Harvard

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AMERICAN COLLEGE

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UNIVERSITY SERIES

AMERICAN COLLEGE AND
UNIVERSITY SERIES

General Editor : GEORGE PHILIP KRAPP

Professor of English in Columbia University

COLUMBIA by FREDERICK PAUL KEPPEL
PRINCETON by VAKNUM LANSING COLLINS
HARVARD by JOHN HAYS GARDINER

IN PREPARATION

WISCONSIN by J. F. A. PYRK
YALE by GEORGE H. NETTLETON

VASSAR by JAMES MONROE TAYLOR and

ELIZABETH HAZELTON HAIGHT

Other volumes to follow.

Historical, descriptive, and critical accounts of the more
important American Colleges and Universities.

Cloth, 8vo. Gilt top, decorated cover. Illustrated.
Per copy $1.50 net.

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

AMERICAN BRANCH : 35 WEST 32ND STREET

NEW YORK CITY

a —

—

HARVARD

BY
JOHN HAYS GARDINER

NEW YORK
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

AMERICAN BRANCH: 85 WEST 32ND STREET

LONDON, TORONTO, MELBOURNE, AND BOMBAY
HUMPHREY MILFORD

1914

ALL RJOSTS RESERVED

Copyright, 1914

BY OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
AMERICAN BRANCH

PREFACE

IN view of the circumstances surrounding the writing
and publication of this volume a brief word of preface
is fitting.

John Hays Gardiner was born at Gardiner, Maine,
April 6, 1863, the son of Colonel John William Tudor
Gardiner of the Class of 1836 and Ann Elizabeth (Hays)
Gardiner, and the grandson of Robert Hallowell Gar-
diner of the Class of 1801. He was admitted to Harvard
from J. P. Hopkinson's private school in July, 1881,
and received his A.B. in 1885. The two following years
he spent at the Harvard Law School, when health and
strength failed him. Five years variously occupied in
private tutoring and foreign travel, with frequent
periods of complete rest at home, were necessary to re-
store him to an active life.

In 1892 he began a connection with Harvard Univer-
sity that was to last almost continuously for twenty-one
years. From September, 1892, until September, 1900,
he was Instructor in English in Harvard College; and
from September, 1900, to June, 1910, Assistant Professor
of English; then, after a year devoted to writing, he
entered the service of the Harvard Alumni Association
to assume the editorship of the Harvard Alumni Bul-
letin, a position which he held at the time of his death
in Boston on May 14, 1913.

His active interests were not confined to the limits
of his assigned tasks. One of the earliest and most per-
sistent advocates of the necessity of better English com-

vi PREFACE

position, he did a very considerable service to the cause
of English teaching, particularly in the schools. Among
his other good works for the Department of English he
was influential in arranging for several Shakespearian
plays, staged in an improvised open-air theatre. He was
an ardent worker for the welfare of the Harvard Univer-
sity Library and the Child Memorial Library, and did
much to strengthen them in those fields for which his
travel and reading had given him a particular liking.
He was also actively associated with the Harvard Co-
operative Society and with the Harvard Union.

His published writings were on those subjects with
which his courses were especially concerned and con-
sisted of three text-books in English Composition and
one book on the English Bible from the point of view of
English literature.

The spirit which he brought to his work was the spirit
of quiet helpfulness. To the cause, the colleague, or the
undergraduate that needed aid, he gave generously of
his money and of his time. A gentleman of rare in-
stincts and warmth of heart, he is remembered with affec-
tion by those who were privileged to have his friendship.

It was a source of great satisfaction to Gardiner that
he was able to complete the manuscript of " Harvard "
a few days before he died. It was not, however, possible
for him to give it the final and careful revision which he
had planned. It has seemed unwise for others to at-
tempt the modifications which he himself might have
made, and so, except for the verification of certain facts,
the manuscript is printed as it was left by him. Ap-
parently the intention was to write of Harvard, its his-
tory, its activities, and its customs, from its founding
to the end of President Eliot's administration in 1908.
In several instances, however, mention is made of hap-

PREFACE yii

penings of a later date, but not to an extent which
gives a complete account of the changes effected by
President Lowell in the past six years. For any other
hand than Gardiner's to have smoothed out these irregu-
larities would have marred more than it would have
helped.

I cannot speak of those to whom he would have wished
to express his appreciation of their assistance. That
there are many, I am certain ; their names, however, I do
not know. To none, surely, would he have acknowl-
edged a greater debt of gratitude than to his friend
Edgar Huidekoper Wells, whose untiring and loyal sup-
port made it possible for him to complete the manuscript.

The suggestions of Mr. W. C. Lane and Professor W.
A. Neilson have been exceedingly happy in making this
book ready for the press, and to Mr. George B. Ives I am
under deep obligations for the wise counsel which he has
so abundantly given.

B. P.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY ... 1

II HARVARD COLLEGE 92

III THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS 175

IV EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH .... 233
V THE GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES . 295

INDEX 321

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Five Presidents Frontispiece

Josiah Quincy, 1829-1845; Edward Everett, 1846-
1849; Jared Sparks, 1849-1853; James Walker,
1853-1860; Cornelius C. Felton, 1860-1862.

FACING PAGE

Charter of 1650 6

A Prospect of the Colledges in Cambridge in

New England 19

The " Burgis View " ; the only known picture of the
first Harvard Hall, burned in 1764.

Charles W. Eliot 45

President, 1869-1909.

Faculty Room 93

A Westerly View of the Colledges in Cambridge,

New England 166

Engraved by Paul Revere.

The College Yard 171

Before the destruction of the elms.

The New Buildings of the Medical School . . 191

Langdell Hall 202

The Widener Library 253

The President's Chair 309

THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

The Founding. The First Struggle for Liberty. Period of
Growth. During the War of Independence. Under the New Re-
public. Harvard Becomes Unitarian. Intellectual Advance.
Conservative Reaction. The End of the Old Era. The University
of To-day. The Expansion of Instruction. The Maturing of
Undergraduates. Graduate Instruction and Research. The Ad-
vance in Professional Study.

ON Thursday, September 8, 1636, old style, the Gen-
eral Court of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay as-
sembled under the governorship of Henry Vane. At
an adjourned meeting on October 28, the following
vote was passed: —

The Court agreed to give 400Z towards a schoale or
colledge, whearof 200? to bee paid the next yeare, &
2001 when the worke is finished, & the next Court to
appoint wheare & wt building.1

At an adjourned meeting of the General Court on
November 15, 1637, " the colledge is ordered to bee at
Newetowne." Five days later a committee, including
Governor Winthrop, the Deputy Governor, Mr. Dudley,
the Treasurer, Mr. Bellingham, and of the clergy,
Sheopard, Cotton, and Wilson, with six others, was ap-
pointed " to take order for a colledge at Newetowne."
The amount of this first appropriation of £400, which it
is estimated was equal to a year's income of the colonial
government, and the choice of the most important men
1 Quinquennial Catalogue, 1910, p. 5.

2 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

of the colony to oversee the establishment of the Col-
lege, show the high importance attached to the founda-
tion. The next year (1638) the name Newetowne was
changed to " Cambrige," in memory of the English
town at whose university many of the colonists had been
educated.

No actual steps seem to have been taken before this
year, however, to open the College. Then, in 1638, the
Reverend John Harvard, a young dissenting minister,
who had taken his degree at Emmanuel College, Cam-
bridge, in 1631, and in 1637 had emigrated to Massachu-
setts, died within a year of his arrival, and bequeathed
one half of his property and his entire library to the new
College. This gift made possible the immediate opening
of the College; and ultimately it received from John
Harvard's estate over £700, a sum nearly double the
original grant by the General Court, and two hundred
and sixty volumes. A building was erected and the first
class of the College was formed in the same year. In
recognition of the bequest, it was ordered by the Gen-
eral Court on the 13th of March, 1638-39, " that the
colledge agreed vpon formerly to bee built at Cambridg
shal bee called Harvard Colledge."

A general subscription for the benefit of the College
followed. The magistrates contributed books to the
value of £200 for the library ; others gave £20 or £30 ;
and there were many lesser gifts, including, we are told,
a number of sheep, a quantity of cotton cloth worth
nine shillings, a pewter flagon worth ten shillings, a fruit-
dish, a sugar-spoon, a silver-tipped jug, one great salt
and one small trencher-salt.1 The zeal of the founders is
shown in this passage from New England's First Fruits
(1643) :—

1 Josiah Quincy, History of Harvard University, vol. i, p. 12.

THE FOUNDING 3

After God had carried us safe to New-England, and
wee had builded our houses, provided necessaries for our
liveli-hood, rear'd convenient places for Gods worship
and setled the Civill Government: One of the next
things we longed for, and looked after was to advance
Learning and perpetuate it to Posterity; dreading to
leave an illiterate Ministery to the Churches, when our
present Ministers shall lie in the Dust.1

For the first two years (1637-39) the " school " was
under the superintendence of Nathaniel Eaton, who
seems to have left no favorable reputation behind him.
He was soon dismissed and the duties were performed
by Mr. Samuel Shepard until the arrival in the country
of the Reverend Henry Dunster in 1640. He was im-
mediately elected President and entered office August 27.

In the meantime, under the superintendence of Eaton,
a building had been erected for the school, probably on
the same lot with Eaton's house, the foundation stones of
which were discovered on Massachusetts Avenue just
to the east of Wadsworth House, during the excavation
for the Subway. Eaton, we are told, inclosed about an
acre of land with a high paling and set out many apple
trees, and the College had a considerable number of
scholars. In 1643 New England's First Fruits describes
the institution as follows : —

The edifice is very fair and comely within and with-
out, having in it a spacious hall, where they daily meet
at the Commons, Lectures, Exercises, and a large library
with some books to it, the gifts of divers of our friends ;
their chambers and studies also fitted for and possessed
by the students, and all other rooms of office necessary
and convenient; and by the side of the College a fair
Grammar School for the training up of young scholars
and fitting them for academical learning, that still as
1 Quinquennial Catalogue, 1910, p. 7.

4 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

they are judged ripe they may be received into the
College.

Under President Dunster the College held its first
Commencement in 1642, with a graduating class of nine.
Its most distinguished member was George Downing,
who was knighted in 1660 and became a baronet in 1663,
and who was a member of Parliament, and Ambassador
to the Netherlands from both Cromwell and Charles
the Second. By this time the College had so grown that
it was found expedient to give it a more formal govern-
ment; and on September 8, 1642, the General Court
passed an act providing for a Board of Overseers, who
should have the general management of the College.
The act is as follows: —

Whereas, through the good hand of God upon us,
there is a College founded in Cambridge, in the county
of Middlesex, called Harvard College, for the encour-
agement whereof this Court has given the sum of four
hundred pounds, and also the revenue of the ferry
betwixt Charlestown and Boston, and that the well
ordering and managing of the said College is of great
concernment, —

It is therefore ordered by this Court and the authority
thereof, that the Governor and Deputy-Governor for
the time being, and all the magistrates of this juris-
diction, together with the teaching elders of the six next
adjoining towns, — viz. Cambridge, "Watertown, Charles-
town, Boston, Roxbury, and Dorchester, — and the
President of the said College for the time being, shall,
from time to time, have full power and authority to
make and establish all such orders, statutes, and con-
stitutions as they shall see necessary for the instituting,
guiding, and furthering of the said College and the
several members thereof, from time to time, in piety,
morality, and learning; as also to dispose, order, and
manage, to the use and behoof of the said College and

BOARD OF OVERSEERS 5

the members thereof, all gifts, legacies, bequeaths, reve-
nues, lands, and donations, as either have been, are, or
shall be conferred, bestowed, or any ways shall fall or
come to the said College.

And whereas it may come to pass that many of the
said magistrates and elders may be absent, or otherwise
employed in other weighty affairs, when the said Col-
lege may need their present help and counsel, — it is
therefore ordered, that the greater number of magis-
trates and elders which shall be present, with the Presi-
dent, shall have the power of the whole. Provided, that
if any constitution, order, or orders, by them made,
shall be found hurtful unto the said College, or the
members thereof, or to the weal public, then, upon
appeal of the party or parties grieved unto the com-
pany of Overseers first mentioned, they shall repeal
the said order or orders, if they shall see cause, at their
next meeting, or stand accountable thereof to the next
General Court.1

At one of the early meetings of the Board of Over-
seers (December 27, 1643) a college seal was adopted
which contained three open books on a shield, with the
word Veritas.

The provision for the support of the College seems
to have been uncertain. The original grant of £400
from the General Court was apparently never paid
over in a lump. The General Court, however, made
annual appropriations for the salary of the President.
In 1644, for example, " it was ordered that Mr. Dunster
should have assigned to him £150 ... in part of the
£400 promised unto him for his uses and belonging to
the College." But at this time and for many years
afterwards, the President of the College had reason
to complain of the irregularity and uncertainty in pay-
ment of his salary. In November, 1654, Dunster speaks

1 Annual Catalogue, Preface.

6 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

of the President's house as " a place which upon very
damageful conditions to myself, out of love for the
college, I have builded." It is estimated that until
1673 the grants of the General Court never had come
up to £100 a year. The deficiency in the income was
made up by assessments on the students.

In 1650 the General Court made another change in
the government of the College by granting the charter
under which the College lives to-day. It was found in-
convenient to get together the magistrates and the min-
isters of the six scattered churches for the everyday
administration of the College; and accordingly, at the
instance of President Dunster, the General Court con-
stituted the President, five Fellows, and the Treasurer
a Corporation, with power to fill vacancies with the
consent of the Board of Overseers, and to hold property
for the use of the College, and granted to them the
power to " meet and choose such officers and servants
for the College, and make such allowances to them, and
them also to remove, and after death or removal, to
choose such others, and to make from time to time such
orders and by-laws, for the better ordering and carrying
on the work of the College, as they shall think fit;
provided the said orders be allowed by the Overseers."
Seven years later a slight modification was made in this
charter, providing that the consent of the Overseers
should not be necessary before any action of the Cor-
poration went into effect. This charter has worked
singularly well.

Dunster 's presidency lasted till 1654, with great bene-
fit to the College. Then the Puritan intensity of theo-
logical belief on all the details of the Christian faith
forced him out, for he had openly declared himself a
disbeliever in the baptism of infants. The offense

o
ira

CD

W
O

DUNSTER PROSECUTED 7

was so serious that he was indicted by the Grand Jury,
convicted by the Court, and required to give bonds for
good behavior. As a result of this prosecution he was
compelled to resign the presidency of the College. He
made an appeal for a little delay since " the time of
the year is unseasonable, being now very near the short-
est day in the depth of winter ; that he had no place to
move to ; that his wife was sick, and his youngest child
so dangerously ill that they dared not carry him out of
doors." On this plea, the General Court allowed him
to remain in the President's house until the following
March. His services to the College seem to have been
of the highest importance. Before his election it was
spoken of as a school; he left it definitely a college,
though for many years to come it was to be a college
somewhat in the sense that Eton is one.

Dunster's successor was the Reverend Charles
Chauncy, who was President until 1672. His presi-
dency covered the evil times of the restoration of the
Stuarts in England, when the prospects of the Puritan
colony were so dark. The College seems to have been in
great straits. In 1655 the Corporation and Overseers
sent information of the present necessities of the College
to the General Court, stating that it had only ' ' a build-
ing, library, a few utensils, the press, some land which
cannot be sold, £12 per annum to support four Fel-
lows, and £15 per annum for scholarships." In 1669
the buildings were described as " ruinous and almost
irreparable; the President was aged, and the number
of scholars short of what they had been in former
days."1

In May, 1669, the town of Portsmouth made a volun-
tary contribution of £60 a year for seven years ensuing,
1 Quincy, ubi sup., vol. i, p. 29.

8 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

in response to " the loud groans of the sinking College."
The example stirred Massachusetts, and an agent was
sent to England to solicit aid from the friends of the
College. In the course of the following year subscrip-
tions were received for £2600, though some of them
had to be collected by process of law.

Chauncy was a good scholar, who had formerly been
Professor of Greek and Hebrew at Trinity College,
Cambridge. He had some minor peculiarities of theo-
logical faith, but none so strictly held that they did not
give way under pressure, and he remained President
until his death.

In 1672 Leonard Hoar (A.B. 1650), a clergyman and
physician, was elected President, the first graduate of
the College so to serve. His service was brief and
stormy. There were internal intrigues in the Corpora-
tion and disturbances among the students, which were
said to have been encouraged by Hoar's enemies. In
1673 four Fellows resigned, and refused reelection dur-
ing his service, in spite of the efforts of the Overseers to
rconcile them. Finally, in March, 1674, Hoar resigned
and Urian Oakes (A.B. 1649), one of the Fellows, was
chosen to act as President until a regular incumbent
should be found. This proved difficult, and he served
for five years as acting President. In February, 1679,
he was elected President, but died in July of the next
year. John Rogers (A.B. 1649) succeeded him for two
years, and on his death the Reverend Increase Mather'
(A.B. 1656) became acting President, and in 1686
Rector. For the next twenty years the College passed
through a period of great turmoil.

In the meantime the College had received important
gifts. In 1677 Theophilus Gale bequeathed to it his
whole estate ; and for many years his library constituted

SLOW GROWTH 9

more than half of the whole College library. In 1678
Sir Matthew Holworthy bequeathed £1000 to the Col-
lege without restriction, the largest gift received in the
seventeenth century. The College, however, remained
small; down to 1690 the largest graduating class was
fourteen. Some light on the age of its students is given
by the contemptuous answer of President Mather in
1678 to the proposal that he should remove to Cam-
bridge and give his whole time to the College: " Should
I leave preaching to 1500 souls, for I suppose so many
ordinarily attend our congregations, only to expound to
40 or 50 children, few of them capable of edification
by such exercises, I doubt I should not do well." The
number of instructors seems also to have been small.
In a manuscript book of laws signed by Presidents
Chauncy and Hoar, apparently about the time of the
proposed charter of 1672, in a list of the Corporation
two members are designated as tutors; and in 1674 the
records show that there were three resident instructors.
The President also probably gave a portion of his
time to instruction.

The life of the College in this early period must have
been that of a boarding school. In 1656 the General
Court empowered the President and Fellows of Har-
vard College, or the major part of them, to " punish
the misdemeanors of the youths either Ly fine or whip-
ping in the halls openly as the nature of the offense
should require, not exceeding ten shillings or ten stripes
for one offense." Their life was strictly ruled. " Every-
one shall consider the main end of his life and studies
to know God and Jesus Christ which is eternal life."
They were expected to " honor as their parents, magis-
trates, elders, tutors, and aged persons by being silent
in their presence . . . and showing all those laudable

10 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

expressions of honor and reverence in their presence that
are in use, as bowing before them, standing uncovered
or the like." " No scholar shall buy, sell, or exchange
anything, to the value of sixpence, without the allow-
ance of his parents, guardians, or Tutors. " " The schol-
ars shall never use their mother tongue except that in
public exercises of oratory, or such like, they be called
to make them in English." x

Nevertheless, the life was not wholly grim for the boys
of fourteen to eighteen who were the students. In 1666
it is recorded that three students were expelled " for
the disorder and injurious carriage towards Andrew
Belcher in killing and having stolen ropes in hanging
Goodman Sell's dog upon the sign post in the night ";
and in 1659 the Corporation found it necessary, in view
of the " great complaints of the exorbitant practices of
some students of this College by their abusive words
and actions towards the watch of this town, to allow the
head watchman to follow students into the College

yard."

t

In 1692 William and Mary granted a new charter,
which worked a revolution in the constitution and the
ideals of the Puritan colony, and incidentally brought
on a period of revolution and turmoil in the College.
Under the new charter, citizenship was made dependent
on property, instead of on church membership. The
change, which was a vital blow at the power of the
theocracy, was based on the view that in practice the
world must take precedence of the church in the gov-
ernment of men. By a curious blindness, Increase
Mather, who was the chief leader of the ministers'
party, was influential in having the new charter framed
1 Quincy, ubi sup., vol. i, pp. 515, 516, 517.

INCREASE MATHER 11

and accepted. He had been in England as the agent
of the colony, and had thus had the principal voice in
the nomination of all the officers under the new charter.
This temporary triumph blinded him to the fact that the
source of power was henceforward shifted from his own
order to the laity.1 His triumph was short-lived, and
his discomfiture began when he attempted to make over
the government of the College in order to bring it wholly
under his own control. He first proposed a new char-
ter with a corporation of ten members, and no provi-
sion for a board of overseers or visitors of any kind.
This charter failed, for the King refused to give his
assent.

This was the beginning of a period of much dis-
order in the government of the College. Increase
Mather and his son Cotton were the leaders in the
party that fought bitterly to maintain the power
of the ministry, as against the majority of the Cor-
poration, led by John Leverett, William Brattle, and
Thomas Brattle, who belonged to the party of progress.
The controversies over the College were closely mingled
with religious disputes among the churches in Boston.
In 1697 Thomas Brattle formed the church which was
later known as the Brattle Square Church, with more
liberal conditions as to membership than would have
been thought tolerable to the first generation of the
Puritan Fathers. This church was fought, as a seat of
apostasy, by the Mathers and the old party.2

In the meantime, the presidency had been in abey-
ance. After the death of John Rogers, in 1684, Reverend
Increase Mather was successively Acting President for
a year from June, 1685, and Rector from July, 1686,

1 Quincy, «6t sup., vol. i., pp. 59, /f.
1 Ibid., pp. 132, 133.

12 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

for six years. The Corporation insisted that the Presi-
dent should reside at the College, but Mather wished
to hold the presidency and at the same time retain his
church in Boston. Since Cambridge could be reached
from Boston at this time only by ferry through
Charlestown, or else by the long roundabout ride
through Roxbury and Brookline, an absentee president,
of necessity, could give little attention to the adminis-
tration of the College, especially when he had the charge
of a large city church. Finally, in 1692, Mather made
some kind of half-promise to change his residence, and
was thereupon elected President. He kept putting off
his removal to Cambridge, however, in spite of the in-
sistence of the General Court, which constituted a large
part of the Overseers, and for nearly ten years there
were constant disputes over the matter. To provide in
part for the charge of the College, Charles Morton was
made Vice-President in 1697, but died before completing
a year of service, and two years later Samuel Willard
(A.B. 1659) was chosen to the same office. Finally, in
September, 1701, the General Court forced Mather to
resign from the presidency, and the College went on
until 1707 under the vice-presidency of Willard. When
the latter died, John Leverett (A.B. 1680) was elected
President, in January, 1707.

In the meantime, Mather and his party had made
various efforts to make over the charter, with the pur-
pose of getting rid of the Board of Overseers, and con-
centrating the power in the hands of the old party.
All of these efforts, however, failed, at one stage or an-
other, and finally, in 1707, the General Court passed a
resolution declaring the charter of 1650 to be still in

THE STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY 13

force, and directing the President and Fellows to regu-
late themselves according to its provisions.

Even now, however, Cotton Mather, who had suc-
ceeded his father as the chief leader in the fight for the
lost cause of the ministers, aided by Chief Justice Sewall
and other members of the Board of Overseers, continued
to make trouble for the College. In 1718, they sup-
ported a graduate named Pierpont, who attempted,
through the courts, to compel the government of the
College to grant him the master 's degree. The Corpora-
tion stood firm, believing that the case involved the in-
dependence of the College, and the court supported them.
In the same year, Sewall and the other members of the
Corporation in the Board of Overseers bitterly attacked
the President because he had given up the practice of a
daily exposition of the Scriptures to the students.

In 1721, the old party made further trouble when
Thomas Hollis of London, the chief benefactor of the
College in the eighteenth century, proposed to endow a
professorship of divinity. Hollis himself was a Bap-
tist, and a man of an enlightened liberality of thought.
The only prescription he made for the professorship was
that no one should be rejected on account of being a
Baptist, and that the incumbent should make as his
only declaration some general and liberal declarations
of adherence to Christianity.1 The Corporation was
willing to accept the endowment of the professorship
on these liberal terms, and elected the Reverend Edward
Wigglesworth to fill the new chair. The Board of Over-
seers, however, in which there was a strong majority of
the old school, was by no means prepared for so liberal
an establishment; and they subjected the new pro-
fessor to a strong and rigid theological test. The corre-
1 Quincy, ubi sup., vol. i, pp. 531, 538.

14 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

spondence shows that Hollis was far in advance of the
times, and that the Overseers, though eager to receive
the endowment, were far from willing to accept it on
the terms on which it was offered.

In 1721 the militant Overseers found still another
ground for making trouble. Two of the tutors, Sever
and Welsteed, claimed seats in the Corporation on the
ground that they were Fellows. Down to this time,
the term Fellow had been used indifferently in two
senses, and in many cases the same men were Fellows
in both senses. On the one hand there were the Fel-
lows of the Corporation, who under the charter had the
control and management of the College. On the other
hand there were the " Fellows of the House," as they
came to be called, who, being Fellows in the English
sense of the word, were also tutors. The lax use of the
terms had made trouble and left a knotty point of con-
stitutional usage for a starting-point of dissension in
this period of revolution. The petition of Sever and
Welsteed seems to have been prompted by the desire
to oust from the Corporation Colman, Appleton, and
Wadsworth, all strong members of the liberal party.
After two years of dispute, the Council, standing by
Governor Shute and the Corporation, refused to concur
with the House of Representatives, which had sided
with the Overseers, and the dispute came to an end.

In 1724 John Leverett died. He had carried the Col-
lege through the time of revolution, and through his
efforts and those of his supporters it had been ranged
oh the side of liberal and tolerant ideas. The struggle
had not been without effect, for Yale College was
founded in 1701 for the specific purpose of providing
comfort and support for the older and narrower doc-
trines; and the party which held to the stricter doc-

" TEACHING ELDERS " 15

trines of the fathers gave it their ardent support. Cot-
ton Mather even made an effort, though without suc-
cess, to divert the liberality of Thomas Hollis from
Harvard to Yale.

On Leverett's death, the Corporation elected first the
Reverend Joseph Sewall and then the Reverend Benja-
min Colman as President, but both declined; and in
June, 1725, the Reverend Benjamin Wadsworth (A.B.
1690) was elected. The salary of the Presidents was
still paid by the General Court and the payments had
been irregular. Leverett had been in the greatest straits
and had received little comfort from the General Court.
On Wadsworth 's election it appropriated £1000 to build
a house for him. This house, known by his name, is still
standing.

Wadsworth 's twelve years of service were on the whole
times of peace. The only serious disturbance came from
the growing strength of the Episcopal Church, and an
attempt to have it take part in the government of the
College. When King 's Chapel was dedicated, there was
for the first time in Boston a minister of the Established
Church. In 1727, the Reverend Dr. Cutler, who had
been rector of Yale College and then had become a con-
vert to Episcopalianism, petitioned that " he might be
notified to be present at the meetings of the Overseers ' ' ;
and the Reverend Mr. Myles, rector of King's Chapel,
presented a similar petition. The right to a seat in the
Corporation turned on the definition of the term ' ' teach-
ing elder ' ' ; and it was successfully pointed out that the
term was unknown in the Established Church and could
apply only to Puritan churches.

During the thirty years of the presidency of Leverett
and Wadsworth the College grew steadily in numbers.

16 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

After 1719 no class fell below twenty, and in 1725 the
number of graduates rose to forty-five. Little is known
of the studies down to this time in the seventeenth cen-
tury. The requirements for admission were " so much
Latin as was sufficient to understand Tully or any like
classical author, and to make and speak true Latin in
prose and verse, and so much Greek as was included in
declining perfectly the paradigms of the Greek nouns and
verbs. ' ' The students were practiced twice a day in read-
ing the Scriptures, with observations on their language
and logic. In the first year, we are told, they studied
" logic, physics, etymology, syntax, and practice on the
principles of grammar "; in the second year, " ethics,
politics, prosody and dialectics, practice of poesy, and
Chaldee." In the third year they had " arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy, exercises in style, composition,
epitome, both in prose and verse, Hebrew, and Syriac. ' ' l

This discipline probably lasted well into the eight-
eenth century, though it is a sign of the decaying exclu-
siveness of emphasis on religion that the party which
held to the old traditions was constantly attempting to
enforce the rule that the President should expound the
Scriptures daily to the students, and that the presidents
were apparently unwilling to keep up the practice.

The College also prospered financially. In 1732 the
estate of the College produced an income of £728, not
including the endowments for special purposes. In 1727
Thomas Hollis had endowed a second professorship of
mathematics and natural philosophy.

In 1737, on the death of President "Wadsworth, the

Reverend Edward Holyoke (A.B. 1705) was elected to

the presidency, and served thirty-two years, — a longer

term than has been reached by any president of the

1 Quincy, ubi sup., vol. i, pp. 190, 191.

17

University except President Eliot. His administra-
tion carried the College down to the threshold of the
Revolutionary War. During his time, the unwritten
constitution of the College underwent some development,
through the raising of the constitutional question
whether the Overseers had the right to initiate proceed-
ings for the removal of a tutor. The Corporation in this
case waived the technicality and removed the offender;
but, to prevent the question from coming up again, they
established the custom of appointing tutors for a fixed
term of three years. At the same time, the ancient cus-
tom of taking the two senior tutors into the Corpora-
tion was allowed to lapse. Just before this another
question arose through the necessity of removing a pro-
fessor. The first Hollis Professor of Mathematics, Green-
wood, had turned out badly. Even before he was
elected, Thomas Hollis, the founder of the professorship,
was disturbed by finding that Greenwood had left un-
paid debts in England, and that in a short time he had
spent £300 in conviviality, and had bought " three
pair of pearl silk stockings. ' ' Hollis 's distrust was well-
founded; for Greenwood turned out to be more or less
of a drunkard, and he had finally to be removed, in 1738.
The action tended to confirm the control of the College
by the Corporation.

During Holyoke's administration, the College, with
all New England, was much moved by a great wave of
religious enthusiasm. The way had been prepared by
the eloquence of Jonathan Edwards, who stirred all
men's minds with his vivid pictures of the burning tor-
tures awaiting sinners in the world to come. On top
of the strong wave of religious emotion which was thus
created came George Whitefield, who went through New
England conducting revivals. At Harvard College his

18 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

eloquence is said to have wrought wonderfully in the
hearts of the students. His opinion of the religious
state of New England was not flattering : he wrote, ' ' As
for the universities, I believe it may be said that theii;
light has become darkness; darkness tLat may be felt,
and is complained of by the most godly ministers. ' ' *

The Overseers, who continued to be stricter Calvinists
than the Corporation, looked with favor on the revival,
and appointed June 10, 1741, for a day of thanksgiving
for " this work of God." Only five of the forty mem-
bers of the board appeared at the meeting, however, and
it was necessary to adjourn it. The chief fruits of the
revival seem to have been a new flaming up of the re-
ligious discord which for so long made New England a
place of hatred among brethren, and the stirring up of
bitter attacks on the College. In 1744, the President,
professors, tutors, and instructors found it expedient to
publish " testimony against the Reverend Mr. George
Whitefield and his conduct," in which they declared
that his attacks on the College were uncharitable, cen-
sorious, and slanderous. When Whitefield replied, Dr.
Wigglesworth, Hollis Professor of Divinity, issued a full
and elaborate answer, in which he defended the tutors
from the charge that they did not pray with their pupils,
or watch their religious development, and he refuted
the charge that the discipline of the College was lax.
This controversy with Whitefield was the last of a theo-
logical character in which the governors of the College
officially took part.2 The College again took its stand
on the liberal side and against those who bound the
consciences of men under rigid rules.

In President Holyoke 's term, in 1764, came one of the

1 Quincy, ubi sup., vol. ii, p. 41.
* Ibid,, vol. ii, p. 52.

-
O
fc

K

u i~

£ a .2

» c

C ry

— £

BURNING OF HARVARD HALL 19

great calamities of the College, the burning of Harvard
Hall, in which were kept the library and the philo-
sophical apparatus. The fire occurred while the build-
ing was in use by the General Court, which had re-
moved to Cambridge on account of an epidemic of small-
pox in Boston, and it broke out during a bitter snow-
storm on the night of February 2. The building was
totally destroyed, with all its contents, and the new
Hollis Hall, close by on the northeast, was barely saved.
The loss was severe, especially in the destruction of the
library. The catalogue, which has been preserved, shows
that it contained about five thousand volumes, including
the books which had been left by John Harvard. The
library was an excellent collection for the times, strong
in Hebrew and other Biblical books. It had all the
Fathers, Greek and Latin, in the best editions, great
numbers of tracts and sermons, an excellent collection
of the Greek and Roman Classics, which had been given
by Bishop Berkeley; the Transactions of the Royal So-
ciety, of the Academy of Sciences in France, and other
scientific works, and a collection of the most approved
medical authorities of the time, with a few ancient
manuscripts in different languages. Besides the books,
there were some anatomical cuts and two skeletons, a
variety of curiosities, natural and artificial, and a fount
of Greek type. The philosophical apparatus included
various machines for experiments in mechanics, hydro-
statics, pneumatics, and optics, besides an orrery, an
armillary sphere, a box of microscopes, and a number
of telescopes, one of them twenty-four feet long. The
list shows that the College was for the time excellently
equipped with books and with scientific apparatus.1
The gifts to restore the loss were prompt and gener-
1 Quincy, uli sup., vol. ii, pp. 481 ff.

20 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

ous. The General Court, since the building had been
in its occupation at the time of the fire, appropriated
£2000 to rebuild the hall, and reimbursed the students
whose books and furniture had been destroyed.1 Gifts
of money poured in, and there were also many gifts of
books and of philosophical apparatus. Governor Bern-
ard gave more than three hundred volumes. Thomas
Palmer of London gave Le Antichita Eomane and An-
tiquities of HercuZaneum, making in all twenty volumes.
The Province of New Hampshire gave seven hundred
and forty-three volumes. Dr. Benjamin Franklin gave
valuable scientific instruments, some of which are still
extant. The gifts of books and apparatus were very
numerous, and their value was estimated at over £1000.

The new hall was completed in June, 1766. Other
buildings erected in President Holyoke's term were
Holden Chapel, which was a gift from the widow of
Samuel Holden, who had been Governor of the Bank of
England, and Hollis Hall, which was built by the Gen-
eral Court, and named after the Hollis family, whose
generosity to the College all through the eighteenth
century was liberal and unremitting. In 1765, the Col-
lege received a legacy of £1000 sterling from Thomas
Hancock, for a professorship of Hebrew and other
Oriental languages.

By this time the College had advanced well beyond
the point at which it was not much more than an upper
boarding-school. Corporal punishment had gone out of
date long before President Holyoke's time. In 1733,
in the administration of Wadsworth, William Vassall, a
Senior, had brought suit against Daniel Rogers, one of

1 For an itemized list of books and articles lost by the students,
see the Publications of the Colonial Society of Mass., vol. xiv, pp.
2-44.

MODE OP INSTRUCTION 21

the tutors of the College, for an assault, which was
apparently an attempt to enforce the rugged discipline
of the earlier days; and though the Superior Court of
Judicature reversed the sentence which was imposed, it
was recognized that the practice belonged to another
age. President Holyoke, who graduated in 1705, said
that even in his student days the practice was going
out of use.

Just before the close of President Holyoke 's adminis-
tration a great step forward was made in the mode of
instruction. Down to 1767 each of the tutors had car-
ried a class through the college course, teaching them
in all subjects. In May, 1766, a committee of the Board
of Overseers reported a plan for distributing the differ-
ent subjects among different tutors, one of whom should
teach Greek, another Latin, another logic, metaphysics,
and ethics, and a fourth natural philosophy, geography,
astronomy, and the elements of mathematics. It also
provided for a tutor in elocution, composition and Eng-
lish, rhetoric and other parts of the belles lettres, and
that the divinity professor should instruct all scholars
in divinity. The Corporation accepted the plan, and
it took effect at the end of the winter vacation in
January, 1767.1

About the same period there arose the weighty ques-
tion whether tutors and upper classmen should con-
tinue to send Freshmen on errands. In May, 1760, the
Overseers went so far as to recommend the prohibiting
of " their being sent on errands after the ringing of
the commons bell in the evening "; but the reform was
too radical, and the custom continued. In 1761 a com-
mittee of the Overseers considered the whole system of
fines, of which a curious list has been preserved. The
1 Quincy, ubi sup., vol. ii, pp. 133 and 497.

22 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

Overseers found it inexpedient entirely to abolish the
fines, but they proposed that there should be a system of
warnings, private and public, with notification to par-
ents. This system lasted well beyond the middle of the
nineteenth century in the form of private and public
admonitions.

On the whole, the long presidency of Holyoke was a
time of steady progress and liberalizing, but on his
death, June 1, 1769, the College entered on a period of
trouble. There was difficulty in finding a new presi-
dent: John Winthrop (A.B. 1732), Hollis Professor of
Mathematics, whose beautiful portrait by Copley is one
of the adornments of the Faculty room at Harvard,
declined the office, as did two other members of the
Corporation.

The Reverend Samuel Locke (A.B. 1755), who was
then chosen and accepted, apparently left little im-
pression on the College. He served only from March
21, 1770, to December 1, 1773. He was succeeded in
October of the next year by Samuel Langdon (A.B.
1740), who saw the College through the Revolution.

In the meantime politics were waxing warm. In 1768
the members of the Senior class, to show their patriotism,
voted unanimously to " take their degrees in the manu-
factures of this country," and accordingly appeared
at Commencement in home-manufactured clothes. In
1773 the prevailing republicanism of the time was mani-
fested by a change in the Triennial Catalogue; and
the names of graduates, which down to that year had
been printed according to the rank of their families,
were thenceforth arranged alphabetically. The students
seem for the most part to have been on the side of
liberty, though a few of the aristocrats manifested their

IN THE REVOLUTION 23

principles by bringing " India tea " into the College
commons.

In 1773 the mistake was made of electing John Han-
cock treasurer. He accepted the honor, and wholly
neglected the duties ; and for twenty years the Corpora-
tion wrestled with the confusion into which his neglect
had thrown the accounts. Final settlement was not
reached until 1793, some years after Hancock's death.

Since Boston was the seat of the first resistance to
British rule, it was inevitable that Harvard College
should be much disturbed. During the occupation of
Boston by the British troops in 1768, Governor Bernard
adjourned the General Court to Cambridge, where they
took possession of the halls of the College, apparently
without first asking leave of the Corporation. A little
later, however, when the old chapel was found too small,
a committee was appointed to ask the Corporation for
the use of the new chapel, and this was readily granted.
When, in 1770, Thomas Hutchinson, as Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor, convened the General Court, to meet at Harvard
College in Cambridge, the Corporation addressed a
formal remonstrance to him. In consequence the au-
thorities thereafter made application to the Corpora-
tion for the use of the 'College halls. When Hutchin-
son, who was a graduate of the College in the class of
1727, was appointed Governor in succession to Bernard,
although the members of the Corporation were opposed
to him politically, they sent him a ceremonial message
of congratulation on his appointment, and soon after
the Governor visited the College in state, attended by
the Lieutenant-Governor, the Council, the sheriff of the
county, and a detachment of the troop of guards.1

With the opening of the war by the battle of Lexing-

* Quincy, ubi sup., vol. ii, pp. 153-155.

ton, on April 19, 1775, the College found itself fairly in
the storm center; for the militia of Massachusetts and
the neighboring colonies were assembled in Cambridge.
The students were sent away, and the College build-
ings were taken over for the use of the troops. The
officers were quartered in private houses in the town.
On June 15 the Provincial Congress made provision
for the removal of the library and philosophical appara-
tus to Andover, where they would be safer, and on the
same day the Corporation consulted the Congress as to
the expediency of holding Commencement for the regu-
lar conferring of degrees. On July 2, General Wash-
ington took command of the army of the United Colonies
on Cambridge Common, just at the gates of the College.
By that time the confusion was so great that it was im-
possible to hold Commencement, and that year the de-
grees were conferred on a general diploma. In
September it was decided to remove the College to
Concord, where it had been ascertained that one hun-
dred and twenty-five students could be boarded. Such
portion of the books and philosophical apparatus as
were essential were taken from Andover to Concord,
and arranged on shelves in a private house.

After the evacuation of Boston, March 17, 1776, the
Corporation and Overseers conferred the honorary de-
gree of Doctor of Laws on General Washington, his
only predecessor in this distinction being John Win-
throp, who had received it in 1773. In June of this
same year, the seat of war having removed from the
neighborhood of Boston, it was found possible to bring
the students back to Cambridge. The College had thus
been in exile for fourteen months, and its affairs had
become much disordered. The library and apparatus
were still dispersed, and the buildings had not been im-

IN THE KEVOLUTION 25

proved by their occupation as barracks. Before affairs
were settled, the College was threatened with another
disturbance of its quiet routine; for in the autumn of
1777 it was proposed that Burgoyne's troops should
be quartered in the College buildings while they were
waiting for shipment to Europe. The matter went so
far that at the end of November the students were dis-
missed to their homes. The Corporation, however, firmly
opposed this use of the buildings, and other quarters
were found for the captives. On the whole, Harvard
came through the period with surprisingly little dis-
location.

The College was, however, not without its internal
troubles. Though President Langdon seems to have
kept its affairs pretty well in hand through the Revo-
lution, just at its close he was forced out suddenly by
an uprising of the students, who passed resolutions,
and sent a memorial to the Corporation, charging him
with " impiety, heterodoxy, unfitness for the office of
preacher of the Christian religion, and still more for
that of president." The attack came without warning,
and Langdon yielded to the demand of the students;
whereupon they passed resolutions almost directly op-
posite in tenor. The resignation was accepted by the
Corporation, to take effect at Commencement, August
30, 1780.

The year 1780 was made notable in the history of the
College by the inclusion in the Constitution adopted
by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts of a provision
expressly confirming to the President and Fellows the
enjoyment of " all the powers, authorities, rights, liber-
ties, privileges, immunities, and franchises which they
now have or are entitled to have, use, exercise, and

26 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

enjoy." Under this Constitution the Governor, Lieu-
tenant-Governor, Council, and Senate of the Common-
wealth took the place in the Board of Overseers of the
Governor, Deputy-Governor, and magistrates of the
colonial government. The College thus retained its
official connection with the State. The Constitution
named the institution indiscriminately the College, and
the University at Cambridge; and from this time may
be dated the use of the latter term.

After President Langdon's resignation, it was nearly
a year and a half before his successor, Joseph Willard,
(A.B. 1765), entered into the presidency, on December
19, 1781. The early part of his administration was
greatly troubled by the efforts to bring John Hancock,
who had been treasurer from 1773 to 1777, to an ac-
counting. Apparently he had taken the office largely
from vanity, and had given it so little attention that no
one knew where the College stood financially. He had
carried the books and papers with him to Philadelphia,
and subjected them to great damage from careless
keeping. During his lifetime he resisted all efforts of
the College for a settlement; and it was only after his
death in 1793 that the new treasurer was able to recover
from his estate what he owed the College, and then
with the loss of compound interest. This was in spite
of the fact that Hancock was a rich man, and left a
large property.

The most pregnant event of President Willard 's ad-
ministration was the establishment of the " Medical
Institution of Harvard University," the first of the
professional schools to take its place by the side of the
College. For the first few years the Medical School
was not differentiated from the College. When in 1782,
through the energy of Dr. John Warren (A.B. 1771),

MEDICAL SCHOOL FOUNDED 27

the Corporation elected three professors of medical
subjects, the lectures were first given in Cambridge, and
were open to students of the College. The three chairs
were shortly endowed, two of them by the widow and
brother of Ezekiel Hersey (A.B. 1728), and the third
by William Erving (A.B. 1753) ; and the Hersey Pro-
fessorship of Anatomy and Surgery, the Hersey Pro-
fessorship of the Theory and Practice of Physic, and
the Erving Professorship of Chemistry, are the oldest
medical professorships of the University. In 1810 the
Medical Institution was moved to Boston, both for the
sake of being near the hospitals, and because the two
professors who lived in Boston found it almost impossible
to give the time necessary in those days to make the
journey to and from Cambridge. In its new quarters
the school throve with renewed vigor and soon drew
students from all over New England.

In the College there seems to have been a slight at-
tempt to break away from the rigid discipline of the
Fathers, though there were as yet few subjects to study
besides the classics. In 1787 an advance in scholarship
was made by substituting Horace, Sallust,, Cicero de
Oratore, Homer, and Xenophon, for Virgil, Cicero's
Orations, Caesar, and the Greek Testament. At the same
time the number of exercises was increased, and some
effort was made to see that the whole class did the
work. Besides the classics, which constituted the greater
part of the education, the Freshmen had instruction in
rhetoric, elocution, and arithmetic; the Sophomores in
algebra, and some other mathematics; the Juniors in
Livy, Doddridge's Lectures, and the Greek Testament;
the Seniors in logic, metaphysics, and ethics. All classes
had instruction in declamation, chronology, and history ;
and the Freshmen and Sophomores were required to study

28 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

Hebrew, though with the option of taking French in-
stead. An attempt to institute a system of public ex-
hibitions by students selected through an examination
by a committee of the Corporation and Overseers, in
order " to excite the students to a noble emulation,"
seems to have excited them instead to a series of dis-
turbances which caused the new regulations to be with-
drawn; but the custom of holding public exhibitions
continued down to about 1870.

During President Willard's time the College went
through a crisis in its financial affairs, from which it
emerged independent of state support. The Corpora-
tion in 1780 petitioned the General Court to pay to the
President a permanent salary. The Court made a grant
of £300 for a single year. After many applications
for aid, with small responses from the General Court,
the Corporation finally undertook the responsibility for
all salaries and expenses. Fortunately, under the skill-
ful management of the Treasurer, Ebenezer Storer
(A.B. 1747), who had the effective aid of James Bow-
doin (A.B. 1771), and John Lowell (A.B. 1760), the in-
vestments had prospered. In 1793 they amounted to
$182,000.

President Willard died September 25, 1804, and it
was nearly two years before the Corporation elected
his successor, partly because Fisher Ames, their first
choice, declined. The choice finally lay between Samuel
Webber (A.B. 1784), Hollis Professor of Mathematics
and Natural Philosophy, and Dr. Eliphalet Pearson
(A.B. 1773), Hancock Professor of Hebrew, and a mem-
ber of the Corporation. The latter during the interim
bitterly opposed the election of the Reverend Henry
Ware to the Hollis Professorship of Divinity, on account

LIBERAL OPINIONS TRIUMPH 29

of the latter 's Unitarianism. The Corporation, however,
by electing Dr. Ware and the Overseers by confirming
him, definitely threw the weight of Harvard College
on the side of the Unitarian movement and against the
party which stood by Calvinism. When the Corpora-
tion, soon after, elected Webber to the presidency, Dr.
Pearson resigned both his professorship and his seat
in the Corporation, because he could no longer hope to
" render any essential service to the interests of re-
ligion by continuing his relation to the College." The
Corporation urged him to reconsider, but he declined
to do so.

By thus putting the College on the liberal side in the
current religious discussion the Corporation maintained
its traditions, and actively upheld the liberty of indi-
vidual inquiry and decision in matters of religion. At
the same time they cut the College off from the great
majority of the people of New England and the rest
of the country; and the slow growth of the University
all through the middle of the century was in part due
to the fact that it was regarded, and in large part was
governed, as a seminary for the leading classes of Bos-
ton, who had almost universally adopted the new doc-
trines.

President Webber's administration was short and
uneventful. During his time Stoughton Hall was built
(1805) from the proceeds of a lottery, and the funds for
the building of Hoi worthy Hall (1812) were raised in
the same manner. In 1805 John Quincy Adams was
elected the first Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and
Oratory, though under the terms of his acceptance his
service was limited to a small number of lectures. It
came to an end in 1810, when he was sent as minister
from the United States to the Court of Russia. In 1805

30 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

$30,000 was raised by subscription to found a profes-
sorship of natural history and in two years the Botanic
Garden was established. In 1810 the constitution of the
Board of Overseers was modified by taking out of it
the Senate of the State and substituting fifteen laymen
to be elected by the Board itself. Besides these,
the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, the Council, the
President of the Senate, and the Speaker of the House
were ex-offtcio members of the Board, and there were
fifteen ministers of Congregational churches. The
rights of the University were guarded by providing
that the act should not go into effect until approved
by the Corporation and Overseers.

When President Webber died, July 17, 1810, the Cor-
poration elected to succeed him the Reverend John
Thornton Kirkland (A.B. 1789), who had been six-
teen years pastor of the New South Church in Boston,
and who in a singular degree had the confidence and
affection of the most influential men of Boston in his
day. He was liberal and open-minded, and possessed
of an urbanity of manner that has left traditions to our
own day. He was fortunate to have on the Corporation
in the early years of his term such men as Theophilus
Parsons (A.B. 1769), John Lowell (A.B. 1786), Wil-
liam Ellery Channing (A.B. 1798), William Prescott
(A.B. 1783), and before its close Joseph Story (A.B.
1798), Nathaniel Bowditch, and Francis C. Gray (A.B.
1809) ; men who were admirable examples of the ability,
cultivation, and public spirit which gave Boston such
distinction all through the first two thirds of the nine-
teenth century. They were all strong Unitarians, and
in politics convinced Federalists. Under their saga-
cious guidance the College entered on a period of pros-

LAW AND DIVINITY SCHOOLS 31

perity and intellectual advance, though of no very wide
influence on the country.

During President Kirkland's administration, which
lasted until 1828, the College fairly became a univer-
sity, for the Medical School was organized with a
separate faculty in 1816, with five professors, and the
Law School and the Divinity School were created. The
Law School owed its origin to the establishment of the
Eoyall Professorship of Law in 1815, under the will of
Isaac Royall ; and the Honorable Isaac Parker, who was
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts,
was elected as the first incumbent, in 1816. Under the
terms of the foundation he gave lectures to the Seniors.
The next year the Law School was established, with a
faculty consisting of Asahel Stearns as University Pro-
fessor of Law, and Judge Parker.

Although one of the earliest objects of the College
had been to train up ministers, there was no formally
organized theological school until after 1815. The Hol-
lis Professorship of Divinity was founded in 1721, the
Hancock Professorship of Hebrew in 1764, and the
Alford Professorship of Natural Religion, Moral Philos-
ophy, and Civil Polity in 1789, but the duties of all
three were performed in Harvard College. In 1815 the
Corporation sent out an appeal to the friends of the
University, — practically to the Unitarian body, — asking
for funds to increase the means of theological educa-
tion. The sum of $27,300 was raised, and a Society for
Promoting Theological Education in Harvard Univer-
sity was formed to administer the fund. In 1819 the
Hollis Professor of Divinity, the Hancock Professor of
Hebrew, and the Alford Professor of Natural Religion,
Moral Philosophy, and Civil Polity, with the Dexter
Professor of Sacred Literature, were organized into a

32 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

faculty and the Divinity School came into being. In
1824 Divinity Hall was erected for its use. It was for
many years wholly and frankly a Unitarian seminary.

During the same period, the question of the relations
between the Corporation and the teaching force was
finally settled. In 1806, when Chief Justice Parsons
was elected to the seat on the Corporation left vacant
by the resignation of Professor Pearson, the Corporation
for the first time contained no member of the teaching
force. In the next seventeen years nine vacancies on
the Corporation were filled, but none of them by the
election of a professor. Thereupon, when another
vacancy occurred, the resident instructors, under the
lead of Professor Andrews Norton, pressed the claim,
first on the Corporation and then on the Overseers,
that the word Fellow ought to mean a resident officer
of the College. Neither Corporation nor Overseers ac-
ceded to this view, and it was settled for all time that
there was no obligation to choose members of the Cor-
poration from among the resident teachers.

In 1820 an attempt was made to open membership
in the Board of Overseers to ministers of any Christian
church. The proposal was approved by the Corporation
and Overseers, but was defeated by an overwhelming
majority of the voters of the State, to whom it had to
be submitted as involving an amendment to the Con-
stitution. The vote reflected the very strong feeling of
the orthodox churches against the Unitarian movement.

At about the same time, a good deal of dissatisfaction
showed itself concerning the state of the College, largely
aroused by George Ticknor, who was elected Smith
Professor of French and Spanish Languages and Lit-
eratures in 1817. He was abroad at the time of his
election, and he stayed in Europe for three years more,

CHANGES IN ORGANIZATION 33

equipping himself for the duties of his charge. When
he came back he brought with him new ideas as to the
possibilities of university training. What the state of
learning in the country was at the time may be judged
from the fact that in 1814, before he went abroad, he
could find no German dictionary in Boston, and German
was not taught at Harvard until 1825.

Under the influence of Ticknor the Overseers ap-
pointed a committee of seven, with Joseph Story as
chairman, which studied the whole question, and in 1824
made a report, recommending radical changes in the
organization of the College. Many of the recommenda-
tions were adopted. Among the more important re-
forms were the organization of what had been known
as the " Immediate Government " into the " Faculty
of the University "; the organization of the Faculty
into departments, each with its professor and sometimes
an assistant; the classification of students into sections
according to proficiency in their subjects, instead of
alphabetically; the admitting of special students to in-
struction; more frequent and more vigorous examina-
tions; the abolition of fines, and the substitution of a
series of penalties, leading from warning to expulsion.
The most important change of all was the inauguration
of the elective system by allowing students to exercise
some choice in regard to a certain portion of their
studies. Juniors were allowed to substitute mathematics
or ancient or modern languages for Hebrew, and modern
languages for the calculus. Seniors were allowed to
substitute natural history for astronomy, or an ancient
or modern language for chemistry, mineralogy, and
geology. The range of choice was not large, but it was
a beginning.

An incidental result of the report of this committee

34 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

was the institution of an annual President's Report in
print. The heads of the departments reported to the
President on the amount and character of the work
which was done in their departments, and this infor-
mation he passed on in print to the Overseers. Grad-
ually the practice arose that he should make some com-
ments on the state of the University, and the series of
Annual Reports by the President became in President
Eliot's time important educational documents. The
first President's Report in print was for the year
1825-26.

Some of these changes were too far in advance of the
times, and in particular the election of studies was to be
a source of contention for two decades, and then nearly
disappear; but while Ticknor continued in his profes-
sorship, until 1835, he was a strong influence for liberal
and scholarly ideas.

In 1828 President Kirkland suffered a stroke of pa-
ralysis, which brought to an end one of the most dis-
tinguished presidencies in the history of the University.
During his time the faculties were increased by five
professorships, and Holworthy Hall, the original build-
ing of the Medical School, Divinity Hall, and University
Hall were built. The great achievements of his ad-
ministration, as has been noted, were the organization
of the University, which he left with four distinct facul-
ties, and the great elevation of standards of scholarship
in the College.

At the end of his administration, there were two
hundred and fifty-five students in Harvard College;
eighty-four students attending the medical lectures ; six
students in the Law School, thirty-three in the Divinity
School, and six resident graduates. The investment of
the University amounted to $381,682.57.

QUINCY'S ADMINISTRATION 35

To succeed him the Corporation elected in January,
1829, Josiah Quincy (A.B. 1790). He served until 1845.
In his time the University prospered, and the number
of students gradually increased. In 1836, at the time
of the two-hundredth anniversary of the College, there
were two hundred and thirty-three students; fifteen
years later the number had increased to four hundred
and forty-eight. At the end of Quincy 's administration
there were nineteen professors. During his time, Pro-
fessor Ticknor, — even after he resigned his professor-
ship, in 1835,— and William H. Prescott (A.B. 1814),
the historian, were strong influences for a liberal and
scholarly policy in the College; and their views were
reinforced by Edward Everett (A.B. 1811), George
Bancroft (A.B. 1817), and Frederic Henry Hedge (A.B.
1825), who were among the first Americans to study
at German universities, and who brought back with
them ideas of scholarship that could not be satisfied by
the prevailing system of recitations. Through such
influences, the reaction from the liberal reforms of 1826
was retarded; and as late as 1844-45 only the work of
the Freshman year was wholly prescribed, and in the
upper classes the studies were largely elective.

During President Quincy 's time four new professor-
ships were founded; Gore Hall, which has just been
taken down to make place for the "Widener Memorial
Library, was built in 1840 out of the great unrestricted
bequest of Governor Gore; and Dane Hall was built in
1829 for the Law School. In 1840 President Quincy
wrote the History of Harvard University, in two
volumes, which has not yet been superseded.

At the end of Quincy 's administration there were two
hundred and forty-nine students in Harvard College,
nine resident graduates, one hundred and twenty-nine

36 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

medical students, one hundred and fifty-three students
in the Law School, and thirty-eight students in the
Divinity School. The investments of the University
had reached the sum of $706,615.24.

When Quincy resigned, in 1845, he was succeeded for
the three years from 1846 to 1849 by Edward Everett,
one of the most distinguished men of the time. He
had been minister of the Brattle Street Church in Bos-
ton before he was twenty; he was elected Professor of
Greek Literature at twenty-one, and spent five years
in Europe preparing himself for the work, taking the
Ph.D. at Gottingen in 1817. On his return, he became
editor of the North American Review; in 1825 he was
elected to Congress, and served in "Washington until
his election as Governor of Massachusetts in 1835; and
in 1841 he went to London as Minister of the United
States. When he was elected President of Harvard
College, in 1846, therefore, he entered office with as
many and as varied distinctions as were open to a man
of his period. The choice, however, was unfortunate.
The presidency was at that time cumbered with a multi-
tude of petty duties relating to discipline and the care
of the college property; and after three years Mr.
Everett resigned in disgust, and was soon drawn into
public life again.

Nevertheless, his short presidency left its traces on
the University. For one thing, the Lawrence Scientific
School was founded, and with Louis Agassiz as the first
Professor of Zoology and Geology, Eben Norton Hors-
ford as Rumford Professor of the Application of Science
to the Useful Arts, and, in 1849, Henry Lawrence Eustis
as Professor of Engineering, — entered on a career which
was at first of extraordinary brilliancy. It was planned

SPARKS'S ADMINISTRATION 37

to be what would now be called a graduate school, though
in execution the instruction was limited to science and
mathematics; but the genius of Agassiz as teacher and
creator of faith in his subject had a profound influence
on scholarship.

At the end of President Everett's term, the number
of students in Harvard College had risen to two hundred
and seventy-three; there were six resident graduates,
one hundred and thirty-nine medical students, one hun-
dred and three students in the Law School, nineteen
in the Divinity School, and sixteen in the Lawrence
Scientific School. The investments of the University
amounted to $771,206.16.

To succeed Everett the Corporation, in 1849, elected
Jared Sparks (A.B. 1815), who since 1838 had been
McLean Professor of Ancient and Modern History.
He was a historian and biographer of conservative in-
clinations, and averse to freedom of election of studies
by students. His idea of a curriculum was a series of
strictly prescribed subjects, taught by recitations, varied
by occasional lectures. In his time the right of election
was taken away from Sophomores, and somewhat re-
duced for Juniors and Seniors. The difficulty of en-
forcing a prescribed system with the increased number
of subjects for which already there were professors is
manifest from the fact that no Junior or Senior could
take more than one language as a regular study; if he
wanted to take both Latin and Greek, he had to take one
of them as an extra.

The constitution of the Board of Overseers was a se-
rious question at this time. As it stood, it was unwieldy,
and was in danger of being mixed up with politics. In
1851, an act was passed by the General Court which
made the board to consist of the Governor, the Lieuten-

38 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

ant-Governor, the President of the Senate, the Speaker
of the House of Representatives, the Secretary of the
Board of Education, the President and Treasurer of
Harvard College, and thirty persons to be elected by
the General Court. This act, being accepted by the
Corporation and Board of Overseers, stood until 1865.

In 1852-53, the last year of President Sparks 's admin-
istration, the number of students was as follows: In
Harvard College, three hundred and twenty; resident
graduates, fourteen ; attending the medical lectures, one
hundred and twenty-seven; in the Law School, one
hundred and twenty-four; in the Divinity School,
twenty; in the Lawrence Scientific School, forty-seven.
The invested funds of the University amounted in 1853
to $899,888.07.

President Sparks was succeeded in 1853 by the Rev-
erend James Walker (A.B. 1814), who had been a Fel-
low since 1834, and Alford Professor of Natural Re-
ligion, Moral Philosophy, and Civil Polity since 1838.
He too was conservative in his ideas. His chief interest
was in perfecting the system of recitations, especially
in reducing the size of the sections into which the classes
were divided. This was made possible by a new tabular
view which was worked out by Charles W. Eliot, then
an instructor in mathematics. By skillful arrangement
he produced a scheme by which the number of sections,
and therefore the number of recitations on the same
lesson, was increased for each member of the Faculty.
The closer attention which resulted to the individual
student resulted in some raising of the standards of
scholarship.

Even then, however, and for some years later the
examinations were chiefly oral, before committees ap-
pointed by the Overseers; and the catalogues of the

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY 39

time declare that they might have an effect on the
continuance of the student in college only " in some
cases." As a matter of fact it was unusual for a
student, after the Freshman year at any rate, to be
sent away on account of deficiency in scholarship.

The most important addition to the University in
President Walker's time was the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology, which was begun in 1859, partly through
the bequest of $50,000 of Francis C. Gray for endow-
ment, partly through an appropriation of $100,000 by
the Legislature, also for endowment, and on condition
that a sum sufficient for a building be raised by sub-
scription. The sum of $71,000 was so raised, and one
end of the present University Museum was erected. The
collections which had already been brought together by
Professor Louis Agassiz filled a considerable part of
the building.

Besides the beginning of the Museum there were also
built during President Walker's time Appleton Chapel,
the old gymnasium (at present the temporary home of
the Germanic Museum), and the President's house at 17
Quincy Street, which was torn down in 1913.

In 1859-60, the last year of President Walker's ad-
ministration, the number of students was as follows:
In Harvard College, four hundred and thirty-one ; resi-
dent graduates, fifteen; attending the medical lectures,
one hundred and forty ; in the Law School, one hundred
and sixty-six; in the Divinity School, twenty-one; in
the Lawrence Scientific School, seventy-five. The total
investments of the University had risen at this time to
$1,145,647.20.

When in 1860 President Walker resigned, the Cor-
poration elected to succeed him Cornelius Conway
Felton (A.B. 1827), who had been Eliot Professor of

40 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

Greek Literature since 1834. His term was so short, for
he died just two years after his election, that he left
little mark on the policies of the University. Though
the Civil War broke out in his time, it did not affect
the University so much as might have been expected.
The number of students in Harvard College was al-
most exactly the same in 1861-62 that it had been the
year before, and in the next two years it fell off at the
rate of only ten each year. The invested funds of the
University increased in the two years of President Fel-
ton's term to $1,613,884.11.

With the election of President Thomas Hill (A.B.
1843) to the presidency in 1862 came the dawning of
a new era in the history of the University. For the
twenty years preceding, the policy of Harvard College
had been back towards a system of strictly prescribed
studies and recitations. The scheme of instruction just
before his time is set forth in the Catalogue of 1861-62,
as follows: — •

All the studies of the Freshman and Sophomore
years are required, except that French when taken by
the Sophomores is taken as an extra. In the Junior
year Mathematics, Chemistry, German, French and
Spanish are elective studies, and in the Senior year
Latin, Greek, and Italian are added to these electives;
the rest are required.

In the last two years of the College course each
student must take one of the electives assigned to his
Class; he is also allowed to take another as an extra.
The elective study, when chosen, becomes a required
study for that year for those who choose it, and credit
is given for it on the scale of rank, as in the case of
required studies; but no credit is given for extra
studies.

THE CURRICULUM ANALYZED 41

The required studies for Juniors at this time were
four hours each week of Latin, three hours of Greek, with
one lecture a week on Greek literature, two hours of
chemistry, three hours of physics, two hours of themes,
and one hour of declamation. For Seniors the required
work was four hours of history, four hours of philosophy,
two hours of ethics (in the second term political econ-
omy), one hour of physics, and one hour of forensics.
The electives seem to have called for three hours a week
of recitation, except the lectures in natural history,
which occupied one hour a week.

To us to-day the most striking thing about the cur-
riculum of the College in those days was the very small
amount of ground which could be covered even by an
eager undergraduate. In Greek for example, the total
reading for the four years, including the Senior elective,
was three books of the Iliad, the Panegyricus of Isocrates,
some Lysias, Thucydides, and Demosthenes, the Apology,
Crito, and Republic of Plato, the Clouds and the Birds
of Aristophanes, and one tragedy, the Seven against
Thebes, of ^schylus. The reading varied from year to
year, and there was instruction in Greek composition,
but so far as the Catalogue shows, no undergraduate had
a chance for wider range of reading than is represented
in this list. In mathematics the four years' course, in-
cluding the electives, consisted of geometry, algebra,
logarithms, and plane trigonometry for Freshmen;
spherical trigonometry, analytic geometry, and algebra
for Sophomores; algebra, and curves and functions for
Juniors and Seniors. Instruction in history, all pre-
scribed, was confined to Lidclell's History of Rome for
Freshmen, and for Seniors Stephens 's Lectures on the
History of France, Guizot's History of Civilization in
Europe, and the constitutional history of England and

42 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

the United States. In chemistry Sophomores recited
from Stockhardt 's Principles of Chemistry, and Juniors,
as an elective, from Galloway's Analytical Chemistry;
but by this time the latter course was accompanied by ex-
ercises in the laboratory. The Juniors could also study
as an elective Dana 's Manual of Mineralogy. In physics
the Juniors had recitations in Herschel's Outlines of
Astronomy, and Lardner's Course of Natural Philosophy,
and lectures in mechanics and optics. The Seniors had
lectures in mechanics and optics. All the physics was
prescribed. In modern languages Juniors had a chance
to read in elective courses Goethe's Clavigo, and Lessing's
Emilia Galotti; in French, Moliere; in Spanish, Don
Quixote, and two plays of Calderon; in Italian, Dante,
the latter with James Russell Lowell. The names of no
other masterpieces appear in the Catalogue. In the
biological sciences the Sophomores had a half-year of
recitation in Gray's Botanical Textbook, and the Seniors
had elective courses of lectures in botany, geology,
anatomy, and zoology, each course consisting of one
lecture a week for a half-year. There was no laboratory
work in these subjects for students in the College.

Almost all the instruction, it will be noticed, was car-
ried on by recitations. Laboratory work in the scien-
tific courses of the College was barely beginning, though
in the Lawrence Scientific School attendance was re-
quired in the chemical laboratory, and Professor Louis
Agassiz in zoology and Professor Asa Gray in botany
were giving their students " practical instruction " in
their laboratories, and the former was taking his classes
in geology on excursions in the neighborhood. As has
been said, President Walker had been anxious that the
system of recitations should be perfected, and instruc-
tion was confined to them.

HILL'S ADMINISTRATION 43

The tabular view was most carefully worked out to
distribute evenly the demands on each student's time;
each student had a recitation early in the morning, an-
other just before luncheon, and a third late in the after-
noon. In 1861-62 prayers were at a quarter before
seven, and recitations ran from eight o'clock to one, and
from four to six in the afternoon. After Thanksgiving
prayers were at a quarter before eight, and the morning
recitations were all an hour later than in the autumn.

With President Hill's accession more liberal influences
were to affect the instruction in the College, and in par-
ticular, stronger and more definite aspirations towards
higher scholarly standards. Louis Agassiz and Benjamin
Pierce, the mathematician, had great influence with him,
and the efforts of Professor W. W. Goodwin (A.B. 1846),
seconded by those of Professor E. W. Gurney (A.B.
1852) and Professor James Mills Peirce (A.B. 1853),
did much to raise the standards of scholarship and widen
the possibilities of study. By the end of President Hill 's
term — he resigned in 1868 — the elective system had re-
covered all the ground it had lost. In 1867-68 only the
studies of the Freshmen year were wholly required.
Sophomores had seven hours a week of required studies,
and two elective studies to be chosen out of Greek, Latin,
pure mathematics, and applied mathematics. For
Juniors there were required two hours a week of philoso-
phy and three hours a week of physics. From the elective
subjects — Greek, Latin, ancient history (in Greek text-
books), mathematics, chemistry, natural history, the
English language, and German — he could ' ' choose three
or two (at his pleasure)." For the Seniors the required
work was five hours a week in history, philosophy, and
ethics, with three or two electives of three exercises a
week each, chosen from Greek, Latin, mathematics,

44 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

physics, chemical physics, history, philosophy, and mod-
ern languages (French, German, Italian, and Spanish).

Quite as striking as the increased freedom was the in-
creased range of the studies open to undergraduates. In
Greek the reading of Freshmen included Xenophon's
Memorabilia, the Odyssey, and Arrian's Anabasis. Soph-
omores might read the Prometheus of JEschylus, the Birds
of Aristophanes, with some Demosthenes and Lysias;
Juniors, ^Eschines and Demosthenes On the Crown, the
Electra of Sophocles, and some Plato; Seniors the
Agamemnon of JEschylus, the Antigone of Sophocles, and
Thucydides. In modern languages Freshmen read
Moliere and Racine, and Seniors got to Wilhelm Tell and
Faust. In the Junior year there was an elective on the
English language which included Anglo-Saxon, early
English, the Bible, Spenser, Shakespeare.

Another development of this time, which showed the
aroused ambitions of faculties, was the enterprise of
University Lectures, which it was hoped would open
the way to the same sort of advanced scholarship as was
to be found at the German universities. These lectures
were usually given in short courses, either by professors
of the University, or by other scholars, and were in-
tended to create and advance interest in their subject.
Most of the courses which were given dealt with various
subjects in science. They did not make sufficient pro-
vision for continued and thorough work on the part of
anyone except the lecturer, however, and on the other
hand, though the lectures were of a rather popular
character, they did not draw the general public.

In 1865 came the final severance of the last formal
ties between the University and the state. By an act
passed in that year the Board of Overseers was made to
consist of thirty members, all of whom were to be elected

CHARLES W. ELIOT
President, 1869-1909

ELECTION OF OVERSEERS 45

by the graduates of the College. From this time on the
control of the University has been wholly in the hands
of the graduates through their right to elect the Over-
seers, who in turn have the right of confirmation of all
elections to the Corporation and the supervision of all
acts of the Corporation. In 1880 seats on the Board
of Overseers were opened to non-residents of the State of
Massachusetts, and in 1902 the Legislature put wholly
in the hands of the Corporation and Overseers the regu-
lation of the franchise for choice of the latter.

The University grew, though for the most part slowly,
during President Hill's time. In 1867-68 there were
four hundred and seventy-nine students in Harvard
College, fourteen resident graduates, three hundred and
thirty students in the Medical School, one hundred and
fifty-six in the Law School, twenty-three in the Divinity
School, and forty-nine in the Lawrence Scientific School.
The total investments of the University amounted in
1868 to $2,178,782.31. Harvard College Library had
112,500 books, and the total resources of all the libraries
of the University amounted to 168,000.

Harvard University, as we know it to-day, is practi-
cally the creation of the administration of President
Eliot, the longest since the foundation of the College. At
the beginning of his forty years' term, Harvard was, as
Mr. James Bryce is said to have told President Eliot at
the time, " no real university, but only a struggling
college, with uncertain relations to learning and re-
search, loosely tied to a congeries of professional
schools. " * At the end of the period, chiefly through
forces set at work in its earlier years, Harvard had
become a real university of a new type, firmly organized,
1 Harvard Graduates' Magazine, vol. xvii, p. 376.

46 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

vigorous, and offering instruction in almost all fields of
human knowledge. How great was the transformation
in these forty years can best be made clear by a brief
review of the state of the University in 1869.

The College had made a beginning, but no more than
a beginning, in breaking free from the deadening
routine of elementary instruction in a few subjects pre-
scribed for all students. The elective system, with which
some experiment had been made in the days of President
Quincy, but which had gradually languished and died,
was revived in 1865, under President Hill ; and in 1867
almost half the work of the three upper classes was
elective. But the Faculty had only twenty-three mem-
bers, the elective courses were strictly separated ac-
cording to college classes, and there were only eight for
the Sophomore class, eleven for the Junior class, and
fourteen or fifteen for the Senior class. There were five
hundred and twenty-nine undergraduates and five resi-
dent graduates. Except for some advanced work in the
Lawrence Scientific School and in the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, there was no chance for any study
beyond the very moderate requirements for the A.B.
degree. In Greek, for example, in 1868-69, the elective
work for Sophomores consisted of the Apology and Crito
of Plato, the Alcestis of Euripides, and half the first book
of Herodotus; for the Juniors three books of Polybius
with Professor Sophocles, or JSschines and Demosthenes
On the Crown with a tutor (Professor Goodwin was away
that year) ; and in the Senior year either the Apology
and Crito of Plato, or the Antigone, the Alcestis, and
some Thucydides. Beyond this there was no chance for
study : the instruction offered was exhausted.

The Department of Chemistry consisted of Professor
J. P. Cooke and a tutor ; and the instruction, beyond the

THE UNIVERSITY IN 1869 47

required lectures and recitations of the Freshman and
Sophomore years, was confined to an elective for Juniors
in " practical chemistry," with lectures and six hours
of laboratory work, and one for Seniors in crystal-
lography for the first term, and in blowpipe analysis
and in mineralogy for the second term.

The entry in the President's Report for the Depart-
ment of History is as follows : —

In this Department instruction was given to the
whole Senior Class by Professor Torrey and Professor
Gurney; the textbooks used being the Abridgment of
Story's Commentaries on the Constitution, Guizot's
Civilization in Europe, Arnold 's Lectures, and Hallam 's
Middle Ages. An elective class read with Professor
Torrey May's Constitutional History and Mill on
Representative Government. A special examination
was held of students who had offered themselves as
candidates for Honors after having pursued an addi-
tional course of study.

The Sophomore Class recited to Professor Gurney in
The Student's Gibbon during the First Term.

The Freshman Class recited to Mr. Lewis, in the
Second Term, in Duruy's Histoire Grecque.

These examples will serve to show the narrow limits
and the low level of instruction in the College when
President Eliot was elected.

The professional schools were in no better way. The
Divinity School required for admission " a knowledge
of the branches of education commonly taught in the
best academies and high schools, ' ' but it did not require
Latin and Greek. Down to 1870 it gave no degree.

In the Law School (which had fallen off both in num-
bers and in standards after the death of Judge Story in
1845), to quote Professor Langdell, " Students were

48 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

admitted to the School without any evidence of
academic acquirements, and they were sent from it, with
a degree, without any evidence of legal acquirements. ' ' x
In other words, only a testimonial of moral character
was required for admission, and after three terms in the
School a student received the degree on recommendation
of the Faculty, but without examination.

The Medical School was very loosely attached to the
University. Its income, except about $3000 a year from
invested funds, was not in the hands of the Treasurer
of the University; and the fees were collected, and the
income expended by the " Executive Faculty," which
consisted of nine professors and two adjunct professors.
The School was in effect a ' ' proprietary school, ' ' in the
sense that it was strictly under the control of its teach-
ers, who determined its destinies without consultation
with any other body. They made no money out of it,
for their ambitions for advancing their subject were
high. The only requirements for the degree of M.D.
from the school were attendance at two courses of lec-
tures, sixteen weeks long, only one of which had to be at
the School, a certificate from some medical school or
medical practitioner that the candidate had studied
medicine three years, a dissertation on a medical subject,
and the passing of five out of nine examinations, each of
which was oral and only ten minutes long.2 The instruc-
tion offered consisted of a course of lectures covering
sixteen weeks in winter, a spring term of twelve weeks,
a summer term of four weeks, and a fall term of eight
weeks. A large majority of the students attended only
the winter course of lectures, and presented certificates

1 Harvard Graduates' Magazine, vol. ii, p. 494.

2 W. L. Richardson, in Harvard Graduates' Magazine, vol. ii, p.
477.

PRESIDENT ELIOT 49

from physicians to cover the rest of the work. The in-
struction was given mainly in recitations, with a few
lectures. Apart from dissection in March and April
there seems to have been nothing of the nature of labora-
tory work.

In the Lawrence Scientific School most of the students
were registered in engineering and chemistry, with a few
in zoology and chemistry. The Museum of Comparative
Zoology was still in the hands of an independent board
of trustees, as was also the School of Mining and Prac-
tical Geology, on the foundation created by Samuel
Hooper. It was provided that students in engineering
might pursue any studies except chemistry, and vice
versa for students of chemistry. The requirements for
admission were eighteen years of age and "a good com-
mon English education."

The Dental School was still struggling for existence,
its instructors then, as ever since, making great sacrifices
to support it, and having complete management of such
financial interests as it had. The Bussey Institution had
not yet been organized, though the funds had just come
into the hands of the Corporation.

There was no agreement as to the academic year, and
there were four different arrangements of term time and
vacation in different departments.

At this time began the rapid concentration of these
scattered materials for a university into a vigorous,
united body with constantly growing strength and am-
bitions of service.

The new President had already maturely considered
the problems involved in making higher education in
America equal to meeting the enormous advances in
knowledge made in the first half of the nineteenth cen-
tury. He had recently spent two years in Europe,

50 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

chiefly in Germany, there not only studying chemistry,
his own subject, but closely observing European sys-
tems of education. A few months before his election he
had written some articles for the Atlantic Monthly, in
which he set forth the principles of the " New Educa-
tion " of which the American university, which should
be ' ' not a copy of foreign institutions, but the slow and
natural outgrowth of American social and political
habit," was to be the pinnacle. He was only thirty-
five years old when he assumed the office, and no other
member of the Corporation was under sixty; but they
had selected him after mature consideration, and had
persisted in their choice in the face of a first and second
rejection by the Overseers.

Fortunately for his far-seeing plans new sources of
revenue were made available for the College at the very
beginning of his administration. An increase of the
tuition fee from $100 to $150, which took effect in
1869-70, added $28,000 of fresh income, and the com-
pletion of Thayer Hall, built by Nathaniel Thayer, a
member of the Corporation, added $10,000 more. The
first installment of the Class Subscription Fund, amount-
ing to $50,000, was paid in to the Treasurer in 1870.

With these new resources five new professorships in
the College were established, in mathematics, history, en-
tomology, Latin language and literature, and modern
languages, besides a professorship of palaeontology in the
Scientific School, and the Bussey Professorship of Di-
vinity, the funds for which had just become available.

The chief developments in the University under Presi-
dent Eliot's guidance may be considered under five
heads: (1) The expansion of instruction in the College;
(2) The raising and broadening of the requirements
for admission; (3) The growing maturity of college lifej

EXPANSION OF ELECTIVE SYSTEM 51

(4) The development of instruction for graduate stu-
dents, with its necessary consequence, the advancement
of knowledge; and (5) The raising of professional train-
ing in medicine, law, engineering, and finally in busi-
ness, to the graduate level.

The first step in the development of Harvard College
was the appointment of a dean to take charge of the un-
dergraduates, who took over three quarters of the work
which had been done by the President. The latter
thus had his time free for the oversight of the whole
University and the study of large problems, and the Col-
lege was certain of closer administration. The standing
of the position was insured by the appointment of Pro-
fessor E. W. Gurney, whose judgment and wisdom were
later recognized by his election, in 1884, to a seat in the
Corporation.

The expansion of the elective system went on, with
the addition of new courses. In 1872 it was provided
that students who by examination anticipated any of the
required courses could take elective courses in their
place. Three years later it is noted in the President's
Report that there were two hundred and eighty examina-
tions for anticipation under this provision. In 1873
there was required of Seniors only certain instruction
in composition, of Juniors only logic, psychology, and
rhetoric. In the same year consecutive courses were
established in geology and in zoology, and the Depart-
ment of Fine Arts was created by the appointment of
Mr. Charles H. Moore as instructor in drawing, and of
Charles Eliot Norton as lecturer on the history of the
fine arts and their relation to literature. The next
year Mr. Norton was elected Professor of Fine Arts,
and Mr. J. K. Paine Professor of Music. In the same

52 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

year the prescribed studies had been still further de-
creased in number and pushed back towards the Fresh-
man year. President Eliot notes that except for exer-
cises in writing there remained in the Sophomore and
Junior years only " bits of rhetoric, history, philosophy,
and political economy." In the same year advanced
courses were added in Spanish, political economy, ex-
perimental physics, music, and fine arts, and courses in
the philology of the Greek and Latin languages, in
diplomatic history, and in international law. The reduc-
tion of prescribed studies went on until in 1883-84 it
was voted to extend the elective system into the Freshman
year, with the prescription of French or German for
students who had not passed both at entrance, a few lec-
tures in physics and chemistry, and rhetoric and
composition. In 1881-82 the distinction which had
been maintained between graduate and undergraduate
courses was given up, for it was found that a student
who had entered early on a subject easily got to the
advanced courses before graduation; and on the other
hand, among the increasing number of graduates from
other colleges there were many who wanted and needed
to enter some of the less advanced courses.

In the meantime the Faculty were not forgetting
quality of work. As early as 1872-73 the passing mark
in elective courses was raised from 33 to 40 per cent.
Furthermore, it was voted that no student should be
recommended for the degree who had not attained an
average of at least 50 per cent in all his studies.

The first step towards granting the degree of A.B.
for less than four years' residence appears in a vote
passed by the Faculty in 1881-82, after two years of
discussion, allowing a student who had anticipated a
substantial proportion of the work for Freshmen to

SHORTENING OF COLLEGE COURSE 53

complete the requirements for the degree in less than
four years by taking extra courses. President Eliot
was convinced that some such shortening of the College
course was necessary to save the bachelor's degree from
being squeezed out between a lengthened and improved
high-school course and the increasing thoroughness of
professional studies, and he returned again and again to
the crusade for a shorter course. In 1890-91 the Faculty,
after a lively debate, voted to reduce the requirement for
the degree of A.B. from eighteen to sixteen courses, and
to make the regular term of residence three years. The
proposal, however, was not approved by the Overseers.
In the meantime, an increasing number of students were
graduating in three years by anticipating work of the
Freshman year and taking extra courses in College ; and
there was consequently some uncertainty as to the mean-
ing of the degree. In 1896 the Faculty again voted to
adapt the requirements for the degree to a three years'
residence, but the majority was so narrow that the vote
was not presented to the Board of Overseers. This
ended the effort to establish a three years' degree on a
lower requirement; and in 1901 the Faculty, at the re-
quest of the Overseers, inserted in the Annual Catalogue
a statement that the requirement in courses for the de-
gree could be satisfied in four, three and a half, or three
years.

The second of the great advances of the University in
President Eliot's time was the raising of the standard
of admission. The great improvement in the standards
of study and education in the College rests on an even
greater advance in the standards and efficiency of the
secondary schools of the country, and a good portion of
this latter advance may be fairly ascribed to the con-

54 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

slant interest of President Eliot in all educational ques-
tions, and to the gradual raising and improvement of
the requirements for admission to Harvard, which led
the way for a general advance in the requirements for
admission to all the important colleges of the country.
As far back as 1872 President Eliot could say in his
Annual Report: —

The examination for admission to Harvard is at least
one year's study higher than the admission examina-
tion of any other college in the country. . . . The
authorities of the College do not intend by any act of
theirs to diminish this difference between Harvard Col-
lege and all other American colleges; but they would
very gladly see the other colleges raising their requisi-
tions for admission to the level of Harvard 's requisitions.

The requirements for admission in 1868-69 were nar-
row and rigid. In Latin they were confined to Virgil,
Cassar's Commentaries, a selection of Cicero's Orations,
Latin grammar and Latin composition ; in Greek, to the
Anabasis and the first three books of the Iliad, Greek
grammar and Greek composition; in mathematics, to
arithmetic, and the elements of algebra and of plane
geometry; in history, to short text-books in the history
of Greece and Rome ; and in English, to reading aloud.
There were no real alternatives, and the examinations
were oral. Some freedom was introduced within two
years by providing that an examination on the mathe-
matics and physics of the Freshman year might take
the place of the Latin and Greek composition, and of
two fifths of the reading in those languages.

In the meantime the Faculty was discussing a pretty
radical restatement of the whole system of requirements.
The result was announced in 1872-73 in a new set of

REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION 55

requirements, which President Eliot summed up three
years later as follows: —

The examinations in Latin and Greek have been
greatly improved in subject-matter and in method; the
mathematical requisitions have been sensibly increased:
English and either French or German have been added
to the requisitions; and natural science has got a foot-
hold in the scheme. Furthermore, the few persons by
whom mathematics are, for any reason, preferred to
the classics, are permitted to offer certain advanced
mathematics instead of portions of the Greek and
Latin authors.

In this year, for the first time, examinations were
held away from Cambridge. Cincinnati was chosen for
the experiment, which proved so successful that other
places were soon added.

The next advance was made in 1876-77 by introducing
maximum requirements in two out of the four chief
subjects, Greek, Latin, mathematics, and physical or
natural science. The change involved no serious increase
in the requirements, but it was a step towards making
easier the substitution of mathematics or science for
part of the classics.

The discussion over Greek continued, but it was nine
years before any further step was taken. Then, in May,
1886, the Corporation and Board of Overseers gave their
approval to a compromise measure which had been
adopted almost unanimously by the Faculty the year
before, after long argument over the fate of Greek. The
important new points in this scheme were that modern
languages and laboratory courses in physics and chemis-
try were added to the advanced subjects, and that it was
made possible to omit even elementary Greek by making
a larger offering of mathematics or science. Thus, for

56 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

the first time, it became possible for a boy to prepare
for Harvard College at a school which taught no more
of the classics than easy Latin prose.

In the meantime President Eliot was a leader in a
movement for the general improvement of education in
America, the results of which inevitably affected the
conditions of admission to college. In 1892 the National
Educational Association appointed a committee, which
became known as " The Committee of Ten," to study the
teaching of all the subjects usually found in secondary
schools, and President Eliot was made chairman of the
committee. Under his chairmanship, the Committee of
Ten organized conferences on each of nine subjects, each
conference consisting of ten members, drawn, like the
Committee of Ten itself, from both college and school-
teachers, and from widely separated regions of the coun-
try. Each of these conferences made an exhaustive
study and report on its own subject, and these reports
were in turn thoroughly digested and discussed by the
Committee of Ten. The latter then prepared four pro-
grams, covering the four years of the secondary school,
with varying emphasis on classics, science, mathematics,
and modern languages ; and they strongly urged that the
doors of the colleges should be open to pupils who had
followed any one of these four programs, or similar ones.
The report had an immense and beneficent effect on the
whole system of education in America; and President
Eliot's leading part in it still further confirmed his
reputation as a great educational statesman.

It was obvious that this report would call for a re-
vision of the entrance requirements at Harvard ; and in
January, 1898, after nearly four years of deliberation, the
Faculty adopted a scheme in which the range of elec-
tion was greatly increased, and which made it possible

HARVARD AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 57

for a boy to avoid either Latin or Greek without penalty
in the form of harder work in other subjects. The only
prescriptions under this scheme were that a boy should
be prepared in English, in one ancient language, and
one modern language, in geometry, and in a science, and
that he should offer at least two advanced subjects.

All through these years of discussion and advance the
College has kept in the closest touch with the schools,
and no change has been made which has not been sub-
mitted to experienced school-teachers. In compensa-
tion, the College is now in closer relations with the pub-
lic-school system of the country than ever before. In the
eight years from 1867 to 1874 the average percentage of
students admitted from public high schools was 31 per
cent, and in one year it fell to 24 per cent. In 1906-07
this percentage had risen to 43 per cent; and in 1912,
with the aid of a new alternative plan of admission
even more closely adapted to the general school system
of the country, it had risen to 50 per cent.

The two changes which we have been considering —
the responsibility thrown on the individual by the elec-
tive system, and the higher requirements for entrance —
have together produced a marked change in the direction
of maturity and sobriety in the tone of undergraduate
life. The College to-day has few of the outbreaks of
boyish effervescence which kept the Faculty and
proctors of the earlier time guessing when their peace
would next be disturbed.

The increase in age at entrance had begun before 1869.
In 1856 the average age of the entering class was seven-
teen years and seven months, and in 1860 it had risen to
eighteen years and one month. In 1869 it was eighteen
years and five months. Since then it has varied, rising

above nineteen from 1887 to 1902, then gradually falling
to an average below nineteen and above eighteen years
and six months. A considerable proportion of the Junior
classes and almost all of the Senior classes in the last
forty years had therefore arrived at the age of citizen-
ship.

Under such circumstances, it was inevitable that the
old traditions of boyishness should gradually die out,
and in the deans' reports there are constantly fewer
complaints of disorder, and increasingly frequent men-
tion of cooperation between Faculty and students.

The first of the traditional rights to commit disorder
which fell was the right of Sophomores to haze Fresh-
men. In his report for 1870-71, Dean Gurney declared
that " Unhappily all efforts to detect and bring to jus-
tice the perpetrators of the gross outrages in the winter
of 1871 at a private house and in Stoughton Hall have
thus far proved unsuccessful." The outrage in Stough-
ton was an explosion of gunpowder in the cellar, which
nearly wrecked the building. The next year he reports
greater progress: seven Sophomores and one Freshman
having been suspended for disturbance on " Bloody
Monday " night, the sentences had been remitted in
view of an agreement signed by all members of the
Sophomore and Freshman classes to refrain hencefor-
ward from hazing in all its forms. Thus hazing came
to a timely end ; for the class of 1876 had no experiences
which they were under obligation to pass on to the class
of 1877, and the class of 1877 had no experience in the
matter at all.

Since that time there have been few outbreaks in
which any number of students were concerned. In the
early eighties there was occasionally some disturbance
after athletic successes, and for a time the discovery

THE ATHLETIC COMMITTEE 59

that proctors could be brought swarming to the yard
by cannon crackers and bonfires stimulated the restless
imagination of youth. When the Faculty appointed a
committee to confer with the students, and issued an ap-
peal to their good sense, and at the same time instructed
the College carpenter to furnish wood for bonfires on
Jarvis Field, both the fun and the desire to make trouble
evaporated.

In 1885, when the Faculty first, under the compulsion
of events, began to take notice of athletic matters and
forbade intercollegiate football for a couple of years, a
committee of conference consisting of five Faculty mem-
bers and sixteen student members did much to soothe the
disturbed feelings of the College. Two years later a
thorough report on athletics, prepared by a committee
of the Faculty consisting of Professors J. W. White,
Chaplin, and A. B. Hart, went still further to quiet the
alarm felt by undergraduates and some graduates that
athletics were being systematically attacked, by making
clear the faith of the Faculty, as President Eliot summed
it up in his annual report, " that dyspepsia is less tol-
erable than a stiffened knee or thumb, and that effeminacy
and luxury are even worse evils than brutality." In
1887-88 the reconstitution of the Athletic Committee,
with three members each from Faculty, graduates, and
undergraduates, was a pledge that has proved lasting of
the faith of the Faculty and of the Governing Boards
in the good sense and safe judgment of the College as a
whole.

In the middle of the nineties another practice gained
general acceptance among undergraduates which caused
their neighbors in the town to regard them as young
barbarians at play: this was the custom of celebrating
the arrival of the mid-year period of examinations by

60 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

firing guns and other firearms out of the windows of
the dormitories. By a fortunate accident an important
athlete was taken with a smoking gun ; and a committee
of his fellows was formed to save him from his necessary
fate. Through them an agreement was entered into by
which the custom, which had already gathered the
antiquity of five or six years and so ran to a time whereof
no man could remember the contrary, was quietly put
away with other traditions like hazing and rebellions.
The same year a committee of three students, with the
approval of the College as a whole, hunted out a man
who had painted the statue of John Harvard, and forced
him to leave college. A few years after this the ancient
and celebrated society of the " Med. Fac." which from
the middle of the nineteenth century or earlier had
brought the keen intelligence of youth to the devising
and execution of pranks that were irritating to the
elders, was brought to a peaceful death by the concerted
efforts of its past members, acting under the pressure of
public opinion and of imminent danger of a prison sen-
tence to one of its active members who, in the execution
of the prank assigned to him, had fallen into the hands
of the police. Thus again an ancient tradition of boyish
disorder was done to death by the maturer sense of re-
sponsibility in the College at large.

Far more difficult than the quelling of actual disorder
has been the problem of inducing the students as a
body to look on their work as men's work, and to cease
shirking it in the spirit of schoolboys. This is a problem
which will perhaps never be worked out in any college
belonging to this imperfect world ; and it is always easy
in discussion of it to lose sight of the fact that the idle
and the floaters are on the surface, and therefore get a
disproportionate share of attention. Moreover, a col-

SYSTEM OF DISCIPLINE 61

lege will always be looked on by some busy fathers as
an asylum to which they can commit their boys for the
four most troublesome years of their lives. Nevertheless,
the progress has been great, and it is true that now the
great majority of undergraduates look on their studies
with an interest felt by a fair smaller proportion in the
days of strictly prescribed studies.

The dealings of the Faculty with the students during
the last four decades have been a continuing series of
experiments in letting them " taste freedom and re-
sponsibility." When Mr. Eliot became President he
found still surviving the elaborate system of marks of
censure for keeping students up to their attendance on
church, prayers, and recitations. There was a multi-
tude of petty rules : one forbade congregating in groups
in the Yard ; another, wearing any but a black coat on
Sunday; another, lying on the grass in the Yard; an-
other, smoking in the Yard ; and there were many more.
For all of these there was a system of penalties in the
form of demerits of subtraction from the total number
of marks earned by attendance and assiduity at recita-
tions. The whole system of discipline was based on
minor prescriptions, on which the undergraduates, with
the perverse logic of youth, based a feeling that they
had a vested right to go up to the very edge of the legal
prohibition. In 1874 the Seniors were given freedom
from the rules of attendance. The plan worked well,
and it was soon extended to the Juniors. Gradually
through this decade the Faculty was simplifying regu-
lations, and in 1879-80 they were thoroughly revised, in
order, as Dean Dunbar said, to make them " a body
of instructions, informing the student of the steps to be
taken by him in order to qualify himself for a degree or
for any academic honors." In the same report, he

62 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

announced the extension of the principle of responsi-
bility for attendance as follows : —

The Faculty determined to adopt the simple provision
with respect to students of all classes, that habitual
absence is prima facie evidence that the student is not
fulfilling the purposes of his residence at the University,
and calls for inquiry, explanation, and such action as
may be found to be fitted to the special circumstances ;
and that irregularity of attendance, unless accompanied
by good scholarship, is to be regarded and treated in
the same way. No scale of penalties is stated, and no
precise line of absences or scholarship is given, the de-
sign of the rule being to deal with individuals and not
with sharply defined classes, and to deal with them by
such flexible methods as are necessary in distinguishing
between cases where the student proves his capacity to
act upon his own responsibility and those where he needs
more or less support from discipline.

To carry out this provision, the direct responsibility
for good order and attendance was handed over by the
Faculty to administrative officers. Five years' trial of
the new principle showed the need of some slight con-
cessions to the weakness of human nature, and in 1885-86
the Faculty required students to give proof to their in-
structors that they were working regularly and sys-
tematically in their courses. In the same year another
change more than made up for this closer supervision.
Attendance at morning chapel was made voluntary, and
there was then no official means of knowing whether a
student was in Cambridge or not. It was a period of
delightful freedom for the birds of paradise, and in
many cases they fluttered far from the nest. It was not
long before absence from Cambridge became an open
scandal, and in 1888-89 the Overseers put before the
Faculty the necessity of attending to the matter. Under

DEAN BRIGGS 63

this pressure the Faculty revised the regulations once
more and established rules requiring prompt attendance
after vacations and holidays, prompt notice to the Col-
lege office of absence caused by illness or indisposition,
and something like regular attendance and systematic
work. With these safeguards " the development of the
general policy of giving students liberty with responsi-
bility " may be regarded as complete.

The success of any such policy must in the end depend
on its administration. That the policy has been so suc-
cessful at Harvard is largely due to the genius for deal-
ing with young men possessed by Dean L. B. E. Briggs
(A.B. 1875), who became Dean of Harvard College in
1891, and therefore bore the brunt of so administering
the new rules as to make students believe in them. His
faith in " the overwhelming predominance of good over
evil in undergraduates," as President Eliot said in con-
ferring the degree of LL.D. on him at Commencement,
1900, gave to the office of Dean a new meaning. Under
him students began to come to the Dean's office of their
own accord, to get counsel for themselves and for their
friends, and the reign of " liberty with responsibility "
was well balanced.

Coincident with this final step towards liberty with
responsibility in matters academic went a notable step
towards liberty with responsibility in religion. From
the foundation of the College attendance at the regular
religious exercises, daily and weekly, had been rigorously
prescribed. Even the great enfranchisement of thought
embodied in the Unitarian movement at the beginning
of the nineteenth century did not shake the belief that
young men should have no option about going to chapel
services and to church.

In the latter third of the century, however, sentiment

64 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

began to change. As early as 1873 the Faculty had voted
that attendance at daily prayers should be made volun-
tary. The Governing Boards moved more slowly, and
it was not until 1886 that the Corporation and Board
of Overseers, after four separate votes of the Faculty
and two petitions from the students, finally gave their
assent. Henceforward attendance at religious exercises,
so far as the University was concerned, was left wholly
to each student to decide for himself. It was understood
at the time that the influence of the late Bishop Phillips
Brooks was very powerful both in delaying the change,
and in bringing it about when he was once convinced.
Before the change took place, the Corporation, acting
with a committee of the Board of Overseers, had made
the chapel services more attractive and more fitting to
a body drawn from all varieties of religious persuasion,
by putting them in the hands of a Board of Preachers,
drawn from different denominations. Each of these
preachers undertook a period of service, during which
he conducted the short morning sevice in the chapel,
and preached at the Sunday service. Besides this, he
put himself at the service of students who wished to call
on him in the pleasant rooms provided for the preacher
in residence. There has been no difficulty in drawing
ministers of various Christian bodies for service on this
board ; and they testify unanimously to its interest and
value.

To come to the fourth great advance of President
Eliot's administration, the change which did more than
anything else to transform Harvard into a real univer-
sity was the organizing of regular instruction for grad-
uate students leading to the degrees of A.M., Ph.D., and
S.D.

GRADUATE INSTRUCTION 65

Instruction for graduates at Harvard was far from
being a new fact. Indeed, the presence of resident grad-
uates is probably as old as the College itself, and in all
the catalogues of the nineteenth century there are small
groups of resident graduates entered after the under-
graduates.1

The Lawrence Scientific School was founded in 1846,
largely to carry on advanced work in science, and this
end was successfully accomplished under Professor Louis
Agassiz, Professor Asa Gray, and Professor Wolcott
Gibbs, and their colleagues and successors. Apart from
pure science, however, the opportunities for graduate
instruction at Harvard were meager and irregular.
"With men like Professor F. J. Child, Professor Benjamin
Peirce, and Professor W. W. Goodwin on the Faculty
there was little danger that scholarly research would
languish or slumber ; but there was no organized system
by which students could take advantage of the learn-
ing of those eminent men, or of the collections of books
in the Library, which were growing all the time under
their direction. An ambitious student who wished to
get any real knowledge of his subject and to learn
methods of research, went to Germany.

Some attempts had been made in 1869 to remedy this
defect. The University Lectures have already been de-
scribed. In 1863 the Corporation, to make them more
effective, authorized the professors in all departments of
the University to associate themselves in order to im-
prove these lectures. Nevertheless, the breakdown of
the University Lectures was not long delayed. In his
report for 1871-72, President Eliot wrote: —

1 J. M. Peirce in Report of the Graduate Department, President
and Treasurer's Report, 1879-80.

66 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

The " University Lectures " have now been tried for
nine years. Although some temporary advantages and
certain permanent improvements have resulted from
them, it must be confessed that they have distinctly
failed as a scheme for giving advanced instruction in
philosophy, history, and the humanities, and that they
have failed hopelessly, and in an unexpectedly short
time. They have not induced Bachelors of Arts of this
University to remain in Cambridge for purposes of
systematic study, and they have not attracted to the
University advanced students from other places.

In the mean time the Faculties and the Governing
Boards had been giving time and thought to the matter
and had worked out a plan which was incorporated in
standing votes of the Governing Boards in the spring
of 1872. Under these votes, the old degree of A.M.,
which for many years had been given to any respectable
holder of an A.B. on payment of a fee three years after
graduation, was now to be conferred only on examination
and after a year of residence. The new degrees of Ph.D.
and S.D., with prescriptions borrowed from the German
usage, were established; the former to be conferred
after at least two years of residence, the latter after
three, and both only on examination and the presenta-
tion of a thesis showing original research. These de-
grees were to be administered by the University Council,
which consisted of the President, professors, assistant
professors, and adjunct professors of the University.
With these votes serious and substantial study and re-
search were definitely launched at Harvard.

Stimulus to graduate work was provided by the
foundation, in 1871, of the John Thornton Kirkland
Travelling Fellowship, through a gift from the Honorable
George Bancroft (A.B. 1817), in memory of President
Kirkland, and by the Parker Fellowship, in 1873, for

GRADUATE INSTRUCTION 67

graduate study at home or abroad. But at the same
time advanced courses were instituted in various sub-
jects, including Sanskrit, classical philology, diplomatic
history, and international law.

In 1876-77, five years after the announcement of the
new degrees, the President reports that there are forty-
five candidates for the graduate degrees, including twenty
for the Ph.D. and five for the S.D. ; and in these first
five years there were conferred a total of thirty-seven
degrees of A.M., fourteen of Ph.D., and two of S.D. The
experiment was so successful that President Eliot
pledged the Corporation to its support through opening
and improving the laboratories and museums and in-
creasing the store of books in the Library.

In 1877-78 the " Graduate Department " first appears
in the annual catalogue under that title, with a list of
twenty-seven courses specially for graduates, besides the
courses in Harvard College, which also were open to
them. In 1881-82 there were forty-eight courses listed
under the Graduate Department, though not all were
given in that year. The next year and for several years
to come these courses were included with the general
list of electives.

At last, in 1889-90, after nearly twenty years of or-
ganized graduate courses, these points had become clear:
that this instruction fell almost wholly under the facul-
ties at Cambridge; that it was inextricably connected
with the instruction of undergraduates, the two depend-
ing on and mutually strengthening each other ; and that
the time had come for it to be organized more firmly into
a distinct school. At the same time, the character of the
Lawrence Scientific School had considerably changed,
and its instruction had almost grown together with that
offered in Harvard College. Accordingly a thorough

68 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

reorganization was worked out, by which the faculties
of the College and of the Lawrence Scientific School and
the Academic Council were dissolved, and a new Faculty
of Arts and Sciences was created, to which was com-
mitted the charge of the College, the Lawrence Scientific
School, and the Graduate School, each of them to have
its own administrative board. At the same time the
courses offered by this joint Faculty were rearranged
in three groups, ' ' primarily for undergraduates, " " for
graduates and undergraduates," and " primarily for
graduates." This flexible arrangement recognized the
close relations existing among the courses, and the way
in which the body of instruction in any subject im-
perceptibly passes on from elementary to advanced.

The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences has steadily
and at times rapidly increased in size. In 1872-73 there
were in all twenty-eight students, in 1882-83 there were
fifty-six; in 1892-93 there were two hundred and fifty-
six; in 1902-03 there were three hundred and twenty-
five; and in 1908-09 there were four hundred and
twenty-nine. A good test of the usefulness of the School
lies in the number of the highest degrees conferred, for
hard and long-sustained work has been necessary to win
them. At Commencement, 1873, the degrees of Ph.D.
and S.D. were conferred for the first time by the Uni-
versity, the former on two candidates, the latter on one.
In 1883 there were five degrees of Ph.D. In 1893 there
were twelve degrees of Ph.D. and one of S.D. In 1903
there were twenty-eight degrees of Ph.D. and one of
S.D. In 1909 there were thirty-eight degrees of Ph.D.

The fifth great group of changes in the University
resulted in making professional study in the professional
schools graduate work. Of all the changes wrought

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 69

during the administration of President Eliot those in
the Medical School are the most spectacular.

The state of affairs, as previously described, had al-
ready created discussion among some of the younger in-
structors of the School; and the discussion was imme-
diately brought to a head by President Eliot. He wrote
in his first annual report: —

The whole system of medical education in this country
needs thorough reformation. The course of professional
instruction should be a progressive one, covering three
years; the Winter Session and the Summer Session
should be amalgamated ; and the student should give his
attendance at lectures and recitations, at hospitals and
laboratories, during the whole year. The Medical
Faculty have been actively discussing these much-needed
changes, and will shortly rearrange their programme
of instruction.

The discussion in the Medical Faculty was thorough
and, it is said, heated ; but in his second annual report,
President Eliot could announce that the changes he had
outlined had gone into effect at the beginning of the
year 1871-72. The main points of these revolutionary
changes were: (1) regular instruction running through
the same academic year as in the rest of the University ;
(2) a progressive course covering three years, in which
each student would study all the recognized subjects of
medical instruction; (3) full laboratory work in place
of or in addition to lectures and recitations in anatomy,
physiology, chemistry, and pathological anatomy; and
(4) the passing of written examinations in all the main
subjects instead of the passing of oral examinations in a
part of them.

At the same time, the Corporation assumed full charge
of the receipts and expenditures of the Medical School,

70 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

thus removing the chief remaining characteristic of the
" proprietary school." At this time the entire endow-
ment of the School was $40,000.

The reforms were eagerly received by the students, and
in 1871-72 the President reported that the chemical
laboratory was crowded, and the microscope room in con-
stant use. In the same year the Corporation appointed
professors of ophthalmology, hygiene, mental diseases, and
dermatology, though the professors served without pay.
The degree of M.D. was given under the old regulations
for the last time in February, 1874. In that year seven
eighths of the students stayed for the second term,
though no other medical school in the country required
attendance for more than a four or five months ' session.
It was not until 1876-77 that any other school followed
the example of the Harvard Medical School. In 1879-80
the School took another step forward by setting up a
voluntary four years' course beside the three years'
course. This year land was bought in a central position
for a new building, and the next year two members of
the Faculty, within three weeks, raised over $100,000
for the erection of the building. In the ten years after
the School had ceased to be in any sense a private ven-
ture, and had become a constituent part of the Uni-
versity, it received by gift and bequest $270,000.

In these ten years important steps had also been taken
to improve the quality of the men who came to study
medicine. The majority of the students at the School
in 1870 are described as " greatly inferior, as regards
education and general standing, to those who enter other
departments of the University. " * A considerable im-
provement was made at once by requiring three full

* Dr. W. L. Richardson, Harvard Graduates' Magazine, vol. ii,
p. 479.

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 71

years of work for the degree. In 1873-74 more than
one third of the students held degrees, as against less
than one fourth three years before. In 1874-75 examina-
tions for admission to the School were established for
all candidates who did not come with a degree. In 1880
the Faculty doubled the number of subjects in this re-
quirement; and by this time President Eliot could
say : —

In this University, until the reformation of the School
in 1870-71, the medical students were noticeably in-
ferior in bearing, manners, and discipline to the stu-
dents of other departments ; they are now indistinguish-
able from other students.

For the next thirty years the history of the School is
a history, no longer of a revolution, but of a steady,
rapid advance and expansion. In those thirty years
medical science was completely made over by the dis-
covery of the microscopic forms of animal and vegetable
life, which are the principal causes of diseases; by the
enormous advances of chemistry, and by the great im-
provements in the technique of microscopy. These great
improvements in the science altered the whole idea of the
aim of medical education and effort, and preventive
medicine began to take its place by the side of curative.
As early as 1884 President Eliot urged the endowment
of a professorship of public health or preventive medi-
cine.

When in the autumn of 1883 the School moved into the
new building on Boylston Street it had developed the
laboratory idea to a point that was hardly conceivable
twelve years before. The laboratories were now the chief
feature of the new building, and the Dean of the

72 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

School for the first time, in his report for 1883-84, re-
counts the scientific papers produced in them.

From the time that the four years' course was es-
tablished the School gained slowly in numbers. In 1887-
88 the number of subjects of medical research and dis-
covery had so increased that the work of the fourth
year was made elective, and two hours a week of elective
work were introduced into the third year. In 1888-89
summer courses were established, chiefly clinical. In
the same year the School received from Dr. Henry F.
Sears a gift to build a laboratory for the rapidly increas-
ing department of pathology. By 1891-92 it had so in-
creased in importance and in its scientific possibilities
that it was decided that a professor of pathology should
be appointed who should give all his time to teaching
and research. In the same year a professorship of his-
tology and human embryology was established, an asso-
ciate professor of physiology was added, and the work
in bacteriology was enlarged. In the next year the
change in the conditions of medical education was recog-
nized by putting the professors in the Medical School
who were giving their full time to the School on the
same level of salaries as the Faculty of Arts and Sciences.
Henceforward, it was seen, some important medical sub-
jects, which had disconnected themselves from practice,
would demand the whole time of a professor.

In 1896-97 the President announced that the School
had more than doubled in numbers since the completion
of the new building in 1883, and that since the new
methods of education demanded more space for each
student, the School had outgrown its quarters. He
pointed out also, that for its full usefulness the School
should have a hospital attached to it. Five years later
he was able to announce the successful completion of the

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 73

great <c Medical School Undertaking," which involved
the purchase and holding for the School of a large tract
of land, and the raising of nearly five million dollars
for buildings and endowments. An account of these
buildings and their equipment will be found in
Chapter III.

The improvement of the equipment of the School,
however, was not the only care of the authorities. The
Faculty noted with disturbance that the proportion of
college men entering the School, which had risen to a
maximum of 53.9 per cent in 1884, had under the in-
creasing requirements for the degree rapidly fallen off
again, until in 1893 it had dropped to 23 per cent. The
same falling-off in the percentage of college graduates
had taken place in the Law School. After careful con-
sideration the Faculty of the Medical School voted in
1895-96 that after the year 1900 candidates for admis-
sion to the School must come with a degree. As a con-
sequence of this vote the number of the entering class
was reduced by more than one half; and even with the
advantages of the new buildings the School has not yet
recovered in numbers. Fortunately the endowment
raised for the support of the School in the new build-
ings made it possible for the work to go on, with a con-
stantly increasing amount of research.

Coincident with the complete making over of medical
education went a corresponding advance in dental edu-
cation. In the history of the various faculties there is
no finer record of sacrifice for the sake of improving
and elevating a profession than that made by the Faculty
of the Dental School. Loosely attached to the University
in 1869-70, as a kind of step-brother of the Medical
School, it had only twenty-seven students, and its dem-
onstrations and practical instruction were carried on at

74 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

the Dental Infirmary of the Massachusetts General Hos-
pital. In 1871-72 the Corporation assumed the financial
affairs of the School, and a summer session was estab-
lished, as a first step towards a term as long as that in
the other departments of the University. Three years
later this end had been accomplished ; and besides, every
candidate for the degree was required to spend at least
one full year in the School, and the fees were raised.
The severity of these requirements as compared with
those of other dental schools cut down the numbers, and
for some years the professors served without pay. By
1882-83 the School was beginning to draw students from
abroad, and the payment of small salaries to the pro-
fessors was resumed. In that year its numbers had
risen to thirty and five years later to forty-two.

The reputation of the School was now secure, and
gradually requirements for admission were established
and increased. After 1901-02 these requirements were
made equal to those for Harvard College. The number
of students had now risen to one hundred and five, and
the School had an endowment of $77,000. In 1907-08 the
Faculty of the Medical School recommended that the
Corporation advance $80,000 out of the Medical School
funds towards a building for the Dental School. With
this sum, and a subscription to which the graduates of
the Dental School contributed generously, a new build-
ing next to the buildings of the Medical School was
assured. Thus the Dental School entered on a new
period of well-deserved prosperity.

Though the revolution in the Law School during Presi-
dent Eliot's administration was as complete as that in
the Medical School, and has had even wider effect
throughout the country and even in England, it was
sooner completed, for the common law has not also

THE LAW SCHOOL 75

simultaneously undergone a revolution which has car-
ried away all earlier landmarks, as has happened in the
case of medical science.

The Law School was still, in 1869, modeled upon a
lawyer's office: the fee was the same as that paid in
offices, and the School furnished its students with text-
hooks.1 The Faculty never had formal meetings; and
President Eliot tells of the humorous surprise with
which Governor Washburn, then Dean of the School,
met him when he first visited Dane Hall. The course
was nominally eighteen months, but the students were
not divided into classes except for the moot courts, and
all the instruction given each year, except one course
for beginners, was intended for the whole School. There
were no examinations, either at the end of courses, or for
the degree. The library of the School, which in 1845
had been considered the largest and best law library in
the United States, had been wrecked through careless
use and almost complete absence of regular oversight.
There were three professors in the School, and one
hundred and twenty students in the first term of
1869-70. No one is designated as Dean in the annual
catalogue.

In December, 1869, Professor Parsons resigned from
the Dane Professorship. C. C. Langdell (A.B. 1851) was
elected to succeed him, and the next year was made
Dean of the School. Of the circumstances of the ap-
pointment something will be said in Chapter III; and
there also will be described in full the " case system "
of teaching law which Professor Langdell at once in-
troduced into one of his own courses, and which rapidly
spread, first throughout the School, and then to all the

1 C. C. Langdell, in Harvard Graduates' Magazine, vol. ii, p.
492.

76 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

leading law schools of the country. Under this system
a student of law was sent to the books in which were
contained the reports of the cases decided wherever the
common law prevails; there he learned the facts on
which the decisions were based, and the actual opinions
and reasoning of the judges. At the same time a per-
manent librarian was added to the staff of the School,
who gave his whole time to the library, and within ten
years over $34,000 was spent on restoring and increasing
the collection. The regular residence required for the
degree of LL.B. was raised from eighteen months to two
years; and examinations were instituted at the end of
each course, the passing of which was required both for
promotion to the second year and for the degree. The
tuition fee was raised to $150.

The first effect of these rigorous changes was to re-
duce the number of students; but by the second year
the decrease was made up, and nearly two thirds of the
students were college graduates, while a few of the best
students were staying for a third year of study. In
1872-73 the late James Barr Ames (A.B. 1868), then
just out of the School, was appointed assistant professor.
This was a radical departure from the established prac-
tice, for law schools heretofore had sought for professors
only lawyers of established reputation. The appoint-
ment inaugurated a new profession, the teaching of law.

In 1873-74 James Bradley Thayer (A.B. 1852) was
elected Royall Professor of Law, and in the next year
John Chipman Gray (A.B. 1859) was promoted to the
Story Professorship. They, with Professor Ames, and
under the leadership of Dean Langdell, brought the
School to a success and reputation which soon made
necessary the enlargement of the Faculty. In 1875-76,
under the steady pressure of Dean Langdell for thor-

THE LAW SCHOOL 77

oughness and breadth in legal education, the course for
the degree was lengthened to three years, the change to
take effect with the class that entered the School in 1877-
78. In his report for the next year President Eliot, in
summing up the advance of the School, described how
seriously it had outgrown its building. Two years later
he was enabled to announce the promise of a new build-
ing, on an ample scale. Before the new building was
ready a new professorship was endowed, and $47,000
was raised for the purchase of books for the Library.

Up to this time there had been some irregularity in
the growth of the School; and when it moved into the
new building in the autumn of 1883 the number of
students was less by twenty than in the preceding year.
The depression was temporary, however, and within a
year or two the numbers were slowly mounting again.
Lawyers had felt some hesitation over the new and
strange way of educating young men for the profession ;
the School was said not to be " practical "; and the habit
of the professors of laying foundations for legal prin-
ciples in the Year-Books of the Middle Ages seemed to
many of the older generation academic and fantastic.
As the graduates of the School entered the offices in
Boston and New York, however, and then passed on into
practice, they were found to have a grasp of legal prin-
ciples and a habit of thinking law that was in the highest
degree " practical "; and soon the demand from lawyers
for the graduates of the School could not be filled. Be-
fore 1890 the increase in the number of students became
rapid, and by that year the School had outgrown the new
building which in 1884 had seemed large enough to hold
it for a generation.

Henceforward the history of the School is of growing
prosperity, of steadily more rigorous standards, and of

78 THE HISTOKY OF THE UNIVERSITY

numbers that could not be kept down. With the increase
of numbers it could not help being prosperous finan-
cially; for since the range of elective studies is very
limited in such a subject as law, the number of the
Faculty could never be very large. The School there-
fore soon acquired a large balance at the Treasurer's
office; and though salaries were raised to a point con-
siderably above the level in the rest of the University,
in 1905 it was possible to build a large and expensive
building out of the surplus. It was none too soon for the
convenience of both Faculty and students, for in 1903
the President notes that the number of students had
increased four times over that of thirty years before, and
had doubled in ten years. In 1908-09 there were six
hundred and eighty-four students.

This great increase was in spite of steady heightening
of the requirements for entrance. In 1877, examinations
for admission had been instituted for all applicants who
were not college graduates. In 1893 the Faculty took
the further step of announcing that after 1894-95 only
graduates of colleges of good standing and persons quali-
fied to enter the Senior class of Harvard College would
be admitted to the School at all. In the first year in
which this vote went into effect there was some falling
off of numbers in the entering class, but the increase very
soon began again. In 1899 the Faculty of the School,
finding that the men who entered with some of their
work in Harvard College still unfinished were not doing
well, raised the requirement for entrance so that men
from Harvard College must have done all their work for
the A.B. degree before entering the Law School. Since
that time the School has been strictly a graduate school.
At the same time the Faculty have in various ways raised
the standard of work in the School, in order to keep the

THE DIVINITY SCHOOL 79

numbers down, and to keep only young men of dis-
tinguished ability.

From the beginning of his administration Dean Lang-
dell insisted that the Library of the School was the very
heart of legal education. If men were to know the com-
mon law they must have access to the common law as it
has been worked out in many courts in hundreds of
years; and the decisions of these courts as recorded in
the reports must, therefore, be made accessible. In
1870 he introduced radical changes in administration,
both to protect the books, and to make them more avail-
able for study. The Dean's ambition was to bring the
Library back to the position it had held twenty-five years
before, of being the best legal library in the country.
In twenty years he could safely declare that it had
reached that position, with the possible exception of the
Congressional Library at Washington. In 1890 there
were 25,000 volumes in the Library. In 1899 this num-
ber had doubled; and in 1909 it had again more than
doubled, and the Library contained 115,000 volumes.

In the Divinity School the slack academic ideas of
the mid-nineteenth century had almost obliterated stand-
ards; and in 1868-69 the Faculty, which had only two
resident professors, had ceased to enforce a knowledge
even of Greek and Latin for admission. In 1869-70 a
first step was taken towards a restoration of the ideal of
scholarship as part of the training of ministers by re-
storing the requirement of these languages. In the same
year the degree of Bachelor of Divinity, for the first
time, was conferred after examination. Heretofore no
degrees had been granted, but persons who had spent
three years in the School were held to have graduated,
and were so entered in the Triennial Catalogue. In
1870-71 President Eliot announced that the Divinity

80 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

School was to be thoroughly rehabilitated; and he set
forth the principles which were to govern the making
of a scholarly place of training for ministers as fol-
lows : —

The pulpits of the country are not going to be filled
by geniuses; if they were there would be no need of
theological schools. They are to be filled by common
men of good natural parts, who have been carefully
trained for their special work. These men should be
scholars by temperament, education, and inveterate
habit, else their congregations will drain them dry in
a year or two. Moreover, ministers, having none of the
material or adventitious means of gaining influence and
commanding respect in the community, need, both as
individuals and as a class, all the support and moral
strength which the possession of ample learning can
give. To breed such men of solid learning is the main
function of a theological school connected with a
university.

The next year a professorship of New Testament
Criticism and History was established and filled; it was
voted that after 1874 no person should be held to have
graduated at the School unless he had received the
degree of Bachelor of Divinity; and a permanent li-
brarian was appointed to care for the collection of books,
which was considerable, but which had suffered for lack
of care. In spite of these improvements the number of
students made no gain and in 1875-76 it had fallen to
twelve, with three special students. In that year Presi-
dent Eliot pointed out that the proportion of ministers
among the graduates of the College in the decade 1861-
70 was less than six per cent. The endowment of the
School was small; and when Professor Stearns resigned
the Parkman Professorship of Theology in 1878, its in-
come was so meager that the vacancy could not be filled.

THE DIVINITY SCHOOL 81

A serious effort was therefore made to increase the
funds of the School, and by 1879 $170,000 had been
raised. For several years the School had limited its
pecuniary aid to students who had proved intellectual
capacity. The number of students had somewhat in-
creased, but was still small. By 1881-82 it had risen
to thirty-two.

In this year the Faculty of the School, undeterred by
fear of again depleting it, voted to recommend to the
Corporation that only bachelors of arts be admitted to
regular standing in the School, and that no other per-
sons be admitted as special students except after a
satisfactory examination in Greek and Latin. In the
same year the Corporation voted to fill the Hollis Pro-
fessorship of Divinity, which had been kept vacant for
forty-two years in order that the slim endowment
might increase, and the "Winn Professorship of Ecclesi-
astical History. By a fitting chance the new incumbent
of the Hollis Professorship, who was a student of Assyri-
ology and other Semitic Languages, was a Baptist, the
first incumbent of the chair to belong to the same de-
nomination as the founder. The Faculty of the School
was now well distributed among the denominations, for
it included three Unitarians, two Baptists, and one
Orthodox Congregationalist. It thus fairly fulfilled its
profession of being unsectarian, in spite of the fact that,
because its endowment had come largely from Unitarians,
it was understood that at least two professors, including
one professor of theology, should always be Unitarians.

With this increase in the Faculty came general pros-
perity; and in 1888-89 the President noted that the
number of students had doubled in the last three years.
Six years later, after frequent urging from the Presi-
dent, the tuition fee was raised to $150, and theological

82 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

education stood fairly on a plane with other depart-
ments of the University. Moreover, the School was so
strong that this increase of fee had no effect on the
enrollment. Since that time there has been no serious
change of policy, but the course has been gradually
strengthened, especially in the direction of social serv-
ice. In 1908-09 there were thirty-six students, repre-
senting twenty-five colleges and twelve theological
seminaries.

In 1907-08 arrangements were completed by which the
Andover Theological Seminary removed to Cambridge,
and though retaining its own organization, entered into
close affiliation with the Harvard Divinity School. This
alliance greatly strengthened the instruction of both
Schools, and the amalgamation of their libraries pro-
duced a collection of books unequaled in the country
for the subjects which it covered. It helped still
further to emphasize the purpose of the Harvard Di-
vinity School to be non-sectarian.

The fortunes of applied science in the University
have greatly varied during President Eliot's adminis-
tration, and even the name of the department has
changed. In 1869 the purpose of the Lawrence Scientific
School was ambiguous. It had been founded with very
liberal conditions, which covered not only the applica-
tion of science to practical arts, but instruction and
research in natural history, and even left a place for
advanced instruction in the classics. a Its early pur-
pose had been largely shaped by the comprehensive
mind and enormous energy of Louis Agassiz, who was
brought from Switzerland as the first professor of zoology
and geology : the very comprehensiveness of his chair —

1 President's Report, 1846-47, p. 7; Annual Catalogue, 1846-47,
2d Term.

LAWRENCE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL 83

Dr. Holmes would have called it a settee — shows how
little differentiated, and how vague, the aims of science
were two generations ago. For chemistry Eben Norton
Horsford was elected to the Rumford Professorship on
the Application of Science to the Useful Arts, which
had been founded in 1816 under the will of Benjamin
Thompson, Count Rumford. In 1849 Henry Lawrence
Eustis (A.B. 1838) was elected to a Professorship of
Engineering. In the first few years of the School there
were regular departments of chemistry, zoology and
geology, and engineering; but instruction was also of-
fered, " should a sufficient number of students require
it," in botany, experimental philosophy (now known
as physics), anatomy and physiology, astronomy, and
mathematics. The first announcement of the School,
in the annual catalogue of 1846-47, states its purpose
as follows: —

In the course of the past winter, arrangements were
made by the government of the University for the or-
ganization of an advanced School of Science and Litera-
ture. It is intended that instruction should be given in
this school to graduates and others, in the various
branches of exact and physical science, and in classical
learning. The pure and mixed Mathematics; Astron-
omy, theoretical and practical ; Chemistry, in its various
branches, theoretical and operative; Civil Engineering,
and generally the application of science to the arts of
life and the great industrial interests of the community,
with the several branches of Natural Science, will be
pursued in the Scientific Department. The Classical
Department will be mainly devoted to those studies
which form the preparation for academic life.

Under the last rather cryptic sentence there seems to
have lain the intention to establish instruction in
philology and other so-called scientific modes of studying

84 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

literature, so as to create what we should call to-day a
graduate school, though no requirement for entrance
was made beyond that of age, which was set at eighteen
years. As a matter of fact the students in the early
years came well up to the ambitions of the founders;
probably no institution in the country has had a set of
students so many of whom came to distinction as those
in the early years of the Lawrence Scientific School.
The numbers increased rapidly at first under the stimu-
lus of the novelty of the idea, the high distinction of the
professors, and the opportunity of escape from the con-
stricting bonds of the prescribed system of studies, which
through this period was growing narrower and more
deadening. Then came a period of stationary numbers
and of uncertainty of aim, in which the School stood
in 1869.

In that year there were forty-three students, barely
more than half the number of three years before. The
subjects of instruction were much the same as twenty
years before, except that anatomy and physiology, ex-
perimental philosophy, and astronomy had disappeared,
and mineralogy, under Professor Josiah P. Cooke, Jr.,
had been added. The formula in the catalogue con-
cerning students is: " Professor Gibbs will receive
Special Students to the course in experimental chemistry
and research, who will give their attendance in the
Laboratory from SVz o'clock, A.M., till 4 o'clock, P.M.,
five days in the week. ' ' The instruction promised, how-
ever, included modern languages and mathematics. The
announcement in the other departments was similar.
In 1865 Samuel Hooper had endowed the Sturgis-
Hooper Professorship of Geology, with the purpose of
its becoming the nucleus of a School of Mining and
Practical Geology.

LAWRENCE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL 85

The students were listed in the Catalogue without dis-
tinction of classes, but with their departments noted
after their names. Out of forty-one students in the
catalogue of 1868-69 only five had degrees ; twenty-four
were in the department of engineering or the School of
Mining. The School seems t> have been at this time
loosely organized, uncertain in aims, and running down-
hill in point of numbers.

Very early in President Eliot's administration
plans for its reorganization were discussed by the
Faculty of the School and by the Corporation, and a
plan for increasing and strengthening the instruction
in the department of engineering, for consolidating the
chemical laboratories of the School and the College, and
for making more effective use of the great advantages
for the teaching of natural history, were adopted. A
four-years course was provided in civil and topographi-
cal engineering, and a professorship of topographical
engineering added to the Faculty. With the economy
effected by the consolidation of the two chemical labora-
tories it was possible to turn the Rumford Professorship
over to physics, and so to provide for instruction in the
subject of light and heat.

Under the reorganization of the school four separate
courses were offered: 1. A four-years course in civil
and topographical engineering. 2. A three-years course
in theoretical and practical chemistry. 3. A one-year
course in the elements of natural history, chemistry,
and physics, intended especially for teachers or per-
sons who intended to become teachers. 4. Thorough in-
struction for advanced students in physics, chemistry,
zoology, geology, botany, and mathematics. For the first
course a new degree of Civil Engineer was established.
The first three years of the four-years course in the

86 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

Mining School were made identical with those of the en-
gineering course. The next year a four-years course in
mathematics, physics, and astronomy was added.

At the same time the Lawrence Scientific School and
the Mining School were brought more within the Uni-
versity fold by opening the rooms in the College dor-
mitories to their students; and in 1872-73 their stu-
dents received instruction in French and German in
the College classes. The standards of the School were
made more definite in 1872-73 by establishing examina-
tions for admission similar to those in the College, except
that French or German replaced Greek, and the quan-
tity of Latin was reduced.

In spite of the efforts of the Faculty and the Cor-
poration, however, the School did not thrive. In 1878
the number of students had fallen to seventeen. Un-
wittingly the great improvements made by the broaden-
ing of the elective system and the setting up of regular
work for graduates were sapping the sources of supply
for students in pure science, and the depression in
business had reduced the demand for engineers and
industrial chemists. In particular the provision for
the degrees of Ph.D. and S.D. to be administered by the
Faculty of the College had drawn away most of the
advanced students in pure science and mathematics
from the Scientific School, and the opening of the Col-
lege courses to mature special students had drawn off
another class of applicants. In 1879-80, of the nine
regular students (besides the seven special) five were in
the engineering course, three in the four-years course in
natural history, and one, the only student of the second
year, in the four-years course in mathematics, physics,
and astronomy.

In the next few years there was a slight revival in

LAWRENCE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL 87

numbers, chiefly through the effect of lower entrance
requirements and of leniency in scrutinizing the qualifi-
cations of special students; but by 1886 the number of
students had dropped again to fourteen, which proved
to be low-water mark in the history of the School. In
1885-86 the President, after pointing out that all the
instruction in pure science, and almost all of that neces-
sary for an engineer, was now open to students of the
College, formally recommended that the Lawrence
Scientific School should be discontinued as a separate
organization, the name Lawrence to be given to a
building and to one or two professorships, in order to
preserve the memory of the sagacious purposes and
liberality of Abbott and James Lawrence, and that the
degree of Civil Engineer, based on that of A.B. or S.B.,
should be administered by the Academic Council.

About this time, however, in 1885, a new dean was
appointed, under whose energetic management the
School escaped this imminent fate of extinction; and
beginning in 1887 the numbers of students increased, at
first slowly, and then with great rapidity. At the end
of the six years in which Professor Chaplin was Dean
there were one hundred and eighteen students in the
School, though the number of special students still out-
numbered the students in the regular courses. Of these
courses there were now five: in civil and topographical
engineering, in chemistry, in geology, in biology, and in
electrical engineering; all were laid out to occupy four
years.

The deanship of Professor Shaler, who succeeded
Dean Chaplin in 1891, included the years of the greatest
prosperity of the School as an undergraduate institu-
tion. The reorganization in 1890, by which the College,
the Lawrence Scientific School, and the Graduate School

88 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

of Arts and Sciences were administered by a single
faculty, each with an administrative board of its own,
proved highly effective. The Lawrence Scientific School
now went ahead rapidly, and in the next four years
there were added new four-years courses in anatomy,
physiology and physical training, architecture, me-
chanical engineering, and mining engineering. In
1896-97 the number had risen to over four hundred, with
a decreasing proportion of special students; and it was
decided in that year to raise the requirements for en-
trance by five annual increments until they were even
with those of the College. The next year the Corporation
decided to build for the School the much needed new
quarters, out of the great unrestricted bequest of Henry
L. Pierce. At the same time a building on Holmes Field,
which had been built originally for athletics when the
track was on that field and the baseball diamond on
Jarvis, was altered over into a laboratory for the courses
in mining and metallurgy.

Thus the School went on, constantly increasing in
usefulness and numbers. Courses in landscape archi-
tecture were added in 1900-01, and in forestry in 1903-04.
When Professor Shaler died in 1906 there had been for
several years more than five hundred students in the
school.

The final stage in the history of the School under
President Eliot was reached in 1905-06. Then, with the
immediate prospect of the receipt of the first install-
ment of one million dollars from the Gordon McKay be-
quest, a complete reorganization of the instruction in
applied science was effected. The Lawrence Scientific
School went out of existence, the degree of Bachelor of
Science was established in Harvard College, and a
Graduate School of Applied Science was created to

THE BUSSEY INSTITUTION 89

give degrees in engineering, mining and metallurgy,
architecture, landscape architecture, forestry, applied
chemistry, applied biology, and applied geology, but to
holders of a bachelor's degree only. Thus was brought
to practical consummation President Eliot's vision of a
university in which, on the foundation of a great and
strong college of liberal arts, should be built up pro-
fessional schools which should give training in all the
intellectual professions.

The history of the other department which was incor-
porated with the Graduate School of Applied Science in
1905, the Bussey Institution, is interesting, though check-
ered. It was organized in 1870-71 from a fund left by
Benjamin Bussey, who died in 1842, leaving a large
estate to the University after the lapse of certain an-
nuities, a part of it to found a school of horticulture and
agriculture. President Eliot defined the aims of the
Institution as follows: —

The single object of the School is to promote and
diffuse a thorough knowledge of Agriculture and Horti-
culture. Young men who propose to be farmers or
gardeners, or who expect to have charge of large landed
estates or ornamental grounds, whether private or
public, will find at this School instruction suited to their
needs, and amply illustrated by the rich scientific col-
lections of the University, and by a botanic garden, a
large and profitable farm, green-houses, propagating
houses, and field experiments.

Francis Parkman (A.B. 1844), the historian, was the
first professor of horticulture, and there were two other
professors.

The project was ahead of its times, however, and in
the second year of its organization President Eliot
pointed out that even the regular agricultural colleges

90 THE HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY

of the country had not yet created a demand for thorough
instruction in agriculture. That demand did not really
develop for more than twenty years, even in the states
of the West where the agricultural colleges are now so
strong. The Bussey Institution, therefore, ran a quiet
course, carrying on a certain amount of research, and
training a small number of students, in part young men
who were to earn their living on the farm or as gar-
deners, in part young men of a more ornamental type,
who for one reason or another did not gain admission
to Harvard College.

The Bussey Institution was overshadowed by its neigh-
bor, the Arnold Arboretum. In the spring of 1872
the trustees under the will of James Arnold gave
$100,000 to establish an arboretum, on condition that
the University should grant the land. Accordingly a
considerable portion of the great estate at Forest Hills
which had been left by Benjamin Bussey to the Univer-
sity was set aside for the purpose ; and under the energy
and learning of Professor Charles Sprague Sargent
(A.B. 1862), who succeeded Francis Parkman as Pro-
fessor of Horticulture in 1872, and was made the first,
and so far the only, Arnold Professor of Arboriculture in
1879, it has become a very important station for the
acclimatization and the study of trees and shrubs.

In 1903-04 a more effective use for the Bussey Institu-
tion began to develop. By that time it had become
clear that the situation of the lands in the suburb of a
large city, with city conditions rapidly growing out
around them, made the site impracticable for an ordi-
nary agricultural college. The coming of Dr. Theobald
Smith to the University in 1894-95, as Professor of Com-
parative Pathology, made necessary some place where
his work could be carried on; and in 1903-04 a special

THE BUSSEY INSTITUTION 91

laboratory was built for him at the Bussey Institution,
where under his direction, but at the expense of the
State Board of Health, diphtheria anti-toxin was pro-
duced for use of the physicians of the State. In the
mean time the income of the Bussey Institution, which
had been greatly impaired by the Boston fire of 1872,
was too small for any development of the work. Ac-
cordingly, when graduate work in the Lawrence Scien-
tific School was merged in the Graduate School of Ap-
plied Science, it was proposed to use the Bussey Insti-
tution as a place for advanced instruction and research
in applied biology. In 1907-08 the Corporation voted
to discontinue the Bussey Institution as a place of under-
graduate instruction. New appointments to its Faculty
were made, either by election or by transfer from other
departments of the University, and it was transformed
at a stroke from an almost supernumerary department
to a most productive and profitable institution for ad-
vanced instruction and research in " four subjects of
applied Science which are of fundamental importance
in agriculture, horticulture, and arboriculture, namely,
economic entomology, plant breeding, animal breeding,
and comparative pathology. ' ' 1

1 President's Report, 1907-08, p. 31.

II

HARVARD COLLEGE

The Faculty of Arts and Sciences. The Elective System. Aca-
demic Distinctions. Discipline. Admission. Undergraduate Life.
Athletics. Intellectual Avocations. Religion and Philanthropy.
Clubs and Societies. Dormitories. Class Organization.

WITH this brief survey of the history of the University
before us, we can now turn to consider it as it is to-day.
I shall begin by an account of Harvard College, first
describing the academic side and the system of admin-
istration and instruction, then the social life and other
activities of undergraduates outside their studies; then
I shall pass on to the work of the various graduate
schools, and to the library and museums and other
scientific establishments of the University. It is to be
remembered that, though Harvard College makes more
impression on the imagination both of graduates and
the public, yet the work of the graduate schools and
the product of research conducted therein are in them-
selves sometimes of more lasting importance. The fact,
however, that this product is nowadays often technical
and recondite, makes it hard to render a just account
of it for a general audience.

Harvard College, " the oldest, the most essential, and
the most beloved department of Harvard University,"
as President Eliot once called it, is to-day administered
by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. This Faculty ad-
ministers also the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences,
the Summer School, and the work in University Ex-

92

FACULTY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES 93

tension. It consists of all teachers in those depart-
ments whose appointment is for more than a single year,
and it includes four deans : the Dean of the Faculty, the
Dean of Harvard College, the Dean of the Graduate
School of Arts and Sciences, and the Dean for Univer-
sity Extension. In 1911-12 there were on its lists
one hundred and forty-nine professors, associate pro-
fessors, assistant professors, one lecturer, and twenty-
five instructors, making, with a few administrative offi-
cers, a total of one hundred and eighty members.

The Faculty meets in the large Faculty Room in Uni-
versity Hall, once the College chapel, and now, with its
round-top windows on each side, and portraits of pro-
fessors and founders of professorships, the handsomest
room in the University. Among the portraits are several
of distinction as paintings, including the fine Copley
portrait of John Winthrop, Hollis Professor of Mathe-
matics and Natural Philosophy from 1738 to 1779, and
the portraits of Sir Matthew Holworthy, the benefactor
of the eighteenth century, and of his wife, both by Sir
Peter Lely. There are also portraits of James Russell
Lowell, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and a number
of other professors. At intervals along the walls there
are a number of busts, in marble, bronze, or plaster, of
professors and other officers, including a fine marble
bust of President Eliot ; and there are bronze bas-relief
portraits of Professor Francis James Child and Alex-
ander Agassiz.

The members sit at long tables or on settees along the
sides of the room. Before the meetings, tea is served
in one of the adjoining rooms, and -there members can
gather for a little talk before the meeting, which not
infrequently runs on into the time when business is
begun. The Faculty is well provided with silver plate.

94 HAEVARD COLLEGE

It ordinarily uses for these weekly meetings a beautiful
set which was presented some years ago to Professor
John Knowles Paine, Professor of Music, and was given
by his widow to the College for the use of the Faculty.

Much of the routine business which comes before the
Faculty has already been prepared for it by the several
administrative boards and needs only a formal vote.
Other matters, including all general questions of policy,
are debated at length. Usually the Faculty has on hand
some important question, such as a change in the require-
ments for admission, or in the rules for the choice of
electives, or in the requirements of residence for the
degree, which go to the root of education, and in these
cases the discussion is long and thorough. For such ques-
tions the ground is ordinarily prepared by a committee,
which in important matters may take a year or two for
discussion before bringing in their report. In so large
a body as the Faculty all practicable views, and some
that are impracticable, are sure to be presented, and all
are considered thoroughly and at length. The educative
value of these discussions is great, and they make power-
fully for unity in a large body in which, because of its
division into departments, there is always some danger
that every man may go his own way.

The attendance at Faculty meetings varies considerably
with the subject. Some members are assiduous and regu-
lar, the faces of others are unknown to the Secretary.
On important questions the vote usually includes a very
large proportion of the whole Faculty. All votes which
involve serious changes of policy must go to the Cor-
poration and Overseers for their assent. This provision
for the approval of the governing bodies is by no means
perfunctory, for both Corporation and Overseers take a
very active interest in the growth of the University, and,

though the cases are infrequent, the Overseers occa-
sionally send back a vote to the Faculty for further
consideration.

The ordinary course of promotion in the Faculty is
fairly regular. A young man is apt to enter the service
as an assistant in one of the larger courses while he is
studying in the Graduate School. Here he works under
the direction of an experienced teacher, and if he proves
his value at this work, he is likely within a few years
to be promoted to an instructorship on a regular ap-
pointment. Most of these instructors have already
taken the Ph.D. If he still, in this new field of proba-
tion, shows himself a good teacher and maintains his
promise as a scholar, and if the Corporation can be
convinced that the department needs a new man and
there are funds to support him, the young man is then
promoted to the Faculty as an instructor without limit
of term. In this position he serves for a varying num-
ber of years, usually not more than five, and then if
he still seems to be made of good professor stuff, he is
appointed assistant professor for five years. Ordi-
narily he serves two terms of five years as assistant
professor before being promoted to his professorship;
but in the case of brilliant men the election to the per-
manent position may come earlier.

The future professor who thus gradually works up
from his graduate school is very often a graduate of
another college than Harvard. The large staff of assist-
ants in the elementary courses has proved an excellent
preventive of inbreeding; for it furnishes a constant
supply of men from a great variety of colleges all over
the country who can, after this careful and rapid prov-
ing, be brought into the Faculty. At the same time the
Corporation, from time to time, elects directly to profes-

96 HARVARD COLLEGE

sorships men who have made their mark elsewhere. As a
result, the Faculty has wide range and great diversity
of experience. When President Eliot retired, in 1909,
of the nine deans in the University five had received
their first degrees elsewhere than at Harvard; and in
1911-12, out of one hundred and eighty members of the
Faculty of Arts and Sciences there were fifty-eight who
either had received their first degrees elsewhere, or had
no university degree. This great variety in the origins
of its teachers is a marked characteristic of Harvard
University to-day.

Within the last few years the position of professors
has been greatly improved by the establishment of a
pension system. In 1899, six years before the creation
of the Carnegie Foundation, Harvard University re-
ceived an anonymous gift, from the income of which
retiring allowances for professors were instituted. Un-
der the rules as originally established by the Corpora-
tion at that time, a professor or other officer of like
character who had been in service for twenty years
could retire at his own will when he reached the age
of sixty years, with an allowance ranging from one
third to two thirds of his salary at the time of retiring.
At the same time, it was provided that the Corporation
could on their part retire a professor with an allow-
ance at the age of sixty-six. Under the rules of the
Carnegie Foundation, in which Harvard University
shares, the age for voluntary retirement is sixty-five,
and provision is made for the widows of professors.
Through an arrangement with the Trustees of the Car-
negie Foundation, the Corporation is able to give to a
retiring professor the benefit of whichever set of rules
happens to be more favorable to him. The rules for re-
tiring allowances apply also to librarians, assistant

FACULTY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES 97

librarians, curators and assistants in scientific estab-
lishments, and administrative officers of long tenure.

For purposes of instruction and administration the
Faculty is organized into eighteen divisions. Of these
divisions several include two or more departments: the
Division of Ancient Languages, for example, includes the
Departments of Indie Philology and of the Classics, and
the Division of Modern Languages the Departments of
English, of the Germanic Languages and Literatures,
of French and other Romance Languages and Litera-
tures, and of Comparative Literature. Where the de-
partments are distinct from the divisions the functions
of the division are usually confined to the direction of
graduate work, such as making recommendations for
graduate scholarships and fellowships, and conducting
the examinations for the higher degrees. So far as
Harvard College is concerned, the department is usually
the working unit.

The department is necessarily an intimate body, in
which discussion is carried on with the greatest freedom
and informality. Each year the department must con-
sider what courses it will recommend to the Faculty
for the ensuing year, and it must go over its lists of
assistants and instructors, and make selections for
recommendation to the Corporation. The department
also carries on the examinations for degrees with dis-
tinction and makes recommendations to the Faculty.
With the increase in the numbers of the Faculty and the
advance of specialization, the departments and divi-
sions tend to become more important, but there is a
strong feeling that the functions of the Faculty as a
whole must be preserved in order that growth may be
even and proportionate.

98 HARVARD COLLEGE

The chairmen of the divisions and departments are
appointed by a committee consisting of the President
and the several deans in the Faculty of Arts and
Sciences. The chairmanship is not ordinarily held by
one man for more than five or six years, and it is by no
means always held by the senior member of the depart-
ment, for it is primarily a working office. Indeed the
chairmen at times are inclined to think of themselves
as choremen, they transact such a quantity of small
business for the department. The chairman is respon-
sible to the President for the budget of his department ;
he speaks for the department in all recommendations
for appointments, or for the enlargement of the work
of the department; he carries on all correspondence
relating to that work, especially with applicants for
graduate study or scholarships, and, in general, is the
executive head of the department. The position carries
honor and hard, often trivial, work in about equal pro-
portions. An enterprising chairman may be of extraor-
dinary value to his department, for on him falls ulti-
mately the responsibility for finding the younger men
through whom the department of the future will be built
up. If his judgment is poor or if he trusts to other men
to search out the best, his department may suddenly
find itself, through unexpected deaths or resignations,
in the position of having no strong young men with
whom to fill gaps. The chairman of a department needs
not only business capacity, but large foresight for the
future.

Since 1887 instruction has been offered by these de-
partments and divisions to students in Harvard Col-
lege under a free elective system. Between 1887 and
1910 there were no restrictions on the choice of students

THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM 99

except the requirement that all students should learn
to write their own language with respectable correct-
ness and fluency, and that they should, either at school
or in college, have acquired the rudiments of French and
German. Besides these the only limitations of choice
lay in the necessary sequence from elementary to ad-
vanced courses in the various subjects. In each year a
student takes from four to six courses. The require-
ment for the degree is sixteen courses of elective work
plus what English composition is prescribed for the
individual student ; and these courses may be distributed
over three, three and one-half, or four years. As a
matter of fact, since the standard of the courses must
not be too high for students in the lower quarter of
the class, students of average capacity or better can
easily manage more than the minimum requirement. In
these days, when the professional courses have been
lengthened to three years in the Law School and four
years in the Medical School, and a degree is required for
entrance to them and to the Schools of Applied Science
and Business Administration, a considerable number of
young men complete their undergraduate work in three
years. A somewhat larger number complete it in three
and one-half years, and use the half year so gained for
travel or for getting started in business. The elasticity
of the present arrangement fits well with the great
variation in the mental capacity or intellectual develop-
ment of undergraduates. No set of young men from
eighteen to twenty-one years old will ever be evenly
grown up, and any rigid system is bound to make the
work either too easy for the brighter and more mature
or too hard for those who are slow or late in developing.
In 1910 the free elective system was somewhat modi-
fied by requiring all undergraduates to use the system

100 HARVARD COLLEGE

as all sensible undergraduates had always used it. Un-
der rules established in that year the subjects of instruc-
tion are divided into four large groups: (1) language,
literature, fine arts, and music; (2) natural sciences;
(3) history, political, and social science; and (4) phi-
losophy and mathematics. The new rules require each
student to take at least six out of the sixteen elective
courses required for the degree in some one department
or in closely related departments, and to distribute an-
other six courses among the three large groups named
above in which his chief work does not lie. Thus each
student must get a fairly thorough knowledge of a sin-
gle subject, and at the same time he must have, at any
rate, a bowing acquaintance with the other chief fields
of knowledge.

One of the most important of these new rules for the
choice of electives is that which requires all students
before the end of the Freshman year to choose the
subjects which they will study through the latter years
of college. To aid them in making this choice, each is
assigned to an adviser in the Faculty. At present each
adviser has not more than four students from each
class, but his relations with those four students con-
tinue throughout the college course. Thus the student
is fairly sure of interest and advice from a friend who
knows him and his needs. Each student must submit
his list of studies to his adviser for approval before it
is sent to the Committee on Choice of Electives for
final acceptance. Where a student wishes sanction for
deviations from the rules, he must convince, or try to
convince, his adviser of the wisdom of the exception
before going to the committee. The advisers, having
each so few students to care for, have a sincere interest
in their work and give time and thought to the problems

THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM 101

of the individual student. Within a few years, a phi-
losopher, the range and profundity of whose thought
have made him known all over the world, made a con-
siderable number of visits to the College Office in order
that he might be able to work out intelligently the details
of the courses of the four young men to whom he was
adviser.

These rules are administered by a committee of the
Faculty of which at present the President is chairman.
Under the instruction of the Faculty when the rules
were adopted, this committee is charged to look on
flexibility in the administration of the rules as an essen-
tial part of the system. Any student who desires to
make a deviation from the rules which will give him a
better, rather than a worse, education, is always sure to
have his petition granted; and any student who, as he
passes on in his course, suddenly wakes up to the in-
terest of a new subject, may make a change in his gen-
eral choice if that change will not wholly wreck his
chances for a systematic education. The aim of the
committee, as of the Faculty, is "to insure that the rules
shall help every student to the best use of his oppor-
tunities, and therefore liberal exceptions are made to
this end. Where so large a number of students are gath-
ered together, with so great variation in age and pre-
vious training, there are inevitably exceptional cases
in which rigid rules would work hardship ; but a general
principle sympathetically applied will dispose of a mul-
titude of exceptions. The rules have been in force only
since September, 1911, but so far there is every reason
to believe them successful in operation.

As a matter of fact, these rules are merely an appli-
cation to all students of the practice of the great ma-
jority of students in the past. Within the last thirty

102 HARVARD COLLEGE

years there have been two exhaustive studies of the
results of the elective system at Harvard, each of which
has proved that the number of students who have abused
their privileges under the system has been very small.
Moreover, when the new rules were adopted by the
Faculty, figures were presented, based on the records
of recent preceding classes, which showed that with a
very small change in the choice of studies by these
classes, the rules would have covered almost all of their
members. Contrary to the general opinion, the chief
abuse of the elective system has not come from the
loafers and seekers for the primrose path, but from
students with excessive zeal for study. There were not
infrequent cases of students with a passion for the
classics, or for chemistry, or for some other single
branch of human knowledge, so excessive as to smother
their sense of proportion. Such men might go through
college working with the best of consciences, and come
out at the end ignorant except in their single subject.
The injury of an unguarded elective system to such men
was indubitable.

As to the other kind, the men who look on college
chiefly as an agreeable club with a pleasant athletic
tinge, it is doubtful whether they will imbibe more
knowledge when they are led up to particular fountains
than when they are left to choose for themselves among
a larger number. Since education began there have al-
ways been young men who have wasted years which
might have been made precious ; and it is not likely that
the wisdom of faculties will ever in this respect re-create
the race. At the English universities there are still col-
leges which are recognized as havens for the ornamental ;
and in Germany, it is taken as a matter of course that
considerable numbers of students shall spend a year or

THE ELECTIVE SYSTEM 103

two drinking beer and decorating their faces with sword
slashes before they settle down to the serious work of
getting their degrees. In America human nature is
much the same as it is in Europe, and so long as many
Americans continue to look on three or four years at
college as a vested privilege of the sons of the well-to-do,
all systems of education, whether prescribed or elective,
will be abused by some students. Under a free elective
system it is surprising to see how many of these volatile
youths quite unintentionally pick up a strong interest
in some subject that they would never have known
about except for the elective system.

All new courses of instruction must pass the gauntlet,
first of the department, and then of the Committee on
Instruction, before appearing in the Elective Pamphlet.
The Committee on Instruction is one of the most im-
portant standing committees of the Faculty. It scruti-
nizes with great care all proposals for changes or
novelties in instruction, and not infrequently refers
them back to the departments for further discussion or
for explanation. The care and judgment exercised by
this committee are the chief safeguards, so far as the
Faculty is concerned, for an even growth of the in-
struction offered, and for a due sense of proportion and
of the relations between different subjects. The com-
mittee is large, for it must represent all fields of knowl-
edge. It always includes some of the wisest and most
experienced members of the Faculty.

The method of instruction in so great a range of sub-
jects of necessity varies greatly with the subjects. In
general, ' however, the type of instruction in Harvard
College is by lectures, reinforced by laboratory work
or other exercises of similar aim. In the large elemeu-

104 HARVARD COLLEGE

tary courses, in history or literature or economics, for
example, lectures usually occupy two out of three meet-
ings a week ; and for the third hour the class is divided
into small sections of twenty to thirty students under
the charge of an assistant. Each student has a certain
amount of reading to do, and in most courses some small
investigation to undertake, the making of a bibliography
perhaps, or the preparation of a report or thesis on
some special subject out of material which he must seek
in a number of sources. In this way the courses in which
the students' work must be chiefly in books give the
same sort of training in hunting for facts that the lab-
oratory courses give.

The section meetings of the large courses are a
highly important part of the system of instruction, and
one which has been greatly developed of recent years.
Sometimes the section meeting begins with a short
written paper; sometimes, especially in economics and
government, the instructor will start a debate on the
application of some principle which has been laid down
in the lecture, calling upon members of the section to
express their views and to work out the application of
the principles; sometimes there will be quizzes on pre-
scribed reading; sometimes the assistant will lecture
for a part or the whole of the hour on some point of
detail. In general, these section meetings are kept
flexible and a good deal is left to the discretion and
ingenuity of the individual instructor. The main point
of his work is that he shall bring home to each individ-
ual in his section the meaning and application of the
principles laid down by the professor at the head of
the course; and it is the business of the " section man,"
as the students call him, to see that the doctrine of the
course sinks in, and to set individuals to thinking. In

METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 105

most departments the elementary courses are adequately
manned with assistants. The added responsibility for
the head of the course is considerable. He must not
only be a man of learning and an authority in his sub-
ject, but he must be a judge of men and a good or-
ganizer. If he has the imagination and the foresight to
pick out young men who are stimulating teachers, his
course becomes a power in stirring students to thought.
If, on the other hand, he be contented with smooth
routine, his course may become humdrum and ineffec-
tive.

At the same time, this system is of the greatest value
in training up new men for the Faculty. A graduate
student who is brilliant in his subject may or may not be
a good teacher. In these large courses, if he has promise,
he is given the chance to try himself under instruction
and observation; and the head of a large course can
very soon tell by comparing grades and noting the writ-
ten work done in different sections whether an assist-
ant is useful or not. Thus a considerable number of
young men are having excellent training as teachers,
either to continue at Harvard or to go to other colleges.
There is always a keen demand elsewhere for those for
whom there is no room at home, and the flourishing
Harvard clubs at the seats of so many universities in
the West contain many men who have been at one time
instructors or assistants at Harvard.

In all the courses, whether elementary or advanced,
whether large or small, the lectures of the professor
are reinforced, as has been said, by laboratory work or
by numerous written reports and theses, based on the
study of sources. The example of that great teacher, the
elder Agassiz, has now spread to the teaching of the
humanities, and to-day there is very little bare com-

106 HARVARD COLLEGE

munication of facts to students by lectures or text-
books. From the beginning, each student is expected
to hunt for facts for himself. In the elementary
courses, a large part of the work of the instructors
consists in teaching students to read — to recognize the
facts which are on the pages before them and to see
their significance. They are also shown how to find
sources and how to make a bibliography. The method
is closely akin to that in chemistry and in biology,
where the student is given the apparatus and material
and then set to investigate for himself and to note
down the facts which he has observed.

As students go on from the elementary to the ad-
vanced courses, they are expected to work more and
more for themselves, so that by the Senior year most
students are doing something which is of the gen-
eral nature of original research; it is unusual that an
undergraduate gets into a field which has not been ex-
plored before, but so far as the students themselves are
concerned, they are working on virgin ground where
they must find their needs for themselves. The result
for the professors is sometimes a back-breaking burden
of manuscript at the end of the year, but for the stu-
dent who has worked out a little field for himself with
only general guidance from his professor, the experience
is education of a most effective kind.

The number of courses open to Freshmen is limited,
for Freshmen must start at the beginning in various
subjects. In the year 1911-12 there were fifty-eight
courses in all open to Freshmen (making no distinction
between half -courses and full courses). The number of
these was larger than it would otherwise have been,
owing to the necessity of having separate courses for
the Freshmen who have passed the elementary or ad-

METHOD OF INSTRUCTION 107

vanced examinations in the languages and mathematics.
The largest of the courses at present is the course in
English composition which is prescribed for all Fresh-
men excepting a few who have passed an anticipatory
examination. Besides this there is the large course in the
beginnings of German which is prescribed for all Fresh-
men who did not take the entrance examination in Ger-
man. Of the elective courses which are usually taken by
Freshmen, the largest is that in government, which had in
1910-11 three hundred and sixty-eight students, of whom
two hundred and fifty were Freshmen. Almost equal in
size to this is the elementary course in history, which had
two hundred and twenty-eight Freshmen. After these,
the courses most largely elected by Freshmen are the ele-
mentary courses in the philosophy of the Greeks and
Romans, and in psychology, in experimental physics, and
in descriptive and inorganic chemistry. Next to these
in the preferences of the Freshmen come the elementary
courses in French, in modern philosophy, and in botany,
zoology, and geology. In these elementary courses, the
majority of the students are Freshmen, though all of
them have a fair number of Sophomores and a sprin-
kling of Juniors and even Seniors, for they are not only
elementary but are also the general courses, and are
therefore valuable for students who wish for a general
acquaintance with a subject.

The courses offered by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences
are divided horizontally into three groups, designated
respectively as " primarily for undergraduates," " for
undergraduates and graduates," and " primarily for
graduates." There is no very sharp line between the
groups, and undergraduates who can prove their fitness
are freely admitted into the courses primarily for grad-
uates. At the same time, a course in the middle group

108 HARVARD COLLEGE

may have a considerable number, perhaps a majority, of
graduate students. The advantage to the courses of this
mingling of older students with younger is considerable.
It is unquestionable that a course tends to follow the pace
of its better students, and it is also unquestionable that
an undergraduate, being human, can do many things, of
which he was supposed to be congenitally incapable, just
as soon as they are required of him. Accordingly, if a
course has a good sprinkling of mature students, the
instructor in charge of it can cover more ground and
can cover it more thoroughly than if the standard of the
course were set wholly by younger students.

In the middle group the courses vary greatly in num-
ber of students according to the subject. Wherever the
numbers go beyond forty or fifty, it is usual for the
instructor in charge to have an assistant to aid him
with written work or in the laboratories. To take two
fundamental subjects for examples: in history, which
is at present one of the popular subjects with under-
graduates, the elementary course had in 1910-11, as we
have seen, two hundred and seventy-three students, of
whom two hundred and twenty-eight were Freshmen.
The second-year course had in the first half year one
hundred and twenty-four students, of whom seventy-
seven were Sophomores and twenty-five Juniors. Among
the courses of the middle group in history in the same
year, there were nine courses which had less than twenty
students each, four which had between twenty and fifty,
and seven which had over fifty. In chemistry in the
same year, the elementary course in descriptive inor-
ganic chemistry had two hundred and sixty-two stu-
dents, of whom one hundred and seventy-two were
Freshmen. In the courses for undergraduates and
graduates there were two courses with less than twenty

DEGREES OF A.B. AND S.B. 109

students, four with from twenty to fifty, and one with
sixty-two. These are both important departments, which
draw neither the largest nor the smallest numbers, but
are well up in the numbers of students; and they are
therefore fair samples of the way in which students
divide as they go on through college. It will be seen,
that every student gets into smaller courses by the time
he is halfway through his college course ; and every stu-
dent who has any intellectual interest is sure to get into
some small course of ten or fifteen men, where he will
be on fairly intimate terms both with the other students
and with the professor in charge.

The course in Harvard College regularly leads to the
degree of A.B., or, in case of a student who entered
without Latin, to the degree of S.B. The distinction
between the two degrees has so far faded out that the
candidates for one and the other are no longer differ-
entiated in the catalogue except by the letter A. or S.
after their names. The degree, as has been said, is
based on passing in sixteen courses of elective work, plus
whatever English may be prescribed for a student. This
prescription varies according to the endowments with
which the gods have blessed him. If he has had an ex-
cellent school training and has a natural aptitude for
writing, he may pass an examination at entrance which
will relieve him of all instruction in English composi-
tion in college. Most Freshmen, however, have a year
in the large course known as English A. Here they are
divided into sections of about thirty, and have thorough
drill in the rudiments of English style and at the same
time much practice in the larger principles of com-
position, so that they learn how to construct an essay
of considerable length and have some practice in writ-

110 HARVARD COLLEGE

ing stories and discussions. Those to whom the gods
have not been kind may need a second year of this
course, or a half year of another course which is espe-
cially arranged for men who have not yet gained the
easy command of their language, which, it is assumed,
so rarely with reason, is one of the nature-given marks
of a gentleman and a scholar.

In all the courses necessary for the degree, the statutes
of the University require that there shall be mid-year
and final examinations. These examinations, which oc-
cupy three hours, cover the ground of the course with
a good deal of thoroughness. They are reinforced by
sets of examinations halfway through each half year,
known as the " hour " examinations, short tests which
take the place of a lecture or recitation. Besides these, al-
most all courses have some means of checking the weekly
progress of the student and his assiduity in doing the
writing or the investigation which the professor thinks it
good for him to do. These may take the form of short
tests, perhaps ten or fifteen minutes long, once a week, or
of quizzes in which the instructor in charge calls on the
members of the class at random to render some account
of their understanding and interest in the subject. In
the laboratories certain hours are designated in which
the students must carry on the investigations assigned.
In the more advanced courses, especially in history, eco-
nomics, and literature, theses are required, which in the
higher courses may embody the results of considerable
investigations. In many of the better organized courses,
preparation for the thesis is made by a bibliography or
other preliminary studies. Where the students in a
course are mainly Seniors and graduates, the instructor
leaves them largely to their own resources.

Merely to pass seventeen and one-half courses, how-

DEGREES WITH DISTINCTION 111

ever, does not give a man the degree. He must do
something more than barely scratch through. There is
a marking system based on five grades, A, B, C, D, and
E, of which E means failure and D a bare escape from
failure. At the other end, A is the recognition of bril-
liant work, B of thorough and distinguished, though
not necessarily brilliant, achievement. To get his de-
gree, a student must have obtained a grade above D
in at least two thirds of his work. Moreover, to be pro-
moted from class to class, he must have attained the
same standard. ' The temper of the Faculty seems to
point in the future rather to a raising than a lowering
of this minimum requirement.

For graduation with distinction, there are three
grades: with distinction, or, in the old Latin terms,
" cum laude "; with high distinction, " magna cum
laude "; with highest distinction, " summa cum laude."
These distinctions may be attained either on all-round
excellence, or on special subjects for each of whieh defi-
nitions are laid out in the College Catalogue. The pur-
pose of these degrees with distinction is to encourage
men to carry their studies far enough in some one sub-
ject, and to learn that subject with such thoroughness,
that when they graduate they can feel that they really
know it. The award of the highest distinction, " summa
cum laude," is rightly considered a judgment of bril-
liant scholarship.

The scholarships reserved for undergraduates are
divided into three groups. To win a scholarship in
the First Group, of which thirty or forty are usually
awarded each year, a man must have a very high record :
in technical language, A in more than three quarters of
his work. In this group about one third of the number

112 HARVARD COLLEGE

are John Harvard scholarships, which have no stipend,
but are given to men whose standing ranks them with
those who obtain the highest money scholarships. The
Second Group is made up of men whose record is high,
but not so distinguished as those of the men in the
First Group. The honorary scholarships in this group
are known as Harvard College scholarships, and usually
make up about fifty per cent of the group. Since the
number of men who are working their way through
Harvard College, and supporting themselves in whole
or in part, is large, the competition for the money
scholarships is very keen, and it is a satisfactory fact
that the winners of honorary scholarships keep pace
with them so well.

Various experiments have been made towards the
more general recognition of scholarship, but none of
them has as yet proved very successful. One weakness
of the elective system is that it largely destroys the
competitive motive which is so valuable as a force in
stimulating young human beings to do their best work.
Where men are studying all kinds of subjects, in which
the standards necessarily differ, competition is inevitably
weak. So far the Faculty and governing boards have
not found any effective way of making the community,
whether in the College or outside of it, take keen de-
light in honoring high scholars.

There are a considerable number of prizes open to
undergraduates. The most ancient foundation is that
of the Deturs, which goes back to Edward Hopkins, a
successful London merchant, who came to New England
in 1637 and was several times Governor of Connecticut
Colony. In his will he left various educational bequests
to New England institutions, and in 1718, the Corpora-
tion, after a suit in Chancery, received from the estate

PRIZES 113

four hundred pounds sterling. This sum they invested
in a tract of land from which the town of Hopkinton
was formed. This land has since been turned into
money, and the portion of it which is assigned to the
prizes amounts to over $2000. The income of this fund
is used for the purchase of books called Deturs, from the
first word of the Latin inscription on the book-plates.
They are given to men who attain a place in the first
group of scholars, on their first appearance in that
group. Usually thirty or thirty-five of them are given
each year, the larger number to Sophomores and Juniors,
on the work of the year before, though there are always
some men who first attain their high rank in the more
advanced courses.

Next in point of antiquity to the Deturs are the
Bowdoin Prizes, established by James Bowdoin, A.B.
1745, who was president of the convention which framed
the Constitution of the Commonwealth in 1779-80, and
Governor of Massachusetts from 1785 to 1787. He be-
queathed four hundred pounds to " the University at
Cambridge " to be " annually applied in the way of
premiums for the advancement of useful and polite lit-
erature among the residents, as well graduates as under-
graduates of the University." In 1901 his grandson
added $15,000 to the principal of Governor Bowdoin 's
bequest. From this foundation five prizes are offered
to undergraduates and four prizes to graduates. For
undergraduates one prize of $250 and two second prizes
of $100 are offered annually for essays in English, and
two prizes of $50 each for translations into Greek and
Latin.

In 1817, Ward Nicholas Boylston, of Boston, founded
the Boylston Prizes for Elocution, which, by the terms
of the foundation, are limited to a competition in speak-

114 HARVARD COLLEGE

ing selections from English, Greek, or Latin authors.
Competitors are forbidden to speak their own com-
positions. With the change in times, the interest in
these prizes and the estimation in which they are held
has considerably diminished.

Besides these prizes, the Dante Society offers an
annual prize of $100 for an essay on a subject drawn
from the life or works of Dante. The Sargent Prize
of $100 is offered for the best metrical translation of a
lyric poem from Horace. The George B. Sohier Prize
of $250 is offered for the best thesis presented by a
successful candidate for Honors in English or in Modern
Literature. In economics, the Sumner Prize, estab-
lished by Charles Sumner of the Class of 1830, United
States Senator from Massachusetts from 1851 to 1874,
is offered for the best dissertation on a subject connected
with the topic of Universal Peace. The Ricardo Prize
Scholarship, with an annual income of $350, is offered
to a student in economics and political science, based on
an essay written in an examination on some topic from
a list in those subjects. The Francis Boott Prize,
founded by Francis Boott of the class of 1831, offers an
annual prize of $100 for the best composition in con-
certed vocal music. The Lloyd McKim Garrison Prize of
$100 and a silver medal, established by the class of 1888
in memory of a classmate, is offered for the best poem on
a subject annually to be chosen by a committee of the
Department of English.

These are the principal prizes offered for the en-
deavor of undergraduates. The competition for them
is not so general as it might be, though that for the
Bowdoin prizes has been stimulated by allowing students
to offer theses written on the regular work of courses,
and by the rule that the committee shall give honorable

THE ADMINISTRATIVE BOARD 115

mention to all essays which are worthy of counting
towards the degree with distinction.

In general, it is not to be denied that academic distinc-
tion at Harvard is not so widely desired as it should be.
In this respect American colleges differ largely from the
English universities, where the names and winners of
important prizes are known and recognized through the
country. For one thing we have in America too many
colleges and the country is too big. In England, which
is practically a single parish, local news is national
news. In this country, Missouri or California knows
little and cares less about distinctions won at universities
a thousand or three thousand miles away.

The discipline and the details of administration of
Harvard College are in the hands of the Dean and the
Administrative Board of the College. The Administra-
tive Board at present consists of six members besides
the Dean. This small body, which meets usually once
a week, deals with a multitude of matters. In a col-
lege of two thousand two hundred undergraduates,
the number of special cases due to causes which vary
from serious illness or family necessities to irregu-
larity in preparation, is almost infinite, and each of these
cases must have a decision of its own. Moreover, in so
large a body of youth, there is bound to be much effer-
vescence, most of it innocent, and this effervescence leads
to various pranks and irregularities.

The Dean is in direct charge of the College, and his
burden is heavy. As a former Dean once said, " Here
are two thousand students, to any one of whom any-
thing may happen at any hour of the day or night, and
I am responsible." The relation of the Dean to the
students is almost parental. Many of them come to

116 HARVARD COLLEGE

know him through no volition of their own ; but on the
other hand, it is now the custom for undergraduates to
go to him of their own accord, for advice or counsel on
their own difficulties or problems, or even to talk over
the cases of friends who are not doing as well as they
ought to. The Dean is expected to, and in practice does,
follow the individual fortunes of all the men who come
to his notice, voluntarily or involuntarily. He keeps a
close watch on the needy, and he usually has funds pat
into his hands by graduates with which he can help men
along who have not enough money to support themselves
properly. Many cases of hardship which come to hia
notice and to no one else's he thus quietly relieves. At
the same time, it is his duty to see that the " birds of
paradise " are not flitting through the air all the time.
He must see that they do a reasonable amount of work,
that they are regular in their attendance at lectures and
recitations, and that their grades are, at any rate, re-
spectable. Besides this, the Dean has many talks, often
of the most intimate sort, with parents; and he carries
on an endless amount of correspondence with parents
and with teachers. The variety of duties which fall to
him is almost bewildering.

For most of the business of the College Office prece-
dents are now well established. The Administrative
Board has certain standing votes: for example, a stu-
dent whose grades fall below a certain point goes auto-
matically on probation. "When he raises them again
above the danger point, he is automatically relieved of
probation. In these cases the Dean merely reports to the
Board. Also there is an established practice about leave
of absence and about making up conditions. A large
part of the necessary business, therefore, now takes care

THE COLLEGE OFFICE 117

of itself without being carried to the Administrative
Board. All cases, however, which are exceptional and
for which there is no precedent, are carefully discussed
by the Dean and then usually referred by him to the
Board. There is almost no chance under this system
for injustice to individuals.

The bookkeeping is a heavy burden. Under a vote
of the Overseers about twenty-five years ago, the
Faculty is required to keep account of the attendance
of all students at all lectures and recitations. To carry
out this vote, an elaborate system has been developed
of monitors in recitations who check off the absentees.
These lists are then returned to the office, where a con-
siderable staff of clerks enters the absences on large day-
books. The College Office is in charge of the Recorder,
who is responsible for the records and to whom is as-
signed the duty of superintending the application of the
rules for residence. He also is in general charge of the
examinations and of the return of grades by professors.
To him are allotted also a multitude of other lesser
tasks.

The Dean has the aid of an Assistant Dean, to whom
at present is assigned the special charge of the Fresh-
man class. Freshmen naturally need more attention
than do upper-class men, for they have not yet become
used to the customs of the place or to the new modes of
work. It is the duty of the Assistant Dean to follow
them closely and to see that they all keep up with their
work, to comfort the perplexed, and to encourage the
lame ducks. Many a Freshman has thus been pulled
through a pretty unpromising year by the faith of an
older man, reinforced by the knowledge that a Freshman
is at the time of life when he frequently needs time and

118 HARVARD COLLEGE

encouragement to find himself. The Assistant Dean is
expected to pass on to the Dean a class well house-
broken, and with most of those who have no fitness for
college work weeded out.

The actual discipline of Harvard College is a surpris-
ingly simple matter, when one considers that there are
some two thousand two hundred students to deal with,
that the doors are open to all applicants of sufficient in-
tellectual ability, and that there is a Freshman class of
about six hundred, made up of boys just loosed from the
control of home or boarding-school. The tone of college
life, even as compared with a generation ago, is now
mature, and the undergraduate takes himself as a re-
sponsible person.

Such has not always been the case. In the beginning
discipline was adapted to a body of boys, and was not
infrequently applied in strict literalness to their bodies.
The earliest record concerning discipline is a vote of
October 21, 1656, which reads as follows: —

It is hereby ordered that the President and Fellows
of Harvard College, for the time being, or the major
part of them, are hereby empowered, according to their
best discretion, to punish all misdemeanors of the youth
in their society, either by fine, or whipping in the Hall
openly, as the nature of the offence shall require, not
exceeding ten shillings or ten stripes for one offence;
and this law to continue in force until this Court or
the Overseers of the College provide some other order
to punish such offences. The magistrates have past this
with reference to the consent of their brethren, the
deputies, thereto.

Voted in the affirmative 21st of October, 1656.

EDWARD RAWSON, Secretary.

Consented to by the Deputies.

WILLIAM TORREY.

DISCIPLINE 119

In the seventeenth century the " tutors chastised at
discretion. " 1 In cases of grave offenses, such as
" speaking blasphemous words," the culprit was pub-
licly whipped before the Corporation and the Overseers
and all the students. The execution of the sentence was
ceremonious: the judgment was twice read publicly in
the Library, in the presence of all the scholars, the
government, and such of the Overseers as chose to at-
tend; the offender kneeled, the President prayed, and
after the corporal punishment had been inflicted, the
President prayed again. Corporal punishment in some
light form seems to have lasted well down into the
eighteenth century. The case of William Vassall against
Daniel Rogers, a tutor of the College, in 1733, showed
that flogging was still at any rate not illegal; and in
1734 the right of punishing undergraduates by " box-
ing " was expressly reserved in the revision of the Col-
lege laws to the President, professors, and tutors. It
was twenty years later before the Overseers were ready
to let this punishment of " boxing " disappear.

The system of fines for minor offenses, which began
as early as 1656, lasted well down to the Revolution.
Then it dawned on the authorities that a fine frequently
had little effect on the student, but might be a consider-
able annoyance to his parents. There is a curious list
extant of " pecuniary mulcts," dating from the middle
of the eighteenth century. Absence from prayers cost
two pence; absence from a professor's public lecture,
four pence. The profanation of the Lord's Day was
more serious, and for that the fine might go up to three
shillings. Going to meeting before bell-ringing seems
not to have been considered a sign of piety, for it was
fined six pence. Undergraduates who went out of town
1 Quincy, History of Harvard University, vol. i, p. 189.

120 HARVARD COLLEGE

without leave might be fined two shillings and six pence.
Hospitality in the form of lodging strangers without
leave might be fined one shilling and six pence, and the
same fine was levied for entertaining " persons of ill
character," or for frequenting taverns. For playing
cards, graduates might be fined five shillings; un-
dergraduates, two shilling and six pence. For lying,
the fine was not to exceed one shilling and six pence —
the same as the penalty for drunkenness, or for keeping
prohibited liquors. For " going upon the top of the
college," or for " cutting off the lead," or for " tumul-
tuous noises," or for " keeping guns and going on skat-
ing," the fine was one shilling. For firing guns and
pistols in the College Yard, the fine was two shillings
and six pence, and for " fighting or hurting any per-
son," not exceeding one shilling and six pence.

In 1761 these questions of discipline had so disturbed
the minds of the Overseers that a committee, which
included Lieutenant-Governor Hutchinson, Secretary
Oliver, Dr. Chauncy, and Dr. Mayhew, was appointed
to consider more effective methods of punishment, and
the plan which they brought in has left its traces down
to the present day. It provided for warning, and for
private and public admonition, the latter with a notifica-
tion to parents. Nevertheless, the system of fines, though
in a modified form, lasted until the reforms of 1825.

After that time the system of demerits was gradually
developed, which amounted to fines in what might be
called " academic currency "; that is to say, a student
who was absent from prayers or recitation, or who other-
wise neglected his academic duties, lost a certain number
of the marks with which he had been credited for doing
the work in his courses. This system so flourished that
an undergraduate knew exactly how many more cuts he

DISCIPLINE 121

had the right to take before being summoned for a
private or public admonition. The " College Bible," as
the regulations came to be called, waxed large by small
accretions, until finally, soon after 1870, it was swept
away under the wise counsels of Dean Gurney.

To-day, although from the point of view of the Dean
discipline is a heavy burden, it is so chiefly because
there is so much petty carelessness inherent in the
nature of youth, and the offenders are too old to be
spanked. By far the greater proportion of cases which
come before the Dean and the Administrative Board for
discipline are due to irregularity in attendance at lec-
tures and to low marks. Occasionally a graver case
arises to give real anxiety to the Dean. Each year there
are a few cases of cheating in written work or in ex-
aminations— the larger proportion of them, however,
due rather to stupidity and haste than to dishonesty —
and more rarely a case of riot or of serious moral
offense.

All cases, whether trivial or serious, are dealt with
most carefully. Every chance is given to the culprit to
exonerate himself, and the Dean, even when his own
mind is made up, not infrequently spends hours with a
student and his parents or his friends. The graver
cases are reported to the Administrative Board, which
votes probation, suspension, dismission, or expulsion, as
the case demands. Of these punishments probation,
which is much the most common, varies too greatly in
its effect on the individual to be very satisfactory.
Technically, it serves notice on a student that he is in
grave danger of being separated from the University;
and the danger is a real one, for probation may be
closed by a simple vote of the Administrative Board.
Suspension defeats its own purpose in these days where

122 HARVARD COLLEGE

so much of a student 's work must be done in laboratories
or in the Library ; for if he be sent away from Cambridge
for two or three months, his year's work is hopelessly
dislocated. Accordingly, suspension is now rare. Be-
fore the erection of laboratories and the elective system,
a student used to be " rusticated"; that is, he was
sent off to study under some good country minister,
where life would be quiet and hours regular.

Dismission and expulsion are the two punishments
for serious moral offenses. Both are imposed only by
the Faculty. Dismission sends a student away from the
University, but leaves the way open to repentance, and
he may be readmitted by vote of the Faculty. Dismis-
sion, moreover, does not keep a student from being ad-
mitted to another institution. Expulsion, on the other
hand, is final separation from the University, and prac-
tically prevents the offender from being admitted to any
other college. It is applied only in cases involving per-
sonal moral disgrace, and in the rare cases in which it is
necessary to apply it the vote is taken gravely and
solemnly by the whole Faculty. In practice few grad-
uates or undergraduates ever recognize any distinction
between these latter punishments.

For the lighter offenses, the real embarrassment of
the situation is that there is no punishment which is
trivial enough and at the same time so irritating to
the offender as to be a proper return for the inconveni-
ence to which he puts the College authorities. For
neglecting work, probation is in a good many cases ef-
fective. For one thing, it involves correspondence with
fathers or guardians and also, under the rules, no student
who is on probation may take part in any public athletic
contest, or in any public musical or dramatic entertain-
ment. Naturally, it bears harder on athletes than on

DISCIPLINE 123

anyone else, and it has been a wholesome stimulus to
the youth to whom athletics are the most important part
of the University. There has been and is still some
attempt to create the feeling that to keep off probation
is for an athlete as much a point of honor as to keep in
training. But though the spirit is good, the flesh is
weak, and an athlete who loses his place on a team by
being put on probation is by no means so harshly con-
sidered as the athlete who breaks training. In America,
and in other countries, university life includes a con-
siderable number of undergraduates and of graduates
to whom the intellectual life is halfway between a bore
and a joke. The fact that such men frequently turn
out well in life and settle down to hard and intelligent
work is not much comfort to the Faculty, who have to
spend their time urging capable young men to take their
share in the purpose for which the University was
founded.

In all the discipline the Dean is the leading figure.
Before a student is put on probation for loafing or for
low marks, he is pretty sure to have more than one
audience with the Dean, and the latter has probably
some correspondence with his parents. Among two
thousand two hundred young men between the ages of
eighteen and twenty-two or twenty-three, there are so
many permutations and combinations of shiftlessness,
dullness, and immaturity, that it is never safe to apply
rigid rules. The Dean must be human and he must be
patient; for the tone of the College largely depends on
the confidence which it feels in him. This confidence he
must win in the face of misunderstanding by the stupid,
of irritated vanity on the part of the brilliant lazy
youth, and of the disappointment of those fathers who
shift all responsibility for their sons to the shoulders

124 HARVARD COLLEGE

of the College. Dean Briggs's essay on " Fathers,
Mothers, and Freshmen " 1 is illuminating on the diffi-
culties which the Dean has to meet.

Nevertheless, the great body of undergraduates at
Harvard, as at other American colleges, is sound
morally and physically. Indeed it would be impossible
to gather together a like number of selected American
youth and not thereby create reasons for optimism. The
Dean's labors are constantly rewarded by seeing a man
who as a Freshman seemed inevitably started on the
road to perdition pull himself together, and as a Junior
or Senior earn the respect of the Office and of his fellow
students. In the work of steadying the restive and
helping the half-grown to grow up, the Dean is often
greatly aided by the students themselves. It is now a
part of the recognized order of college life that the more
responsible among the students shall be called on by the
Office to help with the less responsible. The presidents
of the classes take their office seriously and feel real
responsibility; and a good class president is a tower of
strength to the Dean.

Besides the offenses which try the patience of the
Dean, in the way of cutting lectures and recitations, re-
turning from vacations late, or going away for them
early, there are various forms of noise and small dis-
order which result from the perennial bubbling over of
the spirits of youth. For order in the College buildings
the proctors are responsible, each for his own entry or
building. A proctor who is cool, and has a sense of
humor, and can sit through a short period of noise,
can soon reduce a dormitory notorious for turmoil to a
house of peace. Undergraduates respond to a call on
their sense of responsibility, and if a proctor will take
1 In School, College, and Character. Boston, 1901.

DISCIPLINE 125

the time to know the men in his entry, and will take
an interest in their affairs, he can soon have them behav-
ing like lambs. Woe to the proctor, however, who comes
rushing out of his room at the first loud noise. There
are many games by which sucih a proctor may be kept
exercised, and undergraduate ingenuity is always at its
best in devising such games. In one of the College dor-
mitories, for example, which was built with entries run-
ning the length of the building and staircases about
one-third of the way from each end, a young proctor
was so skillfully managed by the undergraduates that
every evening they had a series of races along the en-
tries and up the stairs and around again.

On the whole, however, proctors to-day contribute
much less to the hilarity of undergraduates than in old
times. Cannon-crackers no longer bring them rushing
into the yard, nor is there much fun in screwing a man
into his room when you like to have him drop into
yours. The tone of the College life is older than it was
a generation ago, and the diaries kept before the Civil
War, which tell of the whole College dancing at mid-
night round the Rebellion Tree, have a strange and far-
away sound. The gradual raising of the age of en-
trance, and the responsibility imposed on students by
the elective system, have matured undergraduate life,
and the maturity has destroyed much of the pictur-
esqueness which is so dear to the heart of the reminiscent
graduate.

Admission to Harvard College is by examinations.
The only exception is in the case of students who have,
in part or in whole, completed their studies at other
colleges. Such men are admitted to advanced standing,
either immediately, when they come from colleges whose

126 HARVARD COLLEGE

courses are known through former students, or, in the
cases of men from colleges of which little is known,
after a year of probation as unclassified students. The
number of these men is small, however, and the entrance
examinations have been and still are considered of vital
importance for maintaining the standards of the college.
In the recent past these examinations have had an enor-
mous influence for good on the standards of the sec-
ondary schools throughout the United States, for thirty
years ago, under President Eliot's leadership, the defini-
tions of the various subjects were taken as an ideal for
good high-school courses, at a time when there was still
chaos in the schools of this country. The purpose of the
examinations, however, is to maintain the standards of
Harvard College and to ensure that students who are
admitted to it shall have had such training as to be
capable of entering at once on college work of a high
order. One of the chief differences between a strong
endowed university and a state university is that,
whereas the latter must open its doors freely to grad-
uates of the public high schools of the state, and must
do so with the definite intention of finding a place for
the largest possible number of them, the endowed uni-
versity can do its best service to the country only by seek-
ing out and admitting the youth who are intellectually
the most fit. The examinations of Harvard College,
therefore, are administered with the purpose of keeping
only the candidates who have shown distinct intellectual
capacity.

The level above which the examinations cannot be
raised is set by the possibilities of education which are
open to boys in good public high schools. No college
which aims to be of value to the country at large can
allow itself to drift into a position where entrance to it

PLANS OF ADMISSION 127

can be had only through special preparatory schools.
It must be open always to boys prepared in good high
schools, where the larger number of pupils do not go to
college at all. Harvard College recently faced the situa-
tion that its examination system tended to tie it up to
special preparatory schools. It has met the difficulty
by a new plan of admission, adopted in 1910; and at
present there are two plans, standing side by side.

The older plan, which has had a continuous develop-
ment of forty years and more, was molded, not only
with the idea of providing a strainer for entrance to the
College, but also, as has been said, with the definite pur-
pose of helping the better teachers in the high schools
to raise the standard of work in their schools. Various
successive committees of the Faculty, which have pre-
pared and modified the definitions for admission under
this old plan, have always had in mind that they must
so define the requirements in the different subjects as to
make them contain a reasonable statement of what good
teaching in a subject might be expected to accomplish
in a given number of years. The standard of admission
to Harvard College was gradually raised in the course
of time, both by adding to the number of subjects re-
quired for examination and by increasing the amount
covered by them. This raising of the standard went
on until the schools began to rebel against the multiplica-
tion of subjects and against the specification in detail
of what must be taught in each subject.

The old plan requires examinations in six or eight
different subjects, to each of which is assigned a fixed
number of units. These subjects are English, Latin, at
least one modern language, algebra, plane geometry,
history, and a science. To make up the complete num-
ber of sixteen units required for entrance, boys are re-

128 HARVARD COLLEGE

quired also to offer advanced work in at least two- sub-
jects. A boy who passes all of his sixteen units is regu-
larly admitted, but one who has failed in two or three
examinations may still be admitted with conditions,
which he must later make up. The examinations may be
divided over as many years as the boy and his teachers
choose. The result has been that the examinations have
come to be a kind of obstacle race, with so many difficul-
ties over or through which teachers must aid a boy to
scramble. As a natural result, the special preparatory
schools and tutors have attained great skill in guessing
at the examinations and in filling boys' minds with just
the sort and amount of knowledge which is needed to pass
them. It is surprising, sometimes, to see how little edu-
cation and real knowledge a boy may have who has
been prepared by a skillful crammer.

Naturally, the public high schools have taken no part
in this very special kind of preparation for Harvard
College. Of recent years the good public schools have
gone their own way, giving all their pupils as good an
education as they could. As a result, in many high
schools, if a boy wanted to prepare himself for the spe-
cial examinations of Harvard College, he had to do part
of the work outside of school. Recognizing these facts,
the Faculty in 1910 prepared what is known as the New
Plan of Admission. This frankly recognizes the very
great advance made by the public high schools of the
country within the last generation, and also the fact that
since ninety per cent of the pupils in these schools do not
go to college, the teachers in them must think first of the
interests of the ninety per cent. Furthermore, it was
recognized that a public high school in Iowa, Missouri,
or Montana, knows very little about Harvard or any
other single college in the East. Accordingly, the

PLANS OF ADMISSION 129

Faculty adapted the new plan of admission to the ca-
pacities of any intelligent boy who has had four years
of a good high-school course.

The system is extremely simple. It requires the can-
didate for admission in the first place to show that he is
ready to take the examinations by sending a statement
of the subjects which he has studied in his high-school
course, with the time given to each subject, and his
standing in his high-school work. If this is found satis-
factory by the Committee on Admission, the candidate
is then admitted to the examinations. These are four in
number, of three hours each, and on subjects which are
certain to be taught by any good high school. The sub-
jects in which the boy is examined are (1) English, (2)
Latin (or for candidates for the degree of S.B., French
or German), (3) mathematics, physics, or chemistry, (4)
any subject not already selected from the following list :
Greek, French, German, history, mathematics, physics,
chemistry. The examiners who read the books are di-
rected to return not merely a grade but a statement of
the quality of the examination book and its bearing on
the fitness of the candidate to study in Harvard College.

This plan has been in operation only a short time, but
it has already proved to have opened the doors of the
College to a great number of high schools widely scat-
tered throughout the country. Furthermore, the record
of the first set of men admitted under the new plan was
so far above the average of their classmates who were
admitted under the old plan, that it seems probable that
it is also serving the purpose of bringing to the College
a picked set of young men. In 1912-13 Princeton, and
then Yale, adopted similar systems.

The age of entrance has been for a number of years
about eighteen and a half, with inconsiderable variations

130 HARVAKD COLLEGE

one way or the other from year to year. The average
age is raised by the number of men in each entering
class who, having to work their way through college,
have stayed out a year or two in order to earn money.
Frequently, these men become leaders among their class-
mates, and they are always a leavening influence for
seriousness and stability in college life. There is little
probability that the average age will increase, for with
the lengthened course in the professional schools and
the increased number of directions in which professional
training is provided, the age of entering on the work
of life is now greatly postponed. A young man who
intends to be a doctor, if he gets through college at
twenty-two, does not finish his course at the Medical
School till he is twenty-six, and then, if he is to have
the best training, he has a year or two of hospital work.
Therefore, the age of entrance to college is a grave
matter.

What young men get from any proper college, how-
ever, is far from being exhausted by what they get from
their studies and from the Faculty. An invaluable
feature of college life is the opportunity to meet men of
all sorts of origins, and the necessity of mingling with
them freely on even terms. The colleges of America are
the mingling-pot of the nation in a sense which is prob-
ably true to the same extent of no other country; for
with us literally all sorts and conditions of youth go to
college, from the sons of families of wealth and ancient
standing to the sons of farmers and day-laborers or of
the oppressed Jew who has escaped from Russia or
Poland. Not only are the doors of our colleges open to
everybody, but the system of public schools encourages
all kinds of young men to throng to these open doors.

UNDERGRADUATE LIFE 131

When, as in Harvard College, two thousand two hun-
dred young men are thus brought together, the com-
munity which results is bound to be interesting.

Every college in the country which has any strong
individuality has that individuality determined by some
one strong note. At Harvard that note is the liberty of
the individual. There is no compulsion in the social
system of the College. The clubs and societies are recog-
nized to be private associations, and as such make no
effort to influence the management of athletics or of
class elections. All men are free to find, not only their
own level, but also their own kind. Congeniality and
human interest are the only conditions of association
among undergraduates at Harvard.

Within the last generation, during which the number
of students has more than doubled, undergraduate life
has of necessity greatly changed in its organization.
While the classes still ran below two hundred, it was in
some degree possible for all members of a class to know
one another, or at any rate to know about one another.
Under such conditions class and college organization was
simple and informal ; certain clubs usually contained the
leading members of the class ; and the classes looked nat-
urally to these men for guidance. Occasionally, when
strong leaders were not members of these clubs, there
would be grumbling and perhaps rebellion, as in the case
of a class in the middle seventies in which dissension
ran so high that it was impossible to elect officers for
Class Day. Sometimes this unformulated aristocracy,
which was a relic of older New England and reached
back to the days when, as Governor, John Winthrop
could speak publicly of the " baser sort," presumed on
its powers and its importance. On the whole, however,
down to the middle of the eighties, what was once called

132 HARVARD COLLEGE

" the apostolic succession " managed the undergraduate
life of Harvard College satisfactorily.

Even in those days outsiders of force had their chance,
and there were always, in the clubs which formed the
apex of the college pyramid, men who had come to col-
lege as strangers. An aristocracy does not gear well
with a democracy, however, and when the democracy be-
gins to grow in numbers it inevitably produces more
available leaders. Moreover, it is a general phenomenon
in American colleges that a system of undergraduate
societies which provides adequate organization for the
days of small numbers, breaks down when the numbers
grow. Then if the old small-college system clings to its
powers and privileges there follows a time of trouble
and distress. "When a large body is trying to burst open
its carapace and this does not crack, something must
explode. Fortunately for Harvard, the old small-col-
lege system gave way comparatively easily.

An outward symptom of the change may be traced
in the matter of success and failure in athletics. From
about the middle of the eighties, when the classes began
regularly to exceed two hundred and to increase rapidly,
the athletic prowess of Harvard suddenly collapsed and
the University teams and crews became almost a byword.
Then, for about fifteen years, there was a time of chaos
and distress. The budding democracy, which was taking
the place of the older traditional aristocracy, had not
yet found itself, and with the best of intentions the
undergraduates did not know how to work together.
By insensible degrees, towards the latter part of the
nineties, the new system crystallized. Class elections
were purged of club interests, and captains and man-
agers of the crews and teams were chosen for their force
as leaders and for executive capacity. The class officers

UNDERGRADUATE LIFE 133

were expected to serve the class as a whole and to justify
their election by hard work, and not to look upon it as
a compliment to their own acquired or inherited posi-
tions. At the same time, efforts which were increasingly
successful were made to bring all the elements of the
classes together on even terms. It is obvious that as the
classes ran up to five hundred and six hundred in num-
ber, intelligence and effort were necessary to bring about
this most desirable end. In the last few years it seems
to have been attained. Equality of opportunity in
athletics and in the general life of the College is now
taken as a matter of course. At the same time, as the
old clubs and societies did not enlarge their numbers,
new ones sprang up beside them. Thus each small club
or society became a smaller factor in the life of the whole
class.

With this change came the feeling that liberty, in
order to produce democracy, must add to itself not only
equality of opportunity but also fraternity, and for the
last fifteen or twenty years the best men in the classes
have felt their responsibility for bringing the whole class
together on even and cordial terms. The class organiza-
tions are now working organizations. The presidency of
a class carries a burden of responsibility which some-
times interferes with college work. The president is ex-
pected to keep track of the activities of the class and to
know more or less about what is going on in it. He
appoints committees to organize class-smokers and class-
dinners, and he consults with the officers of other classes
and of the College concerning the welfare of the College.

The feeling of solidarity in the classes increases vig-
orously after graduation. The increasing importance
and joyousness of the class reunions at the end of three
years, and then of each successive period of five years,

134 HARVARD COLLEGE

welds the members of the class into a constantly closer
friendship. Graduates often are surprised to find that,
by the time their class has been ten or fifteen years out
of college, the old college lines of association are broken
down. Men who were not much known in college come
to the front, and men who were leaders there do not
always establish their leadership in after life. The '
class gatherings of twenty and twenty-five years after
graduation have a general good-fellowship that was
hardly known among the older classes in undergraduate
days. The recent classes will find much less change
in this respect, for the College as a whole, in spite of the
great increase in numbers, is more closely organized
than it used to be.

One force which has made for unity of feeling in
the College has been the concentration of the control
of athletics in an Athletic Committee, in which, besides
three members of the Faculty, there are three graduates
selected by the Corporation, and three undergraduates
elected by the captains and managers of the major teams.
This organization has increased the feeling that ath-
letics is the concern of the College as a whole. Added
to this force is the fact that the constant defeats of
twenty and twenty-five years ago forced the under-
graduates to develop a system by which all available
athletic material is brought to the surface in order to
be tried out for the University teams. To-day each
Freshman class is gone through as with a fine-tooth comb
for available athletic material. Upper-class men and
graduates take an active part in the search, and every
boy who has strength and the athletic instinct is brought
out for the sport in which he is most likely to be success-
ful. The variety of uniforms when the candidates for
the Freshman football team line up in the autumn is be-

ATHLETIC CONCERNS 135

wildering; half the schools in the country seem to be
represented by the letters on their sweaters. In athletics,
moreover, the mingling is on perfectly even terms.
Certain schools naturally have prestige, but a boy who
comes from a far Western state is not apt to know much
about schools in the East, and he knows nothing and
cares nothing about the societies which, a generation
ago, dominated athletics and all college life. The
record of victories in the last five or ten years seems to
show that the new system is working well. In athletics
as in war, esprit de corps is essential for victory, and
there can be no esprit de corps when there is dissen-
sion.

This state of affairs — a free and open democracy in
which leadership goes by desert — is a new and happy
development. It is a new one at Harvard largely be-
cause in the days of the small classes it was not neces-
sary. Then the democracy of the college was like the
democracy of the older New England, which, as has
been said, was based on a strong and ancient tradition
of aristocracy. The democracy in the older New Eng-
land days was limited to public interests ; and though it
might be that every voter called every other voter by
his first name, there were still leading families and un-
formulated but entirely real social strata. To-day,
though societies and clubs exist at Harvard, as will be
shown a little later, they are generally inconspicuous to
men outside of them, and their influence on the gen-
eral college life is unimportant.

The chief common interest of the College as a whole,
at Harvard as in all other American colleges, is un-
doubtedly athletics; and in the main what can be said
of athletics at Harvard is about what might be said of

136 HARVARD COLLEGE

it at any other American university. I shall, therefore,
in these pages, try to confine myself to what is char-
acteristic of the place.

In general, as in other American colleges, athletics
seems to dominate the minds of undergraduates more
than it actually does. In the first place, athletics makes
more news for the newspapers, both undergraduate
journals and the public press, than do intellectual in-
terests. It is extremely difficult to make items about a
piece of research in a laboratory or the Library; and
since the beginning of time muscle has been looked on
as one of the important constituents of a hero.

The most distinctive feature of athletics at Harvard
is that the season in every branch of sport closes with a
contest with Yale. There are many other contests, and
contests with rivals for whom there is strong respect and
good feeling, but a season is really successful only when'
it ends with a victory over the ancient rivals at New
Haven.

The major sports, as they are called at Harvard as
elsewhere, are football, track athletics, baseball, rowing,
and hockey; and the University teams in these sports
alone are entitled to the H on their sweaters which
is the dream of most school-boys who are looking for-
ward to Harvard. The organization of these major
sports is undertaken with great seriousness; and where
so large a body of students is concerned, and where
graduates keep up so intense an interest in athletics,
the organization is bound to be formidable. Each team
has, besides its captain, a manager who is responsible
for a mass of business. In especial, he is held responsible
by the graduate athletic management for the avoiding
of excessive extravagance. The manager is always a
Senior, who is selected by the captain of the team with

ATHLETIC CONCERNS 137

the approval of the Athletic Committee, after a com-
petition in the Sophomore and Junior years. In the
Sophomore year a call is issued through the daily
Crimson for candidates for the management of the dif-
ferent teams. The men who present themselves are
assigned by the manager for the year to various errands
and minor chores, and thus have a chance to show their
assiduity and business capacity. On the basis of this
competition, a Sophomore is selected assistant man-
ager, who, if he does well that year and again as a
Junior, is likely to be chosen manager. Friendship has
a considerable part in the choice in the end, and there
is still reason for some dissatisfaction with the freedom
of the competition. But since it is essential that a
manager shall be agreeable to the captain and the other
members of the team, success in business management
cannot be the only ground for choice.

The chief sport of the autumn is football, which is
taken by undergraduates and graduates alike with a
seriousness to be matched only by the seriousness with
which Englishmen look on the boat-races between Ox-
ford and Cambridge. To be a successful coach is to go
down to fame. Ex-Governor-General Forbes of the
Philippines first made his mark by coaching a Harvard
football team which beat Yale in the days when that
was a very rare occurrence. In recent years there has
been a graduate coach who has been paid a handsome
salary. He calls out a number of old players to assist
him in the work, most of whom give their time. The
work of the coach is by no means confined to the autumn
season of actual games. He is a member of the Inter-
collegiate Rules Committee, which each year gives long
and careful discussion to changes in the rules, and he
must keep track of all the available material in Col-

138 HARVARD COLLEGE

lege. In the spring there is a short season of practice
for football.

The real work begins in the early autumn, usually a
week or two before College opens, with practice in the
rudiments of the game. The players must learn to
catch the ball, to hold on to it, to start quickly and
low. They must throw themselves at the tackling
dummy and learn to disregard bruises. There are
usually about eight regular games in the season. The
earlier ones are short games with the teams of smaller
colleges, which are looked on as practice games. By
the end of October, the opponents become more serious,
and the season approaches its climax in the Yale game
through games with strong teams which not infrequently
are victorious.

The Yale game, which is regularly played on the
Saturday before Thanksgiving, at New Haven and on
Soldiers Field in alternate years, is a great spectacle.
When the games are to be played in the Stadium extra
wooden seats are built up across the open end, and
along the inner wall of the Stadium, so that seats are
provided for forty thousand persons. Tickets are at a
premium, and for a week beforehand Washington Street
in Boston is lined with speculators who sell tickets at
extravagant prices. Every effort is made to keep the
tickets from getting into their hands, but there are
always men to whom ten or twenty dollars for their
right to draw two tickets is a great temptation.

On the day of the game, Soldiers Field and the en-
trance to it are thronged by half-past twelve. Harvard
Square and the streets near the Stadium are lined with
hawkers of the colors of both teams in flags, buttons, and
sleeve-bands, and the great gray Stadium itself is trans-
formed into a mass of dark color, relieved with red and

ATHLETIC CONCERNS 139

blue. As the time for the game approaches, and the
teams trot in after their captains, the cheering breaks
forth and the cheer-leaders for Yale on one side of the
field and Harvard on the other, begin their strange
activities. Between the halves, each side sings its col-
lege songs, often with admirable effect. Once the game
has begun, there is either tense silence, or frenzied
cheering from the side which is winning and desperate
cheering from the side which is losing. The game is
one of the great sights of America.

After the football season out-of-door sports at Har-
vard are dependent on a harsh and uncertain climate.
Skating out-of-doors sometimes begins by Thanksgiving,
sometimes not until January. Hockey, therefore, which
has made great progress in popularity in the last few
years, what between warm weather and snow leads a
precarious life. Now that there is a rink of artificial
ice in Boston, the hockey team, at any rate, is able to
get regular exercise, and the game, which is compara-
tively new in the United States, has gained ground
rapidly and is now one of the so-called ' ' major sports. ' '
Most of the preparatory schools now have rinks which
are kept clear of snow in winter, and at some of the
boarding-schools it is an important part of the winter
life. At Harvard the most important hockey games are
those with Princeton and with Yale, though the games
with Me Gill University of Montreal have the prestige
of international contests.

Besides the University hockey team, there are many
other teams playing, and in recent years the Student
Council has organized a regular series of scrub games.
The Athletic Association provides several out-of-door
rinks which are kept flooded and free of snow, and on
these, scrub teams of joyously variegated names, such

140 HARVARD COLLEGE

as the Chuck-a-pucks, the Fortune-Hunters, the Easy
Marks, and the Blue Jays, meet in a series of games,
with cups for the team which wins the series. Alto-
gether, several hundred men take part in hockey during
the winter.

With the breaking up of the winter and the reluctant
approach of spring in March, the spring athletics get
under way. The chief of these are tennis, track ath-
letics, baseball, and rowing, though both lacrosse and
Association football (" soccer ") attract a small, but
loyal and efficient, body of players. Rowing, for the
men who have a chance for the University and Fresh-
man crews, begins indoors, in the tank in the University
boathouse or on the rowing machines. This indoor prac-
tice is monotonous and not completely satisfactory as
a means of instruction, but it gets the men together,
and they are expected to keep in training; and after
the practice in the tank or on the machines they
usually have a short run together. When the ice on
the Charles River breaks up, usually not later than early
March, the crews go out on the river ; and from then on,
the coach gives close attention to all men who are likely
to win a seat in the University boat and to the candi-
dates for the Freshman crew. Of these men there are
usually in the early part of the season, four to six crews ;
and in addition there are the class crews, which have
a race in May.

The system of coaching has changed a good deal from
time to time. The ideal system would be to have the
coaching done by a graduate, but it is unusual to find
a graduate who is a good coach and who can also give
up practically every afternoon for two or three months
in the spring. Harvard has therefore, of recent years,
like almost all American colleges which put crews on the

ATHLETIC CONCERNS 141

water, had a professional coach. He has been, how-
ever, regarded rather as an instructor in rowing, and
he is under the direction of the captain of the crew and
is advised by a committee of graduates. At Harvard
the captain has always had the active direction of the
crew and the final decision about its make-up.

In recent years the University crew has been tenta-
tively chosen early in the season, but a second crew is
kept together and the two have frequent races and
there are frequent shifts of men from one boat to the
other. Towards the end of May there is usually a two-
mile race with Cornell, alternately on the Charles River
and at Ithaca. By this time the University crew is
generally chosen. In 1912 Princeton took part in this
race. The second crew has in recent years rowed in
the American-Henley Regatta at Philadelphia.1 About
the same time the Freshman crews have various races
with near-by schools, most of them being rowed on the
Charles.

The contests, however, towards which all rowing
tends are the races with Yale at New London on the
day after Commencement; and towards these races all
the long months of hard work are pointed. The races
with Yale have been rowed since 1878 on the Thames
River above the railroad bridge at New London. Origi-
nally there were only eight-oared races between the
University and the Freshman crews of the two institu-
tions; but four-oared races between the substitutes have
now become a regular part of the regatta, and in the last
two or three years there have been informal races be-
tween Freshman fours and second University fours,
and usually a half-mile race between crews made up of

1 In 1914 the second crew won the Grand Challenge Cup at
Henley on the Thames, England.

142 HARVARD COLLEGE

graduates who are limited strictly to one or two days
of preparation.

The crews of both colleges go to New London ten
days or a fortnight before the races and are allowed
to take some of their final examinations at the quarters.
Each crew has its permanent quarters, with boathouses,
and comforts somewhat beyond those of camping life.
On the day of the races great throngs of people come
from Boston and New York and from greater distances.
On both sides of the river are railroads on which obser-
vation trains are run, consisting of long trains of flat
cars with tiers of seats. The four-oar and the Fresh-
man crews usually row their two-mile races in the morn-
ing, one starting at the Navy Yard where the other ends ;
and the University four-mile race is apt to be rowed at
high tide in the afternoon. In 1914, the two crews had
rowed forty-eight races against each other, and of that
number each had won twenty-four. Each has had long
series of victories, as is the case in England in the races
between Oxford and Cambridge. In the twenty-one
years from 1885 to 1905, inclusive, Yale won all but
three of the races. In the six years beginning in 1908,
Harvard won all the races.

Rowing has always stood high at Harvard, and the
boats have been manned by men of admirable quality.
The number of those who have reached success in later
life is notable, beginning with President Eliot and Pro-
fessor Alexander Agassiz, who were on the first Harvard
crew which rowed with, and beat, Yale.

The baseball men at Harvard have the advantage for
early practice of a large baseball cage. Here the pitch-
ers and catchers are given practice and instruction in
their respective parts, and the other men have practice
in batting and fielding. The tardy and variable spring

ATHLETIC CONCERNS 143

of New England makes out-of-door practice uncertain
and full of discomfort until the end of April. Usually
the nine goes off on a trip during the spring holidays,
which come in the second or third week of the month.
When they return, the regular schedule begins, with,
usually, two games a week. In baseball, however, as in
all other sports at Harvard, the final end of the team is
to win from Yale. The Yale games come in Com-
mencement week. The first game is played at New
Haven on Tuesday, and the return game at Cambridge
the next day. If each college wins one of these games,
a final and deciding game is played on neutral ground
on the succeeding Saturday. In the forty-five years in
which the series have been played with Yale, Harvard
has won in twenty-four and Yale in eighteen. In
three years the series was tied and there was no de-
ciding game.

Besides the regular work for the University team,
there is a long series of scrub baseball games for cups
presented by Joseph Leiter, '91. These scrub teams
have the same sort of fantastic names as the scrub
hockey teams, and they play with considerable earnest-
ness.

The men in track athletics also get out into regular
practice in the early spring, though for some of the
sports gymnasium work is feasible. There is a board
track behind the gymnasium, on which the men are
able to keep in condition during the winter, and the
long-distance runners especially get good practice
here. By the first part of April, real business begins,
and then Soldiers Field is filled with runners, hurdlers,
jumpers, shot-putters, and hammer-throwers, all work-
ing under their respective coaches. There are two
" dual meets " in May, one with Dartmouth or with

144 HARVARD COLLEGE

Cornell, and the other, in the following week, with
Yale. Harvard also sends a team to take part in the
Intercollegiate games. The latter are not very satis-
factory for the large universities, because of the uncer-
tainty which is introduced by the appearance of single
men from many small colleges all over the country who
can carry off points in one or two events. The dual
meet with Yale is the important thing, and the event
in which the College takes most interest. In the twenty-
three years in which the two universities have held
these meets, Harvard has won eleven victories and Yale
twelve.

Though lacrosse has not yet been admitted to a place
among the major sports, and has not attracted general
interest in the College, the team's record of successes
has been admirable, and it has won championships
pretty consistently for a good many years. At present,
more men seem to be drawn into the competition for the
teams. The game has been notable for the number of
students with high records in scholarship who have
played in championship teams.

The most popular sport in the spring is tennis. The
Athletic Association maintains numerous tennis courts,
for the use of which a small fee is charged, sufficient to
keep them in condition. These courts are in use practi-
cally all day in the spring and autumn. A regular tour-
nament is held for the College championship, and a Uni-
versity team is sent to the Intercollegiate tournament.

The river in the spring is often crowded with boats.
Both the University and the Weld boathouses have
wherries for beginners, and instructors who teach men
the rudiments of rowing in racing boats. Besides the
wherries and shells, there are pair-oars and four-oars at
the disposal of men who want to row. In the season,

THE ATHLETIC COMMITTEE 145

before the class-races, there may be as many as fifteen
or twenty eights out on the river.

The whole system of athletics is under the control and
direction of the Committee on Athletic Sports, which
in the generation since its creation has dealt with many
troubled questions of amateur standing, and has kept
athletics from entirely dominating college life. An
athletic committee was first appointed in 1882. Before
that time, there was no athletic problem in American
colleges. Then a professor drew the attention of the
Faculty to the schedule of the baseball team for
the coming season, in which there were twenty-eight
games, of which nineteen were to be played away from
Cambridge, and he inquired how much time it was sup-
posed that the members of the nine would give to their
college work. After three years two undergraduates
were added to the committee, and in 1888 the committee
was again remodeled and constituted in the form which
it has to-day, consisting of three members of the Faculty,
three graduates of the College appointed by the Presi-
dent and Fellows with the consent of the Overseers,
and three undergraduates chosen by the captains and
managers of the leading teams. This has proved an
admirable constitution. In practice, the graduates are
apt not to get to the meetings very regularly, and the
business is transacted by the Faculty members and
undergraduates, always with entire harmony and rea-
sonableness. As precedents have been established, more
and more authority has been thrown on the chairman
of the committee and he now settles many questions
offhand.

It is safe to say that few men have deserved better
at the hands of the American educated public than the

146 HARVARD COLLEGE

successive chairmen of the Harvard Athletic Committee.
They and their committees have broken the way through
the jungle of complicated questions arising under
amateur standing in a democracy, where education
reaches all layers of society. The rulings which they
have made have been constantly followed elsewhere ; and
they have been freely consulted by the authorities of
other colleges in difficult cases. Considering that the
whole problem of athletics is only a generation old and
that all questions have had to be discussed from the
bottom up, the progress has been highly satisfactory.
There are still questions to be settled; in particular
the rules regarding amateur standing are still too
technical; but the committee has established at Har-
vard the principle that college athletics must rest on
three principles: in the first place, the College exists
for intellectual purposes, and whenever any conflict
arises between these and athletics, the latter must give
way; in the second place, athletics has no place in the
College except as a means of promoting healthy sport;
the pursuit of athletics for the sake of money or in a
spirit of enmity must be held always an evil; in the
third place, the members of a faculty are unfitted by
temperament and by the pressure of their own work for
settling athletic questions except with the counsel and
support of graduates and undergraduates.

The business management of University athletics has
been for a number of years in the hands of a Graduate
Treasurer, for the amount of money to be handled
long since outgrew the business capacity of undergrad-
uates. The resort of graduates and of the general public
to football and baseball games has increased rapidly of
recent years, and at present shows no signs of falling
off. Undergraduates are admitted by season ticket to

ATHLETIC CONCERNS 147

all games, but there seems no reason at present for
reducing the price of admission to the general public.
The great sums of money which are thus received pro-
duce the most serious problem of athletics which has
yet to be worked out in American colleges.

At present, the money is for the most part expended
with reasonable advantage, though the cost of main-
taining the teams is still far too large. Captains and
trainers can be taught economy only under stress and
unceasing watchfulness. The Athletic Committee at
Harvard has sternly set its face against unnecessary ex-
penditures and has largely reduced them. Each man
at the training table pays what he would pay for his
board at his regular boarding-place, and only the excess
is paid by the Athletic Association. The money laid
out on uniforms and equipment and for travel is vigor-
ously scrutinized, and captains and managers must give
an exact account of all their expenditures.

What is left over, after paying for the expenses of
the teams and their training, goes to the permanent
improvement of athletic fields. There are not yet
enough tennis courts for general use, and there is still
a considerable tract of marsh-land on Soldiers Field
which must be raised to level and graded. Moreover
the Athletic Association still has a large balance to
pay on the cost of the Stadium, and it has recently as-
sumed the balance of the expense of building the Varsity
Club. For a number of years to come, therefore, the
Athletic Association will not be embarrassed by unex-
pended surplus.

The general management of the Athletic Association
is in the charge of the Graduate Treasurer, who is re-
sponsible for economy on the part of the coaches and
the undergraduate managers. He is also the general

148 HARVARD COLLEGE

athletic adviser, charged with the duty of promoting
healthy athletic exercise among as many students as
can be brought out. He nurses the minor sports and
sees that they have a full chance and he is in constant
communication with all the coaches and captains of all
the teams. The possibilities of healthy influence on the
undergraduate body by a good Graduate Treasurer are
indefinite.

Aside from athletics undergraduates have many in-
terests which are more or less intellectual in character.

The history of journalism at Harvard is now over a
hundred years old. The earliest paper published by
students was the Harvard Lyceum, which first appeared
July 14, 1810, and lived somewhat more than a year.
Among its editors were Edward Everett, and Samuel
Gilman, the author of " Fair Harvard." Some six-
teen years later, in March, 1827, appeared the Harvard
Register, which lived for nearly a year. On its board
were George S. Hillard, R. C. Winthrop, and C. C.
Felton. Two years later the Collegian, among the edi-
tors of which was Oliver Wendell Holmes, issued six-
teen numbers, beginning in September, 1835. Har-
vardiana, which had James Russell Lowell for one of
its editors, began in 1835 and lived till June, 1838. Then
there was a gap until December, 1854, when the Harvard
Magazine appeared, which lasted till 1864. Among the
editors of this were F. B. Sanborn, Phillips Brooks, and
J. B. Greenough. After a lapse of two years, another
Collegian appeared, which was suppressed by the Fac-
ulty after three numbers.

In May, 1866, was founded the Advocate, which has
been published fortnightly ever since. It has had as
competitors the Magenta, founded in 1873, which later

COLLEGE PERIODICALS 149

changed its name to the Crimson, in 1883 became
merged with the daily Herald, and is now the daily col-
lege paper; and the Harvard Monthly, which was first
issued in 1885. Besides these, there is the Lampoon,
founded in 1876, and the Illustrated Magazine, founded
in 1899. The students in the Law School publish the
Harvard Law Review monthly during the academic year,
and the engineering students a quarterly called the
Harvard Engineering Journal. Other publications are
the Musical Review and the Architectural Magazine.

The Crimson, which is a folio sheet, usually of eight
pages, about half of it advertising, prints daily through
the college year accounts of games, meetings, and lec-
tures, and various other items of undergraduate life.
It has, what is perhaps its most important asset, official
and semi-official notices of meetings and of calls for ath-
letic teams; and the officers of the College use it as a
medium for giving out special notices. It has also an
editorial column in which it discusses whatever matters
of undergraduate interest occur to the editors during
the year. On important occasions the editorial policy
is carefully discussed by the editors, since the Crimson
represents the undergraduate opinion, and almost al-
ways satisfactorily.

A place on the Crimson board is won only after an
exceedingly keen competition, in which candidates think
night and day of nothing but finding news. The man-
aging editor gives them assignments and they are also
expected to show their originality by tapping fresh
sources of news. The business managers gain their
places chiefly by their activity in obtaining advertise-
ments. For both the editorial and the business positions
the competition is so keen, and a place on the board is
so highly valued, that the Crimson is manned by men of

150 HARVARD COLLEGE

force and standing among the undergraduates. It is
understood that the paper is a profitable enterprise and
that generous dividends are paid each year to the
editors. They are now on the point of building a house
of their own, which will have a place for the printing
plant and comfortable editorial rooms.

Of the literary papers, the Advocate, as before stated,
is the oldest. It publishes stories, verse, essays, and
reviews. Its distinctive aim is to be readable. It has
had many distinguished editors.

The Harvard Monthly, which was established in 1885,
soon after the merger of the Crimson with the Daily
Herald, has on the whole aimed at a higher literary level
than any other of the college publications. It is rather
more distinctively the organ of the literary set and of
the advanced thinkers among the undergraduates than
any of the other papers. The Harvard Illustrated
Magazine is a more recent sheet, which prints articles
and stories of great variety, with illustrations from
drawings or from photographs. It is not yet old enough
to have established very strong traditions.

The Lampoon is the oldest and the most successful
college humorous paper in the country. Among its
founders in 1876 were Robert Grant, F. J. Stimson (J.
S. of Dale), J. T. Wheelwright, F. G. Attwood, whose
drawings were so long a feature of Life, and Edward S.
Martin. It lapsed for a few months in 1880-81 but was
renewed, and has been in vigorous existence ever since.
Among the reviewers of the Lampoon in March, 1881,
were Curtis Guild, '81, and William R. Thayer, '81, the
biographer of Cavour. Among other editors have been
Barrett Wendell, '77, C. A. Coolidge, '81, Owen Wister,
'82, George Santayana, '86, Winthrop Ames, '95, C. M.
Flandrau, '95, and E. G. Knoblauch, '96. It has always

CLUBS AND SOCIETIES 151

had a notable supply of graceful and humorous verse
and its drawings have made up in humor what they
have sometimes lacked in finish. It has prospered in
the world, for it has a considerable circulation outside
the College, so that its advertising pages are well filled.
Out of its savings it has built an admirably designed
little building in the Dutch style on Mt. Auburn Street,
and its dinners, to which the graduates come in con-
siderable numbers, have long been famous. In 1883,
John A. Mitchell started Life with the assistance of
some of the Lampoon's former editors, including F. G.
Attwood and E. S. Martin, and " Lampy " familiarly
refers to Life as its child.

Besides the newspapers there are many clubs and
societies founded on common intellectual interests. In
the Harvard University Register there are notices of
twenty-one such clubs. A few examples will show how
varied they are in character: the Anthropological So-
ciety, the Boylston Chemical Club, the Harvard En-
gineering Society, the Harvard Mathematical Club, the
Topiarian Club, the Cercle Francois, the Circolo
Italiano, the Deutscher Verein, the Harvard Zionist
Society, and the Harvard Dramatic Club. At the meet-
ings of these societies there are usually one or more
papers read by members, followed by some simple repast,
for the social side is an important part of their pur-
pose.

The activities of these societies naturally vary con-
siderably from year to year with the activity and effi-
ciency of the officers; and one which has been slum-
bering may burst into activities which suddenly make
its name familiar to the readers of the Crimson. These
societies usually have graduate students among their
members, and they merge gradually into such associa-

152 HARVARD COLLEGE

tions as the Modern Language Conference, which is an
association composed of graduate students and members
of the Faculty, before which papers of much learning
are read and discussed. Each of the departments main-
tains an association or society of this general nature.

Besides these societies there are several active musical
clubs. The oldest of these is the Pierian Sodality, which
was founded in 1808 and has had continuous existence
ever since. Under the old-fashioned sonorousness of its
name lives the college orchestra, which gives concerts in
Cambridge and Boston, often ambitious in the type of
music played. It has club-rooms and rehearses twice a
month. The Glee Club, which gives many concerts in
Boston and the neighborhood, has at present about forty
members. In its concerts it is often joined by the Banjo
Club and the Mandolin Club, and the three have a com-
mon organization under the name of the Harvard Mu-
sical Clubs. Besides these associations, there is also the
Musical Club, which was founded in 1898 to promote
musical knowledge and appreciation among the members
of the University. It has fortnightly musical meetings,
at which members and others play informally, and an
annual fall concert, at which music composed by its
members is frequently performed. The tradition of
music at Harvard has long been strong. Boston was a
pioneer in the establishment of orchestral music, and
the city and the College have acted and reacted on each
other in their musical development.

The Harvard Musical Association, which grew out of
the Pierian Sodality, was founded in 1837. For many
years it maintained an annual series of orchestral con-
certs, out of which grew, through the generous support
of Major H. L. Higginson, the Boston Symphony Or-
chestra. The Harvard Musical Association has a house

DEBATING SOCIETIES 153

in Boston on West Cedar Street, with, a large and val-
uable collection of music. There it has fortnightly meet-
ings, with music. By its constitution, the greater part
of its membership must consist of Harvard graduates.

Debating has had a somewhat checkered and spas-
modic career at Harvard, with a good deal of change in
the formal organization. At present, there is a Harvard
Debating Council which has general management of the
intercollegiate debates with Yale and Princeton. In
these debates, since 1892, Harvard has won from Yale
seventeen times out of twenty-one, and since 1895
from Princeton ten times out of seventeen. The debat-
ing was strongest when it had the stimulus of Professor
George P. Baker, '87, who practically created the
modern study of argumentation.

Besides the Debating Council there is a Freshman de-
bating society and a Harvard chapter of the fraternity
of Delta Sigma Rho, the intercollegiate debating society.
The Speakers' Club was founded in 1908, partly in re-
action against the seriousness of, and the heavy labor
involved in, intercollegiate debating. It has fortnightly
dinners in its club-house, followed by the discussion of
some subject announced beforehand; it arranges for
occasional public addresses by members of the Faculty
or distinguished men from outside ; and it has an annual
prize contest in extemporaneous speaking.

The chief difficulty with debating at Harvard seems to
be, in the first place, that the intercollegiate debaters,
in their zest for victory, have set a standard of thorough-
ness which to most undergraduates seems out of pro-
portion to the value of the results. Moreover, the sub-
jects which have been discussed have been the largest
and most complicated questions which have perplexed
the nation, so that a moderate amount of preparation

154 HARVARD COLLEGE

is insufficient for thorough knowledge, and thorough
preparation involves a study of problems of economics
and government beyond the resources and patience of
most undergraduates. The questions have been in the
main drawn from the science of economics or govern-
ment rather than from politics, and for that reason have
not drawn on the natural contentiousness of human
nature.

Alongside of the debating societies, and sharing with
them their interests, are various political societies. At
the time of a presidential election, the political clubs
proper always blossom into activity. Among others
which are dealing with the active interests of the day
are the Harvard Men's League for Woman Suffrage,
founded in 1911, the Social Politics Club, founded in
1909, and the Harvard Socialist Club, founded in 1908.
There is always at Harvard and always will be a body
of earnest radicals who believe, to quote from the con-
stitution of the Social Politics Club, " that the world
is not finished." Such men are taken by the College as
a whole with a mingling of humor and respect. They
make an active ferment which keeps the more serious
undergraduates from stagnating, though they do not
often make much impression on any large portion of
the College.

The religious and philanthropic interests of the Col-
lege are numerous and active, as befits an institution
which was founded " for the furthering of the said col-
lege and the said members thereof from time to time in
piety, morality and learning." In the early days, as
we have seen, the instruction was chiefly religious, and
only gradually through the seventeenth century did
more worldly interests take the lead. Until within a
generation, all students were required to meet daily in

THE BOARD OF PREACHERS 155

the College Chapel, and the University maintains on its
seal the motto, " Christo et Ecclesise."

Since October, 1886, attendance at daily prayers and
at the Sunday services has ceased to be compulsory. At
that time also was instituted the board of five preachers,
which the University has drawn from various Christian
denominations, and which always includes some members
who live at a distance from Cambridge. Each member
of the board is usually in service for two terms of two
weeks each, during which he occupies the preacher's
rooms in Wadsworth House. He conducts a short morn-
ing service in Appleton Chapel at a quarter before nine,
and he has regular hours in the rooms in Wadsworth
House during which students may call on him. Of this
privilege they avail themselves freely, and the testi-
mony of the preachers is that their service on the board
is most interesting and stimulating. There has been al-
ways a Sunday service in Appleton Chapel. For many
years it was held in the evening, but since President
Lowell's inauguration, it has been changed to the morn-
ing, and the President himself takes part, usually by
reading one of the lessons from the Bible. The students
have responded, and this morning service has taken
on the pleasant tone of a family gathering.

The undergraduate religious and philanthropic in-
terests are focused in the Phillips Brooks House Asso-
ciation, which has its headquarters in Phillips Brooks
House. This was built in 1898-99 as a memorial to
Bishop Phillips Brooks, '55, and it is the home of almost
all the religious and philanthropic activities of the
College.

The Phillips Brooks House Association federates for
philanthropic work the religious societies of the Ortho-
dox-Congregationalist, Episcopalian, Roman Catholic,

156 HARVARD COLLEGE

and Unitarian denominations, and it has besides a large
number of independent members who are not affiliated
with any of these societies. The executive cabinet of
the Association includes, besides its own officers, the
presidents of the Harvard University Christian Asso-
ciation, of St. Paul's Society (Episcopalian), of St.
Paul 's Catholic Club, and the Harvard- Andover Divinity
Club, and the chairmen of the Social Service Com-
mittee, the Harvard Mission, and the Chapel Committee,
and the Graduate Secretary and Social Service Secretary
of the University. In 1912 there were three hundred
and sixty men engaged in social-service work at Har-
vard under the direction of the Association. The work
has now grown so important that it has a graduate sec-
retary who gives his whole time to its direction.

The Social Service Committee has direct charge of
most of the philanthropic work done by students. It
sends teachers to the Prospect Union and the Cam-
bridge Social Union, both of which support evening
classes for mechanics, near the College, and it also sends
instructors to the Cambridge Young Men's Christian
Association, and details men to help immigrants, to aid
in boys' clubs, to work at the juvenile courts, and to
maintain home libraries and visit, both for settlements,
and for the Associated Charities of Boston and Cam-
bridge. There is little parade about the work; men
run boys' clubs or do settlement work, or teach in
evening classes because they want to help things along.
The workers are drawn from all parts of the College, —
athletes and scholars, club men and non-club men.
There are so many of them now engaged in this work
that their influence in sobering undergraduate life and
enlarging the undergraduate horizon is an important
fact in the Harvard College of to-day.

KELIGIOUS SOCIETIES 157

Of the distinctly religious, as distinguished from
philanthropic, associations which find a home in Phillips
Brooks House, the Harvard University Christian Asso-
ciation is the oldest, largest, and most comprehensive.
It has no sectarian foundation, though as a matter of
fact its members are largely the Orthodox Congrega-
tionalists who represent one development of the old
Puritan churches of New England. It conducts classes
for the study of the Bible and the discussion of religious
problems, and holds regular Sunday meetings in Phillips
Brooks House. St. Paul's Society, the organization of
the Episcopalians at Harvard, has the Noble room in
Phillips Brooks House, where it has a short service every
Wednesday evening. It also arranges regular courses
of lectures on subjects relating to the Episcopal Church,
and a monthly corporate Communion for members of
the society. St. Paul's Catholic Club was founded in
1893, to bring together the Catholics of the College. A
few years ago its quarters were moved from the Phillips
Brooks House to the Newman House on Mt. Auburn
Street, where it has a meeting room and library and
rooms for games. The club has frequent meetings, at
which prominent clergymen and laymen speak, and to
which non-Catholics are welcome. It has a permanent
chaplain, appointed by the pastor of St. Paul's parish,
with the approval of the Cardinal Archbishop of Boston.
The Christian Science Society is not affiliated with the
Phillips Brooks House Association, though its meetings
are held in the Phillips Brooks House. It arranges
lectures from time to time through the board of lecture-
ship of the First Church of Christ Scientist of Boston.

The Harvard Mission consists of a student committee
and a board of graduate trustees whose aim is to increase
the interest of Harvard men in the work of Christian

158 HARVARD COLLEGE

missions. Its chief interest at present is in the Harvard
Medical School in China. This was established at
Shanghai in 1911, to give to the Chinese the best in-
struction in modern medical science that is possible
under the circumstances. Its special aim is to train
native Chinese doctors in modern scientific medicine,
and to make them both physicians and health officers
who can do something to improve the sanitary condi-
tions of China. It is closely affiliated with the Harvard
Medical School.

All these societies and associations, journalistic, in-
tellectual, musical, and religious, bring men together on
some other basis than the purely social. They are an
active force for mingling together men from all parts
of the country, from all schools, and from all varieties
of social organization and affiliation. With so many op-
portunities for active interest, it is a man's own fault
if he does not find a chance to develop his interests by
mixing with other men. These activities do not often
get into the newspapers, and they are therefore apt to
be underestimated. To get any fair estimate of the
life of Harvard College, they cannot be left out of
account, for they have a very deep and strong effect
on the life of the greater part of the students of the
College.

Along with these, as the third chief interest of under-
graduate life, are the purely social clubs and societies.
The special character of these at Harvard, as at most
American colleges, largely determines the distinctive
tone of the undergraduate life. It is somewhat difficult
to give a fair account of these clubs since so much de-
pends upon the point of view from which one starts.
To the man who comes to the College from the West,

SOCIAL CLUBS 159

or perhaps from some smaller town in the East, the old
Harvard clubs of long traditions are apt to seem affairs
of minor and local importance, and many students go
through College knowing little or nothing about them.
On the other hand, to the boy from what Dr. Holmes
called the Brahmin caste of Boston, or from the like so-
cial stratum in New York or Philadelphia, especially if
he comes from one of the large private schools in Boston
or New York or one of the fashionable church boarding-
schools, the small clubs sometimes seem the largest fact
in undergraduate life. The two points of view are so
divergent, that it is hard to present the subject in a
way which will be fair to both. The keynote to a fair
exposition of the social system of Harvard College life
lies, I believe, in the dictum of a recent article in an
undergraduate magazine, that " the significant thing
about the clubs at Harvard is that they are unimpor-
tant." If this be taken with the emendation " unim-
portant to men outside of them," we shall start on a
fair basis for an understanding of the system.

The largest club of all, which has equal relations to
all the others, is the Harvard Union, the membership in
which is open to all students in the University ; and the
fee of ten dollars is so low as to open its doors to almost
everybody who may want to use it. The Union inhabits
a very beautiful and commodious club-house, the gift of
Major H. L. Higginson, of the Corporation, whose gen-
erosity to the University has been unceasing and is al-
ways guided by the most enlightened understanding of
its needs. The house has dining-rooms, assembly-rooms,
game-rooms, and billiard-rooms, and, upstairs, a large
library fitted with an excellent collection of books, the
generous nucleus of which was given by James Hazen
Hyde, '98. Two or three book funds provide for the

160 HARVARD COLLEGE

increase of the library and for the provision of the cur-
rent books. The most notable feature of the building is
the great assembly-room, which is a hundred feet long
and forty feet wide, with high paneling in oak, and fine
barreled ceiling. On the walls are a number of pictures
of distinguished graduates, including a splendid portrait
of Major Higginson by John S. Sargent.

The Union is very freely used. The dining-room is
crowded at certain hours and the reading-room and
library are always well occupied. The managers pro-
vide a regular course of readings and entertainments
and lectures by various men of distinction throughout
the winter, and in the smaller rooms many meetings of
societies are held.

In 1912 a wing was added to the Union to house the
Varsity Club, which consists of past and present mem-
bers of University teams and crews. It is dedicated to
the memory of Francis Harden Burr, of the class of
1910, captain of the football team, a member of the base-
ball and track teams, and a good scholar, who died of
typhoid fever in the autumn after his graduation, leav-
ing behind him a memory of high character and great
promise. The Varsity Club has rooms for the various
training tables and is the center of the athletics of the
college.

Of the clubs and societies which are essentially social
in purpose, there are thirty in the last number of the
Harvard University Register. The list is constantly
changing through natural processes of death and birth.
Of these clubs the largest and best known are the In-
stitute of 1770, the Delta Upsilon, Pi Eta, and the Hasty
Pudding Club.

The Institute of 1770, to which men are elected
as Sophomores, is in close though informal relation with

SOCIAL CLUBS 161

the Hasty Pudding Club, since almost all the members
of the latter are also members of the former. It is the
oldest undergraduate society now existing, and though
it is now inactive, it was originally a literary and debat-
ing society and at one time had a very good library.
The Institute has a club-house, however, where it main-
tains a table for its members. There was at one time a
rule that no member should speak in Latin without
special leave from the President, but this rule is no
longer enforced. In recent years the Institute has been
chiefly a shell for an inner body known as the A. K. E.
This was originally a chapter of the national fraternity
of the A. K. E., but it was expelled a number of years
ago, and is now a secret society with initiations which
are understood to be elaborate. They include a " run-
ning " of the candidates, who are clothed in whatever
fantastic garb and are required to do whatever foolish
things the fertile minds of the members of the society
may invent. They used to be a picturesque sight in
the intermission between football games in the autumn,
and occasionally on the streets of Cambridge or Boston.
The Hasty Pudding Club is perhaps the most char-
acteristic and famous of all the Harvard societies. It
was founded in 1795 to " cherish the feelings of friend-
ship and patriotism." Among its first members were
Horace Binney and Dr. J. Collins Warren. Its name
came from the supper of hasty pudding, which was
maintained for many years, though now it appears in a
form adapted to the pampered tastes of the present day,
as fried mush with maple syrup. Originally it was a
debating and literary society, with a public perform-
ance in the spring at which an oration and poem were
delivered. About 1845, the custom of performing a
farce originated. This gave way about 1880 to a musical

162 HARVARD COLLEGE

comedy or farce, in which the words and the music are
both written by members and the production is elabo-
rated with throngs of highly trained chorus-singers. This
play is given in the spring, and usually, after the per-
formance in Cambridge, it is presented in Boston for
the benefit of the sisters and mothers of the members.
The club-house on Holyoke Street consists chiefly of the
theater. It is interesting for the large numbers of old
" shingles " or illustrated posters of dramatic per-
formances, with the names of many men of distinguished
careers appearing in the casts.

The Pi Eta, which has a varying number of members,
usually thirty or forty from each class, has a very com-
fortable house on Winthrop Square. Like the Hasty
Pudding Club, it has a theater in which it gives per-
formances each year; usually a musical comedy, of
which both book and music are produced by some of the
members, and there is a plentiful chance for dances by
the brawny chorus. These performances also are usually
repeated in Boston and two or three neighboring places
for the benefit of the friends of the Club. The Pi Eta
was founded in 1860.

The Delta Upsilon, founded in 1880, has a house on
Harvard Street. Its members are elected largely on the
basis of scholarship, and its ambition is to have as many
of the leading scholars of the successive classes as pos-
sible. Its principal public activity is in the revival of
old plays, which it performs every spring. It now has
a record of having revived and performed more old Eng-
lish plays than any other organization in the world.

The Signet, which was founded in 1870, has a hand-
some house, with a good library, on the corner of
Dunster and Mount Auburn streets. It has strong lit-
erary traditions, which are maintained by the regulation

SOCIAL CLUBS 163

that a certain proportion of its members shall be drawn
from the undergraduate publications. Its initiations
are lively, and at any rate pseudo-literary, occasions, in
which members of the Faculty frequently take part.
Its annual dinners are frequently made notable by poems
and after-dinner speeches from graduates of distinc-
tion.

Another type of club, which on the whole is most dis-
tinctively characteristic of Harvard life, is the small
club, taking in from three to four up to ten or fifteen
members from each class. Of this type the Porcellian,
founded in 1790, is the oldest. There are now a con-
siderable number of such clubs, but the number is some-
what variable, since new ones are formed every now and
then. The older ones have comfortable and even lux-
urious houses, and most of them maintain tables for
their members. Though the feeling of brotherhood in
these clubs is very close, they are not secret societies.
They approach rather the type of the club in England,
or in the older cities of America, in that election to them
is based on congeniality and good-fellowship rather than
on special tastes, literary or otherwise. In most of these
small clubs the graduates keep up an active interest,
and go frequently to the graduate dinners. The Uni-
versity Register has fifteen to twenty such clubs in its
list, but the number cannot be made exact, for some of
them run off into the larger societies, like the Hasty
Pudding Club and the Pi Eta.

The Greek letter fraternities have taken little hold
at Harvard, though the names of several appear in the
Register. The general spirit of the place is against
them. Any large college is of necessity chiefly interested
in its own affairs, and the sense of reverence for solemn
secrets which seems to be necessary to the prosperity of

164 HARVARD COLLEGE

a Greek letter society has never flourished at Harvard.
In times past certain of the leading fraternities, such as
the Alpha Delta Phi, the Delta Kappa Upsilon, and the
Zeta Psi, have established chapters at Harvard. Each
of these three has either expelled the Harvard Chapter
or has withdrawn the charter by amicable arrangement.
There are, however, a few Greek letter fraternities which
still maintain chapters at Harvard.

The Phi Beta Kappa at Harvard is one of the oldest
chapters in the country, for its charter was granted
in 1779, three years after the founding of the parent
chapter at William and Mary College in Virginia. The
catalogue of the chapter has a long list of distinguished
names among the members, and even more among the
orators and poets at the annual meetings. Among these
orators have been John Quincy Adams in 1788, Josiah
Quincy in 1794, Edward Everett in 1824, Ralph
Waldo Emerson, with the oration on " The American
Scholar," in 1837, Charles Sumner in 1846, Henry
Ward Beecher in 1855, George William Curtis in 1862,
Emerson again in 1867, Wendell Phillips in 1881, Carl
Schurz in 1882, and Charles Francis Adams in 1883,
with the oration on " A College Fetich," which stirred
the country to discussing the value of the classics in
education. Other orators in the last thirty years have
been President Eliot, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, John
Fiske, James (Viscount) Bryce, Horace Howard Fur-
ness, Wood row Wilson, Charles E. Hughes, and Josiah
Royce. The poets have been hardly less distinguished.
Among them were Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in
1833, Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1834, Oliver Wendell
Holmes in 1836, Bret Harte in 1871, and in recent years
Richard Watson Gilder, George Santayana, Dean Briggs,
Percy MacKaye, and Henry Van Dyke.

DORMITORIES 165

Election to the Phi Beta Kappa is on the basis of
scholarship, although other evidences of ability are taken
into account. The first eight men are elected before the
middle of the Junior year, and they are usually the first
eight scholars of the class on the work down to that
period. The other twenty-two are elected in the Senior
year, and in choosing them the society holds itself
somewhat less bound to the rank list ; so that there are
always a few men elected, proof of whose ability comes
in part from outside the classroom. The Phi Beta
Kappa now has some social life of its own. The mem-
bers dine together every week in a tower-room at
Memorial Hall ; and they have an informal baseball nine
and some other activities.

The dormitories, in which the twenty-two hundred or
more undergraduates are quartered, are of necessity a
good deal scattered. The two chief groups of them are
the dormitories in the Yard, owned by the College, and
the dormitories along Massachusetts Avenue and Mount
Auburn Street, built by private owners. Besides these,
the College has two dormitories, Perkins and Conant
Hall, a quarter of a mile away to the north, on Oxford
Street, and Walter Hastings Hall, about the same dis-
tance up Massachusetts Avenue. Of these Conant is
now regularly assigned to graduate students, and Per-
kins and Walter Hastings halls are largely occupied by
graduate students and law students.

The oldest of the College dormitories is Hollis Hall,
which was built in 1763, and named after the Hollis
family, so many of whom were benefactors of the Col-
lege. Stoughton, the next building to it on the north,
was built in 1805, and Holworthy, the adjoining build-
ing at the north end of the yard, in 1812. After the
building of these halls, a long period elapsed ; for Grays

166 HARVARD COLLEGE

Hall, at the south end of the Yard, which was erected
by the Corporation as an investment, and named after
a family of notable benefactors, was not finished until
1863. Thayer Hall, given by Nathaniel Thayer, was
built in 1869 ; Weld Hall, given by William F. Weld,
and Matthews Hall, given by Nathan Matthews, in 1871.
The latter group of buildings unfortunately came at the
saddest period of American architecture. The older
buildings, Hollis, Stoughton, and Holworthy, on the
other hand, are excellent examples of the fine propor-
tions which dignified even plain and simple buildings
in America at the end of the eighteenth and the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century.

Up to about twenty-five years ago the rooms in the
Yard were much sought after by undergraduates. About
that time, however, the development of plumbing in
America altered college life. What had been a luxury,
within five or ten years became a necessity. Enterpris-
ing builders, recognizing this fact, put up a number of
private dormitories. Beck Hall, built in 1882, was
followed eight or ten years after by Claverly Hall, Apley
Court, Westmorly, Randolph Hall, Dunster Hall; they
are built with something like luxury, though the
rooms are often small. Three of them have swim-
ming tanks in the basement, and in all each room has its
private bathroom. Dunster is built with a great interior
court, with handsome stone galleries. Most of these
dormitories are situated on Mount Auburn Street and
its neighborhood to the south of the Yard, and consti-
tute what has become known as the " Gold Coast."
Besides these there are other private dormitories more
or less scattered about Cambridge. Among these are
Craigie Hall, some distance up Mount Auburn Street;
Dana Chambers; Drayton Hall near the Yard; Little's

w
5?

O

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DORMITORIES 167

Block, Fairfax Hall, and Hampden Hall on Massachu-
setts Avenue opposite the Yard ; Russell Hall on Mount
Auburn Street, and Ware Hall, some distance down
Harvard Street towards Boston. The demand for
private dormitories is at present somewhat more than
supplied.

The drift away from the Yard twenty years ago was
accelerated by the fond belief of the Corporation that
the taste of young men for roughing it would make
them like to live in buildings in which the plumbing
was half a generation behind the standard of comfort
among people of very moderate means. Since plumbing
is very expensive, and it is an ancient and honorable
principle of the Corporation that every possible cent
of the income of the College shall be used for purposes
of instruction, the Corporation was very slow to install
modern plumbing, and when they began, they spent
money grudgingly and ineffectively. Accordingly, the
private dormitories which offered comfort and some
luxury easily drew the well-to-do away from the Yard.
Just about the same time, the College, as has been ex-
plained above, began to outgrow its small college social
system; and as a result there was a serious cleavage
between the men who lived in the Yard and the men
in the private dormitories; and in a few classes this
cleavage developed parties in the class elections. This
evil is now being counteracted by the successful move-
ment in the last few years to bring the Senior class to-
gether for their final year in rooms in the Yard. In the
immediate future the Freshman dormitories, which are
now nearly completed, along the river near the Weld
boathouse, will mix the Freshmen together, and so any
possible separation by dormitories can exist only in the
Sophomore and Junior years.

168 HARVARD COLLEGE

In general, at Harvard, as in any considerable com-
munity of healthy American youth, wealth counts for
very little and antiquity of family for even less. There
are always men coming from families of great wealth
or from families distinguished in society who make no
impression either on the college life in general or on
the club life. On the other hand, there are in every
class men who are working their way through college
or who come from remote places and wholly undistin-
guished parentage, who make themselves leaders in the
college life and are elected to what the newspapers call
" Harvard's most exclusive clubs." Naturally, as
President Eliot pointed out in his book on University
Administration, the small social clubs generally illus-
trate the principle that " birds of a feather flock to-
gether,"— a principle which obtains in all human as
well as bird society and which democracy cannot eradi-
cate and need not wish to.

The birds of a feather who thus flock together at
Harvard have usually been so flocking at certain select
boarding or private schools. The Institute of 1770, for
example, in a recent year drew forty-five per cent of
its membership from five boarding schools, and another
twenty-eight per cent from four private schools in
Boston. Such close associations would be pernicious
if they were strictly closed, and if the affiliations
dependent upon them were the only affiliations of
undergraduate life.

As a matter of fact, athletics opens the door of
such societies to many a fellow who comes to college
without friends, and the many other interests and nat-
ural forms of association in a place where the social
life is as active as at Harvard make many kinds of
feathers by which birds may flock together. The life

THE EMPLOYMENT OFFICE 169

of a large college of necessity approaches the life of a
city, and all through the classes little groups of men
form themselves into societies and clubs which give them
the greatest comfort and satisfaction. In many cases
quite informal associations of this sort crystallize into a
society and find a permanent history, but many of them
pass with the men who form them. No man, however,
need be lonely at Harvard. If he is so, it is because he
is shy or lacks the other qualities which make for easy
and agreeable intercourse among men.

A notable phenomenon in the life of Harvard College
in recent years is the great increase in the number of
men who are earning money towards their own support.
It has recently been estimated, on the basis of the appli-
cations for work at the Employment Office and the re-
turns of places filled made to that office, that one half
to two thirds of the students in Harvard College are
working for themselves. The number of men who wholly
support themselves is small, for a man must not only
be a very hard worker, but must have unusual ability
and strength, to be able to do this and to keep up with
his college work. On the other hand, a large part of
the greatly increased number of young men in America
who go to college has been drawn from families of small
means, and the large colleges are getting just as many
of them as the small colleges. Most of these men who
are working for themselves are of excellent quality:
they have energy, ambition, and capacity, or they could
not keep their places in so severe a contest.

To help these men the College maintains an Employ-
ment Office, the secretary of which is a permanent ad-
ministrative officer. It is his business to talk with all
applicants for work, to estimate their capacity, and to
assign them to the various jobs which come to his notice.

170 HARVARD COLLEGE

To find work for them he canvasses, so far as he has
time, the various opportunities for part-time employ-
ment in Cambridge and Boston. The kinds of employ-
ment are greatly varied. In the report of the Secretary
for Employment in 1910, sixty-eight different kinds of
temporary work are listed, among them the following:
agent, camp counsellor, carpenter, chauffeur, choreman,
conductor, draughtsman, foreman, genealogist, hotel
employee, meter-reader, play-ground director, scene-
shifter, snow-shoveler, tutor, typewriter, and waiter. In
all about two thousand and three hundred temporary
positions were filled through the office in that year.
There are also always many other men who find work
for themselves and do not appear on the records of the
Employment Office.

The social position of these men is in no way affected
by the work which they are doing to support them-
selves. Men who are earning money are to be found in
all parts of the classes and in all the clubs and societies ;
and men who are in the clubs speak with pride of fellow
members who are working their way. Earning money
by students is now so common at Harvard College as
to be almost commonplace; so far as it excites comment
at all, the comment is favorable.

Of recent years, as has been said, the undergraduates
have been giving much effort towards increasing the sol-
idarity of undergraduate life. The classes have class
smokers and other meetings at the Union, which are
organized as soon as there are any class officers in the
Freshman year. The Senior advisers start work by
getting Freshmen together in clubs and making them
acquainted with one another. Each year there are more
activities in the way of athletics or journalism, philan-

o
O

CLASS ORGANIZATION 171

thropic work or societies, which bring the members of
the class together.

The class organizations have resisted what it was
prophesied would be the dissolving effect of the elective
system, and the classes hold strongly together both in
college and afterwards. Each class during the four
years of its stay in college elects officers annually ; and
by a custom established in the late nineties the officers
are changed each year, in order that as many men as
possible may be given a chance and may be tried out
by the class. The final judgment of the class on its
leading men comes with the elections in the Senior
year of officers for Class Day. By ancient custom, the
officers consist of three marshals, a secretary, an orator,
ivy orator, poet, odist, and chorister, a class committee,
a class-day committee, and a photograph committee. In
recent years a treasurer has been added. Of these offi-
cers the class committee and the secretary, and in re-
cent years the three marshals, are permanent officers of
the class whose functions continue after graduation.
The secretary is a highly important person to the class :
if he be energetic and interested, he can do much to
keep his class together ; but now that the classes number
six or seven hundred, the position is getting to be a
good deal of a burden. This burden is somewhat light-
ened by turning over the publication of the class reports
to the office of the Alumni Association.

The great climax of student life comes with Class
Day. For many years it fell on the Friday before Com-
mencement, which was the last Wednesday in June.
Now Commencement Week has been rearranged, and
Class Day comes on Tuesday, and Commencement on
Thursday of the next to the last week of June. Monday
is devoted to the Phi Beta Kappa meeting, and Wednes-

172 HARVARD COLLEGE

day is a day of reunions of the classes and also of the
Yale baseball game.

Class Day has long been a notable festival. The
Yard is handsomely decorated with flags, rows of Japa-
nese lanterns are strung between the trees in both quad-
rangles, and elaborate preparations are made for what
is really the Senior's farewell to his college life.

The exercises of the day begin with a short service in
Appleton Chapel, and then at eleven o'clock the class
marches in cap and gown to Sanders Theatre. There the
galleries are filled with mothers and sisters and friends.
The Orator delivers his oration, the Poet reads his poem
and the Odist his ode. Then the class and their guests
disperse to various " spreads." Of these the principal
ones in the middle of the day are that given by the Pi
Eta Society in the Gymnasium and that of the Hasty
Pudding Club in its own building on Holyoke Street.
In the afternoon the Yard is closed to all but ticket-
holders, and a host, which seems to include all the pret-
tiest girls in the country, begins to gather soon after
two o'clock. All through the day there are bands play-
ing in various parts of the Yard. At three o'clock the
Seniors assemble in front of Holworthy and then march
around the Yard, cheering the buildings as they go,
and over the river to the Stadium. In this march they
are preceded by the graduates and undergraduates mar-
shalled by their classes. Across the river the bowl of
the Stadium is filled with guests and spectators. The
graduates and the three undergraduate classes sit on
the grass at the foot of the seats, ready to receive the
Seniors.

Facing the bowl of the Stadium is erected the front of
a Greek temple which was built some years ago for the
performance of a Greek play. This makes an admi-

CLASS DAY 173

rable sounding-board ; and in front of it the Ivy Orator
delivers an oration which is expected to be full of satire
and wit. Then the class cheers everybody, including
the President of the University, the ladies, and the
graduates, and the graduates respond; and when the
cheering is all over, the guests shower the class and the
graduates and each other with confetti and throw fine
paper ribbons which make a multicolored cobweb over
the whole face of the Stadium.

Then the crowds throng back to the Yard and scatter
among the numerous ' ' spreads ' ' ; for there are far
more of these in the evening than in the middle of the
day. The principal feasts are one behind Wadsworth
House, one at the Signet Society on Dunster Street, one
in the Phillips Brooks House, and one at Beck Hall.
Besides these, however, there are many smaller ones,
running down to little entertainments by single men in
their rooms for their own immediate families. The
Union is open for a spread with dancing during the
evening. In 1912 there were sixteen spreads of societies
,or groups of men, important enough to be announced
in the Crimson, but there were also many other smaller
ones.

The Yard in the evening, if the weather is at all fine,
is very beautiful. The strings of Japanese lanterns give
the most enchanting sort of light, and the innumerable
gay dresses brighten up the semi-darkness. The bands
play by turn in various parts of the Yard, and the Glee
Club sings. The evening is by ancient and recognized
custom a time of flirtation, and the couples move in and
out and form and reform at the various spreads, through
the evening.

The gathering is cosmopolitan, for the University
attracts its students from all sorts and conditions of

174 HARVARD COLLEGE

men ; but with the care that is now taken to keep out all
who have not icceived tickets from Seniors, the day
invariably passes off in a seemly and delightful manner.
Indeed, it could hardly be otherwise when there is the
combination of June weather and young men and
maidens in the full flower of youth.

Ill

THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

Historical Origin. The Graduate School of Arta and Sciences.
The Medical School. The Law School. The Divinity School. The
Graduate Schools of Applied Science. The Graduate School of
Business Administration. Radcliffe College. University Exten-
sion.

HARVARD COLLEGE is only one department of Harvard
University, and though it is in a very real sense the heart
of the University, nevertheless the graduate depart-
ments in many ways make more impression on the coun-
try at large than does the College; for to the various
graduate schools throng men from other colleges all
over the United States.

The work in the graduate schools falls into two classes,
though the boundaries between them are not always
clearly defined. On the one hand, there is graduate
study in arts and sciences not specifically directed
towards practical professional purposes; and on the
other hand, there are the professional schools, which are
preparing men directly for earning their livelihood in
a profession. In the former class falls most of the work
of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, though,
like all such schools, this tends to become a professional
school for teachers, especially for teachers in colleges.
In the other class falls the work of the Medical School,
the Dental School, the Law School, the Divinity School,
the Schools of Applied Science, and the School of Busi-
ness Administration. In all of these schools, however,

175

176 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

much research work is done; and in the Bussey Insti-
tution, where instruction and research in Economic
Entomology, Animal Heredity, and Experimental Plant
Morphology are carried on, the professional purpose is
no more definite than in the Graduate School of Arts
and Sciences. Much of the work in the scientific estab-
lishments of the University, which are considered in
the next chapter, is intermingled with the graduate
instruction.

On the other side, the relations between the various
graduate schools and Harvard College, both historically
and in the conduct of their work to-day, are very close.
Practically all of them have grown out of instruction
first given in Harvard College. For most of them neces-
sary preparatory courses are given in Harvard College,
and several professors give undergraduate instruction as
well. In an institution which is the result of steady
growth it is not possible to pull the whole apart, and
there are many cases in which the efficiency of one de-
partment is increased by joint undertakings with an-
other. In this way, though the departments of the
University are now scattered geographically, yet new
lines of intercourse are constantly arising to bind to-
gether the work that they are doing.

Historically, what we call to-day graduate work in
the arts and sciences, and also preparation for the minis-
try, have been carried on since the founding of the
College. Separate professional study began with the
foundation of the Medical School in 1783; but profes-
sional study was not distinctively graduate study until
well along in the administration of President Eliot.

In this chapter consideration is given first to the
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, then to the pro-
fessional schools in the order of their foundation.

HISTORICAL ORIGIN 177

Prom the very beginning of the College the early
records show that there have always been some graduate
students resident at the College. Of the Class of 1642,
the first class to be graduated, four out of nine members
later received the A.M. from the College, and in the
" Laws, Liberties and Orders of Harvard College," of
1642, Article 19 provides: —

Every scholar, that giveth up in writing a synopsis
or summary of Logic, Natural and Moral Philosophy,
Arithmetic, Geometry and Astronomy, and is ready to
defend his theses or positions, withal skilled in the
originals as aforesaid, and still continues honest and
studious, at any public act after trial he shall be capable
of the second degree, of Master of Arts.1

The effective organization of graduate study in the
arts, however, did not come about until after 1870. We
have seen that both the original plan of the Lawrence
Scientific School and the University Lectures of Presi-
dent Hill's administration were aimed in this direction.
Neither fulfilled the purpose satisfactorily, and grad-
uate study was not really inaugurated at Harvard until
the institution of the Graduate Department in 1872.
This department, after eighteen years' trial, became in
1890 the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

This Graduate School of Arts and Sciences is in-
separably articulated with the College. The courses in
which graduate students work are open to undergradu-
ates who are able to keep up with them, and each year
a considerable number of men who have completed their
work for the bachelor's degree in Harvard College con-
tinue in the Graduate School, and, except for the mat-
ter of registration and freedom from rules of attendance,

1 Quincy, History of Harvard University, vol. i, p. 517.

178 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

they recognize hardly any difference in their standing.
It is only the most advanced courses which consist
wholly of graduates, and even in these there will be oc-
casionally an undergraduate who is exceptionally far on
with his subject.

At the same time, the Graduate School brings to Cam-
bridge great numbers of graduates from many other
institutions. In the year 1912-13 it had students from
one hundred and forty-four different colleges and uni-
versities. These graduate students, who are as a whole
the pick of their colleges, bring with them strong intel-
lectual interests and great diversity of point of view.
The mingling of such men with each other in the higher
courses is one of the chief advantages of a university,
and the fact that they are as a body so much amalga-
mated with the undergraduates is of especial advantage
to the latter. Very frequently these graduate students,
especially those who come from the smaller colleges,
acquire a strong feeling of loyalty to their second Alma
Mater. Even in matters athletic, though they are not
allowed to play on university teams, they frequently
feel themselves Harvard men.

The work in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
leads to the degrees of Master of Arts, Master of Science,
Doctor of Philosophy, and Doctor of Science. The
program of study for the degree of Master of Arts
" must form a consistent plan of work pursued with
some definite aim." For graduates of Harvard Col-
lege or of colleges of approximately the same standards,
one year of residence is usually sufficient to earn this
degree. Until within a few years it was the practice
to allow men from other colleges who wished for a Har-
vard degree to register as undergraduates and take the
A.B. in one or two years. Now, under a change of

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES 179

rules, such men are expected to register in the Graduate
School and study for the A.M. At Harvard, as else-
where, this degree tends to become a teacher's degree,
especially for teachers in secondary schools. As the
standard of these schools improves, the better ones ex-
pect their teachers to have some training more ad-
vanced than that of the College. The number of mas-
ter's degrees conferred at Harvard is considerable; of
late years it has ranged between 125 and 150.

The requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philoso-
phy or Doctor of Science at Harvard do not differ
greatly from those at other leading American universi-
ties. They include at least two years' graduate study,
one of which must be spent at Harvard, and a thesis
presenting the results of an independent piece of re-
search in an unexplored field. In practice three years
or more are usually required to earn this degree, after
the bachelor's degree. The first two years the student
usually gives to advanced courses, covering the whole
field which he has chosen for his work. In some of
these courses he is always sure to become engaged in
research which leads on to a subject for his doctor's
thesis. The preparation of the thesis occupies usually a
year, and not infrequently more than a year, of hard
and concentrated work in the library or in a laboratory,
and the thesis must be approved as advancing knowl-
edge. Besides the thesis, the candidate must pass rigor-
ous examinations, usually comprising general examina-
tions on the whole subject in which the degree is taken,
and a special test on the special field of study which he
has chosen for his own. The training for these ex-
aminations is severe and exhausting. At present the
tendency at Harvard is to raise the standard for the
Ph.D. to a level somewhat higher than that of the Ger-

180 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

man universities, and in some departments there is a
tendency to approach the standards of the degree of
Docteur es Lettres in France. Not infrequently candi-
dates come up for their examination grievously over-
worked ; but when the President of the University calls
for the candidates for the Ph.D. on Commencement
Day and welcomes them with the phrase, " Men of
learning, I gladly admit you to the great and universal
fraternity of scholars," one feels that the reward is
sufficient for the labor.

There are a considerable number of scholarships and
fellowships attached to the Graduate School of Arts
and Sciences. In 1911-12 there were one hundred and
twenty-six in all. Of these, thirty-seven were fellow-
ships, with yearly incomes ranging from $400 to $1150 ;
and eighty-nine were scholarships, with incomes rang-
ing from $150 to $450. The fellowships differ from the
scholarships, not only in the amount of stipend, but in
the increased distinction which they carry, and they
are rarely assigned except to men who have already
shown high promise in the work for the doctor's degree.
John Harvard Fellowships are assigned to students of
distinction who do not need a stipend.

Of the endowed fellowships there are twelve which
can be used for travel ; but besides these a considerable
proportion of the income of the Frederick Sheldon Fund
for traveling fellowships is usually assigned to students
in the Graduate School. Thus it is possible each year
for a considerable number of men to go abroad to com-
plete their studies, either under distinguished scholars,
or in libraries or laboratories, or in some special field.
This year of research is of high value in perpetuating
interest in scholarship.

The Graduate School is notably cosmopolitan in tone.

SCHOOL OP ARTS AND SCIENCES 181

College lines are broken down, and the fellowships and
scholarships go quite as frequently to men whose first
degree has been taken elsewhere as to Harvard men.
There is a strong feeling of fraternity in the School,
which was strengthened when a few years ago the Cor-
poration assigned Conant Hall to its students, and fitted
up a common room in this building for their use. Here
are held the meetings of the Graduate Club, to which
all members of the School are eligible, and of the va-
rious learned societies, like the Classical Club, the Mod-
ern Language Conference, and others in which Faculty
and graduate students join. The situation of these so-
cieties varies with the departments. In some cases they
are officially under the direction of the department; in
others professors are honorary members. But almost
every department in the School has its own society in
which papers, usually of a technical nature, are read
and discussed.

At the same time, many graduate students come to
Cambridge, as much for the widening of their horizons
and for the opportunity to hear good music and to see
good plays as for the sake of the study. For many grad-
uates of smaller colleges, who look forward to spending
their lives in teaching in small colleges or small towns,
these opportunities of cultivation are of inestimable
value. The students of the Graduate School show an
eager desire to make the best of all the opportunities
which are offered them.

Students in the Graduate School of Arts and
Sciences return to all parts of the country, a large pro-
portion of them to teach, especially in colleges. In these
days the more capable and ambitious men stay long
enough to take the Ph.D., which is coming in many col-
leges to be required, almost unreasoningly, of all in-

182 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

structors. The men who have won this degree at Har-
vard, as at the other principal universities of the coun-
try, are picked men, often of high cultivation and
ability, and they are rapidly raising the standard of
scholarship in the colleges throughout the country.
Such men flock to the meetings of the various learned
societies in the Christmas holidays, there to meet each
other and to talk the shop of their subject and exchange
the gossip of their calling.

The history of medicine shows a faint glimmer in the
very earliest days of the College, for it is recorded
that in 1647 Giles Firmin lectured there on anatomy.
On the 27th of October of the same year, there is a
vote of the General Court that "it is conceived to be
very necessary that such as study physic or chirurgery
should be at liberty to anatomize once in four years
some malefactor in case there be such." More than a
hundred years later, after the burning of Harvard Hall
in 1764, the Boston Postboy and Advertiser of the 30th
of January, notes that among the losses by that fire
was " a collection of the most approved medical au-
thors . . . also anatomical cuts and two complete
skeletons of different sexes. The collection would have
been very serviceable to a Professor of Physic and
Anatomy when the revenues of the College should have
been sufficient to subsist a gentleman in this character."
In 1770 Ezekiel Hersey (A.B. 1728) bequeathed £100
for a professorship of anatomy and surgery, and the
next year a number of undergraduates, among whom
was John Warren (A.B. 1771), the real founder of
the Harvard Medical School, organized the ' ' Anatomical
Society, for dissection of animals and studying the bones
of the human skeleton." Very clearly, the interest in

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 183

medical study was rapidly focusing. Then came the
Kevolutionary War, which like all wars was a great
stimulus to surgical study, and by 1782 the Corporation
had organized a plan of systematic medical instruction.

This development of medical education was not un-
like that elsewhere in the country before the Revolution.
At that period medical practitioners were trained ac-
cording to the English custom, by reading medicine in
the office of an established medical man, helping him in
minor operations, and compounding drugs. When they
held themselves prepared to set up for themselves, they
usually assumed the title of doctor, whether or not they
had received the degree of M.D. This was practically an
apprentice system. A few of the more ambitious went
abroad to study, chiefly in Edinburgh, though to some
extent in England, and this system lasted well on towards
the end of the eighteenth century.

Medical study seems on the whole to have been more
active south of New England. Between 1758 and 1788
it is recorded that sixty-three Americans graduated in
medicine at Edinburgh, of whom only one was from
New England.1 The Pennsylvania Hospital was founded
in 1751 and the Medical College of Philadelphia, now
the Medical School of the University of Pennsylvania,
in 1765.

The Revolutionary War gave a great impetus to the
study of medicine in Boston. Dr. Joseph Warren (A.B.
1759), who was killed at Bunker Hill, was a physician
of brilliant promise. His younger brother John, who
had studied with him, had some opportunity during
the war for dissection, and in 1780 gave a course on
anatomical demonstrations to medical men at the Mili-

*T. F. Harrington, Harvard Medical School, vol. i.

184 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

tary Hospital in Boston.1 In 1780 was organized the
Boston Medical Society, and from this sprang Dr. John
Warren's proposal to the President and Fellows of a
systematic scheme of instruction in medicine under the
auspices of the College. The adoption by the Corpora-
tion of a report recommending such instruction, Septem-
ber 19, 1782, may be looked upon as the formal founda-
tion of the Medical School. The vote provided for the
appointment of professors of anatomy and surgery, of
the theory and practice of physic, and of materia
medica and chemistry, and for the setting up of a com-
plete anatomical and chemical apparatus, and the erec-
tion of a proper theater for dissections and chemical
operations " as soon as there shall be sufficient benefac-
tions for those purposes "; and it provided also for a
certificate under the seal of the University to be given to
students who were qualified to practice. In November,
Dr. John Warren was elected Hersey Professor of
Anatomy and Surgery, in December Dr. Benjamin
Waterhouse became Hersey Professor of the Theory and
Practice of Medicine, and the next year Dr. Aaron Dex-
ter (A.B. 1776) was elected Erving Professor of Chem-
istry and Materia Medica. On October 7, 1783, Dr.
Warren and Dr. Waterhouse were inducted into their
professorships with much ceremony in the Old Meet-
ing House.

The school thus organized was essentially like those
which had already been instituted in Philadelphia and
New York. They were what is known as proprietary
schools, since the fees received from the students went
to the professors, and the professors made all nomina-
tions and managed the school. At Harvard a close con-
nection was maintained with the College through the
1 Harrington, ubi sup., vol. i, p. 1,

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 185

endowed professorships, the earliest of which were es-
tablished in Harvard College. Indeed, the Medical
Faculty was not formally organized until well into the
nineteenth century, and the Erving Professorship, origi-
nally of chemistry and materia medica, is now a profes-
sorship of chemistry in the College. The system spread
throughout the country and produced many schools
which, being run wholly for the profit of their owners,
caused grave scandal. But at Harvard, as in all the
best schools, the idea of profit had no part in the man-
agement, and the professors frequently put back into
the school more than they received from fees.

Thus organized in 1782, the " Medical Institution "
of the University grew at first rather through the ability
of its professors than through independent organization.
At first, Dr. John Warren, who was a notable lecturer,
gave a course of demonstrations in anatomy in Holden
Chapel, which was attended by the whole Senior class
of the College; but it very soon became impracticable
for him, with his large practice in Boston, to get*out to
Cambridge by the meager communications then open.

Through the remainder of the eighteenth century
medical students attended lectures at Cambridge during
short terms in each of two winters, completing in Boston
under the direct instruction of some doctor the study in
medicine which was required by Harvard for the degree
of Bachelor of Medicine. If not a graduate of the Col-
lege, a student had to qualify in Latin and natural
philosophy. The fee for each course in anatomy and
surgery was $26.00, which went to the professors.1

Very soon, however, it was found impracticable to
continue carrying on the Medical Institution of the Col-
lege at Cambridge and the instruction of medical stu-
1 Harrington, ubi sup., vol. i, p. 275.

186 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

dents was transferred to Boston. In 1810, when Dr.
James Jackson (A.B. 1796) was elected Hersey Pro-
fessor of the Theory and Practice of Physic, there were
four professors teaching in the almshouse on Leverett
Street in Boston. In 1814, through the help of the ap-
propriation of a bank tax, in which Bowdoin and Wil-
liams Colleges shared, the erection of the " Massachu-
setts Medical College," on Mason Street in Boston, was
made possible ; and it became the home of the Harvard
Medical School in 1816. On November 1, 1816, the
Medical Faculty was first regularly organized.

Side by side with the Harvard Medical School, and
supplementing its instruction, there grew up certain
private medical schools under the charge of members of
the Medical Faculty. At this time the regular course
in medicine consisted only of four months of lectures
in the winter. The private schools gave instruction dur-
ing the rest of the year, and they gathered the most
energetic of the younger doctors. They were in no way
rivals of the School, and the Tremont School later was
adopted officially as the summer course of the- Harvard
Medical School. Among the teachers in this Tremont
School were Oliver Wendell Holmes, Henry J. Bigelow,
D. Humphreys Storer, Louis Agassiz, and Jeffries Wy-
man, and there were two other private schools manned
by younger doctors in close alliance with them.

The records of the Corporation show that for many
years it regarded the Medical School as a private school,
for which the responsibility lay in the Faculty. The
funds of the few professorships were held by the Cor-
poration, who paid the income to the incumbents; but
it was expected that this income would be supplemented
by the fees received from the students. At the same
time the School was always felt to be an integral part of

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 187

the University. The Boston of those days was small and
there was little differentiation of interests. The officers
of the Medical School were practically all graduates of
the College, and the families which gave their time and
their money to the development of the School were al-
most always among the most loyal supporters of the
College. It is hard to realize to-day how completely
Harvard College was a part of the Boston of the days
before the war. Thus the Medical School worked out its
own salvation under the wing of the University, but with
entire freedom.

The succession of men of great ability, originality, and
high character is remarkable. The families of Warren,
Homans, Cheever, Bigelow, Shattuck, Bowditch, Jack-
son, all cover long periods of the closest connection with
the Harvard Medical School; and there are other fam-
ilies whose connection with it, beginning a little later,
promises to be as long and as beneficent.

The first interest of the school was a response to the
keen zeal of Dr. John Warren for the development of
surgery and anatomy. With the appointment of Dr.
Jacob Bigelow (A.B. 1806) to the Lectureship of
Materia Medica and Botany, a new interest developed
and a great advance was made in the use of medicine
and drugs. He had studied in France and came back
with the theory of the self-limitation of disease and the
consequent comparative uselessness of drugs. He, and
Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes working with him, carried
this doctrine to the extreme, expressed by Dr. Holmes 's
saying: " If all the medicines and drugs in the world
except opium and alcohol could be thrown into the sea,
it would be a great deal better for mankind but worse
1'or the fishes." Parallel to this development went the
advance of clinical study under Dr. James Jackson, a

188 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

great general practitioner, who was Hersey Professor of
the Theory and Practice of Physic from 1812 to 1836.
Another stage in the advance of surgery came with Dr.
John C. Warren (A.B. 1797), the son of Dr. John
Warren, who succeeded his father in the Professorship
of Anatomy and Surgery in 1815 and with Dr. Henry
J. Bigelow (A.B. 1837), who was elected Professor of
Surgery in 1849 : Dr. Warren greatly advanced the study
of anatomy, and Dr. Bigelow, who was a brilliant op-
erator, carried still further the advance of surgery. In
the middle of the nineteenth century the establishment
of a chair in Morbid Anatomy by Dr. George Cheyne
Shattuck and the appointment to it of Dr. J. B. S.
Jackson (A.B. 1825), and the succession of Dr. George
C. Shattuck (A.B. 1831), and Dr. Henry I. Bowditch
(A.B. 1838), in turn, to the Professorship of Clinical
Medicine (named the Jackson Professorship in 1858),
carried still further the study of clinical medicine. In
1847, the appointment of Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes
to the Professorship of Anatomy and Physiology and
his interest in microscopic work opened the way for the
study of histology. The laboratories of physiology and
chemistry also rapidly advanced, especially when physi-
ology was established as a separate subject, and put
under the charge of Dr. Henry P. Bowditch (A.B. 1861),
who had spent three years in study abroad.

With the increase in the number of subjects which
needed expensive laboratories the day of proprietary
schools of medicine passed by. A school which should
give adequate instruction in medical science could be
supported only by great endowments coming from
private or public benefactions. There was a general
movement, therefore, on the part of the better proprie-
tary schools to attach themselves to universities, and the

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 189

number of university medical schools greatly increased.
At Harvard, the result of this development was a closer
affiliation with the University, and during President
Eliot's administration the Medical School came wholly
under the control of the President and Fellows of Har-
vard College.

The Medical School has had in its history four suc-
cessive buildings or sets of buildings, not counting the
earlier instruction in medicine given first in 1782 in the
basement of Harvard Hall at Cambridge and the next
year in Holden Chapel, or the temporary quarters on
Washington Street in Boston. The first building es-
pecially constructed for the School was built in 1816
out of the proceeds of a grant by the Commonwealth of
one third of the bank tax for ten years. It stood on
Mason Street in Boston, and was named the Massachu-
setts Medical College, in recognition of the grant from
the state. In 1847 the School had outgrown this build-
ing, and a new one was built on North Grove Street, near
the Massachusetts General Hospital, the great center o£
medical research in Boston at the time. Within less
than forty years this building too was outgrown, and
money was raised for a plot of land and a large build-
ing on the corner of Boylston and Exeter streets, which
was " expected to be the home of Medicine for genera-
tions. ' '

The advance of medical science upset all calculations,
however, and within less than twenty years the creation
of new departments and the need of new laboratories
had outgrown the capacities of this building. Accord-
ingly, about the turn of the century, the Faculty of the
School and the Corporation began to talk of another
new medical school on a scale heretofore unthought of.
Some generous friends of the University quietly bought

190 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

a tract of twenty-six acres of land at the base of Parker
Hill in Roxbury and held it until it should be needed.
Then the Corporation sanctioned the launching of the
great ' ' Medical School Undertaking. ' ' Professor Henry
P. Bowditch and Professor J. C. Warren were at the
head of a committee which worked out the general lines
of a group of buildings which should be large enough
to house the many departments of a modern medical
school, and in addition should provide space for the
establishment of hospitals of various sorts in close con-
tiguity to the School. Then they set to work to raise
the ten million dollars necessary for the land, buildings,
and endowment.

The enterprise met with gratifying success. Mr. J.
Pierpont Morgan offered at once to give the administra-
tion building and the two buildings flanking it. Mr.
John D. Rockefeller, who was already interested in the
advance of medical science, sent one of his counsel to
make a careful investigation of the work and the pros-
pects of the School. The report was favorable, and Mr.
Rockefeller offered to give a million dollars for the
endowment of the enterprise, provided that the balance
necessary for the buildings, about three quarters of a
million dollars, should be procured from other sources.
In a short time the money was raised. Mr. David Sears
(A.B. 1874) gave the building of Hygiene and Phar-
macology in memory of his father, David Sears (A.B.
1842), and his grandfather, David Sears (A.B. 1807).
Mrs. Collis P. Huntington of New York gave the build-
ing for Bacteriology and Pathology; and two new pro-
fessorships were established, the George Higginson Pro-
fessorship of Physiology and the James Stillman Pro-
fessorship of Comparative Anatomy. The money thus
given, with other subscriptions, exceeded the amount

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THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 191

stipulated by Mr. Rockefeller, and the success of the
great undertaking was assured. Land was broken in
September, 1903, and the buildings were finished in 1906.

The architects were Messrs. Shepley, Rutan, and Coo-
lidge, and the great court enclosed by the five buildings
is one of the finest pieces of American architecture. The
walls of the laboratories on the court have just sufficient
openings to break the surface, and they have been ar-
ranged with great skill. Mr. Morgan indicated his pref-
erence for marble as the material and paid for the extra
expense involved in its use. The simple lines of the
group carry the eye up to the facade of the Administra-
tion building, with its noble terrace and its five great
columns. In the summer, when the green of the grass
sets off the soft white marble, this court gives one an idea
of the best traditions of Greek architecture.

The arrangements and interior plan of the buildings
are calculated to provide the maximum of utility and
convenience. Each one, with the exception of the Ad-
ministration building, is in the form of two wings con-
nected by a central section, so that there is the greatest
possible amount of light in the laboratories. The wings
of each building can be extended in the future as more
space is necessary. An ingenious scheme of " unit
rooms " was devised, by which the space in each build-
ing can be fitted to the needs of the men working in it,
and can be rearranged, if necessary, at comparatively
slight expense. The unit consists of a room for research
twenty-three feet deep and ten feet wide, with a win-
dow. The partitions are of terra cotta, and two or more
of these rooms can easily be combined by taking out the
partition. In this way rooms of all sizes, from those
fitted for a single worker up to moderate-sized lab-
oratories or class-rooms, can be made on each floor of

192 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

each wing. In the central section of each building
which connects the wings is a large amphitheater, which
is thus easy of access to the students and instructors who
are working in either wing. In the central section, too,
are kept the books and journals which are most closely
related to the work being done in that building.

The Administration building, at the head of the court,
has on the lower floor a handsome Faculty room and
convenient offices for the Dean and the administrative
staff. On the left of the entrance is a large lecture-room.
In the basement, which is well above ground, are reading
and coat-rooms for the students. The entire upper por-
tion of the building is occupied by the "Warren Anatomi-
cal Museum, which contains a most valuable collection
for teaching, begun by Dr. John Warren in 1799.

Close by the Medical School buildings is the new
building of the Dental School, the Faculty of which
is organized as part of the general Medical Faculty.
This building, which was completed in 1909, was made
possible by the undaunted belief of President Eliot that
dental science is a matter of so great importance to the
happiness of mankind that it should have every advan-
tage for scientific study. Under his encouragement, the
loyalty and self-devotion of the alumni have carried the
day, and partly through the generosity of friends, even
more by the self-sacrificing generosity of the graduates
of the school, it was possible to erect a commodious
building.

It has laboratories equipped with the latest and most
approved apparatus, and a large infirmary where free
patients are treated under the direction of the instruc-
tors in the school. There is also a department for oral
surgery, with two operating rooms, each of which has its
room for anaesthesia ; and there is a small ward for tern-

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 193

porary treatment of the cases. There is also a room for
X-ray work and a museum containing over 3500 speci-
mens. The Dental School building is used wholly for
clinical work ; as the lectures and the general laboratory
instruction are given in the buildings of the Medical
School.

The equipment of the Harvard Medical School, how-
ever, is far from being completed within its own build-
ings. It has now, what every great medical school must
have, close connections with a large number of hospitals.

First to be mentioned is the Peter Bent Brigham
Hospital, built on land bought in 1900 for the use of the
Medical School. This is a great general hospital, with
fourteen separate buildings and room for two hundred
and forty medical and surgical cases. Its relations with
the School are close, for the trustees have entered into
an agreement with the Corporation of the University,
under which the Corporation will nominate the medical
and surgical officers of the hospital. It is thus possible
to elect men to professorships and at the same time to
ensure them positions in a great working hospital. Be-
sides this, the Corporation has recently concluded an
arrangement with the trustees of the Massachusetts Gen-
eral Hospital, by which the house officers of the latter
will also be appointed in consultation with the Corpora-
tion. Thus another great hospital, with three hundred
and twenty beds, is made an integral part of the organi-
zation by which the Medical School will carry on the
war against suffering and disease. Besides these two
great general hospitals, there are others also in close asso-
ciation with the school. On part of the land in Roxbury
have been built the Collis P. Huntington Memorial Hos-
pital for cancer cases, the Infants' Hospital, and the
Children's Hospital. The Huntington Memorial Hos-

194 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

pital is a very complete building with twenty-four beds,
and all the accompanying laboratories and facilities
for study. It will be conducted under the direction
of the Cancer Commission of Harvard University. The
Infants' Hospital accommodates fifty babies, and of-
fers facilities for the study of the many problems of
the first months of a baby's growth. The Children's
Hospital, a much larger institution, has beds for one
hundred and fifty patients. It will afford medical, sur-
gical, and orthopedic service for children beyond the
age of infancy. Also on the land bought for the School
there is the Carnegie Nutrition Laboratory, maintained
by the Carnegie Institute of Washington, which has a
very remarkable equipment for the investigation of
various problems of nutrition, with apparatus by wrhich
all the products of the combustion of food for the body,
whether in health or in disease, can be accurately
measured and studied. Close by is the House of the
Good Samaritan, a hospital for women suffering from
various chronic maladies. All these buildings obtain
their power, heat, and light from a central power-plant
belonging to the Medical School, which provides them
also with power for ventilation, refrigeration, and elec-
tricity.

Besides these buildings, which are on land purchased
for the Medical School Undertaking, there are several
other important institutions near at hand in which the
School has active interest. About a quarter of a mile
away is the new State Psychopathic Hospital for the
observation and treatment of cases of mental disease in
the early stages. Here are brought all persons whose
mental state makes it desirable to have them under
observation before committing them to the state asy-
lums, and here, too, it is arranged that selected types

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 195

of mental disease may be brought from the various
state insane hospitals for special study. About a mile
away is the Free Hospital for Women, devoted to sur-
gical cases, with sixty-seven beds. In another direction,
at about the same distance, is the Baptist Hospital,
and the site for the future Robert Brigham Hospital
for chronic cases, and there are a few other smaller
institutions. Farther away, but in close relations with
the Medical School, is the Boston City Hospital, with
its many cases of accidents and many operations. There
are also the Boston Lying-in Hospital, which has more
than eight hundred patients a year, and the Boston Dis-
pensary, to which over one hundred thousand visits are
made during the year. The McLean Hospital for the
Insane at Waverley, a department of the Massachusetts
General Hospital, with over four hundred patients in a
year, is well equipped with pathological, chemical, and
psychological laboratories. The Long Island Hospital,
in Boston Harbor, has three hundred and twenty-five
beds designed particularly for the treatment of chronic
cases. At the Carney Hospital over three thousand
patients are treated during the year, and it maintains,
besides, a very large out-patient department.

The School is thus surrounded with hospitals of the
most varied sort; so that the opportunities for the
study of diseases are unsurpassed. Besides these re-
sources, the neighborhood of the Bussey Institution
affords opportunities for study in comparative patho-
logy and in the part played by insects in the carrying
of disease. Investigators in the Medical School are
also able to call on the physical laboratory and the
chemical laboratories in Cambridge for advice and aid
in investigations. With the increasing differentiation
of science and the establishment of new lines of in-

196 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

quiry involving more than one field thereof, these pos-
sibilities of cooperation are likely, to increase in impor-
tance.

The regular work for the degree of M.D. in the Har-
vard Medical School calls for four years of hard and
often almost unbroken study. Under a recent rear-
rangement of the work, in the first two years the
students concentrate their time almost wholly on the
laboratory subjects. The first half of the first year
they devote to anatomy and histology, the second half
to physiology and biological chemistry, and the first
half of the second year they give wholly to pathology
and bacteriology ; in the second half of the second year
there is somewhat greater variety. At the end of the
second year there is a general examination on all the
work of these first two years of laboratory study. In
the last two years of the course students enter directly
on clinical study. The work of the fourth year is elec-
tive. At the end of that year there is another general
examination, principally on the work of the last two
years.

All through the work of the School, but particularly
in the latter portion of it and during the summer,
students spend much time in the various hospitals and
dispensaries described above. The amount of instruc-
tion by pure lectures has been steadily reduced, and
the amount of time spent in laboratories or hospitals
increased. In recent years successful experiments
have been made in borrowing the case-system of the
Law School for instruction in medicine. Books are
prepared in which typical cases of certain diseases are
described in detail; these cases are discussed in the
class-room with various modifications suggested by the
professor, and the students must reason out the differ-

THE MEDICAL SCHOOL 197

ence in diagnosis and treatment which would result
from such modifications. Thus the medical student,
even in his study of books, gets the habit of giving his
attention to the actual facts of cases and reasoning out
their significance.

The tendency of medicine to develop new fields is
illustrated by the new degree of Doctor of Public
Health, for which a year's study after the regular
medical course is required. There is also provision for
the attainment of the degrees of Master of Arts and
Doctor of Philosophy for advanced students of medi-
cine who have already received the M.D. These de-
grees are administered by a Division of Medical
Sciences established in the Faculty of Arts and
Sciences, with joint membership from that Faculty and
the Medical Faculty. The work for these degrees is
in the nature of advanced research.

Besides these opportunities for advanced study in
Medicine, the Graduate School of Medicine was or-
ganized in 1911 as a department under the Faculty of
Medicine, with a separate Dean and Administrative
Board. The purpose of this Graduate School of Medi-
cine is chiefly to afford opportunities of special study
to doctors who are already in practice. It offers courses
of lectures and clinical visits covering a month or more,
and shorter courses at the hospitals on special subjects,
which are intended for practitioners who can get to
Boston only once or twice a week. Special courses are
also arranged from time to time in particular lines of
work. Besides these, there are research courses, in
which opportunity is given for graduates in medicine
to carry on more or less extensive investigations. The
general purpose of this Graduate School, therefore, is
double. On the one hand, it will enable the practitioner

198 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

who wishes to keep up with the advance of medicine to
do so under favorable circumstances, and in the second
place it provides for the increasing number of men
who are following medicine as a pure science.

There is a large and increasing amount of pure re-
search in medical subjects now carried on at the School.
The laboratories are modern and well equipped, and
many subjects are opening out new fields. There is
also opportunity for experiment on animals under care-
fully guarded conditions. The Harvard Medical School
thus promises to combine the two great modern func-
tions of medical study: on the one hand, the investi-
gation which is constantly advancing the science, and,
on the other hand, the passing on of the information
thus gained to the men who will apply it directly to
the amelioration of human ills.

The Law School, now one of the strongest depart-
ments of the University, like most of the other de-
partments, made its first beginning with a professorship
in Harvard College. In 1815 Isaac Royall left a be-
quest to the University for the establishment of a
professorship of law, the incumbent of which was
required to give a course of lectures to the Seniors.
For two years the professorship was filled by Isaac
Parker (A.B. 1786), then Chief Justice of the Supreme
Judicial Court of Massachusetts. In 1817, at his sug-
gestion, the Corporation and Overseers established the
Harvard Law School. It is, therefore, the oldest of
the extant law schools of the country. With the es-
tablishment of the School, the Corporation elected the
Honorable Asahel Stearns (A.B. 1797), University
Professor of Law. In 1829, the staff was increased by
the foundation of the Dane Professorship of Law, to

THE LAW SCHOOL 199

which was elected, at the suggestion of the founder,
Joseph Story (A.B. 1798), later a Justice of the Su-
preme Court of the United States.

The School was first housed in what is now College
House. In 1829-30 it had thirty-two students. In that
year Nathan Dane (A.B. 1778), the founder of the
Dane Professorship, gave a new building to the Law
School, Dane Hall, which, though somewhat modified
in exterior, still stands close to its original position on
the curve of Harvard Square. The School increased
slowly, though among the professors were men of the
highest distinction, such as Joel Parker, later Chief
Justice of the Supreme Court of New Hampshire, Emory
Washburn, later Governor of Massachusetts, and
Nathaniel Holmes (A.B. 1837), later a justice of the
Supreme Court of Missouri. The system of instruction
was wholly by lectures, for legal instruction, like medi-
cal instruction, in the early years followed the model
of the English system, which was practically an ap-
prenticeship. Just as the medical student read medi-
cine and helped in bandaging and in compounding
drugs in the office of an established practitioner, so the
student of law read law in text-books in some lawyer's
office and took a gradually increasing part in the regular
work of the office, drawing up papers, preparing cases
for trial, and finally taking part in the arguments.
The instruction in the Law School at first merely took
the place of text-books. The students listened to lec-
tures by distinguished practitioners and made notes on
them. A large part of Judge Story's famous treatises
on the law were produced as lectures in the Law School.
The course was nominally two years, but there is said
to have been no more work in it than might easily have
been done in one. There were no examinations either

200 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

for entrance or for graduation, and in comparison with
the almost fierce eagerness of professional study to-day,
the work of the Law School then would seem amateurish.
With the appointment of Professor Christopher
Columbus Langdell (A.B. 1851) to the Dane Profes-
sorship and to the deanship of the School, in 1870, a
revolution, as we have seen, was wrought in legal in-
struction. President Eliot, in his address on the Law-
School Day of the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary
of the College, gives an account of how he came to
appoint Professor Langdell. After describing how
Governor Washburn, who was then Dean, had received
his first visit to the Law School with the semi-humorous
declaration that he was the first President of the Uni-
versity who had ever entered its doors, he went on to
say: —

The next winter Professor Parsons, one of the vet-
erans of the School, resigned, and the Dane Professor-
ship became vacant. Then I remembered that when I
was a Junior in college, in the year 1851-52, and used
to go often in the early evening to the room of a friend
who was in the Divinity School, I there heard a young
man who was making the notes to " Parsons on Con-
tracts " talk about law. He was generally eating his
supper at the time, standing up in front of the fire and
eating with good appetite a bowl of brown bread and
milk. I was a mere boy, only eighteen years old; but
it was given to me to understand that I was listening to
a man of genius. In the year 1870 I recalled the re-
markable quality of that young man's expositions,
sought him in New York, and induced him to become
Dane Professor. So he became Professor Langdell. He
then told me, in 1870, a great many of the things he
has told you this afternoon: I have heard most of his
speech before. He told me that law was a science: I
was quite prepared to believe it. He told me that the

THE LAW SCHOOL 201

way to study a science was to go to the original sources.
I knew that was true, for I had been brought up in the
science of chemistry myself; and one of the first rules
of a conscientious student of science is never to take a
fact or a principle out of second-hand treatises, but to
go to the original memoir of the discoverer of that fact
or principle. Out of these two fundamental proposi-
tions,— that law is a science, and that a science is to be
studied in its sources, — there gradually grew, first, a
new method of teaching law; and secondly, a recon-
struction of the curriculum of the School.

In President Eliot's career he never gave a better
proof of his prophetic judgment of men. The study of
the law became indeed a science; Professor Langdell
invented a wholly new method of teaching law. Instead
of letting his students learn the principles from text-
books, he sent them to the cases on which the principles
were based. For each meeting of a class he gave the
students five or six cases from the sets of reports in the
Library to prepare themselves on, and then called on
one student to state the facts in the case, and on an-
other to state the principles involved in the decision.
Then he would draw the whole class into the discussion
by seeking their opinion of the decision, by modifying
the facts and questioning them as to how the principle
would be modified, so that by the end of the hour, the
students would have seen that particular principle in
all its aspects and would have gone to its foundation in
the theory of the common law. Thus he gave to his
students a vivid sense of the law as a continuous and
living development, and he taught them to think in
terms of the common law, rather than to trust to prin-
ciples committed to memory from a text-book. Of this
system, Sir Frederick Pollock, Regius Professor of Law

202 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

in Oxford University, declared: " I do feel sure it is
the best way, if not the only way, to learn law."

In 1883 a new building for the Law School was
erected from a bequest of Edward Austin, from plans
drawn by H. H. Richardson (A.B. 1859). It is an
excellent example of the Romanesque style introduced
by Richardson. The rounded arches at the entrance are
elaborately carved, and there is a fine reading-room
upstairs with a noble mantelpiece. The building was
planned spaciously, with the idea that it would con-
tinue to house the School in comfort for a generation,
or perhaps half a century ; but the success of the School
outran the prescience of its Faculty, and within less
than twenty years the building was insufferably
crowded. In 1908 a new and stately building was
erected on Holmes Field just behind Austin Hall, out
of the accumulated funds of the School, for the Law
School is the only department of the University which
puts away a surplus. This new building is appro-
priately named Langdell Hall. As is the habit at Har-
vard, the architecture of the new building has no re-
lation to that of the old, though it is in itself com-
modious and stately.

In the meantime, the standard of the School has been
steadily raised. In 1896 a rule was adopted that only
graduates of approved colleges and persons qualified
to enter the Senior Class at Harvard College should be
admitted as students. Three years later, in 1899, the
standard was still further raised by requiring a bache-
lor's degree or its equivalent from everybody who
wished to enter the School. At the same time, the
standard of work in the separate courses has been con-
siderably increased. The value of the case-system
obviously depends on drawing all members of the class

Ml

THE LAW SCHOOL 203

into the discussion. The Faculty has seen the numbers
of the School grow, with great reluctance. They have
therefore crowded out without mercy men who are un-
able or unwilling to keep up with the pace of the
School. Even so, however, the numbers are embarrass-
ing. In the year 1911-12 there were 808 students.
The difficulty of handling so many has been met in
part by dividing the classes into two or more sections
under different professors, who from time to time ex-
change their sections. In this way, instruction for all
the men is made as nearly even as possible.

The number of branches of the law in which instruc-
tion is given has gradually increased, so that there are
now six courses open to first-year students, nine courses
to second-year students, and eleven courses to third-
year students. Since each man ordinarily takes only
four subjects a year, the system has become to some
extent elective. In 1911, a fourth-year course was
established, leading to the degree of Doctor of Law.
This degree, for which courses in Roman Law and the
Civil Law are required, is intended for men who wish
to ground themselves in the general principles of juris-
prudence ; it is not expected that it will ever draw very
many students. '

Side by side with the regular instruction goes the
work of the Law Clubs, which is semi-officially recog-
nized by the Faculty of the School. These clubs, which
now number about twenty-five, elect eight members each
from the incoming class to their Superior Court; the
Supreme Court consists of the same number of men
from the second-year class. The latter prepare cases
on doubtful and interesting points of the law, which
are assigned to the first-year men to argue, there being
usually two counsel to a side. They prepare their cases

204 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

by going through the reports for all the cases which
bear on the point, and then argue out their side before
the upper classmen. Occasionally a professor will sit
with the student judge. The judges, after hearing the
arguments, read the briefs and prepare a formal judg-
ment on the case.

Besides these Law Clubs, which usually contain the
pick of the students in the School, the Faculty have at
various times arranged for moot courts, in which a
professor goes over the case and sits as judge of the
contests between the various clubs. The work of these
clubs and of these cases before the Faculty is a serious
addition to the amount of work undertaken by the
students, but it is held by the Faculty to be of the
highest value, in that it makes it necessary for a student
to hunt through the many collections of reports just as
he will do when he gets into practice and has to argue
a case for himself before a real court. He is thus made
familiar with the various collections of reports not only
in the United States but in England, and he learns to
make such use of them as a lawyer must make in actual
practice.

There are a number of scholarships at the disposal
of the Faculty of Law, at present forty-three. Besides
these there are the four Sears prizes of $375 each,
which are awarded without regard to pecuniary means
to the four students in the School who have done dur-
ing the year the most brilliant work.

The library of the Law School is one of the great
ornaments and one of the great assets of the Univer-
sity. It is believed to be now the largest single collec-
tion on the law and the history of the law. In 1912 it
consisted of 148,000 volumes and 14,000 pamphlets.
It has an unexcelled collection of decisions of the courts

THE LAW SCHOOL 205

of all the countries which live under the Common Law,
including the colonies of the British Empire. Besides
these, it has great collections in Roman law and in
Civil law, and with the recent addition of the Olivart
collection of books on the History of International Law,
made by the Marquis Olivart of Madrid, it has the
largest collection on this subject which has yet been
made. Some years ago before these recent additions,
Professor Dicey of Oxford declared that " the Library
had the most perfect collection of legal records in the
English-speaking world. ' '

The success of the School and its hold on the country
is remarkable. In 1913-14, out of 695 students, less
than a quarter had taken their first degree at Harvard,
and in the list 142 colleges were represented. The in-
terest in the work is intense, and the competition keen,
for, apart from the proved value of the training in
preparing men to practice law, it is doubtful if any-
where else there can be found a more stimulating and
rigorous mental gymnasium than is provided in the
classes of the Law School.

Though the formal history of the Divinity School
does not begin until the organization of the Faculty of
Divinity, in 1819, practically the history of instruction
in theology begins with that of Harvard College. The
" Laws, Liberties, and Orders of Harvard College,"
drawn up by President Dunster in 1642, had as the
second article : ' ' Everyone shall consider the main end
of his life and studies to know God and Jesus Christ
which is Eternal Life ' ' ; and the examination on which
the first degree was based covered " ability to read the
original of the Old and New Testaments into the Latin
tongue, and to resolve them logically." A large pro-

206 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

portion of the early graduates were ministers. Fur-
thermore, the first professorship established at Harvard
College was the Hollis Professorship of Divinity,
founded in 1721.

Even in the eighteenth century, when the theocracy
had broken down as a practical method of government,
and the interests of this world had forced themselves
into the affairs of men and into the instruction of the
College, instruction in religion was still counted as the
chief substance of education. The great controversy
which raged over the liberalizing of the College early
in the eighteenth century had as one of its chief points
of strife the duty of the President to give daily exposi-
tions of the Scripture to the students. But even the
most liberal men of the time, all through the century,
whether belonging to the Puritan churches or to the
Episcopal church, wrhich was making rapid headway
in Boston, agreed that young men should be trained
first of all in religion. All through the first two cen-
turies of the history of the College, therefore, prepara-
tion of young men for the ministry was assumed as
part of its regular work. Their instruction they re-
ceived not only as undergraduates, but also as graduates,
reading under the Hollis Professor of Divinity.

Gradually, however, other interests more and more
surpassed theological interests, and it became clear by
the beginning of the nineteenth century that Harvard
College was to be a layman's college. At the same
time, the Unitarian scission in the Congregational
church, about the beginning of the century, produced a
new and very lively interest in theology, and this in-
terest reacted on the instruction in divinity. Dr. Henry
Ware (A.B. 1785), one of the most eminent of the
early Unitarians, was elected Hollis Professor in 1805,

THE DIVINITY SCHOOL 207

and in 1811 began systematic instruction of resident
students in theology. Six years later, in 1817, this
instruction attracted enough students to make it worth
while to have public exercises for their graduation. In
1819, the Corporation and Overseers authorized the
Hollis Professor of Divinity, the Hancock Professor
of Hebrew, the Alford Professor of Natural Religion,
Moral Philosophy, and Civil Polity, and the Dexter
Professor of Sacred Literature to organize themselves
as a Faculty of Divinity.

The Divinity School was the first of the professional
schools of the University to become a graduate profes-
sional school. Thus organized, the School was in-
tended to be a Unitarian seminary, and it was recog-
nized as such. Nevertheless, as early as 1830, when
the Society for Promoting Theological Education at
Harvard University, which consisted wholly of Uni-
tarians, turned the funds over to the President and
Fellows, they made the condition that no " assent to
peculiarities of any denomination of Christians shall
be required of either the instructors or students." In
spite of this liberal proviso, the School from natural
causes long remained Unitarian, and it was not until
the latter quarter of the nineteenth century that any
considerable number of ministers were prepared for
other denominations.

Under President Eliot, as we have seen, the School
early raised its professional level. In 1882 it became
strictly a graduate school, and no candidate was ad-
mitted to study for the degree who had not received
the degree of A.B., or its equivalent. In 1890 the tui-
tion fee was raised to $150, and the Divinity School
was put on a level with the other departments of the
University.

208 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

The instruction in the Divinity School is more closely
interlocked with that of the College than is that in the
other professional schools. Since the School provides
more instruction than can be covered by any one man
in the three years' study required for the degree, it has
of necessity adopted the elective system. Many of the
forty courses of instruction offered are identical with
courses offered in Harvard College and the Graduate
School of Arts and Sciences, and most of the others
may be taken by competent students in the College or
the Graduate Schools. At the same time, all the in-
struction offered by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences
is open to regular or special students in the Divinity
School.

The School was greatly strengthened in 1908, when
an arrangement was made with the Trustees of the
Andover Theological Seminary by which that Seminary
was removed to Cambridge and brought into close al-
liance and cooperation with the School. The Andover
Seminary, which has large endowments, has built a
beautiful stone building on land near the building of
the Divinity School. Here the libraries of the two
institutions have been merged in one, making a joint
collection of over 100,000 volumes and nearly 50,000
pamphlets. The instruction also is merged; and pro-
fessors on the Andover foundation are elected Andover
Professors in Harvard University.

The economy of the arrangement is obvious. There
are many subjects of instruction in a divinity school,
such as Hebrew, and Old Testament criticism, to go
no further, which can in no way be affected by theo-
logical differences. Thus the joint Faculty of the two
institutions can be diversified by providing for instruc-
tion and investigation in a greater number of subjects

THE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL 209

than would be possible if each school had to maintain
a complete staff for all the fundamental subjects.

The ambition of the Harvard Divinity School to be
a non-sectarian institution for " the serious, impartial,
and unbiased investigation of Christian Truth " is un-
questionably successful. In 1913-14, among the fifty-
seven students in the Harvard Divinity School and the
Andover School fifty-one different colleges and sixteen
theological seminaries were represented. Within thirty
years students of the School have entered the ministry
of eleven different denominations. In the Faculty at
present there are Unitarians, Orthodox Congregation-
alists, and Baptists. There are no theological tests or
requirements, though it is provided that a professorship
of theology shall always be held by_ a Unitarian. So
far as it is possible, however, under conditions as they
now exist, the Harvard Divinity School has accom-
plished its aim of being undenominational.

The history of technical and scientific education at
Harvard goes back more than two generations, to the
foundation of the Lawrence Scientific School and the
endowment of the Bussey Institution. In 1847 the
Corporation and Overseers announced their intention
of offering instruction in applied sciences for mature
students, and the Honorable Abbott Lawrence made
possible the immediate establishment of the work by
his gift of a building and of a fund for a professorship.
This school was intended to give instruction in both
pure and applied science. The endowment of the
Bussey Institution was provided by a will written in
1835 by Benjamin Bussey (A.B. 1803). He died in
1842, but as the estate was subject to annuities, the.

210 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

School of Agriculture and Horticulture, for which he
provided, was not organized until 1871. The will,
which was written more than thirty-five years before
the passage by Congress of the Morrill Act, which es-
tablished the state agricultural colleges, was half a
century in advance of the times. The fortunes of the
Bussey Institution will be dealt with separately.

The Lawrence Scientific School in the first years of
its career gathered together a remarkable set of stu-
dents, a large proportion of them already Bachelors
of Arts. The four members of the first class which
was graduated were William Louis Jones, who became
Professor of Physics, Chemistry, and Agriculture at
the University of Georgia; Joseph Le Conte, who was
professor of scientific subjects successively at the Col-
lege of South Carolina, the University of Georgia, and
the University of California, and was a member of the
American Philosophical Society and of the National
Academy of Sciences; John Daniel Eunkle, who was
professor at and President of the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology; and David Ames Wells, the dis-
tinguished economist, who received a D.C.L. from Ox-
ford, and was a fellow of the American Academy and
corresponding member of the Institute of France.
Among other early graduates were Francis Humphreys
Storer, long Dean of the Bussey Institution ; Alexander
Agassiz; James Mason Crafts, at one time President
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Simon
Newcomb, whose honors occupy a whole column in the
Quinquennial Catalogue; Daniel Cady Eaton, Pro-
fessor of Botany at Yale; John Williams Langley, of
the Smithsonian Institution; Alpheus Hyatt, professor
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and at
Boston University, Vice-President of the American

THE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL 211

Academy, member of the National Academy and other
societies; Frederic Ward Putnam, for many years Pea-
body Professor of American Archaeology and Eth-
nology, and Curator of the Peabody Museum; Samuel
Hubbard Scudder, a distinguished entomologist;
Nathaniel Southgate Shaler, later the beloved Dean of
the School; Cleveland Abbe, Professor of Meteorology
in the United States Weather Bureau; Alpheus Spring
Packard, long Professor of Zoology and Geology at
Brown University, and a member of many foreign
societies; Edward Charles Pickering, Director of the
Observatory; John Trowbridge, Rumford Professor,
and Director of the Jefferson Physical Laboratory;
Professor William Morris Davis, Dr. Harvey W. Wiley,
and many others. No department of the University,
or, it is probably safe to say, of any university in
America, has graduated so large a proportion of men
who reached high distinction in later life.

Gradually, as has been stated, after the War the char-
acter of the School changed, and by the eighties it had
so run down as to be not much more than an annex to
the College, which harbored students whose desire for
the cheer and good-fellowship of college life surpassed
their intellectual zeal or capacity. The requirements
for entrance and the minimum standards of work were
low, and the instruction, though of good quality, was
small in amount. Nevertheless, even at its lowest es-
tate, when the classes had sunk to three or four stu-
dents and the number of degrees in technical science
had almost vanished, each year there were graduated
men who have made excellent records for themselves
in scientific work. With the beginning of the last
decade of the last century, the number of students
began to increase, and by 1900 it had run up to more

212 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

than five hundred. Then, in 1906, the School was re-
organized and transformed into a graduate professional
school. In 1910, with the graduation of the last can-
didates for the S.B. registered in the Lawrence Scien-
tific School, the School disappeared from the index of
the University Catalogue.

This reorganization was the immediate result of the
great endowment for study and research in applied
science made by the will of Gordon McKay, who did
so much to perfect shoe machinery. His bequest, which
is approximately $5,000,000 in amount, he tied up1 so
ingeniously and so intelligently as to insure a long and
steady increase in the resources of the Graduate Schools
of Applied Science. He had provided for his children
in his lifetime; and in his will, after creating certain
small annuities which were likely to run for many
years, he provided that the income of his estate should
accumulate until it amounted to a million dollars. This
sum was then to be paid over to the University to be
used as capital. Thereafter, each year, eighty per cent
of the income of the estate was to be paid to the Uni-
versity, again to be used as capital; this will continue
rrhtil the annuities lapse. Thus the School of Applied
Science which he wished to provide for was sure of
making a start with a liberal endowment, and then
was sure of a steady, liberal increase in that endow-
ment for many years to come.

In view of this bequest, the governing boards in 1906
reorganized the instruction in applied science on a new
basis, which brought engineering in its various branches
into company with the other learned professions by bas-
ing the technical profession of the engineer on an edu-
cation such as is given by a good American college. It
was provided accordingly that the new Graduate School

SCHOOLS OF APPLIED SCIENCE 213

of Applied Science should be open only to holders of a
bachelor's degree; and on top of this preliminary edu-
cation, the technical work for the degree in applied
science was to occupy two years. Thus the degree of
A.B. and a technical degree can together be obtained
in six years, or, by students who can accomplish their
undergraduate work in three years, it can be obtained
in five.

In 1912 a further step was taken by which this
Graduate School of Applied Science was reorganized
into a group of Schools of Applied Science, under a
single Faculty. At the same time, a clearer line was
drawn between undergraduate and technical study. Up
to that time, the future engineer or architect could
put a good deal of strictly technical work besides mathe-
matics and science into his undergraduate course.
With the reorganization, all the strictly technical
courses were transferred to the Graduate Schools of
Applied Science, leaving in Harvard College only such
courses preparatory for engineering as might properly
be maintained in any well-developed undergraduate
curriculum.

The students in the Graduate Schools of Applied
Science are expected to come to their work with their
general preparation in mathematics and science com-
pleted. Then for two whole years they work practically
without intermission. In the summer, work is carried
on either in the shops and laboratories in Cambridge
or at the engineering camp at Squam Lake, New Hamp-
shire. The students in these Schools of Applied Science
have only two weeks of vacation in the two years, out-
side the regular University recesses at Christmas and
in the spring. By such continuous work men who are
matured by a college training, and are welded together

214 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

by a common concentration of interest can- get a thor-
ough technical training in the two continuous calendar
years. The habit of intense work for a long period is
not the least important part of the training which they
get from the School.

Under this new organization instruction in applied
science is given in Graduate Schools of Engineering,
Mining, Architecture and Landscape Architecture,
Forestry, and Applied Biology, the last at the Bussey
Institution. The work in the School of Engineering
leads to the degree of Master in Civil Engineering, in
Mechanical Engineering, or in Electrical Engineering;
that in the Graduate School of Mining to the degree of
Mining Engineer or Metallurgical Engineer; the work
in the School of Architecture and Landscape Architec-
ture to the degree of Master in one or the other of those
subjects; the work in the School of Forestry to the
degree of Master of Forestry; and that in the School
of Applied Biology to the degrees of Master of Science
and Doctor of Science. The degree of Master of Science
may also be given in special fields of applied Science,
in Physics or Geology, for special work. All the schools
may confer the degree of Doctor of Science on con-
ditions similar to those prescribed for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts
and Sciences.

The School of Engineering has at present a good
equipment in Pierce Hall; and there is now under con-
struction a special building for instruction and re-
search in high-tension electricity, which will have ap-
paratus for the production of currents of electricity of
extreme power. Students in electrical engineering also
have the advantage of the electrical laboratories in the
Jefferson Physical Laboratory. The work in the Grad-

SCHOOLS OF APPLIED SCIENCE 215

uate School of Engineering is distributed among courses
in civil, mechanical, electrical, and sanitary engineering.
The laboratories for civil, mechanical, and electrical
engineering are in Pierce Hall. Here there are large
drafting rooms and a library containing more than
eight thousand volumes, with over one hundred tech-
nical journals regularly on file. There are laboratories
for applied mechanics and for the study of heat-en-
gines, for the study of cement and concrete, and for
the testing of iron, steel, and other structural materials.
There is also a hydraulic laboratory, which has facilities
for testing the flow of water under different conditions ;
and the work in this laboratory is supplemented by
work done at Lowell, Massachusetts, on the water-power
there. For electrical work there are in Pierce Hall
laboratories for carrying on tests and making electrical
measurements, and a laboratory with an equipment of
various types of direct and alternating current ap-
paratus. There is also a laboratory for the study of
problems in illuminating engineering. The laboratory
in sanitary engineering is equipped with apparatus
for making analyses of air, water, and sewage, both
chemical and biological, and for experimental work
relating to sewage and to purification of water. The
shop-work courses are given during the summer at the
Rindge Technical School of the city of Cambridge.
Here students get practical work in blacksmith shop,
pattern shop, and machine shop.

The surveying courses are carried on, also during
the summer, at the Harvard Engineering Camp on
Squam Lake, New Hampshire. Here the University
owns 700 acres of land, with buildings for class-rooms
and drafting rooms. The students and instructors live
in tents, and have their meals on a covered piazza. ThQ

216 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

life is a simple outdoor life, with plenty of hard work.
The Camp is in session for thirteen weeks every sum-
mer, beginning immediately after Commencement. The
instruction consists of courses in the different branches
of surveying, and railroad engineering, also in elemen-
tary mechanics, mechanical drawing, descriptive geom-
etry, and other subjects necessary for an engineer.
Much of the work in sanitary engineering is also car-
ried on at the Engineering Camp, especially the study
of the physics and biology of lakes and reservoirs, and
the other subjects which are included under the name
limnology, — the science of lakes and reservoirs. The
life at the Camp is thus an agreeable combination of
hard work and outdoor life, with a chance for swimming
and boating in what time there is left over.

The Graduate School of Mining carries on its work
in the Rotch Building on Holmes Field, which has a
laboratory for metallurgical chemistry and metallog-
raphy, and also the three laboratories given in memory
of John Simpkins (A.B. 1885), for experimental work
in ore-dressing, and in assay and metallurgical work.
Each of these laboratories is well equipped with modern
machinery and outfit for analyses.

The School of Architecture and Landscape Archi-
tecture is most fortunately and adequately equipped;
for it has Robinson Hall and the generous and com-
plete endowment which came with it, given in memory
of Nelson Robinson, Jr., of the Class of 1900, who died
during his college course. The building is as complete
as it was possible to make it, and with it goes a Nelson
Robinson, Jr. Professorship of Architecture and a Nel-
son Robinson, Jr. Travelling Fellowship in Architec-
ture. The building has excellent drawing-rooms, well

SCHOOLS OF APPLIED SCIENCE 217

lighted from the north, and a library of over fifteen
hundred books on Architecture and over one thousand
on Landscape Architecture. It has, besides, a collec-
tion of eleven thousand photographs of architectural
subjects. The entrance hall is two stories in height,
and here are installed full-sized casts of columns and
other large architectural elements. Casts of other
architectural features, such as doorways, balconies, and
window frames, are used as parts of the building.
There is also an interesting collection of original frag-
ments, chiefly marble, of Greek, Roman, and Italian
Renaissance detail, built into the walls, both inside
and outside.

Landscape architecture, though it is treated as a
branch of design closely related to architecture, yet
dips into a great variety of other subjects. Students in
landscape architecture study topographical surveying
at the Engineering Camp at Squam Lake, and they get
instruction in horticulture and arboriculture at the
Botanic Garden and the Arnold Arboretum. The work
in drawing and the lectures in practice and design are
carried on in Robinson Hall.

The School of Forestry has its main establishment
at the Harvard Forest in Petersham, eighty-five miles
west of Cambridge. Here, through the generosity of
Mr. John S. Ames, '01, and other friends, the Univer-
sity has two thousand acres of land, most of it well
wooded, with trees in all stages of growth. There is a
fine growth of large pine, and some of the land is in open
ground, which affords the chance for instruction in
reforestation. The land is varied in contour and in
surface, and lies in a region of high hills long famous
for its beauty. Here the students spend almost half

218 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

of their two years' course, living a semi-camping life,
going about in flannel shirts, and taking the life of a
woodsman as it conies. Before the end of his course
each student must also spend two months in actual
lumbering operations in a commercial undertaking.

The history of the Bussey Institution has been long
and varied, and, until the* organization of the Graduate
School of Applied Biology, in general unfortunate. The
funds did not become available for setting up the School
of Horticulture and Agriculture provided for by Mr.
Bussey until 1871, and the next year the great Boston
fire swept away a large part of its income-bearing en-
dowment. Though a great subscription was raised to
restore the endowments of the other departments of
the University which had suffered by this catastrophe,
nothing was done to help the Bussey Institution. More-
over, it was in advance of its time, and even the agri-
cultural colleges of the West were still languishing.
Its land was ill-fitted for its purpose, and became more
so each year as the city grew up around it. The small
number of Bachelors of Agriculture who appeared each
year on the platform at Commencement were received
with hardly disguised amusement. For many years the
Bussey Institution thus ran along in a state of sus-
pended development.

About the time that the Lawrence Scientific School
was reorganized into the Graduate School of Applied
Science, a change had occurred in the officers of the
Bussey Institution, and Dean Sabine, who had just been
appointed to take charge of the new work in applied
science, proposed to the Corporation that the Bussey
Institution should be added to it and made the seat of
a Graduate School of Applied Biology for advanced re-

THE BUSSEY INSTITUTION 219

search in agricultural and horticultural science. Their
consent obtained, he drew on the Faculty of the Medical
School and the Faculty at Cambridge, and with the
addition of two or three new appointments, made up a
Faculty which for study in comparative pathology, in
heredity and genetics, both animal and plant, and in
applied entomology, is practically unexcelled in the
country.

The work of the Bussey Institution is carried on in
the buildings at Forest Hills, which were erected on
the original foundation. Here are kept the guinea-pigs,
mice, rabbits, and other animals, whose pedigrees are
recorded in some cases for many generations. In the
adjacent greenhouses and experiment beds are carried
on similar experiments in the breeding of plants. The
work in economic entomology and in plant-breeding has
also the advantage of the plantations in the Arnold
Arboretum, which were established on part of the Bus-
sey land. For many years the Bussey Institution has
provided the Massachusetts State Board of Health
with the supply of antitoxin for diphtheria.

It is not expected or intended that the number of
students at the Bussey Institution shall at any time be
large ; but it is hoped that as the work develops, mature
students who have already had a good scientific train-
ing will be drawn there from the agricultural colleges
throughout the country, for advanced research, and that
the results of the research carried on there will be ap-
plied practically in these agricultural colleges.

The aim of all these Schools of Applied Science is to
turn out practitioners, as well as teachers, but practi-
tioners who will go on to their practical work with a
large outlook. Through the close relations of the va-
rious departments of pure science throughout the Uni-

220 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

versity, the spirit of disinterested research will be
nourished and kept strong. In the instruction in elec-
trical engineering, for example, it is a great advantage
to the students to have part of their instruction given
by professors of the Department of Physics whose in-
terest is in research and pure science; and the close
relation between the Department of Sanitary Engi-
neering and the course in the Medical School which
leads to the degree of Doctor of Public Health obviously
reacts favorably for both sides. A professional spirit
in the best sense of the word will be cultivated and
strengthened by this intimate association of men whose
energies are given wholly to the disinterested search for
new knowledge with men who are actively interested in
applying new knowledge to the bettering of the con-
ditions of life.

The latest graduate school to be established at Har-
vard is the Graduate School of Business Administra-
tion. For a good while observers in this country have
noted that the line of demarcation between business and
the professions has been fading away. With the in-
crease in the complexity and magnitude of business
enterprises all through the last generation, more and
more business men had to face their problems with
the same faculties of trained observation and reasoning,
and the same amassing of facts, which had been so
productive in medicine and other sciences and in engi-
neering. For many years large business enterprises of
various kinds have had professional statisticians in their
offices. Clearly the way was preparing for research in
business to take its place beside research in other forms
of activity.

Accordingly, after careful discussion, a fund was

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION 221

raised in 1908 to guarantee for five years the mainte-
nance of a Graduate School of Business Administration.
For Dean of the new school, the President and Fellows
selected Professor Edwin Francis Gay of the Depart-
ment of Economics, who had made wide and profound
studies in economic history; and a Faculty was ap-
pointed of men who had been trained in the science of
economics, but whose interests had led them to the
practical side of the subject. Some of them after their
appointment were given leave of absence, in order that
they might collect material and further equip them-
selves by travel or by practical experience in large
business enterprises. The Professor of Transportation
came to the School direct from the office of a large
railroad, and he had already served in various capacities
on three other railroads. Other courses were laid out
in which the lectures were to be given by men actually
engaged in business; and for these courses business
men at the head of great enterprises readily offered
their services. They are under the general direction
of a regular member of the staff, who prepares before-
hand a scheme of the lectures and assigns the topics
to each of the lecturers; and he is responsible for ar-
ranging for the work of the students and for the ex-
aminations.

Not only in these courses, but in almost all the others
in the School, it was necessary to invent methods of
instruction. There were no precedents; for instruction
in business affairs on a graduate basis was new. It was
decided that the instruction should so far as possible
follow what is known as the problem method: that is
to say, that facts drawn from actual business affairs
should be put before the students for study, and should
then be discussed in the class, so that the students

222 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

should work out for themselves, under the guidance of
the instructor, the principles which should be applied
to the facts. The system follows, with some necessary
changes due to the difference in the material used, the
case-system of the Law School, which, as we have seen,
has also been adopted for use in the Medical School.
It has proved both practicable and effective in the
Graduate School of Business Administration. The ob-
ject of this method of instruction is not to load up
students with great bodies of facts, but rather to train
them to collect facts for themselves, to adjust these
facts, and to reason out from them principles on which
practical action in business can be based.

Each student in his second and final year in the
School, as an important part of the work on which the
degree is conferred, must present a thesis in the form
of a report on some going business concern. To enable
students to collect the material for these reports, many
business concerns have freely and generously opened
their books to the students of the School. The reports
are expected to be thorough and practical. One such
report dealt with the organization of a large department
store, and the head of the firm, after reading the report,
adopted some of the suggestions which were made in it,
and offered its writer a good position in his establish-
ment. There seems to be every probability that the
School will have no difficulty in finding material for its
students to work on ; for the interest of business men in
the methods and objects of the School has been more
than cordial.

One of the main objects of the School is to collect
material for research and study, and it has already in
its archives considerable collections of reports of cor-
porations and files of official papers. In addition, it

SCHOOL OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION 223

has already received much material to be used con-
fidentially and under fixed conditions: in some cases
not at all for a fixed number of years; in other cases
only by the Dean of the School or by his personal per-
mission. As business comes to be organized on an in-
creasingly large scale, it becomes less private. More-
over, always, as the generations pass, the necessity of
privacy for records fades away.

It is probable that this research into the actual con-
ditions of business will react on the science of economics.
That science in the past has proceeded largely by a
priori reasoning, and its principles have tended to be
theoretical and sometimes metaphysical. The principles
on which the work of this School is based are essen-
tially those of a science, under which business research
will work towards economic principles by first gather-
ing the facts, and then generalizing from them.

The School now has seven departments, and it is
possible that more may be added in the future. The
seven departments in which instruction is now given are
Accounting, Commercial Law, Commercial Organiza-
tion, Industrial Organization, Banking and Finance,
Transportation., and Insurance. Among the courses
in Industrial Organization are special courses on print-
ing, which were established at the request of the Boston
Society of Printers.

The Graduate School of Business Administration is
almost as closely related with Harvard College as are
the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and the Grad-
uate Schools of Applied Science. Several of the Faculty
of the Business School also give instruction for under-
graduates, and certain courses offered by the Faculty of
Arts and Sciences are necessary preparation for the
courses in business. The offices and lecture-rooms of the

224 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

School are in the College buildings, and all the privileges
of the University are open to its students.

With the graduate schools of the University, it will
be convenient to describe Radcliffe College and the work
of University Extension. Though they are establish-
ments of quite different character from each other and
also from the graduate schools, they have this in com-
mon with each other and with some of the graduate
schools, that they both make use of the services of the
Faculty of Arts and Sciences.

Radcliffe College is affiliated with the University,
though it has its own corporation and administrative
officers, and its own separate funds, administered by its
own officers. Its purpose is to provide for the instruc-
tion of women by professors and other instructors in
Harvard University.

Its history goes back to 1879, when Professor J. B.
Greenough, Professor F. J. Child, and Professor W. W.
Goodwin became interested in giving advanced instruc-
tion to a young woman who had come to Cambridge
for the special purpose of receiving it. At the sugges-
tion of Mr. Arthur Gilman, this instruction was ex-
tended and systematized, and a committee of ladies in
Cambridge, under the lead of Mrs. Louis Agassiz, raised
a small sum to provide for such instruction for four
years. The essential character of the scheme was that
the instruction should be of the same grade as that
given in Harvard College, and that it should be given
by instructors in Harvard College. Thirty-seven pro-
fessors and instructors offered courses.

The plan was so successful that in the third year a
corporation was formed under the title of " The So-
ciety for the Collegiate Instruction of Women," to

RADCLIFFE COLLEGE 225

carry on the work. It became popularly known as the
Harvard Annex. By 1885 there were fifty-five students,
and money was raised to buy the Fay House on Garden
Street, close to the Washington Elm; and the Annex
prospered greatly. In 1894 there were two hundred and
fifty students, one hundred of them in a regular under-
graduate course parallel to that of Harvard College, and
leading, like it, to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The
plan was now beyond the stage of experiment, and in
1894 the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of
Women was transformed, by an act of the General
Court of Massachusetts, into Radcliffe College, with
authority to confer all the honors and degrees conferred
by any other university or college in the Commonwealth,
subject to the approval of the President and Fellows
of Harvard College. Under this act, the President and
Fellows of Harvard College became the Board of
Visitors of Radcliffe College, and the President of Har-
vard College countersigns its diplomas and affixes to
them the seal of Harvard University.

The government of Radcliffe College under this act
consists of a Council of ten members and a Board of
Associates of twenty-six members, with an Academic
Board, which performs the duties of a faculty, consist-
ing for the most part of professors in Harvard Univer-
sity. The Chairman of the Academic Board must al-
ways be a member of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences
in Harvard University, and his appointment is subject
to the express approval of the Board of Visitors.

The instruction now offered by Radcliffe College is
practically identical, within its limits, with that offered
by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Harvard.
Wherever it is possible, the courses are given by the
same men; where that is not possible, the choice of the

226 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

instructor at Radcliffe is in practice subject to the ap-
proval of the instructor in the corresponding course at
Harvard. The chief difference is that the number of
courses offered at Radcliffe is smaller than at Harvard:
in the year 1913-1-4 they numbered ninety full and
ninety half courses. Of the teachers in these courses
forty-nine were professors, thirty-nine associate or
assistant professors, and forty-three instructors, lec-
turers, or assistants in Harvard University. The work
provided for graduate students at Radcliffe is either
given separately, or, in a good many cases where a
course is small in numbers at Harvard, it is opened to
competent graduate students at Radcliffe; and to this
extent coeducation prevails at Harvard. In 1913-14
there were forty-one courses and forty-two half courses
in Harvard thus opened to women.

The equipment of Radcliffe College is rapidly in-
creasing. It has an excellent library building with
thirty-two thousand volumes, and this number increases
each year. Its students have also the use of the Har-
vard Library. It has already laboratories of its own
for physics, chemistry, and physiology. In other scien-
tific subjects opportunities for work are provided for
Radcliffe students in the laboratories of Harvard Uni-
versity. For recitations it has rooms in the Fay House,
which has been much enlarged, and in a building on
Appian Way, which was formerly a school, and in one
or two houses on the grounds, which have been in part
made over. Besides these buildings, it has an excellent
gymnasium, and the Elizabeth Gary Agassiz House,
which was built for the use of the students and has
pleasant reception rooms, a lunch-room, rest-rooms, and
a theater. The College has already made a good begin-
ning on a system of dormitories on land about one third

RADCLIFFE COLLEGE 227

of a mile away from the College proper. Here Radcliffe
owns nearly 250,000 feet of land and has already four
halls of residence, with rooms for one hundred and
seventy-two students.

It was at first thought possible that the chief function
of such a college as Radcliffe might be to provide oppor-
tunities for advanced work for graduate students, but
as time has gone on, it has become clear that there is
also a place for a college for women with full under-
graduate work. There continues to be a large propor-
tion of graduate students, and an even larger number
of special students who are admitted under stringent
conditions to partial work. There were in 1912-13
seventy-nine graduate students and one hundred and
fifteen special students, as against three hundred and
fifty-eight regular undergraduates. The graduate stu-
dents come from a great variety of colleges widely
scattered over the country. Radcliffe College confers
the graduate degrees of A.M. and Ph.D.

The endowment of the College is growing steadily
and now amounts to about $900,000. In the year
1911-12 it received gifts amounting to over $170,000.
There are more than forty scholarships already estab-
lished.

The undergraduate life of Radcliffe follows its own
course, with comparatively little contact with that of
Harvard College. There are always sisters and brothers
in the two institutions, and in such activities as the
Dramatic Club, and occasionally in the musical clubs,
students from Radcliffe sometimes take part with those
from Harvard. What intercourse between the students
of the two institutions there is, however, is private and
personal. The life of the two in the main runs along
without contact.

228 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

Another enterprise for the more extended use of the
instruction and plant of the University is to be found
in the work which appears in the Catalogue under the
title " University Extension." This falls under three
heads: the Summer School of Arts and Sciences, the
University Extension courses, mainly in Boston, and
the School for Social Workers. Since 1910 the instruc-
tion in University Extension has been put in charge of a
dean and administrative board, under the control of
the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Under this organi-
zation the work has been strengthened, and new and
interesting experiments are being tried.

The experiment in offering instruction to persons
other than regular students goes back to 1863, to the
University Lectures, which have been already described
as a tentative step towards graduate instruction. Be-
tween 1863 and 1872 about twenty courses of lectures
were given each year, either by members of the Harvard
staff or by eminent scholars from outside the Univer-
sity, on Saturdays or in the afternoons. In the fall of
1871 there were one hundred and fifty-five persons in
attendance on the fifteen courses then in progress, of
whom sixty-five were men and ninety were women.
The University Lectures were abandoned, however, in
1872; for they had developed no settled function.

In the summer of 1871 Professor Asa Gray an-
nounced special instruction in botany during the vaca-
tion for teachers and for students who desired practice
in the field. This was the real beginning of the Sum-
mer School. The next steps followed rapidly. In the
summer of 1873 Professor Louis Agassiz opened the
Summer School of Natural History on Penikese Island
in Buzzard's Bay. In 1874 Professor J. P. Cooke
opened summer courses in chemistry with fifteen stu-

THE SUMMER SCHOOL 229

dents; and in 1875 Professor Shaler organized the first
course in geology at Camp Harvard, Cumberland Gap,
Kentucky. No new subjects were added to this list until
1887. Up to this time there was no regular organiza-
tion of the summer courses.

In 1887 President Eliot appointed the first committee
to have charge of the summer courses, with Professor
Shaler as its chairman. This committee was not a com-
mittee of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, however,
and it was not until 1891 that the summer courses were
formally recognized by that Faculty. Then certain of
the courses given in the Summer School were accepted
towards the requirement for degrees. From that time on
the Summer School grew rapidly. The attendance
reached its maximum in 1903, when the National Edu-
cation Association met in Boston, and the Summer
School had 1186 students. The normal attendance
seems to be about eight hundred students, though there
is some fluctuation. In 1900 twelve hundred Cuban
teachers were brought to Cambridge by a popular sub-
scription, to receive instruction in English and other
subjects.

At present about half of the students at the School are
women, and the greater part of them are teachers.
A number of the summer courses are accepted as
half courses towards the requirements for the degrees
of A.B. and S.B. ; but an undergraduate in Harvard
College is not allowed to count in this way more than
one summer course each year. The staff of the Sum-
mer School is largely recruited by professors from
other institutions, most of whom have been students at
Harvard and hold a Harvard degree.

The work of the students in the Summer School is
eager and enthusiastic. Such a school draws from the

230 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

most ambitious of the teachers, and they come both for
refreshment and for improvement. Teaching in the
Summer School is inspiring, but at the same time ex-
hausting; for the students are determined to get the
last drop of virtue out of their instructors. The value
of the work in this, as is other summer schools through-
out the country, is unquestioned.

Besides the regular instruction, there is large pro-
vision made for lectures and reading, and for excursions
to museums and to places of historical interest in the
neighborhood of Cambridge. Many of the students
come from the West, and are eager to see all that can
be seen of an ancient part of the country. The work
is for them a change, and they are eager to make the
experience as rich as possible.

The second division of the work in University Ex-
tension is carried on by Harvard University in coopera-
tion with Tufts College, the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston College, Boston University, the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Wellesley College, and
Simmons College. Each of these institutions takes part
in the instruction, and the courses which are offered are
of full collegiate grade, and correspond closely in sub-
ject-matter, methods of instruction, examinations, and
scale of marking, with courses regularly offered by the
several institutions. The total number of courses of-
fered by all the institutions combined is considerable.
In the year 1913-14 there were five of these courses
offered by professors and instructors from Harvard.

These courses in University Extension are in part
supported by the Lowell Institute, a large foundation
for the support of lectures and free instruction, estab-
lished in 1839 under the will of John Lowell, Jr., of
which President Lowell of Harvard is at present the

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 231

trustee. The courses supported by the Lowell Institute
include the courses of the Teachers' School of Science.

The lectures in these University Extension courses
are chiefly given in the evening, for the sake of persons
who are working through the day, and are given
mostly in the halls of those of the cooperating institu-
tions which are in Boston.

The work in these courses and in the Summer School
counts towards the degree of Associate in Arts, which
is conferred on persons who have done a total amount
of college work equivalent to that required for the de-
gree of A.B., with the exception of the entrance exami-
nations. This work may be distributed over a num-
ber of years. It is planned particularly for the benefit
of teachers who wish to improve their positions, and is
practically equivalent, except for the requirement of
residence, to the Bachelor's degree.

The Commission of the cooperating institutions has
been in operation so few years that it is hard to say
at present just what the developments are likely to be.
The number of students in the three years, including
1912-13, in which the Commission has been organized,
has averaged over eight hundred. Obviously, it will
need some years of experiment before the scheme can
reach its greatest usefulness.

The third division of the work in University Exten-
sion is more special. The School for Social Workers
was established in Boston in 1904 through the coopera-
tion of Harvard University and Simmons College, for
the study of various forms of social service, including
charities, correction, and neighborhood work. It is
particularly intended to train persons to become officers
of institutions or agencies, or to be more efficient volun-
teer workers.

232 THE GRADUATE SCHOOLS

The usual course covers a year, with two-hour exer-
cises on five mornings of the week. The work fits in
with that of the Department of Social Ethics under
the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, and advanced students
in that department may enroll also in the School for
Social Workers. No one is admitted to the School who
cannot satisfy the director that he or she is likely to
profit by its opportunities. Men register as graduate
students, or extension students, of Harvard University;
women register in Simmons College.

IV

EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

The University Library. The University Museum. The Museum
of Comparative Zoology. The Mineralogical Museum. The Geo-
logical Museum. Botanical Collections. The Arnold Arboretum.
The Peabody Museum. The Astronomical Observatory. The Fogg
Museum of Fine Arts. The Germanic Museum. The Semitic
Museum. The Harvard University Press.

No university can think of itself as founded only
to give instruction, whether to undergraduates or
graduates; an essential part of the idea of a university
is that it shall be advancing human knowledge. In
America this is largely the distinction between a col-
lege and a university. The former more or less ex-
plicitly limits itself to giving young men a training
which will prepare them for their work in life; the
latter must, in addition, provide the training for some
specialized form of intellectual activity, and it must
also make provision for the extension of human knowl-
edge into regions as yet unexplored. For this purpose,
it must have professors who have not only the learn-
ing but also the opportunity for research; and it must
supply as materials and equipment great collections of
books, laboratories, and museums.

In all these senses of the word Harvard is a uni-
versity. Though Harvard College is its heart, and
though the graduate schools fulfill a highly important
part of its functions, Harvard College and the graduate
schools do not exhaust the activities of the University.

233

234 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

Partly in them, partly outside of them, there is a very
large amount of activity in the way of research, and
an ample product in advanced scholarship and learned
publications.

It is a difficult subject to deal with in such a work
as this, for learning has now progressed far beyond
the ken of the average man. Most of the publications
from the laboratories and museums are comprehensible
only to a small audience of the scholars on the sub-
jects. Nevertheless, an account of a modern university
which neglected all these scientific activities would be
incomplete and inaccurate. In this chapter a brief
account is given, first, of the libraries of the University,
then, of the scientific establishments, and finally, of the
several museums for the study of art and archaeology.

Mention will be made of those establishments only
which are maintained for investigation and research,
and in which, if there be any teaching, it is incidental.
The line is somewhat hard to draw, since the Wolcott
Gibbs Memorial Laboratory, for example, was limited
to research by its givers; but the research always in-
cludes some advanced instruction, and this laboratory,
moreover, is an inseparable part of the general equip-
ment for chemistry. At the Gray Herbarium, on the
other hand, though there is provision for some instruc-
tion of undergraduates, yet the main purpose of the
establishment is to make collections and to study them.
As in all other universities, each of the scientific depart-
ments has its laboratories, in which instruction is given
to undergraduates and graduates, and research is car-
ried on by graduate students and by the Faculty mem-
bers of the department. As elsewhere, too, the results
of this research are an essential and a valuable part of
the work of the department. The Department of

THE LIBRARY 235

Physics has the Jefferson Physical Laboratory; the De-
partment of Chemistry has Boylston Hall, long since
outgrown, and a portion of Dane Hall into which it has
overflowed; and recently the Wolcott Gibbs Memorial
Laboratory and the T. Jefferson Coolidge Jr. Labora-
tory. The Biological, Botanical, Mineralogical, and
Geological Laboratories have, for the present, quarters
in the University Museum.

The history of Harvard University Library begins
practically with the history of Harvard College, since
the bequest of John Harvard, which made possible the
immediate foundation of the College, included his books.
The College was, therefore, provided with books even
before it had a building in which to house them. This
beginning of the Library comprised over 300 volumes;
and a manuscript catalogue of it by President Dunster
is still preserved, though all the books but one were
destroyed in the burning of Harvard Hall in 1764.
John Harvard's library was such as might have been
expected to be owned by an enlightened Puritan min-
ister of the day. The theological works, which in-
cluded Aquinas, Beza, Chrysostom, Calvin, and Luther,
composed nearly two thirds of the whole collection.
Among the other books were Bacon's Essays, John
Robinson's Essays, Heylin's Geography, and Camden's
Remains, the chief Greek and Latin classics; and — of a
somewhat lighter cast — Quarles's Poems, Chapman's
Homer, Poetarum Flores, and Thesaurus Poeticus.

This gift of John Harvard, however, was soon sup-
plemented by gifts from other friends of the College.
In 1642 the magistrates gave from their libraries books
to the value of £200. In 1655 Sir Kenelm Digby sent
27 books valued at £60. In 1675 John Lightfoot, D. D.,

236 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, made
a bequest of his whole library, including the Targums,
Talmuds, Rabbins, Polyglot Bible, and valuable tracts
relative to Oriental literature. Gibbon wrote of Dr.
Lightfoot, that by reading such works he had become
almost a Rabbin himself. Three years later Theophilus
Gale bequeathed his library, which was so large that for
many years it is said to have formed half of the College
collection. In 1682 Sir John Maynard, " His Majesty's
serjeant at law," gave eight chests of books valued at
£400. By the end of the seventeenth century the
Library was reckoned, according to Cotton Mather, to
be " the best furnished that can be shown anywhere
in all the American regions"; and in 1689 Chief Justice
Sewall, visiting the library of Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, thought that it " may be about the bigness
of Harvard."

In the eighteenth century the Library continued to
grow, largely through the generous gifts of friends in
England. The Hollis family, of whom, between 1722
and 1804, there were seven among the benefactors of
the College, were always keenly interested in the Library
and they sent many boxes of books. The first Thomas
Hollis sent boxes in three successive years, beginning
in 1724. His nephew, Thomas, constantly bought books
for the College in London, choosing them with the
greatest care and having many of them handsomely
bound before dispatching them. He and his uncle kept
close track of affairs: in 1725 the elder Hollis wrote:
" Your library is reckond here to be ill managed, by
the account I have of some that know it, you want
seats to sett and read, and chains to your valluable
books, like our Bodleian Library. . . . You let your
books be taken at pleasure home to Mens houses, and

THE LIBRARY 237

many are lost." And later the younger Hollis wrote:
" A publick library ought to be furnished, if they can,
with Con. as well as Pro. — that students may read, try,
Judg."

Besides the Hollises other benefactors of the Library
in the eighteenth century before 1764 were Dr. Isaac
Watts, the writer of hymns, who sent a number of books,
including all his own works as they came out; John
Lloyd of London, Bishop Berkeley, who sent a collec-
tion mainly of the Greek and Latin classics; and the
Society for Propagating the Gospel.

The great catastrophe in the history of the Library
was the destruction of practically all the books in 1764,
when Harvard Hall was burned during a fierce snow-
storm, on January 24. The most grievous part of this
loss was the destruction of all the books from the library
of John Harvard, except one, which was probably loaned
for use at the time. The response of the friends of the
College to the catastrophe was generous, and in number
of books the Library was soon practically as well off as
it had been before. Governor Bernard immediately
urged the rebuilding of the hall by the colony, since it
had been burned while the House of Representatives
was making use of it on account of an epidemic of
smallpox in Boston. He himself gave more than 300
volumes, besides £28 in money which had been collected
under his authority. The Archbishop of York and the
Archbishop of Canterbury each sent a generous dona-
tion; the Edinburgh Society for Promoting Religious
Knowledge 25 volumes and other books to the value of
10 pounds, 12 shillings; the Society in Scotland for
Propagating Christian Knowledge, books valued at £30;
the Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts,
books and £100; the Society for Propagating the Gos-

238 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

pel in New England, £300, with which 1101 volumes
were bought. The Province of New Hampshire, at the
recommendation of Governor Wentworth, contributed
£300, with which 743 volumes were bought. Thomas
Hollis came forward with the generosity of his family
and gave £200 for the purchase of books, and in the
next five years he sent over 41 cases of books besides.
John Hancock of Boston carried out the intention of
his uncle, Thomas Hancock, whose large estate he had
just inherited, and subscribed £500, with an additional
gift of £54. With this money there were bought 1098
volumes. Besides these gifts there were many others;
and by 1790 the collection had grown to 12,000 volumes,
and a catalogue was printed.

After the Revolution the steady flow of books con-
tinued, including many valuable ones from Granville
Sharp of London and John Erskine of Edinburgh. In
1804 came the last of the gifts of the Hollis family.
Thomas Brand Hollis, who had inherited the fortune
of the younger Thomas and assumed his name, and had
made frequent gifts of books during his life, bequeathed
to the College £100 to be laid out in Greek and Latin
classics.

The nineteenth century carried on the same beneficent
progress on a constantly enlarging scale, and books in
modern foreign languages appear more frequently.
John Quincy Adams made a gift of French books, and
in 1811, 13 volumes of Russian books. In 1818 the
Library made a strong beginning on its great collection
of books on American history through the gift from
Israel Thorndike in 1818 of the books collected by
Professor Ebeling of Hamburg. This gift, which is one
of the most important in the whole history of the
Library, contained 3200 volumes and 10,000 maps. It

THE LIBRARY 239

was strengthened five years later, when Samuel A.
Eliot gave the books on American history collected by
D. B. Warden, who was long American consul at Paris,
including 1200 volumes and many maps. In 1819
Goethe sent 39 volumes of his own works.

Through the middle of the century the Library was
enriched by constant gifts from Charles Sumner, which
continued until his death in 1874, and aggregated 1300
volumes and from fifteen to twenty thousand pamphlets.
At his death he bequeathed his library of 3750 volumes,
many of which were rare editions, besides his collec-
tion of autographs, some of which will be mentioned
later. The collection of books on America was again
increased, in 1844, by the bequest of $3000 from William
Prescott of Boston, and by the gift next year of a large
collection of tracts and pamphlets, mainly relating to
America, from Obadiah Rich of London. In 1852 came
a subscription of $1100 raised by Professor Francis J.
Child for the improvement of the collections in English
poetry. In 1859 William H. Prescott bequeathed 282
volumes and five volumes of manuscript which he had
used in the preparation of his Ferdinand and Isa-
bella. In 1861 James Russell Lowell gave 194 volumes.
He was constantly buying books which he intended for
the Library; and in a letter from Spain in 1878 he
wrote: " I buy mainly with a view to the College
Library, whither they will go when I am in Mount
Auburn, with so much undone that I might have done."
On his return from Spain in 1885 he brought some
700 valuable works for the Library, and when he died,
in 1891, he provided that the Library should have any
of his books a copy of which it did not already possess.
Under this bequest it received 827 volumes and 539
pamphlets. A portion of the remaining books were

240 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

purchased by subscription in 1900, and now form the
main part of the Lowell Memorial Library of Romance
Literature.

Among other great gifts of books toward the latter
part of the century were the bequest in 1875 of the
library of James Walker, President of the College,
amounting to 2400 volumes and 300 pamphlets; in
1879 the bequest of Martyn Paine, M.D., of New York,
of his library containing 3097 volumes and 115 pam-
phlets, in memory of his son Robert Troup Paine. One
of the most valued gifts of the period was the bequest
of 418 volumes by Thomas Carlyle, which he made in
the following terms: —

Having with good reason, ever since my first appear-
ance in Literature, a variety of kind feelings, obliga-
tions and regards toward New England, and indeed
long before that a hearty good will, real and steady,
which still continues, to America at large, and recog-
nising with gratitude how much of friendliness, of
actually credible human love, I have had from that
Country, and what immensities of worth and capability
I believe and partly know to be lodged, especially in
the silent classes there, I have now after due consulta-
tion as to the feasibilities, the excusabilities of it, de-
cided to fulfil a fond notion that has been hovering in
my mind these many years; and I do therefore hereby
bequeath the books (whatever of them I could not bor-
row, but had to buy and gather, that is, in general
whatever of them are still here) which I used in writing
on Cromwell and Friedrich and which shall be accurately
searched for, and parted from my other books, to the
President and Fellows of Harvard College, City of
Cambridge, State of Massachusetts, as a poor testimony
of my respect for that alma mater of so many of my
transatlantic friends, and a token of the feelings above
indicated towards the Great Country of which Harvard
is the chief school.

THE LIBRARY 241

The interest of these volumes is very greatly increased
by the comments which Carlyle had written freely on
the margins of the books as he read them. Some ex-
amples of these are given later.

From the library of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,
at one time Professor of Belles Lettres, his family made
gifts amounting to 2000 volumes and 1600 pamphlets,
largely composed of American poetry, including many
works presented by the authors to Longfellow.

During the last generation the gifts of books have
increased in number and in importance. Professor
A. C. Coolidge, now Director of the University Library,
has been a constant giver, and his gifts have been
guided by an intimate knowledge of the condition and
needs of the Library. Among them is a large collection
of Slavic history and literature and a notable collection
of books in Slovak. The gift of the great Riant col-
lection of books on the Ottoman Empire, to which ho
contributed, and to which he has since added, gives the
Library what is probably the. largest collection of books
in the world on this important subject. In 1902 he
promised to give 10,000 volumes on German history,
to be called the Hohenzollern Collection, in honor of
the visit of Prince Henry of Prussia to the University,
March 6, 1902. This collection, with the books already
owned, puts the Harvard Library on a level with all
but two or three of the best libraries in Germany on
this subject. In 1904 Professor Coolidge gave the
library of Konrad von Maurer of Munich, which in-
cluded 2660 volumes and 2911 pamphlets on Scandi-
navian history and literature, besides the 3000 volumes
which went into the Hohenzollern Collection. In 1910
he gave a collection of books, pamphlets, newspapers,
and broadsides numbering 2340 pieces, relating to the

242 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

French Revolution and the French Commune. In 1909,
with Clarence L. Hay, he bought the library of over
4000 volumes of Louis Montt, Librarian of the National
Library of Chile, a collection especially rich in works
on Chilean history and politics, and on Peru and the
Argentine Republic. Besides these larger gifts, Pro-
fessor Coolidge has given constantly for the purchase
of books in various other directions.

Among other gifts in this period was the notable col-
lection of 1014 volumes and 269 pamphlets relating to
angling, fishes, and fisheries, from John Bartlett of
Cambridge, in 1892, and in the next year his collection
of 254 volumes and 22 pamphlets relating to proverbs,
emblems, and the Dance of Death. In 1894 Francis
Parkman, the historian, bequeathed 2502 volumes, 2000
pamphlets, and 102 maps from his library. In 1908 the
Parkman Memorial Committee made a gift of $5950,
" the income only of which is to be used for the pur-
chase of books relating to Canada for the college library,
to build up a Parkman Memorial collection relating to
Canadian history." At different times between 1898
and 1907 there were received from the estate of Pro-
fessor E. W. Gurney 7750 volumes from his private
library. In 1898 Morris and James Loeb of New York
and Professor Leo Wiener gave a collection of Judeo-
German books printed both in Europe and in America.
In 1900, the J. C. Ayer Company of Lowell gave the
library of Alphonse Marsigny, consisting of 549 volumes
and 48 pamphlets. In the same year Henry C. Warren
bequeathed 230 volumes and 116 pamphlets, mainly
in Sanskrit, besides 300 volumes to the Sanskrit class-
room library. In 1903, Mr. John Drew of New York
gave $1000 for the purchase of the dramatic library of
Robert W. Lowe of London, consisting of 789 volumes

THE LIBRARY 243

and 47 pamphlets. In the same year Mr. James Hazen
Hyde of New York and Paris bought, for the Library,
a portion of the collection of the late Professor Ferdi-
nand Bocher, comprising 936 volumes and 855 pam-
phlets on Moliere, 246 volumes and 91 pamphlets on
Montaigne, and 352 volumes of the French dramatists
contemporary with Moliere. In 1905 the library of
Professor Charles Eliot Norton, which is particularly
rich in early printed books, illustrated books of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and presentation copies
from English and American authors of the nineteenth
century, was purchased by a subscription among his
friends and given to the Library. The books were to
remain in his possession during his life and the sur-
plus of the fund above the purchase price was to be
used as a book-fund the special employment of which
he should designate. Professor Norton immediately sent
a large number of the more precious books to the Library,
in order that they should be safer than in his own wooden
house; and he assigned the income of the fund to the
purchase of choice and rare books.

In 1908 the Library received the largest single gift of
books in its history, consisting of the library of the late
Richard Ashurst Bowie of Philadelphia, which was
given by Mrs. Edward D. Brandegee in memory of her
grandfather, William Fletcher Weld. This library con-
tained over 11,800 volumes and included 3600 editions
of the Greek and Latin classics not already in the Library,
and 433 incunabula. In 1910 three valuable acquisitions
were received: bequests from two professors and a gift
from a third. From the estate of Professor James B.
Greenough, came 1027 volumes and 400 pamphlets ; from
the estate of Professor Charles Gross, 500 volumes and
522 pamphlets; and Professor Morris H. Morgan gave

244 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

his wonderfully rich Persius collection, comprising
about 295 editions and 213 translations of the poet, with
125 critical papers and illustrative works. This collec-
tion has been increased since Professor Morgan's death
by his friend, Daniel B. Fearing of Newport, R. I. In
1911 the first installment of a series of gifts of $1000
a year was made, to form the Perkins Memorial Collec-
tion on the history of the Western states, in memory
of Charles Elliott Perkins, formerly President of the
Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad. This collec-
tion will be increased through the activities of the re-
cently established Harvard Commission on Western
History, which aims to bring together a great collection
of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and documentary ma-
terial for the study of the development of the West. In
the same year Francis Cabot Lowell of Boston, a Fellow
of the Corporation, bequeathed to the Library his col-
lection of books on Jeanne d'Arc, consisting of 438 vol-
umes and 58 pamphlets; and the next year his widow
established a fund of $10,000 for the increase of this
collection and for the purchase of books on related
subjects.

These gifts are only the more important among those
enumerated in the pamphlet containing descriptive and
historical notes on the Library of the University. The
stream of books is constant, generous, and increasing in
number. Special collections have been built up by com-
paratively moderate annual gifts continued through a
number of years ; in this way the Library has acquired
valuable collections on China and the Chinese, on Swit-
zerland, on Napoleon, on German dramatic literature, on
London, and a very extensive collection of books relating
to the Catacombs and early Christian antiquities; and
there are other collections on smaller subjects.

THE LIBRARY 245

The strength of the Library for its main purpose of
advancing scholarship is largely due to the devoted
labors of many professors, who have given their time
and thought to the ordering of books in their special sub-
jects. To speak only of three in the last generation, —
Professor Francis James Child, Professor Charles Eliot
Norton, and Professor Henry Warren Torrey, each in
his own field, has laid the foundation of collections of
priceless worth to the student. To-day many members
of the Faculty feel this obligation and are of constant
aid to the staff of the Library in making it possible to
bring collections in special fields nearer to completeness.

The aim of the librarians of the Library Council
has been to make the Library as complete a working
laboratory for scholars, especially in the humanities, as
the resources of the University would allow. They have
held that there must be a few libraries in the country
which should aim at completeness in certain departments,
and they have accordingly received freely many books
which perhaps may not be looked at once in fifty years.
For somebody, however, who is doing definite work in
the subjects of which they treat, these books may make
the difference between exhaustive knowledge of the sub-
ject and a knowledge which falls short of exhaustiveness.
In certain fields, especially in the rare books sought
after by book-collectors, the Library has to trust to
gifts and bequests. In certain other fields it recognizes
that other libraries already have such great collections
that competition would be a waste ; but with these limi-
tations, the ambition of the Library has almost no
bounds.

The resources of the Library, however, are by no
means limited to the books in the main library building.
For the special use of the students under the Faculty of

246 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

Arts and Sciences there are 32 special reference libraries,
all of which are in other buildings. Some of these are
special technical libraries, as those in the chemical and
physical laboratories, the six libraries of the University
Museum, and the two engineering libraries in the Rotch
Laboratory and in Pierce Hall. Besides these, however,
many of the departments have special libraries which
supplement the main collections by providing other
copies of much-used books, and also by putting before
students a tolerably complete collection of the most
important works on their subject. The Classical Library
in Harvard Hall has nearly 5000 books. The History
Library in the same building has nearly 7000, and the
Library of Economics, which is housed with the History
Library, has over 1800. The Library of Social Ethics
in Emerson Hall has 3900 volumes, and in the same
building is the Robbins Library of Philosophy and the
Library of the Psychological Laboratory with more than
4500 volumes. In the Warren House, which was be-
queathed to the University by Henry C. Warren, are the
Child Memorial Library of English books, the Lowell
Memorial Library of books in Romance literature, and
the German, French, and Sanskrit libraries. Of these
the Child Memorial Library is supported by a fund of
over $11,000 which was raised by subscription soon after
the death of Professor Francis James Child, the first
Professor of English at Harvard University. This
library now has over 5000 volumes stored in Warren
House, and has besides a considerable number of rare
and valuable books and manuscripts which are de-
posited in the main Library, since Warren House is not
fireproof. The Lowell Memorial Library of books in
Romance Literature includes about 1600 volumes, of
which about half came from James Russell Lowell's

THE LAW LIBRARY 247

library, and were bought by a general subscription in
1900. A number of books from Professor Norton's
library have recently with great appropriateness been
added to this collection. The libraries of the German
Department and of the French Department in the same
building number respectively 1500 and 2600 volumes.
Upstairs is the Sanskrit Library, which has over 1000
volumes. A library of books on education in Lawrence
Hall numbers 7100 volumes ; and the reference works in
the Fogg Museum number 1300 volumes. The collec-
tion on architecture and landscape architecture in
Robinson Hall, which supplements the collections
on these subjects in the main Library, now has 3000
volumes. Altogether there are 71,000 volumes in these
special reference libraries, which are as a whole freely
open to students in the various subjects.

Besides these collections for the use of students under
the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, there are also the
special libraries of the other departments of the Uni-
versity. Of these the largest is the library of the Law
School, which now has over 148,000 volumes and 17,000
pamphlets. Two recent acquisitions have been in them-
selves notable enough to make this library famous.
The first was the great Olivart collection on Inter-
national Law, brought together by the Marquis Olivart
of Madrid, and bought for the Law School in 1911.
Its extent may be judged from the fact that the cata-
logue of this Library is referred to in treatises on
International Law as the standard bibliography of the
subject. It is rich in original documents, some of them
unique, and in documents and pamphlets relating to the
Central and South American countries, and to the
Spanish-American War of 1898. It has a large amount
of material of the highest value to historians. In

248 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

1913 the Law School Library bought the books and
manuscripts relating to law from the library of the
late George Dunn of Maidenhead, England. The manu-
scripts run back to the thirteenth century, and there
are a number of incunabula. In all there are at least
500 separate works dating before 1600.

The Divinity School Library, with 40,000 books and
11,000 pamphlets, has just been combined with the
library of the Andover Theological Seminary, with over
62,000 volumes and 37,000 pamphlets, and the combined
libraries are now housed together in the new building of
the Andover Seminary. The two collections are very
rich in all departments of Biblical study, in his-
torical, systematic, and practical theology, and in mis-
sionary literature of every kind.

Each of the scientific establishments and laboratories
has its own library. At the Museum of Comparative
Zoology there are about 50,000 volumes and over
45,000 pamphlets. These books are chiefly on zoology,
palaeontology, and geology. In the Peabody Museum,
in the other wing of the quadrangle, there is a library of
4800 volumes and nearly 5000 pamphlets on anthropo-
logical and ethnological subjects. This library has all
the leading anthropological journals and long sets of
the proceedings and reports of societies and museums.
There are several collections on botany. At the Gray
Herbarium is an admirable reference library for the
study of the classification, morphology, and geographi-
cal distribution of plants, the foundation of which was
the private library of Professor Asa Gray. It has now
over 13,000 volumes and 10,000 pamphlets. Besides the
books, there is a collection, given by Mrs. Gray, of more
than 1100 autograph manuscripts of distinguished
botanists from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries.

THE DEPARTMENT LIBRARIES 249

The botanical laboratory in the University Museum has
a small working collection, of books and pamphlets, and
the laboratory of cryptogamic botany has also a collec-
tion for working purposes. The library of the Arnold
Arboretum, which has now over 26,000 volumes and
more than 6500 pamphlets, is thought to be the most
complete collection now in existence on trees and shrubs.
The greater part has been gathered at the expense of
Professor Charles S. Sargent, the Director of the
Arboretum.

The library of the Medical School has more than
18,000 volumes and 40,000 pamphlets, besides 200
periodicals which are regularly received. It has not
been the purpose of the Medical School to form a very
extensive collection of books on medical subjects, for a
short distance away is the Boston Medical Library, con-
taining about 69,000 volumes and 38,000 pamphlets.
Here there are also nearly 700 current periodicals on
file. In practice it is looked on as part of the resources
of the School.

Taking all the books in all the libraries of the Uni-
versity together, in 1913, there were 1,020,026 volumes
and 625,976 pamphlets, making, with the Andover col-
lections, a total number of 1,747,011 books and pam-
phlets.

This great accumulation of books is the raw material
in which scholarship must work, and it is the true
laboratory for many of the great fields of learning,
such as history, literature, economics, and philosophy.
The ultimate facts in many fields of human activity are
to be gathered only through access to a great collection
like this. There are many books in such a collection
which are rarely looked at, for it is only the occasional
scholar who needs to go to them. For him they are

250 EQUIPMENT FO& RESEARCH

essential, and without them he cannot say the last word
that is to be said on a subject. In the end it is the
work which does say the last word which is the essential
work, and to produce such works scholars must have
great numbers of books, many of which will be rarely
used, and which for all other purposes may seem
worthless.

The Library is very strong for students of history
and of literature. Some of its collections, such as those
on the Ottoman Empire and on Folk Lore, are probably
unequaled. Of material for study in European history,
especially that of Germany and of France, the Library
has, it is thought, the largest collection in this country.
The collections on American history were begun, as has
been noted, at the beginning of the nineteenth century,
and have been constantly added to, and the collection
of maps is very extensive.

Besides these and many other collections of great
scholarly richness, the Library has many works of spe-
cial and sentimental interest. Charles Sumner, who was
a notable book-collector, besides giving many books in
his lifetime, bequeathed his own books to the Library
in 1874. Among them are many books in beautiful
bindings and many with associations. They include a
copy of Surrey 's poems from Horace Walpole 's library ;
Pastor Fido, owned by Congreve ; a first edition of Mil-
ton's Paradise Lost, and Milton's own copy of Pindar,
with frequent manuscript notes. There is, also, an
album once owned by a Neapolitan nobleman, in which
Milton has inserted two lines from Comus, and a Latin
motto, with his signature. Besides these there is Pope's
Essay on Man, 1733, with his own corrections, and a
Bible with the autograph of John Bunyan on the title-
page of the New Testament.

THE LIBRARY 251

Another notable collection was that of Professor
Norton. He had bought many early printed books,
especially in Italian, with woodcut engravings, and had
received gifts of books from many of his friends and
correspondents, including almost all the principal Eng-
lish and American authors of the middle of the nine-
teenth century, with autograph inscriptions. Several
early Americana, including the Boston edition of
Mather's Wonders of the Invisible World, almost unique,
had come down to him by inheritance from Professor
Wigglesworth. He had also early editions of Words-
worth and Shelley ; a remarkable collection of early edi-
tions of John Donne, and a number of mediaeval manu-
scripts. One special treasure of his library — a gift from
John Ruskin — was the copy of the Systema Natures, of
Linnseus, once owned by the poet Thomas Gray, in
whick the latter had made on the margins and on pages
interleaved, delicate pen-and-ink drawings of the in-
sects and birds.

Among the interesting manuscripts in the Library is
that of the Roundabout Papers, — the gift of Sir Leslie
Stephen, — in Thackeray's neat, compact handwriting,
written largely on Athenaeum Club paper, though in a
few cases Thackeray pressed into use the backs of
envelopes and other scraps. Another manuscript is a
note-book into which Shelley and his wife had copied
his poems.

There is also a considerable collection of letters writ-
ten to James Russell Lowell, which were given to the
Library by Professor Norton, his literary executor, —
among them a series from Edgar Allan Poe. There are
also a few manuscripts by Longfellow, Holmes, Haw-
thorne, and other American authors.

Not the least interesting among the treasures of the

252 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

Library are the Carlyle volumes mentioned above, be-
cause of the notes which Carlyle was in the habit of writ-
ing in the margins of his books. In a note, for example,
on the margin of the Eikon Basilike, Carlyle wrote in
pencil: " shewing him (had it been he which palpably
it was not) to have been the most perfect Pharisee, inane
Canter, and shovel-hatted Quack that ever went about in
clear-starched surplice and formula! — Do but read it."
And two notes to Mirabeau's (Euvres: " No Government
ever had a spy of such ability. What a sight (for
France and for himself) — that of such a man employed
as a 'spy.' A truly grand power of insight is visible in
this poor Book, — the only really genial Book (such as
it is!) I have ever read on Prussia. Dim vacant twi-
light all the other, this blazes like noonday. Poor Mira-
beau ! ' ' And on page 246 : ' ' A dreadfully ugly fellow ;
and such a flash of insight, such a fire of faculty in him
withal; — enough to swallow a poor official man, or con-
sume him to ashes."

The interest and the prestige of the Library will be
very greatly increased when the "Widener books left
by Harry Elkins Widener are received. Though he was
only five years out of college, he had already amassed
a library of the highest distinction, and one in which
there are extraordinarily few books of little value. It
is rare, indeed, that a man just out of college buys
with the intelligence which he displayed. Among the
books there are first editions of Spenser's Faerie Queene,
Ben Jonson's Works, Shakespeare's Poems, Robinson
Crusoe, Gulliver's Travels, The Vicar of Wakefield, The
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard; and a set of
the folios of Shakespeare, one of the finest known. The
collection is especially strong in first editions and pres-
entation copies of English authors of the nineteenth

*

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THE WIDENER LIBRARY 253

century, including Dickens, Thackeray, Browning, and
Tennyson, and in books with associations. The collec-
tion of Stevensoniana, both of editions and of manu-
scripts, is unrivaled. This precious collection is to be
kept in a special room in the new Library building
where it can be cared for in a way appropriate to
its value.

This building, which is now under construction, will
make worthy provision for the great collections of books
to be housed therein. It is planned on the most generous
scale, and will have shelf-room for more than two mil-
lion books ; so that the Library will not be crowded for
many years to come. There will be ample space for
readers, both in the great reading-room, which will
occupy all the front of the building, and in the large
special reading-room for the courses in history and gov-
ernment. Besides this space, open to all students, the
provision for scholars is ample and generous. There
will be some eighty small studies distributed on the
several floors of the stack, for professors and visiting
scholars, each one large enough for a desk, and for a
stenographer when one is needed. There are also
350 small alcoves, with glass partitions, large enough
for a table and a chair, at which advanced stu-
dents can work. These will occupy the window-space
of the portion of the Library devoted to the stack. There
will also be on the top floor a number of rooms which
can be used for seminars and small classes in which
it is necessary to have a considerable number of books
for consultation. It is the expectation that the building
will be finished in the autumn of 1914, and then the great
collections of books will be moved in and can be put at
the service of scholars under the most favorable condi-
tions.

254 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

The University Museum is a great structure forming
three sides of a hollow square, between Oxford Street
and Divinity Avenue. In it are housed the Museum of
Comparative Zoology, the Botanical Museum, the Geo-
logical and Mineralogical Museum, and in the south
wing the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology
and Ethnology. In addition to these museums, the
laboratories of Cryptogamic and Physiological Botany,
of Zoology and Mineralogy, of Geology, and of Meteor-
ology, are temporarily provided for in the west side of
the building. Much the larger part of two wings is
given over to study and research. The exhibition rooms
are for the most part open to the public through the
week.

The creation of the University Museum was due to
Louis Agassiz, one of the great scientific men of the
nineteenth century, and one of the great teachers of all
time. William James describes him, at thirty, as " al-
ready at the zenith of his reputation, recognized by all
as one of those naturalists in the unlimited sense, one
of those folio copies of mankind, like Linnaeus and
Cuvier, who aim at nothing less than an acquaintance
with the whole of animated nature." He was a leading
authority in branches of natural history which now
seem little related — ichthyology and geology; and his
election to a professorship of geology and zoology
merely recognized the range of his interest and his
acquirements. But besides his great scientific attain-
ments he had an extraordinary power of stimulating
the imagination of every one whom he could reach, and
of creating the belief that natural history was the one
essential subject for every one. The Massachusetts
Legislature made no resistance to his appeals for the
Museum; and the conditions they imposed, that equal

THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM 255

sums of money should be raised by subscription, were
met with hardly an effort on the part of Agassiz. Not
unnaturally he had unlimited faith that his scientific
aims would not suffer for lack of support; from his
youth he had embarked on expensive enterprises with
no apparent means of carrying them through, but al-
ways with success. When he died nearly $300,000 was
raised by general subscription as a memorial fund for
the endowment of the work he had begun. The sum in-
cluded a subscription amounting to over $9000 from
more than 86,000 teachers and pupils in seventeen differ-
ent states. Professor James summed up his career in
these words: —

And so, living from month to month and from year
to year, with no relation to prudence except his perti-
nacious violation of all her usual laws, he on the whole
achieved the compass of his desires, studied the geology
and fauna of a continent, trained a generation of
geologists, founded one of the chief museums of the
world, gave a new impulse to scientific education in
America, and died the idol of the public, as well as of
his circle of immediate pupils and friends.

Louis Agassiz came first to this country in 1846, to
deliver a course of lectures at the Lowell Institute. In
1847 Mr. Abbott Lawrence, who had just given $50,000
to the University, to establish what was called in his
honor the Lawrence Scientific School, invited him to
take a professorship in the new school; and he was ac-
cordingly, in 1847, elected Professor of Zoology and
Geology there. At this time the University had no
collections for the illustration of his lectures or material
on which his students could work. He therefore set
about making such collections himself, out of the by no
means large salary of his professorship, and by lectur-

256 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

ing outside the University, and other devices. In 1852
the collections were stored partly in his own house,
partly in the cellar of Harvard Hall, partly in a shanty
overhanging the river on the Brighton road; and in
that year Mr. Samuel A. Eliot, then the Treasurer of
Harvard College, raised by subscription $12,000 to buy
these collections and make possible their arrangement
in the wooden building on Holmes Field, which has had
many migrations and more uses. Professor Agassiz used
this sum merely as a lever to gain more specimens and
a larger collection ; and six years later his materials had
again outgrown the space allotted to them, and had be-
come too important to be tucked into any building which
happened to have space to spare. Accordingly in 1858
a movement was launched for the building of an in-
dependent museum of natural history.

Just at this time Mr. Francis C. Gray died, bequeath-
ing $50,000 for the establishment of a Museum of Com-
parative Zoology. He left to the determination of his
nephew and executor the question whether this Museum
should be attached to the University, or should be in-
dependent. The executor offered the fund to the Uni-
versity, the income of it to be used for the purchase
of specimens. With this income assured, Professor
Agassiz set to work on a still larger scheme. He pro-
posed that the Commonwealth should take a share in
the enterprise ; and by his marvelous influence over men
he induced the Legislature to appropriate $100,000 for
the endowment of the Museum, on condition that its
friends should contribute enough to build a fireproof
building. The sum of $71,000 was promptly raised,
and the grant secured. The University deeded to the
trustees of the Museum, who were in part appointed by
the State, in part chosen by the subscribers, five acres of

THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM 257

land; and articles of agreement were drawn up and
signed, by which the scientific management of the
Museum was committed to a Faculty appointed by the
President and Fellows of Harvard College.

The cornerstone was laid June 14, 1859, the Governor
of the Commonwealth presiding, and introducing Pro-
fessor Agassiz, who made an address outlining his
plans and his hopes for the Museum. The building as
he planned it was to be 364 feet in length by 64 feet
in width, with two wings enclosing a court, each 205
feet long and 64 feet wide. The building began with
a portion of the east end of the north wing, and into
this the collections were moved towards the end of 1859.
Here Professor Agassiz set to work with nineteen pupils
and assistants, and resources of about $10,000 a year.
Many of the pupils and assistants of these early years
became in due time distinguished naturalists.

The further progress of the Museum is a history of
generous aid from the State, and of even more generous
aid from the friends of the Director, to save him from
the disappointment of what his son called his ' ' reckless
enthusiasm, ' ' and of munificent gifts from that son, who
to the highest scientific attainments added a business
capacity which organized one of the great copper mines
of the world. In 1861 the State made a further grant
of $20,000 for the Museum, and in 1864 of $10,000 more
for the publication of catalogues, which were the nucleus
of the quarto Memoirs of the Museum. In 1868 the
State appropriated $75,000, on condition that an equal
amount should be raised by private subscription. In
1874 the Legislature expressed the general sorrow of
the citizens of the State at Louis Agassiz 's death by
appropriating $50,000 towards the memorial fund.

The building has grown rapidly. In 1871-72 another

258 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

two-fifths of the north wing was added, and in 1877 the
remaining fifth was completed. In 1880-82 the north-
west corner piece was added. All these additions were
built by Mr. Alexander Agassiz. When in 1888-89 a
sum was raised by Professor G. L. Goodale to build the
central section of the Oxford Street facade, Mr. Agassiz
built the short piece necessary to connect it with the
former building, and the portion of the University
Museum devoted to the Museum of Comparative
Zoology was finished. In 1889 another section of the
fagade on Oxford Street was built for the Mineralogical
Museum; and in 1901-02 the children of Louis Agassiz
built the southwest corner for the use of the Department
of Geology. In the meantime the Peabody Museum of
Archaeology and Ethnology had begun its building in
1876, at the east end of the southern wing of the
Museum. In 1888 another section was added ; and now
work is in progress on the final section,1 w7hich will close
the gap between the Peabody Museum and the rest of
the University Museum. Thus Louis Agassiz 's original
vision will be fulfilled more than fifty years after the
great building was first begun, and on the outlines which
he laid down in the beginning. In 1902 Mr. Alexander
Agassiz, in the course of a historical address on the
Museum, estimated that " the University Museum
Building, as it stands to-day, with its collections and
libraries, represents an outlay of more than a million
and a quarter, with invested funds of about $900,000 ";
and that " during the past seventeen years $350,000
has been expended for explorations and expeditions."
He did not say, what was well known to his audience,
that he had himself given by far the larger part of these
great sums, and had personally directed their expendi-

1 The first sod was turned May 28, 1913.

THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM 259

ture. He represented that rarest of combinations, the
most distinguished scientific knowledge, a large and gen-
erous conception of the functions of a university mu-
seum, and the great fortune which made it possible for
him to put into execution the plans which he made for
the advancement of science.

In 1911 the President and Fellows very appropriately
voted that " the buildings of the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology should thenceforth be known as ' Agassiz
Hall.' "

The Museum of Comparative Zoology, which is the
original and the largest unit of the University Museum,
was founded by Louis Agassiz with two objects, advanced
investigation and the instruction of the public. His
great genius as a teacher, and his intense interest in
extending the knowledge of natural history, joined to
his eager faith in its value in education, gave the latter
object almost equal importance in his eyes with the for-
mer, and he laid out the plans for the exhibition rooms
on a system unique at the time, but since followed in
other museums.

The public exhibition rooms occupy the greater part
of three floors of the north wing, and adjoining rooms
of one floor of the central section, in which are the
exhibition rooms of the Botanical Museum and of the
Mineralogical and Geological Museums. Near the en-
trance is the Synoptic Room, in which is a small col-
lection of specimens of both living and fossil animals,
which show the characteristics and relationships of the
several groups of animals, leading up to man. The
other rooms are distributed between two schemes. In
one part living and fossil animals are shown, by well-
chosen specimens, in their systematic relations to each

260 EQUIPMENT FOB RESEARCH

other ; in the other they are shown in geographical ar-
rangement. In all the exhibition rooms the aim is to
present characteristic types rather than a complete dis-
play of species.

Some of the specimens are beautiful and striking.
There are, for example, a very fine specimen of the
great Manchurian tiger, the largest of all the tigers, an
excellent giraffe, a dwarf hippopotamus, and a very
good specimen of the very rare okapi of the African
forests, which has the appearance of being related to
both zebra and giraffe. Among the reptiles there are
very beautifully mounted examples of the pythons, one
of them 22 feet long, hanging from the stump of a tree
in the most realistic manner. Some of the fishes, too,
have been prepared by a new process which preserves
the beauty of their colors. There is a small collection
showing the nesting habits of birds, with the birds
mounted in various attitudes, both resting and on the
wing, near the nests. There are separate rooms devoted
to the fossils.

In the room devoted to corals there are two very
beautiful and vivid models of two types of coral islands.
These models are made on exact scale, both horizontally
and vertically, and show the characteristic formation
of such islands. Both were made by Mr. G. C. Curtis
for Alexander Agassiz from studies on the spot under
the direction of the latter. To show the depths of the
surrounding sea, the models are scooped away around
the islands, and the illusion of sea-level is preserved by
suspending minute models of vessels from invisible wires
where sea-level would be. On the model of the island
of Bora Bora, which has a central volcanic cone, ves-
sels in the harbor and houses are also indicated by
minute models, and the tropical foliage climbing up to

THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM 261

the foot of the cliffs is very realistic. By putting the
eye at the line of sea-level one gets the most vivid
illusion of reality.

The portion of the Museum devoted to the laboratories
and the working collections is by far the largest. These
collections are very extensive, and very well rounded in
all branches of zoology. The special interests of both
Louis and Alexander Agassiz are represented in the
great collections of fishes and echinoderms, both fossil
and living. Among the fishes are to be found the
large collections from Brazil sent by the former Em-
peror, Dom Pedro II, as a mark of his regard for Louis
Agassiz, and supplemented by the latter himself on the
Thayer expedition up the Amazon in 1865-66. The
very extensive collections of echinoderms were largely
made by Alexander Agassiz himself during his expedi-
tions on the Blake and the Albatross, and on his expedi-
tions to Australia and elsewhere in the Pacific Ocean.
They are also strong in fossil specimens. Neither father
nor son, however, allowed his interest in the Museum
to be limited to the subjects on which he was himself
so high in authority; and both of them built up the
collections of the Museum in every department of
zoology. It is hard to single out for mention any special
collections where all are so strong. Perhaps the collec-
tion of insects is as distinguished as any, for it includes
a very large number of type specimens, that is, speci-
mens on which the original description was based.
Among these are some which were used by Linnseus.
Professor Hagen, who was brought from Germany in
1870 to be Professor of Entomology, later refused a call
to the Museum at Berlin because the collections of the
Agassiz Museum were so extensive. The study collection

262 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

of birds, too, is believed to be as strong as any in the
country.

For the study of these great collections there are
many rooms and laboratories, and each department has
its curator and his assistants. There are now nine
curators. Special collections are sent to scholars, both
in this country and abroad, for examination and report ;
and other scholars come to the Museum for investiga-
tion of special subjects.

The activities of the Museum are published in the
Memoirs and the Bulletins. Of the former, which are
of quarto size, thirty-nine volumes have now been is-
sued, representing the more extensive studies, each
with text and carefully-drawn plates. Of the Bulletin,
which is an octavo, fifty-two volumes have been pub-
lished. Each number of the Bulletin usually includes
a number of studies. In the Bulletin are published the
contributions from the Zoological Laboratory and the
Geological Series.

The library of the Museum is rich and extensive. It
has had the advantage of aid in ordering books and
pamphlets not only of members of the regular staff, but
also of visiting scholars, who have written orders for
many books which had not yet been acquired. In 1912
the library contained 49,155 volumes, and 45,535 pam-
phlets. This library, with those of the Boston Society of
Natural History and the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences, provides an extraordinarily complete col-
lection for the study of zoology.

The Mineralogical Museum, which occupies the south
central part of the University Museum, is historically
the oldest organized scientific collection of the Univer-
sity. Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse, the first Curator, who

THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM 263

introduced vaccination into America, wrote in a letter
now in possession of the Museum: " I have in like
manner, commenced several useful things besides vac-
cination. I began the business of Mineralogy in 1784,
and from about */2 peck of minerals formed the
cabinet in this University of Cambridge, which led to
the one you now have at New Haven, and every other
in the United States." This " % peck of minerals "
of 1784 has become one of the four or five chief collec-
tions in our time.

The first considerable addition came in 1795 with the
gift from Dr. Lettsom, a Quaker physician of London,
of a valuable collection of minerals, which by subse-
quent gifts he brought up to seven hundred specimens.
For this collection the President and Fellows provided
a cabinet. They also appointed Dr. Waterhouse keeper
of the mineralogical cabinet ; and he arranged and cata-
logued it. In 1795 M. Mozard, consul in Boston of the
French Republic, presented two hundred specimens
" as samples of the riches of the French soil," on be-
half of the Committee of Public Safety, with many
protestations of liberty, equality, and fraternity. In
1820 Mr. Andrew Ritchie presented the collection of
C. A. Blode, a well-known mineralogist and chemist
of Dresden, Germany; and in 1824 several thousand
more specimens were added by a subscription in Boston.
The collection thus augmented was rearranged by Dr.
J. W. Webster, later Erving Professor of Chemistry.
The mineralogical cabinet at this time was kept in
Harvard Hall; and in 1840 it contained about 26,000
specimens.

The importance of the Mineralogical Museum both
in size and quality, however, began in 1850, when Pro-
fessor Josiah Parsons Cooke, Jr., succeeded to the Erving

264 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

Professorship of Chemistry and Mineralogy. In his
long service, which lasted until 1894, he gave affec-
tionate care to the collection, constantly adding new
or better material, either through purchase or through
the gifts which flowed in under the influence of his
enthusiasm and knowledge. In 1858 he moved the
mineralogical cabinet to Boylston Hall, then just fin-
ished; and in 1891 he helped to move it to its present
ample quarters, where it became the Mineralogical
Museum. Chief among the additions of his long serv-
ice are the Liebener collection, rich in minerals from
the Tyrol, which was purchased in 1869; the J. Law-
rence Smith collection of meteorites, given in 1883; the
Bigelow collection of agates, formed by Dr. Henry J.
Bigelow, Professor of Surgery from 1849 to 1882, and
his son, Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow, which was given
to the Museum by the latter in 1891; the Hamlin col-
lection of tourmalines, the largest collection yet made
from the deposits in Maine; and the Garland gem
minerals, given by James A. Garland of New York in
1892.

The Museum occupies a large hall with its gallery,
and the specimens are arranged in systematic order in
wall-cases, and flat cases on the floor of the hall and
gallery. There are between 12,000 and 13,000 speci-
mens on exhibition, many of them very beautiful, apart
from their scientific interest. Among the most striking
features of the collections are the Hamlin collection of
tourmalines from Paris, Maine, and its neighborhood,
with about 1000 crystals, mostly of gem quality. In-
cluded in the Garland collection of gem minerals is a
great diamond crystal, which is a perfect yellow octahe-
dron weighing over 83 carats, a Siberian aquamarine
crystal five inches long and two inches thick, a trans-

THE UNIVERSITY MUSEUM 265

parent golden beryl of nearly the same size, two large
pieces of Australian precious opal, and a globular Mexi-
can fire-opal nearly two inches in diameter. The col-
lection of meteorites is one of the largest in existence,
and represents 255 separate falls. The Bigelow collec-
tion of agates has 450 specimens, mostly cut and pol-
ished, which exhibit in great variety the structure and
growth.

Besides the portion of the collection which is open
for public exhibition, the Museum has a second extensive
collection for class-room use, which is kept in cases in
the principal lecture room; and it has also very large
stores of specimens for the use of classes for study.

For purposes of instruction the Museum has class-
rooms, a chemical laboratory, a machine-room for
preparation of specimens, and a room for crystallog-
raphy, with instruments for measuring the angles and
surfaces of crystals. As everywhere else in the Univer-
sity Museum, research is one of the chief aims of the
Mineralogical Museum.

The Geological Museum occupies several rooms
adjacent to the Mineralogical Museum, in which are
exhibitions which illustrate some of the chief forces
molding the surface of the earth and their results.
There is a small selected collection of fossil remains,
both plant and animal ; but most of the fossil exhibitions
are in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. The chief
exhibitions of the Geological Museum are in the form
of models. These include a model of Valparaiso after
the earthquake, showing the way in which the front
walls of the houses fell off. There are also models of
glacial regions in Switzerland, both typical and actual,
from the laboratory of Professor Heim of Zurich. These

266 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

models, which are made accurate to scale, both vertical
and horizontal, show in a most vivid way the geological
formation of the mountain ranges, the movements of
glaciers, and the resultant shapes of the land-masses
which result from the action of frost and weather. An-
other type of model is of large areas. Among these are
relief models of a section of France, made for the French
General Staff and given to the Museum through Pro-
fessor W. M. Davis. There is also a relief map of Bos-
ton and its neighborhood, 10 feet in diameter, made by
G. C. Curtis for the State, and now deposited in the
Museum; and a large relief map of Southeastern New
England, showing the innumerable streams and lakes
so characteristic of the region.

Botanical study at Harvard is distributed among six
separate departments : the Gray Herbarium, the Botanic
Garden, the Botanical Museum, the Botanical Labora-
tories, the Arnold Arboretum, and the Bussey Institu-
tion. All of these are entirely devoted to some special
field of botanical study, except the Bussey Institution,
where plant-breeding is merely one branch of applied
biology, and therefore need not be separately discussed
here.

The dawn of botany at Harvard goes back to January,
1784, when the Corporation applied to the General
Court to found a botanic garden to receive seeds and
plants which the King of France had offered to furnish
from his royal garden at his own expense. The State,
however, took no action. Before 1788 Professor Ben-
jamin Waterhouse, one of the first professors of the
Medical School, and the first keeper of the mineralogical
cabinet, was lecturing on botany. In 1805 the Massa-
chusetts Professorship of Natural History was founded

THE BOTANIC GARDEN 267

by a fund of $30,000, raised by subscription, and Wil-
liam Dandridge Peck was chosen the first professor. He
was sent abroad to study botanical gardens, and on his
return laid out and arranged the Botanic Garden, the
site for which had been purchased on what are now
Garden and Linnean streets in Cambridge, about half a
mile from the College Yard. He attained considerable
reputation as a botanist and entomologist. When he
died in 1822 he was succeeded by Thomas Nuttall, an
Englishman of eccentric habits, but of high scientific
attainments, who had already published a noteworthy
work on American botany, and who was distinguished
also for his work on ornithology. He was curator
until 1834. In 1833 Joshua Fisher (A.B. 1766) left
to the President and Fellows " the sum of $20,000,
the income of it to be appropriated to the support
of the Professor of Natural History, comprehending the
three kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral, or a
part of them."

This professorship was not filled until 1842; but in
the meantime lectures on botany were given by T. W.
Harris, the Librarian of the College, and Dr. A. A.
Gould. In 1842 Dr. Asa Gray was elected Fisher Pro-
fessor of Natural History, and botany became one of
the most distinguished of the scientific activities of the
University. He was already recognized as the leader
among American botanists and as one of the leading
botanists of the world. His reputation was so great
that many collections of plants from the explorations not
only of the United States but of all the rest of North
America, including Mexico, and collections from Japan
and the Pacific islands were sent to him for study and
determination. Through these collections and others
made by himself, or received by gift or purchase or

268 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

exchange, he built up a very large and valuable
herbarium. At the same time he brought together a
very large number of books on botany. These collec-
tions and this library he gave to the University in 1864,
and they are the foundation of the collections of the
Gray Herbarium. Both library and collections have
since been continuously extended, both by special ex-
peditions and by exchange and purchase.

The collections are invaluable. There are now over
500,000 sheets of specimens arranged in the cases. Their
scientific importance is greatly enhanced by the very
great number of type-specimens to which all identifica-
tions in the future must go back, and of specimens
critically identified during monographic work. The
fact that Dr. Gray's popular works on botany were so
widely used has resulted in the sending to the Her-
barium of many specimens, and he and his successor,
Sereno Watson, and the present staff have identified an
enormous number of new species.

The Gray Herbarium aims to be first and chiefly an
American collection. In addition to its riches in the
way of specimens of the flora of North America, in-
cluding Mexico, it is also very strong in plants from
Central and South America and from the West Indies.
Its collections of European, Asiatic, and African plants
are amply sufficient for comparative purposes, but it
has not been the policy of the Gray Herbarium to
specialize in those regions where other herbaria were in
better position to do the work.

The library of the Herbarium is very strong. It has
now over 22,000 carefully selected volumes and pam-
phlets. Its value is reinforced for botanists of this
region by the library of the Arnold Arboretum, which
is devoted to woody plants, the library of the Massa-

THE GRAY HERBARIUM 269

chusetts Horticultural Society in Boston, which is
strong in works of horticulture, and by the libraries
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and
the Boston Society of Natural History.

The scientific publications of the Herbarium include
the continuation and the revision of the larger works of
Dr. Gray, and the Contributions from the Gray Her-
barium of Harvard University, a series of technical
papers devoted chiefly to the characterization of new
species and to monographs on genera. The officers of
the Herbarium also constantly write papers, both
technical and popular, which appear in various scientific
journals. The Herbarium issues quarterly a card index
of new genera, species, and varieties of American plants.
These cards, of which there are now over 100,000, are
supplied to other herbaria.

The Gray Herbarium has a building in the Botanic
Garden, almost all of which is of modern and fireproof
construction. The purpose of the Herbarium is almost
wholly research, but its officers offer a few courses for
undergraduates and graduates on the classification and
distribution of plants.

The Botanic Garden, though it is the earliest founda-
tion for the study of botany at Harvard, is at present
on the whole the least active; for its endowment has
never been equal to its needs, nor is the soil particularly
favorable for the purpose. It has about seven acres of
land on Garden and Linnaean streets, not far from
the College Yard, and here there are growing some
5000 species of flowering plants, which are interest-
ing for scientific or educational purposes. There is a
considerable collection of wild North American plants,
illustrating the orders and principal genera of the
United States, with a good many species from the Old

270 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

World for comparison. The greenhouses have in part
been recently rebuilt. In them are collections of desert
plants, of cacti, of palms and their allies, of Mexican
plants and ferns, of tropical orchids, and of Australa-
sian plants; and there are also houses assigned to ex-
perimental work in vegetable physiology and growing
plants for the elementary course in botany.

Both grounds and greenhouses are open to the public,
and the display of spring flowers, such as tulips,
hyacinths, and irises, always draws many visitors. A
good many classes come from schools, especially in the
spring and autumn ; and the students in landscape archi-
tecture make use of the Garden for part of their work
in horticulture.

In connection with the State Forester's office, the
Botanic Garden has carried on the work of propagating
and distributing a fungus which is fatal to the brown-
tail-moth larvae, and studies are being carried on in the
search for a similar enemy to the gypsy moth.

Under the general direction of the Botanic Garden a
Harvard experiment station is maintained in Cien-
fuegos, Cuba. Here experiments are being made with
the purpose of producing and propagating a variety of
sugar cane with a higher percentage of sugar, and also
in the production of other tropical plants of economic
value.

Of all the museums of the University none is more
widely known popularly than the Botanical Museum,
for here is kept the Ware collection of glass-flowers.
These are models of a great number of the native flowers
of America, made in glass by Leopold and Rudolph
Blaschka, two artists of Germany, father and son, the
former of whom is now dead. The process is secret;

THE BOTANICAL MUSEUM 271

and they have been under exclusive contract to the
Museum, and have now completed a very large number
of typical species. Each species is usually represented
by several models, including the whole plant, if it be not
too large, separate flowers, or clusters of flowers, and
in many cases greatly enlarged models of the pistils and
stamens and other parts of the flowers, to show their
structure. The work is exquisitely done, and it is dif-
ficult to believe that the flowers are not real and fresh-
picked. Especially the small clustered flowers are ex-
ceedingly natural. The collection well deserves the
double star, with which it is distinguished in the
Baedeker of America.

Besides this collection of models the Botanical Museum
has a considerable collection of books on economic
botany, most of which has now to be stored for lack of
space. It is, however, accessible for study.

The cryptogamic herbarium and laboratory have
rooms on the upper floor of the botanical section of the
University Museum. The work in cryptogamic botany
did not begin until 1870, when Dr. William G. Farlow
became assistant to Professor Asa Gray, with special
charge of that branch of the science. At that time it
had not really begun to be studied in America, and Dr.
Farlow, finding it impossible to get even a passable
knowledge of the subject at home, went to Europe and
spent two years of study in Germany and France. The
state of the science at this time is illustrated by the fact
that in the chief German text-book of the subject pub-
lished in 1870 there is no reference to bacteria. The
whole range of these lower forms of plant-life has de-
veloped since that time. When Dr. Farlow returned
from Europe he was made Assistant Professor of Botany,
and was stationed at the Bussey Institution, where he

272 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

made special studies of diseases of economic plants
due to fungi. In 1879 the instruction in cryptogamic
botany was transferred to Cambridge, and Dr. Farlow
was elected professor.

In the meantime he had begun the collections, which
are now notable in size and completeness. The
nucleus was the large collection of fungi made by the
Reverend M. A. Curtis, which was bought by Dr. Farlow
in 1872. The collection of lichens was based on that
of the late Professor Edward Tuckerman of Amherst,
which was bought by subscription in 1888. The algae
have been largely collected by Dr. Farlow, but there are
many foreign species given by a great number of col-
lectors. The mosses and hepatics are built up on the
collection of the late W. S. Sullivant, which he be-
queathed to the Gray Herbarium. All the collections
belonging to the University of cryptogamics below the
ferns are now kept in the Cryptogamic Herbarium. The
others are retained at the Gray Herbarium. There is no
close estimate of the number of specimens in the Cryp-
togamic Herbarium, but it surely exceeds 300,000. In
the series of Exsiccati, in which the Herbarium is very
rich, there are over 160,000. The library of the Crypto-
gamic Laboratory is a working collection, not very large,
for Dr. Farlow has freely and generously put his own
large collection of books on the subject at the disposal
of students in the department.

Instruction is given in the laboratories both to under-
graduates and to graduate students. There are at pres-
ent an elementary course and a course for undergradu-
ates and graduates, besides the work in research under
the direction of the professors. The number of stu-
dents in so specialized a subject can never be very
large.

THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 273

Of the departments of the University, there is none
which has such charm for the eye as the Arnold Arbo-
retum, and for scientific study few which are more dis-
tinguished. It was founded in 1872 by the Trustees under
the will of James Arnold of New Bedford, for the pur-
pose of scientific research and experiment in the growth
of trees and shrubs. The Corporation granted to it 220
acres, from the estate of 394 acres in Jamaica Plain
near the Forest Hills station, which had been left to
the University by Benjamin Bussey. Its natural sur-
face is highly variegated; it has several hills of some
height, and between them are slopes and meadow-land
with a considerable brook. On one of the hills there
is a thick grove of ancient pine and hemlock.

The Director of the Arnold Arboretum is Professor
Charles S. Sargent, who has held that office since its
foundation. In 1879 he was elected the first Arnold
Professor of Arboriculture. He is in a very real way
the father of the institution, for he shaped the original
plans, laid out the grounds, and defined the purposes of
the Arboretum. It was his conception that it should
be a garden devoted entirely to the growth of trees and
other woody plants, and in this limitation it is unique
in the world. At his suggestion, the President and Fel-
lows made an arrangement with the City of Boston
under which the Arboretum was brought into an alliance
with the park system of the city. The latter builds and
maintains roads, and provides for the policing, and
in return the University opens the Arboretum as a pub-
lic park.

The spreading out of the population to the west
of Boston is rapidly surrounding the Arboretum
with a thickly settled district; and in pleasant days in
spring, when the best of the trees and shrubs are in

274 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

blossom, the paths and roadways are often thronged
with people and carriages.

In the Arboretum, Professor Sargent has brought to-
gether an unrivaled collection of trees, shrubs, and
vines, which will grow in the climate of Massachusetts;
and in recent years most important additions to the
resources of landscape architects have been made
through trees, shrubs, and vines brought from Eastern
Asia. Professor Sargent himself visited Japan some
years ago and explored its gardens and forests, and
brought back many seeds and plants. The greatest
advance, however, has been made within the last few
years through the explorations of Mr. E. H. Wilson on
behalf of the Arboretum in the mountains of Western
China. This region is extraordinarily rich in trees and
shrubs, and practically all the specimens have proved
to be hardy under the climatic conditions of Massa-
chusetts. Already there are growing in the Arboretum
over 100 species of trees from China, a number
equal to the whole number of species of native trees in
New England; and there are probably, besides, 500
species of shrubs and vines. Many of the trees
are of great beauty and some of them are valuable for
timber; and many of the shrubs and vines are notable
additions to the resources of our gardens. Besides these
trees and plants directly imported, a beginning has been
made in hybridizing, which promises indefinitely to in-
crease the number of trees and flowering shrubs and
vines which will be available for planting in New Eng-
land and in America in general.

Scientifically, the value of the collection is hardly to
be overestimated, and the collection out of doors is sup-
plemented by the Herbarium and the Library. The
Herbarium has already a very large number of sped-

THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 275

mens of dried plants, and in the new part of the build-
ing there is room for a million sheets of specimens. At
present the Library has 26,700 volumes and 6600
pamphlets. Its basis was Professor Sargent's private
collection, which he gave to the Arboretum some years
ago.

The Arboretum is highly productive, not only in trees
and plants, but in printed works. The most im-
portant work yet issued is Professor Sargent's great
" Silva of North America." It is in 14 volumes, and has
descriptions and drawings, with much information about
the growth of every tree of timber-producing size in
North America north of Mexico. The Arboretum is also
producing under Professor Sargent's supervision the
Bradley Bibliography of the trees and shrubs of the
world. It will be in five volumes, and it is hoped that
it will be a complete list of all works on the subject in
all European languages.

To the layman, however, the outward beauty of the
Arboretum is its most striking feature. The land is
greatly varied, as has been said, and the planting shows
the greatest taste. In spite of the very great numbers
of trees and shrubs, there is no appearance of crowding;
and except in one part of the ground, where the differ-
ent varieties are kept together in rectangular beds, the
design is wholly natural. Trees of the same kind
are kept together for purposes of comparison, and the
grouping produces a most agreeable variety in the land-
scape. All through the spring and early summer, there
are constant displays of flowering shrubs. Among the
most striking are the lilacs of all varieties and all colors,
which are planted along one of the principal roads; a
little later come the flame-colored Japanese azaleas, and
then masses of rhododendrons and hawthorns and many

276 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

bushes of flowering honeysuckle. One of the most
beautiful of all the plantations is the long line of Ameri-
can laurel along the brook at the foot of Hemlock Hill,
where their exquisite coloring is set forth by the dark
masses of the evergreen above them. A little later come
the catalpa trees, and then the mock-orange or syringa.
Later on there are the various species of viburnum with
their snowy white flowers, the elders and the native
white azalea, the woodwax or genista, the yellow
clematis and the magnolia glauca, and, in the middle of
the summer, the clethra. Many of the trees and shrubs
have colored fruits and berries, which last well into the
winter, and in the autumn there is great variety in the
brilliance of the foliage before the leaves drop. Even
in the winter, the masses of evergreens against the
snow make the Arboretum almost as beautiful as at any
other time of the year. Hemlock Hill, which is covered
with an old growth of pine and hemlocks, is one of the
notable features of the Arboretum. The trees are so
high and so thick that even in midsummer the sun 's rays
do not penetrate, and the ground is covered with the
needles and with a few ferns and other plants which
can get along without the sun.

There is no regular instruction at the Arboretum,
though there is always a chance for study under the
director and his staff for advanced students in botany,
and there is a good deal of resort to the collections,
whether out of doors or in the building, for advanced
scientific study. Every year one of the staff conducts
popular classes in dendrology for a moderate fee, but
there are no examinations.

Louis Agassiz's original vision of the University
Museum included means for the study not only of the

THE PEABODY MUSEUM 277

earth on which man lives and of the plant and animal
life by which he is surrounded, but also of man himself
and the conditions under which he has drawn near to
the threshold of civilization ; and he had himself brought
together a beginning of the collections in archaeology,
and in his plan for the Museum he assigned a whole
wing to anthropological and ethnological collections.

The beginning of the fulfillment of this part of his
plans was made possible by a gift of $150,000 in 1866
from Mr. George Peabody, the banker, of London. In
his letter of gift Mr. Peabody provided that $45,000
was to be set aside for the endowment of a professorship,
$45,000 more for maintaining the Museum and increas-
ing its collections; the remaining $60,000 was to ac-
cumulate until it amounted to $100,000, and then be
used for building. In 1877 the latter fund had reached
the amount prescribed by Mr. Peabody, and the first
section of the Peabody Museum of American Archae-
ology and Ethnology was built. In 1890 another sec-
tion was added; and the final section, which will con-
nect the Peabody Museum with the rest of the Museum,
is now under construction.

The collections had made a good start even before
the first section of the building was ready to receive
them. Not only had Louis Agassiz brought over from
Switzerland a number of objects from the ancient pile-
structures of Lake Neuchatel, but Professor Jeffries
Wyman, the first Curator, who for the time was highly
trained in comparative anatomy, had brought together
a number of specimens to illustrate the structure of the
various races of man. With each addition to its build-
ing the Museum has been in the position of having col-
lections ready to fill a considerable portion of the new
space.

278 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

The Museum is arranged geographically, and as is fit-
ting, the regions which have most space are North and
Central America. A large room is given to the Indian
tribes of the Northern United States and Canada, an-
other to the Indians of the Southwest, and another to
specimens and casts from Central America. Besides
these, a large gallery is filled with objects from the
islands of the Pacific, and there are extensive collections
from South America, and an excellent though far from
exhaustive one from Africa. The Museum is strong in
objects from the Stone Age all over the world.

A large part of the distinction of the Museum comes
from the fact that three generations ago Boston and
Salem were the center of a commerce which ranged all
over the world. The old sea-captains were in the habit
of bringing home " curiosities," many of which found
their way to the Boston Marine Society, the Boston So-
ciety of Natural History, the Boston Athenaeum, and
the American Antiquarian Society. These institutions,
as their buildings became crowded and their own pur-
poses more distinct, turned over many of these objects
to the Peabody Museum, where they can be studied, and
where, by being brought together with other similar
objects, they take on new value. Another source from
which the Museum received priceless and irreplaceable
objects was the collection which used to form part of
the old Boston Museum, occupying the galleries on the
way in to the theater. Among these collections, which
t were given to the Peabody Museum by the heirs of the
late David Kimball, were a considerable number of ob-
jects brought home by the expedition of Lewis and
Clark to Oregon in 1804-06. The Museum also has the
great Hemenway collection of pottery and other objects
from the Indians of the Southwest, and a very beautiful

THE PEABODY MUSEUM 279

and complete collection of basketwork, largely from
the Pacific coast, given by Mr. Lewis H. Farlow. Not
the least interesting of the objects from the American
Indians is the only extant bow of a Massachusetts In-
dian, which, it is noted, was taken from an aborigine in
Sudbury, in 1660, by William Goodnough, who shot
him.

Among the other collections are very beautiful feath-
er-work from the islands of the Pacific and from South
America, weapons and canoes from the South Sea
Islands, and a great variety of native textiles from all
over the world, including many ceremonial pieces which
cannot now be duplicated.

In the second floor is a hall devoted to casts of the
carvings from the temples of Central America belonging
to the Maya cult, with smaller objects found in the
ruins. The Museum is particularly rich in this direc-
tion, since it has sent a series of expeditions to explore
the ruins hidden in the jungle. Some of the metal-work
and the ornaments of semi-precious stones, like jade,
are of considerable beauty.

The collections are arranged in such a way as to be
intelligible to the public, which comes to the Museum in
great numbers. In the American Indian room there
are models of villages showing how the people lived;
and even in the present crowding of the cases the beauty
of many of the objects is apparent.

The Museum exists primarily, however, for purposes
of research and instruction. It has a large collection of
skulls for anthropological study, and many other objects
of various kinds than are shown in the cases. The li-
brary is extensive and valuable ; it now has about 4000
volumes and 3500 pamphlets, all relating to the purposes
of the Museum.

280 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

The Department of Anthropology, which is closely re-
lated to the Museum, gives instruction both to under-
graduates and graduates. In 1912-13 there were eleven
regular courses, besides six courses of research.

The Museum is governed by its own Faculty, which
makes nominations to the President and Fellows to fill
vacancies. The President of the University is the Presi-
dent of the Faculty, and the Peabody Professor of
American Archaeology and Ethnology, who is also
Curator of the Museum, is always a member. The
Faculty have several funds at their disposal for research
and the purchase of specimens.

The history of astronomy at Harvard, in a certain
sense, goes back to the very earliest days of the Col-
lege ; for it is recorded that, of the forty-four American
almanacs before 1687 which are now extant, forty-one
were prepared by twenty-six graduates of Harvard Col-
lege, of whom ten were tutors. The almanacs were pub-
lished in nearly every case during the three years of
graduate study for the degree of Master of Arts, and
it is thought that the collections in them may have been
part of the preparation for that degree. The Ptolemaic
system still survived, and as late as 1686, Nathaniel
Mather (A.B. 1685), who prepared the calendar for
that year, argued for the adoption of the Copernican
system.1

In the next century John Winthrop, Hollis Professor
of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy from 1738 to
1779, carried on much research in astronomy. In 1761
he made an expedition to Newfoundland to make obser-
vation on the transit of Venus, and the results of this

1 C. L. Nichols, Proceedings of the American Antiquarian So-
ciety, New Series, vol. xxii.

THE OBSERVATORY 281

expedition and of other observations were published in
the Memoirs of the Royal Society. Professor Win-
throp's telescope now stands under his portrait in the
Faculty room. When Harvard Hall was burned, in
1764, among other losses are recorded several telescopes,
one of them twenty-four feet long, and a brass quadrant
of two feet radius, carrying a telescope of greater length
which had formerly belonged to the celebrated Dr.
Halley.

It was not until the nineteenth century, however, that
an effort was made to establish a regular astronomical
observatory at Harvard. In 1816 John Farrar, Hollis
Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, and
Nathaniel Bowditch, the author of the New American
Practical Navigator, and translator and annotator of
Laplace's Mecanique Celeste, were appointed by the
Corporation a committee to order instruments for the
observatory; but the project fell through. In 1822 the
same committee examined various places near the Col-
lege to find one suitable for an observatory. The next
year John Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State of the
United States, wrote to a member of the Corporation,
to urge the building of an observatory, and he offered
$1000, anonymously, for the undertaking, with a limi-
tation of two years. When this offer had no results, he
renewed it in 1825, but again in vain, and the plan for
an observatory slumbered until 1839.

In that year William Cranch Bond, who had been
engaged in astronomical work for the government of
the United States, was appointed Astronomical Observer
at the University. He had already a considerable
equipment of instruments, which were bought by sub-
scription for the University. The house provided for
the Observatory was the wooden house still standing on

282 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

the corner of Quincy and Harvard streets, formerly
occupied by Dr. Andrew P. Peabody, now the home of
Professor George Herbert Palmer. On the roof of this
house a cupola was erected, with a revolving dome. The
meridian line of the transit instrument intersected the
top of Blue Hill in Milton, eleven miles away, and there
a substantial monument was erected as a means for the
adjustment and verification of the instruments. It is
related that after the Observatory was established a
barn was built, which cut off the view of Blue Hill, and
that it was necessary to buy a right of way, or rather
of sight, through the loft of the barn, in order to re-
store the view of the monument.

Interest in the Astronomical Observatory was greatly
increased by the appearance of the famous comet of
1843, and the popular interest in this event made it
possible to raise a considerable sum, and to order from
Merz and Mahler of Munich a 15-inch equatorial
telescope. At the time this instrument was mounted, in
1847, it had no superior and but one equal in the world.
In the meantime, land had been bought on the hill on
which the Observatory now stands, and a building,
handsome and adequate for the time, erected to receive
the new instrument. Other instruments were added,
and in 1849 the astronomical work at the University
was put on a sure basis by the bequest of $100,000 from
Edward Bromfield Phillips. In 1845 Mr. Bond was
made Director of the Observatory. He has been suc-
ceeded in the Directorship successively by his son,
George Phillips Bond, from 1859 to 1865; Professor
Joseph Winlock, from 1866 to 1875 ; and Professor Ed-
ward Charles Pickering, who has served since 1876.

The Astronomical Observatory is conducted wholly for
research. Instruction in astronomy for undergraduates

THE OBSERVATORY 283

is provided for by a separate department, which has a
small, though adequate, observatory of its own on
Holmes Field. The general policy of the Astronomical
Observatory since the beginning has been the develop-
ment of the physical side of astronomy ; so that its staff
has been employed chiefly in determining the brightness,
spectra, and other physical properties of the stars. It
has been also a distinct part of its policy to undertake
routine investigations on an extensive scale, some of
them occupying many years. Examples of such inves-
tigations are the studies of the standard positions and
of the proper motions of the stars in the zone -f-50° to
+ 55° and in the zone — 10° to — 14° ; the former con-
taining 8627 stars, the latter 8337. Each of these in-
vestigations occupied the time of the observers, Professor
Rogers and Professor Searle, and a corps of computers
for more than twenty years, and the results fill eleven
of the quarto volumes of the Annals of the Observatory.
In recent years the Observatory has devoted a large
part of its activity to photography, both of the stars
and of their spectra. In order to make the work com-
plete, it established a station in Peru for observation
of the stars of the Southern Hemisphere. With the aid
of this station, it has now over 200,000 photographic
plates, representing the whole sky for thirty years.
These plates constitute an invaluable record, for they
make it possible to follow back the history of new stars
or other objects before their discovery by the telescope.
In many cases the photographic record throws most im-
portant light on the nature of the new object. For ex-
ample, on March 12, 1912, a new star was discovered in
Norway. Word was sent by cable to the Observatory in
Cambridge, and the news distributed thence through
America; so that on the next night many observers

284 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

were looking for it. In the meantime, search was made
in the library of photographs. Two plates of the region
taken on the 10th of March showed no sign of the star,
but on two plates taken on the llth it appeared at nearly
full brightness. A photograph of its spectra on March
13 showed that it closely resembled an ordinary star, but
on March 14 bright lines appeared in its spectrum, and
on March 17 the spectrum had entirely changed.
Through investigations of this sort, made possible by
these photographic records, invaluable light has been
thrown on the new stars.

Another very extensive undertaking by the Observa-
tory was the determination of the standard magnitudes
of 80,000 stars. This work, which required more than
2,000,000 settings of the photometers, occupied thirty
years. Another long undertaking, which has had most
important scientific results, has been the photographing
of the spectra of all the stars and the examination of
the photographs. Mrs. Fleming, who was in charge of
the examination of the photographs for a number of
years, until her death in 1911, had discovered 10 of the
19 new stars which were discovered all over the world
during her period of service. The Observatory is now
undertaking a catalogue of the spectra of about 200,000
stars, according to a new system which involves the
classification of the spectra, the photometric magnitude,
and the photographic magnitude. Miss Cannon, who is
in charge of the work, by skillful application of time-
saving devices, is able to classify about 200 stars a day,
but it is probable that even at this rate the work will
occupy five or six years. The photographs of the stars
and of their spectra constitute a mass of material of per-
manent value such as is possessed by no other observa-
tory in the world, and this material is likely to be more

THE OBSEEVATORY 285

and more used for reference as time goes on. The
Observatory is the central station for the distribution
of astronomical news in America.

The equipment of the Observatory now consists of
the original 15-inch equatorial, the meridian circle,
whose work in its present form may be regarded as com-
pleted, a 24-inch reflecter, a 12-inch meridian photom-
eter, and the two Draper telescopes, an 11-inch and an
8-inch. In addition, there has recently been set up in
Cambridge a 16-inch doublet, made by the Reverend
Joel H. Metcalf of Winchester, who is not only dis-
tinguished as an astronomer for his observations on the
asteroid, but is also a very skillful maker of instruments.
The contribution which he has made through his work
on this instrument represents a considerable gift to the
Observatory.

Besides the establishment at Cambridge, the Obser-
vatory maintains a station at Arequipa, Peru. This
establishment in South America was made possible by
a fund left by the late Uriah A. Boyden to establish an
observing station at an altitude where the atmospheric
conditions would be especially favorable. The fund
was transferred by the Trustees to the Observatory in
1887, and a careful investigation of meteorological and
climatic conditions was made which resulted in the
choice of Arequipa. Here are kept a 24-inch telescope,
the gift of the late Miss Catherine W. Bruce of New
York; a 13-inch telescope from the Boyden fund; an
8-inch telescope and a 4-inch meridian photometer. Over
50,000 photographs have already been taken at the sta-
tion at Arequipa. Besides the astronomical observa-
tions, a long series of meteorological observations has
been made, which for several years were carried on at
a line of stations reaching from the Pacific over the

286 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

Andes to the valley of the Amazon. The highest of these
was on the mountain known as El Misti, 19,200 feet high
above sea-level.

The Library of the Observatory now contains nearly
] 4,000 volumes and 33,000 pamphlets.

A most important part of the work done by the Ob-
servatory consists in its publications, which include the
results of work done not only by its own staff, but by
other scientific men, and which include also meteoro-
logical observations. Nearly eighty of the quarto
volumes of the Annals have now been published, and
they are appearing at the rate of several volumes a year.
The total publication of this Observatory is equal in
amount to the publications of all the other observatories
in America, except those of the Naval Observatory at
"Washington. The materials thus published have put at
the disposal of astronomers throughout the world an
enormous amount of exact data for future study.

The endowment of the Observatory amounts now to
nearly a million dollars. The largest gifts have been
the Phillips fund, received in 1849; the bequest of
Robert Treat Paine (A.B. 1822), amounting to
$164,000, received in 1885, and the Boyden fund,
amounting to $238,000, which became available in 1887.
Besides these funds, the Observatory has received since
1886 an annual gift of $10,000 from Mrs. Draper of
New York, in memory of her husband, to continue the
research which he had begun on the spectra and other
physical properties of the stars.

The income of a large part of these funds is unre-
stricted to specific purposes; so that the Director can
carry out the policy of the Observatory of using its
income for the promotion of the science of astronomy
wherever it will do the most good. It has therefore

THE OBSERVATORY 287

made frequent grants for special undertakings to ob-
servers in various parts of this country and in Europe.
It has also carried on a number of cooperative under-
takings. An interesting example of the latter is the aid
which it is now giving to Professor Kapteyn, the great
Dutch astronomer at Groningen, in his studies of the
faint stars in selected areas of the sky. The Observa-
tory has used its instruments both at Cambridge and in
Peru for making photographs of these areas for him;
and when his studies are completed they will be pub-
lished in its Annals. It is expected that the total num-
ber of stars thus measured by Professor Kapteyn will
be about 300,000, and that they will fill five volumes
of the Annals. Again, when the Canadian Survey was
making a series of determinations of longitude around
the earth, the Observatory at Cambridge was able to
provide a building and all the facilities for the obser-
vations to be made here.

The staff of the Observatory now consists of about
forty persons, most of whom are occupied in investigat-
ing the photographs and in reducing the observations
and studies to form for publication. All the modern
devices of business engineering have been adopted, to
save time and expense.

The University has three establishments for the study
of the fine arts and archeology: the "William Hayes
Fogg Art Museum, the Germanic Museum, and the
Semitic Museum. Of these the Fogg Museum and the
Semitic Museum already have buildings especially
erected for them, and the Germanic Museum has a fund
and plans for a building which will be erected within
a short time.

The William Hayes Fogg Art Museum has good ma-

288 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

terial for the study of Greek and Roman art in the form
both of casts and of original works of art. There are
casts of a number of the important works of classical
sculpture, and a considerable collection of electrotypes
from Greek and Roman coins. The original works con-
sist of a small but important collection of marbles, in-
cluding a fine marble statue of Meleager and an Aphro-
dite, a small collection of Greek vases, fragments of
Arretine molds and specimens of the ware, and a few
terra-cotta figurines. For the mediaeval and Renais-
sance epochs there are some casts of sculpture and a
small collection of early Italian paintings containing
good examples of the various important schools. The
Museum has also a few original drawings by old mas-
ters. For the later period there are a number of draw-
ings and several very fine water-color drawings by J.
M. W. Turner.

The most distinguished possessions of the Fogg Mu-
seum, however, are the prints in the Gray and Randall
collections. The number of prints is now very large,
and there are many which are rare, and many fine im-
pressions. The collection is administered in close coop-
eration with the Department of Prints at the Boston
Museum of Fine Arts, ' and an arrangement has recently
been made by which the curator of that collection will
give each year a course on prints at Harvard. For pur-
poses of study the Fogg Museum has a large collection
of photographs, now well over 40,000, of works of art
of all epochs and countries.

From time to time the Director of the Museum ar-
ranges loan exhibitions of special periods or schools of
art. In this way the Museum is able to show important
works of Oriental art, including paintings, prints, and
sculpture, or exhibitions of a single artist 's work.

THE GERMANIC MUSEUM 289

The close proximity of the Boston Museum of Fine
Arts and the intimate relations which are maintained
with it make it possible to use its collections also for
instruction in the Fine Arts. At this Museum there are
frequent loan exhibitions in which are shown some of
the fine paintings owned by private collectors in Boston.

The Germanic Museum was established in 1902 to il-
lustrate, by means of plaster casts and other kinds of
reproduction, the development of Germanic art and
culture. It is at present temporarily installed in the
Rogers building; but the cornerstone of a large new
building, given by Adolphus Busch of St. Louis, has
been laid and the money is in hand to proceed with
construction, which has already been begun. The plans
have been drawn for a large building, to consist of
three portions, each illustrating a period of German
architecture. It will be of ample dimensions to hold
full-sized casts of gateways and of equestrian statues of
heroic size.

The collections of the Germanic Museum are largely
the fruit of gifts from the German Emperor, who has
taken a great personal interest in the enterprise, from
the King of Saxony, from the Prince Regent of Bavaria,
and from a committee of leading Germans at Berlin.
The Swiss government and the municipal government
of the city of Nuremberg have also made important
gifts.

The casts and reproductions illustrate representative
works of German industry from the fifth to the nine-
teenth century. Among the architectural casts are those
of the Bernward Column and the bronze gates at Hildes-
heim Cathedral, of the eleventh century; the Golden
Gate of Freiburg Cathedral, of the thirteenth century;

290 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

the Rood Screen and twelve portrait statues from the
Naumburg Cathedral; the equestrian statue of the Em-
peror Konrad III, in Bamberg Cathedral, of the thir-
teenth century; the tomb of Emperor Ludwig of Ba-
varia, in the Church of Our Lady at Munich, about
1468; and several large statues of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. Besides these, there are fifty-five
reproductions of representative specimens of German
goldsmith and silversmith's work by the galvanoplastic
process, which reproduces the metal surface.

The Germanic Museum Association is not confined to
Harvard, but includes Germans and persons interested
in Germanic culture all over the country. Its headquar-
ters are at Cambridge and its chief purpose is to main-
tain the Germanic Museum of Harvard University.

The Semitic Museum was founded by Jacob H. Schiff
of New York in 1889, and in 1902 he gave the Museum
building on Divinity Avenue. This building is the seat
of instruction in Semitic languages and history; it has
a library and three lecture-rooms, besides the Museum
proper, which is on the second and third floors of the
building. On the second floor is the Assyrian room, with
a large collection of casts of Assyrian, Babylonian, and
Hittite bas-reliefs and monuments, made from originals
in various museums of Europe. It has also a consider-
able number of original stone and clay tablets with in-
scriptions in the cuneiform script, a number of cylinder
seals, and various other objects in bronze, clay, and stone
from the region of Babylon and Assyria. The Pales-
tinian collection, on the third floor, contains objects
from Palestine and the neighboring countries, Arabia,
Egypt, Phoenicia, Syria, and Persia, all of which had
strong influence on the history and the civilization of

THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS 291

the people of Israel. Among these objects there are in-
scriptions, coins, pottery, bronzes, and a number of
costumes and photographs, and specimens illustrating
the natural history of the region. There are also models
showing the construction of the successive temples at
Jerusalem. Besides these objects for exhibition and
study, the Museum has also a valuable collection of
Arabic and Syriac manuscripts.

For a good many years the University has maintained
a Publication Office, through which it has issued the
many official publications of the University, including
the Annual Catalogue, the Quinquennial Catalogue of
Graduates, the Harvard University Directory, the va-
rious department announcements, and the periodical
publications of a considerable number of the depart-
ments. In addition to this very considerable amount of
periodical publication, the Publication Office has
brought out more than 80 volumes, most of them be-
longing to various series for which some of the depart-
ments have endowment funds.

In 1913 the Publication Office was formally reorgan-
ized as the Harvard University Press, which undertakes
the publishing of works of high scholarly character, be-
sides continuing the work of the Publication Office in
printing and issuing great numbers of strictly Univer-
sity publications. It is hoped that the Press will receive
a sufficient endowment to set up a considerable printing
plant of its own, with fonts of type in various languages,
so that it can gather skilled compositors and undertake
the publishing of learned works which otherwise must
be printed abroad. At present the printing presses are
in the basement of University Hall, and much of the
work of printing is let out.

292

It is difficult to make clear in such a work as this
the great amount of scientific activity and productive-
ness going on at a great university. The professors and
advanced students are constantly carrying on researches
in fields as yet unexplored, and any active university is
surrounded on all sides by a fringe of investigations
pushing out into the unknown. Some general idea may
be had of these activities by making a list of the regular
publications of the departments. It should be remem-
bered that these are very far from exhausting the
scientific output, since a great many of the products of
the laboratories and libraries appear in learned publi-
cations which are not connected with the University.

The regularly established publications by various de-
partments include the following: —

In Philology and Literature there is a Semitic series
which consists of occasional volumes in the field of
Semitic philology, literature, history, and religion. This
is a new series with only one or two numbers. In Indie
Philology there are 13 volumes of the Harvard Oriental
series, dealing with works in Sanskrit and other East
Indian languages. Of the Harvard Studies in Classical
Philology a volume is issued each year, and there are
now 23 volumes. The Studies and Notes in Philology
and Literature are issued under the direction of the
Division of Modern Languages, and of these 11 volumes
have been issued. Of the Harvard Studies in Com-
parative Literature three volumes have already ap-
peared, and of the Harvard Studies in English two.
In history and political science the Harvard His-
torical Studies are supported by the Henry War-
ren Torrey fund, and 19 volumes have appeared in
this series. The Harvard Economic Studies are also
endowed, and of these eight volumes have now appeared.

DEPARTMENT PUBLICATIONS 293

The Division of History and Political Science also
publishes The Quarterly Journal of Economics, of
which 26 volumes have been issued. In chemistry and
physics the results of researches made by both in-
structors and students are published in various scien-
tific journals. In psychology two volumes of the Har-
vard Psychological Studies, published annually by the
Harvard Psychological Laboratory, have appeared. In
natural science the Contributions from the Gray Her-
barium of Harvard University have reached number
38, and there are now sixty-five numbers of Contribu-
tions and nine of Memoirs from the Cryptogamic Lab-
oratory. The Arnold Arboretum issues from time to
time Bulletins of Popular Information about the plants
in its collection. I have spoken elsewhere of the Bradley
Bibliography, and of Professor Sargent's great Silva of
North America. The Museum of Comparative Zoology
has issued 52 volumes of its Bulletins and 75 volumes
of its Memoirs. The Zoological Laboratory, whose pa-
pers are published in part in the Bulletin- of the
Museum, has issued 234 numbers of its Contributions.
The Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and
Ethnology has issued 17 numbers of archaeological and
ethnological papers and 14 numbers of Memoirs, be-
sides some special publications.

From the Astronomical Observatory there have come
already more than 70 large quarto volumes of Annals,
and frequent circulars are issued reporting discoveries
made at the Observatory.

Of the Graduate Schools, the Medical School issues
the Journal of Medical Research, containing accounts
of original investigations in medicine, usually about
two volumes a year; the students of the Law School,
with the help of the Faculty, publish the Harvard Law

294 EQUIPMENT FOR RESEARCH

Review monthly through the academic year; of this
publication twenty-five volumes have now been issued,
and it contains many learned papers on legal subjects by
professors and graduates of the School. The Graduate
School of Architecture issues the Architectural Quar-
terly of Harvard University. This has only recently
been established. From the University Library come
the Bibliographical Contributions, issued from time to
time : 60 numbers have already been printed.

THE GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

The Government of the University. Commencement Day. The
Alumni Association. The Harvard Clubs.

THE government of Harvard University to-day rests
on the charter of 1650, modified very slightly by an
" appendix " added in 1657. About the end of the
seventeenth century there were, as part of the struggles
of the old school of theologians to maintain control,
several efforts to modify the charter; but when happily
these efforts failed to gain the approval of the govern-
ment in England, by a resolve of the General Court of
the province in 1707 the President and Fellows were
directed to exercise the powers granted by the charter of
1650. Under this charter, Harvard University, with
all its departments, its numerous buildings and extensive
area, not only in Cambridge and Boston, but in Jamaica
Plain, Petersham, and New Hampshire, with its staff
of over 700, and its students numbering over 4000, has
all grown easily and naturally out of the little College,
half divinity school, half boarding-school, of the time
when the charter was granted. It seems fairly demon-
strated then that this charter was admirably conceived
for the work which it had to do.

The secret of the success of the charter lies in its
simplicity, elasticity, and freedom from hampering limi-
tations. It was written when New England was still a

295

theocracy, when citizenship and church-membership
were still identical, and the dream of a millennium
based on the hierarchy and the Levitical scheme of the
Old Testament was still radiant. Its framers could
hardly have doubted that under it the government of
the colony would continue to be in the hands of minis-
ters. Nevertheless, even under such conditions, it meant
largeness of view and practical sense to entrust almost
absolutely to the hands of seven men the administration
of an institution for which such high hopes were enter-
tained.

Under the charter, the President and Fellows of
Harvard College are the owners and managers of the
University in trust for the community. In them vests
all property, whether real or personal; they manage
the funds and endowments and their investment; they
distribute the income where it is not specifically assigned
to a fixed purpose ; they decide all questions of building
and the care of the land; they elect, subject to the ap-
proval of the Overseers, their own successors and all
professors and other officers of the University ; through
their control over the income and over appointments,
they direct the policy of the University, and, except so
far as their action is modified by large gifts, they deter-
mine the directions in which the University shall ex-
pand.

Nevertheless, as in all effective government, one man
has the chief directing power. The President alone is
expected to know the affairs of the University in detail,
and he makes recommendations to the Corporation and
discusses with it all questions of policy and action. The
Corporation meets regularly twice a month throughout
the academic year; each meeting occupies the better
part of a morning, and there are, besides, occasional

THE CORPORATION 297

\

extra meetings. There is committee work also, some of
which is onerous. The responsibilities of the Corpora-
tion can be judged from the fact that in the Catalogue
of 1912-13 there are listed 774 teachers of various grades,
all of whom have been appointed by the Corporation,
who give instruction to 4729 students (exclusive of Uni-
versity Extension students) ; that there are 22 different
departments, including the museums and other depart-
ments of research, and that the invested funds of the
University amount to over $26,000,000, and the income to
$2,500,000. It is obvious that even for giving advice on
the daily affairs of so great an organization, the Fellows
must spend much time and give much thought.

From the beginning, the members of the Corporation
have been drawn from the leaders of the community
which surrounds the College. At first the Corporation
consisted mostly of ministers of the leading Puritan
churches of Boston and its neighborhood. John Lever-
ett, however, who joined the Board in 1685, was a lay-
man, the first to be elected. At first, too, the tutors or
instructors in the College were, more or less regularly,
also Fellows. It was not until after 1700 that a distinc-
tion came to be made between resident and non-resident
Fellows, and this distinction for many years was vague.
As late as 1824 three of the resident instructors ad-
dressed a memorial to the Overseers, in which they de-
clared that " by the charter of the University, the Fel-
lows of the University are required to be resident in-
structors." The Overseers, after careful consideration,
decided against them; and since that time there has
been no questioning of the principle that there is no
obligation to elect only Members of the Faculty to the
Corporation. In 1806, when Chief Justice Parsons was
elected to succeed Professor Pearson, the Corporation

298 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

for the first time became composed exclusively of non-
resident Fellows.1

As the property of the College increased, and its
prime function was changed from the training of minis-
ters to the education of youth for all walks of life, the
members of the Corporation tended to become men of
affairs; and in the last hundred years there have been
only five clergymen elected Fellows. In the last half-
century only twice have professors been elected as Fel-
lows,— Professor Joseph Henry Thayer of the Divinity
School and Professor Ephraim Whitman Gurney of the
Department of History, — though Alexander Agassiz, who
was Curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology,
also served twice in the last quarter of the nineteenth
century.

Throughout the history of Harvard the Corporation
has been composed of men of the highest standing in
Boston, men respected not only for judgment and ad-
ministrative capacity, but for their largeness of ideas
and for their liberality of thought. A seat on the Cor-
poration of Harvard College has always been one of
the " blue ribbons " of Boston, and the list of past and
present members is admirably representative of the
men who have made Boston and, through Boston, New
England, a force in the country. The first President
was Henry Dunster; the first Treasurer, Thomas Dan-
forth, and the first Fellows, Samuel Mather, Samuel
Danforth, Jonathan Mitchell, Comfort Starr, and Sam-
uel Eaton. Since that time, the list has been enriched
with such names as Wigglesworth, Bradstreet, Eliot,
Sewall, Brattle, Holyoke, "Winthrop, Bowdoin, Lowell,
Jackson, Story, Bowditch, Crowninshield, Parkman,
Adams, — to take only a few, almost at random.

1 Josiah Quincy, History of Harvard University, vol. ii, p. 338.

THE BOARD OF OVERSEERS 299

Anyone who knows the history of Boston knows the
leadership which has been won and maintained by the in-
tellectual aristocracy which Dr. Holmes happily de-
nominated the ' ' Brahmin caste. ' ' The ranks of this aris-
tocracy are always open to recruits from below, and the
permanence of its family names is no more remarkable
than the number of new family names which take their
places in it from generation to generation. Harvard is a
Boston institution chiefly in the sense that it has had the
counsel and support of the men who have maintained
themselves as leaders in Boston by sound judgment,
enterprise, and unselfish public service.

Side by side with the Corporation and in close though
never very precisely defined relations of supervision
stands the Honorable and Reverend Board of Over-
seers. Historically, the Overseers antedate the Corpora-
tion, for in 1642 the General Court made the follow-
ing order: — =

The Governor and Deputy-Governor for the time
being, and all the magistrates of this jurisdiction, to-
gether with the teaching elders of the six next adjoin-
ing towns, — viz. Cambridge, Watertown, Charlestown,
Boston, Roxbury, and Dorchester, — and the President
of the said College for the time being, shall, from time
to time, have full power and authority to make and
establish all such orders, statutes, and constitutions as
they shall see necessary for the instituting, guiding, and
furthering of the said College and the several members
thereof, from time to time, in piety, morality, and learn-
ing.

After a few years, however, this form of government
was found cumbrous ; accordingly, when the charter was
voted by the General Court, the active authority was
put in the hands of a Corporation of seven, but with the

300 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

proviso that their action ' ' be allowed by the Overseers. ' '
The " appendix " of 1657 to the college charter went a
step further in simplifying the government by providing
that the Corporation could take action " without de-
pendence upon the consent of the Overseers foregoing.
Provided always, that the Corporation shall be respon-
sible unto, and those orders and by-laws shall be alter-
able by, the Overseers, according to their discretion.''
Under this proviso, the practice to-day is that all ap-
pointments for more than a single year are referred to
the Board of Overseers for confirmation, and that all
important changes in policy must meet their approval
before going into effect.

The purpose of retaining the Overseers along with
the Corporation was to make sure that there should al-
ways be somebody to represent the best general public
opinion of the community, to whom the Corporation
could give account of their stewardship. In the earlier
years the Overseers were the ministers of the nearby
churches and the magistrates of the colony or province.
When, in 1780, the constitution was framed for the new
Commonwealth of Massachusetts, special articles se-
cured to the College the perpetual enjoyment of its
vested rights and powers. This section of the consti-
tution provided that the successors to the Governor,
Deputy-Governor, and Magistrates of the Colony of
Massachusetts Bay, should be the Governor, Lieutenant-
Go vernor, Council, and Senate of the Commonwealth.
Thus the close association between the Commonwealth
and the College was maintained.

Gradually the limitation of the personnel of the Board
to clergymen and state officials gave way. In 1810 the
Congregationalist ministers of specified towns and the
State Senate were replaced by fifteen ministers of Con-

THE BOARD OF OVERSEERS 301

gregational churches and fifteen laymen, all inhabitants
of the State, who were to be elected by the Overseers
themselves. The proviso that this act should not go
into effect until accepted by the Corporation and Over-
seers affirmed the principle that the Commonwealth
should not change the constitution of the College with-
out the consent of its Governing Boards. It was not
long, however, before the Senate of the Commonwealth
was restored as part of the Board of Overseers. In
1834 the Legislature passed an act opening the board
to clergymen of all denominations, but this act was
not accepted until 1843. In 1851 another change for-
mally recognized the fact that the state of society in
New England had changed so completely that the
ministers, though still highly respected, were no longer
the dominating representative force in the community
that they had been. Accordingly, in 1851, it was pro-
vided that the Board of Overseers should consist of the
Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, President of the Senate,
Speaker of the House of Representatives, Secretary of
the Board of Education, President and Treasurer of
Harvard College, together with thirty other persons to
be elected by joint ballot of the Senators and Representa-
tives of the Commonwealth. In 1865 a still further
change in the relation of the College to the Common-
wealth was effectuated by providing that the thirty
elected members should be chosen by the graduates of
the College. In 1880, the increasingly national char-
acter of the University was recognized by providing that
persons not inhabitants of the Commonwealth should
be eligible as Overseers. Finally, in 1889, the Com-
monwealth abdicated any direct control over the Uni-
versity by turning over to the Corporation and Over-
seers the determination of what classes of graduates

302 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

should be entitled to vote for Overseers. Under the
authority of this act, which was assented to by the
Overseers in 1902, and by the Corporation in 1903, the
two boards, in 1907, adopted the following vote: " That
the degrees conferred by the Governing Boards of the
University, upon the recommendation of the Faculty
of Arts and. Sciences, upon the graduates of the Law-
rence Scientific School, of the Graduate School of Arts
and Sciences, and of the Graduate School of Applied
Science, and the degree of Bachelor of Science con-
ferred after residence in Harvard College, shall entitle
the recipients thereof to vote for Overseers to the same
extent and under the same restrictions to and under
which recipients of the degree of Bachelor of Arts of
Harvard College may now so vote." This provision
still leaves the graduates of the professional schools,
except the Graduate School of Applied Science, without
the suffrage. Unless inertia is too strong a force, it is
likely that they will be added before long. All through
these changes, it will be noted that the aim has been to
provide a body of men, who, for that special period,
shall best represent the graduates of the College and the
educated public opinion of the community.

For many years the elections for Overseers have been
held on Commencement Day, five Overseers being chosen
each year for a term of six years. The nominations are
made by a committee of the Alumni Association, who spend
much time in selecting, from among the graduates, names
to be put in nomination. They are required to send out to
all graduates a number of names not less than twice or
more than three times the number of the vacancies to be
filled, and with the lists they send a brief statement
of the services of the candidates and of offices they
have held, whether inside or outside the University.

THE BOARD OF OVERSEERS 303

The graduates send in their preliminary ballots by
mail ; and in some years more than five thousand ballots
have been received. From these ballots is made up the
list of candidates to be voted on at Commencement, con-
sisting of double the number of vacancies, taken from
the top of the list and arranged in the order of the
number of votes received on the preliminary ballot. The
election is conducted on the " Australian Ballot "
system.

Membership in the " Honorable and Reverend Board
of Overseers " is always an honor, for it is a mark of
the confidence of graduates in the character and judg-
ment of the men who are elected. Through them the
Corporation is kept informed of the general status of
opinion concerning the College among graduates
throughout the country. Of recent years there have
always been Overseers from places distant from Bos-
ton. In 1911-12 there were Overseers from Kentucky,
Missouri, New York, Minnesota, New Jersey, Oregon,
Illinois, and Washington, D. C. ; and in that year barely
a majority of the Board lived in Boston or its neighbor-
hood. The Overseers from a distance are, many of
them, as assiduous in attendance at the monthly meet-
ings as are the members from Boston. More and more
it is felt that the Overseers have unusual opportunities
to be of service to the University ; and though they can-
not, in their comparatively few meetings, come to any
intimate acquaintance with the University in detail,
they represent and concentrate a strong interest of
graduates in the maintenance of its prosperity and in
strengthening its power of service to the country.

Their function is somewhat extended by the com-
mittees which they appoint to visit the various depart-
ments and activities of the University. In 1912 there

304 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

were forty-seven of these committees. They are made
up partly of Overseers, partly of graduates, partly
of friends of the University who are not graduates.
The seriousness with which they regard their functions
varies greatly. Under an inactive chairman the serv-
ice of the committee may be wholly perfunctory.
Where the chairman is active, the committee is of great
service to the officers of the University by giving them
counsel, by helping to raise money for the smaller needs
which always press on the teaching force, and by the
moral encouragement of their friendship.

In the main, the Overseers have acted in the past
rather as a governing wheel than as an accelerator of
action. On four occasions, however, they have forced
on the Corporation important changes of policy in the
direction of liberty and constructive reform. It was
they, who, in 1766, compelled the change by which the
instruction in the College was made departmental, so that
each tutor should teach a subject instead of carrying one
class all through the four years. In the early nineteenth
century the Board again planted the seeds of the elective
system, which, though the planting was too early for
immediate growth, still kept some vitality until the
coming of President Eliot. In 1826 they required the
President of the University and the Treasurer to make
annual written reports; and out of this vote has grown
the series of reports which since President Eliot's ap-
pointment have become notable features in the general
educational progress of the country. In general, how-
ever, their action has usually slowed down the advance
of the University. It was not until 1886, for example,
that they accepted the recommendation which the Col-
lege Faculty had begun to make as early as 1873, that
attendance at morning prayers should be voluntary.

THE GOVERNING BOARDS 305

Nevertheless, such a body, in representing public opin-
ion, even though it occasionally resists an advance, is
more often invaluable by making necessary further
study of a proposed change.

There are still a few remnants of formal procedure
in the constitution. For example, the Corporation, be-
fore proceeding to an election to fill a vacancy in its
own number, must formally ask the consent of the Over-
seers to proceed to the election; and then, having this
consent, and having made the election, their action
must be confirmed by the Overseers. The Faculty have
no communication directly with the Overseers: if they
wish to transmit a vote to the Faculty, they must send
it through the Corporation; and in like manner the
Faculty returns its answer through the same channel.

The faculties and officers of the various departments
come into relation with the Governing Boards chiefly
through the President. Down to Mr. Eliot's time presi-
dents were not expected to take too much interest in
the professional schools. A story is told to the effect
that in the first years of his administration, when he
was urging reforms in medical education, one of the
older members of the Medical Faculty broke out with
the question why there were so many changes going
on in the Medical School when things had run so com-
fortably for so many years; and that President Eliot
quietly answered, " The reason is that there is a new
President." This independence of the professional
schools is now a thing of the past, and the President
and the other members of the Corporation are expected
to take almost as active an interest in them as in Har-
vard College. Appointments of the younger men are
naturally made only after consultation with the older
men who know them; but that is equally true of ap-

306 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

pointments in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. The
last forty years have greatly strengthened the organiza-
tion of the University into a single unit.

In the older times Commencement Day was an occa-
sion of drink and of riot. For many years it was a
public holiday: the Governor, escorted by his body-
guard, came in state from Boston and all Boston and the
surrounding region trooped to Cambridge, where the
Common adjacent to the College was turned into a
country fair. In the earlier times liquor was sold with-
out restriction. As early as 1693 there were symptoms
that Commencement was becoming a period of disturb-
ing festivity. In that year the Corporation passed the
following vote: —

Having been informed that the custom taken up in
the College, not used in any other Universities, for the
Commencers to have plumb-cake, is dishonorable to the
College, not grateful to wise men, and chargeable to the
parents of the commencers, [the Corporation] do there-
fore put an end to that custom, and do hereby order
that no commencer, or other scholar, shall have any
such cakes in their studies or chambers ; and that if any
scholar shall offend therein, the cakes shall be taken
from him, and he shall moreover pay to the College 20
shillings for each such offence.

In 1722 another ordinance for " reforming the ex-
travagances of Commencements " provided that " no
preparation nor provision of either Plumb Cake, or
Roasted, Boyled or Baked Meates or Pyes of any kind
shal be made by any Commencer, ' ' and prohibited them
from having in their chambers " Distilled Lyquours "
or " any composition made therewith."

In 1728 the Corporation voted to request the Lieu-

COMMENCEMENT DAY 307

tenant- Governor to direct the Sheriff of Middlesex to
prohibit the setting up of booths and tents on Com-
mencement Day. In 1733, the Corporation and three
Justices of the Peace in Cambridge met to concert
measures to keep order at Commencement, and under
their warrant to establish " a constable with six men,
who, by watching and walking towards evening on these
days, and also the night following, and in and about
the entry to the College Hall at dinner-time, should pre-
vent disorders." Such provisions seem to show that
life in a Puritan colony was not of necessity all prayer
and sermon for everybody.

In 1761 the Corporation voted to allow punch, on the
ground that " as it is now usually made, it is no in-
toxicating liquor." In 1749 the feeling about the dis-
orders on Commencement Day became so strong, that
three gentlemen who had sons in the graduating class
offered to give the College one thousand pounds pro-
vided that " a trial was made of Commencement this
year in a more private manner."

After the Revolution the disorders increased still
more, and Professor A. P. Peabody (A.B. 1826) de-
scribes Commencement in his day as follows: —

The entire Common, then an unenclosed dust-plain,
was completely covered on Commencement Day and the
night preceding and following it, with drinking-stands,
dancing booths, mountebank shows, and gambling-tables ;
and I have never heard such a horrid din, tumult, and
jargon of oath, shout, scream, fiddle, quarrelling, and
drunkenness as on those two nights. By such summary
methods as but few other men could have employed,
Mr. Quincy, at the outset of his presidency (1829),
swept the Common clear ; and during his entire adminis-
tration the public days of the College were kept free
from rowdyism.

308 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

It was not until 1836, however, that Dr. John Pierce,
who attended every Commencement but one from 1784
to 1848, entered in his record: "Be it noted that this
is the first Commencement I ever attended in Cambridge
in which I saw not a single person drunk in the hall
or out of -it. There were the fewest present I ever
remember, doubtless on account of the bis-centennial
celebration to be observed next week."

The improvement made by President Quincy in clear-
ing up the Common was carried to the College itself. In
1846, when, even at the Commencement dinner, only
wine and lemonade were served, the various classes held
reunions in rooms in the Yard at which they put before
themselves and their guests much strong drink. It was
not until 1893 that the Corporation finally voted that,
" Hereafter no punches nor distilled liquors shall be
allowed in any college rooms on Class Day or Com-
mencement Day." With this vote one of the ancient
customs of the fathers fell before the more decorous
ideas of their descendants.

Now Commencement Day is an imposing if no longer
hilarious academic festivity. In the morning the Uni-
versity is the host and the degrees are conferred in
Sanders Theatre. The candidates for the degrees from
the College and the various professional schools, all in
cap and gown, assemble at different points in the Yard,
under the direction of the University Marshal and his
aides. The President and Fellows receive the Governor
and his staff, who come out from Boston escorted by
the Lancers, a body of citizen cavalry the brilliancy of
whose uniform atones for a certain inexperience in
horsemanship. Then the procession is formed, with the
candidates for the degrees in the lead, for the march to
Sanders Theatre. As the head of the line reaches

THE PRESIDENT'S CHAIR

COMMENCEMENT DAf 309

Memorial Hall, of which Sanders Theatre is a part, the
younger men divide and stand on each side of the path,
to allow the President and Fellows and the Governor
and invited guests to pass through their line. Then all
follow in.

The theater is small; its total capacity with the plat-
form crowded is less than 1500. Since the number of
degrees now conferred each year is about a thousand,
and the members of the teaching staff who are entitled
to seats on the platform is over 700, it will be seen that
there is little space for audience. As a matter of fact,
of the graduating class in the College, only one in every
three or four gets a single seat to give to a member
of his family. The meeting is called to order accord-
ing to ancient custom by the Sheriff of Middlesex
County, who pounds on the floor with the scabbard of
his sword and utters the " Oyez, Oyez, Oyez," — the
ancient form for calling a court to order. Then, after
the prayer, the University Marshal calls on four or
five of the candidate for degrees for their " parts." Of
these the only relic of the ancient times is the Latin
Salutatory; the other parts are all essays on matters
usually of very contemporaneous interest. Then there
is an intermission, during which the band in the gallery
performs for the entertainment of the audience.

In the meantime the President has been sitting with
the rest of the Corporation behind the rail at the rear
of the platform. Before the rail stands the ancient
chair of the President. This chair, a curious old struc-
ture with a three-cornered seat and intricately turned
posts and back, was given to the College during the
presidency of Holyoke, which lasted from 1737 to 1769.
The intermission over, the President takes his seat in
this chair for the conferring of degrees, including

310 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

honorary degrees, and when the latter are reached, the
interest of the audience is keen to see who will be hon-
ored and to hear the terms in which their claims to dis-
tinction will be summed up. As the President names
each of them, the recipient rises; then the President
rises and bows to him, and reads the short " epitaph "
in which he has summed up his title to the distinction.
Then the President bows again and sits down, and the
audience applauds the newly adopted alumnus. After
the conferring of the honorary degrees and a brief
prayer, the meeting is dissolved and the term of the
University for the year is brought to a close.

The ceremonies have still the simplicity and dignity
of the Puritan days. Until within a generation there
were no rules and no customs about academic costume,
and the Faculty came to Commencement in what garb
they chose. The fashionable wear was the black silk
gown still worn by all ministers except the Episcopalians,
and for an important occasion most of the ministers'
gowns in Boston and the neighborhood were under
requisition for Commencement. Later, as the University
become more complex, it was necessary to have some
slight increase in form, and now the Faculty are re-
quested, though they are not required, to wear academic
gowns. A few years ago, the Corporation, on the recom-
mendation of the Faculties, adopted a full set of gowns
and hoods for the use of officers and graduates of the
University. Harvard men are still as a rule shy about
appearing in bright colors, but the University Marshal
and his aides are expected to appear in their hoods and
gowns, and there is always a certain sprinkling of hoods
in various brilliant colors, representing degrees granted
either for study or honoris causa at other universities.

In the afternoon the Alumni Association becomes the

COMMENCEMENT DAY 311

host and entertains the President and Fellows of the
University and the distinguished guests of the morning.
The chief marshal of the day, who is always nominated
by the class which is celebrating the twenty -fifth anni-
versary of its graduation, has appointed a staff of aides
and marshals. He gives a luncheon to the guests of the
Association and his own friends, and at the same time
the various classes supply informal refreshments in the
rooms about the Yard, in which they hold their reunions,
and most of the clubs keep open house for their
members. At two o'clock the band begins to play in the
Yard and the graduates assemble. The chief marshal
of the day mounts a chair at the corner of Massachu-
setts Hall, and calls off the order of the procession, be-
ginning with the President and Fellows, the Overseers
and the invited guests of the University. Then he calls
for the classes in order, beginning with the oldest.
Usually there is no response until he has called ten or
fifteen classes. Then some brave old gentleman steps
out of the throng and takes his place at the head of the
line amid the applause of his younger fellow graduates.
Then, with occasional gaps, the long line of classes falls
gradually into line. Usually there are at least 60 classes
represented in the procession. When they are all
formed, the band at the head strikes up a lively march
and the procession winds around the Yard. As they
pass the steps of University Hall, each class is cheered
by a cluster of undergraduates and graduates which
always assembles there. The procession used to be formed
before a regular luncheon, which was served in Me-
morial Hall. When the numbers of those who wished
to attend increased, it was found necessary to give up
the luncheon, in order that the space occupied by the
tables might be saved for chairs. In 1910 even this

312 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

expedient was found insufficient, and the experiment
was tried of holding the meeting in the open air in the
quadrangle behind Sever Hall. Here a long platform
is built against the Hall, on which are seated the Presi-
dent of the Alumni Association and the guests of the
day; and the graduates have chairs on the grass in
front and on a wooden stand built up opposite the Hall.
A canvas awning is stretched overhead to keep off the
sun.

At this meeting it has been a long-standing custom
that the President of the University shall make a brief
report to the graduates on the year which is just closing,
and in particular that he shall give an account of the
gifts received during the year. There is always keen
interest in this portion of his address. He has also
the chance to speak to the graduates in a less formal
and more intimate way than in his annual report; this
address is, as it were, a talk within the family.

After the President of the University the President
of the Alumni calls on the Governor of the Common-
wealth, who, by custom going back to the foundation
of the College, always represents the Commonwealth at
Commencement. After the Governor a few of the other
distinguished guests are called on, and the meeting
breaks up by four o'clock.

One of the manifestations of college and university
spirit in America which is especially striking to for-
eigners is the enthusiastic loyalty of graduates, mani-
fested in the crowded reunions of the classes at academic
festivals and in the generosity with which they give
time and money for the advance of their own institu-
tions. In this respect Harvard is no exception. The
gatherings on Commencement Day have long been

THE ALUMNI ASSOCIATION 313

notable; and of late years, as the University has grown
in size, the graduates have formed more organizations
which combine social and festive ends with serious sup-
port of the University. At the same time, the steadily
increasing flow of gifts to the University proves that
the enthusiasm has a solid basis.

Of the associations of graduates, the most inclusive
is the Harvard Alumni Association which was formed
August 26, 1840. The report on which the Association
organized was signed by William Minot (A.B. 1802),
Henry Ware, Jr. (A.B. 1812), Charles G. Loring (A.B.
1812), Charles P. Curtis (A.B. 1811), and Samuel
Greele (A.B. 1802), and it is marked by all the conscious
dignity of eloquence which was the fashion of the day.
It reads as follows: —

After much deliberation, and conference with zealous
and conspicuous friends of the College, the committee
has been convinced that such an Association is desir-
able, alike for the happy influence it may exercise in
the promotion of good-fellowship and personal regard
among the sons of our venerated Alma Mater; and the
beneficial effect that may be anticipated from a period-
ical return to her sacred groves, renewing that interest
in her welfare and glory, which separation and absence
have hitherto caused too long, and lamentably, to slum-
ber. They believe too, that the causes of Christian
morals, and intelligent patriotism, as well as that of
Good Letters, might be essentially advanced by public
addresses to be pronounced by the distinguished states-
men and scholars whose names crowd her catalogue, and
by the extemporaneous effusions at the festive board,
and a zeal thus created in the great objects, and peculiar
purposes of American scholarship, the want of which
is apparent to every lover of learning and of his country.

Some of these objects are indeed partially attained
by the Society of the Phi Beta Kappa. But it is well
known, that the exclusive character of that Institution,

314 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

shutting out a large majority of the Alumni from its
privileges and founded on distinctions, which, however
just in their origin, cannot be rationally considered to
entitle its members to an invidious preeminence through
life, exerts an unhappy and extensive influence in alien-
ating numbers of the Alumni from attending at the
annual festival of the College, who would gladly throng
her halls, if they could come to meet their classmates
and friends, upon equal terms, in communion upon the
topics of learning and patriotism, alike important and
dear to all.

The first officers of the Alumni Association were:
President, John Quincy Adams (A.B. 1787), ex-Presi-
dent of the United States; Vice-Presidents : Joseph
Story (A.B. 1798), Justice of the Supreme Court of the
United States; Edward Everett (A.B. 1811), Minister
to England, Secretary of State, and Governor of Massa-
chusetts; Directors: John Pickering (A.B. 1796),
President of the American Academy, Horace Binney
(A.B. 1797), member of the American Philosophical
Society and of the American Academy, and Member^
of Congress, Lemuel Shaw (A.B. 1800), Chief Justice
of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, Leverett Sal-
tonstall (A.B. 1802), Overseer and Member of Con-
gress, James G. King (A.B. 1810), Member of Con-
gress, Nathaniel L. Frothingham (A.B. 1811), Overseer,
and Fellow of the American Academy, Peleg Sprague
(A.B. 1812), Judge of the United States District Court,
Member of Congress, and United States Senator. The
Secretary was Benjamin R. Curtis (A.B. 1829), after-
wards Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

The distinction of this first list of officers has been
maintained through the history of the Association, and
its presidency has been perhaps the highest mark of
approval which the alumni as a body confer. Among

THE ALUMNI ASSOCIATION 315

the presidents since Mr. Adams have been: Edward
Everett, Robert C. Winthrop (A.B. 1828), Speaker of
the United States House of Representatives, Dr. Oliver
Wendell Holmes (A.B. 1829), E. Rockwood Hoar (A.B.
1835), Member of Congress, Attorney-General of the
United States, Justice of the Supreme Court of Massa-
chusetts, James Russell Lowell (A.B. 1838), James C.
Carter (A.B. 1850), so long one of the leaders of the
New York Bar, George F. Hoar (A.B. 1846), United
Sates Senator from Massachusetts, Phillips Brooks (A.B.
1855), Bishop of Massachusetts, Joseph Hodges Choate
(A.B. 1852), Charles Eliot Norton (A.B. 1846), Robert
Todd Lincoln (A.B. 1864), William Lawrence (A.B.
1871), Bishop of Massachusetts, and Charles J. Bona-
parte (A.B. 1871).

For many years the activities of the Alumni Associa-
tion were confined chiefly to the management of the
luncheon and the meeting on the afternoon of Com-
mencement Day; but of recent years, with the desire
of graduates to take a more active share in aiding the
University and in extending its influence, it has en-
larged its foundations, and now maintains a continuous
existence, with an active general secretary. It is now
the central organ for communicating information about
the University to graduates in general, and for making
their efforts in behalf of it more effective.

In 1907 the Association opened an office in Boston, in
the same building with the office of the President and
Fellows. Here the general secretary and his assistant
secretary carry on a constantly enlarging correspond-
ence about the University and its affairs, and do what
they can to make it a convenient point of call for
graduates. The Association also maintains here an
Appointment Office, which puts younger graduates in

316 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

correspondence with business men, and helps them to
get started. Already this work has become of impor-
tance, and the number of men for whom places are
found is large.

The Alumni Association also publishes a weekly or-
gan, the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, for the communica-
tion of news to graduates. It has at present 16 to
20 pages of news and articles of general interest to
graduates, with a good many illustrations. It publishes
special articles dealing with the activities of the various
departments of the University, historical notices of
buildings or of ancient customs, news from the Harvard
Clubs throughout the country, athletic news, and notes
about the doings of the Alumni. Its circulation is at
present about 8000.

Another publication, which is independent of the
Alumni Association but which in twenty successful
years has done credit to the University, is the Harvard
Graduates' Magazine, founded in 1892. It is published
quarterly and contains authoritative records of all de-
partments of the University and of the Alumni, as well
as articles of general interest to educators. It has al-
ways an account of the activities of both faculties
and undergraduates, with careful summaries of athletic
events, news from the various classes, and book reviews.
The object of the editor has been to make a permanent
record of all matters of interest to Harvard men; and
the recent publication of a complete index at the end
of the 20th year of publication has shown how success-
ful he has been in this effort. The founder and editor
of the Graduates' Magazine is William R. Thayer (A.B.
1881). The magazine is excellently printed and has an
admirably designed cover. Its seal, with the mallet and
pen crossed below the three books and the Veritas of

THE HARVARD CLUBS 317

Harvard, has had the good fortune to be adopted for the
John Harvard window in St. Saviour's Church, South-
wark.

The Harvard Clubs throughout the country are active,
numerous, and rapidly increasing. In 1912 there were
86 of them, scattered over America and as far afield
as Paris, Berlin, and Japan. These clubs have at least
an annual meeting and dinner, and some of them meet
more frequently. Where it is possible they have as
guest some officer of the Alumni Association who brings
them news and greetings from the University. Forty of
the clubs maintain one or more scholarships at the Uni-
versity for the benefit of students from their own
neighborhood. In 1912 there were 50 such scholar-
ships and the total amount of their stipends was $10,750
a year. Other clubs offer cups or prizes for some form
of athletics, or perhaps for debating, in the schools in
their neighborhood. There is a distinct tendency on the
part of such clubs, representing not only Harvard but
other universities, to make themselves an active force
in the life of their communities and to bring the united
influence of college men to bear on raising the standards
of public and private life.

Of all the Harvard clubs, the largest and most pros-
perous has been that of New York City. Until recently
this has been the only one which has had its own build-
ing, but this distinction is now shared by the Harvard
Club of Boston. The New York Club was founded in
1865, and until 1890 its activities consisted chiefly of the
dinners and meetings. In 1890 it boiight land on 44th
Street and built a house. Since then the building has
been enlarged three times. It now reaches through to
45th Street, and has a wide frontage on the two streets.

318 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

It has, besides comfortable lounging-rooms, reading-
rooms, and a library well furnished with books by Har-
vard men, a considerable number of bedrooms for the
use of non-resident members. Its chief distinction is
the great Harvard Hall, which occupies three stories on
the 45th Street front. It is 100 feet long, 38 feet wide,
and about 40 feet high.

The Club has been highly successful. It was founded
with the idea of providing a homelike place of meeting
for the large numbers of young Harvard men who settle
in New York away from their families. The older men
believed that a comfortable club-house with low dues
would do much to keep such young men from going
wrong out of sheer loneliness. The success of the Club
was immediate, and the example has been followed by
the graduates of Yale and Princeton ; and there are also
clubs in which the graduates of several colleges have
united, and two or three clubs for the graduates of
Greek-Letter societies, which bring together men from
many colleges.

Out of the Harvard clubs in the "West has grown au
association known as the Associated Harvard Clubs,
which since 1898 has held annual meetings in different
cities. Though it is in spirit and membership a West-
ern association, it includes Harvard clubs from the East
as well, and every few years a meeting is held in the
East. At these meetings there is serious discussion of
the interests of the University and of the ways in which
the constituent clubs can advance those interests. Then,
after the business meeting, there is an afternoon or a
day given to some excursion and a dinner in the evening,
all of which help the men to more general acquaintance
with each other. This association is one of the strong
forces for keeping Harvard a national institution, and

ALUMNI OF PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS 319

for impressing on the country at large that the whole
nation has a proprietary interest in its oldest university.

Besides the Alumni Association of Harvard College
there are also thriving associations of graduates of the
Law School, of the Medical School, of the Divinity
School, and of Harvard Engineers. Of these the Law
School Association now issues a quinquennial catalogue
of the graduates of the School, with lists of addresses;
and every three years it has a meeting at which orations
are made and reports are presented on the work of the
School. The Medical School Association also meets
every three years, for two or three days, to hear papers
on subjects connected with the profession ; and the meet-
ing closes with a dinner at which addresses are made
by officers of the School and distinguished visitors.
The Association of Harvard Engineers, which was
organized in 1907, had in 1912 a membership of
436. It holds annual meetings at which addresses are
made in the interests of the Association. Besides this
general society there is a Harvard Engineering Society of
New York, which has regular meetings, through the win-
ter months, partly to hear professional papers, partly
social. One of its activities is the keeping track of the
younger graduates in the profession and helping them
to make their way.

The class organizations are an old tradition at Har-
vard. The class secretary is charged with the duty of
keeping the addresses of his classmates and enabling
them to communicate with each other. The class com-
mittees administer the class funds, which were sub-
scribed after graduation and are used to defray the
expenses of the triennial or quinquennial class gather-
ings. The secretary also issues a report containing
statistics and information about the doings of the mem-

320 GOVERNMENT AND THE GRADUATES

bers of the class after graduation. These reports are
usually issued the third, sixth, and tenth years after
graduation, and then every fifth year. The report of
the twenty -fifth year is usually more comprehensive ; of
recent years it has been the custom to print in that re-
port pictures of each member of the class at graduation,
and twenty-five years afterwards, thus furnishing a most
interesting mine of material for the study of physiog-
nomy.

Of recent years the reunions of classes three, six, ten,
fifteen, and twenty -five years after graduation have drawn
together largely increased numbers of men. Under the
present arrangement of Commencement Week those
classes which have reunions generally gather on Mon-
day and more or less keep together until the boat race
on Friday. The preparations are now heralded by bur-
lesque publications and by emissaries of the treasurer
of the class committee, which needs considerable money
to spend on the celebrations. The classes gather for the
Yale baseball game in Cambridge and for the march
to the Stadium on Class Day, with banners and with
bands. Between times, they have excursions in the har-
bor or at various country clubs or other places where
there is a chance for games and out-door hilarity. The
result of these reunions is that very soon any remnants
of lines in the class formed during the college course will
break down and men come to be on terms of the best of
good-fellowship with classmates whom they did not know
by sight in college. All these reunions are a force for
solidarity and for breaking down the old reserve which
was once thought the chief characteristic of Harvard
men.

INDEX

A.B., degree of, reduction of
required term of residence
for, 52, 53, 99; require-
ments for, 99, 109; dis-
tinction between, and S.B.,
109

A.M., degree of, change in
method of conferring, 66,
178, 179

Abbe1, Cleveland, 211

Adams, Charles F., 164

Adams, John Q., 29, 164, 238,
281

Administrative Board, 115, 116,
117

Admission, early requirements
for, 16; standard raised un-
der Eliot, 53 ff.; revised re-
quirements for, 54-57; al-
ternative plans of, 127 ff.
And see Examinations.

Admonitions, 22

Advanced standing, admission
to, 125, 126

" Advisers " to Freshmen, 100

Advocate, the, 148

Agassiz, Alexander, 142, 210,
257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 298

Agassiz, Mrs. Elizabeth C., 224

Agassiz, Louis, creator of the
University Museum, 254 ff. ;
36, 39, 42, 43, 65, 82, 105,
186, 228, 276, 277

Age of entrance, 129, 130

Almanacs, early, prepared by
graduate students, 280

Alpha Delta Phi, 164

Alumni Association, history of,
313-316; some past officers
of, 314, 315; presidency of, a

high distinction, 314; activ-
ities of, greatly enlarged,
315, 316; 310, 311, 312

Ames, Fisher, 28

Ames, James Barr, 76

Ames, John S., 217

Ames, Winthrop, 150

Anatomical Society, 182

Andover, college property re-
moved to, 24

Andover Theological Seminary,
alliance of, with Divinity
School, 82, 208

Anthropological Society, 151

Anthropology, Dep't. of, 280

Appleton, Nathaniel, 14

Appleton Chapel, 39

Applied Science, Graduate
Schools of. See Graduate
Schools, etc.

Appointment Office, 315, 316

Architecture, School of, 214,
216, 217

Arequipa ( Peru ) , astronom-
ical station at, 285

Arnold, James, 90

Arnold Arboretum, described,
237-276; 90, 249, 268, 269,
275

Arts and Sciences, Faculty of.
See Faculty.

Arts and Sciences, Graduate
School of. See Graduate
School.

Assistant Dean, 117, 118, 120

Associated Harvard Clubs, 318,
319

Astronomy, study of, at Har-
vard, 280. And see Ob-
servatory.

Athletes, and probation, 122,
123

321

322

INDEX

Athletic Committee, 59, 134,
135, 145, 146

Athletics, success and failure
in, 132, 133; present statua
of, 135 ff. ; financial aspects
of, 146, 147; as an antidote
to loneliness, 168, 169. And
see the several sports.

Athletics, Graduate Treasurer
for, 146, 147, 148

Attendance at lectures, etc.,
record of, 117

Attendance at prayers. See
Prayers.

Attwood, F. G., 150, 151

Austin, Edward, 202

Austin Hall, 202

Bancroft, George, 35, 66
Banks, Nathaniel P., 257
Bartlett, John, 242
Baseball, 142, 143
Beecher, Henry Ward, 164
Belcher, Andrew, 10
Bellingham, Richard, 1
Bernard, Sir Francis, 20, 23,

237
Bigelow, Henry J., 186, 188,

264

Bigelow, Jacob, 187
Bigelow, William S., 264
Biology, Applied, School of,

214, 218 ff.

Blaschka, Leopold, 270
Blaschka, Rudolph, 270
" Bloody Monday," 58
Bond, George P., 282
Bond, William C., 281, 282
Boott (Francis) Prize, 114
Boston, close connection of

Harvard College with, 187,

299

Boston College, 230
Boston Medical Library, 249
Boston Medical Society, 184
Boston Museum, 278
Boston Museum of Fine Arts,

230, 288, 289
Boston University, 230

Botanic Garden, 30, 267, 269,

270

Botanical Museum, 270-272
Botany, study of, at Harvard,

266

Bowditch, Henry I., 188
Bowditch, Henry P., 188, 190
Bowditch, Nathaniel, 30, 281
Bowdoin, James, 28, 113
Bowdoin Prizes, 113, 114
Bowie, Richard A., library of,

243

Boyden, Uriah A., 285
Boylston, Ward N., 113
Boylston Chemical Club, 151
Boylston Hall, 235
Boylston Prizes, 113, 114
" Brahmin caste," the, 299
Brandegee, Mrs. E. D., 243
Brattle, Thomas, 11
Brattle, William, 11
Brattle Square Church, 11
Briggs, Le Baron R., 124, 164
Brigham (Peter Bent) Hos-
pital, 193
Brigham (Robert) Hospital,

195

Brooks, Phillips, 148, 155
Bruce, Catherine W., 285
Bryce, James (Viscount),

quoted, 45, 164
Burgoyne, Gen. John, 25
Burr, Francis H., 160
Buseh, Adolphus, 289
Business Administration, Grad-
uate School of. See Gradu-
ate School.
Bussey, Benjamin, 89, 90, 209,

218

Bussey Institution, history of,
218-220; 49, 89, 90, 91, 209,
214

Cambridge, absence from, 62,

63

Cannon, Miss, 284
Carlyle, Thomas, his gift to the

Library, 240, 241, 252
Carnegie Foundation, 96

INDEX

323

" Case-system," the, in the
Law School, 75, 76, 201, 202,
203; in the Medical School,
196, 197

Cercle Franfais, 151

Channing, William Ellery, 30

Chapel services, 64

Chaplin, Winfield S., 59, 87

Charter of 1650, still in force,

6, 295; suspended in 1692,
10; revived, 12; secret of its
success, 295, 296

Charter of 1692, 10, 11
Chauncy, Charles, President,

7, 8, 9

Chauncy, Charles (II), 120

Child, Francis J., 65, 224, 239,
245, 246

Child Memorial Library, 246

Christian Science Society, 157

Cincinnati, first outside ex-
aminations at, 55

Circolo Italiano, 151

Class Day, celebration of, 171-
174

Class Day officers, election of,
171

Class feeling, 133, 134

Class officers, 132, 133

Class organizations, 171, 319,
320

Class reports, 171

Class reunions, 320

Class Secretary, 171, 319, 320

Classical Club, 181

Clubs. See Literary, Musical,
Social Clubs.

Coaching, 137, 140, 141

College Bible, the, 121

College Yard, drift of students
away from, 166, 167; how
counteracted, 167; on Class
Day, 172, 173

Collegian, the, 148

Colman, Benjamin, 14, 15

Commencement, the first
(1640), 4; historical aspects
of, 306 ff.; in recent days,
308-312, 320

Commencement week, rear-
rangement of, 171, 172

Committee of Ten, 56

Comparative Zoology, Museum
of. See Museum.

Conant Hall, 165, 181.

Concord, College removed to,
24.

Cooke, Josiah P., 46, 84, 228,
263, 264

Coolidge, Archibald C., his
gifts to the Library, 241,
242

Coolidge, Charles A., 150

Cornell University, 141, 144

Corporal punishment, 9, 20, 21,
118, 119

Corporation, the, established,
6; duties of, 6, 296, 297;
upholds independence of the
College, 13; disputes con-
cerning membership in, 14,
32, 297, 298, 299; and
tutors' tenure, 17; and the
finances, 28; favors Uni-
tarian movement, 29

Cotton, John, 1

Crafts, James M., 210

Crimson, the, 149, 150

Cryptogamic Herbarium, 272

Cuban teachers at Harvard,
229

Curtis, Charles P., 313

Curtis, G. C., 164, 260, 266

Curtis, M. A., 272

Cutler, Timothy, 15

D

A. K. E.( 161, 164
Dane, Nathan, 199
Dane Hall, 35
Danforth, Samuel, 298
Danforth, Thomas, 298
Dante Society Prize, 114
Dartmouth College, 143
Davis, William M., 211, 266
Dean of Harvard College, office

created, 51; 115, 116, 117,

120, 121, 123, 124
Debating, 153, 154
Degrees, conferring of, 309, 310
Degrees with distinction, 111

324

INDEX

Delta Kappa Upsilon, 164
Delta Sigma Rho, 153
Delta Upsilon, 162
Demerits, system of, 120
Dental School, in 1869, 49; 74,

192, 193

Derby, Mrs. Sarah, 27
"Deturs," 112, 113
Deutscher Verein, 151
Dexter, Aaron, 184
Dicey, A. V., 205
Digby, Sir Kenelm, 235
Discipline, in early times, 9,
10; changes in, 20, 21, 27,
33, 61, 62; history of, 118
ff.

Dismission, 121
Disorder, gradual decrease of,

58, 59

Divinity Hall, 34
Divinity School, established,
31, 32; in 1869, 47; changes
in, under Eliot, 79 ff.; and
the Andover Seminary, 82;
history of, 205 ff.
Divinity School Library, 248
Dormitories, college, 165, 166
Dormitories, Freshman, 167
Dormitories, private, 166, 167
Downing, Sir George, 4
Draper, Mrs. Henry, 286
Drew, John, 242
Dudley, Thomas, 1
Dunbar, Charles F., 61, 62
Dunn, George, 248
Dunster, Henry, first Presi-
dent, 3, 4, 5; indicted for
heresy, resigns, 6, 7; 205,
235, 298

E

Eaton, Daniel C., 210

Eaton, Nathaniel, 3

Eaton, Samuel, 298

Ebeling, Prof., library of, 238,
239

Edwards, Jonathan, 17

Elective system, inauguration
of, 33; under Sparks, and
Walker, 37, 38, 39; under
Hill, 40 ff. ; greatly expanded

under Eliot, 5 Iff.; from
1887-1910, 98, 99; since 1910,
99, 100; possible abuse of,
102, 103

Eliot, Charles William, Presi-
dent, Harvard of to-day prac-
tically the creation of his
administration, 45 ; expan-
sion of elective system un-
der, 5 Iff.; raising of stand-
ard of admission require-
ments, 54 ff. ; chairman of
Committee of Ten, 56; 17,
34, 38, 59, 60, 64, 67, 69,
74, 77, 79, 80, 81, 87, 89,
92, 96, 126, 142, 164, 166,
193, 200, 201, 207, 229, 304,
305. And see Corporation,
Dental School, Divinity
School, Law School, Medical
School, etc.
Eliot, Samuel, 256
Eliot, Samuel A., 239
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 164
Emerson Hall, 246
Employment Office, 169, 170
Engineering Camp, 215, 216
Engineering, School of, 214,

215

Engineers, Association of, 319
Episcopalianism, growth of, 15
Erskine, John, 238
Erving, William, 27
Eustis, Henry L., 36, 83
Everett, Edward, President, 35,

36, 37, 148, 164
Examinations, for admission,
when first held away from
Cambridge, 55, 125 ff.
Examinations, final, 110
Examinations, hour, 110
Examinations, mid-year, 59, 110
Expulsion, 122

F

Faculty of Arts and Sciences,
created, 68, 92 ff. ; number of
members of, 93; promotion
in, 95; divisions and depart-
ments of, 97 ff. ; committee

INDEX

325

of, on choice of electives, 100,
101; committee of, on in-
struction, 103; courses of-
fered by, 106 ff.
Faculty of Harvard College,
and plans of admission, 127 ff.
" Faculty of the University,"
organization of, 33; in 1869,
46 ; and term of residence for
degree of A.B., 53; and the
new requirements for admis-
sion, 54 ff.; and athletics,
59; and revision of rules,
60 ff.

Faculty Room, the, 93, 94
"Fair Harvard," 148
Farlow, Lewis H., 279
Farlow, William G., 271, 272
Farrar, John, 281
Fearing, Daniel B., 244
Fellows, different senses of the
term, 14, 32; distinction be-
tween resident and non-resi-
dent, 297. And see Corpora-
tion.

Felton, Cornelius C., Presi-
dent, 39, 40, 148
Fine Arts, Dep't. of, 51
Fines, system of, 21, 22, 33,

119, 120

Firmin, Giles, 182
Fisher, Joshua, 267
Fiske, John, 164
Flandrau, C. M., 150
Fleming, Williamina P., 284
Fogg (William Hayes) Art

Museum, 287-289
Football, 137-139
Forbes, W. Cameron, 137
Forestry, School of, 214, 217.
Franklin, Benjamin, 20
Freshmen, advisers to, 100;
elective courses open to, 106,
107; organization of, 170
Furness, Horace H., 164

G

Gale, Theophilus, 8, 236
Garland, James A., 264
Garrison (Lloyd McKim)
Prize, 114

Gay, Edwin F., 221

General Court. See Massa-
chusetts.

Geological Museum, 265, 266

Geology. See Mining.

German, when first taught at
Harvard, 33

Germanic Museum, 287, 289,
290

Gibbs, Wolcott, 65, 84

Gilder, Richard W., 164

Gilman, Arthur, 224

Gilman, Samuel, 148

Glass flowers, collection of, 270,
271

Glee Club, 152, 173

Goethe, Johann W. von, 239

"Gold Coast," the, 166

Goodale, George L., 258

Goodnough, William, 279

Goodwin, William W., 46, 65,
224

Gore, Christopher, 35

Gore Hall, 35

Gould, A. A., 267

Governor of Massachusetts, at
Commencement, 308, 312

Governing Boards. See Cor-
poration, Overseers.

Grades in marking, 111

Graduate Club, 181

Graduate Dep't., institution of,
177; 67

Graduate School of Arts and
Sciences, 177 ff.; scholar-
ships and fellowships at-
tached to, 180; 68, 92

Graduate School of Business
Administration, 220 ff.

Graduate School of Medicine,
197, 198

Graduate Schools, the, classes
of, 175, 176; relations of,
with Harvard College, 176;
historical origin of, 176, 177

Graduate Schools of Applied
Science, 88, 89, 91, 212.
And see Architecture, Biol-
ogy, Engineering, Forestry,
Landscape Architecture, Min-
ing.

326

INDEX

Graduate students, organiza-
tion of regular instruction
for, 64 S.

Grant, Robert, 150

Gray, Asa, 42, 65, 228, 248,
267, 268, 271

Gray, Mrs. Asa, 248

Gray, Francis C., 30, 39, 256

Gray, John C., 76

Gray Herbarium, library of,
268; 234, 248, 269, 272

Grays Hall, 165

Greek, in requirements for ad-
mission, 55, 56

Greek letter fraternities, 163,
164

Greele, Samuel, 313

Greenough, James B., 148, 224,
243

Greenwood, Isaac, 17

Gross, Charles, 243

Guild, Curtis, 250

Gurney, Ephraim W., 47, 58,
242, 298

H

" H," the dream of the school-
boy, 136

Hagen, Prof., 261

Hancock, John, and the treas-
urership, 23, 26; 238

Hancock, Thomas, 20, 238

Hart, Albert B., 59

Harte, F. Bret, 164

Harvard, John, his bequest to
the College, which is named
for him, 2; statue of, 60;
his library burned in Har-
vard Hall, 235, 236; 19

Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 316

"Harvard Annex," 225

Harvard Architectural Maga-
zine, 149

Harvard Club of New York,
317 318

Harvard Clubs, 317-319

Harvard College, first legisla-
tive grant for, 1 ; named for
John Harvard, 2; early gifts
in aid of, 2; the first Com-
mencement, 4; Board of

Overseers established, 4; seal
of, 5 ; uncertain provision for
support of, 5, 6; Charter of
1650, 6; Corporation of, es-
tablished, 6; in great straits,
7; Mather's troublous ad-
ministration, 8 ff. ; early in-
struction in, 9; charter of
1692 and its effects, 10, 11;
triumph of liberal ideas, 14,
18; growth of, 15, 16; early
requirements for admission,
16; curriculum in early
17th century, 16; financial
position of, 16; religious re-
vival in, 17, 18; change of
mode of instruction, 21;
politics in, in revolutionary
times, 22, 23; in the Revo-
lution, 23-25; removed to
Concord, 24; changes in dis-
cipline and instruction, 27,
28; financial crisis, 28; in
Unitarian Movement, 29 ; be-
comes a. university, 31 ;
changes in organization, 32-
34; curriculum in mid-19th
century, 41-43; instruction
liberalized and standard
raised, 43 ff . ; final severance
of ties between, and Massa-
chusetts, 44, 45; under
Eliot's administration, 45 ff. ;
state of, in 1869, 46 ff.; ex-
pansion of instruction, 51 ff.;
standard of admission raised,
53 ff. ; average age at en-
trance, 57, 58; present ad-
ministration of, 92 ff. ; a free
and open democracy, 135;
and the Graduate Schools,
176

Harvard College scholarships,
112

Harvard Commission on West-
ern History, 244

Harvard Dramatic Club, 151

Harvard Engineering Journal,
149

Harvard Engineering Society,
151

INDEX

327

Harvard Forest (Petersham),
217

Harvard Graduates' Magazine,
316

Harvard Hall (first), burning
of, 19, 182, 235, 237

Harvard Hall (second), 20

Harvard Illustrated Magazine,
149, 150

Harvard Lyceum, 148

Harvard Magazine, 148

Harvard Mathematical Club,
151

Harvard Medical School in
China, 158

Harvard Mission, 156, 157, 158

Harvard Monthly, 149, 150

Harvard Musical Association,
152, 153

Harvard Musical Review, 149

Harvard Register, 148

Harvard " Studies," various
series of, 292, 293

Harvard Union, 159, 160

Harvard University, first use
of term, 25; when it came
into existence, 31 ; chief de-
velopments in, under Eliot,
50 ff. ; equipment of, for re-
search work, 233 ff.

Harvard University Library,
history of, 235 ff.; special
reference libraries, 246 ; total
number of books, etc., in,
249, 250; treasures of, 250
ff.; new building for, 253

Harvard University Press, 291
ff.

Harvard-Andover Divinity
Club, 156

Harvardiana, 148

Hasty Pudding Club, 161, 162,
172

Hay, Clarence L., 242

Hazing, abandonment of, 58

Hedge, Frederic H., 35

Heim, Prof., 265

Henry, Prince, of Prussia, 241

Herald, the, 149

Hersey, Abner, 27

Hersey, Ezekiel, 27, 182

Hersey, Mrs. Ezekiel. See
Derby, Sarah.

Hersey Professorships, 27

Higginson, Henry L., 152, 159,
160

High-schools, public, and ad-
mission to Harvard, 57, 126,
128

Hill, Thomas, President, 40-45,
46

Hillard, George S., 148

Hoar, Leonard, President, 8, 9

Hockey, 139, 140

Hohenzollern collection, 241

Holden, Samuel, 20

Holden, Mrs. Samuel, 20

Holden Chapel, 20

Hollis, Thomas, endows first
professorship in the College,
13, 14, 15, 16, 236

Hollis, Thomas (II), 236, 237,
238

Hollis, Thomas B., 238

Hollis Hall, 19, 20, 165, 166

Hollis Professorship of Divin-
ity, 13, 14, 31. 206

Holmes, Oliver W., 148, 164,
186, 187, 188, 299

Holworthy, Sir Matthew, 9

Holworthy Hall, 29, 34, 165,
166

Holyoke, Edward, President,
16-22, 309

Hooper, Samuel, 84

Hopkins, Edward, 112

Horsford, Eben N., 36, 83

Hospitals connected with, or
easy of access from, the new
Medical School, 193-195

Hughes, Charles E., 164

Huntington, Mrs. Collis P., 190

Huntington (Collis P.) Memo-
rial Hospital, 193, 194

Hutchinson, Thomas, 23, 120

Hyatt, Alpheus, 210

Hyde, James H., 159, 243

"Immediate GoverumenV 33

328

INDEX

Individual, liberty of the, the
prevailing note at Harvard,
131

Institute of 1770, 160, 161, 168

Instruction, changes in mode
of, 21, 27, 28, 33, 40 ff.; state
of, in 1869, 46 ff.; expansion
of, in the College, 5 Iff.;
present method of, 103

Intercollegiate Rules Commit-
tee, 137

Ivy Orator, 172, 173

Jackson, James, 186, 187, 188
Jackson, John B. S., 188
James, William, quoted, 254,

255
Jefferson Physical Laboratory,

214, 235

John Harvard Fellowships, 180
John Harvard Scholarships, 112
Jones, William L., 210
Journalism at Harvard, 148 ff.

K

Kapteyn, Prof., 287
Kimball, David, 278
King's Chapel, 15
Kirkland, John Thornton,

President, 30-34, 66
Knoblauch, E. G., 150

Laboratory work, beginnings

of, 42

Lacrosse, 144

Lampoon, the, 149, 150, 151
Landscape Architecture, School

of, 214, 217
Langdell, Christopher C.,

quoted, 47, 48; and the Law

School, 75, 76, 79, 200 ff.
Langdell Hall, 202
Langdon, Samuel, President,

22, 25, 26

Langley, John W., 210
Law Clubs, 203, 204
Law Library, 79, 204, 205
Law School, established. 31; in
_1869, 4.7, 48j. changes in, un-

der Eliot, 74 ff., 200 ff.; re-
quirements for admission, 75,
78; history of, 198 ff.; stand-
ard of, steadily raised, 202,
203

Law School Association, 319

Lawrence, Abbott, 87, 209

Lawrence, James, 87

Lawrence Scientific School, in
1869, 49, 50; changes in, un-
der Eliot, 82 ff.; ceases to
exist, 88, 212; history of,
209 ff. ; 36, 37, 46, 65, 67

Le Conte, Joseph, 210

Leiter, Joseph, 143

Lettsom, Dr., 263

Leverett, John, President, 11,
12, 14, 15, 297

Lexington, battle of, 24

Library of Harvard College,
burned in Harvard Hall, 19;
beginning of replacement of,
20. And see Harvard Uni-
versity Library.

Library Council, 245

Life, 150, 151

Lightfoot, John, 235, 236

Literary clubs, 151, 152

Locke, Samuel, President, 22

Lodge, Henry Cabot, 164

Loeb, James, 242

Loeb, Morris, 242

Longfellow, Henry W., 164, 241

Loring, Charles G., 313

Louis XVT, 266

Lowe, Robert W., 242

Lowell, A. Lawrence, Presi-
dent, 155, 230

Lowell, James R., 42, 148, 239,
251

Lowell, John, 28, 230

Lowell, John (II), 30

Lowell Institute, 230

Lowell Memorial Library, 240,
246

Lyon, David G., 81

M

M.B., degree of, 185
M.D., degree of, 70. 196, 197
McGill University, 139

INDEX

329

McKay, Gordon, bequest of, 88,

212, 213

MacKaye, Percy, 164
Magenta, the, 148
Managers of athletic teams,

136, 137

Marsigny, Alphonse, 242
Martin, Edward S., 150, 151
Massachusetts, constitution of,

25, 26; General Court of,
not generous to College, 28;
final severance between Har-
vard and, 44, 45

Massachusetts Bay, General
Court of, makes first grant
for College, 1

Massachusetts General Hos-
pital, 193, 195

Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 230

Mather, Cotton, 11, 13, 15, 236

Mather, Increase, Rector and
President, 8 ff. ; and the
charter of 1692, 10, 11;
forced to resign, 12

Mather, Nathaniel, 280

Mather, Samuel, 298

Matthews, Nathan, 166

Matthews Hall, 166

Mayhew, Jonathan, 120

Maynard, Sir John, 236

"Med. Fac.," the, 60

Medical College of Philadel-
phia, 183

Medical Faculty organized,
186

Medical Institution of Harvard
University, established, 26,
185, 186. And see Medical
School.

Medical School, beginnings of,

26, 27; first professorships
in, 27; organized, 31, 34; in
1869. 48, 49; changes in, un-
der Eliot, 69 ff., 187 ff.; the
" Undertaking," 73 ; degree
required for admission to,
73; history of, 182-186;
early status of, 186, 187;
Boston families connected
with, 187; successive homes

of, 189; new buildings of,
190ff.; hospitals connected
with, 193, 194; advanced
study and research work in,
197, 198; 176. And see
Graduate School of Medicine.

Medical School Association, 319

Medical School library, 249

Medical schools, private, 186

Memorial Hall, 309, 311

Metcalf, Joel H., 285

"Mid-years," 59, 110

Mineralogical Museum, 258,
262-265

Mining, School of, 84 ff., 214,
216

Mining and Practical Geology,
49

Minot, William, 313

Mitchell, Jonathan, 298

Modern Language Conference,
181

Montt, Louis, 242

Moore, Charles H., 51

Moot Courts, 204

Morgan, J. Pierpont, 190, 191

Morgan, Morris H., 243, 244

Morton, Charles, Vice-Presi-
dent 12.

Mozard, M., 263

Museum of Comparative Zo-
ology, described, 259-262; li-
brary of, 248, 262; 39, 49,
254, 256

Musical clubs, 152, 153

Myles, Samuel, 15

N

National Education Associa-
tion, Committee of Ten of,
56

New England's First Fruits,
quoted, 3

New Hampshire, Province of,
20, 238

New London, races at, 141, 142

Newcomb, Simon, 210

Newetowne, afterward Cam-
bridge, College established
at, 1

330

INDEX

Norton, Andrews, 32

Norton, Charles E., library of,

and its treasures, 243, 251;

51, 235, 247
Nuttall, Thomas, 267

Oakes, Urian, President, 8.

Observatory, the, 281-287; its
equipment, 285; and library,
286; endowment of, 286

Olivart collection, in Law Li-
brary, 205, 247

Oliver, Secretary, 120

Overseers, Board of, estab-
lished, 4; attacked by the
Mathers, 12; schism in, 13,
14; and the Hollis Professor,
13, 14; and removal of tu-
tors, 17; and the religious
revival, 18; favors Unitarian
movement, 29 ; constitution
of, changed in 1810, 1851,
1865, and 1880, 30, 37, 38,

44, 45; opposition to broad-
ening membership of, 32;
regulation of franchise for,

45, 302; and the term of
residence for A.B., 53; his-
tory of, 299-305; member-
ship in, an honor, 303; func-
tions of, 303; influence of,
304, 305

Packard, Alpheus S., 211
Paine, John K., 51, 94
Paine, Martyn, 240
Paine, Robert Treat, 286
Palmer, George H., 282
Palmer, Thomas, 20
Parker, Isaac, 31, 198
Parker, Joel, 199
Parkman, Francis, 89, 90, 242
Parkman Memorial Committee,

242
Parsons, Theophilus, 30, 32,

297
Parsons, Theophilus (II), 75.

200

Peabody, Andrew P., 282, 307
Peabody, George, 277
Peabody Museum of Archaeol-
ogy and Ethnology, described,

277-280; 248, 258
Pearson, Eliphalet, 28, 29, 32,

297

Peck, William D., 267
Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil,

261

Peirce, Benjamin, 65
Peirce, James M., 65 n.
Penikese Island, 228
Pennsylvania Hospital, 183
Perkins, Charles E., 244
Perkins Hall, 165
Perkins Memorial Collection,

244
Petersham, Mass., Harvard

Forest at, 217
Ph.D., degree of, 66, 179, 180,

181, 182
Phi Beta Kappa, Harvard

Chapter of, 164, 165
Philanthropic interests, 154 ff.
Phillips, Edward B., 282
Phillips, Wendell, 164
Phillips Brooks House Associa-
tion, 155, 156, 157
Pi Eta Society, 162, 172
Pickering, Edward C., and the

Observatory, 211, 282 ff.
Pierce, Henry L., 88
Pierce, John, quoted, 308
Pierce Hall, 214, 215
Pierian Sodality, 152
Pierpont, Jonathan, 13
Political Clubs, 154
Pollock, Sir Frederick, quoted,

201, 202

Porcellian Club, 163
Portsmouth, N. H., 7
Prayers, attendance at, 43, 62
Preachers, Board of, 64, 155
Preparatory schools, and the

College, 127, 128
Prescott, William, 30, 239
Prescott, William H., 35, 239
Prescribed studies, reduction in

number of, 52

INDEX

331

President of the University,

annual reports of, 34, 304;

duties of, 51, 296; and the

professional schools, 305
President and Fellows, the.

See Corporation.
President's Chair, the, 309
Princeton University, 129, 139,

141

Prints, in Fogg Museum, 288
Prizes for undergraduates, 112-

115

Probation, 121, 122, 123
Proctors, duties and trials of,

124, 125
Professional schools, study in,

made graduate work, 69 ff.

And see Divinity School, Law

School, Medical School.
Professors, retiring allowances

for, 96

Prospect Union, 156
Public Schools. See High

Schools.

Publication Office, 291
Publications of various schools

and departments, list of, 292-

294
Putnam, Frederic W., 211

Q

Quincy, Josiah, 164

Quincy, Josiah (II), Presi-
dent, 35, 307, 308; his His-
tory of Harvard University,
35

R

Radcliffe College, history of,
224, 225; relations with the
University, 225, 226; equip-
ment and endowment of, 226,
227; degrees conferred by,
227

Recitations, system of, 38, 42

Recorder of Harvard College,
117

Religion, lapse of emphasis on,
16; revival of interest in,
and its effect, 17, 18

Religious disputes, 12 ff.

Religious exercises, attendance

at, 63, 64

Religious interests, 154 ff.
Revolutionary War, the Col-
lege in the, 23-25; a stim-
ulus to surgical study, 183
Riant collection of books, 241
Ricardo Prize Scholarship, 114
Rich, Obadiah, 239
Richardson, Henry H., 202
Richardson, William L., quoted,

70

Rindge Technical School, 215
Ritchie, Andrew, 263
Robinson, Nelson, Jr., 216
Robinson Hall, 216, 247
Rockefeller, John D., 190, 191
Rogers, Daniel, 20, 119
Rogers, John, President, 8, 11
Rogers, William A., 283
Rowing, 140-142, 144, 145
Royall, Isaac, 31, 198
Royce, Josiah, 164
Rules, multiplicity of, 61 ; sim-
plification of, 61, 62
Rumford, Count. See Thomp-
son, Benjamin.
Runkle, John D., 210.

S

S.B., degree of, 66, 109, 179,

180

Sabine, Wallace C., 218, 219
St. Paul's Catholic Club, 156,

157

St. Paul's Society, 156, 157
Sanborn, Franklin B., 148
Sanders Theatre, conferring of

degrees in, 308-310
Santayana, George, 150, 164
Sargent, Charles S., and the

Arboretum, 90, 273, 274; his

Silva, of North America,

275; 249

Sargent Prize, 114
Schiff, Jacob H., 290
Scholarship, lack of general

recognition of, 112
Scholarships, various groups

of, 111, 112; in Law School,

204

332

INDEX

Schurz, Carl, 164

Scientific School. See Lawrence
Scientific School.

Scudder, Samuel H., 211

Searle, Arthur, 283

Sears, David, 190

Sears, Henry F., 72

Self-support. See Employment
Office, Undergraduates.

Sells, Goodman, 10

Semitic Museum, 289, 290, 291

Sever, Nicholas, 14

Sever Quadrangle, 312

Sewall, Joseph, 15

Sewall, Samuel, 13, 236

Shaler, Nathaniel S., 87, 88,
211, 229

Sharp, Granville, 238

Shattuck, George C., 188

Sheldon (Frederick) Fund, 180

Shepard, Samuel, 3

Shepard, Thomas, 1

Shute, Samuel, 14

Signet, the, 162, 163

Simmons College, 230, 231, 232

Simpkins, John, 216

Smith, J. Lawrence, 264

Smith, Theobald, 90, 91

Social clubs, 158 ff. ; their in-
fluence on undergraduate
life, 159

Social Service Committee, 156

Social Workers, School for, 231,
232

Socialist Club, 154

Societies. See Greek letter,
Literary, Musical, Social So-
cieties.

Society for the Collegiate In-
struction of Women, 224,
225; becomes Radcliffe Col-
lege, 225

Sohier Prize, 114

Soldiers Field, 138, 143

Sparks, Jared, President, 37,
38

Speakers' Club, 153

Special reference libraries, list
of, 246 ff.

Stadium, Class Day exercises
in, 172, 173 i 138, 139, 147

Starr, Comfort, 298
Stearns, Asahel, 31, 198
Stearns, Oliver, 80
Stephen, Sir Leslie, 251
S'timson, Frederic J., 150
Storer, D. Humphreys, 186
Storer, Ebenezer, 28
Storer, Francis H., 210
Story, Joseph, 30, 33, 47, 199
Stoughton Hall, outrage in, 58;

29, 165, 166

Sullivant, William S., 272
Summer School, 92, 228-230
Sumner, Charles, his library,

239-250; 114, 164
Sumner Prize, 114
Suspension, 120, 121

T. Jefferson Coolidge, Jr., Lab-
oratory, 235
"Teaching Elders," 15
Tennis, 144
Thayer, James B., 76
Thayer, Joseph H., 298
Thayer, Nathaniel, 50, 166
Thayer, William R.. 150, 316
Thayer Hall, 50, 166
Thompson, Benjamin, 83
Thorndike, Israel, 238
Ticknor, George, 32, 33, 35
Topiarian Club, 151
Torrey, Henry W., 47, 245
Track athletics, 143, 144
Tremont (Medical) School, 186
Trowbridge, John, 211
Tuckerman, Edward, 272
Tutors, tenure of office of, 17

U

Unclassified students, 126
Undergraduate life, change in
organization of, 131 ff.; ef-
forts to increase solidarity
of, 170, 171

Undergraduates, intellectual
interests of, 148 ff. ; and the
social clubs, 159; great in-
crease in number of those
who work their way, 169,
170

INDEX

333

Unitarian movement, and Rev.
H. Ware, 29

Unitarianism, at Harvard, 206,
207

University Council, 66

University Extension, 92, 230.
231

University Hall, 34, 93

University Lectures, purpose
of, 44, 65, 66, 228

University Museum, piecemeal
construction of, 39; de-
scribed, 254 ff.; 235

Van Dyke, Henry, 164
Vane, Sir Henry, 1
Varsity Club, 147, 160
Vassal'l, William, 20, 21, 119
Von Maurer, Konrad, 241

W

Wadsworth, Benjamin, Presi-
dent, 14, 15, 20

Wadsworth House, 15

Walker, James, President, 38,
39, 42, 240

Walter Hastings Hall, 165

Warden, D. B., 239

Ware, Henry, his Unitarian-
ism arouses controversy, 28,
29, 206, 207

Ware, Henry (II), 313

Warnings. See Admonitions.

Warren, Henry C., 242, 246

Warren, John, the real found-
er of the Medical School,
26, 27, 182, 183, 184, 185,
187, 192

Warren, John C., 188

Warren, John C. (II), 190

Warren, Joseph, 183

Warren House, 246

Washburn, Emory, 75, 199,200

Washington, George, 24

Waterhouse, Benjamin, 184,
262, 263, 266

Watts, Isaac, 237

Wealth, influence of, at Har-
vard, 168

Webber, Samuel, President, 28-
30

Webster, John W., 263

Weld, William F., 166, 243

Weld Hall, 166

Wellesley College, 230

Wells, David Ames, 210

Welsteed, William, 14

Wendell, Barrett, 150

Wentworth, Sir John, 238

Wheelwright, John T., 150

White, John W., 59

Whitefield, George, 17, 18

Widener, Harry Elkins, his col-
lection of books, 252, 253; li-
brary building in memory of,
253

Widener Library, 253

Wiener, Leo, 242

Wigglesworth, Edward, 13, 18

Wiley, Harvey W., 211

Willard, Joseph, President, 26-
28

Willard, Samuel, President, 12

William II, German Emperor,
289

William and Mary, new charter
granted by, 10

Wilson, E. H., 274

Wilson, John, 1

Wilson, Woodrow, 164

Winlock, Joseph, 282

Winthrop, John, Governor of
Massachusetts Bay, 1, 131

Winthrop, John, Professor, 22,
24, 280, 281

Winthrop, Robert C., 148

Wister, Owen, 150

Wolcott Gibbs Memorial Lab-
oratory, 234, 235

Wyman, Jeffries, 186, 277

Yale University, purpose of its
founders, 14, 15; athletic
rivalry of, 136; annual con-
tests with, 138, 139, 141,
142, 143, 144

Zeta Psi, 164

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