (Variants: 36; Auto-
graph: 45.i). 7 Toccatas: 3 and 36.
Sonatas: 36, 42, 45.}. Italian Concerto:
3. 1 6 Concertos (Vivaldi) : 42. Gold-
berg Variations: 3. Aria variata: 36.
2 Capriccios: 36. Chromatic Fantasia:
36. Preludes (Fantasia) and fugues,
Preludes, Fantasias, Fugues: 36. 4 Du-
ets: 3. Clavier Uebung i,ii,iii: 3. No-
tenbuch der Anna Magdalcna Bach
(1722, '25): 43.11. Clavierbiichlein fur
W.F.Bach (1720): 45!
XIII. Organ Music. Seventy Chorale
preludes (46 Orgelbiichlein; 18 Chorale;
6 Schiibler): 25.ii. 21 Chorale preludes
(from Clavieriibung iii) : 3. 65 Chorale
BACH TRUMPET
preludes (24 Kirnberger; 28 others; 13
doubtful): 40. [10 Chorale preludes
not included in B.-G. are reprinted in Ed.
Peters, vol. 9] . 6 Sonatas: 15. 4 Con-
certos (after Vivaldi): 38 (variant in
42). [2 other Concertos in Ed. Peters,
9], 1 8 Preludes and fugues: 15. 3
Preludes and fugues: 38. 3 Toccatas:
15. Passacaglia: 15. 8 Kleine Prae-
ludien und Fugen: 38. 6 Fantasias, 3
Preludes, 6 Fugues, Canzona, Allabreve,
Pastorale, 2 Trios: 38. [2 other Trios
in Ed. Peters, 9].
XIV. Art of Fugue. 25. i (original
form: 47). Musical Offering: 3i.ii,
Canons: 45.1.
Bach trumpet. See under *Clarin
trumpet.
Backfall. English lyth-century name
for the *appoggiatura. See also *Appog-
giatura, Double II.
Badinage, badinerie [F., playfulness,
banter]. A dance-like piece of jocose
character which occurs as a movement in
the optional group of the iSth-century
suites, e.g., in Bach's Suite in B minor.
Bagatelle [F., a trifle]. A short piece,
usually for the pianoforte. The name
was used by Francois Couperin ("Les
Bagatelles," see his Pieces de Clavecin,
new ed. Augener, ii, ordre 10) and, in
particular, by Beethoven, whose Bagatel-
len (op. 33, op. 119, op. 126) mark the
beginning of the extensive literature of
19th-century *character pieces.
Bagpipe [F. musette] G. Dudelsac\,
Sacftffeife; It. piva, zampogna}. Generic
name for a number of instruments which
have one or (usually) several reed-pipes
attached to a windbag from which the air
is blown into the pipes; also, specifically,
the name for the Irish and Scottish varie-
ties of this family. [See the illustration
on p. 152 (Clarinets ).] One or two of the
pipes, called chanter (chaunter), are pro-
vided wit^ soundholes and are used for
melodies, while the other, larger ones,
called drones, produce one tone each and
are used for the accompaniment. In the
BAGUETTE
earlier, Eastern specimens, both chanter
and drones are clarinets (i.e., have single
reeds) while in the modern types cither
they are both oboes (i.e., with double
reeds), as in Italy and some parts of
France, or the drones are clarinets while
the chanter is an oboe, as in Scotland,
Ireland, Brittany. Two categories of bag-
pipes may be distinguished, according to
whether the wind in the bag is provided
from the mouth through an additional
blowing-pipe, or by a small pair of bellows
placed under and operated by the arm.
To the former type belong the Old Irish
bagpipe, the Highland bagpipe (Scot-
land), the biniou (Bretagne), the come-
muse (France), the Dudelsacl^ or Sacl^-
pfeife (Germany), the zampogna and
piva (Italy); to the latter: the Northum-
brian bagpipe (England), the modern
Irish bagpipe, the galta (Galicia), the
* musette (France). A more primitive in-
strument was the bladder pipe, a single
or double clarinet with a bladder used as
a bag [illustrated in GD, pi. LX],
The bagpipe was not known to the
Babylonians, Jews, and Greeks, but was
used in Rome (tibia utricularis) . Nero is
reported to have played on it. In the
Middle Ages it is frequently mentioned
under different names (musa, chorus,
symphonia, chevrette). The famous il-
luminations of the 13th-century Spanish
MS Escorial j b 2 [see *Cantiga] show
players of bagpipes [cf. GD iv, 184;
ReMMA, 222]. In the British Isles the
bagpipes have played, for many centuries,
a prominent role in folk music and in
military music. Their continental history
is less interesting, except for a late lyth-
century movement in France which, for
a short time, raised the instrument to a
standing in society and in art music [see
*Musette]. See also *Pibroch.
Lit.: Wm. H. Grattan-Flood, The
Story of the Bagpipe (1907); W. L. Man-
son, The Highland Bagpipe (1901);
G. Askew, A Bibliography of the Bagpipe
Baguette [F., stick]. Drumstick (
de hois, wooden drumstick; d'iponge,
sponge-headed drumstick). Also the ba-
;66]
BAJAZZO
ton of the conductor and the stick of the
violin bow.
Bajazzo, Der [G.]. See *Pagliacci, Gli.
Balalaika. A popular Russian instru-
ment of the guitar family, characterized
by a triangular body, a long fretted neck,
and (usually) three gut strings tuned in
fourths. It is played with a plectrum and
is made in six sizes which constitute a
balalaika band. [Illustration on p. 314.]
The forerunner of the balalaika was the
*domra [cf. SaRM]. Cf. A. S. Rose, in
PMA xxvii.i; W. v. Kwetzinsky, in DM
xxii.i2.
Balancement [F.]. Eighteenth-century
name for the *tremolo. Sometimes used
synonymously with *Bebung.
Balg [G.]. Bellows of an organ.
Balinese music. See Javanese music.
Cf. C. McPhee, in BAMS vi.
Ballabile. A name given occasionally
to dance-like pieces (ballets) in ipth-cen-
tury operas.
Ballad [fromL. ballare, to dance]. The
term derives from medieval words such
as * chanson ballade, * ballade [F.], *bal-
lata, all of which originally denoted danc-
ing songs but lost their dance connota-
tion as early as the I3th century and be-
came stylized forms of solo song. In Eng-
land this process of change went still
farther, and eventually (i6th century)
"ballad" came to mean a simple tale told
in simple verse. There may have been a
transitional period during which the reci-
tation of the poems was still accompanied
by some sort of dancing. Most ballads
are narrative, and many deal with fabu-
lous, miraculous, or gruesome deeds.
Ballad singers made a living by singing
their newest productions in the streets
and at country fairs and by selling the
printed sheets to the people. In its more
recent (19th-century) meaning, a ballad
is a popular song usually combining nar-
rative and romantic elements, frequently
with an admixture of the gruesome.
These ballads are mostly written in com-
mon meter (4.3.4.3). Today the term
"ballad" is loosely applied to any kind
BALLADE
of cheap modern song. For art ballad,
see*Ballade [G.].
The word ballad is also used as an
Anglicized form of ballade [F.], ballata
[It.], or Ballade [G.]. Such usage, how-
ever, is misleading in view of the fact that
these terms denote entirely different
things.
Lit.: S. Foster Damon, ^Series of Old
American Songs (1936); C. Sandburg,
^The American Songbag (1927); Cecil J.
Sharp, English Foll^ Songs from the
Southern Appalachians, 2 vols. (1932);
John A. Lomax, Our Singing Country
(1941); R. Smith, South Carolina Ballads
(1928); A. K. Davis, Traditional Ballads
of Virginia (1929); M. O. Eddy, Ballads
and Songs from Ohio (1939); M. E.
Henry, A Bibliography for the Study of
American Folksongs (1937); J. W. Hen-
dren, A Study of Ballad Rhythm (1936);
C. A. Smith, "Ballads Surviving in the
U. S." (MQ ii).
Ballade [F.]. A form of trouvre po-
etry and music. The poem usually has
three stanzas, each of seven or eight lines,
the last one or two of which are identical
in all the stanzas, thus forming a *refrain.
The musical form of the stanza is: aba
bcdEorababcdEF [capital letters
indicate the refrain], a scheme which, as
far as the music is concerned, can be sim-
plified as follows: A A B (A = ab; B =
the remaining lines). This form is identi-
cal with that of the Provencal (trouba-
dour) *canzo and of the German (Min-
nesinger) Bar [see *Barform], which,
however, lack the refrain. Sometimes the
form is enlarged to A A B B, usually in
connection with enlarged stanzas of 12 or
more lines.
The songs of the trouveres include a
considerable number of monophonic bal-
lades [see Lit., Gennrich i, nos. 356, 357,
362, 366, etc.] . In the i4th century, G. de
Machaut revived the ballade as a poly-
phonic composition of great refinement
and subtlety [cf. F. Ludwig's edition of
his works; also AdHM i, 270]. His ex-
ample was followed by the French musi-
cians of the late i4th century (Soulage,
Trebor, Cuvelier, etc.; sec *Ars nova)
t6 7 i
BALLADE
with whom the polyphonic ballade be-
came the principal form of music, treated
with the highest degree of elaboration
and occasionally with affectation [exam-
ples in WoGM ii, iii, nos. 55, 56, etc.;
ApNPM, 419, 421, 423], The form was
also cultivated by Dufay and, occasion-
ally, even by Josquin [cf. Odhecaton A y
no. 10], Several scholars use the term
ballade also for the Italian 14th-century
*ballata a procedure which is bound
to lead to errors, since the ballata is an en-
tirely different form. E.g., the piece by
Enrique reproduced in RiMB, no. 12, is a
ballata (or *villancico), not a ballade.
Examples in HAM, nos. 193, 45, 47;
SchGMBy nos. 26, 40; ApNPM, 352, 355,
etc.; RiMB, nos. 4, 8.
Lit.: F. Gennrich, ^Rondeaux, Virelais
und Balladen^ 2 vols. (1921); F. Brosch,
Die Balladen im Kodex von Turin (Diss.
Vienna 1931).
Ballade [G.]. In German usage the
word Ballade denotes poems derived from
the English ballads, but of greater artistic
elaboration and poetic refinement. They
usually deal with medieval matters, either
historical or fancied (e.g., Goethe's "Bal-
lade vom vertriebenen und zuriickkeh-
renden Graf en"), or with romantic tales
(e.g., Goethe's "Erlkonig"). Such Bal-
laden were frequently set to music, usu-
ally as through-composed songs of great
length. Probably the earliest examples of
true Balladen-style are the interesting set-
tings of Gellert's moralizing and dry
Pabeln by Valentin Herbing (1759; DdT
42), written in a continuous recitative
with a highly dramatic accompaniment.
Later examples are written in the form of
cantatas, i.e., in various movements of
contrasting character [Joh. Andre, 1741-
99; Joh. Zumsteeg, 1760-1802]. A Fan-
tasie op. 109 by Beethoven's pupil Ferdi-
nand Ries (1784-1838) for piano alone,
written to Schiller's poem "Resignation,"
is an interesting example of what might
be callcd^Ballade ohne Worte" [repr.
in TaA%jjxiv]. The classical master of
the vocal Ballade (sometimes referred to
as "art ballad") is Carl Loewe (1796-
1869) whose fifteen volumes of Balladen
BALLAD OPERA
[complete ed. by M. Runze] include a
number of truly great songs ("Archibald
Douglas," "Erlkonig," "Der Pilgrim von
St. Just," etc.). Loewe's form is a free
combination of the strophic and the
through-composed type. Schubert's songs
include a number of Balladen, e.g., "Erl-
konig." In the late i9th century Balladen
were composed for solo or chorus with
orchestral accompaniment, e.g., H. Wolf's
"Feuerreiter." Chopin and Brahms used
the term for piano pieces written in the
ternary form A B A of the 19th-century
Character piece. Here the highly dra-
matic character of A and the lyrical char-
acter of B seem to portray heroic deeds
and knightly love, thus justifying the tide
Ballade.
Lit.: A. B. Bach, The Art Ballad
(1891); Ph. Spitta, "Ballade" (Musi^
geschichtliche Aufsatze, 1894); H. J.
Moser, fD/> Ballade (Martens, ^Musifo-
lische Formen in historischen Reihen iii,
1930); R. Batka, Martin Pluddemann
und seine Balladen (1895); A. Konig,
Die Ballade in der Musi^ (1904).
Ballad opera. A popular type of i8th-
century stage entertainment, consisting
of spoken dialogue and musical numbers
not newly composed, but taken from
folk songs or from famous tunes of con-
temporary composers. The ballad opera
flourished in London from 1725 (A. Ram-
say's The Gentle Shepherd) throughout
the end of the century [cf. the list in GD
i, 207, also in Tufts], The Beggars
Opera (1728) by John Gay with music ar-
ranged by Joh. Pepusch (1667-1752) was
the most successful of all. Two plays by
Charles Coffey, The Devil to Pay (1728)
and The Merry Cobbler (1735), played a
decisive role in the development of the
German *Singspiel. The music of the bal-
lad operas included songs and arias from
Locke, Purcell, Handel, Geminiani, Co-
relli, Scarlatti, and others; Playford's
Dancing Master (numerous editions from
1650 to 1728) and similar collections were
the chief source for the popular tunes cm-
ployed in these operas. The style of the
ballad opera has been imitated in Vaughan
Williams' Hugh the Drover (1924) and
68]
BALLATA
in Kurt Weill's Dreigroschen Ofer
(1928), a highly successful imitation of
John Gay's Beggar's Of era.
Lit.: E. M. Gagey, Ballad Opera
(1937); F. Kidson, The Beggar's Opera
(1922); W. E. Schultz, Gays Beggars
Opera (1923); W. Barclay-Squire, "An
Index of Tunes in the Ballad-Operas"
(MA ii); G. Tufts, "Ballad Operas" (MA
iv); W. J. Lawrence, "Early Irish Ballad
Opera . . ." (MQ ii).
Ballata [It.]. One of the chief forms of
Italian 14th-century poetry and music
[see *Ars nova III]. It is not derived
from the French *ballade, but from the
*virelai, which was also called chanson
ballade. As a poem the ballata consists of
various (usually three) stanzas (S) of six
lines, each of which is preceded and fol-
lowed by a refrain (R) of two lines, so
that the following *rondeau-like scheme
results: R Si R S 2 R S 3 R. Music is com-
posed only for the first four lines and re-
peated for the others as follows:
R S R
i
A
5
A
(the figures i to 5 represent double-lines,
i.e., 10 single lines), i (and 5) are called
ripresa (refrain); 2 and 3, piedi; 4,
volta. Like the virelai, the ballata origi-
nally was a song accompanying round
dances, and was performed alternately by
the whole group (ripresa) and a solo
singer (piedi and volta). However, none
of the surviving examples shows evidence
of dance-like rhythm or style. Mono-
phonic examples of the ballata structure
are to be found in the religious *laude of
the 1 3th century. In the i4th century the
form was treated polyphonically, espe-
cially by Francesco Landini of whom 87
two-voiced and 49 three-voiced ballatas
are preserved (mostly with only one
stanza; no. 148 of Ellinwood's collection
has three stanzas). An example is repro-
duced (under the erroneous title "madri-
gal" and with incorrect underlaying of
the text) in J. Wolf's ^Sing- und Spiel-
musi{ aus dlterer Zeit [for the correct ver-
sion sec Ellinwood] , The form of the bal-
BALLET
lata (or virelai) persists in the songs of
the *Cancionero musical [see *Villan-
cico] and, in a simplified form, in the
*frottole of the early i6th century. Ex-
amples in L. Ellinwood, ^Francesco Lan-
dini ( 1939) ; HAM, nos. 51, 53; SchGMB,
16 (text incomplete); EiBM n; WoGM
ii, iii, nos. 46, 51-53; ApNPM, 151, 408.
Ballet (t). Sixteenth-century English
version of *balletto.
Ballet. I. Ballet is theatrical perform-
ance of a dancing group with costumes
and scenery, to the accompaniment of
music, but without singing or spoken
word. The history of the modern ballet
goes back to the i5th century, when dance
performances were introduced at the
French and Burgundian courts for the
celebration of marriages, for the reception
of foreign sovereigns, and for similar fes-
tive occasions. One of the most sumptu-
ous of these entertainments was the "Bal-
let Comique de la Royne" (marriage of
Margaret of Lorraine to the Duke of Joy-
euse, Versailles, 1581). It is the earliest
for which the music is preserved, and is
especially remarkable on account of its
inclusion of two monodic songs (new ed.,
see *Editions IV; cf. also AdHM ii, 642
and L. Celler, Les Origines de l r opera et
le ballet de la Royne, 1868). The culmi-
nation point of the ballet was reached
under Louis XIV (1643-1715), who him-
self was a great dancer and who liked to
appear in ballet performances. With the
ballet-master Beauchamp and the musi-
cians Cambefort (160561) and Lully
(1632-87), the French ballet attained the
highest cultural importance as well as
great musical significance. It became the
origin of a great number of new courtly
dance types, such as the gavotte, the pas-
sepied, the bourree, the rigaudon, which
were later introduced into the optional
group of the *suite. Of particular impor-
tance among these was the *minuet.
Lully's activity in the ballet of the French
court (ballet de cour) began in 1653
("Ballet de la Nuit") and came to a
climax in 1664 when he and Molie're
joined forces to produce a unification of
play and ballet, the comedic-ballet. "Lc
BALLET
Bourgeois Gentilhomme" (1670) is the
most famous example of this type [see
*Entr'acte], Lully also introduced the
ballet into his operas, as did also his suc-
cessors Campra and Rameau. Rameau's
ballets are particularly interesting on ac-
count of their exotic background, Mexi-
can, Persian, Chinese, etc. [see also *Bal-
let in opera] . A special type of ballet was
cultivated hi England, under the name
of *masque. In the second half of the
1 7th century Vienna was a center of ballet
presentations (Johann Heinrich Schmel-
zer and others; cf. DTOe 28.ii).
II. From 1700 till the end of the i9th
century the history of the ballet includes
a galaxy of famous dancers, such as Ca-
margo (1710-70), Noverre (1727-1810),
Vestris (17291808), Taglioni (1804-
84), Fanny Elssler (1810-51), and others.
Unfortunately, little of the music used in
their presentations has come down to us.
Noverre, the great reformer of the ballet,
found musical collaborators in Stuttgart
(Florian Deller, 1729-73; Johann J.
Rudolph, 1730-1812; cf. DdT 43/44) as
well as in Vienna (Ignaz Holzbauer,
1711-83; Christoph W. Gluck, 1714-87;
Josef Starzer, 1726-87; Gluck's "Don
Juan" in DTOe 30.ii). This list is com-
pleted by Beethoven's "Prometheus," pro-
duced in 1 80 1 at the Burg Theater of
Vienna.
III. Ballet music took a new start with
Delibes' "Coppelia" (1870) and Tchai-
kovsky's three ballets "The Swan Lake"
(1876), "The Sleeping Beauty" (1889),
and "Casse-Noisette" ("The Nutcrack-
er," 1892). The great period of modern
ballet music, however, did not start until
the early 20th century, when the Russian
ballet of Diaghileff and Fokine began its
triumphal career and attracted the inter-
est of many prominent composers, e.g.,
Stravinsky, with "Firebird" (1910),
"Petrouchka" (1912), "Le Sacre du Prin-
temps" (1913), "Les Noces" (completed
1923), "Apollo Musagetes" (1927), "Card
Party" (1936)* and others; Ravel with
"Daphnis afkTChloe" (1906, 1912); Man-
uel de Falli With "The Three-Cornered
Hat" (1919); Darius Milhaud with "Le
Train bleu" (1924) and "La Creation du
BALLET IN OPERA
monde" (1923); Francis Poulenc with
"Les Biches" (1923); Bela Bart6k with
"The W oden Pnnce" (1922); Hinde-
mith with "The Demon" (1924); Bax
with "The Truth about the Russian
Dancers" (1920), and others. In Amer-
ica, the vogue of the ballet has produced
such works as John A. Carpenter's
"Krazy-Kat" (1921) and "Skyscrapers"
(1926); Copland's "Grogh" (1932) and
"Hear ye, hear ye" (1934); Marc Blitz-
stein's "Checkmate" (1937); Walter Pis-
ton's "The Incredible Flutist" (1938), etc.
Lit.: W. Beaumont, Complete BooJ{ of
Ballets (1937; sup. 1942); G. Goode, The
Boof( of Ballets (1939); V. Arvey, Cho-
reographic Music (1941); H. Prunieres,
Le Ballet de cour en France ( 1914) ; DToe
28.ii ("Wiener Tanzmusik," c. 1650-
1700); DTOe 43/44 ("Ausgewahlte Bal-
lette Stuttgarter Meister," c. 1750-1800);
H. Prunieres, "Le Ballet sous Louis XIII"
(BS1M x); "Le Ballet au XIX C siecle"
(RM ii, special number); D. L. Murray,
"The Future of the Ballet" (ML vii, no.
i); R. Lach, in ZMW iii (Beethoven's
"Prometheus").
Ballet in opera. Ballets appear in
opera usually as interludes unessential to
the plot, although connected with it by
some more or less specious pretext. Their
function is thus to offer a diversion from
the purely vocal and dramatic portions,
and they frequently involve large choral
groups and spectacular stage effects as
well as dancing. They are therefore most
appropriate in large-scale, serious, formal
opera, and historically they are found
chiefly in operas of the French school or
works written under the influence of
French taste. Ballets in comic opera are
simpler and less formal than those in seri-
ous works, as for example the dances in
the finale of the first act of Mozart's Don
Giovanni.
Although Lully is commonly credited
with having introduced the ballet into
opera, it was not unknown in operas be-
fore his time. Without reckoning the
choral dances of Greek tragedy, the gen-
eral dances which frequently took place
at the end of the medieval *mystery-plays,
BALLET IN OPERA
or the ballet portions of the 16th-century
^intermezzi, we find closing dances in
Peri's and Caccini's Euridice (both 1600),
a "Ballo" at the end of Gagliano's Dafne
(1608), and a "Moresca" danced by the
shepherds in the finale of Monteverdi's
Orfeo (1607). There are likewise ballets,
though on a relatively small scale, in
operas of the Roman school (e.g., Landi's
San Alessio, 1632; M. Rossi's Erminia sul
Giordano, 1637). The Venetian opera,
along with its fondness for spectacular
stage effects, made some use of the ballet,
especially in works designed for festival
occasions, like Cesti's Porno d'oro (Vien-
na, 1667), which has several ballets in each
act and a grand triple ballet in the finale.
The importance of the ballet in French
opera is due to the long previous tradi-
tion of the Ballet de Cour in France and
to the fact that Lully, in establishing the
national operatic form, practically incor-
porated the entire apparatus of the ballet
in the new type of entertainment. The
designation of the opera company as
"Academic royale de musique et de
danse" in itself shows the intimate con-
nection which was felt to exist between
opera and ballet, a connection which has
been maintained throughout the entire
subsequent history of French opera. So
strong was the French fondness for ballet
that before the end of the i7th century a
new form, the "opera-ballet," was created
(Campra, L'Europc galante, 1697), in
which the dramatic content was reduced
to a minimum in order to make room for
practically continuous dancing, choral,
and scenic elements (Rameau, Les Indes
galantes, 1735). The dances of Lully's
and Rameau's operas and opera-ballets
furnish some of the finest examples of
French instrumental music of their pe-
riod.
English opera likewise introduced bal-
let, partly from the native tradition of the
*masque and partly under French influ-
ence. There are ballets in Blow's Venus
and Adonis (c. 1685) and Purcell's Dido
and Aeneas (c. 1689), as well as in Pur-
cell's other dramatic music (e.g., the Cha-
conne in King Arthur, 1691).
In Germany ballet in opera was intro-
BALLET IN OPERA
duced by foreign composers (C. Pallavi-
cino's Gerusalemme liber ata, Dresden,
1687), and, under French influence, by
native composers as well (Joh. Sigismund
Kusser's Erindo, Hamburg, 1693). The
ballets in the original version of Reiser's
Croesus (1711) were omitted in the re-
vival of 1730.
In early iSth-century Neapolitan opera
the ballet was of minor importance, with
rare exceptions in festival works such as
Fux's Costanza e jortezza (Prague,
1723). Toward the middle of the cen-
tury, however, with the first movements
toward reform of the Neapolitan model,
ballet scenes began to be revived. This is
especially evident in the works of Jomelli,
written at Stuttgart in 1753-69, where
the celebrated ballet master Jean-Georges
Noverre was also in residence; and in the
operas of Traetta at Parma (1758-65)
and St. Petersburg (1768-74), which
show the influence of Rameau. Gluck's
"reform" operas are filled with ballet
scenes, quite on the model of their French
prototypes, and the ballet remained a
constant and important feature in the
works of Gluck's disciples, as well as in
the "grand opera" of the I9th century
(Auber's Muette de Portia, 1829; Ros-
sini's Guillaume Tell, 1829; Meyerbeer's
Robert le Diable, 1831; Halevy's La Juive,
1835; Wagner's Rienzi, 1842; Berlioz's
Les Troyens, 1856-58; Gounod's Faust,
1859/69). It will be noted that all the
above-named works except Rienzi were
first performed (or intended to be per-
formed) at Paris, where a ballet was still
considered to be an indispensable part of
any large serious operatic work. Wag-
ner's addition of the "Bacchanal" music
for the Paris performance of Tannhauser
(1861) is a striking evidence of the power
of this French tradition. Wagner in his
later works occasionally had recourse to
the ballet (Die Meister singer, Parsifal),
as did Verdi in Aida (1871). There arc
also important ballet scenes in Borodin's
Prince Igor (performed 1890), but on the
whole the decline of "grand opera" has
led to a diminution of the importance of
ballet in opera since the middle of the
1 9th century, and this has been accom-
BALLETTO
panicd by a steady rise of interest in ballet
as a separate form [see *Ballet]. Inci-
dental dance scenes, closely connected
with the action, are to be found in some
modern opera scores, e.g., R. Strauss's
Salome (1905), Berg's Wozzc\ (perf.
1926), Hindemith's Neues vom Tage
(1929), and others. The ballets in Mil-
haud's Christophe Colomb (1930) are on
a grand scale, but this work can hardly
be regarded as typical of modern practice
in this respect. D. J. G.
Balletto [It.],ballett. (i) Vocal com-
position of c. 1600, dance-like in charac-
ter, written in a simplified madrigal style
and frequently provided with a *fa-la-
burden which was probably danced. The
first publication in this field was Giov.
Gastoldi's Balletti a cinque voci . . . di
cantare, sonare e ballare (1591). It was
imitated by Th. Morley in his The First
Boo% f Ballets to 5 voices (1598), and
similar publications until c. 1620. (2)
Instrumental compositions of a similar
type and style. These appear frequently
in the German *suites of the early i7th
century, e.g., Joh. Hermann Schein, Ban-
chetto musicale (1617; complete ed. by
A. Priifer, vol. ii), Paul Peurl, Melchior
Franck, Valentin Haussmann, etc. Fres-
cobaldi wrote ballettos for keyboard [cf.
TaAMv].
Ballo, Tempo di [It.]. In dance-like
character.
Bamberg, Codex. See *Sources, no. 5.
Band [F. bande\ It. banda]. An orches-
tral group composed principally of wind
instruments. Different types are: *brass
band (brass only), wind band (winds
only), military band (chiefly brass), jazz
band (various combinations; see *}azz),
symphonic band (predominantly wood
wind, with the addition of cello or double-
bass). Other types are the balalaika-band,
marimba band, etc. In modern Italian
orchestra the^oup of brass and percus-
sion is ca\leQ$l$nda. In earlier periods the
name was applied to orchestral groups of
highest distinction, e.g., to the "24 violons
du roy" under Lully (La grande bande),
BARBIERE DI SIVIGLIA, IL
or to the 24 fiddlers of Charles II (The
King's Private Band). See *Brass band;
*Military band.
Bandola, bandolon. Same as *Ban-
durria.
Bandoneon. See * Accordion.
Bandora. See *Pandora.
Bandurria. See *Guitar family.
Banjo. A stringed instrument with a
long neck and a body in the form of an
open drum, spanned with parchment as
a resonator. It usually has six strings, the
highest of which, called the thumb-string,
is placed next to the lowest, in the follow-
ing arrangement: g" g d' g' b' d". The
banjo is the typical instrument of the
American Negroes and has been fre-
quently used in jazz. It was imported by
the slaves from western Africa (Senegam-
bia), where it existed under the name
"bania." In all probability it is not an
aboriginal African instrument, but a
modification of the Arabian or European
guitar [see *Guitar family].
Bar. (i) In English, bar-line or, more
usually, measure (included between two
bar-lines). (2) In German, see *Bar-
form.
Barber of Seville, The. See *Bar-
biere di Siviglia, II.
Barbershop harmony. Colloquial
term for a type of highly chromatic, over-
sweet harmony used in popular American
PW
M
#
T
part-singing. Diminished seventh chords,
augmented sixths, and similar combina-
tions prevail. Cf. S. Spaeth, Barber Shop
Ballads (1940); also *}azz II.
Barbiere di Siviglia, II ("The Bar-
ber of Seville' 1 ). Opera buffa by Gioachino
Rossini (1792-1868), based on Beaumar-
[7*1
BARBITOS
chais' comedy Le Barbier dc Seville
(1775), first performance in Rome, 1816
(New York, 1819). The scene is 17th-
century Seville where Count Almaviva
(Tenor) and Dr. Bartolo (Bass) are rivals
for the love of Rosina (Soprano), with
the former winning out by die aid of the
resourceful barber Figaro (Baritone).
Mozart's Le Nozze di Figaro centers
around a later adventure of the amorous
Count.
The Barbiere is one of the last examples
of the 18th-century type of Italian opera
and, in particular, the last to use the
recitativo secco. Figaro's aria "Largo al
factotum" is one of the most outstanding
examples of buffo aria in rapid declama-
tion [see *Parlando; *Patter song].
Barbitos. An ancient Greek instrument
of the *lyre type.
Barcarole [from It. barca, boat]. A
boat-song of the Venetian gondolieri, or
an instrumental or vocal composition
written in imitation thereof. Well-known
examples for the piano are to be found in
Mendelssohn's "Songs without Words"
[op. 19, no. 6; op. 30, no. 6; op. 62, no. 5] ;
others were written by Chopin (op. 60)
and Faure. Vocal barcaroles occur in
various operas with Italian settings, e.g.,
in Herold's Zampa (1831), in Auber's
Fra Diavolo (1830), in Offenbach's Tales
of Hoffmann (1831); cf. also Schubert's
song "Auf dem Wasser zu singen."
Barcaroles are always in moderate 6/8
or 12/8 time and use a monotonous ac-
companiment suggestive of the uniform
movement of the waves and the boat.
Bard. The hereditary poet-musicians
(minstrels) of the Celtic nations, espe-
cially the Irish and the Welsh. In the
early Middle Ages they exercised great
political power, serving as historians,
heralds, ambassadors, and, in brief, con-
stituting the highest intellectual class.
Their existence is documented as far back
as the pre-Christian era by Greek writers
such as Diodorus Siculus (ist century
B.C.), who makes reference to the tradi-
tional instrument of the bards, i.e., the
*crwth. The privileges of the Welsh
BARD
bards were fixed by King Howel Dha, in
940, and revised by Gruffyd ap Conan, in
1040. The first persecution (on political
grounds) occurred after the conquest of
Wales by Edward I, in 1284. The bards
continued to exist, though far below their
former standard and reputation, in Ireland
till 1690 (battle of the Boyne), in Scot-
land till 1748. The congregations of the
Welsh bards, called Eisteddfod, were re-
vived in the early I9th century, after an
interruption of about 150 years. Their
standard, which was extremely low, has
recently been considerably raised. See
*Penillion.
The music of the Welsh bards has been
the subject of much discussion and contro-
versy. Many exaggerated claims have
been made, chiefly on the basis of certain
music manuscripts, one of which, called
Musica neu Beroriaeth (Penllyn MS;
Brit. Mus. Add. 14905; facsimile ed. by
Cardiff University, 1936), bears the in-
scription, made by an iSth-century
owner: "The music of Britain, as settled
by the congress of chief musicians, by
order of Gruffydd ap Cynan, about A.D.
1040, with some of the most ancient pieces
of the Britons, supposed to have been
handed down to us from the British Dru-
ids." Actually, this manuscript dates from
the i yth century and shows nothing to
substantiate any such claims or similar
ones voiced by modern supporters of the
"Mediaeval Bardic music" movement
(e.g., A. Dolmetsch). The notation is but
a modification of the German organ
tablature of the late i6th century [see
WoHN ii, 294] . The transcriptions given
by Dolmetsch (who succeeded in clarify-
ing certain peculiarities of this notation)
still further discredit the fantastic legends
so frequently told. It is probably permis-
sible to interpret the style of these pieces
as the result of "debasement through seep-
age," a process which can frequently be
noticed in instrumental folk practice [see
*Folk song II ] . Such opinion is, of course,
in the strongest possible opposition to the
statement that "from internal evidence
such music could not have been made
later than the sixth century, and was
probably much earlier" (A. Dolmetsch,
[73]
BARFORM
in The Consort, no. 4, p. 14). The ac-
companying example, transcribed from
WoHN ii, 298, shows written-out figura-
tions in the style of the lyth-century
arpegement figure [see * Arpeggio],
Only the beginning and the end of the
piece are given here, but the intermedi-
ate measures can easily be found from
the formula: iiiiooooioioiiiiooooion,
given in the original, which indicates the
scheme of alternation for the two chords
used in this piece, each being indicated
by the figure i or o, a method commonly
used in 17th-century guitar tablatures [cf.
WoHNii, ijiS].
Lit.: Joseph Cooper Walker, Historical
Memoirs of the Irish Bards (1786); Ed-
ward Jones, Musical and Poetical Relicts
of the Welsh Bards (4th ed., 1825); Ch.
de la Borde, Essai sur les Bardes, 3 vols.
(1840); G. Borrow, Celtic Bards, Chiefs
and Kings (1928); W. Evans, The Bards
of the Isles of Britain (1930); A. Dol-
mctsch, ^Translations from the Pennlynn
Manuscript of Ancient Harp Music
(1937); id., in The Consort (i93off);
P. Crossley-Holland, "Secular Homo-
phonic Music in Wales in the Middle-
Ages" (ML xxiii, no. 2).
Barform [G.]. I. A term which is used
frequently in modern German studies to
denote one of the oldest and most impor-
tant musical forms, that is, the form with
the basic scheme a a b. The name is de-
rived from the medieval German term for
*his form, namely Bar. This consisted of
*wo Stollen (Action a) and the Abgesang
(section b) $$. the imaginative descrip-
tion in R. VHjkner's Mcistcrsingcr, Act I,
3, where Kwpner says: "Ein jedes Meis-
tergesanges Bar" . . . consists of ...
, "unterschiedlichen Gcsatzen" (sundry
BARFORM
stanzas); "ein Gesatz" . . . consists of
. . . "z ween en (two) Stollen" . . . and
. . . "Abgesang"; also Act III, 2, Hans
Sachs]. The Bar is by far the most fre-
quent form of the Minnesinger and Mcis-
ter singer [Ex. in EiBM, nos. 8, 9; HAM y
nos. 20, 24; SchGMB, nos. 12, 21; RiHM
i.2, pp. 268ff]. However, the Barform
itself is of still earlier origin and of a much
wider occurrence. It is adumbrated in
the ancient Greek ode which consisted of
strophe (a), antistrophe (a), and epode
(b). The examples 13 and 42 in BeMMR
illustrate its occurrence in the early medi-
eval music of the Eastern churches. With
the *canzo of the troubadours and the
*ballade of the trouveres it established it-
self in European music. The German Bar
is an imitation of these French forms. Al-
though in France their further develop-
ment lay in the direction of stylistic per-
fection (particularly in the polyphonic
ballade of the i4th century), the Germans,
restricting themselves to the monophonic
type, exploited its formal aspect. A fre-
quent feature, already found in the canzo
[cf. BeMMR, 107], is the use of identical
endings for the Stollen and the Abgesang
so that the form: ||: a + x : b + x re-||
suits, as, e.g., in Walther v. d. Vogelweide's
"Palestine Song" [see Ex. i], in Hans
Sachs's "Silberweise" [SchGMB, no. 78],
and in many chorales of the i6th century,
J. 41- Let- cot Ube i^K mtr werde 1 $ t t nun. $u*-<iic
3 Dai hire Urvt unL oucK cUe CT- <Le A Jem. man vtl <Ur
7- D
I A- Uj dt.-t- t n
Z Lu- cent proptnonam
nlmj
1
Praeclnet.3.foi fttatt* wwiio*
c -g-> "Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme"
[cf. Bach's chorale prelude and the first
movement of the cantata]. Another type
[74]
BARFORM
is the "duplicated" bar: ||: a :||: b :|| c,
which forms a connecting link with the
*sequcncc (*leich), and the "superim-
posed" bar, in which the Stollen itself is a
complete Bar [Ex. in F. L. Saran, ^Die
]enacr Liederhandschrtft (1902) ii, 53
and 57].
II. Of particular importance is that type
of Bar in which the Stollen is repeated in
toto at the end of the Abgesang, thus lead-
ing to the scheme a a b a or ||: a :|| b a.
A very early example of this form is the
liturgical melody to a hymn, Ales diet
nuntius, by Prudentius (d. c. 450), which
probably is one of the oldest Christian
melodies preserved [Ex. 2; cf. AR, 109;
BeMMR, 52]. Minnesinger songs show-
ing the same structure are quite numerous
[cf. DTOe 37.i, p. 31; Saran ii, 29; HAM,
no. 2oc; ReMMA, 235]. The modern
term for this is Reprisenbar or Rund Can-
zone (rounded chanson). Still another
modification of a more recent date is the
Reprisenbar with repetition of both sec-
tions: || : a :||: b + a :||. This occurs in
numerous pieces of the i8th century as a
modification of binary form, appropriate-
ly designated as cyclic binary form [see
*Binary and ternary form II]. It is this
form which must be considered as the pre-
cursor of *sonata-form, the exposition,
development, and recapitulation of which
correspond to the Stollen, Abgesang, and
repeated Stollen of the Reprisenbar. Al-
though there is, of course, no historical
relationship between the medieval Bar and
the classical sonata, the similarity is note-
worthy, all the more as the Abgesang of
the early songs frequently shows certain
elementary development features, such as
higher range, *Fortspinnung, and greater
intensity in general, as appears, e.g., in the
"Palestine Song" and in Hans Sachs's
"Morgenweise" [EiBM, no. 9]. It may
be noted that in pieces such as the first
movement of Bach's cantata mentioned
above the Barform of the chorale ("Wa-
chet auf") leads to a structure which is
quite similar to that of sonata-form. See
also *Binary and ternary form.
A. Lorenz has tried to show (with ques-
tionable success) that the Barform is the
leading principle of structure in R. Wag-
BAR-LINE
ner's operas, the recitative of which he in-
terpreted as "superimposed" Bars (Klein-
bar, Mittelbar, Crossbar).
Lit.: A. Lorenz, Das Geheimnis dcr
Form bei R. Wagner, 4 vols. (1924-33);
id., "Das Relativitatsprinzip in den mu-
sikalischen Formen" (Adler Festschrift,
1930); id., "Homophone Grossrhythmik
in Bach's Polyphonik" (DM xxii.4);
H. A. Grunsky, in ZMW xvi.
Bariolage [F., variety of colors] . A spe-
cial effect of violin playing, obtained by
quickly shifting back and forth from open
strings to stopped strings. This technique
is used for broken-chord passages [Ex. i,
Bach, Solo Sonata in E major], or for a
"coloristic" tremolo [Ex. 2, Brahms, Sym-
phony no. 4, last movement] .
Baritone or (rarely) barytone [from
Gr. barys, heavy, low], (i) The male
voice intermediate between the bass and
the tenor; see * Voices, Range of. (2)
In connection with instruments (oboe,
horn, saxophone) the word indicates sizes
above the bass size. (3) Short for bari-
tone horn [see *Brass instruments III(c) ] .
Baritone clef. See *Clefs.
Baritone horn. See *Brass instruments
III(c).
Bar-line [Fr. barrel G. Tafystrick} . The
vertical line used to indicate the begin-
ning and the end of a measure. The con-
sistent use of the bar-line is of relatively
recent date. Original bar-lines appear first
in the German organ tablatures of the
i5th century (Ileborgh, 1448; Paumann,
1452). In the 1 6th century they were al-
most universally employed for the writing
down of keyboard and lute music. Their
use frequently differed considerably from
that of the present day, however, as ap-
pears from the accompanying Example i
(Pisador, Libro de musica de vihucla,
1552: "Pavana myllana"), in which the
[75]
BAROQUE MUSIC
original barring is given on the staff, the
modern barring below the staff. [For a
similar example cf. ApMZ ii, 21; cf. also
y 653.] In ensemble (vocal) mu-
itPisador; 2: Josquin
sic the bar-line was not introduced until
toward the end of the i6th century, when
the notation in single parts gave way to
notation in score arrangement. The arias
of the jyth century frequently show the
anomalous use of the bar-line referred to
above, i.e., the disregard of upbeat or of
triple time; in other words, the employ-
ment of the bar-line as a means of simple
orientation rather than as an indication of
accent [cf. the explanations and examples
in RiHM ii.2, 12, etc.].
Modern editors of polyphonic music of
the 1 5th and i6th centuries have increas-
ingly resented the "tyranny of the bar-
line" and have tried to make this indis-
pensable device of modern notation less
conspicuous by replacing it by apostro-
phes: ', by punctuated lines: [, or by the
Mensurstrich, i.e., a line drawn between,
not through, the staves [Ex. 2, from Jos-
quin, Ave Christe, immolate]. Unfortu-
nately, the Mensurstrich is impracticable
if different meters (mensurations) are
used in different parts, e.g., % against %,
a practice which is not infrequent in the
period of Obrecht and Josquin, and still
more frequent in the compositions of the
late *Ars nova.
Lit.: W. H. Cummings, "Bar-lines"
(Musical Times, 1904, p. 574); Th.Wieh-
mayer, in ZMW vii; H. Keller, in ZMW
vii; WoHN 1^27; ApNPM, passim.
Baroque po^pic. The music of the pe-
riod c. 1 600^1750, following upon that of
the *Renaissance. It is also frequently re-
ferred to as the "thorough-bass period."
BAROQUE MUSIC
The term baroque (probably from Port.
barrocco, a pearl of irregular form) was
used formerly, and still is today, in a de-
cidedly depreciatory sense, as meaning
"grotesque," "in corrupt taste" [cf. Web-
ster], "overladen with scroll-work," etc.
Its application to the Fine Arts was based
on the opinion (Jacob Burckhardt) that
17th-century style in architecture and
paintings was a debased Renaissance style.
This opinion, however, was thoroughly
revised about 1900 by Heinrich Wolfflin,
who was the first to point out the positive
contributions and the great artistic quali-
ties of Baroque art, and to vindicate the
term Baroque from any implication of in-
feriority. More recently, musical historians
have followed suit and have adopted the
term alongside others such as *Renais-
sance, *Gothic, *Rococo [see *History of
Music]. In view of this situation, the re-
sistance which the term "Baroque music"
is still encountering in some circles is
hardly justified. If understood properly,
this term has the advantage of placing an
important and well-defined period of mu-
sic history within the general frame of cul-
tural development, and of avoiding the
emphasis on a special feature of somewhat
secondary importance which is implied
in the term "thorough-bass period" a
term which, by the way, does not prop-
erly include one of the most important
branches of 17th-century music, namely,
that for organ and harpsichord.
Both the beginning and the end of the
Baroque period in music are rather clearly
defined, much more so than those of most
other periods, particularly the Renais-
sance. Baroque music starts about 1600,
with the rise of monody, opera, oratorio,
cantata, recitative, and closes 150 years
later, with the death of Bach and Handel.
Preparatory phenomena are, on the one
hand, the *ballettos and *villanellas with
their reaction against the Flemish po-
lyphony, and on the other hand, the style
of the *Venetian School (G. Gabrieli),
the pomp and splendor of which exceed
the limitations of true Renaissance art
and foreshadow the aesthetic basis of
Baroque style. It may be noticed that
throughout the i7th century the tradition
[76]
BAROQUE MUSIC
of Renaissance music persisted to some
extent in the *Roman School, and that,
on the other hand, a new period, the
*Rococo, had already begun when Bach
and Handel were writing their greatest
masterpieces, the true culmination points
of Baroque music.
Generally speaking, the Baroque period
is an era of ecstasy and exuberance, of
dynamic tensions and of sweeping ges-
tures, an era of longing and of self-denial,
much in contrast to the assuredness and
self-reliance of the Renaissance. It is the
period in which men liked to consider
this life as the "vale of tears," in which
the statues of the Saints look rapturously
toward heaven, in which the clouds and
the infinite landscape were discovered.
Much of this attitude is reflected in the
expressive melodies of the lyth century,
in its long coloraturas, in its pathetic reci-
tative, its frequent use of chromaticism,
its capricious rhythms. Particularly the
early Baroque music (prior to 1650)
shows, in its *canzonas and *toccatas,
striking traits of capriciousness, exuber-
ance, and irregularity, while later compos-
ers such as Carissimi and Corelli brought
about a trend towards greater restraint
and regularity of style. On the other
hand, the structural, or, as one might call
it, the architectural element in Baroque
music must not be overlooked. More than
any other period, the i7th century has
contributed toward the development and
establishment of clearly defined types
and forms, such as the ostinato-forms, the
variations, the suite, the sonata, the da-
capo aria, the rondo, the concerto, the
opera, the oratorio, the cantata.
From the point of view of style, Ba-
roque music is characterized chiefly by
the thorough-bass technique, leading to a
texture of two principal contours, melody
and bass, with the intervening space being
filled in by improvised harmony. In Ger-
many, however, the contrasting style of
true polyphony not only persisted but
reached, in Bach, its very acme of perfec-
tion and greatness. A third principle of
Baroque style is the stile concertante, that
is, contrasting effects, a principle which
expressed itself in the abrupt changes of
BAROQUE MUSIC
the early *canzona as well as in the solo-
tutti alternation of the *concerto grosso
and in the *echo-effects of vocal and of
organ music. Other basic conceptions of
Baroque music are *improvisation and
"ornamentation. Lastly, mention must
be made of the final establishment of tonic
and dominant as the principal chords of
harmony and, about 1650 (Carissimi), of
four-measure phrases [see *Vierhebig-
keit].
At the beginning of the iyth century
we find three great figures still rooted in
the tradition of the Renaissance but in-
augurating the novel trends of Baroque
music, namely, Monteverdi, G. Gabrieli,
and Sweelinck. They may be considered
as the sources of three main streams run-
ning through Baroque music, that is,
vocal, instrumental, and organ music, to
which, in turn, the three styles mentioned
above can be roughly coordinated, name-
ly, accompanied melody, concerto style,
and contrapuntal style.
The first of these streams, starting in
Florence (Caccini, Peri, later Monte-
verdi), produces the *monodic style with
the *recitative and *aria, and with the
composite forms of the *cantata, *opera,
and *oratorio (*passion). The second,
"Venetian," stream finds its realization
in the instrumental *canzona, the violin
*sonata, the trio-sonata in its two varie-
ties, *sonata da chiesa and *sonata da
camera, and in the orchestral forms of the
*concerto grosso [see also *Concerto III],
the French "overture, and the *sinfonia.
The last stream, starting with Sweelinck
and Frescobaldi, but continuing chiefly in
Germany (Scheidt, Froberger, Buxtehude,
Pachelbel, Kuhnau, Muffat, Fischer,
Bach), leads to the *fugue, *organ chorale
(choral prelude), "toccata, and *suite
(the latter also in France).
Lit.: R. Haas, Die Musi\ des Baroc{
(BiiHM, 1928) ; LaMWC, passim] AdHM
i, 411-700; RiHM ii.3; V W. Flemming,
Oper und Oratorium im Barocl^ (1933);
P. Nettl, Musil(batoc\ in Bohmen und
Mahren ( 1927) ; E. Wellesz, Die Anfange
des musitylischen Barock * n Wien
(1922); W. D. Allen, "Baroque Histories
of Music" (MQ xxv); E. Schenck, "Ucber
[77]
BARPYKNON
Begriff und Wesen des musikalischen
Barock" (ZMW xvii); E. Wellesz, "Ren-
aissance ^und Barock" (Z/M xi); Th.
Kroyer, "Zwischen Renaissance und Ba-
rock" (IMP xxxiv); C. Sachs, in JMP
xxvi; A. della Corte, in LRM vi; id., in
*Editions XXIV B, 3/4.
Barpyknon. See *Pyknon.
Barre [F.]. Bar-line. See also *Barrer.
Barrel organ. See *Mechanical instru-
ments II.
Barrer [F.]. Term of lute and guitar
playing, calling for the simultaneous
shortening of the vibratory length of sev-
eral or all strings by putting the forefinger
across them. An artificial substitute is the
*capotasto [F. barre],
Bartered Bride, The (Prodand Nc-
vesta). Comic opera by Bedric Smetana
(1824-84), text by Karel Sabina, com-
posed in 1866. It has been widely sung
outside of Czechoslovakia in the German
translation, as Die verfaufte Braut. It
describes an episode from ipth-century
Bohemian peasant life, centering around
the love of Yenyit^ (Hans, Tenor) and
Marhen\a (Maria, Soprano). The for-
mer agrees to give up his right to Mar-
henka's hand for a sum of money, under
the condition that she, marry "the son of
Micha" whom everybody believes to be
the stuttering Vazhe^ (Wenzel, Tenor).
In the last scene, however, Yenyik is re-
vealed as Micha's eldest son, so the "sales-
contract" is fulfilled to everyone's satis-
faction.
The Bartered Bride is one of the first
and also one of the most successful exam-
ples of national opera. It is unparalleled
in its display of gay spirit and rustic hu-
mor and in times of political oppression
has contributed immensely to stimulate
Czech patriotism.
Baryton. (i) See *Viol IV, 5. -(2)
In French ancl German usage, *baritone
(voice); als0i4$d *** connection with in-
struments, tjgff Barytonhorn (euphoni-
um), Baryty^boe, etc. (3) In German
usage, short fcjr Barytonhorn, i.e., *eupho-
nium.
BASSE DANSE
Base viol. Same as bass viol. See *Viol
II.
Basis. Fifteenth- and 16th-century hu-
manistic name for bass.
Bass [Gr. basis, foundation], (i) The
lowest of men's voices [see * Voices, range
of]. (2) German name (abbreviation
of Kontrabass) for the double-bass. (3)
In connection with instruments, the term
indicates the lowest and, consequently,
largest type of the family, e.g., bass clari-
net. (4) In musical composition, the
lowest of the parts. In the styles of the
1 8th and ipth centuries the bass adopts
special significance as the determining
factor of the harmonic structure [see
*Harmonic analysis]. The special role of
the bass is particularly conspicuous in the
practice and theory of *thorough-bass.
For the origin of the bass, see *Contra-
tenor.
Bassa [It., low], Ottava bassa (abbrevi-
ated 8va bassa) means the lower octave of
the written notes. Con 8va bassa means
doubling of the written notes in the lower
octave.
Bassadanza [It.]. See *Basse danse.
Bass-bar. In violins, etc., a strip of
wood glued inside the table, about n in.
long and diminishing at either end. Its
function is to support the left foot of the
bridge and to spread over the table the
vibrations of the bridge produced by those
of the strings.
Bass clef. See *Clefs.
Bass-course. See *Course.
Basse [F.]. Basse chiffre, or continue,
means thorough-bass; basse contrainte,
ground (basso ostinato); basse profonde,
chantante, faille, see * Voices, Range of;
basse jondamentale, *Fundamental bass;
basse-a-piston, *Euphonium.
Basse danse. A French dance of the
period 1450-1550 in which it plays a
prominent role as the ceremonial court
dance of the Burgundian culture [see
*Burgundian School]. The name (bos,
low) probably refers to the gliding or
[78]
BASSE DANSE
walking movement of the feet, in contrast
to the jumping movements in dances
such as the gaillarde (danse haute, dansc
sautee). Various sources from c. 1480 to
1580, theoretical, choreographic, and mu-
sical, together with many paintings of the
I5th century [cf.,e.g.,#<fMM#, 179, 195],
provide information about this dance. Of
particular interest are two choreographic
sources, the MS Brussels 90^5 [see Lit.,
Closson] and a book L'Art et instruction
de bien dancer printed before 1496. These
contain illustrations such as are repro-
duced here [Ex. ij, the notes of which
probably represent a melodic skeleton,
giving only the chief note for each meas-
ure (to be played on a trombone?), with
the real melody provided (extempo-
rized?) by a melodic instrument, viol or
recorder [for an example of such a "tenor-
dance" see W. Merian, Der Tanz in den
deutschen Tabulaturbuchern des 16. Jahr-
hunderts (1927), p. 44]. The letters
underneath the notes indicate dancing
steps. Nineteen (sic) basse danses for lute
are preserved in P. Attaingnant's publica-
tion: Dixhuit basses danses garnies de re-
coupes et tordions (1529); others for key-
board in his Quatorze gaillards, . . . et deux
basse danses (1530); and for ensemble in
his Neuf basse danses, deux branles. . .
en musique en quatre parties (1530).
Frequently the basse danse is followed by
a recoupe and a tordion, thus forming an
early type of suite. The basse danse is in
moderate tempo, usually in duple time
[Ex. 2], although there also exist a num-
ber of examples in slow triple time [Ex. 3;
regarding a controversy on the meter of
the basse danse cf. ApNMP, 67]. The
latter variety would seem to have been
favored in Italy since several dances in
slow triple meter called bassa danza are
BASS LUTE
preserved in the lute books of Petrucci
(1507/9). Some of the dances in Kotter's
tablature of 1515 evidently belong to the
same class, e.g., his "Spanieler" [see Me-
rian's Der Tanz . . .]. Certain of the
basse danses in Attaingnant's book for en-
semble are "a double employ," i.e., they
are so written that they can be played in
(slow) duple time as well as in (quicker)
triple time, thus serving both as dance and
"after-dance" [see *Nachtanz]. Around
1525 the chief vogue of the French basse
danse was succeeded by that of the Span-
ish *pavane. See *Dance music II.
Lit.: E. Closson, Le Manuscript dit
"Des Basses danses" . . . (1912; facsimile
ed.); L'Art et Instruction de Bien Dancer
(facs. ed. by the Royal College of Physi-
cians of London, 1936); F. Blume, Stu-
dien zur Vorgeschichte der Orchester-
Suite (1925); E. Closson, in SIM xiv; O.
Gombosi, "About Dance and Dance Mu-
sic in the Late Middle-Ages" (MQ xxvii);
E. Hertzmann, in ZMW xi; C. Sachs, in
AM Hi, no. 3. Examples in HAM, nos.
102, 104; SchGMB no 90; ApMZ ii.
Basse d'harmonie [F.]. *Ophicleide.
Basset horn. See *Clarinet family III.
Bassetto, bassett, bassettl. Eight-
eenth-century name for the violoncello.
Bassflote [G.]. (i) Bass-flute. (2)
Eighteenth-century name for bassoon.
Bass horn. See under *Cornett.
Bassist [G.], bassist^ [It.]. A bass
singer.
Bass lute, Basslaute [G.]. The *chi-
tarrone, or the *theorboe.
[79]
BASSO
Basso [It.]. Bass. Basso continue, i.e.,
thorough-bass; basso seguente is an instru-
mental bass (organ, etc.), which merely
duplicates the lowest vocal part [cf. RiHM
11,2, 75f]; basso profondo, cantante, see
*Voices, range of.
Basson [F.]. Bassoon. Basson quinte
is a smaller bassoon, also called tenoroon.
Basson russe, *Russian bassoon.
Bassoon. See *Oboe family I, C.
Basso ostinato. See *Ground. Also
under *Ostinato.
Basso ripieno [It.]. In iSth-century
orchestral works, a bass part for the tutti-
(*ripieno-) passages only, i.e., not for the
solo sections.
Bassschltissel [G.]. TheF-clef.
Bass viol. Properly (i7th century) the
viola da gamba [see *Viol II], Today,
name for the double bass, a descendant of
the old double-bass viol [see *Viol IV, i] .
Bathyphone. *See Clarinet family III.
Baton. The stick used by the conductor
of an orchestra to beat time. The modern
baton is made of tapered wood or some
other light material, such as aluminum,
celluloid, or lucite. The length varies
from 15 to 28 inches. See *Conducting.
Battaglia [It., battle]. Name for pro-
grammatic pieces (battle pieces) in which
die fanfares, drum rolls, cries, and general
commotion of a battle are imitated. This
was a favored subject of *program music
from the i6th through the i8th centuries,
the earliest example being Jannequin's
vocal chanson La Guerre (1529), which
was suggested by the famous battle of
Marignano, 1515 [repr. in *Editions XVI
(7); see also GD Hi, 462]. This battle
and that of Pavia (1525) were the subject
of numerous battaglias of the i6th cen-
tury, e.g., by Hans Neusidler [1535; cf.
DTOe i8.ii] a&d by William Byrd [cf.
o^e^ ed. by H. An-
drews] . la f9pi7& century similar pieces
were writtdBw Adriano Banchieri [cf.
ApMZ i], by jfohann Kaspar Kerll [DTB
2.ii], and others. Although these pieces
B.C.
are of a rather limited artistic value, the
quality is even lower in the numerous
battle pieces (mostly English) of the i8th
century, some of which actually prescribed
the firing of guns at certain moments.
Franz Kotzwara's Battle of Prague ( 1788)
is still known today. Beethoven made a
contribution to this repertory in his "Bat-
tle Symphony," Wellington's Sieg oder
die Schlacht bei Vittoria (op. 91, 1813,
publ. 1816). Cf. R. Glasel, Zur Geschich-
tc der Battaglia (Diss. Leipzig 1931); E.
Bienenfeld, in Z1M viii; K. G. Fellerer,
in DM xxxii.7.
Battement [F.]. French 17th-century
term for any ornament consisting of an
alternation of two adjacent tones, e.g.,
mordent, trill, vibrato.
Batterie [F.]. (i) The percussion
group of the orchestra. (2) A drum
roll. (3) Eighteenth-century name for
arpeggio, broken-chord figures, *Alberti-
basses, etc. (4) A way of playing the
guitar by striking the strings.
Battery. See *Batterie (3).
Battle pieces. See *Battaglia.
Battuta [It.]. Beat. A battuta indicates
a return to strict time after some deviation
(ad libitum, a piacere, etc.). In particular,
battuta means the strong beat at the be-
ginning of a measure; hence ritmo di tre
(quattro) battute indicates that three
(four) measures are to be grouped to-
gether in a phrase (cf. the Scherzo of
Beethoven's Ninth Symphony).
Bay Psalm Book. A book of psalms,
published in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
in 1640 (the second book printed in
North America). It had numerous later
editions for over one hundred years. In
1690 music (in two parts) was added for
twelve tunes. See *Psalter; *American
music I. Example in HAM, no. 283.
Bayreuther Festspiele. See *Festi-
vals III; *Biihne (Buhnenweihfestspiel).
BBb bass. See *Tuba (2).
B.C. Short for *basso continuo.
[so]
BE
Be [G.]. The sign b.
Beak flute. *Recorder.
Bearbeitung [G.]. Arrangement.
Beat [F. temps\ G. Zahlzeit, Schlag\ It.
battuta]. (i) The temporal unit of a
composition, as is indicated by the (real
or imaginary) up-and-down movements
of a conductor's hand. In modern prac-
tice, the duration of such a beat varies
from M.M. 50 to M.M. 140, with M.M. 80
being a middle speed. In moderate tempo,
the % measure includes four beats, beat
one and beat three being strong, the oth-
ers weak, while the % measure has three
beats, only the first of which is strong. In
quick tempo, there will be only two or
even only one beat to the measure. In
music prior to 1600, the beat was of much
less variable duration [see *Tactus, *Tem-
pus].
(2) A lyth-century English ornament
which may be performed in two ways,
depending on whether it is a plain beat
(indicated by an ascending oblique line
placed before or over the written note) or
a shaded beat (indicated by a wavy line
resembling the French sign for the trill).
The plain beat is an inferior appoggia-
tura performed on the beat and of flexible
duration. The shaked beat consists of
several rapid repetitions of the appoggia-
tura and its resolution, beginning with
the former, so that it resembles an in-
verted trill. In the i8th century the name
beat is often applied to the ornament
commonly known as the *mordent. P. A.
(3) See *Beats.
Beats [F. battemcnts\ G. Schwcbungen].
An acoustical phenomenon, resulting from
the interference [see * Acoustics VI] of
two sound-waves of slightly differing fre-
quencies. It is heard as minute, yet clear-
ly audible, intensifications of the sound
at regular intervals. The number per
second of these intensifications, or beats,
is equal to the difference of frequency of
the two tones. Thus, a tone of 440 cycles
will make four beats per second with a
tone of 444; three, with a tone of 443; two,
with 442; one, with 441; and the beats
BEBUNG
will disappear if the two strings are in
perfect unison [sec the illustration Inter-
ference, p. 14], This phenomenon is,
therefore, of fundamental importance in
*tuning. Slow beats such as two to four
to the second are not unpleasant to the car.
In certain organ stops (Voix celeste and
Unda maris; see *Vox coelestis) beats arc
deliberately introduced by using two
pipes slightly out of tune, in order to give
the combined tone an undulating quality.
Beats of 5 or 6 per second produce a dis-
tinctly less pleasant result, and the dis-
agreeableness of the effect increases until
the number of beats is c. 30. From there
on the unpleasantness diminishes because
the beats rapidly become too quick to be
distinguished. This phenomenon is the
basis of Helmholtz* theory of *consonance
and dissonance. See also Combination
tones.
Bebization. See *Solmization.
Bebung [from G. bebcn, to tremble; F.
balancement}. A *vibrato effect peculiar
to the *clavichord, the action of which
allows for a repeated pressure motion of
the finger without releasing the key, a
motion which causes the tangent mo-
mentarily to increase the tension of the
string and which thus leads to slight vari-
ations of pitch. C. P. E. Bach, in his Ver-
such uber die wahrc Art das Clavier zu
spielen (1753), considers the Bebung as a
great advantage of the clavichord over the
harpsichord and the pianoforte, both of
which lack this effect. It is indicated by
the sign shown in Example i. [Cf. C. P. E.
r
4-54-3
Bach's ProbestucJtfy published as Seeks
Sonaten by E. Doflein, Ed. Schott, no.
2353]. The Bebung is mentioned in the
theoretical writings of Printz (1668),
Mattheson (1735), Marpurg (1750),
C. P. E. Bach, and many later authors. The
sign, however, does not occur in, the litera-
ture for the clavichord 'before' Bach.
The reference in many musical books
to certain passages in Beethoven and
Chopin as Bebung is misleading. An
81]
BEG
effect such as illustrated in Example 2
(Beethoven, Piano Sonatas opp. 106 and
no; also op. 69, op. 59, no. 2, op. 133 for
violin) is a (slow) *tremolo (ondule),
not a vibrato. See *Tie.
Bee [F.] . The mouthpiece of the clarinet
or recorder [see *Mouthpiece (b), (d)].
BScarre [F.]. See *Accidentals.
Becken [G.]. *Cymbals 1
Bedachtig [G.]. Thoughtfully, with
moderation.
Bedeutend [G.]. With importance.
Bedrohlich [G.]. Menacingly.
Be fa, Befa. See *Hexachord III.
Beggar's Opera, The. See under *Bal-
lad opera.
Begleitung [G.]. Accompaniment.
Behaglich [G.]. Comfortably, agree-
ably.
Behend [G.]. Nimbly, quickly.
Beherzt [G.]. "With heart," coura-
geously.
Beisser [G., "biter"]. Eighteenth-cen-
tury name for the *mordent [from L.
morderc, to bite].
Bel [from Alexander Graham Bell]. A
scientific unit for the measurement of
loudness, i.e., the subjective reaction to
intensity of sound. Loudness varies with
the logarithm of intensity; this means
that 20 violins playing with equal indi-
vidual intensities are only 1.3 times louder
than 10, and 100 violins only twice as
loud as 10 (log 20=1.301; log 100 = 2).
One-tenth of a bel is called a decibel (db);
this represents the smallest change in
loudness that the ear can detect. The
sounds used in poetical music vary from
c. 25 db (so^st -.violin tone) to 100 db
(fortissimo' M f the full orchestra). Cf.
John Miilsi^Fuguff in Cycles and Eels
(1935); Stwns and Davis, Hearing
(i938),pp/4$of!,
BELGIAN MUSIC
Bel canto [It., beautiful singing]. The
term denotes the Italian vocal technique
of the 1 8th century with its emphasis on
beauty of sound and brilliancy of perform-
ance, rather than dramatic expression or
Romantic emotion. In spite of the re-
peated reactions against the bel canto
(Gluck, Wagner) and in spite of the fre-
quent exaggeration of its virtuoso ele-
ment (coloraturas), it must be considered
as a highly artistic technique and as the
only proper one for Italian opera and for
Mozart. Its early development is closely
bound up with that of the Neapolitan
opera (Al. Scarlatti, Porpora, Jommelli,
Hasse, Piccinni). See *Singing I.
Lit.: G. B. Lamperti, Technics of Bel
Canto (New York); H. Klein, The Bel
Canto (1923); H. Goldschmidt, Die Ita-
lienische Gesangsmethode des ij. Jahr-
hunderts (1892); B. Ulrich, Die alt-
italienische Gesangsmethode (1933); G.
Silva, "The Beginnings of the Art of Bel
Canto" (MQ viii).
Belebend [G.]. Becoming animated.
Belebt [G.]. Animated.
Belgian music. The present article
deals with the musical history of the Cath-
olic (southern, Flemish) part of the Low
Countries, as distinguished from that of
the Protestant (northern, Dutch) part,
the Netherlands. The highly important
role which Belgium played in the earlier
history of music is greatly obscured by the
name "Netherlands School" which is
widely used for a school of i5th- and 16th-
century composers nearly all of whom
came from Belgium [see *Flemish
School]. This great period during which
Belgian musicians held leading positions
everywhere in Europe was followed, after
1600, by a long period of low ebb. Only
in the field of organ music did Belgium
produce composers of some historical sig-
nificance, e.g., Charles Luython (c. 1550-
1620), Pieter Cornet (fl. 1600-25), Gio-
vanni dc Macque (d. 1614; see *Neapoli-
tan School II), Charles Guillet (d. 1654),
Abraham Kerckhoven (c. 1627 after
1673), Jean-Baptiste Loeillet (1680-1730),
and Joseph-Hector Fiocco (1703-41)
82]
BELGIAN MUSIC
[see ^Editions XVII]. While the latter
two followed the trends of the French
Rococo (F. Couperin), the next Belgian
composer to be mentioned, Francois
Gossec (1734-1829) belongs to the
*Mannheim group, and the slightly
younger Andre Gretry (1741-1813) plays
an important role in the history of the
French opera (Richard Coeur de Lion,
1784; see ^Leitmotif). It should be noted
that Belgium has a certain claim to one
of the greatest composers, namely Bee-
thoven, whose ancestors lived near Ant-
werp and Mecheln [cf. P. Bergmans, Les
Origines beiges de Beethoven (1927);
E. Closson, L'Element flamand dans
Beethoven (1928)].
In the 19th-century music of Belgium,
Cesar Franck (1822-90) is by far the most
important personality. Like Tchaikov-
sky, he adhered to the conception of music
as an international language, while Pierre
Benoit (1834-1901) played a role com-
parable to that of Moussorgsky, namely,
that of the initiator of national music,
freed from German as well as French in-
fluence. He is particularly important in
the field of the oratorio and of the cantata.
Among his successors Jan Blockx (1851-
1912) and Edgar Tinel (18541912)
must be mentioned especially. Paul Gil-
son (b. 1865) adopted some elements of
Russian music and is particularly known
for his symphonic poem La Mer (1892).
A composer who in a very short life wrote
several works of great promise was Guil-
laume Lekeu (1870-94). Joseph Jongen
(b. 1873) was active mainly in the field
of symphonic and of chamber music. The
novel trends of 20th-century music have
found little response in Belgium. Paul de
Maleingreau (b. 1887) is the main repre-
sentative of neo-classical tendencies based
on Bach.
Belgium has produced a number of
outstanding music historians, notably
Francois Fetis (1784-1871), Charles
Coussemaker (1805-76; see *Scriptores),
Pierre van Maldeghem (1810-93; pub-
lished La Trtsor musicale), Edmund van
der Straeten (1826-95; La Musiquc aux
Pays-Bas, 1867-88), and Charles van den
Borren (b. 1874).
BELL
Lit.: Fl. van der Mueren, Vlaamschc
Muzie^ en Componisten (1931); LavE
i.3, i8i5ff; Ch. van den Borren, "The
General Trends in Contemporary Belgian
Music" (MQ vii); id., "Belgian Music
and French Music" (MQ ix); AdHM ii,
1074-77.
Bell, (i) A percussion instrument of
metal sounded by a clapper usually
placed inside the bell. The best alloy for
bells is 76 per cent pure copper and 24 per
cent pure tin. Sometimes small amounts
of zinc or lead are added. The tone of a
well tuned bell is characterized by a great
number of overtones which, in old bells
(chiefly those of the Continent), are
slightly out of tune; owing to the efforts
of English bell-founders (especially, Tay-
lor of Loughborough), modern English
bells have five overtones (including the
minor, not the major, third) tuned with
absolute accuracy. The pitch of a bell
varies inversely with the cubic root of its
weight. Therefore, if a bell weighing
100 pounds sounds c'" (the actual tone
is nearer b"), a bell of 800 pounds
( \ 8 = 2) will be needed for the tone of
the half frequency, c", one of 6,400 for c',
of 51,200 pounds for c, and of 409,600
pounds for C. The largest bell ever
founded was the Tsar Kolokol of the
Kremlin of Moscow (1734, destroyed by
fire in 1737) which, after the best estima-
tion, weighed c. 500,000 pounds, and
measured over 20 feet in diameter. The
largest bell in existence is the Trotzkoi,
also in Moscow, weighing c. 350,000
pounds. Old bells in France and in Ger-
many weigh from 20,000 to 40,000
pounds. Large modern bells usually
weigh from 5,000 to 15,000 pounds. The
use of bells in churches can be traced back
to the 6th century (Gregory of Tours,
c. 560); the earliest record of large bells
in England dates from the loth century
(Turketyl, Abbot of Croyland); the earli-
est preserved bells are to be found in Italy
and in Germany (nth century).
Three ways of sounding church bells
are distinguished: (a) chiming, in which
the rope moves the bell just sufficiently
for the clapper to strike it; (b) ringing,
BELL HARP
in which the bell is swung round full
circle, thus giving a more vigorous sound;
(c) clocking, in which the clapper is
moved instead of, as usual, the bell a
method which should not be used since
it is likely to cause the bell to crack.
Whereas in continental Europe church
bells are sounded in such a way as to pro-
duce a confused musical noise, the Eng-
lish bells are rung in succession according
to certain elaborate systems so that a
"melody" is produced. This method is
known as "change ringing. See also *Ca-
rillon; *Campana.
The bell effect has been frequently re-
quired in orchestral works, the earliest
known example being the two bells (prob-
ably an organ stop) in Bach's solo-cantata
Schlage dock gewunschte Stunde. In the
modern orchestra real bells are not used
(because of their lack of definiteness in
pitch), but are replaced by the "tubular
bells" (*chimes; see also *Bells), i.e., a
number (7 to 10) of cylindric metal tubes
of different lengths, hung in a frame and
struck with a hammer. Debussy's "La
Cathedrale engloutie" and Busoni's "So-
natina in Diem Nativitatis Christi" con-
tain bell effects produced on the piano-
forte. See also *Campanella.
Lit.: G. S. Tyack, A Boo\ about Bells
(1898); J. J. Raven, The Bells of England
( 1906) ; S. N. Coleman, The Boo^ of Bells
(1938; bibl.); G. Morrison, Bells Their
History and Romance (1932); W. W.
Starmer, "Bells and Bell Tones" (PMA
xxvii); H. Bewerunge, "On the Tuning
of Bells" (ZIM vii); J. Biehle, "Die
Analyse des Glockenklangs" (AMW i).
(2) The bell-shaped opening of wind
instruments such as the horn or the trum-
pet.
Bell harp. A sort of psaltery invented
c. 1700 by John Simcock. It took its name
from the bell-shaped form of its frame.
Cf. SaRM, 44.
Bell-lyra.
Bells,
glockei
ments A, 2].
^Glockenspiel.
for the orchestral
^Percussion instru-
BERCEUSE
Belly. The upper plate of the resonant
box in violins, lutes, etc. Also the *sound-
board of the piano.
Be mi, Bemi. See *Hexachord III.
Bemol [F.], bemolle [It.]. Flat. Sec
*Pitch names; "Accidentals.
Benedicamus Domino. A salutation
of the Roman liturgy, with the response
Deo gratias. It is used occasionally at the
end of *Mass [cf. GR, 18*, 55*, etc.], and
at the end of all Offices. For the latter
purpose various melodies (toni) are pro-
vided [cf. AR, 58*]. The Benedicamus
Domino plays a most important role in the
history of early polyphony (Schools of St.
Martial and Notre Dame; see *Ars an-
tiqua; *Organum) since its melodies,
especially the first one given in the An-
tiphonarium, have been very frequently
used as the tenor of organa in two or three
parts. In fact, the entire history of early
polyphony could easily and, no doubt,
quite instructively, be demonstrated by
means of the numerous pieces written on
this tenor [cf. HAM, nos. 28a-i]. Cf.
also H. Schmidt, "\Drei Benedicamus Or-
gana (1933); AdHMy 179; ReMMA, 266;
BeMMR, 97; ApNPM, passim.
Benediction. An extra-liturgical popu-
lar service of the Roman Catholic Church,
usually following Vespers and including
the blessing of the congregation with the
Host. "Tantum ergo" and "O salutaris
hostia" are the most important hymns of
Benediction [cf. AR, 88*].
Benedictus Dominus Israel. The
canticle [see *Canticum] of Zacharias.
(Note that Benedictus alone will nearly
always refer to *Bencdictus qui venit.)
Benedictus (qui venit). Second part
of the Sanctus of the Mass. In Mass com-
positions it is usually treated as a separate
movement [see *Mass III],
Bequadro [It.]. Natural, the natural
sign. See * Accidentals.
Berceuse [F.]. Lullaby. Usually the
name refers to instrumental pieces (piano,
orchestra) in moderate 6/8 time, and
BERGAMASCA
with an accompaniment reminiscent of
the rocking of a cradle. The most famous
example is Chopin's op. 57.
Bergamasca. (i) In the i6th and
centuries a popular tune from the district
of Bergamo in northern Italy whose peas-
ant inhabitants were proverbial for their
clumsiness and backwardness. Fresco-
baldi (Fiori musically 1635) used this
melody as a theme of one of his most elab-
orate canzonas, adding the remark: "Chi
questa Bergamasca sonara, non pocho im-
parera" (He who plays this Bergamasca
will learn a good deal). Jean-Baptiste
Besard [cf. O. Chilesotti, in RMC i, 145]
and Samuel Scheidt [cf. G. Harms,
Scheldt's WerJ(e, vol. 5] used its scheme
of harmonies for continuous variations
similar to a chaconne, except for the duple
Bergamasca
time. The same melody occurs, with
slight modifications, in Salomone Rossi's
"Varie Senate . . ." (1623) and in
Marco Uccellini's "Sonate, sinfonie, . . ."
(1642). Two simple settings for the gui-
tar are reproduced in WoHN ii, 166 and
1 88. Whether the somewhat similar mel-
ody "Kraut und Ruben haben mich
vertrieben," which Bach uses in the final
quodlibet of his Goldberg Variations [see
Ex. under *Quodlibet] goes back to the
old Italian melody, as has been frequently
claimed, is uncertain. Cf. P. Nettl, in
ZMW v; R. Lach, in Museion, 1920.
(2) The 19th-century bergamasca is a
quick dance in 6/8 time, much like the
*tarantella. Alfredo Piatti (1822-1901),
a native of Bergamo, wrote a Bergamasca
for cello solo. Debussy's "Suite Berga-
masque" is a free composition based upon
impressions from the peasant life of
Bergamo.
Bergerette [F., from berger, shep-
herd], (i) An 18th-century type of
French lyric poetry with a pastoral or
amorous subject. Cf. J.-B. Weckerlin,
Bergercttes (Engl. ed. 1913). (2) In
the 1 5th century, bergerette denotes a
BERLIN SCHOOL
fixed form of French poetry, similar in
construction to the *virelai, but with one
stanza only. Such bergerettes occur in the
Kopenhagen Chasonnier [ed. by K. Jep-
pesen] and in the *Odhecaton. Cf. H.
Hewitt, Harmonice Musices Odhecaton
A ( 1942), pp. 49f . (3) In the i6th cen-
tury the name occurs as a title for instru-
mental dances in quick triple time, simi-
lar to the saltarello. Cf. RiML, 155.
Berg(k)reyen [old German for Berg-
rcigen, -dance of a mountainous country].
Name of various 16th-century collections
of songs from German mountainous
countries (Silesia, Thuringia), composed
in two or more parts, in simple note-
against-note style (E. Rotenbucher, 1551;
Melchior Franck, 1602). Therefore, "in
Bergreyenweis" ("in the manner of a B.")
is a 16th-century expression slightly
pejorative for simple chordal style
(*familiar style).
Bergomaska. See *Bergamasca.
Berkshire Festivals. See *Festivals.
Berlin School. Collective designation
for a group of composers, also known as
Norddeutsche Schule, who worked in
Berlin during the second half of the i8th
century. Most of them were connected
with the court of Frederick the Great
(1712-86) who, through his numerous
flute sonatas and other compositions, con-
tributed actively to the musical life of his
residence. The most important members
of the group were: J. J. Quantz (1697-
1773; flute sonatas, etc.); Johann Gottlieb
Graun (1702-71; symphonies, trio so-
natas); Karl Heinrich Graun (170359;
opera Montezuma^ text by Frederick the
Great [DdT 15] and oratorio Der Tod
Jesu)\ Franz Benda (1706-86; violin so-
natas, concertos); C. P. E. Bach (1714-
88); Christoph Nichelmann (1717-62;
songs, harpsichord sonatas); Friedrich'
Wilhelm Marpurg (171^95; songs; edi-
tor of Berlinische Odcn t&J fyedcr^ 1756;
numerous theoretical Tbooks); Johann
Kirnberger (1721-83; songs, Jiarpsichord
pieces, theoretical books); and Jonann Fr.
Agricola (1720-74; songs).
BERSAG HORN
While in the field of instrumental
music these men, particularly C. P. E.
Bach, made significant contributions,
their activity in the field of the *Lied
(Berliner Liederschule) was largely frus-
trated by the spirit of rationalism and
the Enlightenment to which Frederick
the Great, a close friend of Voltaire, had
given ready admittance. The situation
changed when a younger generation,
known as Zweite Berliner Liederschule,
turned from the dry moralism of Gellert
to the inspiring poems of Klopstock and
the young Goethe. Johann P. A. Schulz
(1747-1800), Johann F. Reichardt (1752-
1814), and Karl F. Zelter (1758-1832)
are the most important members of this
group. See *Lied IV; also *Singspiel.
The name Berliner Schule is sometimes
restricted to this group.
Lit.: AdHM, 6998; M. Friedlander,
Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert, 2
vols. (1902); Flueler, Die norddeutsche
Sinfonie (Diss. Berlin 1910); H. Hoff-
mann, Die norddeutsche Triosonate . . .
(Diss. Kiel 1924); E. Stiltz, Die Berliner
Klaviersonate zur Zeit Friedrichs des
Grossen (Diss. Berlin 1930); A. Mayer-
Reinach, "K. H. Graun als Opernkom-
ponist
Bersag horn. See *Brass instruments
IV.
Beruhigend [G.]. Calming down.
Bes [G.]. B-double flat.
Beschleunigt [G.]. Accelerando.
Beseelt [G.]. Soulfully.
Bestimmt [G.]. With decision.
Betont [G.]. Stressed, accented.
Beweglich [G.]. In an agile manner.
Bezifferter Bass [G.; Zifftr, figure],
Figured bass, i.e., *thorough-bass.
Bfa. See*H9cachordIII.
B.-G. Abbrfe^tion for Bach-Gesell-
schajt [see f&c^s II, 2] .
B.-H. AW|^|Ition for Breitkopf und
Hartel, pTOH*hers of numerous complete
editions.
BINARY AND TERNARY FORM
Bible regal [G. Bibelregal]. See
*Regal.
Biblioteca di Rarita Musicali. See
*Editions III.
Bicinium [L. bis, twice, and canere, to
sing]. A 16th-century name chiefly used
in German for vocal compositions in two
parts. The Greek synonym diphona oc-
curs also. The bicinia, which form a de-
lightful contrast to the rich texture of the
late- 16th-century motet, madrigal, etc.,
represent a little-known treasure of great
artistic value and educational significance.
The most important publications are:
G. Rhaw, Bicinia Gallica, Latina et Ger-
manica (1545; partly republished by K.
Ameln, Barenreiter-Verlag; by Reichen-
bach, Verlag Kallmeyer); Kaspar Oth-
mayr, Bicinia Sacra (1547; partly republ.
by Lipphardt, Bar. V.); Erasmus Roten-
bucher, Diphona amoena et florida
(1549); Seth Calvisius, Biciniorum libri
duo (1599, 1612); E. Bodenschatz, Bi-
cinia XC selectissima ... (1615; cf.
SchGMB, no. 163). Outstanding exam-
ples are found among the works of Lud-
wig Senfl, Orlando di Lasso (complete
works, vol. i), and Michael Praetor ius
(cpl. works, vol. ix, and passim, cf. HAM,
no. i67b). An Italian publication of
bicinia is Pietro Vinci, // primo libro della
musica a due voci (1560). Throughout
the 1 7th century numerous two-part
pieces were written in Italy, under the
name *ricercare [see also invention].
S. Scheidt, in his Tabulatura nova
(1624), uses the term Bicinium for organ
verses and variations in two voice-parts.
See *Tricinium.
Bina. Same as vina [see *Hindu music
II].
Biniou. See under *Bagpipc.
Binary and ternary form. I. The
terms signify two basic musical forms,
consisting of two or of three main sections
respectively. The binary form follows the
scheme A B, with each section repeated;
the ternary form (also called: *song
form) follows the scheme ABA. Ex-
amples of the former category abound in
86]
BINARY AND TERNARY FORM
the allemandes, gavottes, etc,, of Bach's
suites, while the latter occurs frequently
in the slow movements of sonatas (e.g.,
Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 7; op. 10, no.
3), in the Scherzo with Trio, and in prac-
tically all the ^character pieces of the
Romantic composers, such as Schu-
mann's Noveliettes, Chopin's Nocturnes,
Brahms's Fantasias, etc.
It should be noticed that binary and
ternary forms are not so similar in char-
acter as the nomenclature might suggest.
In fact, to consider them as analogous
forms is quite misleading. The binary
form is essentially a stylistic and structural
entity, a unified whole which, like many
phrases in music, falls into two halves, the
second of which forms the logical and
necessary completion of the first. The
ternary form, on the other hand, is usu-
ally the sum of three single units each of
which is complete in itself. This differ-
ence is clearly reflected in the harmonic
scheme normally found with these forms:
in the binary form each section is har-
monically "open," the first leading from
T to D, the second back from D to T; in
the ternary form each section is harmoni-
cally "closed," beginning and ending in
the same key, but with a different key
(dominant, relative key, parallel key)
often used for the middle section. Stylis-
tic considerations also corroborate this
fundamental difference: the binary form
uses the same or similar material through-
out, whereas the ternary form uses differ-
ent, frequently contrasting, material for
the middle section. Briefly stated, the
binary form is a continuous form, the
ternary, a sectional form. The minuet
(scherzo) with trio of the sonata shows
both forms combined, since the whole
movement is in ternary form, each section
in binary form.
II. The historical development of the
binary form is of particular interest since
it includes one of the most important de-
velopments of music history, namely, that
leading to the sonata-form of the classical
sonata, symphony, etc. Owing to the fact
that this form includes three main sec-
tions, the exposition, the development,
and the recapitulation (= exposition), it
BINARY AND TERNARY FORM
is frequently considered a ternary form.
Such an interpretation, although admis-
sible from the point of view of program-
notes, is too much of a "listener's simpli-
fication" to be accepted in serious studies.
The main objection against it lies in the
fact that it does not take into account the
repetition of the exposition which is al-
most invariably prescribed in the works
of the Viennese classics, including Brahms
an oversight for which the blame must
be put on our conductors and pianists
who consistently disregard in their per-
formances a feature whose aesthetic im-
portance was clearly recognized by the
great masters of the sonata. Another ob-
jection is that in the sonata-form the mid-
dle section (development) is based on the
thematic material of the first section (ex-
position), while in true ternary form it
has different and contrasting material.
Finally, the historical development of
sonata-form clearly shows its derivation
from binary schemes, such as were used
in the dance movements of the suite [see
*Sonata-form II], Three such schemes
can be distinguished: ( i) the symmetrical
binary form, in which both sections are
of equal length; (2) the asymmetrical
m
1 1 ir r;-f T* 1
binary form, the secoricFiSfction of which
is longer than the first, owing to a "bulg-
ing-out" process at its beginning; (3) the
rounded binary form 9 which has repetition
[87]
BIND
(in toto or partially) of the first section at
the end of the second [see Ex. 1-3]. The
latter is structurally identical with the
earlier type of sonata-form (Haydn, Mo-
zart) in which both sections are repeated.
The same scheme exists in many dance
movements and other pieces of Bach (e.g.,
in the Anglaise from his French Suite no.
3 and in the Prelude in D of Wt. Cl. ii)
as well as in practically all the minuets
(scherzos) and trios of the classical pe-
riod. In fact, any of these pieces may well
serve as an example of sonata-form, show-
ing its main sections in a condensed shape.
Regarding a medieval type of binary form
in which the first section only is repeated
(as in the later examples of sonata-form),
see *Barform.
III. The principle of ternary structure
appeared first in the French chansons of
the 1 6th century (Jannequin; cf. RiHM
ii.i, 367). The idea of a contrasting mid-
dle section is quite clearly expressed in the
shepherd's solo of Monteverdi's Orfeo,
1607 [cf. also his famous duet "Pur-
ti miro" from LTncoronazione, 1642;
SchGMB, no. 178]. Ternary form be-
came clearly established in the *da-capo
aria, c. 1700. Another realization of the
ternary construction exists in the alterna-
tive use of two dances, the first being re-
peated after the second [see * Alterna-
tive]. In 19th-century music, the ternary
form was frequently broadened into a
five-part scheme: ABABA or ABAC A,
particularly in slow movements of sym-
phonies [cf., e.g., that of Bruckner's Sym-
phony no. 7]. See *Forms, Musical; also
*Rondo. Cf. E. J. Dent, "Binary and Ter-
nary Forms" (ML xvii, no. 4).
Bind. Same as *tie.
Bird song. The song of the birds, being
practically the only case of "music in
nature," has been the subject of innumer-
able studies. Interesting facts are that only
small birds sing, that the best singers
(nightingale, I^fjL thrush, blackbird) are
unobtrusively* "cragged, that they prefer to
aer than in flocks, that
sing in soHtucje
only male
BVC loud musical voices,
and that goocT singers are found only in
moderate climates.
BLANCHE
Much attention has been given to the
question as to the relationship between
bird song and our music. Certainly no
biological relationship exists, as most ani-
mals do not sing. Whether or not our
music developed in imitation of bird song,
as has been frequently maintained, is a
matter of mere speculation. Although it
is true that bird song has many features
in common with primitive folk song (ir-
regularity, wavering of pitch, microtome
deviations from our scale, improvisation),
it should be noticed that this type of folk
song exists chiefly in the exotic countries
(Africa, Asia) where there are no singing
birds.
Lit.: S. P. Cheney, Wood Notes Wild
(1891); F. Schuyler Mathews, Field bool(
of Wild Birds and Their Music (1904);
W. Garstang, Songs of the Birds (1922);
A. R. Brand, Songs of Wild Birds (1936;
with records); E. M. Nicholson, Songs of
Wild Birds (1936; with records); A. A.
Saunders, A Guide to Bird Songs of
North-eastern United States (1935), W.
B. Olds, in MQ viii. Cf. also William
Gardiner, The Music of Nature (1832),
chapter XII.
Bis [F., twice], (i) Same as *encore.
(2) Indication that notes or passages
should be repeated.
Biscroma [It.]. See *Notes.
Bisdiapason [L.]. The interval or
range of two octaves.
Bistropha. See *Neumes I (table).
Bitonality. See *Polytonality.
Bivirga. See *Neumes I (table).
Biwa. The Japanese lute. See *P'ip'a.
Bkl. Short for G. Basstyarinette, i.e.,
bass clarinet.
Black-bottom. See *Jazz III.
Blackening. Same as *coloration [see
* Mensural notation V].
Bladder pipe [G. Platerspiel]. See
under *Bagpipe.
Blanche [F.]. See *Notes.
8]
BLASINSTRUMENT
Blasinstrument [G.]. *Wind instru-
ment Blasmusi^ music for wind instru-
ments.
Blasquinte [G., "blown fifth"]. A
term introduced by E. von Hornbostel for
a fifth of 678 cents, i.e., % of a whole-
tone lower than the Pythagorean (pure)
or the tempered fifth of 702 or 700 cents
respectively. This interval results if a
stopped pipe (bamboo) is overblown.
Hornbostel derived from this interval a
circle of Blasquinten (Blasquintenzir^el)
similar to that of the ordinary *circle of
fifth and based on the absolute pitch of
the Chinese huang chung [see *Chinese
music I], He was able to show that the
tones resulting from this procedure re-
cur in many musical cultures of the Far
East and of South America, most clearly
in the Javanese scale pdog [see * Javanese
music II] . Recent studies by M. Bukofzer
have shown, however, that the blown fifth
is without physical foundation, and the
theory of the circle of blown fifths has
been contested.
Lit.: E. M. v. Hornbostel, "Die Mass-
norm als kulturgeschichtliches Forsch-
ungsmittel" (in Festschrift fur P. W.
Schmidt, 1928); id., "Musikalische Ton-
systeme" (in H. Geiger, Handbuch der
PhysiJ^, viii, 1928); R. Lachmann, Musi^
des Orients (1929); M. Bukofzer, in
Zeitschrift fur Physit(, 99 (1936) and in
Anthropos, 32 (1937).
Blatt [G.]. Reed.
Blattspiel ("playing from the sheet").
Sight-reading.
Blechinstrument [G.]. Brass instru-
ment; also called simply Blech.
Blechmusik. Music for brass bands.
Blockflote [G.]. Blockflute, i.e., "'re-
corder. See also under *Whisde.
Blue notes. In jazz music, name for
certain degrees of the scale, mainly the
third and the seventh, which are used
both natural and flatted (E and Eb, B and
Bb), and frequently with a deliberately
"wrong" intonation in between. The re-
BOEHM SYSTEM
suiting formations (blues scale) are a
characteristic of the *blues.
Blues. See *Jazz II; *Negro music III;
*Blue notes. Cf . W. C. Handy, The Blues
Blumen [G.]. Name for the coloraturas
of the *Meistersinger.
B.M.V, See *Antiphon (2).
B mi. See *Hexachord III.
Bmoll [G.]. B-flat minor.
Bobisation. See *Solmization III.
Bocal [F.]. Mouthpiece of a brass in-
strument.
Bocca chiusa [It.]. Same as *bouche
ferme. Bocca ridente (laughing mouth)
indicates in singing a smiling position of
the lips.
Bocedisation. See *Solmization III.
Bockstriller [G., from Boc\, he-goat].
See *Tremolo (3).
Boehm clarinet (flute). See *Boehm
system; *Clarinet (*Flute).
Boehm system. A system of keying a
wood-wind instrument which allows the
holes to be cut in the proper acoustical
position and size, and yet to be within the
spread of the average hand. It was in-
vented around 1830 by the flutist Theo-
bald Boehm of Munich (1794-1881) to
supersede earlier methods of keying in
which the holes were not placed exactly
from the acoustical point of view, but
in a sort of compromise-position, with
greater regard to the hand than to the ear.
In spite of its complicated mechanism and
the fact that it detracts slightly from the
tonal quality of the instrument, it has been
universally adopted in the manufacture
of flutes, and the benefits of the system
have been applied also to oboes, clarinets,
and (to a lesser extent)^ bassoons. Du-
plicate fingerings are ^^roduced which
facilitate passages pre^tesly impossible,
and the system has the 4$fea,n,tege of keep-
ing different keys more wjfess oii the same
level as regards difficulty. The pre-Boehm
BOETHIAN NOTATION
types of flutes and oboes are now obsolete,
but clarinets with the older system are still
used. Cf. H. C. Wysham, The Evolution
of the Boehm Flute ( 1 898) . W. D. D.
Boethian notation. See *Letter nota-
tion.
Bogen [G.]. (i) The bow of a violin,
etc. (2) The tie. Bogenform, see
*Forms, Musical (after A, I). Bogen-
juhrung, i.e., bowing. Bogent(lavier 9
Bogenflugely see *Sostenente pianoforte.
Boheme, La. Grand opera by Giacomo
Puccini (1858-1924), based on Henri
Murger's La Vie de Boheme, composed
in 1896. The setting is Paris in the 1840*5,
and the opera gives a touching though
somewhat sentimental description of the
Bohemian life of young artists, centering
around the love between the poet Rodolfo
(Tenor) and Mimi (Soprano) who, in
the last act, dies of consumption. The
lighter side of Bohemian life and love is
represented by another couple, Marcel
(Baritone) and Musetta (Soprano).
The opera, one of the best-known ex-
amples of *Verismo, approximates, in its
light texture, clarity of orchestration, and
lyric style, the French rather than the
typically Italian (Verdi) opera. Interest-
ing are the *parallel chords in the opening
to the second act. R. Leoncavallo wrote
an unsuccessful opera on the same subject
in 1897, without knowledge of Puccini's
score.
Bohemian music. See *Czech music.
Bois [F., wood]. Les bois, the wood
winds.
Boite de musique [F.]. Musical box.
See *Mechanical instruments III.
Bolero. A Spanish dance said to have
been invented by Sebastian Cerezo, a cele-
brated dancer of Cadiz, around 1780. It
is a solo or couple dance including many
brilliant and difficult steps, quick move-
ments, such ^t&jgentrechat of the classi-
cal ballet, as ^wfeis a sudden stop in a
characteristic, irat&n with one arm held
arched ovfer tb&fiead (bien far ado). The
music is in moderate triple time, with ac-
BOLOGNA SCHOOL
companiment of the castanets and rhythms
such as:
Probably the earliest extant example is a
"Bolero a solo" by Beethoven [cf. W.
Hess, in DM xxx.i2]. Operatic boleros
occur in Auber's La Muette de Portia and
Le Domino noir, and in Weber's Prezi-
osa. Particularly famous are Chopin's
Bolero op. 19 for pianoforte, and Ravel's
Bolero for orchestra (1928). The Cuban
bolero is in 2/4-meter.
Bologna School. A term applied to a
17th-century group of instrumental com-
posers who were active in Bologna. In-
cluded among its members are Maurizio
Cazzati (1620-77), Giov. Battista Vitali
(i644?~92), Pietro degli Antonii (1648-
1720), Giov. Battista Bassani (1657-
1716), Domenico Gabrielli (1658-90),
Giov. Battista Borri (?), Giuseppe To-
relli (d. 1708), Tommaso Antonio Vitali
(1665-1747), and Giuseppe Aldrovan-
dini (1665 or 1673-1707). See *History
of music V.
The Bologna School was important in
the formal development of the *trio so-
nata (Cazzati, Bassani, G. B. Vitali), solo
violin sonata (degli Antonii, Aldrovan-
dini), solo cello sonata (Gabrielli), *con-
certo grosso (Torelli, Gabrielli), and violin
concerto (Torelli). The stylistic contribu-
tions of these men were in the direction
of a disciplined formalism, an elegance
of expression, and a pervasive lyricism.
These characteristics, combined with their
deliberate avoidance of virtuosity, were in
reaction to the technical exuberance of the
string composers of the early Baroque,
Biagio Marini, Carlo Farina, Marco Uccel-
lini (and their German successors Rosen-
miiller, Walther, Biber), who early de-
veloped such extreme features of violin
playing as col legno, scordatura, sul ponti-
cello, use of double and triple stops, and
of higher positions (5th and 6th). The
Bologna School thus constitutes a lyrical
interlude between the virtuoso experi-
mentation of the early Baroque and the
[90]
BOMBARDE
bravura style of the later Baroque (Vi-
valdi, Tartini, Handel).
The most illustrious proponent of the
Bologna style, although not a member
proper of the school, was Arcangelo Co-
relli (1653-1713), who studied and
worked at Bologna from 1666 till 1671,
becoming a member of the famous Ac-
cademia Filarmonica of Bologna [see
*Accademia] in 1670. His identification
with the Bologna School is evident from
the restrained classicism of his style as
well as from the title "detto il bolognese"
which appears in his op. i (1681), op. 2
(1685), and op. 3 (1689).
Much of the activity of the Bologna
School centered around the chapel of San
Petronio, which was organized by Caz-
zati in 1657. The reorganization of this
institution, in 1701, in conformity with
the new Neapolitan taste, probably
marked the end of the Bologna School.
Lit.: G. Gaspari, La Musica in San Pe-
tronio (1868/70); id., Musicisti bolognesi
(1875/80); F. Vatielli, Arte e vita mu-
sicale a Bologna (1927); id., ^Antichi
maestri Bolognesi, vol. ii; L. Frati, in
RMl xxi, xxiv, xxvi, xxxii. Musical exam-
ples in "\SchGMB, nos. 228, 241, 257;
HAM, nos. 219, 244-246; Torchi, "\L r Arte
musicale in Italia, vol. vii; J. W. Wasie-
Icwski, Die Violine im 77. Jahrhundert
(Instrumentalsdtze, 1905). H. G. Mish-
kin, "The Solo Violin Sonata of the Bo-
logna School" (MQ xxix, Jan.). H. G. M.
Bombarde, bombarda. (i) French
(Italian) name for the *shawm, particu-
larly the bass size of this instrument. In
Germany, the perverted names Bomhart,
Pomhart, Pumhart, Pommer, occur. See
*Oboe family III. (2). Same as *bom-
bardon.
Bombardon. See *Brass instruments
III(e).
Bombo [It.]. See *Tremolo (i).
Bomhart [G.]. See *Bombarde (i).
Bonang. See *Javanese music I.
Boogie-woogie. See *Jazz IV; *Divi-
sions; *Ostinato.
BOUCHE FERMfiE
Bordun [G.], bordone [It.]. See
*Bourdon.
Boris Godunov. Opera by Modest
Moussorgsky (1839-81), produced in
1874; orchestral revision by N. Rimsky-
Korsakov, 1896. The setting is Moscow
of c. 1600, where Boris Godunov (Bass),
after having murdered Dmitri, the right-
ful heir to the throne, rules over Russia,
but, suffering from a sense of guilt (in
the Prologue he is in a convent in order
to gain expiation), and frightened by the
appearance of a "false Dmitri" (the young
monk Gregory, Tenor), finally prays for
forgiveness of his sin and, bequeathing
the crown to his young son Feodor
(Mezzo-soprano), falls dead.
Boris Godunov is the outstanding mas-
terpiece of Russian national opera. Its
musical style is remarkably advanced for
the time it was written, and although its
unconventional boldness aroused great
resentment in professional circles, many
innovations of a more recent date have
been traced back to this work, e.g., the use
of *parallel chords, of *modality, and
other unorthodox devices. Particularly
striking is the prominence of the chorus,
representing the Russian people who, it
has been said, are the real protagonist of
the opera, rather than Boris himself.
Borre, borry, borea [It.]. See *Bour-
ree.
Boston, valse Boston. An American
ballroom dance which was in vogue
around 1915. It is in the character of a
slow waltz, with a more subtle rhythm
and a more sophisticated accompaniment
than the ordinary waltz. In post-war Ger-
many it acquired a prominent position as
an "American importation" and was im-
bued with jazz-like elements. Numerous
composers used the type, e.g. Hindemith
(ist String Quartet; Suite 7922); Erwin
Schulhoff (Esquisses de Jazz, 1927; Par-
tita, 1925) ; Louis Gruenjjjcrg (Jazzberries,
1925); Conrad Beck (jg$$*J TanzstucJ(e).
Bouche [F.]. S(
Bouche fermee [Rl^t&tcfe chiusa
[It.]. Singing without words and with
BOUFFONS
closed mouth or, at least, closed teeth.
This is occasionally used as a special effect
of vocal accompaniment, e.g., in Verdi's
Rigoletto, last act.
Bouffons [F., comedians], (i) In the
1 5th and i6th centuries bouffons were cos-
tumed dancers probably similar to those
who performed the *morisca and the
*matasin. (2) In 1752 the Guerre des
bouffons (War of the Comedians) was a
quarrel between two parties of Parisian
musicians and opera-enthusiasts those
favoring the national French serious op-
era (Lully, Rameau, Destouches) and
those preferring the Italian opera buffa
(Pergolesi). Pergolesi's famous opera
buff a La Serva padrona (The Servant as
Mistress), which was composed in 1733,
had been given in Paris for the first time
in 1752, without arousing more than mod-
crate interest. The second performance,
however, given by a troupe of Italian co-
medians (buffi), led to a quarrel which
divided Paris into two halves and became
famous in the history of opera. The na-
tional party consisted largely of the aris-
tocracy (including the King and Madame
de Pompadour) and the plutocracy, while
the Italian party numbered among its ad-
herents the intelligentsia and the musical
connoisseurs (including the Queen and
such outstanding men as Rousseau,
d'Alembert, Diderot). The latter consid-
ered the Italian opera superior because it
had more melody, expression, and natural-
ness, and had shaken off completely the
"useless fetters of counterpoint." Briefly
speaking, the guerre des bouffons was a
fight of the rising *Rococo against the dy-
ing *Baroque. [For a similar movement
in Spain, see *Zarzuela.] Rousseau's fa-
mous Lettre sur la musique jran$aise
(1753) was one of the hundreds of pam-
phlets issued in this controversy. The ef-
forts of French musicians to compete with
the popularity of the opera buffa resulted
in a new kind,, of French comic opera
known as Coiaidie m&ee d'ariettes [see
*Comic o$era H^c)].
Lit.: GJ GttjftkjBi,' Les Createurs de I'o-
ptra*omjj}itS#jiW*fais (1914); L. Reichen-
berg, Contribution a I historic de la "Que-
BOW
relic de Bouffons" (1937); E. Hirschberg,
Die Encydopddisten und die jranzdsischc
Oper (1903); L. de la Laurencie, "La
grande saison italienne de 1752" (SIM
viii).
Bourdon. The general connotation of
this term is that of a low tone of long du-
ration, that is, a *drone or *pedal point.
The term was also applied to instrumental
devices producing such tones, e.g., to the
low-pitched bass-courses of the *viella and
the *hurdy-gurdy which could be sounded
continuously against a melody played on
the higher strings [cf. Petrus Picardus,
CS i, 153], to the large pipes of the organ,
or to the drones of the bagpipe. In French
17th-century music, the name bourdon is
given to pieces in which there is a uniform
bass-accompaniment similar to that of the
drones of a bagpipe, e.g., C-g-c-g^C-g-c-g
... [cf. F. Couperin's Air des vieleux in
his harpsichord suite (*ordre) "Les Pastes
de la grande Menestrandise," ed. Augener
ii, 209; also the musette in Bach's English
Suite, no. 3].
Bourree [English borry, borre, etc.]. A
French 17th-century dance, probably from
the Auvergne, usually in quick duple
meter with a single upbeat [Ex. from
Bach's French Suite, no. 6] . The dance is
mentioned by M. Praetorius (Syntagma
musicum, 1615), but does not appear in
musical composition prior to Lully's op-
eras and ballets (c. 1670), whence it was
transferred to the suitos of the late i7th
and early i8th centuries (Pachelbel,
J. K. F. Fischer, J. S. Bach). See *Dance
music III.
Bout d'archet [F.]. Point of the bow.
Boutade [F.]. A dance or ballet in a
capricious style. The name is also used
for 18th-century instrumental pieces of a
similar character.
Bow [F. archet\ G. Bogen\ It. archetto].
This implement of violin playing takes its
9*1
BOW
name (in all languages) from the fact that
it had originally the form of a bow similar
to that used in archery. Chinese and
Arabian fiddles are still played with bows
of such shape, as were stringed instru-
ments in Europe until about the I5th cen-
tury. During the i6th and i7th centuries
various shapes of bows were used, some of
which are reproduced here. Fig. 3 shows
Corelli's bow which was short and of hard,
unelastic wood, while Tartini's bow (Fig.
4) was longer and more elastic. In Ger-
many a bow of a slightly curved shape
(much less curved, however, than the
early bows) was used, which facilitated
the playing of polyphonic violin music
such as was particularly cultivated in Ger-
many (Biber, Bach). On these bows it
was also possible to vary slightly the ten-
sion of the hair by a gentle pressure of the
thumb.
The nut (frog) originally was a small
piece of wood fastened to the stick, around
which the hair was wrapped tightly. The
horn-shaped nut shown on Fig. i is still
reminiscent of this early shape. Fig. 2
shows a device which was used tempo-
rarily before 1700 in order to allow for an
adjustment of the tension of the bow,
namely a wire loop that could hook into
a series of teeth (dentated bow). About
1700 this device was replaced by a screw
mechanism such as is still used today
[Figs. 3-5}.
BOWING
The bow received its classical and final
form at the hands of Francois Tourte
(1747-1833). The most important char-
acteristics of his bow [Fig. 5] are the
long, tapering, and slightly inward curv-
ing stick, the use of metal or ivory
plates for the tip, of Pernambuco wood
for the stick, the exact measurements for
perfect balance, probably also the metal
ferrule of the frog through which the hair
passes evenly spread (this latter invention
is also credited to Tourte's contemporary
JohnDodd).
The bows used for the viola, cello, and
double-bass are of the same design as the
violin bow, but successively heavier and,
with the two last-named instruments,
shorter.
Lit.: H. Saint-George, The Bow (3d
ed., 1922); H. Drager, Die Entwictyung
des Streichbogens ( 1937) ; LavE ii.3, 1744.
Bowed harp. Modern name for the
*crwth and similar instruments of North-
ern Europe. Cf. O. Andersson, The
Bowed Harp (1930).
Bowing. The technique of using the
bow on stringed instruments (violins,
etc.). The mastery of the bow includes
a considerable number of different man-
ners of bowing, the most important of
which are briefly described here. It
should be noted that these terms, except
for the most common ones like detache,
sautille, spiccato, staccato, are net much
used by players, and that 'the various ef-
fects are frequently not ii)|licated exactly
with their proper notation, although they
are clearly suggested to the player by the
character of the music.
(a) Plain Bowing (legato). This con-
sists of two basic strokes: Down-bow [F.
tirc\ G. Abstrich y Herabstrich, Herstrich,
Herunterstrichy Niederstrich\ It. arcata in
giu] and Up-bow [F. pousse\ G. Auf-
strichy Heraufstrich, Hinstrich^ It. arcata
in su]. In down-bow, Indicated by the
sign (i), the arm is mo^&j&iaway f r0 m the
body, while in up-bow ^gn 2) the arm
moves towards the bodl^rThe slur (3)
indicates the number of ftoties to be taken
in a single stroke.
[93]
BOWING
(b) Dttacht. A broad vigorous stroke
in which the notes of equal time value arc
bowed singly with a slight articulation
10
due to the rapid change of bow. This
stroke is much used for loud passages of
not too great speed. Sometimes it is indi-
cated by lines under (or above) the notes,
as in (4). When an exceptionally long
stroke is used it is called le grand dt-
tache.
(c) MartelS [It. martellato]. Literally
a "hammered" stroke, this is played with
very short bows at the point. The ham-
mered effect is obtained by releasing each
stroke forcefully and suddenly. It cannot
be executed rapidly, and is indicated by
an arrowhead, as in (5). It is generally
found in loud passages.
(d) Sautiltt [It. spiccato\ G. Spring-
bo gen}. A short stroke played in rapid
tempo in the middle of the bow in such
a way that the bow bounces slightly from
the string. This stroke requires good con-
trol on the part of the performer in order
to keep it steady. It is a most brilliant
effect and can be done from very soft to
quite loud. It is indicated by dots, as in
(6). Variants of this stroke are known
as piqui, picchettato.
(e) ]ctc (also known as ricochet). This
is done by "throwing" the bow on the
string in the upper third of the bow so
that it will bounce a series of rapid notes
on the down-bow. Notation as under
(7). Usually from two to six notes
are taken in one stroke, although a
skillful player can do more than this
number.
(f) Loure. A stroke useful in slow
tempo to separate slightly each of several
notes taken in a slur. It is indicated as
BOWING
under (8). It can be played in a highly
expressive manner and is capable of nota-
ble emotional intensity.
(g) Staccato. This is a solo effect and
theoretically consists of a number of
martele notes taken in the same stroke.
It can be executed with dazzling brilliance
either up-bow or down-bow, but the lat-
ter is more difficult. When the bow is al-
lowed to spring slightly from the string
it is known as Staccato volante (flying
staccato). Notation as under (9).
(h) Viottt-stro1(c. This is attributed to
Giov. Battista Viotti (1753-1824), and
consists of two detached and strongly
marked notes, the first of which is unac-
cented and given very little bow, while
the second comes on the accent and takes
much more bow. It is done at the point,
and is highly effective, especially at a
fairly quick tempo. Notation as under
(10).
(i) Arpeggio or arpeggiando. A bounc-
ing stroke played on broken chords so
that each bounce is on a different string,
as in (n).
(j) Tremolo. This is primarily an or-
chestral effect and is produced by mov-
ing the bow back and forth in short and
extremely rapid strokes, on the same note
(12). See *Tremolo.
(k) Sul ponttcello [F. au chevalet\ G.
am Steg] . A nasal, glassy effect produced
by bowing very close to the bridge. Its
use is confined almost entirely to chamber
music.
(1) Flautando, flautato (also It. sul
tastiera\ F. sur la touche\ G. am Grifl-
brett). A flute-like effect produced by
bowing very slightly over the finger
board. This stroke is generally confined
to sustained passages or slow notes.
(m) Col legno. This is done by strik-
ing the string with the stick instead of the
hair. A purely orchestral effect.
(n) Flatter la corde. A soft, expressive
stroke in which the string is literally "ca-
ressed."
(o) OndulS [It. ondeggiando] . An ob-
solete form of tremolo ("undulating
tremolo") in which several notes are
taken in the same bow [see *Tremolo
(i)]. H.N.
[94]
BRABANCONNE
Brabanconne. See 'National anthems.
Braccio [It., arm]. In the Baroque pe-
riod, the term braccio was used to signify
the members of the violin family (viola
da braccio) which were held at arm level,
as distinguished from the viols (simply
viola) which were held downwards rest-
ing on the knees, or from the larger viola
da gamba [gamba, leg] which was held
resting between the legs of the player.
Later, after the name violin had estab-
lished itself, only the second-smallest size
of the family retained the name viola da
braccio, a name the first half of which
survives in the English term viola, the
second, in the German term *Bratschc.
Brace [F. accolade; G. Klammer}. The
perpendicular line combined with a
bracket that joins the different staves in
piano music or in scores. Hence, the en-
tirety of the (two or more) staves to be
read simultaneously.
Braille music notation. The method
of writing music according to the princi-
ples of the Braille system for the blind.
In this system, as is well known, raised
dots are used in various configurations all
of which are derived from an elementary
configuration of six dots: : :. Following
are the signs for the C major scale and a
few other symbols.
f
g
a b * b
The rhythmic value of the note signs
is an eighth note, unless a dot is added
underneath to the right or to the left side.
j-^-rJIJ jjlj
Example of Braille Notation
In the former case, the value is % or % 4 ;
in the latter, % or %2 M both dots arc
added, the value is % or % 6 . See the ac-
companying example. The octave position
is indicated by special signs which nor-
mally appear at the beginning of each
measure. Other signs indicate rests, time
BRASS BAND
signatures, etc. For more details, cf. A.
Reuss, Development and Problems of
Musical Notation for the Blind (1932);
WoHN i, 449ff ; LavE ii.6, 3836.
Brandenburg Concertos. Six con-
certos written by Bach in 1721 and dedi-
cated to Christian Ludwig, Margrave of
Brandenburg. They represent the artistic
acme of the *concerto grosso, although
the traditional contrast between a group
of solo instruments (concertino) and the
ensemble (ripieno) is clearly manifest
only in the second, fourth, and fifth con-
certos.
Brando [It.], brangill [Old E.].
*Branle.
Branle, bransle [F., from branler, to
fling, to sway; It. brando}. A very popu-
lar group dance of the i6th century. It
was executed in a great number of local
varieties (Arbeau's * Or che so graphic enu-
merates 26 species) many of which
were of the "follow-the-leader" type, sim-
ilar to the *farandole and the *cotillon.
It was accompanied by singing and ap-
parently included some "swaying" move-
ments of the body or of the hands. The
branle simple was in duple meter, the
branle gay in triple meter. The branle a
mener survived in the *amener of the
i yth century and, very likely, in the Min-
uet. In England the dance was known
under the name "brangill" or "brawl"
[cf. Shakespeare, Love's Labour's Lost
iii, i]. A 17th-century Italian name is
"brando" [cf. Carlo Farina, Pavane, gag-
liarde, brandi . . . (1626-28) ] . See *Dancc
music II.
Brass band. A small military band, or-
dinarily consisting of three or more cor-
nets in B-flat, three E-flat alto Saxhorns,
one or more baritones or euphoniums,
basses, and drums, as well as, on occasion,
trumpets, bugles, and kettledrums. It has
not the variety of color possessed by the
full military band, but ion account of the
relative ease with whicJi instruments of
the Saxhorn family ar^lcarned, a brass
band is easier to establisfy and maintain.
The brass band movement is particularly
popular in the United States and in Eng-
[95]
BRASSED
land, where such bands are frequently
found attached to high schools and col-
leges, religious groups (Salvation Army),
factories, etc. See *Brass instruments III;
'Military band. W. D. D.
Brassed. See*HornI.
Brass instruments [F. instruments de
cuivre\ G. Blechinstrumente\ It. stromenti
d'ottone],
I. General. That section of the orches-
tra which includes the instruments made
of brass or other metal, such as trumpets,
horns, trombones, tubas, as distinguished
from those made of wood [see *Wood
winds; also *Orchestra]. This feature,
however, is of a merely external signifi-
cance, since the material from which a
wind instrument is made has a practically
negligible effect upon its tone quality and
its other properties [see *Wind instru-
ments I]. Moreover, various instruments
of the "brass family" were formerly made
of wood [see V] and, on the other hand,
the "wood-wind family" includes instru-
ments made of metal, e.g., the flute and the
saxophone. A more characteristic feature
of the family in question is the mouth-
piece, which nearly always has the shape
of a cup, hence the name "cupped-mouth-
piece family" which can be accepted for
all practical purposes as a basis of classifi-
cation. If even this definition is rejected
on the ground that in certain obsolete
or Oriental instruments the mouthpiece
can hardly be said to have the shape of a
cup the instruments in question must
be defined as "lip-vibrated aerophones,"
i.e., wind instruments with which the lips
of the player serve as a reed [see *Reed].
The "brass instruments" as we may
call them with due reservation form
an extremely large group, including not
only numerous ancient instruments but
also many of a more recent date which
were invented in the i8th and i9th cen-
turies for military purposes, for bands,
and as improvements of older orchestral
types. The subsequent grouping is in-
tended to place the various instruments
in certain general categories which show
their historical or other position, a group-
ing which, needless to say, admits of some
BRASS INSTRUMENTS
overlapping. For the general acoustical
properties of the brass instruments, see
under *Wind instruments.
II. Orchestral Instruments. The brass
section of the modern orchestra consists
mainly of the *horn, the *trumpet, the
*trombone, and the *tuba. The tuba is
related to the horn, both having a pipe the
diameter of which increases throughout
the greater part of its length (conical
pipe), while in the trumpet and the trom-
bone the pipe is to a great extent (about
two-thirds) cylindrical and widens only
at the end into a relatively small bell. The
mouthpieces also show a difference, being
more cup-shaped with the two latter in-
struments than with the former. For
more details on these instruments, see the
separate entries. Other instruments which
have occasionally been used in the mod-
ern orchestra are the Wagner tubas [see
*Tuba], the cornet, and several other
types mentioned under III.
III. Band Instruments. Under this cat-
egory we group all those brass instruments
which are used chiefly in the brass band
and in other bands, primarily for open-air
performance of marches and of other pop-
ular music. Some of them, however, have
occasionally been used in the orchestral
scores of composers, mainly the cornet.
Most of these instruments can be consid-
ered as hybrids between the horn and the
trumpet in that they combine features of
the horn (e.g., conical bore) with other
features of the trumpet (e.g., cup-shaped
mouthpiece). A methodical survey of
these instruments is extremely difficult,
owing to the large variety of types and
sizes as well as, particularly, to the utterly
confusing terminology. The subsequent
survey of the most important types fol-
lows in principle the description given in
N. BessarabofF, Ancient European Musi-
cal Instruments (1941), pp. I5off, which
may be consulted for more details.
(a) Cornet [F. cornet-a-pistons', G.
Kornett', It. cornetta] . An instrument sim-
ilar in shape to the trumpet, but shorter
and with a relatively longer conical part.
It is pitched in Bb (sometimes in A), and
has a written range from f J to c'", sound-
ing a whole-tone (or three semitones)
[96]
BRASS INSTRUMENTS I
i. French Horn. 2. Trumpet. 3. Trombone. 4. Tuba. 5. Wagner Tuba. 6. Cornet.
7. Euphonium. 8. Helicon. 9. Saxhorn. 10. Bugle.
[97]
JO
BRASS INSTRUMENTS II
T. Chinese Lapa. 2.Lur. 3.Lituus. 4. Buccina. 5. Buysmc. 6. Straight Cornctt. 7. Tenor Cornett.
8. Serpent. 9. Natural Horn. 10. Hand Horn. n. Key Bugle. 12. Bass Horn. 13. Ophicleide.
[98]
BRASS INSTRUMENTS
lower. The cornet possesses a timbre sim-
ilar to that of the trumpet. Owing to its
shorter tube it has a considerably greater
agility and has, therefore, been used a
good deal by French and Italian compos-
ers (Berlioz, Bizet, Rossini). Its tone has
been described as coarse and vulgar, and
has been compared unfavorably with the
brilliant tone of the trumpet. This differ-
ence, however, is largely due to a bad style
of playing and to the music commonly
associated with the instrument.
(b) Flugelhorn [F. bugle] It. flicorno].
An instrument similar in design and size
to the cornet, but with a wider bore. It is
usually built in Bb, more rarely in C. Its
sound is somewhat similar to that of the
horn, but lacks the latter's mellowness.
The instruments named subsequently are
larger sizes constructed after the princi-
ples of the Flugelhorn. They might be
considered as forming a family for which
the generic name "bugles" is often used.
The largest members of the family are
the *tubas and these are the only ones
used in the orchestra. See also below,
under (f).
(c) Baritone [F. bugle t&nor\ G. Tenor-
horn; It. flicorno tenore]. This is a larger
instrument pitched C or Bb, and built in
two shapes, either in the usual shape of
the trumpets with the bell pointing up-
wards, or oval with the bell facing back-
wards. The range is from E to b'b.
(d) Euphonium [F. basse a pistons; G.
Baryton; It. Eufonio]. Its shape, pitch,
and range are the same as those of the
baritone. A larger bore, however, gives it
a broader, mellower timbre and favors the
lower notes. French and other composers
have used it in place of the tuba, e.g.,
Stravinsky in Petrouchfa.
(e) Helicon. These are bass and con-
trabass tubas in a circular form (similar
to the shape of the horn) instead of the
upright form of the tubas. The circle is
wide enough to allow the player to carry
the instrument over the shoulder. An
American variety, characterized by a spe-
cially designed bell, is the sousaphone
(named after lohn Philip Sousa who sug-
gested it). In Germany similar instru-
ments are called Bombardon.
BRASS INSTRUMENTS
(f) Saxhorn. This is an entire family
of instruments invented by Adolphe Sax
and designed on a uniform model. Their
bore is somewhat narrower than that of
the above-described instruments, result-
ing in a more brilliant timbre. They are
all upright, with the pipe starting hori-
zontally from the mouthpiece (as in the
tubas, etc.), and the pistons stand on top
of the upper horizontal part of the tube.
It should be noticed that the Saxhorns
made today frequently differ in details
(width of bore, etc.) from Sax's original
design and therefore approach the class of
the Fliigelhorns. Most authorities maintain
that it is practically impossible to make a
clear distinction between the Saxhorns
and the Fliigelhorns. Usually, the latter
term is restricted to the one size described
under (b). All agree that there is an in-
extricable confusion of nomenclature in
this group. The most important types of
Saxhorns are: (i) in Eb or F (Sopranino
Saxhorn, Soprano Saxhorn, Soprano Flu-
gelhorn, etc.); (2) in Bb or C (Soprano
Saxhorn, Alto Saxhorn, Alto Flugelhorn) ;
in low Eb or F (Alto Saxhorn, simply
Saxhorn, Althorn, Tenor Saxhorn, etc.);
in low Bb or C (Baritone Saxhorn, Alt-
horn, Tenor horn, etc.). See *Saxtromba.
IV. Military Instruments. Under this
heading brief mention may be made of
instruments used for the purpose of sig-
naling. They are all natural instruments,
restricted to the tones 2 to 6 of the har-
monic series, e.g., g-d'-g'-b'-d" for an in-
strument built in G. The most common
of these is the bugle [F. clalron\ G. Sig-
nalhorn\ It. cornetta segnale] built in G
or Bb and occasionally in F. Bugles have
been furnished with a single valve lower-
ing the pitch a fourth, and these are
known under the name Bersag horn.
V. History, (a) Trumpets and horns,
though existing in many ancient cultures,
were very late in acquiring those proper-
ties which made them useful as musical
instruments in the proper sense of the
word. Only a few tones of the harmonic
series were available on the primitive in-
struments, a fact which restricted their
use to the purpose of signaling, either in
religious ceremonies or in military serv-
[99]
BRASS INSTRUMENTS
ice. Moreover, the trumpets and horns of
the Jews, Greeks, Romans, etc., possessed
a sound which was far from agreeable but
rather terrifying, as are to the present day
the trumpets of China, Tibet, India. Plu-
tarch likens the sound of the Egyptian
trumpet to the bray of an ass, and the
Jewish ceremonial horn, *shofar y even
today fills the congregation with awe and
fright. The Jews also had a long straight
trumpet made of silver, the hasosra [see
* Jewish music]. The Greek straight
trumpet, called salpinx, was taken over
from the Orient. The same shape occurs
with the Roman tuba, a straight instru-
ment made of bronze, about four feet in
length. The Romans also had a trumpet
which curved upwards at the end in the
shape of a J, called lituus, while the buc-
cina or cornu was entirely curved in the
shape of a G and was provided with a
wooden crossbar, forming the diameter,
by which it was carried over the shoulder.
Among the most interesting examples of
ancient trumpets are the Nordic *lurer
which, although of pre-historic age, show
a high degree of perfection in bronze
founding.
Horns were originally made from ani-
mals' horns as, e.g., the shofar, which is
made from a ram's horn, or Babylonian
ox-horns which, we are informed, were
covered with gold and studded with pre-
cious stones. Metal horns, S-shaped and
widening as the animal's horn, are much
rarer in ancient cultures than the more
cylindrical trumpets (whether straight or
curved, as the cornu, which, in spite of its
name, must be classified as a trumpet),
probably owing to the greater difficulty of
founding. They are also relatively rare
among the Oriental nations,
(b) In Europe, also, trumpets appear
much earlier than horns. With the Ro-
man armies their various trumpets spread
over Europe. After A.D. 1000 the straight
tuba acquired the shape of a long and slim
pipe with a rather large funnel-shaped
bell. This instrument was called buisine
(from Lat. buccina, which, however, was
circular), while smaller sizes were called
trombetta. From the early part of the i5th
century we have the first evidence of a
BRASS INSTRUMENTS
folded trumpet. The same principle was
also applied to the larger buisine , which
by the i^th century had acquired the dis-
tinguishing feature of the modern trom-
bone, i.e., the slides [see *Trombone II],
In the i5th and i6th centuries trumpets
became associated with heraldry [see
^Trumpet II], while the wooden *cornett
[G. Zinf(] acquired a prominent place in
the chamber music of the i6th century.
Its bass size was built in a clumsy serpen-
tine shape and, therefore, called serpent.
All these instruments had side-holes cov-
ered by the fingers [see *Wind instru-
ments IV(d)]. Later a few keys were
added in order to facilitate playing, par-
ticularly with the large serpent which, in
an improved form, doubled up on itself
like the bassoon, became known under
the name of bass horn or Russian bassoon
[see*Cornett],
(c) About 1650 begins the development
of the modern horn and trumpet which is
briefly described under *Horn II and
*Trumpet II. Here it will suffice to men-
tion a group of instruments which devel-
oped about 1800 and are characterized by
the use of side-holes (as in the much older
cornetts), operated by keys. This princi-
ple was applied, not only to horns and
trumpets, but also to bugles [see IV] with
which it proved more successful (Joseph
Halliday, 1810). The {ey bugle or Kent
bugle (Kent horn), as it was named in
honor of the Duke of Kent [F. bugle a
clts\ G. Klappcnhorn], remained in use
until the second half of the i()th century.
Later a larger size was constructed under
the name ophicleide, which had the dou-
bled-up shape of the Russian bassoon.
Spontini prescribed it in his opera Olym-
pia (1819), and Mendelssohn in his over-
ture to A Midsummer-Night's Dream
(1826). Although soon replaced by the
tuba in the orchestra, the ophicleide was
used in Italian, French, Spanish, and
South American bands up to this cen-
tury.
Lit.: A. Carse, "Brass Instruments in
the Orchestra" (ML iii); J. M. Barbour,
"The Use of Brass Instruments in Early
Scores" (BAMS iv) See also under
*Wind instruments; # Turmsonaten.
[100]
BRATSCHE
Bratsche [G., from It. viola da * brae-
do}. The German name for the viola.
Bratschist, viola player.
Brautlied [G.]. Bridal song.
Bravoure [F.], bravura fit., literally
"courage"], denotes greatest ease in con-
quering technical difficulties. Hence, the
term aria di bravura [G. Bravur-ane\
for an aria in a brilliant, virtuoso-like
style.
Brawl. Old English perversion for
*branle.
Brazil. The first music school in Brazil,
the Conservatorio da Fazenda Nacional
de Santa Cruz, was founded by the Jesuits,
who were the first to educate the natives
of this country in European ways. Asso-
ciated with this school was the greatest
Brazilian composer of the Colonial pe-
riod, Jose Mauricio Nunes Garcia (1767-
1830), a priest who wrote mostly religious
music, including an admirable Requiem
in D minor, showing the influence of
Mozart and Haydn. He was followed by
Francisco Manoel (1795-1865), compos-
er of the Brazilian National Anthem, and
founder, in 1841, of the Conservatory in
Rio de Janeiro which later became the
Escola Nacional de Musica. The prestige
of Brazilian music was greatly enhanced
abroad by the success of Carlos Gomes
(1836-96), the most famous opera-com-
poser produced by Latin America. He
was trained in Italy, and several of his
operas, including // Guarany (1870), were
received with acclaim at La Scala of Mi-
lan. The overture to // Guarany is doubt-
less the best-known orchestral composi-
tion to come out of South America. Oth-
er operas by Gomes include Fosca, Maria
Tudor, Lo Schiavo, and Condor. A pio-
neer symphonic composer was Leopoldo
Miguez (1850-1902), who wrote the first
symphonic poems composed in Brazil; he
also wrote an opera of Wagnerian tenden-
cies, Saldunes, and a notable Sonata for
violin and piano. The Romantic tradi-
tion was represented by Henrique Oswald
(1852-1931), noteworthy especially for
his chamber music, and by Alexandre
Levy (1864-92), a brilliant pianist, author
BRAZIL
of a Brazilian Rhapsody for piano and
orchestra. Alberto Nepomuceno (1864-
1920) was the precursor of the modern
National school through his utilization
of Brazilian elements in such works as
his orchestral "Brazilian Suite" and prel-
ude to Garatuja. He also composed many
songs which laid the basis for the modern
Brazilian lied. Another pioneer of na-
tionalism in music was Brasilio Itibere
(1846-1913), whose orchestral fantasia,
"Sertaneja," is based on Brazilian folk
themes. In the popular field, the most
noteworthy composer was Ernesto Naza-
reth ( 1863-1934), creator of the Brazilian
tango and author of nearly 500 pieces in
popular style.
Dean of contemporary Brazilian com-
posers is Francisco Braga (b. 1868), who
has also distinguished himself as a con-
ductor. He has written symphonic and
dramatic works, chamber music, etc. The
Brazilian art song has been carried to a
high degree of perfection by Oscar Lo-
renzo Fernandez (b. 1897), who is also the
composer of a successful opera, Malazarte
(Rio, 1941), and of several symphonic
works imbued with Brazilian color, such
as "Reisado do Pastoreio," "Imbapara,"
and "Batuque." In his chamber-music
output, a trio for piano, violin, and cello is
notable. An exact contemporary of Fer-
nandez is Francisco Mignone, professor
of conducting at the Escola Nacional de
Musica and composer of numerous or-
chestral works of brilliant coloring, among
them three Brazilian Fantasias for piano
and orchestra, and "Maracatu do Chico
Rei." Other contemporaries who should
be mentioned are Barrozo Netto (1881-
1941), Fructuoso Vianna, and, among
the younger men, Radames Gnattali, Luiz
Cosme,and especially Camargo Guarnieri,
composer of a splendid Concerto for piano
and orchestra and other works revealing
a powerful creative temperament.
A place apart must be reserved for the
greatest of contemporary Brazilian com-
posers and probably the most outstand-
ing composer of all Latin America
Heitor Villa-Lobos (b. 1881), amazingly
prolific and original creator of some 1400
works, including many characteristic
101 ]
BRAZIL
piano pieces that mark a new style of
writing for the instrument. Among his
larger works, especially notable are the
Chores No. 8 for orchestra, Choros No.
10 for orchestra and chorus, the sym-
phonic poem "Amazonas," "Dansas
Africanas" for orchestra, and "Momo
Precoce" for piano and orchestra. Among
his most recent works are 5 suites, for
various instrumental combinations, en-
titled "Bachianas Brasileiras," being com-
positions in which the spirit of Brazilian
folk music is fused with that of J. S. Bach.
Although Villa-Lobos' production is un-
even in quality, and though he lacks a
finished technique and a sense of organic
form, at his best he creates works which
are entirely sui generis and which, more
than any others, seem to represent the
music of the New World. Villa-Lobos
has been very active in promoting musi-
cal education in Brazil and at present he
is director of public school music in Rio
de Janeiro.
Most of the modern Brazilian com-
posers have drawn freely upon the rich
and colorful folk music of Brazil, which
is composed of Portuguese (some Span-
ish), African, and Indian elements. Of
these the African element is perhaps the
most potent. A pioneer in the study and
collecting of Brazilian folk music was Lu-
ciano Gallet, whose work in this field has
been continued by such notable folklorists
as Mario de Andrade and Luiz Heitor
Correa de Azevedo, the latter professor
of national folk music at the Escola Na
cional de Musica. Many Brazilian com-
posers have written *modinhas, the char-
acteristic love song of Brazil, of Portu-
guese origin, usually of a rather melan-
choly and sentimental nature. Popular
dances are the *Maxixe and the * samba.
Lit.: G. Pereira de Mello, A Musica no
Brasil (Bahia, 1908); R. Almeida, His-
toria da Musica Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro,
1926); M. de Andrade, Ensaio sobre Mu-
sica Brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1928); L. Gal-
let, Estudos do Folclore (Rio de Janeiro,
i934);f Musique Brtsilienne Moderne,
preface by Andrade Murky (Rio de Ja-
neiro, 1937); A. T. Luper, The Music of
Brazil (1943). G.C.
BRIS
Breit [G.]. Broad. Brett gestrichen,
broadly bowed.
Breve, Brevis. An old note value,
written ft or ty, and equal to two whole-
notes. See *Notes; * Mensural notation.
Also *Alla breve.
Breviary, Breviarium. See '"Liturgi-
cal books I (b).
Bridge [F. chevalet, G. Steg- It. pontt-
cello}. (i) In stringed instruments, the
wooden support atop the table across
which the strings are stretched. Its shape
and size difler in the various instruments.
The bridge of the double-bass has "legs."
In spite of its symmetrical appearance,
the two halves of the bridge serve some-
what different purposes. The right
(treble) foot rests firmly upon the table,
very nearly above the sound post, while
the other, having no such support, trans-
mits the vibrations of the string to the
body of the instrument. The present-day
shape of the violin bridge was developed
in the time of Antonio and Gerolamo
Amati (c. 1550-1630)
(2) Short for *bridge passage.
Bridge passage. In musical composi-
tions a passage of subordinate importance
serving as a connection between two
themes. It consists of figurations, se-
quences, or other subsidiary material.
Frequently it effects the modulation of
key, e.g., from the first to the second
theme in *sonata-form.
Brillenbass [G., from Brille, spec-
tacle]. Derogatory nickname for stereo-
typed accompanying figures in the man-
ner of the * Alberti bass the abbreviated
writing of which [see * Abbreviations,
Ex. 4, 5] suggests a pair of spectacles.
Brindisi [It.]. Drinking song, such as
occurs in operas, e.g., in Verdi's Traviata
("Libiamo"), Mascagni's Cavalier ia rus-
ticana ("Viva il vino").
Brio, Con [It.]. With vigor and spirit.
Brise [F.]. French iSth-century name
for the *turn. In modern terminology,
indication for arpeggio playing, or for de-
tached bowing.
BROADCASTING
Broadcasting. See *Radio broadcast-
ing of music.
Broderie [F.]. (i) French term for
coloratura; also found in German writ-
ings, not so much for "virtuoso passages,"
but for carefully designed "embroideries,"
such as occur in the polyphonic music of
the 1 5th century [Ockeghem; cf., e.g.,
SchGMB, no. 52]. (2) Same as aux-
iliary tone [see *Nonharmonic tones 1, 5] .
Broken chord. The tones of a chord
played in succession, instead of simul-
taneously, either in the form of an *ar-
peggio, or in the form of quick passages.
See also *Alberti bass.
Broken consort. See *Consort.
Broken octave. Sec under *Short
octave.
Browning. A type of i6th- and lyth-
century English instrumental music, sim-
ilar to the *Jnnomine, but with the cantus
firmus taken from a secular song: "The
leaves be greene, the nuts be browne" or,
perhaps, from other popular melodies.
Examples by Byrd, Bevin, Woodcock,
Stoninge, Coperario (?), and Jenkins (?)
are preserved. Cf. E. H. Meyer, Die
mehrstimmige Spielmusil^ des 17. Jahr-
hunderts (1934), pp. 13^
Bruitisme [F.]. See ^Futurism.
Brumeux [F.]. "Misty," veiled.
Brummeisen [G.]. * Jew's harp.
Brummscheit [G.]. Perverted from
Trumscheit [see *Tromba marina] .
Brummstimmen [G.]. Humming
voices [see *Bouche fermee].
Brunette [F.]. A i?th- and i8th-cen-
tury type of French popular song, with or
without accompaniment, on idlyllic, pas-
toral, or amorous subjects. They replaced
the earlier *bergerettes and *vaudevilles.
The name is probably derived from one
famous example "Le Berger Tirsis," with
the refrain "Ah petite brunette, ah tu me
fais mourir." Ballard published three col-
lections of Brunettes ou petits tendre airs
BUFFO
in 1703, 1704, and 1709. Some of these
songs occur in the harpsichord pieces by
Chambonniere and d'Anglebert, e.g., the
Sarabande de Jeunes Zcphirs, and the
Gavotte Ou estes vous allez. Others were
adopted later into the comic opera. Cf.
P. M. Masson, in SIM xii.
Bruscamente [It.]. Brusquely.
Bruststimme [G.]. Chest voice.
Brustwerk, Brustpositiv [G.]. A
special group of smaller organ pipes
placed in the middle of the front of the
organ, between the large pedal pipes. It
is of softer intonation than the Haupt-
werJ^ (great organ) and is usually played
on the second manual.
Buccina [L.]. An ancient Roman brass
instrument [see *Brass instruments V
(a)]. The name reappears in the medi-
eval *buisine, in the German word Po-
saune (i.e., trombone), and in the French
buccin. The last was a pseudo-antique
variety of the trombone used during the
French revolution for festive occasions,
with the bell shaped into a dragon's head.
Cf. LavE ii.3, 1449.
Buchstabenschrift. *Letter notation.
Buckwheat notation. See under *Fa-
sola.
Biigelhorn [G.]. German term for the
entire family sometimes referred to as
*bugles. Cf. SaRM, 62.
Biihne [G.]. Stage. Buhnenjestspiel
(stage festival play) and Buhnenweihfest-
spiel (stage-consecrating festival play)
are names by Wagner, the former for his
*Ring, the latter for his *Parsifal which
was written for the dedication of the Bay-
rcuth opera house, in 1882. Buhncnmusil^
means ^incidental music for plays, or, in
operas, music played on the stage itself, as
for instance in the final scene of Mozart's
Don Giovanni.
Buffet [F.]. Organ case.
Buffo [It., comic]. A comic character
in Italian iSth-century operas, usually a
basso buffo (e.g., Leporello in Mozart's
BUGLE
Don Giovanni). Hence, a singer for
comic parts. See *Comic opera. Buffon-
istenstreit, see *Bouffons (2).
Bugle. A military instrument [see
*Brass instruments IV]. The term is also
used as generic name for the entire group
of brass instruments described under
*Brass instruments III (b)-(e). For the
key bugle (Kent bugle) see *Brass in-
struments V (c).
Buisine. See *Buysine.
Bulgarian music. The history of Bul-
garian music is closely linked with that
of Russia. The folk song as well as the
liturgical music of the Bulgarians has
been much less exposed to Western influ-
ence than, e.g., that of the Czechs. The
Bulgarians possess a large repertory of
traditional songs, mostly heroic, which
they consider one of their greatest treas-
ures. Most of their folk music is dance-
like, though irregular meters are frequent.
A few examples of very early folk music
in rhapsodic rhythm, uncertain intervals,
microtonic ornaments (glissando), etc.,
still survive in some provinces. The chief
instruments are the gaida, a bagpipe, and
the *gusla, a primitive bowed instrument
with one string. The liturgical music of
the Bulgarian Church was largely that of
the Russian Church, until the adoption
of the Greek rites, in the i9th century.
The activity in art music did not begin
until 1900. Pancho Vladigerov (b. 1899)
is the leading composer of the present.
Lit.: P. Panoff, Die altslavische Volfa-
und Kirchenmusi\ (Bikken's H and hue h,
1930); id., "Die Volksmusik der Bul-
garen" (Melos iv, H. i); Ch. Obresch-
koff, Das bulgansche VolJ^slied (1937);
AdHM, ii6 9 f; cf. MoML, 104.
Bund [G.; pi, Bunde]. Fret. Bundfrei,
see *Clavichord.
Burden [from P.* bourdon]. A refrain,
particularly one consisting of syllables
without meaning, as, e.g., "Hey troly lo,"
or "Fa la la." Such burdens are common
in the *ballettos of the i6th/i7th centu-
ries [see also *Fa-la].
BURGUNDIAN SCHOOL
Burgundian cadence. See under
*Landini cadence.
Burgundian School. The leading
music school of the early I5th century,
represented chiefly by Guillaume Dufay
(c. 1400-74) and Gilles Binchois (c.
1400-67). It forms the Hnk between the
*Ars nova (i4th century) and the *Flem-
ish Schools (1450-1600) [see ^History of
music]. In older writings, the Burgun-
dian School is called First Netherlands
School [see ^Netherlands Schools]. To-
day, the term Burgundian School is pre-
ferred because the musical activity of this
period centered in the cultural sphere of
the kingdom of Burgundy which, under
Philip the Good (1419-67) and Charles
the Bold (1467-77), included the whole
of eastern France as well as Belgium and
the Netherlands. Its court at Dijon was
the leading center of culture for all Eu-
rope, a culture which manifested itself
in the paintings of the brothers Van Eyck
as well as in the fantastic fashion of peaked
shoes, long cone-shaped hats, and extrava-
gant colors which still survives in the
"once-upon-a-time" setting of our fairy
tales.
The music of the Burgundian School
represents a reaction against the complex-
ity and mannerism of the late Ars nova.
Strongly influenced by the English Dun-
stable, Dufay and Binchois developed a
musical language whose beauty and ten-
der sweetness is just as lively today as it
was 500 years ago. Perhaps their most
important contribution was the establish-
ment of the third as a principal interval
of melodic design. Many melodies of
Dufay and Binchois (particularly those
from their later period) are "orna-
mented triads" [see Ex.; Dufay, Grain dre
vous vuell]. No less striking is the exten-
sive use of *jauxbourdon and of the *Bur-
gundian cadence, which, with its two
leading-tones, contributes largely to the
transcendental sensuousness of Burgun-
dian music, as do also the high range of
the men's voices (high tenors, *falsetto),
[104]
BURLA
and the simultaneous use of strongly dis-
similar instruments such as recorders,
shawms, viols, and trombones (together
with voices) which, in spite of their
"earthly" incongruity merge into what
may be called a "celestial symphony."
The Burgundian composers can be ten-
tatively grouped in three generations, as
follows [the single dates indicate years
of their activity, at the Papal Choir, at the
court of Dijon, etc., the only known rec-
ords of their life]: (i) born c. 1375:
Reginald Liebert, Pierre Fontaine (1420),
Nicolaus Grenon (1421, '27), Johannes
Brassart (1431); (2) born c. 1400: Guil-
laume Dufay (1400-74), Gilles Binchois
(1400-67), Hugo de Lantins, Heyne von
Gizeghcm (1453, '68); (3) born c. 1425:
Antoine Busnois (d. 1492), Johannes
Regis (1463, '74), Philippe Caron. The
last-named composers already show the
influence of the early Flemish masters
(Ockeghem, Obrecht) and form the tran-
sition to Josquin. Dufay and also various
other Burgundian composers spent parts
of their lives at Cambrai; hence, the name
School of Cambrai, which would seem to
apply chiefly to the latest members of the
Burgundian School. Examples in HAM,
nos. 6572.
Lit.: W. Ambros, Geschichte der Musi\
iii (1891); E. Dannemann, Die spatgo-
tische Musityradition in FranJyeich und
Burgund vor dem Aujtreten Dufay's
(1936); J. Wolf, "Dufay und seine Zeit"
(StM i) ; Ch. van den Borren, "\Polyphonia
sacra (1932); J. F. R. and C. Stainer,
f Dufay and his Contemporaries (1898);
K. Dezes, "fMessen- und Motettensatze
des 75. Jahrhunderts (1927); W. Gurlitt,
^Gilles Binchois, 16 welrliche Liedcr
(1927); H. Besseler, "\Guillaume Dujay,
12 geistliche und weltliche Wert{e ( 1932);
J. Marix, "fLcs Musiciens de la cour de
Bourgogne au XV e siecle, 1420-67
(1937). See also *Chansonnier.
Burla, burlesca, burletta [It., jest].
A composition in a jesting mood. Bach's
A minor Partita has a Burlesca; Schu-
mann's Albumbldlter include a Burla.
Busine. See *Buysine.
BYZANTINE CHANT
Busspsalmen [G.] . *Penitential psalms.
Buxheim Organ Book [G. Bux-
heimer Orgelbuch]. A MS collection of
organ music, written about 1470 and con-
taining a large number of *Intabulie-
rungen of *Burgundian chansons, some
30 *preludes and a copy of Conrad Pau-
mann's *Fundamentum organisandi. Cf.
MfM 1888, Beilage; L. Schrade, Die
dltesten Dent(maler der Orgelmusit^
(1927). Cf.also H. Schnoor,in ZMW iv.
Buysine, buzine, busine, buisine,
buzanne [see *Buccina]. A medieval
straight trumpet. See *Brass instruments
V; also ^Trombone II.
B.V.M. See *Antiphon (3).
Byzantine chant. I. The ecclesiasti-
cal chant of the Byzantine empire
(founded A.D. 328 by Constantine the
Great; destroyed in 1453, with the fall of
Constantinople) With the exception of
a few ceremonial songs, the *acclama-
tions, no music other than the liturgical
chants has been preserved. Although the
language of the Byzantine Church was
Greek, it has become more and more ap-
parent that the Byzantine music as
well as the whole of Byzantine culture
was not a continuation of that of the an-
cient Greeks (as has long been assumed)
but constituted a new tradition based to
some extent on Oriental (Jewish) models
[see Tillyard, Wellesz]. The Byzantine
system of modes (*echoi), for example,
differs sharply from that of the so-called
Greek modes (tonoi) but is quite similar
to that of the Western Church [see
*Church modes],
II. The Byzantine chant has many
features in common with Gregorian
chant, being monophonic, unaccompa-
nied, chiefly diatonic, and devoid of strict
meter. A fundamental difference between
the two bodies of chant, however, is that
of their textual basis. While the Western
tradition adopted the Jewish psalms as
the basis of their texts, the liturgical texts
of the Eastern Church are all free poetry
(occasionally modeled after psalms), i.e.,
hymns. The earliest of these hymns, the
BYZANTINE CHANT
troparia (4th, 5th centuries), were inter-
calations (*tropes) sung between the
reading of the psalms, but the latter
dropped out during the ensuing develop-
ment. The 6th century marks the begin-
ning of a new era, that of the fontafyon,
with Romanus (c. 500) and Sergios (c.
600) as the leading figures. A kontakion
is an ode consisting of a short prooemium
(introduction) and a great number (20-
30) of stanzas of uniform structure which
end with a refrain (either a single word
such as ". . . time," or a complete line)
and which, by their initial letters, form an
acrostic. The most famous example of
this species is the *acathistos. Troparia
and kontakia were superseded around
700 by the \anon (Andrew of Crete,
c. 650-720; John of Damascus; and Kos-
mas of Jerusalem, c. 750). The kanons
are extremely long poems consisting of a
succession of nine parts (called hymns,
odes), each of which was supposed to
contain allusions to one of the nine Can-
ticles (as a rule, the second ode was
omitted, on account of the somber nature
of the second canticle; the others are all
chants of praise and joy). The poetic ac-
tivity came to an end in the i ith century,
owing to the codification of the hymns
and their final reception into the liturgy.
III. The earliest Byzantine sources con-
taining musical signs date from the pth
century, and are written in *ekphonetic
notation. According to recent interpreta-
tion [cf. C. Ho'eg, La Notation el^pho-
netique (1935)] these signs, which al-
ways occur in pairs (one at the beginning,
the other at the end of a sentence), repre-
sent certain stereotyped formulae, which
were used for phrases of frequent occur-
rence, such as: "And Jesus said." Begin-
ning with the loth century, sources show
a more fully developed type of musical
notation, indicating a continuous melody.
As is the case in the notation of Gregorian
chant, the early Byzantine "neumes"
(c. 950-1200) cannot be deciphered.
Only a few melodies from some of the
latest MSS of this period, written in the
so-called Coislin system^ have been tran-
scribed with the help of parallel versions
existing in later sources, the notation of
BYZANTINE CHANT
which is that of a later stage, known as
middle (or round) notation. The latter
system, which was in use from c. uoo-
1450, has been deciphered in all essential
details, including the rhythmic signifi-
cance of the neumatic signs, on the basis
of information contained in certain theo-
retical manuals called papadife. The
principal feature of this notation is that
its signs do not indicate pitches (as do,
more or less exactly, the Western
neumes), but intervals to be taken from
the tone reached previously. The starting
note was indicated by a special sign (the
martyrion), which signified the echos of
the melody. Thus, in Byzantine notation,
the melody deggafgd would be no-
tated as a succession of intervals according
to the following scheme: (d)stust_
s f_ (s = second, u unison, t = third,
f = fourth; descending intervals with a
minus-sign) [example in GD i, 520].
IV. After 1400 the traditional chant,
which was largely syllabic, was enriched
by the introduction of coloraturas which,
owing to abuse and individual license,
soon led to a complete decadence of By-
zantine chant. Kukuzeles, who flourished
about 1300, seems to have been the first
to introduce new signs for stereotyped
melismas. These signs were generally
adopted after 1400 (late Byzantine or
xcti eg eg? t ft ij -fit -.?<*. av--&7-cti,
is p
fc-voj t-juv Vo jte-Y* e-Afi -o$.
First Ode of a Canon for Saturday
in Holy Week
Kukuzelian notation; see also *Teretism).
In the 1 8th century, Turkish and Arabian
elements were introduced into the chant
(Lampadarios, c. 1730-70), thus leading
[106]
to a complete destruction of the tradition.
At the beginning of the ipth century the
Greek archimandrite Chrysanthos devel-
oped a notation which utilizes the prin-
ciples and some of the details of the By-
zantine notation and which is still used
today for the chants of the Greek Church.
From our present-day state of knowl-
edge, the MSS of the i2th and I3th cen-
turies represent the classical tradition of
Byzantine chant. The example on p. 106
[cf. MQ xxiii, 208] illustrates the style
which prevails in the chants of this period
[cf. alsoH^fM, no. 8].
In 1935 C. Hoeg, H. J. W. Tillyard,
and E. Wellesz started a complete edition
of medieval Byzantine Musical MSS,
under the title Monumenta Musicae By-
zantinae [see *Editions XVIII]. This
CACOPHONY
publication was taken over in 1942 by the
Byzantine Institute (American Branch,
Boston). See *Acathistus; * Acclamation;
*Akoluthia; *Automela; *Echos; *Sti-
cheron.
Lit.: H. J. W. Tillyard, Byzantine
Music and Hymnography (1923); E.
Wellesz, Byzantinische Musi\ (1927);
O. Tiby, La Musica bizantina (1938);
L. Tardo, L'antica mdurgia bizantina
(1938); ReMMA, 75ff; AdHM i, i26ff;
GD i, 514^; H. J. W. Tillyard, in MQ
xxiii and in ML iv; E. Weliesz, in PMA i;
O. Strunk, "The Tonal System of Byzan-
tine Music" (MQ xxxviii); O. Gombosi,
in AM x, xi, xii. For additional bibliog-
raphy, cf ReMMA, 4328: and O. Tiby, in
RMl xli, xlii.
C. (i) See *Letter notation; *Pitch
names; *Hexachord. (2) C, as an ab-
breviation, may stand for: con (colla,
coll'), i.e., with [see C.a.; *C.b.; *C.o.;
*C.s.]; cantus [see *C.f.]; capo [see
*D.c.]. In modern part songs C means
contralto^ in 16th-century part books,
cantus.
C.a. Abbreviation for [It.] coif arco,
i.e., with the bow.
Cabaletta [It., possibly from cobola 9
cobla, i.e., couplet; the derivation from
caballo, horse, is very doubtful ] . A short
operatic song characterized by popular
style and natural simplicity, with a rather
uniform rhythm in the vocal line and in
the accompaniment. They are frequent in
the operas of Rossini. One of the earliest
examples is "La bella imagine" in Gluck's
Paride e Elena ( 1770). In the later Italian
opera (Verdi) the term was applied to
the final stretto close of arias or duets in
which elaborate treatment usually gives
way to quick, uniform rhythm.
Caccia [It., chase, hunt] . An important
form of 14th-century Italian poetry and
music which was chiefly used in the first
half of that century (Giovanni da Cascia,
Jacopo da Bologna; see *Ars nova). The
text deals with hunting and fishing scenes
(peseta) or with similar subjects of a
strongly marked naturalistic character
(fire, cries of street vendors, etc.). The
musical form is a strict canon in two parts
at the distance of eight or more measures.
These "chasing" voices are usually sup-
ported by a free tenor in longer note val-
ues. The form originated in France
around 1300 (chace\ cf. BcMMR, 131),
but developed in Italy. For a Spanish
14th-century example, cf. O. Ursprung,
in ZMW iv, 151.
Lit.: G. Carducci, Caccie in rime (1896;
only texts); W. Th. Marrocco, \The iflh-
Century Italian Caccia (1942; complete
collection of all the caccias); "\WoGM ii,
iii, nos. 42, 56; HAM, no. 52; J. Wolf,
IfSing- und Spielmusi\ aus alterer Zeit,
no. 7.
Cachucha. An Andalusian dance simi-
lar to the *bolero. It was introduced to
the opera by Fanny Elssler in the ballet of
Le Diable boiteux (1836).
Cacophony [from Gr. \a\os, bad].
Bad sound, discord. Richard Strauss's
CADENCE
tone-poems were decried as cacophony at
the time of their first performance.
Cadence [from L. cadere, to fall; G.
Kadenz; It. cadenza]. I. A melodic or
harmonic formula which occurs at the
end of a composition, a section, or a
phrase, conveying the impression of a
momentary or permanent conclusion. In
each period of music there exist a rather
limited number of such formulae or, at
least, a limited number of types of which
all closing passages are but variations or
modifications. Those which were in cur-
rent use during the i8th and i9th centu-
ries have been studied in great detail.
Unfortunately, the classification and ter-
minology in this field are greatly lacking
in uniformity and frequently also in clar-
ity. The following presentation is made
with a view, not to completeness of the
enumeration of terms, but to clarification
of the essential points [cf. the chapter on
"Cadences" in W. Piston, Harmony
(1941)].
A cadence is called perfect (final, full)
if it can be satisfactorily and normally
used as the close of a composition. Ac-
cording to the standards of classical har-
mony this requires that the last chord be
the tonic triad (I) and that it have the
tonic note in the soprano. Regarding the
CADENCE
penultimate chord, there is a choice be-
tween the dominant (V) and the sub-
dominant (IV), both in root position.
The combination V-I is called authentic
cadence [Ex. ij, the progression I V-I,
plagal cadence [Ex. 2]. The authentic
cadence occurs usually in the fuller form
IV-V-I (IIMM) [Ex. 3 1 or, still more
complete, IV-I-V-I (II 8 -I-V-I) [Ex.
4]. All four of these last are sometimes
called mixed cadences.
The remaining cadences fall into two
classes, imperfect, and deceptive (or inter-
rupted) cadences. The imperfect cadences
are the same as the two elementary perfect
cadences, except that they have the tonic
chord in another arrangement, e.g., with
the third or fifth in the soprano [Ex. 5! ;
or have the penultimate chord in inver-
sion [Ex. 6] these are called inverted
or medial cadence, as opposed to a radical
[L. radix, root] cadence; or occur in
transposition to the dominant or (more
rarely, the subdominant) [Ex. 710],
These "transposed" cadences occur almost
regularly at the end of the first half of a
musical phrase and are therefore termed
half-cadence (authentic or plagal).
The deceptive cadence [F. cadence
rompue or cvitee\ G. Trugschluss\ It.
inganno} is an authentic (or, sometimes,
plagal) cadence the tonic chord of which
(I) is deceptively replaced by some
other chord, most frequently by VI [Ex.
ii ]. Some other possibilities are indi-
cated in Ex. 12-14. $ ee a ^ so *Masculine,
feminine cadence.
II. The cadences of early music differ
sharply from those described above, par-
ticularly prior to 1500 when progressions
such as V-I and IV I were very little used
[see *Harmony]. The history of these
cadences is interesting since the various
formulae are characteristic of their period
and may well serve as identifying marks.
Prior to 1450, practically all cadences are
based on the progression II-I in the low-
est part (tenor). This cadence appears in
various modifications [Ex. 15 19], among
which that with two "leading-tones," one
before the octave, the other before the
fifth, is particularly frequent before and
after 1400 [Ex. 16-18; see *Landini
108]
CADENCE
cadence]. After 1400 another modifica-
tion of the II-I cadence appears in which
the contra-tenor jumps up an octave from
the lower fifth to the higher fifth [Ex. 20] .
This cadence is interesting because it
foreshadows the authentic cadence with
its V I movement in the lowest part
[Ex. 21 J. This as well as the plagal
cadence was introduced around 1450, as
a result of the addition of a true bass to
musical texture (Ockeghcm, Obrecht; see
^Flemish Schools), The earlier type (II
I) survived only in the so-called Phrygian
cadence [Ex. 22]. It should be noticed
that, until 1500, the third is practically
always omitted in the final chord of the
authentic as well as of the plagal cadence
[still in Purcell!; see *Picardy third]. In
the 1 6th century the "suspension"-for-
mula [Ex. 21] was universally accepted,
while in the lyth century the "anticipa-
tion"-formula [Ex. 23] is very common.
Composers of the i7th century frequently
use both formulae simultaneously in two
parts (violins) in a strikingly dissonant
combination known as Corclli-clash [Ex.
24; for an early instance, in Stefano
Landi's San Alessio (1634), cf. H. Gold-
CADENZA
schmidt, Studien zur Geschichte der
italienischen Oper (1901), i, 212],
III. The cadences of the classical and
romantic periods offer little historical in-
terest since they usually conform with the
standard types outlined in I. Toward the
end of the i9th century, however, the
amplification of the harmonic vocabu-
lary brought with it numerous novelties
in the writing of cadences, such as the use
of modal cadences [Ex. 25; Moussorgsky,
Boris Godunov, 1869], the use of a dis-
sonant final chord [Ex. 26; Ravel, Les
grands vents], of polytonal formations
[Ex. 27; Busoni, Sonatina Seconda, 1912]
and, more recently, the return to a "con-
trapuntal" type of cadence reminiscent of
medieval cadences in the stepwise motion
of the bass and in their "plagal" feeling
[Ex. 28; Hindemith, Sonate fur Klavier,
1936].
Lit.: A. Casella, The Evolution of
Music, through the History of the Perfect
Cadence (1924); E. M. Lee, "Cadences
and Closes" (PMA xxxi); H. J. Moser,
"Das Schicksal clcr Penultima" (JMP xli);
H J. Moscr, "Die harmonischen Funk-
tionen in der tonalen Kadenz" (ZMW i);
C. Artorn, "Cadenze e pseudocadenze"
(RMI xxxiv); R. Tenschert, "Die Ka-
denzbehandlung bei Richard Strauss"
(ZMW vii).
Cadence [F.]. French ryth-century
name for the trill.
Cadent. See under *NachschIag.
Cadenza. An extended section in free,
improvisatory style inserted usually near
the end of a composition where it serves
as a retarding element, giving the player
or singer a welcome chance to exhibit his
technical brilliance shortly before the
piece closes. Its traditional place is in the
concerto, between the six-four chord
(marked with a fermata) and the domi-
nant chord of the final cadence [see Ex.].
Such cadenzas make ample use of highly
virtuoso passage work, but also draw from
the thematic substance of the movement,
presenting its subjects in artfully devised
modifications or combinations. They usu-
[ 109]
CADENZA
ally close with an extended trill on the
dominant chord.
In the earlier concertos (Haydn;
Mozart; Beethoven, Piano concertos nos.
1-4) the cadenzas are not included in
the composition, since they were supposed
to be provided by the performer. In the
1 9th century cadenzas to the famous con-
certos were written by the outstanding
virtuosos (Hummel, Thalberg, Mosche-
les, Reinecke, Joachim), frequently with-
out proper regard to matters of style, so
that it is not unusual to hear a Mozart
concerto winding up with a cadenza full
of the lush harmonies and heavy texture
of the late Romanticism. Beethoven was
the first to write his own cadenzas as an
integral part of the work, in his last Piano
Concerto, op. 76 (Emperor Concerto).
His precedent was followed by most of
his successors (Schumann, Brahms), who
wanted to guard their works against the
poor taste and the stylistic incongruities
of the "pianist-composers." There exist
authentic cadenzas (written by the com-
posers themselves) for all the Beethoven
concertos and for a number of the Mozart
concertos. Although not entirely satisfac-
tory, they should be consulted by anyone
confronted with the necessity of choosing
(or writing) a cadenza. Judicious artists
will probably find them preferable to any
of those in current use, with the sole ex-
ception of the excellent cadenzas to
Mozart's piano concertos written by Bu-
soni. In the piano compositions of Chopin
and Liszt ample use is made of another
type of cadenza, consisting of relatively
short passages of glittering passage work,
written in small notes, and inserted where
a momentary retardation or a display of
pianistic brilliancy was desired.
Cadenzas in the form of running pas-
sages following (rather than preceding)
CALLIOPE
the final chord of a cadence occur in the
lute and keyboard music of the i6th cen-
tury (Don Luis Milan, 1535; Girolamo
Cavazzoni, 1542). Early examples of the
modern cadenza, on IJ are found in Co-
relli and Vivaldi (c. 1700). Throughout
the 1 8th century improvised cadenzas of
a highly virtuoso type were an established
feature of the solo arias in the Neapolitan
operas, whence they were adopted in the
concerto (Mozart).
Lit.: R. Stockhausen. DieKadenzen zu
den Klavierfonzerten der Wiener Klas-
si\er (Diss. Vienna 1936); H. Knodt,
"Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Kaden-
zen im Instrumentalkonzert" (SIM xv);
A. Schering, "Die freie Kadenz im In-
strumentalkonzert des 1 8. Jahrhunderts"
(KIM, 1906, p. 204).
Cadenzato [It.]. With determination
(as in a cadence).
Caecilianismus [G.]. See *Cecilian
movement.
Caisse [F.]. Drum. See *Percussion
instruments B, 1-3.
Calando [It.]. Diminuendo, usually
with rallentando.
Calascione. Same as *colascione.
Calata. Italian lute dance of the early
i6th century, notatcd in * - ( * -) time, but
actually in * - (3 x *) meter, and therefore
similar to the *bassa danza. Petrucci's
Intavolatura de lauto iv (1508) contains
13 calatas, one for two lutes. Cf. J. W.
Wasielewski, Geschichte der Instrumen-
talmusi^ im 16. Jahrhundert (1878),
Beilage.
Calcando [It.]. "Trampling," i.e., ac-
celerando.
Calino casturame. This title of a piece
in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Boo\ is prob-
ably a perversion of Irish "Cailinog a stuir
me,'* "Young girl, my treasure."
Calithump. See *Charivari.
Calliope. Originally the name of the
Greek Muse of Eloquence, the term was
[no]
CALMATO
adopted for an instrument which its un-
known inventor probably expected to
have divine powers of persuasion, as it
consisted of a number of steam-blown
whistles (played from a keyboard) which
could be heard over a distance of ten
miles. It was used at American fairs to
attract people from far and wide.
Calmato [It.]. Calmed.
Galore, Con [It.]. With warmth.
Cambiata [It., from cambiare, to
change]. See *Nonharmonic tones I.
Camera [It., chamber]. In Baroque
music (1600-1750) da camera indicates
music for use outside of the church, as
distinguished from da chiesa, i.e., music
to be performed in the church [see
*Chiesaj. This dichotomy was applied
to sonatas, cantatas, duettos, etc. Espe-
cially in the first case it entailed a distinct
difference of form which is discussed
under *Sonata B, II. In modern Italian
usage, music a da camera means chamber
music.
Camerata [It., from earner a , chamber,
salon]. Name for a group of distin-
guished literary men, artists and musi-
cians who, shortly before 1600, used to
gather in the palace of the Count Bardi at
Florence to discuss the possibilities of a
new musical style in imitation of the
music of the ancient Greek drama [see
*Nuove Musiche; *Opera]. Members of
this "charmed circle" were the poet Ot-
tavio Rinuccini and the musicians Vin-
cenzo Galilei, Giulio Caccini, and Jacopo
Peri.
Lit.: H. Martin, "La 'Camerata' du
Comte Bardi et la musique florentine du
xvie siecle" (RdM, nos. 42-44, 46, 47);
G. Gilli, Una Corte alia fine del '500
(1928).
Camminando [It.]. Proceeding, push-
ing on.
Campana [It.]. *Bell. Campanology is
the art of bell-founding and bell-ringing.
Campanella (little bell) is the *glocken-
spiel; also the title of a violin piece by
Paganini and of an etude by F. Liszt (a
CANCIONERO
piano adaptation of the former) in which
the sound of small bells is imitated.
Can. In English Service music, abbrevi-
ation for cantons. See *Polychoral style.
Canadian music. Cf. M. Barbeau and
Edw. Sapir, Fol{ Songs of French Canada
(1925); J. M. Gibbon, Canadian Fol^
Songs (1927); Soeurs de Sainte-Anne,
Dictionnaire biographique des musiciens
Canadiens (1935); E. Gagnon, Chansons
populaires du Canada (7th ed., 1940); M.
Barbeau, in ML xiii, no. 2.
Canarie, canario. A French dance of
the 1 7th century, designed as an imitation
of the "sauvages des iles Canaries," the
natives of the Canary Islands who repre-
sented the "exotic" element in the Euro-
pean culture of the i6th and i7th centu-
ries. It is in quick % or %-time, with a
dotted note on each strong beat, almost
identical in rhythm with that of the gigue.
The earliest examples are to be found in
the harpsichord suites of Champion de
Chambonnieres (1602-72) and of Louis
Couperin (c. 1626-61). Others occur in
the operas of Lully, Purcell (Diocletian,
1690), in Johann K. F. Fischer's Musi^al-
isches Blumenbuschlein (1696), in Georg
Muffat's Florilegium primum (1690),
etc. Examples in ApMZ ii; TaAM vii, 43.
Cf. P. Nettl, in StM viii. See * Dance
music III.
Cancan. A popular dance of the late
1 9th century which developed from the
quadrille and which became world-
known for its vulgarity and indecorous-
ness. J. Offenbach introduced it into his
Orphee aux enjers (1874).
Cancel. Same as natural (sign).
Cancion [Sp.]. Song.
Cancionero [Sp.]. Collection of songs,
particularly folk songs. Important pub-
lications of this type have been issued by
F. Pedrell and by E. M. Torner. For an
important 15th-century MS, known as
Cancionero musical del palacio, see
""Sources, no. 27; ^Spanish Music I.
[in]
CANCRIZANS
Cancrizans [from L. cancer, crab]. In
crab-wise motion; see *Retrogracle.
Canntaireachd. See under *Pibroch,
Canon [Gr., law, rule], (i) A poly-
phonic composition in which all the parts
have the same melody throughout, al-
though starting at different points. The
canon is the strictest species of imitation.
Accompanying is an example by Schubert
(Piano Trio op. 100, Scherzo). It ap-
pears that in a canon the normal contra-
puntal texture of horizontal (melodic)
and vertical (harmonic) relationships is
"reinforced" by diagonal threads which
consistently connect the places of imita-
tion [see *Texture]. It is this added di-
mension which accounts for the special
artistic charm of the canon. Any phrase,
heard now in the leading voice (dux, ante-
cedent), will soon be heard in the follow-
ing voice or voices (comes, consequent);
in the meantime, however, the dux has
proceeded to another motive which thus
sounds against the first and which, in
turn, will soon occur in its comes.
I. Types. The following types of canon
are commonly distinguished, (a) Ac-
cording to the temporal distance between
the parts: canon of one, two, etc., meas-
ures; in earlier terminology: canon ad
minimum, ad semibrevem, ad brevem (or
ad tempus), i.e., in the distance of a
minim, etc. (b) According to the interval
of imitation: canon in unison, of the fifth,
fourth, etc.; earlier terms are: canon ad
unisonum, ad hypodiapentc (the comes
begins at the lower fifth), ad hyperdiates-
CANON
saron (the comes begins at the higher
fourth), etc. According to special devices:
(c) canon by ^augmentation or diminu-
tion (the comes has the melody in doubled
or in halved values); (d) canon by *in-
version (the comes has the inverted mel-
ody; also called per motu contrario)\ (e)
retrograde canon or crab canon or canon
cancrizans (the comes imitates the dux
in retrograde motion; see ^Retrograde) ;
(f) canon al contrario river so (the comes
is the retrograde inversion of the dux;
such a canon can be executed by reading
the melody with the page turned upside
down; see ^Retrograde, Ex. 2); (g) group
canon (the dux and, consequently, the
comes consist of two or more parts
each; a famous example of this type is
Byrd's motet "Diliges Dominum"; most
of the many-voiced canons of the lyth
century for 12, 16, or even 48 voices
belong to this group); (h) circle canon
or perpetual canon (i.e., one which leads
back to the beginning and which, there-
fore, may be repeated several times; most
of the popular canons, called *rounds, be-
long to this type); (i) spiral canon or
canon per tonos (here the melody ends
one tone higher than it started; thus the
canon must be played six times, first in
C, then in D, in E, in F-sharp, etc.; an
example is found in Bach's Musical Offer-
ing under the title: "Ascendente modula-
tione ascendet gloria regis," i.e., "May
the glory of the king rise as the modula-
tion ascends"). A canon is called mixed
if parts are added (usually in the bass)
which do not participate in the imitation
(e.g., the canons in Bach's Goldberg Vari-
ations).
II. History. In early music, the pres-
ent-day type of canon occurs under names
such as *rota or *rondellus (*round, e.g.,
the well-known *Sumer is icumen in of
circa 1310), *caccia (i4th century), and
*fuga (i6th century), while the term
canon has a much wider significance,
namely, that of any kind of inscription
("rule") giving a clue as to the intended
execution of a composition which is pur-
posely notated in an incomplete or ob-
scure manner (riddle canon). Such
canons appear first in the works of Guil-
CANON
laume de Machaut, among which there
is a motet "Trop plus est belle" [cf. F.
Ludwig, G. de Machaut) Musifyalische
Werfe ii, 71; J. Wolf, Musi^alische
Schrijt-tajeln (1930), p. 23], the tenor of
which is to be sung "ad modum ron-
delli" (rondellus means here, not round,
but *rondeau), i.e., as follows: a b a a a
b a b, although only a b is notated. Ex-
amples of much greater complexity occur
in the French MSS of the late *Ars nova
[cf., e.g., the "Canon balade" in WoHN
i, 375]. In the Flemish era (c. 1450-
1550) the canonic inscriptions grow more
and more enigmatic so that Tinctoris, in
his Diffinitorium (c. 1500) aptly defines
the canon as "a rule which shows the in-
tention of the composer in an obscure
way" [CS iv, 179]. Among the simpler
examples of riddle canon are the various
inscriptions indicating retrograde motion
[see *Retrograde]. More complicated is
the inscription given with the Agnus Dei
of Dufay's Missa L'homme arme: "Can-
cer eat plenis et redeat medius" (The crab
proceed full and return half). This means
that the tenor should be read first back-
wards (a crab "proceeds" backwards) in
the full note-values, then forward from
the beginning, but in halved note-values.
Even more oracular are inscriptions such
as "Ne recorderis" (literally "Don't re-
member") which must be read "Ne re
corderis," i.e., "Don't remember re"
"Don't sing re" "Omit all the notes re"
i.e., "D." Riddle canons of particular
complication occur in the English 15th-
century Missa O quam suavis [new ed.
by H. B. Collins (1927)]. For more de-
tails see WoHN i, 427; GD ii, 713 ("In-
scriptions"); RiHM ii.i, 83-95; dpNPM,
179.
Less obscure, hence of greater practical
importance, are the so-called mensuration
canons of the i5th and i6th centuries.
Here, a single written part has to be read
simultaneously in different ^mensurations
or ^proportions. These canons, some-
times called *fuga, start simultaneously
at the intervals of tonic and dominant,
but proceed differently, owing to the dif-
ferent value of the longer notes (tonga,
brevis) under the various signs of men-
CANON
suration. Accompanying is a "Fuga trium
vocum" by Josquin [cf. ApNPM, 180],
An interesting example of a "group-
canon" for two lutes occurs in Vincenzo
Galilei's Fronimo (1563; see *Editions
XIV, 4) under the name "Fuga."
In the 1 7th century, canons were fre-
quently devised in such a way as to admit
of a number of solutions. A well-known
example is a "Non nobis domine" (at-
tributed, probably wrongly, to W. Byrd),
which admits 6 or 7 solutions differing
according to number of parts, to the inter-
vals, and to the distance of the imitating
parts [cf. GD iii, 642^. Pier Francesco
Valentini (d. 1654) wrote a canon which
boasts of more than 2000 solutions. At
the same time, the English provided a
great number of popular canons in their
*catches. It was chiefly through Bach's
genius that the canon again obtained an
important position in musical art, a posi-
tion which it has maintained to the pres-
ent day. Particularly noteworthy are
Bach's Kanonische Variationen uber das
Weihnachtslicd and the canons in his
Goldberg Variations. Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven, contributed many charming
examples to the popular repertory, but
also used canon technique in their sonatas
(mostly in the menuets) and variations.
A well-known example of a more recent
date is the last movement of Cesar
Franck's Violin Sonata (1886) which,
however, employs a rather facile tech-
nique, while Brahms made a more in-
genious use of the canon, e.g., in his /j
Canons (for women's voices), op. 113.
Lit.: S. Jadassohn, Canon and Fugue
(1899); C. H. Kitson, Invertible Counter-
point and Canon (1927); E. Prout,
Double Counterpoint and Canon\ B.
CANONICAL HOURS
Ziehn, Canonical Studies (1912); L. Fein-
inger, Die Friihgeschichte des Kanons bis
Josquin (1937); F. Jode, ^Der Kanon
(1926); P. Mies, "Der Kanon im mehr-
satzigen klassischen Werk" (ZMW viii);
0. E. Deutsch, "Haydn's Kanons"
(ZMW xv).
(2) In ancient Greek music, canon is
the name of the monochord which served
to demonstrate the "laws" of acoustics.
See *Kanun.
(3) In Byzantine chant, a special type
of poetry, more correctly spelled kanon;
see Byzantine chant II.
(4) In the Roman liturgy, canon is the
central and most solemn part of the
*Mass, said by the officiating priest after
the Sanctus. It begins with the words Te
igitur [cf.Lt/,4].
Canonical hours. See *Office hours.
Canonic treatment, style. The term
refers to short passages written as a more
or less free canon and forming a part of a
larger composition such as a sonata (fre-
quently in the development section).
Canso. See *Canzo.
Cantabile [It.]. Singable, singing.
Cantata [from It. cantare, to sing].
1. A composite vocal form of the Baroque
period, consisting usually of a number of
movements such as arias, recitatives,
duets, choruses which are based upon a
continuous narrative text, lyrical, dra-
matic, or religious. Owing to the activity
of J. S. Bach, the church cantata (cantata
da Mesa), i.e., a cantata of devotional
subject matter, is particularly well known
and clearly defined. However, the secular
cantata (cantata da camera), was not only
the earlier, but also the more frequent
type throughout the iyth century, espe-
cially in Italy. The cantata appeared
shortly after 1600 as the third offspring of
the *monodic style [see *Opera, *Orato-
rio], replacing the 16th-century madrigal.
In its early, experimental, stage (till
1630) it occurred under different names
and in a great variety of forms and styles.
Certain pieces in Caccini's Nuove musiche
(1602) and in Peri's Varic musiche
CANTATA
(1609), written in the form of strophic
arias with the same bass used for every
stanza, but with different melodies for
the voice [see *Strophic bass], may be
considered as the point of departure. As
a matter of fact, Alessandro Grandi's
"cantade" (Cantade et arie a voce sola,
1620; first appearance of the name) fol-
low the same scheme of the "strophic-bass
cantata," as do also the majority of can-
tatas written before 1650 [cf. RiHM ii.2,
20, 31; AdHM i, 437]. On the other
hand, a piece such as Peri's "Se tu parti"
more clearly foreshadows the later can-
tata, since its three stanzas (written to
the same bass) contain contrasting sec-
tions, arioso, and recitativo, separated by
instrumental ritornellos, and thus antici-
pate to some extent the composite struc-
ture of the developed cantata. This struc-
ture becomes more clearly evident in the
cantatas of Francesco Rasi (Dialoghi rap-
presentativi, 1620; cf. RiHM, 299), Gio.
Pietro Berti (Cantate ed arie, 1624), G. F.
Sances (Cantade, 4 vols., 1633-40), and
Benedetto Ferrari (Musiche varic, 1637).
The free composite cantata in a way,
the vocal counterpart of the contemporary
*canzona da sonare reached a peak in
Luigi Rossi (1598-1653; cf. RIHM,
37iff), Giacomo Carissimi (1605-74; c ^-
RiHM, 383^, and Marc'Antonio Cesti
(1623-69; cf. AdHM ii, 439). This form
was taken over by the masters of the Nea-
politan School (Provenzale, Stradclla, Al.
Scarlatti) who, however, standardized
its structure into a form consisting of two
arias of contrasting character, each intro-
duced by a recitative. It is interesting to
notice that an almost identical process of
standardization took place simultane-
ously in the instrumental field, leading
from the canzona to the sonata da chiesa
and da camera. Stradella wrote more
than 190, Al. Scarlatti more than 600 can-
tatas, mostly of the type described above,
which was almost exclusively adopted in
the 1 8th century as a convenient and con-
ventionalized scheme for virtuoso display
and sentimentality (Leonardo Leo, Leo-
nardo Vinci, Niccolo Jommelli, Johann
Hasse).
II. In France the first cantatas were
CANTATA
written by Antoine Charpentier (1634-
1704), a pupil of Carissimi. It was, how-
ever, not until after his death that the
Italian cantata became popular among
French composers. A great number of
cantatas, mostly to French texts, appeared
between 1705 and 1730, written by Andre
Campra (1660-1744), Nicolas Bernier
(1664-1734), Michel Monteclair (1666-
1737), Jean-Bapt. Morin (1677-1745),
Nicolas Clerambault (1678-1749), J. J.
Mouret (1682-1738), and Jean-Philippe
Rameau (1683-1764). The latter 's can-
tatas (complete ed., vol. iii) are all secular,
mostly for one voice, and consist usually
of three recitatives, each followed by an
aria. Cf. LavE 1.3, 15571!.
III. The development of the cantata in
Germany, although strongly influenced
by the Italians, presents an entirely differ-
ent picture, chiefly on account of the em-
phasis on the church cantata (Kaspar
Kittel's Arien und Kantaten of 1638 are
practically the only secular cantatas of the
1 7th century; cf. RJIIM, 349). Schiitz's
Symphoniae sacrae (1629) contain sev-
eral compositions which, although based
on Latin texts, must be regarded as can-
tatas, being similar in form and style to
those of Grandi or Rossi. However, the
cantatas of Tunder (1614-67), Weck-
mann (1621-74; DdT 6), Rudolf Ahle
(1625-73; DdT 5), Buxtehude (1637-
1707; DdT 14), and J. S. Bach's uncle
Johann Christoph Bach (1642-1703)
already show a distinctly German charac-
ter, being more serious, more genuinely
dramatic, and more elaborate musically
than the contemporary Italian cantata,
owing chiefly to the inclusion of orchestral
and choral participation. A specially in-
teresting type is the *chorale cantata
which was cultivated by Tunder, Johann
Ph. Krieger (DdT 53/54), Kuhnau
(DdT 58/59), and others, while Buxte-
hude's numerous cantatas are all based on
free poetic texts and are, in a way, more
"Italian" than those of the other German
composers. The tendency from the cho-
rale to free texts (and, as a consequence,
from cantus-firmus pieces to entirely free
composition) found a strong nourish-
ment about 1700 when the pastor E. Neu-
CANTATA
meister began publishing annual sets of
cantata texts from his own pen, mostly
poetic paraphrases of scriptural passages
proper for the various feasts of the church
year. Some of these sets were written ex-
pressly for certain composers, e.g., for
Krieger (Set i, 1704), for Philipp Erie-
bach (Set ii, 1708), and Georg Philipp
Telemann (Sets iii, iv, 1711, 1714). How-
ever, many other musicians also were
eager to seize upon these extremely timely
and popular texts, above all J. S. Bach
who, by the artistic greatness and religious
dignity of his music, sanctioned Neu-
meister's "theatrical" poetry as well as the
"operatic" form of the da-capo aria.
Bach's cantatas (195 are preserved out
of a total number of probably close to 300)
usually open with a chorus in fugal style
which sometimes assumes great propor-
tions, continue with a number of reci-
tatives and arias, one for each of the two
or three soloists, and close with a har-
monized chorale. See *Chorale cantata.
After Bach, the cantata merged with the
oratorio of which it represents the dimin-
utive and more casual type. Most of these
cantatas were written for special occa-
sions, e.g., Haydn's Birthday Cantata for
Prince Nikolaus Eszterhazy (1763), or
Mozart's cantata Die Maurerfreude (The
Joy of the Masons, 1785), or Beethoven's
Der glorreiche Augenblic\ (op. 136,
1814). Numerous later composers (Schu-
bert, Spohr, Weber, Schumann, Mendels-
sohn, Liszt, Brahms, d'Indy, Saint-Saens,
Bennett, Stanford, Parry, Sullivan,
Vaughan Williams) have made contri-
butions to the repertory, but none of last-
ing importance. American composers of
cantatas were John K. Paine and Dudley
Buck (The Voyage of Columbus).
Lit.: E. Schmitz, Geschichte der welt-
lichen Solo1(antate (1914); M. Lange,
Die Anfange der Kantate (Diss. Leipzig
1938); K. F. Rieber, Entwictyung der
geistlichen Solo^antate im ij. Jahrhun-
dert (Diss. Freiburg 1925); W. S. Han-
nam, Notes on the Church Cantatas of
J. S. Bach (1928); W. G. Whittacker,
Fugitive Notes on Church Cantatas and
Motets of J. S. Bach (1923); E. J. Dent,
"Italian Chamber Cantatas" (MA ii);
["5]
CANTE FLAMENCO
H. Prunieres, "The Italian Cantata of
the i7th Century" (ML vii, no. i);
E. Schmitz, "Zur Geschichte des italien-
ischen Kammerduets im 17. Jahrhun-
derts" (IMP xxiii); E. B. Helm, in BAMS
vi; H. Goldschmidt, in ZMW ii; H. Rie-
mann, in SIM xiii; A. Heuss, in Z1M x;
F. Treiber, in AMP ii.
Musical publications: DdT 3 (Tun-
der); DdT 6 (Bernhard, Weckmann);
DdT 14 (Buxtehude); DdT 21/22
(Zachow); DdT 51/52 (Graupner);
DdT 53/54 (Kricgcr); DdT 58/59
(Kuhnau, Schelle); DTB 6.i (Nurnberg
masters); cantatas by Buxtehude (ed. by
W. Gurlitt), Georg Bohm (ed. by J. Wol-
gast), Nikolaus Bruhns (ed. by F. Stein);
H. Riemann, Kantatenjruhling, 4 vols.;
SchGMB, nos. 212, 213, 260, 284; HAM,
nos. 214, 227, 235, 258, 279.
Cante flamenco, cante Hondo. See
*Flamenco.
Canti carnascialeschi [It., carnival
songs]. Early- 16th-century part songs in
the styles of the *frottola, the *villanella,
the *canzonetta, the *balletto, etc., de-
signed for the elaborate carnival festivities
which took place at the court of the Med-
icis and of other Italian sovereigns. Hein-
rich Isaac wrote a number of such songs
during his stay at the court of Lorenzo
de Medici, c. 1480. Unfortunately these
are lost. Numerous anonymous examples
exist in several Italian MSS of the i6th
century. Example in HAM, no. 123.
Lit.: F. Ghisi, / canti carnascialeschi
(1937); id., "Carnival Songs" (MQ xxv);
P. M. Masson, f Chants de Carnaval flo-
rentins (1913); *Editions V, 43.
Canticum [E. canticle; F. cantique].
In the Catholic liturgy, biblical songs
similar to a psalm but occurring elsewhere
in the Scriptures than in the Psalter of
David. They are classified as: (a) cantica
minora (lesser canticles), i.e., those which
occur in the Old Testament, and (b) can-
tica major a (major canticles, Gospel can-
ticles), i.e., those from the New Testa-
ment. To the former class belong:
"Audite caeli quae loquor" (canticum
Moysis //), "Cantemus Domino" (can-
CANTIGA
ticum Moysis /), "Audite verbum" (can-
ticum Jeremiae), "Bcnedicite omnia
opera Domini" (canticum puerorum)\ to
the latter: "Magnificat anima mea" (can-
ticum Mariae or canticum B.V.M.] see
^Magnificat), "Benedictus Dominus
Deus Israel" (canticum Zachariae),
"Nunc dimittis" (canticum Simeonis).
The chants of the latter class form the
climax of Vespers, Lauds, and Compline
respectively. Canticum canticorum is the
Song of Solomon, selections from which
have been frequently composed as motets
(e.g., "Quam pulchra es," by Dunstable;
cf. SchGMB, no. 34), most completely by
Palestrina (29 motets; cf. compl. ed. vol.
iv). See ^Service; *Byzantine chant
(fanon).
Cantiga. Spanish monophonic songs of
the 1 3th century, mostly in honor of the
Virgin Mary (C. de Santa Maria), which
are preserved in great number (over
400) in four MSS of the Bibl. Nazionale
and the Bibl. Escoriale, in Madrid. They
were collected for the king Alfonso el
Sabio ("the Wise," 1252-84) who was a
great lover of poetry and music and who
probably himself contributed a good part
of the contents. The pictorial reproduc-
tions of instruments and players con-
tained in the MSS arc of the highest im-
portance [cf. GD ii, 482; iii, 260; iv, 184].
The chief form of the cantigas is that of
the *virelai. Regarding their textual as
well as musical form the cantigas are very
similar to the Italian *laudas of about the
same period. However, the strict virelai
form is more frequently used in the Span-
ish pieces. Examples in HAM, no. 22;
ReMMA, 274; OH ii, 297; BcMMR, 166.
The cantigas have been the subject of
studies by various scholars the first of
whom, J. Ribera, made sensational claims
as to the Arabic origin of the songs and
gave transcriptions in what he believed
to be "Arabic rhythms," providing some
of the songs with a 19th-century dance
accompaniment. Actually, the cantigas
are an outgrowth of the Provencal trouba-
dour movement and must, therefore, be
rendered, as these, in modal rhythm, less
strictly applied, however, than in the case
of the trouvere songs.
[116]
CANTILENA
Lit., H. Angles, Las Cantigas (1927);
G. Chase, History of Spanish Music
(1942); ReMMA, 245 (bibl. p. 450); P.
Aubry, Iter Hispanicum (1908), 37$
(facsimiles).
Cantilena, (i) A vocal melody of a lyri-
cal rather than a dramatic or virtuoso
character; also an instrumental passage of
the same nature. (2) In medieval writ-
ings the term is loosely used to denote
secular vocal compositions, homophonic
as well as polyphonic (ballades, rondeaux,
etc.) [cf. ReMMA, 294, 322]. Cantilena
romana is the Roman (i.e., Gregorian)
chant.
Cantillation. Chanting in plainsong
style, especially that of the Jewish service.
Cantino [It.,F. chanterelle]. The high-
est string of lutes, viols, etc. A i6th-cen-
tury German term is Sangsaite.
Cantio sacra. Latin name for the
motet. Many collections of motets bear
the title: Cantiones Sacrae (Tallis, Byrd,
G. Gabrieli, Schiitz). An Italian syno-
nym is Canzoni spirituals
Canto [It.]. Song; soprano; melody;
subject. Canto fermo, *cantus firmus.
Canto pianOy plainsong.
Cantor. In the Catholic service the lead-
ers, two to six, of the chorus (the schola),
who sing the solo portions of the chants
(incipits and verses). In the Anglican
service, see under *Polychoral style. In
the Protestant church, the director of
music (e.g., Bach in Leipzig). In the Jew-
ish service, the solo singer, also called
chazzan.
Cantus [L.]. Medieval and Renaissance
term for melody; especially for the upper
part (soprano) of polyphonic composi-
tions (abbreviated C). Also for entire
vocal compositions, chiefly secular, as,
e.g., in the three volumes of the *Odheca-
ton which are designated: Canti A,
Canti B, Canti C. Cantus figuratus (figu-
ralis), cantus fractus, and cantus men-
suratus all refer to the use of exactly meas-
ured (mensuratus) note-values (figurae)
of different lengths such as result from
CANTUS FIRMUS
the breaking up (fractus) of a long note
value into smaller parts. Hence, they des-
ignate polyphonic music, as opposed to
plainsong (cantus choralis, cantus planus)
with its notes of (supposedly) equal
duration.
Cantus firmus [L., fixed melody], A
pre-existcnt melody which is made the
basis of a polyphonic composition by the
addition of contrapuntal voices. As re-
gards their origin, the cantus (or cantt)
firmi usually belong to one of the four fol-
lowing groups: (a) plainsong melodies;
(b) Protestant chorales; (c) secular melo-
dies; (d) abstract subjects. To group (a),
which is by far the most numerous, be-
long all the *organa and *clausulae, prac-
tically all the motets of the I3th and I4th
centuries, a number of masses of the I5th
and i6th centuries [see *Mass B, II (b)]
as well as the numerous organ verses
(*verset), organ hymns, etc., of the i6th
century (Schlick, Cabezon, Redford,
Titelouze). The latter pave the way to
group (b) which includes the *organ
chorales (*chorale preludes) of Buxte-
hude, Pachclbel, Bach, Brahms, etc., as
well as the chorale choruses in cantatas,
passions (for instance, the first chorus of
Bach's St. Matthew Passion). Group (c)
wui- ri.j tL- La.
V^
'* -
M
f f
fftV
fTTf
P f
a
Ave maris Stella (i) by Cabezon; (2) byDufay
includes some motets of the i3th century,
and numerous masses of the i5th century,
e.g., Missa *rhomme arme, Missa basse
danse. To the last group belong the vari-
ous compositions based on the hexachord
(e.g., Sweelinck, Fantasia super ut, re, mi,
CANTUS LATERALIS
fa, sol, la) or those based on a *soggetto
cavato.
The cantus firmus appears most fre-
quently in the *tenor, usually in long
notes (*Pfundnoten) which form a strong
contrast to florid design of the other parts
[Ex. i; Cabezon, Ave maris Stella]. In
many cases, however, the c.f. was sub-
jected to considerable ornamentation and
melodic elaboration, a process by which
the original melody became more or less
completely disguised [cf. the analyses in
DTOe i9.i; also BeMMR, 202]. Particu-
larly complex examples of this type exist
in certain masses in which the discant is
a free elaboration of the c.f. [see *Dis-
cant mass]. Less "scholarly" than these
methods is the treatment encountered in
hymns of Dunstable, Dufay, and Ockeg-
hem in which the c.f. is used in the so-
prano, skillfully changed from a plain-
song into a graceful melody in triple
meter, and supported by two or three
lower parts [Ex. 2: Dufay, Ave maris
Stella; cf. *Editions V, 49]. Examples in
HAM, nos. 28-32, 44, 65, 67, etc. See
*In seculum; *L'homme arme; *Felix
namque; *Innomine.
Lit.: P. Aubry, Recherche s sur les
tenors f ran fats (latins) dans les motets du
xiiie siecle (1907); id., in TG xiii; F. H.
Sawyer, "The Use . . . of Cantus Firmus
by the Netherland Schools" (PMA
Ixiii).
Cantus lateralis f L., song written side
by side]. Fifteenth- and 16th-century
term for the large *choir books in which
the parts of a polyphonic composition
were written "side by side" on the double
page, in distinction from the *part books.
Cantus planus [L.]. Plainsong, Gre-
gorian chant. The term was not used
until the i3th century, earlier names be-
ing cantus choralis, cantilena Romana,
etc. The word planus (even, level) is usu-
ally explained as referring to the fact that,
in this period, the original tradition of
Gregorian rhythm was lost and the chant
began to be interpreted in uniform values
of rather long duration (a brevis each),
an interpretation which was probably a
CANZONA
concomitant of its adoption as a *cantus
firmus for polyphonic compositions.
Cantus prius factus [L., song made
in advance]. Same as *cantus firmus.
Cantus visibilis [L., visible song]. A
misleading translation given by John
Hothby (d. 1487) of the English term
"sight," which was used in the i4th cen-
tury in connection with improvised "Eng-
lish discant"; see Fauxbourdon (2).
Canun. See *Kanun.
Canzo, canso [Provencal for chanson].
A form of troubadour music and poetry,
also referred to in modern writing as
canzone, Kanzone, chanson. It consisted
of various stanzas of 6 to 7 lines each with
music provided according to the follow-
ing scheme:
L^ ^ V 5 6 (7),
a a b
This is the Provencal (troubadour)
counterpart of the northern French
(trouvere) * ballade and of the German
(Minnesinger) Bar [see *Barform|. Ex-
amples in HAM, nos. i8b, c; ReMMA,
2i 4 f; BeMMA, 107; RiHM i.2, 25if.
Canzona or canzone (pi. canzone or
canzoni). (i) In Italian poetry of the
1 3th through the I7th centuries, name for
serious lyrical poems, usually in four or
five stanzas of eight lines each. (2) In
1 8th- and 19th-century music, name for
lyrical songs (e.g., the canzone "Voi che
sapete" in Mozart's Figaro) or for instru-
mental pieces of a similar character (e.g.,
the slow movement of Tchaikovsky's
Symphony no. 4, designated "in modo di
canzone"). (3) See *canzo.
(4) A designation of 16th-century
Italian secular vocal music, including:
(a) certain members of the early *frottola
family, set to free poems (called "can-
zoni") of Petrarch and others, which
were important predecessors of the early
madrigal (Examples in Canzoni, Sonetti,
Strambotti et Frottole, 1517, reprinted
1941 by A. Einstein); (b) later popular
forms of the villanella type [see *Villa-
nella] also variously known as "Canzoni
[118]
CANZONA
Villanesche" (Nola, 1541; Cimello, 1545)
and "Canzoni alia Napolitana" (Ferretti,
1573; Conversi, 1572). In the latter dec-
ades of the century, the *canzonetta be-
came popular (Horazio Vecchi, 1580 and
later years; Hassler, 1590). Cf. E, Helm,
The Early Italian Madrigal (unpubi. diss.
Harvard 1939); E. Hertzmann, Adrian
Willaert in der weltlichen Vo1(almusi\
seiner Zeit ( 1 93 1 ) .
(5) An important instrumental form
of the 1 6th and i7th centuries. It devel-
oped from the Franco-Flemish chansons
of Jannequin, Crecquillon, Clemens non
Papa, and others [see *Chanson (3)]
which were reprinted in Italy in great
numbers, under the name "Canzon fran-
cese." The immense popularity of these
pieces led to numerous arrangements for
lute (Francesco da Milano, 1536, 1546,
etc., and others) and for keyboard (Marc*
Antonio da Bologna, 1523; Attaingnant,
1530, 1531; A. Gabrieli, Canzoni alia
francese per I'organo, 1571). Composers
furthermore wrote, in the style and form
of certain vocal chansons, original instru-
mental pieces which were known as "Can-
zoni alia francese" or "Canzoni da so-
nare." It is this procedure which became
the point of departure of a long and inter-
esting development which in the instru-
mental field eventually led to the sonata
of the 1 7th century [see *Sonata B, I],
while in the field of keyboard music it
paved the way for the *fugue. As early
as the 1 6th century, canzones were desig-
nated either for keyboard (primarily or-
gan) or for instrumental ensemble. They
were characterized, like their chanson
models, by clarity and balance of form
(typical schemes are A B A, A B B, A A
B C, etc.) and by variety of texture (free
alternation of imitative, dialogue, and
homophonic styles with the former in
predominance). In contrast to the con-
temporary ricercar, they possessed a
Canzona Theme
lighter, less "learned" style and a more
lively rhythm, moving in quarter- instead
CANZONA
of half-notes and marked by the frequent
appearance of repeated notes at the begin-
ning of the subjects [see Ex.]. At first
there were relatively few differences be-
tween keyboard and ensemble canzonas
(those of Claudio Merulo, for example,
appear to have been performed by both
media). During the i7th century, how-
ever, the keyboard canzona became grad-
ually more concentrated in its form, lead-
ing to the fugue, while that for ensembles
became more sectional and finally identi-
fied itself with the sonata.
I. Keyboard Canzona. The first steps
in the development of independent can-
zonas were taken by Girolamo Cavazzoni
(Intavolatura doe ricercari, canzoni, . . . ,
1542) in pieces such as his "Canzone
sopra Fait d'argent" which uses the the-
matic material of Josquin's famous chan-
son "Fault d'argens," but differs from this
in the contrapuntal elaboration of the
themes [cf. HAM, nos. 91 and 118].
While Andrea Gabrieli's canzonas are
mostly ornamented arrangements [see
*Intabulierung] of vocal chansons, origi-
nal organ canzonas were published by
Merulo (1592, 1606, 1611), Pellegrini
(1599), Mayone (1603, 1609), Cima
(1606), Trabaci (1603, 1615), Cifra
(1619), and others. These pieces are im-
portant as forerunners of the fugue; in
fact, the name Fuge was used in Germany
as synonymous with canzona (B. Schmid,
1607: "Fugen, ode: wie es die Italiener
nennen, canzoni alia francese"; Mursch-
hauser, 1707: "canzona sive fuga"). Fres-
cobaldi (1615, 1628, 1635, and 1645) es-
tablished the variation-canzona consisting
of various fugal sections, each based on a
free rhythmic variation of one and the
same theme, and frequently interspersed
with free transitional passages. His ex-
ample was followed by Froberger, Kerll,
Poglietti, and many other German com-
posers, including Bach (B.-G. vol. 38, no.
20).
II. Canzonas for Instrumental Ensem-
bles were first composed in the 1570*5 [see
*Editions XIV, vol. 2, for description and
reprints of these works]. . Flourishing
chiefly in Lombardy and Venetia, such
canzonas were published by Maschera
CANZONA
(1584); G. Gabrieli (1597, 1615); Canale
(1600); Mortaro (1600, 1610); Rognioni
(1605); Soderino (1608); Banchieri
(1596, 1603, etc.); and many others. They
fall into three types. Some works, gen-
erally in four parts and closely modeled
on the chanson in style and form, were
primarily contrapuntal in character (they
always began with an imitative expo-
sition) and had little stylistic contrast
among their various sections. Canzonas
of this rather conservative type continued
to be written throughout the early lyth
century. Another type, allied in principle
to the ricercar, occasionally manifested
tendencies toward thematic unity (Ca-
nale) of the sort found in the variation
canzonas for keyboard written by Fresco-
baldi [cf. above]. A third type, repre-
sented by the brilliant polychoric canzonas
of Giovanni Gabrieli and his followers
(1597, Raverii Collection 1608, 1615),
was freer in structure, consisting of an
alternation between sections in lively imi-
tation and four-four time, and homophonic
sections in triple time. Occasionally these
sections were very short and fragmentary
in character [see *Flick-kanzone].
The free, multi-sectional type of can-
zona reached a climax in the ensemble
works of Frescobaldi (four editions, 1623-
34). These canzonas, marked in the later
editions by systematic changes of tempo
("allegro" for the imitative sections in
canzona style, "adagio" for the homo-
phonic sections in slower rhythms), may
well be considered a turning-point lead-
ing to the sonata da chiesa. Henceforth,
the canzona identifies itself more and more
with the sonata. Its individual sections,
tending gradually to be reduced in num-
ber, are also more highly developed, and
stylistically more sharply contrasted to
one another. At the same time, vestiges of
the old canzona, such as the ABA struc-
ture typical of the original chanson and
the long introductory fugal section, re-
main for a long time. These characteris-
tics may be observed in certain canzonas
of Marini (1626), Buonamente (1636),
Merula (1615, 1637, 1639, and 1651),
Neri (1644, 1651), and Cazzati (1642,
1648, and later years). By c. 1650, the
CAPOTASTO
terms "canzone" and "sonata" have be-
come synonymous and the former is in
general replaced by the latter (Legrenzi,
Vitali). At the same time, the older term
continues to be used by some composers.
Long associated by theorists and com-
posers with the "Allegro" style and also
with the fugal style of writing, the word
"canzona" (or "canzone") is sometimes
found as the designation of the principal
fugal movement of the sonata (Young,
1653; Purcell, 1683, 1697; Baldacini
[1699], 1720; see also Brossard, 1706). It
also occasionally enters the operatic Cover-
ture (e.g., in S. Landi's S. Alessio, 1634).
See *Sonata B, I.
Lit.: J. M. Knapp, The Canzone Fran-
cese and its Vocal Models (unpubl. mas-
ter's thesis, Columbia 1941); E. Crocker,
An Introductory Study of the Italian Can-
zona for Instrumental Ensembles (unpubl.
diss., Radcliffe 1943); A. Schlossberg, Die
italienische Sonate fur mehrere Instru-
mente im ij. Jahrhundert (1935); RiHM
ii.2, passim. Examples in HAM, nos. 88,
118, 136, 175, 191, 194, 209, 210. E. C.
Canzona francese. See *Canzona (5).
Canzonet, canzonetta. Diminutive of
*canzona; denotes in the late i6th century
short vocal pieces in a light vein, much
in the character of a dance song [see *Bal-
lettoj. The term was used by Quagliati
(1588), Vecchi (various publications be-
tween 1580 and 1 600), Monteverdi (1584),
H. L. Hassler [cf. DTB 5], and several
of the English madrigalists [see ^Editions
X, vols. i, 3, 20, 26, 28] .
Caoine [pronounced Keen]. An Irish
dirge of ancient tradition. Cf. the article
in GD. See also *Coronach.
Capelle, Capellmeister [G.]. Old
spelling for *Kapelle, Kapellmeister.
Capotasto [It., master fret; perverted
forms are: capod astro, capo taster, Kapo-
daster, F. barre]. A mechanical contriv-
ance used with guitars, lutes, etc., to
shorten the vibrating length of all the
strings simultaneously. It consists of a
small piece made from hard wood or metal
which can be fixed across the finger board.
CAPPELLA
By setting the capotasto across, e.g., the
first fret, a piece in C-sharp can be played
with the same fingering as if it were in C.
See *Barrer.
Cappella [It.]. Chapel. See *A cap-
pella.
Capriccio. [It.; F. caprice; from L. ca-
pra, goatj. (i) A term used by various
19th-century composers, for instance Men-
delssohn and Brahms, for short piano
pieces of a humorous or capricious char-
acter. They arc usually in ternary form.
It also appears as a title of *potpourris or
fantasias [cf. Saint-Saens, "Caprice sur
les airs de ballet d'Alccstc dc Gluck"].
(2) In the lyth century, capriccio is one
of the four important prcfugal forms [see
*Ricercare, *Canzona (5), *Fantasia].
The capriccio, as the name suggests, is
less restrained than the others and fre-
quently involves certain peculiarities, such
as the use of special themes. This is espe-
cially true in the case of Frescobaldi (Ca-
priccio sopra il cucu; Capriccio sopra Jt
re mi fa sol la; Capriccio sopra la Bcrga-
masca). Frobergcr's 18 capriccios are
scarcely different from his canzonas, both
being based upon the principle of Fresco-
baldi's variation-canzona [cf. AdHM i,
543 ]. Earlier examples of fugal capriccios
for instruments (I) or for keyboard (K)
are found in the publications of Lodovico
Balbi (1586; I), Francesco Stivori (1594;
I), Giovanni Maria Trabaci ( 1603; K),
Biagio M.irini (1626; I), etc. Later pieces,
such as Johann Kaspar KcrlTs Capriccio
sopra il Cucco (c. 1680) and Bach's Ca-
priccio sopra la lontananza sel suo jratcllo
dilettissimo (c. 1705), are of the nature of
free fantasias, the latter being a piece of
program music picturing "the departure
of his beloved brother."
Carcelera [Sp.]. A type of *cante hon-
do y describing prison scenes.
Caricature. See *Satire in music.
Carillon [F., from L. quadrilio, a set of
four]. A set of bells (originally four)
hung in a tower of a church and played
by means of a keyboard or by a clockwork
mechanism. As early as the i3th century
CARILLON
sets of bells were operated mechanically.
The use of a keyboard in connection with
bells can be traced back to the early i6th
century (Audenarde, 1510). Carillons be-
came extremely popular and achieved
high perfection in the Netherlands, Bel-
gium, and Northern France from the I5th
through the i8th centuries. In the I9th
century they spread to England and, more
recently, to America. A modern carillon
consists of 30 to 50 bells with a clapper
inside, tuned chromatically from C or G
through three or four octaves. The clap-
pers are connected by wires to long wood-
en keys, arranged like those of a manual
and a pedal of an organ. The manual
keys are struck with the closed hand which
is protected by a glove. The largest caril-
lons are those at the University of Chicago
Chapel and at the Riverside Church of
New York. The Curtis Institute, Phila-
delphia, offers instruction in carillon play-
ing. Modern carillon players make ample
use of tremolos, full chords, rapid pas-
sages, and other effective devices. There
is, however, in certain circles, a tendency
towards a more reserved style of playing
which is certainly worthy of support.
Early composers of carillon music were
Matthias van der Ghcyn (1721-85), and
Potthoff (b. 1726). Pieces by the former
were published in 1 862 by X. van Elewyck
(ed. Schott). Old organ pieces called
"Carillon" are found in O. Chilesotti, Mu-
siciJ del passato, and in Louis Couperin,
Ocuvrcs completes (ed. P. Brunold, 1936).
Probably these were played by means of
an organ glockenspiel such as is used also
in Bach's cantata "Schlage doch, gewun-
schte Stunde." For a lute piece "Carillon
d'Anvers" cf. DTOe xxvi.2, 64; also *Edi-
tions III, 8. Recent composers of pieces
for carillons are Josef Denijn (b. 1862)
and J. A. F. Wagenaar.
Lit.: J. Blavignac, La Cloche (1877);
X, van Elcwijk, \Anciens Clavecinistes
fliimundcs (1877; contains two pieces by
van der Gheyn); W. G. Rice, Carillon
Music (1926); F. P. Price, The Carillon
(1933); J" Rizzardi, Les Carillons de
Belgiqite (1938); G. W. Rice, in MQ i;
J. St. Archer, in ML xviii, no. 2; W. W.
Starmer, in PMA xxxi; id., in Z/M vi;
[121]
CARMAGNOLE
E. Buhle, "Das Glockenspiel in den Mi-
niaturen des friihen Mittelalters" (Fest-
schrift fur Liliencron, 1910).
Carmagnole. A song of the French
Revolution (1792), of unknown author-
ship. It was sung to a rather vigorous
dance of the same name.
Carmen [L., pi. carmina\ song], (i) A
1 4th- and 15th-century name, chiefly used
by theorists, for the upper part (*cantus)
of accompanied songs. (2) Around
1500, name for instrumental polyphonic
pieces in imitative style, usually (always?)
without cantus firmus. They are fore-
runners of the *ricercare. Examples exist
in the Glogauer Liederbuch [see *Lieder-
buch], in Isaac (DTOe xiv.i), in Hof-
haimer (H. J. Moser, 97 gesammelte Ton-
satze Paul Hofhaimer's, 1929), in Senfl,
in Kotter's tablature of 1513, etc. Cf. H. J.
Moser and Piersig, "\Carmina (Nagel's
Musi^-Archw).
Carmen. Opera in four acts by Georges
Bizet (1838-75), composed in 1875 (li-
bretto by Meilhac and Halevy, after a
story by Merimee). The central figure is
the passionate gypsy Carmen (Soprano)
who fascinates the sergeant Don Jose
(Tenor), leads him to mutiny, lures him
to join a band of smugglers, abandons him
in favor of the toreador (bull fighter)
Escamillo (Bass), and is finally stabbed
to the heart by Don Jose in the moment
when the victorious Escamillo emerges
from the bull fight.
To this concise and exciting plot Bizet
has written a music which, although in a
"popular" vein, rises to greater heights of
artistic perfection than hundreds of more
ambitious and more "serious" operas. Al-
though the music has been attacked as
being "pseudo-Spanish" (which, in a way,
it is), Carmen stands before the musical
world as the inimitable incorporation of
what the Spanish call * flamenco. It is in-
teresting to note that the opera was far
from being a success at its first perform-
ances, and that its most fascinating piece,
the Habanera, is not by Bizet [sec *Ha-
banera; also *Polo; *Seguidilla].
Carmina Burana. See *Goliard songs.
CAROL
Carnaval. A piano composition by Ro-
bert Schumann (op. 9, 1834) consisting
of 20 short pieces which describe various
scenes and characters of a masked ball.
The subtitle: "Scenes mignonnes sur qua-
tre notes" (Tiny Scenes Based on Four
Notes), refers to the use of the word Asch
(a Bohemian town where a lady friend of
Schumann's lived) as a musical motive,
the "translation" into notes being A-S-
(i.e., Es, Gernian for E-flat) C-H (Ger-
man for B). These four notes, A-Eb-C-B,
occur in the initial subjects of most of the
pieces. Another interpretation of the same
word is As-(German for A-flat) C-H ( Ab-
C-B) which is used in the pieces 10 to 18.
Carnival of Venice. An Italian pop-
ular melody of the i9th century which has
been chosen by a number of composers
(Paganini, Schulhoff, Herz, Benedict) as
a theme for variations. It also occurs as the
main theme (followed by variations) of
Liszt's Rhapsody no. 9, called "Carnival
of Pesth."
Carnival songs. See *Canti carnascia-
leschi.
Carol [F. noel\ G. Weihnachtslied}. A
traditional song for the celebration of
Christmas; occasionally the term is used
also for other devotional songs of a joyful
character (Easter carol; May carol). The
name is evidently derived from the medi-
eval French word *carole for a round
dance, the assumption being that this term
was associated in English with the early
pagan dance-songs performed in celebra-
tion of the winter solstice, a ritual which
later merged with that of Christmas. The
earliest preserved examples, in two or
three parts, date from the first half of the
I5th century [SchGMB, no. 32 a, b]. Nu-
merous carols of the 1 6th- 1 8th centuries
have been published in collections which
also include French and German Christ-
mas songs. See *Noel.
Lit.: P. Dearmer, ^The Oxford Boo\ of
Carols (1928); id., The Story of the Carol
(1911); E. B. Reed, Christmas Carols
printed in the i6th century (1932); Ful-
ler-Maitland, English Carols of the i$th
[122]
CAROLE
Century (1891); H. J.Mass*, "Old Carols"
(A/Lii, no. i).
Carole. Medieval French name for round
dances, danced in a closed circle. The
name is derived from L. chorea, dance,
which was transformed into choreola,
car ola> carole [cf. the explanation: "cho-
rea, gallice charole" given in the 13th-
century Dictionarius Johannes de Gar-
landia; cf. Collection des documents in-
edits sur I'histoire de France, i. 603]. No
specific music for such dances has sur-
vived. Possibly the *virelai in its original
monophonic form was sung in connec-
tion with the carole. See *Dance Music
II. Cf. T. Lacroix-Novaro, "La Carole"
Carree [F.]. The double whole note, or
breve.
Carrure [F.]. The symmetrical con-
struction of musical phrases in measures
of 2, 4, 8, etc., as occurs particularly in
dances. See *Vierhebigkeit.
Cassa fit.]. Drum. See *Percussion in-
struments B 2, 3.
Cassation [probably from It. cassare, to
say farewell; or from new Latin gassatim,
street-like]. An instrumental form of the
1 8th century, designed for outdoor per-
formance, which includes elements of the
symphony as well as of the suite; hence,
practically identical with the *divert>
mento and the *serenade. Mozart wrote
three cassations (K.V. nos. 62, 63, 99).
Casse-Noisette. Original title of
Tchaikovsky's ballet The Nutcracker. See
*Nutcracker Suite.
Castanets [F. castagnettes\ G. Kastag-
netten ] . Clappers consisting of two pieces
of hard wood in the shape of a shell,
hinged together by a string which passes
over the thumb and first finger of the
player. They are used by Spanish dancers
as an accompaniment for the bolero, fan-
dango* etc., usually in pairs (one in each
hand). Similar instruments were used in
ancient Rome and appear on pictorial
representations contained in medieval
manuscripts [see under Cantigas]. The
CATCH
castanets of the modern orchestra (e.g., in
Bizet's Carmen) are provided with con-
trivances such as springs or handles which
greatly facilitate the playing, but take
away much from the fascination of true
castanet playing.
Castrate. The castration of singing boys
was frequently practiced in Italy from the
1 6th through the i8th centuries, in order
to preserve the boyish character of the
voice. The singing apparatus of the cas-
trato (also called evirato) combines the
larynx of a youth with the chest and lungs
of an adult. Hence, it combines an un-
usually wide range with a sound of great
power and of a special timbre which ex-
ercised great fascination upon the hearers.
Famous castrati were F. Senesino (1680-
c. 1750), G. Caffarelli (1703-83), and
Carlo Farinelli (properly Carlo Broschi,
1705-82).
Lit.: F. Habb'ck, Die Kastraten und
ihre Gesangsfyinst (1927); id., Carlo
Broschi (1923); G. Monaldi, Cantati
evirati celebri (1921); id., in RMl xxvi;
F. Rogers, in MQ v; AdHM, 1221.
Catalectic [Gr., incomplete]. In poetry,
a line is called catalectic if a syllable is
missing in the last foot, for instance, in
iambic meter w'w'w"orw'w'v-/'v^
instead of : w ' w ' w w '.
Catch. English *rounds of the i7th and
i8th centuries. The first publication, the
Pammelia (1609), was followed by a long
series of collections, among which Hilton's
Catch That Catch Can (1652-58) is the
most famous. Catches were most in vogue
in the reign of Charles II, and it was
mainly in this period that the catches
acquired that peculiarity which has rele-
gated them to the "poison chest" of mu-
sical literature, namely, the indecent char-
acter of their texts. Numerous catches of
the Restoration, including some of Pur-
cell's, arc so clearly obscene that their texts
had to be altered or completely replaced
in modern editions. A number of catches
are so constructed that, owin^ to the pres-
ence of lengthy rests in their melody, a
*hocket-like effect of alternation is pro-
duced by the voices singing in canon, as is
CATHEDRAL MUSIC
illustrated by our example (from Pam-
melia). Occasionally this device was used
to bring about a special meaning, indecent
or comical, resulting from the interlacing
liJI J J IJ=jfcJ Jl J '
My dame Has In tw hutd) at home A tttleig
I
S
*Y '^S t ^"y* WttV; a dogj
arrangement of the words or phrases
(catches a double entente", cf. HAM, no.
325). A complete list of the publications
containing catches is given in GD. Mod-
ern publications (with revised texts) are:
E. F. Rimbault, The Rounds, Catches and
Canons of England (1864); H. Purcell,
Complete Worlds, vol. 22.
Cathedral music. Music written for
the choirs of the English cathedrals, con-
sisting chiefly of *Services*and *anthems.
Important early collections are: J. Bar-
nard, The First Eoo\ of Selected Church
Music (1641; contents cf. GD i, 226);
W. Boyce and J. Kent, Cathedral Music
(3 vols., 1760-78; new ed. by Novello;
contents cf. GD i, 441); Samuel Arnold,
Cathedral Music (4 vols., 1790; reprinted
by Rimbault in 1847; contents cf. GD i,
117). The present-day cathedral choirs
still draw on the repertory of these books
which include among their authors prac-
tically every English composer from Tye
and Tallis to Samuel Arnold and his con-
temporaries. However, numerous new
compositions have been added by more
recent composers, such as S. S. Wesley
(1810-76), Th. A. Walmisley (1814-56),
F. A. Ouseley (1825-89), John Stainer
(1840-1901), Ch. V. Stanford (1852-
1904), and many others. See also ^Service.
Lit.: J. S. Bumpus, A History of Eng-
lish Cathedral Music, 1549-1889 (2 vols.,
1908); E. H. Fellowes and C. H. Stewart,
A Repertoire of Cathedral Music (1922).
Catholic church music. See *Church
music; ^Gregorian chant; *Mass; *Psalm
tones; *Psalmody.
CAUDA
Catholica. A name given by Glareanus
[Dode^achordon, 1552] to contrapuntal
pieces which are so designed that they
may be sung in various church modes.
The most famous example is Ockeghem's
Missa cujusvis torn (Mass in Any Mode).
Just which modes are admissible and
which accidentals will have to be used in
each single mode is a problem to which
perhaps too much attention has been giv-
en by numerous scholars. At any rate, it
is most unfortunate that this piece should
have been reprinted in practically all the
books on music history, thus perpetuating
the popular misconception regarding
Ockeghem and early Flemish music. See
*Flemish School. Cf. J. S. Levitan, in
MQ xxiii; also RiHM i.2, 233.
Cat's fugue. Popular name of a piece
in fugal style by Domenico Scarlatti, so
called because the subject consists of some
irregular wide steps in ascending motion
such as might have been produced by a
cat stepping over the keyboard.
Cauda [L., tail], (i) In mensural nota-
tion, the vertical dash attached to certain
notes (maxima, longa, minima, etc.) or to
ligatures.
fb
With *ligatures, the presence or absence
of the cauda determines the proprietas,
i.e., the value of the initial note. In the
early i4th century numerous note forms,
called semibrcvcs caudatae (or signatae),
were derived from the semibrevis by up-
ward and downward dashes, with or with-
out flags, etc. They form the basis of the
Italian notation of the i4th century [cf.
ApNPM, yjoR].
(2) In 13th-century composition, a vo-
calizing cadenza at the end of a piece or a
section thereof. Particularly *conductus
were provided with such cadenzas (con-
ductus habens caudam) and if so, were
considered superior to the probably
earlier conductus non habens caudam
[Ex. in ApNPM, 239; HAM, nos. 38, 39].
Cadenzas in free rhythm are also frequent
in the organa of the i3th century [cf.
ApNPM, 240]. Short cadential passages
CAVALLERIA RUSTICANA
in downward scalar motion were called
*copula.
Cavalleria Rusticana ("Rustic Chiv-
alry"). Opera in one act by Pietro Mas-
cagni (b. 1863), composed in 1890. The
setting is a Sicilian village on Easter morn-
ing. The young farmer Turiddu (Ten-
or), lover of Santuzza (Soprano), is turn-
ing to his former love Lola (Mezzo-
Soprano), now married to Alfio (Bari-
tone). A trifle (Turiddu's entrance into
the church at Lola's side) suffices to con-
stitute a "break of the honor code," result-
ing in a duel between Alfio and Turiddu
in which the latter is killed.
This opera, which was Mascagni's only
success, owes its appeal to the concise
and dramatic plot as well as to the realistic
musical approach. Widely welcomed as
a relief from the numerous imitations of
Wagner, it inaugurated the musical move-
ment known as *verismo ; and was re-
sponsible for a mushroom crop of one-act
operas.
Cavata [from L. cavare, to hollow out,
to engrave]. An inscription or an epi-
grammatic sentence in which an impor-
tant thought is concisely expressed. In
18th-century music the term is used occa-
sionally for short epigrammatic ariosos to
be found at the end of a lengthy recitative
(recitativo con cavatd). Many examples
of this method occur in Bach's choral
works, e.g., in the recitativo no. 3 of his
cantata "Ein feste Burg" [see * Arioso].
The cavatas in Traetta's operas [cf. DTE
14.!] approach the *cavatina. See also
*Soggetto cavato.
Cavatina [It., dimin. of *cavatd\. In
1 8th- and 19th-century operas and ora-
torios, a short solo song simpler in style
than the aria and without repetition of
words or phrases. The proper form for
the cavatina would seem to be in one sec-
tion without repetition (except for a short
instrumental anticipation of the beginning
of the song), in other words, just a "sen-
tence" set to music [see *Cavata]. Exam-
ples of this type are the two cavatinas in
Haydn's The Seasons as well as "Porgi
amor" and "L'ho perduta" from Mozart's
CEMBALO
Figaro, while the "Se vuol ballare" from
the same opera shows an unusually de-
veloped type similar to an aria. Other
examples occur in Rossini's Barber of
Seville (1816), in Weber's Freischutz
(1821), in Gounod's Faust (1859). The
name has also been applied to instrumen-
tal pieces of a song-like character [e.g.,
Beethoven, Quartet op. 130].
C.B. Abbreviation for col basso or for
contrabasso.
C.d. Abbreviation for [It.] colla destra>
i.e., with the right hand.
Cebell. Old English name for the ga-
votte, used by H. Purcell and others.
Cecilian movement. A 19th-century
movement for the reform of the Roman
Catholic church music, initiated by
K. Proske, Ratisbon choirmaster (1794-
1861), and named after St. Cecilia, the
patron saint of music. The movement
aimed at the reinstallment of Palestrina's
a cappella music instead of the pompous
and rather worldly church music for choir
and instruments that had come into use
during the i8th century (e.g., Haydn's
and Mozart's masses). It led, in 1867, to
the foundation of the Allgemeiner Deut-
scher Caecilienverein (F. X. Witte, 1834-
88), which was sanctioned by the Holy
See in 1870. The term Cecilianism is used
to denote the puristic and generally rather
reactionary tendencies of this society.
Cefaut, ce fa ut. See *Hexachord III.
Celere [It.]. Quick.
Celesta. See *Percussion instruments
A, 4 .
Cello. Contraction of *violoncello.
Cellone. See *Violin family (i).
Cembal d'amour. *Clavecin d'amour.
Cembalo [It., abbr. of clavicembalo].
The Italian and German name for the
^harpsichord. According to C. Sachs
(SaRM, 75) the word is not derived from
Gr. \ymbalon (hollow vessel, bell; see
*cymbal), but from tympanon (same root
125]
CENTITONE
as tip, zip, G. zupfen, to pluck). There-
fore the name does not point to a simi-
larity of the sound of the instrument to*
that of bells, but to the plucking of the
strings.
Centitone. See under ^Intervals, Cal-
culation of, V.
Cento [L.], centone [It., a patchwork
quilt j. The term and its derivatives "cen-
tonization," "to centonize" are used with
reference to literary and musical works
formed by selections from other works.
The liturgical book compiled by St. Greg-
ory (c. 670) was as early as the 9th century
called "antiphonarius cento," on account
of the theory (probably erroneous) that it
was a combination of three earlier books
written by Pope Gelasius fcf. P. Wagner,
Einfuhrung in die Gregorianischen Me-
lodien, i, 199-214; O. Ursprung, Katho-
lische Kirchenmusit(, 21 ]. In poetry, cento
denotes a poem consisting only of refrains
[see *Refrain]. The term also applies to
musical melodies pieced together from
pre-existent fragments (a procedure not
infrequent in Gregorian chant and in
Oriental music) as well as to operas of the
1 8th century put together by several com-
posers. See *Ballad opera and, in par-
ticular, *Pasticcio; also *Quod libet.
Central America. Lit.: J. Castillo,
"Autochthonic Music" [of Guatemala]
(Bull, of the Pan American Union, vol. 62,
no. 4); F. Densmore, Music of the Tule
Indians of Panama (1926); N. Garay,
Tradiciones y Cantares de Panama (Brus-
sels, 1930); R. Gonzalez Sol, Datos histo-
ricos sobre el arte de la music a en El Salva-
dor (San Salvador, 1940); N. Slonimsky,
"Viewing a Terra Incognita of Music"
(Musical America, 1941). See also gen-
eral bibliography under Latin American
music. G. C.
Cents. The unit of a scientific and exact
method of measuring musical intervals
which was introduced by A. J. Ellis (1814-
90) and which has been widely adopted
in acoustics as well as in *comparative
musicology. The cent is one one-hun-
dredth of the semitone of the well-tem-
CHACONNE AND PASSACAGLIA
pered scale; thus, the semitone equals 100
cents, and the octave contains 1200 cents.
The various tones of the chromatic scale
are represented by the multiples of 100,
as follows:
o 100 200 300 400 500 600
c c* d dtf e f ft
700 800 900 1000 1 100 I2OO
g g# a a# b c
This scale can be conveniently used for
diagrams showing the exact position of
other intervals, e.g., those of the Pythag-
orean scale, of just intonation, of exotic
scales, etc. [see * Javanese music]. For
readers familiar with the elements of
arithmetic it may be remarked that cents
are a logarithmic measurement; see *In-
tervals, Calculation of, IV.
Cephalicus. See *Neumes.
Cercar la nota [It., to seek the note]
indicates in vocal technique a slight
anticipation of the following note, e.g.,
d-(c)-c. It may also occur in the form of
a passing note, e.g., e-(d)-c.
Ces, ceses [G.]. See *Pitch names.
Cesolfa(ut), ce sol fa (ut). See
*Hexachord III.
Cetera, cetra [It.], (i) *Zither.-
(2) Cittern [see *Guitar family].
C.f. Abbreviation for *cantus firmus.
Chace [F.]. See under *Caccia.
Chaconne and passacaglia. Two
closely related forms of Baroque music,
each in the character of a continuous vari-
ation [see * Variation I] in moderately
slow triple meter. An additional feature
is a slow *harmonic rhythm, changing
generally with the measure. The terms
are interesting not only on account of the
many futile attempts that have been made
to explain their derivation and original
meaning, but also on account of the at-
tempts, equally numerous and futile, to
make a clear distinction between them.
As is shown subsequently, Baroque com-
posers used the terms indiscriminately.
This does not necessarily mean that they
CHACONNE AND PASSACAGLIA
could not be put to better use in mod-
ern terminology. Unfortunately, modern
writers have been entirely unsuccessful in
this matter, and the music histories as well
as reference books are full of contradictory
and frequently arbitrary statements as to
the distinction between a chaconne and a
passacaglia. The only distinction which
can and should be made is that between
continuous variations with or without a
basso ostinato (*ground). In order to
conform with the titles of the two most
famous examples, those composed by
Bach, the former type will have to be called
passacaglia, the latter chaconne. A pas-
sacaglia, then, is a continuous variation
based on a clearly distinguishable ostinato
which normally appears in the bass
(ground) but which may also be trans-
ferred occasionally to an upper voice, as is
the case in Bach's passacaglia. A chaconne
is a continuous variation in which the
"theme" is only a succession of chords
which serves as a harmonic basis for each
variation. The difference between these
two types may be illustrated by the accom-
panying examples, the first two of which
PIJ. Ij.
[Ex. i, 2] show a very frequent ground,
the descending tetrachord in its diatonic
form and in its chromatic modification,
while Ex. 3 shows the use of a (related)
scheme of harmonies, without ground.
For a 16th-century adumbration of passa-
caglia, see under *Ostinato (Dump and
Hornepype).
As has been mentioned previously, no
clear distinction between passacaglia and
chaconne exists in the praxis of Baroque
composers. To the class of passacaglia (as
CHACONNE AND PASSACAGLIA
defined above) belong the "Passacaglia"
of Bach (for organ) and that of Louis Cou-
perin (for harpsichord) as well as "cha-
connes" of Buxtehude, J. K. Kerll [TaAM
vii, 104] (both for organ), and Pachelbel
(for harpsichord; TaAM ix, 59). To the
same class belong numerous vocal com-
positions contained in 17th-century operas
and cantatas, e.g., Monteverdi's famous
duet Pur ti miro \SchGMB, no. 178; see
also *Aria III]. To the class of chaconne
belong Frescobaldi's "Cento partite sopra
il passacaglio" [TaAM v, n] and Georg
Mutfat's "Passacaglia" [ct. HAM ,1*0.240]
as well as Bach's "Chaconne." The in-
terpretation, frequently given, of Bach's
chaconne as an ostinato composition is
erroneous. Although, with a reiterated
scheme of harmonies, it is always possible
to reconstruct to some extent a ground
bass from the bass notes of these harmo-
nies [cf. RiML, 295], such a procedure
leads, in the case of Bach's chaconne, to a
decidedly poor melody, such as Bach
would never have chosen as a point of
departure. Well-known i^th-century ex-
amples of chaconne are Beethoven's C
minor Variations (1807), and the closing
movement of Brahms's Symphony no. 4.
More recent examples occur in F. Busoni's
Toccata: Preludio, Fantasia, Ciaccona
(1921) and in E. Krenek's Toccata und
Chaconne, op. 13.
Finally it should be noticed that French
Baroque composers usually applied the
terms chaconne and passecaille to pieces
in an entirely different form, i.e., that of
the rondeau with reiterated refrain and
several couplets [see *Rondeau (2)]. Ex-
amples are a Chaconne by Chambonnieres
[HAM, no. 212], a Chaconne-rondeau by
d'Anglebert [TaAM vii, 135; HAM, no.
232], and a Passecaille by Fr. Couperin
[Pieces de clavecin ii].
There is reason to believe that the cha-
conne originally was a wild and sensual
Mexican dance which was imported into
Spain during the i6th century. In 1599
we read about "an invitation to go to
Tampico in Mexico and there dance the
chacona." Queveda calls it the "chacona
mulata," and Cervantes the "Indiana
amulatada" [cf. C. Sachs, A World His-
CHALEUREUX
tory of the Dance ( 1941 ) ] . Once imported
into Europe it lost its unbridled character
entirely, as did also the *sarabande and,
300 years later, the *tango. The passa-
caglia (possibly from Sp. *pasacalle> street
song) also was originally a dance.
Chaleureux [F.]. With warmth.
Chalumeau [F., from L. calamellus,
pipe], (i) Seventeenth-century name for
(a) an early oboe (shawm), (b) an early
clarinet. The chalumeau in Gluck's Or-
pheus is probably a real clarinet (with
keys). (2) The lowest register of the
modern clarinet.
Chamber music. I. General. Instru-
mental ensemble music performed by one
player to the part, as opposed to orchestral
music in which there are several players
to the part. According to the number of
players (or parts), chamber music is clas-
sified as follows: *trio (three players),
*quartet (four), *quintet (five), *sextet
(six), *septet (seven), *octet (eight).
String trios (quartets, etc.) are for stringed
instruments only [see *String quartet];
if one of the strings is replaced by another
instrument, names such as pianoforte trio
(pianoforte and two strings) or horn
quintet (horn and four strings) are used.
The violin (violoncello) sonata, for violin
(violoncello) and pianoforte, is sometimes
not considered as chamber music, on ac-
count of the markedly solistic character of
the parts. In true chamber music, em-
phasis lies on the ensemble, not on the
single player.
The present-day repertoire of chamber
music begins with the late string-quartets
(written after 1780) of Haydn and Mo-
zart. In these works the basic principles
of form and style were established to
which practically all composers of cham-
ber music have adhered: the form is that
of the *sonata in four movements; the
style is characterized by individual treat-
ment of the parts and exclusion of virtu-
oso-like elements. Naturally, there exist
examples in which these principles are not
observed, a notable exception being Bee-
thoven's string quartet in C-sharp minor,
op. 131 with its extremely free form. Yet
CHAMBER MUSIC
the fact remains that in chamber music
composers have shown a greater respect
for tradition than in other fields, the ob-
vious reason being that the relatively lim-
ited and fixed resources of, e.g., a string
quartet prohibited the introduction of
novel features comparable to those of con-
temporary orchestral or piano music.
The chamber music works (chiefly
string quartets) of Haydn, Mozart, Bee-
thoven (opus numbers below 100), and
Schubert represent the classical period of
chamber music. In his late quartets (op.
127, 130-133, 135, written between 1824
and 1827) Beethoven has created an en-
tirely singular type of chamber music, a
type which is too personal to be called
classic, and yet too transcendental to be
considered as Romantic. The Romantic
period of chamber music embraces Schu-
mann, Brahms, Dvorak, and Franck (to
name only the most important compos-
ers), with Brahms ranking first among
them. While Debussy, Ravel, and others
(e.g., Schonberg, String Sextet Verklarte
Nacht, op. 4) tried to exploit the impres-
sionistic and coloristic resources of cham-
ber music, there has been more recently a
return to a purer and more appropriate
style, as the result of the contemporary
revival of the contrapuntal approach to
musical composition, and of the adoption
of a more objective and sober type of ex-
pression than prevailed in the late Ro-
mantic and in the Impressionistic schools
[see *Neo-classicism]. For more details,
see the entries for the different species of
chamber music, particularly *string quar-
tet.
II. History. Chamber music, in the
widest sense of the word, already existed
in the late Middle Ages. Instrumental en-
semble pieces such as occur in the Glo-
gauer Liederbuch (c. 1470; see *Lieder-
buch) or the *carmina of Obrecht, Isaac,
Hofhaimer bear all the characteristic
marks of true chamber music. So do the
16th-century ensemble ricercares [see
*Ricercar I (a)] by Adrian Willaert,
Buus, Padovano, as well as the instru-
mental canzonas [see *Canzona (5), I]
from the end of this century. (Regarding
the claim that a canzona by Allegri was
[128]
CHAMBER OPERA
the "first string quartet," see under
*String quartet II.) Naturally, all these
pieces were not written for, nor restricted
to, specific instruments, but were per-
formed on whatever instruments were
available, viols, recorders, cornettos, or
mixed ensembles. The chief type of Ba-
roque chamber music is the *trio sonata
in its two varieties, the sonata da chiesa
and the sonata da camera. It developed in
Italy and spread, around 1675, to France,
Germany, and England where it replaced
the earlier *fancy. Around 1750 there
emerged a new type of chamber music,
the string quartet, with its associates, the
string quintet (Boccherini), and the string
trio (Haydn); see *String quartet II.
An extended list of chamber music as-
sociations is found in Pierre Key's Music
Year Boo^.
Lit.: W. W. Cobbett, Cyclopedic Sur-
vey of Chamber Music (2 vols., 1929); id.,
in PMA xxxviii; T. F. Dunhill, Chamber
Music (1913); N. Kilburn, Chamber Mu-
sic (1932) ; G. Stratton and A. Frank, The
Playing of Chamber Music (1935); H. S.
Drinker, The Chamber Music of Brahms
(1932); W. Altmann, Kammermusi^-
Literaturverzeichnis seit 1841 (26 ed.
1931); N. Ruet, Musique de chambre
(1930); LavE ii.5, 3144 (repertoire and
bibliography); S. Laciar, "The Chamber
Music of Schubert" (MO xiv); H. Mers-
mann, "Beitrage zur Auffiihrungspraxis
der vorklassischen Kammermusik in
Deutschland" (AMW ii); L. de la Lau-
rencie, "Les Debuts de la rnusique de
chambre en France" (RdM, nos. 49-52).
Chamber opera. An opera of small di-
mensions, of an intimate character, and
for small orchestra (chamber orchestra).
The reaction against the great Wagnerian
opera led to works such as R. Strauss's
Ariadne auf Naxos (second version,
1924), Hindemith's Cardillac (1926),
C. Douglas Moore's White Wings (1935).
Chamber orchestra. A small orchestra
of about 25 players. Prior to 1800 orches-
tras usually were of this size, and recent
composers have again written for such
groups (chamber symphony).
t
CHANSON
Chamber pitch [G. Kammerton]. See
Pitch.
Change ringing. The ringing of a set
(peal) of church bells by individual men
and in a methodical order, the turn of the
men being prescribed not by a musical
melody, but by certain schemes of arith-
metic permutation. For instance, a set of
five bells: i, 2, 3, 4, 5 may be played in the
order: 45231 or 3514 2, etc. In actual
performance, usually a limited selection of
such permutations is played in succession,
the main principle being the exchange of
two numbers. For instance, in a peal of
five bells, the first "change" would be
12345, the second: 21345, tne third:
23145, etc. Certain standard selections
are known under traditional names such
as "Grandsire Triple," "Treble Bob," etc.
The history of change ringing goes back
to the 1 6th century. An important land-
mark was the publication of Tintinnalogia
by F. Stedman (1688). Change ringing
is still widely practiced in England. In
fact, it is a typically English sport in which
healthy exercise is combined with a small
but gratifying amount of mental effort.
Lit.: E. Morris, The History and Art of
Change Ringing (1931); J. Stainer, in
PMA xlvi [cf. the article in GD i, 602].
Changing note. See *Nonharmonic
tones III.
Chanson [F.]. (i) The French term
for song, hence, the counterpart of the
German *lied. However, while in the
German lied emphasis lies on the artistic
production, the chanson is usually of a
more popular nature. Throughout the last
two centuries there has been an enormous
output of popular chansons, short strophic
songs mostly of an amorous character,
which are frequently written, set to music,
sung on the streets, and sold by one and
the same man. It was not until the end of
the 1 9th century that the chanson was
cultivated as an artistic form [see *Song
in].
The virtual non-existence of French
art-songs in the i8th and I9th centuries
is in striking contrast to the picture pre-
129 ]
CHANSON
sented in earlier periods. In fact, the early
history of the chanson (i.e., of songs with
French text) is more ancient, fertile, and
musically important than that of any other
nation's song literature. The earliest pre-
served example, a Provencal song "Hora
vos die vera raizun" [cf. P. Aubry, Les
plus ancients monuments de la musique
Fran^aise (1905), pi. I], dates from the
nth century. The i2th and i3th centuries
are the era of the *troubadours and *trou-
veres whose melodies, usually cast in one
of the formes fixes (*ballade, *rondeau,
*virelai), constitute an unparalleled treas-
ure of early secular song. The i4th cen-
tury sees the rise of accompanied songs, in
the same forms, under G. de Machaut and
his successors [see *Ars nova]. As an
antithesis to the rhythmic and contra-
puntal complexity of the late i4th century
there developed, in the *Burgundian
School of the i5th century (Dufay, Bin-
chois, also Ockeghem, Obrecht), a new
style of unsurpassed charm and beauty,
perhaps the artistic high-point in the en-
tire history of the French song. [For mod-
ern editions of 15th-century chansons see
under *Burgundian School and *Chan-
sonnier (2).] A limited number of popu-
lar melodies of the I5th century, especially
the famous *L'homme arme, survive in
masses and motets for which they served
as a cantus firmus. Around 1500 we have
the beginning of another important era,
that of the so-called polyphonic chanson,
characterized by the abandoning of the
formes fixes in favor of free composition,
and by the adoption of the imitative coun-
terpoint as the basic principle of style
(Isaac, Josquin, Jannequin). It is this
type to which the name chanson or French
chanson usually refers in historical writ-
ings [see below under (3)]. With the
early iyth century and the rise of the mo-
nodic style, the polyphonic chanson disap-
peared and, strangely enough, the creative
activity in the field of art-song ceased
abruptly. The interest turned to *vauxde-
villes, *pastourelles, *bergerettes, and
*brunettes, i.e., to the more popular types
which dominated throughout the i8th and
1 9th centuries [see also *Air de court].
Extensive collections of such chansons
CHANSON
were published by Ballard, e.g., Airs sen-
eux et a boire (16 vols., 1627-54).
(2) In trouvere music, chanson is the
equivalent of the Provencal (troubadour)
*vers (not of the *canzo), i.e., a through-
composed song, in contradistinction to
the repetition- and refrain-types (formes
fixes) : ballade, virelais, rondeau.
(3) The chanson of the i6th century,
frequently called polyphonic or French
chanson, is written in the imitative style
of the contemporary motet, but with such
modifications as were required by the
different nature of purpose and text, i.e.,
quicker and more pungent rhythm, a
leaning towards homophonic texture,
sectional construction in relatively short
phrases ending simultaneously in all the
parts, and frequently repetition of a sec-
tion for another line of the poem. A char-
acteristic feature of the chanson (as well
as of its derivative, the instrumental *can-
zona) is the use of repeated notes in the
initial subject, as is illustrated in the
accompanying example (Jacotin, Je suis
desheritee\ cf. SchGMB, no. 117).
L - i
,
Jesulseies
herLte-
.,
* 3 e Su k lei
-b-rU -
W^
rn
- t;
suisdesheri-
-te'-e,
puis
r^UC
The earlier polyphonic chansons (Oc-
keghem, Obrecht, Isaac, Josquin, La Rue)
show an elaboration of style and dignity
of expression which are still in the best
Flemish tradition [cf., e.g., Ockeghem's
"Ma bouce rit" in HAM, no. 75, or the
chansons of Josquin; see ^Editions V, no.
3; see also *Odhecaton]. With Clement
Jannequin (d. c. 1560 ?), Claude de Ser-
misy (c. 1490-1562), Pierro Certon (d.
1572), and numerous followers, the chan-
son changed its character from the Flem-
ish into the typically French, from re-
served intimacy into nimble elegance and
frivolity. Jannequin's chansons are re-
CHANSON DE GESTE
markable for their frequent use of ter-
nary form: A B A. A type of some special
interest, though of very mediocre artistic
value, is the program chanson of Janne-
quin [see *Program music]. The popu-
larity of the new chanson found its proper
expression in a vast number of contempo-
rary publications as well as in the many
hundreds of *Intabulierungen of French
chansons which fill the German and
Italian lute tablatures and keyboard books
of the 1 6th century. Pierre Attaingnant
alone printed 35 books of chansons be-
tween 1535 and 1549 [cf. RiML, 298];
simultaneously Jacques Moderne pub-
lished the ten books of his Parangon des
chansons (1538-43). See also * Sonata
B,I.
Lit.: LaMWC, 215; AdHM, 373; L.
Laloy, "La Chanson franchise au xvie
siecle" (RMC i), J. Tiersot, "Ronsard et
la musique de son temps" (SIM iv), D. v.
Bartha, "Probleme der Chansongeschichte
im 1 6. Jahrhundert" (ZMW xiii). For
publications of music see ^Editions XVI
and XIX; M. Cauchie, -\Quinze chansons
jran$ais du XV le siecle (1931); L. de la
Laurencie, -\Chansons au luth et airs de
cour du xvie siecle (1931). Examples in
HAM, nos. 91 (118), 107, 145; SchGMB,
nos. 116-118.
Chanson de geste [F., song of deeds].
The French epic poems of the Middle
Ages, such as the Roman de Roland (nth
century). They were of great extension
(over 10,000 lines of nearly equal meter),
and fell in sections of various lengths ( 20
or 50 lines) called laisse, each of which
contained one continuous "thought" of
the poem. They were probably sung to a
short melodic formula which was re-
peated for every line of a laisse, with the
exception of the last, for which a new
melody with a more definite close was
chosen (a a a a b). Only one such
melody survives, in a late quotation in-
serted in Adam de la Halle's play Le Jeu
de Robin et Marion [cf. ReMMA, 204].
See *Rotrouenge; ""Chanson de toile.
Lit.: F. Gennrich, Der musiJ(alische
Vortrag der altjranzosischen Chansons
de geste (1923); Raoul de Cambrai,
CHANT
Chansons de geste du Xlle siecle (1932);
GeHM, 258F.
Chanson de toile [F., spinning song].
The "female counterpart" of the *chanson
de geste. The chief character is always a
woman, an ill-mated wife or a love-sick
girl. The musical recitation was prob-
ably similar to that of the chanson de
geste.
Chanson mass. See *Mass B, II (b).
Chanson mesuree. See *Vers mesure.
Chansonnier. (i) Medieval (13th-
century) manuscripts containing the
songs of the troubadours and trouveres.
Most of these have been published in fac-
simile editions, some of them with tran-
scriptions [see *Trouveres; AdHM y 192;
RcMMA, 448], (2) Fifteenth-century
manuscripts containing polyphonic chan-
sons, e.g., the Chansonnier cordijorme
(the pages have the form of a heart), or
the Copenhagen chansonnier (publ. by
K. Jeppesen, 1927).
Lit.: G. Raynaud, Bibliographic des
chansonnier s jranqais du xiiie au xive
siecle (1884); K. Jeppesen, -\Der Kopen-
hagener Chansonnier (1927); E. Droz,
fTVo/V Chansonnier s fran^ais du xve
siecle (1927); G. Thibault, "Le Chan-
sonnier . . . de Copenhague" (RdM
1927); M. F. Bukofzer, "An Unknown
Chansonnier of the i5th Century" (MQ
xxviii).
Chant. General denomination for litur-
gical music in the character of plainsong,
i.e., monophonic, unaccompanied, and in
free rhythm. Music of this type exists in
many Oriental and exotic cultures. In
particular, the term applies to the liturgi-
cal melodies of the Christian Churches,
e.g., *Byzantine chant, Russian chant,
and the four branches of Western chant,
namely, *Ambrosian (Milanese), *Gal-
lican, *Mozarabic, and Roman chant, the
last being usually known as *Gregorian
chant or *plainsong. More specifically,
the term refers to the traditional method
of singing the psalms [see *Chanting].
In the * Anglican chant the monophonic
CHANTANT
recitations of the Gregorian psalmody are
replaced by settings in four-part harmony.
Chantant [F.]. In a singing style.
Chanter. See *Bagpipe.
Chanterelle [F.]. See *Cantino.
Chantey. See *Shanty.
Chanting. The ecclesiastical singing of
the psalms and canticles in the daily offices
of the Roman Catholic and, in particular,
of the Anglican Church. It is character-
ized by the use of a melody, called psalm
tone, which is repeated with every verse
of the psalm but which can be adapted to
the different lengths of the verses by the
iteration of the same tone, the recitation
tone. The psalm tones of the Latin, Gre-
gorian, rite are monophonic and in free
rhythm. The "Anglican" chants are har-
monized and in strict meter. The Angli-
can Church, however, makes frequent use
of the Gregorian chant also. See *Psalm
tones; * Anglican chant.
Chanty. See *Shanty.
Chapel [F. chapclle; G. Kapellc; It.
cappella]. The term, which is derived
from It. cappella^ i.e., cape or cloak, orig-
inally denoted a building in which re-
vered cloaks or other relics of saints were
housed. It was later extended to denote
private churches of sovereigns, popes,
bishops, as well as the entire staff attached
to these churches and, in particular, the
musicians and singers employed there.
The connotation of "private body of mu-
sicians" survives in the Chapel Royal of
the English kings, an institution which
played a valuable part in the development
and cultivation of the English music [cf.
GD i, 606; W. H. Gratton Flood, in ML
v]. See also *Kapelle.
Characteristic note. Leading note.
Character piece [G. Characterstuc1(\.
A term rarely used, yet much to be recom-
mended, to cover an important branch of
19th-century music (chiefly for the piano-
forte) which includes a large repertoire
of short pieces published under many dif-
ferent fancy names, such as Bagatelle,
CHARACTER PIECE
Impromptu, Moment musical, Capriccio,
Fantasia, etc., aside from special titles of
a more or less programmatic nature, such
as: Albumblatt, Der Dichter spricht
(Schumann), Jeux d'eau (Ravel), The
Maiden's Prayer, etc. The last title has
been deliberately included here in order
to hint at the vast production of third-
class literature which, of course, deserves
no further mention here. However, all
the great composers of the i9th century
have made contributions in this field, first
of all Beethoven, who opens the repertoire
with his Bagatelles. Schubert followed
with his Impromptus and Moments mu-
sicaux (musical moments), Mendelssohn
with his Songs Without Words and Kin-
derstiicke (Children's Pieces), Chopin
with his Nocturnes, Preludes, fitudes, Im-
promptus, etc. While these composers usu-
ally included a number of pieces under
one collective title, R. Schumann went a
good deal further toward individualiza-
tion and programmatic thought by choos-
ing separate names for each piece, for in-
stance, in his Kinderszenen op. 15 or in
his Fantasiestikke op. 12. New collective
names introduced by him are: Noveletten,
Nachtstiicke (Night Pieces), Bunte Blat-
ter (Colored Leaves), Albumblatter (Al-
bum Leaves). Brahms followed with Bal-
laden, Rhapsodien, Capriccios, Inter-
mezzi. Briefly, the character piece is the
favored and characteristic form of Ro-
mantic piano music, where it serves as
the vehicle of expression for every con-
ceivable mood, thought, vision, or emo-
tion.
Naturally, no general statements can
be made with regard to so diversified and
so markedly personal a repertory. How-
ever, the great majority of these pieces
are written in the ternary form A B A, a
form which proved especially suitable for
the expression of two contrasting moods,
the first dramatic (A), the other lyrical
(B), or vice versa.
Interesting precursors of the 19th-cen-
tury character piece are found in the harp-
sichord suites by Couperin who would
seem to be the inventor of an important
technique of this genre, i.e., the use of a
certain "pianistic figure" as the basic mo-
CHARIVARI
tive of the entire piece (cf., e.g., "Les Bar-
ricades mysterieuses" from the Sixieme
Ordre). Many pieces by Rameau and
Domenico Scarlatti fall under the same
category. Cf. W. Kahl, "Das lyrische
Klavierstiick Schuberts . . ." (AMW iii).
Charivari [Am. Shivaree]. A French
term, of unknown origin, which signifies
a deliberately distorted and noisy per-
formance, as is given in provincial towns
before the homes of unpopular or objec-
tionable people, or as a mock serenade for
a newly married couple. A German word
is Katzenmusi\ (cat music), an Italian,
scampata. There exists believe it or
not a book on the history of the chari-
vari from its origins to the 4th centu-
ry (!): G. Peignot, Histoire morale, civile,
politique et literaire du charivari, depuis
son origine vers le IV e siecle (1833).
Charleston. See *Jazz III.
Chasse, La [F., the hunt], (i) Nick-
name for Haydn's Symphony in D, no.
73, referring to the last movement; also
for his Quartet in Bb, no. 2. (2) Name
of instrumental pieces (sonatas, etc.) of
the 1 8th and i9th centuries, written in
imitation of hunting scenes.
Chaunter. See *Bagpipe.
Check. A part of the action of the
^pianoforte.
Chefs d'Oeuvre Classiques de 1'Op-
era. See ^Editions IV.
Chef d'orchestre [F.]. Conductor.
Chef d'attaque, concertmaster.
Cheironomic. See *Chironomic.
Chekker. See *Echiquier.
Chelys [Gr., turtle], (i) Greek name
for the *lyre, the body of which was fre-
quently made from the shell of a turtle.
(2) Sixteenth-century humanistic name
for the lute. See *Testudo.
Cheng, (i) A Chinese string instru-
ment, similar to the *Ch'in. (2) Incor-
rect spelling for the Chinese mouth or-
gan *sheng.
CHIARENZANA
Chest of viols. A set of six or more
viols, usually including two trebles, two
tenors, and two basses, which, in the I7th
century, were kept in a chest with several
partitions. Cf. Th. Mace's Mustek's
Monument (1676), 245. See*Consort.
Chest voice. The lowest register of a
voice [see *Register (2)].
Cheute [F.]. French name for orna-
mental tones in the character of a pass-
ing tone (such as occur in the arpegement
figure-, see *Arpeggio) or of an anticipa-
tion (*Nachschlag).
Chevalet [F.]. Bridge of violins, etc.
See *Bowing (k).
Chev6 system. A system of musical
notation, invented by the French doctor
E. Cheve (1804-64), and much used in
France for teaching purposes. It com-
bines the principle of the Movable Do
with the old idea of indicating notes by
figures (Spanish keyboard tablature of
Cabezon, 1572 [see *Tablature II]; Jean
Jacques Rousseau, 1742; Pierre Galin,
1817). The figures i to 7 represent the
tones of the scale (in any given key);
lower or higher octaves are indicated by
a dot under or above the figures. A rest
is indicated by o. Cf. E. Cheve, Methode
clementaire de la musique vocale (1846);
WoHN ii, 403.
Cheville [F.]. Peg of stringed instru-
ments. Cheviller, peg-box.
Chevrotement [F., from chevre, goat].
Unsteadiness in singing, like the bleating
of a goat. See also under *Tremolo (3)
and * Vibrato (2).
Chiamata [It., call; F. chamade}. In
Venetian operas of the i7th century,
pieces written in imitation of the "call"
after the finish of the hunt. See H. Kretz-
schmar, in VMW viii.
Chiaramente [It.]. Clearly, distinctly.
Chiarenzana. A rare 16th-century lute
dance in quick triple meter. Examples
occur in Marcantonio de Pifaro, Intabu-
latura de lauto (1546).
[133]
CHIAVE
Chiave [It.]. Clef.
Chiavette, chiave trasportata [It.].
A late- 16th-century system of writing
vocal music with all the clefs moved up
or down from their normal position, usu-
ally a third (e.g. the F-clef on the third
or the fifth line). The chiavette might
be considered the vocal analogon to the
transposing instrument of the orchestra.
Ex. i meant to the singer: c-e-g; how-
Chiavette
ever, the conductor gave the pitch a third
lower (a, or ab), so that the actual sound
was: A-c#-e, or Ab-c-eb. (It will easily
be noted that ^absolute pitch would have
been a severe handicap to the a-cappella
singers of the Palestrina period.) The
just mentioned notation is called "high
chiavette," because the notation is higher
than the actual sound. An example of
the "low chiavette" (which is much more
rarely used) would be as illustrated under
Ex. 2 (actual sound: e-g# b). The tran-
scription into modern notation of pieces
written in chiavette is very simple; the
notes remain in the same position on the
staff, the clef is moved to its normal posi-
tion, and the proper signature (A or A-
flat for high chiavette; E or E-flat for low
chiavette) is added [see Ex. 3].
Examples of pieces notated in the chia-
vette (i.e., with all the clefs moved down
or moved up) are frequent between 1550
and 1600 (Palestrina, Missa Papae Mar-
celli\ Tavernor-Tye, motet O splendor;
Josquin, De profundis, cf. RiHM ii.i,
258). According to the above interpreta-
tion such pieces would actually be in the
key of A or of A-flat. It should be noted,
however, that recent scholars (Ehrmann)
have denied the transposing effect of the
chiavette, contending that the clefs were
moved down only in order to avoid the
use of ledger lines. According to this in-
terpretation, the chiavette notation would
CHILEAN MUSIC
simply mean a change of clef [see Ex. 4],
Others (Kroyer) have insisted upon the
transposing interpretation (i.e., change
of pitch 
